Full text of "Report on the results of investigations into cidermaking, carried out on behalf of the Bath and west and southern counties society in the years 1893-1902"

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REPORT

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C I D E R - M A K I N G ,

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BATH AND WEST AND SOUTHERN COUNTIES

SOCIETY

IN THE YEARS 1893-1902,

F. J. LLOYD, F.C.S., F.I.C.

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BOARD OF AGRICULTURE AND
FISHERIES.

REPORT

ON THE

RESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS

INTO

CIDER-MAKING,

CARRIED OUT ON BEHALF OF THE

BATH AND WEST AND SOUTHEBN COUNTIES

SOCIETY

IN THE YEARS 1893-1902,

F. J. LLOYD, F.C.S., F.I.C.

$Jrt0*nteb ta both Bouses of Jpatlianwnt bg (Eommatvb of g)i0

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CLC.

CONTENTS.

Pagt

INTRODUCTION ix

Cleanliness x

THE CONSTITUENTS OF APPLES AND APPLE JUICE 1

THE ANALYSIS OF APPLES, APPLE JUICE, AND CIDER 2

The Hydrometer 3

The Saccharometer ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4

Estimation of Solids 4

Do. Acidity 4

Do. Sugar 5

Do. Tannin ... 5

Do. Alcohol 6

Do. Albumin, &c 9

Do. Salicylic Acid 9

THE SEASONS 1893 TO 1902 11

THE INFLUENCE OF SEASON ON APPLES AND THE APPLE CROP ... 16

THE INFLUENCE OF LOCALITY ON APPLES 18

THE ORCHARDS 18

Apple Trees 18

Varieties of Apples 19

French Cider Apples ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 19

Best Varieties 20

Unnamed Apples 22

Buying Apples 22

Action of Frost on Apples 22

GATHERING THE APPLES 23

Rotten Apples 25

Storing the Apples 26

Hurdle Stores 26

Rain on Apples 28

Effect of Storing Apples 28

WHEN SHOULD CIDER-MAKING COMMENCE? 28

1500 G 65- Wt 10116 12/03 D&S 8 15408

Q1 R

Page.

THE MANIPULATION OP THE APPLES 29

Trough to Clean Apples 29

'Washing Apples 30

GRINDING THE APPLES 31

CRUSHING THE PIPS 33

PRESSING THE POMACE 34

EXTRACTING THE JUICE 37

Pomace 37

Cheese .. 38

Cloths 38

Thin Cloths 38

Colour 40

Quantity of Juice 40

Tannin 41

UTILIZING THE ONCE-PRESSED POMACE FOR FEEDING 41

Vinegar Making 42

Repressing the Pomace ... 42

Small Cider 42

THE APPLE JUICE 42

Yeasts 43

CLARIFYING THE JUICE 44

Filtration through Bags 46

Maignen's Filter 46

Keeving 47

Influence of Temperature on Keeving , 48

Backing from Keeve 48

FERMENTATION IN KEEVE 49

White Heads 49

Cause of White Heads 50

Effect of White Heads 51

TREATMENT OF JUICE FROM KEEVE 52

Maignen's Filter 53

The Invicta Filter 53

Fermenting Barrels ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 55

Bunging down Barrels ... ... ... ... ... ... 55

Pressure in Barrels ... 55

Safety Bungs ... 57

FERMENTATION IN BARRELS 58

Page.

CLEARING THE CIDER 58

Racking ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 58

Natural Clearing 59

Sulphuring 59

FINING AND FININGS 59

When should Cider be Racked ? 60

BLENDING 69

Why Blend? 69

When and How to Blend 69

A STANDARD OF COMPOSITION AND DILUTING THE JUICE 71

Adding Sugar ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 71

FILTERING THE CIDER 72

STORING THE CIDER - 73

Position of Barrels 73

Spiling 74

DRAWING FROM BARRELS 75

Carbonic Acid 75

BOTTLING 76

DISGORGING , 78

RECORDS 79

SMALL CIDER 82

EARLY-MADE CIDER 85

PRESERVATIVES 88

FERMENTATION AND THE CHEMICAL CHANGES WHICH TAKE PLACE IN

THE FERMENTING JUICE 91

Top and Bottom Fermentation 94

Rate of Fermentation 94

Impure Fermentation 95

SECONDARY FERMENTATION 97

Acidity Reduced by Fermentation 97

PURE OR SELECTED YEASTS 98

Pure Cultures 99

OILY CIDER ., 102

Page.

SICK CIDER , 107

Matching 107

WHAT is GOOD CIDER ? 107

Flavour 108

Colour Ill

Clearness Ill

Keeping Quality ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 112

WHAT KIND OF CIDER DOES THE PUBLIC WANT? 112

APPENDIX COMPOSITION OF APPLES 114

Vll

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES.

The Secretary,

Board of Agriculture and Fisheries.

SIR,

WITH this, I have the honour to lay before you a Report
prepared by Mr. F. J. Lloyd on the results obtained in the
Investigations on the Manufacture of Cider, carried out since
1893 under the direction of the Bath and West and Southern
Counties Society.

All the work has been conducted at the Home Farm of
Mr. Neville-Granville, who has most kindly furnished the
necessary accommodation, and to whom those interested in the
development of the Cider Industry are much indebted.

The experiments have aroused much interest in the West
and South-West of England, and it is with a view to placing
the results before a larger public that the present Report is now
submitted for publication.

The Board have annually inspected the work here dealt with,
and have been able to give it considerable financial support,
the aggregate amount granted to the Society specifically for
Cider Research being 600, which sum does not include any part
of the Board's general grants paid to the Bath and West Society
before 1896-97.

The ten years of pioneer work covered by this Report have
strikingly revealed the possibilities of further improvements
in English Cider and other Orchard products, and have led to
the formation of the National Fruit and Cider Institute, which
has now started work with a large measure of local support,
and with the hearty co-operation of many public bodies.

I have the honour to be,

Sir,
Your obedient Servant,

WM. SOMERVILLE.

November 7th, 1903.

viii

BatK and West and Southern Counties Society,
4, Terrace Walk, Bath,

November 19th, 1903.
The Secretary,

Board of Agriculture and Fisheries.

SIR,

I AM directed by the Council of the Bath and West and
Southern Counties Society to transmit to you, to be laid before
the Board of Agriculture, the accompanying special Report,
prepared, in compliance with the request contained in your
letter of the 7th of February, 1902, by Mr. F. J. Lloyd, F.C.S.,
F.I.C., on the results of the Investigations into Cider making
carried on by the Society, in conjunction with the Board, since
1894.

The Report reviews the progress of the Investigations from
their commencement in that year to the end of the past season,
and indicates the lessons of practical value to Cider makers
which have been elicited.

I am, Sir,

Your obedient Servant,

THOS. F. PLOWMAN.

INTRODUCTION.

The object of science is to teach, men how to control, so
far as may be possible, the forces of Nature. It is evident
that before we can control them, we must thoroughly know
and understand what these forces are and how they work. It
is by studying these natural agents, and then by showing men
how to control their effect in the industry with which they are
concerned, that science becomes of practical value.

Probably no industry depends so much upon natural forces
as does that of agriculture; hence no industry should derive
greater benefit from science. And this is especially true of
that branch of agriculture the Cider Industry.

Cider is the fermented juice of the apple. There are two
varieties. Sweet cider, so called because it has a sweet taste,
for fermentation has proceeded only slightly and much of
the natural sugar of the juice is left in the liquid; and dry
cider, in which fermentation has proceeded so far that but
little of the original sugar remains.

Cider made in one district will differ materially from cider
made in another district, and that made on one farm will
differ from that made on another farm in the same district.
Indeed, when these investigations were first started it was
even difficult to find two or three barrels in the same cider-
house which were alike. Uniformity of product is essential
to success in all industries, and therefore such a state of affairs
was very unsatisfactory to those who were interested in cider
making.

No man in England has done more to really promote the
Cider Industry than Mr. R. Neville Grenville, of Butleigh
Court, Glastonbury, and how the experiments on which I have
now to report were started, is best told in his own words, taken
from an admirable article entitled : * " Some Practical Hints
on Cider Making," which was published in the journal of the
Eoyal Agricultural Society of England in 1901.

"In 1893, the Migratory Cheese School of the Bath and
West of England Society was being held on one of my farms

at Butleigh, and Mr. F. J. Lloyd, under whom it was carried
on, kindly consented to keep his laboratory going after the
Cheese School was over, and to turn his attention to the
scientific examination of the cider problem.

" The following year, 1894, I induced the Bath and West
of England Society to take the matter up in earnest, and from
then until now they have carried on the scientific part of the
experiments at Butleigh, I undertaking to provide the apples
and the necessary plant for the work.

" The Board of Agriculture latterly helped the Society to
the extent of 100 a year."

The results of these experiments were published each year
in the journal of the Bath and West of England Society.

The same subject thus became mentioned in various years
and the information was disconnected and intermittent.

At the request of the Society 1 have prepared for the Board
of Agriculture the following consecutive account of the work
done. It does not pretend to be more than a re-arrangement
of my previous reports. Although I have not attempted to
make it a treatise on cider making, but have confined the report
almost entirely to the work done at Butleigh, yet it covers
most of the ground of cider making.

Cleanliness. Some see, or pretend to see, in these experiments no other
result than that they have impressed upon all cider makers
the necessity of cleanliness. To say that cleanliness is essential
to success in cider making is merely to utter a platitude. It
is a simple expedient on the part of those ignorant of detail
to hide their ignorance under a general principle.

Undoubtedly the secret of success in cider making, as in
dairying, is cleanliness.* But while it is easy to say this it
is very difficult to realize what this cleanliness is and how
it may be best attained. Numerous precautions are required,
many of which at first sight seem almost unreasonable.
Cleanliness is necessary in the orchard, in gathering, storing
and grinding the fruit, and in pressing the pomace.

It is necessary in handling the juice, in storing it, and in
purifying it from sediment. Needless to say it is necessary in
every article with which the cider comes in contact in the
cider-making and storing rooms, and in the people who have
to deal with the manufacture.

To arrive at the perfection of cleanliness has been a constant
effort of the experiments at Butleigh. But even after some
years of work we have not yet discovered all the ways in which
cleanliness can be observed.

To realise the conditions which make for cleanliness has
been one of the main objects of the experiments, and how this
has been done will be fully stated in this report.

But to explain what cleanliness is, and whence uncleanliness
comes, how to remedy it, and how best to treat cider in which,
from want of cleanliness, certain injurious changes have taken
place, is the work of the scientist and is as yet scarcely trodden
ground.

In the course of my experiments it soon became evident that
the final product cider depended for its character on three
great factors.

1st. The composition of the apples and the juice obtained
from them.

2ndly. The methods of manipulation and apparatus
employed in making the cider; and

3rdly. The fermentation which takes place in the juice.

All these have been studied; what seemed to be improve-
ments have been introduced, and the changes which take place
and which in the past were, one may say, absolutely uncon-
trolled, can now be, and, by the best makers are, carefully
controlled. Where before good cider was a chance product,
it is now the result of carefully-controlled action. In fact,
an attempt has been made to lift the manufacture of cider out
of the rut of rule of thnmb, and to make it a scientific industry.

XII

People who will not take a little trouble to make good cider
had better give up cider making altogether. They destroy the
reputation of cider; they cannot sell what they make, and
those who drink the stuff they produce would be better in
health without it. Such cider makers will learn too late that
they have allowed an opportunity to slip which will not return.
How true this is may be best shown from the following facts.
Large quantities of apples were sold in Somerset in 1897 which
were taken to France for the manufacture of cider. How was
it that the French cider maker could afford to buy apples in
Somerset at a price which presumably paid the Somerset farmer
better than converting them into cider ? It was simply because
many Somerset farmers have not learnt how to make a drink
which can compare in quality with that made by our neigh-
bours across the Channel. If this continues what will be the
result? The demand for cider, which is growing rapidly in
England, will induce the French cider maker to put upon the
English market a drink more suitable to the tastes of the public
than that made at home, and if once the foreigner gains the
favour of the consuming public English makers will be unable
to oust their more enterprising rivals.

I believe that with careful attention to the facts and advice
given in this report, cider makers will be able to compete with
any foreign imports, and that if well made, cider will become
a national beverage.

FREDK. J. LLOYD.

Muscovy House,

Trinity Square,

London, E.C.

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

REPORT

ON THE

KESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS INTO CIDER-MAKING,

CARRIED OUT ON BEHALF OF THE

BATH AND WEST AND SOUTHERN COUNTIES SOCIETY
IN THE YEARS 1893-1902.

F. J. LLOYD, F.O.S., F.I.C.

The Constituents of Apples and Apple Juice.

An apple consists, from the practical cider maker's point of
view, of two parts, juice and marc, or solids not in solution.
If the whole of the soluble constituents are extracted, only
about 4 per cent, of solids remain, but in ordinary cider
making, by one pressing it is seldom possible to extract more
than 75 per cent, of the juice and by subsequent second treat- /
ment about 10 per cent., so that the marc always contains some
of the juice.

In an unripe apple the proportion of juice is less. The mark
then contains substances (pectin compounds) which during
ripening gradually change into soluble compounds and enter
the juice, thus increasing its value for cider and also changing
its character.

Hence the necessity of using ripe apples.

The most important constituent of the juice is sugar. Two Sugar,
kinds of sugar are present, grape sugar and cane sugar. But
as both of these are fermentable their presence has more of
a scientific than a practical interest, hence in using the word
sugar one refers to the total quantity present.

The acidity of the juice is due to an acid known as Malic Acidity.
Acid. The quantity of this acid present in apples varies accord-
ing to the kind of apple. In the juice of some it amounts to

over 1 part per cent. In the juice of others to only 0.1 or 0.2.
The quantity present also varies according to season, as may
be seen from the average analyses of the juice from press,
p. 17, and this variation does not appear to correspond
in any way with the other constituents. Thus in 1893 and
1894 the average acidity present in the juice of six varieties of
apples was the same (see p. 11), yet the solids varied greatly,
being 15.7 per cent, and 10.7 per cent, respectively.

There is a very wide-spread opinion that the natural acidity
of the apples is much greater in a poor season than in a good
one. The results of experiments prove this opinion to be
erroneous. But it is found that the apple juice during a poor,
wet season has a tendency to become acid rapidly, and this has
probably given rise to the above opinion.

Tannin. Tannin is the third substance of importance. It has the

property of precipitating albumin and so helps to clear the
juice, its strong astringent flavour is marked in some varieties
of cider apples, and also in cider made from such apples.

Extractive^. The juice contains some soluble pectin compounds, a little
albumin, and other substances. In this report these taken
together are called " extractives/' their distinct character not
having as yet been determined.

A small quantity of mineral matter is also present in solution
in the juice.

The Analysis of Apples, Apple Juice, and Cider.

The quality of cider depends mainly upon two great factors :
first, the original composition and condition of the apples, and
the apple juice, and, secondly, the fermentation which takes
place in the juice.

Before we can satisfactorily discover what are the many
causes which influence the composition of the apples and the
juice obtained from them, we must have some means of
estimating analytically the composition of the juice.

The following system has been adopted in these investiga-
tions :

Weight of Six to ten apples are carefully weighed and the weight

Apples. divided by the number of apples taken. This gives the average

weight of each apple, as shown in column 4 of the Appendix.

Percentage
of Juice.

The apples are ground in a small machine, a kind of
modified sausage machine having been adapted for the
purpose. No very satisfactory machine has yet been found.
The pulp is placed in a small hand-press such as is used for
pharmaceutical purposes and the juice extracted and weighed.

This press is also faulty, as it is difficult to ensure the same
pressure being applied to each sample. A press is wanted the
screw of which works in a lever, from the end of which a
definite weight is suspended. The pulp would then always
be submitted to the same pressure, and if this acted for a
definite period, the results would be as uniform as could be
expected. Those results which have been obtained under
admittedly uncertain conditions are given in the Appendix,
column 5.

The nature of the pulp which remains, and how this varies
at different periods in the growth of the apple, has been to a
slight extent examined, but the investigation presents many
difficulties. A good description of the substances present in
this pulp and the changes which, take place in the ripening
of fruit will be found in Dr. 1ST. Granger's " Obstweinkunde."*

The analysis of the juice is conducted as follows : It should
be first strained through a moderately fine cloth or muslin.

This represents the weight of a given volume of juice when The Specific
compared with the same volume of distilled water. In writing Gravit y-
and print it is nearly always abbreviated to Sp. Gr. The
temperature of the juice should be exactly 60 P. If it is not,
then either the juice must be brought to this temperature or
a correction made for the temperature by means of a table or
by calculation. The most accurate method of estimating the
Sp. Gr. is to fill a bottle known to hold exactly 100 grammes
or 1,000 grains of distilled water with the juice to be tested,
and then to carefully re-weigh. The juice instead of weighing
100 grammes or 1,000 grains will be found to weigh, say,
106.55 grammes or 1065.5 grains. If the temperature is
60 F. then the Sp. Gr. of the juice is 1.0655. But if the
temperature is not 60 F. then a correction is made. The
most simple correction and one which is fairly accurate is when
the temperature is below 60 F., deduct from the fourth figure
of the specific gravity as many points as the temperature is
below 60 F. For example : the temperature is, say, 50 F.
or 10 below 60. The gravity shown is 1.0655, and from this
deduct 10 leaves 1.0645, which is the true Sp. Gr. at 60 F.
When ^the temperature is above 60 add, instead of deducting,
the points which represent the difference in temperature ; thus
if the temperature is 65 F. we have

Gravity shown
Add for temperature
True gravity

1.0655

1.0660

A more simple and nearly as accurate method of estimating The
the gravity is by means of the Hydrometer. This instrument Hydrometer,
should be called the Gravimeter, in America it is called the

* Published by B. F. Voigt, Weimar, 1895.

The

Saccharo-

meter.

Densimeter. The stem contains a scale graduated from 1,000
to 1,100, and showing 100 divisions. This only gives the gravity
to the third decimal place, and, therefore, corrections for
temperature are more difficult to make, but can be made as
above described by first adding another to the result obtained,
and then correcting.

In taking the gravity of liquids they should be as clear as
possible and contained in a glass cylinder which leaves ample
scope for the hydrometer to rise and fall. The hydrometer
must be clean, free from grease, and the upper part of the
stem dry. It should be inserted into the liquid until nearly
as deep as it will subsequently fall; thus, if the gravity is
supposed to be about 1.060 insert to 1.050 and then let go. It
will fall below the 60, then gradually recover itself and come
to rest. The line which corresponds with the surface of the
liquid will represent the gravity. Thus, if it rest at 61 then
the gravity is 1.061. Owing to froth it is sometimes difficult
to read from above, the hydrometer can then be read from
below.

The gravity of the juice is, by some makers taken by the
saccharometer, an instrument the same shape and used in the
same way as the hydrometer, but graduated, and supposed to
show the percentage of sugar in the juice. The results
obtained with this instrument were found to be most unsatis-
factory. As the solids of the juice are composed of several
constituents besides sugar, the saccharometer is unreliable.

A fairly accurate guide to the amount of solid matter
in the apple juice may be obtained with the simple
hydrometer by the following formula: Sp. Gr. x234 234.
Thus if the specific gravity be 1.06 multiply by 234 = 248.04,
deduct 234 = 14.04, which will be very nearly the percentage
of solid matter present in the juice of the apple. The result
obtained is not absolutely accurate, being slightly low with
a rich juice and slightly too high with a poor juice. But for
practical purposes this simple method will be found useful.

The solids are more accurately estimated by evaporating
5 cubic centimetres to dryness on a water bath and drying
the residue at 100 C. (212 Fahr.) for a definite time, viz.,
six to ten hours.

I find by experiment that it is not possible to obtain the
solids absolutely dry, for if continuously dried they lose weight
constantly for several days. It was therefore thought better
to carry out a uniform system rather than attempt to obtain
an absolute result.

Estimation The acidity of the juice is determined by means of a

of Acidity. standard solution of alkali, each cubic centimetre of which is

equivalent to 0.01 grammes of malic acid. The indicator used

The Solids.

ia litmus paper, for the colour of the apple juice prevents
any change in a liquid indicator being seen.

The apparatus is exactly similar to my Acidimeter, now so
largely used by cheese makers. It consists of a graduated
burette into which the standard solution of alkali is poured
up to the zero mark. Ten cubic centimetres of apple juice or
cider are placed in a white porcelain dish and the soda solution
gradually added from the burette. The cider changes colour
as the acid becomes neutralized. If the glass rod which is
used to stir the cider in the dish is brought in contact with a
small strip of blue litmus paper it will make a red mark where
it touches the paper, but as the acidity gets neutralized by
each addition of alkali, each new mark gets fainter and fainter
until at last no red can be seen. The acidity of the liquid has
been neutralized.

If the number of cubic centimetres of alkali used is now
noted, this will show the acidity. Thus, if 3.5 cubic centi-
metres have been taken then the acidity is 0.35 per cent.

Those who have the acidimeter for cheese making can use
it for cidietr making also. But they must get another alkali
solution or else make a slight calculation. The real acidity
of cider is only three-fourths of that shown with the lactic
acid soda. Thus, when using this soda deduct from the result
one-fourth, this will leave the true acfdity. For example,
10 c.c. cider take 6.4 c.c. of lactic acid soda, deduct one-fourth,
1.6 c.c., this leaves 4.8 c.c., or 0.48 per cent, of malic acid
present in the cider.

The sugar. There are present in apple juice at least two Estimation
varieties of sugar grape sugar and cane sugar. If the sugar of Su g ar -
is estimated in the juice by Fehling's method or Pavy's modifi-
cation thereof, the grape sugar only is shown.

In order to estimate the total amount of sugar it is necessary
to convert it all into one variety by heating the juice with
dilute hydrochloric acid (1 per cent.) for thirty minutes. The
total sugar, including that which is thus " inverted/' is then
estimated by means of Pavy's modification of Fehling's solu-
tion. By deducting from this total sugar the amount of grape
sugar originally found, we obtain by difference the cane sugar.

The tannin is by far the most difficult substance to estimate, Estimation
and at present the methods at our disposal for the purpose are of Tannin,
not very satisfactory. However, it was necessary to adopt some
method, and, after many experiments, the most suitable method
appeared to be that of Neubauer. A standard solution contain-
ing 0.785 grammes of permanganate of potash per litre is
employed. Tannin has the power of decolourising the solution.
To determine the exact point of complete decolourization a
solution of indigo is added to the juice as an indicator. The
estimations are made as follows : 5 cubic centimetres of apple

15408 R

Estimation
of Alcohol.

juice are taken for examination, to these are added 5 cubic
centimetres of indigo solution of such, a strength that the
5 cubic centimetres will be decolourised by exactly 1 cubic
centimetre of permanganate solution.

Next 5 cubic centimetres of dilute (1 in 10) sulphuric acid
are added, and the whole is made up with distilled water to
200 cubic centimetres. To this liquid the standard solution
of permanganate is carefully added until the blue colour of the
liquid disappears.

The quantity of permanganate required (less the 1 cubic
centimetre, required by the indigo), gives the amount which
has been decolourised by the tannin. In these determinations
it is assumed that the tannin present in the apple juice has the
composition C 14 H 10 O 9 and that 1 cubic centimetre of the per-
manganate solution is decolourised by 0.001 gramme of tannin.

The strength of the permanganate solution must be checked
by experiments on pure tannin.

The alcohol is estimated in 100 c.c. of the cider to which a
quantity of carbonate of lime has first been added sufficient to
neutralize all the acidity. This is necessary, as otherwise
volatile acids would come over. About 70 c.c. of liquid is
distilled, the distillate made up to 100 c.c. brought to 60 F.
and its specific gravity accurately determined in a 50 c.c. bottle.
The percentage of alcohol present is found by means of the
following table :

TABLE FOR THE ESTIMATION OF ALCOHOL (STEVENSON).

Sp. Gr.
of
Distillate.

Alcohol
by
Weight.

Alcohol
by
Volume.

Sp. Or.
of
Distillate.

Alcohol
by
weight.

Alcohol
by
Volume.

Sp. Gr.
Distillate.

Alcohol
by-
Weight.

Alcohol
by
Volume.

9880

7-10

8'80

9890

6-40

8-00

9900

5.75

7-15

9881

7-00

8-75

9891

6-35

7-95

9901

5-70

7-05

9:82

6-95

8-65

9892

C-30

7-85

9902

5-65

7-00

9883

6-90

8-60

9893

6-20

7-80

9903

5-60

6-95

9884

6-80

8-50

9894

6-15

-7-70

9904

5-50

6-85

9885 6-70

8-40

9895

6-10

7-60

9905

5-54

6-80

9886

6-65

8-35

9896

6-00

7-55

9906

5-40

6-75

9887

6-60

8-30

9897

5-95

7-45

9907

5-30

6-70

9888

6-55

8-15

9898

5-90

7-40

9908

5-25

6-60

9889 6-50

8-10

9899

5-85

7-30

9309

5-20

6-50

Sp. Gr.
of
Distillate.

Alcohol
by
Weight.

Alcohol
by
Volume.

Sp. Gr.
of
Distillate.

Alcohol
by
Weight.

Alcohol
by
Volume.

Sp. Gr.
of
Distillate.

Alcohol
by
Weight.

Alcohol
by
Volume.

91)10

5-15

6-40

9920

4-50

5-65

9930

3'90

4-90

9911

5-05

6-30

9921

4-45

5-55

9931

3-85

4-85

9912

5-00

6-20

9922

4-40

5-50

0932

3-80

4-80

9913
9914

4-95
4-90

0-15
6-10

9923
9924

4-35
4-25

'5-40
5-30

9933
9934

3-75
3-65

4-70

4-65

9915

4-80

6-00

9925

4-20

5-25

9935

3-60

4-55

9916

4-75

5-95

9926

4-15

5-20

9936

3-55

4-50

9917

4-70

5-90

9927

4-10

5-15

9937

3-50

4-45

9918

4-65

5-80

9928

4-00

5-05

9938

3-40

4-30

9919

4-55

6-70

9929

3-95

5-00

9939

3;35

4-25

9940

3-30

4-15

9950

2-75

3-50

9960

2-15

2-70

9941

3-25

4-10

9951

2-70

3-40

9961

2-10

2-65

9942

3-20

4-00

9952

2-60

3-30

9962

2-05

2-60

9943

3-15

3-95

9953

2-55

3-20

9963

2-00

2-50

9944

3-10

3-85

9954

2-50

3-15*

9964

1-95

2-45

9945

3-00

3-80

9955

2-45

3-10

9965

1-90

2-40

9946

2-95

3-75

9956

2-40

3-00

9966

1-85

2-30

9947

2-90

3-70

9957

2-35

2-90

9967

1-80

2-20

9948

2-5

3-60

9958

2-30

2-*5

9968

1-75

2-15

9949

2-80

3-55

9359

2'20

2-80

99G9

1-65

2-05

9970

1-60

2-00

9980

1-05

1-30

9930

0-55

0-65

9971

1-55

1-95

9981

1-00

1-25

9991

0-45

0-55

9972

1-50

1-85

9982

0-95

1-20

9992

0-40

0-50

9973

1-45

1-80

9933

0-90

1-10

9993

0-35

0-45

9974

1-40

1-75

9984

0-85

1-C5

9994

0-30

0-40

9975

1-35

1-70

9985

0-80

i .',

9995

0-25

0-30

997G

1-30

1-65

998G

0-75

0-90

9996

0-20

0-25

9977

1-25

1-55

9987

0-70

0-85

9997

0-15

0-20

9978

1-20

1-45

9988

0-65

0-80

9998

o-io

0-15

9979

1-20

1-40

9989

0-60

0-70

9999

0-05

0*05

15408

B 2

A rapid method of estimating the alcohol which is of value
where large numbers of samples have to be analysed quickly,
as at Shows, may here be mentioned. It is not absolutely
accurate, but if carefully carried out gives very fairly accurate
results. It is based upon this fact. The specific gravity of a
sample of cider depends upon two factors, the percentage of
solids in solution which raises the gravity and the percentage of
alcohol which lowers it. If the specific gravity of the cider is
taken, then the alcohol evaporated off by boiling the liquid
down to about one-third its volume, making up to the original
volume and again taking (the gravity, the difference between
these two gravities is due to the alcohol.

But the alcohol can not be determined simply by deducting
the one gravity from the other. The method of procedure is
as follows:-

Divide the specific gravity of the cider by the specific gravity
of the liquid left after evaporating the alcohol, the resultant
or quotient represents the specific gravity of the alcoholic
distillate which has passed off. By the table 011 p. 6-7 it is
easy to discover what percentage of alcohol this represents.

The following is an example of this method. The original
cider had a gravity" of 1.0369, the liquid left after evaporating
the alcohol had a gravity of 1.0422, by dividing the former by
the latter we obtain the result, .9949, which, by our table,
represents 3.55 per cent, of alcohol by volume.

1-0422 ) 1-03690 ( -9949
93798

98920
93798

51220
41688

95320

By distillation this cider yielded 3.60 of alcohol by volume,
showing that the method is fairly accurate.

If the solids in cider were of uniform composition we could
determine by calculation what would be the specific gravity
of the liquid freed from alcohol from the solids.

I find that this cannot be done with absolute accuracy, but
the following formula has given very satisfactory results, where
S. represents the solid matter per cent, then :

Specific gravity of cider I = ^^ + g _ 2
freed from alcohol. 1

For example, a cider contains 7 per cent, of solids, the gravity
of the liquid when freed from alcohol would be

1-0100
7 -2 = 5 x -0039 = -0195

1-0295

A table may be made to represent the gravity equivalent to
each per cent, and decimal of a per cent, of solids.

The albumin may be precipitated in the clear liquid by Estimation
bringing this to nearly boiling point. It is then filtered off of Albumin,
on a tared filter and weighed. The solution is then evaporated
to a small oulk and alcohol added. This precipitates the
pectin. I have found these determinations difficult and
unsatisfactory.

The solids are burnt over a low flame. It is not easy to Estimating
obtain a good white ash. the mineral

matter.

The Detection of Preservatives.

The detection of salicylic acid in cider presents some Salicylic
difficulty. Acid.

Attempts to trace this acid were first made on the residue
left after distilling the alcohol, by making this slightly acid
and extracting with ether. The ether solution took up colour-
ing matters, and also tannin, or similar compounds, and the
characteristic colour reaction given by salicylic acid with
ferric chloride solution could not be obtained. Several
solvents, both alone and combined with ether, were tried, but
only rarely could any colour reaction be obtained, and then it
was not a satisfactory one.

A series of experiments on cider to which definite quantities
of salicylic acid had been purposely adued, proved that all the
usual methods failed in detecting its presence.

It then occurred to me that it might be possible to distil the
salicylic acid in a current of steam, and an experiment proved
that when it was present in considerable quantity sufficient
came over for the distillate to give the characteristic colour
with ferric chloride solution.

My next experiments were directed to discover whether the
salicylic acid could be thus obtained without passing steam
through the liquid, but by merely boiling. The results were
satisfactory.

Hence the method adopted was to take 100 c.c. of cider, make
alkaline with soda, and distil off the alcohol (50 c.c. is suffi-
cient).

The residue was then made acid with sulphuric acid, and
ddstillates of 10 c.c. taken off and marked 1, 2, 3, 4. These were
tested with 1 per cent, solution of ferric chloride. It was then

found that sometimes the first distillate, or even the first two,
would not show any colour reaction, but only the third, or
perhaps the fourth, and it soon became evident that this
depended on the quantity of salicylic acid present.

Quantitative experiments were next made, and when operat-
ing on 100 c.c. of liquid the following results were obtained :
The presence of 1 part of sodium, salicylate in 10,000 parts of
cider could be detected in the first distillate generally, and
certainly in the second; the presence of 1 part in 20,000 was
visible in the second or third distillate, and of one part in
30,000 in the third or fourth distillate. If present in smaller
quantities it could not be detected when working with 100 c.c.,
though by concentrating a larger bulk of cider it would be
possible to detect even smaller quantities.

However, as five grains to the gallon can be found with
certainty, and as less would scarcely act as a preservative, it
is seldom necessary to work on a larger volume than 100 c.c.

In 1900 this method was applied to the samples exhibited at
the show at Bath. To my surprise no less than 20 out of 84
exhibits gave the colour reaction of salicylic acid. Without
letting the exhibitors know the result of my analyses, one or
two were questioned by the Steward as to whether they had
not used some preservative or anti-ferment. They so stoutly
denied having done so, that it was decided not to take any
action, and mainly for two reasons.

It was thought, first, that it might be possible for salicylic
acid to be naturally present in apple juice, and secondly, that
iny method of analysis might be faulty, or the results be due to
some substance other than salicylic acid.

Repeated examinations have been made of cider known to
be genuine, and I have not been able to find any salicylic acid
naturally present in apple juice, nor produced by fermentation
in juice which was known to be free from added matter.

It was possible that other compounds might produce the
same reaction as salicylic acid, therefore experiments were made
to determine whether this were so.

Phenol, which itself gives a somewhat similar reaction, when
added to cider, even in comparatively large quantity, and
distilled gives no colouration. Saccharin, which can be
decomposed and produces salicylic acid under certain condi-
tions, might possibly be so decomposed by the treatment with
soda. Experiments have proved that this is not the case.

I then tried whether fermentation proceeding in a liquid
containing saccharin, might bring about decomposition, but
after fermentation these samples were tested, and no salicylic
acid could be discovered.

To make quite certain that I had left no possible means
untried of proving the substance which I had found in these
exhibits to salicylic acid, I wrote to Professor H. Armstrong,

IMi.S., who suggested that the bromine compound might be
examined. This substance crystallises in a very characteristic
manner, and I found that even in most dilute solutions, like
these distillates, the crystals were formed, and could be
centrifugally separated and distinguished when examined
under the microscope.

One somewhat interesting fact was observed during the
continuance of these observations, namely, that solutions con-
taining salicylic acid are liable to decomposition by the growth
of certain fungi, and that in due course the whole of the
salicylic acid disappears.

The Seasons 1893 to 1902.

1894. A late frost in the spring cut off the blossoms of the
apple trees and so caused the apple crop to be exceedingly
small.

The year was one characterised by little sunshine, and much
wet. Two results followed the want of sunshine and the exces-
sive rains; one was that the apples during October and
November did not properly ripen on the trees, and the other
that it was not possible to store them in hurdle stores, to ensure
subsequent ripening. The effect of the bad season on the
composition of the apples was very marked, as may be seen
from the following table :

COMPOSITION OF APPLE JUICE.

1893.

1894.

VARIETY

Sp. Gr.

Solids.

Acid.

Sp. Gr.

Solids.

Acid.

New Cadbury

1-0574

14-0

1-0415

9-14

Tom Hooper

1-0632

15-4

1-0520

11-38

Red Jersey

1-0680

16-5

1-0470

10-72

Kingston Black ...

1-0680

16-5

1-0500

11-34

Royal Somerset ...

1-0550

13-5

1-0435

9-48

Gins

1-0750

18-1

1-0526

12-06

Average

1-0644

15-7

1-0477

10-70

The amount of total solids in the juice was no less than 5 per
cent, lower in 1894 than it was in 1893. This 5 per cent, is
sugar. Hence the juice from which the cider had to be made
in 1894 contained one-third less fermentable ynaterial than in
1893.

The next point to be noted is that the average amount of
acid (present in these apples is the same in both years.

1895. This was a better year than 1894, but not so good as
1893, as regards conditions favourable to the apple crop. The
season was a plentiful one, and the apples were of fair quality,
better than in 1894, but not so good as 1893. This is seen from
the table on p. 17, which gives the average composition of
the juice from the press for the ten years during which the
observations have been in progress, and these figures prove that
in 1895, the quality of the apple juice in bulk fell considerably
below that of 1893.

1896. This year was characterised by bright sunshine, a
high temperature and an exceptionally small rainfall. There
was only a small apple crop. The season was an early one,
that is to say, the apples ripened sooner than usual. The
apples yielded less iuice per 1,000 Ibs. weight than was obtained
in 1895. Thus, in" 1895, 1,000 Ibs. of apples yielded 650 Ibs.
of juice, while in 1896, from the same weight of apples, only
615 Ibs. of juice were obtained.

But if the juice was less in volume it was better in quality,
as shown in the table of average composition of juice from
press, p. 17.

The composition of the juice was nearly as good as in 1893,
with respect to total solids, and was better than in 1893 in
not being quite so acid. How much better it was in 1896
than in 1895 may be estimated by comparing the average
specific gravity of the apple juice from each " cheese " made in
these years. This in 1895 was 1.0534, in 1896 it was 1.0625.
In other words, in 1895 the juice contained about 11 per cent,
of fermentable sugar capable of yielding 5J per cent, of
alcohol; in 1896 it contained about 13 per cent, fermentable
sugar, capable of yielding 6J per cent, of alcohol.

1897. The characteristics of the season were a more than
average amount of sunshine, especially during the month of
October, an exceptional rainfall in August, a low temperature
combined with a large rainfall in September, and an exception-
ally high temperature in October. The effect of the season
upon the apple crop varied greatly in different localities, in
some districts the crop being very small. The effect at
Butleigh may be gathered from the following figures.

The total volume of juice yielded was about 3,000 gallons as
compared with 1,000 gallons in 1896 and 9,000 in 1895.

The yield of juice per 1,000 Ibs. of apples, was 616 Ibs, as
compared with 615 Ibs. in 1896, and 650 Ibs. in 1895.

The characteristic of the apple juice in 1897 was a high
percentage of acid, while the total solids were higher than in
1895, but below those of 1893 and 1896.

1898 was a season of very small rainfall, warm air tempera-
ture, and varying sunshine. The effect of the season upon the
yield of apples was injurious, there being a much smaller yield
than the average. As regards the quantity of juice which
these apples yielded the effect was not striking. 1,000 Ibs. of

apples yielded 621 Ibs. juice, which is only 6 Ibs. more than
was obtained in 1896, and 5 Ibs. more than was obtained in
1897.

The average quality of the juice was better than in 1897,
though not so good as in 1896 or 1893.

The apples of 1898 were all much smaller than in 1897 or
1896.

These apples in most cases also produced a smaller percentage
of juice. Hence the quality of that juice was, as a rule, better
than in 1897.

1899. The period of growth of the apple crop in 1899 was
both dry and warm, there had been no frosts in the early part
of the season to destroy the blossoms, and the result was a
fairly good crop.

The weather was such as to ensure the apples being fully
ripe. For not only was the period of bright sunshine very
considerably above the average, but the air temperature during
the months of August and September, in which months probably
the greatest development of the apple occurs, was also far
above the average, in spite of the heavy rainfall of the latter
month.

The combined result of these conditions was more marked
upon the composition of the apples than upon the quantity of
the crop. The apples yielded not only more juice but juice of
better quality than in any former year of the observations.

Thus, as regards the quantity of juice, 1,000 Ibs. of apples
yielded 654 Ibs. of juice. This was the highest recorded yield
of juice since 1895, when it was first estimated. In that year
the yield was 650 Ibs., while in 1896, 1897 and 1898 it was only
615, 616 and 621 Ibs. respectively.

The quality of the juice was also better than any which had
been obtained since 1893 ; this is somewhat remarkable con-
sidering the volume.

In 1895 the large volume of juice was of poor quality, with
a specific gravity of only 1.052. But the average specific
gravity of .tlfe juice during the season 1899, was 1.061, which
is even higher than that of 1893.

The high proportion of solids in the juice was accompanied
by a small proportion of acid.

Thus, the season of 1899 yielded a juice of exceptional
quality, which resulted in the production of excellent cider.

1900. The chief characteristic of the season was the small
amount of rain during July, August and September. Then
came a heavy rainfall in the month of October, which caused
the fruit to fall on to the damp soil amid the leaves of a rapid
autumnal change.

The want of moisture in the early part of the season seemed
to check the growth of the apples, and they remained, and were
at the time of being gathered, exceptionally small. As a rule

small apples yield a rich juice. But this year was an excep-
tion; the juice was not so rich as one would have expected.

The average composition of the juice from press was slightly
below that of 1899.

The apples yielded a high percentage of juice, 1,000 Ibs. of
apples giving 692 Ibs. oi juice, the highest proportion yet
recorded.

Some of the apples used in this experiment were in fair
condition, but the majority, like most of the apples that season,
were undoubtedly moist, and this may partly account for the
high proportion of juice. That the effect of the season upon
the apple crop is marked, irrespective of district and variety,
is well shown by the following extract from a letter sent me
by Mr. H. L. T. Blake, of Fairfield, Bridgwater. "The
summer of 1899 was very hot and dry, and in consequence of
there being no rain when or after the fruit was forming, there
was no natural thinning of the crop. The apples, therefore,
in many orchards were thick in clusters on the trees, and were
very small in size. Notwithstanding that, they ripened well;
and in the thirteen cheeses I put up in 1899, the specific gravity
of the juice as it came direct from the press averaged 1.068.
On referring to my notes for the year 1900, I find that although
the summer of 1900 was as hot and dry as 1899, the specific
gravity of the juice of last year's apples, though grown from
the same orchards, ranged from 1.052 to 1.060, representing an
average of only 1.057 as compared with 1.068 in 1899."

The season, therefore, had more marked effect on the apples
at Fairfield than on those at Butleigh.

1901. The season was one of small rainfall, with high
temperature, and during the months of April, May and June,
of more than usual bright sunshine. Towards the end of the
ripening season there was, however, less sunshine than there
had been during the previous two years. The apples, conse-
quently, ripened more slowly than had been expected, and the
crop was not large.

The total yield of the apples at Butleigh was about 6,000
gallons of juice.

The apples on an average were not quite so small as in 1900,
but individual varieties varied greatly in size as compared with
former years, some being much smaller, others much larger.

The percentage of juice was high when working on the bulk,
1,000 Ibs. of apples yielding 690 Ibs. of juice.

It will be seen that while the specific gravity of the juice was
not so high as in the two previous seasons, it was as high as
it had been since 1893.

The most marked peculiarity of the juice was its low acidity.

The following tables summarise some of the most important
factors regarding the seasons, during which the experiments
were conducted :

L>- -"^ Tfi CO
OO (M OS O

o o 6 ^

1 +

t- CM Ci

5 CO

^ CO ^

h 00

T-H O T 1

I 1

^ T 1 O> O

oo "^ o

A) O CM O

1 1

CO O CO O

t^ CM O

"i O^

Al CM O

1 1 H

h 1

t- oo c

5 "*

t- CO O

5 CO

CM -
1 1

Tfi OO l>- !>

xO i I CO ^
i^H CO O CM

1 + H

h |

CO 00 r-t OS
CO CO O OO
TH O CM O

1 1 H

h |

00 00

4 CO

O O OS CM

1 + "

h |

os t>- t>

t>- CM CO CO

+ +

OS iO O^ CO

Al T^H T^

-1 TH

+ 1

: jg ^

s a

rw D -5

I 4 p ft 1
_3 ^

2 O

T 1

O
CM

CO
CM

05
CO

T 1

o
o

GO
CM

CO
CM

~T~

>>.

^ri

t""

t" 1 *

CO
CM

CO
CO

O
W

CO
CO

CO
OS
CM

_1_

_j_

1 I

FNSHIN]

05
CO

T (

\->
CQ

EMPERAT

BRIGHT

T 1

T->
T-H

cp
I>

T-H

-{-

-5

T 1

C*4

-V

o
O

"3
i-a

The Influence of Season on Apples and the Apple Crop.

Upon this very large and intricate subject it is only possible
to make a few statements which' at present seem justified from
the observations at Butleigh.

The composition of the apple is greatly affected by the
season, but how and why is a problem which I have not as
yet attempted to investigate. I here point out some of the
evidences of this effect because the subject is worthy of investi-
gation. So also are the changes in composition due to locality,
that is to say, due to soil as distinct from climatic conditions.
Not that we can alter either the one or the other ; but the more
thoroughly we understand the processes of nature, the more
mastery we shall obtain over the products which are the results
of such processes.

The yield or crop varies from year to year. Most people
may have noticed that, as a rule, an exceptionally prolific
year of any one fruit, like the apple, is followed by a season oi
exceptional scarcity. The apple crop of 1896 confirmed this
general rule, for while 1895 was a most prolific yelar, in 1896
many cider makers found a difficulty in obtaining sufficient
apples to make any cider at all.

The same is true of individual apple trees. As a rule those
which yield heavily one year yield but slightly the following
year. Hence, in estimating the value of a particular variety
of apple the yield of that variety cannot be determined upon
the result of one season only, but requires that the average oi
several should be taken.

The chief cause of a small crop has been a late frost in the
spring, as in 1894.

The second cause would appear to be a dry season, and
inability of the trees to obtain sufficient moisture or sap to
fully form the apples.

The Composition of the Juice varies according to the Season.

This is best seen by the following table, showing the average
composition of the juice obtained at Butleigh from practically
the same orchards year after year :

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF JUICE FROM PRESS.

Year.

Number of
Samples.

Sp. Gr.

Solids.

Acid.

1893

1-060

14-40

1894

1-050

11-14

1895

1-052

12-24

1896

1-057

14-02

1897

1-053

13-26

1898

1-C56

13-62

1899

I -061

15-57

1900

1059

1901

1-057

14-43

1902

1-047

11-43

Want of sunshine towards the end of the season causes the
apples to ripen slowly, so delaying the manufacture, and also
tends to diminish the crop. This was noticed in 1901, as
compared with 1899 and 1900. If this lack of sunshine is
accompanied with heavy rain the apples do not appear to ripen
properly on the trees. This was remarked in 1894. It is
probably best under 'such conditions to gather the apples and
ripen them in store. In 1902 the low temperature and want
of sunshine not only prevented the apples from ripening but
caused the juice to contain a larger proportion ol
" extractives " than in any former year.

Passing from the crop as a whole to individual varieties oi
apples, it would appear that the season does not affect all
varieties of apples alike, a season suitable for one variety is not
suitable for another. Many illustrations of this fact may be
found by studying the analyses in the Appendix.

It is also well illustrated by the following facts : The
apples Kingston Black, N"ew Cadbury, and Butleigh No. 14,
yielded in 1898 a juice of higher specific gravity than in 1899,
while Chisel Jersey and Red Jersey apples did the reverse.
Evidently the cider maker in any attempt to improve his
orchards by reducing the number of varieties of apples must
not overlook this important consideration.

Apples of the same variety and from the same tree vary each
year : (1) In average size or weight ; (2) In the proportion of

the juice which they yield; and (3) In the gravity of the
juice.

It is somewhat remarkable that the proportion of juice does
not appear to depend upon the average size, for small apples
will at times give a large, at other times a small, proportion
of juice.

Most frequently the gravity of the juice appears to increase
as the size of the apple decreases, hut this is not invariable.

Thus, while in nearly all instances the average weight of
the samples in 1898 was below that of the same variety in 1897,
yet in many cases the composition of the juice of these smaller
apples was almost the same as that of the larger apples
produced in 1897.

Influence of Locality on Apples.

There is still another factor which appears to influence the
composition of the apple juice, and that is locality. Into this
subject we have not yet attempted to enter fully, but the
following results are interesting :

COMPOSITION OF JUICE FROM KINGSTON BLACKS.

Grown at

Sp. Gr.

Acid.

Sugar.

Tannin.

Solids.

Butleigh ...

1-0672

14-08

216

16-60

East Lambrook

1-0695

15-62

302

17-08

Cider

making com-
mences in
the orchard.

Apple trees.

The Orchards.

In the ripe apple as it hangs upon the tree, nature supplies
us with all the essentials for good cider. But the apples will
differ in quality. Hence, cider making commences in the
orchard. If the orchard be neglected no amount of care will
convert its produce into cider that will compete with the pro-
duce of a well-stocked, well-kept orchard. How to obtain the
best fruit may seem to many a difficult problem.

To improve the orchards it is desirable for several reasons
that the trees should be numbered; first, in order that speci-
mens may be obtained from the same trees in consecutive
years, and analysed ; and secondly, that graftings may be taken
from those trees which are found to produce apples of good
quality for cider making. The analysis should help materially
in promoting the supply of good fruit trees; for as the great

variation in value between different varieties of apples becomes
more generally recognised, greater care will, it is hoped, be
taken in the planting of good cider fruit trees.

The system which is being adopted at Butleigh is to graft
new trees with those varieties which have, after repeated
analyses, proved to be the best. This seems to me the most
satisfactory method that can be adopted. Analysis proves that
apples of the same variety when grown in different localities
-differ considerably in composition. Instead, therefore, oi
buying this or that variety said to be of excellent quality,
farmers would do far better if they endeavoured to find out
which are the best apples produced on their own land, and
commenced with cultivating these varieties.

It was to help farmers to do this that analyses of apples sent
to Butleigh were made free of cost to the senders. As new
trees of good varieties come into use the older and least desir-
able varieties should be dispensed with. Each soil has
such an influence upon its produce, that we cannot afford to
neglect what may be termed its likes and dislikes. Hence, our
first consideration should be to secure the maximum produce
of the best variety that we know this soil is capable of produc-
ing. Subsequently there will be time enough to experiment as
to its capability of growing other varieties which have been
proved in other districts to be valuable.

Varieties of Apples.

The number of apples which have been analysed at Butleigh
is about 500, comprising many varieties. JsFow it is self-evident
that all these varieties cannot be equally good, that probably
some are quite useless or even detrimental to the cider.

In fact, from a careful study of these analyses, it is very evi-
dent that much has yet to be done to improve the cider fruit of
this country. From at least one-half of the apples it would be
quite hopeless to expect to make first-class cider. If we
compare these results with those from apples used for cider
making on the Continent, we shall better appreciate how little
has yet been done in England to improve cider fruit.

In a little work on agriculture, written for scholars in French

elementary schools by Les Freres de Tlnstruction Chretienne, 9 lde i r
the following ten varieties of apples are stated to be among the pp es *
best grown in France for cider making.

Appended to each is the analysis of the juice as given in a
pamphlet published by the Syndicat Pomologique de France,
showing the analyses of these varieties from specimens which
were exhibited at the shows of that society during the years
1892-94.

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF JUICE OF FRENCH APPLES.

Best

varieties.

Name ot Fruit.

Average
Weight
of aii
Apple.

Juice
extracted
from
1,000 Ihs.
of Apples.

Density
of
the Juice

Sugar in
Juice.

Acidity
expressed
as
Sulphuric
Acid.

Tannin.

Muci-
lage.

IST SEASON.

Oz.

Lbs.

Percent.

Per cent.

Percent.

Blanc Mollet ...

1-38

740-0

1-0740

13-85

155

2JO

Doux Joseph ...

1-42

492-1

1-0916

18-15

156

528

Saint Laurent ...

1-12

696-0

1-0750

15-26

150

255

2ND SEASON.

Bramtot

1-83

664-8

1-0888

20-35

194

335

Launette Grosse ..

1-76

1-0320

18-10

350

480

Marcchal...

1-93

748-0

1-0780

15-25

160

510

Medaille d'Or ...

1-15

1-0942

19-64

188

1-120

3RD SEASON.

Frequin Audievre

1-28

769-0

1-0740

16-05

125

215

Grise-Dieppois ...

499-1

1-1164

21-10

155

790

Reine des Pommes

2-80

560-5

1-0700

16'2->

260

418

Which then are the best or most desirable varieties to grow ?
This is a subject to which in the future special attention should
be paid with a view to the cultivation of the best varieties
and the gradual elimination of the others. But numerous
observations will be needed.

To answer this question many points have to be considered,
several of which are purely horticultural. I shall merely
dwell upon those of most importance. It is necessary to
discover and record for each variety

1st. Its time of ripening;

2nd. The weight of a crop from a single tree year after
year so as to eliminate the fluctuations due to
season ;

3rd. The volume of the juice of these apples year after

year;
4th. The average composition of this juice;

5th. The kind of cider which the juice will produce when
used alone.

Only by a combination of these five factors can we hope to
ultimately arrive at a just estimate of the value of each variety
of apple for cider making.

The first desideratum is that the apples should be late in
ripening ; it will subsequently be shown in this report that the
later the period of making the cider the better the produce,
and why this is.

The second and third desideratums are self-evident. How-
ever good a particular apple may be, if the crop is very small
or the proportion of juice very small, these facts must tell
against its value.

The fourth and most important consideration is that the
juice should have a composition suited for cider making.

To determine what this composition should be is a most
difficult problem.

As the cider made in 1899 was the best produced during the
pourse of these observations, we are justified in assuming that
the juice then obtained was not far from being a fair example
of what to aim at.

The first characteristic of the juice was its high proportion
of solids (15.57 per cent.), which also meant a larger quantity
of sugar than usual. The amount of acid and the amount of
tannin were on the other hand far below the usual percentages.

These facts suggest some interesting hypotheses.

The analyses of apples show that the table varieties contain
as a rule far more acid than the cider varieties. This acid
probably accounts for the difficulty experienced in making
good cider from table fruit.

Again, the low percentage .of tannin suggests the question :
Is it qujite certain that the -very rough-flavoured apples,
which are'generally believed to be the best for cider making, are
really the best ? So long as cider was made for " the use of
the men, one can well imagine that these constituents were
valuable, for they helped to give the drink an acidity and
roughness which only an agricultural labourer could appre-
ciate, and which probably helped to make the cider last longer
than it otherwise would have done. But the man who makes
cider for sale must be guided by the desire that he who drinks
once shall drink again. We know that it is frequently possible
to have too much of a good thing, and this probably applies to
acid and tannin in cider fruit.

The apples of 1899 were peculiarly rich in those indeter-
minable and unknown constituents, to which the title of
" extractives, &c.," is given in my analyses. Previous to 1899
I considered an excess of these constituents as detrimental to
the manufacture of good cider.

Moreover, experiments have shown that when they were
diminished the cider was materially improved. Upon re-
considering these experiments in the light of the above facts,

15408 C

Unnamed
varieties.

Buying
apples.

it is seen that the acidity and the tannin were in all of them
at the same time diminished. While, therefore, the results
obtained are undeniable, the previous explanation becomes
doubtful, and we have yet to learn how far the improvement
in the cider was due to the diminished extractives, and how far
to the smaller quantities of acid and tannin present in the
juice.

5. It is desirable for many reasons to know what kind of
cider the juice of each variety of apple will produce when
used alone. Such knowledge .will probably afford us consider-
able insight into the cause of flavour in cider and also supply
the data for a scientific system of blending.

A very large proportion of the apple trees growing in the
West of England are unnamed and unknown, and some steps
certainly ought to be taken to discover the names and the
value of the many unknown varieties now existing. How
excellent some of these varieties are has been shown from the
analytical results obtained at Butleigh, see especially No. 14.
A further striking illustration was obtained among some of
the apples sent from the Somerset County Farm, at Bickenhall,
of which neither the name, origin, nor history seems to be
known. Of these No. 10 is of quite exceptional quality;
No. 6 and No. 4 are also good. No. 11, though rich in solids,
contains too much acidity, and appears to be more of a dessert
apple. It is evident that Nos. 2 and 9 are the kinds of apple
which are not worth growing for cider making, when we
consider that the same land and the same season enable another
variety to produce 50 per cent, more solid matter.

In 1898 Mr. Neville Grenville purchased the apples from
an orchard which, though on a different soil, had the reputa-
tion of producing good cider. The juice from these apples
proved to be of poor quality, the average specific gravity of the
juice being only 1.0538, and the solids under 13 per cent.,
which was much below the average of the year for Butleigh.

This shows the necessity of care when buying apples for
cider making. They ought to be paid for not merely by volume
or weight as at present, but according to the quantity and
quality of the juice they yield.

Action of Frost on Apples.

Mr. J. II. Symes, being anxious to determine what effect
frost had on apples, sent me some ripe Pippins (No. 299), and
others of the same variety, which were frosted (No. 300). It
will be seen that there is a close resemblance in composition
between the two, except that the frosted apples were larger,
and appear to have developed further than the others. Hence
they gave more and richer juice. The acidity, tannin, and ex-
tractives are very similar in both juices; the only difference is

the high, proportion of cane sugar in the frosted apples, and
this is not likely to be due to the action of the frost.

We may therefore conclude that if frosted apples are not
suitable for cider making, as sohie believe, it is due either to
changes in composition, not apparent from an ordinary
analysis, but which might be discovered by special investiga-
tion; or to changes affecting the yeasts, &c., which grow on
the apple, and produce a desirable or undesirable fermentation
in the juice. It is quite within the range of probability that
frost may destroy desirable organisms, and leave undesirable
organisms alive, so that these subsequently get the mastery
during fermentation and so spoil the resulting cider.

Gathering the Apples.

If in future we must strive to obtain better fruit for the
manufacture of cider,, in the meantime, it is necessary that we
should utilise to the best advantage that which we already
possess.

The first question which arises is, ought the fruit to
be picked or allowed to drop? Undoubtedly it should be
picked. At present much of the cider fruit of this country
is left upon the trees until it drops, and is then collected into
heaps on the ground, and exposed to the sun, air and rain.
It is disheartening to see how many farmers utterly ignore
the necessity for cleanliness, in this first stage of cider
making. On the 28th of October, 1897, I had occasion to travel
for many miles in Somerset. It was an excessively damp
morning ; a very heavy dew had fallen during the night, and
a Scotch mist hung over the land. In Some places the apples
were still unpicked, while hundreds, wet, bruised and dirty,
were lying under the trees upon the cold, damp grass, a
tempting breakfast for. slugs and worms, and every other
variety of apple consuming life, animal or vegetable. Every
mould or fungus which came in contact with the apples
was revelling in the ample store of sweet, moist food they
supplied, and growing apace, consuming the best part of the
apples, destroying their value for cider making, and planting
in the remainder the germs of a subsequent injurious fermenta-
tion and decay.

In other places I saw men gathering the reeking-wet apples,
evidently intent upon making as much so-called cider as
possible, utterly regardless of its quality. Now, as the same
time, the same labour, and the same capital must be employed,
whether men make cider worth 4d. a gallon, or cider worth
Is. a gallpn, it is extraordinary that a little more foresight is
not exercised so as to do things at the right time and in the
right way.

It is best to gather the apples by hand ; this can only be done
with short trees; where the trees are high it is necessary to
15408 C 2

shake the apples down with the aid of a long crook, the apples
as they fall should be collected in a cloth, or, what is better and
cheaper, a large net. This must be kept well off the ground.

FIG. 1.

The fruit should not be allowed to drop. An apple which
has dropped upon the soil, in the first place collects dirt;
secondly, it is bruised ; and thirdly, it soon begins to discolour
and decay.

The evil effect of allowing the apple to collect dirt is so
self-evident that it needs no comment. Not only does it pick
up dirt from the soil but this frequently gives a distinctly
bad flavour to the resulting juice.

To put this statement to the test Mr. Blake made an experi-
ment which completely confirmed its truth. In writing to me
he thus describes the test : " An experiment made by me in
1899 was the manufacture of cider from apples that had been
allowed to lie on the damp ground for a long time, with the
object of determining for myself whether such apples would
impart an earthy taste to the cider made from them, and I find
that this has distinctly been the case.

" The farmer who kindly let me have those apples admitted
the fact on my letting him taste a sample of the cider later on,
and said it would be a good practical lesson to him not to let
his apples lie on the ground for the future."

When the apple in a bruised condition is left exposed to
the rain, there can be no doubt whatever that much of its
nutriment is washed out, and the sugar being thus lost, the

resulting juice is impoverished. Whether the apples, by being
bruised and decaying, are any the worse for cider making, is
a point upon which there seems much difference of opinion.

But it is only necessary to carefully examine a number of Rotten
apples in a field " store " or heap, to see that any mould which a PP leg *
is growing is always found on the bruised and decaying part.
This mould will subsequently find its way into the juice, where
its spores will act as ferments detrimental to the cider, and
will invariably give it a characteristic mouldy flavour.

In such bruised apples the decay is not always of one kind,
two varieties, " brown " and " black " rot being easily recognis-
able. The latter is, I believe, universally regarded as bad ;
opinions differ, however, with respect to the " brown " rot.
An experiment was therefore made to determine the effect of
allowing the apples to get rotten. The apples being hand-
picked and kept in a clean and dry place, until a sufficient
number were rotten to permit of analyses being made of both
sound and rotten specimens. The results obtained were as
follows :

COMPOSITION OP JUICE FROM SOUND AND ROTTEN APPLES.

Sp. Gr.

Acid.

Sugar.

Tannin.

Solids.

Sound

1-055

12-50

13-70

Rotten (Brown Rot)

1-055

12-19

168

13-42

From these results it is evident that two distinct changes
take place : first, the tannin is precipitated in large part by
allowing the apple to rot, and so does not enter the juice;
secondly, the acidity slightly diminishes and there is a loss
of sugar. The rottenness was that known as " brown " rot.

The juice of the rotten apples was of far darker colour than
that of the sound apples, and upon keeping it in clear glass
bottles, so that the changes taking place might be observed,
it was found that the juice from the rotten [apples cleared far
more rapidly, as fermentation progressed, than that from the
sound apples.

Further, the apples lose considerably in weight by rotting 1 ,
and their iuice contains far more matter in suspension than
that from sound apples, which probably accounts for its clear-
ing more rapidly.

Whether under any circumstances the apples should be
allowed to get rotten in a dry store or not may remain for
the present an open question, and one for future inquiry, but
there is clearly no doubt that the effects produced by allowing
them to fall and rot on the ground are detrimental to the
manufacture of good cider, especially if the apples be exposed
to the rain.

Storing the
apples.

This custom, which is unfortunately almost universal in the
West of England, cannot therefore be too strongly condemned.
The apples should never be allowed to lie on the ground, even in
heaps.

The next question is, when should the apples be picked? I
am convinced that cider apples ought to be picked before they
have become quite ripe. Immediately the apples from a tree
begin to drop, it is time for all the fruit upon that tree to be
gathered. The apple appears to attain a maximum size before
it commences to ripen. When once it has attained that size
and the process of ripening has commenced, nothing is gained
by leaving it upon the tree. If left it merely ripens and
certain chemical changes take place within it by which the
sugar increases, &c. These changes, however, take place to
the same extent if the apple is taken off the tree, and the con-
nection between the apple and the tree does not, so far as I am
able to judge at present/ in any way affect the later stages of
the ripening process.*

If the apples have been picked before they are quite ripe they
must be stored away to ripen. The best storing room is a dry,
well-ventilated loft, the floor of which is divided into bins in
which different varieties of apples may be stored separately.
If no loft is available they may be left in the wagons in which
they were placed when first gathered, provided these wagons are
covered, or placed in a covered shed. Or the apples may be

Hurdle
stores.

FIG. 2.

stored in the hurdle stores, Figs. 2 and 3, described by Mr.
Harper as follows : " Every farmer has sheep hurdles upon his
farm, which are only fully in use during the lambing season;

L. Lindet, who has made a study of the ripening of cider apples, comes
to a similar conclusion. 'Compte-Rendus, 1893.

FIG. 3.

in any case they cost but little. When the fruit is
about to be gathered, drive a hurdle into the ground,
strengthening it, if it is a high one, by driving a stake
into the ground by it. Another hurdle should then be placed
parallel to the first, and sufficiently near to allow of another
being placed like a shelf upon the bottom rail of the first
hurdle, and the second rail from the bottom of the other hurdle.
A hurdle should be driven in at each side, and the series may
be continued an indefinite distance. Some use wreath hurdles,
made of willow with twigs interlaced between the bars. Others
use a thick coating of straw or fern on the bottom, with some
straw turned up at the sides to keep the fruit from running out.
When the produce of a tree, or of several .trees of one sort,
has been gathered, it is put into this receptacle, which, as will
be evident, is very easily put up. Apples stored in this way
are kept off the ground, and the air can get under, over, and
round them."

Some experiments were made with apples picked and kept
in hurdle stores ; the result was most satisfactory. The apples
were cleaner, riper, and less rotten than those obtained in any

other way. When in stores and under cover, they can be left
until opportunity arises for making them into cider. But
where there is no provision for storing apples the cider making
has to be carried out at a breakneck speed, to keep pace with
the fall of the apples.

It is essential that the apples when in the hurdle stores
should be well covered, so as to prevent the rain penetrating
into the store. Owing to the considerable amount of rain
which fell at Butleigh during the months of November
and December, 1895, this was not alwaj^s ensured, and the
result is well shown in the following analyses :

COMPOSITION OF JUICE FROM WHITE JERSEYS.

Acid.

Sugar.

Total Solids.

7th November Picked from Tree

11-49

12-62

20th November Placed in Hurdla

11-90

12-76 .

Store.

16th December Taken from Hurdle

11-33

12-26

Store, washed with

rain.

Evidently from these figures it is better, if possible, to store
the apples on a dry floor in a loft, provided they are not packed
too thickly and are moved regularly to prevent heating. One
advantage of this system is that the apples dry, losing a little
moisture, consequently the gravity of the juice becomes greater,
and the resulting cider stronger, than it would be if the apples
had been ground when wet.

This is shown by the following results :

COMPOSITION OF JUICE FROM RED JERSEYS STORED IN LOFT.

Sp. Gr.

Acid.

Sugar.

Total Solids.

22nd October

1-0617

14-70

15-44

5th November

1-0660

14-92

16-14

When should Cider making commence ? Temperature.

No factor plays such an important part in the manufacture
of cider as that of temperature. The cooler the season the
better the make. Hence, cider making should be delayed as
long as possible. It therefore follows, unfortunately, that the
season most favourable for the ripening of the apples is not best
adapted for the making of cider.

If, therefore, the ripening season is an early one, the make has
to be put off longer than usual, and it is necessary to pick the

apples before they have reached such a state of ripeness as
would be permissible in a later season. This is apparent when
once noticed. In such a warm season the apples will not keep
so .well nor so long as could be desired, unless they are picked
early, otherwise a certain amount of waste and decay will take
place in the sWes.

The Manipulation of the Apples.

In the manufacture of cider at Butleigh an endeavour was
made to carry out every improvement in a simple, practical
manner, so that any cider maker without going to unnecessary
expense could do the same. Sufficient space for storing the
apples and allowing them to get ripe did not exist there, more
especially in a plentiful year, so that frequently the apples
had to be ground a few days after being brought into the loft
or storing-room.

The apples were brought in, as on most farms, in a state
which although it does not satisfy scientific requirements was
universally deemed to be the best that could be secured. In
other words, more or less material which ought not to be
present is brought in with them. How fo clean the apples and
how to get rid of this extraneous matter has always been a
difficulty with every cider maker. But it must be done.

Mr. Neville Grenville secured it by a simple and yet effective Trough
contrivance. A trough of wood, about ten to twelve feet long, to clean
twelve inches wide, and with sides seven inches Eigh, was a PP les -
made. This was placed in the storing-room, with one end
leading into the shoot which fed the mill, and the other raised
about two to three feet from the floor on a wooden trestle.
Along the bottom of this trough, at intervals of about two
feet, were fixed slips of wood half an inch thick, nailed on
diagonally and bevelled off on the side away from the mill.

The effect of these strips was to slightly arrest the speed of
the apples, and to cause their flow to be alternately from side
to side of the trough, as they rolled down the slope from the
upper end, where they were fed into the trough. A man or
boy stood by the trough, and a,s the apples rolled along
picked out all those that were rotten, gathering up from
time to time the leaves, stems, pieces of rotten apple, and
other extraneous matter which, owing to their inability to roll,
were left in the trough, and thus easily separated from the
apples. The amount of useless material removed in this way
from apples, which to all appearance were fairly clean, was
astounding.

Subsequently an improvement was made to th trough which
proved most valuable as a means of further cleansing the
apples. This consisted of putting into the trough a false
bottom of semi-circular laths. The laths are fixed to narrow
strips of wood, which raise them 2 inches off the bottom of the

trough so that they form a grating. This grating is made in
lengths of three feet. One length could thus be removed at a
time for clearing out the refuse which had accumulated
beneath it. The laths ran parallel to the sides of the trough,
about IJ-ins. apart. Probably it would be best to have the
bottom of the trough open, so that the dirt might fall through
on to the floor, and thus do away with the frequent removal of
the lath bottom for cleansing the trough.

The result of the removal of the dirt effected by the trough
was most marked, the juice being purer to the taste, and in
every respect far more clean. The colour of the cider was
much lighter than when {he rotten apples were left in. I
would most strongly recommend cider makers to adopt this
simple system of cleaning the apples.

Another system of cleaning the apples upon which experi-
ments have been made is by washing them.

Washing Washing apples for cider making is a custom seldom, I

apples. think, resorted to in England; but it is practised in both

Germany and Switzerland, and in both these countries most
excellent cider is made. It is also being introduced into
France, and a special apparatus is made for the purpose at
Cherbourg. The first advantage that can be claimed for the
process of washing is that it gets rid of the dirt. The possible
disadvantages sometimes said to accrue, are: 1st. That it
washes out some of the sugar; and, 2ndly. That it washes the
yeasts, necessary for the fermentation of the juice, off the
apples.

An elaborate examination of the influence of washing cider
apples, so far as it affects the composition of the juice, has been
made by Mons. A. Truelle, and published in the " Journal de
1* Agriculture-," July-August, 1899, and those who are making
a study of cider might, with advantage, carefully read this
article.

My experiments were on a large scale, and the apparatus
at my disposal was not of the best. The best method of wash-
ing the apples in bulk that I could devise was to dip them,
when suspended in special baskets, into a tank of water several
times, and then allow them to drain and partly dry on a floor
until sufficient were washed for a cheese.

Two cheeses were made up from the same bulk of apples,
one lot being washed and the other lot unwashed. The specific
gravity of the juice was, from--

Unwashed apples ... ... ... 1.057

Washed apples ... 1.056

'The loss of the solid matter in the juice due to washing was
therefore scarcely perceptible. As regards fermentation, this
proceeded more regularly and only slightly less rapidly in the
juice from the washed apples than in that from the unwashed
apples, so that there would appear to have been no material

loss of yeasts 'due to washing. "Vyhat little there was Could
probably do no harm,* as a slow fermentation is always desir-
aoie. The flavour of the cider from the washed apples was
beiier than that from the unwashed apples.

Grinding the Apples.

The apples as they leave the trough pass into the mill.

There are several mills at present in use. First, there is the
old stone mill, which has many disadvantages, being slow and
dirty. It certainly does crush the apples thoroughly. Another
kind of mill is made of two iron rollers so cast that they fit
into one another. These iron rollers, do not separate the cells
of the apple sufficiently. The mill simply crushes the fruit,
and in no sense of the word can it be said to disintegrate it.

Another mill is the " Tooth mill," having two stone rollers
under it. In the top set of rollers the teeth of one roller fit
into openings in the other. These mills do their work fairly

FIG. 4.

well. A still better mill is the one called a " Scratcher." It
is best for this reason, that it disintegrates the apple cell from
cell. The Scratcher, Fig. 4, tears the fruit to pieces; and has

* This is a subject still needing investigation, as it may be that beneficial
yeasts are more easily washed off the apples than are ' wild yeasts. It is,
however, more probable that the latter are most easily washed off, in which
case washing would have a new and enhanced value.

the immense advantage of grinding as fast again as any other
mill known. The two stone rollers under a " Scratcher " are
not necessary.

FIG. 5.

The mill, Fig. 5, or grater used on the Continent contains
wrought-iron knives, which first break the apple into pieces.
These fall down and are crushed between two adjustable ribbed
stones.

The influence the mill has upon the results obtained is well
shown in the following experiment. Two lots of apples were
ground, one in a Scratcher, one in a Continental mill, and
submitted to pressure in the same press and for the same period.

The results obtained were :

Yield.

1,000 Ibs. Apples.

Juice.

Pressed Pomace.

Lbs.

Pomace from Scratcher

720

280

Pomace from Continental Mill

650

350

Crushing the Pips.

The majority of English mills crush the pips, and this is Pips should
often thought desirable, but it is not supported by the experi- not |> e
ence of foreign makers nor of many in England. Hence one c e '
of the chief characteristics of all foreign mills, is that they are
so constructed as not to break the pips. Whether they are
better than the English mills and which of the many used in
England are good, are questions for future investigation. This
is more especially desirable because, when the last. trials were
held, crushing the pips was considered an essential point in
the action of the mill. If in such tests the force expended, the
time occupied, the nature of the work done, and the suscepti-
bility of the crushed apples to pressure were recorded and
these could easily be determined by modern appliances in the
hands of competent engineers and judges the results would
prove of the utmost value to cider makers. In England it was
generally considered desirable to crush the pips when grinding
the apples, as they were supposed to give a good flavour to the
cider. Mr. Harper, however, considers that grinding the apple
pips is detrimental to the manufacture and keeping quality
of cider. A number of pips were collected by me and analysed.
They were found to contain from 37 to 39 per cent, of moisture
(water), and when dried had the following composition:

COMPOSITION OF APPLE PIPS [DEIED AT 212 F.].

Oil 18-60

Nitrogenous constituents (albuminoids) ... 33' 12

Carbo-hydrates, &c. ... 26'08

Woody fibre 18'55

Mineral matter 3'65

100-00

As the brewer finds too much nitrogenous matter detrimental
in brewing it was thought possible that the pips, if ground,
might prove detrimental in cider making.

Numerous experiments have therefore been made at Butleigh
with apples of the same kind, one cheese being put up with
pomace containing crushed apple pips, the other with pomace
in which the pips were not crushed. The result has invari-
ably been that a better flavoured cider was obtained when the
pips were not crushed or broken. The flavour of the pips is not
desirable, and if they are crushed, this can at times be detected
in the cider, especially if it is dry cider. Hence we now lay
it down as one of the rules at Butleigh that the pips must not
be crushed. I have also been informed* on numerous occasions
that cider made from pomace with crushed pips will not clear
so easily nor so well as that made from pomace with the pips
whole.

Pressing the Pomace.

There are many kinds of presses, "but any one of the nine or
ten varieties commonly used will serve the purpose.

The press originally used at Butleigh was one of the old-
fashioned type seen in nearly every west-country cider house.
Fig. 6; It did its work well, but required a considerable
amount of manual labour.

FIG. 6.

In 1895 a new press was procured. Fig. 7. This was the
quadruple gear hand-press shown in the annexed illustration.
This press obtained the first prize at the trials of cider-making
apparatus conducted at Grlastoiibury in 1890, in connection with
the show of the Royal Agricultural Society at Plymouth. The
pressure is obtained by means of a mechanical arrangement,
by which it is possible either to apply pressure rapidly, or, by a
slight alteration of the gear, to obtain greater pressure, though

necessarily more slowly. It is claimed for this press tliat it
is capable of exerting a pressure of eighty tons. "Whether this
be so or not, it has proved an efficient press as compared with

FIG. 7.

that previously used. This will be best seen by a study of the
following results of experiments :

OLD PRESS.

1,000 Ibs. Pomace.

Juice.

Pressed Pomace.

Lbs.

In 1894 1st Experiment

693

307

2nd Experiment

743

257

NEW PRESS (WORKMAN).

1,000 Ibs. Pomace.

Juice.

Pressed Pomace.

In 1895 1st Experiment

Lbs.
706

Lbs.
294

2nd Experiment

720

280

The pomace in each of these experiments was in the press
on an average for four hours.

The Continental press, Fig. 8, differs from the English press
in that the pulp is enclosed in a cage. But the most striking
difference is in the system adopted for obtaining pressure.

FIG. 8.

This is done by a double lever mechanism, so arranged that
pressure is applied whether the lever be worked backward
or forward ; the man does not have to walk round the machine,
and need scarcely change his position. Hence the press can
be placed in any convenient situation, even in a corner.

Before giving the results of my. experiments with the
Continental press, it is necessary to state that in the countries
where- they are used the method of cider making adopted is
different to that hitherto adopted in England. It is of far
less importance to the foreign cider maker, who makes small
cider (see p. 82), to o'btaiii the whole of the juice out of the
apple at the first pressing than it is to the English cider maker,
who presses as a rule once only. Hence, the Continental press
is not made to take out all the juice like our English press.
This will be seen from the following results of two experiments.

1,000 Ibs. of apples yielded from an old English press SOT Ibs.
of pomace and 693 Ibs. of juice.* The Continental press
yielded, from 1,000 Ibs. of the same apples at the' same time,
450 Ibs. of pomace and 550 Ibs. of juice.

In a second trial, 1,000 Ibs. of apples yielded in the English
press 257 Ibs. of pomace and 743 Ibs. of juice, while from
1,000 Ibs. of the same apples the Continental press gave
438 Ibs. of pomace and 562 Ibs. of juice.

Taking the mean of these results, the English press yielded
718 Ibs. of juice, the Continental press only 556 Ibs.

It is only right to here state that since these experiments
were made there has been considerable improvement in the
method of manipulating the Continental press, evidently based
on the Butleigh experiments. Also the outer casing has in
many instances been done way with, and the cheese made up
in the manner adopted at Butleigh and described later on.

In the case of small makers, where not many hands are
available, it is well to have a travelling double-bedded press,

The advantage of this is that while one lot of .juice is running
out, another *' cheese " can be put up.

While watching two or three powerful men labouring to
obtain sufficient pressure upon the pomace to extract all the
juice, the thought arises, could not this power be obtained far
jnore easily and at less cost by some more simple method?
Surely in no other industry where pressure is required is it
obtained in so primitive a fashion, and it is impossible- to
believe that this method will long remain in vogue.

The most efficacious method of obtaining pressure is by
hydraulic power. Already in large establishments the
hydraulic press is used, but unfortunately its high price pre-
vents it for the present becoming more generally employed.

Extracting the juice.

The ground apples are termed pomace, probably from the Pomace.
French words Pommes Macerees. To extract the juice from
this pomace it has to be subjected to pressure. The old system,

' This may easily be converted into gallons, tfre average weight of one
gallon of apple juice being 10 Ibs;

15408

Cheese.

Cloths.

still in vogue in many parts of Somerset, was to build up on
the table of the press a mass of pomace mixed with straw
" reed " to hold it together during the period of pressure. The
mixture of pomace and straw is called a " cheese/' The straw
does not sufficiently bind the pomace to enable it to be pro-
perly pressed by one application of the press. Pressure has
therefore to be taken oil after some time ; the edges of the
cheese are then trimmed with a knife, the trimmings placed
upon the top of the cheese and the whole re-submitted to further
pressure. This process is sometimes repeated. The time and
trouble involved is great, and it was determined to improve
upon this method. The pomace was wrapped in thick Manilla
cloths, Fig. 9, and between these cloths gratings of wood,

FIG. 9.

Fig. 10, were interposed to keep the cloths in position and to
secure uniform pressure upon the mass. These thick Manilla
cloths are expensive, difficult to wash, and more difficult to keep
clean, they involve a large amount of labour, which it was
desirable if possible to avoid. After many experiments it was
found that there was no need for such a substantial texture
Thin cloths, to be used, and thin cloths were introduced in their place.
These cloths consist of what is known as netting shading. It
is inexpensive to buy, easy to manipulate and also to wash.
The cloths are infinitely better than straw, and once they have
been used no one would wish to go back to the old system of
reeds. It was doubted whether the thin cloths would with-
stand the pressure necessary to extract the juice, but they have
be<m found to do this. A new cloth of deficient strength in

some part may burst, but if the cloth will withstand the pres-
sure the first time it is used, there is little fear of its subse-
quently breaking. The tannin in the apple-juice seems to

FIG. 10.

tan the cloth and increases its strength. An experiment made
to determine whether the pomace were as well-pressed in the
thin cloths as in the thick? Manilla cloths gave the following
results :

Moisture in pomace from

Thin cloths
Thick cloths

75.0 per cent.
74.5

An experiment had previously been made to determine
whether the thick cloths prevented the juice being extracted
from the pomace as thoroughly as by the old reed system.
The results of these experiments were as follows : Average
amount of water left in pomace as determined by analysis :

From a reed cheese ... ... 72.1 per cent.

From a Manilla cloth ... 72.7

It is thus seen that the juice can be extracted from the
pomace by using thin cloths as efficiently as by using thick
cloths or by the reed system, and this result is obtained with
one application of pressure, in lieu of two or three, and there-
fore with a considerable saving of both time and labour.

Several questions arise as to the treatment of the pomace.
The first is, should it be pressed immediately after it is ground

15408 D 2

or should it be allowed to stand some time before pressure is
applied ? Experiments made on this subjects have proved that
Colour. the .colour of the juice from pomace pressed immediately after

grinding is lighter than the juice from pomace which has been
allowed to stand. This is only what might be expected, for,
as is well known, if broken apples be exposed to the light and
air they soon become discoloured. It is commonly believed
in the West of England that unless cider has a deep colour it
is deficient in body or strength*

I am not in favour of a dark-coloured cider, nor do I think
the public likes deep-coloured drinks. The tendency for
years past with beer and wine has been to lighten the colour.
At the same time there are some parts of England where the
cider is naturally very pale in colour, too pale in fact, and in
such districts it may be desirable to expose the pomace to the
air before grinding so as to augment the colour.

Quantity The quantity of juice obtained from pomace which has been

of juice. allowed to stand after grinding is not greater than from pomace
which is pressed at once.

The following experiment proves this fact :

Two lots, each of 1,000 Ibs. of apples were ground, the first
lot being pressed immediately and the second after twenty-four
hours. The following results were obtained : -

Weight of
Apples.

Weight of
Pressed Pomace.

Weight of Juice.

Lbs.

Pressed at once

1,000

294

706

Pressed after standing 24
hours.

1,000

280

720

The difference in quantity is only such as might occur
between any two cheeses.

The results of the analyses of the juice from these experi-
ments are as follows :

ANALYSES OF JUJCE.

Sp. Gr.

Acid.

Sugar.

Tannin.

Total
Solids.

1. Pressed as soon as ground

1-0539

11-36

13-02

2. Pressed 24 hours after

1-0533

11-11

17 ,

12-8,0

grinding.

1 A second experiment yielded the following results :

Sp. Gr.

Acid.

Sugar.

Tannin.

Total
Solids.

1. Pressed as soon as ground

1-050

10-87

11-98

2. Pressed 24 hours after
grinding.

1-051

10-87

12-40

The variations being slight indicate that no considerable
chemical change is produced by keeping, except a similar
change to that which occurs when the apples are allowed to
rot, namely, that some of the tannin appears to be precipitated, Tannin
and not to enter the juice. Now, as the presence of tannin is
considered necessary, not only as a means of keeping the juice
but of obtaining it clear and bright, it would seem that, if
regarded only from this point of view, it is best to press the
pomace as soon -after grinding as possible.

When this juice was fully fermented and ripened, it was
found that the cider made by pressing the pomace as soon as
it was ground was far superior to that made from the pomace
which had stood twenty-four hours before being pressed.

Utilizing the once pressed Pomace.

The pressed pomace as taken from the press has been analysed
by me and found to have the following composition :

COMPOSITION OF PRESSED APPLE POMACE.

Water

Oil

Nitrogenous constituents ...
Sugar, &c. ...
Woody fibre
Mineral matter

T2.40
1.08
1.27

18.34
4.64
2.21

100.00

Thus the pomace as it comes from the press, however dry
it may appear to the eye or touch, really contains a large
quantity of liquid. In three determinations of separate cheeses
there were found 72 per cent., 75 per cent., and 74 per cent,
of moisture respectively. This really means juice.

^ The question arises how can this pomace be further utilized? Feeding the
The expressed pomace may be used for feeding animals and pomace,
is a good food so long as it can be given to them while still
fresh. 'But it undergoes rapid change and is then said to be
injurious.

"Vinegar
making.

Re-pressing
the pomace.

Small cider.

It has been suggested that the pomace should be extracted
with water and the solution used for making vinegar. But
although this can be done it is not desirable to do it unless the
whole process of vinegar making can be kept away from the
cider making. One of the worst troubles of the cider maker is
due to the introduction into the cider house of the ferment
which produces vinegar, technically known as the Mycodernia
aceti; there is far too much of the nature of vinegar about some
of the cider made at the present day, and one of the chief
objects of these experiments has been to show how to avoid
the presence of an excess of acid in the cider.

However, the fact that the once-pressed pomace contained
as much as 18 per cent, of sugar, &c., led me to think that some-
thing might be done to extract this sugar.

Experiments were made in various ways.

1st. An experiment was made to determine whether by
breaking down the cheese and re-pressing, sufficient juice could
be obtained to justify the trouble.

From 1,850 Ibs. of pomace, 1,277 Ibs. of juice of specific
gravity 1.057 were obtained in the first pressing.

After being broken down and re-pressed, the cheese yielded
a further 137 Ibs. of juice of specific gravity 1.054. It will
be noted that the second juice had not so high a gravity as the
first.

It would thus appear that the quantity and quality of the
juice so extracted was not worth the necessary time and labour.

A second method investigated was to try and wash out some
of the juice with water. This method is largely adopted
abroad.

There two varieties of cider are made, both from the
same lot of apples. The apple pulp is placed in the press
and the juice extracted and measured, and when fermented
constitutes pure cider. The pressed pulp or pomace is then
taken out of the press, broken up fine, or reground, and placed
in a vat with water. The mixture is stirred up from time to
time, left for from twelve to fifteen hours, and then put into
the press and subjected to pressure. This second juice is
sometimes added to the first juice, sometimes kept separate.

In the latter case some sugar is added, and the fermented
liquid is called small cider. Numerous experiments have been
made on this method of treating the pomace, and are subse-
quently described under the heading *' small cider."

The Apple Juice.

The moment the apple juice comes from the press its specific
gravity should be taken and recorded ; it is then possible to say
with a fair degree of accuracy what amount of solids the juice
contains and what amount of alcohol the cider made from^ it
may contain. Thus, if the hydrometer shows that -the juice

contains 15 per cent, solids, we know that two or three parts of
this will not be fermentable, so that about 12 per cent., remains
to be fermented. This will yield half its weight of alcohol.

If the cider is not to be fermented to dryness, then the
amount of alcohol can be estimated as follows : Suppose 4 per
cent, of sugar is to be left in the juice, this will leave only
8 per cent, of sugar to be fermented into alcohol, which halve"d
will give roughly the percentage of alcohol that will be formed.

The chemical composition of the juice has already been
spoken of. We now have to consider why it is this juice
ferments. Growing on the skins of the apples there are many
of those minute vegetables known as yeasts, and during the
gathering of the apples and their subsequent treatment these
and other organisms have found their way into the juice, and
they start in the juice that remarkable change known as
fermentation. What that change is will be more fully
described later on. Suffice it to say here that during this
fermentation the sugar in the juice is converted into alcohol
and carbonic acid gas.

From repeated observations of the fermenting juice it would Yeasts,
appear that many different kinds of yeast are present anjd are
all hard at work converting the sugar into alcohol. Saccha-
romyces cerevisiae and ellipsoideus seem to predominate, but
S. apiculatus and S. pastorianus are ajso there, with Torulas
and moulds and bacteria, a heterogenous host of workers. As
the sugar gradually disappears and the alcohol increases, a
struggle for existence commences among these organisms. Cer-
tain organisms succumb, suppressed by more vigorous species,
and also due it may be to the presence of alcohol, to the want
of food, or, as seems highly probable, to the presence of those
unfermentable constituents of the fruit, which, while not in-
jurious to the yeasts naturally present on that fruit, may be
injurious to other organisms.

This primary fermentation has therefore been exercising a
selective influence on the yeasts and bacteria, until in the well-
fermented juice but few varieties remain. The work they have
to do, however, is important; no longer are they required to
make alcohol, but by a secondary fermentation to convert the
materials left at their disposal into those aromatic and flavour-
ing constituents which shall finally ensure the liquid being
converted into cider.

The primary fermentation, or the conversion of the sugar
into alcohol, first needs our consideration. It will gradually,
or rapidly, proceed, until at last all the sugar is converted into
alcohol, unless special means be taken to prevent this result.

Three questions have arisen from these facts and received
attention. First, should the cider be allowed to ferment to
dryness, by which term is meant until all the sugar has dis-
appeared, before it is bunged down for ripening? Second,

If n'ot, then "how niuch sugar should still be left in the unfer-
mented juice when the cask is bunged down? And^ thirdly, do
the lees or grounds play any part in the ripening of the cider ;
or will a better cider be obtained by removing them before
bunging down?*

The answers to these three questions are briefly as follows :

1 . The cider should not "be allowed to ferment to dryness ;

2. The amount of sugar which should be present when steps are
taken to check the fermentation must depend on the kind of
cider required ; and, 3. The lees play no important part in the
production of quality, and the best cider is obtained by re-
moving them at the right time.

We now have to consider how best to attain these ends. And
here it may be stated that the most important subject of all is
to know how to check fermentation so that it may be com-
pletely under our control.

Clarifying the Juice.

The juice as it comes from the press is a thick, syrupy liquid
holding much matter in suspension. It must be taken to the
barrels or keeves where it is next to be treated.

This was first don by a rotary reversible racking pump, as
shown in the following illustration. Fig. 11. It saves an
immense amount of time and labour, and is a most valuable
implement indeed, indispensable in cider making.

FIG. 1L

Subsequently the semi-rotary pump, shown in the follow-
ing illustration, Tig. 12, was employed, as it was found easier
to work.

5*5

FIG. 12.

The custom in vogue when these experiments were started
was to put the juice direct from the press into barrels and allow
it to ferment. Some people hold the view, that during this
process of fermentation a portion of the solid matter which
is in suspension in the juice passes into solution.

After repeated experiments I am unahle to find any proof
of such solution taking place. The chief object of the modern
cider maker is therefore to free the juice of this suspended
matter as soon as possible after it comes from the press and so
to check or prevent tumultuous fermentation.

The first attempt to this end was made by filling the barrels
quite full of juice so that as the juice fermented the pomace
worked out of the bung hole. The barrels were kept full by
the addition from time to time of fresh juice. This is both
an ineffectual and a dirty method. It is ineffectual because
it is impossible to get all the head out of the juice; much of it
clings to the sides and under the top of the barrel and subse-
quently sinks. Moreover, the sediment which is also formed
remains in the barrel. Hence, by this method it is impossible
to clarify the juice or to control the fermentation.

The system is also dirty; the froth works out over the cask,
soaks the floor round the casks, and supplies nutriment for
organisms injurious to cider which may be subsequently dis-
seminated into the atmosphere of the cellar and contaminate
all the cider.

Many experiments have therefore been made to determine
how best to clarify the juice after it came from the press. The
first attempts were to filter it by means of bags of cloth made
in the shape of an inverted cone. It was found that the juice
would not pass through the bags In a clear state unless they
were of very fine material, and then filtration was too slow to
be useful. In order to use a coarser cloth it was necessary to
precipitate the suspended matter, and for this purpose separated
milk . was employed. Even then filtration was slow and the
juice became exposed to the air to an extent that was undesir-
able. Moreover, the use of milk necessarilv introduces into
the apple \juice the lactic acid bacteria, which, if they subse-
quently develop, give an acid and unpleasant taste to the
resulting ci<ler. Hence the use of filtering bags had to be
abandoned.

Experiments were subsequently tried with a filter used in
France and known as Maignen's filter. Pig. 13. This is an
asbestos filter. The asbestos cloth, made up into ^ a sac
(Fig. i.), is arranged in the form of a concertina (Fig. li.),
by means of discs inside (Fig. iii.), and cords (Figs. iv. and v.)
outside. One end ^ tightly closed (Fig. vi.), the other end is
terminated by a metallic nozzle with union (Fig. vii.).

FIG. 13.

This filter is intended to be used as soon as the juice conies
from the press.

The filter is placed in a tub which receives the juice. Then
by means of the union attached to the pipe of the pump, the
juice is forcibly drawn by suction through the asbestos cloth
from the outside to the inside, passing through into the cask
clear and bright.

Experiments proved that the juice as it came from the press
could not be passed through this filter with sufficient rapidity
for practical purposes.

Experiments were subsequently made with the Invicta filter
(see p. 53). Filtration was possible but far too slow, and if
the filtration were well done the filtered juice would not
ferment.

Many other experiments were made to purify the juice as it
came from the press but without success. It was then deter-
mined to try and utilise nature's own forces for this purpose,
and experiments were started with the keeving system.

Keeving is probably known to all those who take an interest Keeving.
in cider making. It was originally done in a large open vessel
called a keeve. This keeve may be of varying size and shape.
The best shape is that of an. inverted cone, with a large bottom
and a small top. The top should be open and should have a
cover loosely fitting over it.

If a specially made keeve is not at hand, a " pipe," with the
head taken out will do for keeving, and the head of the cask
will do fairly well as a cover. Such were the keeves used at
Butleigh.

The principle of keeving may be described as follows :
The yeasts which cause the fermentation of the apple juice
grow on the skin of the apple. When the juice is placed in
the keeve, the yeasts begin to act upon the sugar, changing
it into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. This gas, being
formed in the immediate vicinity of the pieces of apple
skin, &c., present in the juice, becomes attached to them,
and gradually accumulates to such an extent as to float the
solid particles and slowly carry them up to the surface of the
liquid. In the course of from 12 to 24 hours, or longer, accord-
ing to the temperature of the juice, and of the atmosphere of the
keeving-room, a scum forms upon the surface, consisting of
these particles of skin and pomace. This scum, or as it is
technically called k< head," rapidly increases in thickness, and
gradually becomes dry and cracks; soon after which it loses
its power of floating upon the surface, and if not promptly
removed would sink again into the juice. The object of
keeving is to get rid of this head before it sinks. This is done
in the open keeves by skimming, and in the closed keeves by
racking. The skimming, which may be performed with a
skimnjer similar to that used for skimming cream off milk,
should be done as rapidly as possible, and the cover imme-
diately replaced upon the keeve. In the open keeves a second
head' soon forms after the removal of the first, and this in due
course is skimmed off, as also, if necessary, a third head. The
juice is now tolerably clear, for not only have the heads been
removed, but a large quantity of the matter which was in
suspension will have sunk to the bottom of the keeve. The
partly clarified juice may then be racked or syphoned into
casks. Great care must be taken not to disturb the sediment.
Tfyus by keeving, the first or tempestuous fermentation is used
in;order to partly clarify the apple juice.

It should be the object of every cider maker to keep his apple
juice and cider free from contact with the atmosphere. This
cannot be done completely when keeving, but it may be done
partly. Thus, the keeve should not be filled more than five-
si^ths full, so as to leave a good space between the surface of
the apple juice and the top of the keeve. The keeve should be
loosely covered over with a wooden cover to prevent draughts
of air getting at it. Then the space above the fermenting
apple juice soon becomes filled with the carbonic acid gas
which is being given off from the fermenting juice. This gas
being heavier than the atmosphere, lies upon the top of the
juice (provided no draughts are allowed to play upon it and
blow it away), and acts as a preservative.

With care in carrying out this process, the results are well
worth the trouble entailed. The juice is not only considerably
clarified and to get the juice clear must be the constant effort
of the cider makerbut the subsequent fermentation is slower,
more regular, and therefore capable of being better controlled.

When 'the juice was at a temperature of 40 Fahr. no head Influence of
would form in the keeve, fermentation being at a stand-stilL temperature
Observations as to the effect of temperature have been made on keevmg.
regularly, and it is evident that unless the juice is at a tempera-
ture of about 50-52 Fahr., or can be kept in a room artificially
heated, so that it will gradually rise to this temperature, and
a head rise, it is not advisable to keeve the juice, for no bene-
ficial results would follow.

The desirability of keeving is so great and the necessity of
keeping the keeves at a moderate and uniform temperature is
so evident that, where possible, a small keeving-room should
be provided, containing a slow combustion " Tortoise " stove
by which to regulate the temperature in case of frost ; but the
great difficulty is to cool the juice when the weather is too hot.
Such a room should be above the storing-cellar.

The object of keeving being to clear the juice, it is evident Racking
that the best guide as to whether, and when, keeving has pro- from keeve.
ceeded far enough is the condition or clearness of the juice.
Now it is not possible to see this except after removing each
" head," while the proper moment might arrive before the
" head " was removed. A wooden tap should therefore be
placed in the centre of each keeve. This enables a tumblerful
of the juice to be removed at regular intervals without disturb-
ing the head or necessitating its being first skimmed off, and
from the condition of this sample it is easy to determine when
the juice may be racked into the barrels.

In drawing off from the keeve, it is most necessary to avoid
disturbing the sediment. This may be accomplished by insert-
ing into the end of the indiarubber hose which dips into the
keeve one arm of a piece of metal tubing bent in the shape of
a TJ. The juice is then sucked downwards into the other arm,
whereas, if the tube is merety dipped into the keeve, say, within
six inches of the bottom, and the juice sucked upwards, the
current of liquid sweeping over the surface of the deposited
pomace will gradually disturb it and cause it to be drawn up
into the tube, thereby partly destroying the result which ought
to be gained by keeving.

The juice is drawn from the keeves either by means of the
semi-rotary piump, described on p. 44, or, better still, by mere
syphon action (if the keeves are in an -upper room) into the
barrels in the cider cellar.

Fermentation in Keeves.

Usually a thick brown head is formed upon the juice in a White heads,
keeve.

Throughout the whole of the season 1897, the juice, except in
two instances, refused to throw up this brown head, and pro-
duced instead a thick white and frothy head, somewhat similar
to that seen upon a brewer's vat. In the two instances where
brown heads were formed I was unable to determine why they

were produced. When this brown head was obtained the
juice was drawn off into barrels, the lees were left in the keeve,
and new juice was pumped upon these lees, this, however,
produced a white frothy head, similar to that in the remaining
keeves. Again, in 1898, the fermentation of the juice in the
keeves produced abundant white frothy heads instead of the
brown heads of former years, and since then brown heads have
been the exception rather than the rule.

In nearly every work on cider we read, and those who are best
acquainted with the art say, that "Fermentation is not good
if the froth is white and full of gas." P. Hubert. Therefore
continuous and numerous experiments were made to discover
the cause of this phenomenon.

Why is a white frothy head considered undesirable? The
universal opinion is that cider showing this peculiarity will
not keep. To test- this question of keeping some experiments
were made. Two juices from cheeses pressed about the same
day and from keeves standing side by side, one having a brown
head, and the other a white, frothy head, were placed in barrels
siue by side and kept under the same conditions.

In due course they were carefully examined, and the cider
from the juice having the white frothy head was not considered
to be in any degree inferior to that made from the juice with
the brown head. In fact, I may go so far as to say that by
some it was considered better.

This experiment has been fully confirmed in subsequent
years, and my investigations do not support the assumption
that a white frothy head is injurious. The cause of this
frothy fermentation is still uncertain.

Cause of Some negative results as showing what does not produce the

white heads frothy head, may first be mentioned. It is not due to the
temperature of the juice in the keeve. Experiments were
made at high and low temperatures without the least effect.
The fermentation, however, both in the keeve and subsequently
in the barrel, was much slower when the juice was keeved at
a low temperature.

The difficulty is to explain why the pomace does not rise.
It is said that the reason why the pomace rises to form the
brown head is that the yeast cells being attached to the skins
of the apples when they start fermentation produce sufficient
gas to cause these particles of apple skin to rise. We may
therefore assume tha.t when the head is white and the apple
skin does -not rise, the yeast cells have become detached or
washed frdm the sltin and are free in the juice- so that the gas
ascends alone-. -

If this view were correct climatic conditions would
materially affect the results. For if some of the yeast cells
are capable of being washed from the skins of the apples one
would expect that they would be so washed away in a wet
season; while in a season like 1897, when white heads were

the rule owing to the very small rainfall in October,
would remain on the apples until washed off in the juice from
the press. In some respects this assumption is borne out by
the results of observations. Thus, if the yeast cells were
spread throughout the liquid, one would expect fermentation
to be more rapid than if they were attached to the skins of the
apples. Undoubtedly fermentation in the keeves is more rapid'
than usual when there is a white head.

Another possible cause might be the presence in the juice
of a top fermentation yeast. Microscopical examination of the
white frothy heads showed them to contain not only an abund-
ance of yeast cells but also numerous bacteria. It occurred
to me that perhaps a combination of the bacteria of lactic or-
acetic acid fermentation with the yeast fermentation caused the
white head.

Some experiments were consequently made in the laboratory
at Butleigh, and apple juice was inoculated with yeast and one
or other of these bacteria, but the result was disappointing
as no frothy fermentation was obtained. Whether and how far
it may be due to the influence of season is yet uncertain.
Meantime, everything points in the direction of its being due
either to this cause or to the presence on the apples of certain
varieties of yeasts. After analysing the separate varieties of
apples in 1897 the juice from each variety was allowed to
ferment. Of the forty-seven varieties only two produced brown
heads. This, I think, does away with the supposition that the
white head can be due to any peculiarity in the composition of
the juice of the apple, and forces us to the conclusion that it
must be due to the yeasts on the apples.

Pasteur wrote, "La levure ii'est mure que quand le raisin est
mur." The yeast is only ripe when the grape is ripe. It
occurred to me that the same might be true of the yeasts
which are found upon the apple, and if so we should certainly
expect the yeasts to have been fully ripe in the season of
1898, as also in that of 1897. Being thus ripe they would
naturally have a more powerful action than in a season when
they were not ripe, and this might account for the rapid
fermentation of the juice. Whether it would also account for
the production of a white head yet remains to be proved.

So far as can be judged a white head does not appear to be
entirely due to the juice as it comes from the press, containing
less pomace than in former years, though this may partly
account for it. Undoubtedly the greater care exercised each
year has been productive of a cleaner juice if only from the
diminished number of rotten apples used, and each year has
seen white heads more prevalent than in the early years of
these investigations.

Though we have not discovered the cause of these white Effect of
heads we can say with some certainty what are the results, viz., white heads.
a rapid fermentation, and a tendency for the cider to become

acid. Hence, one can well understand why this white frothy
fermentation has obtained a bad repute. It is as a rule a sign
of rapid fermentation in the juice not only while in the keeve
but subsequently when in the barrel. Therefore, it is impera-
tive to watch the fermenting juice, to rack it sooner, and more
frequently than juice which ferments slowly, and to keep the
air away from it with scrupulous care. But these are just
the rules which the careless cider maker will not observe. He
uses no hydrometer to tell him how the fermentation is pro-
ceeding, and so he leaves the juice to proceed as it will until
the time which he thinks proper for racking arrives a time
which frequently does not depend upon the condition of the
juice at all.

In 1898 the fermentation was so rapid that it was difficult
to deal with the juice. Fortunately the constant .use of the
hydrometer, by which the rate of fermentation in every barrel
was watched, here proved of great service, for it enabled the
maker to judge which barrel first needed racking, and how
often to rack in order to obtain the juice at the right gravity
for filtration. But cider makers are no more able to do two
things at once than are other people, hence, if it is found
necessary to commence racking some of the juice the process
of grinding and pressing must be postponed until this racking
has taken place.

Probably in ordinary practice the white-headed fermenta-
tion is most injurious because cider makers will neither use
the hydrometer nor stop making in order to attend to the juice
which has been fermenting, and is fit for racking. It has
been found by experiment that when white heads are formed
and rapid fermentation is the .rule, it is necessary to keep the
temperature of the keeve-room low. If once the juice throws
up a white frothy head there is no object in keeping, it in the
keeve, for keep it there as you may it will not subsequently
throw up a brown head. As soon therefore as the juice begins
to clear, and the main portion of the pomace has subsided, it
is best to rack it off into barrels, taking care, of course, not
to disturb the sediment. Watch the subsequent fermentation,
and do not let the air get at the juice. Back at the earliest
opportunity, and, if necessary, repeat the racking, and finally
filter. Then, if the juice be kept in air-tight barrels, there
should be little fear of the cider becoming too acid or too
dry.

Treatment of Juice from Keeve.

The juice after keeving may be treated in one of several
ways; the following three methods have been tried during
these experiments :

(1) It may be partly or imperfectly filtered, placed in

barrels and then allowed to ferment.

(2) It may be very thoroughly filtered, and must then

be inoculated with special yeasts/

(3) It may be pumped direct from the keeve into -a
barrel and allowed to continue fermentation.

(1) The filtration of the juice as it comes from the keeve may
be done either by Maignen's filter or by the Invicta filter.

If the juice is first keeved and skimmed it is found to pass Maignen's
through Maignen's filter with a fair amount of rapidity. As filter,
there can be no doubt that the purer the juice before it is put
into the fermenting barrel the better the resulting cider, it
is evident that this filter supplies a want, being both cheap
and eificacious, though slow. It is not suitable for the filtra-
tion of the fermented juice, because when this is filtered it is
specially necessary to keep it, so far as possible, from exposure
to the air. It is undesirable to allow the apple juice as it
comes from the keeve to come in contact with the air, and it
is still less desirable after subsequent fermentation. The
juice as it comes from the keeve is saturated with carbonic
acid gas, and throughout the whole process of cider making it
must be the constant effort of the maker to retain this gas in
the cider. Even when simply racking from the keeve into the
barrel this point must not be lost sight of, and the end of the
racking pipe must go to the bottom of the receiving barrel
so that the juice flows in with as littlei disturbance as possible.

The only filter with which I am acquainted that enables the The Invicta
juice to be filtered without giving up its carbonic acid gas is filter,
the "Invicta." Fig. 14. Tt lias been used throughout for

FIG. 14.
15403

the experiments made at Butleigh and whenever reference is
made in this report to nitration it will be understood to refer
to nitration through the " Invicta " filter, unless otherwise
stated. The filter consists of a strong metal drum, into which
the liquid is pumped with the rotary pump. On either side
of the drum there is a series of perforated metal discs and wire-
gauze sieves, and between these is placed a thick layer of
" fibrous paper pulp,'' which acts as the filtering medium, and
retains on its surface or in its pores all the solid constituents
of the juice. The cider or juice is visible as it enters the
filter, and again as it leaves it, so that the degree of purification
can be watched, and should the filter, from any cause, fail to
act properly this is immediately noticeable.

Experiments soon proved that this filter performed its work
in a most admirable manner.

Apple juice as it came from the press was put through it
and taken direct to the barrel, which, when full, was loosely
bunged. The apple juice came from the filter as clear as
sherry, and so thoroughly was the juice filtered, that no
fermentation took place in this barrel for four weeks. But if
the filtration was perfect it was not easy. Pressure on the
pump rose to 10 Ibs. to the square inch, and the filter began
to act more and more slowly as the work proceeded, so that
after filtering 50 gallons, it was necessary to clean out the
filter before starting again.

A partial filtration of the juice as it comes from the keeve
is not so difficult as the filtration of the juice from press if
there has been a proper clearing in keeve. This clearing does
not always take place, and sometimes one keeve will clear
better than others. When, therefore, "-aly a portion of the
juice is required to be filtered at this stage, it is well to select
only such as has naturally cleared well in keeve. It has been
found impracticable to filter all the juice at this stage.

(2) The second method of treating the juice, namely, by
thorough filtration and subsequent inoculation with pure yeasts
will be treated when considering the action of pure yeasts.

(3) Finding that filtration of the juice from keeve was im-
practicable on a large scale, the third system was finally adopted
at Butleigh, namely, to rack or pump the juice direct from
the keeve into the fermenting barrel. The composition of the
juice when racked from the keeve into the barrels varies
greatly; the percentage of alcohol ranges from *30 to TOO per
cent., but the main portion of the sugar is still present in the
juice unaltered.

As in the keeve so in the subsequent stages of fermentation
the conversion of this sugar into alcohol is attended with the
production of a large volume of carbonic acid gas.

One of the first questions which arises in the treatment of Fermenta-
the fermenting juice is, should this gas be allowed to escape tion.
or should the casks be bunged down tight as soon as filled? Bunging
Looking at this question from a purely scientific standpoint ? own .
it seemed to me preposterous to bung down the casks as soon barrels -
as they were filled. Apparently one of two results must
take place, either the fermentation must be stopped, owing
perhaps to the pressure exerted by the carbonic acid gas pro-
duced in the barrel, or if fermentation proceeded, then the
amount of gas formed would be sufficient to burst the barrel
or cause it to leak.

A barrel was bunged down as an experiment, and as it did
not burst, I naturally concluded that the pressure had been
sufficient to stop fermentation. After a while a sample was
drawn and analysed, and the following results obtained : -

COMPOSITION OF JUICE IN A BARREL BUNGED DOWN.

Sp. Gr.

Acid.

Alcohol.

Sugar.

Total
Solids.

Juice when racked into barrel

1-052

10-80

12-82

After two months ...

1-010

4-55

1-87

3-80

Thus it is seen that fermentation had proceeded just as if
the barrel had been open. In fact, when compared with the
barrel next filled, from which the gas was allowed to escape,
it was found that fermentation proceeded more slowly in the
barrel not bunged down.

COMPOSITION OF JUICE IN A BARREL NOT BUNGED DOWN.

Sp. Gr.

Acid.

Alcohol.

Sugar.

Total
Solids.

Juice when racked into barrel

3-052

11-23

12-92

After two months ...

1-018

3-80

3-78

5-30

From these figures it is evident that fermentation had pro- Pressure in
eeeded in the tightly buiiged-down juice just as if the barrel barrels,
had been merely closed with an air-excluding bung, and the
gas allowed to escape. But how had the gas escaped, for It
certainly had been formed, and was not present in the juice?

15408

E 2

5(3

To determine this point two barrels were fitted up with pres-
sure gauges, filled with juice and bunged down. The pressure
rose rapidly, and in about from two to three days amounted
to 2 Ibs. on the square inch. Beyond this, the pressure did
not rise. So far as one could judge, it seemed to fluctuate
very slightly from day to day. The only explanation of these
facts is that when the pressure reaches 2 Ibs. to the square inch,
the staves of the barrel, where not in contact with the liquid,
must permit of some gas escaping. The pressure immediately
falls again very slightly, then rises until once more it is
sufficient to open the staves and allow the gas to obtain an
exit. This would account for the slight fluctuations noticeable
in the pressure. An experiment was made to see if by keeping
the juice under this pressure fermentation was in any way
retarded. The following figures show the rate of fermenta-
tion in two barrels of juice, made on the same day, one of which
contained an air-excluding bung only, the other was bunged
down tight, and a pressure gauge indicated a pressure in the
barrel of 2 Ibs. to the square inch.

Composition of two barrels of Cider, one bunged down with
pressure gauge in, the other with air-excluding bung.

I. BUNGED WITH AIR-EXCLUDING BUNG.

Date.

Sp. Gr.

Alcohol.

Acid.

6th December...

1-0205

360

17th January

1-0080

4-90

2. BUNGED TIGHT ; PRESSURE GAUGE INDICATING 2-LBg. TO
SQUARE INCH.

Date.

Sp. Gr.

Alcohol.

Acid.

6th December

1-0210

!- 3-60

17th January

1-0075

4-95

It is somewhat remarkable that in the above experiment,
as also in the one previously referred to, fermentation pro-
ceeded more rapidly in the juice under pressure.

We may therefore conclude that when the keeved juice is
placed in the barrels, it is desirable that the gas produced by
fermentation should be allowed to escape, while at the same
time air should be excluded.

The most simple method of attaining this end is to close the Safety
barrel with a bung into which one end of 'a piece of composi- bungs,
tion tubing, about one foot in length, is carefully fixed. The
bung is fastened securely into the barrel, the tube then bent
round so that the end comes about two inches above the top
of the barrel, and under this end is placed a tumbler of water
into which the end of the tube dips. This arrangement was
found satisfactory, and has the advantage of being cheap and
easily fitted up. A better plan is to use tinned-iron pipes,
which can be screAved securely into the wooden shives, or
bungs, and a piece of indiarubber tubing placed on the other
end of the tube allows the tumbler of water to be easily put
in position or removed. By this means all the escaping gas
bubbles through the water, while no air can gain access to
the barrel. Moreover, by watching the rate at which the gas
bubbles through the water, a good idea may be obtained as to
the rate at which fermentation is proceeding. In my experi-
ments a bung of special form, Fig. 15, was frequently used,
which was made for me in Mr. Neville Grenville's workshop.
As it is of special value in experiments it may be described.
It consisted of a round, hollow, wooden bung about four-fifths
inches long, with central opening of about one inch in dia-
meter; outside the bung there was a cup, about two inches
deep. It was all turned out of one piece of wood. This cup
was filled with water, and a common glass tumbler inserted
over the bung in the cup of water. The following cut shows
a section of the bung.

FIG. 15. SECTION OF SPECIAL BUNG USED IN EXPERIMENTS.

The chief value of this bung is, that it enables one to draw
off samples as required, by passing a glass tube or syphon down
the centre, and without disturbing the bung. Hence, there
is little risk of admitting air to the cider, and the tumbler is
rapidly replaced after the sample is taken.

Fermentation in Barrels.

The juice after it is placed in the barrels continues to
undergo fermentation, the sugar being gradually converted
into alcohol and a sediment forming in the barrel which is
known as the " lees." The common practice of the country
hitherto has been to allow fermentation to proceed for so long
as it is rapid, which is determined in a rough and ready way
by placing one's ear to the cask or bung-hole, when the rate
of development of gas can be roughly esumated. When the
fermentation slackens the barrel is bunged down and left.
One of two things happens : either the fermentation continues
until the whole of the sugar has fermented, or the fermenta-
tion ceases from no visible cause, but probably owing
to cold weather setting in. In either case it is absolutely
uncontrolled and left to chance. This is not a scientific
method of making cider, hence it has been abandoned.
Before deciding what method should take its place two ques-
tions had to be settled by experiment: Should the lees be
left in the cider when bunged down for storage ? An experi-
ment made in 1894, seemed to indicate that by bunging down
on the lees more harm than good would arise, and further ex-
periments made in subsequent years confirmed this result.
Hence it is necessary to remove the lees from the cider before
bunging down. When and how should they be removed ?

Clearing the Cider.

The next process in the manufacture is therefore to rack
the cider, i.e., to draw it off from the sediment or lees in the
fermenting barrel into a clean barrel. This is done with the
rotary pump. As in drawing off from the keeves, so also when
racking it is most important not to disturb the sediment on the
bottom of the cask. Unfortunately, the U tube employed for
removing the juice from the keeve cannot be inserted in the
bung-hole of a barrel, so that it is necessary to employ some
other means. We used a metal tube closed at the end, but
having numerous holes drilled in the sides about three to four
inches from the closed end. A still better arrangement would
be to have the end of the tube dipping into a long cup-shaped
vessel, so as to ensure downward suction of the juice into the
cup during the time of racking.

After racking, the juice appears to clarify more easily,
though fermentation is not stopped. Before racking, the solid
matter is generally kept partly in suspension by the carbonic
acid gas which becomes attached to it. This is dissipated by
racking, with the result that the particles now subside. Subse-
quent fermentation is slower, and though enough carbonic acid
gas is produced to saturate the liquid, yet unless the tempera-
ture is high, and fermentation rapid, it does not again raise this

deposited matter for some little time. A safety bung is
inserted in the cask and the juice carefully watched. If
necessary the juice is again racked, and sometimes it may be
necessary to rack it a third time.

Thus the chief object of racking is to clear the juice, a
subsidiary object is to check fermentation.

Should there come a sudden spell of very cold weather Natural
fermentation will be checked, and at such times the cider will clearing,
often clear naturally. Old cider makers watched carefully
for this event, and immediately racked the cider, irrespective
of its gravity or composition, and they did right. For subse-
quent fermentation would be slower and better under control.
Excellent cider can at times be so made, and neither filtration
nor any other proceeding is necessary in such cases. But the
cider maker of the future must not rely upon chance. He
must be able to make good cider in spite of the weather, and
to do this, racking alone does not always suffice.

In such cases then racking is only a preparatory step to
filtration, or some other method of checking fermentation.

Some makers think it desirable to rack frequently, and to Sulphuring,
prevent further fermentation so far as possible by sulphuring
the casks into which the cider is racked. In this way not only
is the cider clarified, but the sulphur fumes (sulphurous acid)
present in the barrel are to a certain extent absorbed by the
juice, and act both as a preventive of further fermentation and
also as a preservative of the cider.

Experiments have proved that sulphuring has two draw-
backs. First, it gives the cider a peculiar flavour, at the same
time destroying the fine bouquet, to retain which should be the
primary object of the maker; secondly, should it fail to check
fermentation it frequently causes the production in the cider
of sulphuretted hydrogen, which gives the liquid a most
nauseating smell and taste. In fact, I attribute a large pro-
portion of the " sick " cider, which is such a loss to makers,
to this cause.

Where racking alone is depended upon to check fermenta- Finings,
tion, owing to the difficulty of getting the cider to clear
naturally, many makers are in the habit of using finings.
These are substances added to the cider prior to racking in
order to carry down the matter in suspension, or to cause a
precipitate in the cider which will have this effect.

Some manufacturers employ blood, others milk, others
albumin, and others isinglass.

The use of these finings is liable to injure the cider, either
by adding to it some extraneous matter which it were better
without, or by taking from it some constituent which it can

When

should cider
be racked?

ill afford to spare. Blood, milk, and albumin are liable to intro-
duce into the cider organisms which are best kept out. The
worst sample of oily cider I have ever seen resulted from
an experiment made to clarify some cider with milk. That
the milk was the cause is not certain, but such was the result.
Milk is always likely to introduce the lactic acid organism
into cider, and should the conditions be favourable to its
growth the cider will certainly be spoiled.

Blood and albumin are both liable to rapid decomposition,
and if the organisms of decomposition or putrefaction gain
access to the cider, the result is a most nauseous, insipid drink.

The clarifying power of isinglass and gelatine depends on
the fact that these substances combine with tannin to form
a voluminous flocculent precipitate, which on settling clears
the juice. But they rob it of tannin, a constituent certainly
most essential to the production of good cider; and one which,
in many districts, needs to be added to rather than taken from
the juice.

These are the principal reasons which compel me to be
averse to the use of finings. That good cider can certainly
be made even when they are used I will not deny, but experi-
ments at Butleigh with several of these finings, and with others
which have been brought to my notice, have proved that in
every case a better cider could be made without them.

In all the experiments check samples were kept which had
not been submitted to the particular treatment under investiga-
tion. The cider which had not been clarified with finings
invariably proved superior to the cider which had been so
clarified.

The results of the experiments at Butleigh are therefore not
in favour of either sulphuring or finings as means of checking
fermentation. But they are in favour of racking, and they
demonstrate that it is more important to rack at the right
time even than to rack frequently.

Whether the cider is to be only racked or subsequently
filtered, the question of most importance is, when should this
racking take place? Upon this subject much work has been
done. The following considerations directed the experiments :
There must be some definite basis to guide the operation if the
work is to be done systematically. What should this basis
be? I could only think of two possible means of judging when
the cider should be racked : the first was, the clearness of the
juice; the second, the extent to which fermentation had pro-
ceeded.

The clearness of the juice will depend mainly upon the state
of the weather, partly upon other causes not yet investigated.
It. will also depend upon the kind of fermentation which is

taking place, but not upon the amount of fermentation which
has taken place in the juice. Thus, in some experiments with
pure cultures of yeast, the juice attained a clearness, even
while the fermentation was proceeding, which no juice had ever
acquired under ordinary conditions; and this occurred long
before it would have been right to rack the juice. In other
cases the cider would ferment down to dryness, that is until no
more sugar remained in the juice, and never clear. Hence, from
the results of experiments it was evident that clearness was
not a reliable guide as to the time for racking. The only other
guide is the composition of the juice; in other words, the
extent to which fermentation has proceeded. Experiments
have been made to try and determine at what precise time
during the fermentation it is best to rack or filter. If ease
of filtering were the chief consideration, then it would be best
to wait until the juice had fermented to dryness. But this
has many disadvantages. One is that during filtration or
racking, the carbonic acid gas, which is dissolved in the cider,
and which helps materially to preserve it, would be lost, and
as there would be no sugar left for the production of more
gas by subsequent fermentation, the cider would not only be
flat, but it would not keep. Hence it is invariably necessary
to rack and filter the juice before it has fermented to dryness.
Now arises the principal problem. When? "We may be
guided by the amount of sugar which ought to be present in
the juice to ensure sufficient subsequent fermentation for the
cider to be bright or " in good condition " and to keep well.
Prom the results of the experiments with pressure gauges,
previously referred to, it would seem that the maximum pres-
sure which a cask will withstand without leaking is about
2 Ibs. to the square inch. To obtain more carbonic acid than
would yield this pressure would be of little use, so that if
sufficient sugar could be left in the juice to ensure, by its
subsequent fermentation, an amount of gas which would pro- .
duce this pressure, this would presumably be sufficient for
all practical purposes. What amount of sugar would be
required to produce this result, owing to the solubility of the
gas in the liquid, is difficult to determine with certainty.
It seems to me that for this purpose it is necessary to have
about 3 per cent, of sugar in the juice when it is racked or
filtered and finally bunged down.

Another standard would be the quantity of alcohol in the
cider. This is the standard which has been finally adopted, the
results of experiments showing it to be the most satisfactory.
The main reasons for adopting the percentage of alcohol as
the best standard to guide the cider maker in all operations
subsequent to placing the juice in the fermenting barrels* are
these : first, alcohol is a natural preservative, and if sufficient

I use this term to distinguish them from the storing barrels in which
the cider is finally placed. *

is present in the juice no other preservative is required; and r
secondly, the greater the proportion of alcohol the slower will
be any subsequent fermentation. But how can the ordinary
cider maker determine what amount of alcohol is present in
his cider?

The question appeared to me of such importance that an
attempt was made to solve the difficulty by preparing the tables
on pages 64-68, which are based upon the results of several
years' observations. To make use of the table it is necessary
to employ an accurate hydrometer with which to determine
the specific gravity of the juice from time to time. This
instrument is, indeed, as necessary to the cider maker as the
thermometer is to the butter maker. A book should be kept,
and in this should be entered the specific gravity of the juice
as it comes from the press, and of each barrel as it is filled
from the keeve, the barrel being numbered at the same time.
From time to time, as fermentation proceeds, some of the juice-
should be drawn off and the specific gravity taken. When the
specific gravity is such that the table shows it to contain the
amount of sugar or alcohol required at the time of racking or
filtering, then this operation should be proceeded with at once.
By the use of this table and a hydrometer cider makers can
conduct their operations far more thoroughly, accurately, and
satisfactorily than has been the rule in years past, and they
may rest assured of this, that the extra time and trouble will
be well repaid by the more uniform and better character of
the cider they produce, and also by its better keeping qualities.

One of the chief causes of so much inferior cider being
produced is that makers neglect to rack the juice after it has
been put into casks and before fermentation has proceeded too
far.

The cider maker who would succeed jnust periodically, at
intervals of not more than a fortnight, go round his -cellar and
carefully take the gravity of the juice in every barrel, and
record it.*

These figures will tell him which cask is fermenting most
rapidly, and therefore which cask to rack first. Then if a cold
night and day come and check the fermentation, the
skilful cider maker will know which casks to rack at once,
and will thus utilise the natural conditions which are favour-
able to his industry. The season 1899, for the reason that
there were occasional spells of very cold weather, was an ideal
one for cider making, and during the preceding six years it
had never been possible to control fermentation so thoroughly.
Hence, some of the best cider produced at Butleigh during the
course of these experiments was made in that year.

This can easily be done on the barrel in chalk, and subsequently it
should be copied into a book.

Let me here give an illustration of the use of the hydro-
meter and the following table in a bad season . -

November 5. The juice was found to be at a tempera-
ture of 52 F. as it came from the press, and its
gravity was ... ... ... 1.051

November 10. First head formed in keeve and

skimmed. Sp. Gr. of juice ... ... ... 1.04T

November 1.1. A white frothy head showing rapid
fermentation removed and juice racked into
barrels. Sp. Gr 1.045

November 17. Gravity of juice found to have dimi-
nished rapidly, so cider racked. Sp. Gr. ... 1.031

November 24. Juice again tested and found rapidly

fermenting, so racked again. Sp. Gr. ... ... 1.020

It ought to have been filtered now but was not
clear enough.

December 1. Juice again racked and still not clear

enough to filter, though Sp. Gr. had fallen to ... 1.013

December 9. Juice had slightly cleared enough to

filter. Sp. Gr. after filtration 1.010

This cider was now bunged down, and partly saved from
being too dry.

Had it not been for the constant use of the hydrometer the
cider maker would not have known how to proceed, and the
whole of it would have been spoiled.

Let me now take another illustration from a good year.

1899.
November 13. Juice from press. Sp. Gr. ... ... 1.063

November 18. First skim good brown head. Sp. Gr. 1.057
November 20. Second skim white head, therefore

racked into barrels ... 1.055

The fermentation was watched and! found to be
proceeding somewhat rapidly, therefore, on

December 5 it was racked, gravity being ... ... 1.036

This checked the fermentation, and as the
gravity did not diminish very rapidly it was not
racked a second time until

December 19, when the gravity was ... ... ... 1.030

Fermentation now proceeded still more slowly,
and it was not fit to filter until

January 3, when the gravity was ... ... ... 1.025

and the cider contained exactly 4 per cent, of
alcohol.

TABLE SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE OP SUGAR AND ALCOHOL IN FER-
MENTING JUICE, PROVIDED THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OP THE ORIGINAL

JUICE IS KNOWN.

PRESENT GRAVITY.

Original
Gravity.

1065.

1060.

1055.

Sugar.

Alcohol.

Sugar.

Alcohol.

Sugar.

Alcohol.

By
Weight.

By
Volume.

Weight.

By
Volume.

Weight.

By
Volume.

1050

___

1051

1052

1053

1054

1055

12-0

1056

12-1

1057

12-1

1058

12-2

1059

12-2

1060

13-3

12-3

1061

13-3

12-3

Iu62

13-4

12-4

1063

13-4

12-4

1-0

1064

13*5

12-5

1-1

1065

14-5

13-5

12-5

1-0

1-2

1066

14-6

13-6

12-6

1-1

1-4

1067

14-6

13-6

12-6

1*2

1-5

1068

14-7

137

1-0

12-7

1-3

1-6

1069

14-7

13-7

1-1

12-7

1-4

1-7

1070

14-8

13-8

1-0

1-25

12-8

1-5

1-8

TABLE SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE OF SUGAR AND ALCOHOL IN FER-
MENTING JUICE, PROVIDED THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF THE ORIGINAL
JUICE IS KNOWN continued.

PRESENT GRAVITY.

Original
Gravity.

1050.

1045.

1040.

Sugar.

Alcohol.

Sugar.

Alcohol.

Sugar.

Alcohol.

By
Weight.

Volume.

Weight.

Volume.

Weight.

Volume.

1050

10-8

9-8

8-8

1-0

1-25

1051

10-8

9-8

8-8

1*1

1-4

1052

10-9

9-9

8-9

1-2

1-5

1053

10-9

9-9

1-0

8-9

1-3

1-6

1054

11-0

10-0

1-1

9-0

1:4

1-7

1055

11-0

10-0

1-0

1-25

9-0

1-5

1-8

1056

11-1

10-1

1-1

1-4

9-1

1-6

2-0

1057

11-1

10-1

1-2

1-5

1-7

2-1

1058

11-2

1-0

10-2

1-3

1-6

9-2

1-8

2-2

1059

11-2

1-1

10-2

1-4

1-7

9-2

1-9

2-4

1060

11-3

1-0

1-25

10-3

1*5

1-8

9-3

2-0

2-5

1061

11-3

1-1

1-4

10-3

1-6

2-0

9-3

2-1

2-6

1062

11-4

1-2

1-5

10-4

1-7

2-1

9-4

2-2

2-8

1063

11-4

1-3

1-6

10-4

1-8

2;2

9-4

2-3

2-9

1064

11-5

1-4

1-7

10-5

1-9

2;4

9-5

2-4

3-0

1065

11-5

1-5

1-8

10-5

2-0

2-5

9-5

2-5

3-1

1066

11-6

1-6

2-0

10-6

2-1

2-6

9-6

2-6

3-3

1067

11-6

1-7

2-1

10-6

2-2

.2-8

9-6

2-7

3-4

1068

11-7

1-8

2-2

10-7

2-3

2-9

9-7

2-8'

3-6

1069

11-7

1-9

2-4

10-7

2-4

3-0

9-7

2-9

3-7

1070

11-8

2-0

2-5

10-8

2-5

3-1

9-8

3-0

3-8

TABLE SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE OF SUGAR AND ALCOHOL IN FER-
MENTING JUICE, PROVIDED THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF THE ORIGINAL

JUICE is KNOWN continued.

PRESENT GRAVITY.

Original
Gravity.

1035.

1030.

1025.

Sugar.

Alcohol.

Sugar.

Alcohol.

Sugar.

Alcohol.

By
Weight.

Volume

Weight.

By
Volume

Weight.

Volume.

1050

7-8

1-5

1-8

6-8

2-0

2-5

5-8

2-5

3-1

1051

7-8

1-6

2-0

6-8

2-1

2-6

5-8

2-6

3-3

1052

7-9

1-7

2-1

6-9

2-2

2-8

5-9

2-7

3-4

1053

7-9

1-8

2-2

6-9

2-3

2-9

5-9

2-8

3-6

1054

8-0

1-9

2-4

7-0

2-4

3-0

6-0

2-9

3-7

1055

8-0

2-0

2-5

7-0

2-5

3-1

6-0

3-0

3-8

1056

8-1

2-1

2-6

7-1

2-6

3-3

6-1

3-1

3-9

1057

8-1

2-2

2-8

7-1

2-7

3-4

6-1

3-2

4-0

1058

8-2

2-3

2-9

7-2

2-8

3-6

6-2

3-3

4-1

1059

8-2

2-4

3-0

7-2

2-9

3-7

6-2

3-4

4-3

1060

8-3

2-5

3-1

7-3

3-0

3-8

6-3

3-5

4-4

1061

8-3

2-6

3-3

7-3

3-1

3-9

6-3

3-6

4-5

1062

8-4

2-7

3-4

7-4

3-2

4-0

6-4

3-7

4-7

1063

8-4

2-8

3-6

7-4

3-3 ^

4-1

6-4

3-8

4-8

1064

8-5

2-9

3-7

7-5

3-4

4-3

6-5

3-9

4-9

1065

8-5

3-0

3-8

7-5

3-5

4-4

6-5

4-0

5-0

1066

8-6

3-1

3-9

7-6

3-6

4-5

6-6

4-1

5-1

1067

8-6

3-2

4-0

7-6

3-7

4-7

6-6

4-2

5-2

1068

8-7

3-3

4-1

7-7

3-8

4-8

6-7

4-3

5-4

1069

8-7

3-4

4-3

7-7

3-9

4-9

6-7

4-4

5-5

1070

8-8

3-5

4.4

7-8

4-0

5-0

6-8

4-5

5-6

TABLE SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE OF SUGAR AND ALCOHOL IN FER-
MENTING JUICE, PROVIDED THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF THE ORIGINAL

JUICE is KNOWN continued.

PRESENT GRAVITY.

Original
Gravity.

1020.

1015.

1010.

Sugar.

Alcohol.

Sugar.

Alcohol.

Sugar.

Alcohol.

Weight.

By
Volume.

By
Weight.

By
Volume.

By
Weight.

Volume.

1050

4-8

3-0

3-8

3-5

4-4

2-8

4-0

5-0

1051

4-8

3-1

3-9

3-8

3-6

4-5

2-8

4-1

5-1

1052

4-9

3-2

4-0

3-9

3-7

4-7

2-9

4-2

5-2

1053

4-9

3-3

4-1

3-9

3-8

4-8

2-9

4-3

5-4

1054

5-0

3-4

4-3

4-0

3-9

4-9

3-0

4-4

5-5

1055

5-0

3-5

4-4

4-0

5-0

3-0

4-5

5-6

1056

5-1

3-6

4-5

4-1

5-1

3-1

4-6

5-7

1057

5-1

3-7

4-7

4-1

4-2

5-2

3-1

4-7

5-9

1058

5-2

3-8

4-8

4-2

4-3

5-4

3-2

4-8

6-0

1059

5-2

3-9

4-9

4-2

4-4

5-5

3-2

4-9

6-1

lOfiO

5-3

.4-0

5-0

4-3

4-5

5-6

3-3

5-0

6-2

1061

5-3

4-1

5-1

4-3

-4-6

5-7

3-3

5-1

6-3

1062

5-4

4-2

5-2

4-4

4-7

5-9

3-4

5-2

6-5

1063

5-4

4-3

5-4

4-4

4-8

6-0

3-4

5-3

6-7

1064

5-5

4-4

5-5

4-5

4-9

6-1

3-5

5-4

6-8

1065

5-5

4-5

5-6

4-5

5-0

6-2

3*5

5-5

6-9

1066

5-6

4-6

5-7

4-6

5-1

6-3

3-6

5-6

7-0

1067

5-6

4-7

5-9

4-6

5-2

6-5

3-6

5-7

7-1

1068

5-7

4-8

6-0

4-7

5-3

6-7

3-7

5-8

7-2

1069

5-7

4-9

6-1

4-7

5-4

6-8

3-7

5-9

7-4

1070

5-8

5-0

6-2

4-8

5-5

6-9

3-8

6-0

7-5

TABLE SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE OF SUGAR AND ALCOHOL IN FER-
MENTING JUICE, PROVIDED THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OP THE ORIGINAL
JUICE is KNOWN continued.

PRESENT GRAVITY.

Original
Gravity.

1005.

1000.

995.

Sugar.

AlcoheL

Sugar.

Alcohol.

Sugar.

Alcohol.

Weight.

By
Volume.

Weight.

By
Volume.

Weight.

By
Volume*

1050

1-8

4-5

5-6

5-0

6-2

1051

1-8

4-6

5-7

5-1

6-3

1052

1-9

4-7

5-9

5-2

6-5

1053

1-9

4-8

6-0

5-3

6-7

1054

2-0

4-9

6-1

1-0

5-4

6-8

1055

2-0

5-0

6-2

1-0

5-5

6-9

6-0

7-5

1056

2-1

5-1

6-3

1-1

ft*

7-0

6-1

7-6

1057

2-1

5-2

6-5

1-1

5-7

7-1

6-2

7-$

1058

2-2

5-3

6-7

1-2

5-8

7-2

6-3

1059

2-2

5-4

1-2

5-9

7-4

6-4

8-0

1060

2-3

5-5

6-9

1-3

6-0

7-5

6-5

8-1

1061

2-3

5-6

7-0

1-3

6-1

7-6

6-6

8-3

1062

2-4

5-7

7-1

1-4

6-2

7-8

6-7

8-4

1063

2-4

5-8

7-2

1-4

6-3

7-9

6-8

8-5-

1064

2-5

5-9

7-4

1-5

6-4

8-0

6-9

8-6

1065

2-5

6-0

7-5

1-5

6-5

8-1

7-0

8-7

1066

2-6

6-1

7-6

1-6

6-6

8-3

7-1

1067

2-6

6-2

7-8

1-6

6-7

8-4

7-2

8-9

1058

2-7

6-3

7-9

1-7

6-8

8-5

7-3

9-1

1069

2-7

6-4

8-0

1-7

8-6

7-4

9-2

1070

2-8

6-5

8-1

1-8

7-0

8-7

7-5

9-3

Blending.

The composition and value of cider will, in the first placery
depend upon the composition of the apple juice from whicb
it is made. It is evident that this in its turn will depend
upon the season. But the object of the cider maker must be to 1
produce a uniform article every year, irrespective, so far as
may be possible, of the composition of the apples. This can
be done only by blending, and, if necessary, by adding sugar.

All past experience at Butleigh, and the information sup-
plied by exhibitors of cider at the Bath and West Society's
shows, indicate that the best cider is the produce of a judicious 1
blend of apples.

But before it is possible to carry out experiments systema-
tically on the influence of blending, it is necessary to know the-
effect of each individual constituent of the blend.

A striking illustration of the value of selecting only a few
varieties to blend was afforded at Butleigh in 1898. Not
having then a sufficient number of apples of one variety to
experiment upon, two varieties had to be blended, viz.,
Kingston Black and Red Jersey.

The resulting cider was the best made during the seasonv
and it kept perfectly, both in cask and in bottle,^ up to*
January, 1900.

In many cases it is found that a better product is obtained;
by blending three, four or even five varieties, than by blending'
two only.

No simpler illustration of the value of blending is afforded!
than by pouring out three or four varieties of cider into as
many tumblers and in another tumbler placing a mixture of
all in equal proportions.

If a number of persons are invited to taste these samples,
the majority will, as a rule, consider the blend is the best,
although unaware of its composition.

The fact is that in such a blend any striking excess or
deficiency of acid, sugar, or tannin, which may be present in blend?
the various constituents is modified.

The art of blending is consequently one demanding consider-
able knowledge and skill on the part of the cider maker. It
demands, in the first place, a knowledge of the composition
of the juice of each variety of apple which he employs; and
in the second place, of when and how to blend the juice and
in what proportions.

Blending the apples presents many difficulties. Even if When to
the composition of the juice yielded by each variety is known

15408 "

the apples do not ripen all at the same time, so that some
varieties would have to be' kept in store too long waiting for
others to be fit to grind. It is therefore best to grind each
variety separately, or two varieties ripening about the same
time together, and proceed with the juice of these varieties
,as previously described in this report, up to the time of
racking.

By judicious racking of this first produced juice, the
fermentation may be checked, and meantime the fermentation
of the juice of the one or two later varieties which are to be
blended with it, will be proceeding unchecked. In due time
this also will be racked.

It is at the time of this racking, or if this second juice is
fermenting very rapidly, which is not likely as the season
would be well advanced, then at the second racking, that
blending should take place.

The blended juice should be racked once again before filtra-
tion.

Never blend after filtration.

In some respects the larger the blending vessel the better.
But even those who have only the ordinary " pipes " may blend
just as well by placing only the proper proportion of each
juice in the pipes.

The simplest method of doing this is to fix a stick in a large
bung so that the end reaches one-half or one -third way down
the barrel according to the quantity of liquid required, and
then fill the barrel till the end of the stick is wetted by the
rising cider.

How to In order to blend to advantage four objects must be kept

blend. constantly in view:-

1st. Juice containing an excess of acidity, say, over
0.75 per cent., must be blended with juice deficient
in acidity;

2nd. Juice deficient in tannin must be blended with
juice rich, in tannin;

3rd. Juice deficient in sugar (or its equivalent alcohol)
must be blended with juice rich in sugar (or
alcohol);

4th. Juice containing much extractive matter should
be blended with juice from which these are absent.

Those who desire to study the art of blending will find valu-
able information in the annual reports of Mr. Farwell on the
cider exhibits at the Bath arid West shows, which are pub-
lished in the journal of -that society.

A Standard of Composition and Diluting the juice.

'liie excellent results which have been obtained by judicious
blending point to the desirability of each cider maker fixing a
" standard " composition for his cider, and of blending or
diluting the entire juice until this standard is obtained. Not
until this is done will it be possible for a cider maker to
produce a liquid which shall have the same uniformity as is
now obtained in the wines of the leading manufacturers in
foreign countries.

So far as one can judge from hearsay, the chief reason why
cider has not become a more popular drink has been the diffi-
culty of obtaining it of uniform quality, flavour, and colour,
and the only way to ensure this is by careful blending.

Abroad a standard of somewhat low quality is often taken
for ordinary cider. In other words the juice before fermenta-
tion commences, is diluted until it has a specific gravity or
density of only 1.040 or 1.045.

This dilution is not made by adding water, but by adding
small cider to the original juice. The amount and density of
the small cider made is carefully regulated so as to ensure
the proper dilution taking place.

The addition of water to cider is justly looked upon as a
risky, if not dangerous, proceeding.

I do not attempt here to give any standard for cider. In
my opinion each maker must try and work out for himself the
standard which he can best attain to, with the fruit which he
at present possesses. Subsequently, as his orchards improve,
he may raise the standard.

One of the chief difficulties of having a high standard is Adding
due to the variation in the quality of the apple juice which sugar,
is the result of climatic conditions. Thus, in 1894 and 1902
the juice was of exceptionally poor quality. Under such
circumstances the only means of raising the juice to a high
standard would be to add sugar. Experiments have been
made on this subject with the following results: .

The best substances to use is pure cane sugar. Sugar candy,
which is perhaps the next best material, gives a somewhkt
characteristic flavour to the resulting cider. I h'ave experi-
mented with several of the substances used by brewers, but
have not been satisfied with the results. -

The quantity to use is found from the original gravity of
the juice. Thus, if the original gravity represented 12 per
cent, of solids and the standard adopted is 14 per cent, then
2 per cent, of sugar must be adoled.

The addition of 5J Ibs. of sugar to a hogshead of juice is
equal to an increase of 1 per cent, in the solids.

The sugar may be added to the juice after it has been keeved
and pumped into the fermenting barrels. It may be dissolved
in a little of the juice before being added to the bulk, but this
15408 F 2

is not necessary. If the fermentation is very rapid, i.e., in a
warm season, the juice throwing up white heads, and the
specific gravity of the juice from keeve much less than that of
the juice from press, it is better to postpone adding the sugar
until after the first racking from the fermenting barrels.

Filtering the Cider.

After the cider has been properly blended and racked it
should be filtered. Although with the Invicta filter it is quite
possible to filter the cicler without racking, yet the filter
gradually becomes clogged and needs to be cleaned out too
frequently, an operation entailing some time and trouble. But
after proper racking the cider is found to filter with ease, and
much larger quantities can be filtered before it is necessary to
clean out the filter. Care must be taken not to allow too much
time to elapse between the last racking and filtering. Other-
wise the production of gas will be sufficient to again raise the
deposited material; the time to be allowed will depend mainly
on the temperature, and the rate of fermentation in the cider,
the more rapid it is the sooner should filtration take place.

Hence in racking prior to filtration we must be guided by
the gravity of the juice aiid^ the rate of fermentation. It is
in order to determine these factors that samples of the cider
are drawn from time to time and their gravity estimated.

The cider should be filtered so soon as it contains 4 per cent,
of alcohol by volume.

This conclusion has been reached after very numerous
experiments extending over several years. It applies only to
cider made from juice the original gravity of which was not
above 1.060. When the original juice has a specific gravity of
above 1.060 it is best to allow it to ferment to 1.025 before
filtration. Unless it is intended to make very sweet cider or
to keep it in barrel some long time before bottling; and even
then it is a doubtful policy to filter when the gravity is too
high.

By the help of the preceding table, p, 64, it will be easily
discovered at what gravity each barrel will contain cider with
4 per cent, of alcohol, and should be filtered, and it is well to
go round the cider cellar and mark this filtering gravity in
chalk on every barrel. By testing the gravity of the ferment-
ing juice, from time to time, it will be seen whether this is
approaching the filtering stage rapidly or slowly. This is a
most important point to determine. If the cider is ferment-
ing rapidly then it will probably require to be racked two or
three times, if it is fermemmg slowly then one, or at most two,
rackings may suffice. If it is fermenting rapidly then the first
racking must be made when the gravity is still well above
that desired, say, at 1.033, when the gravity desired is 1.025,
but if it is fermenting slowly then the first racking may be
postponed until the gravity is 1.029.

Ike rate of fermentation is discovered from the gravity as
taken from time to time; as already described.

Is Filtration desirable ?

The introduction of the filter was naturally looked upon by
old and experienced cider makers as a rash scientific experi-
ment. They had made cider, and good cider too, all their
lives " without that thing."

Many were the ominous shakes of the head at each further
step which the experiments took. At first it was going to
take out of the cider all the " body " (whatever this may mean,
for each person gives a different definition of the word), and
great was the surprise when it was found that the filter did
not have this effect. Next, it was declared that all the flavour
would be removed. But this prophecy also proved false. In
spite of these evil prognostications, Mr. Neville Grenville
decided, having faith in clean cider, that, so far as possible,
the cider of 1895 should be filtered and bunged down to keep
to 189T.

The filtered cider was subsequently tasted, and compared
with that which was not filtered. It was found in 1897 to be
excellent, and far better than the unfiltered. It was evident that
if filtered cider in cask could go successfully through such a
trying summer as 1896, there was little fear of its not keeping
in an ordinary season.

Experiments have fully confirmed the value of the filter.

At present the cost of a good filter is prohibitive to a farmer.
A cheap and efficient cider-filter is greatly needed. Meantime,
large landlords might do worse than purchase a filter and let
it out among their tenants. It will not fail to materially
improve the character of the cider, whether it be retained in
casks or transferred to bottles.

Storing the Cider.

The filtered cider goes direct from the filter into the barrel Storing the
in which it is to be stored. The barrel is nearly filled, and cider,
immediately bunged down tight. It should be numbered with
a distinct number, which will, if proper records are kept,
enable the whole of its history to be looked up at any subse-
quent date. The great necessity for these barrels to be scrupu-
lously clean need not be enforced. There is, however, one
point of importance on which opinions seem to differ, but on
which I have no hesitation in saying there is no ground for
uirference of opinion, viz., as to how the barrels should be
stored. The barrels must be stored on their sides and not on
enu.

I have noticed, when visiting various farmhouses, that much Position of
of the cider is stored in casks kept upright. As the result of barrels.

both observation and experiment, I find that cider so stored
does not keep so well as when the barrels are laid down. Cider
is more liable to become acid in an upright barrel than in a
barrel laid down. Now cider does not become acid unless air
gets to it. In fact, the longer cider is kept free from air the
less acid it becomes (see p. 97).

Why does air get to it more readily when the barrel is
upright? I think the reason is not difficult to find. When-
ever a barrel is thoroughly cleaned the head is the part taken
out. It may be replaced with skill, but it is never so tight
as it was originally.

So long as it is wet it may be tight, but if allowed to get
dry it opens more readily than any other part of the barrel.
When the barrel is upright the head does get dry unless special
means are taken to keep it moist, and there are seldom satis-
factory. Therefore, air reaches the cider, the alcohol under-
goes a change, and is slowly converted into acetic acid
(vinegar).

As an outcome of the investigations, the cellars at Butleigh
have been completely re-arranged, so that no barrel is allowed
to stand on its end. Some correspondence has taken place in
the public press as regards the desirability of thus arranging
the barrels.

In the principal wine-producing factories in the world,
however, one of the most striking facts is that nearly all the
barrels are lying down. The only exceptions seem to be the
very large blending vats employed, and even these are not
always upright. Thus the large vat of Messrs. Moet and
Chandon, of Epernay, which holds 12,000 gallons, is not on
end, and in photographs of the vatting-room of this same firm
not a single barrel can be seen on end, though in places they
are stacked in five rows. Surely this arrangement, adopted
by old-established wine manufacturers, cannot be due to any
accident, but is done deliberately and with a purpose; and it
is a strong confirmation of the necessity of keeping the barrels
on their sides. In fact, if you wish the cider to keep the
barrels must not stand on end.

The storing barrels should not be spiled until it is absolutely
necessary.

The custom of spiling casks, and nov/ and again drawing a
little out for friends to taste, is a fertile source of deterioration.
The air gets in after each drop is drawn (unless the cider is
highly carbonated, i.e., contains a large quantity of gas), and
then vinegar fermentation starts. The spiles sometimes leak
a little, the cider trickles down the barrel, and in hot weather
you will find a slimy mass where the cider has run. This
growth is injurious to the cider, and should never be allowed
to exist in a cider cellar. Keep the outsides of the casks
scrupulously free from it, for when next you draw a glass of

cider from such a cask, the chances are that, in. replacing the
spile you will introduce some of the slimy growth to carry on
its destructive action inside the barrel.

The remedy for each of these evils is easy and obvious,
Do not spile the barrels until you wish to sell and are bound
to sample.

Drawing from Barrels.

Cider, except that which is stored in bottle, must of necessity
be stored in large barrels. When it is required to send away
a small cask, containing 12, 18 or 36 gallons of cider, it i&
necessary to draw this quantity from one of the large storing-
barrels.

Experience has proved that the cider remaining in the
storing-barrel, after this abstraction has taken place, will not
retain its high quality. Now the reason for this is simple.
If 18 gallons of cider are taken out of a barrel the same volume
of air must be drawn in. The result is nearly always injurious
to the cider. In the first place the air so drawn into the barrel
is liable to be polluted with germs which might set up an
undesirable fermentation. Even if this air be first purified by
passing it through a special bung made for the purpose, the
air which enters may still be productive of harm by starting
fermentation anew, or by enabling the acetic acid ferment,
should it be present in the juice, to commence its baneful
action.

^ To overcome these difficulties, a cylinder of compressed Carbonic
liquid carbonic acid was obtained in 1897, together with a pres- acid gas.
sure gauge and reducing valve, Fig. 17, which apparatus is

PIG. 17.

necessary to enable us to use the gas. By connecting the cylinder
.of carbonic acid gas with a barrel, it is possible to draw from this
barrel as much cider as is required without allowing any air
to enter, the place of the cider being immediately taken by the
carbonic acid gas. This same gas is produced by the natural
fermentation of the apple juice, and acts as a preservative so
long as the juice is thoroughly impregnated with it. Hence,
by its application in this way we do but maintain artificially
.the condition which ordinarily nature has brought about in a
,cask.

There is this further advantage. When cider is in cask it
is, or rather should be, fully impregnated with the carbonic
acid gas produced by fermentation, but in drawing the cider
.out of the barrel much of this gas is lost. If, however, the
.cider be drawn out of the barrel by, or under, pressure, then
there is much less fear of the gas escaping when the cider is
being drawn into a small cask. The result is that the cider
in this small cask will keep longer, and be of better quality
.than if the gas had been allowed to escape. The above results
jare of importance, not only to the cider maker, who has to
jdraw cider from large into small barrels, but also to those who
wish to bottle nearly dry cider, or to produce a bottled cider
which, while having ample life when the bottle is open, shall
jet not have the superabundant effervescence of champagne.

Bottling.
Cider when exposed to the air is liable to rapidly turn sour.

From personal experience I know that cider would be drunk
in many London homes were it not that the consumption being
small, by the time a cask is half emptied what remains is not
fit to drink. Partly owing to this, partly to the fact that
most bottled cider placed on the market, until quite recently,
has been either too sweet, too gaseous, or too dear (as compared
with, cider in cask), the consumption of cider has been com-
paratively small. It therefore appeared to be desirable to
experiment upon the effects of bottling, as I am quite certain
that if cider is to become a popular drink, it will have to be
supplied mainly in bottles.

The chief advantage of bottling is that cider almost invari-
ably improves in flavour by keeping, or, perhaps, to state it
more precisely, during the time it is in bottle.

The disadvantage is, that even if bottled directly it comes
from the filter, when it is absolutely clear and sparkling, in
course of time a deposit forms in the bottle. This deposit,
however, should be small, and, if the bottles are kept upright
for a day or two before being opened if sinks to the bottom,
and the contents of the bottle may then be poured off without
disturbing the sediment. The cider contains enough gas to
be "bright" but is not too. effervescing.

If the cider is not clear when bottled then a copious deposit
is formed. Fermentation proceeds too far and sometimes the
bottles burst, or the juice becomes so highly charged with gas
that it is impossible to obtain the contents of the bottle with-
out the whole of the sediment rising up.

The production of effervescing bottled cider appears, there-
fora, to be a branch of the industry which the ordinary farmer
had better not attempt. On the other hand, the production of
a good, fairly clear, and moderately sparkling bottled cider,
for one's own consumption, or to supply to neighbours who are
not cider makers, is not attended by much difficulty, especially
where the use of a filter is procurable. The cider must be
absolutely clear for bottling, and it should be bottled direct
from, the filter. This is the result of long-continued experi-
ments.

The experiment was tried, of leaving the bottles open for
twelve hours after they were filled, and before closing them;
the results proved conclusively that much better cider was
obtained by closing the bottles immediately after they were
filled.

Experiments were also made to determine whether it was
better to bottle cider as it comes from tKe filter or after it had
been subsequently stored in barrel. A good cider was filtered on
19th of January, and several dozens of bottles were filled. The
remainder of the cider was placed in a cask, and on the 19th
of March, i.e., two months after filtering, was bottled direct from
the cask. The bottles were kept until the following January,
when the two varieties were most carefully tasted. There was
a unanimous opinion that the cider bottled direct from the
filter was of far better quality than the cider bottled from
cask two months later.

Many experiments have been made to determine the best
time and conaicion of the cider for bottling. It is found that
if bottled with a gravity of or above 1.025, the subsequent
fermentation will break many of the bottles, or else cause a
considerable loss from leakage. Moreover, in those bottles
which do not break a large deposit is formed, which even if
first allowed to settle has a tendency to rise when the bottle
is opened, owing to the rapid evolution of gas, so that the
liquid cannot be poured out clear. Strange to say, in spite
of this large deposit of material, the amount of alcoholic
fermentation which has taken place is comparatively small.
It has therefore been found desirable not to bottle until the
cider contains as much alcohol as is desired in the cider when
it has to be consumed, or at least 4 per cent, of alcohol. This
is discovered by means of the table, p. 64.

For example, if the average gravity of the juice from press
was 1.058, it will not contain 4 per cent, of alcohol until the

gravity lias fallen to 1.023, and it will then contain over 4 per
cent, of sugar, and so be a medium sweet cider.

No fixed gravity can be laid down as a standard for bottling.
It must first depend in a great measure on the quality of the
original apple juice. The gravity, however, must not be
higiier than 1.025, and the cider when bottled must not contain
less than 4 per cent, of alcohol. Having satisfied these
primary conditions, the gravity must next be regulated by
the desire to make sweet, medium, or dry cider.

Good, sweet, bottled cider can only be made from juice having
originally a high specific gravity. When the original gravity
of the juice is below 1.063 it is only possible to make good
medium dry cider for bottling.

For dry cider, the liquid when bottled should contain only
about 2 per cent, of sugar, and this corresponds nearly always
to a gravity of 1.010. The cider at Butleigh is bottled in
screw-stoppered, clear, light-green bottles holding one-sixth
of a gallon. If the bottles are more expensive than ordinary
corked bottles they have many advantages. There is no.
trouble about corks, and cider can be easfly spoiled by bad
corks. They do not require tying or wiring down, nor is it
necessary to cap them with foil in order to make them look
well. That the public prefer these bottles is certain. A glass
of cider can be drawn out and the bottle immediately re-
stoppered, so that the remaining cider can be used at a subse-
quent meal, even 24 hours later.

After being filled the bottles should be stored in bins on their
sides, not upright, and the bins carefully labelled to corre-
spond with the barrels.

Disgorging.

Champagne cider is made either by allowing an excessive
amount of fermentation to take place in the bottle, and then
removing the sediment, or by filtering the juice and artifi-
cially crating with carbonic acid gas. The latter process is
only capable of being carried out in factories. The former
is the system adopted in the Champagne Industry and is the
most difficult and expensive to perform. But experiments
were made at Butleigh and the results were satisfactory. The
system is as follows :

After fermentation has proceeded sufficiently the bottles,
are placed in a frame sloping so that the mouth is downward.
Every day or two each bottle is twisted half-way round. The
sediment gradually collects in the neck of the bottle and finally
upon the cork. Unfortunately it is necessary to have corked
bottles for this operation unless it can be performed under
special conditions.

When the sediment has thus collected the cork is drawn out,
the bottle being held mouth downward, and the sediment is
washed away with a little cider which escapes. The cork is
immediately replaced and fastened down. This operation,
termed disgorging, is exceptionally difficult to carry out, and
requires a certain amount of apparatus as well as skill. It is
now performed on a large scale by freezing the cider in the
neck of the bottle, removing the cork, scraping out the small
portion of ice which contains the sediment, and re-corking
with a clean, new cork.

Where this method of operating is carried out screw-stop-
pered bottles might be used.

The process is costly and cannot be generally adopted until
better prices can be obtained for really excellent champagne
cider, which is quite as good as real champagne, and is perhaps
not unfrequeiitly sold as champagne.

Records.

Those who wish to succeed in cider making must carefully
record every fact regarding each barrel of cider made.

The work that is done from day to day should be recorded
in a day book, and a cellar book, or cider ledger will subse-
quently have to bo filled up from the day book.

I have drawn up the two following forms for these records,
which I recommend to those who desire to keep an accurate
account of their work.

Two books of such forms (the best size is foolscap) in which
were carefully recorded what is done each day would well
repay the small amount of time and trouble involved. More-
over, a new interest would be given to the work of cider
making.

The conditions of cider making differ on every farm; the
apples, the soil, the climate, all affect the resulting liquid.
The most that could be done at Butleigh was to seek out some
of the more general conditions which affect all makers.

But the special conditions which exist at any farm will
always play an important part in the manufacture of cider
there, and each maker must find out for himself what these
conditions are.

If records, somewhat similar to, if not identical with the
following were kept these conditions would soon be discovered
and could be utilized to advantage.

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FORM OP CELLAR BOOK, OR RECORD OP BARRELS WITH THE FIRST OF
ABOVE ENTRIES COPIED IN AND CONCLUDED.

Barrel No 22.

Made on 8th Nov., 1897.

Apples from Cook's Orchard.

Condition of apples Good.

Specific gravity of juice 1*055.

Temperature when keeved 50 F.

Skimmed*

First Time, j Second Time. Third Time.

Date llth Nov. 12th Nov.

Nature of head White White

Temperature when skimmed ... 52 53

Gravity when skimmed | 1-052 1-051

Temperature of Juice in barrel ... ... ... ... 54.

Specific gravity of juice in barrel 1*051.

Special treatment Pips cracked.

Hacked.

First Time. Second Time. Third Time.

Date j 10th Dec.

Temperature j 51

Specific Gravity j 1-029

Filtered. Date, 18th Dec. ; Temperature 49 ; Specific gravity 1-026 ;
Condition of liquid, good flavour, clear but not bright ; pale.

Treatment. March ; bottled 12 dozen and drew off remainder
into casks under carbonic acid pi essure.

Taste and Quality. Still excellent.

Remarks. The bottled cider consumed partly at home. Some sent
to yacht club was found excellent and suited members' tastes.

Cask sent to Sir A. B. : He writes " it is far too sweet for my
taste."

Cask sent to D. E. F. : He wrote " very clean, but not sweet
enough for my taste."

Small Cider.

The object the foreigner has in view when making small
cider is twofold. First it enables him to make from the first
juice cider of an extra fine quality, to put upon the market,
and from the second juice cider for home consumption.
Sometimes the second extract is mixed with the original juice
where a large volume of only second quality cider is required.
It has already been pointed out (p. 41) that the once ex-
tracted pomace still contains much juice, it is with the object
of soaking out this juice that the pomace is treated with
water and re-pressed. That the practice is worth carrying
out may best be illustrated by quoting the average composi-
tion of the juice thus obtained.

Average percentage composition of five keeves of small
cider: Sp. Gr., 1.030; solids, T.16; sugar, 5.66; acid, .28;
tannin, .07.

As but little is known in England concerning the best condi-
tions for producing small cider, experiments were made to
determine the following points:

(A) What quantity of water should be added to the

pomace ?

(B) Should the pomace be re-ground?

(D) What substances should be added to the liquid
obtained ?

We will now consider these questions seriatim.

(A) What quantity of water should be added to the pomace?
The first experiment was to compare the results of using about
one-half and one-third the volume of the orignal juice, while
subsequent experiments were made with varying quantities.

The average composition of the small cider obtained was as
follows :

Using.

Sp. Gr.

Solids.

Sugar.

Acid.

gallons of water ^ original volume

1-0280

6-56

539

?J 3

1-0335 7-94

6-25

?) 4 ) )

1-0336 8-10 6-41

The results of 'all the experiments, taking everything into
consideration indicated that one-half the volume of original
juke was the best quantity of water to use for re-soaking the
pomace.

(B) Should the pomace be re-ground? Experiments were
made first by re-grinding the pomace before soaking. This
was found to be a tedious task at best, and the atterript was
sometimes futile. It was found, however, comparatively easy
to re-grind the pomace after it had been soaked with water.
Experiments were then made to compare the result of this
re-grinding after soaking as against merely soaking. So far
as could be judged from the experiments made, the advantage
of re-grinding was so small as not to compensate for the extra
time and labour it involved.

(c) For how long and at what temperature should the
pomace soak? In attempting to answer this question, the
results of the preceding experiments were taken as a guide, so
that the pomace was always treated with a volume of water
equal to one-half the original volume of juice, and was not
re-ground.

The results indicated that the pomace ought to soak for
at least twenty-four hours.

Next as to temperature. Experiments were made at the
ordinary temperature, and at the temperature produced by
adding nearly boiling water to the pomace. The whole mass
was thus raised to a temperature varying in different experi-
ments from 117 to 120 Fahr., and during the twenty-four
hours soaking it would fall in temperature to 100 Fahr. The
use of warm water had the undoubtedly beneficial effect of pro-
ducing a richer juice than was obtained by the same volume of
cold water. It also brought about other changes. When some of
the small cider made with cold water was heated in a test-
tube, a bulky precipitate was formed, apparently of some
albuminous substance, which separated out on heating, leaving
a clear juice. When the extract made with hot water was
similarly heated, very little precipitate was formed. Tannic
acid also caused a precipitate in the cold-made juice which it
did not produce in the juice extracted by hot water. Owing
to the higher temperature of the latter, fermentation starts
readily and proceeds rapidly; but very little clarification
takes place in keeving. Fermentation never commences so
soon, nor proceeds so rapidly in the cold-made " small " juice
as in the ordinary apple juice, and it is therefore well to
pump such small juice into keeves containing the lees of
some pure juice which has just been drawn from the keeve.

The juice obtained with cold water is very thick, and as
fermentation proceeds in the keeve a similar result is pro-
duced to that in a test tube on heating. An abundant head
lises, sometimes even six inches thick, and a voluminous
deposit is formed. In removing this head and when racking
from the deposit there is, of course, much loss of juice. But
if these operations are carried out with care, the resulting
juice ferments more slowly, and can be subsequently treated

with even greater ease than the hot extracted juice. This
was well shown in some experiments carried out in a subse-
quent year, to further determine the relative merits of ex-
tracting the pomace with warm or cold water. The results
were considerably influenced by the warm temperature of the
season. The pomace extracted with water at 120 F., yielded
a juice having an average temperature of 66 F., while that
extracted with cold water had an average temperature of
52 F. The result was a far too rapi'd fermentation in the
warm-made juice, which did not occur in a cold season. The
juice extracted with warm water contained more solid matter
than that extracted with cold water. The specific gravity of
the warm-extracted juice was 1.035, that of the cold 1.031.
Two months afterwards the former had fermented down to
1.001, the latter only to 1.017, showing that much greater
care is needed in the manipulation of the hot-extracted juice,
especially in a hot season. Summarising these experiments, it
would appear that hot extraction is the better from a chemical
point of view, but it can only be carried out in a very cold
season. In a warm season cold extraction is better, because
fermentation is more under control.

(D) What substances should be added to this liquid ? When
the liquid has been keeved and becomes partly clarified it is
racked into barrels. It will have been noticed from the
analysis that this small cider is deficient in both sugar and
tannin. To remedy the former defect is easy, and in the
majority of the experiments about 5 per cent, of pure cane
sugar was added to the juice. Further experiments were made
to ascertain whether there was any substance as good as, or
better than, pure cane sugar for adding to the juice to bring
up its gravity. Two substances had been suggested as likely
to prove of value, one used by brewers and called " Saccharum,"
and the other " sugar-candy"; the results proved conclusively
that neither of these produced so good a small cider as pure
cane sugar.

Experiments have also been made to ascertain the effect of
adding different quantities of tannin. Speaking generally,
there is no question that the addition of tannic acid (British
Pharmacopoeia) has proved beneficial. Half a pound of tannin
to l,0001bs. of juice (about two hogsheads) has given the best
result.

In connection with the use of tannin, it is necessary to
point out that while the addition of tannin to the cold-made
small cider causes it to clear; in other words, the tannin acts
as a precipitating agent, and does not remain in the juice;
when added to the hot-made small cider, it does not cause
any precipitation, but remains in solution in the juice. There-
fore, the quantity of tannin employed must depend partly
on the way in which the small cider is made. It is doubtful
v.-hether it would be profitable to employ sufficient tannin to

clear the cold-made juice, and yet to leave enough in solution
to give the desired astringency, and in such case it must be
added after clarification has taken place.

Small cider when carefully made is an excellent drink pro-
duced at but little expense and trouble, and, in my opinion,
capable of infinite improvement if properly studied in the
future.

Early-made Cider.

To secure from the very first windfalls, and from the juice
of the first cheeses, a beverage very slightly, if at all, inferior
to the general make, is a result that but a few years ago would
have been considered unattainable. It is now, however,
possible.

Owing to the traditional belief that early-made cider is
never good, very little attention was paid to this cider for the
first few years of the observations, in fact the investigations
were seldom started until after it had been made.

In 1899 gome data regarding this early-made cider were
obtained which were surprising. The average specific gravity
of the juice was found to be no less than 1.065, hence it con-
tained more sugar than the average juice of the season. Owing
to the preconceived notion that this early juice was of no use,
it had been allowed to ferment at its own sweet will and had
been neglected. I could see no reason why, if this juice had
been properly attended to, it should not have made excellent
cider.

This idea about the uselessness of the first juice reminds
me of a somewhat similar erroneous notion which was preva-
lent among Cheddar cheese makers, viz., that in the early
spring good cheese could not be made. I have shown that
this difficulty was due simply to the absence of that warmth in
the dairy which is natural in the summer, and that by artifi-
cial heat the difficulty can be overcome. It seemed to me,
therefore, highly probable that an analogous natural cause had
given rise to the popular belief that the first apple juice
produces poor cider. And undoubtedly this is the case.

Cider making is commenced too early.

The temperature at such period is generally sufficient to
cause very rapid fermentation. Sufficient attention is not
subsequently given to the juice, owing to all interest being
concentrated upon the grinding and pressing of the main
crop of apples, and by the time this work is finished fermenta-
tion in the first-obtained juice has gone too far, and the cider
is ruined. That there is anything in the juice which pro-
hibits the production of good cider I could not believe.

In 1900 particular attention was therefore paid to the early-
made cider, that is the juice extracted from the first apples
coming in, which are mainly windfalls.

15408 Q

The specific gravity of the juice of these apples was again
found to be comparatively high. The following are the gravi-
ties in 1899 and 1900 of the juice from the first five cheeses
put up :

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF EARLY MADE CIDER.

1899.

1900.

1st Cheese

1-065

1-058

2nd

1-066

1-060

3rd

1-065

1-062

4th ...

1-065

1-062

5th

1-065

1-063

Average

1-065

1-061

Average for Season

1-061

1-059

It will be seen that in both years the gravity of this juice
was higher than that of the aggregate juice of the season.

In 1900 the juice was pressed out and keeved on 15th-17th
October, the temperature being rather high, ranging from 50
to 57 F. ; fermentation proceeded rapidly. The first head was
a characteristic brown head, and the second mainly brown.
When racked into barrels the gravity had fallen to between
1.047 and 1.057. In the barrels fermentation still continued
with unusual vigour, so that on the 1st November the cider
was racked. On the 5th it was again racked, and on the 14th
and 15th it was filtered. Filtration was difficult, and the
filtered juice was not so^ clear as could be. desired. The gravities
of the filtered ciders were 1.018, 1.019, 1.017, 1.012 and 1.017.
It will be seen that only one month elapsed between making
and filtering the juice, which gives some idea of the rapidity of
fermentation.

I am convinced that failure in the past to make good cider
from the early-gathered fruit is due to this rapid fermenta-
tion, and that the difficulty may be overcome by attention and
care. This cider, two months after filtration, had a gravity
only .003 below its gravity when filtered. The cider with the
highest gravity was excellent, as good as any mad at a later
period of the year; three of the other cheeses produced good
cider, far better than any early cider ever before made at
Butleigh; but one barrel contained cider which wa-s certainly
poor as compared with the others. It is noteworthy that this
was the cider of lowest specific gravity. These results strikingly

confirmed the lessons of previous years, viz., that a slow fer-
mentation, which is not allowed to proceed too far, produces
the best cider.

Thus the great difficulty with early-made cider is the
rapidity with which the apple juice ferments. To check this
fermentation must he the primary consideration of the cider
maker. It can only be done by racking at the right moment.
Having taken the specific gravity of the juice when placed in
the fermenting barrel, write this down with chalk on the
barrel, or in a book kept for the purpose. In the course
of a week or less again test the gravity, and write this down,
with the date, on the barrel. This must be done frequently.
The fall in gravity will show the rate of fermentation, and
indicate when each barrel should be racked. For example, in
1901, when the specific gravity of the first extracted juice
fell to 1.044 it was racked. When it had fallen to 1.037 it
was again racked, and racked again for the third time on
5th November, when the gravity was 1.033.

The juice w^e filtered on the 9th January, because the
gravity was then 1.022, so that the liquid contained 4 per cent.
of alcohol, and as the cider was not intended for bottling, it
was stored in casks well bunged down.

As an indication of the progress, and value which this
saving of the early juice represents, it may be interesting to
compare the results recently obtained with those obtained in
the past.

In 1897, out of 50 barrels of cider made during the season,
no record whatever was kept of the first 11. It was never
expected to make out of the windfalls anything but cider for
the farm, and cider for the farm was not much studied.
But even at Butleigh cider for the farm is very superior
to the general farm product, which is more like vinegar than
cider. In 1898, out of 70 barrels made, the first 12 were not
attended to.

In 1899 I began to pay attention to this early-made cider,
but did not recognise its peculiarity to be rapid fermentation
until too late to make much improvement that season; conse-
quently, the cider, when filtered had a gravity of only 1.007,
which was far too low. In 1900 still further improvement was
made; the cider was filtered with an average gravity of 1.015,
and while nearly all of it was good, some of it was excellent.
In 1901 the whole of the first-made cider was kept completely
under control, and filtration was postponed until each barrel
was ready, and the resulting liquid was in no way inferior to
the later-made cider. Thus it will be seen that the early-made
cider, which may be said to represent from 15 to 25 per cent,
of the total output, according to the season, instead of being
neglected and relegated to the farm hands as hitherto, can be,
and at Butleigh has been, converted into a beverage in no way
inferior to the remainder of the output.
15408

Preservatives.

Every cider maker is pestered with advertisements of anti-
ferments that are guaranteed to cure all the evil results of
carelessness and ignorance in cider making. No one, there-
fore, can wonder at these substances having a ready sale among
cider-making farmers who do not understand the composition
of these anti-ferments, and place implicit confidence in the
claims of the respective vendors. The use of preservatives in
articles of food has attracted much attention, and is likely
in due course to become the subject of legislation. As I knew
from the results of analyses that much cider contained
preservatives, I decided to start a series of experiments on
preservatives to determine the effect of each.

The first experiments were made on unfiltered juice.

Experiment 1. To a 12-gallon barrel of juice a patent
preservative which we will call " A " was added according
to the directions supplied with the preservative. The gravity
of the juice when the preservative was added was 1.0457, on
4th November, 1897. On 8th January, 1898, the cider was
clear, of good flavour, and not very acid, but the gravity had
decreased to 1.037, showing that fermentation was taking place.
On 8th November, 1898, the cider was analysed and had the
following composition: Sp. Gr., 1.0043; acid, .70; alcohol,
5.50. It will thus be seen that fermentation had continued
as if no preservative had been added.

Experiment 2. A further experiment was made on cider in
cask, using another patent preservative, which we will call
" B." One bottleful of this substance was added in accord-
ance with the printed directions to one hogshead of cider,
which then contained 1.55 per cent, alcohol and 9.20 sugar,
and had a Sp. GT. of 1.0409. This juice was analysed again
at the end of three weeks, and again at the end of another
three weeks, and was found to be fermenting rapidly. On the
8th November, 1898, it was analysed with the following results :
Sp. Gr., 1.0053; acid, .64; alcohol, 4.70; so that fermentation
had gone on nearly to dryness, and the anti-ferment had proved
a failure.

Experiment 3. Mustard. I had heard that in Devon the
" sweets " were retained in the cider by the use of mustard, and
so it was determined to give this substance a trial. The quan-
tity generally used was stated to be one pound to the hogshead.
Two pounds of the best mustard were therefore added to a
two-hogshead barrel of cider having a Sp. Gr. of 1.0427. The
juice was analysed three weeks afterwards, and found to be
fermenting. Three weeks later fermentation had nearly
stopped, but the acidity .of the juice was rising. One
year after, namely, on the 8th November, 1898, this juice
was analysed. Little or no fermentation had taken place
during the ten monlhs, but the acid had risen from .70 to .85,

and the cider had a strong and most unpleasant taste of
garlic ; in fact, it was spoilt. This being the only experiment
with mustard, the evil results obtained may be exceptional,
while its power to check fermentation appears to be proved.

Experiment 4. Formic Aldehyde. This and the three
following experiments were made with juice drawn from the
barrel when racking but not filtered, and were carried out in
bottles.

The effect of the formic aldehyde upon the cider was most
remarkable. It produced an abundant precipitate, and caused
the cider to become opaque and like very dirty milk. By
degrees some of this substance begins to settle, but the settle-
ment is never complete, so that after standing for one year the
cider was not clear. In this experiment the quantities of
formic aldehyde used were .05 per cent., .1 per cent., and .2
per cent, respectively. Three bottles were similarly treated
in each experiment. This substance was found to stop fer-
mentation, the cider having on 1st December, 1898, the same
gravity as when put into bottles a year previously.

The sediment which is produced renders the cider absolutely
unfit for anything, and it has been found impossible to take
out this milkiness by any process.

Experiment 5. Boracic Acid. This substances was used
in the same proportion as the preceding, only by weight instead
of by volume : .05 per cent,, .1 per cent., and .2 per cent, were
each added to three bottles of cider. Neither, of these quanti-
ties had any effect; the cider fermented to absolute dryness.

Experiment 6. Sodium Salicylate. 0.1 per cent, of this
substance was added to a bottle of cider, but the bottle was
lost or burst, and no analysis was made.

Experiment 7. Pasteurising. Three bottles were Pas-
teurised at 120, three at 140, and three at 160 Fahr. for
fifteen minutes. Three out of the nine bottles broke from the
effect of the heat. A temperature of 120 Fahr. had no effect
upon subsequent fermentation, which proceeded until the cider
was absolutely dry. A temperature of 140 Fahr. checked
fermentation slightly, and that of 160 Fahr. still more so, but
neither had completely checked the fermentation.

It was next considered desirable to conduct some experi-
ments on filtered juice.

All the following experiments were carried out with the
same juice, which had the following composition : Sp. Gr.,
1.0169; acid, .68; alcohol, 3.55; solids, 5.34.

Experiment 8. Formic Aldehyde. .01 per cent., .05 per
cent., and .1 per cent, respectively. The formalin had the
same action on the filtered cider as on the unfiltered, producing

the white cloudiness or milkiness as before. No fermentation
had taken place when these bottles were analysed in November,
1898, i.e., eleven months after being filled.

Experiment 9. Borax. .1 per cent, and .05 per cent,
respectively. Both these samples fermented slightly, but the
colour and the flavour were found to have suffered by the use of
this preservative.

Experiment 10. Sodium Salicylate. .05 per cent, and .01
per cent. Fermentation was checked, but not completely. The
bottles contained some gas though not enough. The substance
had no injurious effect upon the flavour of the cider.

Experiment 11. Pasteurisation. This was carried out at
120 Fahr., and no subsequent fermentation took place, so
that, at the end of eleven months, the liquid was " as dead as
ditch-water."

Experiment 12. Anticipating the result obtained in experi-
ment 11, the cider was Pasteurised, and then a small quantity
of pure yeast was added to it. Fermentation proceeded slowly
and a considerable amount of gas was produced, but the
fermentation had not gone very far, for on 2nd November,
1898, the juice had the following composition : Sp. Gr., 1.0153 ;
acid, .51 ; alcohol, 3.75.

Experiment 13. To determine what changes would take
place in the bottled cider without the use of any preservatives
or the application of heat, three bottles were filled at the same
time as these experiments were started and immediately
fastened up as usual.

These, of course, fermented, and at the end of eleven months
were found to be nicely up and to have a little more sediment
than some of the bottles containing preservatives. But they
were of excellent flavour.

Analysis proved that they had the following composition on
2nd November, 1898: Sp. Gr., 1.0155; acid, .43; alcohol,
3.75.

It will thus be seen that fermentation had not proceeded
very far, only, in fact, sufficient to produce a good sparkle in
the cider.

The results of these experiments are evident. Not one of
either the patent or the ordinary preservatives, when added to
unfiltered cider, appears* to have any effect in checking the
progress of fermentation.

The same may be said of cider in bottle, provided that it be
not first filtered. Formalin, which is the only exception,
proved useless, owing to the peculiar precipitating action it
has upon the colouring matter and other constituents of the
cider. With filtered cider, provided that it be properly filtered,
there appears to be no need for the use of preservatives, for
if the amount of fermentation during an exceptionally hot

summer like 1898, is so small as that shown by experiment
No. 13, it is evident there can be no object in adding preserva-
tives to cider. In fact the use of -such preservatives is detri-
mental to the cider.

These experiments prove that farmers must trust to cleanli-
ness of make, and to care in the manipulation of the juice,
and not to preservatives, if they wish to produce the best cider.
By so doing they will produce an article that will hold its own
in the market, and will successfully compete with the cider
now being imported, most of which contains preservatives.

Fermentation and the Chemical Changes which take place in the
Fermenting Juice.

Fermentation in its truest sense is a chemical change. But
all chemical changes are not due to fermentation. Contact,
heat and light will produce chemical change, but fermenta-
tion is produced only by living matter, '' organized ferments,"
or by the exudations (secretions) of living matter now known
as " enzymes," and formerly as unorganised ferments.

Fermentation usually results in the splitting up of a complex
substance into two or more less complex substances. At times
a small quantity of a complex body may also be produced, but it
invariably forms only a small proportion of the substances
which result from the fermentation.

The saliva affords an illustration of the action of an enzyme.
It contains an unorganised ferment known as ptyalin which
converts starch into sugar. This change may be proved by a
very simple experiment. A very minute quantity of starch
is placed in a test tube with about 12 c.c of water and boiled.
The liquid is cooled to 98 F. and divided into two test tubes.
Into one some saliva is allowed to flow from the mouth, and
the tube is kept at 98 F. for fifteen minutes, being frequently
shaken. If a little Iodine solution be then added to each test
tube, the liquid containing the saliva will not change colour,
but the starch solution in the other will become intensely blue.
The absence of the blue colour in the solution containing saliva
is evidence of the absence of starch. By appropriate tests it
is easy to prove that the tube contains a solution of sugar,
which the starch has been converted into by the saliva.

There is evidence to show that fermenting apple juice con-
tains an enzyme capable of converting cane sugar into ferment-
able sugar.

The average composition of the apple juice in 1894, was
Sp. Gr., 1.0502; solid matter, 11.14; acid, .60; grape sugar,
7.59 per cent. It will be noticed that of the total solids only
7.5*9 per cent, were present as fermentable sugar. On deducting
this from the total solid matter in solution, and also the acid
and mineral matter, there remained on an average 2.5 per cent,
of substances not accounted for.

It was important to determine whether these substances
would ferment, or whether the grape sugar, shown by analysis
to be present in the juice w"as the only substance that would
ferment.

Careful experiments proved that some of the other consti-
tuents were gradually changed, became fermentable, and
finally converted into alcohol. The total amount of solid
substances left unfermented in the juice appeared to be about
1.4 per cent.

Evidence was then obtained to show that this matter was
first converted into sugar. Thus, in barrel No. 16 the juice
contained 10.32 per cent, of solids, and 7.11 per cent, of sugar,
showing a difference of 3.21 per cent.

One month after fermentation had commenced, the solids
were 6.96 per cent., the sugar 5.20 per cent., showing a differ-
ence of 1.76 per cent. only.

The remainder evidently had been converted into sugar, for
the sugar which had disappeared was not sufficient to account
for the amount of alcohol present. It was subsequently proved
that apple juice contained, in addition to grape or fermentable
sugar, a certain quantity of cane sugar. And this was sepa-
rately estimated in all my apple analyses after 1896. This
cane sugar by the action of the yeasts or of the enzyme which
they secrete, was first converted into grape sugar and then
fermented into alcohol and carbonic acid gas, &c.

So far no evidence has been obtained to justify the conclu-
sion that any other substance exists in the juice, either in
suspension or in solution, which is rendered fermentable, either
by an enzyme or other agent.

As cane sugar has to undergo certain chemical changes
before it will ferment, experiments were made to see whether
the enzyme present in the apple juice would be able to so
change cane sugar as to render it fermentable.

For this purpose some of the best pure cane sugar was
obtained and about 4 per cent, added direct to the juice.
Care was taken in making this experiment to have only pure
cane sugar, for beet sugar, of which there is a good deal on
the market, is said to be far from beneficial to fermentation.

It was known that by heating cane sugar with acid it was
so changed that it became fermentable, accordingly in some
simultaneous experiments the sugar was dissolved and heated
in a little cider before being added to the bulk.

The results of these experiments showed, however, that cane
sugar was slowly converted into a fermentable state without the
previous treatment of heating with cider, though the change
is not so rapid as when the sugar is heated with cider. Hence
cane sugar may be added to apple juice when it is desired to
improve it, immediately it comes from the keeve, or after the

first fermentation has set in ; and it may be added either as a
powder, or in solution in apple juice.

So far as we know at present the only enzyme which plays
any part in cider making is the one which converts cane sugar
into fermentable sugars.

The organized ferments which are important in cider making
may be divided into three classes. The moulds, the yeasts,
and the bacteria. Moulds are familiar in their general appear-
ance to everyone. Few substances form a better medium on
which they will grow than damp bread, or bruised apples.
Make a pulp of bread with a little water and spread it over
the surface of a soup plate about half an inch thick. Let it
remain exposed to the air for half an hour, then cover it with
another plate or with a piece of glass and put aside. In due
course spots of mould will begin to grow ; as they increase with
age they will take various colours, blue, green, yellow, red,
brown, black or white. These colours are generally due to the
seeds or spores of the mould which, under a strong magnifier,
may be seen growing in clusters of varied shape at the end of
fine, upright stems which have arisen from the mould
(mycelium) on the surface of the bread.

If these spores are shaken off and examined under the
microscope they are seen to be minute spheres, and experi-
ments prove that they are capable of growing in apple juice
and of causing therein undesirable changes due to the special
kind of fermentation which they set up.

The yeasts are round or oval bodies, generally the latter
shape, which grow mainly in solutions containing sugar. At
times they take a sausage shape. They are comparatively
large, as may be seen by examining a little German yeast,
mixed with water, under the microscope, using a one-sixth inch
objective. If the water contains some sugar and the solution
is kept warm, 70 F., the yeast will grow, and upon examina-
tion the large cells will then be seen to have little buds or
small cells forming at one, or may be both ends. These
gradually increase in size until they are as large as the mother
cell, to which sometimes they remain attached, though many
break off at a quite early stage of growth and carry on an
independent existence. Owing to their propagation by buds
the yeasts are termed sprouting fungi.

The bacteria are far more minute than the yeasts and will
require for their study a one-twelfth inch objective, though
many can be seen even under a one-sixth inch objective. If
a little of the " tartar " which accumulates around the teeth
be mixed with water, and examined under the microscope,
using very little light to begin with, the material will be
found to be swarming with bacteria. In fact, all the typical
forms of bacteria can very frequently be found in this material.
Perfectly spherical globes or " cocci " ; very short or medium-
size rods, " bacilli " ; curved rods, and spirals, " spirilla."

Top and
bottom fer-
mentation.

Rate of fer<
mentation.

Unlike the yeasts no buds can be found on the bacteria.
They multiply by splitting in two. Hence they are termed
fission fungi. Here it may be stated that all these three
varieties of organisms, moulds, yeasts, and bacteria, are
looked upon as plants or vegetable growths, and included under
the head of fungi by botanists. Enzymes, yeasts, moulds, and
bacteria, all play a part for good or ill in the manufacture of
cider.

As, however, the principal and desirable changes are brought
about mainly by yeasts, we may first study their action. They
convert the fruit sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. It
was originally supposed that 100 parts of fruit sugar would
yield 51.1 parts of alcohol and 48.9 parts of carbonic acid gas.
But the yeasts feed on the sugar and it is by taking away from
it the small quantity of food which they consume that they
leave the remainder in the form of alcohol and carbonic acid
gas. Pasteur has shown that only 48.3 per cent, of alcohol
and 46.4 of carbonic acid are produced, small quantities of
other constituents, e.g., glycerine, being also formed. This
is the fermentation which the cider maker desires. But it is
not produced by every variety of yeast. In fact, there are
many varieties of yeast, and some are known to have a very
detrimental action on the fermentation. These are generally
termed wild yeasts.

The yeasts grow rapidly when ihej are present in a liquid
exposed to the air or well aerated. But under these conditions
they burn up the sugar rather than ferment it. This is one
reason for the frequent mention in this report of the necessity
of preventing the air getting to the fermenting juice.

Some varieties of yeasts grow on the top of the liquid which
they ferment, others grow at the bottom. For cider making a
bottom fermentation is most usual and most desirable, though
cider is sometimes made by top fermentation as in brewing.
Probably one of the chief advantages of keeving, and skimming
in the keeve, is that it removes any top fermentation yeast
which may be present.

As already stated fermentation is most rapid in well-aerated
juice.

The rate at which fermentation proceeds also depends upon
the number of cells present in the liquid. Therefore, when a
slow fermentation is wanted, the maker continually racks his
cider. By each racking he diminishes the number of yeast
cells present in the juice, provided he takes care not to disturb
the sediment in the cask, which consists largely of these cells.

The same result can be obtained more rapidly and more
effectively by filtration.

The rate of fermentation also depends upon the temperature.
The higher the temperature the more rapfd the fermentation,

mentation.

and vice versa. Hence the necessity of being able to control
the temperature of the keeving room, and, where possible, of
the storing-room.

The more closely the changes produced by fermentation The effect of
correspond to the theoretical conversion of sugar into 48.3 per
cent, alcohol, &c., the better the cider.

This conclusion has been come to only after several years
of close observation. The improvement in the cider produced
at Butleigh is probably due more to the bringing about of this
purer fermentation than to any other cause. It will be well
to retrace the steps which have enabled me to formulate the
above statement. In 1893 the average amount of alcohol
produced in 14 barrels made before the end of November was
63 parts for every 100 parts of solids lost.

As then reported " It is evident that this is not a pure
alcoholic fermentation."

In 1894 the following results were obtained :

TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FERMENTING JUICE AT
DIFFERENT PERIODS.

No. of
Samples.

Sp. Gr.

Alcohol.

Aci'l.

Sugar.

Solids.

Juice when vatted

1-0497

7-65

10-98

After 1st week

1-0486

7-48

10-90

2nd

1-0399

1-30

6-88

8-84

3rd ...

1-0301

2-31

5-21

7-58

4th

1-0234

3-14

3-82

6-07

5th

1-0200

3-53

3-27

5-43

6th

1-0178

3-78

2-95

4-81

7th

1-0174

3-78

2-88

4-57

8th

1-0161

3-88

2-76

4-41

9th

1-0146

4-06

2-45

4-11

10th

1-0140

4-ld

230

4-08

nth

1-0121

4-48

1-72

3-56

12th

1-0102

4-66

1-3P

3-16

Taking the average of those barrels 4.81 parts of alcohol
by weight have been produced from 8.27 parts of solids, so
that the sugar has produced 58 per cent, of alcohol.

In 1895 the results obtained were as follows :
AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FERMENTING JUICE AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.

After Commencement
of Fermentation.

No. of
Samples.

Sp. Gr.

Alcohol.

Acid.

Sugar.

Total
Solids.

From press

1-0525

11-47

12-76

1 week ...

1-0447

1-40

9-63

11-02

2 weeks

1-0360

1-86

7-66

8-96

1-0308

2-54

0-30

8-00

4 ...

1-0264

2-93

5-39

7-03

5 .,

1-0227

3-41

4-65

6-25

1-0204

354

4-01

5-72

1-0169

3-95

3-39

4-94

These results are far more satisfactory than those obtained
in 1893 or 1894. It will be found that the amount of alcohol
produced is about 50 per cent, if calculated on the total solid
matter, and only 48 per cent, if calculated on the sugar. This
is almost a theoretically correct result.

In 1896 experiments were made with pure yeasts, and the
following results were obtained :

TABLE SHOWING PROGRESS OF FERMENTATION.

Sp. Gr.

Total
Solids.

Acid.

Alcohol.

Sugar.

Tannin.

Per cent.

Percent.

Juice

1-0581

14-30

12-71

178

1 week after

1-0537

12-98

10-96

194

2 weeks

1-0400

10-31

2-05

8-39

205

u )) 5>

',0343

9-06

2-56

7-19

226

4 ,,

1-0287

7-96

3-18

5-97

229

1-0243

6-99

3-C3

5-29

209

1-0203

6-14

4-06

4-27

218

1-0177

567

4-35

3-68

227

The above table is the average of six barrels which were all
inoculated with pure yeast cultures, and so may be considered
to have fermented under the most regular conditions. By
deducting the sugar present at the end of the seventh week
from that present in the original juice, we find that 9.03 per
cent, has been converted into alcohol, of which it has produced
4.35 per cent. Theoretically, according to Pasteur, the
amount of alcohol should have been 4.38 per cent, in an abso-
lutely pure fermentation. These results then are remarkably
close to the theoretical yield.

Thus each year, as greater care was taken in the manufacture
of the cider, the amount of alcohol actually produced ap-
proached nearer and nearer to the quantity that theoretically
should be produced.

The above facts led me, in 1895, to the assumption that
" a purer fermentation has taken place each year," and the
above results, obtained with pure cultures of yeast, prove, 1
think the correctness of that assumption.

They also show that, by estimating the amount of alcohol
produced from a given quantity of sugar, we have a simple
means of determining whether a proper or improper fermenta-
tion has taken place in the apple juice. The practical
advantage of this should be enormous to cider makers. For,
while as yet it is most difficult to determine by microscopical
examination the purity of the ferments present in the juice,
it is not difficult for any well-trained careful chemist to accu-
rately estimate the amounts of sugar and alcohol present at
various stages of the manufacture.

Such are the changes produced by the first or alcoholic
fermentation.

Secondary Fermentation.

The term secondary fermentation has, I find, two distinct
meanings. Many people use it simply to express any change
which has been detrimental to the cider, and they are not
wrong in saying that such change is due to a secondary
fermentation, but then it is a detrimental fermentation, and so
will be treated by me as a " taint," or disease. I apply the
term secondary fermentation to those normal changes which
take place in good cider after the primary fermentation or
production of alcohol has taken place.

What the changes are which take place in the juice during Acididy
the period of ripening, spoken of as the second fermentation, reduced by
I cannot at present state, but one result is evident, and explains fermenta-
why it is that ciderand probably every other fermented tion *
liquidmellows and becomes soft with age. This slow
fermentation of ripening causes a diminution of acidity.

That such a change takes place invariably with good cider
is well shown by the following results : Some cider contain-
ing 0.65 per cent, of acid was bottled for experimental pur-
poses, and some months afterwards was again analysed. It
then contained only 0.48 per cent, of acid (malic). In another
instance, the juice contained, when bottled on the 24th
January, 1896, 0.62 per cent, of acid; on 7th May, 1896,
0.53 per cent.; and on 2nd November, 189^ 0.45 per cent, of
acid.

The proof of this change being due to fermentation has been
strongly demonstrated by the experiments 011 preservatives.
For instance, the cider used in experiments 8 to 13 when
bottled contained .68 per cent. acid. At the end of eleven
months the cider containing formalin, in which fermentation
had been stopped, showed .65 per cent. acid. Those containing
sodium salicylate in which fermentation was checked showed
.63 per cent, and .60 per cent, respectively. In the cider con-
taining borax the acidity had been reduced to .58 per cent., in
that which was Pasteurised and to which yeast had been added
the acidity was .51 per cent., but in the samples kept as a check,
and in which most fermentation had taken place, the acidity
was reduced to .43 per cent.

This reduction of the acid materially softens the cider, and
it probably does more than this. What becomes of the acid?
My impression is that, in some way or other, though how is not
yet certain, it goes to produce those flavouring substances
which are present in well-matured cider, and which are
certainly not present in the juice when it is bottled.*

There is further evidence to prove that this diminution of
acidity is essential to a good cider, for whenever a sample of
cider is of inferior quality, no matter from what cause, the
acid in it instead of having diminished has invariably increased.

Pure or Selected Yeasts.

It has been stated that the fermentation which takes place
in apple juice, and converts it into cider, is brought about by
minute vegetable cells termed yeast. These cells grow on the
outside of the fruit and are not confined to apples, being found
on grapes, &c. There are many varieties of yeast; and each
yeast, in addition to producing alcohol, appears to have the
power of affecting both the flavour and aroma of the liquid in
which it grows.

As certain apples have the reputation of making superior
cider to that made from others, I was anxious to discover,
if possible, whether they had special yeasts growing upon their

Many flavouring substances consist of compounds of acids and alcohols,
and it is probable that this accounts for the diminution of the acid with the
increase of flavour.

skins, or if this result was due to the chemical composition of
the apple. A few experiments were made in 1894, to isolate
the yeasts present on certain apples, and pure cultures were
obtained with which some filtered apple juice was inoculated.

Some apple juice was also inoculated with yeasts obtained
from other sources. In all, six varieties of yeast were used, the
original sources being as under :

No. 1, from black grapes (hot-house) ;

No. 2, from white grapes (hot-house) ;

No. 3, from pure cider yeast culture (foreign) ;

No. 4, from Kingston-Black apples;

No. 5, from Gin apples;

No. 6, from pure cider yeast culture (foreign) ;

and the resulting ciders, although all were originally the same
juice, were totally distinct both in flavour and aroma, showing
that to a large extent, these qualities depend upon the parti-
cular kind of yeast which produces the fermentation.

To obtain a large, pure culture of a particular yeast is no How to

easy task. The yeasts are first washed or scraped off the skin ^ tain a

P IT T . T ,. PI pure culture,

oi the apple or grape into a solution 01 sugar, &c., known as

Pasteur's liquid. With a drop of this liquid some apple juice
gelatine was inoculated and poured out into a Petri dish.*
Every yeast cell present now grows and produces a colony,
which if of perfect contour may be said to represent a single
yeast cell. This was gradually cultivated in proper nutri-
ment until there was a sufficient quantity to ferment a hogs-
head or two of apple juice. The great difficulty was to keep
every solution in which the yeast was cultivated, pure and
free from contamination. For the first culture a minute
portion of the pure yeast is transferred to a test-tube contain-
ing sterile apple juice gelatine.

This growth, if upon examination it is found to be free from
any contamination is called a " pure culture."

Having obtained these pure yeasts, it was next necessary
to cultivate them in bulk. They were first grown in 10 cubic
centimetres of cider. From the 10 cubic centimetres of cider
they were transferred to 100 cubic centimetres in a Pasteur's
flask. After full growth had taken place, they were each
transferred into cone-shaped, flat-bottomed glass flasks con-
taining 300 cubic centimetres of Pasteur solution. This solu-
tion contains cane sugar and all the mineral and other

* Since these experiments were made the more modern system of
Hansen, starting with an individual cell cultivated in a moist chamber ha,s
been adopted.

100

constituents necessary to the growth of yeast. It had to be
employed as this work was proceeding during the summer, when
apple juice could not be easily obtained in sufficient quantity.
However, the Pasteur solution answered the purpose.

The yeast was now growing vigorously and increasing
materially in bulk. So soon as fermentation stopped, it was
transferred to a large flask containing 1,500 cubic centimetres
of Pasteur solution, and subsequently to metal vessels con-
taining 3,000 cubic centimetres of solution. This was done
prior to the commencement of cider making.

At Butleigh the yeasts were transferred to six small barrels,
each containing eight gallons of sterile apple juice. The
apple juice was first sterilised by passing super-heated steam
into it for twenty minutes. Finally, the yeast was placed in
large barrels, which were filled with apple juice.

The cider made with these pure cultures confirmed the
results obtained in previous years, namely, that the yeasts give
a distinct flavour to the cider, according to the variety em-
ployed. With the yeasts obtained from the grapes the result-
ing liquid has been more like wine than cider, having a slight
but distinct wine flavour.

In 1899 I was anxious to determine how far selected yeasts
obtained from fruit abroad would affect the cider produced
from the juice of English apples. I therefore wrote to Mons.
Gr. Jacquemin, the celebrated French chemist, who has made
a special study of yeasts, and asked him to send me four
varieties of yeast which had been proved to yield good cider
in France. He replied that he had sent my letter to the
Institut la 'Claire, of which he is scientific adviser, and asked
them to forward me certain varieties.

The " Institut la Claire " is the best-known institute (one
cannot term it a factory) engaged in the production of cultures
of pure yeasts, for the manufacture of wine and other
fermented liquors.

The institute is situated at Le Locle, in Switzerland, at an
elevation of over 3,000 feet. One of the most essential features
of the preparation of pure cultures on a large scale is to
ensure the purity of the atmosphere. Hence the desirability,
if not necessity, of having a station at as great an altitude
as possible. I, who have had to work mainly in London in
preparing pure cultures of yeast, know to my loss and dis-
appointment how immensely difficult it is to keep the cultures
pure in such a contaminated atmosphere.

M. James Burmanne, the Director of the Institut, sent me
four different cultures representing the pure yeast found in the
cider of the following districts: 1. Auge ; 2. Orne; 3. Cal-
vados ; 4. Bondy. At the same time he wrote as follows :

101

" Each flask of concentrated cider yeast represents one kilo-
gramme (about 2 Ibs.) of our active pure yeast. You must
proceed as follows, for each flask : Take a litre of water and
dissolve in it 100 grammes of sugar, 5 grammes of tartaric acid,
and 5 grammes of ammonium phosphate. Boil for a quarter
of an hour and then cool to 30 0. (86 F.).

" The yeast in one of the flasks is then added to this liquid,
and the whole allowed to ferment in a large flask at a tempera-
ture of from 68 F. to 78 F. At the expiration of five or six
days when the fermentation is active, the contents may be
considered to represent one kilo of active yeast."

The yeasts having been prepared in this way were next
transferred to Pasteurised cider, and when this was in active
fermentation it was placed in a keeve. Preparations had been
made to fill five keeves with juice of the same composition.
Four of the keeves contained the four selected yeasts, the fifth
keeve being used as a check to determine what kind of cider
would be produced by the juice without a selected yeast.

The juice from each keeve was kept separate, and, when it
was filtered, a number of bottles were filled with the cider>
as also a barrel. After standing for one year, so as to enable
the flavour and aroma that might be produced by each yeast to
be developed, these ciders were very carefully examined. The
results were as follows : the natural juice which contained no
" selected " yeast had certainly produced the most typical
cider. The four selected yeasts produced liquids which were
not what we should call cider. They would, in fact, be better
described by the German term Apfelwein (apple wine). They
possessed the flavour of a light Rhine wine without the
alcoholic strength.

It would thus appear that the selected cider yeasts which
have given very satisfactory results abroad do not succeed
so well when used to ferment the juice of our English apples.

These results were somewhat similar to those previously
obtained with selected yeasts of my own cultivation.

Those obtained from grapes had produced a liquid having
none of the characteristic flavour and aroma of good cider. On
the other hand very excellent cider was obtained when the
yeast selected had been taken from a variety of apple generally
accredited as producing good cider. A pure culture of yeast
selected from the Kingston-Black apple when used to ferment
the juice of other apples had produced a cider having to a
certain extent the flavour and aroma of cider produced from
Kingston-Black apples. This very remarkable result needs to
be confirmed, and opens up a wide field of enquiry.

We are forced to the conclusion that if we desire to produce
the best cider we must first seek for the best varieties of yeasts

15408 H

102

to be found on the apples which, we have to deal with. It is
not unlikely that the composition of the juice of the applea
may so greatly affect the influence and power of a selected
yeast that one which would give the best results with the juice
of the apples of Somerset might not give equally good results
either with Herefordshire apples or Devon apples. Thus the
further study of the problems of cider making must open up
a field of investigation far wider than has been anticipated in
the past. The cultivation of these pure yeasts upon a suffi-
cient scale to enable experiments to be carried out in several
counties would not necessitate a much greater outlay than
would be required for the cultivation of the yeasts for one
county only. But the expense must Ke greater even for the
county of Somerset than these experiments have hitherto
entailed, and until this expense can be met, I fail to see how
any further development of this work with pure selected yeasts
is likely to benefit the cider makers of the country generally.
Undoubtedly a far better cider can be produced by the em-
ployment of a selected yeast than by the uncontrolled miscel-
laneous fermentation which is now mainly relied upon to
produce cider.

In a juice fermented with a pure yeast, fermentation pro-
ceeds more slowly, the juice keeps much clearer, and, if
desired, the sweets (sugar) may be retained longer than is
possible when the juice is allowed to ferment naturally. But
to succeed with a pure yeast it is essential to employ sufficient
to adequately inoculate the juice at the commencement, other-
wise from a want of sufficient pure yeast the juice will ferment
far too slowly.

Taints or Diseases of Cider. Oily Cider.

In 1898 a large quantity of cider in bottle became thick,
so that it would pour out like oil, yet not so thick as to be
what is termed in milk ropey. Hence we have termed it oily
cider, though undoubtedly it is a species of ropiness.

Oily cider, also called ropey, stringy, slimy, &c., is known
in all cider-producing countries. The French term the com-
plaint graissage, the Germans schleim bildung.

The substances formed in the cider which give it this thick
character are known to scientific men as mannite and gum,
and are produced out of sugar. Hence the greater the pro-
portion of sugar in the liquid tjie greater the quantity of these
two substances which may be produced.

As cider is usually filtered and bottled when it has a Sp. Gr.
of 1.015 to 1.020, it contains far more sugar than the cider
which is kept in cask, which is generally filtered only after
the Sp. Gr. has fallen to 1.010. Therefore, it is in bottled

103

cider that the trouble is generally most marked. When the
same cider has been partly bottled and partly left in cask,
that in bottle has been distinctly oily, while that in cask has
shown only a slight oily tendency.

The three questions to which an answer must be sought
when investigating such a trouble are : (1) What is the cause
of this oily cider? (2) How does the cause get into the cider?
and (3) Can the oily nature be cured ?

(1) The cause of oily cider, given by practical writers, is
varied. Some say it is due to : (A) Heat; (B) The use of
frost-bitten apples; (c) Want of cleanliness in the casks;
(D) Want of tannin in the juice, &c.

Those who treat the subject more scientifically say that
it may be produced (E) By a special kind of yeast ; (P) By
aerobic bacteria; and (G) By anaerobic bacteria, or those which
cannot live in the air.

Let us now examine these supposed causes seriatim.
(A) Heat. Those who put it down to the heat of the summer
mistake for the actual cause what is only an augmenting influ-
ence. The same heat will be felt in many cider cellars, and
even greater heat in some seasons, and yet there will be no
oily cider. In years gone by heat was supposed to be the
cause of many chemical changes which are now known to be
brought about by micro-organisms. The reason why such
changes are more pronounced in a warm season than in a cold
is due simply to the fact that warmth promotes the growth and
activity of micro-organisms, and so increases the amount of
chemical change which they bring about.

(B) The use of frost-bitten apples; and (D) Want of tannin
in the juice, have been proved not to be the causes at Butleigh;
and (c) Want of cleanliness in the casks is most unlikely, as
will be seen subsequently.

That it is due to some living cause is well shown by the
following experiment : The sediment from a bottle of oily
cider was collected and placed in a bottle of good cider. Two
months after this cider had become oily. This experiment
shows how very necessary it is, when any trouble arises, to
completely destroy, and not to leave in, or even near, the cider
house, that living bacterial matter which, in the form of sedi-
ment in bottle or cask, may if disseminated, cause a veritable
epidemic of the complaint to which it can give rise.

Pasteur found that some oily or viscous wine was caused by
a bacterium, which as it consisted of little spheres having the
habit of growing in chains, we should term a streptococcus.
In many samples of oily cider, even after the most careful
examination, I have been unable to find any streptococci or

15408 H 2

104

even cocci, so that in cider the change appears to be due to
some other organism.

It has not heen niy good fortune to discover any exact
description of either a yeast or any bacterium which would
produce oily cider, and until these have been discovered,
thoroughly studied, and most accurately and minutely
described, it will be quite impossible to discover whence such
yeasts or bacteria come, how they get into the cider, or how
they are to be guarded against. It is a remarkable fact, that
while oiliness in milk and beer are known to be produced by
many organisms which Lafar has described in his Technical
Mycology, this author writes : " With regard to the ropiness
of cider, the most frequent malady to which this beverage is
subject, nothing reliable can at present (1898) be reported."

(2) Putting aside for the present a consideration of what is
the nature of the organism which produces this oily cider, we
come to the second problem, how did it get into the cider ? The
numerous suggested origins of the trouble have been tested
one by one with all the care and thoroughness possible, and yet
we are not in a position to say definitely whence it comes. Let
me give some illustrations of the work which this has entailed.
The oily cider was first markedly noticed in some which had
been blended to obtain a liquid specially suited for bottling.
For this purpose of blending, Mr. Neville Grenville had
obtained some large barrels which, after being most thoroughly
cleaned, were well waxed with paraffin. Was it the paraffin,
was it the new barrels, or was it a constituent of the blend
which had caused the oiliness? Experiments were made with
paraffin in fermenting apple juice and in old cider. Neither
had any effect on the paraffin, nor did the paraffin affect the
cider.

The history of the barrels was most carefully investigated,
and it was found that iney had not previously contained oily
cider, or cider which subsequently became oily. Nor could
any evidence be obtained to show that it was due to the blend-
ing. Subsequently two very oily samples were discovered,
neither of which had been near paraffin nor in new casks, nor
blended, thus finally disposing of our three assumptions.

Some blends which contained small cider were oily, and it
was thought to be clue to the small cider, but this hypothesis
was found to be untenable.

The cider is bottled at Butleigh in patent screw-stoppered
bottles, so that it might have been due to the bottles or stoppers
becoming contaminated. It so happened that Mr. Neville
Grenville had allowed a neighbour to have some cider and to
bottle it himself in ordinary corked wine bottles. Fortunately
this cider was not all consumed, and the remaining bottles
were sent to me. The cider was oily.

105

Thus the bottle theory was disposed of. The fact that this
cider had been bottled at Butleigh seemed to indicate that the
atmosphere in the cellar was contaminated. On a careful
examination of the records it was found that some cider was
bottled 011 the 27th July, and another barrel was bottled the
next day, the 28th July.

That bottled on the 27th was very oily, while that bottled on
the 28th was excellent,, and had no sign of oiliness. It is
scarcely possible that any climatic or other conditions could
so affect the atmosphere of the cellar as to render it one day
capable of inoculating all the bottles with the microbe which
produces oily cider and the next day to be free from this
microbe.

Such are a few of the attempts to solve this perplexing
problem.

After full consideration of the results so far obtained the
only possible causes that seem left are : First, that the apples
themselves were contaminated ; or, secondly, that the water
used for washing the bottles and barrels at Butleigh may be
liable to contamination, though as this water comes from good
springs it is hardly possible. There are, however, many facts
which it is difficult to explain on either assumption, as, for
example, why in such case all the cider was not oily.

Some experiments started in 1901 regarding flavour in cider
were in 1902 concluded. It was then found that of three
samples of cider made from distinct varieties of apples one
was oily. This fact strengthens an opinion which has for
some time been present in my mind, that the cause of oily cider
is an organism or organisms growing upon special varieties
of fruit under special conditions of climate.

Among the samples of oily cider which were kindly sent to
me during 1900 was one showing the trouble to a very marked
extent. This, after repeated microscopical examinations,
appeared to contain only one variety of yeast, present in very
small quantities, and three varieties of bacteria : (A) The most
numerous was a very large, long bacillus; (B) Less numerous
was a very thin, fairly long bacillus ; and (c) Was a large
micrococcus.

The first experiment made was to place a portion of the
cider into a clean, sterile bottle and shake it well up with the
air; the gases given off from the cider were driven out of the
vessel with a current of air, and the cider was again well
shaken. Having repeated this operation several times, the
cider was found to lose its oily character and became as limpid
as ordinary cider. This experiment seemed to confirm my
former work, which showed the change to be due to anaerobic
organisms.

106

To check this, several plate cultures were started, each well
seeded with the cider, and in varying proportions. A few
yeast colonies grew on the plates but none of the bacteria.
There were one or two colonies of bacteria, but when the
organisms were examined under the microscope, they were
quite distinct from those present in the cider, and were probably
air contaminations, unavoidable in all bacteriological work,
especially when carried on in the contaminated and dust-laden
atmosphere of the City of London. Attempts were then made
to grow the organisms in an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas.
At first it seemed as if the work would prove futile ; but after
waiting for five or six weeks, some growths were visible on
cider solidified with agar, and kept hermetically sealed in a
moist chamber filled with carbonic acid gas. All these growths
have been studied; and when sufficient material was obtained
they were taken to Butleigh, and freshly filtered cider was
inoculated with the various cultures and with mixtures of
these cultures, for it is quite possible that this complicated
change in apple juice may be brought about only by a combina-
tion of two or more of these organisms.

It may be that cider ordinarily contains constituents which
inhibit the growth of the culpable yeast or bacterium, such,
for example, as the presence of tannin in such quantity as is
ordinarily found in the juice at Butleigh.

In some samples of oily cider the yeasts have been more
numerous, as also the varieties of bacteria; and in one sample
rto organism similar to the three above-mentioned could be
discovered.

(3) The remedies for oily cider which have been proposed are
numerous, but have little scientific foundation.

Backing into a freshly-sulphured cask ; adding glucose,
cream of tartar, and pure yeast, re -fermenting, racking, &c. ;
adding tannin; cachou; crushed mountain-ash berries; broken
gall-nuts ; alcohol ; Spanish earth ; and aerating the cider, have
all been suggested by various writers.

It is said by some makers that if left for a time the cider
will lose this oily character. Whether I his were so or not
could easily be proved, for which purpose bottles of oily cider
were put aside. But the longer the cider was kept the worse
it became.

The result of some laboratory experiments convinced me
that by aerating this cider it would lose its oily character. This
aeration was easy to obtain on a small scale, but how to do it
on a large scale was another problem. After full considera-
tion the following experiment was made. The pomace from a
cheese was carefully broken up and placed in a large open tub,
the bottles of oily cider were emptied 011 to the pomace, the
contents of the tub were well stirred, and after standing for

107

twenty-four hours the contents were placed in the press and
re-pressed as for the manufacture of small cider. The juice
which came from the press had nearly lost its oily character.
It was placed in a barrel to ferment, and partly lost the oily
character and peculiar taste it formerly had, and subsequently
turned out very fair draught cider. But it was not a good
cider. The oily or slimy fermentation imparts to the liquid
an unpleasant flavour which cannot be entirely got rid of.

This investigation serves to show how difficult are the
problems relating to cider making which science has to solve,
and how necessary it is, if any lasting progress is to be made,
for such experiments to extend over the whole year and not
be confined merely to the three months of cider making.

Sick Cider.

I have nearly always found that sulphuretted hydrogen was
present in, and given off by, " sick " cider, which is cider having
an insipid and unpleasant taste and aroma,

Whether this peculiar disease or taint in cider is due entirely
to this sulphuretted hydrogen or not has yet to be determined,
but it seems probable.

This gas is sometimes produced in the fermenting juice soon
after it leaves the keeve. At other times its formation appears
to be delayed until a later stage in the fermentation.

One cause of the gas being produced in the fermenting cider
was soon discovered. The juice was fermenting in casks which
had been " matched/' i.e., had sulphur burnt in them for an Matching,
experiment, it not being usual to do this at Butleigh as it is
in some districts.

Sulphur when burnt is converted into an oxide (sulphur
dioxide), which is absorbed by the juice and probably the
yeast, in its avidity for oxygen, decomposed this substance,
robbing it of oxygen and causing the sulphur to combine with
hydrogen, thus forming sulphuretted hydrogen. This fact is
of some practical importance. The object of matching cider,
a custom still much in vogue, is to prevent fermentation. It
seems evident from the above statements, which have been
amply proved by experiment, that unless care be taken to
obtain the cider in such a clear condition that the matching
is likely to prove efficacious, it will not only fail in its object,
but will also destroy the quality of the cider.

What is Good Cider ?

Having carefully considered the method of manufacture,
the nature of fermentation, and some of the troubles of cider
makers, we may now ask What is good cider?

108

The essential conditions of good cider, placed in the order of
their merit or importance are : first, flavour ; secondly, good
appearance, which includes both colour and clearness; and
lastly, keeping quality. How to obtain these conditions has
been the object of the experiments at Butleigh.

To obtain flavour it is well known that first and foremost
the introduction into the juice of any substance which would
impart an unpleasant flavour thereto must be prevented. The
various means which have been adopted to ensure this end have
been described. If perfect purity of the juice could be insured,
then it becomes evident that the flavour of the resulting cider
would depend either upon the original flavour of the apples
or apple juice, or upon changes which had taken place during
fermentation.

The flavour doubtless depends to a certain extent upon the
original flavour of the apples, for if cider is made from one
variety of apple only, and if this has a special, distinct, and
marked taste of its own, such, for example, as the Foxwhelp,
this flavour of the apple will be present in the resulting cider.
Evidently, then, the flavour of other varieties of apples which
may not be so marked, must still contribute to the flavour of
the resulting cider. These flavouring compounds form an
infinitely small part of the original juice, and their true
flavour only becomes marked when all the sugar has been
converted into alcohol. Even then they are to a certain extent
masked by the other constituents present in the juice, as, for
example, the acid, but when both acid and sugar are present
they are considerably hidden.

On the other hand, a small percentage of sugar and of acid
appear to enhance the good flavour. This is the reason why
cider makers are anxious to leave in the cider a certain amount
of sugar.

Probably the most difficult task of the cider maker is to
retain in the juice this small amount of sugar, or, as it is
often called, " sweets."

Unfortunately the desire to do so has outweighed all other
considerations with some makers, more especially in Devon and
Hereford, and, as often happens with things which are good in
moderation, this desire having been carried to excess, has
produced a greater evil than the one which it was originally
intended to counteract.

Those who study these investigations into the manufacture
of cider, will find how to retain sufficient sugar in the cider
without having it too sweet or needing to have recourse to
preservatives.

The tannin will also affect the flavour. But probably of
most importance as affecting flavour are the extractives or

109

non-fermentable substances present in the juice; and if these
are in excess they will so cover the flavour due to fermentation
as to materially lessen the value of the resulting liquid.

The influence of these non-fermentable constituents was
first noticed in 1896. It was considered somewhat remarkable
that, in the opinion of a great number of those who tasted the
cider made in that year, the small cider was preferred to the
cider produced by the fermentation of the whole juice. After
a careful study of all the facts, it seems reasonable to conclude
that this was due to the smaller quantity of non-fermentable
constituents present in the small cider.

Experiments were started to test this view. Some apple
juice from windfalls was fermented as usual in one barrel,
while a portion of similar juice was diluted with one-half its
own volume of water, by which the non-fermentable consti-
tuents would be greatly reduced, and sufficient sugar was then
added to make the liquid contain the same amount of sugar
as the whole juice. The result was a better cider from the
diluted juice than from the whole juice.

It is probable that the amount of these non -fermentable
constituents depends, partly upon the season, partly upon the
variety of apple, and partly upon the care which is taken in
the management of the orchard ; but, considering their
importance, it is evident that their further investigation will be
necessary.

As the amount of sugar, acid, tannin, and extractives, vary
in every sample of cider, it is evident that uniformity cannot
be easily obtained in a bulk of liquid, unless some means exist
for blending the iuice either before or after fermentation.
Experiments which have been made at Butleigh prove that, as
a rule, blending the juice improves the quality.

Another factor which plays an important part in the produc-
tion of flavour in cider is the nature of the fermentation. This
has been proved by the experiments with pure yeasts.

The results of experiments showed that, to some extent, the
flavour varied according to the character of the pure yeast
employed. That made with yeasts obtained from grapes had
a distinctly vinous flavour.

That made with yeast originally taken from the Kingston
Black apple had a slight flavour of the Kingston Black apple,
but only very slight.

That made with a pure cider yeast had more of the flavour
of cider, or perhaps, it would be better to say did not bring
into the mind the i^ea of any flavour other than that of cider.
But in spite of these slight differences, there was an undoubted
similarity between all these samples, and this I attributed to
the flavour of the original apple juice.

110

It seemed to me, however, that neither the aroma nor the
flavour of the cider were present in the original apple juice.
The apple juice has, of course, a flavour and aroma of its own.
But watch the juice as it ferments; the flavour, which is largely
due to sugar, gradually disappears, so also does the original
aroma. Indeed, if from accident or for experimental purposes
the juice be allowed to ferment to dryness, both flavour and
aroma have gone. Such a dry cider will contain (besides
water) alcohol, a little malic acid (which is the acid present
in the apple juice), some mineral matter, tannin, and about
1 to 2 per cent, of other substances extractives. To what
then will it owe its flavour?

Partly, perhaps, to the malic acid, but, so far as is known,
none of the other substances give it any special flavour. Some
think that the flavotiring_matter present in the apple remains
intact in the cider, and that the flavour will depend mainly,
if not entirely, upon these substances. To a very slight extent
only is this true.

I remember full well the first time I ever tasted such
nauseous liquid, for no other word adequately describes it. I
said to the men, " Well, that is useless ; it might as well be
thrown away." I shall not easily forget the amused smile
of contempt and the look of superior knowledge which came
into the foreman's face, as he said, " Lor, Sir ! That'll come to
hisself in time," And it did, many months after, though
rough, dry, and sour, possess an aroma and flavour which
would justify one saying it was not such bad cider, as cider
then went. I could not help comparing the difference to that
which exists between curd as it is vatted and the ripe* cheese
obtained months afterwards. The absence of all aroma and
flavour from juice which had just fermented to dryness con-
vinced me that the aromatic and flavouring constituents subse-
quently formed are the products of a fermentation quite
distinct from the mere formation of alcohol which first takes
place. When then are they formed?

When matured cider is gently distilled, certain volatile
aromatic compounds, probably ethers, having in a concentrated
form the same bouquet as the cider itself, pass over with the
alcohol. In order to determine when these substances were
produced, the juice as it came from the press, and the same
juice at intervals of a fortnight, was distilled and all the
distillates were kept.

These were subsequently compared, and it was found that no
flavour or aroma was present in the distillate from the juice;
that at each stage of the fermentation the aroma became a
little more marked, but that no flavour could be found in the
distillates until the cibler was filtered. While it then showed
marked aroma, the flavour was only slight.

Ill

These changes, and the production of aroma and flavour are
most marked in cider which has been in bottle for a long period.
If, therefore, they are brought about by organisms which have
been growing in the cider, these should be found in the sedi-
ments which are formed in the bottles. A number of such
sediments have been examined, and permanent preparations
made thereof. These sediments at first are composed mainly
of yeast-cells, subsequently they are composed mainly of
bacteria.

Hence, that the yeasts are alone instrumental in producing
the aromatic and flavouring compounds is, I think, doubtful.

What part the bacteria play we know not; but we seldom
find organisms present in any produce which are not actively
engaged either for the benefit or the injury of that produce.
Hence, as I am referring now to cider of the best quality,
we must assume that these bacteria play an active and
beneficial role in the ripening, if I may use the word, of that
cider.

Bacteria, therefore, appear to be the main cause of the
ripening of cider; of those changes which are generally
designated as secondary fermentation. But the amount of
gas found in these bottles of cider, and the diminution of the
vsugar contents of the juice, indicate plainly that changes
produced by yeast must also have taken place. What, then,
has finally become of the yeast cells Y Are they disintegrated ?
And by their disintegration have they contributed to this
flavour production ? Or have they supplied foods for the
bacteria? All these questions need to be answered. The
questions What are these bacteria? Are they alike, are they
different; are some capable of producing one flavour, others
of producing another flavour? raise problems of still greater
importance, which have yet to be investigated.

Colour.

We may now pass to a consideration of appearance. The
cause of the colour of the cider has been experimented upon.
It depends partly upon the natural colour of the apple juice,
partly upon the freedom of this juice from extraneous sub-
stances as, for example, the juice of rotten apples and
partly on the treatment of the pomace after it leaves the mill
and before pressing, for if then exposed to the air it gets
darker and the resulting juice is more highly coloured. As we
do not believe in highly-coloured juice, precautions are taken
to prevent all these sources of high colour.

Clearness is more difficult to obtain, especially with cider in
bottle. It can be obtained in bottle by disgorging, as is done
in the wine industry ; but the cost of this process would be

prohibitive. It is easy to obtain a dry cider in bottle without
much, deposit, provided the juice is placed in the bottles imme-
diately it conies from the filter, and is not filtered until nearly
the whole of the sugar has been fermented. There is a general
opinion that sugar candy will not ferment if placed in the
juice at this time, and experiments were made to determine
how far this assumption was correct. But the sugar candy
will ferment. That a certain amount of fermentation should
proceed in the bottle is necessary to give the cider " life," and
the difficulty up to the present has been to obtain this " life,"
without too much deposit. The value of the filter as a first
means of obtaining a clear juice has been so amply demon-
strated that nothing further need be said on the subject. The
want of a cheap filter still exists, and anyone who will turn
his attention to the production of both a cheap and effective
filter for cider will undoubtedly reap a rich reward.

Lastly, as regards keeping quality. It has been found at
Butleigh that if care is taken in obtaining the juice free from
impurities in the first place, if the fermentation of the juice is
carefully watched by means of the hydrometer, and, while
allowed to proceed far enough, is yet not allowed to proceed
too far before filtration takes place, and that if subsequently
the barrels are kept air-tight, the cider not only keeps well, but
improves in quality by keeping. If the juice is allowed to
ferment to dryness before it is filtered, so that no subsequent
fermentation takes place to restore life to the cider, it will
be far more difficult to keep.

What kind of Cider does the Public want ?

The great want of cider drinkers, especially of those who
are taking it under medical advice, is a " dry " cider. Some
would appear to desire an " extra dry " cider. I do not see
how they are to obtain such an article unless they are prepared
to pay a much higher price for it than they seem willing to
do at present.- The production of an extra dry cider of good
quality is almost as difficult as the production of an extra dry
champagne. If consumers would recognise this and be willing to
pay a fair price for the skill required in its production, there
are, I am sure, many cider manufacturers who could, and
would, make it. But one might as reasonably expect to buy
champagne at the price of claret as " extra dry " cider at the
price of the ordinary sweet draught produce of the country.

Some cider merchants say that the majority of cider
drinkers want sweet cider. This being comparatively easy to
produce, is therefore likely to remain the chief product
of cider makers. But other merchants inform me that the
growing demand is for a dry cider, and that, too, is my own

113

opinion, hence, it seems certain that the introduction of good
dry cider would well repay any maker who would put it upon
the market.

By careful attention to the information contained in this
report, such dry cider can be made, though necessarily with
more trouble than is requisite for the production of a sweeter
liquid.

In the future three brands of cider ought to be made, " A,"
extra dry, that is containing not more than 2 per cent, of
sugar ; " B," dry, containing under 4 per cent, sugar ; and
" C," sweet, containing over 4 per cent, sugar. But it is
worth bearing in mind, that 5 per cent, of sugar represents
one ounce of solid sugar in every pint of cider, and those who
like " sweet " cider should realize this fact. It may account
for much of the evil effects sometimes attributed to cider
drinking.

There is this advantage about dry cider. It contains more
alcohol and less sugar than ordinary cider, and is, therefore,
far less liable to " go wrong." The alcohol acts as a natural
preservative, and the small proportion of sugar renders other
changes improbable. The great difficulty is to prevent
" acetification," and this can only be done by keeping the cider
so that the air cannot gain access to it.

The public taste has of late years gradually but markedly
favoured " dry " wines. Place before the public a good dry
cider and few would ask for wine.

Landlords and tenants in cider-making counties should com-
bine to develop the capabilities of this industry, and strive to
retain for English agriculturists at least one source of income
which the foreigner has not yet taken from them.

114

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120

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+-J ^^ -4-J

P ^ S

Stogumber.

Butleigb.. S.

Sutton Montis. S.

W. Pennard. S.

Sutton Montis. S

Glastonbury. S.

i i I ||

02 { g

eville Grenvill

2
o

H ^ PL!
W fe 1-3

1-3'

1-3

1 1 1 1 ?

CO
CO

OS
rH

CO
CM

"o H

1 1 OS (M CO
1 | rH CM CN

00
OS

3
rH

1 i

1 1 I 1 2

t>-

I;-

1 COM'

3 &

CO CO O

ICO CO 1C

i-H

-M

Si OK

' CO CO <N

rH rH i I

O
rH

fl .

CO S3 H" 25 5

CO
CO

$ ^"^

CO * CO CO

i-H O OS CO O

OS
1C

"rH

CO C<l C TH 1C

"fl

^02

|||

1C CM CO CO CO

b- ic co c co
p p p p O

c
9

CO
CO

02O O

0> <D
i bi)_o

8*8

I 1 1 1 S

1C
CO

CO
1C

i I

W 03 Jg
^ bCt-i"rv O

fe'S g
^ *

1 1 1 1 S

t>.

OS
CM

6
&

1 I t- CO CO

1 1 rH CO O

l-H

CO
<M

l-H

I-H

CO
1C

CO * 1Q O CO

OS OS OS OS OS
00 CO CO GO CO

OS
CO

"E
a

c> 6 o o

: -

Goodson No. 4

Golden Bitter Sweet..

Grainger s

Green Cadbury

Green Pippin

121

Tiverton. D.

Hereford. H.

W. Pennard. S.

Tiverton. D.

Butleigh. S.

d
o

Glastonbury. S.
Butleigh. S.

Butleigh. S

John Watkins

R. Neville Grenville

t 3
I; 1 '

^H pQ
H^ ^j

R. Neville Grenville

6
ft

1 1

rH
rH

Siii

1 3

1 S 1 1

1 1

CO
r 1

Tfl

siii

I |

i i

i (

CO
i 1

CO
CO

4-i
r 1

>O CO

S 1 1

i i

OS
i 1

i i

1 ^

1"^

CO
CO

rH <N cb r^

l"H

00
01 I 1

b cb

CO
CO

o
cb

CO
CO

I CO O O

cq cp p os
H* N cb <N

^ lO

9 1

o
o

CO rH O <O
| I | I

1 1

Sill

1 1

1 1 1 I

1 ^

| 1 1

CO CO

OS
CO

Os
CO

o os os os

OS CO CO CO

OS
CO

: : fl

Green Ridgway

Green Roller...
Handsome Hereford.

Hangdow n. 5
" Horners."
Han well Souring .

Hereford Beefing .

Hereford Foxwhelp.

Hill Farm No. 1 .

Hoary Morning

Honeycombs ...
Honey String
Horners or Hangdow
Do.

122

District.

Sutton Montis. S.

Butleigh. S.

02"

Sutton Montis. S.

Baltonsboro'. S.

Butleigh. S.
Tenbury. W.

Stogumber.

rt
1

02
&

Grower.

R. Neville Grenvill

t
1

J. C. Waterman .

B. Chiffers ...
H. Hardeman

J. Badcock...

H. Hardeman

Swanley Cider Co..

R. Neville Grenvill

Swanley Cider Co..

J. E. Richards .

i i

CO
CO

I !

CO
CO
I 1

(M CO

CO
CO

-n

o H

O 3} **

I 1
II

OS
rH

(M
CO

OS
CO

I 5 -

r 1

l-H

CO -stl
ip CO

OS O
i (

I 1

i i

r 1

>O
CO

g =31

CS
1C

i i

O
OS

t- cp

CO
CO

O
t-

OS
CO

CO .
CO

E-IOJ

OS
IO

(N i l

o >o
p p

OS
-f

o
p

cc
p

COO'S

if!

CO
CO

^ o

ii i

! 1

cp cp

I 1

I (

o
9

T t

CO OS
CO i-H

CO
OS

IP
o>

CO
CO

C^ CO

O OS
OS CO

CO
OS
CO

OS
CO

;

Name of Apple.

Homers

6
P

d
P

M :

H- 1 M

Improved Pound

Jainscrab

GO
0*

-a

Kent Goffs ...

123

Baltonsboro'. S.

Staverton. D.

ft
8

Butleigh. S.

Baltonsboro'. S

Baltonsboro'. S.

d
ft

Butleigh. S.

02"

a
I

Baltonsboro'. S.

Sutton Montis. S

Staverton. D.

J. C. Waterman .

R. F. Rendell

R. Neville Grenvill

J. C. Waterman .

i
|

J. C. Waterman .

d
ft

R. Neville Grenvill

J. Maidment

J. C. Waterman .

H. Tucker ...

Hs*

CO
OS
OS

t 1

OS
rH

1 1

CO
(M

F 1

,_,

T-H

I*O

tr-
io

CO
I 1

A-l

CO
CO

OS
CM

CO
10
CO

(M
CO
JO

CO
CO

I 1

o
to
9

co
co

, co
9

CO
CO

CO
IO

r 1

r-t

b-
b-

1
N

o
9

1 I

T- (

I 1

t t

co
<N

CO
OS
CO

OS
CO

CO
OS
00

-+i

OS
CO

CO
OS
CO

OS
CO

CO
OS
CO

OS
OS
CO

CO
OS
CO

King of Jerseys

M
a

Kingston Bitter

Kingston Black

Kingston Natural ..

124

District.

Norfolk.

02*

1
OQ

d
P

Q
H

m
1

Martock. S.

a
a

Kingsbury. S.

Norfolk.

W. Pennard. S.

Grower.

Rout and Son

A. Witcombe

6
P

i-s

Rout and Son

CO
CO

CO
OS
CO

-r^ P

2 '3
" a

CO
CO

i 1

o ^

I s|

! II

i 1

CO
OS
b-

H-l

SB Oco
J

00
rH

CO
rH

11-
gl

I--

CO
CO

CO
<N

^02

|||

CO
CO

ccOo

,||

' |l^
o 1

co
o

1^^ 1

CO
CO

o
o

CO
rH

rH
OS
rH

OS
CO

.**. .

Name of Apple.

King Pippin

Lady's Favourite ...

Lambrook Pippin ...

Lambrook Pippins ...

Late Bloomer

Lemons

Lester's Bitters

Little Trott

London Pippin

Lottisham Bitter

Lottisnam Jerseys ...

"Is

125

Glastonbury. S.

Butleigh. S.

CO CO*

1 '

cc
1

cc" cc
a ^ a?

1 1 1 &
I * |1

co ^ co pq

1 '

R. Neville Grenvill<

fco o

PH M
^. O

a o

R. Neville Grenville

ti
1-5"

1 1

3 1 1
ti a | * ;1

^ * *
^ p^

1 '
3

CO
CO

1 2

1 I <S | ff5
1 1 10 | (N

to
os i
ip 1

?5 1

I I

CO
CO

(M CO

9 T** ~? ^ ^

>0 1
CO 1

i !

1 1 i 1 ?

rH '

GO i I
(M co

i i

IO CS CO CO CO

-# OS

r-H

o 4*4 At ib At

CO 1

CO
M

* CO
i 1 Ot

IO CO <N i^ CO

IO CO
W5 rH

CO -^
CO CO

CO CO 1^ O O
OS -* GO i-H CO
i^-l CO b- CO N

9 9

cb -*

O CO

cs
9

1 1 1 1 1

I 1

! S

1 1 S 1 2

8 1

O
O

I 2

I-H

1 I ? 9

pU '49 H

OS
lO

i i

- i

CO
CO

s - $ |

1 1

CO CO

IO lO i 1 CO O
GO GO OS CO OS

<M CO

. .

Maltster

PH
<n

i d

Medaille d'Or

Merricks

Millard's Longstem .

Millard's Unknown.

Mill Jersey ...

P<
A <D
. -3 ^

M S p *a <?

11 II

Nevesblight Green ..
New Cadbury

126

1
1

in.

o
ft

Hereford. H

Baltonsboro'. S.

W. Pennard. S.

Martock. S

Kingsbury. S.

hfl

t/2

Grower.

R.Neville Grenvil

d
ft

r-3

R.Neville Grenvil

John Watkins

J. C. Waterman

W
hJ
fe

o>
^

1-3

J. C. Waterman

&
&

R. Neville Grenvil

i
EH
1-3*

John Watkins

OO
CO

rH
rH

rH
5

.2 d

5 1

CO
<N

j l|

P, CQ

00
SO
rH

op
ob

60 tl
Gd

so
b.

O
IO

so
so

*H ^

O
(M

so
so

(2 ^

o
IO

CO
SO

CO
IO

coO o

1 bC *^

85P

S 1

!r! !

CO
CNJ

00
CXI

C5
rH

rH
rH

C5
CO

SO
C5
CO

IO
OJ
CO

C5
CO

: :

. :

;

. :

Name of Apple.

New Cadbury

New Foxwhelp

Norman Red Streak

Norton's Bitter

Old Foxwhelp

127

Staverton. D.

Somerton. S.

Backwell. S.

Kingsbury. S.

Stogumber.

Staverton. D.

Martock. S.

N. Wootton. S.

OQ
1

P
02

Tiverton. D.

Stogumber.

1
1

3
te

1
d

fl .

1-3

02
H

R. F. Rendell

J. Badcock..

CO
(M

1 '

**<
1 (

r- 1
i 1

CO
I 1

I 1

f 1
I 1

1 1

g 1

CO
CM

CO
OS

01 1

CO
CM

i t

oo o

CO
CO

CO
C-l

iO *O

-* CO

CO
10

CO
CO

iO
O

6
o
p

CO
I 1

OS CO

"rri

urs

g 1

CO
CO

r-l

S I

1 1

i i

? 1

i '

OS
CT:
CO

OS
CO

> I

OS
CO

CO
OS
CO

G} G)
OO CO

. .

.-2

Painsf ord

Pommes.
Pear Apple

Pertheyre

Pip Jersey

Pit Crabs

Plymton Gres

Pocket Apple

Portwinea

Red Cap Jers<

o* |

P -2

d
P

128

District.

Butleigh. S.

Baltonsboro'. S.

02 02

02*
>$

ft ft ^

02*

Sutton Montis. S,

Grower.

R. Neville Grenvill

J. C. Waterman ..

Do.
Do.
R. Neville Grenvill

6
ft

J. C. Waterman ..

H. TIardeman

o
O

H. Hardeman

1
S

R.Neville Grenvill

CO CO

2 ^3 cp

CO
GO
O

1 I

i-H CO c4

o
8

0) ti

1 h

i-H m (N
O CO <N

cb AH T*-I

I 1

o
o

1 i

t- * 00

GO O r-l

CO
CO

O <N <N

1 1

bo OcC

1 M

T 1

? 5 ?

^H 09

Iff

CO
1C
<N

CO
1*0

GO
CO

? i

CO r- 1 b-

999

tr-
ee
O

I I

t--

CQO

s s

r-j

^ ^

ep in >p

OS CO -l
1O OS 01
I-H i-< <N

I 1

111

rH
O

OS
CO

O5
CO

, H

<
o

666

ft ft ft

Red Soldier .

Reinette Obry

Revised Foxw

129

Backwell. S.

Martock. S.

Baltonsboro'. S.

Sutton Montis.

Butleigh. S.

Sutton Montis. S.

Butleigh. S.

02*

02
bo

Gloucester. G.

Norfolk.

I
1

Keynsham. S.

Butleigh. S.

;

t
1
W

C. Waterman .

2
Q

Neville Grenvi]

Tucker ...

Osborne...

1-5

cp
AH

p
AH

00
00

1
1 9

OS
1 1

1 ^
1 co

i-H

1 1

CO
CO

CO
r 1

1 1

***

GO
"?*

OS <N

GO
00

i t
1

r 1

T I

CO
CO

9 9

OS
CO

oo
us

1 S

CO
CO

I 1

rH
CO

OS
I I

1 1

CO
i i
i I

I 1

i i

CO
CO

1 1

CO
OS
00

OS OS
GO CO

U5
OS
00

OS
00

t-4

6
P

1
u

d d

P P

Russets

Sandford Jers

If
&

Seek no Furtl

Silcox's No. 1.

130

District

Butleigh. S

02'

fc"

Hereford H
Martock. S.

ft'
H

Staverton. D.

1
{2;

Martock. S.
Tiverton. D

Taunton. S.

Hereford. H.
Ross. H.

Grower.

02
H

1 s
3 a
1 %

1 w '

^ H,'

i-a*

9
"S

S
pcj

H
^

A. Compton

1
1 1

** t>

02 ^
W ^"

hJ W

1
K

John Watkins
Rev. Geo. Herbert.

CO
00

1 1

^
*

1 1.

K5
OS

CX|

1 1

s i

o H

i-H

? ?

!>.

> i
<N

<M t^

CO O

CO !-H

T* f

o <c j

I i!

o
ip

1 1

r 1
00

1 1

1 P

00
IN

<N (M

(M eo

CN b

O
<N

? 1

co '

ot g
CN 4n

bo Oc

C o,^

1'S
34

T*<
cp

OS
IQ

i-H -^

<p <N

1O <N
<N t-

O CO
jH CO

11'

O 00
^ji O

i-H

? 9

0-3

CO t>-

iO *

c t-

^02

-s "

oV'3
a*^

o
*

to
o

OO CO
^ti o

c t

9 9

t>-

m
t^

H
O

oo *

O OS

9 9

t>.

o t>-

COO'S

feu

P-4 G 1 " 1

1 1

1 S

^tl

1 I

IS -2 *

l'So

5^ ^ o

Ml
t~
c*

O i-H

o <p

<?^ AH

>
t
<N

"*l
<N

? 9

cq o

CO >O
OS t~
p-H rH

f-H

00
CO
(M

* (N
O <N

I-H CO

(N CN

1Q
CO
i-H

os
oo

OS
OS
00

?O CO

OS OS
OO CO

i-H
O

CO t>

OS OS
00 CO

l-H

eo o

OS OS
GO OO

Name of Apple.

jfc

6
;

r3
to

Skyrme's Kernel
Soldiers

Sour Hereford

Sour Vallis

Spotted Jersey
Stirling Castle

a,
3

Strawberry Hereford
Strawberry Norman

131

Sutton Montis. S

Tiverton. D

N. Wootton. S.

Butleigh. S.
Sandford. S.
N. Cadbury. S.

Butleigh. S.

02*

Kingsbury. S.

bfi
|S

DQ 02 CQ

- i 4

G fl ^

*" & 43

ri P>
H

Baltonsboro'. S

Kingsbury. S.

.g
ft

1-5

H
H

R. Neville Grenville
F. W. Rich
C. Osborne

R. Neville Grenville

Do.
J. Ettle
R. Neville Grenville

J. C. Waterman ...

<N ^

C<J tp rH 1
rH

o
cb

co co o

<N rH

CO O CO 1
^ rH CO 1

1 g

rH M

HJ
CM

rH M< CO
O 00 1O I

to cb to

1 S

^ 10 tp

cb IH <?q

rH C^l OS
(N CO O 1

cb <N os '

1 S

CO
rH

GO t- CO
rH tO CO
W OS H

OS
CO

to CO CO C^

g s

CO ^

co
cb

? 9 ?
o GO to ib

rH CO

OS ^

t- cb to

CO
OS

OS
CO

l> l> CO C^

<N CO

o
9

c^ ^o to

C<l

. 1

SCO <M I
to co 1

1 8

O CO C5

<N <N CO 1
rH rH C3

1 A

rH 00 rH

QO OS <M 1

1 S

CO lO OO
3 CO

to
o

CO
OS
CO

OS
CO

OS
GO

OS OS OS CO
OS OS OS OS
CO CO QO CO

OS
GO GO

OS
CO

1C
OS
CO

OS rH CO
OS O OS
CO OS QO

OS
QO

,44

Sweet Alfred

Girdle.
Sweet Tallis

w 1

| 6 | W
H H H

d d
ft ft

Do.
Truckle
Turner's App

t-5

'O
o

.S
H

Umbrella

132

District.

Hereford.
Kingsbury. S.

Taunton. S.
N. Wootton. S.

Tiverton. D.

Baltonsboro'. S.

Norfolk.

A
bo

3
^3

S
tt

Baltonsboro'. S.
Butleig-h. S.

Baltonsboro'. S.

Sutton Montis. S.

: o>

Grower.

O ^j
O "o

: |

t-5
W

J. C. Waterman .

Rout and Son

R. Neville Grenvill

J. C. Waterman .
R. Neville Grenvill

J. B. Richards .

"? 9

1 1

i ?

& g

00 O

* CO

CXJ I-H

CO
CO IO

O
OS
l-H

i i

CO OS

i i

i-H

rH
CO

1 ec

CO CO
OS

CO OS
JO GO

^ 6

CO
CO

CO
00
CO

^ JS

cb oo

g> Oco

1 1^

l> CO

-H CO

t>. >o

i-H CO

e<i

CO
rH

P4 ^^

cxi co
co exi

o g

cc co

l-H I-H

CO rH

<*i

-* exi

HcC

o *
9 9

CO O
rH
IO

(N
!>.

rH OS
OO rH
J-t 1C

9 9

cooo

-* <N

CO >O

5 I

1 oo

1 10

IH'J

exj co

r 1 71

S "

CX|

tr- in

CO CO

OS
(N

i-H CO

i 1

i-H >O

OS
00

CO t>

00 00

Guinea

" :

; ;

_^>

Upright Fren
Vicarage App

Victoria
Vincent's Pe

Ware Apple .

Waterman's "

'i
1

t-5

fi p

133

OQ'

OQ*

"d
o>

Martock. S.

Langport. S.

I
M

^bo
^

C/2

o
H

Kingsbury. S.

C. Osborne...

H. Hardenian

cc
W

W. Reynolds

Q
'd

R. Neville Grenvillt

c
o

Q
-+|

CO
<N

-f

-t*

-H
7-1

7-1

-c

i-<

1-1

'-'

r- 1

7-1

-O

-X)

00
00

ip
its

CO
CO

00
IO

to
co

GTS

OO
(C

OS
00

White Jersey...

'p
Id

White Xorman

Willis's Bitter

Winter Longstem .

Wintsr Queening

Woodcock

Worcester Pearmain

Yellow Bitter Sweet

15408

134

District.

Off IQ CQ fld 9J

S d d d d

d
PQ

OQ OQ OD p P p p P '-|

1 I

Grower.

'>
a
2

I S 1 1

d d d o o o o d Jj
PPP .ppppo

^
W

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 !

SI* g. 3 5

O "* <M

1 ^t

1 1 1 1 1

1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 ?

o ^
O

QO & O i i ^H
C^ ff^ 4-1 r^-l A(

i 1 OO CO O5 CO OO CO

g> Oco

1-1

1 i?

O "*! !O CC rH

OOOOiOCOOOOi i

c2 ^^

g ^ 2 5 S

^gsss^^gs

O ""

-* -* CC (M C<1

<N(N<MOt^iOr-lcOO

HCO

s'SS

O <M f-H O Oi

1 i i 1 i

OOCOi'!tl"rtHrHC<ICO

ooooooooo

5*00

i i i i i

I I I i I I i 1 s

041

I i i i i

1 1 1 ? ? ? g 8 t-

^f> 10 e^ 6% do IH

3 S S 2 3!

SS8S8SSSS

lO iO O O >O

OO CO OO OO OO

OU5iOCOOOt>.t>.aO
OOoboOOOOOOOQOQOOO

1
'o

: : : <j pp o t-s ^ :

2 d d d d
^ p p p p

oooooooo

pppppppp^

135

Sutton Montis. S.

02
,Q

Taunton. S.

Sutton Montis. S.

Butfeig-h. S.

Back well. S.

d
ft

02*

02
d

48
o

3orne.

|H
V

1-5'
ft

H
M

H
f

00
O
to

T* 1

o
cp

CO
OS
AH

CO
CO

. oo

CO
CO

-M

CO
OS

1-1

I 1

T 1

I 1

CO
OS

1 I

OS
00

00
Cp
OS

r- 1

rl-t
i-H

r-H

CO
CO

O
O

CO
OS

00
CO

CO
CO

GO
CO

co
o
9

r 1

OS
IO

OS
-H

**!

CO
I 1

! 1

CO
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INDEX.

PAGE

Acid 21,74

Acid cider ... ... . ... ... ... ... ... ... 74

Acidimeter 5

Acidity 1,25

Acidity, Estimation of 4

Acidity reduced by fermentation ... ... ... ... ... ... 07

Adding sugar ... 71

Albumin, Estimation of 9

Alcohol 8,61,97

Analysis of apples ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2

Analysis of apple juice ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2

Analysis of cider 2

Apple crop, In Huence of season on the 16

Apple juice, Analysis of ... ... ... ... ... ... 2

Apple juice, Composition of ... ... ... ... ... ... 11

Apple juice, Constituents of 1

Apple pips, Composition of.. 33

Apples, Action of frost on 22

Apples, Analysis of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2

Apples, Composition of 114

Apples, Constituents of 1

Apples, Gathering the ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 23

Apples, Grinding the ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 31

Apples, Influence of locality on 18

Apples, Influence of season on 16

Apples, vf anipulation of the ... ... .;. ... ... ... 20

Apples, Varieties of 10

Apples, Weight of

Apple trees 18

Bacteria 93,111

Bath and West of England Society x

Best varieties 20

Black rot 25

Blending 69

Bottles, Screw-stoppered 78

Bottling 76

Bottling direct from the filter ... ... ... ... ... ... 77

Brands of cider 113

Brown rot 25

Bung, Air-excluding... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 56

Bunging down barrels ... 55

Buying apples ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 22

INDEX. 141

PAGE

Cane sugar '!

Carbonic acid gas 75

Cause of white heads ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 50

Cellar-book, Form of 81

Champagne cider 78

Cheese, A 38

Cider, Clearing the ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 58

Cider making and the orchard 18

Cider, The analysis of 2

Clarifying the juice 44

Cleanliness ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... x

Clearness ... ... ... ... ... ... . ... ... ... Ill

Cloths 38

Colour 40,111

Composition of apple juice 11

Composition of apple pips ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 33

Composition of apples ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Ill

Composition of juice from press ... ... ... ... ... ... 17

Composition of juice from sound and rotten apples ... 25

Composition of juice in barrel bunged down 55

Composition of juice in barrel not bunged down ... ... ... 55

Composition of Kingston Blacks ... ... ... ... ... ... 18

Composition of Red Jerseys 28

Composition of small cider 82

Composition of White Jerseys 28

Constituents of apple juice 1

Crushing the pips 33

Dark coloured cider ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40

Day-book, Form of 80

Densimeter 4

Disgorging ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 78

Drawing from barrels ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 75

Dry cider ix

Early made cider 85

Earthy taste 24

Effect of storing apples 28

Effect of white heads 51

Effervescing bottled cider 77

Enzymes 91

Estimating the mineral matter 9

Estimation of acidity 4

Estimation of albumin 9

Estimation of alcohol 6, 8

Estimation of alcohol, Table for the 6

Estimation of solids 4

Estimation of sugar 5

Estimation of tannin ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Extracting the juice 37

Extractives 17, 21, 108

142 INDEX.

PAGE

Far well, Mr., on cider at Bath and West Shows 70

Feeding the pomace 41

Fermentation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 55, 91, 97

Fermentation in barrels 58

Fermentation in keeves 49

Fermenting juice 55,91,96

Filtering the cider 72

Filtering through bags '. 46

Filtration of the juice 53

Filtration, is it desirable ? 73

Finings 59

Flavour 98, 108

French apples, Composition of 20

French cider apples ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 19

Freres de 1'Instruction Chretienne ... ... ... ... ... 19

Gas ... 55

Graftings 18

Grape sugar 1

Grenville. Mr. R. Neville, on cider making ix

Grinding the apples 31

Heads... 47

Hurdle stores ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26

Hydrometer, The 3, 42, 52, 62

Impure fermentation, Effect of ... ... ... ... ... ... 95

Influence of temperature on keeving ... ... ... ... ... 48

Institut la Claire 100

Invicta filter .. 53

Jacquemin, Mons. G. 100

Juice, Analysis of 40

Juice, Extracting the ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 37

Juice from press, Composition of 17

Juice, Percentage of 2

INDEX. 143

PAGE

Keeping quality 112

Reeving ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 47

Kingston Blacks, Composition of juice from 18

Lees 44,58

Maignen's filter 46, 53

Malic acid 1

Marc ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1

Manipulation of the apples ... ... ... ... ... ... 29

Matching 107

Mills 31

Mineral matter, Estimating the ... ... ... ... ... ... 9

Moisture in pomace ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 39

Mou'ds .' 93

Mustard 88

Natural clearing ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 59

Natural preservative 61

New press 36

Oilyfcider 102

Oldjpress 35

Orchards, The 18

Pale coloured cider ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40

Pasteur's liquid 99

Pectin 9

Percentage of juice 2

Pips, Crushing the ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 33

Pomace 37

Pomace, Moisture in 39

Pomace, Pressing the ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 34

Pomace, Utilizing the once pressed ... ... ... ... ... 41

144 INDEX.

PAGE

Position of barrels 73

Preservatives 88

Preservatives, The detection of ... ;.. 9

Pressure in barrels ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 55

Primary fermentation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 43

Proper or improper fermentation 97

Pure culture, how to obtain 99

Pure or selected yeasts ... ... ... ... ... ... .,, 98

Quantity of .-juice 40

Racking f,s

Racking from keeve 48

Rainfall, Inches over or under average ... 15

Rain on apples ... ... ... ... ... ,.. ... ... 28

Rapid estimation of alcohol... ... ... ... ... ... ... 8

Rate of fermentation 94

Records 79

Red Jerseys, Composition of juice fro tn ... ... ... ... ... 28

Reed ' 38

Remedies for oily cider 106

Re-pressing the pomace 42

Ripening of cider, Main cause of Ill

Ropey cider ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 102

Rotary pump ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 44

Rotten apples 25

Rotten apples, Composition of juice from 25

Ripening ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 97

Ripening process 26

Saccharometer, The 4

Salicylic acid 9,11

Safety bungs 57

Scratcher ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 31

Season affects composition of juice 16

Season, Influence of, on apples 16

Seasons, 1893-1902 11

Secondary fermentation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 97

Semi-rotary pump 44

Sick cider 59,107

Small cider 42,82

Small cider, Composition of 82

Solids, Estimation of 4

Sound apples, composition of juice ... ... ... ... ... 25

Special bung used in experiments 57

Specific gravity

Specific gravity of early-made cider ... ..... ... ... ... 86

INDEX. 145

PAGE

Spiling 74

Storing the apples 26

Storing the cider 73

Sugar 1

Sugar, Estimation of 5

Sulphuring 59

Sweet cider ix

Sweets 88,108

Syndicat Pomologique 19

Table showing progress of fermentation ... ... ... ... ... 96

Table showing the average composition of fermenting juice at different

periods 95

Table to estimate the percentage of sugar and alcohol in fermenting

juice 65

Taints or diseases of cider 102

Tannin 6, 21, 25, 41, 108

Tannin, Composition of 6

Tannin, Estimation of 5

Temperature 28

Thin cloths 38

Top and bottom fermentation ... ... ... ... ... ... 94

Treatment of juice from keeve 52

Trough to clean apples 29

Truelle, Monsieur A. 30

Unnamed varieties 22

Utilizing the once pressed pomace 41

Vinegar making 42

Washing apples 30

Weight of apples 2

What is good cider ? 107

What kind of cider does the public want ? 112

White Jerseys, Composition of iuice from 28

White'heads ... 49

Windfalls 85

Y.
Yeasts ... . ., 43,93

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