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REPORT

OF THE

Fifteenth Meeting of the
Australasian Association for
the Advancement of Science

HOBART MEETING

HELD IN MELBOURNE,
JANUARY, I92L

EDITED BY

GEORGINA SWEET, D.Sc. (Melb.), and
A. C. D. RIVETT, M.A., B.Sc. (Oxon.), D.Sc. (Melb.)

PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION
:: AT ITS PERMANENT OFFICE ::
ELIZABETH ST.. SYDNEY, N.S.W.

1084.

$p ;^uthoVJtB :

Albert J. Mullett. Government Printer. Melbourne

192 1.

REPORT

OF THE

Fifteenth Meeting of the
Australasian Association for
the Advancement of Science

HOBART MEETING

HELD IN MELBOURNE, fe^^^*^**- ^<*^ c^\

Lj'L I • « .* i* Y "-I

JANUARY, 192

EDITED BY

GEORGINA SWEET, D.Sc. (Melb.), and
A. C. D. RIVETT, M.A.. B.Sc. (Oxon.). D.Sc. (Melb.)

PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION
:: AT ITS PERMANENT OFFICE ::
ELIZABETH ST.. SYDNEY. N.S.W.

JSy ^uthoritn :

Albert J. Mullett, Government Printer, Melbourne.

192
1084. ^'

COJSTTEISrTS

Officers of the Hobart Meeting (held in Melbourne), 1&2

Officers and Committees of Sections . .

Local Councils —
Hobart

Melbourne

List of Delegates . . « . .

General Programme . . . .

Proceedings of the General Council —
First Meeting
Second Meeting
Third Meeting

Summary of Resolutions affecting Committees of the Variol
Sections ...

Balance-sheets

Objects and Rules of the Association

Office-bearers of the Association from the Commencement

xvu
xxi
xxii

xxvii

xxxvi

xlii

xlviii

Inaugural Address by the President, Sir W. Baldwin Spencer.

K.C.M.G., M.A., LiTT.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. . . . . . . liii

Addresses by^ Presidents of Sections —

A — Professor H. J. Priestley, M.A. . . . . . . . . 1

B— Professor N. T. M. Wilsmore, D.Sc, F.I.C. . . . . . . i!>

B— Sub-section Pharmacy— Mr. C. E. Towl . . . . . . 43

C— Professor W. N. Benson, B.A., D.Sc, F.G.S. . . . . 45

D— Professor A. J. Ewart, D.Sc, Ph.D. . . . . . . 134

E — Professor Sir Douglas Mawson, K.B., B.E., D.Sc. . . . . 145

F — His Honour Mr. Justice Murray, C.M.G. . . . . . . 161

G— Mr. G. H. Knibbs, C.M.G., Hon. F.S.S., &c. . . . . 181

H— Mr. Maurice Kernot, M.Inst.C.E., M.Am.SocC.E., &c. . . 205

I— Dr. J. H. L. Cumpston, M.D., D.P.H., F.San.L . . . . 219

J — Professor Alexander Mackie, M.A. . . . . . . . . 227

K^Professor A. J. Perkins . . . . . . . . - 244

L— Professor H. A. Woodruff, M.R.C.V.S., M.R.C.S., L.R-C.P. . . 258

Report on the Progress of the Publication of the Scientific

Results of the Australasian A^jtarctic Expedition . . 286

28516

Reports of Committees —

Section A. —

1. Macquarie Island . . . . ....

2. Determination of Gravity in certain Critical Localiti3S

3 Tidal Survey

4 Seismological

Section C—

1. Glacial Phenomena

2. Alkaline Rocks

3. Physiography of Australasia

4. Cainozoic

Section D. — Biological and Hydrographical Study of New Zealand
Coast . .

Section I. — Anthropometric Research . .

Titles of Papers read before Sections

The Mueller Memorial Medal (Two plates)

The Mueller Medallist. 1913

List of Members

292
294
297
298

300
305
309
342

354
355
357
366
367
368

OFFICERS OF THE HOBART MEETING,

HELD IN MELBOURNE, AT THE UNIVERSITY,

JANUARY, 1921.

patrons:

His Excellency the Right Honorable The Lord Forster, G.C.M.G.,

Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia.

His Excellency the Honorable Sir William Irvine, K.C.M.G.,

Lieutenant-Governor of the State of Victoria.

His Excellency Sir William Lamond Allardyce, K.C.M.G.,

Governor of the State of Tasmania.

39rfsitJ£nt :

Sir W. Baldwin Spencer, K.C.M.G., Litt.D., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

1Bice-^9vesil)ents :

Professor A. Liversidge, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Emeritus Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Sydney (President, Sydney Meeting, 1898.)

Professor Sir T. W. Edgeworth David, K.B.E., C.M.G., D.S.O., B.A., D.Sc,
F.R.S., Professor of Geology in the University of Sydney (President,
Dunedin Meeting, 1904, and Melbourne Meeting, 1913).

Professor Sir William E. Bragg, K.B.E., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of
Physics in University College, London (President, Brisbane Meeting, 1909).

Professor Orme Masson, C.B.E., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Melbourne (President, Sydney Meeting, 1911).

G. H. Knibbs, C.M.G., F.R.S.S., Commonwealth Statistician, Melbourne.

Richard Teece, F.I.A., F.F.A.

Don. General 'treasurer :

David Garment, F.I.A., F.F.A*., c/o A.M.P. Society, Sydney.

JJcrmaucut 3i)oii. (Sfnfral ^crrctaru ;

J. H. Maiden, I.S.O., F.R.S., F.L.S., Government Botanist and Director of the
Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

|;)ou. treasurer for ^obart-Jttclbouvuc ^^tcctiug :

J. Moore-Robinson, F.R.G.S., " Invermead," Lambert-avenue, Hobart.

G. H. Knibbs, C.M.G., F.R.S. S., Commonwealth Statistician s Office, Melbourne.

|!)Ott. ^ccretancs foe 3i)obart-ittclbouruc ^^Ueting :

Professor T. Thomson Fly'nn, D.Sc, The University of Tasmania, Hobart.
Roy S. Burdon, B.Sc, Lecturer in Physics in the University of Tasmania.
Georgina Sweet, D.Sc, Associate-Professor of Zoology in the University of
Melbourne.

^ocal Secretaries :

New SorTH Wales — J. H. Maiden, I.S.O., F.R.S., Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
Victoria:— Georgina Sweet, D.Sc, Associate -Professor of Zoology in the

University of Melbourne.
South Australia — Professor W. Howchin, F.G.S., Professor of Geology and

Palaeontology in the University of Adelaide.
Western Australia — A. Gibb Maitland, F.G.S., Government Geologist, Perth.
Queensland — John Shirley, D.Sc, " Coo-tha," Abbotsford-road, Bowen Hills,

Brisbane.
Tasmania — Professor T. Thomson Fly'nn, D.Sc, Professor of Biology in the

University of Tasmania.
New Zealand — Pr. jfepsor C. Coleridge Fahr, D.Sc, Professor of Physics in

the Canterbury College, Christcburch.

OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES OF SECTIONS.

Section A— Astponomy, Mathematies. and Physics.

President — Professor H. J. Priestley, M.A., University of Queensland.

Vice-Presidents — Professor T. H. Laby, M.A., University of Melbourne ; J. M.
Baldwin, M.A., D.Sc., Observatory, Melbourne ; Professor A. McAulay,
M.A., University of Tasmania.

Secretaries — Frank Ellis, M.A., M.E., Education Dei^artment, Hobart ; Dr.
Bernard Thomas, M.B., Ch.M., Glenorchy, Tasmania; W. M. Holmes,
M.A., B.Sc, .54 Sackville-street, Kew, Victoria.

Members of Committee — P. Baracchi, F.R.A.S. ; Professor R. W. Chapman,
M.A. ; Professor W. S. Cooke, M.A., F.R.S. ; Professor Kerr Grant,
M.Sc. ; E. O. Hercus, M.Sc. ; G. H. Knibbs, C.M.G., F.R.S.S. ; Pro-
fessor T. R. Lyle, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. ; E. F. J. Love, M.A., D.Sc. ;
Professor E. J. Nanson, M.A. ; Professor T. Parnell, M.A. ; D. K.
Picken, M.A. ; Professor J. A. Pollock, D.Sc. ; 0. V. VoNViaLLER, B.Sc.

Section B— Chemistry.

President — Professor N. T. M. Wilsmore, D.Sc, F.I.C, University of Westenv

Australia.
Vice-Presidents — A. E. Leighton, F.I.C. ; Professor D. Orme Masson, C.B.E.,

M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C, F.R.S., University of Melbourne ; Profe.ssor J. A.

ScHOFiELD, A.R.S.M., F.I.C, University of Sydney ; W. E. Whitecotton,

B.A.
Secretaries — L. F. Stutterd, B.Sc, Electrolytic Zinc Co. Ltd., Risdon, Tasmania ;

E. Ward, B.M.E., Government Laboratory, Bathurst-street, Hobart ;

F. J. Watson, B.A., M.Sc, LTniversity of Melbourne.

Members of Committee~W. E. Appleby^ ; D. Avery% M.Sc, ; Marcus Bell,
F.I.C. ; W. H. Gepp ; Leila A. Green, M.Sc. ; W. H. Green, D.Sc. ;

G. Haetar, D.Sc. ; G. Harker, D.Sc ; E. J. Hartung, D.Sc. ; R. J.
Lews ; A. D. Olle, F.CS. ; J. R. Pound, M.Sc. ; E. S. Richards,
M.Sc. ; A. C. D. Rivett, M.A., D.Sc.

Sub-section : Phapmacy.

President — C E. Towl.

Vice-Presidents — C L. Butchers, General Secretary, Australasian Pharmaceutical

Conference ; H. T. Gould, President, Pharmacy Board of Tasmania ;

W. G. Burton, President, Pharmaceutical Society of Tasmania.
Secretaries — J. Smithies, Collins-street, Hobart ; C C Wallis, Toorak-road,

Toorak.

Section C— Geolog-y and Minepalog-y.

President— PROFESson W. Noel Benson, B.A., D.Sc, University of Otago, N.Z.

Vice-Presidents — Professor H. C Richards, D.Sc, University of Queensland ;
E. C Andrews, Geological Section, Mines Department, Sydney ; Loftus
Hills, M.Sc, M.B.E., Government Geologist, Tasmania.

Secretaries — W. H. Clemes, B.A., B.Sc, Leslie House School, Hobart ; A. N.
Lewis, M.C, c/o Lewis, Hudspeth. Perkins, and Dear, Collins-street,
Hobart ; H. S. Summers, D.Sc, Acting-Professor of Geology, University,
Melbourne.

Members of CommiWee— Professor Sir T. W. E. DA\aD, K.B.E., D.S.O., B.A.,
D.Sc, F.R.S. : W. R. Browne, B.Sc. ; C A. Cotton, D.Sc. ; F. Chapman,
A.L.S. ; F. L. Stillwell, D Sc. ; L. K. Ward, B A., B.E.

VII

Section D— Biology.

President — Professor A. J. Ewart, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., The University of

Melbourne.
Vice-Presidents — Professor W. E. Agar, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.. The University

of Melbourne ; L. Rodway, C.M.G., Government Botanist of Tasmania ;

Captain S. A. White, C.M.B.O.U., Fulham, South Australia ; Professor F.

Wood-Jones, M.B., B.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., D.Sc. (London), The

University of Adelaide.
Secretaries — Clive Lord, Curator, Tasmanian Museum, Hobart ; Gwynneth

Buchanan, D.Sc, University of Melbourne.
Members of Committee — J. H. Maiden, I.S.O., F.R.S. ; Georgina Sweet, D.Sc. ;

J. A. Kershaw, F.E.S. ; C. S. Sutton, M.B., B.S. ; Ethel I. McLennan,

D.Sc.

Section E— Geography and History.

President — Sir Douglas Mawson, B^.E., D.Sc, University of Adelaide.
Vice-Presidents — Professor Griffith Taylor, D.Sc, F.R.G.S., University of

Sydney ; Professor Ernest Scott ; Captain John K. Davis.
Secretaries — J. Moore-Robinson, F.R.G.S., Lambert-avenue, Sandy Bay. Hobart ;

C. S. King, M.A., University of Tasmania ; C. Daley, B.A., Clarinda-

street, Caulfield.

Section P -Ethnology and Anthropology.

President — His Honor Mr. Justice Murray, C.M.G., Lieutenant-Governor.

Pajjua.
Vice-Presidents — Dr. Horne, M.A., M.D., B.S., Lister House, 03 Collins-street,

Melbourne ; Chas. Hedley, F.L.S., Australian Museum, Sydney ; Dr.

A. H. Clarke, M.R.C.S., Collins-street, Hobart.
Secretaries — Dr. W. Lodewyk CrowtBer, D.S.O., M.B., B.8., Macquarie-street,

Hobart ; A. S. Kenyon, Plenty -road, Heidelberg.
Members of Committee — S. F. Mann ; D. J. Mahony, M.Sc

Section G -Social and Statistical Science.

President — G. H. Knibbs, C.M.G., F.R.S.S., Commonwealth Statistician, Mel-
bourne.

Vice-Presidents — G. Lightfoot, M.A., Institute of Science and Industry, Mel-
bourne; H. Heaton, M.A., University of Adelaide; L. F. Giblin, B.A.,
D.S.O., Government Statistician, Hobart.

Secretaries — Professor D. B. Copland, M.A., L'^niversity of Tasmania ; G.
Lightfoot, M.A.

Members of Committee — A. M. Laughton, F.I.A. ; C. H. Wickens, A.I.A., F.S.S.

Section H— Engineering and Architeetupe.

President — Maurice E. Kernot, M.Inst.C.E., M.Am.SocC.E., Chief Engineer,

Construction Branch, Victorian Railways, Melbourne.
Vice-Presidents — John Sulman, F.R.I. B. A., Sydney ; Ross Reynolds,

M.Inst.C.E., Public Works Department, Hobart ; T. Walker Fowler,

M.Inst.C.E., Queensland.
Secretaries — Bernard Walker, c/ o Hutchison and Walker, Hobart ; G. A.

Baker, B.C.E., State Rivers and Water Supply Commission, Melbourne.
Members of Committee— TA. Deane, M.Inst.C.E. ; G. Higgins, M.C.E., M.Inst.C.E. ;

W. Kernot, M.Mech.E., M.Inst.C.E.; F. Stapley, F.R.V.I.A.:

A. S. Kenyon ; E. C. Rigby.

VIII

Section I Sanitary Science and Hygiene.

President — Dr. J. H. L. Cumpston, M.D., D.P.H., Federal Quarantine Depart-
ment, Melbourne.
Secretaries — E. J. Tudor, Public Health Department. Hobart ; H. E. Bellamy,

M.Am.Soc.C.E., Town Hall, Hobart; T. Dimelow, Public Health De-

liartment, Melbourne.

Section J— Mental Science and Kducation.

President — Professor A. Mackie, M.A., University of Sydney.

Vice-Presidents — Professor C. F. Salmond, M.A., Canterbury College, Christ-
church ; C. R. Long, M.A., Education Department, Melbourne ; S. Clemes,
Leslie House School, Hobart.

Secretaries — J. A. Johnson, M.A., Training College, Hobart; E. Morris Miller,
M.A., Litt.D., University of Tasmania : Frank Shann, M.A., Trinity
Grammar School, Kew.

Section K Agricultupe.

President — Professor A. J. Perkins, Director of Agriculture, South Australia.

Vice-Presidents — Dr. S. S. Cameron, Director of Agriculture, Victoria ; Andrew
E. Mansell, Mount Vernon. Melton, Tasmania.

Secretaries — R. A. Black, Agricultural Department, Hobart ; S. H. Grueber,
Agricultural Department, Hobart; F. J. Rae, B.Sc, B.Agr.Sc, Horti-
cultural Gardens, Burnley.

Members of Committee — Professor Watt, M.A., B.Sc. ; A. E. V. Richardson,
M.A., B.Sc. ; T. Cherry, M.D., M.S. ; E. Breakwell, B.A., B.Sc. '

Section L— Veterinary Science.

P/esirfenf— Professor H. A. Woodruff, M.R.C.V.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,
University of Melbourne.

Vice-Presidents — Professor Douglas Stewart, F.R.C.V.S., University of Syd-
ney ; J. A. Gilruth, D.V.Sc, Melbourne ; Max. Henry, B.V.Sc, Sydney ;
R. C. Field, Westbury, Tasmania.

Secretaries — T. Philp, B.V.Sc, Public Buildings, Launceston ; C. G. Dickenson,
B.V.Sc, Agricultural Department, Hobart ; H. R. Seddon, B.V.Sc,
Veterinary Institute, Melbourne.

Members of Committee — W. T. Kendall, D.V.Sc. ; W. A. N. Robertson. B.V.Sc;
C. N. Meyers, B.V.Sc.

LOCAL COUNCILS.

HOBART MEETING (HELD l^ MELBOURNE), 1921.

HOBART COUNCIL.

Ansell, M. M., M.A.

Beattie. .J. W.

Bellamy, H. E., M. Inst.C.E.

Black, R. A.

BuRDON", R. a., B.Sc.

BiTRTOX, W. G.

Butler, W. F. D.. B.A., M.Sc, LL.B.

Clarke, A. H., M.R.C.S.E.

Glemes, S.

Clemes, W. H.. B.A., B.Sc.

COPELAND, D. B., M.A.

Ceowther, W. L., D.S.O., M.R.C.S.E.

Dickenson, C. G.

DuNBABiN, Professor R. L., M.A.

Eldridge, W.

Ellis, F., M.A., B.E.

Evans, A. L.

Flynn, Professor T. T., D.Sc.

GiBLiN. L. F., B.A.

Gould. H. T.

Grueber, S. H.

Hall, R., C.M.Z.S.

Hills, L., M.Sc, M.B.E.
Johnson, J. A., M.A.
King, C. S., M.A.
Lewis, A. N., M.C.
Lines, D. H. E., M.B., Ch.B.
Lord, C. E.
Mansell, a. E.
McAuLAY, Professor A., M.A.
Miller, E. M., M.A., Litt.D.
Moore-Robinson, J.
Philip, C. G., B.V.Sc.
Philp, T., B.V.Sc.
Rod\vay, L., C.M.G.
Smithies, J.
Sprent, J., D.Sc.
Thomas, M. B., Ch.M.
Walker, B.
•Ward, E., B.M.E.
Weymouth, W. A.
Young, F. J., B.A.
Young, F. M., B.A.

MELBOURNE COUNCIL.

Adamson, L. a., M.A.

Baldwin, J. M., M.A., D.Sc.

Cherry, T., M.D., M.S.

Collins, .J. T.

Cumpston, J. H. L.,- M.D., B.S.

Deane, H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E.

Ewart, Prof. A. J., D.Sc, Ph.D.

Fenton, .J. J.

Green, W. H., D.Sc.

Kernot, M. E., M.Inst.C.E.

Knibbs, G. H., C.M.G., F.R.S.S.

Laby, Prof. T. H.. M.A.

Lightfoot. G., M.A.

Love, E. F. J., M.A., D.Sc.

Lyle, Emer. Prof. T.R., M.A., D.Sc,

F.R.S.
Mahony, D. J., M.Sc
Masson. Prof. O., C.B.E.. M.A., D.Sc

F.R.S. •

RivETT, Assoc -Prof. A. C. D., M.A..

D.Sc.
Robertson, W. A. N., B.V.Sc.
Skeats, Prof. E. W., D.Sc.
Smith, B. A.
Spencer, Sir Baldwin, K.C.M.G., M.A.,

D.Sc, Litt.D., F.R.S.
Speingthorpe, J. W., M.A., M.D., B.S.
Summers, Act. -Prof. H. S., D.Sc.
Sutton, C. S., M.B., B.S.
Sweet, Assoc. -Prof. Georgina, D.Sc.
Syme, G. a., M.B., B.S.
Topp, C. A., M.A.
TowL, C. E.
Weatherburn, C. E., M.A., D.Sc

WiCKENS, C. H.

Woodruff, Prof. H. A., M.R.C.V.S.,
M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

LIST or DELEGATES.

NEW SOUTH A¥ALES.

Actuarial Society of Australasia (Sydney Section) — Prof. E. M. Moors, M.A.,

F.I.A.
Australian Chemical Institute (N.S.W. Branch) — Dr. George Harker ; R. W.

Chalijnor, F.I.C.
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. — C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S.
British Astronomical Association (N.S.W. Branch). — W. F. Gale, F.R.A.S.
British Medical Association (N.S.W. Branch). — Dr. Leonard Watkins Bickle ;

Dr. John Smith Purdy.
Institute of Architects of N.S.W.— G. Sydney Jones, F.R.I.B.A.
Institute of Engineers of Australia (Newcastle Division). — E. F. Henning.
Linnean Society of N.S.W.— H. J. Carter, B.A., F.E.S. ; Dr. A. B. Walkom.
Naturalists' Society of N.S.W. — A. G. Hamilton ; E. Cheel.
Pharmaceutical Society of N.S.W.— F. P. J. Gray, M.P.S. ; J. F. McKimm, M.P.S.;

A. Wadsworth, M.P.S.
Royal Australian Historical Society. — J. H. Watson, F.R.A.H.S. ; William

Welch, F.R.G.S.
Royal Society of N.S.W.— James Nangle, F.R.A.S. ; H. G. Smith, F.C.S. ;

R. H. Cambage, F.L.S.
Royal Zoological Society of N.S.W. — G. A. Waterhouse, B.Sc, B.E.
Society of Chemical Industry. — R. W. Challinor, F.LC.
Sydney Technical College Chemical Society. — A. D. Olle.
Sydney Uniyersity Science Society. — E. H. Booth, B.Sc, M.C.
Wild Life Preservation Society of Australia. — David G. Stead.

NEW ZEALAND.

Cawthron Institute. — Dr. C. A. Cotton.

New Zealand Institute. — Prof. Kirk.

New Zealand Institute of Surveyors. — A. D. Dobson.

Otago Institute.— W. G. Howes, F.L.S.

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. — A. D. Dobson ; Prof. C. Coleridge Farr.

Polynesian Society. — C. Hedley, F.L.S.

QUEENSLAND.

Australian Chemical Institute (Queensland Branch). — W. E. Appleby.

Field Naturalists' Club of Queensland. — C. T. White, F.L.S.

Institute of Engineers of Australia (Queensland Division). — A. J. Goldsmith,

A.M.I.C.E.
Odontological Society. — I. W. Ward.

Pharmaceutical Society of Queensland. — Alexander Forbes ; R. Cowley.
Queensland University. — Prof. H. J. Priestley, M.A. ; Prof. T. Parnell,

M.A. ; Prof. H. C. Richards, D.Sc.
Royal Society of Queensland. — Prof. H. C. Richards, D.Sc. ; W. Lloyd, M.L.A.

SOUTH AUSTRALIi^.

Australian Chemical Insittute (South Australian Branch). — J. D. O'Connor, B.Sc.
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (South Australian Branch). —

Prof. R. W. Chapjian, M^A.
British Medical Association (South Australian Branch). — Dr. R. H. Pulleine.
Field Naturalists' Section of Royal Society of South Australia.^ — C. Fenner, D.Sc.
Royal Australasian Ornithologists' Union (South Australian Branch). — Captain

S. A. White.
Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (South Australian Branch). — Hon.

John Lewis, M.L.C.
Royal Society of South Australia. — Dr. R. H. Pulleine.
University of Adelaide. — Prof. J. R. Wilton, M.A., D.Sc. ; Prof. J. B. Cleland,

M.'D.

TASMANIA.

Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (Tasmanian Branch). — H. W.

Gepp (Victorian Member).
British Medical Society (Tasmanian Branch). — Dr. J. Sprent.
Field Naturalists' Club of Tasmania. — L. Rodway, C.M.G.
Royal Society of Tasmania. — Dr. W. L. Growth er ; Dr. A. H. Clarke.
Tasmanian Fisheries Commissioners. — H. J. Gould.
Tasmanian Institute of Architects. — Herm.a.n Hutchison.
University of Tasmania. — Hon. Tetley Gant, C.M.G. , M.A.

VICTORIA.

Actuarial Society of Australasia — C. H. Wickens, A.I.A.

Association of Secondary Teachers — Miss K. A. Gilman-Jones, M.A. ; F. Shann,

M.A. ; J. P. Wilson, M.A., LL.D.
AustraUan Chemical Institute (Victorian Branch) — V. G. Anderson, F. H.

Campbell, D.Sc.
Australian Forest League— C. S. Sutton, M.B., B.S.; H. Deane, M.A., M.Inst. C.E.

XII

Victoria — continued.

Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy — A. S. Kenyon.

British Medical Association (Victorian Branch) — G. A. Syme, M.B., M.S. ;

J. H. L. CuMPSTON, M.D., B.8.
Field NaturaUsts' Club of Victoria— C. S. Sutton, M.B., B.S. ; C. Daley, B.A.,

F.L.S.
Geelong Field Naturalists' Club — C. A. Tai'lor.

Historical Society of Victoria — C. R. Long, M.A. ; C. Daley, B.A., F.L.S.
Institution of Engineers, Aus. (Melbourne Division) — M. E. Kernot, M.Inst.C.E. ;

G. G. JOBBINS.

Institute of Engineers (Victoria) — W. Reid Bell, M.Inst.C.E.

Melbourne University — Prof. Harrison Moore, C.M.G., LL.B. ; Prof. R. J. A.

Berry, M.B., Ch.M.
Pharmaceutical Society of Victoria — H. B. Taylor ; A. R. Bailey ; D. A.

Cossar.
Royal Australasian Ornithologists' Union — W. H. 1). Le Souef ; Capt. S. A.

White ; Dr. G. Horne, M.A., M.D., B.S.
Royal Geographical Society of Australia (Victorian Branch) — J. W. Israel.
Royal Horticultural Society of Victoria — J. P. McLennan.
Roval Society of Victoria — Prof. W. A. Osborne, M.B., Ch.B., D.Sc. : Prof.

" W. E. Agar, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. ; J. Shephard.
Royal Victorian Institute of Architects — F. Stapley'.

Royal Geological and Acclimatisation Society of Victoria — W. H. D. Le Souef.
Society of Chemical Industry — W. H. Green, D.Sc. ; E. S. Richards, M.Sc.
University Chemical Society — F. J. Watson, B.Sc
University Engineering Society — G. B. Robertson.

University Science Club — Miss G. Buchanan, D.Sc. ; Miss E. McLennan, D.Sc.
Veterinary Association of Victoria — W. A. N. Robertson, B.V.Sc.

XIII

GENERAL PROGRAMME.

MONDAY, 10th JANUARY, 1921.
10.30 a.m. — -Members assembled at Reception Room in University Union.
2 p.m. — Sectional Committees met.

3.30 p.m. — First Meeting of General Council (in Biological Lecture Theatre).
^ p.m. — President's Address (in Melba Hall, University).

TUESDAY, llTH JANUARY.

10 a.m. — Sectional Committees met.

10.30 a.m. — Sections met.

Presidential Addresses in Sections A, C. H, I, and K. Papers and Dis-
cussion on " Relativity " in Section A. Paper and Discussion on " The
Necessity for an immediate and co-ordinated Investigation into the Land

and Fresh Water Fauna of Australia and Tasmania " in Section D.

11.30 a.m. — Presidential Address in Section J. Paper and Discussion on " Repres-
sion of Animal Tuberculosis," between Sections I, K, and L (in Section I).

1.45 p.m. — Visit to Royal Park Cutting (Geology).

2 p.m. — Presidential Address in Section F. Papers and Discussion on '" Towot

Planning," between Sections G, H, and I (in Section H).

3 p.m. — Sections met.

3.30 p.m. — Visit to Commonwealth Serum Institute, Royal Park.

Presidential Address in Section B (in Melba Hall) ; followed by

4.30 p.m. — Discussion on " The Apphcation of Physical and Chemical Science in
the Great War," between Sections A and B (in Melba Hall).

5 p.m. — Visit to Fire Brigade Head Station.

WEDNESDAY. 12th JANUARY.

10 a.m. — Sectional Committees met.

Paper and Discussion on " The Organization of Science," in Section A.

10.30 a.m. — Sections met.

Presidential Address in Section B, sub-Section Pharmacy (at the Pharmacy
Hall). Papers and Discussion on " Methods of Attacking the Prickly
Pear Problem," between Sections B and D (in Section D). Papers and
Discussion on " Industrial Fatigue," between Sections G and I (in
Section I).

XIV

Wednesday, 12th January — continued.

11.30 a.m. — Discussion on "The Theory and Application of the Thermionic
Valve," in Section A. Paper and Discussion on " Macquarie Island and
its Future," between Sections D and E (in Section D).

11.4.1 a.m. — Discussion on ''Food Preservation," between Sections B and 1 (in
Section B).

2 p.m. — Second Meeting of General Council (in Biological Lecture Theatre).

Visit to Museum of Economic Botany and Botanical Gardens.

3 p.m. — President's Reception in Botanical Gardens.

5 p.m. — Visit to National Herbarium in the Domain.

8 p.m. — Inaugural Meeting of the Australian Veterinary Association, Veterinary
Research Institute.

THURSDAY, 13th JANUARY.
10 a.m. — Sectional Committees met.

10.3U a.m. — Sections met.

Presidential Addresses in Sections D and E. Discussion on " Town
Planning " (continued). Papers and Discussion on " Milk Production
and Meat Inspection," between Sections I and L (in Section I).

12 noon — Presidential Address in Section L.

2 p.m. — Presidential Address in Section G (in room of Section A).

Paper on " Factors controlling Settlement in our arid and tropical
Regions " to Sections C, E, H, I, and K (in Section E).

2.15 p.m. — Demonstration on '' Bilharziosis " to Sections D and I (in Biological
Laboratory).

3.15 p.m. — Visit to Public Library and National Museum (including Children's
Museum, Stone Implements, Australian Ethnography, Entomological
Collection, Australian Zoology, and H. Y. L. White Collection of Aus-
tralian Birds, Australian C4eology, and Paleontology Sections).

8 p.m. — Address by Sir Edgeworth David on " The Romance of Ice," in Melba
Hall.

FRIDAY, 14th JANUARY.

10 a.m. — Sectional Committees met.

10.30 a.m. — Sections met.

Discussion on '' The Electrolytic Winning of Metals," between Sections
B and H (in Section B). Paper and Discussion on " The Present Position
of Theories of Heredity," between Sections D, G, K, and L (in Section D).
Paper and Discussion on " The Cultural Period of the Australian
Aboriginal," in Section F.
Visit to Hume Pipe Works (Engineering).

11.45 a.m. — Discussion on " The Prevalence of Contagious Disease in Australia
and the Danger of Introduction from Abroad," in Section L.

Friday, 14th January — continued.

12 noon — Discussion on " Standardization of Analytical Methods," in Section B.
Paper and Discussion on " Forests, especially in Relation to Engineering
and Architecture," between Sections D and H (in Section D).
First General Meeting, Australian Public Health Association.

1.45 p.m. — Visit to Studley Park (Geology).

2 p.m. — Lecture on " Race Origins and Distributions," to Sections E and F (in

Section E). Visit to Museum of Economic Entomology and Ornithology
(Economic Zoology), and afterwards to the Plant Pathology Museum
(Economic Botany). Visit to Newport Power House (Engineering).

3 i).m. — Papers and Discussion on " The Structure of the Atom," between Sections

A and B (in Melba Hall).

4 p.m. — Visit to Royal Zoological and Acclimatisation Society's Gardens, Royal

Park (Zoology).

8 p.m. — Visit to the City Council Electric Supply Power House (Engineering).
Visit to the Observatory (Astronomy).
Council Meeting of Australian Forest League.

SATURDAY, 15th JANUARY.

10 a.m. — Sectional Committees met (final meeting).

10.30 a.m. — Recommendations Committee met (final meeting, in Biological
Theatre).

11.30 a.m. — Third and Final Meeting of the General Council (in Biological
Theatre), Visit to Newport Workshops (Engineering). Excursion to
State Research Farm, Werribecj— Leaders : Dr. S. S. Cameron, Director of
Agriculture, and Mr. A. E. V. Richardson, Superintendent of Agriculture
(Agriculture and Agricultural Botany). Excursion to Williamstown,
Point Cook, and Altona Bay (Marine Biology).

SUNDAY, 16th JANUARY.

Non-oificial Day Excursions were held as follows : —

Bacchus Marsh and Werribee Gorge (Glacial Geology). — Leader : Acting-
Professor Summers.

Aviation School, Point Cook (Aboriginal Camping Ground). — Leader : Dr.
Home.

MONDAY, 17th JANUARY.

Whole-day excursions took place to : —

Olinda and Sherbrooke Gully, by char-a-banc (Zoology and Botany).

Geelong and Torquay (Geology), by train and motor. — Leader : Acting-
Professor H. S. Summers.

Morwell Brown Coal Deposit (Geology), by train and motor. — Leader : Mr.
W. Baragwanath, Director of the Geological Survey.

TUESDAY, 18th JANUARY.

Visit to " Manyung," Mornington, by invitation of Mr. and Mrs. T. Baker, by
char-a-banc.

Commencement of two-day excursion to Melbourne and Metropolitan Board
of Works' O'Shannessy Water Supply Scheme (Engineering). — Leader : Mr.
E. J. Ritchie, Chief Engineer of Water Supply.

Commencement of four-day excursion to National Park, Wilson's Promontory
(Biology and Geology). — Leader : Mr. Jas. A. Kershaw, Secretary to the National
Park Committee.

The evening meetings had to be greatly curtailed because of reductions in the
railway service, and the absence of cable and electric trams after 7 p.m., neces-
sitated by prevailing strike conditions. A char-a-banc service was arranged to
convey members to and from the University and city on Monday and Thursday
evenings.

Luncheon was provided in the University Union Rooms daily from Monday,
10th, to Friday, 14th January (inclusive) ; morning tea daily from 10.30 to
11.30 a.m. ; and afternoon tea daily (except Wednesday and Saturday) from
3 to 5 p.m. ; and " High Tea " on Monday and Thursday evenings from 5.45 to
6.15 p.m.

XVII

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GENERAL COUxNCIL.

FIRST MEETING.

3.30 P.M., Monday, 10th January, 1921.

Professor Sir Edge worth David, the retiring President, in the
Chair. (This and subsequent meetings were held in the Biological
Theatre of the University.)

Mueller Memorial Medal Committee.

The Committee reported that, owing to the long time (eight years)
which has elapsed since the last award, which is usually made
biennially, it had decided : —

(a) To award two Medals instead of one at the present
meeting.

{b) That the recipients be (1) Mr. Eichard Thomas Baker,
• Curator of the Jechnological Museum, Sydney, in
acknowledgment of his eminent services to Botany,
jDarticularly in regard to Eucalyptus, and (2) Pro-
fessor C. Chilton, D.Sc, Professor of Biology,
Christchurch, New Zealand, in acknowledgment of
his eminent services to Zoology, particularly in
regard to the Crustacea.

Recommendation Committee.

The Permanent Honorary Secretary moved : That a Recommen-
dation Committee be appointed as follows : —

The usual ex officio members.

The Presidents of Sections. {See Association Report, Vol. XIII.,
p. xxxii ; also Rules 36 and 37, p. lxxii.)

Publication Committee.

The Permanent Honorary Secretary moved : That a Publication
Committee be appointed, to consist of the Secretaries of Sections, the
Local Treasurer, and the General Secretaries of the States of Tasmania
and Victoria. {See Association Report, Vol. XIV., p. xvii.)

XVIII

Next (Sixteenth) Meeting, Wellington, New Zealand,
January, 1923.

The Permanent Honorary Secretary read the following letter : —

New Zealand Institute,

Wellington, 4th October, 1920.
On behalf of the New Zealand Institute, I beg to tender to the Australasian
Association for the Advancement of Science a very hearty invitation to hold its
meeting, which I understand is to be in January, 1923, in Wellington.

I can assure the members that they will receive a very cordial reception, and
every endeavour will be made to make the meeting a complete success.

(Signed) Thomas H. Easterfield,
I President.

On the motion of Professor Cotton, seconded by Professor Benson,
both of the New Zealand University, who extended a cordial invitation,
the following resolution was carried unanimously : —

That the next meeting take place at Wellington, New Zealand, in
January, 1923.

It was reported that no reply had been received from Perth, Western
Australia.

See also Resolution concerning ^Jlaces of future meetings at p. xix.

Changes in the Secretariat.

The following report re Changes in the Secretariat was made by the
General Secretary.

1. Local Secretary for Tasmania and General Secretary for the Hohart

Meeting.

Early in October, 1920, Professor T. Thomson Flynn found it
necessary to leave Hobart until mid-December. With the consent of
the Local Council, he had j^reviously instructed Mr. R. S. Burdon,
B.Sc, of the Tasmanian University, in the duties of his office, with
the view to the latter co-operating in undertaking the duties of Local
Secretary for Tasmania and General Secretary for the Hobart Meeting.
It is very fortunate that Tasmania was able to secure, at short notice,
the services of a gentleman so eminently suitable for the duties of
the position.

2. Local Secretary for Victoria.

[a) Our great loss through the death of Dr. T. S. Hall, Local
Secretary for Victoria, was reported in the Provisional Report of 30th
September, 1918.

(&) On the 2.5th August, 1919, it was notified, on the nomination

' of the President elect, and with the approA^al of the Great Officers of

the Association, to Dr. A. C. D. Rivett, of the University of Melbourne,

XIX

that he had been appointed Local Secretary for Victoria. Dr. Rivett
entered into the duties of his office with great zeal, and all went well
until June, 1920, when the state of his health necessitated his resig-
nation. His resignation was accepted, with a cordial expression of
sympathy in regard to the cause which brought it about.

(c) On the nomination of the President-elect, and following the
u.sual procedure, in June, 1920, Dr. Georgtna Sweet, Associate-
Professor of Zoology in the University of Melbourne, was appointed
Local Secretary for Victoria. She is the first woman Local Secretary
of the Association, and has been energetic and successful in the carrying
out of her duties to an extent that, while it pleases, in no way surprises
her colleagues.

3. Local Secretary for South Australia.

Professor Walter Howchin, Professor of Geology in the University
of Adelaide, who was elected Local Secretary prior to the Adelaide
meeting of January, 1907, is retiring from his post at the University,
and desires to vacate his office of Local Secretary. His colleagues
nominated Professor J. R. Wilton, M.A., D.Sc, who occupies the
chair of Mathematics, to the vacant office, and this has been confirmed
in the usual way as from the close of the Hobart meeting.

The Chairman voiced the gratitude of the Association for the
valuable services rendered by the retiring officers, and drew especial
attention to the unselfish labours of our late friend, Dr. T. S. Hall,
whose face was es]jecially missed from the meeting.

British Association Committee on Zoological Bibliography.

A letter has been received from Dr. F. A.. Bather, F.R.S., Secretary
of the above Committee, who writes from London, for co-operation in
regard to recommendations by the Conmiittee of Section D (Zoology).
These are under the headings of («) Method of making references to
previous literature, and (6) The introduction of new genera and species.
He encloses a circular, which is too long to copy at this place.

The matter is of the highest importance in the interests of a settled
nomenclature, and applies to Botany also. It was resolved that the
recommendations have the sympathy of this Association.

AcADEMiE Royale de Belgique. — Prizes for Competition.

The Academic Royale de Belgique has forwarded, for the informa-
tion of members, a programme of a number of prizes to be awarded
in the departments of Mathematics and Physics and of Natural Science
during 1921. The papers are to be submitted by 1st August next.
The programme was rendered available to any member who might
desire to peruse it.

Pan-Pacific Congress.

The Pan-Pacific Scientific Congress was held at Honolulu from the
4th to the 20th August, 1920. The following statement was read : —

The Congress was attended by five of our most active members,
viz. : — Charles Hedley, E. C. Andrews, and Dr. L. A. Cotton, all
of Sydney, and C. A. Sussmilch (of Newcastle), and Professor H. C.
Richards, of Brisbane, also Professor Wood-Jones, of Adelaide, the
first-named being requested by yourself to officially represent this
Association at the Congress. Following is his report, and an interesting
report by Mr. E. C. Andrews will be found in The Scientific Australian
for September, 1920, p. 13 :—

23rd October, 1920.

When leaving for Honolulu to attend the first meeting of the Pan -Pacific
Scientific Conference, I was honoured by our President, Professor Sir T. W. E.
David, F.R.S., &c., with a commission to represent our Association there.

Accordingly I presented myself, was registered, and accepted as your delegate.
I had the support also of four others of our members — Mr. E. C. Andrews,
Professor H. C. Richards, Professor L. A. Cotton, and Mr. C. A. Sussmilch.
Together we attended all the meetings of the Conference from the 4th to the
20th August, 1920.

Besides Australia the following countries were represented : — The Hawaiian
Islands with 44 delegates, United States 43, Phihppine Islands 5, Japan 4, New
Zealand 3, Canada 2, and China 1. Both Fiji and Tahiti had been invited to
send representatives, but had not been able to do so.

Mr. E. C. Andrews was appointed Australian representative of the Conference.

The work of the Conference was summarized in a series of resolutions, copies
of which will be available for circulation shortly. From this it will be seen that
the principal concern was the organization of research in the Pacific. It was
agreed that the large problems involved required co-ordination of scientific effort,
and that a necessary preliminary for successful action was the training of workers
for their tasks.

Because the native races are so quickly vanishing, anthropological work is
placed in the forefront of the programme.

The Conference desired to see a comprehensive, systematic, biological survey
of the Pacific Islands instituted.

It recommended more minute records and prompter publication of volcanic
information. Also, it stressed the importance of accurate topographic maps.

■ A suggestion was made that a future meeting of the Pan-Pacific Conference
might advantageously be held in one of the cities of Australia or New Zealand.
Further, it was suggested that such a meeting might unite a joint sitting of the
Pan-Pacific Conference with the Australasian Association for the Advancement
of Science.

(Signed) Charles Hedley.

Professor C. H. Richards has given an admirable account of the
proceedings under the title '' First Pan-Pacific Scientific Conference "
{Science and Industry, October, 1920, p. 61.")).

On the motion of Mr. Cambage, seconded by Professor Richards,
it was resolved to send hearty greetings to the Congress.

It was resolved to send a cablegram of congratulation to Professor
Liversidge, the founder of the Association, now in England.

XXI

SECOND MEETING.

2 P.M., Wednesday, 12tj? January.
Professor Sir Baldwin Spencer, President, in the Chair.

Greater Uniformity in the Eeports of Meetings.

It was resolved that the arrangement of the matter in each Report
of the Association should more closely apjiroximate to uniformity
than is the case at present. With that object in view it was resolved —

That a Committee consisting of the Local Secretaries and
General Treasurer, be appointed to consider the matter, and
report to the General Council at Wellington in 1923 ; the
Permanent Honorary Secretary (who is also Local Secretary for
New South Wales) to be convener.

Lawrence Hargrave's Work on Aviation.

The Permanent Honorary Secretary (on behalf of Mr. Henry

Deane, who was temporarily absent) moved, and Mr. Cambage

seconded, with the support of Professor Pollock, and it was carried : —

That this Council puts on record its deep sense of the great

value of the experimental work in aeronautics of the late Lawrence

Hargrave, which has led to such remarkable results in the

evolution of aviation, a branch of Science which proved of such

immense importance during the recent great war.

Places of Future Meetings.

The following resolution was agreed to : — That meetings in New
South Wales, Victoria, or Tasmania shall alternate generally with
those in more remote States.

Australian National Research Council.

Professor Laby gave notice of the following motion, which was
read : —

A. That with a view to the more effective organization of Science in AustraUa.
the A.A.A.S. appoint a committee to make inquiries and to rejjort on the following
matters : —

(1) Whether it is desirable to form, by the federation of existing State

sci^tific societies or otherwise, a societj' of Australian scientific
workers for the purposes of advancing scientific education, promoting
research, discussing and publishing the results of scientific investiga-
tion, recognising and encouraging distinguished scientific work.

(2) Assuming that the formation of such scientific society is desirable, what

should its constitution and functions be, and how should it be related
to societies such as the Institution of Engineers of Australia ?

(3) What modification in the rules and methods of the A.A.A.S. is desirable

in the light of the experience of the Association and of the British
A.A.S. ?

XXII

(4) What steps are recommended to advance the apphcation of science —

(a) in industry ?

(6) in Federal and State Administration ?

(5) What organization of the relation of scientific societies to the Federal

and State Governments is desirable in order that scientific opinion
may have more influence in its proper domain on government and
administration in AustraUa ?

(6) Scientific relation with other countries.

B. That the Committee consist of Sir Baldwin Spencer, Sir Edgeworth
David, Professor Masson, Mr. Knibbs, Mr. Maiden, Professor Chavman, Mr.
Leighton, Sir Douglas Mawsoist, Professor Pollock, Professor Priestley,
Professor Brailsford Robertson, Professor Steele, Professor Wilsmore,
and the mover.

C. That the leading State Scientific Societies, if they desire further repre-
sentation on the Committee, be asked to add one member each.

D. That the rules of the A.A.A.S. be so altered as to allow of the Council of
the A.A.A.S. holding a meeting to take action on the Committee's rejjort when
it is ready.

THIRD MEETING.

11.30 A.M., Saturday, Ljth January.

Professor Sir Baldwin Spencer in the Chair.

The General Treasurer (Mr. David Garment) submitted the following
audited balance-sheets, made some remarks as to the financial position
of the Association, and answered some questions. Mr. G. H. Knibbs
moved the adoption of the balance-sheets, and a vote of thanks to the
Treasurer, which were carried unaminously.

Mr. Knibbs also moved a vote of thanks to Mr. R. A. Dallen for
his honorary services as Auditor, and that he be requested to continue ;
and this also was carried unanimously.

Australian National Research Council.

After a most hearty and instructive debate, the following resolu-
tions were agreed to : —

1. The Resolutions of the Conference held in Sydney on the 21st August, 1919,
shall cease to be operative from this day, 15th January, 1921.

2 The National Research Council shall consist of not more than 100 members,
and shall contain two or more representatives of each of the following branches
of Science and of such others as may be determined from time to time by the
General Council of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science : —
Agriculture, Anthropology. Astronomy. Botany. Chemistry, Economics and
Statistics, Engineering, Geography, Geology, Mathematics. Mental Science and
Education, Meteorology. Mining and Metallurgy. Pathology, Physics. Physiology,
Veterinary Science, Zoology.

XXIII

3. The members of the Provisional Council* are hereby elected members of the
Research Council, together with Mr. G. H. Knibbs and Mr. G. Lightfoot (repre-
senting Economics and Statistics), Professor Laby (representing Physics) and
Messrs. R. Sticht and G. C. Klug (representing Mining and Metallurgy).

4. The members (as defined in Clause 3) shall co-opt additional members
within the numerical limit prescribed in Clause 2, and shall select such additional
members in consultation with the Presidents of the more important scientific,
technical, and learned Associations and Societies of the Commonwealth.

5. The Council may appoint as associate members scientific workers resident
in Australia who are deemed likely to confer benefit by their researches.

6. The Council may appoint such Standing Committees and Special Com-
mittees as it deems requisite for national or international purposes.

7. The Council may appoint such office-bearers as it may determine. These
shall hold office for a term of two years and be re -eligible.

8. A meeting of the members (as defined in Clauses 3 and 4) shall be held at Sydney
not later than May, 1921, for the purposes indicated in Clause 4, and a meeting
of the whole Council so constituted shall meet as soon as possible thereafter
for the purposes indicated in Rules 5, 6, and 7, and for the formulation of by-laws
and any other necessary business.

9. Members unable to attend any such meeting may communicate their views
beforehand in writing to the Hon. Secretary, and all such communications shall
receive full consideration at the meeting.

10. Every member and associate member shall retain his membership for life
unless it be terminated (1) by his resignation, (2) by his ceasing to reside in
Australia, or (3) by vote of at least two-thirds of the members.

11. The Council shall submit a full report of its work and proceedings to the
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science on the occasion of each
meeting of the Association.

12. Until other arrangements are made for the financial support of the Council,
each member thereof shall be liable tp contribute the sum of £2 2s. per annum,
and each associate member £1 Is. per annum.

Permanent Honorary Secretary of the Association and Local
Secretary for New South Wales.

Mr. J. H. Maiden, who was appointed to his present offices on
28th December, 1907, begged leave to resign them on the ground of
other duties. As he considered that it was not in the best interests of
the Association that he should leave office immediately after the
Melbourne meeting, while so many details required attention, he pro-
posed that he be relieved of office at the end of the year 1921. This

* The Austialasian Research Council, acthig as the Australian Branch of the International
Research Council, was inaugurated at the suggestion of the Royal Society of London at a
meeting of delegates representing the various Australian Scientific Societies held in Sydney,
in August, 1919. At this meeting a Provisional Council was appointed, and it was resolved
that the selection of members of the Pennauent Council be left in the hands of that of the
A.A.A.S. at its next meeting in January, 1921.

The following were elected members of the Provisional Council: — Sir Harry Allen, Dr. J.
M. Baldwin, Mr. R. H. Cambage (Hon. Secretary), Prof. H. S. Carslaw, Prof. H. (i. Chapman
(Hon. Treasurer), Prof. W. E. Cooke. Sir Edgeworth David (Chairman), ^Ir. A. .1. Gibson.
Prof. W. A. Haswell, Mr. C. Hedley, Mr. L. Hills, Mr. H. A. Hunt, Piof. T. R. Lyle, Mi. ,1.
'H. Maiden, Prof. Orme Masson, Sir D. Mawson, Prof. W. A. Osborne. Prof. .1. A. Pollock.
Prof. H. J. Priestley, Mr. A. E. V. Richardson, Prof. E. W. Skeats, Sir Baldwin Spencer,
Prof. J. D. Stewart, Dr. T. G. Taylor. Prof. R. D. Watt. Prof. D. A. Welsh, Prof. N. T. M.
Wilsmore, Prof. H. A. Woodruff.

XXIV

would not only enable work connected with the meeting to be cleared
up, but would give his successor a clear year for preparation for the
Wellington meeting in 1923.

Mr. Ernest Clayton Andrews, B.A., CTOvernment Geologist of
New South Wales, a zealous member of the Association, had
been nominated as his coadjutor, with right of succession to the tw:>
offices enumerated on 1st January, 1922.

The President moved the following Resolutions, which were carried
unanimously " —

While accepting with much regret the resignation by Mr. J. H. Maiden of the
offices of Permanent Honorary Secretary and Local Secretary for New South
Wales, the Council desires to jjlace on record its deep appreciation of the valuable
services that he has rendered to science and to the Association during the fourteen
years that he has occupied these offices, and of the conspicuous ability with which,
as central executive officer, he has directed the affairs of the Association.

That in recognition of the services rendered by him to the Association, Mr.
J. H. Maiden be elected an Honorary Life Member

Election of President for the Wellington Mfrting.

On the motion of Professor Farr, and seconded by Mr. DoRSON.
New Zealand representatives then moved that Mr. Maiden be the
next President, and they were followed by representatives of the
various States, who spoke most kindly in supporting the motion.

Mr. Maiden expressed the deepest gratitude for the great kindness
that had been shown him that day, and, indeed, during his whole
term of office, and stated that the state of his health precluded his
acceptance of the office which had been offered to him.

Thereupon Professor Benson and Dr. Cotton, both of the New
Zealand University, respectively proposed and seconded that Mr.
G. H. Knibbs be the next President. Before the motion was put
Mr. Maiden craved permission of the President to support the nomina-
tion He stated that not only was Mr. Knibbs a brilhant scientific
man, and a warm supporter of the Association, but as a close friend
and coadjutor of many years, he knew that he possessed, in a special
degree, those qualifications which would render him a most successful .
President.

The motion was then put and carried unanimously.

Mr Knibbs thanked the Council for the honour that had been
conferred upon him.

Professors Masson and 1'riestley then moved that Mr. Andrews
be the new Permanent Honorary Secretary and Local Secretary for
New South Wales, at the time already stated. This nlso was carried
unanimouslv, and Mr. Andrews thanked the Council for the honour.

XXV

Work or the Tasmanian and Melbourxe Executive.

It was reported that this meeting had been fixed for Hobart
(oth-llth January, 1921) when, on the preceding 18th December, a
strike of marine stewards practically cut off passenger communication
with Tasmania. After an anxious time it was decided to hold the
meeting at Melbourne instead of Hobart. By this unavoidable decision
a grave disappointment was inflicted on the Tasmanian executive
which had worked for months in the organization of the meeting, and
on Australians who desired to combine a holiday with participation in
this science congress.

Further, it meant that a great strain was placed upon our Melbourne
colleagues to arrange local details after a particularly strenuous time
during midsummer and with very little time to do it in. But the
result proved that the meeting was one of the most successful ever
held, and members had especial reason to be grateful to the President
of the Association (Professor Sir Baldwin Spencer, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.)
and the Local Secretaries (Associate-Professor Georgina Sweet, D.Sc,
and Mr. Roy S. Burdon, B.Sc.) who, at the head of a band of devoted
assistants, worked early and late and thus secured the fine results
obtained^

A feature of the meeting was the number and importance of the
sectional and intersectional discussions, many of the jjapers being
taken as read, in order to afford an opportunity for the interchange
of ideas on subjects which are of special importance to the Common-
wealth.

Votes of Thanks.

Votes of thanks to the following were carried with acclamation : —

(1) The Governor-General, His Excellency Lord Forster.K.C.M.G.;

the Lieutenant-Governor of Victoria, His Excellency the
Hon. Sir William Irvine, K.C.M.G.; and the Governor of
Tasmania, His Excellency Sir William Lamond Allardyce,
K.C.M.G., for acting as Patrons of the Association, and for
their help and sympathy with its work.

(2) The Premier of Victoria, the Hon. H. S. W. Lawson, for his

interest and co-operation.

(3) The Council of the University of Melbourne for its help and

for the loan of its buildings and grounds. Also to the
Committee of the University Union for the loan of its
buildings.

(4) Associate-Professor Georgina Sweet, D.Sc, and Mr. Roy

Burdon, B.Sc-., for their organization of the meeting.

(5) The President, Sir Baldwin Spencer, and Lady Spencer for

their hospitality, and to Mr. and Mrs. Baker for hospitality.

XXVI

(6) The ex-President, Sir Edgeworth David, for his evening

lecture.

(7) H. B. Lee, Esq., Chief Officer of the MetropoKtan Fire

Brigade ; J. M. Baldwin, M.A., D.Sc, Government
Astronomer, the Observatory, Domain, South Yarra ; A. E.
Smith, Esq., Chief Mechanical Engineer, Victorian Rail-
ways ; the City Electrical Engineer, City Hall, Melbourne ;
H. P. CoLWELL, Esq., Chief Electrical Engineer, Victorian
Railways ; J. Cronin, Esq., F.R.H.S., Department of
Lands and Botanical Gardens, Melbourne ; Professor A. J.
EwART^ Botany Department, University ; the Trustees
of the Public Library and the Chief Librarian, Mr. E.
La Touche Armstrong, Public Library, Melbourne-; J. A.
Kershaw, Esq., F.E.S., National Museum, Melbourne ;
J. Spry, Esq., National Museum, Melbourne ; F. Chapman,
Esq., A.L.S., National Museum, Melbourne ; Agricultural
Department (Dr. S. S. Cameron and A. E. V. Richardson,
Esq.), Melbourne ; C. French, Esq., junr., Department
of Agriculture. Flinders-street, Melbourne ; C. C. Brittle- ,
BANK, Esq., Department of Agriculture, Flinders-street,
Melbourne ; D. Le Souef, C.M.Z.S., and the Council of
the Royal Zoological and Acclimatisation Society, Zoological
Gardens, Royal Park ; E. G. Ritchie, Esq., and the Mel-
bourne and Metropolitan Board of Works ; Commissioner^
of Railways, Victoria ; J. Shephard, Esq. (c/o Davies,
Shephard, and Co.), Clarke -street. South Melbourne ; Dr.
H. S. Summers, Geology Department, University ; Mr.
Baragwanath, Director of Geological Survey, Melbourne ;
Mr. Gabriel, Walmer-street, Kew, for assistance in arrang-
ing Excursions, and in one or two cases for hospitality;
Messrs. Cuming, Smith, and Co., for offer of Excursion.

(8) Mr. LiGHTFOOT, for his valuable work as Publicity Officer.

(9) Miss E. I. McLennan, D.Sc, Miss Peterson, M.Sc, Miss

G. V. Buchanan, D.Sc, Miss Mollison, B.Sc, Miss
CooKSON, M.Sc, Miss Green, M.Sc, Miss Brewster,
B.Sc, Miss Raff, M.Sc, Miss Stillman, M.Sc, Miss
Eddy, B.A., B.Sc, Miss Derrick, Mrs. Haney, D.Sc,
Miss Archer, M.Sc, Miss Gordon, B.Sc, Miss Hutchinson,
Miss St. John Clarke, M.A., Miss Jones, Miss 0. Brit-
TiNGHAM, Mr. E. J. Hartung, D.Sc, Mr. H. R. Seddon,
D.V.Sc, Mr. A. O'Brien, Mr. Crawford, Mr. L. T. Ride,
and each of the Victorian Secretaries of Sections, for their
work in assisting the organization of the meeting.

(10) The Press. •

XXVII

SUMMARY OF RESOLUTIONS AFFECTING
■ COMMITTEES OF THE VARIOUS SECTIONS.

Following are the Resolutions of the General Council so far as they
affect the various Sections : —

Section A.

1. That as regards the following Committees : — Solar Physics,

Seismological, Terrestrial Magnetism, Tidal Survey, Physical
and Chemical Constants, Longitude, since their methods
of working involve international co-operation, these Coni-
mittees should be allowed to lapse, and that the responsi-
bility for carrying on these researches be transferred to
the Australian National Research Council.

2. That the sum of £50 referred to in the Report of the Secretary

of the Physical and Chemical Constants Committee be
approved, and forwarded to Dr. Marie.

3. Macquarie Island Committee (Secretary, Professor Sir T. W.

Edgeworth David, K.B.E., D.S.O.', D.Sc, F.R.S., &c.).

The Report was adopted, and the names of Professor Sir Baldwin
Spencer, K.C.M.G., D.Sc, F.R.S., Sir Douglas Mawson, D.Sc, and
Captain J. K. Davis were added to it. The question of re-opening
the Wireless Station at Macquarie Island, established there originally
by the Australasian Antarctic Expedition under Sir Douglas Mawson,
with the co-02)eration of the Commonwealth Meteorological Office, has
given rise to some difference of opinion, and the Meteorologists now
give precedence to the establishment of stations at Kerguelen or the
Island of St. Paul.

In view of the opinions of the Meteorologists, it is considered that
the question of re-establishing the Wireless Station on Macquarie
Island should for the present be postponed.

The question of creating a zoological and botanical preserve at
Macquarie Island is considered to be worthy of favorable consideration.

4. Committee for the study of Earth Movements by Horizontal

Pendulums, formerly the Committee for Determination of
Gravity in Certain Critical Localities.

XXVIII

An account of this Committee will be found in the First Progress
Report of the Permanent Honorary Secretary, dated September, 1918.
A preliminary account of this installation and working of the pendulums
at Burrinjuck was read before the Royal Society of New South Wales
(see Journal for 1915). The observations have been systematically
carried out by Mr. A. Goodwin since the pendulums were first
established.

Assistant Professor Leo. A. Cotton, D.Sc, of the University of
Sydney, furnished a report, and Mr. Campbell, the engineer in charge
of Burrinjuck Dam has taken the greatest interest in the work, which
has been prolonged, partly because on account of the war, the con-
struction of the Dam was delayed. The examination of the records
since the preliminary account already referred to have served to
explain in large measure the movement which was then regarded as
being secular in character. It now appears that the movement is
chiefly, if not wholly, seasonal in character, and that it is a function
of the underground temperature.

It is, of course, essential for this work, as well as for the main
investigation, to have a detailed geological and topographical survey
of the area. This work was taken up about two years ago, and though
far from completion, has yielded important information with regard
to the lithographical characters and rock structures of the area under
investigation. This work is now being carried forward hand in hand
with the pendulum observations. The General Council voted the
sum of £105, already expended in anticipation, together with £50 for
future work.

5. The Samoan Observatory at Apia, originally founded by the
German Government in 1902, is described in the Neiv
Zealand Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. III., p. 157
(1920), by Dr. C. E. Adams and Professor E. Marsden,
D.Sc. It is considered in the highest degree desirable that
it should be maintained at pre-war efficiency, and that
the cost of it be contributed to by Great Britain, New
Zealand, and Australia.

The matter was brought before the Council of the Association,
which passed the following resolution : —

That this Association urge upon the Federal and State Govern-
ments the importance of the work of the Observatory in Samoa,
and the desirability of contributing One thousand pounds (£1,000)
per annum as the Australian share of the cost of upkeep of this
institution as an Imperial Observatory.

XXIX

Following is the reply of the Commonwealth Government to a letter
communicating the above resolution : —

Commonwealth of Australia,

Prime Minister's Department.

Melbourne, 3rd March, 1921.
Dear Sir,

With reference to your letter of the 24th February, embodying a resolution
urging that the Commonwealth Government contribute £1,000 per annum towards
the maintenance of the Samoan Observatory, I desire to inform you that this
matter has received careful consideration, but that it is regretted that the Com-
monwealth cannot agree to share in the cost of maintenance of the Observatory.

Yours faithfully.

(Sgd.) ' P. E. DEANE,

Secretary.

Section B.
This Section recommended —

1. That this Association urge upon the Federal Government the
necessity of taking steps to see that so far as possible all
new chemical works and plant should be erected with a
view to ready adaptability to war work in case of need.

Section C.

1 . Carboniferous and Permian Rocks of Australia Committee. — It was
decided to form a Committee for <;he classification and correlation of
the Carboniferous and Permian rocks of Australia in lieu of a Com-
mittee bearing the name Permocarboniferous of Australia.

The following to be the names of the Committee : — Professor Sir
Edgeworth David, Professor Skeats, Professor Sir Douglas Mawson,
Professor Richards, Professor Benson, Dr. Walkom, Dr. Woolnough,
Mr. GiBB Maitland, Mr. Dunstan, Mr. W. R. Browne, Mr. Chapman,
Mr. Loftus Hills, Mr. P. G. Morgan, with Mr. W. S. Dun and Mr.
C. A. SussMiLCH as Secretaries.

2. Investigation of the Structural Features and Landforms in Aus-
tralasia Committee. — It was decided to form a Committee with the
name " For investigation of the structural features and landforms in
Australasia " in lieu of two Committees named '" Structural features
in Australia " and " Physiographic features of Australasia."

The following to be members of the Committee : — Professor Sir
Edgeworth David, Professor Skeats, Professor Benson, Professor
HowcHiN, Professor Taylor, Professor Sir Douglas Mawson, Mr.
Sussmilch, Dr. Fenner, Dr. Woolnough, Dr. Jensen, Mr. L. K.
Ward, Mr. Andrews, Mr. A. G. Maitland, Mr. Dunstan. Mr.
Speight, Mr. Stanley, Mr. Keble, Mr. Chapman, with Professor
L. A. Cotton and Dr. C. A. Cotton as Secretaries.

XXX

3. Occurrence of Artesian Water in Australia Committee. — It was
decided to constitute a committee to collect information in regard to
the occurrence of Artesian Water in Australia.

The following to be members: — Professor Sir Edgeworth David,
Professor Skeats, Professor Richards, Mr. A. Gibb Maitland, Mr.
DuNSTAN, Mr. Speight, Mr. Kenyon, Mr. Chapman, Mr. Pittman,
Mr. L. K Ward (Secretary).

It was decided to continue the following Committees, with the
members as stated : —

(fl) The Glacial Phenomena Committee. — Professor Skeats, Pro-
fessor HowcHiN, Dr. Marshall, Dr. Woolnough, Dr.
C. A. Cotton, and Professor Sir Edgeworth David
(Secretary).

{b) The Kainozoic and Quaternary Climate of Australasia Coni-
mitfee. — Sir Jas. Verco, Professor Howchin, Professor
Richards, Professor Taylor, Dr. Jensen, Dr. Cockayne,
Mr. Cambage, Mr. Andrews, and Mr. R. Speight
(Secretary).

(c) The Alkaline Rocks of Australasia Committee. — Professor Sir
Edgeworth David, Professor Sir Douglas Mawson,
Professor Benson, Acting-Professor Summers, Dr. Jensen,
Dr. Marshall, Dr. Woolnough, Mr. D. J. Mahony, Mr.
C. A. Sussmilch, Mr. R. A. Wearne, and Professor
Richards and Professor Skeats (Secretaries).

A Report was submitted by Professor Skeats, which embodies
references to the work of Professor H. C. Ricfiards in South-eastern
Queensland, and recorded by him in the Journal of the Royal Society
of that State, Vols. 27 and 30. As regards Tasmania, we have a note
by Professor Skeats on the age of the alkaline rocks of Port Cygnet,
&c., in Jour. Roy. Soc. Vic, Vol. 29. The same author read a note
on the tertiary alkaline rocks of Victoria before the British Association
at its Melbourne meeting in 1914. Since then he has made a number
of additional observations which are detailed.

It was also decided to re-vote the sum of £50 set aside for the
investigation of alkaline rocks and at present unexpended.

The Glacial Phenomena Committee was re-appointed, with Professor
Sir Edgeworth David, K.B.E., D.Sc, F.R.S., as Secretary. The
Report of the Committee was adopted. It consisted chiefly of
observations by Mr. Loftus Hills, M.Sc, Government Geologist of
Tasmania, on Glacial cirques and Moraines in Tasmania, together
with " Glacial notes from New Zealand," by Mr. R. Speight, M.A.,
and brief remarks concerning South Australia by Professor W. Howchin.

The Kainozoic and Quaternary Climate of Australasia Committee
was re-appointed, with Mr. R. Speight as Secretary.

XXXI

Section D.

1. Committee for the Biological and Hydrographical Study of the N en-
Zealand Coast. — It was decided to continue the Committee for the
Biological and Hydrographical >Study of the New Zealand Coast, and
to add the names of Mr. G. E. Archey and Mr. W. R. B. Oliver to
the Committee ; Professor Charles Chiltox, Scretary.

2. Conservation of Water Committee. — The Conservation of Water
Committee (see Vol. XIV., p. 337), of which the late Colonel W. V.
Legge was Secretary, was discharged. The Association joins with
Tasmania in deploring the loss, by death, of our colleague, who was
one of our most zealous members.

3. Ecology Committee. — (See Vol. XIV.. p. 342.) It was decided to
continue the Ecology Committee, with the addition of Mr. A. A.
Hamilton as a member ; Dr. C. S. Sutton, Secretary.

It was further resolved that a Committee be appointed to collect
data and initiate a reasonably-detailed ecological map of Australia
marking out the distribution of the salt-bush and other types of
flora.

It was decided that the following resolution be sent to the Premier
of South Australia : —

This Association, meeting .in Melbourne in January, 1921,
representative of Australasian scientific opinion, being seized
with the great national and scientific importance of the pre-
servation of native fauna and flora, heartily congratulates the
Government on the recently-passed legislation constituting
FUnder's Chase, on Kangaroo Island, a national reserve for fauna
and flora, and urges that immediate steps be taken to give full
effect to that legislation.

The Government is further urged to give full consideration to
the quite unique importance which attaches to the constitution
of the whole of Kangaroo Island as a national fauna and flora
reserve, as well as to the protection of the land, fresh water and
sub-aquatic fauna and flora of all the islands in South Australian
waters, other than Kangaroo Island, and such as are actively
used for farming pursuits.

It was further resolved, on the motion of Professor Sir Baldwin
Spencer, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.—

1. That in order to carry out immediately a co-ordinated Investi-
gation into the Land and Fresh Water Fauna and the
Flora of Australia and Tasmania, the Societies and Institu-
tions in the various States, as named below, be requested

XXXII

to co-operate in the work and to take such steps as they
may deem most advisable for the carrying out of this
work, more especially in securing in each State the active
assistance of specialists in different branches of Botany
and Zoology —

New South, Wales. — The Royal Society, the Linnean
Society, the Australian Naturalists' Society, the Wild
Life Preservation Society, the Australian Museum.
Queensland. — The Microscopial Society, the Royal Society,
the Queensland Museum, the Field Naturalists'
Society.
South Australia. — The Royal Society, the South Aus-
tralian Museum, the Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals, the Australian Forest League
(South Australian Branch).
Tasumnia. — The Royal Society of Tasmania, the Tas-

manian Museum.
Victoria. — The Royal Society, the Field Naturalists'
Club, the Ornithological Union, the National Museum,
the Microscopical Society.
Western Australia. — The Royal Society of Western Aus-
tralia, the Western Australian Museum.

2. That in order to co-ordinate this work a Committee consisting
of Sir Baldwin Spencer (convener). Professor Ewart,
Mr. Hamilton, Mr. J. J. Fletcher, Dr. Shirley, Mr. A.
R. Riddle, Mr. Kershaw, Mr. Searle, Mr. Shephard,
Mr. Maiden, Captain S. A. White, Mr. Rodway, Mr.
Alexander, Mr. Herbert, Mr. Clive Lord, and Miss
Collins be appointed, with power to communicate with
the Societies and Institutions named.

It was resolved to prepare a bibliography of the botany of the
Pacific Islands of special interest to Australia, under the auspices of a
Committee consisting of the Government Botanists of Queensland, New
South Wales, and Victoria, Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.R.S., to be the
convener. The sum of £50 was voted in aid of the work.

Section E.
It was resolved —

That a Committee be appointed to initiate a suitable distinctive
nomenclature for the natural regions of Australia, e.g., Gippsland.

It was resolved to urge on the Federal Government that, in the
interests of historical and geograjihical research, it is desirable that
steps be taken to continue the work of obtaining translations of all
available journals of the early French navigators in Australian waters.

It was also resolved to subsidize (to the extent of £50 at present)
the work of the investigation of the ocean currents and tides and the
sand movements on the Australian coasts, which has been undertaken
at his private expense by Mr. Gerald H. Halligan, M.Inst.C.E.,
late Hydrographic and Supervising Engineer for New South Wales.

Following on a combined recommendation of Sections D and E, it
was resolved : —

That the Government of Tasmania be urged to give the utmost
consideration to the question of protecting the native fauna of
Macquarie Island.

Section F.

The following resolutions were approved by the Council : —

1. That there be urged on the Federal Government the need for

the formation of a Federal Museum for Australia and its
Territories, and the immediate necessity for securing
specimens, historical and ethnological, while they are yet
available.

2. That there be urged upon the Federal Government the need

for endowment of a chair of Anthropology, especially in
view of its value in the government of subject races.

3. That there be brought under the notice of the Federal Govern-

ment the desirability of at once investigating and recording
the Ethnology of the noHhern part of Western Australia.

Section H.
The following resolutions were carried : —

We welcome the general recognition being gradually extended
towards the movement for the better planning and development of
cities and suburbs, and affirm —

(a) That great economic waste exists, and is increasing, conse-

quent upon the ill-planning and absence of regulation for
the proper development of our cities and suburbs.

(b) That such ill-planning and absence of regulation being con-

tinued will lead to many and very costly resumptions to
make necessary improvements.

We also express the hope that State Governments, following the
lead of South Australia, may initiate suitable legislation on the subject,
including provisions for ensuring full inquiry by means of civic
surveys into the needs of existing urban areas, and directs that this
resolution be courteously submitted to the heads of Governments in
Austraha and the Mayors of the Capital Cities.

1084.— 2

XXXIV

Section I.

The Anthropometric Committee was re-appointed, to consist of the
following members : — Mr. Adamson, Major Alderson, Professor
Berry, Dr. Cumpston, Professor Sir Edgeworth David, Dr. Greig,
Dr. Halle Y, Sir Neville Howse, Mr. Knibbs, General J. G. Legge,
Professor Mackie, Dr. Purdy, Dr. Harvey Sutton, Dr. Mary Booth
(Secretary).

In connexion with Dr. Jean Greig's paper, " The Problems of the
Special Child and the Special School," it was resolved : —

That in view of the presence of feeble-minded in our midst,
and the economic cost to the community, it is desirable that the
Government be asked to establish farm colonies and. residential
homes for the accommodation of these cases, and that in the case
of New South Wales the proceeds of the Randwick Orphanage,
specially reserved for the care of the mentally deficient children,
be forthwith applied for the pur^iose.

It was further resolved : —

That medical inspection be extended so as to include all schools.

On the joint recommendation of Sections I and G, a Committee
was appointed to investigate and report on Industrial Fatigue in
Australia.

The following were appointed members of the Committee : — Mrs.
Osborne, Miss Hinder, Dr. Page, Dr. Cumpston, Dr. Purdy,
Professor Copeland, and Mr. H. Heaton as Secretary.

Section K.

The following resolutions were adopted :—

1. That the Commonwealth Government be urged to provide

funds for the encouragement of the cultivation of cotton
in such parts of the Commonwealth as are climatically
suitable for its production.

2. That in response to the request of the President of the Agri-

cultural Section of the International Congress of Meteorology,
a Committee be appointed to report on the climatic control
of Wheat production in Australia.

The following were appointed members of the Committee : — Pi'ofessor
Griffith Taylor, Professor Perkins, Professor Watt, Mr. A. E. V.
Richardson, Mr. Sutton, and Mr. E. T. Quayle.

XXXV

Section L.

The following resolutions were passed on the recommendations of
Sections I, K, and L : —

1. That a Conference of Medical and Veterinary authorities be

held under the aegis of the Council of Science and Industry
to discuss and report on uniform measures for the control
of Animal Tuberculosis ; and that in the meantime it be
a recommendation to the Council of Science and Industry
that the reports from the special Committees on Animal
Tuberculosis be published.

2. That in view of the proved inefhcacy of some brands of

Tuberculin, the Federal Government be asked to test all
samples of Tuberculin before they are placed on the market
in Australia.

Scientific Periodical Literature Committee.

(See Vol. XIV., p. 726.) Mr. W. S. Dun, Secretary.
This Committee was permitted to lapse.

XXXVI

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XLII

OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE
ASSOCIATION.

Embodying alterations to Rules proposed at the Sydney 1911
meeting and confirmed at the Melbourne meeting, 1913.

OBJECTS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

The objects of the Association are to give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry ; to promote the
intercourse of those who cultivate science in different parts of the
Commonwealth of Australia, the Dominion of New Zealand, and in
other countries ; to obtain more general attention to the objects of
science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which
may impede its progress.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Members and Associates.

1. Members shall be elected by the Council.

2. The subscription shall be £1 for each Session, to be paid in
advance.

3. A member may at any time become a Life Member by one pay-
ment of £10, in lieu of future annual subscriptions.

4. Ladies' (Associates') tickets (admitting the holders to the General
and Sectional Meetings, as well as the Evening Entertainments) may
be obtained by full members on payment of 10s. for each ticket. Ladies
may also become members on the same terms as gentlemen.

Students attending lectures at any Australasian University may
become Associates on payment of 10s.

Sessions.

5. The Association shall meet in Session periodically for one week
or longer. The place of meeting shall be appointed by the Council
two years in advance, and the arrangements for it shall be intrusted
to the Local Committee.

MANAGEMENT OF THE AFFAIRS OF THE
ASSOCIATION.

Council.

6. There shall be a Council consisting of the following : — (1) Present
and former Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Treasurers, and Secretaries of
the Association, and present and former Presidents and Secretaries of

xLirr

the Sections and Local Secretaries. (2) Members of the Association
delegated to the Council by Scientific Societies.* (3) Secretaries of
Research Committees appointed by the Council.

Delegates. — Scientific Societies shall be invited by the Local Com-
mittees of the State in which the ensuing meeting is to be held to
delegate members to the General Council. The number of such
delegates is not to exceed one for every hundred members of the
delegating societies. Such delegates shall be members of the General
Council only for the Session to which they are delegated.

7. The Council shall meet only during the Session of the Associa-
tion, and during that period shall be called together at least twice.

Local Committees.

8. In the intervals between the Sessions of the Association, its
affairs shall be managed in the various States by Local Committees.
The Local Committee of each State shall consist of the Members of
Council resident in that State.

Officers.

9. The Officers shall include a President, five Vice-Presidents, a
General Treasurer, and Local Secretaries and Treasurers, who shall be
appointed by the General Council at each meeting of the Association,
and shall take office at the next following meeting. There shall also be
a Permanent Honorary Secretary, who shall hold office until his
appointment be terminated by death or resignation, or by resolution of
the General Council. The mover of such resolution shall give not less
than three months' notice in writing.

Reception Committee.

10. The Local Committee of the State in which the Session is to
be held shall (recommended that the word " may " be substituted for
" shall ") form a Reception Committee to assist in making arrange-
ments for the reception and entertainment of the visitors. This Com-
mittee shall have power to add to its number.

Office.

11. The permanent Office of the Association shall be in Sydney.

* By resolution of General Council, Melbourne, 1913, the following is a definition of a
Scientific Society with power to send a delegate to the General Council of the Association : —

Any Society is eligible which undertakes local scientific investigations and publishes
notices of the results : Provided that the Council shall have the power to vary this
rule in exceptional cases.
Applications for the appointment of delegates must be in the hands of the Permanent
Honorary Secretary not later than three months before the date of any meeting of
the Association.

XLIV

Money Affairs of the Association.

12. The financial year shall end on the 30th June.

13. All sums received for life subscriptions and from the sales of
back numbers of Reports shall be invested in the names of three
Trustees appointed by the Council, and the interest arising from such
investment shall be reserved for grants in aid of scientific research.

14. The subscriptions shall be collected by the Local Secretary in
each State, and forwarded by him to the General Treasurer.

15. The Local Committees shall not have power to expend money
without the authority of the Council, with the exception of the Local
Committee of the State in which the next ensuing Session is to be held,
which shall have power to expend money collected, or otherwise ob-
tained in that State. Such disbursements shall be audited, and the
Balance-sheet and the surplus funds forwarded to the General Treasurer.

16. All cheques shall be signed either by the General Treasurer
and the General Secretary or by the Local Treasurer and the Secretary
of the State in which the ensuing Session is to be held.

17. Whenever the balance in the hands of the Banker shall exceed
the sum requisite for the probable or current expenses of the Associa-
tion, the Council shall invest the excess in the names of the Trustees.

18. The whole of the accounts of the Association — i.e., the local
as well as the general accounts — shall be audited before each meeting
of the Association by two Auditors appointed by the Council, and
the Balance-sheet shall be submitted to the Council at its first meeting
thereafter.

Money Grants.

19. Grants of money for the furtherance of specific objects of scientific
research may be made by the General Council on the recommendation
of the Recommendation Committee.

Committees and individuals to whom grants of money have been
intrusted are required to present to the following meeting a report
of the progress which has been made, together with a statement of the
sums which have been expended. Any balance shall be returned to
the General Treasurer.

20. In each Committee the Secretary is the only person entitled
to call on the Treasurer for such jDortions of the sums granted as may
from time to time be required.

21. In grants of moneys to Committees, or to individuals, the
Association does not contemplate the payment of personal expenses
to the members or to the individual.

XLV

Sections op the Association.

22. The following Sections shall be constituted : —

A. — Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics.

B. — Chemistry, with Pharmacy as a sub-Section.

C. — Geology and Mineralogy.

D. — Biology.

E. — Geography and History.

F. — Ethnology and Anthropology.

G. — Social and Statistical Science.

H. — Engineering and Architecture.

/. — Sanitary Science and Hygiene.

J. — Mental Science and Education.

K. — Agriculture.

L. — Veterinary Science.

Sectional Committees.

23. The President of each Section shall take the Chair and proceed
with the business of the Section not later than 11 a.m. In the middle
of the day an adjournment for luncheon shall be made, and at 4 p.m.
the Sections shall close.

24. On the second and following days the Sectional Committees
shall meet at 10 a.m.

25. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several
Sections shall be nominated by the Local Conmiittee of the State in
which the next ensuing Session of the Association is to be held, and
shall have power to act until their election is confirmed by the Council.
From the time of their nomination — which shall take place as soon
as possible after the Session of the Association — they shall be regarded
as an Organizing Committee, for the purpose of obtaining information
upon papers likely to be submitted to the Sections, and for the general
furtherance of the work of the Sectional Committees. The Sectional
Presidents of former years shall be ex officio members of the Organizing
Committees.

26. The Sectional Committees shall have power to add to their
number.

27. The Committees for the several Sections shall determine the
acceptance of papers before the beginning of the Session. It is there-
fore desirable, in order to give an opportunity to the Committee of
doing justice to the several communications, that each author should
prepare an abstract of his paper, of a length suitable for insertion in
the published Transactions, Reports, or Proceedings of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original paper, to the
Secretary of the Section before which it is to be read, so that it may
reach him at least a fortnight before the Session.

XLVI

There shall be a time limit set for authors of papers read before the
Association, which shall not be exceeded except by special arrangement
made beforehand with the Sectional Committee.

28. Members may communicate to the Sections the papers of non-
members.

29. The author of any paper is a liberty to reserve his right of
l^roperty therein

30. No report, paper, or abstract shall be inserted in the volume
of Transactions, Reports, or Proceedings unless it be handed to the
Secretary before the conclusion of the Session.

31. The Sectional Committee shall report to the Publication Com-
mittee what papers it is thought advisable to print.

32. They shall also take into consideration any suggestions which
may be oftered for the advancement of Science.

Research Committees.

33. It shall be in the power of the Council to appoint Research Com-
mittees on the recommendation of the Recommendation Committee.

In recommending the apj)ointment of Research Committees, all
members of such Committees shall be named, and one of them, who
has notified his willingness to accept the office, shall be appointed to
act as Secretary. The numbers of members aj)pointed to serve on a
Research Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient
working. Individuals may be recommended to make reports.

34. All recommendations adopted by Sectional Committees shall
be forwarded without delay to the Recommendation Committee ;
unless this is done, the recommendation cannot be considered by the
Council.

Official Journal.

35. At the close of each meeting of the Sections the Sectional Secre-
taries shall correct, on a copy of the Official Journal, the list of papers
which have been read, and add to them those appointed to be read
on the next day, and send the same to the General Secretary for
printing.

Recommendation Committee.

36. The Council at its first meeting in each Session shall ajjpoint
a Committee of Recommendations to receive and consider the rejDorts
of the Research Committees appointed at the last Session, and the
recommendations from Sectional Committees. The Recommendation
Committee shall also report to the Council, at a subsequent meeting,
the measures which it would advise to be adopted for the advance-
ment of Science.

XLVII

Publication Committee.

37. The Committee shall each Session elect a PubUcation Com-
mittee, which shall receive the recommendation of the Sectional Com-
mittees with regard to publication of papers, and decide finally upon
the matter to be printed in the volume of Transactions, Reports, or
Proceedings.

Alteration op Rules.

38. No alterations of the Rules shall be made unless due
notice of all such additions or alterations shall have been given at
one meeting and carried at another meeting of the Council, held during
a subsequent Session of the Council.

XLVIIl

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Hon. Sir Frederick Darley,

tit. (N.S.W.).

V. De Vis, M.A. (Queens-

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James Hector, K.C.M.G.,
,D., F.R.S. (New Zealand).
Hon. James Inglis, M.P..

rofessor W. C. Kernot, M.A.,

C.E. (Victoria),
he Hon. Sir W. M. Manning,

LL.D., M.L.C. (Sydney),
he Hon. H. N. MacLaurin,

M.A., M.D., LL.D. (Sydney)
rofessor E. H. Rennie, M.A.,

D.Sc. (South Australia),
ir Alfred Roberts, M.R.C.S.

(N.S.W.).

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PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS TO THE

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION

FOR THE ADVANCEMENT

OF SCIENCE

Sir Baldwin Spencer, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., M.A.,
D.Litt., D.Sc.

We are meeting to-day undei' very special conditions, and, as
President, my first duty is to express to our Tasmanian members,
and more especially to the officials upon whom has fallen the
duty of organizing the Hohart meeting and who are now unable
to he with us, our profound regret that it has been deemed neces-
sary, at the last moment, to transfer the place of meeting from
Hobart to Melbourne. It was only with great reluctance, and
after a very careful attempt to forecast the probability, under
existing conditions, of members being able, witli certainty, not
only to reach, but to return from, Tasmania, that the decision
was arrived at. Many of the' older memibers have the most
pleasant recollections of past meetings in Tasmania, and it is a
matter of great disappointment to all of us that we are unable
to hold this meeting under the shadow of Mt. Wellington, amidst
the lovely surroundings of Hobart, with its great harbour, second
in dignity and beauty to none other in Australasia.

It must be understood that this is not a Melbourne meeting; it
is a Hobart meeting held in Melbourne by force of circumstances,
and with the courteous and generous consent of our Tasmanian
colleagues. The local preparations have of necessity been made
under great pressure and at very short notice during the holiday
season — -during, indeed, only two working weeks — and, though it
is not usual to mention such matters in a Presidential address, I
feel sure that the members of the Association will approve of this
public and official recognition of the work of our local secretary —
Dr. Sweet — and the little band of voluntary assistants associated
with her, who have by their able and self-sacrificing work made
possible the holding of this meeting. The war has taught us what
women are capable of in regard to organization, and in the
arrangements now made we have once more to recognise their
efficiency, and to realize that they are a tower of strength and an
ever-present help in time of trouble. '

LIV PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

It is 33 years since tiie first meeting of this Association was
opened in Sydney. Fourteen meetings have been held — the last
in Melbourne, in 1913. At that time we had no suspicion of the
years that were to intervene between the Melbourne and this our
present meeting. We were looking forward with great expectation
to the visit of the parent society — the British Association — but
coincident with the arrival of our overseas guests came xhe declara-
tion of war. It is true that the meeting was held, and that,
despite the depressing conditions, the programme as arranged
was carried through, thanks largely to the generous co-operation
of our guests. !N"aturally, the thoughts of many were turned away
from science, and would have been even still more so had we then
been able to I'ealize what the future years held in store. It was
inevitable under the existing conditions that it should have been
otherwise, but the general results, or, perhaps to sj)eak more
correctly, the .after-results were naturally not what they would
have been had the meeting been held under normal conditions, and
had our guests been free from feelings of deep and constant
anxiety.

However, the visit was evidently full of great intei'est to thenr,
as it was to us, and every possible effort was made by the Federal
and State Governments, the Universities, various public bodies,
and private individuals to enable them to gain as much insight as
possible into the scientific work of Australia, the life of the people,
the economic conditions, and the nature and capacity of the
country.

Before leaving Australia, the chief officials addressed a most
generous and appreciative letter to the press. After stating that
a much greater number of memJbers had been enrolled for this
Australian meeting than for any previous one, they say — " We
may conclude by assuring the people of Australia that the
announcement of a grand total for all centres of more than 4,700
members forms, in our view, a fitting climax to a meeting of
unparalleled interest to the visitors, and, we venture to hope, of
value to the country in which it has been held."

Now that the war is over, we trust it may be possible to con-
tinue one aspect of the Avork that we hoped this meeting in
Australia would strongly emphasize, and that is the closer associa-
tion of science workers throughout the Empire. This can only be
brought about efficiently by periodical personal contact of investi-
gators, and such becomes extremely difficult in the case of a
scientific worker who enjoys what is commonly known as a
" fixed income," the purchasing power of which is continually
decreasing, and is now, in very many cases, much less than that
paid to a mechanic, who thoroughly deserves his wage, but per-
haps scarcely realizes that he owes this- entirely to the work of a
scientist, who is often paid much less than himself.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LV

The vital question of the org'anization of science in Austi'alia
will form, later, the subject-matter of an important discussion,
but meanwhile it may be pointed out fhat, apart from Govern-
ment Departments, various State societies, and museums, all pub-
lishing papers, we have three general organizations —

(1) Our Australasian Association, meeting under normal
conditions once every second year. As its members are drawn
from an area equal in extent to that of Europe, it seems
to be impossible to arrange for more frequent meetings of
the whole body. At the same time it might be possible to
form, from amongst its officers, a central standing committee
or council that could meet wholly, or in sections, more often.
The carrying out of investigations wonld require funds,
which, unfortunately, are not at present at the disposal of
the Association.

(2) The Australian I^ational Research Council, acting as
the Australian Branch of the International Research Council
inaugurated by the Royal Society of London. A provisional
council was appointed at a meeting of . delegates from the
various Australian scientific societies held in Sydney, in
iVugust, 1919, on the understanding that the appointment of
the new council be intrusted to that of our Association at this
meeting. In view of economizing, in regard both to time,
energy, aiid. expense, it may be worth considering whether
the National Research Council could not be constituted as a
standing committee of this Association, which represents all
scientific bodies in Australasia, with independent powers of
initiating research, supervising generally the interests of
science in Australasia, and dealing with such funds as may be
placed at its disposal, reporting progress at the biennial
meetings of the Association.

(3) The Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry,
founded by Act of Parliament in 1920. The constitution of
this is by no means satisfactory, but at least it shows that
the Grovernment recognises the profoimd importance of scien-
tific investigation, and, unfortunately, it is the only one
of the three bodies that, under present conditions, will havc-
at its disposal the funds necessary for carrying on work. It
is deeply to be regretted that the wise policy adopted in
regard to the constitution of the National Research Council
in the United States was not adopted in Australia. There is
only one other point to which I would draw attention in
regard to this matter, and that is that, with our limited
endowments, what we require is the organization of scientific
investigation largely from the purely Australian point of
view. There has met recently, at Honolulu, a Pan-Pacific

LVI , PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

Conference. Very highly desirable, as it undoubtedly is, for
all possible investigations to be carried out in the Pacific
Islands, we in Australasia have biological, agricultural, and
ethnological problems peculiarly our own calling aloud for
investigation. We cannot attempt to do things on the
{generous scale of America, and Avith our very limited means
perhaps our work would yield best results, not only for iVus-
tralia, but for the world at large, if directed more especially
to the elucidation of problems presented to us by Australasia
and its dependencies.

There are one or two matters of personal interest to our Asso-
ciation to which I wish to refer briefly. This is our third Hobart
meeting; the first Avas held in 1892, and the second in 1902.
Of the Presidents, Vice-Presidents, General Secretaries, and Trea-
surers of these meetings, only one is still left with us — Professor
Liversidge, the founder of our Association, to whom the Council
has to-day sent a message of greeting.

We have to record the great loss which the Association has
suffered in Tasmania by the deatli, since our last meeting there, of
Mr. R. M, Johnston and Mr. A. Morton, both of whom have been
closely identified with the work of the Association in that State.

Mr. Johnston was Government Statistician and Registrar-
General of Tasmania from 1881 until his death in 1917. His
pioneer work, more especially in regard to the geology of Tas-
mania, entitles him to the high regard of all who have had experi-
ence of this class of work in a young country where literature is
scarce, intercourse with other workers practically impossible, and
the opportunity of research much limited by 'arduous and multi-
farious official duties. Those of us who had the privilege of his
personal friendship know well that he Avas not only a scientist, but
a man of simple character and high ideals.

As local secretary of the Association for many years, during
which on two occasions, in 1892 and 1902, he organized and
carried out with conspicuous success the local business and
arrangements of the Hobart meetings, Mr. Morton's name will
always be honorably associated with the early history of our
Association, and also with that of the Royal Society and Museum
of Tasmania.

It is impossible to mention individually the names of those
members who have taken part in one way or another in special
work during the war. I may, however, refer to one by name, as
he will serve as the highest type of what various Australian
scientists have done, and that is our twice President, Sir Edge-
worth David. At an age when most men would be unable to
undertake the hard work and face the dangers of the battlefield.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LVIl

the rigours of European winters, and the hardships of trench life,
he gallantly offered his services to his country. The discoverer of
the location of the South Magnetic Pole did equally great work
on the Western Front as he did in the Antarctic, and we are proud
and thankful to have him safely iback amongst us, and we greet
him as the doyen and leader of scientific work and workers in
Australasia.

In a Presidential address for an Association such as this, which
represents all the various branches of science, one has the choice
of two methods — either to attempt a general survey of science
and scientific develoj^ments since the last meeting, or to confine
one's self to some special branch with which the writer may be
more especially acquainted. In the early days of the parent Asso-
ciation in Great Britain, when science as we know it now was
more or less in its infancy, it Avas practically possible for men
like Huxley, Tyndall, Faraday, and Hooker to have a. general all-
round grasp of the various branches, both of physical and natural
science. The rapid advancement of scientific investigation soon
put an end to such universality of scientific knowledge, and now it
is not possible for any worker to have a thorough and intimate
acquaintance with mere than one branch of science, or even one
part of this.

In the Presidential addresses delivered before the various sections
you will hear from those who are competent to tell us something
of what has been done during recent years in the different sciences
that they represent.

I therefore propose to take as the subject of my address a
very restricted one, though of peculiar interest from an Australian
point of view, that may be said to lie almost on the border line
of science and the historical side of literature.

Some 200 years ago the well-known line was written, " The
proper study of mankind is man," but it was only at a very much
later date that mankind hegan to study the more or less
primitive man, as revealed by various savage, harbaric, and semi-
civilized peoples. In fact, it is not very long ago since most people
held the self-gratifying opinion that the so-called lower races
were a different species of human beings to themselves, and
objected strongly to being told that their far-away ancestors were
on much the same physical and cultural level as the savages of
to-day, and that to understand the evolution of man and the
history of mankind as culminating in themselves it was necessary
to study the structure, beliefs, and customs of their savage
ancestors. Not only this, but they were told that it was equally
necessary, though naturally it upset the equanimity of the anthro-
pocentri" grandparents, and even parents of ourselves, to study
the relationshi]> of the same far-away ancestors to still lower and
less human-like types of animals.

LVIII PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

In fact, it liad, at last, to be realized tliat animal life was one
long process of gradual development, some forms halting on tlie
way or branching off, as it were, sideways; others, incapable of
carrying on the struggle, turning back and degenerating; others,
with endless travail, ever straining upwards.

In Australia we have yet remaining with us, though in rapidly
diminishing numbers, representatives of what is probably the most
backward human race now extant. It reveals to us in many
aspects stages that have been passed through during the early
develoi:>ment of mankind.

The science of anthropology is divided into two distinct
branches — (1) that of physical anthropology concerned with the
structure of the human body; and (2) social or cultural anthro-
pology. In regard to the first, a considerable amount of work has
already been done, so far as Australia is concerned. So long as
any aborigines or their skeletons remain, they may be studied
from a somatological point of view; but, in regard to the second,
the matter is entirely different.

To study scientifically the beliefs and customs of a savage tribe
—I do not mean to write casual papers, of which we have far too
many — is a very different, and even a more difficult, task. It
requires a peculiar faculty quite distinct from that of making
physical measurements, a faculty which very few of those who
have written on the beliefs and customs of Australian natives
possess, of freeing themselves from their own inherited beliefs
and endeavouring to see things from the point of view of a savage.

I shall deal first with certain aspects of the social or cultural
anthropology of Australian aborigines, and more especially with
their social organization, as illustrating an early stage in the
development of mankind and affording us an insight into certain
beliefs held and customs practised by our far-away ancestors; and,
second, with the difficult question of the origin of their complex
culture.

The Australian aboriginal, though probably the most backward,
is, however, very far removed from anything like primitive man —
a much greater gap probably separates him from, say, JSTeanderthal
man than from ourselves, and, again, an even greater one separartes
Neanderthal man from the earliest beings to whom the term
human could be applied.

There have been many writers on various branches of social
anthropology in Australia, but only a few of them have been
trained in scientific work; and, after the perusal of very many
publications, it has been brought home to me that what we need
most of all in regard to Australian anthropology, from the cultural
side, is an " index expurgatorius." More especially it is essential
to recognise that -in matters concerned with their customs, beliefs.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LIX

and organization, investigations carried on amongst tlie remains
of tribes that have been long in contact with white men are liable
to be very misleading. It is only those who have worked in the
field, both amongst natives in their natural state and amongst
others who have been in more or less close contact with settle-
ments, who can realize how rapidly, under the latter conditions,
their genuine and primitive customs become modified or even
lost. The greater the difference between the cultural levels of two
associated races, the more rajiidly does the lower one succumb ;
there is no such thing as grafting the higher upon the lower.

The marriage rules, for example, owing to the rapid diminution
in numbers that inevitably occurs, soon break down, and the
younger men, under the protection of the white man, only too
readily shake off their old customs and beliefs, and, unfortunately,
unless specially protected, as they have been only too little in
Australia, are incapable of receiving anything better in return.

The history of the study of cultural anthropology in Australia,
so far as the more important work is concerned, is comparatively
simple. One of the earliest writers to give us any intelligent
account of the customs of the natives was Collins (1789-1802),
whose quaint illustrations, published in his Account of the English
Colony of New South Wales, are of peculiar value, because they
serve to show that the youths during initiation were shown cere-
monies evidently connected with totems — that is, animals or plants
with which they were supj^osed* to be associated. Collins, of
course, had no idea of this, nor was there any further record of
such until Mr. Gillen and myself discovered the remarkable
development of this feature in Central Australia just 100 years
later. Since then, other workers have recorded them, more
especially in ]N"ew South Wales.

In 1820 it had been shown in the pages of Archcpologica
Americana that amongst certain of the American tribes there was
a definite social organization regulating marriage, and that there
were groups of individuals the members of each of which were
closely associated with some animal or plant, which is now spoken
of as the totem of that particular individual or group; and,
further that the totem group or clan was an exogamous group,
that is, a man of one group must take his wife from some other.
Not only this, but these totem clans were grouped into phratries,
which again were exogamous. For example, amongst the Creek
Indians there are said to be some twenty clans. A panther might
not marry a panther nor a wild cat ; these two together forming
aphratry.CM The number of phratries apparently varied in
different tribes fr om two to ten, and both odd and even numbers

Tn/i.L!'^""' *?''^" *^'''"' ^"""Ir 7°"^ *''*' summary given by Sir James Frazer in his great work on
loteraism and Exogamy. — Vol. 1, pp. 56, &c

LX PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

are met with, indicating a fundamental difference between these
groups and those in Australia, to which, unfortunately, the same
name has been applied by some writers.

When first Australia was visited by Europeans they had no
opportunity of investigating the natives; in fact^ from the time
when Dampier first touched the western coast line, and for long
years afterwards, the general conclusion in regard to them was
expressed in the well-known phrase, '' Manners none ; customs
beastly."

The most important introduction to anything like a serious
study of the aborigines was first made in Western Australia hy
Scott Lind, Medical Ofiicer at King George's Sound from
1828-1829 ; at a later period by Grey, in 1841 ; and, somewhat later
again, by Eyre, in South Australia, in 1845. Though Grey was
indeed the first to detect the existence of intermarrying classes, his
information was, however, too vague to suggest more than that
the Australian tribes had some organization akin to that idescrilbed
amongst the American Indians. We get further hints of this
again in Moore (1841), Schurmann (1844), and others, but
nothing of any definite nature. The first who seriously attempted
to deal with the social organization and marriage customs was the
Rev. Wm. Ridley, who, hetween the years 1853-1875, published
much valuable pioneer work.

The real foundation of Australian anthropology, from the cul-
tural side, was, however, laid when the late Dr. Howitt and Rev.
Lorimer Fison began to collaborate, with the result that, in 1880,
they published Kamilroi and Kiirnai, in which, for the first time,
there was given a clear outline of the social organization of a
typical Australian tribe. During more recent years, Dr. Howitt,
in The Native Tribes of South-east Australia,, summarized the
whole of his own work, carried on also with the aid of numerous
correspondents, from 1873-1900. In 1878, Brough Smyth pub-
lished his compilation entitled The Aborigines of Victoria; and,
in 1886, E. M. Curr issued another called The Australian Race.
In most cases it is difficult to estimate the amount of reliance to
be placed upon the statements of the contributors, who, save for
a very few, such as Howitt and Ridley, were superficial and
untrained observers. Other investigators, such as Etheridge, were
studying the technologic work of the aboriginals, and in more
recent years Messrs. Kenyon and Mahony have devoted themselves
to a most comprehensive study of their stone implements. The
exhibition of some 15,000 of these, shown by them to a distin-
guished gathering of European anthropologists, in the Melbourne
Museum, in 1914, aroused the keenest interest. In Queensland,
Roth was doing Valuable work, more especially from the point

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXI

of view of technology and social organization. His results, pivb-
lished by the Queensland Government under the title of Ethno-
logical Studies among the North-West-Central Queerisland Abori-
gines, and later in the Records of the Australian Museum, are of
great value. The Cambridge expedition to the Torres Strait
Islands, in 1898, under the leadership of Dr. Haddon, resulted
in the publication of what is probably the most complete account
that it is now possible to secure of the culture of these mixed
peoples. From Queensland, also, Mrs. Langloh Parker published
two volumes of Legendary Tales, and, later on, The Euahlayi
Tribe; and the E,ev. J. Mathew, Eaglehaivk and Crow and Two
Representative Tribes of Queensland. The report of the Horn
Expedition contains a short account of certain features of the
Arunta Tribe, partly gained during a hurried visit by the late
Sir Edward Stirling, and partly drawn up from notes supplied
to him by Mr. Gillen. At a later date it was my good fortune to
be lahle to collaiborate with Mr. Gillen in the investigation of prac-
tically uncontaminated tribes in Central and North-central Aus-
tralia working in the field, living with the natives and watching
their ordinary and ceremonial life under the most favorable con-
ditions. By the death of Mr. Gillen, who presided over the section
of Anthropology at our Melbourne meeting, in .1900, we have-
lost a most able and enthusiastic field worker amongst the natives,
whom he knew well and understood, and to whom every student
of Australian anthropology and mjself, most of all, owes a deep
debt of gratitude. At a later period, the Rev. C. Strehlow pub-
lished further work dealing with the Arunta and Luritja tribes
in Central Australia, and I was able a few years ago to study the
natives of the far iN'orthern Territory and of Bathurst and
Melville Islands, amongst whom, as also in Central Australia, Dr.
H. Basedow has done valuable work.

Until recently, though some of our earliest knowledge came from
Western Australia, we have gained thence no further information.
The work, however, published during the past few years by Mrs.
Bates and Mr. A. li. Brown, though unfortunately conducted
amongst tribes Avho, as the authors say, have long since abandoned
the performance of old customs, is of considerable value, more
especially because it reveals the presence of tribes in Western Aus-
tralia closely akin in their organization and beliefs to those of
Central Australia.

I have only in this brief account mentioned what I think are
the main records in regard to Australian aboriginals from vhe
cultural point of view. Apart from compilations, such as those
of Brough Smyth and Curr, numberless other smaller contrihu-
tions have been made, most of them of trivial value, and often

LXII PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

oi doubtful reliability, and the time lias now come for us to
attempt some sorting out of the accumulation of material gathered
together during the past century.

There is, however, one special matter in comiexion with anthro-
pological research in Australia to which I wish to draw attention.
Nearly all such researches have been carried on by men ; in fact,
save in decadent tribes, the members of which have lost their
respect for, and to a large extent their knowledge of, old customs
and beliefs, it would be useless for a woman to attempt to pry
into sacred matters so far as the men are concerned. Any attempt
to do so would be keenly resented in uncontaminated tribes, and in
others the information thus derived would be of doubtful value.
How strong this sentiment is may be gauged from the fact that
I have seen a woman with her eye destroyed by a firestick simply
because she had quite innocently picked up a sacred bull-roarer
that had been accidentally dropped in the bush. It is quite true
that very old women are allowed to know a little, but, as far as
one can judge, only a very little, and they are quite as reticent
as the men. On the other hand, it is quite possible that the
women have their own secrets, or, at all events, a different outlook
from that of the men in regard to those of the latter. You have
as a man investigator, Avhen studying a native tribe in anything
like its normal state, to impress the men with the idea that you
are fully seized of the fact that v/omen and children must know
nothing. They must realize that you understand the importance
of silence. If they suspect you, or, indeed, any one of themselves,
of being what the Arunta man calls " Irkun oknirra," or as a
native once, very ungallantly, described it to me as " All same
woman, always talking," they shut' up like an oyster. It is most
desirable that, before it is too late, an investigation of beliefs and
customs from a woman's point of vieAv should be made by a woman
trained in anthropological methods. A few years ago I was
fortunate enough to arrange for such an investigation under excep-
tionally favorable conditions in the Northern Territory, but the
war intervened and prevented the carrying out of the plan. I
feel sure that amongst Australian tribes a woman who would
simply investigate matters from the outlook of a native woman,
and Avould not attempt to gain any information of, or to investi-
gate beliefs and customs especially associated with, the men, would
d'j most valuable work.

After these preliminary remarks I pass on to d^al with the
organization of Australian tribes as revealing to us an early, but
iby no means a really primitive, state of human society, but at
the same time giving us some little idea of the nature of this.
The subject is one of great extent, and all that I propose to do is
to summarize in broad outline our knowledge of it, which is
probably now fairly complete.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXIII

Investigations during recent years, though adding details, have
not, with one exception, revealed anything new of importance in
regard to it. Two main systems can be recognised; the first may
be described as the Tribal, the second as the Social. In regard
to the Tribal organization, there is clearly a threefold di\dsion
into tribe, local group, and family, with also a somewhat indefinite
grouping of tribes possessing common interests of special nature
to form wider communities.

It might be thought a simple matter to define a tribe, but
in reality it is difficult to do so except in somewhat general terms,
and great confusion has arisen owing to the fact that, not seldom,
writers have regarded as a tribe what is really only a local group.
It may be conveniently described as follows : — A tribe is composed
of a number of individuals speaking a common language and
regarded as owning a definite tract of country the boundaries of
which are kno-\\m to them and recognised iby the members of other
tribes.

Of these two points, the first is perhaps the more important,
because in many cases there is, so far as ownership of land is
concerned, a further recognition of local ownership, though at the
same time this does not override the wider tribal rights. In some
rare cases statements have been made indicating individual
ownership, and even of a father parcelling out land amongst his
sons, but I think that these can be dismissed as the casual and
mistaken observations of untrained writers who judged the abori-
ginal from the white man's point of view, and, moreover, they
were statements made by natives well acquainted with the fact
that the white man had private property in land. It is essential
that the greatest caution should be exercised in aecepting evidence
of this nature. The natives are wonderfully quick in perceiving
that there are difl:'erent grades of rank and importance amongst
white men, and that, for example, the private possession of land
i^ evidently a sign of superiority. They are most apt mimics,
and when a native, such as the head man of a local group, tells
a white man that he owns certain land, the statement, as likely
as not, is made with the idea of impressing the former with a
sense of his, the native's, importance, rather than with strict
regard to its literal truth; and, further still, the expression
" owning the land," does not mean to him what it does to us.

Amongst all the central and northern tribes there is no such
thing as private ownership, but at the same time there are distinct
loeal groups, each Avith its head man, and the latter, speaking to
a white man, would probably describe a given tract of country as
belonging to him, but in doing so he Avould only be speaking as
the representative of a group, and closer investigation would reveal
the fact that the whole tribal country was divided into sections,

LXIV PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

each regarded as ibelonging more especially to a particular group,
but the whole recognised as the common property of the tribe. For
example, in the Arunta and allied tribes in Central Australia
each local group has a sacred spot called " E'rtnatulunga " — ^often
a little chasm or cave amongst the rocks, or merely a hole in the
bank of a creek^in which are stored the sacred churinga or bull-
roarers. It is in charge of the head man . of the local group.
Speaking of this to a white man, he would certainly describe it
as belonging to him, and yet he has no power whatever to part
with its contents — -no more right, indeed, than the youngest mem-
ber of the tribe. The ground suirounding it is sacred, nothing on
it- may be touched ; even an offender against tribal law is safe so
long as he remains there, giving us the earliest foreshadowing of
a " city of refuge." So far as the question of dealing with the
contents of the .Ertnatulunga during the performance of cere-
monies is concerned, the decision of the head man is final, hut
the property is strictly entailed, and the overlordship passes from
the father to the eldest son, or, where there is no 'actual son, then
to the eldest tribal son.

Amongst Australian tribes we can recognise the germ of the
idea of restricted rights in landed property, but no such thing as
individual rights. A man belonging to one local group will not
enter the country of another in his own tribe without asking per-
mission to do so, which is never withheld. On the other hand,
members of one tribe would never venture, as friends, on the land
of another except after having received a definite invitation to
attend some ceremony conveyed in recognised form by a messenger
carrying 'a sacred em'blem, which acts as a passport and secures
his safety when traversing the country of another tribe, or after
waiting on the borderland until they were formally received as
friends, when they would be greeted by the home tribe in some
special way indicative of friendly feeling. Should they enter
uninvited — that is, as enemies — they would do so at their own
risk.

In the country of each local group again there are certain
camping grounds common to the members of the group and occu-
pied by a varying number of families, each comprising a man- and
his wife or wives and their children. There is no such thing as
any one man having a pre-emptive right to any particular piece of
land.

In addition to the tribe, local group, and family, there is a
further, though only somewhat vaguely defined, organization of
the tribes into what Dr. Howitt called " nations." The term is a
little unfortunate, because it implies the existence of a more
strongly marked cohesion, amalgamation, and also community of
language than actually exists amongst the tribes forming these

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXV

so-called " nations." It is,, however, of importance to note that
groups of cQntiguoiis tribes are more or less loosely allied to one
another. Thus, for example, in Central Australia we have, in the
region of Lake Eyre, what Dr. Howitt called the Dieri nation,
consisting of tribes counting descent in the maternal line. To the
north of this we have the Arunta nation, including the Arunta
and others, counting descent in the male line. North of this
there is the Warramunga, including this important tribe and
others, such as the Tjingilli, Worgaia, Umbaia, Bingongina,
Walpari, Wulmala, and Gnangi. Inland, to the west of the Gulf
of Carpentaria, there is the Binbinga, including the latter and the
Allaua and others, whilst on the shores of the gulf there is the
Mara, including the Anula, Nullakun, and others. Certainly the
best, perhaps the only real, proof existing at the present day of
any alliance amongst these groups of tribes forming the nations
is that their members foregather iby mutual invitation for the per-
formance of certain ceremonies, more especially those of initia-
tion, or when a special food supply is available, as, for example,
the Bunya-bunya fruit in Queensland or the Bogong moth in Vic-
toria. These invitations are strictly limited to the members
respectively of well-defined groups of tribes.

Two theories may be suggested to account for this association.
According to one, it may be regarded as a recent development,
certain tribes, as it were, drawing together and aggregating in
groups. According to another, we, may regard it as indicating a
splitting up of former larger communities, of which the tribes at
present existing are the surviving components. In view of
evidence to be referred to later, I am inclined to think that this
present temporary gathering together points, not to a modern
aggregation, but to a gradual breaking up of once larger into
smaller communities.

The extraordinary number of tribes each with its own distinct
dialect, and occupying its own country, is one of the most difficult
things to explain in regard to Australian ethnology. It is not as
if the tribes were usually separated from one another by physical
barriers. In a few cases when, as in the i^orth, they occupy
islands, such as Melville and Bathurst, this is so; in the South-
west, the rugged ranges of the Great Divide shut off a few coastal
tribes in Victoria and New South Wales from those of the interior,
but otherwise there are no obvious geographical barriers ; in fact,
over the whole central area the reverse is true. Between Lake
Eyre, in the south, and Darwin, in the north, there is only one
possible barrier in the form of the Macdonnell Ranges, that run
east and west for 300 miles, but they lie right across the centre
of the country occupied by the Arunta Tribe. It is apparently
only climatic conditions that have caused the segregation of
groups of tribes. The remnants in Central Australia of great
1084.— 3

LXVI PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

river systems, no less than tliose of giant marsupials and other
animals, such as Ceratodus and crocodiles, indicate in late Pleis-
tocene times a. climate quite different from that of to-day.
Gradually, with the desiccation of the central area, the tribes
occupying this became not only shut off from those inhabiting
the limited area of coastal land, but, as the climate became still
more unfavorable, there took place a further segregation of
originally larger groups into smaller groups, farming the so-called
nations. This, which really consisted in a drawing in towards
centres, where, in time of drought, physical conditions were more
favorable than elsewhere, led on to the disintegration of the groups
into smaller communities that form the existing tribes, and thus
in course of time, because amongst a savage people with no written
language words easily become changed, the various dialects arose.
This fourfold organization of nation, tribe, local group, and family
is probably of fundamental significance, and has ibeen developed
in the sequence indicated, leading from the general to the special.

"We may now pass on to deal with the second form of organiza-
tion, commonly known as the Social. In studying that of a typical
Australian tribe, the existence of two institutions stands out
markedly. One is Exogamy, the other Totemism. How, when,
and where these first arose it seems impossible to say, but both
of them had their origin far back in the early days of humanity.
The two, though they have become closely associated in many
parts of the world, and pre-eminently so in Australia, are evidently
in their origin quite independent of one another; in fact, we may
have pure totemism and pure exogamy existing side by side;
totemism without exogamy or exogamy without totemism.

Exogamy means marrying out, whether it be of a tribe, a class,
a local group, or a totem group. A totem, to adopt Sir James
Frazer's definition, " is a class of material objects which a savage
regards with superstitious respect, believing that there exists
between him and every member of the class an intimate and alto-
gether special relation."

Totemism " is an intimate relation which is supposed to exist
between a group of kindred people on the one side and a species
of natural or artificial objects on the other, which objects are
called the totems of the human group."

Totemism is undoubtedly older than exogamy, and in Australia
we have probably the relics of the earliest belief in regard to it.
It is, in fact, perhaps the crudest form of any evolutionary theory
with which we are acquainted. Every Central and JNTorthem
Australian native believes that he or she is the .direct descendant
of some ancestrjil animal or plant, or even, because the animistic
feeling has been "carried over to them, of some natural or artificial

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXVII

object. I do not propose to deal with the totemic side of organi-
zation further than to say that in some tribes there is no restric-
tion in regard to the marriage of a man of one totem with a
woman of the same, and that it is quite possible, judging by
tradition, that in the early far-back days such was the normal
state, but that now, in the great majority, the marriage of indivi-
duals of the same totem is strictly forbidden.

In some tribes the children inherit the totem of their father,
in others that of their mother; in others, the totems are so
arranged amongst the classes or sub-classes that they cannot
inherit either their father's or their mother's, whilst in others,
such as the Arunta, every individual is supposed to be the rein-
carnation of a particular ancestor whose totem he or she therefore
inherits.

It must be remembered that Australia is of great extent. The
I^orthern Territory alone is four and a half times the size of
Great Britain. We may therefore expect to find considerable
differences amongst tribes spread over such a vast area in regard
to their customs and beliefs. Though this is so, yet we find, on
the other hand, a wonderful agreement in regard to the funda-
mental features of totemism and exogamy, and of the classificatory
system associated with the latter.

I propose to deal only with the classificatory system, which can
be studied quite apart from totemism, though the latter has become
tacked on to it in various ways.

With the rare exception of a few highly modified coastal tribes,
every one has a definite class organization. In the first place,
there is always a primary bisection of the tribe into two main
exogamous divisions; these may each again divide into two, and
each of these once more. This dichotomous division is the
characteristic and dominant feature of the organization of Aus-
tralian tribes. Various writers have applied different names to
the two primary divisions, such as phratry, class, and moiety. In
view of the fact that amongst American tribes the term phratry
has been applied to divisions, which may vary in number from
two to ten, and need not be even numbers, it is advisable to use, in
regard to Australian tribes, a term indicative of the fact that
there are two, and only two, primary divisions. For these, the
most suitable term is moiety, which emphasizes the dichotomy
without implying that each division is precisely equal in regard
to the number of its component members. The two divisions of
each moiety may conveniently be called classes and the divisions
o± these sub-classes. These three terms— moietv, class, and sub-
class—are simple, and cannot possibly be misleadino-

LXVITl

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

A man of one moiety marries a woman of another, and their
children, in a female descent tribe, pass into the mother's moiety,
and in a male descent tribe into that of the father.

,So far as the main features of organization are concerned, the
tribes over the whole Continent may be divided into three groups
■ — (1) those with female descent and moieties, which may or may
not be* divided into classes; (2) those with male descent and
moieties, which are always divided into classes, which again may
be divided into sub-classes; and (3) a few highly modified ones
occupying a mere fringe of the Continent, mainly in the extreme
north and south-east.

MAP A.

♦ Thursday,!.

DisTriburion of Tribes accordln.
lb MaU and Temale Descent.

Norni^l Tribes wil^h Female De
Na^r^at Tribes w>'h Male Oesc
Abnorn^.al Tr.bes w.rh Male 0.
Ab-.orm.l coasral T.,bes,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

LXIX

MAP B.

DiSTRiBUTIOM OF TRIBES ACCORDING TO DESCENT OF MOIETV AND CLASS NamEIS.

* tttt t i Direcr Male DescenT- 4 classes,
Direcf Female DescenP of MoIeFy Ittrf. Indirect Male Desoenr-4<

• olassea.

Indirecf Male DescenT— 8 subcia

Indirect- Female Descenl"- 4 cUssea.

Abnormal Tribe

Leaving out of account the last, wliose numbers are insig-
nificant, ir is an extraordinary tiling that the organization of all
other Australian tribes, some hundreds in number, and occupying
an area only slightly less in extent than Europe, can be repre-
sented by that of four tribes; two counting descent in the female,
and two in the male line; and, further still, that in each of these
two main divisions we have tribes some of which count descent in
what is known as the direct, and others in the indirect female or
male line, as the ease may be. (Maps A and B.)

We will take the Urabunna, of Central Australia, and the
Kamilaroi, of New South Wales, as representative of female
descent, and the Warramunga, of the Northern Territory, and
the Mara, on the Gulf of Carpentaria, as representative of the

LXX

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

male 'descent tribes. The organization can be shown in tabular
form for each tribe, as follows : —

Female Descent Tribes.

(A) Urahunna.

Moieties

Matthuri (m.) . .
Kirarawa (m.) . .

Kirarawa (f.)
Matthuri (f.)

Children —
Kirarawa (m. and f.)

Matthuri (m. and f.)

There are two moieties — Matthuri and Kirarawa. A Matthuri
man marries a Kirarawa woman, and the children are Kirarawa,
and vice versa.

(B) Kamilaroi.

Moieties.

1.
Kupathin.

Dilbi.

3.
Dilbi.

4.
Kupathin.

Classes . . <

Ipai
Kumbo

Kubbi
Murri

Murri
Kubbi

Kumbo
Ipai

There are two moieties — Kupathin and Dilbi — each divided into
two classes. (^) An Ipai man marries a Kuibbi woman, and their
children are Murri; a Kubbi man marries an Ipai woman, and
their children are Kumbo, that is, the children pass into the
mother's moiety, but into the class to which she does not belong,
giving us an example of what is known as indirect female descent.

Male Descent Tkibes.
(C) Mara.

Moiety.

Muluru.

Umbana.

Muluru.

Umbana.

Classes . . -I

Murungun . .
Mumbali

Purdal
Kuial

Murungun . .
Mumbali

Purdal
Kuial

In this tribe, which is typical of a group on the western shores
of the Gulf of Carpentaria, we have descent counted in the direct
male line, as far as the class is concerned, but in reality each class
ifi divided into two unnamed groups. If, for example, in
Murungun we call these Murungun A and Murungun B, then the
childre n of Murungun A are Murungun B, and vice versa..

(M In each table a man of column 1 marries a woman on the same level in column 2 and the
children are^shown on the same level in column 3. A man of column 2 marries a woman of column 1
and their children are shown on column 4.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

(D) Warramunga Tribe.

LXXJ

Moieties.

1.
Uluuru.

Klngilli.

3.
Uluuru.

4.
Kingilli.

Sub-classes <

Thapanunga
Tjunguri
Tjapeltjeri . .
Tliapungarti

Tjupila
Thungalla . .
Thakomara
Tjambin

Thapungarti
Tjapeltjeri . .
Tjunguri
Thapanunga

Thakomara
Tjambin
Tjupila
Thungalla

The moieties are each divided into four sub-classes, and, in addi-
tion, though in order to simplify matters not shown here, the
women of each sub-class have a name distinct from that of the men.
Thus, for example, Thapanunga women are called N^apanunga,
Tjupila women are Naralu, and so on. The children of a Thapa-
nunga man are Thapungarti, of a Tjupila man Thakomara, &c. ;
so that here, once more, we have indirect male descent.

These tables show us that in each of the two main groups of
tribes, one counting descent in the female and the other in the
male line, we find that, so soon as the moieties become divided,
first into classes, and then into sub-classes, descent, so far as the
class or sub-class is concerned, is always in the indirect line, even
if, as in the Mara on the one side and the Urabunna on the other,
it is hidden from view until one digs below the surface.

It is remarkable that, on the one hand, in the female descent
Urabunna Tribe, in which there are only names for the two
moieties, there are really, so far as marriage is concerned, four
classes; that in the male descent Mara Tril)e, with its moieties
and four classes, there really exist eight sub-classes, the equivalents
of those in the Warramunga Tribe.

These successive dichotomous divisions are intimately associated
with the organization of the various communities and with
marriage regvilations, and reveal the institution of at least three
grades of gradually narrowing restrictions. In regard to tliese
relationships it must be uiiderstood that, though we use the terras
of consanguinity in current Ui;ie amongst ourselves, these connote
to the native a much wider kinship than we recognise. Thus to
a native the terms that we translate as father and mother imply
respectively any one who might lawfully have been his father or
mother, and the term children, in the same way, applies to the
offspring of any woman whom he might, as shown in the pre-
ceding tables, have lawfully married : —

(1) The first division divided the community into two
moieties. This prohibited the marriage of brothers and
sisters, but not that with women belonging to the group of
a man's wife, nor of what we call first cousins.

LXXII

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

(2) The second division resulted in the four-class system,
and prohibited the marriage of brothers and sisters, parents
and children, but not that of first cousins.

(3) The third division, resulting in. the formation of eight
sub-classes, prohibited the marriage of brothers and sisters,
parents and children, and of first cousins.

Two things stand out clearly. First, that these dichotomous
divisions are the result of deliberate thought and action on the
part of the far-back ancestors of the present day aboriginals.
Secondly, that, from whatever motives they sprang, they
resulted in a gradual restriction of the numbers of mutually
marriageable individuals, and it looks very much as if in some
oases they were definitely designed to protect the interests of the
older men, hacked up, as they take very good care that it always
shall be, by the idread of evil magic, in which every native has the
most implicit faith, and by which he believes that every breach of
tribal rule will, sooner or later, inevitably be punished.

This deliberate action is seen still more clearly in the arrange-
ments made when male and female descent tribes come in contact
with one another in order to determine that the marriage arrange-
ments of the parents and the descent of the children shall fit into
the system of each tribe.

This can be illustrated by the following table, which shows
the actual method by which the counting of descent in the female
line in the Urabunna Tribe, with its two moieties, is majde to fit
in with the counting of descent in the male line in the adjacent
Arunta, with its four classes:—

(1) Urabunna Tribe.

Moiety A. — Matthuri male marries Kirarawa female,
children are Kirarawa.

Moiety B. — Kirarawa male marries Matthuri female,
children are Matthuri.

(2) Arunta^ Tribe.

Moiety A.—

Panunga male marries Purula female, children *are
Bulthara.
. Bulthara male marries Kumara female, children are
Panunga.

Moiety B.—

Kumara male marries Bulthara female, children are
Purula.

Purula male marries Panunga female, children are
Kumara.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXXIII

On tile borders of tlie two tribes, where tbey come in contact
with one another, and where every now and then intertribal
marriages take place, there is a deliberate change in the grouping
of the classes to fit in with the maternal or paternal line of descent,
as the case may be. This is shown in the following table :—

Arunta.

Urabunna Arrangement of the Arunta Classes.

Bulthara 1 ti/t ^ a
1^ Moietv A.
ranunga J

Kumara 1 at .t r>
„ , Moietv B.
r inula J

Ku^S } ^^°^^*y ^- (Kirarawa)

If, for example, a Matthuri man goes into the Arunta Tribe,
then he is told by the old men of the local group into which he
has gone that he is, say, a Bulthara. Accordingly, he marries a
Kumara woman, or, if he already has a wife, she is regarded as
Kuinara, and their children are Panunga, or, in other words, they
pass into the father's moiety, as the classes are arranged in the
Ai'unta, and into that of the mother in the Urabunna- Tribe.

Nothing could be more deliberate than these arrangements, but
by some recent writers the suggestion of deliberate action to regu-
late marriage in Australian tribes, as put forward by Dr. Howitt,
Mr. Gillen, and myself after long personal experience in the field,
is entirely rejected. It has been styled the reformation theory,
and as(^) making " the conscious attainment of a better state of
society the object of the institution of a dichotomous organiza-
tion."

This shows a serious misunderstanding of the question at issue,
and also a lack of appreciation of the capacity and mental outlook
of the Australian savage. By the use of the w^ord "better " it
rather begs the question, anti also conveys a wrong impression.
The Australian savage, as far as I am aware, has no word which
connotes to him the moral significance that the word " better "
does to us. For him, if he had an equivalent term to use in
regard to this dichotomous division and its consequent restrictions
and results, it would imply either more convenient for the general
management of tribal affairs or more likely to serve his own per-
sonal interests, but it would in no way refer to physiological or
what we call moral matters. As Sir James Frazer says,(^) "men
have very often done right from the most absurd motives," and,
in the case of savages, I would add, from the most self-considering
motives.

(') N. W. Thomas. " Kinship, Organization, and Group Marriage in Australia," page
(«) Sir J.. E. Frazer, " Totemism and Exogamy," vol. 4, page 160.

LXXIV PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

The authority of Sir James Frazer in regard to all matters
concerned with cultural anthropology is so pre-eminent that, in
connexion with this question of deliberate action, I venture to
quote two more short passages from his monumental work on
Totemism and Exogamy. In the first he says,(^) "It is hardly
too much to affirm that no other human institution ibears the
impress of deliberate design stamped on it more clearly than the
exogamous classes of the Australian"; and, in the second, (^)
" The truth is that all attempts to trace the origin and growth of
human institutions without the intervention of human intelligence
and will are radically vicious and foredoomed to failure."

When our knowledge of the organization of the tribes from
the fundamental point of view of counting descent is plotted down
in map form (Map A), the striking feature is that Australia is
very clearly divided into East and West. On the East there is
female and, on the West, male descent, with the exception in each
case of what may be called abnormal tribes inhabiting coastal
land. Such information as we yet have of the organization of the
tribes of the York Peninsula, and of the southern part of Western
Australia,- and of the south-western part of South Australia, is
both too insufficient and too unsatisfactory to base any safe con-
clusions upon, but the main division into East and West stands
out clearly.

In association with the system of exogamy and class organiza-
tion there has been developed a most complicated and yet homo-
geneous system of counting relationship, including in this both
consanguinity as known to us and the far wider relation of kinship
as understood by the Australian aboriginal.

There are in regard to this two features of special interest.
The first is that, as a result of it, every individual member of a
tribe stands in a definite relationship to every member, not only
of his or her own tribe, but to those of every other tribe with
whom he or she may come in contact. The second is, perhaps, of
still greater interest in view of the fact that we may expect to
find amongst Australian savages relics of customs associated with
early stages of the development of human society. This second
feature is that all terras of relationship, save a very few, are
group, and not individual, tenns. Even the very few special indi-
vidual terms that exist retain in part the form of group terms.
These terms of kinship and relationship are widely different from,
though they include, those of consanguinity as kno-vsoi amongst
ourselves. Kinship is a matter of law, or,' amongst savages, of
custom. Consa nguinity is physiological, and the two are only

/•) Sir J. E. Frazer, op. cit., vol. 4, page 106.
(") Sir J. E. Frazer, op. cit., vol. 1, page 281.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDEESS. LXXV

faintly differentiated amongst Australian tribes, or, rather, we
find only the earliest rudiment of a recognition of terms of con-
sanguinity as known to us.

With our present knowledge of the classificatory system and
terms of kinship, and of sundry customs connected with special
ceremonies as at present existing, it is possible to form some idea
of the earlier and more primitive haibits and customs of their
ancestors. Just as amongst higher animals vestigial structures
point hack to ancestral conditions, and amongst various peoples
vestigial customs indicate the habits of earlier times, so does our
knowledge of the organization of the present tribes indicate a time
when there was no such thing as individual relationship recog-
nised. The whole organization is based on the clear recognition
of group relationship, with here and there foreshadowings of the
recognition of individual relationship, and the former, which
included in those far-back times group marriage, with its corollary
of group responsibility and unity of action, both for offence and
defence, probably played an important part in the social develop-
ment of early mankind. The family, as we know it now, is a
development of a time tater than that at which the ancestors
of the present aboriginals made their home in Australia. The
comparatively narrow terms of consanguinity, also based upon
physiological data as known to us, have replaced a wider recogni-
tion of kinship, such as we meet with in Australian tribes, that
had no relation to physiological factors.

I now pass on to deal with the problem of the development of
the customs, beliefs, and arts, which, taken all together, form
the culture of the aboriginals. It is a difficult one to solve. There
are many aspects that must be taken into account, and the
evidence afforded by a study of the geological, biological, and
climatological conditions, as they exist now and did in the imme-
diate past, must be carefully considered.

Put very briefly, the following may ibe regarded as the main
points of importance in regard to these, so far as the Australian
culture problem is concerned.

From the geological point of view it seems most prohahle that
in late tertiary times there was a large land mass, including the
present Australia, ISTew Guinea, and Tasmania. The historic
'•' Wallace's line," between Bali and Lombok, may not be as abso-
lutely defined as once it was supposed to be, but on the whole it
still holds good, and indicates a decisive line of cleavage between
Asia and Australia. It definitelv isolated the latter from the land
masses on the north, and must have been established long before
the earliest ancestors of mankind had been developed, during
Pliocene or perhaps even earlier times.

LXXVI PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

At a subsequent period the large Austral Continent became
divided into two parts — (1) a northern, consisting of the present
Papua and adijacent islands; and (2) a southern, including the
present Australia and Tasmania. During early Pleistocene times
there was probably a considerable extension eastwards of the
coast line of Australia, as compared with what obtains 'at present,
affording a more or less easy transit along this side of the Con-
tinent to its most southern part, which later became separated off
by the formation of Bass Strait.

So far as Australia is concerned, it appears that during at
least a considerable part of early Pleistocene times, when the
ancestors of the present aborigines were spreading over the Con-
tinent, conditions were much more favorable than at present. At
that time, great rivers represented now by the Barcoo, Warburton,
and Finke, flowed down from the highlands of Queensland, New
South Wales and Central Australia, anid emptied their waters
into the Southern Ocean by way of what are now the drowned
valleys of Spencer and Vincent gulfs. These river courses,
together with that of the Murray, determined the line of migra-
tion of the early aborigines on the eastern and central areas of the
Continent. Later on there was developed the sag that resulted
in the formation of the present depression centering in Lake Eyre,
and the consequent shutting off of the communication of the great
central rivers from the Southern Sea. The rivers, save the
Murray, now flowed inland and with increasing desiccation, the
central area of the Continent, to a large extent, separated,
climatically, West from East Australia. So far as Tasmania is
concerned, it appears to have been separated from, and re-united
with, the main land more than once, the last union probably being
in early Pleistocene times, a subsequent sinking of the land trans-
forming the south-western corner of the old Continent into the
Island of Tasmania.

From the biological point of view, the evidence is quite con-
clusive in regard to the early separation of Australia from
Eurasia. Apart from bats or insects that can fly or be oarried
by winds across stretches of water, mice and rats, that can be
carried in boats and drifting logs, Australia has received no immi-
grants by land from Eurasia since the Cretaceous period. She
received the ancestors of her very distinctive marsupial fauna
from the ancient American continent, most probably by way of
Antarctica, Avhen what is now Tasmania was still a part of the
Continent. The^ lung fish, Ceratodus, and the Monotremes,
Echidna and Platyj)us, and such lower forms as Peripatus, are
relics of a luore ancient fauna once widely distributed, but her
characteristic marsupials came at a later date, and the most
specialized of them, the Diprotodonts — kangaroos, native bears,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXXVII

wombats, and phalangers — have been evolved within the limits
of Australia itself, indicating the complete isolation of the Con-
tinent for long ages, so far as influence by direct contact from
outside ifi concerned in the case of the fauna.

From the point of view of climatology, the distribution of the
rain belts in Pliocene and Pleistocene times, as plotted down by
Dr. Griffith Taylor, is of considerable interest in regard to the
possible migration of peoples to Australia from the north. The
charts show that, during the Pliocene, the hot moist belt came
much farther south than in the later Pleistocene, with the result
that the centre of aridity came farther and farther south, affect-
ing seriously the parts of Australia lying within the temperate
zone, but at the same time favorably affecting the northern part
of the Continent. It would seem to be very probable that, later
on, the reverse moivement northward of the centre of aridity
during Pleistocene times may have exercised a profound influence
on the migration of peoples coming down from xVsia into Malaysia,
and spreading thence southwards into Australia.

Turning now to the consideration of the culture of the present
Australian aboriginals and its origin, there are, in regard to it,
three features of outstanding importance and interest. First, the
broad division of the Continent into an eastern half with female,
and a western with male descent tribes. Second, the extra-
ordinary homogeneity of the tribes scattered over the whole Con-
tinent in regard to the fundamental features of their class organi-
zation, and, to a large extent,* of their totemic systems. It is
true that the latter vary, but the different forms merge into one
another. Third, in strong contrast to the second, is the wide
divergence of tribes with identical or closely similar organization
and totemic systems in regard to customs such as those concerned
with initiation, burial ceremonies, the making of fire, and such
other features as the nature of their weapons and their schemes
of ornamentation and design.

The question arises whether the Australian aborigina's owe
fheir present culture to the result of interactions between different
immigrant peoples, or whether their immediate ancestors brought
with them certain customs, beliefs, and arts, representing those
held and practised by early mankind, and, isolated in Australia,
have developed along various lines without influence from outside.
Several theories have been put forward to explain the present
conditions.

It is evident that there have been, at all events, two main immi-
grations, an earlier one of a primitive ulotrichous people, and a
later one of a more highly developed race. It seems probable that
important dispersions of early representatives of various races,
those of Australia amongst them, took place trom the Eurasian

LXXVIli PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

land mass, probably in association with the alteration of severe
glacial and mild inter-glacial conditions during the Pleistocene
period. The first to reach Australia were the ulotrichous people,
of whom traces persist in Africa, Papua, Melanesia, and did, till
lately, in Tasmania. The ancestors of the present Australians
were possibly associated with a second dispersion, the members of
which reached America, Africa, Malaysia, and Australia, but not
Tasmania.

These early races have been pushed out, as it were, into the
corners of the world; and, so far as Australia is concerned, it is
important to note that the people who arrived' here as the result of
the second migration have been isolated, and also protected from
further dispersions in a way quite different from those of Asia,
Africa, and America. Whilst the native tribes of the latter asso-
ciated with this migration retain, doubtless, many more or less
primitive customs and beliefs, they have been, of necessity,
influenced by later migrations that have not reached or affected
the Australian aboriginals, whose isolation by land has been
complete.

It seems most likely that the original migrants entered Australia
at the north-east in Pliocene or very early Pleistocene times. '
Whether they came from Asia or from America, as Sergi suggests,
whether they migrated southwards along the Eastern coast line,
which was then more extensive than it is now, it is impossible to
say idefinitely. They have left no traces of their movements or
occupation of the land behind them. The Talgai skull — the
earliest trace of man in Australia — has, according to Dr. Smith,
no special relation to the Tasmanian.(^) Finally their surviving
remnants found shelter and safety from the second immigration
in Tasmania until such time as, most unfortunately for them-
selves, they came in contact with the third —that of the white
man. ("^

Sir Wiriam Flower originally suggested a mixture of a frizzly-
haired Melanesian, the Homo tasmania^ivs of Sergi, with a dark-
coloured Caucasmn; Mathew, a mixture of the same with a
lighter coloured Dravidian; Sergi has more recently suggested a
Polynesian immigration fusing with the Tasmanian stock; and
more recently Berry again suggests that the Australians have
arisen as a cross between the Tasmanians and seme other sto'ck.
I would suggest that tiie points in common between what Sergi
calls the lophocephalic Tasmanian-Austra'ian skulls may be due
to a community of origin in the far past, before the immediate
ancestors of the present Australian had appeared; and it may be

(') Dr. S. A. Smith. — The Foss.l Human Skull found at Talgai, Queensland. Phil
Trans. R.S., 1918. p. .383.

(5) Since the above was written an article has appeared in Na'vre (Jan. 6, 1921), in
which Professor Keith says : " On a consideration of all his feitures we jijust place the Talgai
boy in the ancestral stock of the Tasmanian type of Australoids."

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXXIX

poissible to account for the great variations in skull form without
calling in the assistance of any such mixture, or regarding the
Australian as a hybrid. The remarkable variations described by
investigators on both the physical and cultural side may, perhaps,
when a 1 factors are taken into account, be regarded as indicating
the present Australian race to be, not a specialized one, but a very
generalized one with nascent possibilities of development along
many varied lines.

Though I am dealing primarily with the origin of the culture
of the aborigines, it is of importance to note this fact, that in
their skull form and measurements they vary to a most remark-
able degree, indeed, amongst five Central Australian tribes I found
the cephalic index of the men varied from 80.5 to 66.6 ; and, in
connexion with the extraordinary variations that we meet with
in regard to structure, customs, beliefs, anid arts, the words of
Professor Keith are of deep significance. He says, " So far, no
fossil remains of man have been discovered in Australasia ; but
there is no need to seek there for fossil forms. Ancient and
primitive man still survives — more primitive than any fossil form
of modern man yet found in Europe. Sir William Turner
measured the brain capacity of 24 skulls of native Australian
women. Tht mean capacity was 1116 c.c, one was as low as
930 c.c. With brains of a smaller size than 930 c.c. we can scarcely
expect a human intelligence. Of all the races of mankind now
alive, the aboriginal race of Australia is the only one which, in my
opinion, could serve as a common ancestor for all modern races.
. . . . The Australian native has those intermediate and
generalized characters needed for such an ancestral form."

This statement, coming from such a high authority, is at least
very suggestive, but geological and other evidence would appear
*;o be against the possibility of the Australian aboriginal being
actually the common ancestor of all modern races. On the other
hand, it may Avell be that he is the survivor of such a common
ancestor, and that this fact gives us the clue to the significance of
his remarkable variation from both a physical and cultural point
of view.

There is one point of importance to which attention must be
drawn. In the very interesting and suggestive papers published
by Professor Berry and his students, Drs. Buchner, Robertson,
and Cross, tables are given to show the great variation in measure-
ments of Australian skulls and others to illustrate the place in
nature of the Australian aboriginals, and the comparison of both
with prehistoric and recent forms of man. In one of these, the
Tasmanian is shown as standing decidedly higher than the
Australian; in fact, quite close to the Cromagnon. Professor
Berry says, " The modern-day Australian alboriginal stands rather

LXXX PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

nearer to the anthropoid ape, or the common ancestor, than did the
Tasmanian." Fortunately, we know quite enough of the culture
of the Tasmanians to prove, without the shadow of a doubt, that
their culture stage was not only at a decidedly, but at a vastly
lower, level than that of the Australians, their successors on the
mainland. To take their stone implements only, there is precisely
the same difference between these and those of the Australians as
there is between those of the lowest Mousterian and of the Cro-
magnon — the highest of prehistoric men. These tables show how
dangerous and entirely misleading it would be to rely, except
in a very general way, on skull measurements only as a guide to
cultural level or mental capacity amongst either living or extinct
races.

No theoi'y yet proposed of a cross 'between two peoples — one
resident in Australia, the other an immigrant — takes into account
the undoubted fact that, if two races are at a decidedly different
level of culture, as most certainly were the primitive indigenes and
those who next reached Australia, it is extremely improbable that
there would be any amalgamation on equal terms. The weaker
and less cultured Avould certainly be exterminated by the stronger
and more highly cultured. On the theory, as advocated by Mr.
Mathew,(^) of the amalgamation of a lighter with a darker
people, based on the supposition that in certain tribes the
" phratry " names m'ay be interpreted respectively as eaglehawk
and crow, or black cockatoo and white cockatoo, the dark ibird
indicating the original ulotrichous strain, it is somewhat difficult to
understand the fact that the present Australians are uniformly
of the same dolour, and that they never possess true woolly hair,
one of the moet striking features of the Tasmanian.

It looks, indeed, as if there had been a repetition of what
occurred in Europe when the Neanderthals were either forced out
or exterminated by the Cromagnons of Aurignacean times. Pro-
fessor H. F. Osborn says, " no evidence has thus far been found
that even the Neanderthal women were spared or allowed to
remain in the country, because in none of the burials of Aurig-
nacian times is there any evidence of the crossing or admixture
of the Cro-Magnons and the Neanderthals."^^) Exactly the same
may be said of the primitive inhabitants of Australia and of tlie
later immigrants, who may quite probably have been associated in
their origin with the Cromagnon race that was probably developed
in Asia, and thence swept westward into Europe, and possibly
eastward, and finally southward into Australia.

It is a very difficult problem to decide as to whether there was
or was not any immigration subsequent to this second one. It is,

(') Rev. ,T. Mathew, " Eaglehawk and Crow."

(*) Osborn. " Men of the Old Stone Age," page 272.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXXXI

at all events, very difficult to believe that there have been any
such definite migrations as those of the Kava and Betel nut people,
as suggested by Dr. Rivers, to account for certain aspects of
Melanesian culture.

Dr. Rivers(^) has suggested that ^' The history of Australian
culture and its present nature )become far easier to understand if
there has been a gradual infiltration of seafaring peoples, starting
from many points on the coast; if immigrants, few in number,
first formed small settlements on the coast, and passed on their
culture to the interior of the continent by gradual secondary
movements."

In connexion with the suggestion of small immigrant parties
landing at many points on the coast, there are two or three matters
that must be taken into consideration. In the first place, Australia
is a continent, and not a comparatively small island like those
forming the Melanesian or Polynesian groups. There can be little
doubt but that the second and main immigration was on, at least,
a very considerable scale, large enough to allow the immigrants to
populate, as they certainly did, the whole Continent, as is proved
by the fact that the fundamental features of the complicated social
organization are practically identical everywhere; once developed,
no subsequent immigration, if such has taken place, has apparently
affected them.

It seems probable that the entrance into Australia of the second
migration took place in early Pleistocene times, and it is im-
portant to note that in succeeding years the hot arid zone gradually
crept further and further northwards. This hot arid zone included
the northern parts of Australia, and extended across into Papua.
The northern littoral of Australia would then have a climate more
or less similar to that of Central Australia at the present day.
Nothing strikes the traveller in the Northern Territory, right up
from the Tropic of Capricorn to Darwin, more than the absence
of tropical vegetation. On the eastern coast of Queensland, in
parts, there are rich scrubs where the remnants of a flora, and, to
a small extent, of a fauna reminiscent of Papua exist. In the
very centre of the Continent there is, in the Macdonnell Eanges,
entirely isolated and surrounded by tracts of dry arid country
spreading over endless distances, just one gorge, 2 miles at most
in length, where a small colony of palm trees gives a hint of a
past climate very different from that of the present. For the
most part, the one striking feature of jSTorthern Australia is the
almost entire absence of anything like a luxuriant tropic vegeta-
tion or any abundance of animal life.

(') Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, B.A.A.S. Report, 1914, page 530.

LXXXII PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

Northern Australia has evidently not yet recovered from the
arid conditions which prevailed when, at all events, the later immi-
grations from Malaysia to the Pacific Islands were in progress.
Supposing that some of these coming from the far more fertile
islands of Malaysia had landed on Northern Australia, they would
have encountered nothing but dense mangrove swamps or barren
forbidding sandhills, with scanty or no water supply, scarcely an
animal and no fruits to provide them with food — conditions far
different from those to which they had ibeen accustomed. If they
attempted to travel south, either along the west coast of the Con-
tinent or the eastern or western shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria,
or down Cape York Peninsula, they would have found just the
same depressing conditions, and one can only think that they
would, so to speak, have gladly taken the first boat home and
thankfully left Australia and its aboriginals alone.

Dr. Rivers points out that his suggestion " can only stand if
there has taken place in this region that degeneration and even
loss of so useful an object as the canoe, of which we have definite
evidence in Melanesia and Polynesia." To this it may be replied,
in the first place, that the Northern Territory aboriginal has his
own bark canoe, which is by no means inefiicient so far as crossing
even open stretches of ocean waters is concerned. He has also
a dug-out canoe, which may have been received from the Malays
in exchange for trepang and tortoiseshell, and on the north-
eastern coast of Queensland he has adopted an outrigger canoe,
received by way of the Torres Strait Islands. So far as can be
said at present,- these are the only things that he has adopted
from outside.

To any one who has had experience of the wild native tribes on
the northern, north-western, and north-eastern coasts of Australia,
there is very considerable difficulty in accepting the suggestion of
Dr. Rivers thai small seafaring parties landing at various points
would be able, even if they could find sufficient food to live upon,
to influence the aboriginals. Personally, at that early date I should
have been very sorry to have formed a memher of any such small
party. When white men, fully armed, landed on Melville Island
in 1823, and entrenched themselves, the. natives not only declined
to have anything to do with them, but the very able way in which
thej made things uncomfortable for the intruders was, at least,
an important factor in the decision to abandon the military settle-
ment. There was one little group of castaways who landed in
years long gone iby on the northern coast of Australia, and on
the walls of rocks and caves of what is now known as the Kim-
berly district did apparently attempt to introduce a new and
foreign element into the art of Australia. What else they tried
to introduce, we do not know. This we do know, that neither their

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXXXIII

art nor anytliing else associated with tliem had the slightest
influence on the tribes amongst whom, most unfortunately for
themselves, they were stranded, and hy whom most probably they
were literally absorbed. For many years past the Malays have
been visiting the northern coast, and yet, except for the fact that
the native has probably learnt from them the use of the dug-out
canoe, they have had no cultural influence on the aboriginals. I
have only once amongst the wild tribes seen a half-caste between
a Malay and an aboriginal. Speaking generally, it may 'be said
that there is no admixture of the two people, either in blood or
customs, and, further «till, Mr. Sidney Ray tells us that there is
no trace of Malay influence in the 'native language. It must, of
course, be rememlbered that the Malays do not come down with
the intention of settling in a country that could not provide them
or any other immigrant from the north with what they can easily
secure in their own home, but this strict and mutual aloofness of
the immigrant and aboriginal is, at least, very suggestive in con-
nexion with the theory that small parties of seafaring people have
landed at various places in Australia and influenced the culture
of the native tribes.

We may finally consider the question of the origin of certain
features of the latter from another j^oint of view. Dr. Rivers, as
already said, and the same is true of other recent authorities,
regards the origin of complex cultures, such as those of Melanesian
and Polynesian islanders, as due to the interaction of different
peoples each with its own beliefs and customs, Tt is, however,
worth considering whether some other explanation is not more
feasible in regard to the undoubtedly complex Australian culture.

As pointed out already, the latter includes an extraordinarily
homogeneous, but at the same time complicated, social organiza-
tion, a slightly less, but still remarkably homogeneous, totemic
system, together with numerous customs and very many forms of
arts that are characteristic of various savage races and of pre-
historic peoples at different levels of culture in other parts of the
world.

I have, in the first place, endeavoured to show that, owing to
adverse climatic conditions, it is most improbable that any per-
manent lodgnient of immigrants on the northern coast line has
taken place since the immediate ancestors of the present abori-
ginals entered Australia. There can, further, be no doubt but
that when the latter spread over the Continent the conditions of
inter-communication were much more favorable than at present.
Before and during the breaking-up of the original immigrants
into first larger groups, possibly indicated iby the present
" nations," and, later still, into tribes, there must have been some
form of organization. It is probable *hsit at first the totemic

LXXXIV PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

relationship was of primaiy importance, but, later on, with the
dichotomous divisions of the original communal body, of the
existence of which the present group organization and other
features in regard to customs, show indisputable proof, the present
social organization with its moieties, classes, and sub-classes came
into existence.

This system of group relationship and kinship was of funda-
mental importance in regard to intertribal relations, and has per-
sisted unchanged in regard to all essentials. On the other hand,
the various tribes or local groups of allied tribes developed various
customs, beliefs, and arts that were of interest to themselves and
did not fundamentally affect their relations with other tribes.

After this clear-cut social organization had been developed, the
tribes on the East, due probably to climatological and physio-
graphic causes, became separated off from those on the West. The
Eastern side retained what may have been a more primitive
method of counting descent in the maternal line, on the West they
developed father descent.

In view of the fact that the moieties, classes, and sub-classes can
be homologized right through the whole of Australian tribes, and
that even Avhen a matri-lineal tribe comes into contact with a
patri-lineal one there is not the slightest difficulty in any indivi-
dual being told in what particular relationship^ he stands to every
member of the tribe that he may be visiting, I think we may feel
sure that this system, which is at once so complete in itself and
characteristic of Australia, has been developed within Australia,
and that the division into matri-lineal and patri-lineal tribes arose,
not only after the original dichotomous division, but after the still
further division into classes or sub-classes. There is no reason
why, starting with group marriage, descent should not be counted
in the male just as easily as in the female line; but, in view of
the fact that in patri-lineal tribes we find clear recognition on
certain occasions of the importance of the mother's group, and,
as far as I am aware, no corresponding evidence of the reverse
in matri-lineal tribes, I am now inclined to think that, in Aus-
tralia, descent was originally counted in the female line. How
the change was inaugurated it is impossible to say, but, had it
been due to contact Avith later immigrants, it is impossible to
conceive that the complicated' organization governing both of these
systems should have been, not only conserved, but retained in
detail in each group.

Any immigrants introducing male descent must have brought
with them their own organization that must also inevitably have
influenced that of the tribes adopting their system. On the other
hand, if the change was an internal one, there would be no need

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXXXV

for any fundamental changes in the method of counting relation-
ship. The only difference would be that the children would auto-
matically pass into a class or sub-class on the father's instead of
the mother's side of the tribe, and thereby, ipso facto, staad in
certain definite relationships to every other member of the tribe.
In any case, the change from matri-lineal to patri-lineal descent is
a sharply marked one, and may very probably have taken place
quite independently in various parts of the world — Australia
amongst others.

If now we turn to the consideration of the customs and beliefs
of the various tribes we meet with the most bewildering confusion
and complications. To take only four examples, which are, how-
ever, of great significance, we find, apart from abnormal ones, four
methoids of counting descent — matri-lineal, direct and indirect,
and patri-lineal, direct and indirect — at least six entirely different
methods of treating the dead, each of which is found in other
parts of the world ; five or six distinct initiation ceremonies ; and
three distinct methods of fire-making, each of which again is met
with elsewhere.

The problem of multiple or single origin of similar inventions,
beliefs, and customs is a difficult one to solve, and during recent
years it has been strongly urged by many anthropologists that
multiple origin is impossible, even unthinkable.

Professor Elliot Sanith,(^) who may be regarded as representa-
tive of this school, says, " As to the possibility of any invention
originating independently in more than one centre, the facts of
history, no less than the common experience of mankind, are fatal
to any such hypothesis." This is a wide-reaching conclusion, but
with all due deference to the opinion of such a distinguished
authority, I venture to think that, though it may be impossible
to j^i'ove it absolutely, yet there is, at least, certain evidence of
a very suggestive nature in regard, not only to Australian culture,
but to Australian animals, that points in the direction of the
probability, or at least the possibility, of the polygenesis of
similar customs, beliefs, inventions of various kinds, and also even
of details of bodily structure. With regard to that of identical
ideas and theories, we have the historic case of Darwin and
Wallace, and the existence of this alone may well give us pause
before denying absolutely the possibility of the independent origin
of any two things, be they beliefs, custcms, or inventions, de-
pendent for their origin on the brain and thought of man.

First of all, we may consider certain features revealed by a
study of the mammalian fauna of Australia, which I think are
not without significance in regard to the problem of the Australian
native. The earliest mammals, now represented by platypus

(») Professor Elliot Smith, " Man," 1915, No. 92, page 162.

LXXXVI PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

and echidna, are only,, as it were, just emerging from reptility —
they still lay eggs, but they also suckle their young, though by
means of modified sudorific, and not sebaceous, glands, as in all
other mammals. In them, the pouch is only nascent. Next come
the marsupials, amongst whom the lacteal gestation, associated
with the pouch, is markedly emphasized, almost to the exclusion
of the placental, though, as shown by Hill in his brilliant investi-
gations, there are in certain marsupials indications of this, which
is the most characteristic feature of the Eutheria, in some of
which, again, we find traces of the pouch.

The early ancestors of mammals must evidently have possessed
in their germ cells factors capable of determining, amongst other
things, the manner of feeding and carrying the young — not one
set of factors in one group and different ones in another, but, as
it were, a mixture of factors in all, some of which in different
groups have become dominant, while others have become over-
ridden, or inhibited. Otherwise, it seems difficult to understand
why in marsupials we have one fonn of gestation strongly and the
other only partly developed, and yet both present, and why in
Eutheria we have the strong development of the second
(placental), and yet traces of a pouch, indicating the possibility
of a prolonged lacteal gestation. Further still, in regard to the
possession of common factors such as these, which may well lead
to polygeneeis, we have the striking fact that within the limits
of the Marsupialia there are, while still retaining their marsupial
character, families each of which, so far, for example, as its
dentition is concerned, is closely similar to one or other of the
Eutherian orders, and adapted to the same method of life. We
find carnivorous forms, such as the Thylacine, whose skull and
dentition is built up on the same lines as the dog; Dasyurus and
Sarcophilus closely similar to the cat tribe; bandicoots and
Myrmecobius with distinct insectivorous dentition; kangaroos and
others with herbivorous dentition. To mention only one other, but
a most suggestive example, we have in the gnawing wombat the
incisors built on fundamentally the same plan as those of the
Rodent! a, with a coating of hard enamel almost, or entirely, con-
fined to the front surface. In fact, with the exception of the true
flying bats and sundry sea forms, we can parallel in the Mar-
supialia each distinctive group of the Eutheria, and yet it is
certain that the former have been isolated for long ages in A,us-
tralia, and, springing from common ancestors, have developed
along lines similar to those of the Eutheria. This suggests once
more that the early, but little, dift"erentiated, ancestors of mammals
must have possessed in their germ cells certain factors capable of
determining the development of their descendants along various
lines. To put it crudely, in some cases carnivorous, in others the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXXXVIl

herbivorous, the gnawing or the insectivorous factor has been
dominant; but at the same time the group of early mammals now
represented by the marsupials possessed also some dominant factor
in their germ cells that determined the strong development of the
lacteal gestation, and prevented them from passing beyond the
marsupial stage.

I have laid stress upon this, because, whilst only affording
indirect evidence in regard to the possible polygenesis of similar
customs and inventions amongst human beings, it indicates that
what are morphologically similar features of primary importance
can be independently developed in groups of animals that have
for long ages been completely isolated from one another.

In regard to the culture of Australian aboriginals, we may regard
their ancestors as in the same relative position to them as were
the early ancestors of the mammalia to the Australian mar-
supials. The present aboriginals are the descendants of a rela-
tively early stock of human beings, and we may presume that in
their germ cells they possessed factors bearing the same relation to
the future idevelopment of the human race as did those in the
germ cells of primitive mammalians to the varied descendants of
the latter. If we are to accept the theory that there is no such
thing as the independent development of similar beliefs, customs,
and inventions, that if we find two similar customs in different
and widely separated parts of the world, we must assume a
common origin for them ; or if, on the other hand, we find, for
example, two different modes of treating the dead side by side,
this can only be explained by interaction between an indigenous
and an immigrant people, each with its own special customs,
then we meet with grave difficulties in regard to the Australian
culture.

We must postulate at least five separate immigrations to account
for the very different forms of initiation, at least five others to
account for the hurial customs, and at least three to account for
the methods of firemaking. jSTot only this, but, as in Australia
we have in use at the present day a practically complete series of
stone implements, representing all the various stages of culture
known in prehistoric Europe, from the oldest and most crude
eoliths of the earliest Mousterian period, through various forms of
flaked implements to the polished neolithic axes and the delicately
chipped leaf-shaped spearheads common to the natives of North-
west Australia and early Solutrean man in Europe, we must,
according to the proposed theory, postulate several immigrations
to account for them, because surely a flaked-stone implement made
out of quartzite and a polished made out of diorite must be
regarded as distinct inventions, indeed, in prehistoric Europe they

LXXXVIII PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

are regarded as typifying distinct periods. Further still, tlie
remarkably distinct art and craft work and scheme of design
characteristic of various parts of Australia, as represented in the
beautifully carved shield of Victorian and Murray River natives;
the characteristic design on the shields of certain tribes in Queens-
land; the bark drawings, purely Australian in their motive, of
the Alligator River and other tribes in the far North; the
characteristic zigzag pattern and square designs of Western Aus-
tralia; the concentric circles and spirals of Central Australia;
the varieties in the form of boomerangs and other weapons show
an endless capacitj^ for variation and invention.

If, for example, in various groups of tribes we found, say, the
knocking out of a tooth at initiation associated always with count-
ing descent in the female line, and with ground burial and other
customs, it w^ould be possible to realize the existence in past times
of a series of migrations of peoples bringing with them such
customs as these; but this is exactly what w^e do not find. We
meet with a hopeless mixture and combination of customs, so that
if the existence of a large number of these be due to the influence
of contact with various groups of immigrant peoples, we muSt
allow for a most extraordinary number of such, and must recog-
nise also the most remarkable way in which one tribe, or group
of tribes, picked out and adopted one special feature from one
immigrant people, and others from other groups.

Instead of the history of Australian culture and its nature
being rendered fa,r easier to understand on the theory of successive
migrations, the reverse, taking all things into consideration, would
seem to be pre-eminently true.

It is much simpler to account for all this complexity, which
really becomes simplicity when we investigate the beliefs and
customs of the tribes, or groups of tribes, one by one, on the same
theory that we have already applied to the explanation of the
remarkable diversity of structure amongst the marsupial fauna,
which has most certainly not been influenced from outside since
its little differentiated ancestors first reached Australia. Bateson
has said,(^) "I feel no reasonable doubt that, though we may
have to forgo a claim to variations by addition of factors, yet
variation, both by loss of factors and by fractionation of factors,
is a genuine phenomenon of contemporary nature. If, then, we
have to dispense, as seems likely, with any addition from without,
we must begin seriously to consider whether the course of evolu-
tion can at all reasonably be represented as an unpacking of an
original complex which contained within itself the whole range
of diversity which living things present."

(») Presidential Address. Report, B.A.A.S., Australia, 1914, page 17.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDEESS. LXXXIX

I think we may say that it looks very much as if in Australia,
both in regard to its characteristic mammalian fauna and its
alboriginals, we have a remarkable example of such an unfolding
or unpacking of an original complex. This has led, without any
outside influence, to the development, on the one 'hand, of mam-
malian forms, along lines parallel to those pursued in regard to
fundamental features by higher forms in other parts of the world,
but controlled, at the same time, by some factor or combination
of factors that has determined the retention of their marsupiality.
On the other, it has led to the independent development of a race
of human beings along lines parallel to those pursued by other
early races of humanity elsewhere, but always again controlled
by some factor or combination of factors that has prevented them
from developing into anything higher than men of the stone age.

For us in Australia, so far as the aboriginals are concerned, we
have two duties clearly marked out. The first is to study as care-
fully and intensively as possible, their customs and beliefs, and
all that is included under the term of their culture, hecause they
stan»d further back in time record amongst human races than any
other people still existing; they represent the last surviving relic
of really primitive stone-age people; and it can only be a matter
of comparatively a few years before they are extinct, or the sur-
^dving remnants of the tribes have lost all knowledge of their
original habits and customs. The second is to protect them, as
far as possible," not only from u^, but from themselves, in the
new environment that Ave have created for them, and with which,
left to themselves, they are totally incompetent to cope.

SECTION A.

ASTRONOMY. MATHEMATICS,
AND PHYSICS.

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT:
Professor H. J. Priestley, M.A.,

Professor of Mathematics in the University of Queensland.

THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY.

In opening a discussion at the Royal Society of London, Mr. J. H.
Jeans said, " During the last century two great dominating principles
of physics emerged, the Conservation of Energy and the Second Law
of Thermodynamics. The present cfentury has already added a third
member to this list, the Principle of Relativity."

Whether we are prepared to give the Principle of Relativity such
importance or not, the development of that principle is imdoubtedly
the most striking advance in Mathematical Physics since the last
meeting of this Association. For this reason I propose to devote my
address to a survey of the growth of the Theory of Relativity, with
special reference to the assurnptions on which it is founded and the
experimental evidence from which it draws support.

The earlier Restricted Theory of Relativity is based on two principles
enunciated by Einstein in 1905, namely : —

I. The Principle of Relativity.

The laws according to which the states of physical systems
are changing are the same, whether they are referred to a
co-ordinate system S or to any similar system S' moving
uniformly with respect to S.

II. The Principle of Constant Light Velocity.

Every light disturbance is propagated, in vacuo, relatively
to a system S with a determinate velocity c, no matter whether
it is emitted from a source stationary in or moving with respect
toS.

2 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION A.

The first of tliese two principles asserts the impossibility of detecting
absolute velocity by means of physical experiments ; and finds its
justification in the failure of the Michelson-Morley experiment and
subsequent experiments undertaken with that object in view.

The second was enunciated by Fresnel for a system fixed in the aether,
and has been generally accepted by physicists since his time. Einstein's
generalization is an immediate inference from the application of his
first principle to that of Fresnel.

The principle has recently received strong support from the results
of Majorana's experiments on reflection from moving mirrors, and
Jeans goes so far as to say that it is now a proved experimental fact.

To investigate the implications of the two assmiiptions of Einstein,,
consider two observers 0, 0' , moving with uniform velocity relatively
to one another. Suppose that they coincide at time f = 0, and suppose
further that at that instant a light; pulse starts from their common
position. At a subsequent time t each observer will imagine that the
wave front is the sphere x^ -\- y'^ -\- z^ — cH^ = 0, referred to axes
with his own position as origin. It is evident then that the observers'
co-ordinate systems are different.

If follows from Einstein's first principle that the beams of light
which appear straight to will also appear straight to 0' . Consequently
the relations connecting the co-ordinate system (x', y' , z' , t') adopted
by 0' with the system {x, y, z, t) adopted by must be linear in the
co-ordinates.

Under this restriction and the condition that x^ -\- y^ -\- z^ — cH^ =
when x'^ + tj'^ + ^'^ — c^t'^ = 0, it is clear that

k{x^ + ?/^^+ 2- - c'e) = x" + y" + z" - cH'^

where ^ is a quantity depending on the transformation, independent
of the co-ordinates but not necessarily independent of v.

If both observers take their x axes in the direction of motion of 0'
relative to 0, and if further the y and z axes of one are parallel respec-
tively to the y and z axes of the other, it is easy to show that the equations
of transformation are

x' = B^lx — vt)

y' = ^^y

z' — k^z

H'-7)

where jS = (1 -v^/c')-^

The quantity k indicates the scale of the measurements of 0' in terms
of those of 0. It is customary to take this quantity as unity, but it
appears that this involves a further assumption. As some presentations
of the subject conceal this assumption, it is advisable to discuss it in
detail.

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION A. 3

Professor Eddiugton, in his Report on Eelativity to the Physical
Society of London, suggests that the correlation between the two scales
should he obtained by making and 0' agree in their measures of some
natural physical length. Eddington uses the dimensions of the
hydrogen atom, but we might take some simpler length, say the wave
length of the light from some definite source. I am of opinion that
there is a fallacy in this line of argument, due to a failure to dis-
discriminate between a relationship and the measure of that relation-
ship. Suppose observes the light from a source S in his own system
and 0' observes that from a similar source *S' in his. Each will measure
a certain relationship between the light and himself, which he calls
the wave length of the light. It follows from Einstein's first assumption
that each will obtain the same numerical value for the wave length.
This conclusion is based on the assumption that each observer has
developed his system of physics in the same way and so has a similar
system of fundamental units ; but it tells us nothing about the relative
scales of the two systems. To complete Eddington's correlation it is
necessary to assume that the relationship between the light and
observer, as distinct from its measure, is also independent of the motion
of the system.

Another attempt to obtain the correlation is based on the considera-
tion of the motion of relative to 0'. If equations A are solved for
X, y, z, t, it is found that

X^: Jc-i^ix' -\-Vt')

y=k-iy'

z = k~h'

From these it is clear that the velocity of relative to 0' is — v.

The second and third equations of A and B show that a length
perpendicular to the direction of motion appears to be changed in the
ratio k^- : 1 or k~^ : 1 according. as the observer is moving away with
velocity -\-v or ~v. To infer from this that k is equal to unity we must
assume that k is independent of v. Otherwise it is possible for k to
equal e'" where iv is any odd function of v.

It appears, then, that the passage from the equations A to the well-
known Lorentz transformations involves the assumption k = 1 ot some
equivalent assumption. Any one of these assumptions is reasonable
and obvious, and can be justified on the ground of making the simplest
assumption that will cover the known facts.

If such an assumption is made the transformation A takes the
form

x' = /3(x — vt) "i

•", = " l-c

" ' J

t' ^ I3{t — vx/c^

4 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION A.

This is the transformation obtained by Larmor and Lorentz in
their correlations of moving and stationary electrodynamic systems.
It is more general than theirs in this respect : from their standpoint
one system was stationary in a stagnant aether ; from the standpoint
of the Theory of Relativity no account is taken of absolute motion,
and the transformation connects any system with any other moving
relatively to it with uniform velocity.

The transformation C is derived, as we have seen, by purely logical
deduction from reasonable assumptions. This fact is a strong justi-
fication for adopting it as giving the true correlation between the two
systems. Subsequent developments of the older Restricted Theory
of Relativity which are based on this transformation strengthen
its claim to be so regarded. On the electrodynamic side it is found
to include various ad hoc hypotheses, such as the Fitzgerald-Lorentz
contraction and the Fresnel convection co-efficient, which have been
put forward to explain experimental results in terms of the older
electrodynamic theory. On the dynamical side it foretells a variation
of mass with velocity, which has been experimentally verified in the
Kaufmann experiments. There is thus every reason to accept the
Principle of Relativity in its earlier restricted form. Three of the most
important implications of the principle are the following :■ —

(1) Length is not an absolute property of an object but a relation

between object and observer.

(2) Measurements of time and space are not independent, but are

interwoven in a manner depending on the motion of the
observer relative to the system observed.

(3) Mass (inertia) is not an absolute dynamical constant, but

depends on velocity and cannot be sharply differentiated
• from energy.

The transition from the Restricted Theory to the General Theory
of Relativity is effected by means of the work of Minkowski, who showed
that the substitutions ti =: tct, jS = cos 6, tv^/c = sin 6 reduced the
Einstein transformation to the form : —

x' = X cos d -{- usin 6

y' = y

z' ^ z

u' = — x&ind -\-u cos 6 J
and that consequently the transformation was equivalent to the rotation
of the system through an angle 6 in the {x, u) plane of a four-dimensional
continuum specified by the rectangular Cartesian co-ordinates
{x, y, z, u).

Minkowski calls this four-dimensional continuum a world, and the
point {x, y, z, ?<) a world point. He records the history of any physical
entity by plotting its world points corresponding to different instants.
The resulting one-dimensional continuum he calls its world line.

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION A. 5

Under the Minkowski scheme the familiar three-dimensional dyna-
mical picture of the physical universe is replaced by a statical four-
dimensional representation. Ideas of propagation are dispensed with
and the universal constant c becomes a mere dimensional multiplier
to bring the time co-ordinate into agreement with the spacial co-
ordinates. The restricted Principle of Relativity can be summed up
in the statement that the behaviour of a physical system is independent
of its orientation in the Minkowski world.

In a communication to the Royal Society of London, Larmor main-
tains that the Relativity scheme, complete as it is as a description
of electrodynamic relationships, breaks down when applied to the
underlying entities, electrons, between which these relationships exist.
He contends that inasmuch as a permanent entity exists in space and
independently of time the essential distinction between space and time
must be maintained. To what extent can this contention be upheld ?
In the sense that the properties of the electron are independent of the
position in space and the instant of time at which they are considered
it can be said that the electron exists independently of both space
and time and the distinction between the two breaks down. There is,
however, a distinction in this sense : at any instant of time there is a
point in space at which a permanent electron can be found, but, given
a definite point in space, there is not necessarily an instant of time at
which the electron will be found at that point. It seems, however,
that this distinction does not constitute an essential difference between
space and time, but is introduced from our older ideas with the notion
of permanence. What we call a pefmanent entity in our ordinary
statements is an entity of which the world line in the space-time four-
fold goes off to infinity in both directions along the time axis. It rnay
be urged that the fact that such entities exist while we have no know-
ledge of world lines going to infinity along the space axes constitutes
a distinction between space and time. To this contention I would
reply that the observer's world line is approximately a straight line
in the fourfold, and he instinctively takes the direction of his own world
line as the direction of the time axis. It is difficult to see how he could
have any knowledge of entities whose world lines did not lie close to
his own. Hence the absence of knowledge of entities, except those with
world lines along the time axis leads to no essential discrimination between
time and space. It merely emphasizes the fact, realized long before
the days of relativity, that an observer chooses his co-ordinates so that
one is differentiated from the other three. The conception ot the
electron as a point singularity in a three-dimensional continuum seems
to be no more fundamental than its conception as a line singularity
in the Minkowski fourfold, and there appears to be no valid reason for
excluding the electron from the Relativity scheme.

The passage from the Restricted Theory of Relativity to the General
Theory depends on the fact that all exact physical measurements are
made by the observations of coincidences. Thus all our physical

6 president's address — SECTION A.

knowledge can be summed up in the statement that certain world lines
intersect. The lines will still intersect if the Minkowski continuum is
deformed without tearing. Hence if one observer uses co-ordinates
(Xj, X2, x^, a; 4) and a second uses co-ordinates (a;/, x^' , x^' , x^') which are
functions of the former, they will observe the same intersections of
world lines, but they .will interpret the results of their observations
differently. For example, suppose X4, x^' are the co-ordinates depend-
ing on the time in the usual sense and [x^, x^, x^, (x/, x^ , x^') are
space co-ordinates. Suppose further that x-^ = Xi , x^ := x^ , X3 ^ x^' ,
(Xi/ic)^ = (x^'/lc).

Now let the first observer note the motion of a particle oscillating
between the origin and the point {a.0.0) reaching the origin when

(xj/ic) = 0, ?>, 26, 36, The second observer will observe it

oscillating over the same spacial range and reaching the origin when
{x//ic)=0,h\2ibi,SihK

To the first the oscillation will have a constant amplitude and con-
stant period ; to the second it will have a constant amplitude and a
decreasing period. .This difference arises from the fact that in the case
of the second observer the Minkowski continuum has been distorted
by a strain along the time axis, but the observer, in ignorance of this,
ignores the consequent variable time scale in the interpretation of his
observations. Neither observer is in a position to assert that his
interpretation is more correct than that of the other. The amplitude
and period are in each case relationships between the oscillating particle
and the observer ; and the observer's estimate of the relationship
depends on his concept of the continuum. One looks on the continuum
as a fourfold characterized by the rectangular Cartesian co-ordinates
{Xi, X2, Xs, Xi), the other imagines it to be given by the co-ordinates
{Xi, X2', X3', Xi), and he also considers his co-ordinates to be a rect-
angular Cartesian system. From the different concepts of the
continuum arise the different interpretations of the observations.

The above illustration will make clear the main idea involved in
Einstein's Principle of Equivalence. Our ordinary concept of the
Minko'wski world is a fourfold determined by rectangular co-ordinates
{x, y, z, ict) where x, y, z are the usual three-dimensional space co-
ordinates and t is the time in the ordinary sense. In terms of this
idea we interpret our observations of moving material bodies as indicat-
ing an acceleration of the bodies in the presence of other masses. We
accept this interpretation and attribute the acceleration to gravitational
forces. Einstein suggests that we should adopt the alternative course
of attributing the acceleration to our concept of the Minkowski world ;
that is, to our choice of co-ordinates. This suggestion is put forward
in the Principle of Equivalence, which asserts that " a gravitational
field of force is exactly eqmvalent to a field of force introduced by a
transformation of the co-ordinates of reference, so that by no possible
experiment can we distinguish between them."

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION A . 7

As a first step towards the problem of modifying the Minkowski four-
fold in such a way as to explain gravitation as an illusion due to choice
of co-ordinates, Einstein notes that along the path of a particle moving

freely in the absence of a gravitational field, -^, -f-, and — are
•^ * (h fit (It

constant. Hence the world line of the particle is straight. Its equation is

therefore given by

8fds = 0,

where ds is the element of length in the Minkowski world, and con-
sequently

ds' = dx' + dy' + dz^ - c'dt\

He takes this property as characteristic of a freely moving particle
and investigates the form to be given to the length element ds in the
neighbourhood of attracting matter under which the world line of a
moving particle will be given by

S/ds = 0.

If the element is given bv

ds" = I^g^,Xf,x^,

where the x denote the co-ordinates, the </ factors have two inter-
pretations.

From one j)oint of view they specif y,the form of the four-dimensional
manifold ; from the other they determine the curvature in the manifold
given by rectangular co-ordinates (.Xj, Xn, Xa, x^) of the world line
Sfds = ; that is, they determine the gravitational field to which
an observer using these co-ordinates will attribvite the acceleration
of the moving particle.

Now, from an abstract mathematical standpoint we can give the g

any form that we please. We believe, however, that in the gravi-
tational fields occurring in nature the g' are connected by certain

relationships. The statement of these relationships is the Law of
Gravitation.

In seeking for this Law of Gravitation Einstein notes that a change
of co-ordinates will change the (f ; that is, will change the
gravitational field.

By the Principle of Equivalence this geometrical change is in no way
distinguishable from a gravitational change in the ordinary sense.
Hence the Law of Gravitation expressed in terms of the new g^^^, and

the new co-ordinates is the same as that exjjressed in terms of the
old g and the old co-ordinates. It follows that the Law of

Gravitation must be expressed by a set of co-variant equations,
lost.— 4

ri PRESIDENTS ADDRESS — SECTION A.

Now, if we assume that at an infinite distance from gravitating
masses a free particle moves with uniform velocity, and consequently
has a straight world line, it follows that at an infinite distance from
gravitating masses the general expression iov ds^ can be reduced to
dxi^ + dx-i^ -\- dx^^ -|- dxi^ by a suitable choice of co-ordinates.

The Absolute Differential Calculus of Levi-Civita and Ricci gives
in the form of co- variant equations the conditions under which the
general quadratic differential form can be reduced to the sum of squares
of differentials. These conditions are given by the vanishing of the
Riemann-ChristofEel tensor.

Einstein takes this as his Law of Gravitation at an infinite distance
from the attracting masses and, noticing that the. vanishing of the
contracted tensor gives a less stringent set of equations among the g

which are satisfied when the equations given by the vanishing of the
uncontracted tensor are satisfied, he ado])ts the vanishing of the
contracted tensor G , as his statement of the Law of Gravitation.

The equations 6^ = give six independent relations among

the g in the form of second order partial differential equations.

It should be noticed that the Einstein law is not a necessary con-
sequence of his original assumption. His analysis of the implications
of his assumption indicates certain general characteristics of the law,
and he finally adopts the simplest law of this type that he can find.
Its final justification must come from the experimental evidence.

Before considering this evidence I would direct your attention to
the geometrical interpretation of Einstein's work.

Riemann has shown that the metric })roperties of an n-dimen-
sional continuum de))end on the expression for the differential
element of length in terms of the differentials of the n co-ordinates.
Further, he has pointed out that in a continuum specified by
ds^ = Eq„ dx,dx , the q„ , hnin -I- 1) in number, can be made to satisfy

n given conditions by suitable choice of co-ordinates. There remain
then |w{« — 1) functions of the g which express intrinsic properties

of the continuum. These properties, he shows, are connected with
the curvature and can be ex]:)ressed in terms of the curvature. In the
case in which the length element can be expressed as the sum of squares,
he calls the continuum flat.

Einstein's assum])tion that the g^^^, in his four-dimensional space

time manifold satisfy six specified conditions is thus equivalent to the
assumption that the manifold is warped in a specified way. The further
assumption that at an infinite distance from gravitating matter the
square of the linear element takes the form Edx'^ amounts to the
assumption that this warping is characteristic of the presence of material
bodies and that at an infinite distance from then\ the continuum is
flat.

president's address — SECTION A. 9

It is interesting to notice that on 21st February, 1870, W. K. Clifford
read before the Cambridge Philosophical Society a paper on The Space-
theory of Matter. This paper is obviously inspired by Rieniann's
geonretrical work, and in it Clifford attributes all physical phenomena
to curvature, not of a four-dimensional continuum, but of the ordinary
three-dimensional space. He states : ■" I hold, in fact —

(1) that small portions of space are in fact of a nature analogous

to little hills on a surface which is on the average flat ;

(2) that this property of being curved or distorted is continually

being passed on from one portion of space to another after
the manner of a wave ;

(3) that this variation of the curvature of space is what really

happens in that phenomenon which we call the motion of
matter ;

(4) that in the physical world nothing else takes place but this

variation."

These \'iews are not exact anticipations of those of Einstein, but they
are sufficiently like them to be worthy of notice. It is possible that
had Clifford applied them to the study of gravitation, instead of double
refraction, the recent development of Gravitation Theory might have
come from the University in which the Theory originated.

To return to the main subject, Einstein first applies his Law of
Gravitation to the determination of the field of an isolated particle.
He uses polar space co-ordinates and chooses his units so that c = 1 .
He assumes that there will be s])ace symmetry about the particle and
time symmetry as regards past and future time. The expression for
ds^ is, under these conditions, of the form

ds"" = - edr'' - e'{rdd'' + r sin^ Sd^^) + e'df

where X, fx, v are functions of r, and t contains the unit-dimensional
constant c and is therefore to be measured in length units, one kilometre
corresponding to J- 10~^ seconds.

A transformation of the radial co-ordinate leads to

ds^ = - e\h' - (rMd^ + r' sin^ ddcf>') + e''dt\

Hence ^^ = ~e , g^^ = — >•^ .r/33 = — r^ sin' 6, g,^ = e', and g^^^ =
when a and ^ are unequal.

The substitution of these values in the equations G^^ = leads to

a determination of A, v, and ds is finally given by

ds' = - y-^ dr' - rdff' - r' sin 'edcj)' + ydi\

where y = 1 — 2rn/r and ni is a constant of integration arising in the
solution of the differential equations.

The differential equations of the path of a particle moving in the
gravitational field are found by applying the ordinary methods of the
Calculus of Variations to the equation S/ds = 0.

10 PRESIDKNt's address — SECTION A.

It is found that the ])ath is a plane curve given by the differential
equations

"fs-" ■. H"

where h and k are constants of integration.

A comparison with the ordinary Newtonian Equations

'ty ^r'l'^Y = _!!! + !!!!,

dtl \dt a r ^

dt '''
shows that the paths approximately correspond if ^-^ _ j _ ^^y^
and if m is the gravitational mass of the attracting particle and h the
angular momentum. '

The only outstanding discrepancy arises from the term 2mh''/r^
in equation A (1), and it is found that in this term lies the explanation
Df the motion of the perihelion of Mercury.

The ratios ni/a, ni/r are very small in practical applications. For
example, if we take the kilometre as our unit of length, for the earth's
orbit a = 1 ■ 49 . 10* and co = 6-64.10-1'. Hence the mass of the
sun, expressed in kilometres by absorbing the imit dimensional
gravitation constant, is 1 • 47.

Thus in the solar system ni/r, h'^/r'^ and/ 1 — — jare all of order 10 *,

By eliminating s from equations A we find that the differential
equation of the orbit is

(V'u , m

^:?'^+^ = ^ + '■'"""'

where u = r~^.

Forsyth has given an exact solution of this equation, and an approxi-
mate solution is contained in Eddington's Report to the Physical
Society.

This solution is

II =
h

n = Yz [^ +ecos(0 — a — ha)}

where a is the longitude of perihelion and ha = —jr 4*-

Hence in a complete revolution of the planet, perihelion advances

through a fraction of a revolution equal to —p.

9
Measurable perturbations depend on the ])roduct eha-

president's address — SECTION A. 11

It is found from the above result that, the value of eSa for the planet
Mercury is + 8" • 82 per century. It appears probable that the absence
of the term 2nih-/r^ from the Newtonian equations B accounts for the
discrepancy 8" •24 per century between the observed motion of the
planet and the motion predicted by Newtonian Theory. The intro-
duction of this term by the Einstein Theory does not appreciably
disturb the results for the other planets, and the reason is not far to seek.
The term leads to an additional term 3mu^ in the differential equation
of the path, and this term decreases in importance as the dimensions
of the orbits increase. In the case of Venus and the Earth, the next
two planets in which the effect might be expected, the orbits are nearly
circular, and thus the predicted effect is too small for verification by
observation.

The small value of m/r makes possible a useful transformation of
the expression for c/s''. If r is replaced by r + m and second and higher
powers of m/r are neglected, we have

rfs'' = - y-i \dr' + rdd^ + r' sin^ 0(14'] + ydt\
= — y-' [dx^ + dy- + dz^] + ydf.

It should be noticed that it is impossible to say that one /• co-ordinate
rather than the other represents the polar co-ordinate of our ordinary
measure. The transformation represents a radial shrinking of the
deformed Minkowski fourfold, which is concealed in the same way .
as the Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction in the earlier work.

A second verification of the Einstein Theory is found in the action
of gravitation upon light.

In the absence of a gravitational field, ds^ = along the world line

of a light pulse. By the Principle of Equivalence this equation remains

true in a gravitational field. Hence, in terms of the co-ordinates just

introduced, the velocity of the radiation is given by v^ = y^. The

path of the radiation in the three-dimensional Euclidian space specified

by the Cartesian co-ordinates x, y, z is therefore the same as that of a

2w
ray through a refracting medium in which ^ = y "^ = 1 H This

path is a hyperbola with eccentricity approximately equal to
R/2m where R is the distance of perihelion. The deflection of the ray,
measured by the angle between the asymptotes of the hyperbola, is
^m/R.

This deflection which amounts to l"-74 for a ray grazing the limb
of the sun is double that which would be obtained by applying the
Newtonian theory to a particle moving through the field with the
velocity of light.

The observations of the Solar Eclipse Expeditions of 1919 appear
to be generally accepted by astronomers as verifying the Einstein
prediction. The values of the deflections were estimated as 1"-61
with a probable error of 0"-3 at Principe, and l"-98 at Sobral. The

12 PRp:SrDENT's ADDRESS — SECTION A.

observed displacements of the individual stars show an effect varying
inversely as the distance of perihelion, in accordance with theory.
This last fact supports the view that light is subject to gravitation,
but does not discriminate between the Einstein and Newton Theories.
It should be noticed that if we revert to our original co-ordinates the
theoretical deflection is still im/R ; for the substitution of r — in
for /• does not change the form of the curve at infinity, and consequently
leaves the direction of the asymptotes unchanged.

It appears then that the Einstein Theory is adequate to explain
the motion of Mercury and the deflection of light by a gravitational
field. The op])onents of the theory have put forward alternative
explanations, the most plausible of which is that the intra-Mercurial
gaseous matter apparent in the zodiacal light and the solar corona
causes the two effects, the first by gravitation, the second by refraction.
Dr. Jeffreys has discussed this suggestion at some length in the Monthly
Notices of the Eoyal Astronomical Society. He comes to the con-
clusion that the amount of such matter present is wholly inadequate
to produce the effects. In the same paper he discusses the Einstein
Theory, starting from the experimental evidence and the assumption
that the path of a particle or light pulse is given by hKfds = where
K is some function of x, y, z, t, and els'- some quadratic function of their
differentials. He shows that K is irrelevant and the equation of the
path is given by hfds = 0, and establishes the fact that the equations
are necessarily co-variant. Then, assuming symmetry in the case
of the iso/lated attracting centre, he uses the experimental results to
find the co-efficients in ds'^ and arrives at the result that the form
deduced by Einstein from the Principle of Equivalence is the only one
possible.

Einstein has suggested a third experimental test of his Theory.
He predicts that the spectral lines of light from a solar source will
show, when compared with lines from a similar terrestrial source, a
displacement towards the red of an amount equivalent to the Doppler
effect corresponding to a velocity of '634 kilometres per second. On
the experimental evidence available it would, jDcrhaps, be rash either
to affirm or deny the existence of this displacement. It is certain that,
whether the Einstein effect exists or not, it is masked by various other
effects due to solar physical conditions. It has been claimed that
the observations show a general tendency towards a shift in the Einstein
direction, but the magnitudes of the effects vary so greatly that this
cannot be taken as evidence in support of the Einstein Theory. Solar
physicists ajjpear reluctant to commit themselves to a definite opinion,
but they seem to agree in asserting that the existence of the Einstein
effect is not by any means definitely established. The only positive
statement in favour of the shift that I have been able to find is contained
in a letter from K. W. Lawson to Nature of 29th January, 1920. He
says that Einstein has written to him to the effect that two young

president's address — SECTION A. 13

physicists in Bonn have discovered the shift. In view of the great
diversity of opinion, however, judgment must be suspended until
further evidence is forthcoming.

The prediction of the shift is based on the assumption that the
atom is a natural clock giving the same value of ds for each vibration.
If this assumption is correct, and it appears to be justified by the
Principle of Equivalence, y-dt is constant. Therefore the period of

vibration is proportional to y^^ or 1 -|

At the surface of the sun, r = 697,000 kilometres and w = 1'47.
It follows that the ratio of the period of an atom at the sun's surface
to that of a similar atom on the earth is 1 '00000212.

The radiation, however, is seen from the earth and not from the
surface of the sun, and the prediction of the Einstein efEect involves
the further assumption that the time period of the source is transmitted
by the radiation to the terrestrial observer. If this is so, the displace-
ment should be observed.

An alternative hypothesis is that the interval Ss is transmitted
by the radiation. In this c^se the observed local time period of the
light will be the same whatever the situation of the radiating source.

The latter hypothesis seems to be more in accordance with the ideas
of the Relativity than the former.

Suppose a disturbance to leave A at time i^ and arrive at B at time
ts, and a second to follow at time ^^ + S<a, arriving at time /„ + S^u,
F'or each disturbance 8s = along tTie world line, and therefore s
is constant. Hence the interval y>}8t_^ which elapses between the
two departures from A is equal to the interval yB'S'u between the
two arrivals at B.

The alternative view, that S/! is transmitted by the radiation, appears
to arise from a too hasty deduction from the three-dimensional optical
work by which the apparent deviation was established. You will
remember that the argument was based on the application of the
Principle of Least Time to the investigation of the path of a ray with
given velocity. A tempting line of argument is the following : —
" We know that the period of light traversing a region of varying
refractive index is constant along the path. Therefore the period
seen by an observer at B is the same as that seen by an observer at C"

The fallacy appears to lie in this fact : the observer at B takes the
elements Sr, rS6, 8t as elements of a Euclidean system of co-ordinates,
the observer at C does the same with the corresponding elements at C.
Each builds up his space-time system on this basis, and the resulting
space systems are similar as are also the time systems ; but it is not
true to say that the scales of the two systems are the same. The corre-
lation between the two is found in the fundamental underlying quantity,
the interval. By comparing equal intervals at B and C it is seen that
Yf^Stfj = yji'^tji. That is, the time scale varies as y"^.

14 president's address— section a.

On the other hand, the use of the Principle of Least Time appears to
rest on the assumption of an underlying uniform period in t in the
four-dimensional continuum. The question can be discussed from
another point of view by looking on the light path as the limit of an
orbit.

The equations arising from hfds = are ; —

ids) ^ ids) ^ r ^ r'

y -r = ^•

From these equations we derive

By the Principle of E(|uivalence, for a light path

^-(1)

I' + r

ldi>^
\dt,

Therefor

e the constant

A- is

infinite.

Again

'^'dt^^'-y <^^

where a = h/k.

The differentia] equation of the path is found from equations (1)
and (2).

On elimination of t by means of (2), (1) becomes

(1)' + ""•-■/.■

Kdcf>J

where u = 1/V.
This leads to

For a ray grazing the sun m is always less than [697,000] "^ and
m = 1 47. Therefore the ratio of 3nin^ to u is of order 10 "I

Conseciuently we can use approximate methods of solution. If
u = A cos cf) is the first approximation, the second is

u = ^cos.^ 4-|w^^'[3-cos2</,] (3)

PRESIDENT 8 ADDRESS — SECTION A. 15

The directions of the asymptotes are given bv m = 0, or
mA cos^ (f) — cos (f) — 2m, A = 0.

, 1 -ri +8m-.4-l-

cos = : —

^ 2mA

= -— 2mA.

It follows that the angle between the asymptotes is approximately
imA .

From (3), A = R'^ approximately, where R is the distance of
perihelion.

Hence the deflection is 4 !n/R.

The above line of argument makes no a])peal to the principle of
Least Time nor to any other principle of pre-Relativity Physics.
Consequently in adopting it we avoid any assumptions which may
conflict with the general Relativity ideas. There is no a priori reason
for assuming that a definite period in t is transmitted by the radiation.
For my own part I incline to the view, suggested by the fact that s is
constant along the w^orld line of each pulse, that the interval 8s rather
than the time interval 8t is transmitted unchanged ; and, consequentlv,
that the Einstein effect is not to be expected.

If the above contention is sound the transference of the observer
to a region in which the gravitational field was different from that
existing in his original position should lead to the observation of the
Einstein displacement, but it is hard to see how the necessary variation
of the gravitational field could be realized in practice.

A full discussion of the applications of the Theory of Relativity to
General Dynamics would take too much time and involve more detailed
mathematical work than is suitable for a Presidential Address. I will
confine myself, therefore, to the merest outlines of results.

It is found that gravitational effects are propagated with the velocity
of light, and that the constant m, introduced first as a constant of
integration and afterwards identified with the gravitational mass
satisfies, in the absence of a gravitational field, conservation laws
justifying its identification with the inertial mass.

The distinction between mass and energy disappears and flux of
negative momentum, flux of energy, negative momentum and energy
appear as the sixteen components of a tensor. This tensor does not
obey a Conservation Law in a gravitational field, but the disappearing
portion reappears as a quantity belonging to the field. Thus the Laws
of Conservation of Energy and Momentum break down when applied
to a material system in a gravitational field, but they remain valid when
applied to the system and the field together. Thus we have an inter-
change of energy and momentum between the system and the field
similar to that with which we are familiar in the Maxwell Electro-
magnetic Theory.

16 president's address — SECTION A.

The Maxwell equations fit readily into the relativity scheme, and it
is found that there exists an Electro-magnetic Energy Tensor which
must be added to the Material Energy Tensor when electric systems
are present. The final statement of the Conservation Law then shows
that the total momentum and total energy remain constant when
reckoned for the complete system consisting of Material System, Electro-
dynamic System, and fields. .

Electro-magnetic Energy, like Material Energy, exerts and is subject
to gravitational effects.

Up to this point the Principle of Eelativity fulfils all the requirements
of a general scientific principle. It is founded on reasonable assump-
tions, its predictions are confirmed by experiment, and it co-ordinates
under one general scheme a large number of facts and hypotheses.
Furthermore, it satisfies what Freundlich calls the two fundamental
postulates of mathematical physics, namely : —

(1) The statement of physical laws must exclude action at a dis-

tance, and must tlierefore be made by means of differential
relationships.

(2) Causal relationship can be assumed only between entities

capable of being perceived.

There is one difficulty, however, which exists in the Principle of
Relativity, as it existed under Newton's ideas of an absolute space and
time. We can form no conception of the linear v-locity of a body,
apart from observations of the bodies determining the frame of reference,
but the phenomena associated with rotation do provide us with a
measure of angular velocity independently of any outside frame.
In Eddington's words, "It is clear that the equivalence of axes in
relative rotation is in some way less complete than the equivalence
of axes having different translations." From the analytical standpoint
it is possible to classify the various systems of axes, distinguishing
those for which complete relativity holds from those for which it fails.
If rectangular co-ordinates are used to specify the Minkowski continuum,
three of the axes being ordinary space axes of the observer, the
nterval is given by

where the g ^^, satisfy the Einstein Gravitation Equations with the
conditions, at an infinite distance from the gravitating matter,
gii = (J22 = .933 = - 1 ; 5'44 = 1 ; g^n' = ^^^n /^ and V are unequal.

If the axes are transformed to any other rectangular set the differential
quations are co-variant, but the conditions at infinity may be changed.

rKESIDENx's ADDRESS — SECTION A. 17

For example, if space axes are taken rotating with the earth, the con-
ditions certainly do not hold. The Principle of Relativaty can be
summarized roughly as follows :—

The statement of any physical relationship remains unchanged by
any transformation of co-ordinates which leaves the values of g ,

unaltered at infinity.

Various attempts have been made to remove the limitation on the
Principle, arising from the necessity of the invariance of g at infinity.
The most important are those of Einstein and de Sitter. Both get rid
of the difficulty of the conditions at the boundary by removing the
boundary itself and postulating a si^ace-time fourfold which is un-
bounded as a sphere or an anchor ring in three-dimensional space is
unbounded.

In Einstein's scheme the space-time fourfold, apart from local
modifications due to the presence of matter, is specified by

ds^ = - R\dx' + sin^ x('^^^' + •^"^' ^'^W)^ + ^^'•
The spacial region is thus the surface of a hypersphere of radius R
and the time is rectilinear.

The Law of Gravitation is modified, but the modification is insufficient
to cause observable changes in verifiable predictions.

The general curvature of space-time is attribiited to unperceived
world matter

One great difficulty in accepting the theory lies in the re -introduction
of the distinction between time and space. De Bitter's hypothesis
makes

ds^ = - R\dx- + sin' xl^/^' + «i"' ^#'j + cos^ x(^/^
which transforms into

-K' [doj' + sin= cj [dC' + sin^ ^{^6' + sin^ ddcf>'')}]
under the substitutions

sin x =' sin ^ sin to
tan {it/R) = cos ^ tan oj.

This is free from the objection that it re-introduces an absolute
time, but, on the other hand, it would fail to satisfy the followers
of Mach in that it derives the inertial frame, that is the frame of reference
determined by the earth's rotation, from a curvature of space-time which
is postulated to fit the facts and is derived from nothing material. It
does not, in short, satisfy Freundhch's second postulate. C. D. Broad,
writing in the Hihhert Journal of April, 1920, points out that too much
stress must not be placed on this postulate. Einstein attributes his
rotational effects to unperceived world matter, de Sitter simply uses a
curved space time. In theory the world matter is capable of being
perceived, but in actual fact it is not perceived. Broad concludes a

18 president's address — SECTION A.

criticism of Einstein's position with the following remark : — " The
fact is that anything that could exist could in theory be perceived
if we had the right kind of senses, and the question whether our senses
would need much or little modification in order to perceive a suggested
entity has not the least bearing on the question whether that entity
exists and can be taken as a vera causa." He concludes that no weight
can be laid on Einstein's argument to prove that the explanation of
rotational effects must be found in a relationship to other parts of the
material world.

Broad himself suggests that rotational effects might be due to rotation
relatively to the aether. It should be remembered that it is not correct
to say that the Principle of Relativity excludes the possibility of an aether.
The old conception is certainly excluded, but Cunningham has worked
out a conception of the aether which fits into the scheme of the older
Special Theory of Relativity, while Larmor and Eddington both
contemplate the possibility of an aether under the General Principle.
Broad's suggestion is therefore worthy of attention, but it is doubtful
whether the difference between his aether and Einstein's unperceived
world matter is much more than a question of words.

All of these attempts to evolve a theory of the inertial frame are in-
teresting, and, to a certain extent, successful, but none of them are
wholly satisfactory. They must, for the present, be considered as
speculations as to possible solutions of the problem.

In my opinion the Theory of Relativity is based on sound foundations,
is well supported by the results of observation, and constitutes a very
real and important advance in theoretical physics. On the other hand,
it is far from complete and leaves many problems unsolved, the question
of the inertial frame being one, and an important one, of these.

The Newtonian scheme is such a close approximation to the more
accurate Dynamics of Einstein, and it is so much easier to work with,
that it is likely to maintain its old position as the basis of work in
which we are not concerned with velocities comparable with the velocity
of light. The older Mathematical Physics founded on the Geometry
of Euclid and the Dynamics of Newton has still much important work
to do, and I should like, in conclusion, to ask you, and especially the
younger men among you, not to allow the fascination of a new idea
to induce you to neglect work which badly needs doing.

president's address— section ,b. 19

SECTION B.

CHEMISTRY.

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT :
Professor N. T. M. Wilsmore, D.Sc, F.I.C

Professor of Chemistry in the University of Western Australia.

THE PRESENT POSITION OF CHEMISTRY
AND CHEMISTS.

The treinendous events through which we have passed siuce th©
last iiie.etmg of the Australasian Association for the Advancement
of Science have brought about changes in our social and economic
conditions of so far-reaching a nature, that little apclogy is
needed for attempting briefly to' take stock of the resultant effect
on the position of chemistry and chemists.

Many of the changes caused by the war are still in progress,
whilst others are too recent to be viewed in their right perspec-
tive, so that with regard tO' most of them it is hardly possible
as yet to decide which ai'e for the better and which for the worse.
Neivertheless, I think w& have some ground for concluding that, on
the whole, the effect of the war on the position of chemistry and
chemists has been favorable. In any case, it has provided an
object lesson of the national importance of chemistry which the
man in the street cannot afford to' neglect. But much remains
to be done before chemistry is generally recognized, as it should
be, not only as an indispensable branch of exact knowledge, but
also as one of the learned professions, not inferior in status, for
example, to law, medicine or engineering.

Prior to the war the status of science and scientists in the esti-
mation of the Government and people of Britain, and of Australia,
compared most unfavorably with that accorded to' them on the
continent of Europe or in the United States of America; and, in
spite of the drastic lessons of the war, it is still far from satisfac-
tory. It has been well said that the work of men of science like

30 president's address SECTION B.

James Watt, or Daltoii, or Faraday has done more to shape our
modern social and economic life than that of any statesman or
so-called "social reformer" — dare one in this free country, even
with bated breath, add " or labour leader " — who ever lived. Yet
there is too much reason to doubt whether so much as five per cent,
of the elected representatives of the people in Britain or Aus-
tralia could give an intelligent answer, if they were asked who
Dalton and Faraday were, or ^hat they did.

As Mr. H. G. Wells, in his Oaf line History of the. World, so
forcibly and clearly points out, the present cultural ascendancy of
the European peoples does not necessarily prove their racial superi-
ority over the ]:)eoples of Asia. This ascendancy dates back only
some four hundred years, and is due primarily to the command
over the forces of nature achieved by a relatively small numbei of
devoted men of science. There is good reason to believe that
amoingst the Asiatic peoples men not inferior in ability may be
found who, given suitable environment, might produce similar
results. Already the Asiatic peoples are beginning to realize this
possibility; and, when their awakening is complete, the ascendancy
of the European peoples may disappear as quickly as it arose.
The progress made by Japan alone in one generation shows that
our comfortable belief in the fundamental superiority of the
Euroipean may be a dangerous delusion, and that any weakening
in the pursuit of scientific knowledge means risk of losing our
present lead, possibly for ever.

However, in Australia we may congratulate ourselves that some
progress is being made. The Institute of Science and Industry
has at last been" put upon an apparently permanent basis and
has been voted an income of £15,000 per annum. Carping critics
may say that for the task of co-ordinating and organizing the ap-
plication of exact knowledge to the industries of Australia this
sum, in view of the depreciated value of our currency, is ludic-
rously inadequate. But, on the other hand, it amounts to nearly
one-third as much as the involuntary contribution which our
grateful country is making to increases in Commonwealth Par-
liamentary salaries ; so obviously science has no reasonable ground
to complain.

The unsatisfactory status in British ccnimunities of science
in general is, unfortunately, shared by chemistry and chemisls.
This does not mean that British chemists have to admit inferiority
to those of other countries. Far from it. On the contrary, they
may justly claim that in the quality, and in proportion to their
numbers in the quantity also, of their contributions to know-
ledge, especially those of a pioneering nature, they need not fear
comparison with the chemists of any other nation. Yet up to. and
even after, the outbreak of war, their efforts to secure adequate
recognition of their science from manufacturers. Government and
people were met^ for the most part with contemptuous indifference.

president's address — SECTION B. 21

Since chemistry includes the study of changes in matter and of the
accompanying transformations of energy, there is scarcely any
branch of productive activity which does not require some know-
ledge of chemical phenomena, and in which, therefore, the progres-
sive developments of modern chemistry can safely be ignored. This
truth, which is stated at the beginning of most elementary text-
books on chemistry, is so familiar to chemists as to' be ccmnion-
place. Yet the oft recurring failure of ethers to appreciate it. and
to make effective use oi the chemical knowledge and skill available,
had, as its inevitable consequence, that many of the British manu-
facturing industries, especiall}^ the more particularly chemical in-
dustries, were falling behind in the race for world supremacy ;
with the further consequence that we nearly lost the war, and with
it our existence as a Great Power, possibly even as an independent
nation.

^Fortunately for us, there were notable exceptions to the general
rule. For example, in one of the most important branches of
applied chemistry in Britain, namely the steel industry, intensive
research and scientifie control had been for years the general prac-
tice in many of the works, with the result that, when the crisis
came, the industry was able tO' respond to the enormous and varied
demands which were made upon it. Another instance of the value
of chemical research and control is given by the history of Brun-
ner, Mond and Co., who, in the words of Professor Donnan,
levolutionized the British alkali industry by introducing the
delicate' equilibria and reactions of Solvay in place of the rough
and tumble heroics of the older* Le Blanc process. The same
policy enabled this firm td give invaluable help to the British
Grovernment in connexion with the manufacture of high explosives.
After many months of war the British War (Office decided to fel-
low the German and Austrian lead, by adopting in place of picric
acid or pure T.N.T. for the bursting charge of high explosive shells
the much cheaper but equally effective mixture known as " ama-
tol ", consisting of 80 per cent, by weight cf ammcnium nitrate
with only 20 per cent, of T.N.T. The manufacture o-f ammonium
nitrate had, therefore, tO' be developed on a very large scale; but,
owing to' the great amcnnt oi data and experience on. the applica-
tion of the Phase Rule to the phenomena of solubility and crystal-
lization in connexion with solutions of mixed salts, which they
had been accumulating for many years, the research staff of
Brunner. Mond and Co. were able rapidly to work out on a tech-
nical scale three extremely neat and efficient methods for this
manufacture, starting in the one case fi*om synthetic calcium
nitrate, and in the other two from Chili nitre.

As examples of the estimation in which chemists have been
held by Government officials, the following incidents are worth re-
calling. Early in 1915, when the demand for a vastly increased
output of munitions of all kinds was becoming urgent, the Chieif

22 president's address — section b.

Inspector at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, advertised for a number
of " Temporary Assistant Chemists " for his Department in the fol-
lowing terms : — "Applicants must have had a thorough training in
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry, and must be accurate Analysts.
University Graduates or Members of the Institute of . Chemistry
will have preference. Wages, £2 Os. 6d. per week." At the close of
the same year the British House of Commons Recruiting Commit-
tee, in attempting to classify vocations according to utility for
munition and other work at home, issued the statement that the
classes of workers which could most readily be spared for service in
the Army were " navvies, tuinwllcrs and chemists." On which the
late Sir William Ramsay commented in a letter to the Press that,
although this estimate of the value of chemists was doubtless due to
ignorance, the men responsible for it had thereby shown them-
selves unfit to be trusted with the destinies of the Empire. But
in this connexion Australian officialdom was not to bei Oiutdone,
for about the same time the Victorian Department of Mines ad-
vertised for a chemist with a B.Sc. degree and a sound knowledge
of chemical analysis to take part in research work on the distilla-
tion of brown coal and similar important problems, at the princely
salary of £72 per annum. Perhaps it was en the strength of
this that the then Victorian Minister for Mines, in the course of a
lecture whic'h he gave a little later before the Royal So'ciety of
Arts in London, claimed for his Departmeiit great credit for its
zeal in stimulating chemical research !

■ Official indiffereince to science in general, and chemistry in par-
ticular, has cost us dearly both in blood and treasure. We know
for instance that- early in 1915 Germany was running short, not
only of propellant explosives, but alsoi of the raw materials — cotton
and glycerine^ — for making them. Yet, in sjDite of the repeated
warnings of Sir William Ramsay and other eminent cheanists,
our blockade was so negligently enforced that for the first fifteeu
months of the war the importation into enemy countries of cotton
and ol fats and oils was allowed to go on. almost unchecked. As
an example of the kind of ignorant obstruction which chemists
had to face, it will suffice to mention that a. well-known technical
chemist of niy acquaintance, in the course of an interview on this
inatter with a high official of the War Office, was met by the
reply that if we stopped the importation of cotton wool into
Germany the Germans would simply make their explosives from
sheep's wool instead, so that there was really nothing to justify
the risk which we should run of offending the United States.
However, at last things began to move, for a little later we find
the present Lord Chancellor, then Sir F. E. Smith, stating in
the course of an argument in a. contraband case before the Prize
Court, that it had " just been discovered that glycerine could be
made from lard." Although he was thus unconsciously celebrating

president's address — SECTION B. 23

the centenary of Chevreul's great discovery, it is, jierhaps, better
that the menibers of our governing classes should acquire scientific
knowledge a little late than not at all. Unfortunately, by the
time sufficient understanding of the elementary chemistry of ex-
plosives had penetrated the minds of the powers that be tO' induce
them to make the blockade really effective, the chance for seriously
hindering the German manufacture of propellant explosives was
lost. During the respite so generously allowed them by the British
Government, the German chemists had been a,ble to develop a pro-
cess for making, from wood pulp, a cellulose' sufficiently pure and
uniform to give a, satisfactory propellant explosive, thus making
the German manufacture of explosives as independent of the im-
portation of cotton as it had already been made of that of nitrates.

The exceptionally unsatisfactory status of chemistry in the Bri-
tish Empire may be asc'ribed to various causes. One of these,
and one which still operates to our detriment, has been the Br:tish
Pharmaci/ Act of 1867, which has been adopted in principle
throaighout the Empire. For the most part, this Act was admirable,
as it not only gave legal reccgnition to the ancient and honorable
profession of pharmacy, but also provided the public' with a much
needed safeguard against the unchecked sale and incompetent dis-
pensing of drugs possessing poisonous properties. But, unfortu-
nately, it contained one provision which has led to a most serious
misunderstanding in the mind of the public concerning the proper
meaning of the name " chemist," and the rightful status of the
chemical professioiii, a misunderstanding which is not found in any
civilised country outside the British* Empire. This provision for-
bids anyone but a chemist, as defined in the Act, to describe him-
self as such, unless he has been duly registered as a " Chemist and
Druggist," or a " Phannac'eutical Chemist." Thus, to quote the
historian of the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ire-
land, " the President of the Chemical Society of Londoii cannot
in strict law call himself by the name by which he is known
throughout the civilised world without breaking the laws of his
country." It is difficult to believe that such a provision could
have been passed by any Legislature which was not pitiably ignor-
ant of modeim science. I understand that it has been adopted, in
a peculiarly obnoxious form, in the State of Victoria. This
deplorable, but legalised annexation, of the generic name of
" chemist " by the followers of a specialised branch of applied
chemistry, is an example of a kind of legislation which is for-
tunately rare. In fact, the only case at all parallel, which I can
recall, was when, somewhere about 1880, the Parliament of New
South Wales, at the instance of the late Sir Henry Parkes, sought
to have the name of that Colony changed to " Australia."

It is pleasing to note that, in other respects, the relations be-
tween pharmacists and non-pharmaceutical chemists have been
generally friendly. In fact, the British Pharmaceutical Society

24 president's address — section b.

ga.ve valuable help to the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain
and Ireland^ when in 1884 and '85 the latter was applying for
its Royal Charter of Incorporation. Also, in the meantime, many
pharmacists seem to be coming to the conclusion that the name of
" chemist " is of questionable advantage to them, now that the
public has been forced to realize that there are other important
species of chemists, who have nothing to do with the dispensing of
drugs or the sale of poisons. The signs of the times are, therefore,
looking favorable for some reciprocal arrangement between phar-
macists and chemists, whereby the former might consent to re-
nounce the terms '■' chemist and druggist" and " pharmacfeurical
chemist," in favour of "pharmacist " or "apothecary," provided
that the chemists assist them to secure a stiffening up of the Phar-
macy Acts, to prohibit the dispensing of any kind of medical pre-
scription, whether containing a poison or not, by any one but a
properly qualified and registered pharmacist. Such an arrange-
ment could, however, only be carried through gradually and
cautiously, or unjustifiable hardship to the present holders of the
vested interest in the titles "chemist and druggist" and "phar-
maceutical chemist" w^ould be caused. For example, any sudden
demand to alter shop signs and labels would entail very serious
cost. Put the very fact that any such change must be slow requires
that this matter should be' taken up vigorously by responsible
bodies of chemists without delay. In this connexion it is worth
noting that friendly negotiations with the above end in view have
been going on for some time in England between the Institute of
Chemistry and the Pharmaceutical Society, with some promise of
success.

Much of the indifference to science shown by the average layman
must, I fear, be ascribed to his school training. Although science
teaching of a sort is becoming general in our secondary, and even to
some extent in our primary schools, it is too often so unintelligent
and perfunctory that one is tempted to fear that to many pupils
it may do more harm than good. In British secondary schools the
practice is extending of employing for the teaching of science
subjects teachers who have gained a university science degree,
preferably with honours, in those subjects. In Australian schools,
however, with some notable exceptions, the salaries offered are too
low toi attract science teachers of first-rate ability and adequate
training. In other words, the teaching of science is frequently
left to the type of teacher who is content to keep one page ahead
of the pupil, and who is, therefore, unfitted to present the subject
to the latter as a living thing, of fundamental importance in his
daily life. Under such conditions school science degenerates into a
mere cramming of text-books, which, in accordance with the
good old schoicl precedent, seem to have been selected chiefly for
their exc'eeding dryness ; and the inevitable result follows, that
the mention cf science calls up in the pupil's mind a positive re-

president's address — SECTION B. 25

pugnaaice, instead of the interest which should stimulate him to
pursue the subject further for himself. Sir Robert Hadfield has
recently ascribed his early interest in science largely to that
fascinating- work, J^tppcr's J'lai/Uook of Science; and, in a
humbler capacity, I must make the same confession. In this and
the companion volume, the Vlaijhook uf Metals, which were not,
and, perhaps, never could have been school text-bocks, Pepper
developed the art of conveying exact information and sound
scientific principles and, at the same time, calling up a spirit
of scientific romance, which is peculiarly attractive to the aver-
age boy. Sir Robert. Hadfield states that not long ago he pre-
sented several hundred copies of a modernized edition of the
Pla^jhuok of Science to the elementary schools of Shefiield, with
satisfactory results. It would be well if a little of the spirit
of that book could be infused into' school science text-boicks gener-
ally. But it may be doubted whether any spirit of romance could
survive the deadening influence of the examination system.

Scientific men as a body have suffered in the past from too much
reluctance to push their claims to recognition. I do not mean
that we ought to rush into a campaign of self-assertion ; but there
should be a hap]>y medium, if we oould only find it. In the first
place, the frequent practice by scientific men of doing valuable
work gratuitously for governments and other public bodies,
although it may be clear evidence of moral superiority, is bad busi-
ness, and should be discontinued. In the estimation of governments
and the public thfe value of scientific, as of other work, is a f auc-
tion of the price which they have to pay for it. The function is
too complex for complete analysis; but this much is clear, that, as
the pric'e paid for scientific work approaches zero, the value set
upon that work by those who benefit from it also becomes zero,
or even negative. Further, no other class of professional man is
expected to work gratuitously for public bodies ; and. when scien-
tific men do so. they have only themselves to blame if their modesty
is regarded as a confession of professional inferiority. If scientific
men do' not stand together to uphold their just claims to adequate
reward for their labours, they may be quite certain that neither
Govern'ment nor ]}ublic is going to lose any sleep oai their acc'ount.
That the matter is urgent is shown by the fact that quitei a. number
of prominent chemists, whom I had hoped to see at this meeting,
have written to say that they cannot afford the journey. If the
effect of the high cost of living and travelling on men with fixed
salaries is going toi convert the Australian States into^ water-tight
coinpartments, so far as men of science are ccnoerned, the prospects
of science in Australia are not encoiuraging.

On the technical and industrial side chemists have fared un
favorably in professional status as compared with engineers. The
reasons for this are not far to seek. The products of the engineer's
labour are usaalh' of a permanent nature, and appeal to the eye as

26 president's address — section b.

definite and concrete achievements. The business or financial man
believes that hei understands them, and to some extent appreciates
the difficulties which have been surmounted in their erection.
Naturally, therefore, he respects the man who created them. Also
the engineer during his training has usually seen something of the
handling of labour, and has acquired sufficient knowledge of busi-
neiss to enable him to meet the purely business man en more or less
equal tei'ms. On the other hand, our hard-headed business man
is apt to regard the chemist as either of doubtful utility or as a
suspicious character. So far as he can see, the chemist seems to
be spending his time in juggling with invisible molecules and
atoims and electrons, which, as a business man has put it, "are so
small and insignificant that they haven't got any size toi them" ;
and it is difficult to' convince him that these insignificant things
make up in numbers for what they lack in size, and that he who
can control them will rule the world. It must be admitted that
the training oi the chemist has been largely to blame. More
often than not he has had no chance during his training to get
any insight into the handling of labour or into business methods,
or the working of technical plant, so^ that he starts his works
experience with a heavy handicap as compared with the engineer.
Hence we so often find thei management of a manufacturing con-
cern, even when the prccesses involved are largely of a chemical
nature, in the hands of purely business men, or at the most of
engineers. In such cases the chemistSj if employed at all, are
reduced toi the position of mere testers, and are discouraged from
acquiring tcoi much knowledge of the working of the business, let
alonei offering suggestions or criticisms. The idea of a chemical
research department is scouted as a costly fad ; and the so-called
"practical man," who in reality is usually the worst kind of hap-
hazard theorist, reigns supreme. It is not surprising that chemical
manufactures under such conditions tend towards stagnation. In
fact, a business involving chemical processes cannot be run in-
definitely on such lines with safety ; sooner or later it must
succumb to the competition of more progressive rivals. Experi-
ence has shown the great advantages to be derived from allowing
the chemists to acquire a working knowledge of every detail of the
business, and even toi share in the management. Above all, facili-
ties for research are essential if progress combined with economy
is to be insured. It hardly ever happens that the working out of
new processes or of improvements in existing processes is achieved
without making mistakes. And it should be obvious, even to the
purely business or financial man, that it is cheaper to make these
unavoidable mistakes on a small scale in a research laboratory
than on a large scale in the works. It is often contended, how-
ever, that the expense of a research department may be dispensed
with on the ground that a purely business and non-technical
management can always call in expert knowledge when it needs
it; but this is apt to be a sort of fool's paradise. In the first

president's address — SECTION B. 27

place, there is a danger that ihs purely business inanageraent
may not know v/hen expert advice is needed. In the second place,
as I once ventured to point out to a gathering of business men,
the wise choici of experts itself requires a certain amount of
expert knowledge. In the estimation of the average layman the
claims of the real expert are liable toi compare unfavorably with
those of the quack, because the expert, having a reputation to
lose, is unable to promise so^ much. Hence thet quack will probably
get the job. Instances where something like this has happened
in connexion, fcr example, with State enterprises, will probably
be familiar tO' most of us.

The claim is still too' often made, and received with approval,
either explicitly or by implication, that the man whoi is ignorant
of scientific or technical matters is for that reason specially fitted
to take what is called a " broad view " of them, and therefore to
control them. The view he takes will be "broad" enough; but, at
the same time, it will be found to be shallow and inaccurate; and
the control which he exercises is usually perniciovis. It may be
admitted that the ultimate aim of every manufacturing business
is to- make money, and that the crucial test- of every process used
in that busines.s is whether or not it will pay. Nevertheless the
experience of the past generation has shown repeatedly and can
clusively that, when the control of a manufacturing business be-
comes vested solely in the hands of financial men, the prosperity
of that business is in danger. The successful chemical manufac-
tures have been those in which chemists and engineers have had a
share in the management, whilst those in which the exclusive
control has been captured by finance have for the most part gone
to the wall. The ontstanding example is, of course, the manu-
facture of synthetic dyes in Gennany and Britain respectively.

The chemist must, however, beware of appearing to' claim that
in industrial matters he can supersede the business man. The
successful conduct of a manufacturing business demands an inti-
mate knowledge of buying and selling and of finance, which the
chemist has seldom had the opportunity or the aptitude to acquire.
The combination in the same individual of high scientific and
technical attaijiment with acute business and financial capacity,
although occasionally met with, is too rare to be counted as a
normal factor in every-day practice. On the other hand, the
dividing line between chemists and engineers is becoming less
strongly marked. That growing and already important class of
experts, the engineer chemists or chemical engineers, having a
working knowledge of both chemistry and engineering, have shown
themselves eminently qualifi.ed for such tasks as the planning of
works and for positions of control. But. in the nature of things,
it is not possible for any engineer chemist to have a complete
mastery of both branches, so that in the working out of details,
and especially for research, he will frequently require the help

28 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS — SECTION B.

both of chemists and engineers. Hence for the sound develop-
ment of a manufacturing business involving chemical proioesse-s
we must look to collaboration, on more or less equal terms, be-
tween the chemist, the engineer, and the business man. Each of
these classes should be represented on the Board of Directors or its
equivalent.

With the outbreak of war cajiie the great opportunity for
British chemists to show what they could do, and to prove beyond
question their indispensable value to' the nation. The way in
which they ro?;f to this opportunity, and the feats which they
accomplished, if foretold in the previous times of ])eace, would
have been regarded by chemists themselves as a wild impossi-
bility. In the manufacture of explosives, and still mere in the
development of counter measures, both defensive and offensive,
against the newer methods of warfare introduced by the enemy,
the chemist held the key to; the position. Chemists were required
for work, which only they could do, in every section of the war
organization ; with the special chemists corps in the front line, to
direct anti-gas measures and gas attacks, and, incidentall}^, tO'
identify the various poisonous compounds which thei enemy sent
over; with the R.A.M.C, to supervise water supply, &c. ; in the
Navy, to direct the manufacture and use of artificial fog; in the
various munition factories ; in the Government and other research
laboratories; and in other activities too numerous to mentiou. It
woiuld be untrue, as well as grcssl}^ unfair to other workers, and,
above all, to our fighting forces, to^ claim that chemists won the
war. But we have every right to claim that, had it not been for
the work of the British chemists, we should inevitably have
lost it.

There is every indication that, unless the League of Nations
becoanes an effective restraining force, chemistry will play an even
greater part in future wars than it has in the one we have just
come through. This has already been recognised in the United
States, where the Chemical Warfare Service has been organized
as an independent branch of the Army. It -would seem, there-
fore, that, except in wars against savage or semi-savage tribes, the
days of the "drshing cavalry general" are over, and that he will
have to be succeeded by one who-e training has consisted largely
of chemistry and engineering. If both sides are prepared for it,
chemical warfare probably dees not add so much to the horrors
of war as the use of high explosive shell. In 1918, although the
number of casualties in the British Army from poison, sufficiently
severe to incapacitate a man for some weeks, was unfortunately
very large, the number of deaths therefrom was estimated not
to have exceeded four per cent., whilst the percentage of deaths
from gunshot wounds was between twenty and thirty. The special
infamy committed by the Germans lay in their taking deliberate

president's address — SECTION B. 29

advantage of a solemn covenant not to use poisons to spring a
ghastly surprise on their opponents. The effect of that iii-st
chlorine attack in Flanders in May, 1915, was devastating; and,
had it been followed up, might well have been decisive.
Apparently nothing prevented the Grermans from marching
through to the Channel Forts, except that the German profes-
sional officer showed the samei kind of mental inertia and suspicion
of new inventions said to be characteristic of his British col-
leagues.

When they began the war the German High Command believed
that the stocks of explosives and other munitions, which they had
been accumulating, would be sufficient to enable them to o^verride
all oppositiom. Hence in Germany, as with us, the manufacture
of explosives was at first organized sufficiently to meet only peace-
time requirements. But as soon as it was found that the Allies
had developed an annoying capacity to hinder the war from pro-
ceeding according to plan, both sides were faced with the necessity
to extend the manufacture of explosives on an unheard of scale.
In this, however, the Germans started with the advantage greatly
on their side. The enormous factories for the manufacture of
dyes and other fine chemicals, which had grown up in Germany,
were an invalnable asset, since the chemical plant which they
contained cculd be converted rapidly to the purposes of explosives
manufacture, and, what is of some import at the present time,
could as readily be re-converted to serve the industries of peace.
In Britain, on the other hand, the corresponding chemical re-
sources were relatively small, hO that we had to face the probletm
of erecting and equipping huge and entirely new factories, speci-
ally to meet the enormous demands for explosives suddenly made
upon the nation. In response to this demand, there gradually
arose that wonderful organization known as the Department of
Explosives Supply of the Ministry of Mvmitions, with Lord Moiul-
tcn as its Director-General. Lord Mculton's services to the nation
have been frequently extolled, but probably the greatest of them
all was the selection, as his Chief of Staff, of Mr. K. B. Quinan,
of the Cape Explosives Works. Mr. Quinan came from South
Africa with an established reputation as an explosives expeirt and
chemical engiiieer. When he returned thither at the close of the
war, he had proved himself tO' be one of the greatest organizers
and men of genius who had fought for the Allied cause. Whilst
he never spared himself, he possessed in a high degree the gift of
winning the confidence and getting the veiy best out of those
around him. It has happened to few men to receive such whole-
hearted loyalty from colleagues and subordinates, and few have
so well deserved it.

It was under Mr. Quinan in the Factories Branch of the
Department of Explosives Supply that the British chemist found
his greatest chance to ccme into his own. Startingr from small

30 president's address — SECTION B.

beginnings in 1915, the Factories Branch gradually extended, u-n-
til at the close of the war it controlled more than twenty factories,
producing not only explosives but also a great variety of other
materials, including many cf the so-called "pcison gases." Many
of these factories were designed by Mr. Quinan, and erected under
his supei"vision, and the management of all ot them was subject
to his control. Amongst the most noteworthy achievements were
the great factory at Queen's Ferry, near Chester, capable of turn-
ing out over 800 tons per week of T.N.T. and over 200 tons per
week of nitrocellulose, and the still larger factory a.t Gretna with
a capacity of over 800 tons per week of finished cordite. Excerpt
that it Oibtained about half the necessary amo'U-nt of nitrocellulose
from. Queen's Ferry, Gretna was self-contained, producing besides,
the balance of the nitrocellulose all the acids, ether, and nitro-
glycerine it required. There was also a very large distilling plant
for the refining of the crude glycerine.

Hand in hand with the erection of these factories had to go
the training of the staffs to run them; and in this Mr. Quinan de-
veloped a two-fold purpose. The first consideration was of course
to turn out the materials necessary for winning the wa.r. (The
possibility of losing it apparently did not trouble him.) The
second, however, was to make of the Department a great educa-
tional institution, and to give to the chemists and engineers who
came under his influence such a thorough training in the erection
and running of chemical plant and in all the details cf factory
management, that they would be qualified to play their part in the
great task of building up and extending the British chemical in-
dustries after the war was won. The methods by which these aims
were accomplished can best be given in Mr. Quinan 's own words
taken from the Preface to the Second Repot't on Costs and
Efficiencies for H .M . Factories ControJled hy the Factories Branch,
dated September, 1918: —

"The need of a broad and comprehensive programme of ex-
plosives production was realised by the Committee on the
Supply of High Explosives, of which Lord Moulton was
chairman, very early in the war, and at the beginning of 1915
the Committee (which meanwhile was reconstituted as De-
partment A6 of the War Office) inaugurated the policy of
expecting national factories. By the following year the scope
of these H.M. Factories had increased to such an extent that
a separate Branch of the Department (which meanwhile was
transferred to the new Ministry of Munitions) was organised
to administer them. This Factories Branch, which was directed
originally by myself, and later by Mr. H. T. Dickinson, ex-
panded rapidly, not only by the erection of new factories,
but also by taking over the administration of existing fac-
tories, some of which had been erected during the war, whilst
others had been converted by the Department to its own use.

PRE-iDENTS ADDRESS — SECTION B. 31

"During the earliest stages of the war, the anticipated de-
mand for explosives jjrcducts was met by expanding and add-
ing to existing factories, a policy which had the advantage
that it made possible a rapid increase in the production of
explosives without the need to recruit and train new technical
staffs. But the limits cf this policy were soon reached, and
only when it was decided to erect new and national factories,
and an attempt was made to collect from existing factories
the necessary technical data and assistance, did it become
evident that, due to the extraordinary demands of war, there
was — practically throughout the entire country— a regret-
table lack of available accurate technical data, and an even
greater lack of trained technical men — more particularly
chemical engineers

"The great explosives and chemical companies of the country-
were all loyally doing their utmost to meet the call for ex-
plosives, and although, at the commencement of things, that
natural commercial competitive spirit, which disinclined manu-
facturers to allow their trade and plant secrets to become
common property, was very much alive, this quickly disap-
peared completely, a.nd manufacturers have loyally and eagerly
assisted with every means at their disposal. But their technical
staffs were already sorely over-taxed, and moreover the scale
upon which manufacture had to be faced in the new national
factories was so enomious as to be unique, and it was fre-
quently necessary to devise entirelv new methods and plant
suitable for bulk jjrodu'cticn.

"FoT the staffing of these vast new jjrojects we had, there-
fore, to rely almost entirely upon the young and usually in-
experienced chemists of the ccuntry. These young men were
full cf Icyalty and enthusiasm, but, in so far as the vast
majority were concerned, were entirelv without works experi-
ence, whilst they had yet to learn the A. B.C. of administra-
tive practice.

"Therefore, in so far as those of the national factories of
which the constructicn and operation were entrusted to me
were concerned, it was endeavored from the outset, in order
to help cur staffs, so to design and arrange the various items
of plant as to make possible accurate daily stocktakes of
materials produced and in process, and hj the time these fac-
tories were ready to ccmmence operations, a fairly complete
set of daily, weekly and monthly report forms was in readi-
ness, also a more or less complete system cf accounting.

"Immediately these factories commenced operations, the
lack of trained and experienced staff and operatives made itself
felt, and, to ameliorate this condition and develop that
exprit tie to)])A without which successful manufacture is an

32 president's address — section b.

impossibility, I inaugurated a system of monthly meetings or
technical conferences, to be attended by the various superir-
tendents of H.M. Factories, and representatives of their
chemical, engineering, accounting, and operative staffs, etc
The primary object of these meetings was to afford ine an op-
portunity to instruct the various staffs as to the technologv ot
the various processes and plants and to discuss and dispose
of the manifold problems which arose, particularly during
the earlier stages of manufactu're.

"A graphical system of costs representation was brought
into being, in order to compare the work of the various fac-
tories, and acquaint the several staffs with the relation be-
tween the cost of manufacture and efficiency of working. The
costs so dealt with included practically all those coming into
the Department. Various methods of manufacture were con-
trasted, in order to emphasize the fundameiital fact that most
manufacturing projects are either made or marred at their
very inception ; if in the first instance a wrong process or
plant be selected, no amount of technical knowledge or skill
can avoid competitive failure.

■'The bearing of the laws of thermo-chemistry and thermo-
dynamics upon the manufacture of explosives, acids, etc., wa^
emphasized and explained, and eventually our various factories
were required toi demand from each of their section managers,
chemists-in-charge, engineers, etc:., a, carefully prepared and
accurate chemical-technical precis of all of the operations
coming under them. These precis, or technical reports, were
then circulated amongst our various factories, and finally to
an increasing extent amongst the chemical manufacturers of
the cGimtry at large, as were also the comparative costs
graphs.

"At a very early stage, and when our factories were com-
mencing to come into operation, a Statistics Branch was
formed to collect -and tabulate the information for these
technical meetings. With the loyal coi-operation and assist-
ance of the accounting staffs cf the several factories and of
the Finance Dei>axtment, an enormous mass of very valuable
costs data was rapidly collected and tabulated and made
available for circiTlaticn.

" The system of instructive administration outlined in the
foregoing paragraphs has been almost a lifelong ideal, and it
has been a great privilege to bring it into operation and see
it bear fruit ; it has been the means enormously to reduce
the cost of manufacture at national, and, I hope, also in-
directly at private trade factories, and at the same time it has
greatly reduced the consumption of raw materials, thus assist-
ing the shiyjping position.

president" S ADIiRES.S- SECTION B. 33

" The present war — the most destructive and costly the
world has ever known — has involved an enormoiis expenditure
of national wealth, effort and brain power, and has brought
about amongst other things — I hcpe partly through the m-
strumentalitv of this dissemination of technical information —
the commencement of the renaissance of chemical industry in
England.

"Practically all the nations cf the world will emerge from
this war impoverished to a greater or less extent, and there-
fore competition will be exceedingly keen in all of the world's
great markets. Germany, the arch-enemy, both military and
industrial, already has her great industries well organized
both commercially and chemically, and will probably be in
a positicn immediately war ceases tc flood the world with her
produ'cts — particularly chemical products. Practically all of
her major industries are xmder i;nified control, or at least
enjoy some measure of co-operation in respect cf technical
knowledge and practice.

"The Allied countries can certainly ])ut themselves into a
position to ccmpete with Germany on equal tenns, if only they
will utilize the opportunity which the war has given them to
come together and apply the effort and wealth now being ex-
pended to the re-creation or modernization of their industries,
where this may be necessary. As factories are extended and
new factories are built to meet the demands of war, let them
be extended and built upon the most modern competitive lines.
Let the several Governments collect from manufacturers, and
make available, data on various processes and new industrial
methods, so that manufacturers can intelligently extend their
works or replace obsolete methods or plant.

"Certainly, if the Allies will mutually and loyally ex-
change information and help one another on these lines, we
shall win, not only the present war cf swords, but also, and
with equal certainty, the war of industrial competition which
must inevitablv follow."
As was to be expected, the chemists showed themselves to b;e
receptive pupils, and Mr. Quinan's educational policy met with
complete success. The cii'culaticn of ccmparative costs data, com-
bined with the frequent conferences, developed a spirit of emulation
between the technical staffs of the several factories quite equal to
that called up by severe trade ccrapetition. This, and the fact
that they were provided with the very best plant obtainablci, re-
sulted in a smoothness and efficiency of working which, all things
considered, was little short of mai'vellous.

But the activities of the Department of Explosives Suj^ply did
not stop at explosives. Towards the end of 1917 orders were re-
ceived to get out designs for a factcn- to jn'oduce about 30,000

34 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION B.

tons per annum of synthetic ammonia for the immediate purpose
of producing about 60,000 tons per annum of ammonium nitrate,
but with the ultimate post-war object of making other ammonium
compounds. After some two years' work, a team of ardent re-
search chemists in the Munitions Inventions Department, including
the late Dr. H. C. Greenwood, whose death about a year ago is so
much to be deplored, had succeeded in reproducing the Haber pro-
cess for the synthesis of ammonia on a large laboratory scale. The
results which they had obtained were so promising that Mr.
Quinaii decided to adopt the Haber process for the new factory.
For war purposes, about half the ammonia so produced was to be
oxidized by means of the Kiihlmann catalytic process to nitric acid,
and the latter was then to be neutralized with the balance of th©
ammonia. Although the designs were partly completed, various
causes, notably the necessity to concentrate on the manufacture of
poisOTis, prevented rapid progress from being made with the fac-
tciry itself; and, when the Armistice was signed, all work on it was
suspended. The project has, however, since been taken over by
a syndicat-e formed by Bruuner. Mond, and Co., and it is to be
hoped that, as a measure of national safety, it will be carried to
completion.

The history of the Haber process affords one of the most strik-
ing illustrations of the truth, that the most far-reaching dis-
coveries in the domain of applied science are often the result
of research, carried out not with a definite technical aim, but
solely from a deeire to advance knowledge. The conditions of
equilibrium between nitrogen, hydrogen, and ammoniai possess very
considerable physico-chemical interest; but in the early stages of
Haber's researches thereon, commencing in 1905, it would have
been difficult to find any chemical reaction which looked less likely
to become of technical importance than the direct synthesis of
ammonia from its elements. Even under high pressure and with
the most active catalysts so far discovered, tbe temperature has
to be pushed so high to obtain a sufficient rate of reaction that
equilibrium is reached when only comparatively small fractions
of che hydrogen and nitrogen have combined. The suggestion that
this unpromising reaction might be utilized for tue manufacture of
ammonia on a large scale was first made by Le Rossignol, a native
of Jersey, who had been trained in Sir William Ramsay's labTira-
tory in London, and had subsequently gone to work with Haber.
Le Rossignol's proposal was to circulate the gases continuously
under pressure through the catalyst furnace, a heat exchanger,
an ammonia absorber, and again through the lieat exchanger to
the furnace. To test this suggestion, a small laboratory plant
was constructed by Haber and Le Rossignol, the working of which
was so satisfactory that in 1909 the invention was taken over by
the Badische Anilin-und Sodafabrik. The difficulties in the way
of constructing and running a large scale plant to work at about

president's ADDRE-^S — SECTION B. 35

6OQ0 C. and under a pressure of 150 to 200 atmospheres were coii-
siderable, but were successfully overccme. In 1917 the factory
erected by the Badische Company at Oppau produced 93,000 tons
oi pure NH3 by this process, whilst a second factory at Merse-
burg, near Halle, has twice that capacity. Besides the Haber
process, the Germans were also using the cyananiide process and the
Pauling arc process for producing synthetic nitrogen ccmpounds,
but of the three the Haber process has proved itself to be the
most economical and impoi'tant. Had it not been for these pro-
cesses, the Germans would have rapidly run short of nitrogen
compounds both for agriculture and for the manufacture of muni-
tions, and could hardly have survived one year of war. Perhaps
this lesson is not entirelv without interest for Australia.

In view of their peculiar notioins of honour and humanity, it
is not surprising that early in the war the Germans yielded to
the temptation to make use of the great superiority in chemical
resources, which they then possessed, in an attempt to overwhelm
the resistance of the Allies by launching surprise attacks with
poison gas. As already mentioned, the end, from their point of
view, veiy nearly justified the means; but it may be doubted
whether towards the close of the war, when the Allies' reply in
kind was becoming effective, they were quite so pleased with their
innovation.

Owing to the ease with which free chlorine can be absorbed
and rendered harmless, it was soon sujierseded for offensive pur-
poses by various poisonous compounds, most of which, however,
contained chlorine as a constituent. Of these ccmpounds perhaps
the most important were phosgene and jS^dichlordiethyl sulphide,
the so-called " mustard gas," the latter being first used by the
Germans in July of 1917. Apparently owing to faulty organiza-
tion on the part of the Department originally concerned, the
production of podscns in Britain failed for some considerable time
to meet requirements; but in April of 1918 the whole of the manu-
facture and supi>ly was transferred to the Explosives Department.
As this manufacture was given the highest priority, the whole of
the comprehensive scientific and technical resources of the latter
Department were at once applied to it, and a vigorous programme
was taken up. In the meantime a simplified method for making
mustard gas by the action of ethylene on sulphur mcnochlcride
had been discovered in the Chemical Department of the University
of Cambridge; and, although the working out of this method on
a technical scale was still far from complete, its advantages over
the cumbrous method used by the Gennans were so obvious that
it was decided to adopt it. An existing factory which had been
shut down was rapidly reconstructed for the new manufacture,
first en an experimental and later on a large scale; and, owing
to the strenuous and self-sacrificing labours of the technical staff,

36 president's address — section b.

the process made such headway that by the following September
50 tens of this fearsome compound had been delivered to the shell-
filling factories. This amoiuit, however, was only a preliminary
sample of what the factory was planned to make, but before it
could get into its stride the war had ended..

It is of interest to note that the first consignment of shells
filled with British mustard gas was delivered to the Australian
Army Corps and used by it in the operation of finally piercing the
Hindenburg Line at Belliccurt. To quote General Monash, Avs-
t/d/ia/i Victories in France, page 255: —

" The programme began on the night of September 26th.
The first phase of the bombardment was of a novel
character. For over two years the enemy had been using a
shell containing an irritant and poisonous ' gas ' known as
' mustard gas.' . . . For a long time we had been pro-
mised that the British Artillery Service would shortly be sup-
plied with a gas shell of similar character. It was, moreover,
anticipated that the German gas mask would prove no ade-
quate protection against this kind of gas.

" At last the new shell was forthcoming, and the first
shipment from England, amounting to' some 50,000 ro'Unds,
was placed at the disposal of the Australian Corps. My
artillery action, therefore, opened with a ccncentrated gas
bonibardment of twelve hours, attacking probable living
quarters, occupied defences, and all known or suspected ap-
proaches to- them."

Later information from prisoners and other sources disclosed
that the effect of this bombardment on the (jermans had been
most demoralizing. For mouths previously the German troops
had been assured that mustard gas would wan the war for them,
that no troops could stand against it, and that the British could
not hope to make it. The subsequent disillusionment was, there-
fore, one more proof that the game was up.

As the multifarious activities of the Explosives Department
and of the other Departments under the Ministry cf Munition
developed, the amount of research work which became necessary
was very great. The Explosives Department itself had a labora-
tory specially set apart for research, and researches were also
constantly in progress on the plant and m the labcratories in all
the factories controlled by it. These resources, however, even when
supplemented by those of the Research Department at Woolwich,
])roved inadequate toi supply the mass of information which was
constantly required ; so a special Section of the Explosives De-
partment was formed and entrusted with the duty of arranging
for and cio-ordinating research work in the laboratories of the
universities and technical schools throughout the country. Al-
though greatly hampered by want of assistance, the teaching

president's address — SECTION B. 37

staffs of these various institutions responded enthusiastically to the
call, so that innumerable problems involving chemistry, physics,
engineering, and in fact every branch of science, were rapidly
solved as they arose, and thus the smooth working of this gigantic
war machine was made possible.

In this way the Department of Explosives Supply accumulated
an. immense and varied amount of most valuable inTormation ; and
it was Mr. Quinan's earnest wish that, when the war was won, this
information should be made available for the benefit of the in-
dustries, and especially the chemical industries, of Britain and her
Allies. Fortunately this is now being done, the necessary editing
having been placed in the able hands of Mr. William Macnab,
who was himself one of Mr. Quinan's foremost colleagues on the
Head-Quarters Staff of the Department. The first instalment
of these reports, entitled Prelim inari/ Studies for H .M . Factory
Gretna^ and Study for <in Installation of Phosgene Manufacture,
has already been published. The latter poirticn of this report
contains a detailed discussion of the layout of a plant to produce
about 250 tons of phcsgene per week, and affords an excellent ex-
ample of Mr. Quinan's creative methods for attacking a new
problem. The plant in question was in course of erection at the
close of the war, and would have proved a valuable asset had
there been any further campaign. These reports will be of the
greatest value both to designers of chemical pxant and to students
or chemistry and chemical engineering, and should be added to

the library of every university and technical school.

It should be mentioned that the Department of Explosives
Supply also derived most useful help from the disclosure by private
firms of information on various matters, which before the war had
been jealously guarded as "trade secrets." This pooling of in-
formation already in existence in itself enabled great advances to
be made. British chemical industry has been heavily handicapped
in the past by the exclusiveness and secrecy of mdividual firms,
whilst, on the other hand, its rivals in Germany and in the
United States have derived great benefit from the exchange of
knowledge amongst themselves. The commanding position of the
British engineering trades has no dombt been largely due to the
fact that in their case this policy of secrecy has for the most part
been impossible, so' that a discovery or invention made by one
firm is at once of advantage to all.

My reason for dwelliirg so long on the work ot ±5ritish chemists
in the war is twofold. In the first place, the record of that work
affords what should be convincing proof tliat chemistry and
chemists are indispensable factors in the constructive work of
peace. In the second place, the term " Briliish " in this con-
nexion includes " Australian," for Australian chemists fonned

38 president's address — section b.

no inconsiderable proportion of the technical staff of the Depart-
ment of Explosives Supply. One cause of this was the supineness
of the British Government, early in the war, in allowing the
chemists of the United Kingdom, who were all too few in any case
for the chemical work ahead, freely to enlist in the fighting forces;
so. that, when the great factories were apjoroachmg completion, an
urgent caJl for cheinists had toi be sent cut to all parts of the
Empire. It is sometimes invidious to^ single out individuals; but
in this connexion an exception must be made m favour of Mr. A.
E. Leighton and Professor B. D. Steele. Mr. Leighton was from
the start one of the foremost men in the Explosives Department,
and was reeponsible for much of the design and of the running of
the plant in the factories, notably those at Queen's Ferry and
Gretna. Australia owes a debt of gratitude to Mr. Leighton for
having recruited so many Australian chemists tor work in the
Explosives Department, and for seguring for them posts of re-
sponsibility in the factories, where they had unique opportunities
to acquire a comprehensive knowledge of the design and running
of plant and of the details of factory management, which should
make them of inestimable value to Australian industry, if our
manufacturers and labour unions will only allow them the oppor-
tunity to show it. In fact, one could hardly go into any factory
under the Explosives Department without finding one or more
Australian chemists in positions of trust, which, with few excep-
tions, they fully justified. It is worth noting that, whether on the
plant ca- in the laboratory, the chemists whoi had had a thorough
university training as a rule stood head and shoulders above all
others. As migfit be expected, this was most strikingly the case
whenever work on new processes or methods was involved. Pro-
fessor Steele had the experience, probably unique for a man fresh
from an academic career, of first working out a new process in the
laboiratcry, and then trying it out on a semi-technical scale tO' the
satisfaction of the Heads of the Explosives Department, design-
ing and erecting a factory to run it with an output of several tons
per day, and finally as its Superintendent bringing tliat factory
into successful opei-ation. Incidentally, although far fro'in being
the largest, this factory was by no means the least efficient of
those producing the same material, in respect of either quality of
product or working costs.

The future status of chemistry and chemists is intimately bound
up with the quantity and quality of the training which chemists
undergo-. Hitherto many chemists have been using their generic
name in an inexcusably loose fashion to include, not only
thoroughly trained and competent all-round men, but also mere
testers or works foremen, who have served a sort of apprenticeship
in a chemical laboratory or works, but who, although they may
sometimes be highly skilled in some one restricted branch of
chemistry, have only the merest smattering of chemistry as a whole.

PRESIDENl's ADDRESS — SECTION B. 39

The advancement of chemiitiy as a profession is seiiously endan-
gered by svich a practice as this. We must begin by taking omr-
selves and our profession seriously, if we wish to be taken seiiously
by the members of other professions, and admitted by them to
equal professional status.

On the whole the general university curriculum for a science
degree in chemistry has come out well from the test of the past
few years. A broad and thorough training in pure inorganic,
organic and physical chemistry and chemical thermodynamics,
together with a good working knowledge of mathematics, physics
and modern languages (including English), has shown itself to be
the only satisfactory basis for any chemical career worth, having.
For teaching and for research in pure chemistry a training ou these
lines would appear to- sufl&ce. But the number of chemists who
are disposed to, or are fitted for, these fields of work will always
be limited ; and the majority will have tO' seek their living as
analysts or consultants or in the industrial field. For industrial
chemists in general some knowledge of engineering is a. great
advantage, as, even when they do not themselves undertake the
design and erection of plant, it enables them to discuss with en-
gineers problems which are common to both, m language which
the engineer understands. For those who intend to specialise as
engineer chemists or chemical engineers a training in engineering
as well as in chemistry is of course essential. In this connexion a
perusal of the report of the Discussion on The Training and Work
of the ditmical Knfjinecr, held by the Faraday Society in London
nearly four years ago, may be recommended.

The consensus of competent opinion in Britain at the present
time is that a chemist, tO' be worthy of the name, should have had
a systematic day training in all important branches of chemistry,
extending over at least four years and leading tO' a B.Sc. degree
with first or second class hoiicurs in chemistry at the end of it.
This qualification is now accepted as a minimum for admission
to the Associateship of the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain
and Ireland. That Institute will, however, admit candidates for
the Associateshipi who have obtained their training in evening
classes, provided that this training has extended over at lea-'t five
years, and that during that period they have been engaged in
chemical work in the daytime. In the United States a high stan-
dard of training for chemists is also required. A Committee of
the American Chemical Society recently reported that the train-
ing of a professional chemist should extend over not less than five
years, the final year being devoted chiefly to training in research.
This last is a very important provision, because success in indus-
trial, as in academic chemistry, depends on ability to attack
new problems and to strike out into new lines of thought. There
has been too great a tendency on the part ol British trained
1084.— 5

40 president's address— section b.

chemists in the past to go straight into works or into an analytical
laboratory on the completion of their routine course, without
waiting to acquire any experience in research work at all. It is
perhaps not unccnnected with the high standard of training re-
quired that chemists in America are now commanding higher
salaries than engineers of equivalent status.

In contrast with the foregoing, the Australian Chemical In-
stitute, which has been founded to improve the status of chemists
in Australia, has now definitely decided to accept as a sufficient
qualification for admission to its membership, a pass in chemistry
only at the second year examination of the pass B.Sc. course, no
knowledge oi subsidiary subjects being specified beyond the stan-
dard prescribed for the School Leaving Certificate. . True, the
further stipulation is made that the candidate must have had at
least two years' experience m a chemical laDoratory, but there
is nothing in the present Regulations to imply that such experi-
ence may not be concurrent with his class work. Beyond remind-
ing you that during the first and second year of a University B.Sc.
course the student's time has to be shared between chemistry
and other subjects, that he may do no, or very little, organic
chemistry, and that in any case he does not as a rule begin to get
an all-round grip of his major subject until his third year, com-
ment in this address on the policy adopted by the A.C.I. would
be out of place. For the present, therefore, I must leavei the facts
to speak for themselves.

It is to be hoped that the Australian Institute of Science and
Industry, for which, as for so many advances m Australian
Science, we are indebted largely to the initiative and energy of
Professor Orme Masson, may fulfil the purpose for which it was
originally }>lanned ; for in that case it would open up wide fields
of employment for Australian scientists in general and chemists in
particular. Just now, however, there seems to be grave danger of
the usefulness of the Institute being seriously hampered by a
mixture of j^oditical interference and political inertia. In other
words, it will probably ere long be dragged down into the dull
and spiritless routine of a Sub-Sub-Department of the Common-
wealth Public Service. The free spirit of scientific inquiry^ does
not thrive in the atmosphere which surrounds the vote-catching
machine. In any case, at the present intellectual level of our
Australian Democracy, science could hope to catch but few votes.
The prospects of the Institute maintaining the high level of
achievement, which it has hitherto shown, and becoming of peniia-
nent service to the country, like the British National Physical
Laboratory or the United States Bureau of Standards, are there-
fore growing dim. Already the country is the poorer through
failure of the powers that be to take seriously, and to give effect
to, recommendations which the Institute, or rather the Advisory

president's address — SECTION B. 41

Council, has made. To cite one example, the question of supplies
of liquid fuel in Australia is becoming desperate. Yet, instead of
following up the valuable suggestion of the 'Advisory Council to
utilize for the manufacture of industrial alcohol the immense
amount of fermentable material now going to waste, it is proposed
to spend untold sums in the less constructive but more showy and
speculative enterprise of scratching the country for oil, which,
in the opinion of many geologists, is probably not there. Unless
the Institute of Science and Industry is given an autonomous
position under scientific and technical control and free from the
strangle-hold of oifficial red tape, any money spent on it might
as (well be thrown away.*

I must claim your indulgence for having dwelt so long on
matters connected with applied chemistry to the exclusion of pure
chemistry. My only excuse is that the achievements of applied
chemistry, especially those relating to the war, seemed likely to
appeal mere strongly to a general audience, in reality, however,
as every chemist knows, the achievements of applied chemistry are
merely the outcome of the more fundamental discoveries of pure
chemistry, the ultimate source of all real advance in applied, as in
purei chemistry, being the pursuit of chemical discovery for its own
sake. That a realisation of this is growing m some technical
circles is evident from the valuable papers on pure science,
eoianating from time to time from research laboratories belong-
mg to manufacturing firms, of whicn the General Electric Com-
pany of America is a notable exam))>e.

A first essential for real advance in technical chemistry in
Australia^ is therefore adequate endowment and equipment for re-
search, as well as for teaching, of our various university chemical
departments. Much in this direction has already been done, and
the splendid record of the technical schools of the older Austra-
lian universities and of many of tne men whom they have trained
shows that it has been money well spent. But much more mut-t be
done if we are to hold our own in the strenuous times ahead of us
and contribute cur proper share to the progress of our science.
Hence it is sincerely to be hoped that the appeals for increased
help to meet their ever growing needs, which are being made by
the various Australian universities, will meet with a sufficiently
generous response to justify Australia's claim toi be a progres-
sive and intelligent nation.

The progress in pure chemistry during the past few years has
probably been as epoch making as that of any previous period.
We seem to be getting appreciably nearer to the heart of things.

•Since the delivery of this address, Mr. G. H. Knibbs, C'.M.G., has been appointed
Director of the Institute of Science and Industry. If Mr. Knibbs receives adequate support,
his appointment should go far to restore confidence in the Institute.

42 president's address — section b.

rAs. has so often been the case, the most striking results have fol-
■i lowed from the co-operation of chemistry with other branches of
science, and above all with physics. To attempt to give even the
most cursory summary of recent discoveries in the time now avail-
able would obviously be fruitless. Art is long, and your patience
must be growing short. Fortunately, as regards one of the mo'?t
•Jmportant and fundamental problems of chemistry or physics,
' n9,mely the structure of an atom, the present position is to be
laid before you by abler exponents.

I am afraid that the foregoing remarks have been somewhat
discursive and fiagmentary. Many of them have been made
before by others, some of them many times. But if I have
managed to supply my fellow chemists with a few reasons in a
handv form for the faith which is in them, I shall be content.

president's address— (sub)-section b

Section B.

CHEMISTRY.

Sub-section Pharmacy.

address by the president :

C. E. Totrl, Mc/hounte.

It is lay pleasiug duty and pleasure to welcome you* to par-
ticipate in the labours of this modest sub-section of Section B of
this Congress of the Australasian Association for the Advancement
of Science. It has been found necessary, as you are already
aware, to hold the meetings in Melbourne instead of Hobart, and
to emphasize this fact the Council have determined that this meet-
ing shall be known as the Hobart meeting held in Melbourne.

Our interest in the scientific development of Pharmacy and
Pharmaceutical Chemistry must necessarily be a quite practical
oHe.

The improvement in method, the development of new formulae
and the working of less empiric and more scientific practice must
occupy our attention.

To have papers read and discussed is our present business, and
it is hoped it will be shown that some intelligent research work
has been conducted, calculated to fester and stimulate a spirit of
emulatio'n and enthusiasm for the scientific side of our work.

In glancing ove^r the subjects for discussion in Seotion B, I
notice that one of them is entitled "The Training of the Profes-
sional Chemist." It has occurred to me, therefore, that we may
devote a few minutes very profitably to the discussion of the cog-
nate subject "The Training of the Professional Pharmacist."

In order to divest the discussion of any ambiguity in the mean
ing of a Professional Pharmacist, I think we should make a clear
demarcation between his scientific training and that of a business
man or salesman — two aspects of his preparation both necessary to
fulfil his responsibilities to the public — the latter demanding as
much care as the former. The duties which a scientifically

trained Pharmacist is required to perform may be summed up in
his having: —

(a) A thorough knowledge of the appearance and quality of

all organic and inorganic substances used in pharmaceu-
tical preparations and their preparation.

(b) A knowledge of practical chemistry sufficient to enable

him to apply it to the manufacture and testing of in-
organic salts.

an efficient and safe dispenser of prescriptions.

44 president's address — (sub)-section b.

1 am aware that these three headings do not entirely or logically
define what a Pharmacist is or omght to be, but it is sufficiently
broad and quite sufficient for my purpose.

The question now arises, Is this to' be the dompass of usefulness
of the Pharmacist to the community 1 Is his work to be entirely
confined to the infinite details of preparing pharmaceuticals and
of dispensing them ? The preparing of pharmaceuticals is, by the
way, with ever-increasing rapidity slipping out of his hands. There
seems to me, then, no scope for any reasonably ambitious man who
embraces pharmacy as a profession, unless he can find some
way to extend his knowledge and his usefulness to the community
in which he finds himself. Along the line of his early training
in what direction can he expand? May he not make himself in-
creasingly useful to the medical profession by acquiring a working
knowledge of the microscope, the preparation of microscopic stains,
solutions for various clinical examinations 1 Are not such sub-
jects as urine examination, dairy chemistry, food analysis, muni-
cipal chemistry, agricultural and industrial chemistry and
toxicology, all subjects peculiarly within the scope of the trained
Professional Pharmacist. These are some of the activities to
which the ambitious Pharmaicist may direct his attention and make
his life fuller and more useful. I would commend to your
thought, and if possible tO' your activities in the various States
of this great Commonwealth, the potential value of Pharmacists
developed along some such lines.

None of the various subjects I have indicated offer any great
difficulty to' enable students to acquire the necessary knowledge.
Some outside stimulus and encouragement, the establishment of
classes, popular and technical lectures, and demonstrations, and
above all. a supreme enthusiasm in his work in imparting his
knowledge to the pupils on the part of the teachers, may do
much.

president's address — SECTION c. 45

SECTION C.

GEOLOGY.

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT :
Professor W. N. Benson, B.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,

Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University, Otago, N.Z.

RECENT ADVANCES IN NEW ZEALAND
GEOLOGY.

Eight years have passed sincei this Association last met, and in
that time our civilization has been shaken to its centre, and a new
world is slowly evolving. We must express our thankfulness for
the return of our Australasian geologists after their manifold ser-
vices. It is not invidious to mention one to whom our welcome
should especially be expressed, the honoured leader of our science
in the Commonwealth, Professor Sir Edgeworth David. He has
presided in turn over the proceedings of this section, and twice
over those of the whole Association, and to-day for the first
time two of the Presidential Chairs are occupied by men who
owe their inspiration to this great teacher. It gives me deep
gratification on this occasion, and in your name, to offer to my
revered master the tribute of affection and esteem. We rejoice
in the royal recognition of the place he holds in our regard,
and hope that Lady David and he will long remain among us.

Since our last meeting several geologists have passed away who
had' advanced our science greatly, and it is fitting that we should
recall their services. Robert Mackenzie Johnston, the son of a
Scotch crofter, rose to the position of Government Statistician and
Registrar-General for Tasmania, and was twice President of the
Social Science section of this Association. In his busy life he

46 president's address^section c.

found time to study many branches of knowledge, and was the
mainstay of science in that State. For nearly thirty years his
writings were mostly geological, of which the chief was his great
work on the "Geology of Tasmania" (published in . 1888), and
still the chief source of information on its palaeontology. I am
glad to bear personal tribute tci his helpfulness to those interested
in our science.

William Harper Twelvetrees, a former President of this section,
after a mining career in the Urals and Asia Minor, during which
he made important studies in Permian vertebrates and in petro-
logy, commenced in 1891. in co-operation with the late W. F.
Petterd, a series of papers which laid the foundation of Tasmanian
petrology. He became Government Geologist of Tasmania in 1899,
and with the assistance of an able staff, raised the work of the Sur-
vey to a very high standard, fittingly acknowledged by the award
to him of the Clarke Memorial Medal "for meritorious contribu-
tion to the Geology, Mineralogy, and Natural History of Aus-
tralia." His wide knowledge of geological literatuTe in several
languages, and his generous and kindly nature, will long be re-
membered by those who, like the writer, had the privilege of "his
friendship.

Robert Etheridge, junr., the son of a distinguished palaeon-
tologist, was the chief contributor to' that science in Australia for
nearly fifty years. He joined Selwyn's staff of brilliant young
men in the Geological Siirvey of Victoria in the " sixties", became
later a palaeontologist on the Geological Survey of Great Britain,
and in 1888 on that of New South Wales, and in 1893 he under-
took the Curatorship of the Australian Museum, Sydney. Here
he was, in fact, if not in title, the honorary Consulting Palgeon-
tclogist of nearly every Geological Survey in Australia. In ad-
dition, he performed much important bibliographical and ethno-
logical research work. The award to him of the Clarke Memorial
Medal, and of the Mueller Medal of this Association, record the
high esteem in which he was held by Australian scientists.

Dr. Thomas Sargent Hall, Lectvirer on Biology in the Melbourne
University, was the chief contributor to our knowledge of the
graptolites in Australasia. His work attracted world-wide at-
tention because of its importance in regard to the problem of cor-
relaticn of ancient formations in distant areas. He also contri-
buted extensively to the study of the Tertiary fossils of Victoria.

To Alexander McKay, we owe a. very great part of the early
geological exploration of New Zealand. He was educated in a
part-time village school in Scotland, and during the "sixties"
was a prospector in Australia and New Zealand. He was em-
ployed by Dr. von Haast in 1870 as fossil-collector, and later acted
in similar cap-acity in the Geological Survey organized by Dr.

president's address — SECTION c. 47

Hector. He scon iiiidertcok more intricate work, and the de-
tailed reports cf his explorations describe most cf the leading
features in New Zealand geology. The bulk of the 120,000 speci-
mens possessed by the Geological Svirvey were collected by him.
Hei became Mining Geologist in 1893, and later Gcvernment Geo-
logist. Any one traversing ground reading McKay's reports
thereoin, cannot fail toi be impressed with the arduoiusness of his
work, and the extent, rapidity, and accuracy of his observations.
He was the first in New Zealand to recognise the great importance
of the late Tertiary crust-movemeTits, and to formulate inde-
pendently a theory of blcck-faulting.

Sir Herbert Cox. late Professor of Mining in the Royal School
of Mines, was engaged on the Geological Survey of New Zealand
from 1874 to 1895. Of his fifty reports, the most remarkable
was his elaborate study of the Mesozoic rocks of the Hokonui Hills,
to which we shall later refer. He later removed to Sydney, where
he wrote important papers on the coal and tin fields of Aus-
tralia . ,

Dr. E. A. Newell Arber, cf Cambridge, though not an Austi-a-
lasian geologist, has contributed very usefully to our science, in
his study cf the Glossopteris flora, and the Mesozoic floras of New
Zealand and Western Australia. As formerly one cf his students,
I shou'ld like to bear tribute to the keenness of his interest in
Australasian geological problems, and the lucidity of his teacli-

We have also to deplore the loss tf George Hogben, to whom
is due the greater part of our knowledge of the seismology of New
Zealand, and of Henry Suter, whose last great work was the re-
vision of the Tertiary mollusca of New Zealand.

We owe to m.en like these, the solid foundation of our knowledge
of the geology of Australasia, upon which a younger generation
is rapidly building. In every part great progress has been made
since the last meeting of this Association. The investigation of
the ancient complex of Western Australia is gradually revealing the
record of an ordered sequence of events, and valuable physiographic
studies have been made of the Caiiiozoic history of the State. In
South Australia, the reorganized Survey has made notable studies
of the great cupriferous deposits, and the problems cf underground
water, while our last president, Professor Howchin, has published
a most useful summary of the geology of the State. In the

Northern Terr-tory, the wide extent of moderately folded Cam-
brian rocks is becoming known, while contrasted with this we have
the proof of the immensity of the late Tertiary orogeny in New
Guinea and New Caledonia. In Queensland, the stratigraphical
record is being revised, with notable changes in our conceptions
of the Mesozoic period, in which Dr. Walkom's palajo-botanical re-
searches have proved of great value, while Professor Richards has

48 president's address — section c.

made extensive additions to the knowledge of the Cainozoic vol-
canic activity. In New South Wales, the long-delayed examination
of the Broken Hill field has been vigorously prcsec'uted, and other
important studies made of metal- and coal-fields. The recognition
by Professor David, Mr. Siissmilch, and their associates, of the
great extent of glacial beds beneath the supposed base of the
" Permo-Carboniferous system " has led to a new oonceptioii
of the relation of Carboniferous and Permian rocks in
Australasia, and the volcanic rocks of the former have been studied
by Mr. AV. R. Browne. Dr. Tillyard's investigations of the Per-
mian and Mesozoic insect-life has opened up an entirely new field
in palaeo-entomology. In Victoria, Dr. Stillwell's investigations
of the Bendigo goldfields has usefully supplemented the remarkable
work of the Official Survey in this and ether mining fields, in
which the elaboration of the graptolite-zoning instituted by Dr.
Hall, has proved to be of great economic importance. Dr. Teale's
investigations have extended cur knowledge of the earliest chapter
of geological history in the State. Mr. Chapman's study of the
Tertiary faunas in t}ie Mallee district is but one only of his im-
portant contributions to Australasian pal.Teontology. Extensive
additions have also' been made by several workers to^ the knowledge
of the latest stages in the deivelopment of the geological and physio-
graphical features. The history of the earlier Palgeozcio period
in Tasmania has been made more clear by notable investigations
of the Geological Survey in the mineral fields of the West Coast
districts. Piroutet's great work in New Caledonia permits us to
form a. clear conception of the relations in Permian and Mesozoic
times of the lands around the Tasman and Coral Seas. Nor has
the advance of geological science been less marked in the Dominion
of New Zealand. Except, perhaps, in the period from 1870-1880,
in no decade, since the publication of Hochstetter's marvellous
work, has there been siich an advance in the fundamental know-
ledge of Neiw Zealand geology as in that which has just closed.
It is to this new-won knowledgei that attention is directed in the
remainder of this address.

The geology of New Zealand is not generally familiar to Austra-
lian scientists, partly because of the dissimilarity between the
two Dominions, partly because of the inherent obscurity and diver-
sity of interpretation of the record in New Zealand. It has been
summarized at intervals. Hochstetter's work (1863-7) was fol-
lowed by Hector's geological maps (187.3-1884), Hutton's study of
Otago (1875), Von Haast's of Canterbury (1879), and the general
summaries of the geology of New Zealand by Hutton (1885),
Hector (1886), Hutton (1900), Park (1910), Marshall (1912).
Thomson (1913) and Morgan (1914). Yet fundamentally im-
portant additions to our knowledge have since been made, which
can be fully appreciated only when set in their due place in the

49-50

IV.I'AHISIIX IIF (I.ASSIFICATIIIXS OF THK l'KF:-Mi'

(iZllIC FIlK.MATliiXS IX XKW ZKALAXli.

H■K■l,^l,•ue^,
lH(i7.

HuiiiMi, lH7r..
188C.

i:,nl„.i,;,l St:r-

1(1/— Hector.
1960.

Hutton. IWO.

Cto'ogirn' S,i:-

ny— Bell.
Morean. Park.

Pa-U. 191(\

Marshall.
1912.

(:,.,,ili,.,l S.,r-
rcj/— 1920.
Morgan.*

Folding and

CarboniteroH".

Orogenic

Eocene'

Carbon iJerOHS.

Maitai System

Pcrmo-Carb-i.

I-'al'tozoir.

intrusion of

STaitai Series.

movement

Plutonic rocks.

Te .Anati • sys-

includim;

Maitai and Te

Slatv older

eranite

Limestone

and intrusion

tem, includ-

Greenland

Anau Series.

r.x-ks in

Serifs.

of granites,

/.«.e Prh'ozo-r.

in? Maitai.

andArahuria

Xcrth Kland

Cnrbonif'^ron^.

gneissie

Carboni-

beds con-

Vnccrlain

(lli.w (■..:■

Kaikoiira or

.' iiper

diorites, fie..

ferous ?

Plutonic in-

sidered to be

I'pper'f

'idfiL-d to be

Maitai sys-

Veronm,.

and forma-

' Kanien-' =

trusions of

Trias-Jura.

Paltfoioic.

• Jlaitai")

tem inelud

Tf A, m; Series.

tion of uiela-

Crecniand

imcertain

Hau)) ri Series

inn Te Anau

morphic

.Series.

dale.

Probably

(Te Anau

iJevoiiiaii.

Scrie8=

Orogenic

Manapouri

orosenv and

Series ?)

Beds at head

RiniutaUa

movement

rocks.

Acid Plutonic

Silurian.

Plutonic in-

of Rari'iitata

Series.

with intru-

Rock.

11 anaayehi

tnisions in

Tuhua

(iio'.v eon-

sion of

I'ermu-

Basic Plutonic

Seri-i-i.

later iiart of

Granite.-; &c .

sidered

granites and

Carboi^iferoiK.

Rock pro-

Baton River

Pala'oioic

possibly in

Triassir.)

(.'nronfnrmiii/.

diorites. &c.,

Maitai and

bably co-eval

Reefton.

Period.

part post-

and much

Te Anau with

Haupiri

Palieo/oic.

Silurian.

metamor-

iuneous in-

Series.

Ordoiician.

Siluro-

Nelson

Takaka Hii-len.

I.hi.m.

tercalations.

Conglom-

Semi meta-

D-ronian.

Sllur.nn.

( Baton

Upper Silurian.

erates and

morphic

Baton River

Reefton Beds.

Hirer).

Baton River

Lower

S./«ro-

basic rock —

Kakanui

System with

Baton River

and Hcefton

Uerunlnn.

Deronian.

(Te Anau ?)

Aorere.

Reefton beds

Beds.

Crystalline

beds and

Re?fton Beds.

Takaka .Sys-

and Haupiri

seliists.

'Upper'

tem.

Carboniferous

Cambrian.

volcanic

SUiiro-

eranites. and

Kakanui

f'pner

Reefton Series

and earliir.

Maniototoan :

rocks.

Ordovicvtn

Byenitcs of

schists.

Sll„rla„.

Baton River.

Arahura Series

Gneiss and

.Aorere System

Xelson.

Baton River.

Reefton.

(n) grev-

mica-schist

Ordoviclan.

(GraptoHtic

Or<loiiriun.

wacke

of Westland,

Aorere System.

slates and

Aorere Series.

Lower

(ft) mica-

Fiordlaml,

unfossilifcrous

Mount Arthur

Silurian.

schist.

anil Central

Irrhaan.

greywackes.

Series.

Aorere Series.

Aorere

(f) sneissand

Gtago.

Manapouri

Ac." with

Wanaka

schist.

System.

marble), in-

schists.

.i(je itnrertain.

I're-Cambriau.

Gneisses

cluding the

" Foliated

Wanaka

Devonian.-

granulites

•• Kanieri "

Pre-Cambrian.

schists.'

Ccntril Otago

Reefton Beds.

and mica

and Greenland

" Lanrentian "

(Silurian to

seliist.-.

schists.

Serie.s.

Manapnuri

Carboni-

Silurian.

Also(?;

Series.

ferous)

Baton River.

Otayo-schists.

Gneisses.

diorites. and

Contorted

Ordoiician.

Oncerlain

schists of

gneiss.

Aorere Series.

lomrf

Fiordland.

Kakanui
Series,

(Also referred
to Carbs.)

Cambrian .^
Maniototo
Series.

Mica schist-.

Falaoroic.
(Pre-Aorcre)

diorites, \-c.
Pre--Aorere
schists invaded
by ilioritrs.

president's address — SECTION c. 51

general history. The following is an attempt to do this as far
as possible within the limits of an address. It is not, like its
predecessors, based on long personal investigation, but is rather a
revaluation of the recorded facts, made in the light of the investi-
gations of the last decade, by an Australian geologist whose lot
lias now fallen in the pleasant places of New Zealand. Grateful
acknowledgment must be made of the help afforded by those who
have placed at the writer's disposal information published and
unpublished, and the original material of certain investigations.
Among these are Mr. Morgan, Director of the Geological Survey,
to whose geuerasity I am indebted for the accompanying map
correlation tables, Dr. Marshall, my predecessor in the Otago
University, and in this Presidential Chair, Dr. Thomson of the
Dominion Museum, Dr. Henderson, of the Geological Survey, and
my University colleagues. Professor Park, Mr. Speight, Mr. Bar-
trum, and especially Dr. C. A. Cotton, to whose guidance I owe
much of my field knowledge of New Zealand Geology.*

The geological histoiy of New Zealand falls into three major
periods, the oldest of which may be considered to have closed about
Carboniferoius times, and the second in Lower Cretaceous times,
and the third at the end of the Pliocene period. The record of
the first is very fragmentary and by no means free from doubt,
nor is it always sharply separable from that of the second period.
The detailed history of the second major period has been greatly
elucidated during, the last decade. In regard to thei sequence of
events in the third and chiefly Cainozoic major period, there has
not been much doubt as to the sequence of formations in any one
area, but there have been frequent changes in the interpretation
and correlation cf these formations in different areas, upon which a
flood of light has been thrown by the new rapidly accumulating
observations and newer conceptions. We may perhaps recognise a
fourth period, the cycle of events just initiated by the recent move-
ments oif differential elevation, which have been the subject of de-
tailed physiographic study, particularly by Dr. Cotton. In all
countries in the earlier stages of geological investigation, often car-
ried on under great disadvantages, many interpretations have been
given. This is especially true of New Zealand, and in the diver-
sity of these statements, and the frequent changes of nomenclature,
lies the greatest difficulty to be faced by those attempting to find
a clear path through the older records. Tabular statements of
the principal interpretations of the three major periods are given
herew;ith, and may serve to elucidate some of the complexities in
the older literature. Differences of opinion still exist, but must
steadily decrease as the accumulation of facts limits the range of
permissible speculation.

* The manuscript of this aridress was kindly read by Mr. Morgan. Dr. Cottoij, and
Dr. Henderson.

52 president's address — section c.

TJie Crystalline Coinplexes.

In the more recent statements of the history of New Zealand, it
has been customary to consider as of Cambrian or pre-Cambrian age
the complex of gniesses and associated rocks in the south-western
extremity of New Zealand, "Fiordland." but the evidence offered
for this has not been conclusive. Hector (1886) was inclined to
divide this complex into two portions, recognising an ancient group
of gneisses, with a younger series of granites, syenite, diorite, &c. ,
which invaded and metamorphosed a group of possibly Devonian
sediments and basic igneous rocks, ccnverting them intoi micaceous
and hcrnblendic schists.* Hutton (1900) suggested the dioritic
mtrusicns were contemporaneous with the outpouring of the Te
Anau basic breccias, supposed to be Carboniferous, and Speight
(1910) thought they might be as young as the latter part of the
Meso'Zoic period. In the north-west of the South Island (Colling-
wood), gneiss and schists occur which have been variously con-
sidered as portion of a single Silurian series, or cif a conformable
Cambrian-Silurian series, or as pre-Cambrian lying nnconformably
beneath Ordovician sediments, the last being the interpretation
favoured by the Geological Survey as a, result of the investigatipns
now in progress, f This explanation has been applied also' to the
interpreitation of the Buller and Reef ton districts by Morgan
(1912), and Henderson (1917) respectively.

While this possibility must not be overlcoked, namely that frag-
ments of a pre-Ordcvician gneissic platform may be present, there
must also be recalled a conception familiar to modern Scottish
geologists, and- advanced specially by Barrow (1893-1912) and
Harker (1917), namely, the presence of a central zone of most
deeply-seated metamorphism, which had been buried toi the greatest
depth in the orogeny, and had been invaded by plutonic rocks,
some gneissic, injected before the maximum of orogeny, some after
it showing little or no gneissic structure. J The regional meta-
morphism decreases away from a zone of greatest change, and here,
to, as also within the central zone of such a deeply altered rocks
series, there may be massive intrusions of a date much newer than
the gneissic rocks, and evirronnded by a metamorphic zone of
contact-rocks which are most marked where the regional meta-
morphism is least. §

Commencing in the south-west of New Zealand : — Near the
coast of Preservation Inlet a band of graptolitic slates {aee later)
passing into phyllites, runs to the north-west. Tliey are invaded
to the north-east by pegmatitic granite, which also invades a mass

* Professor Park adopts a similar view in a bulletin now in the press. (Private
communication).

t Private communication from Mr. Morgan.

t Henderson's suggested explanation (1017, p 10:5) of the formation of the gneissic and
massive plutonic rocks in the same eruptive epoch is rather different from this.

, § We need not, in suggesting this explanation, accept Barrow's contention that such
conditions presuppose a pre-Cambrian age for the sediments and gneisses.

president's address — SECTION c. 53

ol' quartzose mica-paragneiss containing sillimanite, as appears
trcm exaniinaticn of mateiial from areas described by McKay
(1896). Sillimanite-gneisses also occur in Stewart Island, as well
as missive pegmatitic granite. North-west of Preservation Inlet,
at Dusky Sound, Park (1888) describes a series^ of arenaceous
mica -schists, quartzites and magnesian schists with some lime-
stone, lying on the continuation of the strike of the graptolitic
rocks mentioned above. Eastwards these Dusky Sound rocks pass
into "granitic gneiss," and " felsitic schist" containing mica-
schist and crystalline limestone. Apparently the zone of maxi-
mum metamorphism here lies to the east of the coastline. The
same seems to be the case at Milford Sound. On the other hand,
the eastern boundary of the compleix of Fiordland seems to be
probably an immense fault (Hutton 1875, 1900; McKay 1892).
The easternmost portions of the complex are not noticeably gneissic
or schistose, but this structure appears and increases towards the
west, reaches a maximum and diminishes as described above.
Among the plutonic rocks, the characteristic metamorphic pheno-
mena are those of the upper and middle zone as defined by Gruben-
mann. This was first indicated by Speight (1910), whose account
we may supplement by the following remarks based en material
collected and described by Marshall (1905, 1908), and further
material obtained by Cotton and the writer. The granites of
Preservation Inlet, of Pigeon Island in Dusky Sound, and of
Stewart Island, show little or no sign of strain. These may belong
to a " newer granite " series, or to the latest portions of the single
jjeriod O'f orogeny and plutonic intrusions to be described. The
diorite of the Hollyford Valley, on the north-east of the crystalline
complex, has also no sign of strain, and differs somewhat from
the diorites about the head of Lake Te Anau ana the Clinton
Valley, which are more or less crushed, increasingly so as we pass
westwards until on the watershed. P'alloon Peak consists of a
strongly cataclastic rock, in which epidcte has replaced horn-
blende. In the same region also, and on the divide west of the
Hollyford River, thf mica-ncrite is strained, may be. morei or less
hornblendic or uralitised, and contains zoisite. (Cf. Bartrum
1920). West of the watershed, however, the features of the middle
zone of metamorphism may be seen. Garnets appear, and poikilo-
blastic structure is marked in the hornblende and sometimes m
the garnets. This is well seen in a rock from the Bowen Falls at
tht liead of Milford Sound, which rock also contains large prisms
of clinozoisite. Near the entrance to Milford Sound, the features
of the upper zone are approached once more in the characters of
the amphibolite and quartz-mica-schist of Anita Bay, in which
there are intrusive masses of peculiar cataclastic peridotites con-
taining magnesite (Marshall 1905, Speight 19lD). The sillimanite-
gneisses of Resolution and Stewart Islands, which show evidence
of high temperature, may be the contact-metamorphic effects of the

54 . president's address — section c.

deep-seated intrusion of dioritic magmas during regioaial pressure.
The similarity between seme of tlie gabbroid rocks in tlie eastern
portion of the crystalline complex, and those ot Orepuki, (Far-
quhareon 1911) and the Bluff (Wild 1912), suggest these outlying
igneous masses are coeval with the more basic intrusive rocks of
Fiordland. The norite of the Bluff is intrusive into a series of
homblendic rocks, the highly altered product of ancient basic
igneous rocks which have been referred to the Te Anau series, or
the lower portion of the Maitai series, and probably of later Palaeo-
zoic age. This correlation is strengthened though not proved by the
occurrence of gabbroid masses intrusive into the Permian ( ?)
Maitai rocks of the neighbouring Longwood and Takatimu Ranges
and in north- west Southland. Wei thus conclude that while so>me
of the crystalline complex may be^ prei-Ordovician, the bulk of it is
probably p'Ost-Ordovician, and some may even be Mesozcic*

Perhaps we may class with the same series of igneous intrusions
the gneisses of the north-west coast of the South Island, especially
ill the Hokitika, Mikonui and perhaps the Reefton District studied
by Bell (1906), Morgan (1908, 1915) and Henderson (1917). The
rocks collected by these writers, which the present author -has
seen, consist of granites of various types and syenites, all showing
markedly the effects of strain, especially in the most basic hom-
blendic types. Bartrnm (1917) has found jDiimary epidote in a
granodicrite of this series. Crumpled mica-gneisses aleo' occur.
These apparently invade the ancient (pre-Ordovician ?) sediments
and basic lavas, producing amphibole and mica-schist, grading out-
ward into less metamorphosed types of rock.

Bartrum (1920) has described a number of pebbles of plutonic
rocks in a Tertiary conglomerate near Auckland. They comprise
banded diorite-gneisses, cataclastic granodiorites, and dio^'ites in
which the amphibole is often uralitic, and also an anorthosite.
After examining the slides kindly sent him by Mr. Bartrum, the
writer was struck by the similarity between these rocks and those
described above from the South Island, and would tentatively class
the two into the same series of Palceozoic intrusions. Bartrum
recalls the reported occurrence of dioritic pebbles in Tertiary rocks
at Whangaroa, North Auckland, in the region immediately east
of Kawhia and again in the Gisborne district. Marshall (1918)
repoTts finding a diorite pebble in similar circumstances near
Kaipara. Pebbles of plutonic rocks have been found in the
" Maitai " (Permian ? or Triassic) rocks of the Wellington Pro-
vince, and in these sediments, also, in Great Barrier Island, Bar-
trum has found granites, pegmatites, gamet-granulites, etc., in

* Since this was writ-ten, Mr. Moir, a former student of tlie author, has observed
that the diorite in the Hollyford Valley invade; the (Triassic ?) annelid -bearing areywacke,
and Professor P.ark has confirmed this observation in many exposures in the Dairan
Mountains, further to the south. (Private communication.)

t Private communication.

PEESIDENT's address — SECTION c. 55

which the zircons in the biotites are sunounded by very dark
pleochroic haloes.* There are, too, numerous xenolithsi of horn
blende-schist in dykes invaiding the " Maitai " rocks near Whan-
arei. Bartrum cites these and other considerations to show that
there " are vestiges of a land-area which probably antedated the
period of depcsiticn of Mesozoic sediments," a conclusion fore-
shadoivA^ed by Park in 1893. Perhaps, as Marshall suggested
(1909), the olivine-uorite of Ahipara (North Auckland) may be
one of these pre-Mesozoic intrusions, but the evidence for this is
inconclusive, and he lat'ET (1912) classed it as intrusive into Meso-
zoic rocks. It appears toi the writer: remarkably like what must
have been the parent rock of a more altered rock occurring in the
Greenstoinei Saddle, west of Lake Wakatipu.

The Onlovicmn Ii'ocks.

The oldest rocke of which the age is definftely known are Ordo-
vician, and are now generally tenned the Aorere series. Their age
is defined in two fossilifercus localities respectively in the so'uth-
west of the South Inland, Preservation Inlet, and in the north-west
of the South Island, West Wanganui Inlet, Collingwood. Be-
tween these there stretches a narrow western zone of more or less
metamorphosed rocks now referred in great part tO' this series.
In Preservation Inlet, the slates adjacent to thei granite contain
Clonof/rapttis, Bri/oijraptus, and Tet.ra(jraptii$, and are referred
by Hall (1915) to the base of the Arenig (Lancefieldian of Vic-,
torian Geology). In Collingwood the slates contain Bryograptus,
iJichograptus, Didymograptus, Goniograptus, Loganograptus, and
Tetragroptus, and aro of Middle Arenig (Castlemanian) age,
(Shakespear 1908, Hall 1915). Kecent work of the Geological
Survey in the latter region is tending to confirm Dr. Shakespear's
suggestion that two fossilifercus zones are recognisable. Some tri-
lobites, at present undetermined, are eaid toi have been dis-
covered.* The slates of this group are associated with grey-
wackes and quartzites, and pass gradually into mica-schist in which
are great masses of marble, the "complex carbonates" of Bell
(1907), and the Mt. Arthur or Pikikiruna series of earlier classi-
fications.

Southwards from this region in the western footliills and slopes
of the Southern Alps, there are wide areas of metamorphic rocks
now considered by the Geological Survey to be of early Paljeozoic
age, though fcrmerlv assigned to the later Palaeozoic or even
Mesozoic age, and classed under various names, Arahura, Kanieri,!
Greenland, We?tland, or Maitai series, &c. There form a large
part of West Nekon and Westland Provinces, and have been
traced south-westwards to beyond Mt. Cock (Bell 1905). They

* Private commimication.

t TIi's name was employed by Bell (1906) through oversight. It had been previously given
to a portion of the Tertiary series. ^ ^

56 president's address — section c.

are geneirally most strongly metaiiiorphic in the' western portions,
and consist of morei cr less schistose rocks, sometimes giieissic,
associated with the dioritic rocks described above, and passing
eastwards into' amphibolite, epidote-schist, mica-schist, phyllites,
argillites, arkoses and greywacke. The metamorphism has
been studied mostly by Morgan, who recognises that it
is for the most part reigional in character, but is especially
marked about the bosses of massive granite. As before stated,
seme geologists, especially Morgan and Henderscn, consider that
there are twO' groups of intrusions, the older gneisses which are
considered to antedate the Aorere rocks, and the younger granites
and associated dykes which luay be later Palaeozoic or even
Mesozoic. It is evident that the detailed study of this region by
the methods of modern metamorphic ])etrology will be essential
tO' its elucidation.

T],c Silnrian For/,s.

The Silurian rocks of the Eaton River in Nelrtn Province have
net been investigated during the past decade. Their mode of
occurrence is .obscure, and little weight can be placed at present
oil the suggested conformity of these rocks with the Ordovician
series, though they are both steeply dipping rocks with a north-
westerly strike. Hector provisionally determined over fift}^ species
of fossils, which Thomson (1913) enumerates. They are largely
brachiopods suggesting a comparison with We-nlock faunas. The
rocks are argillaceous limestones and clay-ahales. The fossiliferous
recks of Reefton cover less than four square miles, and consist of
quartzite with some ca.rbo.naceous streaks, greywacke, argillite,
and limestone in rapid alteration, and a small amount of tuffa-
ceous material. The limestone is coralline or crinoidal, and these
with the clastic sediments contain an eixtensive molluscan fauna
in which Hector tentatively determined thirteen forms, and as-
signed a Lower Devonian age to tlie rocks. Henderson (1917)
accepted this, urging in support Wanner' s recognition of
riciirodictyum in these rocks, a genus characteristic of the Lower
Devonian of the Rhine. This genus, however, is represented in
the Silurian rocks of Victoria, and New South Wales, and in the
preliminai-y examination of a collection of thirty-four species of
fossils from Reef ten, Mr. W. S. Dun, Government Palaeontolo-
gist of New South Wales, determined a group of forms comparable
with those of the Silui-ian recks of the Yass series of New South
Walee, and the Yeringian of Victoria, both considered to be of
Wenlock age. He was of the opinion that the Reefton beds are
probably coeval with those of the Eaton River, though with such
differences as may be explained by the more littoral character
of the Reefton rocks. J This determination accords with the
views of Hutton, Park, and Marshall, and is now accepte^l by the

X Private communication ; cited by permission of the Di.'ector of Geological Survey.

president's address — SECTION c. 57

Geological Survey. Henderson has shown that the Silurian I'ocks
are everywhere bounded by great faults, and in some instances
have been dragged down into fault-breccias which traverse the
Aorere (Ordovician ?) rocks. There is here, also, no means of
ascertaining the conformity or otherwise of Silunan upon older
rocks, or the relation of the Silurian to th© plutonic rocks.

A great series oif epidotised basic lavas and agglomerates asso-
ciated with a conglomei-ate lying unconfoonably upon the Aorere
rocks, and containing pebbles of the same, form the Haupiri series
of north-west Nelson. Marshall suggests it is of Silurian age, but
the correlation with the later Te Anau series is here tentatively
adopted.

Jjatt Paheozoic ( ?) and Mcsozoic ( 1) Plutonic Iiifriisions.
There is much uncertainty concerning the age to be assigned
to the granites and associated dyke rocks occurring abundantly
in Neleon and Westland. The presence of numerous pebbles of
porphyry in the Triassic conglomerates near Nelson has been urged
by Marshall (1912) in support of a late Palseozcic age for these
intrusive rocks. Hutton (1899), holding them to be contem-
poraneous with the "syenite" of Mackay's Bluff near Nelson,
which he believed to invade the "Maitai" rocks, considered them
to be approximately Permian in age. Henderson (1917) and
Speight (1910) are inclined to refer some at least of these intrusive
masses to the period of late Mesozoic orogeny. These rocks have
produced marked contact-metamorphism described by Marshall
(1909) and Morgan (1908).

The Permian ( ?) " Maitai " and Tiias.-Jtira. " Holonui " Si/atem.

The determination of the rocks that should be comprised within
this system, and their relationship to one another^ has long been
a debated point in New Zealand geology. Hochstetter (1864) ap-
plied the name "red and green Maitai slates," to a series of rocks
in which no fossils had been seen, occurring between Nelson and
the peridctite of Dun Mountain and consisting of steeply dipping
and shattered argillites and greywacke in which doubtful traces
of fucoid markings were noted. These were associated with lime-
stone, basic volcanic rocks, and the fossiliferous Triassic Richmond
sandstones. Hochstetter grouped all these together as of Mesozoic
age. The name Maitai slates soon received a greatly extended
application, and comprised the unfossiliferous argillites, jaspil-
lites. and greywackes, which formed the main ranges throughout
New Zealand. Hector separated out from these a great group
of basic agglomerates, &c., which he termed the Te Anau Series,
and recognised at many places, and considered to be of Upper De-
vonian age, and to underlie conformably the "Maitai" rocks.
Mackay discovered in the latter* a few brachiopods considered by

* At the Wairoa Gorgfe, near Nelson.

58 president's address — section c.

Hector to be Carboniferous in age, together with an undetermined
form differing in somi© respects from Inoccramus, and held that
these beds were thrust over the fossiliferous Triassic rocks. He
also indicated that the Maitai beds might be united with a higher
series cf argillites, which were unfossiliferous sa-vei for the presence
of an annelid Torh^ssia Mach(vyi. He believed an unconfo'rmity
existed between the Maitai and Triassic rocks but that their rela-
tions were somewhat obscure. Hutton (1873) at first believed the
Maitai and Triassic were continuous, indeed included the latter
in the Maitai system, but later urged that a very important
orogenic movement separated them. Park (1904) for a brief
period considered the Maitai recks as Jurassic, accepting as correct
the detennination of the shell mentioned as Inoccramus. Later
(1910) he withdrew this, and suggested the form was inorganic,
though as thei result of an eixamination of the Maitai braohiopods,
he confirmed McKay's view concerning these. The Geological
Survey (Marshall and Bell 1911) extended the temn Maitai series
toi cover all the older sediments of the Nelson district, and threw
doubt on thei occurrence of supposodly Carboniferous fossils, and
the determination of the form mentioned as true Inoceramus.
Marshall (1912) went further, and used the term Maitai series to
cover the whole cf the Triassic and Jur^assic rooks in New Zealand,
and correlated with this series some of the greywackes and argillites
cif the West Coast, together with the more or less m-etamoirphic
mica-schists of Central Otago. He thus made it by far thei most
extensive formation in New Zealand. He excluded from it, how-
ever, the Haupiri series of conglomerates and basic breccias Tying
unconformably on the Aorere rocks in north-western Nelson. They
had usually been classed (as here) with the Te Anau rocks, but
Marshall suggested that it would be preferable tentatively to
class them with the Silurian rocks. Thus at the close of the
last decade, two attitudes were adopted m the general statements
issued. The one attempted to rearrange the late Palaeozoic and
Early and Middle Mesozoic rocks into various subdivisions, on the
old lines, accepting as suflticient the tentativei determinations O'f
thei fossils therein. The other view noted the confusion that
existeid in the stratigraphical and palaeontological data, as they
then stood, assumed that v^s a result of isolation, premature and
belated forms could be expected here, and concluded that it was
not possible to divide the sediments of this period into sub-series,
comparable with those in the contemporaneous formations of the
northern hemispherei, but rather stressed the unity and apparent
conformity of the whole sedimenta,ry system to which the name
Maitai was extended.

With this introduction the importance of the work of the last
decade may be more clearly realized, and the results of this are
shown on Tables II. and III. Thomson (1913) drew attention to
the policy of the Indian Geological Survey in sending carefully

TAIil.K II.— (■(IMI'ARISOX tiV TIIK

'I.ASSIKlt'Al'lllNS dl'- THE I'KKMIAN, IKIAs
i)V SKW ZEALAND.

59-60
ANI> .UKA.sSir i;ni K.-^

Arbci-, 1917.

Trechmann.
1918.

Hector, 1881).

Hochstetter,
1864.

Hutton. 1885.

Park, 1904.

I'ark, 1910.

Marshall, 1912.

.\a,ron,l,l„.

Waikato

Juraji»ic.

Lower

Lower Jurassic.

.lurassic.

Vpper Jurassic.

Trias..Jura.

Waikato

Heads.

Mataura

Cretaceous.

Mataura

.Mataura

Mat lura

Maitai system.

Hi-ails.

Plant-Beds.

Putataka

Waikato

Putataka

Series.

Plant-Beds.

Conformable

Hiqhrr .lum-KU.

Fla'; Hill.

Heads

= KlaKHill

throughout ;

MMl.

Tithonian and

Kawhia Har-

Z Catiins River

Triaasic.

Loiver

Carboniferous

.lunumv.

older mem-

Lia^nme.

bour

>. Bastion.

( 'lavitjera

Jurassic.

forms believed

Waikawa

bers of the

t'atlins River

.Mijlillui

. Putataka

to be absent.

Upper and

Bastion.

TruLiair.

" Trigoniet ■*+

i (including

The scries in-

Lower

Middle .Juras-

Plant- Berts.

J Tria.i.-'ir.

Ila'obitt

S Fla« Hill,

cludes the

Jurassu:

sic.

rrlit^sk.

Malvern Hills.

c Otapiri

Spiriferiua

■■^ Catiins

more or less

.Mutaiwa Falls

(Jtapiri

&c.

* Wairoa"

PlantBeds.

— River and

metamor-

(Klaj; Hill

Lower Jnramir.

Wairoa

Richmond

Oreti

.t; Bastion).

phosed rocks

8frio.s.

(Liassic and

Wairoa with

Sandstone.

Kaihiku

.riiraMic.

= hiocerainus

of Otago

I'ark, 1887.)

Ijrobably Ba-

*' diabasic

Maitai.

^ Beds.

classed by

Malvern Hills.

joccian.)

ash "

(■•Devonian'

Hector(l8S())as

fide McCoy)

Ureal I'lirou-

Carhonijiruus.

f Triassic.

in part Lower

nlurlir//

Triaseie.

Permian.

in Southern

formili/aml phi-

Te Anau.

i (llupiri

Silurian to

Catling River.

Kliaitic and

Oreti

Alps also

tmtic iHtru«ioit«.

J floriyera

Carboniferous.

Upper Noric,

Kailtiku

■■'Jurassic " in

o Myiilus
== Wairoa

bv Hutton

Uhitir.

Lower Noric.

the Hokonui

Carbuniferous.

(l'899). as I're-

Mount l><)tl>

Upper Carnic.

l-uconjnrmily.

Hills :— both

Maitai

•• Trigonia "t

Cambrian, bv

(■lent Hills

Lower Carnic.

now con-

Te Anau.

Halobia.

Park (1910), as

(Exact rela-

Ladino-Carnic.

Carlmniferous.

sidered UpiJer

In 1875

Cambrian and

tion tu

Great thick-

Maitai

Triassic.)

Hutton classed

Permo.Triasaic.

Ordovician.

faunal zones

ness of un-

these together

Kaihiku

Also

iH uncertain. )

fossiliferous

Dcronitm.

Lou-erf 7'r,«.«,V.

as the Maitai

Sp,ri{eri,m

Unfossiliferous

Middle and

Te Anau

Maitai unfo-s-

system.

Plant-Beds.

semi-metamor-

1-ower Trias-

siliforous beds.

phic rocks in

aie, probably

Permian.

Nelson and

conformable

Aorangi ;

Westland now

on Permo-

Relation lo

considered to

Carbmiijcrmis

underlying

be Ordovician.

(Maitai*) beds.

beds iDdc-
finite.

Carbotiiferems.
'J'e Anau sys-
tem including
9 Maitai.

M>ji}(ih;rH(, fule Trccliiiiituii.

president's address — SECTION c. 61

selected collections of fossils to si>ecialists for their investigations.
The Mesozoic plants were submitted to the late Dr. Arber, and in
company with Dr. Thomson, Dr. Trechmann, a visiting British
palaeontologist, obtained fossils once more from McKay's collecting
grounds in the Maitai rocks of Nelson, and later visited and care-
fully collected from the localities for Mesoizoic marine fossils in
several districts, and undertook the examination of those obtained
by McKay in the collection of the Geological Survey. The very
valuable results of the study of the Maitai and Triassic fauna i^
now available, and that of the Jurassic is shortly to appear.
E'roadly speaking, the old subdivisions erected by the careful field-
wo'rk of Cox and McKay over forty years ago, and their palseon-
tc'logical correlation of strata in various parts of New Zealand,
hold good, thoiugh comparison with faunas in other parts of the
world shows that the precise ages assigned to the subdivisions
thus recognised may now be corrected. The fauna is typically of
a Tethyan circumpacific character, and there is no reason why any
of the New Zealand forms should be regarded as local isolated
survivals from Palaeozoic times, nor is there any premature ap-
pearance of truly Jurassic forms (Trechmann 1918).* This very
satisfactory conclusion is much strengthened by the comparison
of the succession of faunal zones in New Zealand with that in New
Caledonia, as given by Piroutetf (1917). (See Table III.) We
may anticipate further interesting information from Dr. Trech-
mann's study of the Jurassic fossils, of the results of which he has
already given a preliminary statement.

Several geologists have divided the sequence of rocks we have
been discussing into two series, the Maitai (with which the Te Anau
rocks are included), forming the lower portion, and the Ilokonui
Series forming the Mesozoic portion. This course is also followed
in the sequel, except that the Annelid beds of the upper portion
of the Maitai series are placed in the Lower Triassic.

The base of the Maitai series is not seeai clearly, unless it should
prove that the Haupiri volcanic rocks are really (as is here as-
sumed tentatively) a portion of the same group of rocks as those
known as the Te Anau breccias, and are correctly considereid to
underlie conformably the Maitai rocks. The Haupiri rocks consist
of a series of greywackes, argillites, and ccngloanerates, associated
with more or less epidotised basic volcanic rocks. Pebbles of Aorere
rocks occur in the conglomerate (Bell 1907). Near Nelson, there
is a group of altered basalts and tuffs apparently intercalated in

* A further investigation has been made by Professor Otto Wilckens of Professor
Park's collection of Triassic fossils, and the manuscript has now been received by the
Geological Survey, by whom it will be published as a palseontological ViuUctin. I under-
stand that the results of this work are. in general, confirmatory of those obtained by
r)T. Trechmann, and that some inteiesting new fonns have been recognised. Wilckens
holds (1920, p. sot)) the Triassic fauna of New Zealand is closely allied to that of New
Caledonia only, with which it has in common several peculiar features, " so that one
may correctly speak of a Maorian province in the Triassic sea."

t The similarity between the Triassic fossils of New Zealand and New Caledonia
was pointed out by Marshall in 1911.

62 pkesident's address — section c.

the Maitai rocks, the " Brook Street Igneous rocks." They
have been thrust on tc' overturned Tertiary rocks, but though
sometimes gromped with Te Anau rocks they may be Triassic.
(Seei Fig. 1). Other more or less metamorphosed volcanic rocks
occur sometimes associated with unfossiliferous " Maitai " slates,
as, for example, the variolitic "diabase tuff" near Wellington
(Broadgate 1916) and the diabase tuffs of the Rimutaka ranges
further to the north, though possibly these should be grouped
'li'ith the Upper Triassic volcanic rocks. These are assocaated
with ferruginous jaspilites and argillites, and recall the features
of palseo'zoic submarine flows (though nolt pillow-lavas)

Fig. 1. Suggested Section from Dun Mountain to Nelson, alternative to that given by
the Geological Survey 13ull. 12.

1. Permian (Maitai) greywacke and limestone. 2. Upper Triassic (Noric) or
Permian basic volcanicrocks. 3. Upper Triassic sediments. 4. Peridotite.
5. Miocene marine beds overlying coal-measures.

observed by the writer in Europe* and Australia, in which
there has been much change due to hydrothermal action pro-
ducing layers of red rock. Examples of these are rather widely
disturbed. With them we may also class the epidotised variolite
of Mt. St. Mary in south-west Canterbui-y, the basic pyroclastic
rocks west of Lake Wakatipu, &c. There is, however, a possi-
bility that so>me of these southern rocks also may belong to' the
Upper Triassic series of flows, which we shall consider later.

In the Wellington district the red rocks are interbedded with
normal steeply dipping greywackes and argillites in which are
found fragments of annelid-tubes. In a rather calcareous
layer Thomson has found cbscure foraminifera*. Gotten and the
writer found also near Wellington an amphicoelous vertebra.

In the Nelson district, the original locality for the Maitai rocks,
Treehmann has obtained the following forms: — " Aphanaia " .s^.f
(the form erroneously compared with Inoceramus), Platyschisma,
Mmirloirui^ Sfrnph(ilo»i(i, Mfirfin/op.n.'i, Spirife?-a hisiilcata, a form

* Private communioation.

t N.B. — Since the above was written Mr. W. S. Dun, Government Palaeontoloffist for New
South Wales, has stated to the writer that this form for several reasonn (notably the possession
of a large posterior ear, and marked ligamental structures) cannot be referred to De Koninck's
genus Aphntinia.

president's address — SECTION c. 63

doubtfully referred to Rhynchonella jileurodon, and Zaphrentis.
He confirms Hutton's (1899) connparison of these with the "Peirmo-
Carboniferous " fauna of Eastern Australia, and indeed they
may be referred to the upper portion of that series except B.
pleiirodoti, which is not known above the lower carboniferous. Sp.
hisificafa is more commonly in those beds alsoi than in the Permian.
Professor David (1919) has shown that this formation is most
suitably considered to be Permian. Pircutet (1917) has grouped
into the same series in New Caledonia, beds containing Aphanaia,
and those in which are found the typically Permian cephalopods,
Staeheoceras, Pojmnoceras and Waagcnoceras, and there therefore
appears no reason to regard the Maitai series as other than Per-
mian.

In regard to theii' distribution, Morgan (1919) and Trechmann
(1917) have drawn attention to the reported occurrence of the
" Dun Mountain T uoccramus " in the north-east of the South
Island, and at various localities in the Southern Alps of Canter-
bury extending down to the Waitaki River. The relation cf these
'''Aphanaia," bearing rocks to those in which the annelid Tot-
Icssia McKaifi has been found is not clear, but McKay's view
has generally been followed, namely, that the?3: form the upjwr
portion cf the Maitai series. Jaworsky (1915) holds that this
annelid should be referred tc' the genus TcreheUina, and.
is of Triassic age. They are widely distributed in the
above regions, ' occurring here and there in the western
and eastern slopes of the Southern Alps in Westland and Canter^
bury, extending thence across the Waitaki River into North
Otago, where the calcareous slates containing the " Dun Mountain
Inocf^ramn!^" include micaceous sandstones v/ith plant remains.
(McKay. 1881, p. 78). They also appear to form much of the
country between the Waitaki and Shag River consisting of breccia
beds, green and purple slates and limestone. (Cox 1882, Park
1918). Professor Park (1919) has recognised them again south
of the Taieri River, and Hcnie limestone has been noted at Akatore
in this neighbourhood. Remains of "Inoceramus" have also been
noted at Coal Hill, near Mossburn, in the west of Southland
(Hutton 1875, p. 36)., and the Maitai and Te Anau rocks are
well developed in the Takitimu and Longwood ranges forming
the western margin cf this Province. They may also be repre-
sented in the Bluff as before mentioned, hut this must be left in
doubt.

The Tlokovul Sytdn.

The relaticn between the Hokonui and the underlying Maitai
system has long been uncertain. Hutton consistently held that
there was a great unconformity marking vigorous erogenic move-

64 president's address — section c.

ment and plutoiiic intrusion.* McKay (1879, p. Iu5) was also
of the opinion, that an unconformity existed in North Canterbury,
and showed Triassic volcanic rocks lying unconformably on Maitai
rocks in one region, and unconformably underlain by a great
thickness of fossiliferous and luif ossilif erous Triassic rocks in an
adjacent region (suggesting faulting rather than unconformity).
The lower Triassic unfossiliferous greywackes are almost indis-
tinguishable from Maitai rocks, and are apparently the same as
those Park (1910) has termed the Aoraugi series, recognising them
as the lowest member of the Hokonui system. McKay has shown
that much in the Wellington Province formerly relegated to the
Maitai system must be placed in the lower portion of the Hokonui
system, and indicated that the Maitai and Hokonui rocks are in-
timately associated in the neighborhood of Wellington itself, but
described no unconformity here. Park in 1910 stated that the
relations between the two series were indefinite, but has recently
reverted to his former (1904) acceptance of Hutton's view.f
Marshall (1912) insisted on the complete conformity of the
two series, a view to which Trechmann inclines. Speightf believes
that there is an unconformity between the two systems, and notices
the inclusions of pebbles of greywacke, probably derived from the
Maitai rocks in the Triassic conglomerates. The writer has not
yet seen sufficient grounds other than the absence of the Lower
and Middle Triassic fauna, to support the contention that any
break which may be present is a very great one, though crust-
warping may well have occurred between Permian and Upper
Triassic times. That such happened during Upper Triassic times,
is obvious from the occurrence of a. marked zone of conglomerate,
and the local absence of one of the fossiliferous zones of this por-
tion of the succession. In the cast of New Caledonia. Piroutet
(1917) has grouped the Permian and Triassic rocks as a single and
very thick sedimentary series, without any nctewcrthy angular
vmconformity, but has shown that in the Middle Triassic there
was a regressive movement of the strand, followed by the trans-
gression in Upper Middle and Upper Triassic times, which is also
represented by a faunal transgression in New Zealand. Upper
Triassic strata generally lie directly upon fossilifei'ous lower Triassic
beds in New Caledonia. It may eventually appear that somewhat
similar conditions obtain in New Zealand, though the supposedly
Lower Triassic rocks seiem unfortunately to be all iinfos!?iliferous
unless the Annelid beds be cousidered Triassic, as Jaworsky urges.

The zonal subdivision of the Lower Mesozoic rocks of the Hoko-
nui ranges was made by Co'X in 1877, and was extended immediate-
ly afterwards by McKay, and applied to the interpretation of
the complex Nelson district on the grounds of Hector's palseontolo-

? It must not be overlooked that Hutton considered as in tlie Maitai Series, many
formations now relegated 1 1 the Aoren svstem.

t Private communication.

65-G6

TABLE III.

Comparison of 1*ermian and Mesozoic Stratigraphy and vSuccession of
Faunal Zones in New Zealand and New Caledonia.

hieflv after Woods and Trechmann.

Danian ?

Foramiferal limestone with teeth
of Carcharod^n and Isurus

Lyto-

Kossinaliceras, BacuUtes
ceras ? Anisoceras ?

GaudryceraSj Trigonia, C
thyra
' Area" Cardium, Alaria

Cimoliasaurus, Lelodon.

Regression and minor unconformity
or conformity claimed here

Ibian. (Local development only.)

tlinidrii' >r(is sayca
T in illiii.s circumtoeniatus
1 H'" ' I'l III us concenticus
Liintt, Aucelliiia, Trigonia.

Great Poat-Hokonui Orogeny and
intrusion of ultrabaaic, basic and
perhaps acid Plutonic rocks.

Neocomian.

Plant Beds — Awanui and F^ast
Coast Inoceramus beds pro-
bably extending down into
Jurassic rocks
TiUionian.

Berriasella novo-zealandica, Streb-
lites, &c., with Inoceramus
concluding a conformable .series
of J urassic marine and fresh
water beds ranging down into
Bajoccian and Liassic strata.
(Details not yet available.)
Rh^lic.

Arcestes cf. rheticus

Meiitzelia, Clavigera lumida

Spirijtrina diomeda

H'foinonotis ochotica
(zcme locally missing)

udumonotis rickmondiana (very
abundant)

(zone locally mi.ssing)

.^pirifirina spp.

tlalabia ziUeti far
horhgMleri. H. c

ihjnph.iH, >,|,. (
Si.„,frru,„ »,,. .V,,
ll„h,r,IUi^y. JI.I-,
Dixrojilli/lliUa^l). A

zealaiidird.
. (iu^lricu-a

n.j.ni u-n,j
-!'■

Mylilii.s prdiU maticuii (abuiul

MMt)

Uahbia .pp.

Mifoiihoi-id Hugtjeien

llulnnUn sp. Spirif,nna>]K

Lfulino-Curnic.
Spiriferina cf. fragilis
Daonr.lla indica

Middle and Lower t Triamic.
(Jreai thiikncss of unfossiliferou;
bed of whiclt the relation tc
the underlying formation is not
clear. Various authorities sug
gest that there is perfect con-
formity, or a minor or majoi
unconformity, the last involv
ing plutonic int

Arinrlid beds.

S,nnfna, I'hitu'o-hismu

After Piroutet.

Reg:

and folduiii

Senonian.

Ko88inaticerafi, liaculiles, Lyto

ceras. Anisoceras.
Gaudryceras, Trigonia.

Arcfiy C'ardiunh Alaria.

Regression of the strand and i
unconformity.

Eocretaceou/i C»>al Measuros and
Marine Beds with E-ragyra.

TiUionian.

Berriasella cf. novo-zealandica.
Trifjonia, Alaria, Gasterojods.

The majority of Upper Jurassic,
the Middle and Lower Jurassic,
and RhE'tic arc absent.

Some orogenic movement o<'curred
and Tithonian rests with marked
unconformity on the None.

Noric.

J.'iscoj hyllitPM ef. debili'!
Pseudoinonotis sp.
Cepha'opods lihynchonrl'ii spp.

Pseudomonoti.'irichmotuliiUKi{i\iiuni\-

ant).
Spirigera, Spirijerina, &e.

Fseudomowitis sp. and liatobiu ef.
rare, striate (zone locally missing).

Hnlnbia hocftstetleri. H. aitstrinra
Further zonal subdivision proposed.

(Nine sub-zones in all.)
Spirigera wreyi, Diftcophyllites
Arcestes^ various typcj*.

Ilalobia ef. austriara
lialobia hochsletteri
Myophoria, OaMeropvds
Helzia, Halorflla, lihymhimrlht,
Spiriferina

My i H.- prMematiri's (abund-
ant )

Ilaloina zittcli, lialobia spp

Myophoria. Halobia sp.

Spiriferina cf. fragilii
Hhynrkonella sp. Tcnhnitnh sp.

Middle Tria
Daonclla t

'seudoinonttlis alT. pninkhnndana
Ophiceras, FlvmnnngHr.% Mcako-
ceras, Aspidites, Koninckites,
Danubites, Dorycraniics.

Apha.n
Stnrhrn.
I'optinii
Wangt-n

PRESIDEKt'S address — SECTION c. 67

gieal examination of McKay's collections. This work, so rapidly and
accurately accomplished, must remain one of the triumphs of those
pioneer geologists. It has since been somewhat modified by Park
(1886), and applied (1904) to the succession of Triassio beds at
Nugget Point in south-eastern Otago. Apart from these regions
where a long succession of fcssilifercus zones are present, McKay
has recognised portions of the sequence in many parts of the two
main islands. Trechmann's investigations in the field and his
palaeontological work confinn the succession of beds in these areas,
and serve to define their eixact age and fauna! relationships. The
various ages that have been assigned to them are shown sufficiently
in Table II. We must consider their character and geographic
distribution, and note first that from lowest fossiliferous horizon
(top O'f the Middle Triassic) to the close of the Rhaetic, the thick-
ness of the series of sediment is nearly 10,000 feet. In
Southern Otago, the more or less schistose rocks north of the
Clutha River, merge southwards into a mass of greywackes and
conglomerates over 6,000 feet thick, containing in its upper
portion a small fauna, the fossiliferous zone being traceable south-
eastward to Nugget Point. Similarly in Northern OtagO' beyond
th« intervening mica-schists the semi-metamorphic Maitai or
Aorangi rocks ("Kurow schists"), are followed by a fossiliferous
zone of argillites and conglomerate with an analogous fauna which
also is found in Mt. Potts in the heart of the ranges of West
C'ant(>rbury. and again in the Nelson district, where tht/r strati-'
graphical relationship to adjacent formations is obscured. These
occurrences belong to the Kaihiku series of the early geologists.
Trechmann (191 7a) shows that they, are characterised by Daonella
indica and Spiriferina frarfilis, with forms of Halorella, Mentze-
liopsis, Entrochiis, and Isocrinus, indicating a horizon equivalent
to the top of Alpine Middle Triassic formation, i.e., they are
Ladino-Carnic in age.

These are followed by Carnic beds with a prolific fauna of over
fifty species, which may be grouped into several sub-zones. They
have been recognised along the south-western side of the Hokonui
Hills, and its continuation in the Moonlight Ranges, and probably
are indicated by the fossiliferous rocks which were noted by
Hector (1891, p. LXL), between the head of Lake Wakatipu and
the plutonic rocks of the Sounds region. These pass eastward into
Te Anau rocks, and thence into the metamorphic rocks of Queens-
town and Central Otago. The same fauna is found in various
localities along the western mountainous portions of the Canter-
bury province. Halohia and Mytilvs are abundant, with Adon-
tophoria and Mynplmria (formerly classed as Triqonia, and thought
to be a Jurassic forerunner), five species of Spiriferina, Retzia, and
S'lnriffera, together with a group of cephalopods, including Pro-
dvdonantihis and Discnphyilites. This was termed the Oreti

68 president's address — section c.

series by the old Geological Survey. A conglomerate, with re-
markably large pebbles or boulders, and volcanic ash, occurs in
this series, or in the lower portion of the overlying Noric beds.

The Noric beds which follow have a special interest. They form
the Wairoa series of Hector, and the Richmond sandstone of Hoch-
stetter. They are characterized by an encrmou'.s abundance of
Pseudoviontis, with sub-zones marked by the form I', richmon-
diana which also occurs in New Caledonia, and F. ochotica, a
circum-Pacific type, known also in Timor, the Himalayas, Japan,
Arctic Siberia, &c. Locally the zone is completely absent, as near
Nugget Point, though present ten miles inland from here. This
series is noteworthy both for its wide extent, and for the igneous
rocks in the lower portion. They extend along the Hokonui Hills
and into the Moonlight Range. They extend throughout the
length of the Southern Alps in Canterbury, being recognized,
generally in river gravels, but are also known in situ near Lake
Tekapo and Arthur's Pass (Speight 1920). McKay (1879) has also
traced them fi'om the Malvern and Clent Hills, where they had
been ohserved by Von Haast, up to the Ashley county, in north-
west of Canterbury, and shown that caey are associated there with
crystalline limestones, cherts, and diabasic ash. In the Nelson
district the Noric rocks correspond generally with part of Hcch-
stetter's Richmond sandstones, which contains an extraordinary
abundance of Fseudornonofis. The igneous rocks are not here
developed, unless, as is not improbable, the Brock-street series
should be included here ratlier than in the Te Anau series.
McKay (1878) has also shown the occurrence of diabasic ash,
limestones and argillites, with traces of " Monotis " in the eastern
side of thei Rimutaka-Ruahine ranges, and Noric beds also are
abundant in the -Mokau district of North Taranaki, and extend
theaice to Kawhia, in which region the lower J', or/iofirn sub-zone
is missing, but is found further north, near Huntly. (Fidc' Dr.
Henderson.)

The Rhaetic fauna which follows on this has so far been re-
corded fi'om the southern side of the Hokonui hills, in the South
Island, and from the regions about Kawhia, in the North Island,
where the series is 3,000 feet thick. Arccfifcs rhctica, a very alate
Spiriferinn (S. d'iomeda), Mentzelia and f'hirir/eia (the " Hec-
to'ria " of Trechmann), are the chief fossils. An extensive series
of fossil if erous Mesozoic rocks occurs in the latter region, and -is
now being investigated by Dr. Henderson and his associates, who
have verbally indicated that Dr. Trechmann 's zonal succession is
well represented in this region.

The Jurassic beds follow conformably on the Triassic, but are not
so notably fels]>athic. Thev consist of alternating sandstones and
mudstones, in which interbedded plant-remains are increasingly
abundant, and give rise to small seams of coal. Marine and

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS — SECTION C. 6^

teirestial deposits ai*e, therefcre, interstratified, the latter predomi-
nating in the upper portion of the series. Over fifty species of
marine molluscs have been provisionally det€irniiiied in these rocks
by Hector. These are now under examination by Dr. Trechmann
(1917), who has already indicated the presence of a Liassic, and
possibly Bajcccian, fauna in the beds which immediately overlie
the Rhaetic rocks of the Hokonui hills. Elsewhere the Middle
Jurassic beds are followed by zones which may range as high as the
Tithonian, a stage which is transitional into the Ci'etaceous.
Henderson has found a great thickness of Jurassic strata overlying
the Rhaetic beds in the Huutly and M( kau districts, extending up
to the Tithonian rocks of Kawhia.*. According to a private
communication Dr. Trechmann is of the opinion that most of the
forms are related to Malayan or Himalayan types. The older
detenninations of Hector indicate the presence of various fo'rms of
ammonites and belemnites, AuceUa, Triffonia, Inoctramus, Lima,
l'h()lod)/)iu, Floiromi/a, FateUa, S/jiriferina, and Clavir/era. In
the only region in which the determination of the fossils has been
yet carried out on modern lines, namely, in the uppermost
(Tithonian) marine beds at Kawhia, Boehm (1911) has found, in
addition to the previously recognised oircumpacific types of
AuceUa, Litna, I/tovcrannrs, and FhijJhjccra.^ (allied to a Malayan
type) a Strehlites and Feri.^phiiwfes, and has concluded that
Amvionites novozealandicus, of Hauer, is a species of HopUtes
{Berrittsella), a genus very characteristic of the top of the
Jurassic. On the other side of the island. Upper Jurassic beds,
with Inoceramvm, occur in the Corcmandel Peninsula (Thomas,
1907).

The Jurassic beds belonging to the Lower and Middle division
are widely deveLjped in the regions south of the Hckonui Range,
and there lie in gently undulating folds and appear to have been
transgre-sive across the ccntinental block of Southland. They
are much more steeply folded in the foothifls of the Southern
Alps throughcait the Province ol Canterbury, and again in the
regions of South Auckland and Korth Taranaki, where the Upper
Jiirassic beds are also stee})ly folded, as also in Ccromandel. Here,
too, and down the eastern side of the North Island are beds which
are transitional into the lowest Cretaceous series. With these
we may perhaps group the fossiliferous beds of Kawhia, men-
tioned above; those of Waikato Heads desci-ibed by Ccx (1877),
which may, however, be slightly higher (file Mr. Morgan); the
Inoceraniu.'^ Iceds. of the Te Kuiti district (Henderson, 1918); and
those of the Awaiiui district, north of Gisborne (McKay, 1874).
Similar beds again occur in large developments along the east
coast, south from Cape Kidnappers. Mr. Morgan (1915) has
classed theee as the "East Coast Series,'^ and remarks that they
consist of conglomerates, sandstones, and dark shale?, which in

• Verbal communication.

70 president's address — SECIION c.

some places contain Cretaceous fossils {Inoreramus being particu-
larly abundant), but may pass down into Jurassic beds. In most
cases they are strongly folded, and more or less faulted. Much
work will be required, however, before the relationships of the
higher members of the Hokonui series is satisfactorily deter-
mined.

The results of Dr. Arber's palseobotanical studies give a
general support of these stratigraphical conclusions, though on ac-
count of the poverty of the flora, and somewhat unfavorable con-
ditions for its preservation, exact coincidence could not be ex-
pected. Moreover, according to Dr. Arber, it is not yet pos-
sible to distinguish with certainty between late Triassic and early
Jurassic floras. The greater part of New Zealand in the Triassic
and Jurassic periods was probably a wide continental shelf con-
stantly built out on a subsiding area. When such movement was
temporarily checked and lagoons or dry land replaced the shalloiw
sea, a scanty flora migrated on to this from the adjacent con-
tinental land mass which perhaps lay to- the west and south-west.
So far as is yet known there are only a quarter of the number
of species noted in the Australian terrestrial Mesozoic rocks
(Benson, 1919). The oldest Mesozoic plants are those of Mount
Potts, in Canterbury, which Arber considers to be probably
Rhaetic. According to Park (1904), they underlie the Kaihiku
(Ladino-Carnic) beds, though McKay is uncertain of this (1878,
pp. 92 and 95). They contain Thinnfeldia odontopteroides, T.
lancifolia, and Clndnphlehu anfitrnlis, together with LingiiifoUuni
lillieanvm, the form long thought to be Gloxsopferis. A rather
similar flora occurs in the Clent Hills. Small floras dubiously re-
ferred to the Rhaetic or early Jurassic, and otners placed with
more confidence in the Lower Jurassic, have oeen described from
strata in the southern flanks of the Hokonui Hills, formerly
grouped within the Catlins and Flag Hill series. A similar as-
semblage occurs in the Malvern Hills, west of Christchurch.
Taeniopteris (daintreei) spatvia, Cladophlehis, Coniopteris, and
cycads occur in these. The well-known fossil foTest at Waikawa,
east of Invercargill, in which petrified coniferous trunks are fre-
quent, has long been classed in the Mataura Series; at the flora
of these Arber has considered as Middle Jurassic. With these
also occurred, in all probability, the steins ox Osmundites, de-
scribed biv Kidstcn and Gwynne Vaughan (1907), and also' by
Sinnott (1914). Of special interest is Arber's recognition that
the plant beds of the Waikato Heads near Auckland, the highest
portion of the Hokonui system, is of Neocomian Age, and contains
two angiosperms, one allied to the modern figs. " This flora is
particularly interesting as being probably one of the oldest of the
known Neophytic floras." * — (Arber, 1917.)

• Angiosperms have since been found in rooks of about the same age in Queensland (Walkom,
1919).

president's address — SECTION c, 71

The Problem of the Otago Schists.

So far we have left untoixclied the difficult problem of the age
and origin of the Otago Schists, of which the structure-planes lie
inclined at remarkably low angles. These consist of quartz-mica-
schist, with the structures characteristic of rocks in the uppermost
of Grubenmann's metamorphic zones, and are intercalated with
bands of chlorites or hornblende, schists, which were originally
doleritic rocks (cf. Finlayson, 1907). From the first it has been
stated that these pass by decreasing metamorphism into unmeta-
morphosed rocks. Hutton (1875) placed them into his Wanaka
Series passing insensibly to north-east and south-west through the
semi-metamorphic Kakanui formation into the Kaikoura forma-
tion, the last being considered equivalent to the Te Anau-Maitai
Series. Later (1900) he ccnsidered them all of pre-Cambrian
Age. Hector (1886) suggested that they might range in age from
Silurian to Carboniferous. Park (1906) classed the most meta-
morphic schists as Cambrian, followed by semi-metamorphic Or-
dovician to Carboniferous rocks. That the Central Otagoi schists
are older than the less metamcrphcsed flanking formations, is still
the view of the Geological Survey (Morgan, 1914), as is illus-
trated by the map herewith. Marshall (1912) has urged that
the schists are but the altered forms oif the Permian and Mesozoic
sediments, and mentioned several districts where field evidence
seems to indicate that a gradual passage exists between the two.
More recently (1918), he has described the observations made in
the microscopical study of a series cf two dozen rock-slices from
specimens, taken along a 12-mile line of section from the unmeta-
morphosed rocks near Balclutha, northwards into the heart of the
schists beyond Lawrence. This collection he has permitted the
writer to study. The evidence therein of gradual mechanical
change by the crushing of the greywacke into' an exceedingly fine-
grained rock, and its regularly varying degree of recrystalliza-
tion into a schist, seems to' he very strong. The writer has not yet
had other opportunity for personal investigation of this problem,
but accepting Marshall's statement cf the field -occnrrence of these
rocks, the explanation which be oilers, though at first sight op-
posed toi onr general experience, seems to be well worthy of
consideration. It has been urged, by the Geological Survey, for
**xample, that the greywackes, which are the unaltered or initial
stage of the schists, are quite as like the Ordcvician ( ?) Aorere
greywackes, or the presumably older sediments invaded by the
gneissic diorites, as they are to the greywackes of the Maitai or
Hokonui Series, and that, therefore, an Ordovician or older age is
more probable for the Otago schists than a Mesozoic one. On the
other hand, the earlier descriptions of unconformities between the
schistose and unaltered rocks remain unconfirmed. It is true that
the two types of rock have been brought intoi juxtaposition in the

72' president's address — section c.

Shag Valley (McKay, 1884), and especially in the central por-
tion of Northeim Otagc. Cotton (1917) has shown that there are
here broad areas 'made up of a complex cf schist and greywacjse,
so distinct in lithological characters as to determine distinctive
types of physiographic forms. If, however, we may assume as a
working hypothesis the existence of a great series of recumbent
folds* broken by subsequent block-faulting, this lithological dis-
tinction does not necessarily imply any difEerence in age between
the schists (belonging to the lower portion of the series of folded
sheets) and the far less altered greywackes derived from the upper
portion of the series. This, also, would afford an explanation of
the absence of pebbles of the schist, of quartz-]>ebbles derived
from the schists, and of micaceous sands, froan thei Mesozoic semi-
glomerates and greywackes adjacent to the areas oi schist, for
were the schists much older than the unaltered Mesozoic sedi-
ments, they might reasonably be expected to have yielded detritus,
that would be recognisable in the Mesozoic rocks as unmistakably
as it is in the Tertiary rocks that rest on the schist. Thus
Marshall's view that tha schists are altered Mesozoic, and, we may
add, late Palseozoic rocks seems to involve fewer difficulties than
any other hyi^cthesis that has been put forward.

The explanations offered for these schists lead to interesting
considerations. Hutton (1900) drew attention to the gene-
rally low angle of dip of these rocks (thongh locally steeply
dipping or crumpled), and held that their metamorphism cannot
bo explained by lateral pressure, nor is there any evidence of
contact metamorphism, for plutcnic rocks are absent. He, thei'efore,
concluded that the change was due to regional thermal meta-
morphism, when the interior heat C'f the earth was greater than
at present. This is in marked agreement with Daly's (1917)
recent discussion of the efficiency of " load metamorphism," in
terranes " where the bedding is perfectly preserved in the sedi-
mentary members of the crystalline series of rocks, the dip is
characteristically low, even nearly horizontal over wide areas, and
the structure is that of a somewhat broken plateau." Even
where the inetamorphic rocks have been considerably dislocated,
as in the Erzgebirge, where there is a gradual passage from
gneisses through crystalline schists and thick phyllites into fossili-
ferous Cambrian beds, Daly holds (in opposition to certain other
geologists, especially Lepsius), that such metamorphism may have
occurred at an early period, long prior to the folding, and under
a comparatively small load, but with a thermal gradient much
steeper than existed in Palseozoic and Mesozoic sediments, even
though they were buried to greater depth in the crust. This last
point prevents the application of Daly's hypothesis to the problem

* Since this was written, the author learns that the existence of overthrust or
overfolded sheets in Central Otago has been suggested bj^ Wilckens (1917).

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION C.

oi the Otago schists, since they pass upward (without any distinct
break, not into early Palaeoizoic fossiliferous beds, but into upper
Triassic sediments. Moreover, the miscrosccpic evidence shows
that great shearing and crushing has taken place in these rocks,
more soi than seems consistent with the idea of static meta-
morphism. It is very difficult, in the absence of recognisable
horizons, to' determine the true structure of this regio'n. The
overfclding of the Maitai rocks of the Nelson Province, and near
Mount Cook (figured by Park, 1910), and occasional over thrust-
faulting, (fide Morgan), suggest that recumbent folds may be •ex
pected in the more strongly compressed regions. While not over-
looking Daly's objection to the hypothesis of recumbent folding,
wo may indicate as worthy of testing, the concept of the Otago

Fig. 3. Section through Mounts Haast and Haidinger, near Mt. Cook. (After Park 1910).

schists as a series of sheet-folds, occasionally upturned and crushed,
and composed for the most part of the metamorphic equivalents
of Middle aiid Lower Triassic and Pei-miaii formations, the
chloritic and amphibole schists representing the Te Anau igneous
rocks, and the few lenses of limestone those of the Maitai series.
There are undeniably many difficulties in the way of accepting this
hypothesis, notable perhaps being the paucity of evidence of
asymmetry in the folding of Otago, but the difficulties in the way
of other interpretations seem to be at least as great. Here, also,
very extensive field and petrological investigation is essential to
progress in the study of these rocks.

Mention should also be made here of the small area of schist
near the Pelorus River in the north-east of the South Island.
The Geological Survey considers these to. be probably of late
Palaeozoic agei, grouping them with the Te Anau series, and the
rocks of the Kakanui range in North Otago. This grouping is
also followed by Marshall, who, however, referred all these forma-
tions to his comprehensive Trias- Jura " Maitai System." Very
little is known of the Pelorus rocks.

president's address — SECTION c. 75

The Post-tHokonm and Earlier Epochs of Orogeny and Plutonic

IntrU'Sion.

In the course of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic periods, the New
Zealand region may have suffered several epochs of earth-folding,
which we are not yet able fully to disentangle, for folding in
diverse directions appear to have been superposed upon one
another. The various directions of folding have been stated by
Suess (1904), Park (1910), and Marshall (1912). The following
summary embodies the newer observations, and offers an inter-
pretation of the facts rather different from those which have been
given. It must, however, be recognised that this is merely a
suggestion ; the writer is not in a position to state an opinion on
the subject. In the extreme south-west, the strike of the schistose
rocks and Ordovician slates is to the ncrth-west, running from
Stewart Island to the Bluff and Preservatioii Inlet. It swings
round to the north-north-west or north in Dusky Sound, while
further north and on the eastern side of the gneissic mass, namely,

jNIa

Fig. 4. Section from West (left hand) to East through Aorere Distiict in the North-west
of the South Island. (After Bell 1907.)

1. Ordovician' argillites, greywackes, and quartzite. 2. Ordovician? crystal-
line schist and quaitzite. 3. Ordovicifln ? limestone. 4. Acid igneous
rotks. 5. Basic igneous rocks. 6. The Haupirl series.

on the shores of Lake Te Anau, the strike is to the north-east.
The information available to the writer suggests either that the
gneissic rocks have a dominantly north-easterly strike, and are
unconformable with the north-westerly striking schists, (an inter-
pretation now favoured by Park*), or that there is an arcuate
folding roughly parallel with that further to the north in Western
Otago, a hypothesis which is here advanced. Along the west
coast northwards from the Sounds, the strike of the Aorere or
gneissic rocks is generally to the west of north, though varying
from north-west to north-north-east, and the folds are often over-
turned towards the west. (Fig. 4.) Bell (1905) has noted this
near Mt. Cook, Morgan (1908, 1915), Webb (1910), and Bell
(1906), in North Wootland, and the west of the Nelson
Province. Hence the strike of these Aorere rocks and .gneisses,
though varying, is generally oblique to the direction of the
West Coast, and of the Southern Alps. The distinction between
the strike of the Southern Alps and that of the north-westerly

• Private communication.

76 president's address — section c.

folds was first sharply drawn by Morgan (1908), who has since
supported it by further observations (1915). Henderson (1917)
has carried the study a stage' further, and remarks as follows .
" Apparently the PalaecEcdc recks of the West Coast have been
subjected to twoi series of foldings, the -cue producing north-
north-east strikes over a well-marked belt cf country from Reefton
to Separation Point if the other, less definite, affecting the rocks
westward of this zone, and producing noxth-westerly strikes.
Neither of these directions correspcnds with the- trend of the
plications of the Alpine chain, which are of late Mesozoic date,
and presumably quite distinct froui and younger than the folding
of the rocks west of the great series of overthrusts." This over-
thrusting is also ascribed to the Mesozoic mcvement. Neverthe-
less, as will be pointed out, a considerable crust-movement
occurred in Tertiary times also, in which a north-easterly strike
predominated.

In the north-east of the South Island also, i.e., the Kaikoura
Ranges, though McKay (1892) declared the general direction of
the strike was to the north-east, Thcmscn (1918) considers this
opinion may have been based in large part en the appearance of
jointing rather than bedding planes, and shows that in a dozen
places at least the average direction of strike was to the north
north-w^est, and independent of the north-easterly strike of the
range as determined by late Tertiarj' faulting. This conclusion
was forethadowed by Cotton (1913), who has, moreover, shown
that the obliquity of the post-Tertiary fault-lines to the "grain''
of the country is a rather general feature throughout New Zea-
land. It may be suggested that tangential thrusts, transmitted
obliquely to' the structural axes or "grain" of the basement rocks,
might well be expected to produce irregularities in the direction
of folding of the overlying strata. If this be the case in the
northern portion of the South Island, we may perhaps recognise
Otago and Southland as a region in which the direction of the
Mesozoic folding has been more nearly parallel with that of the
older north-we.^terly axis. According to Marshall (1912) the evi-
dence, tho'Ugh yet incomplete, appears to indicate that the south-
westerly trend lines of the Southern Alps diverge in the north-
west of Otagoi, and swing round intoi a south-east line of strike
Park shows that Queenstown forms the median area cf this virga-
tion, and the strike is here appropriately nearly meridional, but
further east changes to south -south-east near Cromwell, and it is
south-east at Lawrence, Marshall (1918) nearer the east coast.
Suess (1904) considered that two independent unilateral chains
meet in syntaxis at Queenstown; and Marshall (1912), while re-
cognising much more detailed work is required to prove this, be-
lieves the view a very probable one.

t Spei<;ht (191(i) also calls attention to this feature in North-west Canterbury.

president's ADDREiS — SECTION C. 77

Attention must be drawn, however, to' the diversity in the
character of these two unilateral ranges. We have supported
Marshall's view that the Otago schists are the dynamically meta-
morphosed portions of the (Permian and) Mesozoic sedime^nts, sug-
gesting that they form recumbent folds along the margin of which
runs the sharp but approximately symmetrical anticline of the
Hokonui Hills, beyond which are the gently undulating Mesozoic
rocks of eastern Southland, protected from plication by an under-
lying basement-complex of ancient folded rocks, fragments of
which appear in the Bluff and Stewart Island, unless we may re-
gard these as forming with the Fiordland arc, a range folded
simultaneously with the folding in Central Otago, while eastern
Southland remained as a resistant unfolded block between the two
arcuate ranges. In either case, the Hokonui Hills appear as a
forefold in front of the main folds of Central Otago resembling
in some d agree the Parma range of forefolding, lying between the
highly folded and metamorphosed Palaeozoic rocks of the Ural
Mountains, and their undisturbed equivalents on the Russian
platform (Suess, Vol. I., 504). No plutonic intrusions, except
one cr two narrow sills of serpentine, are associated with the
schists of Otago, however, and the absence of any marginal fault-
ing, or evidence of such faulting, may be explained in part by
the paralMism. of the Mesozoic folding with the grain of the
basement rock.

West of lake Wakatipu the conditions are altered. The outer
portion of the great arcuate folds is pressed against the northern
portion of the crystalline comp'^ex of. Fiordland. This region, though
very difficult of access, seems to be one of the most interesting in
the Dominion, our knowledge of it having been gained under great .
difficulties by Hector (1866, 1891), Cox (1878), McKay (1879),
and Park (1886). The region is very rugged and c:mplex, b'^t,
generalizing, it would seem as if the outer marg:n of the folds
showed a westward decrease in metamorphism frorn the schistose
rocks east of Lake Wakatipu, to the noimal, rarely fossiliferous
greywackes and sandstone near the Hcllyf ord River, by I ake
Harris, in which Hector found fossils termed Permian by him,
but which hci compared with the fossils of Nugget Point, which
we now know to be Uppeir Triassic. Adiacent to these is the
Maitai limestone noted bv McKay, in which Park ha-, recently
observed some fossils, Sjiirijcra, &c., which he compares with
those of th-^ Maitai limestone near Nelson, considered Permian
herein. With thess, and extending" south into the Gre'^nstone
River, arei the basic Te Anau breccias. West again of these are
the annelid -bearing greywackes of the Enjlinton and Hollyford
Valbvs, which according to the observations of Prof<=ssor Park
and Mcir, are invad'-d by the diorites which form the nortliem
extremitv cf the plutoric complex of Fiordland. In a fault-
line in the Maitai and Te Anau rocks, or between these and the

1084.— 9

78 president's address — section c.

moire crystalline schists tO' the east, seprrmtines make their appear-
ance, and arei continuous apparently for over fifty miles. The
band of serpentine is generally less than a quarter of a mile wide,
and frequently not more than 300 or 400 feet.

Further north in the regions of t-ie Wect Coist that have been
mapped, Morgan suggests that the Lower Palaeozoic rocks were
folded along approximately north-westerly axes in later Palaeozoic
times, and were then invaded by plutonic rocks. Further move-
ment occurred during Cretaceous times. Henderson (1917) would
think that the plutonic masses were intruded in two series, the
older gneissic series being pre-Ordovician, the younger granitic
rocks being of late Mesozoic age formed during the principal era
of Mesozoic intrusion, when where was developed a great series of
ma or fractures parallel with the trend of the Alps, and adds:

There is no doubt but that the force that crumpled that range
produced lines of weakness in the foreland, against which the
folding took place." Here, however, tne axis of the Mesozoic
folding was oblique to the grain of the basement rocks, and
faulting of the latter, especially if in long strips, becomes very
obvious. Further orogenic crust-movement occurring here in
Tertiary times is, however, noted below.

In most of the North Island less complexity is seen in the strike
of the older rocks, though the slight obliquity of the roughly north-
north-easterly strike of the fold to the north-east faults has been
noted by Cotton in several districts. In the North Auckland
Peninsula, however, great difficulties occur, and little new infor-
mation has b 'len recorded since Marshall (1912) summarised the
local variation of strike, and indorsed Suess' comment that the
north-western coast in no way represents the actual trend of the
mountains. As will appear, this folding was practically com-
pleted by Middle Ctetaceous times, whon sedimentation occurred
locally. It is generally known as the post-Hokoaaui orogeny.

The igneous rocks erupted during thfs period of folding include
ultrabasic and basic types, and probably also granites. Com-
mencing at the North Cape, there are gabbrcs, norites, and harz-
ber2[ites, the age of which is not definitely known (Bell, 1910). The
noritei, and especially the diorite of Ahipara and Monganui are
perhaps of pre-Maitai age, though Marshall's latest statement
therron (1912) classes them as post Matai. They have a strong
likene-s to certain Fiordland rocks. Sills ( ?) ol serpentine
occur near Auckland, and on the Mokau Eiver in North
Taranaki, and these invade the Mesozoic sediments. So also do
the long complex sills of Dun Mountain, and the narrow sills in
the Alps stretching south-westwards through the Nelson Province
into Westland. In the neighbourhood of the last, there occur
intrusions of granite, &c. , and the usual porphyritic and lampro-
phyric dyke-rocks. Some of these are of an alkaline facies

president's address — SECTION c. 79

(Smith, 1908). The so-called syenite of Mackay's Bluff, near
Kelson, is sometimes placed among this general group of intrusions.
Further south, there are the ultrabasic rocks west of Lake Waka-
tipu, that have been already mentioned, and some sill-like serpen-
tine masses, and dykes of monchiquite in the Otago schists. Some
authorities class in this general group of post-Hokonui in'ru i ns,
the whole series of gneissic dicrites, noritei, and peridctites of the
Fiord region, the Longwood Range, Orepuki, and the Bluff, to-
gether with the more massive granites of Preservation Inlet and
Stswart Island. Gabbroid rocks, prcbably invading Mesozoic
sedimemts, occur in North Cant-rbury, and, perhaps, the plutonic
and dyke-rocks of Mount Tapuasnuka in the Kaikoura Mountains
may belong to this group, though Thomson (1918) is inclined to
connect them with the Middle Cretaceous volcanic rocks.

The " Notocene" Rocks.

The series of formations deposited after the Hokonui (Lower
Cretac90^s) orogeny commences with Middle Cretaceous (Alb'an)
beds, and extends up into the Upper Fliccane deposits. They have
always attracted much attention from New Zealand geologists, and
considerable diversity of opinion here has existed concerning them.
During the past decade nv;merous papers have appeared, and
though diversity of opinion still exists, a great advance has been
made in our knowledge. Of especial value has been thei detailed
palaeontological work of Bartrum, Chapman, Marshall, Suter,
Thomson, woods, and others. In general, there has been no doubt
as to the relative ages of the beds iij any one region, or the recog-
nitiom of differencei in age in the basal beds in different regions, but
the correlition of the succe ding formations in adjacent regions,
and the interpretation of the structural relationships of the several
beds to one another, arei matters that are still discussed. There
have been several hypotheses as to' the sequence of events forming
this great series of d'^oosits. The s mnlest among current v'ews
is that advocated by Marshall (1910, 1915). This considers that
the whole series of Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks is conformable
throughoiut. Overlap on to an evenly subsiding but irregular sur-
face accounts for the difference of age of the basal beds in different
regions. The period of greatest submergence was the period
when the limestone was deposited, so that the limestones in all
regions are coeval. They are succeeded by beds of a more elastic
character, indicating: the return of shallow-water conditions. To
this supposedly continuous system, Marshall has extended the use
of the term Oamaru System. This name had formerly been used
by Hutton to denote a portion only of the rocks thus designated
by Marshall. Hutton (1885, 1900) held that there was an
Upper Cretaceous Waipara System, followed unconformably by
the Oligocene Oamaru System, and this by the Miocene Pareora
System, which again is followed by the Pliooene Wanganui series

80 president's address — SECTION c.

without a definite unconformity. Hector (1886) placed a series
of rocks representing the lower half of Hutton's Waipara series
into' his Lower Greensand group, considered these to te uncon-
formably followed by the Cretaceo-Tertiary beds, comprising the
Upper Waipara and basal Oamaru beds, and this again was un-
conformably followed by the Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene
beds, a group of rocks comprising the formations placed by Hutton
in his Upper Oamaru and Pareora systems. Unfortunately, these
two names were used by Hector toi designate minor stages in his
larger group. The uppermost of Hector's major groups included
beds assumed to be of Miocene age. Since Professor Park's
abandonment (1905) of his acceptance (1888) of the completely
conformable character of the se:[uence cf pcst-Hokonuian fcrma-
tion, he has held that there exists a major unconformity separating
the Cretaceous from the Miocene rocks in the eastern side of the
South Island, which represented an uplift here during the Eocene
period, while in the West^'cast coa^.-nieasures were torming. The
precise classification of beds on this hypothesis has varied from
time to time (1910, 1912, 1917), according as the balance of the
evidence appeared to favour one horizon or another as the position
of the assumed regional unconformity. • At the commencement of
the last decade, it was possible to state that the existence of eVe-ry
unconformity that had bsen recognised by one field -geologist, had
some time been denied either by some other geologist or by himself.
Such is still the case, in so far that the hypothesis of Marshall
denies the existence of any unconformity.

Two' new conceptions, however, have since appeared. Thomson
(1917) has suggested the existence of " diastrophic provinces," or
regions, throughout each of which the tectonic history has been the
same, though differing from that of adjacent regions, and he has
outlined the characteristics of several of these provinces (1920).
On this hypothesis, the differences of age of the basal beds of the
post-Hokonui rocks depends, not only on the overlap of formations
on a subsiding uneven surface, but also on the independent move-
ment of the crust in different regions. The limestones of
adjacent provinces are not necessarily coeval, but represent merely
the period of maximum submergence for that particular province.
In sorre districts more than one horizon of limestone is present.
So, too, the regression of the sea has taken place at different limes
in different provinces. There is, however, no need to consider that
any unconformities of a general nature are present, such as
some earlier observeirs had supposed, though they may extend
over a single diastrophic province. Thomson also' has suggested
the name " Notocene " ([New (rocks) of Southern (regions)] to
indicate the whole group of formations of the Cainozoic deposited
before the latest (Kaikoura) orogenic movement, to- which must
be added the Upper Middle and the Upper Cretaceous (Albian)

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION C.

beds. Though objections hav« been raised toi this convenient
term, we may follow here the example of the Director of the
Geological Survey in adopting it.

The work of the officers of the survey has brought to' light a
further conception. Block-faulting and tilting of the crust, so
marked a feature of Pleistocene times, was not confined thereto,
but occurred at intervals from Cretaceous to' recent times. This
was suggested to Morgan and Eartrum (1915), and by Henderso'n
(1917), as a result of studies in the West Coast Coalfields (South
Island), and is confirmed by the study of the Gisborne region by
Henderson and Ongley (1920). The movements of the blocks
wera chiefly vertical or accompanied by tilting, but along the fault-
planes the strata may be much crushed or upturned. Erosion pro-
ceeded puri pasxu with eleivation, and the beds laid down after
faulting may rest with apparently perfect conformity on the
undisturbed areas, but with small or great unconformity where
near to the fault-plane, or whem lyincr on a tilted block, or they
may cross without disturbance a zone of fault-breccia in the under-
lying rock. This view accords well with the hypothesis of pro-
vincial diastrcphism. Until more extensive work has been done

Fig. 5. Diagram to illustrate the occurrence of a general but deceptive uncomtormity
obscuring an erosion-interval in the deposition of the " Notocene " roclcs.

it would be premature to discuss the stratigraphic or palseontolo-
gical value of such breaks, or whether any of them may be con-
sidered to be universal throughout the Notoceiie System.

Schemes of subdivision of the Notocene rocks into stages have
been advanced by Thomson (1916) and Marshall (1916, 1919).
Thanks to the enthusiastic collecting of several workers, the rapid
extension of the faunal lists is rendering the use of the Lyellian
percentagD-method of increasing value in the determination of
relative ages. A new method of calculation suggested by
Thomson (1920) promises tO' be very helpful in this respect, in
that each collection madei is compared, not with the re.cent fauna
only, but also with the fauna which eixisted (so far as is known)
in each of the periods represented by the well-ascertained stages,
and the affinities of the new collection become thus well established.
The present rapid extension of knowledge of these rocks may be
expected to continue for some time, and what follows is merely a
pr ogress -repo rt .

82 president's address — section c.

Before summarizing the present knowledge, two points must be
stressed. The hypothesis which held that all the limestones were
of the same age, and that no' unconformities or disconformities
existed, had to recognise that sometimes a fauna of a Cretaceous
aspect, and sometimes one of an Oligocene aspect lay immediately
below the l:me:tcne. This necessitated an explanation oi: the
absence of a characteristic Eocene fauna, and the rapid change of
lif:i-forms ; as such was suggested the isolation cf New Zealand,
the lingering here of archaic forms, and the alleged abnormally
slow rate of deposition of some of the sediments. The recognition
of the clo'se relation of the Cretaceous faunas of New Zealand to
those of other lands, which we owe to Woods, Trechmann, and
Wiljkens; the recent proof of the existence of an extensive Eocene
fauna in certain regions, which is due to Marshall; and the
evidence of variation in age between the limestones, urged
by Thomson and others, reimoves these difficulties in a great
measure. Moreover, the local absence from between Cretaceous
rocks and those oi (say) Oligocene aspect, of an Eocene
fauna such as occurs in adjacent regions, without the
intervention of a great thickness of unfossiliferous beds, should
be at least suggestive of the existence here of a discon-
formit-y. Again, though the adoption of the modified Lyellian
m°ithod of determining the relative age of Nctccene beds will pro-
bably be of great service in New Zealand, it must be recognised
that the diastrophic histories of New Zea'and and Europe have
been so different, that it would be unlikely that the rate of evolu-
tion of new species, and the elimination of old would be exactly
the same here as in Europe, and that, therefore, if the familiar
terms. Eocene, Miocene, &c., are ured at all here, it is toi indicate
the relative ages of groups of beds, but not specifically their age in
comparison with the European time-scale, f Indead, it might be
most correct to abandon for the present the employment of these
ol;! terms, though they are so useful in making clear the record to
those unfamiliar with local terminology that they have been re-
tained in this address in the above generalized sense, but the
convention is adopted of placing tlie terms so used between inverted
commas. For minor stage-names a nomenclature based on local
namos has been suggested, and is given in Table IV.

The character of the land surface upon which the Notocene beds
were deposited has also been considered more carefully" than
formerly. Early observers, especially Hutton (1900), thought the
embayed outlines of the present areas cf Notocene rocks indioted
the outlires of the regions of deposition of these in narrow tro'^-ghs
among the mountains, and this view was accepted by Suess
(1906^11. p. 148). Modern workers (e.g., Cotton, 1913, 1916, and
Speisht. 1915, p. 153), confirm MoKav's view (1892) that these

t R'fe-en'e should he made to Ortmann's (1902. pp. 288-300) criticism of the use of the
Lyellian method, and the alternative adoijted by him.

Hochstetter, 1S64.

Hutton, 188.5.

Hector, 188B.

Hutton, 1900.

Park, 1905.

Park, 1910.

Marshall. 1912.

Morgan, 1911!.

Thomson. 191H.

Marshall, 1919.

Geological Survey. —
M,.r2an, 191.«. §

Younger Tertiary.

Wanganui System.

Pliocene.

Newer Pliocene.

Wanganui System.

Pliocene —

Pliocene.

Wangan.uian.

Oamaru System.

Pliocene — Wanganui

Marine beds at —

70— 90'?'oRecent

Gravels, Napier

Wanganui 75—93%

Wanganui Series.

Newer Pliocene.

Wanaanvi System.

System.

Rodney Point

Species.

Lignite, Kereru.

Recent Species.

Petane Series.

Napier and Wanganui

Ormond, Petane, Upper

Castlecliffian

Considered conformable

Castlecliffian

Hawke's Bay

Petane, Ormond and

Older Pliocene.

beds.

Wanffanui be'ls.

Waitotaran (other

throughout.

Petanian

Wanganui

Putiki Series.

Upper Miocene.

Older Pliocene.

Waitotara

stages possible).

Waitotaran (includes Awa.

Nelson

Te Ante, Taueru

Unconformity.

Te Ante or Waito-

Awatere.

Oamaru System.

Local Un.:onformi>ies.

Casilecliff Serie-i.

tere in part)

Awatere

Pareora System.

tara.

Karamea System.

Extending from Awatere

Oamarr ian.

80—90% Recent Species.

Miocene and (?) Oligoceue

Waitaki.

25—45% Recent

Lower Miocene.

Motunau and

Miocene.

— Motunau beds down-

Upper Miocene.

Awamoan

— Oamaru System.

(The last three

Species.

Awakere, Pareora,

Miocene.

Awatere.

Oamaru Series.

wards, including the

Waitemata

Hutchinsonian

Nukumaru Series.

Awamoa — Pareoran (in-

Oamaru beds in later

Awatere, Awamoa.

Awamoa.

Pareora, 20—65%

Ototara

Upper and Lower Mio-

Pareora system of Hut-

Ototaran

70—80% Recent Species.

cludes Awatera and

classifications.)
Onekakara,

Recent Species.

Awamora, Pareora

cene, Eocene, Cretaeeo-

ton, Eocene and Mio-

Waiarekan

Waitemata)

Upper Eocene.

Awatere, Awamoa

Unconformity.

Hutchinsonian

Tertiary and Lower

cene of Hector.

Ngaparan coal-mea-

Waipipi Series.

Hutchinsonian (includes

(Hampden, or

Mount Blown,

and Mount Brown

Oamaru stone

Greensand of Hector,

sure

60—70% Recent Species.

Mount Brown beds)

Wangaloa,

Oamaru, Waitald.

(including Waite-

Marewhenua green-

and considered to be

Probable Local Uncon-

Ototaran (includes Leda

Kaitangata beds

mata. )

Miocene.

sands

perfectly conformable

formitie-'.

(Other stages).?

Tawhiti Seriei.*

Marls)

in later classifica-

Mount Brown

Waitemata

throughout. The Amuri

50% Recent .Species.

Waiarekan

tions).

Oamaru System.

Unconformity.

Waihao clay and

and Otatara limestones

Middle and Lower Miocene.

Paparoan coal measure

Ngaparan coal-measures.

Older Pliocene.

9— ICo Recent

sandstone

are considered co'val.

Papakura, Oamaru sys-

Target Gully Series.

Marine Beds —

Species.

Oligocene.

Kaikorai coal mea-

tem ( Hutton), Cretaceo

(Other groups)?

30—40% Recent Species.

Unconformity?

Overlying coal mea-

Waitemata, &c.

Cretaeeo-Tertiary.

Waitemata — Grey

sure.

-Tertiary (Hector) in

Eocene — Marewheran ui

sures in Auckland

Otatara, &c.

Waitemata, Otatara

Marl.

part.

Paparoan

Ototara Series.

Syftem.
Kaitangatan — Wangaloa

and Hampden beds.
Also Weka Pass stone.

Province. Mokau,

Weka Pass stone.

Mawhere, Chalk

Otatara, Mawhere,

Unconformity.

Eocene-^Waiman-

Kaitangatan

25 — 30% Recent Species.

and Wanganui,

Waiareka, Coal

Weka Pass stone.

Waipara

garoa System.

Unconformity {not proved

Nelson Province,

Series.

Upper Cretaceous.

Brunner and Pap-

in all districts).

(Other groups or

Wharekuri Series..

Otago.

Vneonjormity.

Black Grit Series.

Weka Pass stone

aroa coal mea-

stages)

20—25% Recent Species.

Kaitangata and West

Conglomerate.

Unconformity.

Amuri limestone

sures.

Eocene.

Coast coal-measures, in

Cretareous.

Greensand

Cretaceo- Tertiary in

Piripauan

Wangaloa Series.
— 20% Recent Species.

which are several sub-

Marine Beds. —

Waipara System.

Black oyster-bed

part

stages.

Waikato South Head

Cretaceous

Unconformity.

Waipara System.

coal-measures

Unconformity.

Bituminous coal of West

(Other groups or

and Kawhia.

Amur! limestone

Upper Cretaceous

Sandstone.

Coast.

stages)

Waipara Series.

Unconformity.

Coal Measures —

Lower greensand

Amuri limestone

Semnian.

Late Cretaceow.
Danian Amuri limestone
Senonian

Piripauan— Waipara sys-
tem of Hutton.
Middle Cretaceous.

Waikato, Golden

Coal-formation

Lower Greensand.

Waiareka green-

Cretaceous.

U nconformi'-y.

Clarentian.

Bay, BuUer — Grey

Conglomerate.

BuUer, Arauri lime-

sands

Amm-i system.

Preservation Inlet.
(Now considered

stone, and iVeka
Pass stone.

Black grit
Conglomerate.

Weka Pass stone
Waipara system of

Cretaceous
Waipara system

Tertiary. Sep

Brunner coal mea-

Hutton.

(Hutton) " Cretaceo-Ter-

Table I. in

sures.

tiary in part.

(.ilbian)
Clarentian.

Apjiendix.)

Ormond Series, cf. Henderson and Ongley, 1920.)

etre
of t
exis

aspi
bek
abs(

lifCT

the

sloT?

of 1

tlio

Wi]

fau

evi(

me:

roc

fai

int

for

m'^

bal

t.h5

be<

tic

th«

tei

th.

CQ]

ol^

ta.

CO
CO'

613

th
ai

PRESIDENT S AUDRESS — SECTION C.

narrow intermontane strips of younger rocks are but disclocated
remnants of more extensive sheets which, at one time, covered
nearly all of the area that is now New Zealand. " There can be
no doubt that the mountain ranges which resulted from the
Meso:oic orogenic movements, had been subjected to erosion
throughout a long period, and reduced to at least a moderate re-
lief before the deposition of the oldest beds of the covering series
. There is certainly overlap in the lower beds, indicating
that the eroded surface of the older mass was soniewhat hilly
when submergence began " (Cotton). " Elevated land appeared
to have existed longest in the north-west, where immense thick-
ness3s of heavy conglomerate formed in early Tertiary times, while
planation was practically complete on the eastern side of the
island " (Speight). In general, the covering strata, with the
exception of the basal beds, are anaiine, and of such nature as to
indicate that they were accumulated in the open sea, where the
supply of sediment was small. Hence, during their deposition,
a great part of the site of the present islands of New Zealand was
usually submerged, though low islands existed both within
and outside the present limits of New Zealand, from whioh detritus
was derived. (Cf. Speight, 1915, p. 351.) ihe mo:.t persistent
land area was that of Central Otago, the region where the folding
had been piled so high as to lead to the production of micaceous
schists. Since we cannot discuss the Notocene record by its prob-
able time divisions, without assuming premature correlations of
strata, we shall instead describe typical districts, wltli but small
attempt at correlating the various stages in different areas. We
must note, however, that a very useful provisional correlation-
table was prepared by Morgan in 1918, and this is brought by him
up to date in a valuable note that will be laid before tnis section.
Thanks to his courtesy, I am permitted to add this, and other
tables as an appendix to this address.

Fig. 6. Diagram illustrating the type of structure and sculptme in the Middle Clarence
Vallry. (After Cotton, 1914.)

Mudstone — Clarentian (Albian Beds). limestone — (Panian ?) Amuri Limestone.
Marl — " The Grey Marl." Conglomerate — "The Great Marlborough Conglomerate."

86 president's address — section c.

The region wheTe the Notocene deposition was most continuous
is that of the Kaikoura Mountains of Marlborough. The structure
of this first indicated by the excellent work of McKay (1886-90-92),
which has been revised and extended by Cotton (1913, 1914), and
by Thomson (1913, 1916, 1918), who has cionsidered especially the
stratigraphy. The structure is simple, as shown by Cotton's
diagram. Here occur the oldest of the Notocene rocks, which rest
on an uneven surface of the " Maitai " rocks. There is a thick-
ness of from three thousand to nine thousand fees of sandstone,
and mudstone, with locally basal conglomerates or coal measures.
They resemble the topset beds of a continental shelf undergoing
rapid depression, and near the mouth of a large river. Several layers
of basalt occur in these sediments. They are mos^ f oesiaf erous in the
upper portion, and Woods (1917) has recognised from here sixteen
marine mollusca, including Inoceramus concentricus, Turrdites cir-
cumtaeniai iii^ and GaiidrT/ceras sayca. Those, and the other fossils
present, indicate that the beds are equivalent in age to the Utatur
or Albian beds in India and Europe respectively, and show that the
first effects of the Cenomanian transgression extended to New Zea-
land. The beds in this stage are termed Clarentian by Thomson
(1916). The mudstones are followed by a thick mass of hard,
chalky limestone, the Amuri limestone, which has here a thick-
ness of twenty-five hundred feet, though it becomes thinner when
traced to the northwards, and seems tO' extend tO' Cape Campbell,
and is, perhaps, represented in the south-eastern portion of the
North Island. The greater part of the investigation of this lime-
stone has b^>en, however, in the region of its south-western exten-
sion into North Canterbury^ where it continues, but with
diminishing thickness, for over fifty miles.

This last area, the Waipara-Weka Pass district has been
long held toi be of the greatest importance, and the long
series of studies in this region have recently been sum-
marized and extended by Thomson (1920). Before, there-
fore, discussing the Amuri limestone of the Kaikoura ranges
and elsewhere, it is desirable to describ'S the beds which lie
beneath it in Canterbury and the coast of Marlborough. These
give evidence of a Senonian transgression, which is much the more
exte'nsive of the Cretaceous transgressions flooding also parts of the
North Island, and of North Otago. The diastrophic province under
consideration commences to the east of the Kaikoura Mourrtains
and, passing Amuri Bluff, it extends south-westward into Canter-
bury for about a hundred and fifty miles in all. The surface, which
was submerged in Senonian times, was still fairly diversified, as
shown by the overlap of various beds in the Waipara district
(Thomson 1920). The thickness of these deposits varies, being a
thousand feet at Amuri Bluff (McKay. 1877) ; two thousand feet
in the Trelissick Basin (Speight, 1917), but only from eight
hundred down to one hundred and fifty feet in the Waipara district
The basal coal measures are generally succeeded by a

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION C.

pebbly bed containing more or less fragmental spec'mens of a
dark-coloured Osfrta, followed by a great thickness of sands, mud-
stones, marl and greensands, which in the Trelissick basin are
interstratified with basaltic volcanic ash, while doleritic sills appear
in the ccal meaures below (Speight, 1917, 1920). Dr. Marie Stopes

Pre-Notocene.

Pirlpauan. "Amupi limestone and' '"Grey marls" and" Greta beds.'

Weka Pass stone. M'^unt Brown beds. Kowhai beds*

^•^ Fig. 7. A diagrammatic section from North-west to Soutli-east across the Middle
Waipara Distrrict. (After Thomson, 1920.)

(1914) has described as a new species of Araucarioxylon a petrified
stem in the basal beds at Amuri Bluff. In the calc'areous layers,
especially in the lower parts of this succession of sediments, there
have been found over fifty species of molluscs, the affinities of which
are clearly with these of the Indo-Pacific, Upper Senonian trans-
gression, the fauna being comparable with that of New Caledonia
(Piroutet, 1917), South Africa, Madagascar and Pondicherry
(Woods, 1917), but most markedly with that of Chili, Patagonia
and Seymour Island (Wilckens, 1920). Characteristic forms are
belemnites such as B. superstcs, amnfonites such as Kossmaticcr/is,
Ga>(dr?/ce7ns. Baciilites, and Hamites, Anisoceras ( ?), and lamelli-
branchs such as Tric/onia (especially T. hnnetiona), Pecten, Cal-
li>^ta, Ciicullftea, and Asfarte. 'irechmann's (1917b) study of the
gasteropods is in accord with this, the chief among the recognised
forms are Conchothyra, Pugnelliis, A po?-rhais, and a single Aus-
tralian form Natica var'ahilis. Further valuable information may
Be expected from Dr. Otto Wilcken's studies of the gasteropods,
which are now in the press. Among the greensands, there is a
zone containing many large coiicretions, often about bon^s of
saurians, of which PTector (1874) recognised a dozen species, chiefly
of the genera Lcindon and Chnoliosaurus. Dr. C. W. Andrews
{fide Woods, 1917) compares these with the reptilian fauna of the
Senonian Niobrara chalk of Nebraska, U.S.A. Chapman's (1918)
determinations of the fish teeth accord v?ith this correlation. Out of
the do'^en forms that he recognised, two only ascend into Tertiary
beds. This gro'up of formations of Senonian age, lying immediately
beneath tbe Amuri limestone, was referred to the Piripauan stage
bv Thomson (1916), followed by the Geological Survey (see Morgan,
1919): Marshall (1919). foll^-wpd by Soeight (1920), retains for it
Hutton's old name of the Waipara System, though as onginally
defined the latter contained also the Danian (?) Amur: limestone
above, and, perhaps, the Clarentian (Albian) beds alpo.

88 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION C.

We now return to' the Amuri limestone, which tollcws directly
upon the Senonian beds in north-east Canterbury, and the coastal
part of South Marlborough. It is not found in the Malvern Hills,
and districts to the south ; its occurrence in the Trelissick Basin
is open to doubt, but in the Waipara district it is about a hundred
feet thick. At the Amuri Bluff in Marlbcrcugh it is nearly seven
hundred feet thick. In the Clarence Valley, however,
where it lies on Albian beds, it is twenty-five hundred
feet thick. The limestone is O'f a. peculiar character. It
is soft and chalky only at its extreme soiuthem limit, viz., Ox-
ford, in North Canterbury. Further north the lower beds of the
limestone are the softer and more argillaceous and pass down into
the Piripauan mudstone. In East Marlborough, there are alter-
nations of hard, chalky limestone with more argillaceous bands.
The thin-bedded, much-jointed and indurated natunD of the lime-
stone gives it a very characteristic appearance. It consists prin-
cipally of an exceedingly fine-grained calcareous mud, with tests
of foraminfera and very little terriginous matter, though there is
revealed chemically a donsiderable amount of silica (Thomson,
1916). The contrast between the microscopic features ol this and
other Notoeene limestones will appear from Marshall's careful
description (1916). The lower portions of the limestone are Very
flinty. Thomson urges that the limestone is in large degree a
chemical precipitate, and that the flints are concretions therein.
He holds that, except for a few local instances, there is no angular
unconformity between the limestone and the underlying Albian
rocks, and believes that its great tuickness in the Clarence River
Valley and north thereof ^ is the result of deposition continuing un-
brokenly beyond the region of terrigenous sedimentation, during
the Cennornanian and Turonian times (though no other sediments
of this age have yet been proved), as well as during the Senonian
times, while littoral eedimentation occurred in the surrounding
regions bordering lands of whidh " the surface at this time was
still fairly diversified." As this littoral region was deepened, the
Amuri limestone spread over most of the area of Senonian sedimen-
tion but did not extend b&yond it, except at one point, where it
appears to transgress on to the older greywackes (Thcmscn, 1920,
p. 411). Chapman's (1918) determinations of the foraminifera
(as yet unpublished), together with the istratigraphical position,
suggest a Danian age for this limestone. We may note, a^se. that
it contains the shark's teeth Carcharodon and Isurtis (Chapman,
1918). It may perhaps be doubted whether the long duration of
very peculiar and localized conditions demanded by Thoms:in's view
is as probable as the simpler explanation (regression of the sea)
offered by Woods, of the hiatus between the probably Danian
fauna of the Upner Amuri limestone, and that of the Albian beds
beneath the limestone in the Middle Clarence Valley. Moreover,
as Thomson points out, we know as yet nothing of the beds upon
which the limestone rests between the area in which it lies on
Senonian beds, and that in which it lies on Albian beds.

president's address — SECTION 0. 89

In the middle part of this extent of limestone, namely, from the
Weka Pass to the Kaikoura Peninsula, the upper portion of the
calcareous formation is a marly rock known as the Weka Pass
stone. The contact between it and the Amuri limestone is peculiar,
and was considered by Hutton to be a very significant uncon-
formity, separating the Oligccene Oamaru system from the under-
lying Cretaceous Waipara, system. Morgan (1916) concurs in
accepting this as an important unconformity. Marshall, and also
Speight and Wild (1918) do not belie.ve it to be such; nor till
recently (1912) did Park, who, moreover, has since (1917) with-
drawn his acceptance of this contact as an unconformity. The obser-
vatioms ol Speight and Wild have been very extensive. They believe
the peculiar features of the supposed erosion surface of Amuri lime-
stone are the result of extensive boring by some annelid during the
interval between the deposition of the typical Amuri limestone and
the upper more glauconitic Weka Pass stone. " The character of
the junction requires a uniformity of conditions over wide areas,
which would be obtained if the bored surface were a sea-bottom,
and not a shore line. The increased phosphatization of the frag-
ments of Amuri limstone, and, perhaps, of the true phosphatic
nodules (found here) might be accounted for by the decay of
the bodies of the boring organisms," in addition to the usual
chemical concentration. Thomson (1920), however, agrees with
Morgan that the penetration of limestone by greensand has taken
place along joint planes, enlarged by solution, and extends the
list of recorded occurrences of small pebbles of quartz-schist or
greywacke in this horizon. He concludes that the contact between
the Weka Pass stone and the Amun* limestone represents a period
during which deposition practically ceased, perhaps, by a shallow-
ing due to regressions, and boring and solution of the upper sur-
face of the Amuri limestone took place. Though it has not the
significance of uplift and great erosion attached to it by Hutton
and at one time by Park, it is nevertheless a correct place to draw
the dividing line and small time interval betweien the Cretaceous
and Tertiary beds By this time the surrounding land has been
reduced to a very low relief, and the attainment of such would
demand a period of still-stand, which agrees with the explanation
oflFered for the nature of the uoper surface of the Amuri lime-
stone, according to Thomson (1920, p. 411), whose discussion of
the problem is here summarized.

The Lower Tertiary sea flooded widely over the peneplain -sur-
face, and this may be termed the Oamaruian transgression. In
the Clarence Valley, homson (1919) obsei"ved that argillaceous, or
arenaceous limestones, comparable with the Weka Pass stone, were
about 150 feet thick, and some volcanic tuff occurs locally in con-
nexion therewith. Impressions of dicotyledonous leaves and a few
molluscs occur of the tyne found in the Oamaru district, described
subsequently. In the Waipara- Weka Pass district, the Weka Pass

90 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION C.

stone is from 60 to 100 feet thick, and from it have been obtained
about a score of molluscs and three brachiopods. Chapman (1918)
has recognized among the, sharks' teeth Isurus, Lamna, Odont-
aspis, Carchnrodon, and the fish Scomhrodupea, together with
Foraminifera, and these incline him to consider the beds as of
Eocene Age. Of the same age also may be the limestone in the
Trelissick basin, though it has long been considered as the equi-
valent of the Amuri limestone. It is lithologically sometimes in-
distinguishable from the Amuri limestone, though usually more
marly. It rests upon sands and greensand about 2,000 feet thick,
with some volcanic ash, near the base of which is the Senonian fauna.
Marshall (1916) showed that the limestone was in part foramini-
feral, and in other portions contained fragments of echinoderms,
polyzoa, and Lifhothamniuvi. Speight (1917) considers that both
types of limestone belong to the one band. Thomson (1917)
showed that there was a bed of calcareous tuff in the upper part
of the limestone, containing Oamaruian mollusca, with a small
percentage of recent forms. Speight (1917) extended the list con-
siderably, while concurring that they indicated an early Tertiary
age. Chapman's studies of the foraminifera have led to the
tentative conclusion fiat the rock is " probably Eocene." (Fide
Thomson 1920, p. 386.) Following upon these beds are the more
normal Tertiary deposits. In the Kaikoura district the Weka
Pass stone is overlain, with apparent conformity, with a forma-
tion known as " the grey marls,"* a series of sparsely fossiliferous
mudstones, about 300 feet thick, passing up into pebbly bands.
" The presence of thick beds of mudstone following limestone is
evidence of a gradual sea retreat, causing renewed denudation of
the thick soil mantles accumulated on the coast of the Middle
Notocene sea." In the Waipara district the corresponding beds are
much thicker. The contact between the Weka Pass stone arid "the
grey marls" has here been claimed, at one time by Park (1905),
to' be an unconformity, Morgan (1916) concurring in so- far as re-
gards the Kaikoura district only. Speight and AVild (1917) believe
the conformity to be absolute. Thomson (1919) holds that there
was a shallowing of the sea, with oscillations, during which " the
grey marls," and several bands of the Mount Brown limestones,
were deposited with intraformational unconformities. He has dis-
cussed the faunal characteristics elaborately with reference to the
sequence in the Oamaru district (shown on Table IV.), and.con-
cbides that " the grey marls " and Weka Pass stone are coeval
with the lowest marine beds at Oamaru, and that the three lime-
stones which follow are resDCctively to be correlated with the
limestone of Oamaru, and the twO' sncceedins: stages in that
district. The evidence against the correlation of the jAmuri lime-
stone and that of Oamaru seems now to be strong. The highest

* An <infortiinatp tprm for a formational name, since grey maj-ls of various ages occur
in the younger rocks of New Zealand.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS — SECTION C. 91

beds of this sequence in the Waipara district contain about 40 per
cent, of Recent forms, and since the beds immediately succeeding
contain 70 per cent, of Recent species, it is likely that a re-
treat of the sea intervened between the deposition of the Mount
Broiwn "Upper Miocene", and the succeeding " Pliocene" beds.
The retreat of the sea from the Trelissick basin was apparently
somewhat later than that from the Waipara, since the highest
member of the conformable sequence is a bed containing Ostrea
ingens, such as characterizes formations that are considered as
transitional between "Miocene" and "Pliocene." (Park 1905,,
Speight 1919, Thomson 1920.)

The succeeding "Pliocene" transgression, as a result of differen-
tial crust-movement, occupied quit^e a different area from that
affected by Oamaruian transgression. AH of the South Island re-
mained emergent, except the extreme north of Canterbury and
the coast of Marlborough, but there it extended beyond the limits^
of the older transgression and rested on the pre-Notocene rocks.
Its northern extension is apparently observable at the Palliser Bay
in the south of the North Island. The deposits of this trans-
gression are gravels, oyster-beds, and sands in the Waipara Dis-
trict (Greta beds), but north of the Kaikoura ranges, in the
Awatere Valley, they are largely clays with abundant Struthio-
laria, as well as sandy and gravelly beds. In the intervening
area of the Kaikoura ranges, there is a most remarkable formation
which has been termed the " Great Marlborough Conglomerate."
According to McKay (1877) "it is a conglomerate, composed in
chief part of well-rounded bonlders, but having a large percentage
of angular blocks of great size sO' that on the surface they often
present the appearance of old morainic accumulations." They
are rudely stratified; in the lower parts are enormous blocks of
Amuri limestone and masses of soft marly strata, and boulders
containing (according to McKay) Awatere fossils, are present.
Cotton (1914), supported by Thomson (1920), believes that they
lie conformably on "the grey marls/' and are followed, also con-
formably, by the Awatere beds, from which the fossiliferous
boulders were derived. The Marlborough Conglomerate, on this
view, consists of material that was stripped off the block of the
Seaward Kaikouras as it rose along a line of faulting, and formed
a continuous (confluent) strip of fanglomerate at the foot of the
growing fault-scarp. After the lapse of a considerable period, it
was cut off, and tilted bv the further development of the faulting
and warping in the Landward Kaikouras. Other views, how-
ever, have taeen put forward. Park (1910) considers the Great
Marlborough Conglomerate to be glacial, but his view demands the
acceptance of great-faulting and warping since the glacial period.
W'0 may also inquire as to its relations with the Kowhai gravels
described by Speight (1919) as formed during the earlier portion

92 PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS — SECTION C.

of the last great series of crust moivements. This latest move-
ment has been termed the Kaikoura orogeny by Cotton (1915),
and closes the Notocene period.

The coastal regions of South Canterbury and Otago have been
very extensively studid during the last decade. The
oldest beds are those of Shag Point. McKay (1887) showed that
over a basal series of conglomerates about fifteen hundred feet
thick and followed by coal-seams, there rested a series of mud-
stones containing Gonchothyra jyarasitica and some belemnites,
which we may consider as being of Senonian age. It is overlain
by a thick series of mudstones with septaria, and these are followed
by glauconitio mudstones, termed by Marshall the Hampden
Beds, which we must consider presently.

Sixty miles southward from Shag Point, at the north side of
the mouth ot the Clutha, is the Kaitangata coal-field. Upon a
great thickness of sandstones containing the coal measures. Hector
(1891, p. Ixiii.) discovered a thin band of extremely fossiliferous
Bandy limestone, the fauna which he considered as older than that
at Oamaru, and compared it with that of the beds of Hampden
and Waihao. This Marshall has ttudied with great care (1916-17),
terming it the Wangaloa fauna. He has recognised over fifty
forms, of which only eight per cent, are Recent. The presence
of Cretaceous types such as I'ugneUus {Struthiolaria ?) and
Perissolax; and the Paleeecene genera Heteroterma and Gilbertia,
together with genera well represented in higher Tertiary beds,
shows the interesting transitional character of the fauna. Thom-
son considers that it may be approximately coeval with the Amuri
limestone, and clae^ses both formations under the stage-name of
"Kaitangatan," originally suggested by Park (1910). At Brigh-
ton, between Kaitangata and Oanaaru, the coal measures are very
much less thick, and overlying them is a fragmental limestone
with indefinite belemnites and fragments of Pecten, Ostrca, and
Venericardia* Marshall (1917) correlated this with the Wangaloa
beds; Morgan (1916), followed by Grange (1921), thinks that it
must be older, probably Senonian, and considers that the came
beds extend up to the western suburbs of Dunedin, and are
separated by an erosion-interval, but not an angular unconformity
from unctuous mudstones, sandstones and marl, the last contain-
ing four species of sharks' teeth, and thirteen Foraminifera, which
Mr. Chapman considers to be " low in the (Tertiary) Serines."
Tentatively, Grf:nge has grouped these with the lowest marine beds
of Oamaru. The Hampden beds, above mentioned, Marshall
(1917-19-20) correlates with the Wangaloa beds. By assiduous
collecting ninety-three species have been found, of which eight

* No furthpr work has Veen done in the intervening Tokomairiro Valley since Hec'^or (1891)
dpscrlb"d th" iirrs"nce ot a fossilifer-us black limestone of an azc comparable wi'h that assig -ed to
Kai'anaatan and Briahton limestone, but Morgan believes they are really considerably younger.
(Private communication).

PRE.^IDEiSrr's ADDRESS — SECTION 93

are recent. Th© presence of Gilhertia, Volutoderma, Trigonia,
and Dxiroloma, are indicative of considerable age. Two forms
only are common to Hampden and Wangaloa, and Marshall is of
the opinion that the faunal difference is in all probability due to
difference of station, rather than difference of age. Of the same
age again may be the fossiliferous greensands, that overlie the
basal coal-bearing beds in Waihao district in South Canterbury,
50 miles north of Hampden (Hector 1891, Park 1905), but further
work here is desirable. In the Oamaru district, however, th© coal-
measures are directly overlain by marine tuffs termed the
Waiarekan series, from which 221 species of moll sea are
known, of which twenty-five per cent, are recent. Park (1918i
and Mar=;hall (1919) recognised a Icwer and upper stage in this
seri-^, but as the fossils ol the former ar:i all casts, it seems wisest
to disregard them for the present, though it may be possible to
confirm th© subdivision at a later date. This series contains ^
band of diatom a ceous earth in which 283 species and varieties of
diatoms (Grove and Sturt, 1S86-7), and 110 species of siliceous
sponges (Hinde and Holmes, 1890) have been found. According
to Park (^1918) there is an extensive development of ellipsoidal
basaltic flow within this series, though Uttley (1920) believes that
these should be placed in the succeeding formation.

This formation is the Oamaru polj'zoan limestone which is
divided into two portions in the coastal districts by a large inter-
posed wedgre of coarse breccia-tuff, and, according toi Uttley, by
the ellipsoidal or pillow lavas. It contains, besides the pclyzoa, a
dozen species of Foraminfera, four ostracods, a large echinoid
(Pericosmns coni/jjressus), and locally an immense abundance of a
few sub-genera of Terebratulidae. Other mollusca, which are of
the same type as those in the sediments above and below the lime-
stone, are present in the interstratified tuffs. This is the Ototaran
stag© of Thomson. Following this is a very continuous band of
greensand characterized by a great abundance of the brachiopod
l^achi/migas jmrln, together with other organizms, nearly a hun-
dred species of which have been found. This forms the Hutchin-
sonian otage. It is fcllowed by the most richly fossiliferous as
well as the highest subdivision, the Awamoan stage, of sands and
clayS; in which 336 species of molluscs have been recorded, of
which thirty-four per cent, are Recent. "It would be prema-
ture," says Tbomson (1920), "to assume that there had been a
sudden introduction of new forms in this Awamoan stage, although
that is the actual suggestion of the lists." This clores the Tertiary
sequence in the Oamaru district, and Pleistocene gravels lie un-
conformably on the formation mentioned The material upon which
the faunal lists are based has been greatly extended in th© past
decade by th© collecting of Marshal], Park, Thomson, and Uttley,

94 president's address — section c.

and many new forms have been described by Marshall and Suter
(1914-15), the latter having also revised much of ..ne older palseon-
tological work.

This sequence of beds is the type for many developments of the
Notocene series of Otago and South Canterbury. Uttley (1920) has
traced it up the Waitaki River, and Gudex (l9l8) has shown that
it occurs also in the Pareora district, west of Timaru. Except
where volcanic action has been great, local unconformities are not
reco2;nisable. Dieconfcrmities may, however, be present. Thus,
in the Dunedin district, the highest beds are the Caversham sand-
stone, a porous, soft calcareo'us sandstcme, at the base of which is
a narrow glauconite band resting directly upon the top of a marl
formation, eupposedly " Oligocene," and perhaps tO' be classed
ill the Waiarekan stage. Grange (1921) considers that there is
some slight disconfcrmity between the marls and the overlying
sandstones. This last is not very fosjiliferous, only a score of
species having been recorded, but these indicate an age approxi-
mate'y that of thie "Miocene" Hutchinsonian stage, and all
forms present in the Caversham sandstone occur also' in the
Awamoan stage (cf. Thomson 1918). Southwards from here are
the Tertiary rocks stretching down into Upper Cretaceous or Eocene
coal -measure, as at Kaitangata and perhajis the margin of the
Waimea Plains, thus forming the coastal deposits abort Central
Otago. In the south-west there was evidently an extensive sheet
of Oamaruian beds, but of these little is yet knov;^n. Hector
(1891, p. xlv.) described some steeply dipping coal measuree in
Martin's Bay, north of Milford Sound. McKay (1896) described
the coal measures and over'ying marine beds in the is ands and
mainland at Puysegur Point. Park has recently traced them
up the Waiau Valley to Lake Te Anau, about which they were
originally described by Cox (1878). The recent work is not yet avail-
able, but Park confirms the observations of Cotton and the writer
that the dislocation observable in these Notocene beds, which lie
upon the ancient crystalline rocks, afford important information
in regard to the tectonic origin of that lake basin. As shown by
McKay (1879), the Tertiary Marine rocks extend further to the
ncvrth-east and are faulted into the crystalline rocks of Lake
Wakatipu. Park has extended his former list of lossils from these
beds (1918) and indicated that they are comparable with those of
Oamaru (see Fig. 9).

On the north-west coast of the South Island very different con-
ditions occur. Here Morgan (1908, 1915) has recognised as lying
on the ancient greywackes, a basal coglomerate or breccia, con-
sidered to be a pluvial or talus-deposit, and overlain by produc-
tive coal measures, the chief source of that fuel m New Zealand.
These beds are followed by mudstone or claystone, which may
overlap on to the ancient greywackes. Out of twenty-three

president's address — SECTION c. 95

mollusis found here, only one is a modem type. Morgan (1918)
considers theoe beda to be ooeval with the Wanga.oa, Hampden,
or Weka Pass beds. This formation is unconformab'y overlain
by a second basal conglomerate with extensive seams of brown
coal transgressing on to the older rocks. Tuese are followed by
sandstones, limestone, and marls with 23 per cent, of recent
species out of a total of about fifty icrms, which are similar to
these in the Oamaru beds. The succecsion foims a comp.ete cycle
of sodimentation, sandstone, claystone, limestone, and deltaic sand-
stone (Morgan, 1915, pp. 71-93). A rather marked faunal dif-
ference is noticeable between the beds above and below the lime-
stone, though with but little variations in the percentage of recent
forms (Henderson, 1917, pp. 79-99); a point of interest is tha
occurrence in the limestone of a boine recognised by Huxley (1859)
as belonging to a giant penguin. The series continues into
North Westland and south-west Nelson, where it is marked by
great irregularity in thickners and frequent overlaps. In the
Giouland Downs, e.g.. Cotton (1916) found the limestone resting
direct y on the granite. The marine Tertiary series of the Col-
lingwood, (Bell 1907) and Nelson (Marchall 1911) districts,
which also have a basal series of coal measures are comparable
with the upper portion of the Oamaru Series.

It will be convenient, in describing the Notccene rocks of the
North Island, to coimmence with those of the Auckland Province,
in the neighbourhood of Kaipara and Whangarei. Here the suc-
cesLiicn IS uoscured by much dislocation and discontinuity of out-
crop. The oldest Notccene beds are probably Senouian Inoceramus^
and obscure ammonites were fcuud at Whangaroa (Eell and
Clarke, 1909), and in his preliminary announcement (1918)
Marshall notes the occurrence at Kaipara of two species of Koss-
ni'Jticeras, one of Lytoceras, Inoceramus, and other f^rms. He
has since obtained a number of forms showing marked resemblance
to members of the Senonian fauna of Seymour is.and (Grahams-
land)* described by Wilckens (1904). Saurian remains also occur
in a greenish mud^tone. Apparently the e beas are folL'wed by a
hydraulic Globiyerina limestone, like that of Amuri E'luff, and
correlated therewith, and this again is succeeded by tuffaceous
sands with foraminifera and an abundant moliuscan fauna, of
which 20 per cent, of the species are recent. (Marshal', 1918.)
Authorities differ as to the conformity or unconformity of these
rocks upon the Cretaceous beds, and little decisive field-evidence
is yet available. According to Thomson C19'?0, p. 385), t^ese
tuffaceous sands are followed by a polyzoan limestone of O^maruian
character, which, being faulted down among the Cretaceous roks
of Kaipara, has increased the difficulty of the iriteroretatirn of
the faunal and stratigraphical succession in that district. Ferrar

* Private communication.

96 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION C.

has lately reported that this succession holds good m the Whangarei
district, and that two unconformities intervene between the hy-
draulic limestone and the polyzoan limestone.*

South C'i this region we enter a new diastrophic province, that
oif the Auckland district. The basal beds rest unconformably on
the Meso'zoic greywacke or sandstones, and are varied in character.
They are sometimes coal-bearing cong-omerates, caVareous sand-
stones or even algal limestone, the last resting on the Neoccmian
plant-bearing sandstone of Waikato Heads. They are followed
by tuffaceous sandstones with some interbedded volcanic material,
the Waitemata beds, passing southwards into marls, blae sand-
stones, and impure limestones. The scanty fauna of foraminifera,
polyzoans, and mollusca is of Oamaruian character. These beds
were slightly flexed, faulted, and partially planed, and upon them
were deposited fossiliferous marine strata, m which Bartrum

(1919) has found an extensive fauna containing 62 per cent, of
recent species. Columnar basalts and agglomerate rest on these,
and are succeeded by " Pleistocene " fluviatilei silts and dune-
sand. This important "Miocene-Pliocene" unconformity m<ay
bo traced southwards into the Taranaki province. Here the
Mesozoic greywackes are discordantly overlain by grit and car-
bonaceo'Us shale covered by limestone, passing upwards, into clay-
stone, succeeded by massive sandstones and the coal-measures of
the Mokau River, remarkable as being one of the few instances
of Teritary coal-measures overlying marine beds that have been
recorded in New Zeialand. These limestones are of Oamaniian
age. Massive sandstones, probably to be correlated with the
" Pliocene " fossiliferous rocks mentioned above, and alsO' with the
Mokau coal-measures, rest disordantly upon thisi Oamaruian
series in North Taranaki (Henderson 1918), but, near New Ply-
mouth, the latter are covered by agglomerates, &c. , and the later
volcanic rocks around the eruptive centre of Mt. Egmont (Clarke
1912). Very widespread, also, are the rhyolitic tuffs in northern
Taranaki and tho neighbouring region, which appear, however,
to have been derived from thei eruptions in the centre of the
island. They form a thick covering lying unconformably on the
Tertiary marine rocks and coal-measures, but have been deeply
dissected.

A more extensive series of unconformities m the Notocene suc-
cession has recently been described by Henaerson and Qngley

(1920) in the Gisbome district. The basement rocks of greywacke
are beyond the regions mapped by the above authors, and the
oldest rocks visible in the Gisborne area are a series of shales
greensinds, limestones, and clavstones, containing Innceramiis and
belemnites. to which may be pssiened tentatively a Senonian age.
They are decidedly more dislocated than the overlying Tertiary

* Private communication.

president's address — SECTION c. 97

rocks, of whicli the oldest series is possibly " Eocene," and consists
of unfossiliferous shales, sandtones, and locaLy conglomerates with
fragments of the underlying Senonian beds ; but m the absence of
visible contacts with these, there is no other evidence of their un-
conformity thereon. The sucoDeding group of beds (the Te Arai
Series), referred to the " Lower Miocene," does, however, rest
with unccnfoi'mity upon the "Eocene" bods. It is composed of
grits and cwiglomerates passing up into claystone and standstone,
and may be as much as 8,000 feet thick. The foraminifer Amnhi-
stegina and ten molluscs, two of which belong to recent species,
are the only fossils known in these beds. The overlying (Tawhiti)
formation is much more fossiliferous, and the 'C/vidence of its un-
conformity on the "Lower Miocene" beds is seen in sections where
gently dipping "Upper Miocene" sandstones rest on strongly
crushed "Lower Mioooine" rocks, though beyond those regioins of
shattering of "Lower Mioceme" rocks, the "Upper" and "Lower
Miocene" beds appear to be quite conformable. (Compare Fig. 5.)
Out of a collection of sixty-nine molluscs from this series 25 per
cent, proved to belong to' recent species. The brachiopod Pachyma-
ga^ {Waiparid) ahnorvris (Thomson) occurs among these. A very
similar series of sandstones and calcareous or pumiceous beds,
which are probably a conformable and shallow-water transgressive
(Ormond) Series on the Tawhiti series, occupies a portion of the
area in which the typical Tawhiti beds are not developed. They
show a marked unconformity on the Te Arai "Lower Miocene"
series when resting on their denuded surfaces. Out of ever
100 molluscs therein 50 per cent, belong to recent species.
Marshall's (1920) collection of ^fty-two forms from the
"Tawhiti" series of Tokomaru, north of the Gisborne
district, yielded tha same percentage of recent forms.
This striking divergence in percentage of recent forms
from those of the Tawhiti series of the Gisborne district, sup-
ports the conclusion of Henderson and Ongley that the beds of
Tokomaru, placed by McKay (1874), in the Tawhiti series, should
rather be grouped with the " Lower Pliocene " Ormond beds. The
Ormond beds were apparently elevated, eroded, and depressed before
the deposition on them of the "Upper Pliocene" plant-bearing
pumiceous silts, &c. Evidence of volcanic activity throughout the
Tertiary sequence is to be seen in the tuff beds in the " Lower
Miocene," to a less extent in the " Upper Miocene," and in
the abundant pumice of both divisions of the " Pliocene" beds.
As has been indicated before, Henderson and Ongley hold that
this region is divided up into a number of blocks separated by
zones of crushing in, which movement occurred at different periods.
Some of the faults traversing Cretaceous strata have not affected
later beds, and others which made great crush zones in "Lower
Miocene" rocks have not effected the "Upper Miocene" beds.

98 president's address— section c.

This conclusion extends Dr. Henderson's (1917) deductions from
the features of the Reefton district, and is a most important addi-
tion to the discussion of the Tertiary history of New Zealand.

The Hawkes Bay district has been a type-district for the study
of the Upper Tertiary sediments sincei the explorations of McKay
(1879-1887), but as no detailed investigation has been published
concerning this area during the last decade, no account of it will
be given here. Morgan (1914) and Thomson (1914, 1918) have
made rapid investigations of the extension of the formations of the
Hawkes Bay district southwards between the Ruahine and East
Coast Ranges towards the Wairarapa district and Palliser Bay,
and further work by Thomson is in progress in the latter region.
He is of opinion that it dees not belong to the same diastrophic
province as that containing Hawkes Bay, but is rather to be
assigned to the same diastrophic province as the Awatere beds of
East Marlborough, characterized by a marine transgression com-
mencing near the close of the Oamaruian, and extending through
the succeeding epoch, and affecting areas not submerged during the
lower Noto'cene transgressions. Nevertheless, the region of
Oamaruian depo'sition was not far distant from here, and evidence
of a mid-Tertiary unconformity appears to be afforded by the oc-
currence of derived Oamaruian fossils in an upper Tertiary mud-
stone-conglomerate (Thomson, 1919).*

On the other side of the island we have to record much in-
teresting work Park (1887) showed that there existed here a
great series of Upper Tertiary beds extending into' the centre of the
island. Speight's (1908) observations indicate that they rest upon
a planed surface of greywacke, &c., which extends beyond the
margin of the marine rocks. Apparently the transgression was
towards the south-east. As we have pointed out, the lower
Tertiary sediments in North Taranaki are unconformably over-
lain by sandstone (including coal-measures). Traced to the south-
east these give place toi " Upper Miocene " and " Lower Pliocene "■
calcareous sands, clays, and coralline beds, with pebbly shell beds,
and these again are followed further toi the south-east by " Upper
Pliocene " sandy shell beds, clays, &c. Marshall and Murdoch
(1920) rei-examined the fauna of these two last formations, as
exposed in the coastal section extending for 20 miles north-west of
Wanganui, and originally described by Park (op. cit. pp. 47-57).
There are still lower beds which have not yet been re-examined.
The dip is constant throughout, being about 4^ deg. towards the
S.S.E. As no dislocations of any note appear in the very con-
tin nous sections, they are most probablv absent from the inter-
vening dune-covered stretches. The lithology is fairly constant

♦ Thom'»on a!si re'oM'i th"? prpsence of conebment" houliers of Orf ta'-eous rocks in this
that h'VB lippn derivod f'-om adjacent firrmt'ons which, however, may belong to the Pre-Noto-
cene Lower Cretaceous (?) " East Coast Series."

president's address — SECTION c. 99

also. The dominant rock is blue marly clay, becoming more
or less sandy in places. In the lower portion of the series they
are more varied, coarse-grained sands and even pebbly beds are
present; false-bedding due to tidal scour may be observed, and a
concretionary, shoal-water, arenaceous limestone occurs. Note-
worthy is the evidence of two land-surfaces indicated by "a,
stratum of beach-worn pebbles, a carbonaceous stratum with roots
penetrating the clay beneath, and a numb:r of molluscan bores
penetrating it." Tlie thickness of rocks studied is approximately
3,560 feet, and they are more or less fossiliferous throughout.
Collections, each typical of a thickness of about 500 feet, were
made at intervals of approximately 1,000 feet thickness of strata.
The lowest beds contained 72 forms (Gl per cent, of Recent
forms), the neixt group of beds contain 84 forms (76 per cent.
Recent). In these were found bones of two* species of moa. Above
these a series of 82 forms was obtained containing 90 per cent, of
Recent species whilei the highest fauna of the whole formation
occurring at the mouth of the Wanganui River yielded 93 per
cant of Recent forms out of a total of 181 species, " Pleistocene"
beds lie unconformably upon these. With this wonderful succes-
sion is concluded the record of the marine deposits of the Notocene
period.

Terrestrial Notocene Deposits.

While the early geologists supported the view that the marine .
rocks described above were deposited in embajrments roughly
corresponding in form to the present areas of Tertiary rocks,
modern research is tending to con'firm McKay's view that the
scattered areas are mostly inf aulted residuals of a sheet of almost
continuo'Us marine rocks preserved from erosion by being faulted
down into the harder under-mass. Only in Central Otago, is
there evidence of a persistent land surface, and here the meta-
morphism of the older rocks appears to^ indicate that a gieat
mountain range was reared in late Mesozoic times, which, however,
was reduced to a peneplain in thei succeeding epoch, when a very
widespread series of terrestrial deposits were laid down. These
were studied in detail by Hutton (1875), McKay (1883, 1884), and
Park (1906-8-9). They consist in part of possibly lacustrine de-
posits (Morgan 1920), and of fluviatile brds (Cotton 1919), which
may h^ grouped into twoi unconformable series, indicating that
here also crust-warping occurred during the Tertiary period. The
basement beds of auriferous cements in this scries in Eastern
Otago have been considered to be of " Eocene" age by Marshall
(1918') who' classed with them a series of conglomeratic rocks near
Dunedin ("the Taieri Moraine"), the supposed glacial origin of
which had been a long-rtanding difficulty in the interpretati n of
tlie geological history of Otago. In relegating these to a fluviatile
origin, Marshall is supported by Trechmann (1918) and Professor

100 president's address — SECTION c.

H. E. Gregory (verbal citation). The relationship of thesei to the
adjacent marine Tertiary rocks has not yet been fully considered.
At Kyeburn, however, in the northern part cf Central Otago,
fossiliferO'Us greensands, deposited in a temporary extension of, the
Oamaruian sea, have been noted by McKay (1883, 1894), and
these occur intercalated in the lower part of the terrestrial fonna-
t-ions. The latter have yielded fresh-water mussels, and fish-
remains, together with numerous dicotyledons. At Lawrence,
Marshall determined certain plant remains as belonging to Aralia
and Podocarpivm.

The Affinities of the Fossil Fauna and Flora of New Zealand.

It is not possible in this place to discuss in any detail the
affinities of the ancient life in New Zealand to that in other
parts of the world, but in view of the urgent problems of th© origin
of the modern fauna and flora, some mention must ba made of the
facts that have been brought to light during the past decade. Of
the Ordovician and Silurian life we know but little, but, so far
as our information goes, there is a general similarity betweein
the New Zealand forms and those of South-Eastem Australia. The
record becomes more legible at the close of the Palaeozoic period. The
hypothesis of the former existence of an Antarctic continent with
land-connexions to Australasia and South America, first suggested
by Hooker (1847), has received support, from many lines of evi-
dence adduced by a large group of naturalists, including four
former presidents in this Association — Benham, Hedley, Hutton
and Spencer — until, in the words of Osbom (1910), " the hypo-
thetical reconstruction of a great Southern Continent is one of the
greatest triumphs of recent biological research." The evidencie
has baen as yet. for the most part, based upon the characters and
distribution of the modern forms only. The particular form of the
hypothesis most generallv supported appears to be that suggested
by Hedley (1895, 1899!! 1912). Generalizing from the several
statements, we may say that the hypothesis involves ccmmunica-
tion between New Zealand, Australia and Malaysia in Mesozoic
times, with a separation of New Zealand from Australia in the
latter part of the Cretaceous period, when the former was in close
association with Antarctica, permitting migration to New Zealand
of South American forms. This was probably the period of
greatest extension of the Antarctic lands, as was urged by Hutton
(1873), though the geographic significance we now put on that
stateanent when following Hedley, is different from that assigned
to it by Hutton. Hedley (1895) stated that " during the Mesozoic
or Older Tertiary, a strip of land with a mild climate extended
across the South Pole from Tasmania to Tierra del Fuego, and
Tertiary New Zealand then reached sufficiently near to this An-
tarctic connexion without joining it, to receive by flight or drift
many plaaits and animals ". Antarctica was " not necessarily a

president's address — SECTION C. 101

singla completely continuous mass at one and tlie same time" (Hut-
ton, 1873); it was more probably " an unstable area, at one time
dissolving into an archipelago, at another resolving itself into a
continent " (Hedley, 1899). Thus the direct conneLxioii of An-
tarctica may have been at one time with Australia, at another with
New Zealand.

The occurrence of Glossopteris in each of the southern continents
leads to the conception of Gondwana Land, a congerie of continental
masses lying south of the Tethys at the close of Palaeozoic times.
Thi;j grouping of landmasses was linked more closely together by
the discovery of the same plant by Dr. Wilson and Captain Scott
very near to the South Pole itself. The long uncertainty as to
whether Glossopteris occurs in New Zealand, on the western
Pacific margin of that mass of lands, has been answered in the
negative by Arber (1917), though Seward (1914) has indicated
that, in his view, the matter is not yet completely closed. No in-
dubitable example of the plant has, however, been found yet in
New Zealand, and, therefore, Arber held that there is no evidence
that New Zealand was connected with Australia or Antarctica in
late Palaeozoic times. Since he wrote, it has been shown that
marine beds, without any known plant-bearinc estuarine intercala-
tions, were deposited in New Zealand at the time when Glos-
sopteris flourished in the Australian region. The Permian marine
fauna of New Zealand, so far as it is known, is entirely of the Aus-
tralian littoral typ&, which probably developed in an epicontinental
extension from the Permian Tethys, flooding over Eastern Aus-
tralasia (compare David, 1919), aijd it does not include even the
Tethyan cephalopods that occurred in the coeval recks in New
Caledonia, though the Australian form Aphanaia is known there
also.

In the Upper Triassic and Jurassic periods, tha marine fauna
of New Zealand is Tethyan and circumpacific m character, as
Trehmann (1918) has proved the relationship of the Upper Triassic
fauna with that of New Caladcnia being particularly close.
The investigations of the earlier Mesozoic floras show that,
though much less rich than those of Australia, they are,
nevertheless, akin thereto, and we may, perhaps, hold
that in " Rhaetic and probably also in Jurassic times, New
Zealand and Tasmania were united with Australia as one large
connected land-area. The floras of these now separated regions
are nearly allied, but not identical, but the similarity between
them is probably sufficient to allow of this hypothes^'s " (Arber
1917). The same is the conclusion drawn by Walkom (1918), from
his exce^edingly important studies of the Australian Mesozoic
floras. It has been suggested above that the New Zealand forms
represent the hardy elements in the Australasian flora, the migra-
tion of which, back and forth, followed the fluctuation of the
shore-line on the broad continental shelf, which cccupied the New

102 president's address — SECTION c.

Zealand area from Peiinian to Jurassic times. " As regards An-
tarctica, we have no evidence as yet of any Rhaetic land there, but
in Jurassic times, Grahamsland may have been connected with
New Zealand, and also with Australia" (Arber 1917), Special
interest attaches toi the form Linynifolium, which was that sup-
posed to be Gloxsopteris prior to Arber's investigations. It occurs
in the Rhaetic and Lower Jurassic beds in New Zealand, and Arber
believes that the genus is also represented in the Rhaetic beds of
South America, and the Jurassic of South Australia, Victoria and
Tasmania, tho'Ugh W,alkcm does not concur as regards ,the Aus-
tralian forma It is perhaps also represented by the small leaves
" like Glossopteris," that have been recorded by Piroutet (1917)
in the Noric beds of New Caledonia.

The great orogenic movement in early Cretaceons times now fol-
lowed, but in the fauna of the succeeding Middle Cretaceous (Al-
bian) transgression, Woods (1917) found that of the sixteen forms
present in New Zralaiid, nine were of Indo-Pacific affinities, so
that the forms arriving in New Zealand must have come by the
circumpacific channel, and from the broadened Tethyan Sea, out
of which the East African channel now opened. In the much
more extensive Upper Cretaceous (Senonian) transgression, the im-
portance of the "short-circuit" migration from Graham land
become mo^e clear. Trechmann (1917) recognised out of fifteen
New Zealand molluscs, nine with affinities to those Chili, Pata-
gonia or Grahamsland, and Woods (1917) out of a collection of
fiftv two lamellibranchs and cephalopods, identified two or three
with South American types, and four with close affinities thereto.
Comparisons were also made between other species and forms
occurring in Southern India, South Africa and Europe. Reviewing
this very important work, Wilckens (1920) points out that the
South American affinities are even greater than Woods ind'cated.
He recognises two additional forms as identical with South
American species, and four othei*s as closely allied thereto. His
own study ol the Senoiiian gasteiropods of New Zealand, which
IS now in the press, supports this, and will, therefore, be awaited
with all the more interest. We may note his remark thTt New
Zealand. Grahamsland and Patagonia formed part of the coast-
line of the Southern Pacific Ocean of Senonian times. The fossils
coinsi^ered by these writers came from the north-eastern part of
the South Island only, but their conclusions are confirmed by Dr.
Marshall's studies of the Senonian beds of the Kaip^ra d'strirt*.
North Auckland, of which a preliminary account will be placed
before this section. We may here mention the fact that the
Senonian fauna of Nerw Caledonia, of which Piroutet (1917) has
given a preliminary statement, shows also the same groups of
genera as are represented in the circumr)acif:c fauna, and th^re
are a number of genera common toi New Zealand and New
Caledonia.

* Private commuQication.

president's address — SECTION c. 103

The separatiooa of Australia from New Zealand was so complete
in Upper Cretaceous time that there is only one species of mollusc
(Natica variabilis) yet known to be common to the two areas.
(Trechmann 1917).

As regards the reptilian life of New Zealand in this period, we
may note that Dr. C. W. Andrews (fide Woods 1917) has com-
pared it with that of the Senonian Niobrara chalk of the United
States.

Thomson's (1918) important studies of the distribution of
Recent and Tertiary Brachiopods in the Southern Hemisphere
carry us a stage further forward. He concludes that the two
gronps that are represented originated, p.erhaps in Early Cteta-
ceous times, on the coast of the residue of Gondwana. Land that
then existed, and that they have remained almost entirely re-
stricted to this region. They s-pread along the coast line, and
apparently developed into diverse colonies in the different portions
of the littoral zone, which had been restrictd by the early Creta-
ceo'Us orogeny. On each district where the " Miocene " and
Recent forms occur, the latter are almost always the diminished
remnants of the " Miocene " fauna of that locality, and do not
call for — indeed preclude — the occurrence of Pliocene land con-
nexions to' explain their distribution. The communication between
Antarctica and New Zealand, with migration of the brachiopods,
may have occurred as early as in the Cretaceous. The character
and distribution of certain Middle Tertiary forms suggest, how-
ever, a further intermic ration of forms — various widespread
species — at the epoch of maximum lextensicn of the sea over the
planed land surfaces, which occurred during the warm climatic
period of " Oligccene-Miocene " times in Australia, Antarctica,
and South America. At this time also the affinities of the mol-
lusca of New Zealand to those of South Ameri'^a-Patasjonia,
were marked, as has been shown by Ortmann (1902), Button
(1904), and Von Thering (1907), and about this time there may
have been an introduction of new forms into the New Zealand
area. Thus Thomson (1920) remarks: — " It would be premature
to assume that there had been a sudden introduction of new forms
into the Awamoan (' Miocene '), although that is the actual sug-
gestion of the lists." If this should eventually be confirmed, it
may, perhaps, be pointed out that the objection that has been
raised to a Tertiary land connexion of New Zealand and the An-
tarctic with South America, namely, the absence from New Zea-
land of the vertebrates, especially mammals, such as occurred
in Australia may perhaps be explained by the fact (realize:! fully
only during the last few years) that at the time of the supposed
introduction of littoral mollusca. New Zealand had become merely
a few small islands, separated by an epicontinental sea, by which
the entry of t&rrestial vertebrates might be debarred. The study

104 president's address — SECTION c.

of the ancestry and migrations of other organisms in New Zea-
land — the moa, the reptilia, and amphibians — must also be con-
sidered in this connexion before conclusions are reached. There
is certainly no palasontological evidence yet for the connexion of
New Zealand at this time with New Caledonia, for the Tertiary
beds there are represented only by estuarine deposits containing
a few foraminifera, and even these are not of the types that are
represented in ccntemporaneo' s marine beds in New Zealand.

There is, however, no divergence of opinion in regard to the
isolation of New Zealand since the middle of Tertiary times.
Thus Thomson (1908) states:— "The Recent New Zealand
(brachiopod) fauna is merely a diminished remnant of the rich
Oamaruian (' Miocene ') fauna, and needs no land connexions,
since the Miocene, to explain its character. The specific and
generic distinctness of the Recent New Zealand and Australian
forms precludes a land connexion between the areas in the Plio-
cene or post-Pliocene." Marshall and Murdoch (1920) concur,
stating that the present molluscan fauna of New Zealand seems
to be a remnant of a fauna of early, or middle, Tertiary age.
There is certainly a striking poverty of mollusca in the Wanganui
(" Pliocene ") beds when they are compared with the very small
exposure of fossiliferous strata at Target Gully, near Oamaru
(Awamoan) and elsewhere in the middle Tertiary strata. There
are no additional genera of any importance in the Castlecliff
("Upper Pliocene") strata, and thee is no sudden inrueh of
new species, so far as their investigations go, at any horizon of
the "complete succession of 'Pliocene' beds near Wanganui."
This seems to preclude the possibility of the formation of a tempo-
rary association of lands during the late Tertiary and Pleistocene
erogenic and epirogenic movements in New Caledonia, New Zea-
land, and Eastern Australia, to which Cockayne (1919) seems to
be inclined to ascribe the entry of a presumably post-Mesozoic
floral element into New Zealand.

In view of the uncertainty attaching to the present records of
the Tertiary flora, which are due to Ettingshausen (1891). we
cannot profitably base on them any discussion of the relationships
of the recent and fossil flora. Hutton's (1904) comments thereon
may be noted, and we may endorse Cockayne's (1919) remark
that "it is to be sincerely hoped that some one well versed in the
flora of New Zealand will thoroughly study these fossils. No
purely scientific work is more wanted." Fortunately, however, we
are not without evidence of the affinities of the present flora.
Dusen (1908) has recorded the presence O'f fo'Ur w^ell-known genera
among the Recent flora of New Zealand in the Tertiary plant beds
of Seymour Island, Grahamsland. Skottsberg (1915) has com-
pared the Recent floras of New Zealand and sub-Antarctic
America, and finds that there are 47 families, 68 genera, and a
score of species common to the two regions, while a score more of

president's address — SECTION c, 105

the species of plants in New Zealand find very close allies in
Southern America. These co-exist in New Zealand, with a true
Malayan element, which must have been here during the close of
Mesozoic times, and with a large Australian and Malayan element,
which comprises forms of more recent origin which have perhaps
entered New Zealand by drift from over seas. (Compare Coc-
kayne (1919).*

Notocene and Recent Volcanic Action.

We» have already mentioned the outpouring of basic rocks in
the Albian series of the Clarence Valley. Thomson (1913, 1919)
has suggested that the great series of dykes which traverse the
Inland Kaikoura Eange may have been coeval with this out-
pouring. To this period also, or perhaps to the Senonian, Mr.
Speight would refer the rhyolites of Mt. Somers, the Rakaia Gorge,
Malvern, and the Rangitata Valley, pebbles of which occur in the
Upper Cretaceous coal-measures of the Malveirn Hills. The rhyo-
litic rocks near Lyttleton Harbor are probably coeval. Rather
older than these, probably Late Jurassic or Early Cretaceous,
(and if not so strictly a part of the Early Notocene volcanicity),
are the andesites of the Clent Hills, the Rakaia Gorge and the
adjacent Rockwood Range. TTiese were assigned by Marshall
(1912) to the Trias- Jura, period, but the investigation now in
progress under the direction of Mr. Speight confirms Cox's opinion
(1883) that they lie unconformably across the edges of the older
Mesozoic rocks. (Speight 1917 and private communications).

In Middle Tprtiary times, igneous action was still more
widespread. The tuffs and pillow-lavas oi the Oamarn dis-
trict formed at this time (Park 1918, Uttley 1918, 19^0)
and perhaps also the basic rocks of the Moeraki Peninsula, which
have not yet been described in detail. In the Coromandel Penin-
sula, the Geological Survey of which has been completed during
the last decade, there occurred three phases of vulcanicity in this
period ; and it is to the propylitisation of the rocks of the first of
these that we owe the rich auriferous deposits of that region. The
latest bulletin on this area gives a very valuable summary by
Henderscn and Bartrum (1913) of the previous investigations of
the whole district. (See also Eell and Eraser 1912.) Later
Tertiary igneous activity is indicated by the extent of volcanic
rocks in the North Auckland Peninsula, where the invf-stigations
of Bell and Clarke ('1909) are new being extended by Eerrar and
Bartrum. It is also shown by the tuffaceous character of the
Upper Tertiary beds of the Gisborne, Napier, and Taranaki dis-
tricts, which is especially marked in the later "Pliocene" beds,

* For fuller consideration of the problem of the Antarctic connexions reference
should be made to the summaries of the biological evidence by Ortmann (l'>02^, Benham
(1904). Hutton (1904), Chilton (HO"), Oshorn (1910), and Hedley (1912K and for
opposing views Cheeseman (1S09), and Matthew (1914). The geological evidence has been
Summarized by David (1914).

106 president's address — SECTION c.

and indicates that th© present igneous activity in the North Island
commenced in the Tertiary period. Th:'s was emphasized in Mar-
shall's (iy08) useful summary of the volcanic geology of the centre
of the North Island, to which refeTenc© should be made. Mentiorn
should also be made of Clarke's (1912) d'Cscription of the
agglomerates, &c., near New Plymouth. . In the South Island,
Speight (1917) has shown that succeeding the C'retaceous
rhyolitic eruptions of Lyttleton, there was in pTobably Late
Trtrtiary times an outpouring of basalt flows, building up huge
cones at Lyttleton and Akaroa, associated with radiating trachytic
dykes of an alkaline character. Between these, a third volcanic
centre was formed at a somewhat later period, and without a
radiating series of dykes. Thus was produced a great volcanic
island some di..tance off shore, which being subsequently encroached
upon by the prograding shore, has become Bank's Peninsula. In
oppooition to Haast's view that the harbours of Lyttleton and.
Akaroa were explosion craters, Speight shows that they more prob-
ably result from the drowning of valleys which had cut back into
th© centres of the great volcanoes.

The volcanic rocks of the Dunedin district rest upon an irregular
surface of Middle Tertiary beds, and overstep thence until they
rest upon the basement schists. They consist of basalts, tracliy-
doleriles, and a variety of more alkaline trachytes and phonolites.
Marshall's (1914) account of the wonderful succession of flows at
North OtagO' Head is a notable addition to his earlier generali-'ed
description of the whole area (1906), and leads to th© interesting
conclusion that the series of flows are derived from an essexitic
(trachydolerite) magma, which was injected at several epcchs into
subordinate magma-reservoirs, from which, after differentiation,
the basalts and m.ore alkaline lavas were ejected. Detailed studies
of other portion?, of the district have been mad© by Cotton (1909)
and Bartrum (1913). These investigations ar© being extended by
the writer and his students, and indicate the great complexity cf
the sequence of events in this region.

Other small areas of Cainozoic volcanic rocks exist, but have
not been investigated during the past decade.

Nor has there been carried out in this period any work of note
on the Recent volcanic action in New Zealand, except Moore's
interesting account of an ascent of Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe
(1917), and the detailed survey of Mt. Egmont by Morgan and
Gibson, which awaits publication. The older work, which
was summarized by Marshall (1908, 1912), Speight (1908),
and Park (1910), leads to the interesting conclusiom
that the main centres of volcanic activity in the North
Island lie on a line passing in a north -easte.rly direction from
Ruapehu, through Nga'iruhoe, Tongariro, Pihanga, Tauhara,
Mt. Edgecumbe, and White Island, which is nearly straight, and

president's address — SECTION c. 107

presumably indicates the presence of an important line of crust-
weakness, parallel to the direction of the major features which
have guided the po:t-Tertiary orogeny, and along which seismic
disturbances still occur, though only occasionally within the area
of New. Zealand, as e.g., the Cheviot earthquake O'f 1901 (McKay
1902). The great rift of the Tarawera eruption and its extension
in Lake Rotoniahana, lies also in the same direction, and parallel
to it is perhaps a subsidiary line cf volcanic activitj?- running to the
north-east from Mt. Egmont. The main line, however, indicated
above is approximately collinear with the westeirn margin of the
Tonga Trench, which extends towards Samoa, past the Kermadec
Islands and Tonga, the volcanic rocks of which resemble the ande-
sites of the North Island of New Zealand, as was pointed out by
Speight (1911) and Marshall ('1912). This relationship derives new
interest from the recsnt nd highly important seismclogical investi-
gation of the crust-movements in the Tonga Trench, carried out
by the observai cries at Samoa and Sydney, a statement of which
is to be placed before this meeting. We may here welco^me the
suggestion urged by Dr. Jagger, of Hawaii, that a vulcanological
observatory shcvild be installed in the active regions of New Zea-
land, and express the hope that the detailed geological investiga-
tion of the past and present volcanic activity will alsO' be taken
in hand.

The Post-Tertiary {Kaikourd) Orogeny.

The general recognition of the importance of post-Tertiary
diastrophism has been a marked feature of the study of the
geology in New Zealand during the* past decade. It was clearly
recognised by McKay in his later writings {e.g., on the Kaikcuras,
1892, and on Central Otago, 1894-7), and was brought to the front
again by Park's re-survev of the latter region (1906. 1908, 1909),
by Henderson (1911), and by the physiographic studies of Cotton
{e.g., 1913, 1916, 1917). The vertical element of the movement is
obvious, but a lateral ccmponent is indicated in several regions as
mentioned below. This orogeny, however, appears net to have
been confined to post-Tertiary time> merelv. but. according to the
studios, especially of Henderson (1917, 1920), seems to have been
the culmination of a series of much smaller movements whir'h con-
tinued soasmodically throughout the Notocene period. To this
great orogeny and the consequent denudation is due almost all of
the present rebef of New Zealand excepting that of the volcanic
mountains. The Kaikoura movements of New Zealand may thus
be compared with the Ozarkian movements of America and the
Kosciusco movements of Eastern Australia. We must now con-
sid-r New Zealand as " a concourse of earth-blocks," which were
moved differentially, tilted, war'-ed, or even faulted at this time.
The boundaries of the blocks are marked by fault-ccarps in homo-
geneous structures, or faulted contacts of older and younger strata,

108

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. — SECTION C.

Fig. 8.-

Barewopd jPlateau
-(After Cotton, 1917).

Oeologic sketch map of the block mountains associated with Central Otago chain of
depressions. (Boundaries after McKay, with slight modi ication.=.) The areas in which
schist undermass rocks reach the suiface are marked by waved noith-south lines, the
areas of greywacke (unaltered or little altered) by stiaiglit north-south lines, and those
in which the overmass forms the surface, or is thinly coveied by alluvium, by straight
east-west lines. Volcanic rocks of the overmass are shown in black.

at which the latter arei generally steeply upturned. Generally th«
faults are oblique toi the strike of the folded strata they truncate,
and thus the dominantly north-easterly strike of the Mesozoic and
older rocks is net evidence of the direction of late Mesozoic folding.
Suess' conclusion cited in regard to the North Auckland Peninsula
that the direction of the coast line is independent of the strike of
the folding, is still apiplicable tO' regions where the strike of the old
folds and of tha "Pleistocene " faults are more nearly coinparable
(Cotton, 1916). Tilting of the fault-blocks is not as a rule very
steep, a notable exception being that of the Kaikoura Mountains
(Cotton, 1913). In some regions the evidence of lateral thrusting
is clear. In the Kaikoura Mountains, the Great Clarencei Valley
f'^ult mero^es northwards intO' an overturned syncline (Thomson
1919). Park has described in more detail (1909, 1913) the wonder-
ful infolding of an overturned and fault-ed syncline of Tertiary
rocks recosrnised by Hutton (1875) and McKay (1894) on the shores
of Lake Wakatipu. (See Figuret 9.) Marshall (1918) describes the

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION C.

109

thrusting of th© mica-schists over " Early Tertiary " conglomerat-es
in two localities in Eastern Otago. The fault planes dip at angles
of 25 dee. -35 deg., and one broad aroa of slicken-side®, the Blue
Spur at Lawrence, has been swept clear of the overlying gravelly
conglomerate for an area of about 16 acres. It had formerly
been suggested that it was a glaciated pavement. In the Nelson

YARDS

Fig. 9. Section at Bob's Ctove, Lake Wakatlpu. (After Park, 1909.)
(a) "Miocene" sandstone and conglomeiate. (b) "Miocene" Limestone,
(c) " Miocene " Marly sandstone, (a) " Miocene " Marly clay, (e) " Miocene"
Calcaieous brescia-conglomerate. m«. Mesozoic ? mica-sctiist.

district, the Cainozcic rocks are overturned adjacent to the fault
bounding the older rocks, and, alternatively to the older inter-
pretation, the writer would suggest that the Brook-street volcanic
rocks have been thrust O'ver the inverted Tertiary coal measures*
(See Figure 1.) An interesting example of very late lateral move-
ment is de?cribed by Morgan (1908) ,* where schists have been thrust
over Recent rivrr-alluvium. In Westland, the evidence of lateral
movement does not seem to be so great as in the regions described
above. Henderson (1917) summarizes the history of deformation
here as follows: — Four periods of faulting occurred during Caino-
zoic times, viz., prior to the " Eocene," prior to the " Miocene."
between " Miocene " and " Pliocene " and post-" Pliocene." The
faults present the usual characteristics. The movement, even
along the same dislocation, may be concentrated in a single fracture
with walls close together, or perhaps several chains apart, the
intervening space being filled with comminuted rock. Again the
fault may be a shear-zone, with numerous sub-parallel and closely
spaced polished surfaces, with the intervening rock rendered
schistose, but always more or less deformed. One type of fault
constantly recurs, narrow trough-faults, in which the rock between
the main fault-walls belongs to a higher horizon than the walls
themselves. When the Cainozoic beds, which overlie the Palaeozoic
sediments and granites, are involved, the detection of this type of
fault is very easy. The main fracture-planes nowhere appear to
deviate far from the vertical.

* Dr. Marshall, in conversation, remarked that he has already formed this opinion.

110 president's address — SECTION C,

Evolution of the Modern Topocp-aphy."^

This description forms a fitting introduction to the next stage
in the evolution of the present topography. This we must discuss
briefly in regard to several aspects as follows: — (I.) Sediments
deposited during the erogenic movement; (II.) The initial form of
the upliftc^d land mass; (HI.) The effects of subaerial denudation ;
(IV.) Sediments deposited subsequent to the main Kiakoura
orogeny; (V.) The effects of more recent crust-movement on the
features of the coasts and valleys.

(I.) Spsight (1919) has described under the term Kowhai
Series, a group of fold'd or tilted gravels in North Canterbury,
wh'ch he has since traced into South Marlborough, f They lie un-
conformably on the uppermost Notocene beds, and frequently
contain fragments from them as well as from thei lower Notocene
and basement rocks. They may be considered as forming a type
of molasse in front of the rising range of the Southern Alps,
though they have not been overthrust like their Swiss prototypes.
A point needing further elucidation is the relationship between
the Kowhai gravels and the Great Marlborough conglomerate,
which also has been derived from the Nocotene and underlying
rocks of the Kaikoura Ranges during a portion of their elevation,
though, according to Cotton and Thcmscn, it was a movemefit lO'Ug
prior to the main Kiakoura orogeny. If McKay's observation
is supported that the conglomerate contains fragments ot
" Plio'Cene " beds and transgress from these on to the Amuri lime-
stone, their apparent unconforrnitv^ on the* Notocene rocks mieht
lead us to place them with the Kowhai gravels. Thomson (1919),
hov^ever, questions the^ accuracy of the above record cf observa-
tions, and accepts Cotton's (1914) conclusion that the Marlborough
conglomerate is conformable on the underlying rocks, and are
" fanglomerates " re.^lly interstratified with their uppermost sub-
division, being overlain in some parts by fossiliferous "Pliocene"
beds. The acceptance of this view would lead us to infer the
occurrence of very localised faulting to the extent of, perhaps,
3,000 to 6,000 feet in the " Plioceuo " times. Park's view (1910)
that the beds are glacial would necessitate nearly as great move-
ment in post-glacial times.

We inay also class with the Kowhai gravels the slightly folded
Moutere gravels of the Nelson district (Marshall, 1911). In the
North Island, Thomson (1917) has recogrnised an extensive series of
marine sands, &c., lying unconformably on the " Pliocene " (and
earlier?) rocks of Southern Taranaki. This he terms the Hawera
Series.

(II.) From what has been stated, it is cle^r that the surface of
New Zealand at the commencement of " Pleistocene" time was
that of a group of differentiallv elevated earth-blocks composed of

* Dr. Cotton's ceneral discussion of this topic is being published in book-form by
the New Zealand Government Printer,
t Private communication.

PRESIDEJSrr S ADDRESS^SECTION C.

Ill

a ba&emieiit of hard greywaeke or schist, upon the more or less
planed surface of which rested less resistant Notccene sediments,
which had not infrequently subsided among the older rocks, either
in broad " intermontane basins ", enclosed between roughly paral-
lel faults, or between a warp and a fault (a " fault-angle depres-
sion"), or in narrow rectilinear rift-valleys, sometimes crossed
obliquely by other fault-lines or faulted strips, and sometimes re-
duced to a narrow wedge-shaped mass of sediment dragged down
along a single fault line or even to a mere- zo^ne of fault-breccia ^
such zones sometimes forming a more or less reticulated arrange-
ment .

(III.) The effects resulting frcm the denudation of such a di-
versified area have been studied in detail by Cotton, Henderson
and Speight. A consequent drainage must ultimately have be-
come established, and commenced to remove the covering strata
from the tilted or elevated blocks. Where this process is still in-
complete, the topography is contrclled in a large measure by the
variation of the resistance offered to erosion by the different beds of
the covering strata, a,nd dip-slo'pes and scarps are characteristic
features of the scenery. Such cuesta-country is especially well-deve-
loped in the eastern slopes oif the Ruahine Range, leading down to
Hawkes Bay, but it is widespread throughout the Hawkes Bay
Province, and the eastern ]Joii:ion of the Wellington Pro'vinoe.
Where, however, the erosion of the covering strata is more
advanced in the higher eleivatecl blocks there are exposed areas
of the planed surface of the under-mass, which now appear
as portions of a " stripped peneplain," of which the further
reduction is very slow compared Vith that of the covering
strata. (See Fig. 10.) "An enormous amount of waste
results from the stripping of back-slopes, and dissection of
faulted and folded fronts. Exceptionally such waste may be
all removed as it is supplied, but in most places, deep
aggradation of troughs will take place progressively with the de-
formation, and with the degradation and dissection of the higher

Fig. 10. Diagram to illustrate the origin of the present topography of New Zealand.

A. Block-faulting resulting from the Karkouri orogeny. (For even clearness sake
this has been drawn as if no erosion occurred during the period of crust-
movement.)

B. Jlodern topogiaphy resulting from removal by erosion of the softer covering-strata
from the resistant under-mass of the crust-blocks.

1084.— 11

112 president's address — SECTION c.

blocks " (Cotton, 1917). During degradation the filling from
some troughs may be removed, and the underlying rock exposed.
The local base-level of erosion from the covering strata within a
trough must depend on the level at which the streams escape from
the basin across the barriers of the more elevated blocks of the
under-mass. The streams escaping across these barriers must be
superimposed in a certain sense. Commencing as streams on the
blocks as they were originally dislocated, they have cut down
into the covering strata until they were forced to notch the under-
mass, but Cotton has pointed out that they so frequently cross the
barriers of under-mass, in gorges cut where the general surface of
the planed surface of the under-mass shows a down-warped depres-
sion, as to indicate that the streams must have existed formerly at
these warped depressions as consequent streams on the overlying
covering mass, and have since become established by deep erosion.
Thus they are " superimposed " ccnsequeiit streams, rather than
" antecedent " streams, for they are not necessarily older than
the main dislocation of the crust in their drainage area. But if a
stream escape from a tectonic basin by a gorge cut in a depression
in the rim of the basin that is not the deepest deipressioii, it must
follow that, when the original consequent stream escaped from the
gap, it was the deepest depression, and that subsquent movem'ent
has taken place by which another portion of the rim has become
more deeply depressed, while the river has remained incised in the
gap from which it first escaped. Such a type of river Dr. Cotton
terms " anteconsequent." and he has indicated some examples of
this (1917), and pointed out that somewhat similar conditions have
been noted by Davis in Herzegovina. (See also Speight, 1918.)
These useful conceptions Cotton (1917) has shown to have a very
wide application throughout New Zealand. In particular, in Cen
tral Otago, there is a wide area composed of a chain of broad
tectonic depressions interspersed with elevated masses of older rock,
schist or greywacke (which themselves appear to be made up of a
mo«aic of fault-blocks separated by a system or systems of rela-
tively ancient faults to which the present relief is largely or wholly
indifferent, except in so far as faulting on the old lines of move-
ment may have been revived. The relief due to movements on
these ancient fault -lines, together with that resulting from earlier
folding, had been almost or wholly destroyed prior to the deposition
of the over-mass or cover. Though the later faulting:, to which
the existing relief is due, appears to have followed the lines of
the older faults in some places, the displacement has generally
been reversed (Cotton. 1917), Many details of the crust -move-
ment — warping, faulting or splintering — are indicated by the
form of these salient blocks of the under-mass, especially where
they bear isolated residuals of the covering strata. fSee Fig. 8.)

Where depressed blocks were long, narrow strips of country, they
now are represented by trough-like valleys such as are seen in parts
of North Cant.eTbury (Speight, 1918, p. 97), and. perhaps, at

president's address- -section c. 113

Cromwell, in Wiestern Otago, and there can be little doubt that,
as suggested by Dobson (1865), McKay (1892), and Andrews
(1911), tectonic depression must have contributed very largely to
the foTuiation of the lakes of the South Island of New Zealand.
Indeed; as observed previously, the disposition of the covering
rocks about Te Anau gives proof of the fcectonio origin of that
depression. So, also, in the region of the Marlborough Sounds,
though the softer schists have permitted a much greater rounding
of the eurface than in the harder gneisses of Fiordland, the in-
faulting of Nctccene coal-measures at Picton at the head of Queen
Charlotte Sound (McKay 1882) confirms the impression drawn
from the reticulate character of the drainage of north-eastern Marl-
borough, that the drainage-system is essentially de^pendent upon
the crustal structure, being either guided by tectonic depressions,
or eroded in wide zones of fault-breccia such as were described by
Henderson and Ongley (1920), or follow joint-planes (Webb,
1910).* In Canterbury the conditicais are somewhat similar.
Speight (1916) has stated that here certain subordinate valleys
show indications that their directions are dependent upon the
deformation of the strata, though the main valleys have not fur-
nished positive evidence of this, but may be dependent on such a
cause, as their reticulate arrangement suggests. The chief difficulty
in detecting fault-lines in the mountain region of Canterbury is
the extremely monotonous character of the rocks. Where, how-
ever, fractures are brought into evidence by the presence of in-
faulted outliers of the covering strata, conformity with the direc-
tion of the adjacent valleys is clear (e.r/., Speight, 1917). Near the
heads of the valleys, where the control of slope over the stream -
course is dominant, departures frcm the structural lines are the
most marked. In general, the valleys of Canterbury follow a
north-eaeterlv and a north-westerly trend, and Cotton shows that
the same directions hold in Otago. Between these provinces is
the Waitaki Eiver flowing to the bouth-east in its middle and
lower course, where it is " guided by a linear tectonic depression,
irregularly bounded by the fault-scarps and back-slopes of a com-
plex of blocks, in the bottom of which some low-lying remnants
of covering strata are preserved." (Cotton, 1917, citing Marshall,
1915.) The chief tributary of the Waitaki, the Hakataramea, oc-
cupies a fault-angle depression elongated in a north-easterly direc-
tion almost perpendicular to that of the Waitaki.

To add to the many features of interest in connexion with the
evolution of the present topography, we must notice that great
differences of features result from the wide variety of climatic
conditions under which the denudation of fault blocks has taken
place. The effects of normal pluvial erosion need not be particu-
larized, but in the central parts of Otago and Southland, the

* Tlie fundamental difference between the tectonic and eroded valleys, though sometimes
overlooked, has been clearly indicated by D. W. .Johnson (1915).

114: president's address — SECTION c.

effects of aridity are in evidence, though this climatic condition
has been of comparatively short duration. A noteworthy feature
in the arid areas of mica-schist, is the occurrence of numerous tors,
sometimes as much as 80 feet high, bounded by joint-surfaces, and
resulting apparently from the removal of the surrounding
material, which was more disintegrated by some peculiarity of
differential weathering, and thus the tor-pattern has been etched
out. (Cotton, 1917.) A further instance may be seen in the wide
stretohes of sand-dunes in the rift-valley of the Clutha at Cirom-
well, which have resulted from the destruction by rabbits and by
fire of the protecting vegetation on the high terraces of the river,
or by removal of the sand from the river-bed itself. (Cockayne,
1911.)

Even more striking is the effect of glaciation, concerning which
much has been written in previous decades, though but little in
the last one, the literature of which is immediately under review.
The views of Hutton (1900) and Marshall (1912) that the glacia-
tion was restricted to the highlands, and was rather of the nature
of separate glaciers, than a continuous ice-sheet, represents the
opinion of the majority of New Zealand geologists, though it must
be noted that locally, as about Lake Te Anau, the valley-glacier
appears to have deployed into a sheet of considerable area, filling
a tectonic basin. Indeed, the effects of glaciation may be more
restricted than even Marshall at first assumed (1912). It is at
least doubtful whether we may properly class as of morainic
origin certain great terraces at Clyde and Alexandria, and the so-
called " Taieri moraine," near Dunedin, has been described as of
fluviatile origin. (Trechmann 1918, Marshall 1918.) It is more
clear than before' that thei great glaciated lake-basins,* river-
valleys, and fiords had a pre-glacial origin, either tectonic or by
erosion, in areas weakened by the presence of 'extensive shatter-
belts ; though their form has since been profoundly modified by
the glaciation. Interesting examples of the combined effects of
structural and glacial influences in determining valley forms have
been described by Kitscn and Thiele (1910) in the Waitaki Valley,
the southern boundary of Canterbury; and by Speight (1918) in
the Hurunui Valley, the northern boundary. In Milford Sound
the preliminary observations of Cotton and the writer, indicated
that it may be possible subsequently to recognise several distinct
stages in the glaciation of that district.

While several of the fc'atures of the North Island have be'cn
claimed tci be of glacial origin, tliis conclusioin appears in most
cases to' be open to doubt, but it may be we'll for the present to
refrain from accepting the general statemeait that there is no sign
of glaeiation in the North Island, until these and other certain
features (e.f/., those described by Adkin, 1912) have been more
fully investigated. It should be noted, however, that Moore

* This has been pointed out by Park (1910, p. 230) in the case of Lalse Walvitipu.

PRESIDE^^T'S ADDRESS — SECTION C. 115

(1917) concurs with Marshall in regard to the absence of any
indication of glacial eiroisioii on the great volcanoes in the centre
of the North Island, but the possibility must be considered that
Recent eruptions may have more or less obscured the erosional
forms developed during Pleistocene times.

(IV.) Concurrently with this denudation there has been much
sedimentation du-ring Pleistocene times. The studies of two of
these regions are of particular interest. Speight (1910) has added
greatly to Von Haast's 1879 valuable exposition of the origin of
the Canterbury Plains. This coaisists of a great gravel formation
resting unconformably on the Kowhai (" Early Pleistocene ")
gravels in North Canterbury, or upon the Notocene rocks of South
Canterbury. They extend for 160 miles along the coast, and reach
a maximum width of 30 miles. Their seaward slope is compara-
tively steep, for they reach an elevation of 1,500 feet at their
western margin. Examination of the records of artesian bores
show that they extend to a depth of at least 600 feet, and were
deposited as confluent alluvial fans upon a slowly subsiding pied-
mont surface. The occurrence of fossiliferous mai*ine beds, and of
layers of lignite, intercalated at various horizons in the gravels,
indicates the fluctuation of the shore line. This is not necessarily
due to inequalities in the rate of subsidence. On the Ninety Mile
Beach the detritus brought down in vast quantities by the rivers,
is exposed toi a strong northerly drift along the coast. Where the
supply of shingle fails, the sea encroaches on the land. Hence
the tendency will be for the retrograding of a shore south of a
river mouth, and its prograding nqrth of the mouth. Since the
courses of rivers discharging across alluvial fans is subject to
frequent change, the areas of prograding and retrograding of the
coast-line must accordingly have varied from time to time, and the
intercalations mentioned might thus be produced. A notable
example of the variation in the course of a river on an alluvial
fan is that of the Waimakariri, which, though now entering the
sea north of Banks Peninsula, threatens to return to its former
outlet south of the peninsula, and embankments have been placed
to protect the town of Christchurch , which lies between the two
channels.

We may here note as an additional feature of interest the
occurrence of Icess along the coast line frona Banks Peninsula to
Oamaru. A discussion arose as to^ whether it is truly wind-borne
loess or a marine silt, but the former view, heTH by Heim (1905)
is that now generally supported, the source of the material being
found in the dried rock flour in the valle3'^-trains below the glaciers
of the Canterbury Alps, which was conveyed to the coast by the
foehn-like north-west wind. Recently, however. Wild (1919) has
pointed out that the grain-size in a sample of the deposit which
he examined, is greater than that of the typical loss of Iowa and
Nebraska, or than that which, according to Udden (18'94), is

116 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS — SECTION C.

normal for wind-blown particles. Accordingly he urges a recon-
sideration of the evidence for a marine origin of the^ material. It
must be noted, however, that the rock-flour on the aeolian hypo-
thesis i:!eed not bei considered toi have all been carried far. It
naay be seen nov; rising from the dried patches in the wide beds
of the braided rivers, at all points between the mountains and
the coast.

Somewhat different problems arise in the study of the Horo-
whenua coastal lowland in West Wellington. (Cotton 1918
Adkin 1911-1919.) This has been laid down partly as a gronp
of confluent alluvial fans in front of the fault coast of the Tararua
langes, and partly as material brought down by the Manawatu
f^nd other rivers, distributed along the prograded coast by a south-
ward moving current. Cotton infers a, complex alteraticn of pro-
gradation and retrogradation, which he ascribed toi th© secular
alternation of conditions of oiverloading and underloading of the
long-shore curierits by detritus brought down by the rivers further
north. While he does not indicate a cause for such variation,
several possibilities may here be suggested. The first, due to
Morgan,* is the spasmodic eruption of vast amounts of volcanic
ash from the great volcanoes in the watersheds of these rivers.
Thei other, less direct, involves Penck's hypothesis that pluvial
conditions in e^tra-glacial areas are intensified during the epochs
of ice-advance, and diminished during the period of ice-retreat
in an adjacent glaciated region. If this were so, we might
correlatei the fluctuations in discharge of detritus by these rivers
with the' fluctuations in levels of the ice that appear to- have
occurred in the South Island. A further consideration is the
possible eft'ect of fluctuation of sea-level during the Ice Age, which
is advocated by Daly (1915), and there is also to be considered
the effect of very late epirogenic movements. This brings us to
our last topic.

(V.) Cotton (1916) has pointed out that since- the Kaikoura
epoch of the differential displacement of relatively small crust-
blocks, there hc^ve been a series of broad epirogenic movements
involving equally provinces composed of many such minor blocks,
which movement has been, in different regions, one of elevation
or of depression (with the production of the rias coasts of the
Auckland Peninsula, Marlborough Sounds, &c.), or even of tilt-
ing. Exceptionally there has been considerable local movement,
resulting in fault-coasts, especially near Wellington (1913, 1917).
There has, however, been no general renewal in later times of
movement on the fault-lines of Kaikoura age, and the origins of
earthquakes felt in New Zealand are, with a few exceptions,!

* Private communication.

t Such as the Cheviot earthquake described by McKay (1902), or the Wellington
earthquake of 1855, made famous bv Lyell's account (Principles of Geology, 10th Edition,
1867, pp. 82-89).

president's address — SECTION c." 117

situated, not within the land area, but some distance east of the
present coastline (Cotton 1916, cf. Hogben 1914, 1918). Between
these movements, however, there occurred long periods of rest,
during which the cycle of erosion reach an advanced stage. Hence
along the coastline in different districts there are more or less
marked wave-cut terraces or raised beaches, while extending far
up the valleys are benches, or rock- cut terraces, indicating that
the valleys are not monocyclic, bat have been rejuvenated from
time to time. In the Reef ton district, Henderson (1917) has
correlated the raised beaches with the river-terraces extending to
a height of 500 feet above the sea-level.* In regions where
the crust was tilted towards the coast, the heights of the terraces
steadily increase as we pass up the valleys, a particularly clear
example being the meandering Rangitikei, which becomes deeply
entrenched in its old flood plain. An alternative explanation of
the entrenchment of the rivers in Canterbury below their alluvial
terraces, has been offered by Speight (1908), who suggests that
the river valleys became deeply alluviated during a pluvial period
following the glacial epoch, and that succeeding this was a period
of greatly diniinished rainfall, during which the now underladen
streams cut deeply into their former deposits. The further in-
vestigation of crust-movements will be greatly advanced by the
wise policy that has been adopted of placing bench-marks at various
stations along the coast.

Such, then, is a summary of the present knowledge of the
geology of New Zealand, illustrated for the most part by the work
of the past decade. It is by no means a complete summary, for
considerations of space have caused the omission of much
interesting matter, notably all account ol the modern vol-
canic activity. Nor was it possible to consider the advances in
our knowledge of features of economic interest, or to enter into
much detail in regard to the problems of the faunal relations of
New Zealand during various periods. These will long remain
fruitful fields for discussion. One thing appears clear: — The out-
lines of New Zealand geology were drawn with broad generaliza-
tions. TcO' often, perhaps, clear statements of conclusions were
based upon incomplete evidence. The present is the time for
detailed investigations in all branches of our science; and as this
advances, we have the more often toi admire the arduous toil and
brilliant insight of those pioneers, Hochstetter, Hector, Haast.
Hutton, and that great field-geologist, McKay, by whom, from
sixty to thirty years ago, the foundations for onr work were -SrO;,
■well and truly laid. nT" V

* See also Bartnim, 1914. .. >■ ■■^ 'i^ " ^^,

118

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION C.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

In the fcllov'ing list the titles cited are reduced to' one or two
words, and cor-traction:, are employed as under: —

B.G.S.

Jour. Sci. Tech.
Pal. B.G.S.
Q.J.G.S. ...
R.G.E.
T.N. Z.I

Bulletin cf the Geological Survey of
N.Z.

New Zealand Journal of Science and
Technology.

Palaeonto'logical Bulletin of the Geolo-
gical Survey of N.Z.

Quarterly Journal of th© Geological
Society.

Report of Geological Explorations
(N.Z.).

Transactions of the New Zealand Insti-
tute.

Adkin, G. L.

1910

1912

J 5

1919

Andrews, E. C.

1911

Arber, E. A.

1917

Barrow, G.

1893

1912

Bartrum, J. A.

1913

5 J

1913

1914

J J

1917

> >

1920

1919

Bather, F.A,

1917

Bell, J. M.

1905

, ,

1906

1907

1909

Ohau River and Horowhenua Coastal

Plain, &c.. ^.N.Z.I., XLIII., 496-

520.
Glaciation of Tararua Ranges,

T.N.Z.I., XLIV., 308-316.
Horowhenua, &c , T.N.Z.I., LI., 110-

118.
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Soc, N.S.W., XLV., 116.
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330-356.
ibid Proc. Geol. Assoc, 1-17.
Mt. Cargill, T.N.Z.I., XLV.
In Henderson (1913).
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Z.I., XLVI., 255-262.
Distribution Igneous Rooks, No. 1,

T.N.Z.I., XLIX.
No. 2, T.N.ZI., LIL, 416-422.
Albanv Conglomerate, ibid., 422-430.
Triassic Crinoids, Q.J.G.S.. LXXIII.,

247-256.
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B.G.S., No. 3.
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PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION C.

119

Bell, J. M.

1910

1911

1912

Benham, \V. B. 1902

Benson, W. N. 1919
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Broad^ate,
Chapman,
Chilton, C.
Cockayne,

F.
F.

K. 1916
1918
1909
1911

1919

Cotton, C.

1909

1912

1913

1914
1916

»)

1916

> }

1916
1917

1917

1918

' »

1918
1919

Cox, S. H

1877
1878

(with Clarke) Geol. Reconnaissance.

Norther nmoBt N.Z.,T.N.Z.I., XITI.,

613-624.
(with Marshall and Clarke), Dun Mtn.,

E.G.S., No. 12.
(with Fraser, C.) Waihi-Tairua,

B.G.S., No. 15.
Earthworms and Palseogeography,

Trans. Aust. Assoc. Acvt. Science,

IX., 319-343.
Mesozoic Floras, N.Z. Journ. Sci. Tech.,

29-33.
Jura-Cretaceous Fauna, Neu. Jahrb.

fiir Min., 1-24.
Red Rocks, T.N.Z.I., XLVIII., 76-86.
Fish Remains, Pal., B.G.S., No. 17.
Sub- Antarctic Islands, II., 467.
Report on the Dune Areas of New Zea-
land, N.Z. Pari. Papers, C.13, 1911.
" New Zealand Plants and their Story."

(2nd Ed.)
Signal Hill, Dunedin, T.N.Z.I., XLI.,

111-126.
Wellington Physiography, T.N.Z.I.,

XLIV., 245-265.
Physiography, Clarence Valley, Geog.

Joiiru. XLIII., 225-46.
Great Marlborough Conglomerate,

Joiirn. Geol., XXII.. 346-363.
Block Mountains, Nelson, T.N.Z.I.,

XLVIII., 59-75.
Structure and Later Greol. History,

N.Z., Geol. Mag., Dec, VI., 243-9,

314-20.
Fault Coasts, Geol. Review, I., 20-47.
Fossil Plains, N. Otago, T.N.Z.I.,

XLIX., 429-432.
Block Mountains, N.Z., Amer. Journ.

Sci., XLIV., 250-293.
Geomorpholo'gy, West Wellington,

T.N.Z.I., I., 212-222.
River Terraces, N.Z. Journ. Sci. &

Tech., I., 145-152.
Noctccene, Central Otago, Journ. Sci.

Tech. II., 69-72.
Waikato, R.G.E., 1876-7, 11-26.
Hokonui Ranges, R.G.E., 1877-8,

25-48.
Te Ana,u, ibid, 110-8.

120

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION C.

Cox, S. H.

1879

9 J

1882

Cox

1883

Daly, R. A.

1915

1917

David, T. W. E. 1914

1919

Dusen. P.

1908

EttingsiTiaiUsen, 1891

von
Farquharsoii, R. 1910
Finlayson, A. M. 1907

Grange, L. I.

1921

Gregory, J. W. 1913

Grove E., and Sturt,

G. 1886-7

Gndex, M. C. 1918

Haast, J. von 1879
Hall, T. S. 1915

Harker, A.

1917

Hector, J.

1866

? >

1873

1883

1886

1891

Hedley, C.

1895

Waikatipn and Greenstone, R.G.E.,

1878-9. 53-55.
Shag Valley, R.G.E., 1882-3, 55-57.
Mt. Soniej's and Malvern Hills,

R.G.E., 1883-4, 22-43.
Glacial Control Theory of Coral Reefs,

Amer. Acad. Arts, Science, 158-251.
Metamcrphism and its Phases, Bull.,

Geol. Soc. Amer., XXVIII., 375-

416.
(and Priestley, R. E.) Report Scien-
tific Investigation British Antarctic

Expedition, 1907-9, Geology, Vol. I.,

esp., 296-319.
(and others) Sequence, Glaciaticn, and

Correlation of Carboniferous Rocks,

Proc. Roy. Soc, N.S.W., LIII.,

246-338.
Ubeir die tertiare Plora der Seymour,

Insel Wiss. Ergebn. der Scliwe<l.

Sudpolar Expeditie, III., 3.
Fossil Flora, N.Z., T.N.Z.I., XXIII.,

237-310
Orepuki, T.N.Z.I., XLIII., 448-482.
Schists of Central Otago, T.N.Z.I.,

XXXIX., 72-77.
Greeai Island, Dunedin (In mss.). To

appear in T.N.Z.I., 1921.
" The Nature and Origin of Fiords."
Oamaru Diatoms, Jorun ; Queskett

Microscope Club, 1886-7.
Tertiary, Pareora, T.N.Z.I., L.,

244-62.
Geology of Canterbury and Westland.
Graptolites, N.W., Nelson, T.N.Z.I.,

XLVIL, 410-411.
Graptolites, Preservation Inlet, ioc.

cit.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, Pres. Add.,

LXXI., 412-413.
West Coast, R.G.E., 42.
Geol. Sketch Map, N.Z.
Geol. Sketch Map, N.Z.
"Outline N.Z. Geology."
Ann. Rep. G.E.N.Z., Fiordland, Kai-

tangata, xli-xlviii., Ivii-lix.
Surviving Antarctic Refugees, Proc.

Roy. Soc, N.S.W., XXIII., 278-286.

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION C.

121

Heim, A.
Henderson, J.

Hedlev, C. 1899 Zoogeographic Scheme, Mid. Pacific

Proc, Linn. Soc, N.S.W., XXIX.,
391-417.

Palaeogeograpliic Relations of An-
tarctica, Proc. Linn. Soc. London,
CXXIV., 80-90. (Reprinted in
Ann. Rep., Smithsonian Institute,
1912, 443, 453.)

Neuseeland, Neujahrb., Naturf, Ges.,
Zurich, 1-42.

Surface forms and Drainage Systems,

West Nelson, T.N.Z.I., XLIII.,

306-15.
(and Bartrnm, J. A.) Aroha B.G.S.,

No. 16.
Beeftou, B.G.S., No. 18.
Te Kuiti, l^.Z., Journ. Sci. Tech., I.,

122-5.
Mokau, ibid., II., 393.
(and Ongley, M.) Gisborne and

Whatatutu, B.G.S., No. 21.

Hinde, G. J. 1890 (and Holmes, W. M.) Fossil Sponges,

Oamaru, Proc. Rov. Soc., Edin.,

XVI., 449-692.
Hochstetter, F. von Lecture on Nelson, Govt. Gazette,

Nelson, 1859, VII.
Geologief von Neuseeland, Bd., I. (and

Palseontological papers by Hauer,

Hoernes, Jaeger, Karrer, Stache,

Stoliczka, Suess, Unger, Zittel, in

Bd. II.).
Recent Earthquakes, T.N.Z.I., XL VI.,

301-3.
East Coast Earthquakes (1914-17).

T.N.Z.I., L., 280-1.
" Flora Tasmanieiusis."
N.E. of South Island, R.G.E., 27.
Geographical Relations of the New

Zealand Fauna, T.N.Z.I., III., 227-

256.
(with Ulrich, G. F.) " Otago and

Southland . ' '
Sketch Geol., N.Z., Quart. Journ.

Geol. Soc, XLI., 191-220.
Geol. Hist., N.Z., T.N.Z.I., XXXII.,

159-183.
" Index Faunae Novae Zealandiae."

1899
1912

1905
1912

1913

1917
1918

1919
1920

von
1859
1864

Hogben ,

1914

> J

1918

Hooker,

1847

Hutton,

1873
1875

' 1885

1900
1904

122

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION C.

Huxley, T. H. 1859

Ihexing, H. V. 1907

Jaworsky, E. 1915

Kid stow, R.

Kitson, A. E.
McKay, A.

1907

1910

1877

1878

1879

1881

1882

1886

1887

Fossil Bird and Cetacean, Quart.

Jourii. Geol. Sec, XV., 671-677.
Les Mollusqvies fossiles du tertiare et

du cretace superier de I'Argentine.
Annales del Musco^ Nacional de Buenos

Ayres.
Die gystematische und strati^aphische

Stellung von Torlessia, McEayi,

Bather TcrehelVuia, von Neuseeland.
Centralblatt fiir Min. Geol. Pal. 504-

512. (Cited by Wilckens 1917.)
(and Gwynne Vaughan, P.F.), Fossil

Osmundaceae, Trans. Roy. Soc,

Edin., XLV., Pt. 3.
(and Thiele, E. O.) Upper Waitaki

Geog. Jour., XXXVI., 537-553.
Reptilian Beds, T.N.Z.I., IX., 581-

590.
East Cape District, R.G.E. (1873-4),

116-164.
Weka Pass and Buller, R.G.E.

(1874-6), 36-42.
Kaikoura and Amuri Bluff, R.G.E.

(1874-6), 172-184.
Cape Campbell, ibid, 185-191.
Hokonui Ranges, R.G.E. (1877-8),

49-90.
Mt. Potts, ibid, 91-109.
Wairoa & Dun Mt., ibid, 119-159.
Qiieen Charlotte Sound, R.G.E.,

1878-9, 86-97.
Napier, ibid., 69-75.
Baton River, ibid., 121-131.
Wellington, ibid., 131-135.
Ashley and Amuii, R.G.E., 1879-80,

83-107.
N.W. of Wakatipu, ibid., 118-147.
Waitaki Valley &c., R.G.E., 1881,

56-92.
Coal at Pieton, ibid., 106-115.
N.E. Otago, R.G.E., 1883-4, 45-66.
Kawhia District, ibid, 140-148.
East Marlborough, R.G.E., 1885, 27-

136.
Eastern Otago, R.G.E., 1886-7, 1-23.
N. Hawkes Bay, R.G.E., 1886-7, 182-

219.
Tauherenikau, R.G.E., 1887-8, 58-67.

president"^ address — SECTION C.

123

McKay, A. 1890 Stewart Island, R.G.E., 1889-90, 74-85.

Marlborough and Amuri Coxinties,
ibid., 85-185.
1892 Marlborough and S.E. Nelson, R.G.E.,
1890-91, 1-28.

1896 Preseivation Inlet, Rep. Mines &

Mining, C. II., 31-43.

1897 Auriferous Drifts, Central Otago, 2nd

Ed. (First Ed. 1894.)
1902 The Cheviot Earthqrxake, Special Re-
port .
Marshall P 1905 Milford Sound, T.N.ZI., XXXVII.,

481-484.
1906 Dunedin, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc,
LXII., 381-424.

1908 Centre and North of North Island,

T.N.Z.I., XXXIX., 78-98. S.W.
Otago, ibid., 496-503.

1909 Contact Metaniorphism, T.N.Z.I.,

XLI., 101-2.
, 1911 (with Speight and Cotton) The Younger

Rock Series of N.Z., T.N.Z.I.,
XLIII., 378-407.
(with Bell and Clarke) Dun Mt.,
B.G.S., No-. 12.
1912 New Zealand; in Handbuch der
Regionalen Geologie.
- 1914 Cape Runaway, T.N.Z.I., XLVL,
283-5. *

1914 Nth. Otago Head, Quart. Journ., G.S.,

LXX., 382-406.

1915 Younger Limestones, T.N.Z.I.,

XLVIIL, 87-99.
Cretaceous & Tertiary Rocks, ibid., 100-
119.

1917 Kaipara, T.N.Z.I., XLIX., 433-450.
Wa'ngaloa, ibid., 450-460.
Hampden, ibid., 463-466.

1918 Kaipara, T.N.Z.I., L., 263-278.
Tuapeka, B.G.S., No. 19.

1919 Hampden, T.N.Z.I., LI., 226-50.
Moa Bones in Wanganui Series, ibid.

1920 Tawhiti Series, T.N.Z.I., LIL, 109-

110.
Hampden and N.Z. Tertiary limestone,

ibid., 111-114.
Tawhiti Series, ibid, 109-110.
(with Murdoch), Wanganui, ibid., 115-

128.

124

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION f.

Matthew, W. D. 1914

Moore, E. S. 1917

Morgan, P. G. 1908
1911

1914

1915
1916
1918

1919
1920
Ortmann, 1902

Osborn, H. F. 1910
Park, J. 1887

1888

1893

1904

1905

1906
1908
1909
1910

1912
1917

1918

Climate and Evolution, Annals, N.Y.,

Acad. Sci., XXIV., 171-318.
Active Volcanoes of N.Z., Journ.

Geol., XXV., 693-714.
Mikonui, B.G.S., No. 6.
Structure Southeirn Alps, T.N.Z.I.,

XLIII., 275-8.
Geol. of N.Z., Official Year-Book.
Sth. Hawkes Bay, &c., Ann. Rep.,

G.S., 131-5.
(with Bartrum) Buller-Mokihinui,

B.G.S., No. 17.
Unconformities Cretaceous-Miocene,

T.N.Z.I., XLVIII., 1-18.
Tabular Statement Classification of

Notocene Rocks in Pal., B.G.S.,

No. 7.
Distribution of " Maitai " Series,

Jouni. Sci. Tech., 11., 33-35.
Tertiary Beds, Central Otago, Journ.

Sci. Tech., III., 29-33.
Tertiary Invertebrata, Princetown,

Patagonian Expedition, Palaeonto-
logy,^ 48-333 (esp. 310-324).
" The Age of Mammals."
N.W. of L. Wakatipu, R.G.E., 1886-7,

121-137.
Jurassic, Southland, ibid., 141-153.
Dusky Sound, R.G.E., 1887-8, 9-15.
Waipara & Weka Pass, ibid, 25-35.
Wangapeka, ibid, 74-88.
Granite-Gneiss in King Co., T.N.Z.I.,

XXV., 353-362.
Lower Mesozoic, T.N.Z.I., XXXVI.,

447-553.
Marine Tertiaries, Otago & Canterbury,

T.N.Z.I., XXXVII, 489-551.
Alexaudra, B.G.S., No. 2.
Cromwell, B.G.S., No. 5.
Queenstown, B.G.S., No. 7.
Marlborough Moraines , T . N . Z-. I . ,

XLII., 520-4.
" Geology of New Zealand."
Weka Pass Stone, Geol. Mag., 438-40.
Relations, Cretaceous and Cainozic,

T.N.Z.I., XLIX., 392-4.
Age of Southern Alps, T.N.Z.I., L.,

160.
Oamaru, B.G.S., No. 20.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS — SECTION C.

125

Park, J.

Piroiitet, M.
Shakes^pear, E.

Siiinott, E. W.

Skottsberg, C.

Smith, J. P.
Seward, A. C.

Speight, R.

1919
1920

1917

M. R.
1908

1914
1915

1908
1914

1908

1910
1911

1915
1916
1917

J J

1918

1919
1920

Slopes, M,

1914

Hampden Limestone, T.N.Z.I., LI.,

41-42.
Boulders in Paljeozoic Breccia,

T.N.Z.I., LII., 107-8.

" Etude Stratigraphique de la Nou-

velle Caledonia. "
Graptolites, N.W. Nelson, Geol. Mag.,

145-8.

Fcssil Osmundacae, Waikawa, Annals,
Bot., XXVIII., 47.

Relatioais between the Floras of Sub-
Antarctic America and New Zealand,
The Plant World, XVIII., 129-142.

Alkaline Rocks from Westland

T.N.Z.I., XL., 122-137.
Antarctic Fossil Plants, British An-
tarctic Expedition, 1910, Nat. Hist.

Reports, Geology, Vol. I. (i).
Geological History. Tongariroi National

Park in Cockayne's Report of a

Botanical Survey (of same) Pari.

Papers, C.II.
Ten-ace Development, Canterbury,

T.N. Z.I, XL., 16-43.
West Coast Sounds, T.N.Z.I., XLII.,

255-267.
Artesian 'Area Christchurch, T.N.Z.I.,

XLIII., 420-436.
Intermontane Basins, Canterbury,

T.N.Z.I., XL. VII., 336-353.
Orientation of River Valleys, T.N.Z.I.,

XLVIII.
Trelissick Basin, T.N.Z.I., XLIX.,

321-356.
Unrecorded Tertiary Outlier, XLIX.,

356-60.
Banks Peninsula, ibid., 365-392.
Hurunui Valley, T.N.Z.I., L., 93-105.
(and Wild, L.' S.) Weka Pass Stone

and Amuri Limestonei, ibid., 65-93.
Treslissick Basin {Oxtrea Bed),

T.N.Z.I., LI., 157-160.
Older Gravels, Canterburv, ibid., 269-

281.
Broken River, Coal Area, Journ. Sci.

Tech., III., 93-104, 148-156.
Cretaceous Arauc(inoxi/]<.'\ii , Amuri

Bluff, Annals Bot., XXVIII.

126 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION C.

Suter H. 1914 Kevisioii Tertiary MoUuscaj, Pt. 1,

Pal., B.G.S., No. 2.

1915 Revision Tertiary Mollusca, Pt. 1,

Pal., B.G.S., No. 3.
, 1917 Descriptiou Tertiary Mollusca, Pal.,

B.G.S., No. 5.
Thomas, A. P. 1907 Note on Inoceramus in B.G.S., No. 4.

Thomson J A. 1913 Igneous Intrusions^ Mt. Tapuaenuka,

T.N.Z.I., XLV., 308-315.
Materials for Palaeontology of N.Z.,
Pal., B.G.S., No. 1.

1916 Flint beds, Amuri Limestone, T.N.Z.I.,

XLVIIL, 48-58.
Stage names for Tertiary Strata, ibid,
28-40.

1917 Diastrophic and other considerations in

Classification and Correlation, and
the existence of Minor Diastrophic:
Districts in the Notocene, T.N.Z.I.,
XLIX, 397-413.
Hawera Series, ibid, 414-7.

1918 Waikouaiti Sandstone, T.N.Z.I., L.\

196-7.
Brachiopoda Scientific Reports, Austra-
lasian Antarctic Expedition, 1911-14.
Series C, Vol. IV., Pt. iii., especially,
53-61.
,, 1919 Clarencei and Ure Valleys, T.N.Z.I.,

II., 289-349.
Palliser Bay District, Jo urn., Sci.,
Tech. II, 281-2.
1920 Waipara and Weka Pass, T.N.Z.I.,
LII., 322-415.
Trechmann, C. T. Trias, of N.Z., Q.J.G.S., LXII.,

1917 165-246.

Age of the Maitai Series, Geol. Mag.,

53.64.
Glacial Controversy, ibid., 241-245
Cretaceous Mollusca, ibid, 294-305,
337-342.
Udden, J. A. 1894 Erosion, Transportation, Sedimenta-
tion (Aeolian), Journ. of Geol. II.,
318-331.
Uttley, G 1918 Volcanic Rocks, Oamaru, T.N.Z.I., L.,

106-117.
1920 Kurow and Duntroon, T.N.Z.I., LII.,
137-153.
Wharekuri and Otiake, ibid, 154-168.
Remarks on B.G.S., No. 20, 169-182.

president's address — SECTION C.

127

Walkom A. B. 1918 Geology, Lower Mesozoic Kocks, Queeais-

land, &c., Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S.W.,
XLIII., 37-115.

1919 Mesozoic Floras, Queensland, iii. and

iv.. Publication 263, Queensland
Geol. Survey.
Webb, E. H. J. 1910 Mt. Radiant, B.G.S., No. 11.
Wilckens O 191" Die Geologie vom Neuseeland.

Geol. Rundschau, VIII., 143-161.

1920 Die Geologie von Neuseeland.
Die Naturwisseuschaften, 809.

1920 Die Bivalvenfauna des Obersencns von
Neuseeland, Centralblatt fur. Min.,
260-265.
See also the following : —
1904 Revision der Fauna der Quiriquinaschi-
chteu. Neu Jahrb., fur. Min.,
B.B.. XVIII.
Die Lamellibranchiaten, Gastropoden.
&c., der Oberkreide Sudpatagonian
Ber. der Naturf. Ges. Friedburg i.B.,
XV., 97-161.
Die Anneliden, Bivalven, und Gastro-
poden der antrarktischen Kreidefor-
mation. Wiss. Ergeb. der Schwed.
Sudpolar Expeditie, 1901-1906.
Wild L. J. 1911 The Bluff, Invercargill, T.N.Z.I.,

XLIV., 317-339.
1919 The so-caned Loess at Timaru, T.N.Z.I.,
LI., 286-8.
Woods, H. 1917 The Cretaceous Faunas, N.E., South

Island, N.Z., Pal. B.G.S., No. 4.

190i

1910

Plate. — Geological Map of New Zealand prepared under the
direction of Mr. P. G. Morgan, M.A., F.G.S., Director of the
Geological Survey of New Zealand, and added hereto- by his kind
permission.

Note. — Concerning the maps Mr. Morgan writes — " The geo-
logical boundaries shown have been copied from numerous old
maps, and, as a rule, have not been modified, except where it was
necessary to adjust them to more modern work Although it

was known that in many cases the original maps were decidedly
inaccurate, it was felt that to sketch new boundaries would be
simply to introduce new errors. In the map of the South Island,
the Pelorus Series (of probably Palaeoizoic age) lying west of the
Pelorus River, has been inadvertently included in the Trias-Jura
System. This according to Dr. Marshall is its true position. In

128 president's address — section c.

south-western Otago (Fiordland) too great an area has been as-
signed to the Manapouri Series, which is meant to include only
rocks of a prcbably pre-Ordovician age." It should bei mentioned
that the Triassic rocks west of Lake Wakitipu appear to extend
further north than the map indicates, but they here are merging
into toi region assigned in the map to the Maniototo Series, of
undifferentiated and doubtfully Palaeozoic rocks. These include
the schists of Central Otago, which the writer, following Marshall,
has considered to- consist of altered Permian and Triassic rocks,
though an earlier age is jjreferred by the Geological Survey.

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PRESIDENTS ADDRESS — SECTION C. 133

APPENDIX.

CORRELATION.— TABLES OF NEW ZEALAND STRATA.^

By P. G. Morgan, M.A., F.G.S., Director, JN'ew Zealand
Geological Survey.

Tahle II. — Classification of Cretaceous and Tertiary Strata.

(Since ccusiderations of expense have prevemted the publishing
of contributions to the proceedings of the Session of the Aus-
tralasian Association, other than the Presidential Addresses and
special Reports of Research Committees, etc., the " Notes on New
Zealand Geology" by Mr. P. G. Morgan, Director of the Geo-
logical Survey, which accompanied the maps herewith, and ex-
pressed the official views thereon, cannot unfortunately be printed
in full in this volume. Mr. Morgan has, however, generously
permitted the reproduction with this address of his maps and
provisional correlation-tables of the strata in various parts of
New Zealand, and of the Coal Measures, which tables formed
part of his paper. These are a most valuable addition to our
summary of the present position of the knowledge of New Zealand
Geology. )

Table I. Classification of the Post-Jurassic Coal-Measures —

(1) Upper Cretaceous (Senonian) ; Waipara (Boby's Creek),

Malvern Hills, Shag Point, Green Island, and prob-
ably Kaitangata.

(2) Early Eocene or possibly very late Cretaceous; Paparoa

beds, Greymouth. (At present included by me (P.G.M.)
in the Marewhranuian).

(3) Eocene (Marewhranuian) ; Greymouth, Westport (bitumin-

ous coal). Central Nelson, Collingwood in part ( ?),
Paring River (probably).

(4) Early Oamaruiau (Ngaparan) ; Whangarei, Middle Wai-

kato (Huntly). Collingwood in part, Charleston,
Brighton (Westport), Inangahua in part, South Can-
terbury, Oamaru. Waikaka, Waikaia, Nightcaps or
Wairio ( ?), Central Otago (?).

(5) Pareoraii or Awamoan ; Mokau River, Tangarakau Gorge,

Retaruke River. Inangahua in part. Just possibly the
Central Otago lignites belong about here.

(6) In various places there are lignites of Pliocene age as

always admitted.

TSTn s/!^Tf^Q®8^'m^*^f\?f°'J^°'* remarks On the classification of the sedimentary rocks in
ino, ^P^- ^.^"lO'*) of the Palaeontological Bulletins of the New Zealand Geological Survey

Scfpncr.r.H T^T"?'"'^ "f lu'' ^^^''"^^ "^ ^""^ ^'^^'^'^'l '° the New Zealand Journal of
science and Technology of the same year.

134 president's address — section d.

SECTION D.

BIOLOGY.

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT
Professor Alfred J. Ev/art, D.Sc, Ph.D.,

Professor of Botany in the University of Melbourne.

BIOLOGY DURING THE WAR AND AFTER.

It is perhaps hardly necessary for me to remind you that this
is the first meeting of the Australasian Association for a period
of 8 years, and that, during that period, momentous changes have
taken place all over the world. As an aftermath of the waste
entailed by war we are now passing through a time of economic
stringency, and are suffering from a phase of general unrest in
our social system. In spite, however, of the immediate evils and
the prospective troubles which a great war causes or leaves in
its train, its after-effects are not wholly and solely evil ones. The
very unrest of which we complain is a sign of awakening, and in
so far as this awakening results in an increased ajopreciation of
the value of science and of scientific M'ork, in so far as it indicartes
a desire for education and general betterment, and in so far
as it produces national striving and individual energy, its results
must be good, and these results will remain when the unrest has
passed away.

T propose in this address to take a brief review of the work
that has been done in Zoology and Botany in Australia during
the last seven years, and then to say a few words about future
possibilities, particularly in regard to the relations of Government

president's address — SECTION D. 135

Institutions to scientific activity. It cannot be said that either
zoological or botanical science has made any great or notable
strides during recent years or at least during the war period.
War IS a period of destructive activity, and, during war, sciences
which. lend themselves more readily to utilization for destructive
purposes, such as chemistry and physics, are more stimulated to
progress than those which are connected with productive activity,
su'ch as agriculture, forestry, entomology, zoology and botany.
As the result of the waste and destruction due to war, the scarcity
of all ccmmo'dities necessitates the s^cientific use of all possible
means of encouraging production, and restores to the botanical
and zoological sciences their natural importance as factors in pro-
ductive activity. One would think that the mere fact that all
the food materials, and all the energy which keeps the organic
world going, are directly or indirectly derived from green plants
would be sufficient to indicate the importance of a science which
deals with plants, and that the intimate way in which animals and
animal products enter into our daily life would sufficiently em-
phazise the importance of the basic science on which all studies
en animals rest — zoology. It might be retorted that we need
not be a botanist in order to grow vegetables, or crops, or timber,
cr rubber, or any other plant product, and that one need net
be a zoologist to^ keep cows or sheep. It is also true that one
need not be an engineer in order to walk over a bridge or to
travel by railway or steam boat, but that does not make the en-
gineer unnecessary. There is always a tendency on the part of
the unreflecting section of the public, when any branch of a
science acquires obvious and immediate technical importance, to
concentrate attention upon that particular branch, and to' forget
the basic science upon which the practical application is based, and
from which it arose. A sick horse, if it thinks at all, would
consider the stable boy who administers the dose that cures it
the only person that coimts. but reflecting animals, in which class
a fair proportion of mankind are included, know that the chemist
who makes up the dcse is also important, that the veterinary
surgeon who pi escribes it is even more essential, and that most
important of all are those who give the veterinary surgeon his
knowledge, and carry on and add to this knowledge from genera-
tion to generation. It is here that all Universities can confidently
base their claim for public recognition and support, in so far
as they maintain the basic sciences without regard to their imme-
diate and economic value, and although this claim is perhaps
more easily rendered obvious where scientific departments are con-
cerned, the same claim holds good for all lines of University work
which are' connected with human thought or human activities, and
which form the firm foundations without which no bixilding is
secure. Coming more especially to botanical science, the scien-
tific feeding and manuring of farm crops is based upon the

136 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION D.

principles established by the plant physiologist. The only hope of
diminishing the losses of millions a year which are caused by
various plant d it eases such as rusts, smuts, blights, mildews etc.,
lies in encouraging the> investigaticais of the plant pathologist, and
in training those who can put his results to practical applica-
tion. The identification of M'eeds and a knowledge of their pro-
perties is rendered possible by the facts accumulated and by the
labour expended by the* syj^^tematic botanist. Without such know-
ledge the introduction of new plants is a very hazardous proceed-
ing. If a botanist had been consulted before prickly pear was
introduced into Australia an egregious piece of folly would have
been avoided. When a plant was required to check sand drifts
in coastal districts a botanist was consulted. The result was the
introduction of Marram grass, which has amply justified itself
and its sponsor, the late Baron Von Mueller. The classification of
economic plants, a knowledge of their structure, properties and
classification, we owe entirely to botanical workers, and it is in-
teresting to note that in some cases, notably with fibre plants,
structural investigations which at first appeared to be of purely
academic interest have proved to be of great practical import-
ance. The same applies to certain investigations upon the struc-
ture of timber.

The scientific plant and animal breeder bases his work upon
principles established by the botanist and zoologist, and no experi-
ments on cross breeding in plants were possible until botanists
had established what was the function of the pollen, a discovery
which only dates back two centuries or so.

The relations of botany to forestry are so close and so manifold
that it is almost permissible to regard forestry as a practical ap-
plication of botanical science in regard to timber trees. At least
without the knowledge which the botanist has collected and handed
to him, the forester would find it difficult to meet even some of
the simpler of the difficult problems which continually confront
him. The relations of botany to medicine can not be wholly
neglected, although the days when the medical man was also of
necessity a herbalist and collected his own remedies has long since
gone by. Nevertheless very many of the drugs used in medicine
are derived from plants, and much of our knowledge of their
distributioai, use and properties dates back to the early herbalistic
days. In addition some of the practical applications of physio-
logy to medicine are based ixpon the discoveries of botanists.
Osmotic pressure was first accurately measured by a botanist, and
only a man sure of his science and its methods would have ven-
tured to publish measurements which at the time must have
seemed ridiculous, namely, the existence in plant cells whose walls
are thinner than the finest tissue paper, of pressures of as much
as 50-150 pounds per square inch.

president's address — SECTION D. 137

It must not be forgotten that bacteria are plants, and that yeast
is merely a degenerate fnngus, and that both therefore come within
the scope of the botanist. Although the technical applica-
tions of bacteriology are mainly due toi the medical bacteriologist,
and of late years also to the agricultural bacteriologist, practically
the whole of our knowledge of the structure, reproduction and
nutrition of bacteria is due to the labours of botanists, and with-
out this knowledge medical and agricultural bacteriology woulr*
have been severely handicapped. In addition the recent dis-
covery of the previously unsuspected existence of many bacterial
diseases of plants is whollv due to botanists.

It would b© just as easy to indicate the importance of zoology
as a basic science in productive industry, but angels fear to tread
where fools rush in, and hence I leave that task to my zoological
friends. I do not wish to suggest by that either that botanists
are v.dnged animals or that my zoological friends are otherwise,
but merely that they are better fitted to carry out the task than
I am.

In the following short review therefore of recent Australian
work in botany and zoolog3^, I would ask you to remember that
the most academic researches are just as important as, and often
more important than, those which appeal to the general public
as being of immediate economic utility.

Taking zoological work first, a very large amount of work has
been carried out in Australia of which the greater proportion
consists of systematic work and eintomology. In entomology, we
may notice more particularly papers on Cbleoptera by A. M. Lea,
E. Ferguson, H. J. Carter, T. G. Sloane, A. H. Olston ; on
Diptera, Hemiptera and Neuroptera bv Bergroth, F. H. Taylor,
E. W. Ferguson, R. J. Tillyard, E. Petersen, A. White, G. F.
Hill; on Lepidoptera and Microlepidoptera by A. J. Turner, R. J.
Tillyard, O. B. Lower; on Hymen optera by R. C Turner; on ants
by W. M. Wheeler, N. Banks, and A. M. Lea; on Hymenoptera
by A. P. Dodd ; and on Cicadas by H. Ashtoii. We have also
a series of papers by F. H. Taylor on Culicideae, and by R. J. Till-
yard and H. M. Giles on Dragon Flies. In addition Dr. Tillyard
has made valuable contributions to our knowledge of zoogeography
and to- our knowledge of the mesozoic insects of Queensland and
of the Permian and Triassic fossil insects of New South Wales.
In economic entomology we have numerous contributions by W.
W. Froggatt and G. F. Hill, as well as papers by the late Dr.
Rutherford on the scale of the sugar cane, and by T. Steel on the
parasites cf the dingo.

In regard to the lower forms of life we have a series of papers
in plant and animal plankton by I. G. Playfair, and on Hydroids
and Hydrozoa by E. A. Briggs and W^. M. Bale.

138 president's address.^section d.

Apart from C. F. Hallmaun's investigations on Sponges, this
group of animals appears to have been left severely alone, where-
as on Mollusca we have numerous valuable contributions by C.
Hedley, Gatliff, Prit chard and Gabriel, Dr. J. C. Verco, O. B.
Davies, G. H. Hardy and W. L. May. On other groups of
invertebrata comparatively little work has been done apart from
papers by E. Henry on Cladocera, by Dr. Buchanan and by O.
B. Davies on earth-worms, on Choetoc/aster by E. C. Joshua, and
E. Creed on Holcthuroidea, by Prof. Chilton on Amphipoda and
Isopoda, by E. Ashby on Polyplacophora, and by F. Blochmann
on Bi'achiopods.

The economic side of zoology as represented by animal parasites
is covered by Dr. G. Sweet's work on Worm Nodules in Cattle, by
Harvey- Johnston and Bancroft's work on Sporozoa, by Dr. J. B.
Cleland's papers on Haematozoa and C'occidiosis, and by Prof.
S. J. Johnston's work on the Trematodes of Australian birds and
of platypus.

On vertebrata we have A. E. McCulloch's and E. R. Waite's
work on Australian fishes; but on anatomy, apart from T. Har-
vey-Johnston's paj^er on the Muellerian ducts of Hyla, papers o<n
the abnormal anatomy of the frog by E. Archer and A. Osborne",
and on the syrinx of the fowl by A. O. Tymms, and on a new
Batrachian by D. B. Fty, there seems to be little to record.

Mention may, however, be made of the valuable publications
by Berry, Buchner and Robertson on the skulls of Tasmanian and
Australian aborigines, and upon the relation between brain-
capacity and intelligence, while Dr. Bivchanan's contribution on
the blood of Australian animals has added much to our know-
ledge.

On Zoogeography we have T. G. Sloane's work on the faunal
sub-regioais of Australia, and a paper on the seasonal distribution
of Rhizopoda by C. D. Gillies.

Wlork on Palseozoology is very strongly represented by numer-
ous papers by F. Chapman, and also by R. Etheridge on fossil
Reptilia. and silurian Trilobites, by C F. Laseron on permocar-
boniferous Fossils, by J. Mitchell on carboniferous Trilobites, and
by Mr. Maplestone on tertiary Polyzoa.

Special mention may also be made of th© fact that during this
period the late Dr. T. S. Hall published his last paper on Vic-
torian Graptodites.

In reviewing this formidable list of papers one is struck by the
preponderance of work of a systematic or econoinic character, and
by the absence, or almost complete absence, of certain lines of
research. There are, for instance, no papers on either heredity or
cytology, most important and progressive lines oi work. We may
trust that with Prof. Agar, at Melbourne, to represent animal

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. — SECTION D. 139

cytology and heredity, and with Prof. Lawson, at Sydney, to repre-
sent plant cytology, this department of investigation will receive
the attention its importance merits. The present preponderance of
systematic work has so-metiines led toi botany and zoology being
termed the descriptive sciences, whereas they are just as much,
and should be jast as much, experimental sciences as chemistry
and physics. Even if they were descriptive only, they would still
be of value, and we should not be entitled to' term chemistry and
physics, by comparison, the ncn-descriptive sciences.

Coming now to a review of the more important botanical research
done during the period, we may note equally serioius gape in the
work doiie.

In regard to systematic work oai cryptogams we have papers on
Algae, by A. S. Lucas and G. I. Playfair ; but a great field for inves-
tigation probably lies open in regard to the modes of reproduction
of Australian algae, in view of recent Japanese researches into the
life histories of certain red and brown algae.

We have again large contributions to our systematic knowledge
of mosses, hepatics, and ferns from the late Rev. W. W. Watts,
both singly and in collaboration with Brotherus and Stephanni,
and also by L. Rcdway ; but one might suggest that a study of
parthenogeny in Australian mosses, and of apogamy and apospory
in Australian ferns would probably bring to light facts of great in-
terest, just as in A. H. S. Lucas's investigations into parthe-
nogenesis in aquatic phanerogams. In regard tO' the higher vas-
cular cryptogams, apart from the investigation of the prothalli of
Psilotum and Tmesipteris, by WhiVelegge, and more fully by Prof.
Lawson, and apart from Prof. Osborn's work on Lycopods, singu-
larly little reset rch work has been done.

More work has been carried out on fungi and bacteria, parti-
cularly from an economic stand -point, as, for instance', in Greig-
Smith's investiefations of soil and other bacteria, in Darnell-
Smith's investigations of bacterial diseases, in some work by
Mr. Thomson and myself on root-tubercle bacteria, and in the
systematic work of -Cleland and Cheel on Australian Fungi.

Peirhaps the most important piece of work in this direction is
that of Dr. McLennan on the Fungus of Lolium. In showing that
the fungus penetrates the cvum prior to fertilization, and plays an
important part in the nutrition of the developing seed, Dr.
McLennan brings to light a new case of hereditary symbiosis, and
shows that rye and darnel grass are dual organisms comparable
to lichens, but with the chlorophyllous component forming the
dominant partner. This research should give a new impetus to
investigatio.ns into the nature and life history of smut fungi, and
it seems possible that we have here a case of an originally parasitic
fungus which has been completely mastered by its host and put
permanently to riseful work.

140 president's address. — section d.

A series of papers by Mc Alpine, the late Dr. Rothera, and my-
self, on Bitter Pit, have led to a divergence of views rather than ix>
hanncmy, and we owe notes on Teratology to A. D. Hardy and E.
Archer.

In regard to flowering plants we have, in addition to Maiden's
extended investigations of eucalyptus and acacia, much economic
work from R. T. Baker and H. G. Smith, Prof. Osborn, Dawkins
and Earl, Challinor, Cheei and Penfold, Dr. Heber Green, P. R.
H. St. John, E. Breakwell. and Dr. F. Steward, and an investi-
gation by Dr. Petrie into poisonous Solanaceaee, and the occur-
rence of hydrocyanic acid in plants.

Economic work on timber and timber trees has been carried out
by R. T. Patten, and also by J. Nangle.

More purely systematic work is represented by Williamson's
revision of the genus Pultenaea, and by various papers by R. H.
Cambage, A. G. Hamilton, W. F. Blakeley, I. Cookeon, C. Hall,
R. A. Black, E. C. Andrews, E. Cheel, C. T. White, J. M. Black,
by Dr. Rogers on Orchids, and by the late Dr. A. Morrison on the
Flora of Western Australia and of the Northern Territory, by
L. Rod way on the Tasmanian flora, and by several of the authoi^s
already mentioned, including the chief source of origin, J. H.
Maiden.

Work on ecology has been carried oai by A. G. Hamilton, F. E.
Haviland, A. A. Hamilton, Prof. Osborn, R. H. Cambage, J.
Shirley, C. A. Lambert, and O. H. Sargent; on anatomy bv
M. I. Collins, R. T. Baker, J. Shirley, and C. A. Lambert, and
on morbid anatomy (tumours of eucalyts) by J. J. Fletcher and
C. T. Musson. The fact established by J. H. Herbert that the tree
Nuytsia, belonging to the Mistletoe family, is a root parasite, gives
us an insight into' the probable origin of this group of parasitic
flowering plants.

Although interesting accounts of hybrids in eucalypts have been
published by Mr. Maiden, and of hybridism in Grevilhd by J. J.
Fletcher, there is little tO' record in regard to scientific plant breed-
ing, for although a great deal of such work is done at different
agricultural stations, scientific accounts of it are rarely published,
and the economic aspect of the work done is only too often allowed
to suppress completely the scientific side of the work, to the die-
advantage of both.

Work on Palaeobotany is i-epresented by A. B. Walkom on the
Jurassic Plants of Lismore, and by several of Mr. Chapman's
numerous papers

In regard to plant physiology, there are comparatively few papers
to note. Dr. McLennan published soine work on the influence of
increased gas pressure cii growth and curvature, and there are two
papers by myself which might be mentioned. The first is a com-
parative study of exidatioii by katalysts of organic and inorganic

PKESIDENT's address. — SECTION D. 141

origin, the second is one of a series dealing with the assimilation
of carbon dioxide, and the production of sugar by plants. The
latter paper leads tO' the conclusion that not formaldehyde but a
simple biose sugar is the first product in photo-synthesis, and that
the traces of formaldehyde which have been detected in greexi
plants are the result of the destructive photo'-oxidation of chlo-
rophyll, and are formed equally well in the entire absence of carbon
dioxide when extracted chlorophyll is exposed to light. In the
paper in question it is shown that in the polymerization of solid
formaldehyde by alkalies, although heat is required to start the
reaction, it is an exothermic and not an endothermic one, that the
sugars formed are mainly pentoses and not hexoses, or sucroses,
that magnesium, the only metallic constituent of chlorophyll, is
less eifective in polymerizing fonnaldehyde than any other alkali
metal, and that the action is not an enzymatic but a direct chemi-
cal one involving a large production of methyl alcohol and metallic
formates. In other words, there is no' analogy between the pro-
duction of sugar from formaldehyde outside the plant and the
conditions under which sugar is formed within the plant.

In concluding this brief summary of the botanical work carried
out in Australia during the past seven years, attention may be
directed to the preponderance of systematic and ecooiomic work,
and toi the deficiency of scientific work on somei ot" the deeper
aspects of the subject, many of wihch have also' great economic
importance, as, for instance, in thei application of the facts of .
cytology to plant-breeding. Apart from the fungi and bacteria,
which have received much attention, the rest of the Thallophyta
have been greatly neglected except lor purely systematic work.

In the anatomy and reproduction of Vascular Cryptogams there
is little work to record, although a detailed investigation of many
Australian forms would certainly reveal points of great interest
and scientific value.

In the ©cologfy of the Australian flora little has been done in
comparison with the vast field which awaits thei trained investi-
gator.

Coming now to a different matter, it is possible that some of you
may already know that after having held the office of Government
Botanist of Victoria for fifteen years, I am. giving up that office
in order to devote mvseif wliollv to University duties. So far the
Victorian Government has not shown any intention of appointing
a successor to that position, but I can hardly conceive it as credible
that an office of this importance would be left unfilled, or that an
institution of the scientific importance and economic utility of the
National Herbarium could be left without proper guidance and
control. However, that is a matter in which the future will afford
guidance.* In the meantime, as it rarely happens that one has

* Mr. Laidlaw, B.Sc, has since been appointed Government. Botanist.

142 president's address. — section d.

the opportunity of singing one's own swan song, I should like to
signalize my relinquishment of systematic work by a short review
of the work done at the Herbarium during the last fifteen years.

During the period of ten years that followed the late Baron voai
Mueller's death, the Herbarium drifted intoi a serious conditioin.
Great damage was done by insects, many of the types became miss-
ing, much valuable material disappeared or could not be found, the
Library contained so- few complete sets of serial publications as to
be almost useless, and it was uncatalogued. The Australian por-
tion of the Herbariiun was catalogued and indexed fairly satis-
factorily, but very large accumulations of material in the rest of
the Herbarium being unarranged were inaccessible. One ol the
first official acts necessary was toi obtain permission toi take legal
proceedings against the trustees of the late Baron von Mueller for
the recovery of missing Government property. As a result, many
of the gaps in the Library and Herbarium were filled. The cata-
loguing of both was completed with the exception of the non-flower-
ing non- Australian plants, which have still tO' be done. The
Herbarium now contains abomt a million and a quarter sheets of
specimens in good preisei"^'aticn, including not only most of the type
specimens of the Australian flora, but also^ a large number from
South Africa, and general collectiorns from all parts of the world.

The library has increased from 2,500 volumes to crver 8,000, and
most of the serials are complete or nearly so, and are bound.
Works published during the period include The Weeds of Victoria,
Plants Indlj/eiioiis to Victoria, and in conjunction with O. B.
Davieis, the Flora of the Xorthern Territory. Lists of vernacular
names of Victorian plants have been compiled in conjunction with
a representative botanical committee. Systematic investigations
have added 7 genera, 51 species, and 30 varieties to the known
Australian Flora.

I submit this record as an indication of what still remains for a
Government Botanist to' do, and with a recollection of the assurance
received on my arrival in Victoria that I would not have any diffi-
culty with the work of the Herbarium because the flora was
thoroughly known, and there were only a few introduced weeds
which were all common, and would be familiar to' me. It' was a
curious ccmmentary on this assurance that among one of the first
lots of plants identified was a new genus and species and four new
weeds. I would, however, emphasize this point, namely, that
systematic botany forms the base on which economic botany rests,
and that noi good architect attempts to' raise the superstructure of
an important and valuable building on unsound, or incomplete
foundations.

One beneficial result brought aboait by the great war was a
general scientific awakening and a public realization of the impor-
tant, and indeed essential, part which science and scientific activity
play in national security. Although this becomes more immediately

president's address. — SECTION D. 143

obvious and urgent during war, it is no- less important during
peace, which a cynic has described as a period of exhaustion and
recuperation, necessary to recover from the last war and to prepare
for the next. Evidence of the awakened interest in science, a
realization of its importance was afforded by the establishment of
the Bureau of Science and Industry. The Bureau still remiain-s
in a condition of little more than suspended animation, and
cannot possibly do the great things that were expected from it,
so long as the funds required are not available. No public protest
has been made against the non-fulfilment of the promise to raise
Australian science through the Bureau to a high standard of
activity and excellence. Ovei"worked University teachers are still
expected toi bear the main burden of scientific research and to
keep the torch of science burning, often at their own cost. The
general public usually considers that it is the duty of a scientific
man to cari-y on research for the general benefit in his spare time,
whether he has any or not, and often has the impertinence to
criticise him if he turns his endeavcurs to' problems which interest
him, instead of to those which are of obvious and immediate
practical utility, but which do- not happen to interest him. A.s a
matter of fact, by attacking problems which are of scientific
interest, he is usually doing what will ultimately be of the greatest
benefit, for it is well known that the difficult abstract scientific
problems of one generation often become the commonplace utili-
tarian realizaticjis of the next. • If scientific work were confined to
those problems which were of immediate practical unity it would
soon reach a series of dead ends from which no further progress was
possible.

This is, in fact, one of the dangers of allocating scientific work
wholly to government departments, which must, of necessity, largely
or wholly confine themselves to econcinic and directly utilitarian
scientific work. The organization of a government department is
not well adapted for the discovery of new scientific truths, and owe
can quite easily conceive the possibilitv of a zealous young officer
discovering some new fact which came within the scope of another
sub- department, being reproved for interference, while if he
discovered a new principle the adoption of which would involve
the re-organization of a department, he would probably be
prom.ptly suppressed.

Science cannot be worked in rigidly water-tight compartments,
and scientific research is always essentially individualistic.
Bureaus and committees, as such, never have done, and never
will do, any scientific research. What they can do is to encourage,
to correlate, to subsidize, to guide and control, to make public
new work, and toi bring new principles into practical use. If
government bureaus and scientific departments turn their energies
in this direction they can do- great and useful work for science,
but if they are expected to take over all scientific work, academic

144 president's address. — section d.

and utilitarian, they will fail woefully, for therei must always
t© in all the sciences a large body of free and unharnessed workers
if they are to progress. It^ is of course always possible that a
brilliant researcher may appear in a government scientific denart-
ment, just as a black sheep sometimes appears in a blameless pure
white flock, but unless he can be given a free hand such as the
mechanism of a government department rarely permits, he will
almost inevitably be suppressed and be unable to find full scope
for his talent, or will be forced to transfer his zeal and genius
elsewhere', as has often happened in the past. Can any one
conceive of Charles Darwin being allowed, as a government oflficer,
to spend years of his time working out the Descent of Man and
the Origin of .Species while the red tape remained untied, the
official forms unfilled, the correspondence unanswered, and the
stamps unlicked ? The Admiralty refused Huxley permission to
do scientific work now recognised to be of the utmost scientific
importancei, and in order to carry it onti he was oibliged to resign
and to submit to a long period of partial starvation.

This criticism is not a criticism of government departments,
but is a w^arning against expecting them to carry' out work for
which they are not suited. The function of a government depart-"
ment is rathei' to look after the every-day affairs of the present
than to provide for the future, whereas scientific research has
mainly for its object to provide for future progress and advance-
ment. Neither the public nor the politicians whoi represent it
can easily be persuaded to place on the Estimates for 1921
provision for' work which may not bei completed or useful until
1951, provided that is, it is net a vote for the establishment of
the Federal Capital, which can hardly be classed as research
work.

If the activities of the Federal Bureau and of Government
scientific departments arei planned on the lines indicated, if they
are liberally encouraged, and if encouragement is also given to
unofficial scientific work, then we shall be better able to maintain
our position as a civilized nation, and will be better equipped to'
hold our own in the world's ccck-pit^ should wei ever be left
wdthout the Mother Country's hand to help us. At present our
welfare mainly depends, and will depend for a long time to
come on our primary industries. The problems which confront
these industries, and which are of the weightiest economic import-
ance, are mainly problems which can only be solved by the
application of botanical and zoological science, using these terms
in the broadest sense, and the encouragement of thesei sciences
may repay itself an hundred-fold, and may contribute in the
highest degree to the advancement of Australia.

president's address.— section e. 145

SECTION E.

GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY.

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT:
Professor Sir Douglas Mawson. Kt.B., D.Sc, B.E., O.B.E.

Professor of Geology in the University of Adelaide-

THE CURRENT GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLOOK.

Eight loug years have passed since the last meeting of this
Association. So far has the Great* War dislocated the even tenor
of our scientific world here in Australasia. But during this period
science has not been neglected, rather has it flourished as never
before. It has been a struggle in which every branch of science
has contributed to the utmost. Geography has done her share.

Mr. Freshfield. as President of the Royal Geographical Society,
has stated* that " nO' branch of science enters more closely intr
the art of war than G^oigraphy."

Where this is true of every war it has special point in tftis
world-conflict conducted in far-flung fields. Operations have been
carried out in every sort of clime; from the Arctic shores of the
White Sea to the fever-stricken jungles of East Africa; from the
desert plains of Arabia to^ the mountain tops of the Carnic Alps ;
ploughing the blue waters of the sunny Mediterranean in search
of submarines, or groping along the foggy shores of Jvitland in
search of bigger game. The white, the brown, the yellow, and
the black have all been enrolled in one great army. The proper
conduct of such a war surely calls for the fullest possible knowledge
of geography.

♦ Pres. Add., 1915, Roy. Geog. Soc. ; Geog. Jonr., July, 1915.

146 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. — SECTION E.

Cartography, Climatologv, and Geomorphology — planks in the
geographical platform — need to be studied in every military
academy. Map knowledge is absolutely essential to military
interests.

'Not only is geography helpful to the higher command, but it
enters directly into the routine o<f all army operations.

As illustrating the value of geographical knowledge to military
operations, Sir Thomas Holditch, in a Presidential address* to the
Royal Geographical Society, has said: "Before the war ended,
what was originally a small detachment of special surveyors who
were placed in the field for the purpose of rectifying existing maps
of the gradually extending theatre of military operations on the
Western Front, and of furnishing the military staff, especially the
artillery, with the precise and accurate data which we're all-im-
portant in regulating the combined movements of troops and of
fulfilling the difficult design of range -finding for the guns, had
expanded into a highly-organized department niimbering some
4,200 employees. . . . "Our brilliant artillery service which
carried us through the worst phases of the war was very largely
indebted to the geographical section of the War Department for
its magnificent success. . . . Never probably again will an
important campaign be conducted without a properly-constituted
geographical section . "

It is not too much to say that many of the failures during the
war would not have happened had our commands been more hiWy
furnished with geographical knowledge.

Then again, in making settlements at the Peace Conference,
how very essential is an intimate knowledge of the peoples, and of
the physical features of the countries in question for a sure basis
of boundary settlements. A peaceful and lasting settlement can
be arrived at, only in proportion as the fundamental principles of
human geography are understood and acted upon without bias.

The war period temporarily put a brake upon geographical ex-
ploration and curtailed the study ol geography at the Universi-
ties. Nevertheless, in another way, it gave the science a stimulus
which must lead to far-reaching advantage. It has been a period
for the application of geography. Maps were in everybody's
hands, from the general's in the field to the civilian's at home."

War gives an impetus to map-making, and one great permanent
result that we now have out of this period is the map of Europe
and south-west Asia on a uniform scale of 1 : 1,000,000.

The scheine to compile' a map of the world uniformly collated
on a scale of 1/M was fin-t definitely decided upon in the vear
1909 at the London meeting of the International Map Committee,
but only half a dozen sheets had been prepared in the three and a

* Jour. Geog. Soc, 1919.

president's address "SECTIOX e. 147

half years prior to the outbreak of war. The urgent demand for
complete and adequate maps of the theatres of war secured lor
this great work the official interest and support necessary for the
s]>ee'dv progress of the undertaking. As a result there were avail-
able for the armies at the closing scenes of the war some 90 sheets
of the great map, covering the whole of Europe, also Asia Minor
as far as Persia and some part of Northern Arabia.

The treniendoius advance in aviation as a direct outcome of the
world-struggle has made' us more familiar with the geography of
the upper atmosphere, has presented a new aspect to the study of
morphological geography, and has opened up vistas of usefulness
in the prosecution of geographical discovery.

Whilst all this has been going on, we have correspondingly less
to report in the department of geographical exploration, for the
world's energies have been otherwise directed. Nevertheless, in
the long period since the last meeting of this Association, import-
ant undertakings of this nature have been successfully concluded.

The polar regions have been most in prominence, beginning with
the return of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition in 1914, after
a^ campaign of twO' yeai's duration along the Antarctic shores due
south from Australia. Voluminous collections of data and trophies
were obtained, the most spectacular feature of the^ operations being
the addition to the map of upwards of 1,000 miles of new coast
line.

The Stefansson Expedition, operating in the Beaufort Sea
northward ol Alaska, has, after many vicissitudes and some
tragedy, returned safely, bringing the news of the extension of the
Arctic Archipelago' still further to the west.

Professor Macmillan's Expedition to investigate the appearance
of land noted by Peary, to the west of his route across the Arctic
sea to the pole', ended by erasing such a possibilit}'^ from thc' map.
The circumstance that relief was delayed for three years owing to
unusual ice conditions, gave them the opportunity of greatly add-
ing to the knowledge of Elleemere Land.

Sir Ernest Shackletoin's Imperial Trans- Antarctic Expedition,
which sailed south under the shadow of war, ended in 1916, giving
to the world an heroic story of endurance and fortitude. Un-
fortunately for them, the good fortunei necessary to make such
hazardous plans a success did not attend their endeavour in the
measure: that was hoped, and so the great privations and loss of
life produced no- commensurate scientific gain. The sacrifice of the
life of Aeneas Mackinii^osh, to whom is clue the successful accom-
plishment of the thankless task allotted to the Ross Sea Party of
that expedition, is a matter of the greatest regret to his wide circle
of appreciative friends in Australia.
1084.— 14

148 president's abdress — sectiox e.

The Spitzbergen Group of islands, some 600 miles off the noTth
coast of Norway, has recently come prominently into public notice,
chiefly on account of extensive coal resources. Some additions to
its geography have been published lately by Scandinavian and
British investigators, but the most notable contribution has been
the publication, under the auspices of the Dutch Government, of
a volume of historical cartography of the Group. Some 80 old
Dutch maps are reproduced, which illustrate the definite establish-
ment of Dutch supremacy for a long period after its discovery by
Barentz. Whilst making reference to Spitzbergen it is interesting
to note that the sovereignty of the Group, formerly a terra iiiiUim,
has been handed over to Norway by the Supreme Comncil.

In South America, considerable advances have been made,
especially in the region of the Upper Amazon. The work of
Colonel Fawcett, and others, in connexion with Boundary Com-
mission on the frontiers of Bolivia, Peru, and Brazil, should be
specially mentioned. Mr. Roosevelt, whose subsequent death we
greatly regret, has added to our knowledge of the Duvida tributary
of the Madiera.

The Yale University Expedition, under Professor Hiram Brig-
ham, to Peru has been most fruitful of results. The indications
are that our American friends will, in the future, take a still
greater interest in investigating the South American continent.

During the period under review exploration in Africa has not
attracted public attention.

Two notable pieces of work have been accomplished in Asia,
namely, archaeological and topographical investigations by Sir
Aurel Stein in the region lying between the Tian Shan and the
Chinese' border, and a thoroaigh investigation of the Kara Koram
by an Italian expedition under Dr. de Filippi. Much detail has
been added to' our knowledge of Arabia, and of the frontier regions
of India.

Coming to the Australasian Region, the past eight years has
seen much accomplished in New Guinea. The results of a German
Expedition up the Sepik (Kaiserin Augusta) River, and of two
Dutch Expeditions into the interior of the western extremity of
the island have been made available. These undertakings- have
added immensely to our knowledge oi the formerly little-known
Dutch and late German territories. In Papua, numerous recon-
naissances have been nrade into new and little-known country by
Mr. E. R. Stanley and other Government officials, and the results
placed on a recently-compiled map. We have read with regret the
sad news which has recently come through of the annihilation by
the head-hunters of an exploring party on the Fly River. The
exploration of New Guinea is now well advanced, but it is still
one of the most fascinating fields for discovery remaining to the
geographer.

president's address — SECTION E. 149

In Australia itself our knowkdge of the little-known interior
and north-west is continually being added to^ and, in this con-
nexion, must be partieularly mentioned the South Australian
Government party into the Everard and Musgrave Ranges during
1915. The Western Australian Government has likewise partici-
pated in developing the geography of its territory by equipping
and despatching parties into the interior, both in the north-west
and in the centre zone as far as the South Australian boundary.
A continuation of the survey of the north-west coast of Australia
is being proceeded with by the Royal Australian Navy.

It is with satisfaction that we have reviewed the work of these
last few years, but we greatly regret to' record the deaths during
the same period of some of the great men in the geographical
world.

Lord Forrest, the veteran Australian explorer, whose pioneer
journeys through the arid and desert wastes of Western and
Central Australia won for him the gold medal of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society and the admiration of his countrymen, has
passed away. Peary, whose great life-work in the Arctic regions
culminated in his attainment of the North Geographical Pole, is
with us no more. Selous, the great African geographer and
hunter, of whom it is said that during his life he had faced and
conquered more lions than any other individual on earth, though
in ripe years when war broke out, girded his loins once more for
the fray, and was eventually killed by a German . bullet whilst
leading a storming party against g.n eneiny stronghold in German
East Africa.

General Rawlings, whose good work in Tibet and New Guinea
had so earned for him the confidence of the Council of the Royal
Geographical Society, that they had marked him down as the
probable leader of an expedition proposed to make an assault upon
the summit of the world. Mount Everest, was killed by a shell in
France.

Professor Edouard Suess, of Vienna, whose great work Das.
Anihfz (lev Erde earned him the lasting admiration of both
geologists and geographers, has died at a ripe old age.

Professor Herbertson, of Oxford, who has done so much during
the last twenty years to make geography a truly scientific subject,
has passed away, and so also has Sir Clements Markham^, wlaos©
enthusiasm for the history of geographical exploration remained
with him until his tragic death.

Though years have now passed, we are still mindful of the loss
that Australian oceanography sustained in the catastrophe to the
fisheries steamer Endeavour, wherein Mr. Dannevig and all mem-
bers of the ship's complement perished in December, 1914. With
them was the biologist to the Fisheries Department, C. T. Harris-
son, formerly a member of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition.

150 president's addre-;s--sectiox e

Two other proininent members of the Antarctic expedition paid the
supreme sacrifice in the war, namely, Robert Bage and Leslie
Blake.

These and otliers have passed away, buf a new generation has
stepped intO' the breach with plans for fresh expeditions either ]n-o-
jected or afoot.

The Alpine Club, of London, in association with the Geo-
graphical Society, has in hand the organization of an expedition to
scale Mt. Everest.

The compreliensive expedition proposed by Mr. Stackhouse, who
continued with its organization during 1914-15, was brought toi a
sudden conclusion by the death of the leader, who perished as a
victim of the Lusitania disaster.

Dr. J. Cope, formerly the medical officer of the Ross Sea party
of Sir Ernest Shackleton's last expedition, formulated plans for an
extemsive Antarctic Expedition, but finding difficulties in obtaining
the necessary support has reduced his programme tO' the naturei of a
limited reconnaissance in Graham's Land. On 20th December last,
in company with four companions he bearded a whaling craft at
Port Stanley in the Falkland Islands, bound for Hope Bay, at the
northern extremity of Graham's Land, where it is intended the
whalers will land them, returning to pick them up the following
year.

Captain Rdnald Amundsen is launched on another great enter-
prise. Fully equipped with an adequate scientific staff, he is lead-
ing an expedition on board the old Frani across the North Polar
Sea. The scheme is practically to repeat Nansen's drift, but
planned to enter the pack further to. the east at a point calculated,
in the light of Nansen's experience, to carry the vessel over the pole
itself. Continuous s.cientific observations will be conducted
throughout the drift. He departed from Norway in 1918, and
expects the drift will occupy five or six years.

Yale University is continuing with its researches in South
America, and a further expedition is proposed from the United
States of America to the interior of China.

At the Pan-Pacific Conference held at Honolulu in August last,
extensive schemes for geographical work amongst the Pacific Isfands
were promulgated, and a brisk period of enterprise in that fasci-
nating field can be expected.

In connexion with the whaling and sealing industry in the
Dependencies of the Falkland Islands, an inter-departmental com-
mittee* of the Colonial Office has recommended a scheme to employ
two research vessels for the investigation of the numerous problems

* Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Research and Development in
the Dependencies of the Falkland Ids., with appendices, maps, Szq. London : pnb. bv
H.M. Stationery Offi^e. 1020.

president's address. — SECTION E. 151

involved. It is proposed that these be provided with motor-boats,
and in addition to the crew a scientific staff and equipment neces-
sary for carrying on the proposed researches as completely as
possible. They contemplate an investigation which should last for
a period of years, and the regular publication of scientific results
of the expedition. The committee think that the first cost of the
two vessels, as pi'oposed, would not be less than £85,000, and the
maintenance and expenses would be not less than £28,000 to
£33,000 a year. It is assumed that the vessels and sui-vey equip-
ment would be proivided by the Admiralty, and that the cost of
maintenance and the pay of the naval staffs and crews would be
borne by naval funds. The executive control of the expedition is
to be left in the hands of the Admiralty and the Colonial Office,
the Departments through which the investigation will be financed.

The latest development in the field of geographical discovery is
a proposal backed by the British Association for the Advancement
of Science. At the recent meeting of the association, at Cardiff,
the Council appointed a Committee representing all branches of
science to work out a scheme suggested by Dr. Herdman, the pre-
sident, for an oceanographical expedition on the lines of the famo-us
Challenger Expedition. The committee is also to approach the
Government on the subject.

Turning from, the sphere of geographical exploration, we can-
not pass on without taking some note of the iinmense changes which
the war has wrought in the political geography of the world, an
upheaval which is without precedent in history. Europe, the focus
of the struggle., has been rent from end to end ; the old order of
things has gone, and a new system is taking its place. Empires
have broken up, and new political divisions have been created. In
this re-arrangement the fundamental lessons which the study of
human geography teaches have been taken into consideration, and
it is hoped that thereby a greater degree of international confidence
has been secured. But the upheaval is not yet finished, and no
one can say what will ultimately be the position in the territory of
the former great Russian Empire. In its present phase it is a
dictatorship of the uneducated replacing a dictatorship of those
educated and trained toi govern ; a change which has cost millions
of lives, and an order of things which, to say the least, must be
unstable.

To outline in detail all the changes in boundaries and political
co'utrols which have thus been effected in Europe and Asia and
Africa would be tooi lengthy a matter fox the scope of this address ;
but the occasion cannot be passed by without some reference to
such changes as affect territories in the Australasian sphere.

152 president's address — -section e.

The division of the late German colonial possessions in the
Pacific, arranged by thei Peace Treaty, has placed sections, under
mandates, with Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and Britain re-
ejjectively.

It is gathered that the terms of the said mandates will be to
give full powers of control to the countries respectively holding
authority, thus allowing them to pass such laws for the control of
the territories as they may deem necessary, just as if such territories
were definitely made dependencies. It goes without saying that
the interests of Allied nations will be secured by commercial
treaties.

Tn thei aggregate, these former German colonial possessions totial
an area of over 97,000 square miles with a native population of
between 350,000 and 450,000 inhabitants.

To the Japanese have been apportioned the following: —

Marshall Islands

Pelew and Caroline Islands

Ladrones (Mariana) Islands

(Exclusive of the American

Island of Guam.)

There is etill no final settlement reached between Japan and
the United States of America in regard to Yap, the principal of
the Pelew Islands, but, on account of its importance, in the line of
cable and other communications between the United States of
America and the East, an effort is being made by America to gain
control.

New Zealand has a mandate over former German Samoa, a
valuable territory of about 1,300 square miles in area, and a popu-
lation of some 30,000 native inhabitants.

In the case of Nauru (Pleasant Island), an upraised coral atoll
situated a few miles south of the equator, a British mandate has
been granted, and the administration by the Home Government
is to be in joint agreement with New Zealand and the Common-
wealth, at least so far as concerns the profits to be derived from
the exploitation of the rich deposits of phosphates which cover an
area of upwards of 4,600 acres. The native population amounts to
only about 1,300.

Approx. Area.

Approx. Xative
Population. ^

150 sq. miles.
400 „

... 10,000
... 30,000

225 ,,

... 10,000

775

50,000

president's address — SECTION E. l53

The Australian mandate covers all the former German pro-
tectorate of New Guinea south of the equator, including the
following : —

Apiirox. Area Approx. Native

in Sq. Miles. Population.

The late Kaiser Wilhelm Island 72,000 ... 150,000

to
234,000
The late Bismarck Archipelago ... 20,000 ... 100,000
The late German Solomon Islands 3,500 ... 16,000
(Bougainville and Buka)

95,500 .. 266,000
to
350,000

Detailed proposals* for the administration of this territory have
been prepared by a Royal Conrmission apix)inted by the Common-
wealth Government. The recommendation of this inquiry takes
the form of three alternative proposals for administration: —

1. A policy of amalgamation; providing for the administration

of the late German territory as a part of Papua.
21. A policy of separate administration ; maintaining the

adm.inistration of these as two quite apart and separate

undertakings.
3. Internal administration and executive and legislative

councils to be quite separate, but under oiie head

administrative officer.

The main difficulty that presents itself is that " immediate
union would involve the adoption of all the Papuan laws and the
cancellation of the whole legal system under which the mandated
territory has grown up." Such a course would create confusion.

In these extra-Australian tropical territories the people of the
Commonwealth have a great trust, for their potential resources and
productivity are enoi'mous if developed on fruitful lines.

The Commonwealth now controls half of New Guinea which,
with the exception of Greenland, is the largest island in the world.
It possesses every variety of climate, is rich in minerals, with good
prospects of petroleum oil-fields, has important resources of soft
wood timbers, and is capable of supplying all tropical products. A
great range O'f mountains traverses it from end to end, a distance
of about 1,200 miles, rising in lofty peaks perpetually snow-
capped though situated almost under the equator. This great
barrier to atmospheric circulation leads to- the phenomenal precipi-
tation of several hundred inches of rain a year on some of the
highlands, and indirectly results in developing an important system

* Commouwealth Parliamentary Pajier 29, 1920.

154 president's address — section e.

of rivers. The Fly and the Sepik are famous. If they be iude;ed
by the quantity of water delivered to the sea they must be iium-
be-red amongst the world's large rivers. Here is indeed latent
productivity in the highest degree requiring only an abundant in-
dustrious poipulaticn to reap the harvest. Unfortunately, it is not
a country for white labourers, and the natives are not industrious,
nor are' they numerous.

At the other extreme of our Australasian region liee the Great
Antarctic Continent pregnant with jiossibilities in the future.
Until this region is taken definitely under the control of some
Power, no regulations can be enforced to control whaling and seal-
ing, the chief natural industries. Without such regulationis the
days of these animals will be numbered, and the industries gone.
The Australian quadrant at least is by every right British, if the
claims of exploration are to be recognised. Too much emphasis
cannot be laid upon the advisability of taking the opportunity of
this general world settlement to realize British claims over
Antarctic territory.

There yet remain for comment three recent events each of which
marks a s)tage in the geographical development of Australia.

The first is the completion of a transcontinental railway. It is nbw
possible to travel by train from Geraldton, in Western Australia,
to Loiigreach, in Queensland ; but I venture to suggest that such
an undertaking would not recommend itself to any one as a plea-
sure trip. The diverse gauges of our railway systems is a glaring
example of the want of geographical outlook in the past.

The second achievement is the realization of the first aerial link
with Europe. This splendid record will ever redound to the credit
of Sir Ross Smith and his companions. By their success, however,
we must not conclude that flights of sO' extended a character are
yet even approxiinately within the sphere of commercial aviation.
Nevertheless, history teaches that undertakings of this kind, which
are accoanplished to-day at great risk of life and expense, niay be
the routine of another generation. The onward march of human
achievement in the field of invention gradually alters the effective
relations in space of the^ peoples of the earth, and thereby is a
factor constantly changing the political and economic outlook.

The third event of great importance to geography in Australia
is the founding of an Associate-Professorship in Geography at
Sydney University. In Professor T. G. Taylor, who has just been
appointed, the science in Australia is assured of an indefatigable
worker, from whom great advances in the subject will certainly
emanate. His publications have already earned for him a world-
wide reputation. That university recognition of geography is at
last an accomplished fact in Australia is a matter of great satis-
faction. The tardiness of the recognition is no doubt largely due
to the financial limitations of our institutions, but it certainly in
some measure arises from a general want of appreciation of the
scope and value .of the modern science of geography.

president's address — SECTION E. 155

This is such an important occasion for geographers in Australia
that I am dis]>osed to dwell at some length upon the subject O'f
geography and its teaching, in order to emphasize and spread more
widely the gospel of geographic science.

The first recognition of geography at any British University
was the appointment to a lectureship at Oxford University in 1888.
Cambridge followed the next year, and thereafter during the next
twenty years practically every university in the United Kingdom
did likewise. Many of the former lectureships have since been
replaceJd by the foundation of Chairs of Geography, in which,
again, Oxford led the way. During this period the statixs of
geography has gradually risen until, in 1916, it was made an
honours subject in certain British universities. At this same time
the Civil Servicei examiners decided to assign to geography a much
larger proportion of marks than hitherto.

Despite these advances geography in British countries has
always lagged far behind the standard in France and Gennany.
For example, Professor Herbertson, of Oxford, speaking in 1910,
tells us that whereas Oxford University could afford only an old
private residence slightly modified for the Geography School, the
Geography Department of Berlin University was endowed with
^6,000 per annum, and housing accommodation which cost
£150,000, inclusive of land values.

The good work of the universities gradually made itself felt
throughout Great Britain in disseminating a greater degree of
geographical intelligence in the rising generation of teachers. This
had the efi^ect in 1905 of ushering in a new epoch in the teaching
of geography, when the Board of Education issued its regulations
for the teaching of geography in secondary schools. Sir John
Keltie in describing this change says:* '.'Consequence had to be
connected with cause, and reasons had to^ be stated with facts,
instead of presenting lists of names as catalogues to' be learned.
Geography thus now became a reasoning subject requiring indivi-
dual work by the student and sound knowledge by the teacher, as
much as any other subject taught on scientific principles. The sub-
ject is being treated more and more on a regional basis, and the
work is consequently gaining in intelligence."

In these regulations it is pointed out that there should be
lessons in reading books of travel and adventure, as Keltie says,
" intended to- inspire interest in the earth and its inhabitants, and
cultivate appreciation in what may be termed the intangible in-
fluences and factors of geographical character. When taught in
this way geography may ]ye made one of the most valuable subjects
in a school curriculum ; for it provides not only the intellectual
discipline of a science rightly studied but also the human interest
and sympathy of the most inspiring literature"

* Pres. Address, Geog. Association; see Geoff. Jour., XLIIL. p. 410.

156 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION E.

Referring to school geography Professor Mackinder, the great
British authority, states* that " when teaching geography in
schools we seek to train pupils to' imagine accurately the inter-
action of human activities and their topographical conditioins. As
these conditions have been established partly by natural forces and
partly by human effort, any discussion of the correlation of various
conditions must be both scientific and humanistic. The mind of
the citizen must have a topographical background if he is to keep
order in the mass of information which he accumulates in the
course of his life, and in these days that background must extend
over the whole world. Besides giving this necessary mental equip-
ment, we believe that the collection, estimation, and correlation of
geographical facts afford a most valuable training in practical
judgment as applied to' ordinary affairs."

I am afraid we have not progressed so far in the teaching of
geography in Australia. Put the new aspect ol geography has
been realized in part in school curricula, particularly in the States
of New South Wales and Victoria.

The old-fashioned text-books of geography have been likened to
a Baedeker of the earth, or, as Dr. Rudmose Brown has put it,+
" Catalogues of uncorrelated facts." Even the best text-books,
before the year 1890, were a mere succession O'f disjointed chapters
dealing with isolated subjects.

Since then a new science of geography has grown up. From
being purely descriptive and a bald statement of fact in its earlier
stages, it has now developed into an analytical science supplying
data for synthetic conclusions of far-reaching in;iportance to the
human race.

There is still some difference of opinion as to' the exact range
in scientific inquiry that properly is included under the texm
geography. Of the two extreme schools,! one leans heavily on the
side of geomcrphologv including cartography ; the other is rather
too fully imbued with belief that man is all that counts in a
description of the earth. This latter has been pressed sO' far by
some enthusiasts that thei original application of the term
geography has been lost sight of, and we are told that the study of
physical relief and map making are not geography but mere tools
of the geographer. Rather are they, together with climatology and
oceanography, tO' be regarded as the' elements of geography. " The
distribution of vegetable and animal life on the earth, including
man, is consequential, and being of supreme interest to man and
involved in the operation of diverse controls, it naturally consti-
tutes the advanced phase of geographical study.

* Oeoffraphieal Teacher. 1917.

t " The Province of the Geographer." Scot. Geoq. Mag., Vol. 30 (1914), p. 467.

I G. G. Chisholm says, in Scot. Qeog. Mag. XXIV., p. 565: — "The chief difference
between the rival schools of geographers arises from this, that some have insisted on
taking man as determining the supreme aim of geographic studies .... whilst

others have sought to bring into independent prominence the study of the forms and
physical conditions -of the earth's surface."

president's address — SECTION E. 157

This has been expressed by Sir John Keltie* when he remarked,
" man ie thei ultimate' factor of the geographical problem, the final
object of which is to investigate the correlations which exist be-
tween humanity and its geographical environment."

Mr. Freshfieldf does not underestimate the importance of mor-
phological geography when he states: "The physical facts of
geography must be treated not only in themselves, but as elements
in human history, politics, and commerce."

Professor Roor bach, I of the University of Pennsylvania found,
on personal inquiry amongst a widei circle of the leading
geographers, that there was a general consensus of opinion as to
the scope of modern geography, namely, " Geography concerns
itself with the study of relationships between earth and life, par-
ticularly human life."

Sir John Scott Keltie,§ in referring to the business of the
scientific geographer says it "is to sti;dy the great features of the
earth's surface in adequate detail, and to investigate the influence
of these factors, including climate and hydrographical conditions,
on the distribution of other factors on the earth's surface, and
es}>ecially of humanity .... this is a department of geo-
graphical work which might be carried on indefinitely, and which
has important practical bearings on the activities O'f the human
race."

As regards the position of geography in university studies. Dr.
Rudmose Brown says:!j " Treated by scientific methods and based
on the more fundamental sciences, geography is yet in the nature
of a link between subjects in the^ faculties of arts and of pure
science, and it might be more so were it not for the exigencies of
specialisation and of regulations for degrees, which limit the pos-
sible combination of subjects permitted to the student."

Mr. Freshfieldf says "Geography, the knowledge of the world,
we live in, must be taught as a link between the natural sciences
and the humanities."

There can be no doubt as toi the cultural value of geography,
and it ought, at the same time, " to awaken an interest and kindle
an einchusiasm rivalled by few other sciences."** Professor R. D.
Salisbury saysjt "Perhaps no science touches human life and in-
terests more closely or in more ways. There is, I am confident, no
science which, properly developed and utilized educationally, will
do more for the development of good citizenship. Its substance
perhaps touches the essence of material life, especially on the
human side, more intimately than any other science."

* "A Half Century of Geographical Progress"; S.G.M., Vol. 31 (1915). p. 629.

t Pres. Add. Roy.'Geog. Soc, 1917.

J " The Trend of Modern Geography." G. B. Roorbach, Bi'li. Amer. Geog. Hoc.
XLVI. (1914). p. 801-816.

§ S^e G.B. Roorbach, lor. dt.

II "The Province of the Geographer," loc. cit.

*\ Pres. Add., Geog. Joiirii.. July, 1917.
** Professor McCoutt.
tt Science, N.S. 47, pp. •325-335.

158 presibent's address — section e.

As regards its suitability as a school subject, Mr. B. C Wallis
writes^* " For breadth of outlook, for intimate relation with the
palpitating human life which surrounds the pupil, for an insight
into the wonder-world of inanimate and animate objects, no school
subject can compete with geography."

For the jjrcper teaching of this modern geography in schools
the instructors should have covered a much wider range than they
themselves seek to teach. It has been writtenf in the- United
States : " It OiUglit to be illegal for a teacher to conduct classes of
students through the principles of the^ subject witho^ut having had
advanced instruction in university or college courses."

In Australia, though the universities have not in the past pro-
vided a training ground in this subject for the teachers, we have
long taught geography as a school subject. It is no' wonder that the
modern advances in the science of geography have not been fully
realized in the schools.

Wallis remarks J that " geographical insight and outlook are
so important to the cultured mind that the absolute minimum of
geographical study should carry the pupil to a coimplete, thorough,
systematic geographical survey of the whole world." This will, no
doubt, be widely conceded, but the question of introducing addi-
tional subjects into already overcrowded curricula has toi be faced.

As Professor J. W. Gregory, § when occupying this Chair some
eighteen years ago, said : ' ' The educational problem that is now
pressing upon us is the selection of the subjects which are O'f the
most educational value."

The editor cf thei Camhriihje lldtulhool-^ for Tcnrhers\\ has said
that " the place of each separate subject in the curriculum has to
be justified. Attempts are being made^ to find more rational and
more scientific reasons than mere traditio'ii for the order in which,
and the methods by which the various paits of a subject should be
taught, what parts should be included, and what omitted, and the
grounds for their inclusion and omission."

Changes are slowly progressing in our university curricula in
the right direction, and we can confidently look forward toi the
value of geographic knowledge becoming more fully recognised.

Ill passing, it is interesting to^ note that Professor R. D. Salis-
bury, in regard to improved curricula, says:1| — What would be the
resvilt if those who are interested in education could come de novo
to the question of the content of an ideal curriculum of study. It
probably is safe to say that one of the results would be a shock to

* "The Teaehins of rif-qgiaphy," Cambridge Press, 1016.

t See I. Bowman in "The Trend of Jlodera Geography" by G. B. Roorbach, he cit.

I The Teaching of Geography, p 126.

§ Pres. Address, A.A.A.8., Section K., 1903.

II See S. S. F. Fletcher, p. VI., " The Teaching of Geograpliy" bv B. C. Wallis.
H Geology in Education. Science, N.S., 47, p. -325-3.35.

president's address— section e. 159

those whose cpinioiis in this matter have been shaped by the pre-
judices which accompany our inheritance. That evolution is a slow
]jrocess is illustrated nowhere better than in educational circles.

" I suppose that no morei conspicuoue examples of intellectual
waste can be pointed to in all the history of our unintelligent educa-
tional development than the waste of time on languages that no
longer live. The stock argument that the study of these languages is
helpful in the use of our own is an argument of waste. If half
the time were devoted to English which is put into Latin, for the
sake of helping English, the average^ student probably would ad-
vance much farther in his own tongue."

It is gratifying to record the beginning of what we may confi-
dently expect to he> a more geuei'al recognition of geography as a
definite science subject in our Australasian universities. Out of
this should spring a greater understanding and appreciation of
geography in the community at large.

Such a movement would be greatly advanced by the existence
of a vigorous geographical organization in our midst. Our best
thanks are due to the geographical enthusiasts who have unselfishly
worked hard for many years past to keep alive local branch sections
of the Royal Geographical Society of Australia in Adelaide, Mel-
bourne, Sydney and Brisbane respectively. Some of the names
that appeal to us at the moment in this counexion are Mr. Gill, of
Adelaide, Mr. .Thompson, of Brisbane, the late Mr. Sachse, of
Melbourne, and Mr. Crummer, o.:^ Sydney. But, in a community
so small as that in Australia, it is not to be expected that so
many societies working independently can be maintained satis-
factorily. Thei Victorian section, after languishing for some time,
has recently amalgamated with the local Historical Society. The
position in Sydney appears to be no better. The local branches are
still carrying on in Adelaide and Brisbane, but one cannot help
feeling that if the geogra]>hical effort in Aiistralia were concen-
trated in one publication it would have a greater effect in Aus-
tralia, and carry more weight outside our own country. There is
an unrivalled field for geographical inquiry in the Commonwealth,
and under the stimulus of the modern movement great things are
to be expected.

Even the coastline of Australia is yet only partly charted.
Captain J. K. Davis, the Director of Commonwealth Navigation,
advises that more than one-third of the entire coast is uncharted
in the modern sense of the term. Some parts of our north coast
are but roughly delineated as Flinders left them 120 years ago. On
the charts, morei than anything else, the safety of shipping de-
pends, so that Australia is under the responsibility of seeing: that
her coasts are not allowed to^ be inaccurately represented.

,,l:60 president's address — section e.

Now that the Comnionwealtli has instituted its own Navy it
has need also of orgaiiizing an efficient hydrographic service to
cope with this undertaking. In this a beginning has already been
made, but to do justice to our Melanesian Dependencies as well,
an extensive and well founded organization is needed.
. -" Regarding an oceanographic survey of our coastal waters com-
paratively little has been done, but the information to bei got has
important bearings both scientific and economic.

As fields for general exploration may still be mentioned parts
of Central and North Western Australia, Papua, and the man-
dated territories. A detailed ethnological study throughout
Melanesia is an urgent matter, for every year's delay will lose
to- the world much valuable data. In this connexion it is gratify-
ing tO' record that the Department O'f Home and Territories has
already appointed an officer to prosecute such investigations. No
doubt the Commonwealth Government will be prepared to' assist
exploration in the Melanesian Dependencies, but it is to be ex-
pected that before official recognition and the provision of financial
assistance, the Go'vernment should require the hall-mark of such
an Association as our own toi be stamped upon any proposals. Sir
John Keltie says,* " We must insist that explorers shall have- a
training adequate to the conduct of their work on scientific lines."

New Guinea is a land of promise in the matter of available water
power, and exploration with the object of ascertaining the avail-
able resources in this direction is most desirable.

Professor MacKinder emphasizes vegetatiou provinces as funda-
mental in dividing geographical regions ; and in this connexion
Professor T. G. Taylor draws attention to the fact that no adequate
m.aps of the vegetation belts in Australia have^ yet been made.

Very good geographical research can be undertaken anywhere
in Australia where investigators select a definite area and work
the same out in complete geogi-aphical detail.

Many other suggestions for investigations could be put forward,
but sufficient has been indicated to make it evident that for geo-
graphers in Australia the future is full of promise.

• "Half a Century of Geog. Progress." Sent. Gei>g. Mag., Vol. 31, p. 629.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS — SECTION

SECTION F.

ETHNOLOGY
AND ANTHROPOLOGY.

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT:
His Honour Mr. Justice Murray, C.M.G.,

Lieutenant-Governor of Papua.

Subject Races and "yatives."

The subject races of whom I speak in this paper are those
people whom, like Miss Tox in Domhei^ and Son, we are content
to call "natives." This term is surely as absurd as it well could
h<e, for a man who "w^as not a native of some part of the globe
v.-culd indeed be a lusus naturce, but after all it seeins to convey
one's meaning well enough, and. when we talk of natives, every
on© knows that we refer to those races of men, of different
colour from ourselves, whom we, I suppose rightly, regard as our
inferiors.

Incapacity/ for Self-Govetiinnnt.

In the opinion of the average Britisher, all foreign nations
are obviously incapable of self-government, but the " natives "
I refer to really do seem to^ suffer from a peculiar unfitness in
this regard, for they appear to have little or no idea of nationality
or patriotism, and, in spite of their tribal organization, they
often have but a rudimentary notion o-f subordinating individual
interests tO' those of the general body. Consequently it probably
is desirable, even in the interests of these races themselves, that
they should be under European domination, although, as Sir
Sydney Olivier has pointed out, this is a consideration which,
however true it may be, has never by itself caused any race to
annex the territory of another or to assume its government
(Olivier, White Capital and Coloured Labour, p. 136). It is
a truth which looks suspiciously like hypocrisy, it is as old as

162 president's address — section v.

Aristotle ("Politics," Book I., ii.), and it has often assisted and
served as a pretext; but, where there are no other inducements,
the consideration of the duty which the civilized man feels, or
affects to feel, for the uncivilized has, in the words of Sir Sydney,
"been impotent as a colonizing force and has never effectuallv
operated to induce any white Power to take up the white man's
burden."

Tiro Waf/s in which Native Faces may he Regarded — (i) A^
the " LiviiHj TooU" of Other Men: (ii.) As Men in the Full Sense.

Still, the white man's burden has been taken up pretty exten-
sively, and there are few, if any, of these native races who are
not under the white man's rule to-day; and the white man,
therefore, is forced to assume! some definite attitude towards,
them. Now, there are two ways in which these "natives" can
be considered. They may be considered either as the "natural-
born slaves" of Aristotle's "Politics" — ^men, indeed, but men
whose function it is to be merely the "living tools" of other
men ; or the.y may be regarded as men in the full sense of the
word, as possessing rights of their own, and as entitled to be
regarded not merely as a means to an end but as an eind in
themselves. The former view is thousands of years old, and found
its final and crudest expression in the decision of the Supreme
Court of the United States in the Dred Scott case, that "the
coloured man has no rights which a wdiite man is bound to
respect." It is, in fact, part of the sophistry by which a nation,
practising slav0ry and knowing \in its heart that slavery is
wrong, endeavours to make peace with its conscience. In the
Dred Scott decision the sophistry has practically disappeared,
and unrelieved brutality has taken its place ; but in the older
and more highly-civilized society of Greece one sees the struggle,
one sees how Aristotle tries to justify slavery by an appeal to
"phusis," and how he comforts himself with the smug reflection
— so very unlike his usual style of thought — that it is really for
the slave's good after all.

I mh'nf iired f.ahniir.

Of course, slavery is a thing of the past, but it has left
behind it a rather near relative in the system of indentured
labour ; and I do not think that it is an exaggeration to say
that just as much hypocrisy has been displayed in defence of
indentured labour as evefr was shown in support of slavery.
Unfortunately, indentured labour is for the time being a
necessity in some places — e.g., in New Guinea — but it is not an
institution which any one who knows anything about it would
care tO' perpetuate. Indentured labour goes far to keep- upi that
feeling of arrogant and innate supeJriority which is really the
basic idea of slavery, and which, I suppose, cannot die out so

president's address — SECTION F. 163

loug as colour is the badge which distinguishes master and servant,
and so long as those economic relations continue which, it has
been said, "obscure and distort the apprehension of more deeply
human relations" (Olivier).

It is probable that, as Lord Morley says, all mankind is becom-
ing one people for economic purposes, the backward races taking
the place of uu skilled labour, and, if so, the feeling which I have
3iientioned is mere likely to be intensified than to disappear.

GerriKiii View of Xative Races.

It has been said, especially since the war, by those who have
studied the subject, that the Germans in their colonies regarded
the natives merely as a means of developing the resources of the
country, and not as fellow men whose welfare should be promoted
apart altogether from the economic advantages which are likely
to C'Usue to the dominant race; and if you take this German
view — which is, in fact, the^ old Aristotelian view of the natural-
born slaves- — anthropology and ethnology can give you nO' assist-
ance in your administration, because your administration, in
that case, is based upon a denial of the principle on which those
sciences are founded — -the principle, that is, of the ultimate
unity of the human race.

Bntish View.

The British principle of native administration is, at any rate
in theory, very different; and in British books dealing with
such subjects you will find it laid down authoritatively that the
welfare of a native race is either the first or, at any rate, one
of the first objects of administration. This is regarded as a
"truism" by Sir F. D. Lugard in his recent report on the
amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria, and the same
principle has been laid down by the Commonwealth in relation
to the Territory of Papua, and it is, I suppose, accepted and
greeted with applause everywhere throughout the Empire, except
in those countries where it is supposed to be carried into effect;
for in those countries it is ]>robable that the theory will only be
tolerated so long as no attempt is made to put it into practice.

Now this attitude towards native races, which I may call the
British attitude, may be quite wrong, and the true principle
may be that which is reflected in the Dred Scott decision already
mentioned, but it is the attitude to which the British adminis-
tration is definitely committed, and I venture to hope that it is
an attitude which will neven be abandoned, for it seems to me
to be the only one that is worthy of a civilized nation. And
further, and this is the point that is material for this paper,
it is the only attitude that can be regarded as scientific or as
in any way reconcilable with the principles of anthropology or
ethnology.

164 president's address — section f.

British View the Only One that can he Reconciled with
Scientific A n thropology.

For ethnology knows nothing of uatural-born slaves, of essen-
tially superior races,' of Herrenvolk and Sklavenvolk. Scientific
ethnology is unthinkable except upon the hypothesis that all man-
kind is more or less closely related, and that what is true of one
race at soine^ place and some time, past or present, may be equally
true of another entirely different race at some other time or place.
I do not intend to' embark upon a disquisition on monogenism and
polygenism, nor upon the relation of mankind to' the lower
animals; what I wish to assert is that the' value and even the
possibility of anthropology in general, and ethnology in particular,
depends upon the unity of the human race — not necessarily, I take
it, upon unity of descent, but on unitt of spiritual and mental
aspirations — and that every advance in these sciences affords addi-
tioi]al evidence of this unity.

Unity of the Human Race.

To' the practical man, the busy man of affairs who prides
himself upon his common sense and his freedom from humbug,
the argument from the unity of man must appear to be the
merest academic trifling. He is probably prepared to accept
that hypothesis as he accepts, for instance, the dogma of the
Incarnation, as something which he will admit to be true, but
only on condition that it is deprived of all substance and reality ;
and he would consider it as little less than an outrage if he
were asked to draw from either of them an inferencei which
could have the slightest effect upon the actions of his ordinary
life. Ht would argue (if he condescended to argue at all) that
whatever may have been the origin of mankind, however closely
all men — black, white, yellow and red — may be related if you
go far enough back, still, as a matter of present fact, they are
obviously distinct — in colour, in appearance, in habits, in ways
of thought, and in most other particulars that can be enumerated.
We should reply that it was true that there were differences,
but that they were as naught compared with the fact of our
common humanity — in other words, we should say that what is
common to all men is not merely more important, but is infinitely
more important, than the accidents by which men differ. "To
this, if he did not become speechless with rage at being compared
with an adjective nigger, he would retort by accusing us of a
vetitio 2>rincipii, inasmuch as it is the importance of this common
humanity which is in dispute.

And so the controversy would continue, but it would lead to no
result, for both parties are in the right ; the practical man is
absolutely right in objecting most strenuously to anything in
the nature of a doctrinaire administration, and we are right

president's address^section f. 165

in insisting that administration should rest upon some solid
basis of principle, not only in theory, but also in practice, and
that in the^ case of British administration this principle is to be
found in the unity of the human race.

Now, if w€i have a real, practical belief in this unity, we shall
look on native races in an entirely different way ; we shall no
longer see in them a bundle of inexplicable eccentricities and
contradictions, and we shall noi longer be prepared tO' dismiss
them off-hand as "half devil and half child." We shall look
upon them as men like ourselves, with similar passions, and
probably with less self-restraint ; with the same feelings of love
and hate, and often the same respect for justice and contempt
for injustice. I have read that, of the many wrongs which
the natives of South-West Africa had suffex'ed from the Germans,
those' which they resented most arose from the fact that the
same justice was not meted out to white and black alike, but
that what in the white man was a mere peccadillo, became in
the black man a most heinous crime. It must, I fear, be
admitted that, as a matter of administration, it is practically
impossible toi treat the' white man and the native alike even in
a court of justice, for local public opinion, or prejudice, or
whatever you likel to call it. will not permit such equality ;
but an administrator who has a practical belief in the equality
I have' mentioned — who, in a word, is a good anthropologist —
will, at any rate, insist upon as much practical justice as he can
get. He will not make the< German mistake of denying it
altogether.

Widesyread Idea tJiat the Native is not Really a Man.
The idea that a black or brown man is not really a man like
ourselves is probably more widespread than is generally believed,
and it is probably responsible for many of the worst outrages
which have been committed not only by white men upon black,
but also by black upon white — and especially upon white women.
Ir: its most harmless form it is found disguised, in the shape
of a theory that the native is a child and must be treated as a
child. Of course, there is an analogy between a native and a
child, but there are many false analogies, and, though this
particular analogy does not lead to any very dreadful conclusions
(since one does not, for instance, starve or torture a child),
still it appears to me to be, logically, as false as any of them.
When I have come across this analogy it has generally been used
ai: a justification for corporal punishment ; the native is a child,
it is argued, and when he offends he should be punished as a
child — which, in effect, means that the native should be punished
by a flogging administered without trial and at the caprice of
the man against whom the offence, real or imaginary, was com-
mitted. On the other hand, if the native does something wrong,
and asks to be forgiven as a child is forgiven, the analogy would

166 president's address — section f.

probably be forgotten ; many setntentious platitudes would be
uttered about the necessity of setting an example and keeping
the native in his place, but it is likely that the pardon would be
withheld.

The truth, of course, is that the native is a man, and not a
child; he has a man's passions and a man's power tO' hate and
love, but he is a very ignorant man, and he is a man whose
customs and ways of thought are strange to us, even in the rare
instances in which we try to understand them. And if we must
use the method of analogy we should argue not from the child,
but from the peasant, for, to quote Mr. Marett, it is the
peasant who "is the true middle term of the anthropological
cyllogism" (^" Psychology and FoIL-lore," p'. 19).

" Direct" and "Indirect " Methods of Administration.

Now, therei are twO' methods of governing these native races. One
is toi abolish all native customs and institutions of ©very kind, and
to introduce European customs and institutions in their place;
and the other is to conserve such of these customs as appear to be
useful or even harmless, and to make use of them, so far as may
be, as an instrument of good government. These methods have
been distinguished as the direct and the indirect method respec-
tively; the French, I believe, have favoured the former, and the
British, as a rule, the latter. Of course, neither method is exclu-
sive, and, equally, of course, their comparative merits have been
the subject of controversy.

Instances of Direct and Indirect Methods.

Perhaps the practical difference between these two methods can
be best illustrated by actual instances, so I will give an instance
of direct administration, taken from Miss Kingsley's Travels in
West Africa, and another of the indirect method from our own
administration of Papua.

Miss Kingsley tells us of a black man called Joseph, in the
French Congo, who applied for a permit, or something of the sort,
and was cross-examined by the French officials as to the name of
his father. It appears that nobody cm the West Coast reckons
descent otherwise than through the mother, and Joseph did not
know, and had never had occasion to inquire into, the identitv

of his father if he did know who he was he would take no interest

in him, for each would regard the other as a stranger; and the
point ol Miss Kingsley's story is the insistence with which the
French regulations, made for a different race with different rules
of descent were applied to a people to whom paternal descent was
unknown.' {Vide Hartland Primitive Paternity, vol. i., p. 263.)

This I consider tO' be an extreme instance of the direct method ;
and the other, which I take from Papua, is perhaps an extreme
instance of the indirect. It occurred when the small-pox scare
arose, some seven or eight years ago.

president's address — SECTION F. 167

It was necessary to have the natives vaccinated, and it was
highly desirable, for many reasons, that it should be done with
their consent. At the same time our natives have usually a great
horror of the icnife or anything which suggests it, and, further, it
was' tO' be expected that, even though the first few might submit
willingly enough, the pain and sickness which normally ensue on
vaccination would make the process vastly unpopular with the
remainder. We wanted, therefore, to put some view before them
which would give an adequate explanation of the reason for
vaccination, and which would also recommend it to their favorable
consideration. So we told them that there was a very dangerous
and powerful sorcerer in the West — that was the quarter froan
which the small-pox was expected — and that this sorcerer had
conjured up a very bad sickness which might come along at any
moment. But, though the sorcerer was strong, the Government
was stronger, and would protect all who claimed its protection.
A mark would be put on the arm of all those who trusted them-
selves to the Government ; the sorcerer when he came would see
the Government mark, would realizei that he was powerless, and
would retire foiled and baffled to his home in the West. But for
those who would not receive the mark the Government could, of
course, do nothing.

I have called this an extreme instance of the indirect method,
because we worked through the natives' belief in sorcery, which,
a? a matter of fact, we are doing our best to extirpate; but I still
think that we were right, for we were^ really doing no more than
translate the theory of vaccination into a language that a Stone
Age savage could understand. Anyhow, whether we were right
or wrong, we were successful beyond our wildest dreams — the
" Government mark " became hugely popular, uot only medically,
but socially, and to be without the mark was to confess oneself the
veriest outsider. Fortunately, the sorcerer of the West did not
come; but if he had come we were ready for him.

I admit that I have purposely chosen instances in which the
direct method appears rather at a disadvantage, but it is probable
that the other — that is, the British, or indirect, method — really
i's thei better way of dealing with natives, if only for the reason
that it is less " cast iron " and is more capable of adjustment to
meet the circumstances cf any individual case.

Anihrnpology of Service onhj where the Indirect Method is

Adopted.

Clearly, if you are going to abolish native customs altogether,
i'o is of no practical value to try to understand them, since in any
event they have to go ; consequently, anthropological study is of
little value where the direct method has been adopted. Where the
other, or British, policy is followed it may, in my opinion, be of
the very greatest assistance, since, obviously, you cannot decide

168 president's address — section f.

which customs you should preserve, and which you should abolish,
unless you are in a position to form some idea of what customs
there are, what is their real nature, and how far they extend.

This seems an obvious truism, but it is a strange thing that,
though I have read, I suppose, without exaggeration, scores of
criticisms, mostly very hostile, of my administration in Papua, I
have never, I think, seen one that betrayed the slightest conscious-
ness even of the existence oif such a problem as I have indicated.

Interdependence of Ideas Among Scuuige Races — Result of
Interdependence — Head -hunting — Cannihalisni.

In dealing with native' customs it must be remembered that,
among savage races, the different departments of thought and
action are not clearly distinguished as with us ; even among our-
selves the interdependence of ideas is greater than appears on the
surface, but we do keep our ideas and our customs in more or less
water-tight compartments, and we can change one set of opinions
without altering others — for instance, we can change our politics
without changing our religion, while a savage cannot do anything
of the kind. His ideas are. as is to be expected, less highly
specialized — they are all interwoven and jumbled up together —
so that, in suppressing a practice which seems to you simply silly
and useless, you are at the same time perhaps affecting a dozen
other practices which may be in many ways desirable. Of course,
there are some things that must be suppressed, whatever the result
may be — as, for instance, head-hunting. This is a custom which
the most sympathetic administrator could net be expected to pre-
serve, however great his devotion to the science of anthropology,
though in its suppression he will probably influence all sorts of other
things of which he knows nothing. In such a case as this, he must
take the risk, and perhaps the best thing he can do is to induce
the head-hunters to substitute a pig's head for that of a human
being, or to persuade them, as I think has been done in Borneo,
to put up with old heads and to make believe that they are new.
So with cannibalism. If you tell a cannibal that he must not eat
human flesh, he will probably reply, " Why not?" — a question
to which I myself have never been able to find an answer, except
the rather unsatisfactory one, " Because you mustn't." You can,
however, get them to give up the practice without so much diffi-
culty as one might imagine. Savages are just as great snobs as we
are; and if you appeal to their snobbery yom can get them to do
a great deal. So. if you can get it into their heads that canni-
balism is not good form, and is rather looked down upon by the
" nicest " people of Papua, and that a cannibal can hardly be
received in 'the best villages, they will give it up quickly enough.
At least, that was our experience in the country of Namau, m the
Purari Delta; they gave up cannibalism and, so far as we could
see, substituted a pig for the human body.

president's address — SECTION F. 169

Collection of Skulls in- Namau.

The people of Namau were alsoi head-hunters as well as canni-
bals (the two do not always go together), and their ravi or large
ni^n's houses, were festooned with innumerable skulls; and the
removal of these skulls was necessary to the eventual suppression
of head-hunting. Not all these skulls were the skulls of enemies —
many were the skulls of friends and relations ; but all had to go,
so that in putting down a crime we were also suppressing a quite
unobjectionable funeral rite. Fortunately, no harm appears to
have resulted ; and, in any case, head-hunting must stop.

PiircJiase of Land.

Particularly in buying land from natives it is necessary to
have at least some rudimentary knoAvledge of native custom. The
practical man, who will stand no nonsense, probably solves this
difficulty, and, inore suo, creates a hundred others, by simply
declaring all native-owned land to be Crown land ; but, if we have
any regard for the traditions of British justice, we shall probably
try, whatever the precise details of our land policy may be, to
inflict as little hardship as possible upon the native owners, and
to do this we must have some general idea of the form of land
tenure in different parts of the Territory. Many years ago some
person who had the interests of the Papuans at heart, and who
had persuaded himself that they were being robbed of their lands,
asked that a special Board should be appointed to hear any com-
plaints which might be raised by native owners in connexion with
land purchase; the Board was .appointed, but it has never met,
for the reason that the few mistakes that were made were easily
corrected, and that no injustice has been alleged.

Best nu-f ion of Sacred Tree — Policeman Ordered to Shoot his

Totem.

It would be easy to give individual instances where ignorance
or neglect of native customs has caiised unnecessary, and sometimes
rather serious, trouble. A friend of mine — a humane man, and
one who had exceptional consideration for natives — told me that
he was once besieged for several days by a horde of cannibals
whom he had offended because in his clearing operations he had
unwittingly destroyed a sacred tree; he was the last man in the
world to destroy anything that any one considered sacred, but
there was nothing to distinguish this tree from others, and it had
simply gone with the rest. Less serious in its results was the
rather thoughtless action of a Government officer who told a
police-man to shoot soane birds to make soup for a sick colleague.
The birds (they were black cockatoos if I remember aright) were
the totem of the policeman, and he might not take their life; so
he was placed in a very terrible dilemma, for on one side was his
clear duty to obey orders, and on the other was the life-long

170 president's address — SECTION F.

txadition that forbade him to do so. Eveutually, if I may para-
phrase a well-known passage of Gibbon, he sighed as a member of
the cockatoo totem, but obeyed as a policeman ; he shot the birds,
but I am told that h© spent the night weeping in an agony of fear
and remorse. We are inclined to laugh at him in our . superior
way, but his grief was quite sincere.

Idol (iu<] JJnnii in I'lirari Dcltd.

There must be innumerable ways in which even the most care-
ful man offends native feelings, and I am afraid that the ordinary
white man is not particularly careful in this regard. Perhaps
the British white man is no worse than the others, although those
who have seen British tourists on the Continent of Europe may be
inclined to be less hopeful. And there are really most unexpected
]ntfalls, into^ some of which we all of us, I suppose, occasionally
fall. I remember once in the Purari Delta noticing a thiiig in the
men's house, or ravi, that looked like an idol; I offered to buy it,
and the chief (there are two for each ravi, one for either side)
said, courteously enough, " Of course, if you want it you can have
it; but if you take it away we shall all be very ill." I asked him
why, but he could not or would not tell.

In the same ravi there were a number of drums, and some of
us were idly tapping them as we went along ; but when we came
to- one of them (it looked exactly like the others) we were politely
lequested not to touch it. " If you do," said the chief, " we shall
all die."

Rni/uualc'r Ainonrj the Nuhas.

A better instance than any of these is that given in a book •
called Science and the Nation, edited by the Master of Downing
College, Cambridge. The last chapter of this book is called " The
Government of Subject Peoples"; it is written by Dr. Rivers,
and the instance to which I have referred is given to illustrate
what the author calls " the religious or magical aspects of chief-
tainship." " Among the Nubas of Southern Kordofan," says Dr.
Rivers, " the chief is also the rainmaker, and it is believed that
his rain-making powers will come to an end if he leaves the hill
upon which he and his people dwell. Formerly, when an official
wished to deal with a community of the Nubas, he camped at the
foot of their hill, and sent for the chief, thus forcing the people
to choose between disobedience to their foreign rulers and the loss
of supernatural powers which they believe to be essential to their
welfare. Placed in such a dilemma, it is not surprising that they
have preferred to offend the temporal powers, thus bringing
immediate disaster on themselves and serious trouble and e'xpens©
to their rulers. With knowledge of the fact that the chief is a
rainmaker who must not leave his hill, it would have been easy
for the official eitlier to visit the hill himself or use- some other
intermediary."

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS— SECTION F. 171

Doiirahle to .1 r<uil Ddinjiruus Giuiiiid — RdK/ioii — Sames.

Now it is obviously impossible for any one to know all the
sacied trees, all the drums that may not be beaten, and all the
old' men whoi must not come down from a, hill ; the most that one
can hope for is to gain a general idea of when one is likely to be
treading on dangerous ground. For instance, anything connected
with religion is very dangerous indeed, and we certainly ought to'
have known better than to have attempted to touch the drum in
the land of Namau. So it is practically a universal rule that any-
thing to do' with uttering a name is ticklish work. "A name," as
Mr. Hartland says, "is an essential part of its owner It is much
more than a mere label ; it is looked upon as having a real objective
existence. The knowledge of the name gives power over the person
or thing designated" (Frimitivt Paterrntij, vol. i., p. 223). Often
the man will not give his own name, or the name of certain of his
relations ; but sometimes, like the man who shot the black cockatoo,
he finds himself placed in a position from -which there is no escape,
as, for instance, when a man joins the police and has to give his
name for entry on his record of service. In such a case he often
adopts the subterfuge of getting another man to give his name
for him.

Uchif loiixh] p — L(tii(iii<t(ie .

Relationship is also a subject which is a fertile source of error,
for the native classification is entirely different from ours ; and
then there is the subject of language, with the question whether
it is better that the European officers should learn a native
language or that the natives should learn English. The decision
of this question depends, to my mind, entirely upon what kind of
a language thei native language is. For instance, if the native
language were Malay I should say, " Make the European officers
learn Malay," but in the case of Papuan languages I should say.
" Teach the Papuans English." I admit that it is much easier
toi take a good and fairly sim]>le language, as, for instance, the
Motu language of Port Moresby, and to insist that this shall be
used as a means of communication, than it is to attempt to teach
the natives English ; 'and in the transition stage which we are
going through at present in Papua it is being brought home to us
every day that things would be much easier if Motu were the' com-
mon language. Motu is the native language of only a few villages,
but, in a debased form, it is easily learned by others, very easily
indeed by those whose native language is, like Motu, Melanesian
■ — much more easily than English, even the horrible pidgin English
which forms the lingua franca of the former German New Guinea.

During the present period of transition all the arguments seem
to' be on thei side of making Motu the common language, but, as a
matter of administration, I am convinced that, looking at the
future as well as the present, we did right in electing to keep to

172 president's address — section f.

English. We came to this conclusion som© time ago in Papua,
and I was glad to see that the principle on which we acted was
confirmed by so' distinguished an anthropologist as the Reade'r in
Social Anthropology at Oxford, in his little book in the Home
University series (p. 151).

y alive I 'st/ r ]) oh) iji/ .

Dr. Rivers, in his book I have already mentioned, expresses his
opinion that " it is not necessary to dwell upon the value to a
ruler of a knowledge of the psychology of the people he is called
upon to govern " ; it certainly is not neceissary to do^ so in address-
ing an audience like the present, and it ought not to be necessary
to do so under any circumstances, for it should be oKvious to any
one that, if you are to govern a people justly and efficiently, the
more you know about them the better. Unfortunately, however,
it is a fact that, far from being obvious, this consideration never
occurs to the majority of those who write and talk about native
administration, and I take it that a knowledge of native
psychology is about the last qualification which the man in the
street, or the average elector, would ever seek in an administrator.

" Thinlitig lilark " /.s^ a (riff.

And perhaps the man in the street is not altogether to blame ;
perhaps he realizes that we know little of the psychology of native
races, and that what knowledge we have is largely intuitive and
confined to but a few individuals. Eventually, perhaps, we may
learn how to acquire this knowledge in the ordinary way, and to
impart it to one another ; and its practical value may then be made
more obvious. But at present the art of " thinking black " is a
gift, and a very rare one.

Lessons from the Central Cuiirt for Papua — Apparent Insufficiency

of Motive.

Such opportunities as I have had of studying native psychology
have come toi me in connexion with the trial of cases in the Central
Court of Papua, and, as I can not pretend to possess the gift
which I have mentioned, I must confess that I have not formed
any conclusions which are likely to be of great value. But I have
at least seen enough to enable me to realize how valuabe a know-
ledge of the subject must be, and how great an assistance in
administration. One must, of course, take certain precautions;
one has to see that every one concerned, witnesses, prisoners,
interpreters, and so forth, get rid of all fear and nervousness, and,
above all, one must make them forget that horrible desire to please
which stultifies so much of what they say. This, of course, is part
of the ordinary duty of any magistrate or Judge who has to try
native cases, and when one has cleared the air of all unnecessary
complications introduced by courtesy, timidity, and other influ-

president's address — SECTION F. 173

ences, and has got down to the bed rock of reality, one finds
oneself occasionally in rather strange surroundings. The most dis-
concerting thing about it all is the appalling candour and truth-
fulness of all concerned, and the utterly insufficient grounds on
which they sometimes act. "It is the New Guinea custom, sir,"
said the Coui-t interpreter to me in. the first case I tried in Papua.
He was a highly-civilized man for a Papuan ; he spoke English
well — not pidgin English — and he could read and write. I had
asked him why some man, who had absolutey no connexion with
the matter in dispute, had joined in committing a murder. " It
is the New Guinea custom, sir," he replied ; " if a man asks you to
join him in killing another man you cannot refuse." " But," I
objected, " if some onei asked you to come and kill a man, surely
you would not go?" "Yes, sir," was the reply, ^'I should cer-
tainly go if he asked me." This " New Guinea custom " is dying
out, of course, but we could make it die out very much quicker
if we knew the reason that lies behind it. The interpreter almost
certainly did not know, and could only say that it was a custom
that had been handed down from his ancestors ; but anthropology
might be able to divine the cause and to help in its removal.

Murders hi/ the Koid'i Trihc.

Some murders which have been committed in thei neighbour-
hood of Port Moresby in recent years have brought home to me
how little we know about the Papuan, and how desirable it is that
we should know more. There ar& some people at the' back of Port
Moresby who are called Koiari ; they are essentially an inland
people, though they come down, in places, to within a few miles
of the coast. The Koiari language is Papuan, not Melanesian, and
extends, with dialectical variations, across the main range and as
far as Mount Scratchley. Government patrols going through the
Koiari district have for years past met with no opposition, but
the Koiari themseves, though they occasionally work for a white
man, and even join the police, have been little influenced by
civilization.

The Heera.

Murders among these people are frequent, and present certain
peculiar characteristics. The vast majority of murders elsewhere
are committed for the purpose of "paying back" for some pre-
vious murder, but with the Koiari this motive, though it exists,
seems to have less influence. Sometimes it is what I suppose may
be called a ritual murder, but at other times it is connected with
the right to wear what the Motu people call Heera — that is, the
feathers and other ornaments which are the insignia ol one who
has killed a man. This, of course, is clear enough, so far — we have
the same thing ourselves on a less barbaric system — and it is com-
mon enough elsewhere in Papua; but elsewhere, soi far as I am

174 president's address — section f.

awai"e, although a man may be anxious to win the glory and the
ornaments of the homicide, still he will only (except in a personal
quarrel) kill outside his village, and usually his object is to pay
back for one of his own tribe.

But the Koiari will kill any one and anywhere ; they do not
kill SO' readily now, because they are invariably caught and hanged
or sentenced to a long term of imprisonment, but, still, murders
are not rare among them even now. It is generally assumed that
the idea which is at the root of the Heera (as in our own system
of decoratioais) either personal prowess or service to the tribe ;
but I have known the Heeira to be bestowed upon a little boy who
had killed his baby sister (appeasing the anger of their mother by
the gift of a pig), and upon a child who had done nothing more
than 2>lace two fingers upon another child who was dying. The
child was dying a natural death — he had a snake inside him, I
was told, which means that he was ill — and there was no sugges-
tion that the other child had anything to do with it. It is possible
that prowess or service was the original idea of the Heera, but
that the system has degenerated, so that the original meaning has
been obscured ; but it is also Dossible that th© original idea may
have been something quite different, and may have extended to
any close connexion with death, irrespective of the cause of death,
and irrespective of whether the dead man was a friend or an
enemy. In any case, I cannot help thinking that there is some-
thing behind it all which we do not understand, and which patient
and skilled research might enable us to discover.

Importance of Discovering the Origin of A pparentit/ Meaningless

Customs.

It has been said that the study of anthropology induces a belief
that there was a time when the whole of mankind was mad, and
certainly many of the native customs which one finds in Papua
are hard to reconcile with any degree of sanity. Yet the people
who practise these customs are, in fact, quite sane. They go about
their business in the ordinary way, they make their gardens, build
their houses, and look after their children, just like any one else;
and the point which I think we ought to realize more clearly than
we generally do is that it is our duty to find out, so far as we can,
the motive of these' mad customs, for, unless we do, we can never
understand the inner life of the people who practise them, and
our progress in raising these p'eople to a higher and more whole-
some ideal will be all the slower. The customs may die out in
time, as many native customs do, but the mode of thought, or
mentality, or whatever you like to call it, of which the custom was
a symptom, may remain, and we can hardly take effective steps to
modify that mode of thought unless we know what it really is.

president's' address — SECTION F. 175

" Roasting Saijo."

Sometimes one finds a phrase, a form of expression, which to
the older men bears a meaning of which the younger men know
nothing. 1 lememher an instance of this which I thought rather
interesting, and which came to my notice in a case I tried at Port
Moresby. It was, of course, a murder case- — they nearly all are
in our country — and I suppose the murder might be called a ritual
murder. There was a custom which allowed you, if you built a new
house, to paint the posts red, with a mixture of cocoanut oil and
clay, but only if you had killed a man. A prominent native had
built a house, and wanted to kill a man, so he sent round a
message to his acquaintances inviting them to assist — a little cour-
tesy which, of course, they could not, by Papuan etiquette, refuse.
The manner of his invitation was to ask them to come and " roast
some sago," the recognised periphrasis, apparently, for killing a
man ; and what I thought was interesting was that the old men
who got the message knew what it meant, whereas the younger
men did not. Thus two) men in Gaseri village received the invita-
tion, and both went, one of them a middle-aged man, the other
a youth. "Why have you not brought your ckib?" asked the
older man, when the two had gone some distance. " Why should
I?" said the other, " we are only going to roast some sago."
" Go back and get it," was the reply, " you will find that you will
want it." So, in an evil moment, he went back, and got his club;
he found that he did want it, and he used it, and was arrested,
and, though he escaped the gallows, he is, I think, still m gaol.
For it was a white man who was*killed, and where there is but a
handful of Europeans among a large number of natives a white
man's life must be held very sacred.

Now, if we had had enough knowledge to enable us to modify
the ritual and substitute some other animal for the man who was
killed, we could have prevented this murder, just as many murders
have been prevented in the Gulf of Papua by the substitution of
the pig. The practice of painting the house, so far as I know, has
long since died cut, and the phrase about "roasting sago" is
]n-obably forgotten. I should like to know its origin, but I never
shall.

Ignoranrc of Natives of the Meaning of their Customs.

Occasionally the custom seems to be merely grotesque and to
be incapable of any serious motive or meaning. I say " seems "
advisedly, because all these queer practices must have had some
motive at some time or other, though the motive may not be of
the kind which we should call rational, and may rather be con-
nected with the processes which originate from what, it appears,
is called by psychologists the " collective unconscious," and which,
to quote Mr. Marett once more, " seem to set the logic of pur-
posive life at defiance " (Marett, Psi/chologi/ and Folklore, p.

176 president's address — section f.

127). ■ Hence it comes that in many cases the meaning is not, and,
perhaps, never has been, clearly undei stood ; natives tell you that
they do these things because their grandfathers did them, and
leave it at that It may be that in some cases they know more
than they admit, and that the reason that they disclaim all know-
ledge is that they do not like, any more than we do, to discuss
the mysteries of their religion with unsympathetic strangers, of
atrocious manners, who^ will jDTobably laugh at them; but as a rule
I think tTiat they really do not know. And it is, perhaps, not
merely that the tradition has been forgotten ; it is quite probable
that in some cases the ancestors by whom the cult or custom was
originated could not explain it either, for I suppose it could rarely,
if ever, have originated in anything like the clear-cut expression
of a definite idea. As Mr. James points out in his Fviviii'ive
li'itiud and Belief (pp. 5, 224), the primitve mind is incapable
of grasping the abstract thought to any appreciable extent ; the
savage is a ceremonialist, not a dogmatic theologian. Religion to
him is a matter of practice, not of theory — a thing, in other words
to live out rather than to think out ; and it may be that in many
cases the ritual came first and that the interpretation, where there
is one, came afterwards.

Arfip'riedit// of Savue/e Life — T)r. Bivers in " Seience and the

X at ion."

Now, it may be argued that, by this admission, I am giving
away the whole of my case ; if the native does not know why a
man must be killed when a house is built or a canoe is launched,
if he does not know why the old man must not come down from
the hill, or why the drum must not be beaten, it may be contended
that these practices or prohibitions must remain only as isolated
facts in his life, which can be removed without influencing in any
way the remainder of his scheme of existence. But, in fact, one
does not find that this is so in the case of a savage, though
it may be true enough of civilized man. Savage life is
intensely artificial, it is pervaded throughout by conven-
tions of every kind ; and thoiigh none of those who are
bound by these conventions know anything of their origin,
any mere than we know the origin of the conventions which
bind us, still, experience shows that they are so inextricably
bound together that the removal of one apparently isolated custom
may shake the v>'^hole foundation. For, to quote Dr. Rivers again
in Science and the Nation, " We know that the disintegrating
influence of European settlements becomes the greater the lower
we go in the scale of culture, and it is largely through the greater
interdependence of the different aspects of social life that this
effect is produced." Dr. Rivers then mentions the instance uf
head-hunting, and continues, "Similarly, one who abolishes secret
societies because he holds them to be ' hot-beds of superstition '

president's address — SECTION F. 177

will produce effects he had never anticipateed if, as is often the
case, these societies provide the basis of the whole economic system
of the people and embody religious practices of the utmost
importance to their material and moral welfare."

Custom of Caunihala of the Purari Delta.

It m^ust, however, be admitted that some of the practices one
finds are so utterly senseless that one can hardly imagine that they
ever had any real meaning. For instance, in the Purari Delta
and in many other districts it was the custom not to eat the man
you had killed — your friends ate him. and you ate the man your
friend had killed. However, on the Purari there were certain
conditions under which you might break through this rule, but the
ritual was rather strict. You had to sit on a cocoanut (in itself
not an easy task) with a cocoanut under each heel (a still more
difficult thing) ; and, while so seated, you might get your daughter
to boil the man's heart, and then you might drink the water in
which the heart was boiled, and even eat a little of the heart itself
— but you must be seated on the cocoanut all the time. It is a
difficult act of faith to believe that this particular custom ever had
any meaning; but, at any rate, whatever its meaning may have
been, it was not a custom to encourage, so it had to go, and it
went. But perhaps, if we knew the life of the Purari people
more intimately, we should see that a lot of other things, good,
bad, and indifferent, went with it.

The Xob() House.

Then there vas the rather mysterious custom of the Nobo
house, which came to light in connexion with the murder of a
village constable called Papia, in the Boboi District, at the back
of Mekeo. Papia belonged to oiie of the villages in the plain, and
had gone to a dance in the Boboi Mountains, where he was killed
and eaten. When the officer in charge of the police arrived at the
village where the murder had been committed, he noticed the
charred remains of a house ^.t some distance frcn\ the other houses,
and asked what it was. " Oh," said the villagers, " that was a
Noboi house." " It seems to have been burnt down," said the
officer. " Of course," was the reply; " we always burn down the
Nobo house." " Well, what is a Nobo bouse?" he asked, and the
matter was then explained to him. The Nobo house, it appears,
is always built at some little distance from the village, and is used
as a trap for unwary strangers — in this particular instance, for
Papia. Papia. the culprits told me afterwards, " was a fat man
with a light skin, and we wanted to eat him too much," so, when
the conversation had turned upon the recent dance and upon
feathers, and plumes, and other ornaments, one of the Boboi
casually remarked that there were some very fine feathers in the
Nobo house, and that if Papia would walk over there he would
show them to him. The unsuspecting village constable fell in

178 president's address — section r.

with the sug[ge§tion, and entered the Nobo house, and was
promptly killed, cooked, and eaten; the Nobo house was then
burnt down, and a fresh one built in another place. Why they
should take the trouble of enticing the man to the Nobo house
instead^ of killing him out of hand was the point which one could
not understand, and it was just the point which they could not
explain.

At the trial the witnesses repeated the account which had been
given to the arresting officer, and added that occasionally, I pre-
sume when there was a dearth of visitors, they succeeded in
inducing some of their own village people to enter the fatal house.
This seemed to me the most surprising thing of all, for, though it
might be possible to entrajo- an unsuspicious stranger, I could not
understand how a native^ of the village, who, of course, would
know exactly what the house was built for, could ever be got inside
it; but the only explanation I could get was, "Suppose we say,
' More better you go along Nobo house,' he gO' all right."

DifficuJty of F'itt'in<j in Xative Customs with E uropean Ideas.

It is, of course, easy to enumerate' the strange customs that one
has met with, but it is very rarely that one can understand these
practices of the Stone Age and modify them in such a way as to
make them fit in with what has been called the^ "European epoch
of the human mind" ; though it seems clear that this line of
investigation must in future play a very important part in the
government of native races, however much it may have been
neglected in the past. The difficulties, however, are very great.
My experience in- Papua is that if a native gives you a reason for
any custom or belief you may be pretty sure that he has just made
it up, and that, in fact, he does not know, but does not like to
admit his ignorance; and, consequently, you find yourself reduced
toi conjecture, which can only be verified and checked by enormous
patience and industry.

Difficult)/ 0/ Gra><'inn<i the Real Meaning of What a Native Tellx
You; C Oliver sat 1071 with a Cassovar//.
It is SO' difficult, too, sometimes, toi know w^hat a native means.
When a witness gives you, for instance, an account of a conversa-
tion which hei has had with a cassowary iii the bush, and adds
that he has always found a cassowary to tell the truth, it is really
quite impossible to know what he means. One may say that he is
mad, but the man I am thinking of most certainly was not mad, or
vou may say that his concept of personality is fluid (vide Hartland's
Ritual and BtHef, p. 30), and that he'^ thinks that a man can
change into a cassowary and a cassowary into a man without much
difficulty; but. as a matter of fact, he does not think anything of
the sort, and if he saw a man turn into a cassowary he would be
just as amazed as you or I. Probably the man in question knew
perfectlv well that he had never had a conversation with a cassowary

president's address. — SECTION F. 179

wary at all, and perhaps he never imagined that I would be foolish
enough to think that he really meant that he had — he may have
meant something quite different, but I do not know what it was.

Many Inquiries Abortive.
This, I fear, has been the end of many such inquiries ; they so
often result in nothing. I remember once taking some trouble to
investigatei the action of a man whose wife had been murdered,
and who summoned the neighbouring villages to " pay back " for
her death by cutting off her hair and sending it round to them.
The effect was magical ; avengei's simply swarmed to his assistance.
But when I M'anted to inquire into the meaning of what he did,
and why he did it, T came full tilt against the inevitable brick
wall. " We don't know why he did it," said the witnesses; " we
think it must have been because he was a fool." And probably
they thoiught me a still greater fool for troubling to inquire.

Anthropology has not yet been of Much Practical Assistance
in Administration.
On the whole, I must, I suppose, admit that anthropology, so
far, has not played an important part in administration, and I
am, I think, fully aware of the many difficulties that must be sur-
mounted before this science can come into its own as a practical
guide to the government of subject races. It has, of course, often
happened that an officer stationed in so'me unsettled district has
had a taste for anthropology, and in that case, if the charms of
this particular branch of learning do not cause him to neglect his
other duties, his services will be all the more valuable ; but there
are dangers before him — there are lions in the path. The greatest
danger is that he may become an unpractical doctrinaire — in other
words, a prig; and a prig, as the governor of uncivilized races, is
frankly impossible. Or, avoiding the Scylla of priggishness, he
may fall into the Charybdis of inexactitude, and cease toi be scien-
tific altogether. And the temptation to be inexact in such matters
is almost irresistible. You see, it is so easy. Yon are probably
one of a very small number who know anything about the country
in which you are stationed, so that you can practically say any-
thing you like without much fear of contradiction — and, if you
are contradicted, is not your word as good as another's? Thus,
you are likely to weary of thei careful collection of data, to
generalize too quickly, and to jump at conclusions with results
that may be quite the reverse of what you intend.

Jjut is Likely to be of the Greatest Assistance in the Future when
Initial Difficulties have been Overcome.
Still, in spite of all difficulties, and in spite of the fact that
my own attempts to find an anthropological basis for my adminis-
tration have often had but small result, I entertain no doubt
whatever that administrators of the future will derive more and
more advantage from enconraging the study of anthropology, either
1084.— 15

180 president's address. — SECTION F.

by the appointment of specialists whose sole duty it will be to
investigate these questions, or by encouraging the study of anthro-
pology generally among Government officei-s. In Papua we have
been fortunate in securing the services of Dr. Strong, who is not
only well-known as a general anthropologist, but has made a
special study of the languages of Papua, and was for many years
a magistrate in the Papuan Service.

In conclusion, I may be allowed to quote a passage from a
pamphlet which I wrote a few months ago, called Review of the
Australian Administration in Papua.

" It is clear," I said, "that the Papuan cannot remain as he
is ; he must move along the path of civilization unless he is to die
out altogether, and we believe that the path I have indicated is
the safest and surest for him to follow. I do not think myself
that argument and moral suasion have very much influence on a
people at so low a stage of evolution ; there must always be the
power toi compel, behind the exhortation and advice — a power
which, perhaps, need rarely be exercised, but which must be there
all the time. And for this reason the advance must be made under
the sanction of Ordinances and Regulations which provide a
penalty for disobedience. Still, progress will be more willing, and
consequently more rapid, if the Papuan understands and concurs
in what we are doing, and fov this reason a knowledge! of Papuan
manners and customs and Papuan mentality generally is very
desirable in those who undertake this task.

' ' The capacity of ' thinking black ' or ' brown ' is possessed by
few, for this is an art which, it is said, ' requires more sympathy
and insight than is given to most men.' It is an art, however,
which is very necessary in dealing with native races, for there is
always the danger that they may imagine that some policy, which
has been adopted for their benefit, is really a device for their
undoing; and there is also the danger that an officer, with the very
best intention in the world, may deeply incense native feeling
against him by a quite unconscious offence against some tribal
tradition. The best remedy against such mistakes as these is to
be found in a study (even a fragmentary and unsysteTnatic study)
of the science of anthropology, so long as the student does not
allow the charms of that science tO' prevail over the claims of duty.
And it is partly to encourage this study among our officers, and
partly to assist the Government more directly, that arrangeatnents
are being made for the appointment of an officer to b© Govern-
ment Anthropologist.

" Incidentally, such an officer will be ol assistance in collect-
ing the various objects of interest which are generally passing out
of use in the native villages, but this will not be his chief value.
His chief value will be to help us in reconciling an intelligent,
though very backward, race to the inevitablei march of civilization,
and in finding "the easiest way for its advance."

president's address. — SECTION G. 181

SECTION G.

SOCIAL AND STATISTICAL
SCIENCE.

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT :

G. H. Knibbs, C.M.G., Hon. F.S.S., etc.,

Commonwealth Statistician.

STATISTICS IN REGARD TO WORLD AND
EMPIRE DEVELOPMENT.

1. Singular importance at presej^it tim€' of statistical and econoi-

mic studies.

2. Range of studies of special urgency.

3. Difficulties which are >jnminent .

4. International homogeneity and rate of natural increase.

5. Rate of exploitation cf natural resources.

6. Possibilities of food supply, and of water supply for cities.

7. Statistics and the conflict of national interests.

8. The British Empire Statistical Conference.

9. Proposal to establish a British Empire Bureau of Statistics.

10. The proposed character of the Bureau.

11. Observations on the work of the Conference.

12. Conclusion.

1. Singular importance at present time of statistical and econo-
mic studies. — The huge destruction of material wealth, and the
world-wide dislocation of economic relations, which have char-
acterized the greatest war of human history, have revealed more
clearly than ever before the importance cf statecraft — using the
word in its better sense — and have disclosed the measure of our
need for an adequate conception of two of the larger elements of
statecraft, viz., political economy and statistical science, each in

182 president's address. — section g.

its broader aspect. The questions presenting themselves oven now
for systematic examination are only too self-evidently momentous.
Different orders of political theory and practice need, as time re-
veals their consequence, to be reviewed in the light of facts; and
apparently questions will arise which must necessarily range be-
tween national aims tending on the one hand to that individualism
expressed in Herbert Spencer's " Man versus the State." or on
the other hand toi an organic and well-defined national regime,
such for example as that which constituted the economic system
of pre-war Germany, and is again reflected in the present organiza-
tion of the All-German Industrial Trust. Fundamentally, the
issue is, perhaps, that between various forms of socialism and in-
dividualism. The rapidly enlarging powers of mankind, however,
show how inevitably the rights both of individuals- and of
nations ultimately impinge, the one vipcn the other. The ever-
increasing command over Nature's reeonrces, exemplified in the
applications of science to industry, reveals unmistakabh'- what
vast powers of destruction are at thet disposal of nations and even
of individuals, and how relatively limited are our piowers of
ameliorating national or social conditions. Thus it is not sur-
prising that, in thei general consciousness of mankind, the thought
more and more clearly emerges that there is something funda-
mentally wrong aboiut a social system which involves readiness
to find hundreds or thousands Oif millions sterling for the purposes
of destruction — in order that we may be safe or be pre-eminent
xxi wealth — and, at the same time, hesitation to find even one
tithe of these amounts for systematic attack upon those problems
of either national or international economy, which make for peace.
One cannot help feeling that, quite apart from the evil de^-
velopments incidental to war — these were found in each natiou
engaged therein — it is an ugly portent that the means are not
even yet available for a thorough study of the problem of living
in international amity. The solidarity of the world in respect of
finance, commerce, industry, social organization, and scientific re-
search has become more apparent, and when this is borne in mind
it. is seen that it is not a mere Utopian dream to imagine that,
internationally, it it not impossible for mankind to be more
mutually helpful. It is probable that national egoism alone pre-
vents this, for unrestricted individualism probably has nO' eminent
advocate among political or other thinkers. The advantages and
privileges which accrue to individuals are poesessed in virtue
of an inclusion within a society which respects law. And the war
has at least done this — it has compelled people to realize that any
safety for their persons oir property is dependent upon such in-
clusion within the social organism, to' which, therefore, they have
obligations, and which has the right to modify very greatly their
individual rights, so as to' make the latter at least consistent with
the well-being of the whole.

PRE'^IDENT's address. — SECTION G. 183

As with individuals so with nations : the advantage lies with a
recognition of the fact that it is profitable to live in amity. To
do so, however, requires the restriction of the rights of individual
nations so that such rights shall be subordinated to the common
good, viz., the good of all nations. The Treitschke-Bernhardi
doctrine is of course a denial of this. But it has, I venture to
say, become evident beyond all doubt, that unrestricted national
egoism must of necessity produce appalling conflict, unless some
one nation should happen to become so all-powerful as to coerce
and exploit all others. A different view to Treitschke'fi is set out
in Mr. W. L. Courtney's " Armageddon — and After," where the
public weal is esteemed of more importance than coimmercial pros-
perity.* And Mr. Holford Knight saysf that —

" Peoples are eickened with war and angered at its con-
tinuance in any field. Unsettled by stringency at home, . . .
increased by the exactions of profiteers, they are in no mood
to tolerate the expansion abroad of economic aggrandisement
under deceptive forms ol foreign policy, secretly pursued in
the interests of international capitalists."

It is with some measure of recognition of this that — if it en-
dures — the League of Nations will probably endeavour to build
up an international statistic. The " Institut International de
Statistique " is obviously anticipating to some extent, though
in an unofficial way, international requirements; and the "In-
stitut International d' Agriculture " of Rome is also enlarging the
domain of the matters to which it gives att-ention. But until
definitei principles governing questions of opposing interests are in-
ternationally agreed upon, solutions of international difficulties
are not^ — in the nature of things — automatically possible. Hence
the need for thorough and impartial studies.

2. Eanf/e of studies of special iirgenci/. — The actual facts which,
even at the present moment, are precsine themselves upon politico-
economical attention, illustrate the difficulties of the situation.
Month by month evidence accumulates that the economic interests
of great nations are often in sharp conflict ; and this clashing of
interests may be by compulsion ; it certainly dc es not always come
by choice. It may depend upon natural factors that lie outside
of human control. Thus the varying rates of increase among
different peoples, the natural resources of the territories which
such peoples occupy, their attitude to the question of admixture
of races, their readiness to sacrifice other nations' interests to
their own, are inherent difficulties from which, apparently, there
is either no escape at all, or at best only a partial one. In the

* " We have before our eyes a vague but inspiring vision, not of tremendous and rival
armaments, but of a United State" of Europe, each component element striving for the public
weal, and for furth'T advances in general cultivation and welfare, rather than commercial
prosperity." Op. cit. p. 33.

t The FortiiigMhi Review, September, 1920, pp. 499, 503.

184

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. — SECTION G.

lurid light, of world-trouble, one sees^ — as by a flash — how far-
reaching and difficult are the necessai-y researches in the field of
economics and statistics, and how necessary it will be to make
our studies comparative.

The fundamental questions which will require study in the im-
mediate future are : —

(i) The rate of growth and the distribution of populations ;
(ii) The examination, forecasting and development of the

world's food-supply and water-supply;
(iii) The exploitation of the various sources of available

energy ;

(iv) The enhancing of the efficiency of production generally;
(v) The relations of Capital and Labour; and
(vi ) The distribution of. wealth.
Incidental to these, though also important in themselves, are: —
(vii) Public health in all its aspects;

(viii) Public education and the means of attaining to national
efficiency ;

(ix) Social, political and industrial organization.
If will not be possible to do more than mention tliese : detailed
treatment is, of course, beyond the scope of the preseint occasion.
Touching population, it is worthy of remark that the populations
of the West-em world,* omitting Russia and Canada, but includ-
ing Australia and the United States, have grown from 1790 to
the present time, almost exactly as did those of China 85 years
earlier;! i.e., from 1705 to 1735 Graph No. 1 shows this.
There are, however, still great spaces yet relatively unpopulated,
and it is inevitable that they must be filled either by natural
increase or immigration, or by both, until they carry such popu-
lation as the state of development of the country will admit of.

3. Difficiiltte>i which are immineiit. — In order to illustrate how
imminent are the difficulties arising from the growth of popula-
tion, let us assume an initial population of 1,700 millions (that of
the present time) and a rate oi regular increase — arising from
the excess cA births over deaths — cf, say, not more even than 1

* Viz., of Australia, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece
Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Servia, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom, and
United States of America combined.

t According to the counts given in the Tung-hwa-Luh. The correspondences of the numbers
are striking. Thus, taking the general trend of China's population (rather than the figures for
individual years as given in the Tung-hwa-Luh) and the populations of Europe, &c., referred to
in the last footnote, we have, in millions, the following results : —

Year . .

China . .
Europe, <fcc.

Year

1715

1.33
137

1735

154
162

1755

187
196

1775

1795

1815

1835

235
232

288
280

348
347

403
419

1800

1820

1840

1860

1880

1900

1920

president ? address. — section g
Graph No. 1.

185

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iJ^fc^

"~"

»#^l

_1,.Lj

'^Tf-ti

.-^1^

■

be-

..i^"

.„.„

Vim,

k.:2!i#i

L*^

uJij-

t#-

U-^

fc J

lu-jJ

^. J

fOAKc

T«r

■

...

*•■'

_..

Population Growth.

per cent, per annum. This rate will double the population every
69 years; say in 70 years. Thus, were it possible for such a rate
to continue, we should have: —

Years

140

210

280

350

420

490

Ratio of Increase . .

Population (millions)

1.700

3,400

6,800

13,600

27,200

.54,400

108,800

It is evident from these figures, that the overspiU of rapidly
increasing pojnihftions must more, to suitable regions where popu-
lation is less dense: hence arise both the problems of food supply
and migration in acute form. So long as there are national dis-
tinctions based upon the conception of national or race solidarity
rather than upon human solidarity, so long will conflict inevit-
ably tend to arise. Other things being equal, power will lie with
the larger population-groups, which, if thus differentiated into
nations, necessarily constitute, in times of shortage, a. menace to
the smaller groups. For this reason population-control, food-
supply, and the development of national instinct (or prejudice?)
are of the first order of importance; and these will engage the
attention of statesmen who have foresight, and of statisticians and
economists.

The rate at which the earth's known sources of energy and
required material are being exploited has commanded the atten-
tion of thougEtful men for several decades: for example, that of
the late Sir William Ramsay, F.R.S., and quite recently Dr. E.
G. Acheson.* In regard to the world's coal fields and its oil
fields; it is easy to' see that the increase of population involves a
correspondingly early arrival at the date of their exhaustion.

* The Forum, viz., 1920, pp. 229-304, " Our Vanishing Coal and Oil."

186 president's address. — section g.

(Graph No. 2 shoiws how enormous is the inroad upon the world's
coal.) So also does extravagance in the rate at which they are
used up. Thus two factors promoting exhaustion are worse than
useless, i.e., destructive activities — e.(j., war^ — and certain modes
of luxurious living, viz., those which heedlessly draw upon the
accumulation of stored energy in the form, foir example, of hydro-
carbons. Thus the earth's probable stores of necessary materials,
and the rate at which their exploitation is proceeding, are matters
which will necessarily engage the world's statesmen and its
statists.

How far the energy existing in falling water, in tidal move-
ments, or in the solar rays, or in matter itself will be suc-
cessfully utilized, it is not easy to say. At present we appro-
priate, of co'urse, very little of what is available, but there are
limits to the expense and convenience of the appropriation. The
available quantities of necessary materials are by no means illimit-
able, ncT are the conditions of use without difficulty. Hence
any advance in the rate of use and in the rate of exhaustion are
matters cf moment to those who consider the destiny of their race
or of their nation. It is for this reason that it will be necessary
to make future statistics embrace world-fields, and take account
in the widest possible way oi rates of development and exhaus-
tion. And it may be noted in this connexion that the elaboration
of civilization involves a correspondingly liberal use of material.
The demands for timber, for coal and iron, for copper, zinc, tin,
and aluminium increase, and it is quite possible that substiiuticns
will have to take place, as, for example, aluminium for iron and
steel, Portland cements for timber, and sO' on. Already in many
countries the question of reafforestation has become pressing, and
further increase of population will intensify solicitude as regards
future timber supplies.

Any one who has followed the issue involved m the Treaty of
Peace must realize how important, as between individual nation?,
coal and iron statistics are, and, of course, also for the wQrld,
since the soilidarity of its economic interests is continually ad-
vancing. The world's peoples have become very interdependent,
consequently if the nations are not merely to drift, but are to take
an intelligent interest as to their place in the world -outlook,
statistics, in an appropriate way, must take account of the fields
referred to. In this connexion it is well to note that the elabora-
tion of civilization involves also the raising of the efficiency of
production to a correspondingly high value. The whole question
of the necessity -of high productive efficiency may be envisaged in

president's address. — SECTION G. 187

the following way : — .Even assuming — m order to eliminate all
consequences attributable to the clash of opposing national in-
terests — a world-population, which has become homogeneous m
respect to its various interests, the power oi this population to
advance will be dei>endeut upon its skill in exploiting the very-
large but limited possibilities upon which, it is really de-pendent.
The wants of mankind may be divided into two classes, viz., the
essential, such, as food, housing, clothing, &c., and the unessen-
tial, such as all unnecesary elaboration of these items and of the
general paraphernalia of civilized life. Elaboration is, of course,
not always undesirable, since whenever it promotes man's power
of meeting his essential wants, it may be regarded as belonging
to the class of essential needs. Thus education, with its elaborate
machinery for informing, training, and developing, not only does
not necessarily reduce the population possibilities of the world, it
may greatly increase them. For example, discorveries resulting
from investigations in ordinary chemistry or in biochemistry, in
biology, in physics, and progress and invention in agricultural
and other branches of engineering, have made relatively arid
tracts productive. Thus, through the accumulations of know-
and of capital, the settlement of population has become a possi-
bility where without these, it was quite impossible. It appears,
moreover, from recent research that growth can be electrically
stimulated, and it is not unlikely that our power to exploit
Nature is only in its infancy. But whatever be the truth of this,
and however skilful man may become in such exploitation, the
world cannot carry a vast jjopulatioii, nor can it increase for
many centuries at the rate now characteristic, for that rate would
in but a few centuries not leave, us even standing room. It is
evident, therefc>re, that a world-consensus of opinion may have
virtually to be reached in the not very remote future as to popu-
latioin increase and as to the appropriate mode of developing
world-production and the proper limits of its exploitation,

4. International Homogeneity atul Bate of Natural Increase. —
When, however, as at the present time, the above assumption of
a world-wide homogeneity of interest and purpose is not entitled
to be made, the special duty of countries such as ours more vividly
ai>pears. Thus, the unique problem in any sparsely-populated
and valuable territory is to make its food supplies and all essen-
tial products as abundant as possible with the best economy of
effort; for in this way, and in this way alone, can capital accumu-
late and population be advanced. This means, however, having
capital and material enough, and working hard enough, to main-
tain an increasingly large proportion of unproductive persons,
viz., the young; in short, those who, not having reached the

188

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. — SECTION G.

productive age, are consequently dependent upon the older popula-
tion for their maintenance. As the point is of importance and
popularly is by no means clearly apprehended, I shall indicate
in more detail the nature of this proposition.

Given a series of constant rates of mortality according to age,
an increasing population, growing by natural increase, will change
the relative numbers in age-groups, by heaping up the relative
numbers of those living at the younger ages. Thus, if a popula-
tion were constant and were characterized by the rates of mortality
in Australia (for males) between 1901 and 1911, the grouping
would be continually as on the first line hereunder (0 per cent.),
while if the number of births incre-ased 3 per cent, annually, in
105 years when all the first generation had passed away, it would
be as shown on the second line (3 per cent.).

Annual increase of
Births.

Ages.

0-13.

14-20.

21-41.

42 and
over.

Total.

per cent.
3 ,,

Proportion

•2225
■4165

•1080
•1472

•3042
■2796

•3653
•1567

1 • oooa

10000

Initially, the birth-rate and death-rat© would be each 18.12 per
1,000; but finally the birth-rate would have reached 41.33 per
1,000 and the general death-rate would have fallen to 11.77,
leaving the annual rat© of natural increase — originally zeroi —
29.56 per 1,000, or, say, about 3 per cent.

We see, then, that if a community grows by natural increase
at the rate of 3 per cent. , its accumulations have to bear the strain
of supporting, say, about 42 per cent, of its population instead of
about the 22 per cent, if it merely mad© good its deaths by its
births. This is, of course, a considerable financial burden, and,
other things being equal, tends to reduce the wealth per head;
in short, the condition of increase is that the population shall be
hard-working and thrifty.

It is appropriate here to consider in a general way what are
the conditions of increase of population. They may b© set out in
the form of a conspectus, as follows : — -

Increase is caused by : —

I. Promotion of human fertility.
II. Development of food and water
supplies.
III. The practice of thrift.

Diminution is caused by : —

I. Restriction of human fertility.
II. Inadequacy of food and water

supplies.
III. Indifference to thrift and
general extravagance.

PRESroENT S ADDRESS. — SECTION G.

189

These in detail are consistent with, are the consequence of, or are
correlated with: —

I. 1. The simplification of the stan-
dards of living.

2. Other, things being equal, to

the maintenance of health
(good hygiene).

3. The elimination of undue re-

striction of fecundity (the
proper limit being deter-
mined by the environment),

4. Eugenics in the larger sense.

II. 1. Increase of food supplies : —

(a) By the application of
biological, chemical,
and physical sciences
and mechanical appli-
ances to cultivation.

(6) By the exploitation of
the animal and vege-
table worlds for appro-
priate foods, in air,
land or sea.

i Accession of knowledge as to
best means of exploiting
the resources of Nature —
(a) Through science.
(6) Through technology.

III. 1. By training in thrift and ac-
quiring a love of industry.

2. By accumulation of capital
sufficient for support of a
relatively large unproduc-
tive (juvenile) population.

I. 1. The elaboration of the stan-
dards of living.

2. Other things being equal, to

the impairment of health
(bad hygiene).

3. The restriction of fecundity

beyond the due limit (de-
pendent upon the environ-
ment).

4. All developmental defects to

the race.
II. 1. Failure to dsveloji food
supplies :—

(a) By the neglect of the
physical sciences,
and mechanical aids.
(6) The neglect of animal
and vegetable sources
of supply in air, land
or sea.
(c) Indifference to the use
of products derivable
from air, earth, sea,
(fee.

2. Absence of knowledge as to
the potential resources of
Nature, and the means of
using them for the advan-
tage of the race —

(a) Through the neglect

of science.
(6) Through technical

ignorance,
(c) Through failure to
recognise the aid
which good in-
dustrial processes
render.
III. I. By dislike for thrift and
habits of industry.
2. By all extravagance which
prevents accumulation for
support of the unproductive
(juvenile) part of the popu-
lation.

The whole of the above are affected by the character of peoples
in respect of their intelligence, earnestness, wisdom in the directing
of life-effort, attitude to knowledge, to social purpose including
industrial effort, to social economic organization and well-being,
and to ethic, as influencing all human action.

190

president's address. — SECTION G.

5. Rate of Exploitation of Natural Resources. — A survey of
the world conditions as a whole reveals the fact that all popula-
tions, human or other, necessarily live in a relatively limited
■' ttoiid ;" that the limits are, however, not absolutely fixed hut
can, within a considerable range, be varied; that is, they can
b© enlarged or diminished ; that they may be greatly extended by
knowledge and by the conservation of natural products (e.r/..

Graph No. 2.

1800 40 80 1920.

Worlt

sprod

jcjior

/cte

i\.

/«

IVorld

spmd

ucHw

'1'

Cei

■eaW

,-'

1800 20 40 SO 1890 1900 l9IO

Coal and Cereals.

water), by exploitation {e.g., nitrogen from the air, energy from
the sun's rays, &c.), and by management (as in the development
of artesian water, irrigation, &c.) ; that howsoever the limits be
extended, population will soon accommcdate itself thereto, be-
cause potential fertility always exceeds the possibilities of reali-
zation.

Reference has already been made to the ^ rate of exploitation
of metals, &c. Supplies are by no means unlimited and the rate
of use is growing apace. We can show this best by some simple
tables. The relative world production of iron, copper, tin, zinc,

president's address. — SECTION G.

191

and gold (making the production in 1880 = 1,000) has been as
follows since 1880 (see graph No. 3) : —

Year.

Iron and Steel*

Coiiper.

Tin.

Zine.

Gold.

Population. t

1880

1,000

1890

1,688

1,751

1,453

1,500

1,114

1,110

1900

2,949

3,140

2,201

2,011

2,426

1,237

1910

5,389

5,607

3,477

3,565

4,254

1,390

1916

6,760

8,999

3,477

4,322

4,258

1,457

Of course, with an increase of population one must expect an in-
crease. If, however, we divide each of the above results by the
population figures 1,000, 1,110, &c., we get what may be called
the "index of production per head;" instead of writing it 1, we
shall make it 1,000, and thus obtain the following results: —

Index of Relative Production Per Head of Population.

Year.

Iron and Steel.

Copper.

Tin.

Zinc

Gold.

1880 ..

1,000

1890 ..

1,521

1,577

1,309

1,351

1,004

1900 ..

2,384

2,538

1,779

1,626

1,961

1910 ..

3,877

4,034

2,501

2,565

3,060

1916 ..

4,640 •

6,176

2,386

2,966

2,922

These results show that the rate of increase in the production is
most marked in the case of copper, next in iron and steel, then
zinc, gold, and tin in that order. The increase in the use of
aluminium is, however, much more notable, as the following pro-
duction figures show : — |

Index of Production
Index of Population
Relative Production per head of
Population

1897.

1,000
1,000
1,000

1900.

2,297
1,091
2,105

1910.

6,260
1,226
5,106

1915.

27,040

1,277

21,175

1918.

69,484

1,302

53,367

* The 1,000 unit shown as 1,000 is 2.3,169,000 metric tons in the case of iron and steel ■ 156 500
in the case of copper ; 33,300 in the case of tin ; 231,400 in the case of zinc ; and 5,160,000 fine
ounces in the case of gold.

+ In the case of population the 1,000 unit is 280,160,000 and is for the countries of Europe
America, and Australia shown earlier hereon. '

t The 1,000 unit here is 3,195 metric tons. Population as before, viz., 317,64i,000 for year

192

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. — SECTION G.

It is evident that the above rate of increase in the use of
aluminium can continue only for a limited period. The average
annual value of this rate, viz., 28.16 per cent, for the first three
years, diminished to 9.27 per cent, for the neixt ten, then rose
to 32.91 per cent, for the next five years, and to 36.09 per cent,
for the last three years. This rate is, of course, enormous, and
implies the doubling of the production every 2.2495, say, two and
a quarter years, or multiplying it by sixteen for every nine years'
duration, a rate which, of course, could not be long maintained.*
None of the rates of increase can be long continued.

It has, of course, often O'ccurred to scientific thinkers and to
economists that the present rate of living is extravagant and that
we are using up Nature's bounties without stint. This indict-
ment is perhaps only too true.

6. Fossihilities of Fond Supply and of Water Supply for Cities.
■ — Disregarding the squandering of our resources, let us return
to the question of the possibility of sufficient food supplies and
ask', "Can thes© supplies be enormously increased?"

It is not unfrequently alleged that as-yet-undreamt-of dis-
coveries in physics and chemistry and altogether better methods
of agriculture will admit of progress being indefinitely continued.
This is based upon a misconception of the significance of rates
of increasei — of the nature of increase by the law of " coinpo'und
"interest." All advance depending upon human ingenuity is vilti-
mately governed by the law of " diminishing returns." It may
for ever continue, but will proceed by smaller and smaller
amounts, that is, the curve representing it is convex upwards.
On the other hand, the curve of compound interest is concave
upwards, and a few simple calculations will show that we cannot
properly found any expectation of relief upon such jjossibilities
ot ingenious advance.

Let us take a concrete case which has relation to the food
supply. The " world production " of cereals in million " short
tons'"' (2,000 lbs.) from 1895 to 1916 was as follows: —

Year.

1895.

1896.

1897.

1898.

1899.

1900.

1901.

1902.

1903.

1904.

190c.

Million Tons
(Relative)

284-3
1,000

283-4
997

252-8
889

291-2
1,025

296-6
1,043

290-6
1,022

281-5
990

334-6
1,177

329-8
1,160

335-9
1,181

34U3
1,201

Year.

1906.

1907.

1908.

1909.

1910.

1911.

1912.

1913.

1914.

1915.

1916.

Million Tons
(Relative . .

360-3
1,268

339-8
1,195

347-9
1,224

382-3
1,345

388-7
1,367

367-1
1,292

421-8
1,484

415-9
1,463

378-5
1,332

414-1
1,457

379
1,333

* The rate 0-3609 implies that in about 47 years the production would be increased over
2,000,000 fold.

PKESIDENt's address. — SECTION G.

193

The graph of these relative results — graph No. 2 — appears as
a zig-zag line, the general trend of which is a curve convex up-
wards, that is, the rate of increase becomes less and less,* or, in
other words, the difficulty of increasing the quantity of produc-
tion • augments as time goes on.

It is, of course, true that the yield may be increased in the
case of individual crops; that of beet sugar in Europe is a classic
example. If quinquennial means be formed of the yield in tons
of cane sugar per acre in Queensland, it will be seen that the

Graph No. 3.

graph of the general trend — graph No. 2 — is a curve concave up-
wards with the following values approximately t : —

Year.

187S.

1880. 1885.

1890.

1895.

1900.

1905.

1910.

1915.

1920.

Tons per acre . .

1-32

1-35

1-39

1-44

1-51

1-60

1-71

1-85

203

2-26

A wider study of agricultural yields shows, however, that on
the whole the use of fertilizers is rather to maintain production

• The curve is very nearly expressed by —

N = 1 + 0-04 (Y - 1898)' - 0' 00083 (Y - 1898)S
■where N is the annual total relative to that of 1898, and Y is the date year.

t The results for individual years, of course, vary somewhat from these. See the dots on
the graph No. 2.

194

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. — SECTION G.

at au efficieint level, or toi bring laud which is not sufl&ciently
fertile in the ordinary course, than to give an increased yield.*

The electrical, biological, and other stimulation of plant growth,
biological selection, improvements by hybridization, &c., may,
of course, very materially increase the food supply, but whatever
be achieved, there is noi escape ultimately from the law of
diminishing returns for a given increase of eifort. For this reason
the tendency will always be for population tO' advance faster than
food supply, and the notion that this can be defeated is founded
on a misapprehensicn of the nature of the whole question.

The questiorn of futurei water supplies for cities is also one of
moment. The systematic conservation of meteoric waters has
already done much to facilitate the earth's carrying a larger
population. The exploitation of artesian supplies has also
operated in the same way. In the latter case, however, a change
from the artesian to the sub-artesian condition has shown that the
value of such sources is very limited indeed. Already, too, diffi-
culties are arising in towns through the advancing needs of their
rapidly growing populations. The provision for large cities,
ordinaril}- dependent on catchment areas so^me distance off, is now
becoming a .serious problem for many of them. In order to give
an idea as toi the rapid rate in which the consumption has increased
even here, in Sydney the average daily supply rose from 8,000,000

* The following table shows that the quantity per acre of artificial manure used is freely constant
while that of natural manure is decreasing.

cosimonwealth — area under crop (>iainly cereals) : area manured, and quantity of
Manure used, showing Quantity used per Acre of Total Area Manured. 1907 to 1918.

Quantity of Maniu-e used.

Area Manured.

Area

Natural.

Artificial.

Total.

Year.

States Included.

under
crop.

Percent-

Per

Total.

age of

area under

crop.

Total

acre
under
crop.

Total

acre
under
crop.

Total

acre
under
crop.

1,000

per cent.

1,000

acres.

tons

tons.

1907

N.,V. S.,W.

8,562

4,407

51-5

574

•130

153

•035

728

•165

1908

N.,V.,S.,W.

9,083

4.769

52-5

634

•133

166

■035

801

•168

1909

N.,V .S.,W.

10,086

5,874

58-2

588

•100

200

■034

788

•134

1910

N.,V.,S.,W.

10,935

6,755

61-8

582

■086

226

•034

809

•120

1911

N.,V.,S,W

11,307

7.588

67- 1

571

•075

248

•033

818

.108

1912

N.,V.,S.,W.

12,080

8,397

69-5
71

559

•067
•058

272
327

•032
•033

831

•099

1913

]sr.,v.,s..w ,t. . .

13,932

9,899

576

902

•091

1914

n.,v.,s.,w.,t. . .

14,856

10,819

72-8
67-6

574

•053
•039

351

•033
•030

925

•086

1915

All States

18,522

12,527

483

381

961

•069

1916

All States

16,803

11,165

66-5

564

•051

356

•0.32

920

•082

1917

All States

14,297

9.590

67-1

556

•058

317

•033

873

•091

1918

All States

13,331

9,292

•

69-7

555

•060

313

■034

869

■094

The horizontal lines indicate a break in the continuity since the State of Tasmania is for the
first time included in 1913. and Queensland for the flr.st time in 1915. The percentage of " area
under crop " manured, and amounts per acre under crop, may be regarded as continuous.

president's address.— section g. 195

gallons in 1888 to 39,000,000 gallons in 1916, while in Melbourne
during the sajne period, it rose from 18,000,000 gallons to
37,000,000 gallons, or, taking the year 1888 as 1,000, in Sydney
the index number for 1916 was 4,875, and in Melbourne 2,055.
In 1888, the consumption per head was 27.5 gallons in Sydney,
and 43.8 gallons in Melbourne, and rose to 42.9 gallons in Sydney,
and 51.5 gallons in Melbourne in 1916. If the population of the
cities increase at the present rate, it is obvious that it is merely
a question of time before further catchments will have toi be
secured, and it need hardly be said that the limit of possibility will
soon be reached.

And it may also be said that, ultimately, the population of any
area is limited by its supply of water.

This aspect of affairs is more accentuated in an island like Great
Britain, where the available area is much more limited, and where
cities like Manchester and Glasgow have already to seek for their
supplies at great distances.

We pass now toi the consideration of the light that statistics can
bring to bear upon the conflict of interests which must inevitably
arise from the limitation of supplies of all kinds, either food,
metals, or other materials.

7. Statistics and the Conflict of KatiotiM Interests. — The pre-
sent political organization of the world is such that, although the
interestii of nations may, and do, often coincide, and though their
relatioins may be, and generally are, mutually helpful, these
interests and relations may also conflict, for example, through the
overspill of population ; through tariff policy, when developed with
a view to increasing national power ; thi'ough the need for raw
materials for industrial development; and through the general
conditions for trade and commerce with one another. It is evident
that for these reasons national statistics must take account of the
drift of national affairs. To understand the significance of the
drift, it must be studied, not merely alone, but also in connexion
with the drift in othet nations.

The far-reaching nature of the matter adverted to is at once
seen as soon as it is recognised what is implied by the coanmonly
accepted principle that every nation has a right to develop, even
though this be at the expense of its neighbours. So long as the
standards of living are as widely divergent as they are at present^
and so long as national ideals are egoistic and individualistic, so
long will the imminence and seriousness of possible conflict of
interest demand peculiar attention.

There are two ways out of difficulties of this nature. One is the
way of war, which results in the interests of one nation being sub-
ordinated to those of the other. The other way is, perhaps, very
difficult, though not impossible, viz., the development of a comity

196 president's address — section g.

of natimis, which shall be something more than international
urbanity, and which will be founded upon what may be called
" international education." Indeed, it would aim at " inter-
nationalism," in the better sense of the word, viz., at that stage
of development through which the subordination of the rights
of individuals to the well-being, not merely of the nation, but of
thei world, is secured.

In this coimexicn, one might well ask, in view of the great skill
in the development of engines of destruction, and the terrible
possibilities of bacteriological and chemical agents in unscrupulous
war, v/hether the way of enmity or war is even a reasonable solu-
tion of the difFculties of conflicting interests. The late war seems
to have demonstrated clearly enough that war is the greatest of
the economic follies of which mankind is guilty ; that however
serious other economic disaster may or would have been, it would
have fallen short of the frightful ruin brought about by the war.

Ho'wever, whether ' ' the way out ' ' be the way of war, or the
way of friendly adjustment of conflicting interests, the economic
and general situation can be discussed effectively o^nly by the help
of a thorough scheme of statistics, viz., one that will admit
of the widest possible comparisons of national development. Ih
this matter the cupidity of plutocratic interest may be a difficulty,
but the late war, and its sequela', have shown that if such a diffi-
culty is not met, other difficulties of a much more serious character
may arise. As education and information become more general,
and extensive, it will be more and more difficult toi precipitate
masses of men against one another in war merely to serve narrow
though powerful interests. Thus it is not unlikely in future that,
before they wiU be really prepared toi embark on gigantic wars,
the real leaders of nations will have to be convinced that the
casus belli is both national and incapable of other possible solution.

The systematic recording of affairs is alone adequate for the
purpose of obtaining a clear conspectus of affairs, and thus it will
be the function of the statistician of the future* to so arrange the
facts that the situation can be apprehended in its full significance.
It has become virtually self-evident that no great nation can
neglect to use statistics for the purposes indicated.

The British Empire Trade Commission, that visited Australia in
1913, realized that British business interests necessitated an
Imperial statistic, and recommended a conference of the statis-
ticians of the Empire. The recognition of the value of such a
conference was accentuated by the state of things revealed during
the war, and the British Government invited Empire statisticians

♦ This aspect of the matter was accentuated by me in addresses to the Royal Colonial
Institute, the Royal Statistical Society, and on public occasions during my recent visit to
London.

president's address. — SECTION G. 197

to assemble together iu conferenoe in London in the early part of
this year, with results to which I shall now draw attention. But
before doing so, it is appropriate to observe that a study of the
statistics of the last century discloses the fact that population can-
not increase for long at the rate which has characterized the century
just closed; that we are drawing on our raw materials in a. way
which cannot long continue; that to rapidly people countries with
sparse populations can alone give them a measure of safety; that a
rapid rate of growth involves the support as dependents of a very
large fraction ot the population, and can be reached only by hard
wcxk, thrift, abstemious living, and more than ordinarily efficient
production.

8. The British Empire Statistical Conftrence. — The first formal
Conference of the Statisticians of the British Empire, and of
various departmental officers engaged in compiling statistics in
connexion with their branches of public activity, met in London
on ths 20th January, and sat continuously till 26th February ;
even then fux'ther details of business occupied somewhat more than
another week. There were no less than 31 representatives for the
United Kingdom, 3 for India, 1 for each of the self-governing
Dominions, and 4 for the Crown Colonies and Protectorates, in all
42. From these numbers, it is obvious that either from the stand-
point of normal revenue, or from the stand-point of population,
the United Kingdom had an overwhelming representation. There
were 24 meetings of the Conference itself, a considerable number
of meetings of nine special committees, and meetings also of sub-
committees. At Sunderland Hous'e, on 17th February, the Con-
ference, by invitation, met Sir Eric Drummond, General Secretary
of the League of Nations, for the purpose of discussing the rela-
tions with the League of the contemplated Imperially organized
Bureau of Statistics.

The Conference was held under the chairmanship of Mr. A.
W. Flux, of the Board of Trade, who' was assigned that office by
the British Government Outside the ceration of a Statistical
Bureau for the British Empire, such questions as the statistics of
foreign trade, agricultural statistics, census of manufacture, and
the census of population, the registration of births and deaths, the
recording of emigration and immigration, statistics of prices,
finance, and labour, the mode of creating authority for obtaining
statistical information, the statistics of Colonies and Protectorates'
the question of mechanical tabulation, and the scope of work of
a statistical bureau, were considered.

9. Proposal to Establish a British Empire Bureau of Statistics.
— CoiiJ^iderable interest attached to' the proposal to establish a
British Empire Bureau, which it is thought should be in London,
and so equipped in staff and apparatus that it might expedi-
tiously obtain, collate, examine, and publish statistics bearing upon

198 president's address. — section g.

the development of the whole Empire. It indicated in what way
the Bureau could receive OifBicial reports prepared within the
various parts of the Empire, so that it might become the central
repository of statistical information for the whole. It would com-
municate to: any statistical authorities concerned suggestions for
general consideration with a view to amplifying or otherwise
improving the statistics, and would in every possible way keep in
touch with the Central Statistical Offioei of every country. In
doing this it v/culd avoid as far as possible all duplication and
overlap. The function of the Bureau is stated to be as follows : —
(I condense from the Official Report.) It would issuer the follow-
ing publications: —

(a) An annual statistical review of the Empire, in arrange-

n-.ent following the lines of the official year-books
already published in various Doiminions, which would
not only bring together the statistics supplied by the
various countries of the Empire in a correlated and
aggregated form, but would contain interpretations
based upon or illustrated by the statistical data in-
cluded in the volume, and would survey the
resources, development, and activities of the Empire.

(b) Annual abstracts of the more important Empire statis-

tics, and quarterly abstracts designed to provide the
most recent data available in regard thereto.

pi eduction, transport, communication, population,
labour, and industries, finance, or any other matters
which may be found desirable for the purpose of
assisting the study of social and economic conditions
and progress in the Empire.

iO. The Prcqjosed Character of the Bureau. — The Imperial
Bureau was toi be incorporated by Royal Charter, the Prime Min-
ister of the United Kingdom being President in his capacity as
ex-ojjicio President of the Imperial Conference, and it was pro-
posed that the constitution should be as follows: — There should
be {a) a Council; (6) an Advisory Committee; and (c) a Directing
Staff. The Covncil should consist of " members nominated by
the several Governments assenting to these resolutions in the' fol-
lowing proportions, viz.. United Kingdom, 10 members; India and
the self-goveiming Dominions, 2 members each; Colonies and Pro-
tectorates, 2 rtiembers ; one of the members so nominated should
be Vice-President of the Council, and should preside in the
absence of the President."

The Council would be responsible for the control and general
administration of the Bureau. It would appoint a permanent
Advisory Committee to include, however, not less than twelve

president's address. — SECTION G. 199

members of the Council, and the chairman of the Imperial
Resources Bureau. The function of the Advisory Committee
should be : —

(a) To' assist the Direetor by affording him the benefit of

informed outside opinion as to the value of statistical
work already undertaken, or recommended to be
undertaken in the interests of the Empire;

(b) To keep him in touch with the various official, commer-

cial, and financial interests of all parts of the
Empire ;

of his duties.

The Directing Staff should consist of a Director (whom it was
proposed should be both an expert statistician, and of approved
administrative and official experience and ability) ; an adequate
number of chief professional assistants, and such technical and
clerical assistance as might be neceeeary; and it was thought that,
in order to secure an actual and effective liaison with India and the
Dominions, there should be a systematic interchange of staff
operating as follows: —

"The Director of the Bureau should endeavour to secure some
meanbers of his staff for determinate period from the statistical
staffs of India and Dominion Statistical Offices, by ai-rangement
between himself and the chief statistician of each country, with
the consent oi the Government concerned ; and, similarly, officers
of the Bureau may by arrangement be seconded for work in the
Indian or a Dominion Statistical Office, subject in all cases to
the payment by the employing office of such suitable allowances,
in addition to salary, as may be agreed vipcn as being equitable
in the circumstances."

The suggestion as to the necessary money provision was the
following: — United Kingdom, £16,000; India, £4,000; Canada,
£3,250; Australia, £2,000; New Zealand, £1,000; South Africa,
£1,750; Colonies and Protectorates, £2,000.

An important declaration regarding the function of a statistical
office was the following : —

"... thf functions of no statistical office can be exercised
properly when limited to the initial work of collecting and
co)npiling figures. . . . The prescription of so narrow a
function has resulted in the past, on the one hand, in a
tendency to an unintelligent massing of undigested statistical
material, compiled at a considerable and often wasteful ex-
penditure of labour and money, and, on the other hand, in
a failure toi render information which is of value readily avail-
able for public use.'

200 president's address. — section g.

"The Conference, therefore, accepts the view that a statis-
tical office should include within its functions: —

"(a) The presentation of the results of its compilations
primarily in such a form as clearly to indicate
their essential elements, with or without supple-
mentary detailed information, which, though
necessarily secured in the process of coinpilation,
need not be published unless it serves a sufficiently
useful purpose . ' '

"(t) The utilization of the special knowledge and ex-
perience gained in the course of the work of
tabulating the statistics, and the critical analysis
of the results in such a way as to indicate most
clearly their value and significance."

"(c) Tl'ie elimination in every section of public statistics
brought under review of those elements which
when properly examined are found to serve no
satisfactory purpose."

The Conference recommended the publication of the more im-
portant questionnaires. It regarded as seriously doubtful in-
formation secured by means of voluntary or optional returns,
and recommended that Governments should confer the necessary
statutory authority to collect statistics upon its officers whoi were
responsible for the collection of the information.

In dealing v/ith Trade Statistics the Conference recommended
that the statistical year should be the calendar year : that the
valuation element of imports and exports for the purposes of
Trade Statistics should be the value as at arrival in the importing
countries, exclusive of landing charges : that there should be
registiation of imports and exports by countries of oa-igin and of
final destination.

The suggestions in regard to Production Statislics were that
special regard should be had to production of foodstuffs : thus also
to areas devoted to agricultural and pastoral production, numbers
of live-stock, and the actual production of both kinds: that
forestry production should be noted annually, or else a quin-
quennial census should be used; that a quinquennial agricultura:!
census coaitemporaneous with the census of population should be
taken. Also it was recommeilded that there should be periodical
returns of stocks held of the principal products.

In connexion with mining and quarrying, it was decided that
there should be a sharp distinction between mining and after
treatment. Values should be "at the mine itself regardless of
any treatment that the product may undergo after leaving the
mine." Factor production should be ascertained, if possible,
annually, or if not, at least quinquennially.

president's address. — SECTION G. 201

In regard to statistics of Population, the Conference suggested
that there should be an endeavcrur toi take a census at intervals
of not more than five years; that all censuses within the Empire
should be within the same year, and within two months (before
or after) the 15th of April, and should relate to the de facto
population, by sex. The legislatioii for this should be on a per-
manent basis. Particulars of inquiry should, where the par-
ticulars as to divorce are not ascertainable, return divorced
persons as widowed: in addition to ages of husband and wife, the
duration of marriage, the total number cf children born, and the
number still living, should be recorded (information obtained
through censuses in regard to' infirmities, it was held, have hitherto
proved unsatisfactory) : special attention should be given to' the
questic'n of aliens and persons of alien origin. Unifoinn systems
of classificatioins of industries and occupations should be regarded
as important and should be so defined as to' admit of grouping
into classes according to a fixed and definite system, and so that
it should serve as a basis of both industrial and of occupational
classification. A suggestion was made that a complete descriptive
glossary of oecupations should be prepared as soon as possible.

In connexion with Vital Statistics, it was recommended that
the death-rates applied to a standard distribution of population
should be adopted for the purposes of coinparison. The Con-
ference advocated a more complete recording of migration, the
returns to' include "information as to se^x, conjugal condition,
age, occupation, nationality (present and original), country of last
permanent residence, and countr): of intended future permanent
residence; the interpretation of permanent residence being lefl
to the various Governments concerned."

It was indicated that it was desirablei "that all birth registers
should contain a record of the age of each parent and the number
of children previously born to the same marriage, distinguishing
between those living and those dead : that statistics of still-births
should be compiled in all parts of the British Empire wherever
feasible; that the conjugal condition cf deceased persons should
be recorded in all death registers ; that the international classifica-
tion of causes of death, as revised from time toi time, should be
adopted for the purposes of tabulation of deaths ; that the present
system of open certification tends to prevent candid statements
of the causes of death and thus introduces a systematic error into
deatii statistics • that the error would be eliminated by a system
of confidential certification ; that in view of the national im-
portance of vital statistics, these statistics, wherever practicable,
should be further developed by recording, at birth -registrations,
particulars as to' the occupations and nationalities of parents, and
the sexes and ages of their previous children, both living and
dead , and at death-registrations the occupation and nationality of
the deceased and the sexes and ages of his (or her) children."

202 president's address. — section g.

In regard to prices and index-numbers, the Conference affirmed
the necessity for the publication at monthly intervals, and that
in each country a monthly index- number should be constructed
for that country showijig the changes in purchasing power for the
country itself and without regard to the regimen appropriate
for other parts of the Empire. It was decided that in all cases
when the index-number is first issued or is revised, it shomld be
accompanied by a specific statement as to the methods employed
and the date used, so as to permit of reconstruction by any
reader. But th? commodities selected need not — as already in-
dicated — be identical for all coimtries. In regard to the mode
of calculating the index-numbers, it recommended that "they
should be so constructed that their comparison for any two dates
should express the proportion of the aggregate expenditure on
the selected list of representative commodities, in the quantities
selected as appropriate, at the one date, to the aggregate expendi-
ture on the same list of commodities, in the same quantities, at
the other date." In regard to the method of adjusting index-
numbers to provide for changes in the character of national con-
sumption, it recommended that "in view of the changing character
of the national consumption in many countries, it is desirable to
revise, from time to time, say at decennial intervals, the list of
commodities and appropriate quantities on which index-numbers
are based, and that when such revision takes place the index-
numbers should be calculated on the basis of both the old and
the new list for the year in which the change occurs, and, if
possible, for at least two years preceding the two years following
the diange."

Respecting Labour Statistics, it was thought that they should
be compiled for the Empire as a whole, and the Coiiference
affirmed the necessity for improved presentation in view of the
pressure of modern industrial conditions, and urged that "inquiries
should extend not only to the conditions ol labour in industrial
establishments, but alsoi to' those of commercial, agricultural,
maritime, and other employment."

In regard to statistics of Finance, it was the opinion of the
Confeienoei that the statement showing the Budget and Debt
Statistics of the Empire should include national, provincial, muni-
cipal, and other budgets, and that in view of the high importance
of statistics of income and capital as indices of national welfare,
the taxes on income or on estates of deceased persons should be
compiled either annually or at suitable intervals, since these
throw light both on national wealth and on the distribution of
property and income. The Conference recommended that the
currency statistics should show the amount of note issues in circu-
lation at fixed dates, as well as the stocks and movements of coin
and bullion. In regard to capital, it was suggested that special
attention should be devoted to the problem of identification and

president's address.— section g. 203

measurement of movements thereof. The Conference recom-
meud3d a definite scheme for a monthly statement of banking
operations, giving a form in detail. It proposed that index-
numbers should be prepared on the prices of securities, that finan-
cial operations and credit institutions other than banks should
be recorded, and also' statistics of insurance companies and friendly
societies systematically obtained.

This cuucludes a brief outline of the range and nature of the
recommendations oi the Conference.

11. Observations on the Work of the Co7iference. — It is worthy
of note that Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa
have evolved fully constituted statistical ofhces, the duty of their
statisticians being to' takei the census and toi collect statistical
material and sy?tematically present it. In respect to this the
United Kingdom is by no means on an equal footing; its statistics
are really departmental by-products. For this reason, before the
United Kingdom can be regarded as in a normal position, as
compared with India and the self-governing Dominions, or with
France, Germany, and many other countries, it would have to
organize its local system. Otherwise the proposed Imperial Bureau
would be burdened with labours for which contributions from the
various other parts of the Empire could hardly be asked. For
this reason it is evident that unless the United Kingdom as a
whole, or England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland indepen-
dently, develop fully-equipped statistical offices, the work of the
Imperial Bureau would be very iargely that of a Bureau for the
United Kingdom itself, with the several self-governing Dominions
associated, privileged to contribute, but essentially regarded as
mere apanages of the Empire. That is a point of view clearly
recognised, I think, by the representatives of Canada, South
Africa, and Australia, and I think also by that of New Zealand.

It was recommended by the Australian representative that the
Australian Government should affirm its approval of the general
terms of the Report, subject, however, to the outlining of a more
explicit scheme, and organization, and to approval of some
arrangenient insuring that the jiersonnel of the Bureau shall be
drawn from all parts of the Empire, and shall be satisfactory from
the stand-point of proved qualifications to occupy the posts sug-
gested .

It is not impossible that difficixlties may arise out of what is
known as the "watertight compartment" character of British
public departments. If the scheme is to be of any value it is
essential that every source of data of statistical value should be
readily accessible, and indeed that each should be willing to com-
pile such data in suitable form, in response to suggestions from the
Director of the Imperial Bureau. For this reason it is necessary
to have as Director not merely a departmental statistician, but

204 president's address. — section g.

one who in addition possesses administrative experience, command
of tho higher mathematical technique of statistics, and familiarity
with all branches of statistical compilation, as well as a wide range
of general knov/ledge.

The value of the work of the Imperial Bureau will depend, very
often, upon the connexion between various successions of statistical
facts; for the great object of the Bureau will be to enable the
drift oi tho whole Empire and of each part thereof in relation
therewith, to be systematically studied and its future forecasted.
It is submitted that world-issues at the present time are such that
we must perforce analyze the drift of our past with the object
of gauging our future. Only in this way, perhaps, can we hope
to satisfactorily correct nationally adverse tendencies. In other
words, the larger statistics of the future must be the great
economic guide and helper of any nation that wishes to worthily
fulfil its mission and to attain to a noble destiny.

12. Co7iclus?on. — The time has surely gone by when one can
hope for success from the policy of "Wait and See." Just as
statistics have been found helpful in business, so in national affairs
must fhey be able to guide political action by keeping it well
informed, and by pointing out the path on which it is necessary
to advance. The proposed British Empire Statistical Bureau
shows that there is an awakening.

There is a new eilement that must be gauged statistically, the
conseqi^ences of the extraordinary revival of Marxism — from the
moral standpoint the least attractive O'f all the forms of Socialism
(according to Professor Nicholson). Already in Australia pro-
ductive efficiency has fallen, an ominous fact for a young nation
with a rich and large heritage, needing population. The trend
of our own development should be watched with concern by all
who are interested in the future of Australia.

president's address. — SECTION H. 205

SECTION H. ^.'''"V*^^i5y^v

ENGINEERING
AND ARCHITECTURE.

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT :

Maurice E. Kernot, M.Inst.C.E., M. Am. Soc. C.E.,
M.I.E.Aust., etc.,

Chief Engineer for Railway Construction, Victoria, Australia.

May I express to you- a hearty welccme to this and the follow-
ing meetings of Section H, and the hope that in the papers
to be read and the discussions we shall find much of value to our-
selves and others, much of interest, and much to increase our
appreciation of each other's work.

May I also express my high sense of the honour that has been
shown to me by my selection for the office of President of this
section .

We are met together after the lapse of eight years, during
which has occurred the greatest war in history, with momentous
effects, which in the aftermath through which we are now passing
it is difficult to realize and understand. With the return to
peace we are having brought home to us the cost of war. and
great social, economic, and political changes are forcing them-
selves on us, and largely affecting our work and our position in
the community.

It is good that we should meet together and in discussion
broaden our horizons, and gain stimulus and fresh views of the
problems that confront ourselves and our professions. Our best
hope is in the scientific treatment of those problems, the use of
scientific methods, the application of the latest scientific knowledge
to' the works we carry out, and in thei development of scientific
principles and practice for the benefit of others as well as our-
selves.

"The old order changeth giving place to new." and we must
change with it, and find and adopt the new order, or be left be-
hind in the march of the world's progress.

206 president's address. — section h.

In facing post-war problems the architect and engineer will
find much in common, and much can be said in favour of their
sitting together in the meetings of this section.

In the scientific aspects of our work as well as in our relations
to the community, we are on the same footing, and in our ser-
vice to humanity we work on closely parallel lines.

Looking back into history we find that the relative positions of
the engineer and architect have changed with the lapse of time.
The engineer is first heard of in connexion with war in providing
protection from enemies. The architect started with the peace-
ful work of providing protection from the elements, but even then
their work seems to have overlapped, as it has done ever since,
for when fortifications wer© Avanted, the architect as well as the
engineer took a hand.

The engineer seems ever to have had more of the rough side and
the plain utilitarian side of construction work, while the architect
working under more peaceful conditions has developed in the
ornamental direction until some one has paid him the compliment
of calling him ' ' an engineer whose higher activities are those' of
an artist."

On the other hand the engineer has always been prominent ill
war, while under war conditions art is banished. There is no

time for it.

The engineer is in modern days taking a still larger part in
the work of war. So much of it now consists oi problems of
transportation and the preparation cf munitions, togetlier with
works to assist in the actual fighting, that the engineer is much
in evidence, while a large proportion of our leading Generals
who rose to high commands during the war were engineers, as, for
instance, Lord Kitchener and Lord Haig, General Joffre, the
great Hindenburg, and our own General Monash. If the en-
gineers did not win the war, they at least tcok a very large share
in doing so.

The architects did their share, too, and are new to the fore in
the work of restoration.

To go back again to earlier days. Many of us will remember
how we laboured at the translation of Julius Caesar's account of
the bridge he built when defending his country from the ancestors
of our late adversaries, the Germans. From his account we judge
that he was a military engineer.

Vitruvius, a Roman military engineer and arcKitect, who lived
just after Julius Csesar^ described architecture as includino —

1. The art of building Fortifications, Public Works, Temples,

and Public and Private Buildings.

2. Sundial and Clock making.

3. Making Machinery.

president's address .^ — SECTION H. 207

The architect had .much choice or variety of work in those*
days.

The bridge over the Rbone at Avignon, in southern France.,
built in 1200 a.d., with arches up to 80-feet span, was classed as
a work of architecture In those days the architect was what the
derivation of the name indicates — the master-builder — and he
turned his hand to a great variety of work.

In the fifteenth century the distinction between architectural
and engineering woTk was recognised, for the great artist
Leonardo da Vinci, best known by his paintings, also gained fame
a^ a military engineer and an engineer for hydraulic and irriga-
tion works, and styled himself both engineer and architect. He
was also a leader in science.

In the same century the great Michael Angeloi was the architect
of St. Peter's at Rome and engineer for the fortifications at Rome.

One hundred years ago the engineers began to define two
branches of their work, viz., military and civil engineering. Now
we have, in addition, mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, mining,
metallurgical, sanitary, and other branches. In America valua-
tion engineers are recognised as a class by themselves.

But the work of all these overlaps, and they are all engineers.
The work of the architect, too, is tending to specialization.
There is an interesting survival of old terminology in the pre-
sent-day term of "naval architect," while different members of
the profession follow up different^ branches of architectural work.
Again, much building construction is the joint work of architects
and engineers, such as steel-framed structures and reinforced con-
crete buildings.

Professions so closely allied and brought together should walk
hand in hand, as we are doing here, without rivalry beyond what
is healthy and helpful to both. We have a good example to
follow if we look at the friendly relations of doctors, surgeons,
and medical specialists, and of the different branches of the legal
profession.

We are met here tO' promote the advancement of science. Let
u's think of a few ways in which we may be able to bring benefit
to our own professions in doing so. It is up to us to practise
what we preach, and, if we believe in science and its value to
mankind, to put it into practical application to our work.

This is a utilitarian age. While the leaders in scientific work
and research are going forward and making wonderful advances
in knowledge, the full benefit of this increased knowledge will
not be obtained unless others use and apply it to benefit man-
kind in their work, and it is in this way that most of us are
called upon to to do our duty. Our opportunities are great, and

208 president's address. — section h.

we should rieei to the cccasion. Can any reasonaDle and thought-
ful man among us be satisfied with the present position of his
profession in relation to the community or witli the methods and
practices which apply generally to the work of his profession ?

Let us consider shortly some aspects of thefe. We may take
first the education and training of those who come intO' our pro-
fessions. Is their knowledge of science what it should be? Has
their preparation for their life's work been conducted on scien-
tific lines ?

It is at the beginning that the big mistakes are most often
made. Should there not be some definite means for preventing
those who have no reasonable chance of success from starting on
a course of training ?

At present many young men choose the profession of engineer
or architect on the flimsiest of reasons without any knowledge as
to whether they are fitted for either.

Should it not be the duty of the State or some organization tO'
prevent this promiscuous entry, and turn unsuitable candidates
at the earliest stage in seme direction where they have a better
chance of success ?

In the future, more than in the past, the progress of a State or
nation will depend upon the way it applies its raw material both
in human and in lower forms to the best advantage. With men
ab with materials there is too large a proportion of second and
third grades and not enough of first grade. This is largely due
to our system, or rather want of system. To obtain greater effi-
ciency we must weed out those who are unsuitable and improve
those who are suitable.

There are three ways in which aspirants to our prolessicns are
educated and trained. There are the battlers, who try to pick
up what knowledge and training they can by their own effort only.
These fill our offices with plodding assistants, who mostly learn
one part of the work and so get into a groove and stay there as
hacks. A few oif them by sheer native ability rise into the pro-
fession and hold their own, but acquaintance with tliem shows how
much better they might have done if they had received proper
training, and of the rest, many might have been made more use-
ful members of the community by a reasonable amount of coan-
pulsory technical education. Instead of leaving such training to
the inclinatiom, the whim, or the accidental surroundings of the
individual, there oaight to be compulsory training for those who
do not voluntarily obtain it.

Another method of entering our profession is by articles. .With
this system results are very irregular. Before entering into ar-
ticles intending pupils should be tested to determine whether there
is reasonable prospect of their attaining proper qualifications.

president's address. — SECTION H. 209

After entering into articles they should be properly taught, not
left to pick up what they can, as they can, or put to routine work
which will not give them proper experience. Cases have come
under my notice where pupils have completed their articles and
been sent away quite unfit to design or carry omt work. For in-
stance, one of these came to my oifice so^me time ago and was glad
to accept employment at the rate of pay of an ofiice boy because
he was not worth any more. He only wanted what another man
had been paid to teach him, and by his own exertioias, along
with a little encouragement and the oppcrtunity of self-improve-
ment, is now rising rapidly.

But the most well-meaning of architects and engineers who take
articled pupils are usually busy men without any gift for teach-
ing, and unless their pupils are of the pushing sort, the training
they receive leaves much to be desired.

Recent developments, particularly since the war, are leading
to the combination of university training along with articles, and,
frequently, especially on the engineering side, to university train-
ing being relied en wholly. After long experience with men
trained in different ways, I am convinced that the best hope of
the improvement of our professional work lies in the direction
of university training for those who are fit to receive it.

It is at the universities that the best opportunity of bringing
science and scientific method intoi our every-day work is to be
found. To make the most of the opportunity much improvement
O'f present conditions is required. An extraordinary increase in
the number of university students has taken place since the great
war ceased, and now is the time to arrange for more efficient and
effective training. The work of our universities has improved
much of late years and the improvement is going on. Anything
that I now say is said in the hope that it will aid that improve-
ment.

The coinsistent aim should be the turning out of men well
equipped to rise in their professions, and to improve in ability and
efficiency as long as they remain at work. I am afraid this is
sometimes lost sight of.

It is necessary for our professions that, in addition to having
knowledge, we should be able tO' do things.

The other day I had occasion to send a graduate in engineering
up country to do some simple work. He went, but when he get
there he did not know how tO' commence it or what to do' next.
I had to send another man much inferior to him in knowledge and
general education to show him how to' do the job. He learnt,
after a time, but why should not his training have taught him
how to do work of which he was or was just about to be certified

210 president's address. — SECTION H.

as a " Master." This is a typical case. Ancther instance is
that of a graduate whoi in some emergency was asked to count a
number of railway fish-plates stacked outside the field office where
he was employed. He failed after several attempts to count them
correctly, though a horny-handed employee went and did it. He
has since got on, but is the method of training which turns out
such cases as these what it ought to be ?

We do not want men stuffed full of knowledge, with their heads
ia the clouds, and unable to- do things.

Many men have come under my notice who have wasted their
time on attempting a^ university course, rhese men were dragged
through somehow ; just scraped through their examinations some- .
how by memory work or luck. These would have had- a good
chance to do better if they had entered the pro'fession by some
other way, thoiugh in most cases they would have had better pro-
spects of success in soime other walk of life.

There should, in the first instance, be a proper selection of those
who start on a university training. It is good business, and it
woiuld be a kindness to- hold tack those who show no reasonable
prospect of succeeding. It wonld be better for all concerned.

What next should an engineering or architectural student be
taught 1 This appears to' be settled by a number of professors,
each one of whom thinks his own subject of the very greatest im-
portance. Limitations of time and of the mental capacity of the
average student make compromises necessary, but each pro'fessor
wants to put in all he can, with the result that the poor student
is overloaded and battles along trying to absorb sufficient of each
subject toi get him a pass at the end of the year. In this endea-
vour he often uses memory in place of understanding.

I often test these men as to their ability to- put what they have
learned into actual use, and in such subjects as chemistry, geology,
and the higher mathematics am surprised what little evidence they
show that these are really of use to them.

The subjects I have mentioned are not to be desp-'sed, but I am
driven to the conclusion that it is waste of time cramming them
into men whoi, as soon as they can pass the eixaminaticn, gO' away
and make little or no use of them and soon forget them.

Knowledge, scientific or otherwise, that is plastered on to a
man is useless. You must get it into him for it to be of use.

The attempt to make a young man a, complete engineer or
architect in four or five years must fail, and masters of engineering
as a rule have to go and work as servants of engineers for long
years before they are intrusted with a master's work.

president's address SECTION H. 211

The average student is so busy trying to pass examinations that
he fails to respond to the broadening of outlook and the wider
view whicli the training should give him. Are the few years given
tu a university course used to the best advantage? It is of no
u?e to try and squeeze in more subjects. My experience leads
me to advocate a reduction of time spent on many of the subjects
al present, however important those subjects may be, in order that
the student may be taught hew to apply what he dees learn in
an intelligent manner to definite ends, that he may attain to
better understanding of the general principles of his work, that
his imaginative faculty may be developed, that he nlay acquire
scientific methods of dealing with prcblems that will face him,
together with something of business and finance. In other words,
that he may be fitted to applv what he has learnt to his profes-
sional work and do so successfully. The present system too often
turns out men who have what I may liken to the tools of their
trade, while, for want of skill, they cannot make effective use of
them. In the past university training has specialized largely on
design, which, however important, is only one part of our pro-
fessional work out of many. The other parts are equally im-
portant and equally necessary fcr success. They should net be
neglected.

The engineer, and often the architect, toe, is in these times
called upon —

1. To initiate work : that is, to bring forward proposals for

new works for the benelfit of the community.

2. To design such works.

3. To estimate what they will cost and the time required to

•carry them out.

4. To carry out the works with control of all the staff and

workmen engaged en thean. To maintain efficient
working and bring out results in accordance with his
estimates.

His training should prepare him for (dj these. At present, can
it be maintained that such is the case ? The university student
at present completes his course and goes out in the world to' make
his way with a minimum of knowledge of business and finance ;
in fact, his time at the university has influenced him in the direc-
tion of unfitness for business, and if he is to succeed he has to
acquire business knowledge as best he can, and often through costly
experience and hard knocks.

The wastage on engineering, and, probably, architectural work,
too, that is due to this deficiency is very large, and I believe more
serious than what is due to' errors in design.
1084—16

212 president's address — section h.

Why should we concentrate our training on a few subjects while
more vital ones are left out altogether ?

I recently asked my assistant what class of men he would pick
out to help him if called upon to proceed urgently with a difficult
construction job. He replied without hesitation, " The men
wholly trained on the works," and he was right. But this ought
net to be so. Our university-trained men, with their equipment
of scientific knowledge, ought to be the best men for a hard job.
To make them so we should train them not only to pass examina-
tions but to do things. They should be made to realize that
the knowledge they acquire is not the end, but is to be used as a
means to achieve results.

They should be prepared to face the world and to overcome
difficulties; not only to design bridges that will carry their load
safely, but to estimate their cost and build them for that cost,
and so protect those they work for from financial disaster.

All this i*equires a broader training than is new given, and 2>ar-
ticularly a training in scientific method as applied to solving all
the problems that arise in the engineer's work, including the
business and financial problems. The study of finance and com-
merce to an extent that will give the student Kiiowl&dge of the
principles and practice of ordinary business and acquaintance with
tlieir scientific aspects should not be left out.

The work of the universities, as it comes under my notice, has
improved much of late years, and I look hopefully for further
improvement so that they may develop the personality of the men
they turn out, and fit them to lead in the world's work as men
of action and foresight, with knowledge of affairs, and not men
. who can only make calculations and look for billets. Billets are
and will be waiting for well-trained men.

But I must pass on. With all due respect to the fine body of
professors and lecturers at our universities, I would like to ask,
" Do we secure the best men for those positions " 1 What should
be the first test for them 1 Is it enough that a man should have
gained high place in examinations ? Is it enough that he is we.l
up in his subject ? Should we not place first as a qualification
that he is " apt to teach "? We want men with natural gift for
teaching improved by training, and having a good knowledge of
their subject, but I fear too often the students suffer through hav-
ing to sit under men who, while they know their subjects well, do
not succeed in making others know and understand them in a
thorough manner, and the students too often through want of
intelligent understanding scrape through their examinations and
go away and soon forget.

president's address — SECTION H. 213

Erilliaiil scientists and mathematicians are an ornament to a
university, and there are }3laces for them to fill, but brilliant
scholars are not necessarily brilliant teachers, and we want men
who by nature or training, or both, are competent to turn out
pupils who, in addition to passing examinations, have been so
instructed that they thoroughly understand wliat they have passed
in and appreciate and understand its uses, and will use and go on
using it.

I have looked in vain for these conditions in so many, university
graduates that I am driven to the conclusion that much improve-
ment in teaching ability is a great need, and is necessary to
avoid much wastage that is going en. at present. Let us be
scientific' in our educational work and stop this wastage.

Initiafioii of Workn. — And now as to cur work. Are we fully
using toi the best advantage the discoveries of science, and are
we applying scientific methods to our work to the full extent that
they will improve it 1

In the initiation of work, hew often do we see guess work and
sententious o]nnion where exact methods applied scientifically
would work out to clear and definite re-ults. How often does as-
surance without investigation and reason without insight take the
place of thorough scientific investigation ? There is no part of
our work more impci-tant than the initiation of new schemes, the
introduction of new processes, and the adoption of new materials.
The road to- success with all these is the scientific one.

Dts'ujn. — Th6' work of designing is, or should be, essentially
scientific, but at present there is too much c'opying and too little
originality. Too much that is empirical and too little application
of first principles. To€' much running in a grocve. Too little
adaptation to emergent conditions.

Execution of Work. — There is increasing call and opportunity
for the introduction of science in the carrying out of our works.
The old rough and tumble hard headed rule of thumb, out to make
money, contractor is being displaced by the practice of carrying
out work by labour directly employed by the principal. This
brings additional responsibility on the engineer and the architect,
and also larger opportunity of usefidness. It makes a larger call
on his ability, energy, and personality, but enables him
to get better work done, and to obtain better results in proportion
to' the e'X]>enditure. In no' part of his work is there better opening
for the application of science.

No dovibt there are good and able contractors, but there are — ■
others.

When a contract is made for large works, it contains conditions
which bind both parties and cannot be varied, except by mutual
consent, without risk of heavy ciaims. When an engineer or archi-
tect carries out his own work, he is free to take advantage of all

214 president's address — section h.

favorable conditions which emerge during the progress of the
job, toi modify his plans as may be found advantageous from time
to time, and he has full acquaintance with the difficulties and the
costs of the work. This experience is of very great value to him
when carrying out other jobs. In my own work I have let no'
large contracts since I started the direct labour system in 1892,
that is twenty-eight years ago, though I have been quite willing to
doi so if any advantage could be gained. On different occasions con-
tractors have been asked to tender, but their prices when compared
with the estimated cost of direct labour work led to all tenders
being declined and the work was then carried out within the
estimated cost. When I wanted difficult foundation work carried
out, and had neither the special plant required nor men experienced
in such work, I called for tenders, and there was no response, so I
set to work and carried out the foundations at a cost well within
what I had been prepared to pay to contractors.

When I had to build a railway under conditions of great
urgency during a coal strike, there was no time to look for a
contractor. We just went straight ahead at full speed and did the
work in record time, adapting our plans and methods to suit the
exigencies that arose, and putting all we could of science into
cur work, for never did I have a better opportunity to apply
scientific knowledge and scientific method in gaining time and
saving money. These experiences are quoted as instances of the
successful applicaticn of scientific methods and practice.

There has been a change over from contract work to direct
labour woik in manv instances in Australia during recent years,
and sometimes a change back again, but the direct labour system
is superseding contract work to an increasing extent. In these
times of high cost of labour and scarcity and high cost of materials,
the direct labour system gives freer scope for the application of
new scientific processes, ideas, and methods to the work, and it is
in this directioii that we should be working to adapt ourselves
to the new conditions that have arisen. With high prices for
labour we should encourage higher skill on the part of the work-
men, using more mechanical and other aids to remove the drudgery
of daily toil from the worker, and give him more to do with
his brains and less with his muscles. Thus improving the worker
and gaining in efficiency, the community should be better served
and improved conditions maintained. Other nations are working
in this direction, and we should take care not to be left behind.

Work can be carried on by Governments as efficiently as by
contract or any other method. Governments are in the best
position in the matter of finance. They can secure the best experts
if they will pay them fairly and treat them properly. Workmen
will work as well for Governments as for private employers, if
properly organized and controlled. It is only when Governments

president's address — SECTION H. 215

fail to secure proper officers and to give them proper opportunity
that quality and cost of work done by them are less satisfactory
than can be obtained by letting large contracts.

The architect and the engineer of the future must rise to calls
for a higher standard of work, increased efficiency, and improve-
ment of the conditions of labour.

Estimating. — To this end the rough and ready — I was going
to say the guess work — methcd of estimating, now so common,
ought to be superseded by systematic and thorough estimating,
which is quite practicable if properly understood and studied. Have
we generall}'- the confidence of the public in this matter of
estimating ? How often do estimates prove to be unreliable, and
yet it only requires sceintific' method to make the average of esti-
mates very much mere reliable. Some members of our professions
obtain high reputations for the closeness of their estimates when
compared with actual cost. We should all aim at such a repu-
tation. Our employers — the public- — have a right to look for it.
We owe it to them as a duty. Our reputation depends on it.

The engineer of the future should be able to estimate the cost
of his work, and then prove the correctness of his estimate by
carrying out the work without exceeding it, except, of course,
when outside causes beyond his control, and which would not be
foreseen, come into it to an extent beyond what would be reason-
able provision for contingencies.

Union. — To promote our professions and keep them in the high
position they should occupv in the community we must unite.

The medical, the legal, and other professions are united and
strong. Can we say that our position is ecjually good ?

Tradesmen have their unions, and the law of the land re-
cognises them, and they are gaining in strength, assuming a force-
ful position, and obtaining increased remuneration. Why should
architects and engineers be without protection and without rights 1
Institutional work has dene some good, but neither our professions
nor the public are properly protected, and until they are we shall
not occupy our proper placei in the body politic.

Regi'^t ration. — Registration under Parliamentarv sanction and
protection is being pressed for, but is slow in coming. We should
work to secure this, and so overcome one difficulty that hampers us.

The uplift of our professions is for the good of all. Other
countries are ahead of us in this. In this way we can check the
unscientific work of which there is soi much to be seen to-day, pre-
vent waste, and advatice the aims of this Association.

Forestry. — This subject may be dealt with in another Section,
but its increasing importance makes me mention it here.

2l6 president's address — section h.

Thfere is nci doubt that the world's forests are under present
conditions being rapidly worked out. There has been great
waste.

The increasing use of steel and other materials is partly making
up for the decreasing supplies of timber for architectural and
engineering work, but for many purposes wood is and is likely
tci remain the most suitable material. In railway work, for in-
stance, steel sleepers are slowly taking the place of wooden ones,
but en a recent trip round the world I did not find one engineer
whoi would not give preference to wooden sleepers as long as the
price IS not pj'obibitive. In many ether cases the position is the
same.

Now, with scientific handling of forest areas, such as is begin-
ning to be applied in a few instances, the output of timber from
existing forests can be increased in quantity and improved in
quality. Large areas of country now denuded of timber might,
with prcifit to the community, be used for timber-growing and
jiroduce a more profitable harvest.

The comparatively slow growth of timber makes investment of
funds in timber-raising unpopular among the business portion of
onr cornmunity.

This is a case in which Governments are in the best position
to act. The Foiest Departments of our States should receive
encouragement from us, and scientifically trained men with long
heads thculd be soiight for, and encouraged, by good remuneration,
tO' develop this most important work.

Testinf/. — With the advance of science in connexion with onr
work more and more testing of materials and parts of structures
is being done, with very good results, but development in this
direction must proceed further if we are to get the best work
done. At present there is a growing need for better organized
and better equipped testing labcralcries in onr States. Whether
such laboratories are connected with onr Universities or estab-
lished under other control is a point of minor importance, so long
as they are equal to the work of giving results with the accuracy
required in reasonable time. We are behind hand in this respect.
Money spent on providing establishments for testing would "be
well invested. We ought not to lag behind the rest of the world
m this matter. It cannot be said that we have the facilities which
are highly desirable, and many complaints as to the want of
them are heard. Some good work is being done, but not enough,
W^e have competent men available, but until Governments are
impressed with the importance and value of high -class testing
and its results in prevention of waste and accident, provision
of equipment will be slow. Private enterprise is not likely to
supply the need. .

president's address — SECTION H. 217

We should take all opportunities of working for the improve-
ment of existing conditions.

Town Flavnuig. — There are many more matters worth review
at this time, but I am close to my limit. May I, in closing,
jnention one of them ? The Town Planning movement is now
attracting much attention. At the 1890 meeting Mr. John
Sulman read a paper on the laying out of towns (a special com-
mitteo of this association being appointed to report thereon), and
h© ha.s since done much valuable work in the same direction.
The movement has suffered through many side issues being brought
into it, but the more one looks into it from the points of view
of the architect and engineer, the more its importance as aflecting
the health, the comfort, the morals, and the prosperity of our
people, becomes evident. Progress is being made ; the work
already done is bearing fruit; but what has been achieved
emphasizes the crjnng need for more. Science is ahead of prac-
tice in this respect, but there is much more scientific work wanted,
and if science leads the community will follow.

It IS in our power to exercise a good influence in the develop-
ment of this movement and in leading it en to good results.^
Science, well applied, is what is wanted. Already beneficial results
are being achieved, but so much more is badly wanted.

Our Parliaments are so busy with other questions and party
strife that they are slow to help, but the need for legislation is
crying loudly. Will you all help as you can for the honour of
our professions and as a duty to the fine land of which we are
proud to be citizens ?

Science has been defined as "knowledge systematized," as
"truth ascertained," and that is what we are working for here;
but when we have ascertained truth it is our duty to make it
known and to use it ourselves, and a broader definition of science.,
which I prefer, includes its practical application to our daily life
We should seek to know and to do.

Goethe said that " in all times it is only individuals that have
advanced science, not the age." Remembering this, we should
work individually for the advancement of science as it affects the
work of our professions. An architect or an engineer who is not
studving the problems of his woi'k is going back in efficiency, and
not forward.

' But while advance in science is due to individual workers it
is quite i-ecessary that those workers should place the results of
their work before their compeers, st» that they may benefit others
and help the progress of science. That is what we meet for here.

218 TRESIDENTS ADDRESS SECTION H.

To make pi ogress we should keep alive our imagination and
cultivate its development in right directions, so that we may
take part in the forward march.

In the words of Buckle, " The faculty of art is to change
events; the faculty of science is to foresee them. The phenomena
with which we deal are controlled by art, they are predicted by
science." Following out this idea we should all cultivate a wide
outlook, rising above the necessary details and routine of cur
work, using all the aids of science to generalize and take the
broad view which will lift us and our professions to the high
place which thev rightlv should occupy in the community.

Ruskin has summed up our petition well in his saying that
the work of science is to substitute facts for appearances and
demonstrations for impressions. " It is in so' doing that the
best course for improvement of our work in found. Science has
dene much for us, and will do much more if we give it the
opportunity.

Our professions are great ones, of high importance in the com-
munity, and the more we can substitute facts for appearances,
and demonstrations for impressions, the more shall we rise towards
a position in that community commensurate with our opportunities
of service to it.

We should never forget that: — as Bacon has put it — " every
one of us is a debtor to his profession." It should be our constant
aim to liquidate that debt —

New times demand new measin-es and new men;
The world advances and in time outgrows
The laws that in our fathers' day were best,
And doubtless after us some purer scheme
Will be shaped out by wiser men than we —
Made wiser by the steady growth of truth.

president's address — SECTION I. 2L9

SECTION I.

SANITARY SCIENCE AND
HYGIENE.

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT : W -**"*- J-^
J. H. L. Cumpston. M.D., D.P.H.. F.SarSt^ ^

Director of Federal Quarantine.

ACCURACY IN MEDICINE.

A commouplace of topical rhetoric is the statement that all
science consists ultimately in accurate measurement. In the end,
this is as trne of medicine as it is of all other branches of
knowledge. The differentiation between various species of bacteria
or of protozca is made t<j a large extent on their transverse and
axial measurement expressed in microns ; instruments and physical
methods of precision are used in recording the movements and
sounds of the heart, the electrical currents generated in the heart
during its activity, and the pressure of the blood in the arteries
and the veins.

Chemical methods of analysis are used for determining the rate
of calcium exchange in the body: the excretion of nitrogen, the
amount of iodine m the thyroid, and the completeness of gastric
or duodenal digestion.

A venture has even been made in the lise of methods of accurate
measurement in the less tangible realms of neurology and
psychology. The amount of nerve exhaustion in now more or
less accurately n'easured, while recently a claim has been made
that electric currents generated in the body under the stress of
emotion have been recorded.

220 president's address — section i.

While undouLtedly inuch may be claimed in these directions,
it is also true that there are large unexplored tracts in the
territory of m.edical science, in which, as yet, the seeker after
medical truth wanders as blindly as a Baffin Land Eskimo,
who, having learned no inethod of accurate geographical mea-
surement, depends for his movements ujDon topographical know-
ledge gained by exjDerience; for his food, upon natural cycles of
change, upon chance, and upon empirical knowledge of the habits
of other animals ; and for his mental and spiritual food upon
tradition and superstition handed down from his equally ignorant
ancestors.

In the practice of medicine there are certain phases in respect
of which it is accarate to state that the profession is assisted
by experience, dependent upon natural cycles, grateful for the
availability of empirical knowledge, confused in forecasts by the
vagaries of char.ce, and to a certain extent actuated by tradition.

That superstition has ceased to be a factor, that the branches
cf medical art, in which these uncertain quantities function ap-
preciably, are becoming more and more restricted, is greatly to,
the credit of those seekers after truth who' have chosen to' work
in a mtclium which offers greater complexity than any other with
which scientific workers have to' deal. The human body — this
multi-cellular organism — this most infinitely complex of all bioi-
logical entities — offers problems compared with which the theory
of relativity is child's play.

Practical medicifxe has tO' deal not only with the three dimen-
sions — physiology, pathology, and pharmacology, which, in
themselves, include the M^hole range of tlie sciences — but is con-
stantly being led astray by that fascinating fourth dimension —
psychology.

This complexity of the problem makes medicine the least exact
of the exact sciences. In claiming for medicine a place amoiigsfc
the exact sciences, there is no' presumptio'n, even thoaigh it has
perhaps grown no farther than the infant chemistlry ol the
" philosopher's stcne " age; but in spite of all the inaccuracies, of
all the intrinsic difficulties, there are many definitely establisheid
truths. In bacteriology, in pathology, in the chemistry and
physics of enviroaiment as affecting the, human organism, in
therapeutics, and even in epidemiology, there have been de-
termined facts and principles which stand against the most rigid
of scientific tests.

These facts and j^rinciples stand as monuments to those earnest
and devoted workers whoi " follow knowledge like a sinking star "
beyond even the love of life itself.

president's address — SECTION I. 221

With this gradual development cf accuracy in medical science,
one would think that the art cf medicine would be showing an
increasing application of exact methods for the beueiit of sick
humanity. To a certain exte^nt this is the case, but it is not
so nearly to the extent that it should be. There are various
reasons for this. There is an inadequate appreciation by the
public of the delicate balance of evidence necessary to an honest
diagnosis, or of the complexity of modem methods necessary for
this ; there is the difficulty of providing the necessary equipment
accessible to all medical men ; there is the real practical difficulty
CI insuring that all medical men are able to use the apparatus
when it is provided, or able to keep tliemselves abreast of modern
developments; and, finally, there is the inertia and conservatism
of the public to be overcome in many ways.

The jiublic estimate of the medical man is redolent of the
middle ages. To many of the public, even to-day, the dis}>eusing
chemist is as sl'illed a therapeutist as the best of the specialists
while the optician is even recognised in law as almost, if not
quite, the equal of the trained oculist. To the whole of the public,
with the exception of a few, a very few, more enlightened people,
one dcctcr is as good as another. The possession of a medical
diploma of any kind is accepted bv the public, and even by many
public authorities, as sufficient evidence that a doctor, without
any special experience, can be in turn a specialist in surgery, in
venereal diseases, in hospital administration, in children's
diseases, or even in questions of public health. Maiiy men who
recognise the distinctic-a between a carpenter and a joiner, a
bricklayer and a mason, or who readilv agree that a builder's
labourer is not worth the same wages as the builder himself, will
accept anv medical diploma as evidence cf the medical man's
ability to give an opinion in any oaie of the several branches of
medicine, each cf which requires, not only a life-long study, but,
to a certain extent, a special temperament. Thei mechanical
dexterity, the capacity for rapid decision ex})ressed by appropriate
action, combined with the sound diagnostic judgment which dis-
tinguish the first-rank surgeon, are personal qualities quit©
different from those which make a, doctor successful in the adminis-
tration of a large hospital, an asylum, or a Health Department.

Yet, the public to-day, as Mr. Syme recently said, " still regard
the ' doctor,' as they call him, as a kind of wizard, who can tell
intuitively what is the matter with a patient and then prescribe
a drug which will act like a charm and drive the disease away."
Their idea of medical practice is, as Osier said, — " a traffic be-
tween individuals, the sale of a cui'e."

This public estimatei of medical art as a j>iercing glance by the
eagle eye of the inspired doctor readintr the innermost secrets of
the patient's soul, followed by the administration of a mysterious

222 president's address — section i.

decoction ill a bottle, to be taken three times a day after meals,
is one of the commonest of the vestigial remains of the period
of snper&tition.

How commonly one hears of a confirmed alcoholic doctor that
"he is so clever when he is sober. ' ' It is an- interesting psycho-
logical phenomenon that a vice, which in any other profession
or trade would inevitably bring disgrace and shame, is glorified
in the medical profession, where the risks at stake are e-xpressible
in terms of human life.

This almost universal ignorance amongst his patients is to the
doctor both an obstacle and a temptation. It is an obtacle in
that the patient becomes impatient when he is required to suffer
the details of a tedious investigation by accurate methods. It is
a temptation in that the doctor realizes that his patient will go
to one of his rivals who- follows the easy way, and that, in any
event, as the patient desires to be " overlooked " in the ancient
sense, rather than toi be accurately investigated, he might as well
give the patient what he wants and collect the fee.

If this be not a generous representation of the average of the
medical practice, it i^, on the other hand, necessary tO' state that"
almost without exception the doctor reaches this attitude through
despair and not. through design.

The medical man, normally, commences his active professional
career with a high level of idealism. He determines that, how-
ever mechanical in their practice the older men have become, he,
at least, will not permit himself to degenerate, but will keep
himself closely informed of all new developments in medical
science, and his patients will have the benefit of his energy and
enterprise. There are many reasons why it is, under present con-
ditions, inevitable that he should insensibly fall away from that
exalted an,d altogether desirable attitude; but the twO' main
reasons are that ignorance of the general public indicated above,
and the impossibility of obtaining the necessary equipment.

Before the yoi:ng doctor has been naore than a few months in
practice, he will meet many difficulties arising from the absence
of this equipment. A few illustrations will be sufficient. An
accident will render an X-ray examination essential ; it will be
necessary to givei anxious parents a definite statement whether or
not their daughter has consumption ; it will become necessary to
give a firm opinion as toi the preisenoe or otherwise of syphilis (this
is not only necessary in the interests of the unborn generation,
but the State demands it by law) ; an obstinate case of nasal
trouble cannot be properly treated without the use of special in-
struments for both diagnosis and treatment. Modern diagnosis
and treatment of heart disease both require a very delicate, com-
plicated, and expensive apparatus. A certain amount of chemical

PRESIDENT 8 ADDRESS SECTION I. 223

analysis of the urine and of the contents of the stomach is essential
to any accurate medical work, while it is now established that
diseases of the kidney and bladder often require special expensive
apparatus for a reliable diagnosis.

All of which means that the doctor must have an X-ray outfit,
a bactericlcgical laboratory, a simple chemical laboratory, and an
elaborate, extensive, and very expensive set of special apparatus
and instruments, which, as Euclid is reported to have said fre-
quently, is absurd.

It is absurd, in that a doctor's income will not be large enough
for him to begin to consider such expense, and in that if everv
doctor had the whole equipment, some of it would be only inter-
mittently used at long intervals, and a totally unnecessary duplica-
tion or multiplication would result.

Moreover, if every doctor had this equipment, he would not be
able to use it, for, as has been pointed cut above, expertness in
any one special branch of medicine requires a lifetime of devotion
to' that branch. The X-ray specialist cannot be at the same time
a bacteriologist, and the general practitioner could not attempt the
whole ranges of subjects, even if he had the necessary apparatus,
without, at a very early stage in his career, giving a splendidly
disastrous illustration of that classical statement that " a little
knowledge is a dangerous thing."

The argument may, at this point, be summarized.

Medical science is very rapidly becoming more and more a
science of accurate observation, measurement, and record. The
medical profession io making an increasingly vigorous demand for
the means whereby they may make their art progressive in step
with the march of the science, both for the satisfying of their own
consciences and in the interests of their patients. The prevalent
gross ignorance of the mass of the public, with the resultant
absence of an enlightened public opinion on these' phases of medical
practice, has not produced any general recognition of the need
for any action. Everv medical man cannot possess the necessary
knowledge or the necessary equipment.

What, then, is the remedy ?

Logically, there are two things which must be done : the educa-
tion of the public to a proper conception of the urgent need for
accurate methods in medical diagnosis and treatment, and the
provision, within practicable access by all medical practitioners of
the equipment necessary for the employment of those accurate^
methods.

Quite recently, on another occasion, I have endeavoured to
express my view that the education of the public rests in the
hands of the medical profession. If the professiou set about it

224 president's address — section i.

seriously, and demanded in their work the instruments of precision,
public recognition of the value of those methods will assuredly
follow; in fact, an imperative public demand will arise.

As bas just been said, however, the profession, realizing, as
they do. very fully, the need, yet have realized, equally fully, the
impossibility of commencing the education of the public until
the' necessary equipment for applying these accurate methods is
available. As each medical man cannot provide all the equip-
ment and the knowledge which are essential, it follows, obvio'Usl3^
that there must be provided some form of common service whereby
each n)edical practitioner can have access to either the necessary
instruments and apparatus, or to some specialist who has both the
uecessary knowledge and the equipment.

In the metropolitan areas such a service is already largely pro-
vided by hosjiitals, by specialists, and by laboratories. It is the
provincial towns and the countiy distiicts which are at a disad-
vantage in this respect.

It is clearly desirable that the facilities indicated should be
available in all principal countrv centres, but it must be apparent
that, practically, this desirable end cannot be reached all at once.
If some providential i)iterpositiou should make available, all at
a blow, the necessary equipment at points from which the whole
population could be served, there would yet be difficulties of in-
sufficiency of trained men, of general administration, and of the
necessary public recognition of the value of the measures. This
indicates the necessity for regulated development in the applica-
tion of these modern precise methods to the whole range of clinical
medicine.

That a commencement shoiild be made in this direction is clear
to all who have realized the j^csition as it is to-day. This com-
inencement. should be made by providing at the hospitals and the
larger of the e:- tra-metropolitan towns the necessary equipment
for exact clinical diagnosis.

While, however, the range of equi])ment is so extensive that it
will take time to provide all that is necessary, there is one branch
of medical science which is not only easily served with the neces-
sary equipment, but is in itself so important that its claims should
receive first consideration and its demands should be satisfied
before other demands are examined. The prevention of disease
should be the first aim of medical science, and in the process of
the education of public opinion, the stage has been already reached
when tlie public are demanding that all the resources of modern
knowledge shall be applied for the prevention of disease.

The technical apj)aratus required for the application of many
of the laws of public health, for the control of infectious disease,
for the prevention of water and food poisoning, and other matters
of preventive medicine is not unduly extensive, has in the main

PKESIDENt's address — SECTION I. 225

been definitely classified, and can be made with proper organiza-
tion to serve larger populations. There are already sufficient trained
medical men to make a commencement, and there is nO' reason
why, laboratories to serve all public health purposes should not
forthwith be established at the principal country centres through-
cut Australia. There is, in fact, every reason why thesei labora-
tories should be established at once.

There is proceeding now in Victoria an agitation for a more
satisfactory milk supply. It is not necessary to remind members
of this Congress that the only test of a milk supply is the labora-
tory test, either chemical or bactericlcgical. It is mere political
opportunism to talk of schemes for milk control when no provision
is made lor laboratory control of the purity of the milk supplied.
No brewery manager would dream of conducting his business
without a lai'ge staff of expert laboratory advisers, but for the
most important food supply of the people, there is in no State
adeqiiate provision of means for laboratory control. There is in
no State more than one small public health laboratory, and, in
some State«, the State Government has not provided the Public
Health Department with_ a laboratory at all.

Under existing State laws, medical practitioners are required
to certify to the fact of a cure of venereal diseases — syphilis or
gonorrhoea. The curej in either case cannot be determined re-
liably M'ithout careful laboratory work in experienced hands. The
doctor at Thursday Island, at Broome, or at Queenstown, must
send his speciniens to Brisbane, *Perth or Hobart, and, in the
presence of a strike, he cannot send them at all. Preventive
medicine, obviously, cannot be effectively carried on under these
conditions.

The control of typhoid fever, of diphtheria, of malaria, and of
bilharzia are impossible without laboratory exaininations. The
provision of one laboratory at the metropolitan centre of each State
was an inevitable first step, rendered inevitable by pressure of
circumstances, but this was merely a makeshift, and has for years
now been quite inadequate. It is true that all medical men can
send their specimens of various kinds to these laboratories for
examination, but there are narrow limits to the value of the in-
formation that a swab or a blocd sample is " positive" or " nega-
tive," particularly when, as sometimes happens, this result is
cpiite at variance with the doctor's conviction based on clinical
evidence .

The desirable objective, the accessibility to each doctor of the
means for arriving at correct laboratory results, or at least of
seeing the processes in operation and discussing the results with
the laboratory expert, is not attained by these means, and pro-
gress is, under these conditions, exceedingly slow.

226 pkesident's address — section i.

It is ueoessary that the doctor can follow his own material into
the laboratory, can see and understand the significance of the
processes of examination, and, as he becomes familiar with the
technique, carry out the operations himself.

It i? urgently necessary for the proper application of the prin-
ciples of preventive medicine that laboratories devoted to the pur-
poses of preventive medicine should be established without further
delay. It is a sinister reflection on the famous phrase of Beacons-
field that " the first duty of a statesman is the care of the public
; health,:" that, whereas no brewer, no condensed milk maker, no
■^./h .^rniii§:management or metal refinery works, no water supply hand,
' iio confectionery maker would dare to be without a chemist as an
important member of his staff, yet, in the all-important science
of medicine, the State does not attempt to make available the
scientific knowledge which could be used with encrmous profit to
t . the State. The care of the public health, in which all the

''^;_ available resources of modern science should be at once used, is
^ir*-' that -branch of public activity in which such knowledge is
"least used.

It is necessarv to state definitely that, in so proposing to apply
scientific methods to the prevention of disease, there is no in-
tentio^n to introduce the question of research. That word " re-
search " se«ms toi have for the young medical graduate a lure and
a fascination out of all proportion to its real significance. The
discovery of new facts of value is not a, prize to be grasped by
a young graduate fresh from a university course, but requires
years of patient experience, learning technique, methods, the
mistakes and discoveries of others, and, above all, demands a
special temperament. Research work is a highly specialized branch
of scientific work, which can be successfully performed only by
a specially trained man in a specially prepared environment.
Pasteur stated the position when he said — " In the fields of
observation chance favours only the mind which is prepared."

This research work should be carried cu, and the' routine labora-
tories should play an important part in connexion with it, but
it is the routine laboratory for the application of ascertained facts
which is immediately needed.

A commencement might well be made by establishing one silch
at Kalgoorlie, Port Pirie, Bendigo, Bathurst or Tenterfield, Too
woomba, Rock'iarapton, Cairns, Thursday Island, Darwin, and
Launceston. Their value would soon be demonstrated and the
necessity for the establishraent of others recognised.

In this way the English system of Primary Health Centres would
be commenced, and a beginning made in the application of scien-
tific knowledge to the practice of medicine for the prevention and
cure of disease.

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION J.

227

SECTION J.

MENTAL SCIENCE AND
EDUCATION.

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT :
Professor Alexander Mackie. M.A

Professor of Education in the University of Sydn

THE STUDY OF EDUCATION.

It was after considerable hesitation that I accepted the position
of President of the Education Section of the Australasian Science
Congress, partly because of my inability to be present in person,
and partly because the work of administering a large college and
teaching the subject of education to University classes leaves little
leisure for original work. I am very sensible of the great honour
which the Education Committee has done me, and much regret my
absence from this gathering. The opportunity for discussion with
those interested in education comes so rarely in Australia that one
is loath to miss it. I had. however, already planned a visit to
Great Britain which was long overdue.

The science of education appears to be entering on a further
stage of development. Hitherto^ measurement has played but a
small part in the organization, of this branch of knowledge. Now,
however, there appears the possibility of measuring educational
facts which hitherto have been mainly matters of traditional
opinion and individual judgment. I propose to- devote some time to
a survey of those branches of educational science' to which measure-
ment has been most successfully applied ; thereafter I shall con-
sider very briefly some of the problems which confront the
educational administrator and the practising teacher, but which
as yet the student of education cannot solve with any precision,
though there is every reason to believe that they, too, in time will
be open to investigation by more precise methods.

228 president's address — section j.

The study of education must go beyond a merely descriptive
accouiit of the practice of education as it now exists, and as it
has existed in the past. The history of educational theory and of
educational practice is of great value, but dees not by itself consti-
tute a science cf education. Tradition and individual experience are
inadequate foundations for the professional practice of education.
li must rest on a basis of scientific knowledge as well. And this
.'scientific knowledge can only be constructed as the result of the
labours of students of education, each devoting himself to the
careful study of specific problems. " There is," says Mr. Burt,
■'in education a vast field for practical research. Unlike other
professions, such as medicine or engineering, teaching still relies
largely for guidance upon private experience, personal impression,
and professional tradition. These resources are supplemented by
unsparing devotion, unfailing sympathy, hard work, and common
sense. But they are not enough. Admirable as they are. yet of
necessity they leave the practice of education at the present day
where the practice of medicine was a century ago. They leave it
without any scientific foundation. The engineer is regarded as
an expe.rt, the physician as a man of science. But those whose
business is to care for the mind and build up characters are sub-
ject to daily criticism by the public or in the press as though they
were themselves amateurs. Knowledge here is in its infancy, and
science but a few years old. The real need, therefore, is for
research. Only through research can scientific knowledgei take' the
place of universal opinion, and only through scientific knowledge
can practical efficiency be attained . " '

It is, I take it, unnecessary to consider an objection formerly
urged against the science of education, on the ground that such a
science was in the nature of the case impossible. Such an objec-
tion can only have weight with those who are unacquainted with
the work done during the past twenty years. Education has
become an independent science, proposing its own problems and
investigating them by its own appropriate methods. It is no
longer to be conceived as merely a body of deductions from other
sciences or as a patchwork of portions of these other sciences.

What then are the fundamental problems of education 1 There
are but two. The practice of education concerns itself with the
upbringing of the young. The educator seeks so to bring up-thei
young as to promote their welfare. He needs to know the nature
of this welfare and the means of promoting it. Hence the science
of education falls into' two main divisions, the first concerned with
the end and aims of upbringing, the second with the means and
methods by which this aim may most effectively be achieved. The
science of education is in part a science of ends or values, and in
part a science of means. For instance, we have to consider whether
it is good for some or all pupils to learn a foreign language, and
when we have settled that question we have to consider the

president's address — SECTION J. 229

various means by which knowledge and skill in a foreign tongue
may be acquired, and which of these various means is in the* given
circumstances incst effective. The study of educational aims and
ends demands a procedure different from that required for the
study of educational means. . The procedure must here be that of
the other sciences of value, and the conclusions w© come to respect-
ing the aims of education will be largely determined by our general
philosophical position. I have argued this question elsewhere, and
do not propose to consider it further to-day.

Any study of educational means and methods must include the
following divisions. In the first place, school education will not be
effectively conducted unless we know something of the disti'ibution
of natural capacity throughout the school population, aaid of the
variation in the attainments of pupils within each age group and
m successive age gixups. Considerable- success has attended the
efforts of those who in recent years have sought to measure the
natural abilitv and the attainments of the school population. A
complete mental survey of the school population would seem to
be even more necessary than the complete physical survey which
medical inspection now endeavours to secure. Educational treat-
ment, like medical treatment, must rest on a foundation of know-
ledge, and that knowledge can only be gained by a mental survey.
This appears to me to be the significance of the movement towards
the measurement of general and scholastic ability — by means of
mental tests. The scholastic, lik© the medical, treatment will then
have a twofold aim. It will seek to promote the best mental
growth of those who are intellectually sound, and it will seek, so
far as may be, to remedy mental defects, whether general or
specific. Where cure is impossible, as in cases of innate mental
deficiency, it will do what is possible to prevent mental deteriora-
tion .

How dependent effective educational treatment must be upon
our knowledge of the distribution of general and scholastic ability
is emphasized by Mr. Burt in his recent "Study of the Distribution
and Relations of Educational Abilities." "There are few pro-
blems," he says, '' in educational organization which do nob
involve some assumption, either tacit or express, as to the way in
which educational ability is distributed. The most efficient method
of organizing school classes ; the subjects for which cross classifica-
tion is needed ; the best schemes of promotion ; the proper allot-
ment of marks; the procedure in internal examinations and in
examinations for scholarships ; the standards of achievement,
optimal as well as minimal, attainable under different conditions
and at crucial stages in the school career; tests of progress or
deterioration in the educational system as a whole and in indi-
vidual schools and children ; the provision needed for children in
jpecial categories — backward, defective, unstable, advanced, or
alented ; the allocation of individuals of appropriate ability to

230 president's address — section j.

appropriate vocations; these and numerous other problems would
be largely solved by a scientific census of educational abilities
carried out and periodically repeated."

Of the methods of conducting such a survey of the general and
scholastic ability of a school population it is impossible here to
say much. The distribution ol the pupils throughout the school
classes in relation to their ages gives for large numbers a fairly
accurate picture of the distribution of natural ability. An age
class table will show that for each age group the members are
distributed throughout a series of classes, the range of distribu-
tion increasing with age up to about thirteen. Beyond this age
the pupils in the public primary schools are hardly a fair sample,
since many havei left, and some have been promoted to higher
schools. Two things are, however, clear — first, that the varia-
bility of the group increases as the age rises, and that the distri-
bution is roughly symmetrical and in accord with the normal
curve. For London children, Burt found the standard deviation
to be about one-tenth of the age of the group, but for New South
Wales the variability appears to be less. Burt believes that
scholastic ability, if we could measure ii apart from the complica-
tions introduced by the influence of circumstances, would be found,
likei physical traits, toi be distributed normally. If v/e may accept
this assumption, we may use it to criticise the actual age class
distribution which we find in our schools. This actual distribution
gives too large a proportion of older pupils in each class group,
and too small a proportion of younger. It is probable, and experi-
encei seems to confirm the suggestion, that the brighter pupils tend
unduly to be retarded, and fail to move forward as rapidly as
their natural capacity would justify. If this is so, it involves a
loss, not only to the individual, iDut to the community. The
lesser variability of New South Wales children niay, perhaps, also
be due to faulty classification, for it is doubtful if a range of six
classes is sufficient for pupils from six to fourteen years. If the
range is adequate for the majority, it is certainly too small for
the abler pupils. We have, then, in the hypothesis of the normal
distribution of scholastic ability throvighout each age group a
useful method of determining the probable correctness of our
classification of a school population. It must, of course, be remem-
bered that if the population considered is small it may not be a
fair sample, and soi may not show the typical normal distribution.
But any marked departure, even in a small group, such as the
pupils of a, single school, should arouse inquiry as tO' whether it is
justified by the special circumstances of the school.

Our present methods of classification of children, for instance,
that of one grouping for all school subjects, and that of yearly
or even of half-yearly promotions, is likely to distort the natural
distribution of scholastic ability.

president's address — SECTION J. 231

The age class table is one method of measuring the ability ot"
the school population and of studying its distribution. It is a
method easy of application, but can only yield a rather rough
estimate, since the position of a pupil in school depends on other
conditions than his natural ability, and since scholastic ability does
not completely correspond with general ability. More refined
methods of testing the general innate ability of school pupils are
provided by th© various forms of intelligence: tests which have
been developed in recent years. These tests may be either scholastic
or non-scholastic in character, though the distinction is at times a
difficult one to draw with precision. Further, they may be either
group or individual tests. Clearly, if we are to' carry out a mental
survey on a large scale it will be necessary to employ group tests,
as was done, for instance, in the American army. Individual
tests will only be possible for the testing of special cases.

Among the non-scholastic tests of intelligence, tho.se first devised
by Binet, and their later modifications, are probably the best known
and the most frequently employed. The Binet scale suffers, how-
ever, from two disadvantages in addition to that of being an
individual method of testing intelligence. First, while very useful
for securing the aim its inventor had in mind, viz., the diagnosis
of subnormal mental ability, it is much less useful as a method of
diagnosing those pupils whose mental ability is markedly above
the average. We are only beginning to' become aware of our
neglect of the upper 10 per cent, of our school population, though
recently more attentioii has been given, especially in the United
States of America, to the questioii of the training suited to the
more gifted pupils. But if the subnormal, the backward, and
mentally defective pupils require special treatment, it is worth
considering whether the superncmial, the advanced and the gifted
pupils do not at least equally require special consideration. The
mass methods of instruction which have characterized our school
policy for some time past will probably need considerable modifica-
tion as a result of the evidence now becoming available as to the
range of innate ability and its distribution. It may be better,
where numbers are sufficiently large, not to have our class groups
soi heterogeneous in natural ability as thev appear to be at present,
and it may become necessar}^ to recognise that differences in teach-
ing procedure are called for with pupils or groups of different
mental types.

In the second place, the Binet scale is so constructed that a
different set of tests is prescribed for the diagnosis of each mental
level expressed in years of age. We cannot, then, directly com-
pare the mental ability of, say, a normal six-year-old child with
that of a normal ten-year-old. Wei merely know that the six-
year-old cannot pass so many tests as the ten-year-old, but quanti-
tative comparison is impossiT^le. The Yerkes Bridges modification
of the Binet scale, however, attempts to overcome this difficulty

232 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS SECTION J.

by assigning numerical values to the several tests ; and the figure
known as the intelligence quotient alsoi allows of direct com-
parison between the mental levels of different age groups. But
it seems likely that eventually the Binet type of scale will be
abandoned in favour of a single test or group of tests applicable
to a considerable age range. This latter method of measuring
innate intelligence was first attempted by Burt, and an account
given in his " Experimental Tests of General Intelligenoe, " pub-
lished in 1909. Work of similar character has since been done by
Abelson, Wyatt, Bickersteth and others.

Burt has given special attenticn to the selection of tests of the
higher mental processes which he has found to be more closely
related io general intelligence than those of the sensory and per-
ceptual levels. T"hus his method of using a groujj of tests appli-
cable to a series of age groups will enable comparison to be made
of the intelligence oif the different age groups in a way difficult
or impossible with the Binet scale. There is also the advantage
that the tests proposed are more useful than those of the Binet
scale for the selection of gifted children. The series of tests for
reasoning ability recently published is likely to prove of great
value for the selecticn of the abler members of a- school population.
Mention may be made of the absurdities tests suggested by
"Ballard, which, when extended by further examples, may also
be found most useful.

No tests, either of scholastic or of general ability, can give
information of scientific value till it itself has been tested. A
test in order to be useful for the measurement of general mental
ability must fulfil at least the following conditions. It must
measure the ability which it is supposed to measure, and hence
should show a high degree of correspondence with trustworthy
empirical estimates of intelligence ; its results should vary only
with intelligence and not with age, sex, or social circumstances,
except in soi far as these vary with intelligence; it must be reliable
and consistent in the results which repeated applications give ;
it should be easily administered and easily marked, and hence a
group test is more useful than an individual test.

So far, noi one test has proved completely satisfactory by itself
for the measurement of general mental ability, but when the re-
sults of a group' of tests are combined a high degree of precision
can be reached.

The tests which have proved useful elsewhere will probably be
of equal value for the measurement of the mental ability of
Australian children. But accurate measurement is impossible
until we have re-standardized the tests in use elsewhere or have
invented and standardized our own. This is a most pressing
problem for the advance of our science. A beginning has been
made in the laboratory of the Teachers' College, Sydney, but

president's ADDRESS^SECTION J. 233

the task is a very large one and requires the co-operation of
many workers. During the past two years a considerable amount
ot work has been done under the direction of Dr. Phillips. The
following tests have been applied to a large number of children,
and froin the data so secured the reliability has been calculated.

The following table shows the reliabilitv of the tests studied: —

Binet ... ... ... ... ... .89

Opposites ... .. ... ... .71

Part whole ... ... ... ... .73

Coniplelicn ... . ... ... .72

Porteus ... ... ... ... ... .29

Healy Form Board . . ... .. .26

Gcddard's Form Board ... ... ... .70

Unless a reliability of about .60 is secured no test is worth
using in its existing form. Hence the Porteus Test and the Healy
Test are not sufficiently reliable. It is interesting to note that
Whipple also has found the Porteius Test unreliable. The results
cf the work done in Sydney will be published shortly in Schooling.

From the evidence so far available the following conclusions
may be suggested : First, the distribution of mental ability both
general and specific, scholastic and non-scholastic, accords with
the normal curve and thus resembles the distribution of a physical
trait such as height or weight. Second, the rate of mental growth
i.? largely innate. So far, however, we know very little as to the
rate of mental growth. It is certainly not uniform, even in the
case of one individual. Burt remarks of backward children that
their " common characteristic is that their rate of educational
progress is much slower than that of the mass of children in
ordinary schools — about three-quarters of the normal rate "
(p. 38). Third, mental growth ceases at cliiferent levels which
may be represented in mental years. The highest mental level
is placed by some at 16 and by others at 19 years. Only the
very gifted reach this highest leivel ; according to American
statistics, 4 per cent, of the population. For the others the innate
growth cf intelligence ceases at various lower mental levels.
Children who are mentally defective, for instance, do not seem
able to advance beyond the mental level reached by the normal
child at 12 years of age.

There is need for a scientific study of the efEect of teaching on
the different types of innate intelligence. Good teaching would
seem to increase the variability of a group heterogeneous in innate
ability. " The main effect," says Burt, "of teaching upon educa-
tional ability is, as a rule, to increase the individual differences
already present from birth" (p. 45). We already, in some
measure, recognise the need for adapting our teaching to the
differences in intelligence corresponding with age, and we are just
beginning to see that teaching procedure may require to be varied

234 president's address — section j.

for the differences in intelligence within any given age group.
The more gifted children, for instance, may make progress best by
methods that are relatively ineffective with those of lesser ability.
This conclusion is suggested by Valentine's experiment in read-
ing, and is definitely stated by Whipple in his monograph on the
selection and training of gifted children.

Mental tests of a non-scholastic character will yield informatioii
about the distribution of innate ability if the group examined
is homogeneous in opportunity of gaining experience. Similarly
scholastic tests will infonn us not only of the actual attainmeints
of the group' tested, but also of the variations of innate scholastic
ability if the group has been so selected as to Be homogeneous
in scholastic opportunity. And it may be that some scholastic
tests will, under this condition, prove quite as useful as the non-
scholastic for the measurement of general intelligence. " There
seems," says Brown, 'to be no serious reason why the ordinary
material cf school study should not be employed to a much
greater extent than is actually the case, as psychological material
from which to deduce important psycho-pedagogical laws."* And
Burt has shown that scholastic or quasi-scholastic tests can be
administered by competent teachers with a degree of accuracy at
least equal to that of a trained experimental psychologist.

Much work has been done by American investigators in devis-
ing and standardizing tests of scholastic ability and in securing
grade norms of performance. But the system of classification
current in our schools is not the same as the American, and hence
we cannot compare the work of our pupils with that of American
classes. In anv^ case the scholastic tests need to be standardized
for ovir school population. Until this has been done, a scientific
survey of the scholastic ability of our school population is hardly
possible. The lecturers in education of the Teachers' College,
Sydney, have begun an investigation of arithmetical ability in
the four fundamental operations, and some of the results of the
work of the past two years will be presented to this section at a
later meeting.

English investigators have aimed at establishing age group
norms instead of class group norms, and these are of greater
scientific interest than the class group norms of the American
school populations. It is probable, too, that from these age group
norms there can be deduced class group norms which will be of as
great practical value as the American grade norms. If ability is
distributed normally, and if each school class represents one year
of mental growth, it should be possible to state the average attain-
ment to be expected from each class group, if that class grouj)
is a fair sample of the general school population. Age norms for
ability in oral and silent reading have been published by Ballard

* Brown, " Modern Educational Psychology."— .7o(/r. of Experimental Pe'l.. vol. I., p. 6.

president's address — SECTION J. 235

aud by Moore; and by Ballard for ability in arithmetic. Mention
must also be made of the important work published by Burt in
1917, on the " Distribution and Relations of Educational Ability,"
Burt does not give norms for the various forms of scholastic
ability, but his conclusions and his discussion of methods will
afford the greatest assistance to^ later investigators.

From his careful study of the scholastic ability of a selected
group he concludes that scholastic achievements are determined by
two kinds of mental factors — first, general educational ability
which is related to, but not identical with, general intelligence,
and which affects in different degrees the pupils' performances in
different school subjects; second, specific educational abilities, con-
fined to special subjects or groups of subjects. School subjects
appear to fall into four groups, each dependent on a specific ability
which is largel}^ independent of the others. The four groups are
called by Burt (1) arithmetical, (2) manual, (3) linguistic, and
(4) literary.

Burt's study has confirmed the findings of recent American
studies as to the great overlapping which exists between the class
groups of the ordinary primary school. Teachers are rarely aware
of its extent. The amount of overlapping varies for different sub-
jects, being least for those subjects which correlate most closely
with general educational ability.

" The subjects in which heterogeneity and overlap appear most.
are the more mechanical subjects which, in the higher classes are
but little dependent upon general ability, and, in particular, those
subjects which are dependent mos{ upon specific capacity. For
Iheee subjects it is often desirable to cross-classify either schools
or classes."*

These findings suggest the desirability of altering our present
method of a single classification and adopting a four-fold classi-
fication of pupils according to the grouping given by a study of
the specific correlations of school subjects ; or if that plan is not
practicable, of modifying our present procedure of collective class
teaching by the adoption of some plan of sets or divisions within
the class group.

An experiment in four-fold classification is to be begun in
Sydney at the Darlington Practice School, under Mr. Vout, in
January next.

The four-fold grouping pro}iosed by Burt will be adopted. The
second method, that of dividing a class group into sets or divisions
and allowing the members of the class to move forward at the
pace suited to their rate of mental growth, has been tried with
a special class during the past five yeais at the Blackfriars Practice
School, and it is hoped that a description of the procedure may
be published shortly.

* Burt, ibid., p. 34.

236 president's address — section j.

School examinations are a form of scholastic test which are
urgently in need of scientific investigation. Much criticism is
directed in particular against external examinations. These
criticisms may or may not be justified. We need a study of the
methods of testing scholastic ability in current use, and must
apply to these more familiar scholastic tests the exact methods
now being employed in the application of non-scholastic tests. At
present, for instance, no attempt is made to estimate the relia-
bility of an external examination. It is currently asserted that
the pupils are not normal when they sit for an external examina-
tion, and that in consequence the order of merit as given by the
examination results does not correspond with the true order of
merit. It may be so. Speculation is unproifitable, and exact know-
ledge could readily he secured ; first, by determining the reliability
oc the examination test itself; and second, by calculating the
oo-efficient of correlation between the examination results and the
estimates of competent teachers.

It is further contended that the marking is unreliable because
examiners vary in their standards, and the same examiner does
?iot maintain an even standard. Recent American investigation
appears £o lend support to this contention, but methods could
be adopted to counteract the effect of such variations, once they
are known. Again, the standard and range of marking may vary
from subject to subject. But if scholastic ability follows the
normal distribution, such variations are probably due to methods
and standards of marking. " The degree," says Burt, " to which
individuals are scattered above and below the average should,
apart from special reasons to the contrary, be about the same in
different subjects."

" According to the usual methods of marking, the standard
deviation found in subjects like arithmetic appears higher, as a
rule, than that found in subjects like composition. Yet there is
no reason to suppose that literary ability is less varied than
arithmetical . " *

If the standard of marking differs for different subjects, injury
may be done to candidates where choice is permitted and the
same group of subjects is not taken by all. At present, public
examinations determine very often the future career of candidates,
and for this reason alone it is desirable to secure that the order
of merit given by the examination is, as nearly as may be, the
true crdeir, and to know, at all events, how far the^ actual order
departs fromi the true order.

There are many other problems bearing on the conduct of
examinations that are urgently in need of investigation, but only
a brief mention can be made of seme of them.

» Burt, ibid., i>. 48.

president's address — SECTION J. 237

What mental processes do we at present test by our exammations ?
And are these the forms of mental ability which it is desirable
to test ? Competence in a subject is not merely, or perhaps
mainly, a matter of memory, yet examination papers are often
predoiuinantly tests of memory. Constructive thinking and taste,
for instance, probably get tco' little opportunity of showing them-
selves New, in view of the fact that at present the trend ol teach-
ing is largely determined by the kind of examination paper set,
it is important that in the setting of papers we should realize
quitei clearly the forms of mental activity that will be called into
play in working th« paper.

In the second place, a careful study should bei made of the
wording of the questions. It has been found in general mental
tests that the results secured may differ very much whein different
instructions are given. New, an examination question is an in-
struction to the pupil, and the way in which he reacts will cer-
tainly be affected by the way in which the instruction is given.
For younger pupils it would seem that at present the wording
ef questions is often too difficult.

Is an easy paper or a hard paper the better scholastic test ?
The answer will in part depend on the object we have in view,
but there is need to study the response which pupils make to such
differences in the test. It is likely, for instance, that for a qualify-
ing examination an easy paper is preferable, while for an honour,
or competitive examination it may be that a much harder paper
is best; at preseiit the same test is^frequently made to serve both
purposes, and often seems to do it badly. But en all these matters
we need a body of facts, and that at present we do not possess.

Again, mixch good would come from a study of the physical
and mental effects of preparing for and undergoing examinations
upon pupils of different ages and sexes. We have now much
assertion of alleged injurious effects, but iio reliable evidence of
any kind is available. Examinations now play so large a part
ir the life of school pupils that assertion and opinion should be
replaced by knowledge. That knowledge can only be gained by
careful and prolonged scientific study.

The attempt to measure school work by mean's of carefully
standardized tests is sometimes looked at with suspicion by
teachers who fear that such tests may be put to an improper
use' by school administrators. But school work is already tested
by inspectors, headmasters, and others. At present they do it
rather badly, because of the defective instruments and methods
which they employ. In consequoice, the ccmpetent teacher may
easily be misjudged, and he has nc remedy; he has no standard
to which he can appeal, no means of checking the subjective
opinion of those who judge him. Accurate instruments and
methods of measurement would protect the competent teacher

238 president's address — section j.

from unjust criticism. By means of these objective measures dif-
ferences of opinion as between teacher, headmaster, and inspector
would be largely avoided. Further, it would be possible to mea-
sure more accurately the progress made by a class over a particular
period. But class progress and class achievements are in part
only due to the skill of the teacher, and we have to consider ail
the factors upon which scholastic attainments depend before we
can estimate the teacher's share in the production of the result.
Much depends, as all teachers know^ upon the innate ability of
the class group. This we can now measure with fair accuracy,
and so may arrive at some estimate of the quality of the teacher's
work. For a lower mark with a poorer class group' may be
evidence of greater teaching skill than a higher mark with a group
of greater scholastic ability.

We have further, in estimating the class attainments, toi consider
not one subject, but all subjects, for it is easy to' secure a high
level of attainment in one subject by the relative neglect of others
which perhaps are not so carefully tested. What is needed to
'letermine the efficiency of a school or class group is some index
number, which will be so constructed as to exhibit the total
efficiency when all aspects of school life and work have been given
due weight. To pursue this matter further would involve a study
of the methods of school inspection and examination. Such a
study is greatly needed, for our methods of inspection are at pre-
sent much behind our methods of teaching. The recent surveys
of American school systems are very suggestive as indicating more
satisfactory methods than are at present in use in the Australian
States. One has cnly to read the inspectors' reports as at present
compiled to recognise that they tell little or nothing of the real
state of the school, or how it compares with other schools, in the
innate ability and achievements of its pupils, in character of
teaching staff, of buildings or of equipment.

Reliable norms of scholastic performance would enable the
teacher to vary his time-table when he finds the level of the class
performance in any subject either above or below a reasonable
standard of performance for the individual or group. Thorndike,
for instance, points out that at present we are apt to teach
children to Avrfbe too well. School time is so short, and there are
so many things worth doing that it seems a pity to waste time
by demanding an unduly high standard of performance.

Recent studies of the distribvition of scholastic ability have
shown in a very striking manner the heterogeneity of all age
groups, and even of the actual class groups into which a school
population is organized. The heterogeneity of the age groups has,
oif coiurse, been more or less recognised, since actual class groups
are always heterogeneous in respect of age. It was supposed,
however, that in ability a class group was fairly homogeneous,
and it is on this assumption that much oi our present practice

president's address — SECTION J. 239

of collective teaching rests. Both English and American investi-
gators have shown how very different are the facts from this
assumption. Says Burt, " By the ordinary methods of school
organization the variation of a class is reduced to about cne-half
that of an age group. By an ideal classification for each subject
separately, it could theoretically be reduced to about one-third."*

The amount of heterogeneity will vary for different subjects,
depending on the subject or subjects which have determined the
class grouping. But clearly, collective teaching will be less effec-
tive for these subjects where the heterogeneity of the group is
greatest. There is need to supplement this method by forms of
individual or group teaching. If we retain our present one-fold
method of class grouping, we mvist introduce more individual and
groupi teaching.

Not only are age groups and class groups heterogeneous in
scholastic ability, they also overlap, and the overlapping of both
age groups and class groups is much greater than has been sup-
posed. The amount of overlap j:ing of classes varies for different
subjects, and will be least in those subjects which have determined
the class grouping. It would seem desirable to reduce this over-
lapping SO' far as possible, and it can be dene by the same methods
as are indicated for the reduction of heterogeneity in the class
group. More flexible methods cf promotion and reclassification
for special groups of subjects appear desirable.

For which subjects or groups of subjects, then, is reclassificati<in
desirable? This problem has been investigated by Burt, who has,
from a study of the specific correlations between the school sub-
jects, grouped them into the following four groups: — ■

1. An arithmetical group — including mechanical and {iroblema-
tic arithmetic.

2. A manual group, including handwork, drawing, and writing.

3. A linguistic group, including dictation and reading.

4. A composition gi'oup, including history, geography, science,
and composition.

Says Burt, " If children are reclassified for dictation, the re-
classification may serve also for reading : similarly, the reclassi-
fication for arithmetic (rules) may serve verv largely for arith-
metic (problems). But neither dictation, arithmetic, nor general
educational ability will yield honicgeneous classes in drawing or
handwork. The subjects, therefore, for which reclassification
seems desirable are those which show a high specific correlation
with one another. These, as we have seen, fall into three or four
main groups. If then the main classification is based lai'gely upon
work in the composition group, reclassification may be desirable
for manual, perhaps for linguistic, but above all for the arith-
metical subjects." t

* Burt, ibid., p. 74.
t Biirt, jbifl., p. 67.

24U president's address — section J,

The E.rperi/nenfal Stiidf/ of Tcdchhifj I'roccdurc .

The study of the relative eifectiveness of different forms of
teaching procedure has so far received but little attention. Yet
it is a field of investigation in which results of great value to the
practising teacher may be expected, for at" present the conflict of
opinion among teachers as to the relative merits of different teach-
ing methods is very considerable. The measurement of the rela-
tive effectiveness of different methods of teaching presents many
difficulties, since it is hard to isolate thei factor of teaching pro-
cedurei. Toi do so we must either measure the influence of other
factors such as age, sex, social status, innate ability, competence
of the teacher, and so on, and this in general is not as yet
possible, or we must keep these factors constant while vary-
ing the method used. To do this latter requires much skill in
planning the experiment; Winch's method of " equal groups " is
perhaps the most important device so' far employed for making
comparison possible between two different teaching methods.

Briefly this inethod consists in selecting as homogeneous a group
of pupils as possible to' act as subjects of the experiment. This
group is then given a preliminary test in the subject matter to>_be
taught. On the results of this test the group is divided into sets
by the selection of pupils alternately from the order of merit given
by the preliminary test. We now have two parallel sets whose
average ability is equal within the limits of "chance error. Each
set is now given a series of lessons where all conditions as to time
of day, length of lesson, quantity and kind of subject matter are
kept the same, with the exception of the method of teaching
adopted. After the completion of the series of lessons the sets
are again grouped, and a final test is given to- the original group.
If now there is any difference in the achievement of the two sets
beyond what might be expected from chance we may conclude
that it is probably due to the method of teaching adopted.

This method has been employed by Valentine for the comparisoai
of a phonic with a whole word method of teaching reading ; by
Winch in the study of a directed, as compared with a more in-
dividual, method of learning the spelling of word lists, and again
in comparing speed and accuracy in subtraction when taught by
the method of decomposition and by the method of equal addition.

Thesei experiments are of interest not merely because of the
immediate conclusions to which they point, but because they sug-
gest lines of inquiry of far reaching importance for the science of
education. Valentine found that although on the whole a phonic
method of teaching reading was more effective than a whole word
method, yet this conclusion did not hold for the duller members
o: the groups tested. Even where the phonic set was on the whole
superior to the whole word set, it M'as fcund that the superioritv
was due to the upper half of the set. The lower half was little if

president's ADURES.S SECTION J. 241

at all superior to the lower half of the whole word set. Ap-
parently, then, the phonic method would seem better suited to the
brighter pupils, while on the other hand it may be that the
whole word method is better suited to the duller pupils. Any-
way, the need for a further study of this suggestion is clear,
especially as at present in New South Wales at least the various
fc'rnis of phonic method are in fashion, and threaten to drive other
methods out of the field.

What Valentine's experiment suggests as holding for reading
niay very well apply in the case of other subjects. It may be
that the method of educational treatment, like that of medical
treatment, must vary with the nature of the patient. No doubt
competent teachers recognise and act on this principle more or
less implicitly, yet it is certainly desirable that we should have
accurate knowledge for our guidance, and this we do not have.
Text-books on method make no mention of the circumstances
under which different methods are appropriate, unless this is what
they mean when they advocate a judicious mixture of teaching
methods, but fail to inform us how the mixture is to be com-
pounded. As Burt points out, " Similar results are reached by
different children by very different mental processes ; consequently
a child who fails under one method of instruction will often suc-
ceed, if a brief study be made of his natural aptitudes and opera-
tions, and another mode of instruction adopted accordingly."
Those responsible for the supervision of teachers are at present
too prone to the belief that every method can be labelled ' ' good
or " bad," and that a teacher is to be judged by the supposed
goodness of the methods he uses instead of being judged by the
nature of the results he achieves.

Winch's investigation, " Should Young Children be Taught
Arithmetical Proportion," does not answer this question, but it
does prove that an infant class of ordinary pupils could do quite
satisfactory work in proportion sums, and could do it after a
short period and without explanatory or illustrative teaching.
This investigation raises the same question as that suggested by
the work of Dr. Montessori, whether our teaching, in the early
school years at all events, might not with advantage be less ex-
planatory and dogmatic. It is possible that teaching would be
more effective if less time were devoted to exposition and explana-
tion, and the pupils were supplied with exercises and toys for
occupations in which they might learn for themselves. We say
often enough that children leat'n by doing, but it would seem that
we do not take sufficient pains to devise and grade suitable forms
of occupation and exercise.

For successful teaching there is needed, then, more knowledge
than at present we possess of the psychological nature of scholastic
abilities, and in addition the teacher must study his i)upils as he
has done in the past. But if teachers are to study their pupils they

242 president's address— section j.

must not have too many of them, and they must have them under
their care for a sufficient length of time. Satisfactory knowledge
of the pupils is impossible under the pernicious plan which at
present holds in some parts of Australia, that of transferring the
teacheir to a new class or a new school at intervals of a year or
less. A young teacher, at all events, should be allowed tO' remain
in the same school long enough to see some of the fruits of his
teaching. If this is not done, the teacher is deprived of one
strong incentive to the growth of professional interest. And these
frequent shifts appear to do^ injury to' the pupil. But it is de-
sirable that carefvil measurements should be made of the scholastic
achievements of initially equal groups, but under the care of one
teacher for varying periods. The whole question indeed of the
distribution of teaching power would well repay careful study.
In the primary schools at present we often have in extreme form
one kind of specialism where the teacher devotes himself year
after year to the same narrow range of school work ; in the high
schools on the other hand we find a very different form of
specialism practised, where the teacher devotes himself to the same
subject or branch of a svibject.

The study of school organization and administration has recently
been receiving great attention in the United States of America.
The stimulus has been in part public dissatisfaction with the sup-
posed condition of the schools. The school surveys which have
been in consequence undertaken have in some cases shown the dis-
satisfaction to be jii stifled, in other cases to^ be groundless. The
published material now becoming available will do much to stimu-
late thei growth- of the science of school administration and to
improve its practice, particularly the methods of school inspection.

The surveys of thei school systems of Cleveland, San FranciscO',
and Salt Lake City may be mentioned, and that of the Gary
Schools, conducted by the General Education Board. These, and
ethers of similar character, are doing for American education
what was done by Dr. Sadler many years ago for English
secondarv education. Surveys on similar lines might with ad-
\antage be undertaken in Australia, and might help to dispel the
common ministerial myth about the superiority of Australian
schools to those abroad. The annual reports published by the
State Departments of Education give part, but by no means all,
of the information about our schools M'hich it would be desirable
to have. Even for the information they give they are less useful
than they might be, since the data are often incomparable because
compiled in different ways. Perhaps I may here repeat a sug-
gestion which I made some years ago for the establishment of a
Federal Bureau of Education on tha lines of the American Bureau
at Washington, and of the office of Special Inquiries in London.

president's address — SECTION J. 243

In the foregoing brief survey I have sought to indicate a few
of the directions along which the science of education is develop-
ing, and to show how measurement is being applied to educa-
tional data in a way which has till recently not been considered
practicable. Nothing has beteii said of the man)^ interesting efforts
that are being made by practising teachers to develop new forms
of teaching procedure and of school government. The work now
being done' in this field is of the greatest interest and importance,
and will repay careful study. Unfortunately, descriptive accounts
are, as yet, all too scanty.

There is. however, one other field of study to which some refer-
ence ought to be made, and this we may call educational patho-
logy. Some attention has recently been given to the study of the
errors made by pupils in the simpler forms of scholastic work,
particularly in arithmetic and spelling. From this study much
will be gained. Teachers will be better able to select suitable
preventive or curative measures with greater certainty of success,
and the studv of the various forms of scholastic disability may be
expected to help us to a better understanding of the ability of
normal children, and of the processes on which the growth of
knowledge and skill depend. Again, the new science of psycho-
analysis seems likely to throw much light on cases of intellectual
and moral defect that teachers have hitherto found peculiarly
baffling.

There is need for greatly extended research in education.
Scientific study is possible to an extent that has hardly been
realized, and any teacher undertaking it will be well repaid by
the insight grained into the working of the minds of those for
whose scholastic welfare he is responsible. Advance in educational
practice cannot be divorced frcm scientific research. It must be
our aim as members of this section of the Australasian Association
for the Advancement cf Science to further in every way the pro-
gress of the science of education.

1084—17

244 president's address — section k.

SECTION K.

AGRICULTURE,

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT:
Professor Arthur J. Perkins,

Director of Agriculture in South Australia.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA

I should deem myself wanting in proper feeling if I did not
take the first opportunity to express my high appreciation of the
honour done me in nominating me to the position of President of
this section of the Australasian Association for the Advancement
of Science. I have given a life-time to the practice of agriculture
and tO' a study, of some of its problems, and it is gratifying to
find t?iat my efforts have been thought worthy of this recognition.
On my part, I must hope that the choice of my subject-matter,
and ni}'^ way of handling it, may not lead to avoidable
disappointment.

From the outset, and perhaps to my shame, I shall confess to
insufficient acquaintance with the general prceedixre of the Asso-
ciation, and particularly as to the limitations which may be
supposed to compass the subject-matter of presidential addresses.
On taking thought, however, it has seemed to me that in this
matter the only reasonably limiting factor should be adequate
personal knowledge of the subject brought up for discussion ;- and
whether legitimately or not, I have endeavoixred to act on this
view. For twenty-two years I was directly engaged in the teach-
ing of agricultural subjects; for ten years I was Principal of
an Agricultural College, and for the 'past six years ray daily
avocations have kept me in close touch with all that concerns
agricultural education and training. In the circumstances, I have
felt that if not qualified to speak on agricultural education, then
it would be extremely difficult to name another subject within
closer range of ray capacity.

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS— SECTION K. 245

It may perhaps- be objected that, given the subject, there wa?
little call for a display of special claims to co«ipetency ; that after
all, like the weather, education, and particularly agricultural
education, is one of those topics concerning which everybody feels
naturally competent to express an opinion, and if so>, why not I ?
There is the rub; it is all so beguilingly simple. We see around
us carpenters, doctors, blacksmiths, lawyers, chemists, farmers,
&c. — we feel that in the world there must be a constant demand
for them, or, at all events, for some of them. Statisticians will
even go to the length of telling us the ideal proportion which each
one of these callings should bear to the population as a whole.
Hence, the apparently logical inference that all education and
training should be so managed and directed as to satisfy these
material wants of thei community, and the natural corollary that
the shoemaker need not be given ideas above his last, nor the
farmer above his plough. Again, apart from, innate gifts, we
-know competency in any art or vocation tO' come to the individual
as the result only of long personal application and experience ;
and that life-time is usually tcoi brief a span for perfection, if
such can exist, in any one of them. And, in the circumstances,
will not competency, if not perfection, be attained soonest and with
the least waste ol" energy, if all those foredoomed by bii'th and
statistics to carpentry, law, or farming, be seized upon in their
tender years, and given by early education and training, that
special twist which leads ultimatelv tO' competence' in carpentry,
law, or farming ? And thus by a flawless line of argument we
are led unerringly to the avowed gfial of our cradle-specialists, and
of those who pin their faith to the superior educational value of
exclusive and intensive training in single utilitarian subjects.

Does this logical conclusion satisfy our native instincts as to
what is meet and right? Much, I suppose, depends on our mental
attitude towards life; happiness, as such, may not form an essen-
tial feature in life, nor with any degree of plausibility can it be'
described as its main objective. Happiness, nevertheless, is a
good thing, and surely not to be despised by wracked humanity.
There may be, or probably one should say there unquestionably
are, ample grounds for rational happiness in the contemplation of
a task well and faithfully done, and quite as much again in the
actual doing of it. Nevertheless, here, as well as elsewhere,
monotony can kill happiness quite as effectively as hostile intent;
and however great the measure of his success, no- man is soi con-
stituted as to be able to repeat unintermittedly the same task
without loss of zest. He must relax at regular intervals, or fail
in his mission in life; and has it not been well said that the true
test of the value of education is not so much to be seen in
working hours a>^ in those of leisure? If, then, an early course

246 pkesident's address — section k.

cf specialized training will produce soonest technically satisfactory
carpenters, lawyers, and farmers, will it also produce the type
of citizens of whom we shall have most reason to be proud ?

I find myself insisting on this question of leisure, because, if
the lonely evening hours be taken into account, the isolated
agriculturist of Australia has probably more of it on his hands
than the more gregarious classes of men. Hence, in my view,
no scheme of education for the agriculturist will be complete,
or even morally acceptable, that does not take these empty hours
adequately into coaisideration. I am of those who believe that
the key to' the present is tO' be found in the past ; and that it is
only the mentally atrophied who refuse themselves occasional use
of it. If we wish to take an intelligent interest in the problems
of the day, we cannot afford to overlook what time has sifted from
the records of the past. For these reasons, then, and because
I believe that we are called upon to be good citizens, first and
foremost, and craftsmen afterwards, I am of the opinion that
the son of the agriculturist should not be indelibly labelled frcin
his earliest days ; that up to his fourteenth or fifteenth year his
education should be general, rather than special, and that eveyy
effort should be made towards reducing the educational disabilities
under which hei labours relatively to his more fortunate city -bred
cousin. Had I the time, and were it essential to my main theme,
1 could labour this point at considerable length. I could show
that much of the unrest which is driving the country youth
citywards is not unconnected with inadequate educational facilities.
My main purpose to-day, however, is to discuss technical training
as such, and I must rest satisfied with having indicated the founda-
tions on which I believe this training should rest.

Is the State justified in making special provision for the technical
training of those whose future occupation it will be to till the
soil and tend flocks and herds, supplying thereby the rest of the
community with the means of subsistance, and incidentally, in
this country, with our main articles cf export? The mere posing
of this questioii may possibly jar the sensibilities of some educa-
tionalists; in the end, however, difficult issues are better met
squarely rather than avoided ostrich fashion. Doubtless, it is
sufficiently obvious that we cannot hope to-day to have competent
physicians, chemists, engineeirs, &c., without adequate outside pro-
vision for their training ; but is it equally obvious of the agricul-
turist ? I think not ; but not because of fundamental differences
in the nature and scope of his occupation, but rather because of
special circumstances in his life which do not obtain in other
occupations. It is thus that the professions are no longer here-
ditary and personal as in earlier times they were more or less
wont to be; and in the main, the practice of them is a thing
quite apart from the ordinary routine of family life. Because

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION K. 247

a man is a physician or a lawyer it does not follow that his
children will acquire even rudimemtary knowledge of medicine or
law. With the- agriculturist, on the other hand, see how
different are things. He belongs, in the first place, to one of
the few callings from which modern conditions have been unable
to eradicate the hereditary principle. Apart from personal pre-
dilections, in the great majority of cases, a man becomes a farmer
because be was bom and bred on a farm ; because his father
owns a farm or farm plant and material, which, in the course of
time, he hopes to inherit and put to good use. Again, the farm-
bred lad, even if he wished it, cannot hope to escape the all-per-
vading influence of the paternal occupation; from his earliest
days it meets him on all sides, his boyish interests centre around
it, and his usual earliest ambition is to take^ a man's share in it.
True, with many, ere manhood is reached, farm life comes in time
to pall, particularly when parents are injudiciously exacting cr
over-grasping. In the main, however, the groundwork of tech-
nical training may be said to suiTound the farm-lad at home,
and to force itself upon his notice from his earliest days in
favorable or unfavorable light. In the circumstances, there-
fore, can we wonder that the great bulk of those following
agricultural pursuits are in the main home-trained, have always
been home-trained, and will probably always be home-trained?
Nor is this a fact wholly peculiar to our own special conditions,
but, rather, is it universal in its application, wherever agriculture
happens to he practised. Moreover, under conditions such as ours,
thei usual scantiness of available* labour, and the usual agricul-
tural incompetence of much of it that is at times available, serve
to tighten the father's grip on the farm-bred lad who has reached
the age when outside technical training becomes possible; and
liowever tempting the future advantages which this training seems
to promise, the exigencies of the present will, in most cases, con-
tinue to bind the lad inexorably to' the farm.

Now, although from these incontrovertible facts certain obvious
conclusions would appear to flow in logical sequence, we have still
to allow for the deflecting weight of considerations of another
order. It may, for instance, seem logical to conclude that
because the average farm lad is unable to benefit directly from
technical training provided by agricultural colleges and the like,
institutions of the kind are more or less superfluous ; but can this
honestly be said to be so ? Has such experience as we have shown
it to be so? Again, I think not. Indeed, it would not be diffi-
cult to show that the influence of agricultural colleges on general
agricultural progress has been very far from negligible, and from
the view-point of the State this is the factor that counts. If it be
true that the average farm lad is unable to take full advantage of
what they have to offer, exceptional ones are ablei to do so, and,
indeed, do do so to a greater extent than is generally suspected.

248

PKESIDEM' S ADDKESS — SECTION K.

In this connexion, I shall draw special attention to the callings of
the parents of students who have attended the Roseworthy Agricul-
tural College, and which can be summarized as follows: —

110

54
18
14

4
2

202— 35.2 «''

238

372-

-64.8%

574-

-lOO.Oo^

Agi'icultural callings —

Farmers
Pastoralists
Vine growers
Fruit growers
Dairymen
Market gardeners

Ncn-agricultural callings-
Business men
Civil servants
Professional men
Artisans

Apart from a few earlier names, the occupations of which I have
been unable to trace, 574 families have supplied Roseworthy
College with students since its inception in 1883. Out of this total
202 families, or 35.2 per cent., were earning their livelihoods in
agricultural callings which have been indicated in detail. Hence,
202 purely agricultural families, frequently represented at the
college by more i:han one son, have realized the advantages of
special technical training, and through their sons have availed
themselves of it. That these coiintry lads have benefited per-
sonally and individually from this training we can have little
doubt; indeed, as one who, in the past, has had much to do with
them, I can undertake tO' vouch for the fact. They have had their
outlook on life broadened ; thev have been made familiar with new
and unsuspected lines of agricultural practice'; they have been
taught tO' look beneath the surface, and to' master the broad prin-
ciples underlying narrower home practice; and the torch they have
received has eventually been carried far and wide throughout the-
scattered agricultural districts of the State. And it is this last
point, the indirect advantages which country workers derive from
agricultural colleges, which I wish specially to stress.

It is only iii very ecxtraordinary circumstances, and in very
exceptional timeK, that the State has much to gain from a com-
2>lete revolution in agricultural practice; normally, beneficial
changes must come slowly and progressively. For the most part
local conditions determine what at the time is, and is not, economi-
cally possible, and the common sense and inherited instincts of
agricultural workers adopt that line of operations which appears to

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS — SECTION K. 249

correspond to the requirements of the times. The progress! veness
of any district can usually be assessed by the extent to M^hich its
average practice approaches more or less to' that of the most success-
ful men in the district, who may be looked upon as the local torch-
bearers. Experience shows, too-, that those are most sensitive to
the promptings of progress whose education outlook is broadest ;
and whilst it must be admitted that the technically trained are no
more exempt from failure than others, it may safely be assumed
that, for the most part, their local influence will be in the direction
of progress rather than of reaction. That this is so, has frequently
come rmder my notice in various parts of South Australia. Hence,
I submit that, whilst for the bulk of our rural workers special tech-
nical training, as distinct from home training, is neither necessary,
nor, indeed, possible, from the State view-point, the existence of
institutions in which this training is imparted is amply justified
so long as they can succeeed in attracting a sufiiciency of those
who, by precept and example, are able in later life to influence
their districts for gocd. For the latter the task will be very much
viiiiplified wherever they have the assistance of local associations of
agriculturists for mutual self-improvement, such as the agricul-
tural bxireau system so successfully practised in South Australia
for the past thirty-three years.

These remarks refer mainly to the sons of agriculturists who
are able to take advantage of special technical training, and their
leavening and irissionary work is of sufficient national importance
to justify the , existence of agricultural colleges. We must not,
however, overlook the claims of those city families who contributed
students in the proportion of 65 per cent. On consideration, it
will perhaps be found that this contribution aloue affords ample
independent justification for the existence of these colleges We'
hear on all sides the emigration of country units to the cities deeply
deplored; but little or nothing is said of the counter current from
the cities toward-^ the country. And yet its direct and indirect
inliuenoe on the development of the country is incalculable. It
brings with it, as a rule, the investment of new capital in rural
ventures; the infustion into them of the spirit and enthusiasm of
the neophyte; the introduction of city business methods and entei--
prise, and the breaking down of social barriers between town and
country. All this is clearly to the good, and much to the advan-
tage of the country, and, incidentally, of the State. It is, there-
fore, no exaggeration to affirm that it is not possible that
endeavours to attract city bred lads to the country should be over-
done. Many, it is true^ will, when they can, first seek to serve
an apprenticeship on a well conducted private farm ; others, less
wise in spite of maturer years, are prepared to go on the land fresh
from the counter. The latter may, and often do, eventually make
good ; but usually at what expense of time and money in the quest
of personal experience! More sound and certain, however, is the

250 president's address — section k.

future of those who are able to- make of an agricultural college easy
stepping-stones to their new and unfamiliar occupations; and for
the latter purpose alone the State would be well justified in main-
taining these colleges as half-way houses between town and
country.

How can technical training be imparted to best advantage at an
agricultural college ? This is a question upon which opinions are
ajit to differ much, and it would seem that in individual concrete
cases, we cannot escape the influence of expediency and of local
conditions. At all events, we have no right to imply that others
are wrong, because in such matters they do not doi as we do. In
Europe, and I believe this to be so in America also, the student's
familiarity with ordinary farm work and operations is taken for
granted, and the course of training is arranged accordingly!
Hence, the paramount importance of theoretical instruction at the
expense of actual practice, which, if not wholly banished, is very
much in the background, and confined to periodical out-door class
demonstrations of brief duration. If we are to assume that all
those in attendance are sons of agriculturists, familiar with farm
operaticiis from their infancy, this arrangement undoubtedly ha=i
its advantages. It leaves free for theoretical training much
precious time v/hich would otTierwise be devoted to manual opera-
tions. The necessity of surrounding the' college with a large and
expensively equipped farm does not arise, and funds are freed for
more thorough scientific and technical equipment. Finally, the
number of studtiits in attendance is no longer limited by the mean)
available for adequate experience in manual operations, but merely
by house and class-room accommodation.

In A ustralia, this practice has not hitherto found favour ; and
since the Australian system originated at Roseworthy, and was
passed on subsequently toi Dookie and Hawkesbury, I may be
pardoned for illustrating my points from that institution with
which I am best acquainted. In the matter of a general co^urse of
training, our Al stralian agricultural colleges have run counter to
the European point of view. They have concluded, and rightly
so, in my view^ that in the absence of adeqxxate acquaintance with
general farm practice, all theoretical instrnction must continue
more or less futile. They have found that the average student
does not possess this acquaintance, and they have modified -the
curriculum accordingly. The fact that over 64 per cent, of those
in attendance at Roseworthy are town-bred, would appear toi vonch
for the soundness of this attitude. Hence, to every college has
been attached a large and well-equipped farm, the manual opera-
tions of which are carried out almost entirely by students under
competent supervision. Usually the student's work-time is divided
into two equal parts; one-half, loreferably alternate days^ is given
up to theoretical instruction and demonstrations, and the other to
seasonable farm work. It follows, therefore, that familiarity with

president's address — SECTION K. 251

farm operations and practice is made to go hand in hand with
theoretical instruction, of which it may be taken to represent the
best possible form of practical demonstration. I have been privi-
leged to watch the results of this type of training for close o«
thirty years, and can testify that, in the main, it has not fallen
short of the anticipation of its originators. It is certain that,
under no other coui'se of training could the unavoidable interval
which must always separate the successful student from the success-
ful farm manager be bridged in a shorter space of time. Like all
other human undertakings, however, it is not without its limita-
tions and incon\ eniences ; and because in the past it has served us
well, it does not fellow that future developments may not render
imperative the adoption of drastic modifications. If the means
of acquiring a reasonable degree cf familiarity and skill in farm
manual operations is to be available to all students in attendance,
then it is very 'clear that the number of those present at any one
time must be strictly limited by the farm area which can be con-
veniently worked from a common centre. From personal ex-
perience, I am prepared to assert that, from this view-point, whilst
60 to 70 students represent perhaps an optimvim, 100 cf them
represent a clear m.aximum. If, under the j)ressure of circum-
stances, this maximum be overstepped, one of two things is bound
to happen ; either the college farm is too vast aud unwieldy to be
conveniently ir. an aged from a common centre ; or else it cannot
possibly meet the continued requirements in farm practice of all
those in attendapce. Hence, as soon as requests for admission to
these colleges threaten to lift numt)ers in attendance appreciably
and conistently above the maximum, then, if our faith in technical
training is genuine, and if we shun make-believe, either new
colleges must be called into existence, or else the system of train-
ing hithertoi adopted at existing ones must receive radical modifica-
tions. With our limited population and shifting political condi-
tions, the multiplication of agricultural colleges is, for the present,
in my ojnnicn, neither wise ncr desirable. The efficiency of these
colleges is mainly dependent on their equipment, and the extent to
which they are supported by the public purse ; and if, on a wave
of passing enthusiasm, their numbers be incautiously increased, not
only receint creations, but old-established institutions as well, must
suffer when its force is spent, and the inevitable ebb sets in
Better no colleges at all than half-starved ones. We must con-
sider, therefore, along what lines existing systems of training
admit of modifications without sacrifice^ of their proved efficiency.

And in this connexion it is certainly not necessary to assume
that all those seeking college training are inadequately acquainted
with farm practice. It may, ^.ndeed, be taken for granted that the
35 per cent, who are farm-bred, are already adequately equipped
in this direction. Not infrequently, indeed, I have heard farmers
objecting to send their sons to college on the grounds that half

252 president's address — section k.

their time would be wasted in doing things with which they had
been familiar from earliest childhood. Hence, without loss oi effi-
ciency in the ccnrse of training, the maximum number of students
could be raised, if outside farm training were limited to the inex-
perienced, whilst the training of farm-bred lads wo'uld be restricted
to theoretical instruction and associated demonstrations. It may
occur tO' some that the practice frequently adopted in the training
oif engineers, namely, the suspension of diplomas or qualifying cer-
tificates until such time as joroof can be given of adequate post-
graduate practical experience, might with advantage be extended
to agricultural students without earlier farm experience, and thus
do away altogether with any attempt to combine both theoretical
and practical training. This would bring us back to- the European
view-point, which, in my opinion, is open to very grave objections.
Personally, after long experience^, I am satisfied that what value
there is in theoretical instruction in agricultural subjects is heavily
discoiunted in the absence of personal experience of farming prac-
tice. It is literally impossible adequately to impress upon students
the bearing aiid value of princijoles underlying practices of which
they are' in complete ignorance. It is no better than attempting
to' teach chemistry without a laboratory: the only possible atiho-
sphere in which such instruction could bear fruit^ — the farm atmo-
sphere — would be wanting. In the circumstances, much as one
must deplore any break in a. boy's educatioinal years, it would be
better that the city-bred lad should spend a couple of years on a
farm before entering college, rather than that, fresh from school,
hei should enter an agricultural college imparting theoretical train-
ing only, and trust to acquiring farming practice after the com-
pletion of his course of studies.

In summary, then, the poilicy of exempting farm lads from farm
work would throw open college doors to far greater numbers than
can in present circumstances be admitted in comjilete good faith.
Numbersi would then be limited by housing and class-room accom-
modation only, limiting factors which present no insuperable diffi-
culties. This division of students into twoi distinct sections, those
taking a theoretical course only, and those combining with it ordi-
nary farm work, will undoubtedly complicate college management
somewhat. The attendant difficulties, however, should not be
beyond the power of competent coiiitrol.

In ccnnexion Avith these suggestions, I foresee a possible danger
There may be those who, on the score of economy, or on any other
grounds, may think that, because it is open to city-bred lads to
acquire the requisite farming outlook by working on a farm prior to
entering college, the college farm should gradually disappear, or be
reduced to moderate-sized pleasure grounds. Against this view, if
it be raised, I must enter a most emphatic protest. In this
matter, it is not" merely the ability of the college to impart practical

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION K.

253

training that ii in jeopardy, but what is of even greater impor-
tance, the efficiency of the technical staff for teaching purposes.
However great his original coanpetency, no agricultural teacher,
who is not ui daily contact with agricultural operations, can hope
to' avoid gradual deterioration. He finds himself divorced from
the realities of his subject, and his teaching is bound to' suffer pro-
portionately. The great practical efficiency of the Australian
agricultural colleges lias been very largely built up on their farms,
and nothing but harm can come from meddling with them.

I should perhaps draw attention here to the obvious fact that
the adoption ot these suggestions would practically double the time
available for the technical training of those exempted from farm
duties. At Eoseworthy, the present normal course of training
extends over three years; but, since one-half cf the students' time
is taken up with farm work, from the point of view of theoretical
training, it car not be said to be equivalent to more than an
eighteen months' course. And, from long personal experience, I
can vouch for the cramping influence of existing arrangements on
the scope and eft'ectiveness of the training imparted. Hence, those
v>rho are freed from the ties of farm work will be given the oppor-
tunity of delving more deeply into their subjects than is at present
possible.

What becomes ultimately of fcTmen agricultural college
students ? There are sceptics who assert that the majority of them
are to be found in the cities. With a view to settling this point, I
have endeavor'red to analyze the position in so far as it affects
former students of the Roseworthy Agi'icultural College, and the
results oif my investigations may be summarized as follows: —

Agricultural occixpation? —

Farmers

.. 380

Pastoralists

Vine-growers

State agricultural service,--

Fruit-growers

Agricultural businesses

Market gardeners

Foresters

494-

-89.8%

Non-agricultural occupatioiis —

In business

... 24

Professional men

... 15

Civil Servants

... 13

Artisans

... 4

56-

-10. 2o^

254 president's address — section k.

Th© above analysis concerns 550 students. It is not a complete
list. There are still 92 to account for, some of whom are dead.
There is, however, no reason to believe that these absentees wouirl
appreciably niodify the ratio' of 9 to 1 in favour of agricultuir-al
Gccupations. And thus may be set at rest the suspicion that agri-
cultural colleges are not providing the country with a reasonable
quota of settlers.

The Universities of Sydney, Melbourne, and Perth have not hesi-
tated to found Chairs of Agriculture, and acts of private munifi-
cence have laid upon the University of Adelaide the obligation to
follow in their wake. Nevertheless, even thus late in the day, it
may still be asked whether, as a, ccnimunity, we are as yet suffi-
cently advanced to^ niakei provision for agricultural training of a
higher order than is usually available at typical agricultural
colleges. In America, under a far more favorable set of condi-
tions, the diff culty seems to have been met by incoi-jDorating agri-
cultural colleges into local Universities. And. on coiisideration, it
is questionable \\'hether a more logical and appropriate solution
could have been devised. To both sections, it promises continuity
of policy, coupled with coontrol by a competent governing body. It
obviates " overlapping," and therefore insures economy of effort
and resources; and, moreover, it forestalls stagnation and aloof-
ness, which are apt at times to sterilize academic teaching. This
raticinal arrangement has not hithertoi been adopted in the Com-
monwealth. It is true that the University of Adelaidei recognises
Roseworthy technical training toi the extent of accepting it as a
definite part of the degree course in agriculture. Whether, how-
ever, this policy will be continued in the future, when a Chair of
Agriculture has been definitely established, is perhaps open to
doubt. Whatever may be the case, it seems to' me that, sooner or
later, we shall have to face squarely the question as to whether
there is yet rocm in the Commonwealth for both agricultural
colleges and Uriversity Chairs of Agriculture; and we shall then
find that agricultural colleges have spread their roots too deeply
in Oiur midst to have much to fear for their future. But will it
be possible to say the same of the Chairs of Agriculture ? Ulti-
mately, as in economics, it is very largely a question of supply and
demand that is involved. If there is an adequate flow of candi-
dates for the' higher training, then public sentiment will probably
support the Universities. Apart, however, from an infinitesimal
minority, the supply of candidates is bound to be limited by the
careers open to those in possession of higher training ; and, during
the present generation, at all events, this is not likely to go beyond
positions offering on the technical staffs of Government Depart-
inents. However m^uch one may recognise the great importance of
the work in the hands of these technical departments, it is highly
questionable whether, standing alone, it can be said to justify th-3

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS SECTION K. 255

existence of four separate Chairs of Agriculture in the Common-
wealth. On the other hand, it cannot be too frequently reiteratsd
that teaching is no morei than one-half of the functions of a
University Chair; and that if, at times, teaching duties ai-e lighr,
then there is the- greater leisure for research. I could say much
under this heading, but time presses, and I shall content myself
with the statement that, in a country such as ours, given adequate
and competent research work into matters agricultural, were there
net a single student in attendance, the four Chairs of Agriculture
of the Commonwealth would have amply justified their existence.
In this connexion, however, I feel it incumbent upon me toi remark
that the mere creation of a Chair of Agriculture does not neces-
sarily give rise tO' those special conditions which render sustained
agricultural research at all possible. After all, the practice of
agriculture is not a, science in itself, but an art. It is, nevertheless,
obviously dependent upon most of the branches of scientific know-
ledge for a correct interpretation of its principles, and for investi-
gations calculated to lead to improvement and matei'ial progress.
Hence, agricultural research may be described as hydra-headed, and
unless to the Chair of Agriculture is attached an adequate^ scientific
staff, the powers for good of the Professor of Agriculture will be
very seriously limited, and they will disappear altogether if he is
divorced from the realities of things, and denied the' active direc-
tion of agricultural operations. It would be almost easier to
imagine a successful chemist whoi is denied access to' laboratory and
chemicals. Nor, if we have any regard for the fitness of things,
will purely "titular" appointments to the Chair be tolerated
If wei aim at opening out a trench, we choose a shovel, not a silver
spcon. I hold, therefore, that given the absolute dependence of
Australia upon her agricultural and pastoral resources. University
Chairs of Agriculture are by no means superfluous, providing we
see to it that they have the means tO' give adequate effect to one
of the main functions of all Universities.

But, as we well know, ars loiirfa, vita brevis est, and neither
education nor training oease with the age of irresponsibility ;
rather do they become intensified in the storm and stress which
await us beyond the shelter of teaching institutions. The isolation
of country occupations tends to cut off individuals from their
fellows, and to this extent clogs progress. Particularly is this the
case in a sparsely settled countiy such as our own. And since the
State is very intimately interested in the success or failure of these
isolated individuals, the task of endeavouring to keep them abreast
of the times has come to be recognised as a legitimate line of State
activity. To this do we owe our Agricultural Departments, with
their staff of expert officers, whose business it is to- keep in touch
with those in need of advice. Among wealthier communities full
advantage, I believe, has been taken of improved modern advertis-
ing methods, with the avowed object of striking fire from C'ven the

256 president's address — section k.

dullest imaginations. We hear of special trains travelling from
district to district, carrying with them experts and their labora-
tories, cinema operators, models, live stock, &c. No doubt these
methods, which are as yet foreign to us, are productive of good
in congenial surroundings; and although they savour somewhat of
revival meetings and travelling shows, it is to be hoped that their
intluence will prove less evanescent. Nevertheless, for our own
special conditions, I know of no more effective means of reaching
the tiller of the soil than what is known as the Agricultural
Bureau system established in South Australia since 1888.* Under
this system, agriculturists scattered all over the State are grouped
together into local branches. Of these there to-day 212 in exis-
tence, aggregating 5,350 members. These branches may be said
to exist for the mutual improvement of members, and for the
advancement of the agricultural industries of the district. They
hold regular monthly meetings at which questions of general and
local mojnent are discussed. Once a year they attend combined
district meetings, and the central Adelaide meeting. They make
arrangements for visits, addresses, and demonstrations by officers
of the Department of Agriculture. They control field trials; they
carry out experimental work in co-operation with the Department ;
and locally their social intluence is very considerable. I look upon
the rapid ado'ption of superphospha,tes in Australian farming as
one of the most telling revolutions in practice of recent times. To
South Australia alone it has already been worth between
25,000,000 and 30,000,000 sterling. It received its first impetus
in So'Uth Australia, and had it not been for the Agricultural
Bureau system, would probably still be struggling ineffectually
against, prajurfico^and ignorance. And very much the same can
be ssiid of the introduction of spraying among fruit trees, and of
most ether minor improvements adopted within recent times. In
brief, then, whilst his daily avocations will cC'Titinue and complete
the agriculturist's training, such personal experience as he may
acquire is necessarily limited by his isolated enviroaiment. It is
essential to the State that he be kept in touch with the progress
of the outside world, and, in my view, this can best be dowe bv
organizing all agriculturists on the lines so successfully followed
in South Australia.

I have submitted for your consideration a few ideas on agricul
tural education and training. I have made the infant my startiftg
point, and closed with the experienced adult. It follows that, in
the time at my disposal, I can have done no- inore than glance at a
few aspects of the problem which circumstances had rendered
familiar to me. I know that to-day we live in an age of revolu-
tiouary ideas in matters educational; nevertheless, personally, I
abide by the old tried ways, believing that a thorough education
is the birthright of every one of us. and deprecating specialization
and technical tiaining until such time as the mind has been

president's address SECTION K. 257

adequately developed in other directions. From the stand-point
of a teacher of technical subjects of twenty-two' years' standing, I
am prepared to assert that those students are most satisfactory
whose prepare toay education has been most thorough, most
general, and not those whose undeveloped minds have been set
a-dabbling with so-called utilitarian subjects. Hence, I claim for
country children broad educational opportunities approximating to
those usually available to the city bred. I uphold our Australian
agricultural colleges as institutions of infinite value for the State,
but I believe that without loss of efficiency their sphere of useful-
ness could be enlarged by the modifications which I havei suggested.
I can have faith in University Chairs of Agriculture, providing
the incumbents are not segregated from the v.^orld and the general
practice of agriculture, and providing they are allowed adequate
means for independent research. And, finally, as the coping-stone
to all education and training in a community that is mainly agri-
cultural, I believe it to be both the interest and the duty of the
State to maintain at the disposal of the rural community adequate
means for general self-improvement, both moral and material.

-^tVjf'

258 president's address — section l.

SECTION L.

VETERINARY SCIENCE.

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT :

Professor Harold A. Woodruff. M.R.C.V.S., M.R.C.S.,

L.R.C.P.,

Professor of Veterinary Pathology in the University of Melbourne.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF OUR CONCEPTION
OF IMMUNITY.

I have selected this subject on which to address this section for
several reasons : it& wide general interest, for it embraces a know-
ledge of bacteriology, of many facts of physiology, especially of
biochemistry and of physics ; its rapid advance as a science in
lecent years, for it must be remembered that it is during the la?t
half century that all our exact experimental knowledge in this
sphere has been gained; its great fascination for myself personally.

Immunity in its broadest sense surveys the whole field of the
action and reaction between the active agents of disease on the one
hand and the animal body on the other; it explains spuptonis,
determines treatment, and conditions the issues of infection. Not
only is it concerned with infection by bacteria, but with the reac-
tions to the introduction into the body of animal cells, bacterial
products, enzymes, animal and vegetable poisons, and albuminoid
substances. It takes note of the receptivity or non -receptivity of
the body on the one hand, and the aggression or virulence of the
bactf;rium or parasite on the other. It is well to fix this idea of
the duality of the problem at the outset, for immunity connotes
not only an organized defence on the part of the animal body, but
this in face of an organized aggression on the part of the invading
agent.

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION L. 259

Time forbids more than a glimpse at much of the development of
the science of immunity, and one can only in passing pay tribute to
Jenner's magnificent anticipation in publishing before the Royal
Society of London, in 1796, his method of vaccination against
small-pox in man.

The foundation for scientific prophylaxis was really laid by
Pasteur in 1867, when he demonstrated a " contagium vivum "
in an epidemic disease of silkworms.

The masterly work of Metchnikoff en phagoicytosis of bacteria,
first observed m 1883, led to an appreciation of the importance of
one oi thei first aad most important lines of defence. Shortly
afterw^ards, Nuttall (1888) deincnstrated the bactericidal effect
of normal blood serum and other body fluids. In the same year
Richet and Hericourt made the first serious attempt to bring about
immunization of an animal by the injection of defibrinated blood
from a vaccinated, and, therefore, immune animal. Thus began the
controversy between the two schooils of thought, the upholders ot
the "cellular" theory of immunity led by Metchnikoff, and the
supporters of the " humoural " theory, led at first by Nuttall and
Buchner, and then dominated by the genius of Ehrlich. The last
thirty years has witnessed the gradual rapjrrochenwnt and mutual
acceptance with modifications of the two factors in defence.

In our short survey of the present understanding of immunity,
it is convenient to take certain phases, and deal with them in
turn .

First it will be well to glance at the fundamental facts of natural
immunity, and then pass to consider the j3i'ocesses by which
acquired immunity is brought about.

Natural I mm uniti/.

One of the most remarkable, features of disease infection in
animals is the susceptibility oi one species and the insusceptibility
of another to the same disease. Moreover, the species highly resis-
tant to one disease may be extremely susceptible to another. On
the other hand the characters of virulence and pathogenicity on
the part of bacteria are relative only, and these ternis can only
be used when applied to the action of a definite bacterium on cer-
tain animals susceptible to infection by it. A familiar example of
this selective action is provided by the various strains of the
tubercle bacillus. Cattle, so commonly affecteid with the bovine
strain, against which their resistance is of a. fairly low order, are
highlv resistant to infection with the human bacillus, and are quite
immune to the avian type. Again, the guinea pig is easily
infected with a progressive fatal infectioai by either human or
bovine strains, whereas it usually successfully resists infectioai with
the avian type. The rabbit, on the other hand, whilst being very
susceptible to the bovine type, is refractory to the human type.

260 president's address — section l,

No' doubt these differences in susceptibility, or, in other words,
different degreej of natural immunity ainong diiferent species of
animals to the same micro-crganism, are related to characteristic
specific chemical or physical differences in the blood and cytoplasm
of the different animals. These differences are, however, much too
refined and subtle to be put in evidence by ordinary chemical
means, but the specific actions t)i vitro of "precipitins." and
'' hgemolysins " on homologous sera and cells afford a s.trLking
denronstration. Thus therei is an intimate relation between the
special powers of a particular organism to infect and the special
defence measures of the particular animal species used for self-
protection.

Apart from such subtle specific constitutional differences of sus--
ceptibility, there is another line of defence which appears to be
efficient just in proportion as the particular animal is immune
or insusceptible, namely phagocytosis. Where, in a particular
species of animal, phagocytosis of a particular micro-organism
is vigorous and complete, there is no infection. This can
be readily observed after experimentally inoculating an
animal with an organism having little virulence for that
particular species. That the blood plasma and body fluids also
help in the defence of the body of a normal animal is not in
doubt, but the chief agents in keeping the body free from invaders
are the phagocytes. By all the tests which can be applied toi deter-
mine the strength or titre of the serum immunity in the case of
acquired immunity (agglutinins, opsonins, bacteriolysins, comple-
ment fixation), the immunizing effect of the serum, as distinct from
the ceils, in natural im.munity is small. The effects of the blood
serum are much more evident in cases of acquired immunity, and
can be studied better in that condition.

A cquired Im.munity .
Acquired immunity is a relatively marked insusceptibility to
infection with a particular species of micro-organism, produced as
a result either of a previous attack of thei same disease, or <if
vaccination. Under both these conditions, it appears to be the
introduction of an antigen, or group of antigens, which has given
rise toi antihody formation. Long before the etiology of disease
was understood, the immunity resulting from a first attack of
many diseases was well accredited. Experimental introduction of
antigens brings about thei same^ insusceptibility, and careful
analysis of the phenomena has led at least to a partial understand-
ing of the mechanism.

It will be suff cient for the moment to^ mention the main i-esults
of acquired immunity in the prod action of defences additional to
those seen in cases of natural immunity. The accumulation of " anti-
toxins " in the body fluids of an animal inoculated secundum artevi
Mith a "toxin"; the presence of "agglutinins" in the blood

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS SECTION L. 261

serum of patients infected with typhoid, glanders, contagious abor-
tion, and many more diseases, or, as a result of the injection of
the dead bacilli of these diseases; the presence of "precipitins"
as a result of inoculation with foreign sera, milk, egg albiimen, and
other proteins; the development of the power of " bacteriolysis " as
a result of infection with living, or of inoculation with dead, bac-
teria ; and similarly the increased power of phagocytosis because of
the formation of "opsonins" by reason of the antigenic action of
infecting organisms; the production of " htemolysins " and " cyto-
lysins " following the injection of foreign red corpuscles or other
cells ; all these can be put in evidence >u vivo or in vitro as show-
ing the immen'^ely increased defensive power of the body against
the antigen m question. Often, in fact generally, more than one
antibody results from the use of a complex antigen such as living
bacteria, for there may be agglutins, bactericlysins, and sensitiz-
ing substances, all present in the cne immune serum. In view of
these facts, there is now no longer any room for doubt concerning
the important idle of the blood fluids as apart from the phago-
cytes.

An orderly arrangement of our subject now calls for some con-
sideration of the offensive powers of the enemy. In what does the
virulence Cif bacteria consist ?

Factors in Virulence.

The mere implantation of bacteria on or in the animal body. is
not sufficient of itself to produce infection. The number of germs
used, in other words, the dose ; the path of entrance, he it digestive
tract, respiratory, or other mucous membranes, sound skin, or
into a v^ound ; the condition and constitution of the animal; all
these are factors of importance. But, with these conditions
remaining the same, different bacteria show all grades of viru-
lence or ability to attack with success.

In the cac-e oi a number of organisms there is the power to
secrete toxins : tetanus, diphtheria, and botulinus being examples.
Grown in broth cultures and filtered, the filtrates are intensely
toxic by injection, or, in the case of the last-named, by ingestion,
in all three cases after an incitbatioti period, and, further, it is
remarkable <-hat the bacteria themselves, filtered off and washed,
contain only slight traces of the specific poison. Two points of
interest arise in this connexion, viz., the incubation period which
occurs before symptoms develop ; and the question as to the inclu-
sion of these organisms in the class of parasites or of saprophytes.
The incubation period has been explained as the interval required
for absorption of the toxin by the particular vulnerable cells, and
in the case of tetanus absorption appears to take place along the
nerve trunks until cell 3 of the C.N.S. are reached. Bacillus
botulinus is certainly a saprophyte, for it is non-pathogenic, grow-
ing and secreting its toxin in dead organic matter, v.v.d being
responsible for numerous cases of food poisoning.

262 president's address — section l.

There is some difficulty in understanding the natural evolution
of this toxin-production in an organism unable to infect animals.

Tetanus and diphtheria bacilli are more nearly allied to the
saprophytes than the parasites; they live in and on dead tissue
produced by trauma or intercurrent infections, and do not invade
the body. Their virulenoei consists in their ability to secrete exo'-
toxins.

The class of organisms which secretei these exotoxins agreei in one
important respect, nam.ely, their toxins are all able to set up the
production of antitoxins m animals. Following the discovery by
Behring and his collaborators, in 1890^ of this power of toxins to
set up antitoxin formation, much investigation was undertaken in
the hope that thei method might be of very general application ;
but as we now know the exotoixin-secreting organisms are com-
paratively fevf, and this method of immunization is proportionately
limited.

An unfruitful search for such a toxin in the case of the choler;
vibrio led Pfeiifer to his hypothesis of " endotoxins " as a factoi
in the virulence of many bacteria. To quote from one of his own
papers : —

"The essential principle of this theory is that almost ail
bacteria, iio matter ivhethcr ■pathogenic or saprophytic, are
endowed with poisonous properties contained within, or per-
haps identical with their body substances. These endotoxins
are not, as a rule, secreted by a vital activity of the bacteria,
but their absorption, and the consequent intoxication of the
infect«d body, are the result of the destruction and disintegra-
tion of the bacteria by the bactericidal inlluences of the
body."

An early experiment of PfeifFer's strongly supports this view.
When a culture of cholera vibrios was injected into the peritoneal
cavity of a guinea pig, no rise of temperature or other abnormal
symptoms occurred for four to five hours, when fever and signs of
intoixication began to* manifest themselves. If, however, a short
time after the injection of the culture, a dose of anticholera serum
were injected into the peritoneum, the symptoms of acute intoxi-
cation would at once be shown — rapid fall of temperature and
general prostration. This Pfeiffer interpreted as being accounted
for by the setting up of rapid bacteriolysis with liberation of th«
toxic constituents of the dead bacteria.

What has toi be noted is that this endotoxic action of different
species of bacteria by no means corresponds to their pathogenicity^
e.g., anthrax bacilli cannot be shown to contain any poisonous
principles at all, whilst the nGn-pathogenic haciJlns prodigiosus is
very toxic.

president's address — SECTION L. 263

It is true that different species of bacteria vary greatly in their
power of endotoxin production. The bacillus of blackquarter,
that of typhoid fever, Shiga's dysentery bacillus, and Bordet's
whooping-cough bacillus all produce notable amounts of toxin.

The tubercle bacillus and Bacillus mallei produce poisonous
materials which, strangely enough, are only slightly toxic for
healtJiy animals, but highly so for animals themselves the sub-
jects of tuberculosis or glanders respectively.

But none of these organisms, or cultures of them, are able to
provoke the production of antitoxins when injected intO' animals.
Further, the researches of Vaughan (1913), Friedberger and
others tend to show that the so-called endotoxins ai*e really only
protein-cleavage products of the bacterial protoplasm, not poisons
specific tO' each species of bacterium, but varying in toxicity
according to tha accumulation and distribution of the bacteria in
the body, and the rate or rapidity of their breakdown, (lysis) by
the serum of the animal host.

More nearly allied tO' the class of exotoxins or true toixins are
the ha-moto.i-inf; and leiococidins produced by certain organisms.
Many observers have noticed the effects of stapht/locorci on leuco-
cytes in cases of suppuration. Tubercle bacilli have a similar
necrosing effect. In a similar fashion stre ptoroccl have a hsemo-
lytic effect on red cells, as also have tetanus cultures, and to some
extent anth'-ax, B. jji/ocyancii'!, and staphylococci.

These substances lead naturally to a consideration of the so-
called "aggressins" of Bail, and '"virulins" of Rosenow.

Bail has }>redicated the idea of a secreticrn. on the part oi bac-
teria of substances, "aggressins," which are negatively chemio-
tactic, preventing phagocytosis and so' allowing the bacteria to
multiply until there is an accumulation sufficient to overwhelm
the defence. These* "agressins" may be looked upon as the bac-
terial response, or counter-move, to the animal's body development
of antibodies, and this hypothesis appears to' lend an explanation
for the exaltation of virulence produced by growing an organism
in a medium containing serum derived from an animal immunized
against that organism.

The use of natural aggressins (/.(., a bacteria-free peritoneal
exudate from an animal just dead as the result of inoculation
intraperitoneally with a virulent organism), was shown by Bail
to reinforce a sublethal dose of a culture and make it lethal, and
further, a suitable administration of the aggressin gave rise to
immunity (by producing " anti-aggressins " in the animal body).
This method of immunizing is now being used in certain diseases,
notably blackquarter, though with what degree of success one can-
not yet say.

264 president's address — section l.

Roseiiow's " virulins " are of a somewhat different nature, op-
posing merely the ingestion of the bacteria by phagocytes. Work-
ing with various strains of pneumococci he found thein all non-
phagocytable when firet recovered from cases of pneumonia, and at
iho same time virulent for rabbits and guinea pigs. The virulence
was in proportion tO' their inability to absorb " opsonin " from
serum, aiid as the virulence was lessened by cultivation so' the
power to adsorb opsonin increased, and at. the same time the
power to resist phagocytosis was lost. Extracts of the virulent
organisms in saline contained a substance "virulin " which neu-
tralized the opsonic effect of serum.

This is in line with the old observation of Marchand that viru-
lent streptococci were not taken up^ by phagocytes in the presence
ui normal serum, whilst non-virulent ones were; and further that
Ihe virulent organisms killed by heat and washed M^ere' still re-
fractory. This appears to be due to seme antiopsonic property
of the bacteria.

One factor in the virulence of an organism related probably to
those just considered is the property of capsule formation, which
IS seen in a large number of species of bacteria. This property
occurs in most cases in the organism as first isolated from the
animal body, e.y., in anthrax, but is speedily lost on artificial
media unless the medium contain blood serum. With the loss
of a capsule theie is a loss of virulence, and it has been asserted
by Preisz that anthrax bacilli which have lost the poAver of cap-
sule formation are no longer capable of infecting. A similar
parallel loss of capsule and virulence is seen in the case of pneuiuo-
coccus, and streptococcus. On the other hand Friedlander's
Lacillus is a capsulated organism retaining its capsule in artificial
culture, and along with this retention there is little diminution
in virulence. Capsule formation is a function of bacteria in acute
cases at an early stage of the infection. The capsular material
appears to act as an irritant to phagocytes and to be able to
repel them {i.e., to causes a. condition of negative chemiotaxis).

Another factor of virulence to be mentioned is that of si/ri'/val
hy selection. This probably explains in large part the effects of
frequent repeated passage through the animal body of any
bacterial strain. The various defensive forces attack these in-
vading germs and annihilate the weaker individuals, but the
stronger ones survive. By a repetition of this process the strain
recovered from the last of a series of animals is possessed of high
powcTS of resistance, or in other words, it has become highly viru-
lent. But this is one of many possible adaptations which, with
a varying environment, bacteria undergo, therebv surviving and
remaining virulent.

One last adaptation is that of resistance to leucocytic digestion
on the part of certain virulent organisms. A typical example is
afforded by the gonococcus, which ingested by polymorphonuclear

PKESIDENT.S ADDRESS — SECTION L. 265

leucocytes of man remains viable, capable of reproduction, and of
infection. Submitted to the leucocytes of rabbit or guinea pig
it is quickly ingested and destroyed, and in these animals it is
aviruleut. The tubercle bacillus and that ai leprosy are also
highly resistant, 2>artly becaues of their acid-fast cloak and partly
because of their power of destroying (by necrosis) the enveloping
cells.

Tempting as is the theme and the occasion, I must pass on; but
before leaving the subject, and bearing in mind the two-sidedness
of tha problein of immunity, twoi factors related tO' vii'ulenoe must
be alluded to. The first may be described as " the virulence of
position," in that not all parts of the body are capable of
equally strong defence. Bacteria located in certain situations are
much more difficult tO' dislodge, and much less susceptible to the
offensives of the defending forces of the body, whether cells or
serum, than in other situations. As an example: may be mentioned
typhoid bacilli in experimentally infected rabbits in which anti-
typhoid vaccination fails to dislodge the bacilli from the bile ducts.
Human '' carriers " of typhoid infection, following recovery from
an attack of the disease, often have an anti-typhoid serum rich in
antibodies, but ap>parently unable to- reach the locus of the per-
sisting bacteria. Diphtheria shows a similar case where the bacilli
may persist in the mucous membranes of recovered persons.
Johne's disease, a chronic bacillary enteritis of cattle, is another
example. Contagions abortion of bovines, infecting the udder, and
streptococcic mastitis afford further important types of the same
virulence of position. ,

Then, again, an old cbservation by Roux, Bordet, and others,
showed that not all the body fluids have the same antibody con-
tent. The aqueous humour and the cerebro -spinal fluid are both
notably poor in antibodies, even in animals strongly immunized.
This explains the successful production of tetanus in animals
strongly immunized against the toxin if the dose of toxin is intro-
duced inside the meninges.

The other factor is the capacity for '' lying low," provoking no
reaction, but continuing to multiply at the point of infection,
insidiously, persistently, until in sufficient numbers toi overwhelm
the surprised defence, often when some special circumstance
renders it more vulnerable. It may be that offence and defence
are practically equal. At first the infecting germs, having only
natural resistance to overcome, multiplv and establish a nidus of
infection, the weaker ones being killed off, but the more vigorous
ones continuing and reproducing a more resistant type. At the
same time antibody formation goes on, opsonins, agglutinins,
bacteriolysins, and others, but offence and defence develop equally,
and the issue may be for a long time in doubt. Often the infection
is held up'. and remains for months or years circumscribed, as, for
example, in leprosy, or in bovine tuberculosis, or, again, in

266 president's address — section l.

syphilis. As Theobald Smith well puts it, '^ There is another type
o*^ parasite which may dispense largely with both offensive and
defensive processes. We can conceive of this type as exerting a
metabolic activity approximating so closely to that of the host that
the latter reacts but slightly, and then only after a long period
of stimulation." At the same time, the danger of spread to other
organs or of generalization is always existent.

Sometimes, on the other hand, the insidious nature of the infec-
tion, and its avoidance of serious irritation, produces a state almost
of commensalism. The germ is not destroyed, but is practically
impotent, antibodies continue to be produced, and so protect the
body generally. Something like this appears to be the case with
the protozoan parasite of " tick fever," and the same may be said
of Bang's aboatioii bacillus located in the cow's mammary gland.

But we must pass on to consider some of the mechanisms of
defence, and first phagocvtosis.

Phagocytosis.

The importance of phagocytosis as a defensive mechanism aud
the vxnderstanding of the conditions surrounding it must always be,
associated with the genius of Metchnikoff. A classic observation
of his introduces us to the heart of the subject. A normal rabbit
was inoculated subcutaneously in one ear with a fresh virulent
culture of anthrax, in the other ear with an attenuated culture of
the same organism. In the latter case diapedesis of leucocytes was
rapid, and phagocytosis of the organisms was soon in full pro^-
gress with the formation of a small purulent focus. In the former
a gelatinous blood-stained oedema occurred with practically no
leucocytes and no phagocytosis, whilst the organism multiplied
rapidly, became generalized, and killed the animal. But now two
other rabbits were taken, the one normal, the other previously
vaccinated by Pasteur's method against anthrax, and both were
inoculated with a virulent culture of anthrax. In the vaccinated
animal therei was observed marked diapedesis and rapid and com-
plete phagocytosis of the virulent organism, whilst the unprotected
rabbit died oi acute anthrax infection. Thus was demonstrated
the efficacy of phagocytosis, and Metchnikoff asserted that the ulti-
mate result of the infection of an animal with bacteria depended
essentially on the efficiency of its phagocytary powers. That this*
is a complete statement of the position cannot now be accepted,
but, despite numerous attempts to belittle its significance, phago-
cytosis still stands in the forefront of protective measures .

Two of the main methods which have been used to investigate
the phenomena associated with phagocytosis may be mentioned.
The first is by the injection of such substances as aleurone grains
or dead bacteria, or, what answers quite well, a few c.c. of
bouillon, into the peritoneal cavity of a guinea pig or rabbit.
Such an injection causes the pouring out of an inflammatory

president's address — SECTION L. 267

exudate rich in leiicocytes, at fir^it chieflv cf the polynuclear
variety, with a few lymphocytes and eosinophils, but after some
hours there appear much larger wandering cells — macrophages of
Metchnikcff — which equal or even exceed the number cf poly-
nu clears.

By this means the process of phagocytosis of bacteria in vivo
can bei studied by withdrawing a little of the exudate at conveni-
ent intervals after experimental infection, and also in vitro by
withdrawing some of the exudate and making a hanging-drop
preparation which is kept at the body temperature, inoculated with
a bacterial culture, and observed under the microscope at frequent
intervals. Any effect of the peritoneal exudate in which the cells
are suspended can be eliminated by adding a little normal saline
solution, centrifuging, removing the cells, washing, and suspending
them in fresh saline.

The other method, move commonly adopted by Wright, is to
take a little blood in citrated saline solution to prevent clotting,
centrifuge it, remove the supernatant liquid, and then carefully
pipette off the " leucocytic cream." The leucocytes are again
washed in saline, centrifuged, and re-suspended in saline; the
bacterial culture is added in minute quantity, and the mixture
incubated for a short time. A smear is then made on a slide,
fixed, stained, and examined, and the amount of phagocytosis, if
any, can be determined by microscopic examination.

By these and similar methods the characteristic features of the
phagocytic action of leucocytes ^nd other wandering cells have
been made out.

Time forbids a consideration of the physiological role of phago-
cytes; suffice it to mention —

(1) their amoeboid powers;

(2) the phenomenon of chemiotaxis by which various foreign

siibstances attract cr repel them;

This can be well shown by inserting two capillary tubes under
the skin of a rabbit, both containing nutritive broth medium, but
in the one case the medium inoculated with living staphylococci
whilst the other is sterile. Removed after 24 hours, the inoculated
tubes contains a turbid fluid containing very numerous polynuclear
leucocytes, whilst the fluid in the other tube remains clear. If,
instea,d of staphylococci, the tube had been sown with viriden^
anthrax bacilli, there would have been few or no leucocytes but
a great multiplication of the anthrax bacilli, for the virulence of
anthrax consists in large measi.ue in its power to repel and inhibit
phagocytes.

(3) their power of ingesting foreign cells and particles, well-

shown in vitro by Wright's method;

268 president's address — section l.

It is remarkable that leucocytes appear more resistant to the
inhibitory effects of drugs than many other cells. Thus Besredka
has shown that they ingest particli3S of arsenic trisulphide injected
into the peritoneum and so protect the body. Bordet has shown
that morphine (1-100), cocaine (1-1,000) and atrophine. (1-1,000)
do not prevent phagocytosis of bacteria iii vitr<o. Quinine on the
other hand is extremely toxic for leucocytes.

(4) their abilit}^ to digest the bacteria (or other cells) they
have engulphed, and the presence of a tryptic ferment
resulting from the death and disintegration of leuco-
cytes, especially jjolyniorphonuclears, which digests
tissue elements and dead cells.

The effects of intracellular digestion of bacteria can be observed
directly by Wright's or Pfeiffer's methods: they swell up, stain
less easily, and become converted into granules. Another method
is tO' obtain an extract from the leucocytes and test its bactericidal
or digestive effects. Several methods have been used, notably by
Gengou (1915), who extracted the leucocytes with dilute hydro-
chloric acid and obtained a clear liquid which caused a breakdown
of bacterial cells in all respects similar to that seen in vivo.
Gengou noted that an extract of mononuclear leucocytes was in-
active, and this is in line with the inactivity of the lymphocytes
in phagocytosis of pyogenic organisms. The products of such
digestion of bacteria cannot easily be determined, but with the
digestion of tissue cells the end products are easily identified and
the nature of the ferment action is thus made clear. Muller and
Jo'chmann have suggested a, simple demonstration by placing
a drop of human Jeucocytic exudate on the surface of some coagu-
lated serum. Bordet has pointed out a rather remarkable thing,
that only leucocytic material from man, ape or dog is active in
this way, as though in other animals there is some inhibiting sub-
stance, or the. ferment is liberated only with difficulty.

Now, bacteria owe their virulence in large measure to their aiiti-
phagocytary powers, and indeed virulence is in the main inversely
proportional to phagocytosis. An experiment by Tchistovitch
affords an example. He took a virulent pneumococcus and found
that in the mouse there was no phagocytosis, in the rabbit phago-
cytosis was feeble, whilst in the dog it was active and complete.
This agrees with the high susceptibility of the mouse, lessened
susceptibility of ihe rabbit, and insusceptibility of the dog.

The comparative values of phagocytes and serum in guarding
against infection cannot be stated, for immunity is a product of
many forces with cells and sera acting in combinatiom, but as
showing the inability of serum alone in many cases we may note
the following experiments. Anthrax bacilli, towards which the
dog has a high degree of immunity, will nevertheless grow artifi-
cially quite well in dog's serum. The same is true of the fowl;

president's address — SECTION L. 269

and in both dog and fowl the immunity is due to the power ol
phagoc} tosis. Again, in the case of animals naturally susceptible
to certain diseases and then vaccinated against them, it is remark-
able that the bactericidal power of the blood serum of these im-
munized animals is very small. This is true of streptococci,
staphylococci, pneumococci, diphtheria bacillus and B. pyocyaneus.
On the other hand the increase in phagocytosis is remarkable.

Both active and passive immunization greatly increase the power
of phagocytosis, and at first sight the readiest explanation appears
to be by survival of the fittest of the phagocytes. But how can
this be the case in passive immunization where nO' struggle has
gone on in the immunei animal ? Here it must clearly be a
property conferred by means of the hyperimmune serum. But
does this stimulus act by spurring on the phagocytes to greater
efforts or does it so- affect the bacteria as to' make them more sus-
ceptible? An experiment of Wright and Douglas makes the
point clear. Some leucocytes are treated with highly immune
antistreptococcic serum, then washed, and mixed with streptococci,
when very feeble phagocytosis occurs. On the other hand, if
streptococci are treated with the antistreptococcic seinim, then
washed, and mixed with leucocyte^;, phagocytosis occurs with great
energy.

Other bacteria and immune sera show similar results, and
Wright and Douglas gave the name of "opsonins" (feast preparers')
to these anti-bodies develoj^ed in^ serum as a result of bacterial
infection or vaccination. Wright and his collaborators almost
desired to make the determination of the opsonins present in a
particular serum a measure of immunity, but important as the ?ole
of the opsonins in the serum is in preparing the bacteria for
phagocytosis, it does net lessen the necessity for phagocytes able
to withstand the microbic products, and to digest and destroy the
bacteria they engulf. Further, it has been shown in the case of
virulent organisms, pneumococci and streptococci, that part of
their virulence consists in the development of substances which
neutralize the opsonins of the serum, and which therefore may be
called anti-opsonins. Not to multiply terms, they appear to
belong to the same category as the "aggressins" of Bail.

A remarkable feature of opsonic action is that the bacteria
are acted on in a purely passive manner, quite irrespective, fox
example, of whether they are dead or alive. Further, the serum
opsonins are able toi prepare for ingestion by leucocytes inert par-
ticles such as carbon, melanin, carmine or starch (Wright and
Douglas). It is probable that these particles adsorb opsonins (on
all the evidence, albuminoid substances) which form a surface
having adhesive properties which greatly favours phagocytosis.
Phagocytosis itself may be looked upon as a twofold process ; first.

270 president's address — section l.

the contact and adhesion of the foreign particle or cell with the
phagocyte, and then its ingestion. In the formei- stage the phago-
cyte is probably quite passive, the particle having been subjected
by reason of its adsorption of opsonins to a physico-chemical change
which facilitates adhesion, whilst the latter stage is due to the
amoeboid mobility of the leucocyte. Ledingham (1906) has
shown that in the presence of op.sonins bacteria have a tendency
to adhere to leucocytes even at temperatures too low for amoeboid
action to occur.

One last observation on the methods of phagocytosis is that
named by Bordet the jihagoci/tarjj crhis. If a rabbit is injected
intraperitoneally with bouillon, and at the same time receives a
dose of autistrepLC'Coccic serum, it can then receive on the following
day a fairly large dose of virulent streptococcus culture with the
following results. Thanks to the immune serum injected the
bacteria are prevented from invading the body genei"ally ; very
numerous polymorphs are present in the exudate ; but the strepto-
cocci even aiter several hours are still free, have surrounded
themselves with a kind of aureole (capsule) and the exudate is
almost purulent. Then begin to appear large mononuclear cells
(macrophages) and almost suddenly extensive phagocytosis of strep-
tococci by these large cells occurs. The polymorphonuclear cells
are in the main inactive, many are dead, but just before phago-
cytosis occurs the streptococci may also be seen to be abnormal,
staining feebly, smaller in size, whilst the aureole is indistinct.
This is the moment when phagocytosis commences. Bordet's ex-
planation is very simple. The protective measures have prevented
the cocci from becoming septicaemic, the macrophages derived from
endothelial cells and lymph glands have begun to mobilize, and
the breakdown products (ferments) from the dead polymorphonu-
clears have commenced an extracellular digestion of the bacteria.
The joint action of opsonins and macrophages completes the scheme
of defence, and if the dose of streptococci has not been toO' large
the animal reccvers.

We may conclude this view of the action of phagocytes by
saying that the opsonic hypothesis of Wright has gone far to
reconcile the cellular and humoral theories by bridging the gap
and demonstrating their essential co-operation in the whole plan
of immunity mechanism.

But now to consider more closely the role of the serum in the
production of immunity.

Bole of the Sei'iim : Anfif/enx and Anfihodies.

Any review of the development of the science of immunity
must bring out in strong light the ever-recurring tendency of
workers in this field to generalize from very limited observations,
to stumble across an important discovery and at once toi enunciate

president's address — SECTION L. 271

a theory which could be applied to the whole field, to discover
some more or less important factor in the whole scheme and to
publish it promptly as the whole, comiplete and final. Again and
again these generalizations have proved inadequate, and with a
host of workers attacking the problems of immunity froan all
sides, and in light of all the magnificent contributions to our
knowledge during the past three or icixr decades, we now know
that the factors in immunity are not few, but many; that the
defence of the body against attack by invaders, of whose multi-
farious devices we arei becoming increasingly aware, is not one-sided,
simple, direct, but made up of a wealth of adaptations, of agents,
materials and methods of which we are now becoming dimly
cognisant. A very wise aphorism of Bordet's might with advan-
tage be taken tO' heart by all workers in this field. He says, "In
deciding the role of each antibody in the total power of the serum,
leave a sufficiently generous part to the unknown."

For the immediate study of immunity of the body against in-
fections disease it might be thought that investigation confined
to the actual infective agents, their j^roducts, and their effects,
would concentrate attention on the kernel of the problem and
hasten its solution. At the outset, however, it soons becomes
clear that the dc-monstration of the presence of various antibodies
in the blood of an immune animal qualitatively and quantitatively
is not easy. The chemistry of these bodies is very obscure, their
physical properties are complex. It is therefore a matter of
great importahoe to) discover cl\aracteristic reactions, if possible
obvious to the naked eye, which will serve as indicators of their
presence and activity. From this will be understood the great
advance which followed Bordet's discovery that red blood cor-
puscles of an animal of one species injected on three or four
occasions intoi an animal of another species would give rise to the
production in this second animal of an antibody, a hapmobjsin,
capable of liberating the haemoglobin from the red cells of the
ammal donor, a reaction quite obvious in the test tube. Here,
then, is an exaniple of an animal immunized against foreign cells,
and its immunity is evidenced by the production of an antibody
capable of combining with the cells against which it has been
immunized. These foreign cells constitute in fact an "antigen,"
a producer of antibody, and may be taken as a type of antigens
in general.

In a similar way light has been thrown upon the nature of
toxins, anti-toxins and their mode of combination by experiments
using some of the vegetable toxins, of which ricin, the toxin from
castor oil beans, may be taken a-s a type. Study of the actions
of various snake venoms has also contributed to our understanding
of the natui'e of toxins and anti-toxins.

272 president's address — section l.

And so in this as in other sciences investigation of matters not
at first glance relevant has been fruitful in widening the under-
standing of the problem. On this wider basis the types of anti-
gens are many, in the following groups: — Bacterial cells (dead or
alive), bacterial exotoxins (tetano-toxin), vegetable toxins (ricin,
abrin, cretin, robin), snake venoms, enzymes (pepsin, trypsin), also
animal cells such as blood corpuscles, and foreign proteins of animal
or vegetable origin as casein, serum, egg albumen. These all
agree in being colloidal in nature and albuminoid in composition.
A characteristic property of albuminoids is that of forming
adsorption co'mplexes with other albuminoids and with many other
substances. The statement has been made that lipoids such as
those extracted from blood cells, or lecithin, could act as antigens,
but generally this is net accepted. It may well be, however,
that a lipo-protein ccmplex can act as an antigen.

There are one or two conditions necessary for antigen action,
viz. : —

(1) the antigen must penetrate into the hocit/ of the animal

which is toi produce thei antibody, and this is the
reason why antigens ingested by the mouth have, as a
rule, no action ;

(2) it must be foreign to the animal in which it is to act ; but

(3) it need not be toxic.

Now, with a diversity of antigens there is a corresponding
diversity of antibodies, but the tendency toi dividei them into
sharply limited classes widely differing from one another is not
justified. Our knowledge of the presence of any particular anti-
body is due solely to its combination with its proper antigen to
form a. complex with definite properties and reactions. These
reactions do not characterize the antibody, but the antigen-anti-
hody comhinafion, and although thei reactions which reveal their
presence may differ markedly, there is good ground for thinking
ngglutinins, precijMins, hcpmolysins, hacte/iolysws, and the like
liave a related origin and composition.

A remarkable feature is the specific nature ol the reaction
following the action of an antigen. The antibody developed as a
result has a strong aflBnity for that antigen, and this affinity is
sufficiently specific or elective as to form the basis of sero-diagnosis.
The agglutination reaction, preicipitin test, complement fixation
test, and even the phenomenon of anaphylaxis, all afford evidence
of this characteristic. The 2weci'pitin test will suffice for illustra-
tion. If a series of rabbits are injected each with a different
serum, human, ox, pig, and dog, then after two or three injections
it is found that the serum of each rabbit will, if mixed with the
appropriate serum, namely, that one which has been used to
immunize it, give a turbidity and eventually a precipitate at the
line of union. Any other serum than the one used as antigen will

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS — SECTION L. 273

fail to give the reaction, but, significant fact, the serum of one of
the higher apes will react similarly to that of man, although not
ill so high a titre. The bearing of this specific reaction on
biological problems concerned with species relationships is pro-
found.

Where bacteria are used as antigens the specificity of the antigen-
antibody reaction is often less clearly defined, for the reason that
the specific differences between the specieis and strains of bacteria
are less fixed. Thus typhoid, paratyphoid, and colon bacilli may
all be agglutinated by the same sample of human serum, but,
although showing this group relationship, if the human serum is
progressively diluted it will be found to give a reaction in much
higher dilution with the bacillus which is at the time infecting the
patient, i.e., the true antigen, so that it is quantitatively specific
even here. On thei other hand, the ability of two clift'erent micro-
organisms to produce agglutination, precipitation, or complement
fixation in the same serum suggests some family relationship
between the bacteria which is often of importance. A remarkable
instance of this, pointed out by an American worker, Miss Alice
C. Evansi (1918), and confirmed by myself, is that bacillus meli-
tensis and Bang's abortion bacillus will each agglutinate a bovine
serum from a case of abortion to the same high dilution. The
inability to differentiate between Johne's disease and tuberculosis
of cattle by means of a tuberculin reaction is similarly significant.

We need not delay to discuss in detail the origin of the various
antibodies, but just as Metchnikoff's name will always be associ-
ated with phagocytosis, so will the name of Ehrlich be associated
with cur understanding cf the production of immune bodies in the
serum.

Ehrlich's theory for the fcrmation of immune bodies may be
stated in its simplest terms in relation to the production of mifi-
fo.rin by the repeated and graduated injection cf to.rin.

He conceived the body cells as depending for their nutrition on
the possession of certain affinities, or I'eceptors, able to combine
with food molecules (having similar receptors, or side-chains) pre-
sented to them in the blood. But, further, antigens, whether
bacteria or cells or foreign protein .molecules of any kind, were
conceived as having similar side-chains with affinities which could
also fit these cell receptors, and so the antigens become attached
to their appropriate cells. A cell so burdened with an antigen is
in danger of starvation, having insufficient free unsaturated recep-
tors wherewith to fix food molecules. In defence the cell proceeds
to bud off new receptors, and once this proliferation has com-
menced nothing operates to cause its cessation, and an over-
production of receptors takes place. Not cnly so, but these excess
receptors are set free into the blood stream, where, meeting with
analogous antigen (in this case, toxin) groups, they combine with
frhem, so satisfying the affinity of the toxin, making it incapable

274 pkesident's address — section l.

of combining with the body cell and, for all practical purposes,
inert. Thus, according to Ehrlich's view, antitoxin consists of
numerous free receptors circulating in the blood and bod37 fluids
with specific affinity for toxin molecules. This "side-chain "
theory, with modifications, has been applied by Ehrlich to explain
thei production of the other types of antibody, agglutinins, 'pre-
cipitins, hemolysins, he, and it is obviously founded vipon a
supposed analogy taken from organic chemistry. Further, Ehilich
has suggested that the union of antigen and antibody (in the
simplest case toxin and antitoxin) is a chemical combination fol-
lowing the law of multiple proportions. This view has been made
the subject of acute controversy, and, with all due deference to
the genius of Ehrlich, it may be said that his views of this antigen-
antibody combination can no longer be accepted.

Many attempts have l)een made to ascertain the exact chemical
constitution of anttljodies, but it is a matter of great difficulty
because of tlie impossibility of obtaining them in a state of purity.
As colloids they enter into physical, if not chemical, union with
other protein groups, and cannot be with certainty separated. It
is established that thev are precipitated with the globulins and,
in tlie casei of tetanus and diphtheria antitoxins, almost entirely
with the pseudo-globulin group. An ingenious method which has
been used in the attempt to obtain the antibodies pure is that of
adding toi a particular serum containing an antibody the proper
antigen, allowing a short time to elapse for combination, then
removing and carefully washing the antigen-antibody complex and
attempting to separate the two by the action of dilute acids and
alkalis. All tTiat ap^pears possible: to say at present is that the
antibodies are protein in nature and behave like colloids, i.e., are
not dialysable.

What, then, is the nature of the antigen -antihody combin-ation ?
Her©, again, we may take first the simplest case, the union of
antitoxin and toxin. If this can be solved there is surely ©very
a, priori reason toi expect antigen-antibody combinations generally
to be subject to tlie one common theory.

The first point which can be determined is that antitoxin acts
directly on toxin to' destroy its toxic powers, and not on the vulner-
able cells, to make them immune. One or two experiments which
prove this may be given. Fici77 has the power of agglutinating
red blood corpuscles, but if ricin is first mixed with antiricin (i.e.,
the serum of an animal which has been immunized against ricin)
its agglutinating power is lost. If, however, red cells are mixed
first with antiricin serum, then washed free of it in saline and
submitted to the action of ricin, they are agglutinated. Again,
an old experiment of Martin and Cherry with snake venom showed
tha!. the toxin would pass throngh a porcelain filter impregnated
with gelatine, whilst aiitivenin sei"um would not. If venom and
antivenom serum were mixed together, and a sufficient interval
allowed to elapse, neither would pass the filter, for combination
had occurred.

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — SECTION L. 275

A second equally important point is that this combination is
unstable. Calmette (1907) has shown that whilst snake venom
withstands a temperature of 80" C, antivenin is destroyed at
68-70", especially in presence of a dilute acid. In a similar man-
ner the venin-antivenin complex, if submitted to the joint action
of acid and alcohol, is broken up, the to^xin goes into solution
m the alcohol, whilst the antitoxin is inactivated.

. Danysz has also shown that pancreatic juice will restore the
toxicity to an innocuous mixture of ricin and antiricin by acting,
more quickly on the antitoxin than on the toxin. Again, it" to
some red blood corpuscles we add an inactivated hsemolytic serum,
they will become sensitized, and now only need the addition of a
little fresh serum, i.e., complement, to become hsemolysed. But if
before adding complement, we add to the sensitized cells some
antl-hasmolysin, i.e., serum prepared by immunizing an animal
to a haemolysin, then the addition of ccmplement has no effect, for
the hsemolysm has been neutralized by the anti-hgemol)sin.

Of what nature, then, is the comlTination 'I Ehrlich himself
likened it to the union of a strong acid and a strong base accord-
ing to the law of definite proportions. But an observation of
Ehrlich's own — known as Ehrlich's phenomenon — pointed out
great difficulties in the way of believing this. Suppose it is found
that .01 c.c. of diphtheria toxin will kill a guinea pig in a given
time, then Ic.c. of the toxin will contain 100 units of toxin, and
if the concentration of antitoxin is so arranged that 1 c.c. of anti-
toxin exactly neutralizes 1 c.c. of toxin, then 1 c.c. of antitoxin
also contains 100 units of antitoxin. Then a mixture of 1.01 c.c.
(or 101 units) of toxin and 1.00 c.c. (or 100 units) of antitoxin
ought to be fatal for a guinea pig in the unit time. Strangei to
relate, it is harmless, and so is any mixture until there is an excess
of toxin over antitoxin of 25 to 35 units, when the mixture
(1.25 c.c. toxin and 1 c.c. antitoxin) again is fatal to a guinea
pig. To meet this surprising result Ehrlich suggested that the
toxin was really made up of two bodies, toxin and toxoii, the
former having a very strong affinity for antitoxin and being at
the same time toxic, the latter having a weak affinity for anti-
toxin and being non-toxic. Thus, if 100 units of '" toxin " con-
tains really 75 units of true toxin and 25 units of toxon, 75 units
of antitoxin would be able to neutralize this amount by uniting
with the 75 units of true toxin, leaving the 25 units of toxon
free but devoid of toxicity. Here again, however, the hypothesis
is unsatisfactory, for if 75 units of antitoxin neutralize 100 units
" toxin " (of which 75 are true toxin and 25 are toxon left free),
then 50 units antitoxin added to' 100 units " toxin " should unite
with 50 units true toxin, leaving 25 units toxon free and also 25
units toxin fres, and this last amount should be fatal for twenty-
five guinea pigs; hiif this is not so. As Bordet has shown, a much
1084.— 18

276 president's address — section l.

more reasonable view is to imagine all the toxin molecules sur-
rounded or clothed with a " film " of antitoxin, so that all of
them are propoitionately attenuated, even when the amo^unt of
antitoxin is insufficient to make them inert.

Another .explanation of antitoxin-toxin combination, and one
providing at the same time an explanation of Ehrlich's
phenomenon, was that of Arrhenius and Madsen. Time forbids
more than a brief statement. They supposed the combination was
■similar to that between a weak acid and a weak base, or to that
between acetic acid and alcohol . Here the reaction is complicated
by the effect of electrclytic dissociation and of mass action, and the
reaction is really reversible. For example: —

Acetic acid -j- alcohol '^ ethyl acetate -j- water,

and all four constituents are always present and in a state of
equilibrium. Alter the proportion of any one of them by addition
or subtraction, and you alter the proportions cl each of the others
as well. Such a theory can explain Ehrlich's phenomenon up to a
point, but, as Nernst has pointed out, since the equation is ejc
liypothesi a reversible one.* there must be suiiu- toxin free all the
time. If the mixture were injected into an animal this free toxin
would combine with its proper susceptible cells, but, being in too
small a dose, would fail to poison them. But the abstraction of
this free toxin would upset the equation, and niore free toxin
Mould be liberated, which in turn would unite with the susceptible
cells, and so' by a cumulative action the animal would be poisoned.
In practice this does not occur, and this disproves Arrhenius and
Madsen's hypothesis as to the mode of union.

We now come to' Bordet's Adsorption Theory, sometimes called
the physical theory. Bordet had observed that agglutination of
bacteria or corpuscles by a suitable serum containing agglutinins
would not take place in the absence of salt. The same is true for
the precipitation of colloidal solutions. He further discovered
strong analogies between the fixation of hsemolysin and coinple-
ment by red corpuscles, and the adsorption of dyes by a fabric.
If a piece of filter paper of a certain size is introduced into' a watch
glass containing a dilute staining solution, the paper will take up
the dye and assume ai uniform pale tint. But if a similar piece
of paper is cut up into a number oi small pieces, and these are
introduced into the staining solution one by one with an interval
between each, then the first adsorbs a considerable proportion of
the stain, the second a little less, and so on, until the last is
hardly stained at all, and the intermediate ones show gradatio^ns
of colour. Now, compare this with the combination of red cor-
puscles and the haemolysins of an immune serum. It will be found
that a considerably larger dose of corpuscles will be haemolyzed if
the|y aire added at once than will be the case if small repeated
doses are added at intervals.

prk.sidp:nt"s address — section l. 277

Another experiment leads to a similar conclusion. It can be
ascertained what is the minimum amount of complement necessary
to cause complete haemolysis of a certain small quantity of sensi-
tized red corpuscles. Now, take a much larger quantity of comple-
ment, but, before mixing it with the corpuscles, add to it an
amount of anti-complement not nearly sufficient to ne'utralize it
compleCely.

On Ehilicb's hypothesis the mixture should contain a large
amount of free fully-active complement, able to ha^molyze com-
pletely several times the small unit dose of corpuscles. As a matter
Of fact, it will be found that this will be quite unable to hsemolyze
the same quantity of corpuscles in unit time,, for, hcinr/ iniiformi//
attenuated, it works slowly. On the other hand, it will liberate
a much larger quantity of haemoglobin from a large dose of cor-
puscles than the minimum dose of fully active complement could
do. In other words, as Bordet puts it, the one is superior by the
factor of activity, the other by the factor of quantity.

An observation of Buchner's with tetanus toxin and antitoxin
is of interest. Weight for weight, a guinea pig is much more
susceptible to poisoning with tetanus-toxin than a mouse. Thus,
a guinea pig weighing twenty times as much as a mouse will be
poisoned by ten times the lethal dose for a mouse. Now, if to a
fairly large quantity of tetanus-toxin some antitoxin is added in
just a sufficient quantity to render the mixture tolerable to a
mouse, it will be found that the same dose of the mixture injected
into a guinea pig will kill it. This is inexplicable if one imagines
the antitoxin completely neutralizing a proportion of tbe toxin,
but leaving a quantity free and active. It is easily understood if
one imagines the whole of the toxin attenuated uniformly, for so
attenuated it is ineffective against a mouse but effective against a
guinea pig.

Another observation which has to be noted is that there is a
power of selection, of greater or less affinity, in adsorption, as in
purely chemical combinations, and that one element may be able
thus to displace another. Thus, Gengcu (1908) has shown that a
precipitate of barium sulphate, whilst having a strong adsorptive
affinity for mucin, has an even stronger one for the albuminoids
of serum. The addition of mucin to the barium sulphate precipi-
tate causes an aggregation or agglutination of the fine particles.
Now, on adding a little serum the mucin is displaced, and the
agglutinated particles again disperse. In a similar fashion, as
Morgenroth has shown, sensitized red corpuscles retain the sensi-
tizing substance tenaciously if suspended in saline solution ; but if
a further quantity of red corpuscles from the same species, this
time iin sensitized, is added, the sensitized ones give up to them
part of the sensitizing substance. A simple experiment will illus-
trate the point admirably. Place in a watch, glass of water a disc
of filter paper previously stained fairly deeply with methylene blue

278 . president's address — section l.

solution. Then place lightly on it a smaller triangular piece of
unstained filter paper. After a short time it will be found that the
larger piece is of a perceptibly lighter colour just over the area
occupied by the fresh unstained piece, which, in turn, has become
faintly coloured.

What may appear contradictory to some extent to- thei last state-
ment is the observation that these adscrpticn complexes become
more firmly consolidated with time. Just as in dyeing, the colours
become faster with a more prolonged immersion and after a longer
interval, so^ here. Madsen and Walbum (1904) showed that in a
neutral mixture of diphtheria-toxin and antitoxin the toxin was
able to dilTuse through a gelatine plate more quicklv than the anti-
toxin. Thus, after a short interval the deeper layer of gelatine
contained chiefly toxin, whilst the superficial layer held antitoxin;
This result, however, only occurred with recently prepared mix-
tures. Other workers, notably Martin and Cherry, have shown
the same thing with other antigeai-antibody-complexes.

If time allowed, further experiments illustrating the union of
antigen and antibody in the precipitin reaction, and showing it
to be capable of similar ex]ilanation, could be given, and so with
other antigen-antibody combinations. Suftice it to quote an obser-
vation of Biltz. Colloidal ferric hydrate is an antidote to arsenious
acid poisoning, and the amount of the iron salt to exactly neutralize
the arsenic can be determined. Now, make a mixture of the twoi in
which there is an excess of arsenic of several times the toxic dose for
a given animal, and yet when administered it will not cause death.
Only when a gieat excess of arsenic is present does the mixture
beoG'me lethal ; in other words, wei have here an experiment quite
analogous with the Ehrlich phenomenon. In the case of the arsenic-
iron compound the explanation is purely that of molecular adhesion
or adsorption with consequent attenuation (so far as toxic pro-
perties are concerned) of th^ poison. This, in Bordet's view, is
the explanation of the Ehrlich 's phenomenon, and supplies an
understanding of the antigen-antibody combinations in general.
So the i^roduct of a reaction between antitoxin and toxin is not
always the same, but varies with the exact quantities and concen-
trations of each factor; in fact, there is a whole gradation of
complexes up' to that in which the antigen is completely saturated
by its antibody.

Here we may consider for a monient the question Cif

Coin ph-mcvf and its Fixation.
Any student of immunity must be struck by the participation
of the substance known as " complement " or " alexin "as a
factor in many of the reactions. In clinical practice it is becoming
increasingly important because of the reliability of tlie diagnostic
method known as '' fixation of the complement," so that at least
a few words inust be given to a consideration of its nature and
mode of action.

president's address — SECTION L.. 279

In an animal immunized against i"ed blood corpuscles we have
seen that the blood serum beccmes htemolytic to the particular kind
of ccipu&cles used. Placed in a test tube, these corpuscles will be
speedily dissolved en the addition of a small amount of the immune
serum diluted with saline solutiori. Bvit if the immune serum be
heated to 56" C. for half -an -hour it becomes ineffective, and yet
once again it can be reactivated by the addition of a little fresh
normal serum from (practically) any animal. OlDviously the
immune serum must be made up of at least two factors, one of
which is destroyed or inactivated by heating to 56°, whilst the
other remains intact. Further, the thermolabile substance is evi-
dently non-specific, for it can be supplied by any fresh serum.

This thermolabile constituent of serum, whether normal or
immune, is Cumplenicnt.

But not only is it a factor in haemolysis, but in bacteriolysis and
)nany other immunity i eactions ; in other words, the phenomenon
of lysis is the result of a combination of three factors, the anfif/oi,
whether red cells, bacteria, or ethers; the anfibod//, a specific sub-
stance produced in thei animal as a result of infection or vaccina-
tion ; and com idem cut , a normal constituent of the blood serum of
animals. Tins constituent varies in amount in different animals,
but is present in high concentration in the serum of the guinea pig,
and for laboratory purposes this animal is the usual source of
complement.

To determine whether the blood serum of a particular animal or
man contains immune bodies against a particular disease (as would
be the case if the animal were norvv, or had been, infected with that
disease) it would suffice to show that the serum could unite with
a small quantity of the bacteria, so forming the complex antigen-
antibody-complement. If, then, the sample of serum can bedispos-
sessed of its own unknown quota of complement, and if a known
minimal quantity of complement can be added to the mixture of
bacteria and suspected serum, any reaction between them will
entail the fixation of this ]ninimal quantity of complement, for it
is essential to the reaction. Unfortunately, the reaction gives no
obvious indication of having taken place, but we may now deter-
mine whether the couiplement has been fixed or is still free by
adding to the mixture some sensitized red corpuscles. Thev have
already been siibmitted to the action of a htemolytic serum, devoid,
however, of complement. All that is necessary for their haemolysis
is the addition of a minimal quantity of free complement. So, if
our first mixture, bacteria, immune serum, and one unit of com-
]}lement, has combined to fonn a ccmplex, the red cells subse-
quently added will remain intact, for the complement is fixed in
the first combination. Conversely, if the bacteria found no immune
body in the suspected serum, no fixation of complement would
occur, and this would remain free, and, on the addition of the
sensitized red cells, would unite with them and produce hgemolv.'ii«
y.t. , liberation of the hsemoglobin.

280 president's address — section l.

Now, what is thei nature of this combination of antigen -anti-
body and complement ?

Ehrlich's theory of a chemical nnion has already been discussed.
As against this view, Bo^rdet and his co-workers have put the view
which may now be said to prevail, namely, that complement is
fixed not iDy antibody alone, nor by antigen alone, but only by the
antigen-antibody combination. In other words, the' action of the
antibody, developed as a result of the immunity, is to combine
with the antigen, and render it able to adsnrh complement. An
analogy is seen in the action of the agglutinins in an immune
serum. These agglutinins combine with the bacteria against which
they have been developed, and renaer the bacteria able to adsorb
f-alt from the saline solution in which they are suspended. Without
salt bacteria are not agglutinated by a serum, however rich it
may be in agglutinins. But add salt to the mixture, and you will
add an electrolyte^, which, adsoibed by the bacteria-serum combina-
tion, causes the agglutination.

So complement fixation is really an adsorption of complement
by colloidal substances, and this theory explains many curious
phenomena of serum reactions. Serum is itself a complex body in
a state of very unstable colloidal equilibrium, and very slight and
subtle alterations can upset thb molecular adhesion which is
normal.

And now, lastly, let us consider briefly, one of the most difficult,
but at the same tinie most intereisting, of the phases of immunity,
namely, A )iaph//I<i.ris.

A Hfiph 1/1 axis.

Anaphylaxis, -the name given by Richet signifying the reverse
of prophylaxis, refers to a condition of extreme sensitivity or sus-
ceptibility to the injection of certain substances. If, during the
attempt to immunize an animal, a first injection of a particular
antigen is given, and then after an interval of ten days or more
a second dose is given, a peculiar set of symptons is often pro-
duced, a reaction soi severe as tO' be often fatal, and that v/ithin
a few minutes or a few hours. Thus, the first injection, intended
to make the animal more refractory to infection, has apparently
made it hypersensitive.

The first observation recorded which may fairly be thought to
be of this nature is on© of Magendie, in 1839, describing the sud-
den death of dogs injected repeatedly with egg albumen. Several
isolated observations by other workers were brought to light after
the publication of Arthus in 1903 with regard to the effects of
repeated injections into rabbits of horse serum. Theobald Smith
also recorded the great susceptibility of guinea pigs used for the
standardization of diphtheria toxin to a subsequent injection of
normal horse serum. Since that time the subject has been investi-
gated by very numerous workers, and the facts elicited have done
much to increase our knowledge of immunity generally.

president's address — SECTION L. 281

Partly because many of the earlier isolated observations were
made on the guinea pig, and also because of its great susceptfbility
to anaphylaxis, this animal has been chosen for most of the
experimental investigations. The rabbit, dog, sheep, mouse, and
other animals have all been used, but, whilst they all show
anaphylaxis under proper conditions, they are less susceptible
than the guinea pig,, and the effects in them are less regular. A
]3cint of primary importance is that, whatever the material used
for injection, whether bacteria, serum, or ceils, the symptons pro-
duced, and the poHt-mortem appearances and lesions in a fatal
case are the same. Eestlessness and anxiety, a subnormal tempera-
ture, a fall in blood pressure, and dyspnoea are prominent features,
whilst on post-mortem, examination the lungs show a condition of
acute emphysema, with the alveoli distended, the capillaries empty,
and the small bronchioles contracted so as to imprison the air in
the lungs.

Again, it may be stated that the substances giving rise to
anaphylaxis are all of the nature of antigens, all able to provoke
the production of antibodies when injected into an animal.
Further, it is very remarkable how minute a dcse of the first
injection may be sufficient to sensitize.

The firs-t injection may be made in .various ways, subcutaneous,
intraperitoneal, intravenous, but the most acute results are
obtained when the seco/id injection is made directly into the blood
stream. Material injected subcutanecusly is absorbed so slowly
as to be accommodated usually, ®r if symptoms of shock occur
they are delayed and subacute. Injected per rectum absorption
again is so slow that no dangerous shock results. For this reason
this method has been recommended to prevent any ill effects from
repeated injections of substances likely to cause anaphylaxis
(Besredka) .

A time interval of at least ten to twelve days is necessary after
the first injection before the sensitive state is reached. This is
called the pre- anaphylactic period, but thereafter the animal re-
mains susceptible to a second injection of the antigen for a long
period, often many months.

We have so far described active anaphylaxis, but, just as there
is a passive immunity, so there is a state of passive anaphylaxis.
This can be produced in a fresh animal by injecting into it the
serum of an actively ftensitized animal ; also with the serum of an
animal strongly immunized against any antigen, and, therefore,
itself containing antibodies. In fact, the power of a serum to
confer passive anaphylaxis is in. proportion to its content of anti-
bodies. This sensitive state does not as a rule occur immediately
after the injection of the immune serum, but develops in anything
from four to twenty-four hours after injection.

282 president's address— section l.

Another important feature of anaphylaxis is that, just as an
animal can be immunized against the various antibodies with the
consequent production of '' anti-antibodieiS," so a state of (viti-
fiiiapht/hixis may be brought about by various means. For
example, if an animal shows signs of shock after a second injection
of antigen, but recovers, it is then refractory, or, in other words,
immune to a further injection of the antigen. The same result
may be brought about by making the second injection of the
antigen in the 'pre-a7inphi/Iacfic period. Or, again, if the second
injection is given per rectum, the antigen will be absorbed so
^Qcwly as to proteict. Even given by the mouth, the small amoiint
of the antigen abscrbed may be sufficient tO' give protection. This
" de-s'ensitization " is evidently merely a saturation of the anti-
bodies contained in the blood or. tissues of the sensitive animal
with the appropriate antigen in such a way as to avoid a violent
shock. Passive anaphylaxis can be neutralized in a similar way
by the proper dose of antigen, and may then be restored by a new
injection of immune serum (Weil and Coca, 1913).

Thus the occurrence of the sensitive state apparently coincides
with the appearance of ordinary immune antibodies, such as pre-
cipitins, and the anaphylactic shock apparently results in sqme
way from a siuh/c/i antigen-antibody reaction. Further, it must
be noted that the reaction is specific: it is the same antigen as was
useid for the first injection which must be used to promote the
shock.

Much difference of opinion has existed, and still exists, as toi the
place where the hypothetical poison " anaphylatoxin " is produced,
whether in the blood stream or in some of the tissue cells. The
incubation period necessary after the injection of a sensitized
serum before passive anaphylaxis occurs suggests a cellular partici-
pation, and Dale's experiments strongly support this view. Dale
(1912-1916) submitted the isolated uteri of young guinea pigs to
the action of various sera. The uterus was first perfused with
Ringer's solution through its vessels to remove all blood, then
suspended in 250 c.c. of Ringer's solution at 38° C. In the case
of a normal guinea pig, the addition of 1 c.c. of a foreign serum
to the fluid had no effect, and provoked no muscular contractions
of the uterus. In the case cf a guinea pig previously sensitized to
a particular serum, the addition of a mere trace of this serum to
the solution caused strong uterine contractions.

Moreover, if a uterus had been stimulated to contract once by
its specific antigenic serum it was found thereafter desensitized.

As we shall see later, there are experimental evidences for a
blood reaction, but it is limited as compared with the tissue
reaction.

An obvious question arises here, since anaphylaxis is an antigen-
antibody reaction, what part, if any, does complement play in the
reaction ?

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS — ."^ECTION L. 283

Two experimental methods have suggested themselves for deter-
mining this point. First, several workers have shown that after
anaphylactic shock the total amount of complement in an animal
was lessened, suggesting that some complement had been used up
in the reaction.

Then, again, Loeffler (1910) employed a number of guinea pigs
which had been sensitized to horse serum. He injected intraperi-
toneally into some of them a sufficient quantity of sensitized
sheep's red cells as to use up all the complement possessed by the
animals, and then he injected a test dose of horse serum into all
of them one hour later. The guinea pigs whose complement had
been used up showed no anaphylaxis, whilst the control animals
showed typical shock and died. Thus, we may conclude that in
the ordinary anaphylactic reaction complement does share, being
adsorbed by the antigen-antibody combination as in other
immunity reactions.

And now, what fli caries have been advanced to explain these
phenomena, in other words, what is the nature of anaphylaxis ?
As is to be expected in so complicated a subject of gradual
development, the theories are many, but at the present time it will
be sufficient to mention three or four.

The processes of digestion of the proteins taken in as food so
modify them as to allow of the absorption of non-toxic substances
only, but injection of many of these substances into the blood
stream is highly dangerous. For example, commercial peptone,
given intravenously in the dog, j^roduces symptoms very similar
lo those of anaphylaxis. Further, it is well known that the injec-
tion of many substances, whether antigens proper or not, into the
blood stream brings about thei appearance of fennents, " defensive
ferments," as Abderhalden has called them, which break down
these abnormal bodies, and so' preserve the integrity of the blood.
An old observation of Delezenne's (1890) showed that the injection
of gelatin rendered the blood serum capable of liquefying gelatine
//( vitro.

Acting on this knowledge, and having obtained highly toxic pro-
ducts from egg albumen and other proteins by purely chemical
means, Vaughan and Wheeler put forward the view that in active
anaphylaxis the first injection causes the production of protective
fennents in the blood, and that on the second injection of the
antigen these ferments bring about splitting cf it with liberation
of toxic substances which account for the symptoms.

Against this view are the two facts that anaphylactic shock
often occurs with extraordinary suddenness, whereas ferment
action would take some time, and fui'ther the shock is a specific
reaction only produced by the injection of a specific antigen, the
same in origin and composition as the original antigen, whereas
a ferment would have no such specific selective action.

284 president's addkess — section l.

It is true that Abderhalden affirms the specific nature of these
ferments, and has applied this theory to the practical diagnosis of
such conditions as pregnancy, and malignant growths such as
cancer, but numerous workers have failed to confirm his results,
and the recorded observations are very contradictory as to the
value of the method.

Friedberger and his followers have suggested a modification
which accords well with many of the facts,, and is far-reaching in
its application. According tO' this view, anaphylaxis results from
the combination of complement with an antigen-antibody com-
plex, and as a result the complement splits up the antigen, giving
rise toi joroteoelastic substances which are toxic. The following
experiments furnish strong evidence in support of this view : -.—

(1) If well washed sensitised red corpuscles are injected into' the
jugular vein of a normal guinea pig. the result is anaphylactic
shock and death.

(2^ Again, if similar sensitized red cells are submitted to the
action of an excess of fresh guinea pig complement, then centri-
fuged off and the supernatant fluid injected intravenously, the
same result occurs.

(3) If a fresh serum and its anti-serum are mixed togetlier and
the resulting precipitate is centrifuged off, well-washed, and then
submitted to the action of fresh complement and injected, shock
and death are caused.

(4) Lastly, if sensitized bacteria arei acted on by fresh com-
plement, then centrifuged off and the supernatant fluid injected,
the result is the same.

Thus, any one oif a variety of antigens acted on by its appro-
priate antibody^, and then by fiesh serum containing complement,
is effective as a source of " anaphylatoxin " ; further, a point
of great importance, if the fresh serum is heated to 56" C. so as
to' destroy the complement, then no (tnaphi/Iaxts is jji-od iiccl by
the injection. A further point is that it is of no importance what
bacteria are used as antigen, and, as Novy and de Kruif have
recently shown, even trypanosomes treated in the same manner
are; effective in producing anaphylaxis.

So Fi'iedberger, von Pirquet, Friedman and other have seen
in infection of the animal body with bacteria, and the resulting
symptoms and effects, only the phenomena due to anaphylaxis.
The incubation period of a disease is, according to this view,
simply the interval required after infection for the antibody to be
produced, and this then reacts with the antigen, i.e., the invading
bacteria, and complement, to produce toxins giving rise to all the
symptoms and other effects proper to the disease.

It must be admitted that this is a most attractive generaliza-
tion, fascinating in its simplicity and far-reaching effects, but as
we have seen from past experience of generalizations there is a
grave danger in accepting so sweeping a hypothesis, the danger
of trimming new facts and observations to make them fit the
hypothesis.

president's address — SECTION L. 285

Here again, as in the case of many other cherished theories
related to immunity, Bordet, who may almost be termed Bordet
the iconoclast, has submitted this theory and the experimental
work on which it stands to^ a searching scrutiny, and however
mnch we may still cling to Friedberger's conception, it must be
admitted that it cannot remain as a generalization covering the
whole field.

Fi-iedberger and, indeed, the great majority of those workers
investigating anaphylaxis have assumed that the source of the
po'iso'/i uYis the antigen; that from it alone, whether by a " feT-
ment " or by complement and antibody, the poison was derived.
An obvious difficulty occurs at once, for it is surely very re-
markable that no matter what the antigen, whether serum, blood
cells, bacteria of different kinds, egg albumen, &c., the symptoms
produced and the 'post-ni.ortem appearances are always the same.
As Bordet points ooit, some oi Friedberger's own eixperiments show
that an antibody is not of necessity present in all cases of anaphy-
laxis. What is essential in all cases apparently is the presence
of fresh serum, if the' anaphylactic poison is to be produced, and
Bordet asks with insistence, may it not be that this serum is
indeed the source of the toxin ? So Bordet and Gengou have
suggested that the origin of the anaphylactic toxin is not the
antigen, but the serum ot the^ animal affected.

By this theory the poison is preformed in the blood, and only
prevented from acting by a physiological equilibrium which is
upset at the time of the second injection by the adsorption of
some substanee necessary tO' keep it stable. An experiment cf
Bordet's (1913) lends support ^o this view, for he was able to
show that anaphylactic shock can be produced without using any
antigen. Ordinary agar purified so as to retain no trace of pro-
tein, dissolved in saline, and mixed with an excess of fresh guinea
pig serum, will, when injected intravenously into a normal guinea
pig, cause shock and death in a few minutes.

Further the agar solution if given in sublethal doses will pro-
duce a condition of anti-anaphylaxis.

These results have been confirmed by Novy and de Kruif , Zunz
(1917) and other workers.

And so Bordet once again suggests a physical basis for ana-
phylaxis.

There, for the time being, the question must be left.

And now, aftefi; very briefly sketching in some of the more
interesting phases of the problem of the mechanism of immunity,
surely we can, whilst admitting our inability to accept any one
general hypothesis, see something of a glimmering light, perhaps
cf the dawn, and we must at least pay a tribute to the genius of
Pasteur, Lister, Metchnikoff, Ehrlich, Bcrdet, great pioneers in
a research fraught with incalculable benefits to mankind and the
creatures over which man holds sway.

286 ANTATtCTIC EXPEDITION PUBLICATIONS.

AUSTRALASIAN ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION

REPORT

ON THE

PROGRESS OF THE PUBLICATION

OF THE

scientific; results.

By Sir Douglas Mawson, B.E., D.Sc.

On the return of the Expedition to Australia at the beginning of
March. 1914, the unpaid debts of the undertaking stood at about
£5,000. Such an encumbrance was not regarded as a serious matter,
for prospective assets from the publication of a popular book, lectures,
and the sale of cinematograph rights were expected to return a far
greater sum ; sufficient, indeed, to defray, as well, the cost of the
publication of the Scientific Eesults. Unfortunately, at the very
moment when the train was well laid for the realization of these assets,
the Great War broke out, and all arrangements fell through.

In the following years it was only with the greatest difficulty that
I managed, by arduous and tiresome exertions, to obliterate this debt.
As for producing, in addition, the necessary fund to adequately pubhsh
the Scientific Reports, it was realized soon after the outbreak of war
that the achievement of such was more than could be expected under
the altered circumstances. Accordingly in October, 1914, I made an
appeal to Mr. Andrew Fisher, then Prime Minister of the Common-
wealth, explaining the position and requesting that the Common-
wealth Government should agree to defray the cost of printing all
manuscripts relating to the Expedition results such as would, in due
course, be submitted for pubUcalion. Mr. Fisher rephed that eveTy
penny was needed to prosecute the war, and the matter of several
thousand pounds could not be spared. Thus it tv^as that, late in the
year 1915, on my return from a lecturing tour in America, the matter
was brought to the notice of the South Australian Government by a
deputation led by Chief Justice Sir Samuel Way. As a result the
Premier, the Hon. Crawford Vaughan, agreed to have the printing of
the Reports carried out as odd time work, free of cost, at the
Government Printing Office.

ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION PUBLICATIONS. 287

Relieved of this load. I found it my duty to assist the National
Cause in Europe. In the meantime Professor W. A. Haswell, who had
very kindly undertaken the laborious work of editing the Botanical
and Zoological manuscri])ts, pushed on with the printing of those
Reports.

On return to Australia in May, 1919, it was discovered that the
new Premier, the Hon. A. H. Peake, had issued orders to the Govern-
ment Printer, Mr. R. E. E. Rogers, to cease printing the Reports, as
it was considered that economy demanded such a course.

Astounded by this unprecedented action in dishonouring the agree-
ment of a previous Premier, I hastened to the Mother State and placed
the case before the Premier, the Hon. W. A. Holman. As a result
an advisory committee was appointed, under the title of " Committee
on Printing of Records of Australasian Antarctic Expedition." The
committee includes Mr. W. A. Gullick (Government Printer), Mr.
Charles Hedley (Rep. Aust. Museum), and Mr. Ifould (the Chief
Librarian, Sydney, in charge of Historical Records).

After protracted negotiations, an agreement was entered into
between the Hon. W. A. Holman, Premier of the State of New South
Wales, and myself, representing the Exiedition, dated 3rd March,
1920, whereby the cost of ])rinting and distri])ution of the Records at
the Government Printing Office, Sydney, is to be defrayed by the New
South Wales Government, and, in return, the assets of the Expedition
represented by natural history collections, historical relics, manuscripts,
and photographs are to pass to the State of New South Wales.

Since that date the printing has gone forward most satisfactorily,,
thanks to the great personal attention bestowed by Mr. W. A. Gullick^
the high standard of whose work is widely recognised.

Several sums of money have been granted towards the cost of
working up and analyzing the scientific data in a form suitable for
])ublication. These include a sum of £100 from the British Association,
£2.50 from the Royal Society, and £.500 from the New Zealand Govern-
ment.

The arrangement of the matter for publication is under the following
three divisions : —

Series A. — Geography, Physiographi/, Oceanography, Geology, and

Glaciology.

The principal contributions in this Section are being prepared by
Dr. F. L. Stillwell, Lieutenant-Commander J. K. Davis, F. Chapman,
and myself. These reports will incorporate, as sections of the publica-
tion, the observations of various members of the Scientific Staff of the
Expedition detailed to execute in the field special Geographical and
Geological operations.

288 ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION PUBLICATIONS.

Arrangements are being made with several other gentlemen to
collaborate in the description of the petrologieal and mineral col-
lections.

The reports of this Section are expected to be incorporated in four
volumes.

Only one part has yet appeared, namely, Vol. III., Part I., Section I.,
" The Metamorphic "Rocks of Adelie Land," by Dr. F. L. Stillwell.
A report on the Deep Sea Muds, by Mr. F. Chapman, is ready for
publication.

Series B. — Meteorologi/, Astronomy, Tides, Magnetics, Auroral
Observations, and " Wireless " Ohservations.

The Meteorological Records of the various land stations and the
ship are being prepared for publication under the direction of Mr.
H. A. Hunt. Mr. F. J. Selby, of the National Physical Laboratory,
England, has undertaken to analyze the Tide Records.

The Records of the Magnetic Field Observations have been dealt
with under the direction of Dr. Bauer, of the Carnegie Institution;
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. The Magnetograph Records
have been measured and reduced under the direction of Mr. E. N.
Webb, who was in charge of the Magnetics at the Main Base Station,
Adelie Land. Later, in Mr. Webb's absence on active service, Professor
C. Farr and Mr. Skey, of Christchurch, New Zealand, supervised this
arduous work. Finally, the whole of the observations are being
tabulated and discussed by Dr. C. Chree, of the Magnetic Observatory,
Richmond, England.

The Auroral and '" Wireless " Observations have been prepared for
publication and discussion by myself.

It is not expected that Series B Reports can be adequately com-
pressed into less than five volumes.

Dr. Chree's main Report and the Auroral and " Wireless " logs are
now about ready for press.

Series C. — Zoologg, Botang, and Bacteriology .

The Reports in this Section are naturally very extensive, as the
following list indicates.

Thanks to Professor W. A. Haswell, who organized the programme
of the Biological Section of the Expedition, the publication of these
reports is well advanced.

antarctic expedition i'ublications. 289

Series C. — Eeports already Issued.

Vol. Ill, Part 1, Fishes.— By Mr. Edgar K. Waite, F.L.S., South
Australian Museum, Adelaide.

• Vol. III., Part 2, Pterobranchia.— By Dr. W. G. Eidewood, D.Se.,
London.

Vol. IV., Part 1, MoUusca : Pelecypoda and Gastropoda. — By Mr. C.
Hedley, F.L.S., Australian Museum, Sydney.

Vol. IV., Part 2, Mollusca : Cephalopoda.— By Dr. S. Stillman
Berry, Redlands, Cal.

Vol. IV., Part 3, Brachiopoda.— By Dr. J. Allan Thomson, M.A.,
D.Sc, Director, Dominion Museum, Wellington, New Zealand.

Vol. v., Part 1, Arachnida from Macquarie Island. — By Mr. W. J.
Rainbow, F.E.S., Australian Museum, Sydney.

Vol. v.. Part 2, Brachyura.— By Miss Mary J. Rathbun, United
States National Museum, Washington, U.S.A.

Vol. v., Part 3, Copepoda.— By Dr. G. Stewardson Brady, F.R.S.

Vol. v.. Part 4, Cladocera and Halocvpridae. — By Dr. G. Stewardson
Brady, F.R.S.

Vol. v.. Part 5, Euphausiacea and Mysidacea. — Dr. W. M. Tattersall,
D.Sc, Keeper, University Museum, Manchester.

Vol. v., Part 6, Cumacea and Phyllocarida. — By Dr. W. T. Caiman,
D.Sc, British Museum, Natural History.

Vol. v.. Part 7, Ostracoda. — By Mr. Frederick Chapman, AX.S.,
F.R.M.S., National Museum, Melbourne.

Vol. v.. Part 8, The Insects of.Macquarie Island.— Bv R. J. Tillyard,
M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., F.E.S., with Ap])endices bv Professor C. T. Brues,
Ph.D., and A. M. Lea, F.E.S.

Vol. VI., Part 1, Calcareous Sponges. — By Professor A. S. Dendy,
D.Sc, F.R.S., F.Z.S., King's College, London.

Vol. VII., Part 1, Mosses.— Bv Mr. H. N. Dixon, M.A., F.L.S., and
Rev. W. Walter Watts.

Vol. VII., Part 2, The Algae of Commonwealth Bay.— By Mr.
A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., Oxon., B.Sc, London.

Vol. VIL. Part 3, The Vascular Flora of Macquarie Island.— By T. F.
Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Auckland Museum, New Zealand.

Vol. VIL, Part 4, Bacteriological and other Researches. — By A. L.
McLean, B.A., M.D., Ch.M. (M.C.).

Series C. — Reports in Course of Preparation.
Zoology.

Foraminifera. — Mr. F. Chapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S., National Museum,
Melbourne.

Monaxonid Sponges and Tetraxonid Sponges.— ^Mr. E. F. Kallmann,
B.Sc, University, Sydney.

290 ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION PUBLICATIONS.

Hexactinellid Sponges. — Professor I. Ijima, College of Science,
Tokyo, Japan.

Hvdrozoa. — Mr. E. A. Briggs, B.Sc, Australian Museum, Sydney.

Actinozoa. — Professor J. Arthur Thomson, F.E.S., University,
Aberdeen.

Trematodes. — Dr. S. J. Johnston. University, Sydney.

C'Cstodes. — Dr. T. Harvey Johnston, University, Brisbane.

Nematodes (Free). — Dr. N. A. Cobb, Bureau of Plant Industry,
Washington, U.S.A.

Chsetognatha and Acanthocej)hala. — Dr. T. Harvey Johnston,
University, Brisbane.

Rotifera and Tardigrada. — Mr. J. Shephard, Melbourne.

Polyzoa. — Miss L. R. Thornely, Ambleside, England.

Echinoidea. — Professor R. Koehler, Universite, Lyon, France.

Asteroidea and Ophiuroidea. — Professor R. Koehler, Universite,
Lyon, France.

Crinoidea and Holothuroidea. — Professor M. Vaney, Universite,
Lyon, France.

Annulata (except Leeches). — Professor W. B. Benham, M.A., D.Sc,
F.R.S., University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.

Leeches. — -Chas. Badham, B.Sc, M.B., University of Sydney.

Crustacea Amphipoda and C. Lsopoda. — Professor C. Chilton, M.A ,
D.Sc, F.L.S.. Canterbury College, C hristchurch, New Zealand.

Crustacea Macrura and C. Cirripeda. — Miss F. Bage, M.Sc, F.L.S.,
University, Brisbane.

Mallophaga. — Dr. T. Harvey Johnston, University, Brisbane, and
Mr. L. Harrison, B.Sc, Sydney.

Ticks. — Mr. L. Harrison, B.Sc, Sydney.

Pycnogonida. — Professor T. T. Flynn, .B.Sc, University of Tas-
mania, Hobart.

Tunicates. — Professor W. A. Herdman. F.R.S., University, Liverpool,
England.

Birds. — Mr. H. Hamilton, Dominion Museum, Wellington, New
Zealand, and Mr. R. Basset Hull, Sydney.

Mammals.— Mr. H. Hamilton, Dominion Museum, Wellington, New
Zealand.

Botany.

Phytoplankton and Fresh-water Algae. — Professor F. E. Fritsch,-
University of London.

Lichens and Fungi.— Mr. E. Cheel, Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Arrangements have been made to publish Biological Logs, which are
now in course of preparation by Dr. J. G. Hunter, the chief Biologist,
and Mr. H. Hamilton, of the Macquarie Island party.

AXTAR( TIC EXPEDITION I'UBLICATION.S. 291

In addition to the specialized matter included in the three foregoing
series, it is proposed to compile a volume of narrative covering the
history of the Ex])edition. and a brief general summary of operations

It, is also ])roposed to make arrangements for the production of a
special volume of photographs, including stereogra])hic photos. The
proposal is to reproduce these in special art style, and as such a volume
must necessarily be expensive, the issue can be made only if sufficient
subscribers notify their willingness to contribute thereto. In" the
event of this proposal being further advanced an explanatory circular
will be distributed.

The many co-operators who are generously devoting their time
and specialized knowledge to the elaboration of the Expedition's
collections are due for the greatest commendation. On behalf
of the Expedition I take this opportunity to record our best thanks
for their service to Science.

Mr. W. A. Gullick, Government Printer (who is also Chairman of
the " Committee on Printing of Records of Australasian Antarctic Expe-
dition "), has in his hands all matters relating to the distribution of
the printed parts. Applications relating thereto should be addressed
to the Government Printing Office, Philip-street, Sydney.

Januarv, 1921.

292 REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

REPORTS OF RESEARCH
COMMITTEES.

SECTION A.

1. Macquane Island Committee.

{By Professor Sir Edgeivorth David, Secretary to the Committee.)

Reports havei been received from the following: — Dr. J. M.
Baldwin, ProfessoT H. S. Carslaw, Professor Coleridge Farr, Pro-
fessor Kerr Grant, Mr. C. Hedley, Mr. H. A. Hunt (Federal
Meteorologist), Mr. G. H. Knibbs, Professor T. H. Laby, Dr. E.
F. J. Love, Professor T. R. Lyle, Mr. J. H. Maiden, Professor
Orme Masson, Professor J. Priestlev, Professor J. A. Pollock,
Professor T. G Taylor.

Mr. D. C. Bates, Director of the Dominion Meteorological Office,
New Zealand, has also' kindly furnisheid a report through Pro-
fessor Coleridge Farr. The reports of the above are attached.

In ref erence^- to the question of re-opening the Wireless Station
at Macquarie Island, established there originally by the Aus-
tralasian Antarctic Expedition under the leadership of Sir Douglas
Mawson, with thei co- operation of the Meteorological Bureau of
the Commonwealth Government, paramount importance must ob-
viously be attached to the reports of the meteorologists.

Mr. H. A. Hunt, F.R.Met.S., reports as f ollows : — " The
interest and concern of this department in the re-establishment cf
the station is not now as urgent as previously.

The station was valuable to the Meteorological Bureau during
the period covered by the Mawson Antarctic Expedition in- con-
nexion with an elucidation of the question as to air currents from
the Antarctic to Australia.

There are, however, more urgent matters that require financing
immediately, and I should be diffident to approach the Govern-
ment at this juncture for the necessary funds for the upkeep of
the Macquarie Island station.

A station on Kerguelen, or the Island of St. Paul, would be
regarded even more favorably at the present time."

REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 293

Professor T. Griffith Taylor, D.Sc, at that time physiographer
to the Federal Weather Bureau, writes: — "While admitting the
gi'eat value of the records during Antarctic occupation, and as a
half-way station to the Antarctic, I feel that money can be better
speijt in ether ways in Australian meteorology.

(1) From the three years' records we now have a very fair
idea of average isobars in that region and their relation to
storms and cyclones in our seas.

(2) The longitude precluded the telegrams (radiograms)
being of any use for forecasting in Australia.

(3) The island is too far south to be much use to New
Zealand either.

(4) On the other hand I have long advocated a station of
the same type on St. Paul or Amsterdam Islands, lat. 35 deg.
S., long, 80 deg. E., in the middle of the Indian Ocean, not
far from the latitude of Melbourne (and that of Perth,
Adelaides Sydney, &c. T.W.E.D.).

(a) This is right in the middle of a great ' centre of action '

(or Permanent High), from which all our anti-
cyclones bud off.

(b) It is about five days aM^ay, as regards the travelling

Highs, and might give us invaluable data for fore-
casting just where we want it.

((■) It is close to the steamer route to Durban.

(d) No other ' centre of ajption ' has ever been occupied,
I beilieve.

Personally, I shall vote for this locality."

Mr. D. C. Bates, Director of the Dominion Meteorological Office,
New Zealand, writes: — "I have received the following letter
from the Secretary of Marine : —

' With reference to your {i.e., D. C. Bates'. T.W.E.D.)
memorandum. No. 1/7/4 of the 1st inst., on the subject of
a grant for the re-establishment and maintenance of Mac-
quarie Island Wireless Station, I have to inform you that the
Minister has decided, in view of the necessity for economy,
that he cannot see his way at present to contribute towards
the work. The question is being referred to the Lands De-
partment in case it wishes to take any action. — Robert
Duncan, Secretary.'

As I referred to other benefits, for tide survey, that would be
derived through establishing a station in the Antarctic, the Marine
Department has referred the letter to the Lands and Survey
Department."

294 REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

No communication has been forwarded to^ me as yet from the
Lands and Survey Department of the Dominion. Professor T. H.
Laby agrees substantially with the opinions already expressed by
Mr. H. A. Hunt and Professor Griffith Taylor. The remainder
of the committee with the exception of Dr. J. M. Baldwin and
Professor Kerr Grant, who adopt a non-committal attitude, favour
the re-opening of the wireless station, but do not give strong
reasons.

It may be added that Piofessor Kerr Grant and Mr. C Hedley
both suggest that the committee take up the qviestion of creating
a zoological and botanical preserve at Macquarie Island. This
.'suggestion appears to me to be well worthv of serious consideration.

Meanwhile, in view of the adverse opinion already expressed by
the professional meteorologists, it appears to me that the question
of re-establishing the wireless station at Macquarie Island for
meteorological purposes must, for the present, be postponed.

10th January, 1921.

SECTION A.

2. The Determination of Gravity in certain Critical
Localities Committee.

(By Assistant Professor Leo. A. Cotton, Secretary to the Committee.)

A preliminary account of the installation and working of the
pendulums at Burrinjuck was read before the Royal Society of
New South Wales in December, 1915. As this account has since
been published, the present statement is concerned with the sub-
sequent work.

It was noticed by the writer, and was subsequently pointed out
to him by the late J. Barrell m a personal communication, that
the direction of the main displacements recorded in the preliminary
account referred to above were not those which one would have
antici]>ated as the result of the water load. These movements
were therefore, at the time, thought to be secular in character,
and it was ho^^ed that further observations might enable the
secular movements to be separated from those due to the water
load. The preliminary measurements referred to and published
indicate clearlv that as a rule rapid changes in the water load
are accompanied by small changes in the movements of the pendu-
lums, so that there can be no doubt that the earth's crust is
actually moving from time to time under the influence of the
water load.

REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 295

The observations have been systematically carried out by the
same observer. Mr. A. Goodwiu, since the pendulums were first
established. This has, of course, been a matter of great import-
ance for the success of the investigation, as Mr. Goodwin has be-
come most proficient in the care of the instruments, and has been
able to make many useful, practical suggestions for improving the
quality of the records. Mr Campbell, the engineer in charge at
Burrinjuck, has personall}'- taken a great interest in the work, and
has, with his technical experience, been able to overcome manv
mechanical difficulties arising from the defective working of the
registering apparatus. The writer has visited the instrument at
intervals of from three to six months, has taken the periods of
the penduhims, and has kept them in proper working adjustment.

At the time when the instruments were first installed it was
the intention of the Government to have completed the building
of the dam in about three years. The outbreak of war, however,
modified their plans, and the work was largely suspended. As
the consequence of this delay the full storage capacity of the dam
at present is only about one-half of that which will be available
when the work is completed. The work will probably not be com-
pleted for another two years. It is, of course, most desirable that
the pendulums should be in operation when the full water-load
is impounded. The Irrigation Commission has been most generous
in its help, and. although the investigation has been much pro-
tracted, is still rendering all the assistance necessary for making
a success of the work.

The records obtained during the period of the war have not
been as complete as would have been desirable, but this was
inevitable, as the supplies of standard photographic paper could
not be constantly depended upon, and the records suffered in con-
sequence. On the whole, however, the records are satisfactory, but
the records cf the next two years should be the most valuable of all.

The examination of the records made since the publication of
the preliminary note in December, 1915. have served to explain
in large measure the movement which was then regarded as being
secular in character. It now appears that the movement is chiefly,
if not wholly, seasonal in character, and that it is a function of
the underground temperature.

This was first noticed by Mr. Campbell, -who drew my attention
to the similarity of the pendulum displacements and the tempera-
ture variations registered by a thermometer within the concrete
dam at a distance of about 80 feet from, the surface. The tem-
perature curve of this thermometer lags some months behind the
ordinary atmospheric temperature curve, and the pendulums
exhibit the same kind of lag in their movements.

296 REPORTS OF RE.SEARCH COMMITTEES.

As soo'n as this was recognised, thermometers were installed in
each of the pendulum ohambeTs, and these are nc«w read when the
photographic papers are changed. It is hoped by the comparison
of the temperature records for each instrument that the move-
ments due to seasonal changes in tem]>erature will be able to be
discriminated, and the deflections due to the water-load be deter-
mined.

This seasonal movement in the earth's crust opens up a new
line of investigation, and it should be possible to obtain from the
records important information with regard to the heat conduc-
tivity of the rocks, and also of their co-efficient of expansion, and
possibly, also, some information with regard to their rigidity.

It is, of course, essential for this work, as well as for the main
investigation, to have a detailed geological and topographical
survey of the area. This work was taken up' about twoi years ago,
and, though far from completion, has yielded important informa-
tion with regard to the lithological characters and rock structures
of the area under investig"ation. This work is now being carried
forward hand in hand with the ]>endulum observations.

The ineasurement of the records is not yet up to date, but is
most advanced in the case of the Heidleburg pendulum. This
pendulum has, on the whole, given the most satisfactory results,
and is that which is best placed for recording changes in the water-
load. It is, therefore, very necessary for the complete success of
the investigation toi maintain this instrument with the others until
the full water-load is available for measurement.

In October last a communication M'as received from Professor
Kruger requesting the return of the Heidelburg pendulum.
Professor Sir Edgeworth David replied, pointing out that the pen-
dulum was still in use, and that it was still required for the
investigation. He asked that it be loaned for a further period.
This request has been granted.

As may be seen by reference to page 6 of the j^rogress report
bv the Permanent Honorary Secretary, " Sums totalling £155
have been paid to this Committee in order to provide apparatus
and current expenses for the work, in anticipation of the approval
of the General Council of the Association of the sum of £K)5,
£50 having been voted at the Melbourne meeting."

The Determination of Gravity in Certain Critical Localities
Committee, therefore, fonnally requests that the additional sum
of £105 be voted in confirniation.

The Committee has to report that the funds above mentioned
have now been exhausted, and begs to apply for an additional
S^rant of £50.

REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

297

SECTION A.

3. Tidal Survey Committee.

, The following Keport by Professor R. W. Chapman, of Adelaide,
on Tide Gauges and Predictions in Australia, has been forwarded by
Mr. C. E. Adams, Government Astronomer and Seismologist, New
Zealand.

Tide Gauges akd Predictions.

N.S.W.

South
Australia

Victoria

Western
Australia

Tasmania
Queensland

Number

of Automatic

Tide

Gauges.

Seven

Five

One

Four

Two
Four

Situation of Gauges.

Camp Cove, near South
Head (Sydney Harbor);
Fort Denison (Sydney
Harbor) ; Cockatoo Is-
land (Sydney Harbor) ;
Ballina (Richmond
River) ; Yamba (Clar-
ence River) ; entrance
of Macleay River ; en-
trance to Newcastle

Dockyard, Port Adelaide ;
Queen's Wharf, Port
Pirie ; Beachport Jetty ;
Port Lincoln Town
Jetty ; Cape Thevenard
Jetty

Breakwater
liamstown

Pier, Wil-

Fremantle ; Port Hedland,

North-west Coast;
Perth; Henderson Naval
Base

Castray Esplanade, Ho-

bart ; Macquarie Heads,

Strahan
Two on the Brisbane

River ; Two on the

Fitzroy.

Tidal Predictions

The Sydney Records have
been sent to the United
States Coast and Geo-
detic Survey, where the
records have been sub-
jected to harmonic ana-
lysis, and tidal predic-
tions for each year are
issued in the General
Tide Tables published
by that Department.

The records for Port Ade
laide have been analyzed
and local jiredictions are
published each year by
the Harbors" Board,
made on a special form
of tide predicting mac-
hine devised by Captain
Inglis and described m
the Trans. A.A.A.S.,
Vol. VII. Predictions
for Port Adelaide, based
upon the same analysis,
are also published in the
United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey general
tide tables each year.

Tidal i:)redictions are issued
in the general tide tables
of the United States
Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey.

Records have been analyzed
at the Perth Observatory,
and predictions for Port
Hedland are issued in
the general tide tables of
the United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey.

Records have not been
analyzed and no pre-
dictions are made.

298 KEPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

SECTION A.

4. Seismological Committee.

Summary of Report on Pacific Earthquakes.

{By G. Angenheister, Samoa : communicated by Dr. J. M. Baldwin,
M.A., Secretary to the Committee.)

1. Ejyicenfre of Tonga Earthqitakcs.

The epicentres of all main Tonga earthquakes, 13 Megaseisms
(1907-1919)', 77 larger, &c., ones (1913-1919) are situated all on
the Tonga-plateau, on the western side of the Tonga-depth.
According to observations the intensity of gravity at the Tonga-
plateau shows a surplus of -I- 0.17 cm. Over the Tonga-depth the
intensity is — 0.25 cm. too low. Therefore, the pressure of masses
must be directed from the Tonga-plateau to the Tonga-depth, just
wliere the epicentres of the earthquakes are h^ing.

2. T'llt'nni of the (jioiiikI duiinci Eai-lhqual-cs.

. Bv star observations with a meridian transit it could be proved
that 8 mill, after the beginning of a very strong earthquake of
degree VIII. (Mercalli), the vibrations did not contain any tilting
of the ground of 2" or more.

3. The Time Curve.
The time curve of the first preliminary tremor P could be con-
tinued to 145" distance from the enicentre (for A = 145° is
P = 1,040 sec). For A = 100" PP is divided into two parts, the
quicker part arrives at Zl =177" after 1.210 sec.

4. Speed of P> eliminari/ Tremor iiiu/i r Oeean nnd Continent .

The comparison of the first (P) and second (S) preliminary
tremor of Tongan earthquakes recorded in Apia with P and S
derived from contiiiental earthquakes recorded in Europe shows
that P and S are running quicker under the Pacific than under
the European co,ntinent.

The differences between sub-Pacific and sub-continental seismic
waves are the greatest for about A =6", being there 13 sec. for
P and 25 sees, for S ; for A =18" these differences are not greater
than 2 sec. For A = 6" the maximum depth (Scheiteltiefe) to
which P and S submerge into the earth is about 50 klm. So the
differences between sub-oceanic and sub-continental P and S are
at a maximum for rays entirely running in an upper crust of
50 klm. thickness which, therefore, may be the thickness of the
upper solid earth crust. The mean velocity of S under the Pacific
Ocean is about 18 per cent, greater than under the European con-
tinent.

REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMTTTEES. 299

5. Speed of Main phase {Long Waves) under Ocean and. Confuioif.

(a) The comparison of th© records of the Aleuten earthqiiake
l.V. 1915 and of the Kamschatka earthquake 31. VII. 1915 at two
stations of equal epicentral distance, at Apia and at Tiflis, shows
that longwaves are running at about 21 — 26 per cent, quicker
under the Pacific Ocean than under the Asiatic Continent.

(b) A detailed analysis of the Apia records shews that the main
phase of these earthquakes begins with transverse waves ot" puiely
horizontal displacement at right angles to the direction of propa-
gation, which is followed by Rayleigh waves of horizontal move-
ment in the direction of propagation, and vertical movenient. The
ratio of velocity of both transverse and Rayleigh waves, being 0.91
for these earthquakes, is in very good accord with the theory which
demands 0.92.

(c) The transverse, the Rayleigh waves, and the Coda being a
residual phenomencn confined to the- upper solid crust of the earth,
the transverse waves of the main phase have the) same velccit}^ of
propagation as S in the upper crust. The diffei'ence of velocity
under ocean and continent for S at Zl =6° where S is confined to
the upper crust and for transverse M'aves of the main phase are
very nearly equal.

(r/) The results of observations of gravity over contments and
ocean suggest that the density of the solid earth crust under
ocean is greater than under continents, and compensates the
smaller weight of water. Therefore, we cannot attribute the
increase in velocity to a decrease in density, and we must assume
that the increase in velocity is caused by a higher rigidity under
ocean.

6. Period of Transverse Waves under Ocean and ('outineni and

Thickness of the Upper Crust.

The comparison of records of Japan, Kamschatka, and Aleuten
earthquakes at Samoa, and at Gottingen and Tiflis, shows that the
periods of Coda waves are about 3 sec. longer under the Pacific
(17.5 sec.) than under the Asiatic continent (14.5 sec). If the
upper solid earth crust is resting on a sheet of plastic material
(Magma), a purely transverse wave may oscillate with the period
of the natural vibration of this crust, the thickness of this layer
being half the wave length. The main and Coda phase of earth-
quake records may contain such vibrations.

Combining velocity and the period of the natural vibration, we
get a thickness of the upper eolid earth crust under the Pacific
Ocean of 41 klm., under the Asiatic continent of 28 kim. Accord-
ing to H. Faye, the better conducting over-lying water makes the
cooling of the upper earth crust under ocean progress quicker
than under continent. Therefore, he suggests the solid earth crust
may be thicker under ocean than under continent.

300 REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

7. The Absorption of Energy.

The comparison of the maximum movement of the Aleuten and
Alaska earthquake shows that the maximum horizontal displace-
ment at both stations, Apia and at Tiflis, was nearly in the
azimuth of the epicentre, as it must be expected for Rayleigh wavee.
The displacenient in Tiflis was much larger than in Apia, in spite
of the very nearly equal epicentral distance. The coefficient of
absorpticn o'f the energy per kilometre under the Pacific Ocean is
0.00036, under the Asiatic continent 0.00012.

]\ ote : Attention is drawn to the resolution of the General
Council regai"ding the Samoan Observatory at Apia (see page
\xviii).

SECTION C.

1. Glacial Phenomena Committee.

The following reports are forwarded herewith : —

A. Tasmania, by Loftus Hills, M.B.E., M.Sc, Government

Geologist.

B. South Ait^stralia, by Professor Walter Howchin, F.G.S.
C New Zealand, by Professor R. Speight.

T. W. EDGE WORTH DAVID,

Secretary.

A, Notes on Observations on Glaciation in Tasmania, made

since 1912.

Glacial Cirques.

A considerable number of these have been recognised and
described.

In the Jukes-Darwin district seven have been described and
named by the writer in Bulletin 16 of Geological Survey of Tas-
mania, pp. 15-17.

Five of these are situated on the eastern side of the range, and
two on the western. They represent various stages in the life
history of cirques. The South Darwin and Clark cirques are both
examples of an early stage in development: the East Darwin and
Garfield cirques have advanced a vstage further, and may be

REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 3( *1

likened to a nail wiih a large rounded bead. The IMain Juke^j and
Lake Jukes cirques are both of mature age, and are in reality com-
posite in character. At the head of the Lake Jukes cirque two
glacial lakes occur.

On the south-eastern })ortion of Mt. Read a glacial cirque

occurs, the basin of which is occupied by Lake Johnston. On the

eastern side of Mt. Tyndal a cirque of large dimensions occurs,
which the writer proposes to name the Rolles'ton Cirque.

Recently the writer has recognised a large cirque on the south-
eastern slopes of Mt. Owen.

Professor W. N. Benson, D.Sc, has described three large
cirques on eastern and north-eastern sides of Cradle Mountain, in
a paper read before the Royal Society of Tasmania. Each is
characterized by the presence of a lake, named, respectively, Lakes
Rodway, Dove, and Grater.

The moraines from the glaciers on the eastern side of the Jukes-
Darwin ridge have been definitely shown not to descend below
420 feet above present sea level. The Clark Valley, between Mts.
Darwin and Sorell, is a typical U-shaped glacial valley, and its
terminal moraines cannot be observed below an elevation of 700
feet above sea level.

The moraines at Williamsford and Rosebery are not observed
to descend below 1,170 and 750 feet respectively.*

The Gormanston moraine, in'the Linda Valley, has not been
observed below 800 feet.

The extensive moraine in the Boco valley and plain has its lower
limit at the 1,200 feet contour. (Geol. Surv. Tas., Bull. 28.)

Pi-ofessor Benson's obseTvations show that the moraines in the
vicinity of Cradle Mountain do not extend below the 2,900-feet
contour.

A. Mcintosh Reid has recognised a glacial valley running north-
westwards from the valley of the Macintosh River towards the
Boco plain. The present maximum height of the glacial erratics
is 1,700 feet, and the terminal morraine, as indicated above, does
not descent below 1,200 feet. (Geol. Surv. Tas., Bull. 30.)

(lencidl Ohxerrnfions.

The geneiral impression that has been formed as the result of
these observations as to the location of the glaciers and their
moraines is that there did not exist, at least on the West Coast
range, a sufficiently extensive and continuous area of ice which
coufd be termed an ice-sheet. The ice seems to have been restricted

* Geol. Surv. Bulls., Tas., 19 and 23.

302 REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

to individual glaciers of thei mountain type known as " valle\
glaciers." Reid's observations in regard to the Macintosh-Boco
glacier seems to suggest the existence of " piedmont glaciers."

The relative ages of the glaciation and the development of the
West Coast peneplain has been finally determined, as some of the
moraines are well below the surface of the latter, but the exact
relationship between the glaciers and the uplift or uplifts
responsible for tlie existing cycle of erosion is still uncertain.

LOFTUS HILLS, M.B.E., M.Sc,
Government Geologist, Gormanston, Tasmania.

24th June, 1920.

B. — Extract.

Extract from a letter from Professor Walter Howchin, Ade-
laide : —

" 22nd June, 1920.

" I received your letter having reference to the Glacial Research
Committee report for the Hobart meeting. I really do not think
I have anything fresh to report. In our last short vacation I went
north to Quorn, and beyond, and in the rough country between
the latter and Port Augusta lit upon another occurrence of the
Cambrian glacial tillite, overlain, as usual, by the Tapley's Hill
shale and Brighton limestorie ; but, although I traced the beds for
several miles, I was unable, through want of time, to reach the
base of the tillite. I shall probably have to do the other end of
the section from Port Augusta.

The Brighton limestone represented is a most remaikable rock.
It is oolitic in structure, and brecciated after the style of "desic-
cation " (or intraformational) conglomerate. The included frag-
ments are oolitic as well as the base, and, curiously, the larger
brecciated fragments include other breccias in smaller fragments
within them. Their structure is not of a limestone kind, but is
characteristic thi-oughoiit the limestone, which is very thick."

C. — Glacial Notes from New Zealand.

Among the most important observations made during the past
five years are those connected with the striated boulder discovered
by Professor Park in the valley of the Rangitikei River, in the
North Island. If this is definitely accepted as glacial, then its
presence will demonstrate the- existence of glacial conditions in
former times over a large area of the middle region of New Zea-
land. The conclusion as to the glacial origin of the boulder has
been strongly opposed by Trechmann (Geol. Magazine, 1917, p.
242), who considers that the scratches on its under surface have
been caused by the rock sliding down a steep, rough slope. While
it is difficult to accoimt fm- the presence of such a large boulder

KEPORTS OF KESEARCH COMMITTEES. 303

in the situation in which it now lies without introducing the trans-
porting action of ice. yet the absence in the neighbourhood of the
block of the train of phenomena that usually accompanies glacia-
tion, rather militates against Prof. Park's conclusion being de-
finitely accepted at present. Its case might be analogous to that
cf the large blocks carried by the mud streams issuing from the
Soufriere of St. Vincent, and deposited en the low-lying ground
at the base of the volcano, for this block lies in a valley which
reaches up to the snow-clad volcano of Ruapehu, and it is quite
easy to imagine that when the snows melted in former times as a
result of eruptions, powerful torrents issued therefrom quite com-
petent to move such a block.

In the same paper Treehmann also denies the glacial origin of
the great deposit of angular material flanking the hills to the east
lyi the Taieri Plain, in Otago, and known generally as the Henley
Moraine. He notes the absence of striated pebbles, and also points
out that the stratification probably indicates deposit by water.
Although Treehmann is nO' dcubt correct in his cpinion as to the
origin of the deposit, yet it must be observed that striated pebbles
are, according to my experience, generally absent from undoubted
morainic matter on tlie eastern side of the Southern Alps,
although certain deposits formerly asso'ciated with sub-glacial
streams are locally very rich in them.

Trechmann's opinion is strongly supported by the work of
Marshall on the gold deposits of the Tuapeka district. The latter
pcints out that there is a similar dencsit at the base cf the gold
bearing series of ' that locality (Bwll. 19, X.Z. Geol. Survey) with
no evidence of glacier action, the supposed pavements of the Blue
Spur and other sluicing claims being the slickensided surface of
very flat fault planes. If it be granted that these and the Heiiley
deposits are not morainic, then the main evidence for the former
existence of ice-sheet conditions over the coastal region of Otago
practically disappears.

The former extension of the glaciers beyond limits usually
assigned has been emphasized in two bulletins of the New Zealand
Geological Survey. In Bulletin No. 17, dealing with the West-
port subdivision, Morgan and Bartrum show that glaciers came
down almost to sea level on Addison Flat which lies to the west
of the mouth of the Buller River, while the mountains in the
vicinity, the Paparoa and Glasgow Ranges and Mount Rochfort.
all show traces of glacial sculpture^as well as heaps cf angular blocks
that may well be old moraines. In Bulletin No. 18, dealing with
the Reefton District, Henderson notes the former presence of
glaciers on the Victoria and Paparoa Ranges lying further south
than those referred to by Morgan and Bartrum, and of piedmonts
at the base of these mountains occupying a large part of the
floor of the valley of the Big Grey. While he classifies these
deposits as of Pleistocene age he notes the presence of deposits

304 KEPORTS OP RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

of glacial origin of more recent date. These cibservatiOTis clearly
indicate that parts of the north-west uf the South Island, not
hitherto credited with being glaciated, underwent a somewhat
severe glaciation in Pleistocene times, the nearness of the lower
slopes to somewhat high mountains being no doubt largely respon-
sible for extension of the glaciers to low levels in that region.

In papers dealing with the Cass (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 48,
1916) and the Hurunui Districts (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51,
1918). Speight deals with the physiographic features of these
localities resulting from glaciation.

Park has drawn attention in a note entitled " The Rate of
Erosion of the Hooker and Mueller Glaciers" (Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 49, 1917), to an impoi'tant factor in estimating the rate of
erosion of a glaciated valley from the silt content of the rivers
issuing from the terminal faces of the glaciers. He emphasizes the
fact that the fine matter susj^ended in glacial streams is not derived
entirely from sub-glacial erosion, but from dust, etc., collected
on the surface of the glacier and included in the veve.

Observations have been made on the position of the terminal face
of the Franz Josef Glacier by Mr. Alec. Graham, the well-known
guide, who' lives near the glacier. These have been summarized
and published by Speight (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47. 1915).
They show that the ice has retreated an average distance of
170 feet over the M'hole front since Dr. Bell made his observations
in 1910, and that there was alsoi a shrinkage of the ice fui'ther
up-stream. However, the presence of waves or pulses in the upper
parts oi the glacier, which are steadily moving downstream, indicate
a possible advance within a reasonable time, when the effect of
these pulses has reached the vicinity of the terminal face.

Quite recently (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 52, 1920, p. 107),
Professor Park has made the announcement of the discovery near
the month of the Taieri en the south-east coast of Otago, of a
breccia containing striated botilders in strata of Palaeozoic age.
He is inclined to think that these are of glacial origin though he
does not say so definitel}^ If his tentative conclusion is correct,
then this is one of the most interesting discoveries in connexion
with New Zealand glaciology made for many years. Even if the
rocks where the breccia occurs have the Trias-Jura age assigned
to them by Marshall, the announcement is the first report of the
existence of glaciers in the New Zealand area from beds which
are older than the Cainczoic. It is to be hoped that subsequent
investigation may endorse Park's tentative conclusion.

R. SPEIGHT

Canterbury Museum,

Christchurch, New Zealand.

REPORTS OP RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 305

SECTION C.

2. Alkaline Rocks Committee.

{By Professor Ernest W. Skzats, D.Sc. A.R.C.Sc, F.G.S., Secretary
to the Committee.)

Since the last meeting of the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science in Melbourne in 1913, increase of know-
ledge of alkaline rocks in Australia has, so far as has come under
my notice, occurred in Queensland, Tasmania, and Victoria.

Queensland.

In this State. Professor H. C. Richards, D.Sc, has made two
important contributions to our knowledge of alkaline rocks. In
an exhaustive paper on the Volcanic Alkaline Rocks of South-
Eastern Queensland\ he has made known the existence of
extensive areas of trachytic rocks with trachytic pitchstones as
selvages to lava flows and of associated trachytic tuffs. These
occupy wide areas in South-eastern Queensland, and always occur
between an older and a younger series of basaltic flows. The reck
types are fully described and analyzed. More recently he has
described an additional area of trachytic and asscciated rocks
from near Springsure, in Central Queensland-. In this paper
the same association of alkali rocks intercalated between an
older and newer basaltic series was found. Again, too, is noted
the association of , pitchstone as a glassy selvage at the base of a
flow of alkaline trachyte. The rocks consist of trachytes, trachytic
tuffs, pitchstone, and, in addition at Virgin Reck, Professor
Richards records the occurrence of a phonolite containing
anorthcclase, sanidine, and nosean, augite granules and magnetite.
An analysis shows 67.32% of SiO,. 10.61% of alkalies divided
between Na,0 5.32% and K.O 5.29%. The bearing of the field
occurrence of these rocks on the various theories of the origin of
the alkaline rocks is discussed. In the same paper attention is
recalled to the fact that Dr.' Jack, in the Annual Report of the
Mines Department, Queensland, in 1894, described as trachyte
certain " necks " such as Mt. Gamia, Pigeon House, St. Peter and
Little St. Peter

Tfis/iut/iui .

The only advance in knowledge from Tasmania which has come
under my notice is in a paper by the writer on the age of the
alkali rocks of Port Cygnet, and the d'Entrecasteaux Channel
m South-east Tasmania. 3 For long the age of the interesting
alkali complex at Port Cygnet and other localities in South-east

1. Proc. Roy Soc, Queensland, Vol. XXVII.(2), 19i6.
2. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland Vol. XXX.
3. Proc. Roy. Soc, Vict., Vol. XXIX. (n.s.), Part II. March, 1917.

306 REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Tasmania had been in doiibt. The late Mr. Twelvetrees had
provisionally placed them at the .top of the Permo-Carboni-
ferous series as they obviously intruded the lower members of that
series at Port Cygiiet, but had hitherto not been proved to be
intrusive into the late mesozoic diabase or other rocks younger
than the Permo Carboniferous. The paper describes a dyke of
alkali poTphyry, similar to some of the Port Cygnet rocks, which
was observed at Little Oyster Cove, Kettering, to intersect the
diabase. The age of this rock and probably those of the related
rocks at Port Cygnet and elsewhere in the district is therefore
regarded as pest diabase, i.e., post-mesozoic. A co-mparison is
made of the alkali rocks of South-eastern Tasmania with other
Australian occurrences, whose age is known in some cases to be
probably mid-Cainczoic. On grounds cf general petrographic
similarity it is believed that the alkali rocks m South-eastern
Tasmania are to be referred to the same geological period.

Y icfoi'la.

The writer read a short paper on the tertiary alkali rocks of
Victoria at the Melbourne meeting of the British Association in
1914, which is published under section C. In it a brief synopsis
is given of what was known up to that time of the distribution
of alkali rocks in Victoria. Apart from occurrences described
by the writer in the Brisbane volume of the Australasian Assceia-
tion in 1909, in a Presidential address on the Volcanic Rocks of
Victoria, and a note by the writer on the occurrence of nepheline
in dykes at Omeo, in the Sydney volume in 1911, and the publica-
tion by Dr. Summers and the writer of a Geological Survey Eulle-
tm 24, on the rocks of the Mo^mt Macedon area, certain additional
types and localities are referred to. Further work at Omeo showed
that all the alkali recks are probably Cainozoic in age, and that
surrounding a central plug of solvsbergite there occur lavas of
sccriaceous anoithoclase trachyte, and numerous more or less
radial dykes. Most of these are trachytic, some contain quartz,
one at least is a bostonite and seven prove to be dykes of nepheline
phonolite. These occurrences have not yet been fully described.
The resemblance of the rocks of Mt. Leinster, in North-eastern
Victoria, to those of Omeo, and to some C'f those of the Macedon
district is referred to. About 14 miles north-east from Mansfield,
in North-central Victoria and about 3 miles from Tolmie, in the
Tclmie highlands a volcanic hill, known locally as Gallows Hill, has
been shown by the writer to consist of lava flows of nej^heline
phonolite of probably late Cainczoic age. A nepheline phonolite
has also been recognised from Barwite, east of Mansfield, but
it is not known whether the rock is " in situ," and no detailed
account of these rocks has yet been published.

In the paper before the British Association the question of
the relation of these alkali rocks of Victoria toi Cainozoic elevatory
movements of a plateau is tentatively discussed.

REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 307

In the same volume Dr. Summers mentions the occurrence of
essescite near Kyneton.

Since 1914, a considerable number of additional types and
occurrences of alkali rocks of various kinds in Victoria have come
under the writer's notice. Most of them he has found in the
field, while others have been submitted to him for examination
and report. No description, however, of these rocks about to
be referred to has yet been published.

The recks occur in Western, in Central, and in Ncrth-eastern
Victoria.

From Western Victoria, the writer found some years ago an
aboriginal quarry a few miles south from Mt. Staveley and among
the material, apparently not '"in situ," was a phonolite or allied
rock containing soda-sanidine, aegirine augite, probably scdalite
and radial zoolites.

At a students' Geological Survey camp in January, 1914, in the
Casterton district, a dyke of quartz oligoclase trachyte was found
on Gilbca's Hill, parish of Wando. In another locality in the
same parish a small lava flow of a trachy-phonolite was found, and
en Deep Creek, also in the parish of Wando, another lava flow cf
trach3''-phonolite was noted. In the same parish, a small basic lava
flow was found to contain small crystals of nepheline, and is ])ro-
bably a nepheline basalt.

From Central Victoria, in the Macedon district, a small flow
of trachyte running south from the Camel's Hixmp, which had
escaped previous notice, has beeft observed recently owing to the
formation of a road cutting.

In addition, the laboratory examination of material from a vent
a few miles north-east of Woodend shows the presence in that
district of a rather interesting agglomerate. Some of the frag-
ments are quartz-bearing pieces of the Ordovician sediments,
others are fragments of an alkali igiieous rock with abundant
well-shaped, but minute sections of nepheline, indicating the
existence of nepheline phonolite in the Macedon district. This is
the first undoubted recognition of the occurrence of a felspathoid
bearing rock in that region. Earlier references to nosean and
to melilite have been shown to' be inaccurate or unsubstantiated.
During another students' Geological Survey camp at Greendale,
north of Bacchus Marsh, in January, 1915, a small basaltic outcrop
near the township proves to contain abundant minute crystals
of nepheline, and the rock appears to be a nepheline basalt.

North-west from Greendale. two outstanding volcanic hills
consist of alkali rich types.

Mt. Wilson, fi mile? west-north-west of Blackwood township,
ifc composed of lava flows of ncipheline scdalite phonolite, oi- since
the felspathoids are present in subordinate amount the rock may
better be desicribed as a trachy-phonolite.

1084—19

308 REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Blue Mountain (Wuid Kruirk), on the Main Divide, 4 miles
north of Blackwood township, consists of a volcanic rock which
somewhat resembles some of the basic trachytes of the Macedon
district. It may be described as an anorthoclase-oliviue-trachyte.

Thefee rocks from Western and Cetntral Victoria ?<rei most
probably of mid to late Cainozcic age, and are to' be described
later in a publication of the Geological Survey of Victoria.

An olivine-anortlicclase trachyte occurs at the north end of Stony
Creek Gorge, 1^ miles south from Daylesford.

From North-eastern Victoria, a few years ago, the Country
Roads Board submitted tc^ the writer for examination a boulder
found among the coarse gravels of the Ovens Valley, near Bright.
On microscopic examination it proved to be an alkali rock of a
type hitherto ixndescribed in Victoria. It contains nepheline and
aegirinei in a fine^ grained ground mass and is probably a dyke
fock, and so is best described as a tinguaite.

. Recently the writer has described a series of dyke rocks, collected
by Mr. Kenny, of the Geological Survey of Victoria, during the
inapjjing of an area between Hairietville and the Main Divide,
in the watershed cf thei Upper Ovens River. They occur as igneous
intrusions intO' slate and sandstone beids, probably of Lower
Ordovician age. Brief reference will suffice here as the descrip-
tions are to be published as an appendix to Mr. Kenny's report
in a Geological Survey publication. No less than eight of these
rocks are of a highly alkalic character. Five cf these rocks
occur as small volcanic pipes ranging up to about 20 acres in area ;
while the remainder are dykes from a few feet up' to 75 feet in
width.

All these eight rocks contain nepheline, alkali-felspar and
soda augite, and the rocks consist of tinguaites and nepheline
phonolites.

It is now probable that the boulder of tinguaite from the
Ovens Valley, near Bright, mentioned above, was derived from
this remarkably interesting area of alkali-rich igneous rocks.
Their age, apart from being post Lower Ordovician, cannot be
definiteiy placed, but is quite probably not older than Mid-
.Cainosoic, since some of the rock types are little, if at all, altg^red.

It will be noticed, in conclusion that, up till 1911, when the
writer first described the ej^istence oi nepheline in dykes at Omeo,
no felspathoid bearing rocks had been definitely recognised in
Victoria. Since that date, 25 felspathoid bearing rocks have been
recognised or described apart from other alkali rocks of a lessi
alkaline character. With these additions to' our census of alkali
rocks, Victoria must now rank as a definitely alkali-rich province,
and there can be no doubt that closer examination of our Cainozoic
volcanic rocks Mill in the future ccnsiderablv extend this list.

REPORTS OF RESEARCH COiMMITTEES. 3()9

SECTION C.

3. Physiographic Features of Australasia Committee.

{By E. C. Andrews, Secretary to the Committee.)

GENERAL STATEMENT.

Very important advances have been mad© in our knowledge of
Australasian physiography since the Melbourne Meeting of 1913.
The work accomplished is a tribute to the soundness of the prin-.
ciples laid down by the brilliant school of American physio-
graphers, such as Davis, Button, Gannett, Gilbert, and Powell.

Among the many problems discussed during the past decade
are : —

(1) The Geographical Unity of the Pacific Region during

the Cainozcic Period, based upon a knowledge of the
symmetrical aiTangement of its oceanic " Deeps," its
seismic and volcanic zones, its plateaux, the stage of
dissection of the latter, and eo on.

(2) The change of climate in Cainozoic Time. This has

been considered especially by Speight and Taylor.

(3) The history of the flowering plants of Australia as told

by their re'sponse to' a changing environment. This
has been considered by Andrews and Cockayne.

(4) The evolution of land forms in areas of subaricUty and

of aridit}-. Considered by Gregory, Jutson, and
others.

(5) The emergence aud submergence of coasts.

(6) The erosive wcxk of glaciers in recent times. This has

been considered by Andi'ews, Benson, T. W. E.
David, and Loftus Hills. T. L. Taylor has studied
this in Antarctica.

(7) The criteria of faulting, as considered by Andrews, Ben-

son, C. A. Cotton, David, Fenner, Jutson, Sussmilch,
and Taylor. The work of C. A. Cotton in New Zea-
land is notable in this connection.

Jensen and Jutson have devoted attention especially to the
questions cf erosion in Northern and Western Au'itrali.i lespec-
tively. Howchin has discussed the physiography of South Aus-
tralia. Benson and Loftus Hills have thrown considerable light
on glacial action in Tasmania within recent time, while many
observers, such as Blatchford, Leo A. Coitton, David, H. E.:
Gregory, J. W. Gregory, Harper, Hedley, Maitland, Marks,
Montgomery, Poole, Somerville, Woodward, and Woolnough, have
added greatly also to our knowledge of physiographic process in
Australia.

310 REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

The report presented herewith consists of short statements by
various writers of the work done in the various States and the
Dominion of New Zealand — Sussmilch for New South Wales,
Richards and Jensen for Queensland and the Northern Ten-itory,
Fenner and Chapman for Victoria, Ward and Fenner for South
Australia, Jutson for Western Australia, and C. A. Cotton for
New Zealand — these beinor introduced by a very brief note on the
Geographical Unity of Australasia and the associated islands.

GENERAL.

' Andrews considers that Australia and the outlying island-rings
constitute a portion of the greater geographical unit of the Pacific.
This Australasian fragment has a fivefold division consisting" of: —

(i) A low plateau known as Western Australia.

(ii) A block, relatively sunken, forming South Australia and
the Northern Territory.

(iii) A ring of j^lat^au, plain, and coast, known as Eastern
Australia.

(iv) A complex area of inland seas, comprising the Tasman,
Coral, Java, Timor, and Arafura examples.

(v) A compound ring of islands separated by ocean depths and
forming high vclcanie piles and plateaux of ccral and
sedimentary rocks in various stages of dissection.

Of these. Western Australia., according to Jutson, forme a compact
plateau, with shattered margins rising from 1,000 feet in the
south-west to 2,^000 and 3,000 feet above sea-level in the north-
eastern portions. Very few structural gaps are recorded from
this great block. No. ii, or the central region, is lowlying in
general, but is brolcen by fault blocks arranged in two sets, one
north and sovith and the other east and west.

The eastern side of Australia consists of plains bounded by
plateaux arranged parallel to the coast from Thursday Island to
the mountains of south-western Victoria. This plateau system is
narrower, but much higher than that of Western Australia, and,
moreover, it is not so ccnipact as the latter, inasmuch as it is
broken by erosional or structural gaps, as at Townsville, Rock-
hampton, Toowocmba, Cassilis, and along the BendigO' line.

The main structural gap may be coiisidered to be that of Bass'
Straits. Most of the gaps are arranged radially from South-Wes-
tern Australia as a centre. The inland seas represent areas more
depressed than that of Central Australia, nevertheless somewhat
parallel to it. The outlying island-rings mark plateaux narrower,
but higher, than the Eastern Australian types. Neverthe-
less, these plateaux are separated from each other by radial de-
pi'essions as from a centre in South- Western Australia. The de-
pressions are oceanic in depth.

REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 311

These peculiar geographical features appear to be due to earth
movements of the same age and dating from, the' earlier Tertiary
to' the present, the great heights of the plateau prcduced thus
being determined by a movement during what is known as the
Kosciusko Period, representing either the close of the Cainozoic
or a very late stage in that period. The movement was not made
at one step, but in many stages, the area of greatest stability being
in South-Western Australia, and the area of maximum instability
being on the outer island-rings, where later movements have raised
Pleistoceinei coral reefs variably such that they occur at all levels
to 2,000 feet above sea-level, while in the same region other coral
reefs of the same age appear to have been faulted or warped simul-
taneously to great depths below sea-level. In the earlier stages
these uplifts were punctuated with long pauses during which wide
valleys were formed, many representing incomplete peneplains.
Elevations after planation were preceded by move,ment9 cf depres-
sion of short duration.

During the later revivals of movement the periods of standstill
separating the vertical movements became less and less in duration.
This marked .a condition of increasing instability for the period
considered. During the whole Kosciusko Period the vertical move-
ments were more pronorinced in amount in directions north and
east along radii as from a south-western centre near Perth. This
marks a condition of increasing crustal instability as frora Perth
towards the Solomons and to New Zealand along radii from South -
Western Australia. The finest recent example of this is shown
by the great movements, up-and-down, of the Pleistocene Coral
Reefs in the outer or eastern island rings, and the very gentle
movements shown along the continental margin at the same time.
These movements appear to have been rhythmic in space and
time, the upward movements being arranged on curves, convex to
the Pacific, and the downward movements in corresponding
troughs. These gaps separating the island areas appear to have
an indirect relation, structurally, toi the main breaks in the
Eastern Australian plateaux, such as those of the Darling Downs,
of Cassilis, and of the Charters Towers-Townsville area.

Moreover, each main detail in this wonderful unit has had a
history similar tO' that of the whole. Thus the Mundi Mundi fault
at Broken Hill, seen first b}'^ Benson, has had a conplex history.
The main direction of the fault-zone is north and south ; the
to'pography to-day is the algebraic sum of the revivals of faulting
on an old zone of weakness, the revived topography in the earlier
stages being profoiundly modified by erosion between successive
movements of faulting, while the later movements mark an ever-
growing instability of the crust in that region.

312 REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

A.^ — Additions to our Knowledge of the Physiography of
New South Wales during the Past Decade.

{By C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S.).

Many important additions have been made to O'ur knowledge
of the physiography of New South Wales during the past ten
years; the most important of these are, briefly, as follows: —
E. C. Andrews, in 1910\ contributed an important paper on the
Physiographical Unity of Eastern Australia. In this he describes
the general topography, with special reference to the fault-blocks,
river-systems, and deep leads. He demonstrates that the whole of
Eastern Australia has acted as a single unit throughout Tertiary
and Recent times, and describes the Tertiary and post-Tertiary
history in considerable detail, and also points out the influence
which the changes in the topography have had upon the Austra-
lian flora and fauna. In the same year Mr. Andrews-