REPORT
ON THE
FISH AND FISHERIES
[NDIA AND BuRMA
BY
SURGEON-MAJOR FRANCIS DAY, F.L.S. & F. Z. S.,
INSPECTOE GENERAL OF FISHEEIES IN INDIA.
CxVLCPfTA:
•I'.niNTENDENT OF GOVERNMENT PRINTING,
1873.
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REPORT
ON THE
SEA FISH AND FISHERIES
OF
INDIA AND BURMA.
BY
SURGEON-MAJOR FRANCIS DAY, F.L.S. & F. Z. S.,
INSPECTOR GENEBAL OF FISHEBIES IN INDIA.
CALCUTTA :
OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF GOVERNMENT PRINTING.
1873.
CALCUTTA .
rmnrrrD BY THI STTPEBIWTBNDBNT OP OOYEBKMENT PBINTING,
8, HASTINGS STSSET.
INTRODUCTION.
1. THE following report is the result of investigations
made since 1867 into whether a wasteful destruction in the
method of working the fisheries of India exist, and the present
condition of the fishermen. It is, in fact, a continuation of
my Eresh-water fishery report,* but limited to the sea and
estuary fisheries.
2. The questions circulated were as follows : — For Col-
lectors. (1). — Are breeding and immature fish destroyed in
the tidal estuaries of your district to any extent ? (2). — Could
the salting of sea-fish be increased in your district, and if
so, how? (3). — "Would the proposition in paragraph 7 be
advisable or practicable in your district ? [The paragraph
adverted to was as follows : — " It is unlikely that the local
sale of fish could be much increased, but the captures might
be salted and sent elsewhere. * * It may not be amiss
to suggest, that if large enclosures were 'made near favour-
able localities (away from large towns), and where fish could
be salted, would the following be impracticable ? That salt
might be sold inside them, at rates just remunerative, for
the bond fide salting of fish. This question seems worthy
of consideration, and on which the opinion of the local civil
officers is highly desirable."]
3. Those for Tehsildars or Native Officials on the coast
were, — (1). — What is the selling-price of salt per maund in
your district ? (2). — Is Government salt used for curing fish ?
(3).— Is salt-earth or sea-water employed for this purpose ?
(4). — Has the practice of selling fish increased or decreased
of late years? (5). — In old times, had the fishermen caste
any peculiar privileges they do not now possess ? (6). — Are
there any headmen of the fishing castes ; is such hereditary,
or how obtained, and what are his duties and emoluments ?
* Dated Madras, December 5th, 1872.
( 2 )
(7). — Does any one claim any rights in respect to the sea-
fisheries ? (8). — How are the fishermen supplied with boats
or nets ? (9). — Have the sea-fishermen increased, decreased,
or remained stationary ?
4. Unfortunately the answers and enquiries into the
fresh-water fisheries showed that a destructive and exhaustive
plan of working them had by degrees crept in throughout
Hindustan, destructive both to the fisheries and fishermen,
and demonstrating that British rule has been nearly the ruin
of these industries. It is to be regretted that the same re-
sult appears in the sea-fisheries, although from a totally
different cause.
5. General fishing has been permitted inland by every
poaching practice, and as the opportunity has been afforded
to the people to poach the waters, they have not been slow
to avail themselves of such. But in sea-fisheries, although
ry one may (as a rule) fish as he pleases, salt has been
subjected to so heavy a duty that it is virtually unobtainable
by the fish-curers at a price which would permit salt-fish
g sold to the general public.
6. Ruin to the fish-curers' trade has reacted on the
fishermen, due to curtailing their market, and so cutting off
the stimulus for labour.
7. It appears evident that to render the sea-fisheries
useful for providing wholesome salt-fish inland, nothing is
iry but cheap salt to the fish-curers. If the fish-
rurers' trade improves, an augmented demand for the fresh
cle must spring up, and then thousands of fishermen will
from poverty to comfortable circumstances, and
that, not only without entailing on Government any pecuniary
loss, but what appears of far more importance, affording a
\\ holcsome animal food for the people inland, and striking at
oi t lie roots of those diseases which affect the maritime
lets.
CAUTTTA ;
November 15///, 1^7.">.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAQB.
REPORT ON INDIAN SEA-FISHERIES . . . .1
Origin of investigation into sea-fisheries of India — Eespecting those
who have formerly written on this subject — The sea-fisheries of
India to where they extend. The phenomenon of mud banks in the
ocean — No cause to apprehend that any decrease in the amount of
sea-fish exists — Migratory ones may be temporarily absent even for
several consecutive seasons — If no great demand for fish exists, the
fishermen take those most easily captured, as the small ones, or
the fry These previously were the bait, the larger sorts followed ; due
to their capture, the latter stay further out to sea — Localities worked
by the sea-fishermen— The deep-sea fishermen. Netting which in
the deep necessitates a considerable outlay, and how they have to
borrow money at exorbitant rates of interest for the same — Deep-
sea nets : — For sharks, mackerel, &c., used near large towns. Hooks
and lines for large fish as sharks, or for smaller ones as sea perches,
&c. Generally much capital not required for hook-and-line fishing.
Fish are sometimes salted out at sea, and the reason — Fishing in
the shallows. Nets, stake-nets, cast-nets, hooks-and-lines — Fishing
in estuaries, creeks, and mouths of rivers, weirs, &c. — Deep-sea-
fishing most expensive ; vessels, however, employed in the coasting
trade. If only line-fishing is carried on, such may not require
great outlay.
THE SEA-FISHERMAN ...... 7
Sea-fishermen, probably, in old times, were divided into those who fished
the deep sea, and those who only fished the shallows, but now owing
to depression of their trade both have taken to working the shal-
lows— Patriarchal customs amongst sea-fishermen — In the Madras
Presidency fishermen have three classes of headmen ; the superior
or priestly, who is hereditary, exercises influence over large tracts of
country ; the second class also hereditary, over a few towns or vil-
lages; and the elective headman, who is only over one street or vil-
lage— Madras fishermen induced to settle in Bengal — Privileges
and importance of the fishing tribes in olden times — Present organi-
zation of fishing classes — The present condition of the sea- fisher-
men in Sind — The present condition of the sea-fishermen in the
Bombay Presidency — The present condition of the sea-fishermen in
the Madras Presidency — Present condition of the sea-fishermen in
Bengal — Present condition of the sea-fishermen in Burma — Present
state of the sea-fishermen generally, and the emoluments they
receive for fishing.
THE FISHES OF THE INDIAN SEAS . . . . .23
Natural division of the Marine fishes — Non-predaceous marine fish. The
gregarious and the non-gregarious — Migratory non-gregarious fish —
Predaceous sea-fishes, the gregarious, and those not so— How small
fish are the baits which lure larger species to certain localities —
Non-migratory sea-fishes — The sea-fishes of the sub-class Teleostei
— Fishes of the Acanthopterygian or spiny-rayed order. Families
PercidcB, PristipomatidcB and Squamipinnes — Families Nandida,
Mullidce, Sparidce, CirrJiitidce, and Scorpcenidai — Families Teu-
thididce, Berycidce and Polynemidce— Families Scicenidce, Xiphii-
dce, and Trichiurida — Families AcantJmridce and Carangidce —
11
THE FISHES OF THE INDIAN SEAS.— (Continued) . 23
Families Stromateida, Coryphcenidce, and Scombridce— Family
Trachinidce — Families Batrachidce and Collides — Family Goliidce
— Family Blenniida — Families Sphyrcenida, AtJterinidce, Mugili-
d(B and Ophiocephalidce — Families Pomacentridce and Labridce
— Order of Anacanthini or spineless fishes. Gadudce, Ophidiidce,
and Pleuronectidte — Order Physostomi. Families Siluridce and
ScopelidcB — Family Scombresocidce — Family Pseudoclupeidce —
Family Clupeidce — Family Clupeidce continued — Family Murce-
nidcB — Order Plectognathi : family Tetraonidce — Sub-class Chon-
dropterygii or cartilaginous fishes : family Carchariidce — The
Batoidei or rays and skates — Peculiar localities inhabited by fish.
THE MIGRATIONS OF SEA FISH ..... 37
Migrations of sea-fish and cause of their being often found in fresh
water which is not connected with the sea — Breeding of sea-fishes
and where they deposit their eggs — Breeding of sea-fishes, conti-
nued — Immediate loss of condition after spawning not a necessary
result in sea-fishes — Diverse modes in which the young are pro-
duced — How some male cat-fishes carry the eggs about in their
mouths until hatched — Breeding of sea * cat-fishes,' continued —
Breeding of cat-fishes in fresh waters different from those in the sea
— Cartilaginous fishes and how their young are produced.
Fl-H KV AN ECONOMIC POINT OF VIEW . . . .42
i-fisheries ought not onl}T to be serviceable to those living in their
vicinity, but also to the inland residents— A very large proportion
of the people inland would be consumers of salt fish could they
obtain it at a reasonable price — The local demand of fish close to the
sea is generally well met during the calm months of the year, but
where salt is dear the fish is often sold and eaten putrid — Modes in
which fish are cured or prepared for future consumption — The
distance inland uncured fish can be conveyed to market in the
plains «»f India — How sea-fish are cured along the coasts — How is
salt-fish prepared ? with the comparative amount used in curing
with monopoly salt or salt-earth — Mode in which excised salt is
employed in curing sea-fish — How fish are cured with salt-earth.
The cost and what will be the result of subjecting the salt-earth to
an excise — Result of interfering with the collection of salt-earth to
both the public, the fish-curers, and the fishermen's trade — Com-
parative, economic, and sanitary qualities of fish cured with good
•irth — Fish cured with excised or monopoly salt —
lity «•!' fish prepared with salt-earth — The incidence of the salt-
tax a tin.- fish curers' occupation — Salt tax continued, and
bow the price of salt re-acts on the Sind fisheries — Effects of the
Bait-tax in the Bombay Presidency on the fisherman's trade — Re-
>m the Madras Presidency most complete — Imports and
exports of salt and dried fish by sea on the Western Coast con-
• carers' trade flourishing in western, languishing in
eastern, coast of the Madras Presidency — Exports by sea of salt-fish
from western India, and the sales of salt, th i ing hut little
connection with the former — Why augmented salt-fish curing has
not increased the sale of Government salt in western India — Cause
present depressed state of some of the sea 1 How the
salt-tax affects the health 0 uul ruins Ix.th th«- lish-
:: indirectly — Salt -fish is im-
ported d : ites the trade of those
lor present ciivum-
does not pay to \- ly on the fish-curers1 trade in
. &c. — Mii: 'ions to tin- lishcnn.
•
Ill
PAGE.
SEA-FTSHERIES OF GREAT BRITAIN ..... 66
The sea-fisheries of Great Britain — Enquiry into the fisheries of Great
Britain — Reasons why every body should be permitted to do just as '
they please.
OBJECTIONS TO ANY REMEDIAL MEASURES . . . . 68
Objections to any remedial measures in Bombay — Objections to any
remedial measures in Madras — Objections to any remedial measures
in Bengal — Objections examined in detail.
REMEDIAL MEASURES PROPOSED ... .74
Remedial measures proposed — Remedial measures proposed in Bombay —
Remedial measures proposed in Madras — Remedial measures proposed
in Bengal — Analysis of remedial measures proposed.
RESULT or THIS INQUIRY ...... 82
Result of this inquiry.
REMEDIAL MEASURES ...... 83
Remedial measures — Incidence of the salt tax — Curing fish with salt-
earth most important to the poor — Selling salt at or about prime
cost of the fish-curers — The collection of salt-earth for fish-curers
used inside enclosures to be permitted — Salt disposed of inside enclo-
sures— The collection of salt-earth from this purpose no loss to the
Government revenue — Result of cheapening salt to the trade of
salt-fish.
APPENDICES.
BELUCHTSTAN . ......
Sea-fishery at Gwadar: how it has sprung up of late years. Import
duty on salt-fish into India abolished ; salt-tax in India increased —
Gwadar, its fisheries : mode of preparing the captures.
SIND. .......
Sea-fisheries of Sind — Favorable prospects of the fishermen — Salting of
fish increasing — Government salt exclusively employed : price Re. 1
a maund — Fishermen's operations unrestricted — Headman of caste —
Ruinous mode in which the fishermen provide themselves with nets
and boats — The fishermen represented by the Tehsildar as being in a
very impoverished condition — Reasons for doubting the correctness
of the Tehsildar 's opinion — Taxes which formerly affected the sea-
fishermen — Annual licensing of boats followed by a return to the
auction system — Present plan of levying a license of Rs. 5 a ton
annually — Sea-fish very abundant — Mode of disposing of the
captured fish — How the fish are prepared — Fish-oils — Salted fish —
Varieties of fish — Opinion of the Commissioner of Sind — Opinion
of a Tehsildar — Amount of fish carried inland by rail.
IV
PAGE.
UoMP.AV. ..... . xi
Ser.- fisheries of the Bombay Presidency— The supply of fish only equal
: he demand along the sea-coast districts— The local salt-fish trade
has decreased or entirely ceased, the article being merely sun-dried —
Four-fifths of the native officials consider that the local trade has
decreased — The Government and the retail price of salt in the vari-
: lets — Government salt not employed by the fish-curers —
Sea-water and salt-earth used, also drying fish in the sun — Four
descriptions of Indian-cured fish — (1) with good salt, (2) salt-earth,
(3) sea-water, (4) sun-dried — Fish cured with good salt — Fish cured
in the British territory with salt-earth — Fish prepared with sea-water
— Sun-dried fish — The present rate of duty on salt, perhaps, also com-
bined with the abolition of the import duty on foreign-cured fish, has
apparently ruined the trade in most parts of this Presidency — Five-
sevenths of the reporters consider the fishermen have decreased of late
years — Conclusions as to reports from the Bombay Presidency — Res-
pecting remedial remedies which have been proposed — Imposing an
import duty of 10 per cent, ad valorem. The proposition examined —
Whether salt might not be sold cheap inside enclosures erected in
suitable places for the bond fide curing of fish — Opinion that if any-
thing is done to stimulate fishing in the sea, such would be tanta-
mount to holding out inducements for the destruction of the fish-
eries— Opinion of the Collectors of salt revenue and their assistants
— Opinions of the European officials of Broach — Opinions of
European officials in Kaira — Opinions of European officials in
Ahmedabad — Opinion of the Collector of Tanna — Opinion of the
Collector of Colaba — Opinion of the Collector, &c., of Ratnagiri —
Opinion of the Collector of Kanara — Opinion of natives respecting
the fish and fisheries — Opinions of the native ' officials of Broach —
Opinion of native official in the Kaira Collectorate — Opinion of
native official at Ratnagiri — Opinion of the native officials of
Kanara — Salt-fish carried inland by the Bombay railway.
MADRAS ....... xxix
-fisheries of the Madras Presidency : those on the Eastern or Coro-
mandel Coast differ from those on the West or Malabar side — The
supply of fish, as a rule, is locally sufficient during the fine weather —
It is difficult, if not impossible, to decide whether the supply of
marine fish is the same as in former years, because certain species
migrate and often remain away for several consecutive seasons — If
there is a sufficient market, the fishermen capture the deep sea-fish ;
if the market is bad, they fish along the shore for small fish, and
scare away the larger sorts that are coming for their prey — Salt-tax
in the Madras Presidency : when it may not directly affect the cur-
ing of fish — Salt-earth permitted to be collected free for fish-curing
in some districts — How fish are cured in districts where salt-
earth is prohibited — How fish are cured in those districts where the
use of salt-earth is permitted, and effect of the salt-tax on this
trade — How the salt-tax acts? Has it improved the prospect of
fishermen where salt may be collected free of duty, and ruined it for
those who have to buy monopoly salt ? — Sea-fisheries Government
property— The fishermen: (1) those who ply their trade in the
. but owing to decreased trade have to go as sailors, &c., else-
where ; and (2) the estuary fishermen, who very probably in old
times were the sellers and curers of fish, but whose occupation
W.'n ruined by the salt-tax — Patriarchal customs among
— Breeding fish and fry destroyed — Fixed engines for
capturing fish, some legitimate, others most unfair; and destruc-
:1 — Moveable engines for capturing sea-fish —
— Remedies which have been alluded to— Answers to
PAGE.
MADRAS. — Continued. ...... xxix
a proposition as to whether salt might not be sold cheap to
fish-curers under certain restrictions — Observations of the Revenue
Board on the fishermen, and a proposal to extend the excise on salt
to Malabar and South Oanara — Collector of Malabar on the salt excise
— Application for returns of exports and imports of salt-fish, &c. —
Injury to coast-fisheries occasioned by irrigation weirs — Opinion of
the Collector of South Canara — Opinion, &c., of the Collector of
Malabar — Salt-fish carried by the railway inland — Return from
Travancore — Replies from the Dewan of Cochin — Opinion, &c., of
the Collector of Madura — Replies from the Collector of Tinne-
velly — Opinion of European officials of Tanjore. — Opinion of the
Collector of Trichinopoly — Replies from European officials of South
Arcot — Opinions of European officials of Madras — Replies of Nel-
lore officials^ — Opinion of the Collector of the Kistna district — Opi-
nion of the Collector of the Godavery district — Opinions of Euro-
pean officials in the Vizagapatam district — Reply of the Collector of
Ganjam — Observation of the Collector of Bellary — Replies of the
Collector of Kurnool — Opinions of native officials in South Canara —
Opinions of native officials in the Malabar Collectorate — Opinions
of native officials in the Madura Collectorate — Opinion of native
officials in the Tinnevelly Collectorate — Opinion of native officials
in the Tanjore Collectorate — Opinions of native officials in the South
Arcot Collectorate — Opinion of native officials in the Madras Col-
lectorate— Opinions of native officials in the Nellore Collectorate —
Opinions of native officials in the Kistna district — Opinions of
native officials in the Godavery Collectorate — Opinions of native
officials in the Vizagapatam Collectorate — Opinions of native officials
in the Ganjam Collectorate.
CEYLON . . . . . . . cviii
Price of salt in the island of Ceylon : and table of imports of salt-
fish and salt — Investigations into the state of the sea-fisheries of
Ceylon — Modes of sea-fishing in Ceylon — Native opinions respect-
ing the fisheries — Bennett's remarks on the sea-fisheries.
BENGAL ....... cxv
Bengal sea-board not adapted for fisheries, due to some local causes,
its sea and estuary fisheries — The fishermen — The fisheries, how
they are un worked — The high price of salt and its relationship to
fish-curing — Other causes adduced for diminished supply of fish —
Remedies that have been proposed — Respecting the sale of salt
at a reduced rate within enclosures for the purpose of salting fish —
Opinions of European officials in Orissa — Opinion of the Collector
of Cu< tack — Opinions of officials in Pooree — Mr. Geddes' opinions —
Opinion of the Collector of Balasore — Opinion of European officials
in the Presidency Division — Bhaugulpoor Commissionership. Op-
inion of Collector of Monghyr — Opinion of the late Dr. Cantor —
Chittagong Division. Opinions of European officials — Presidency
Division. Opinion of native officials.
BURMA ....... cxxvi
Sea-coast and fisheries of Burma, how they are now but little worked —
Fishing increasing — Price of salt — Opinion of the Chief Commis-
sioner— Modes of preserving fish — Nga-pee, two kinds — Exports of
salt-fish and salt from British into Upper Burma — Burmese not
good sea fishermen — Arracan. Opinions of the European officials —
Personal observations — Tenasserim. Opinions of native officials,
Rangoon. Opinion of native officials.
VI
.
Situation. \ndaman Island — Opinion of Chief Commissioner —
Fisheries of the Island.
PAOB.
cxxxviii
ISINGLASS .......
lass, what it is, and where procured — Discovery of the export
is substance from India. Dr. Royle's pamphlet on the sub-
ject— Its uses, and the forms that are brought to market — Indian
ibstance is obtained — The Polynemi fish
-fful in this manufacture — Other estuary or marine fishes
\vhirh isinglass is prepared — Isinglass from siluroid fishes —
Indian isinglass in the home market — How it is manufactured in
Ma — Characteristics of East Indian isinglass — Exports.
OIL .......
oil exported from India — Different varieties of Indian fish-oils—
nial lisli-liver oil — Its manufacture at Calicut — The cost of
its manufacture — The reason why the cost has augmented — The
amount prepared — From what the oil is prepared — How the fish
are captured — Process of manufacture — Common fish-oil, how pre-
pared—Common fish-oil continued — Burmese fish-oil.
cxlv
SKA-PISHES OF INDIA AND BURMA .
'•I1 India, Burma, and Ceylon.
rded.
A compilation of those
cxlvi
cliii
•lass Teleostei
Order Acanthopterygii
i'lse
Prnrtipomatklffl
Squnmipimu's
„ Nandidae
Mullidse
„ Sparidae
„ Cirrhitid:i>
„ Scorpsenidae
Teuthididje
„ Berycidae
„ Kurtidae
„ Polynemidji!
„ Sciaenidae
Trichiuridae
Acanthuridae
Carangidse
Stromat,
Cory phjen idie
Nomeidae
Scombridiu
cliii
cliii
cliii
clxvii
clxxvii
clxxxiii
clxxxiii
clxxxvi
cxc
cxci
cxcv
cxcvi
cxcViii
cxcix
cci
ccv
ccvi
ccvii
ccix
ccxxii
tvxxiv
Vll
Family TrachinicUe
„ Batrachidoe
„ Pediculati
„ Cottidse
„ Cataphracti
„ Gobiidse
„ Callionymidae
„ Blenniidae
„ Sphyraenidse
„ Atherinidse
„ Mugilidas
„ Aulostomatidae
„ Centriscidse
„ Trachypteridag
„ Pomacentridse
„ Labridse
Order AnacantJiini
Family Ophidiidse
„ Pleuronectidae
Order Physostomi
Family Siluridse
„ Scopelidse
„ Scombresocidse
„ Pseudoclupeidae
„ Clupeidse
„ Symbranchidse
„ Mursenidse
Order Lopliobranchii
Family SyngnathidaB
Order Plectognathi
Family Sclerodermi
„ Gymnodontes
Sub-class Chondropterygu
Order Plagiostomata
Family Carchariidse
„ Scylliidse
„ Pristidse
„ EhinobatidsB
„ Torpedinidse
„ Rajidse
„ Trygonidse
„ Myliobatidse
PA OB.
ccxxvi
ccxxix
ccxxx
ccxxxi
• ccxxx iv
ccxxxv
ccxlvii
. ccxlviii
cclii
ccliii
ccliv
cclvii
cclviii
cclviii
cclix
cclxiv
cclxxv
cclxxvi
. cclxxvii
. cclxxxii
. cclxxxiii
.cclxxxviii
ccxc
ccxcvii
. ccxcviii
cccvii
cccviii
cccxii
cccxiii
cccxiv
cccxv
cccxix
cccxxii
cccxxii
cccxxii
cccxxvi
cccxxvii
cccxxvi i
cccxxviii
cccxxix
cccxxix
cccxxxii
EEPOET
ON THE
SEA-FISHERIES OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.
I. THE origin of the present investigation into the
ERRATA.
Page clxxiii, for 'DATNOIDES' read 'DATNIOIDES.'
„ cxcviii, note 2 belongs to Rhynchichthys ornatus.
„ ccxxxi, erase Genus MINOUS and Species Monodactylm.
„ ccxxxiii, 19 lines from the top, for ' 4/13' read ' 2/13,'
„ ccxlv, 10 lines from the bottom, for ' scales cycloid' read ' scales ctenoid.'
„ ccci, for ' 726. Clupeai' read ' 726. Clupea.'
„ cccvi, 8 lines from bottom, for ' abdomen not serrated' read ' abdomen is serrated.
ur speumieiis sent to jcmrope. JJr. Jerdon, in 1851, in the
' Madras Journal of Literature and Science,' wrote a paper
entitled 6 Ichthyological Gleanings in Madras. Dr. Cantor
also published some remarks on the sea-fisheries of the Bay
of Bengal. Dr. McClelland observed upon a few of the more
useful fish, and Dr. Heifer reported on the fisheries of Mergui.
III. The sea-fisheries of India and Burma are those in
. . . , the open sea, along the coast, extend
The sea-fisheries of India to , x . °, .,
where they extend. The phe- up large nvers so long as they are
nomenon of mud banks in the within tidal influence, or exist in the
back-waters and estuaries, more
especially on the western coast. In Malabar, and also in cer-
tain spots along the Coromandel coast, vast mud banks are
present in the sea wherein many kinds of fish find abundance
of food, immunity from much disturbance in the surrounding
element, and an excellent locality in which to breed. The
exact cause of the existence of these large tracts of sea
* Dated December 5th, 1872.
EEPOET
ON THE
SEA-FISHERIES OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.
I. THE origin of the present investigation into the
origin of investigation into condition of the fisheries of India
the sea-fisheries of India. js fuiiy entered upon at the com-
mencement of my Fresh- water Fishery report,* of which this,
solely relating to the sea-fisheries, may be considered the
second portion. Irrespective of the various reports formerly
adverted to, this contains in addition the result of a tour
through some of the districts of Madras, and a condensation
of the answers received to the questions circulated in 1872.
II. There have not been many ichthyologists who have
Respecting those who have directed their attention to the sea-
formerly written on this subject. fisheries of India. RuSSell, who as
Naturalist to the Madras Government spent some years at
Vizagapatam, published figures of 200 varieties of fish cap-
tured in that locality, and several authors have described
species as existing in the seas of India, either from drawings
or specimens sent to Europe. Dr. Jerdon, in 1851, in the
' Madras Journal of Literature and. Science,' wrote a paper
entitled ' Ichthyological Gleanings in Madras. Dr. Cantor
also published some remarks on the sea-fisheries of the Bay
of Bengal. Dr. McClelland observed upon a few of the more
useful fish, and Dr. Heifer reported on the fisheries of Mergui.
III. The sea-fisheries of India and Burma are those in
„ , . . the open sea, along the coast, extend
The sea-fisheries of India to , * . °, '
where they extend. The phe- up large rivers so long as they are
of mud banks in the within tidal influence, or exist in the
back-waters and estuaries, more
especially on the western coast. In Malabar, and also in cer-
tain spots along the Coromandel coast, vast mud banks are
present in the sea wherein many kinds of fish find abundance
of food, immunity from much disturbance in the surrounding
element, and an excellent locality in which to breed. The
exact cause of the existence of these large tracts of sea
* Dated December 5th, 1872.
( 2 )
wherein mud remains in solution is still a mystery, but any-
how the ocean is so smooth that, even during the height of
the south-west monsoon, vessels can run for shelter into their
midst, and once there are as safe as when inside a
breakwater. If the surface is so still, of course so is the
water below, and such spots seem to be well suited to the
siluroid fishes, which appear to be especially constituted to
reside in muddy waters, wherein they find their food as much
(or more) apparently by the use of their feelers as by eye-
sight. Excluding these local phenomena, we have the follow-
ing localities which are frequented by fish: (1) the deep sea;
(2) the shallows ; and (3) the estuaries.
IV. Although in different years there may be a consi-
NO cause to apprehend that derable difference in the amount of
any decrease in the amount of fish present at certain seasons, due to
sea-fish exists. Migratory ones ,, .L , ., .,, , . , ., ,
may be temporarily absent even the irregularity With which the macke-
for several consecutive seasons, j.^ oil-sardine, and other varieties ar-
rive or refrain from coming, still it does not appear that there
is any paucity of fish in the sea, or that there is reason to
fear that the present race of fishermen will ever do any injury
to the sea-fisheries by over-fishing. There is rather cause for
supposing that, due to some influence or other, the harvest
of the sea is not being reaped, that man is often in a
state of semi-starvation whilst in his vicinity exists a sup-
ly of excellent animal food which is practically inexhausti-
e, and only requires effort to capture. But before we con-
demn the apathy of the fishermen, we must enquire whether
a market exists were he to capture the fish, or is his trade
so trammelled directly or indirectly by laws and regula-
tions, that it is impossible he can carry it on in a profitable
manner. -
V. If he has no market, the fisherman naturally only
if no great demand for fish carries on his trade where he can do
exists, the fishermen take those so With the least amount of CXpenSS
most easily captured, as the small ii-i T , i • .-n i
ones, or the fr. pre- and toil, and this will always be by
pl
bl
capturing the smaller sorts, which can
Wl M tuiiurc . uuc "V m m m 11*1 • j 1 T i «
thi hitter stay be taken and dried with ease. It is
patent to all that the smaller kinds
of ii>h prH'rr the vicinity of the coast, and seek their food
in-sliore. In the same way many of the fry of larger
• •ies come up the estuaries, backwaters, and mouths of
livers. It is much easier to capture these by weirs, fixed
ines and traps, than to take the larger, more predaceous
and briefly d fishes. But by disturbing the shore
( 3 )
and destroying the small fish, prawns, &c., the fisherman is
capturing the food which previously decoyed the larger and
more predaceous ones in, and thus he scares away what
would he the natural supply, and subsequently asserts that
the fish have decreased. This, however, does not signify to
him so long as the market is supplied and sufficient obtained
for his family requirements. Neither does it occasion much
injury if there is only a small local demand, and salt is not
available for preserving the surplus.
VI. The following localities are those which are most
Localities worked by the sea- frequented by the Salt- Water fisher-
fishermen. men — Q) the deep sea; (2) the shal-
lows; and (3) the estuaries: whilst the effect of the seasons
on the fishing has likewise to be taken into consideration.
VII. The deep-sea fishermen, or rather those who ply
The deep-sea fishermen. Net- thelr OCCUpatlOn beyond the shallow
ting which in the deep neces- Water, do SO in One of the following
sitates a considerable outlay, and W«VQ . pifhpv hvnpf-Q or hnnlc and-
how they have to borrow money ways.— oy nets <
at exorbitant rates of interest line. Deep-sea netting in most parts
of the coasts of India is not carried on
to any extent, partly due to the insufficiency of the demand
to render such remunerative, and partly to the expense in-
curred in the manufacture of the necessary nets and the cost
of building seaworthy boats; for most of this class of people
have to borrow money at exorbitant rates of interest where-
with to supply themselves with the requisites for their work.
In Sind, the Tehsildar of Kurrachee observes that the fisher-
men borrow money from merchants and others to buy boats
and nets. A net (description not recorded, but probably for
deep-sea fishing) costs about Us. 400 or 500. The old net
being worn out every year, a new one is generally made. A
boat costs about Us- 1,000, and generally lasts for some years.
The fishermen sell all the fish which they get to the persons
from whom they borrow money for the purchase of boats and
nets at half the ruling rates in payment of the sum borrow-
ed, there being a clause to that effect in the bond : for
instance, if a fish is worth one rupee, the fishermen give it
them for eight annas. But it is worthy of note that a good mar-
ket exists for the sale of any amount captured, perhaps, as I
shall afterwards show, due to cheap salt being procurable
wherewith to cure the excess which is over and above that
required for local consumption. In fact here the fisher-
men can even afford to pay a tax per ton on their fishing
boats.
VIII. Off Sind the large shark net come under the
head of deep-sea nets, whilst along
Deep-sea nets :— For sharks, the Malabar coast during the macke-
ES^^SSSrSfSS rel and sardine seasons float-nets,
for large fish as sharks, or for having a mesh SUlted to the size of
SnerLrriTc^to9; £ the species it is desired to capture, are
quired for hook-and-line fishing. employed for taking these two de-
Fish are sometimes salted out r , • J?/»T_ i .* J.-L • a t
at sea, and the reason. SCriptlOUS OI fish, also I0r the S6ir-fish
and horse- mackerel, hut not expressly
for any other sorts. Likewise in the vicinity of large towns,
or where there exists a good demand for fish, deep-sea fishing
with nets is sometimes engaged in. The usual mode, however,
of carrying on this fishing is by means of hooks-and-lines ;
these again may be divided into two descriptions, first, the
larger ones, which are fastened by a chain to a strong cord,
and employed for sharks and other predaceous fish ; secondly,
the smaller kinds of hooks used in catching sea-perches,
scisenas, polynemi, and other edible or valuable forms, and
these are usually most esteemed as food. In this de-
scription of fishing a large capital is not usually necessary, at
least in those districts where catamarans or rafts are employ-
ed. If, however, line-fishing is carried on off coral reefs, as
the Andamans, large numbers of hooks are lost, because the
hooked fish often dashes into or below the coral, and the line
becomes divided and lost. For line-fishing in some places,
as off Kurrachee, moderately-sized boats are used, prawns
being found to be the most killing baits. A suitable bank
out at sea having been selected, the boat is anchored, and
each fisherman uses one line. The fishes captured vary with
the season of the year, but may be considered to average
about lib. or 21bs. each : the nearer inland, the smaller the
size of the fish, whilst the best descriptions appear to be fur-
thest from the Jand. I may here mention that in some boats
fish are opened, cleaned, and salted whilst at sea, in others the
whole of this process is carried out on shore. This is espe-
cially the case along the western coast of India, because the
fishermen can purchase salt at Goa or other foreign settle-
ments at three or four annas a maund, take it out to sea,
capture and salt their fish there, and then run in and dispose
of them in a British settlement.
IX. Fishing in the shallows, or rather close to or with-
Fishing in the shallows. Nets, in a moderate distance from the shore,
gtake-nets, cast-nets, hooks-and- is carried on in many ways and with
numerous descriptions of nets and
( 5 )
fixed engines. Occasionally a number of fishermen join
together the pieces of net which belong to each, and thus
make a very long drag-net, one end of which is kept on shore,
and the other taken round a considerable circumference of
water, and as the tide makes it is slowly hauled. Nets are
also attached to stakes, but this is more frequent inside har-
bours or estuaries. Others again use cast-nets either from
the shore or small boats, and this is very successful
when the shoals of sardines arrive. Sometimes the fisher-
men go singly, at other times several join together. Hook-
and-line fishing is also carried on in the shallows, not
only at the mouths of rivers, but likewise in the surf along
the coast : in this way the Polynemi and cat-fishes are often
captured.
X. Eishing in the estuaries, creeks and mouths of
Fishing in estuaries, creeks, rivers is carried on either by means
and mouths of rivers, weirs, &c. of fixed or moveable nets, weirs and
fixed engines of various forms and shapes (see appendix),
and also by hooks-and-lines. The following description of
one mode of obtaining fish along the sea-coast is by Mr. H.
S. Thomas, Collector of South Canara : — " There are marshes
by the river side that are flooded at every high tide ; the fry
of the sea-fish frequenting the estuaries are in the habit of
coasting along the very edge of the rivers and running into
all shallow places. When the tide rises over these marshes,
the fry go in with it, probably finding more insect food
among the swamp grass and on the freshly inundated land.
But when they think to return with the ebbing tide, they
are met by long lines of close wattle and fine basket-work
that allows the water to pass but not the fry. At every tide
in the day time the fry are thus waylaid and then left high
and dry, thickly strewn in long lines, whence they are car-
ried away in basket loads. The mullet suifer much in this
way. They are a desirable sea-fish, and the wholesale destruc-
tion of their fry in this way should be prevented." (Ap-
pendix, p. xliv.) Prom the Malabar Collectorate we have
much the same accounts. " At high tide many young fish
and a small number of breeding ones at the estuaries of
Darmapatam and Mahe rivers enter into the marshy grounds
along their sides, where they are either netted or caught
without the use of any apparatus, when the water recedes at
low tide, and the fish are left on the surface of the ground.
As these rivers seldom, during the hot season (January to
May), overflow their banks at high tides, the fishermen, in
( 6 )
order to get the fish into the low marshy grounds enclosed
by them for this purpose, often cut open the banks and thus
enable the water to flow in, carrying fish with it into these
enclosed spaces. As soon as a good supply of fish is collected,
that part of the bank left open is closed by a valve made of
split bamboos, generally so contrived as to let the water flow
back through its interstices, and at the same time bar the
egress of the fish. "When the water has so receded, the fish-
ermen simply have the trouble of picking up the fish. A
good deal is, however, wasted, inasmuch as only such fish as
are capable of being used are taken, while the rest, generally
very small ones, are left to perish" (p. Ixxvii). The same
wasteful mode of fishing is adverted to as existing in Ceylon
(note, p. ex). Only nets with small meshes are employed,
whilst the complaint is that natives of India introduced such
into that country.
XI. In sea-fisheries, where fixed engines are not employ-
Deep-sea fishing most expen- ed, the occupation necessitating most
sive: vessels however, employed capital is for the deep-sea, both on
in the coasting trade. If only . „ . , , * , . . . «
line-fishing is carried on, such account of the superior description ot
may not require great outlay. boats required and the great outlay
necessary for the purchase or manufacture of the nets.
Many of these vessels, however, are employed on the coasting
trade, such being found to be more profitable. In Bombay,
the Assistant Commissioner in charge of the salt works and
ports of Guzerat, observes of the fisheries between Damaun
and Surat : — " The sea -fisheries are not extensive, as far as I
can learn, only about 200 vessels compose their fleet, but the
number depends on the coasting trade, such having the pre-
ference as being the most remunerative. The carrying capa-
city of each vessel ranges from 20 to 40 candies. They
remain out for about a week, but the actual period of their
stay is regulated by the success they meet with. They take
small quantities of salt to cure the fish they catch. The fish
thus obtained is taken to port and sold to dealers, who dis-
pose of it for local and inland consumption. * * The fish-
iiiu season lasts for ten or twelve weeks between January and
.Mnrrli" (p. xx). Line-fishing may also in certain localities,
due to loc.-il causes, entail some considerable outlay, especi-
ally win 'iv larnv boats are used for this purpose, as off
Sind. Or it may require very little capital, as on the Coro*
mandel coast, where it is chiefly carried on from cata-
marans .lit rails ; also in rivers on the western coast or
in Burma.
( 7 )
THE SEA-FISHERMEN.
XII. In commencing an examination respecting this
Sea-fishermen, probably, in claSS of people, I must begin With
old times, were divided into observations which, though matters
those who fished the deep sea, /, . 11^1 j •
and those who only fished the of conjecture, are doubtless suscepti-
shaiiows, but now owing to de- b}e of proof or disproof. It appears
t>ression of their trade both iii/ r* -t i
have taken to working the shai- probable (some fishermen have as-
lows- serted that it was so) that in olden
times the fishermen who plied their calling in the sea or
within tidal reach were divided into two distinct classes, (1)
those who captured fish in the deep sea or beyond their own
depth, and (2) those who fished from the shore or in back-
waters. The remains of this division may still be found in
the Ganjam District and elsewhere : but due to the present
depressed state of the fisheries, owing to the want of demand
for fish, the deep-sea fishermen have taken to the cheaper
calling of plying their occupation close in-shore. This first
class of people appear on beaching their boats seldom to
carry their fish, leaving this to the women and children, by
whom also curing fish may have been carried on, as the dry-
ing or partial curing they now obtain is. It appears, if one
may accept the statements of the fishermen, that the class
which fished the shallows and backwaters are those who more
immediately carried on fish-vending and fish-curing.* These
conditions, however, are, so far as I know, based upon the
statements of these people, and though I believe them to
bear the appearance of truth, I only advance them as being
probably so.
XIII. In several parts of India, but more especially in
Patriarchal customs amongst the Madras Presidency, the fishermen
sea-fishermen. Ib&vG customs of a patriarchal nature,
which are more strictly observed on the Coromandel than on
the western coast, but they are reported to be falling into
disuse. In Sind there are four divisions of the fishermen
castes, each of which has its own head, which headrnanship is
hereditary. The duty of the headman is to settle caste disputes
and other matters of a trifling nature, and to conduct
the religious ceremonies connected with marriages and deaths.
On the occasion of marriages a cloth or ( lungi ' is presented
to the headman, its value varying with the circumstances of
the parties undergoing such ceremonies. It was, so late as a
year ago, the practice (now stated to be abrogated) to give
* The Madras Revenue Board observe that "the estuaries, however, are fished by a dis-
tinct class, who have most probably no other support."
( 8 )
a fish to the headman of their own division when returning
from fishing (page ix). In the Bombay Presidency, in the
Junjura District, there are hereditary headmen to the fishing
castes; they possess Yakoob Khan's sunnud, authorising them,
their heirs and successors, to exercise all the authority and
duties of the Sir Patell and Chogala of kolies : all Sircar
orders are to pass through their hands, and the settlement of
disputes amongst the kolies are decided by them (page
xxvi). At Broach, Jambusar, and Sansot, the fishermen
have also headmen, but the office is elective and not heredi-
tary (page xxvii). The same is reported from Kaira, but
the* Thakore allows him a few acres of land, and his duties
are to settle disputes amongst the fishermen (page xxvii).
In Ratnagiri, in the fishing castes, there are persons distin-
guished by the names of 'hodekur' and cpatell;J their duties
appear to be those of mediating between parties engaged in
any small disputes, of which there are a good number.
There do not seem to be any emoluments attached to the
office, but the ' hokedur* used to be exempted from the poll
tax (page xxvii). In Kanara, likewise, there are head-
men to the fishing races; their duties are confined to settling
caste disputes, for which they have no regular emoluments
(page xxviii).
XIV. In the Madras Presidency, in the South Canara
„ ._ Collectorate, at Mangalore, the fisher-
In the Madras Presidency , ' , ,, ' ~
fishermen have three classes of men nave headmen called G-uricars ;
headmen; the superior or priest- among MogerS (one of the fishino"
lv, who is hereditary, exercises /Y» • i TJ TT«°
influence over large tracts of castes) the otnce is hereditary. His
country; the second class also duties are to make enquiries reward-
hereditary, over a few towns or .. , A '
villages; and the elective head- ing the observance of Caste rules
man, who is only over one street amongst the members of his Sect.
He is entitled to get the usual honors
and betel-nut, &c., on the occasions of marriage and such
ceremonies, but derives no other emolument (p. Ixxii). At
Kasargod and some other places the fishermen have no head-
men (p. Ixxii). At TJdipy the Mogers and Karves are the
only two castes who follow fishing as an occupation. The
Karves are limited in numbers; they have a common
place of residence, which is styled a keri (row of houses). For
!i such kt-ii there is a headman called Guricar, who in-
to matters among all the people who reside
there. The office is hereditary, and no emoluments accrue to
it. In a similar way, the Mogers live in groups of houses
which are termed 'patna' (a town). For every such patna
there is a headman who is termed Guricar ; he decides caste
questions, but does not appear to derive any emolument, ex-
cept that he is entitled on auspicious or inauspicious occa-
sions to precedence in receiving betel-nut. His office is not
hereditary, and his election or removal depends on the will of
the people. Over the Mogers of all the Collectorate (except
Kundapur) there is a spiritual preceptor termed Mangal
Pujary ; he resides at a place called Benne Kudru, near Bar-
kur. His duties are to frame rules in regard to caste matters,
to see if the people conform to them or not, and to impose
penalties on those who infringe them, &c. The people of
the caste raise money for him ; his office appears to be heredi-
tary (page Ixxiii). In Malabar, and in fact other localties
where Native Christians are the fishermen, they have no
headmen, but in some other places the priests appear to set-
tle their disputes. It is curious that in Ceylon the Roman
Catholic Church has appropriated the right to the sea-fisheries,
which Government very properly resigned to the fishermen,
and it is observed of the mode in which they collect the rent,
that "if the share is not paid, the rites of the Church are
refused" (page cxiv). At Telliclierry, in Malabar, the fisher-
men do not appear to have headmen, but should any dispute
respecting fishing arise, the matter is laid before certain
wealthy men of their own caste, whose decision is final. In
reality there are no recognised headmen among the fishermen
here, but the owners of boats and nets have certain respect
paid them among this class of people. Some of the wealthy
among them hear all complaints arising between themselves,
and settle all caste disputes, &c. In some cases these arbi-
trators are remunerated for their trouble, but no fixed com-
pensation is given them : such depends on the importance of
the case. Their meetings for purposes of arbitration are held
in a house built by subscription for this purpose, their assem-
blies being generally held at night. It is a noticeable fact
that so thorough is their belief in the integrity of their
arbitrators that their decisions are always implicitly sub-
mitted to (page Ixxviii). In the Tanjore Collectorate, the
Tehsildar of Negapatam replies that there is " one man styled
c Nambian' as the head of the Pattanavans of the fishermen
castes, inhabiting the villages on the coast between Cuddalore
and Vedaranien. His place of residence is also called 'Nam-
bian Cooppam;' his office is hereditary, and on his death all
the fishermen unite together, and appoint (? acknowledge)
his heir as their headman. His main occupation is to settle
b
( 10 )
disputes arising amongst the Pattanavans. Sometimes he
uses a net of his own, and employs coolies who catch and
sell fish for him. He goes in a palanquin to the villages
inhabited by the said Pattanavans to enquire into matters
of custom ; the villagers come in advance to meet him, and
present their respects to him, and conduct him to the village.
During his sojourn in a village his expenses are borne by the
fishermen of that village : he enquires into the offences com-
mitted, punishes the offenders, and collects the fines, &c. If
a large net is nearly ready to be used a present of 7 pons,
an ancient coin, and a cloth is made to the headman, who
gives a written receipt for the same, and it is only thereupon
that the net is used. If a marriage takes place in a house,
it is not to be performed without a present of 200 betel-nuts
and as many leaves, and of two fanams (five annas) being first
made to the headman. In the event of a marriage being
celebrated in the village where the * Nambian' resides, rice
and vegetables are to be presented to him, besides the afore-
mentioned presents ; the fishermen who live in the same
village as the ' Nambian' are in the habit of giving him fish
for his diet as c Valaikari.' These are- his emoluments, in
addition to the income derived from using his own net. A
document to the above effect executed by all the people of the
fishermen caste to the ' Nambian' of the old days is still in
his possession (page Ixxxv). At Muthipettah it is stated
" the fishermen of this place are Sanagars, who are divided
into three factions, viz., Periakatchi, Sinnakatchi, and Naclu-
katchi, each of which party has a headman of its own styled
6 Marakayar.' The headman of each faction settles disputes
as to relationship, &c., arising among the Sanagars, and takes
precedence by the chief men on the occasions of marriage
and such-likc ceremonies : he, however, receives no kind of
income from fishermen as emolument for his post" (page
Ixxxvi). The Tehsildar of Tanjore states that "there are
headmen of the fishermen caste. There are certain degrees
of headmen, the highest is styled c Nambiar' or « Puttun
Kattigal,' who has authority over a number of fishing vil-
long the coast and whose word is supreme : his office
is hereditary, and carries with it emoluments in the shape of
a percentage upon the fish captured. The duties of the
office, like most hereditary ones, are light, chiefly of a patri-
archal nature, consisting of the settlement of disputes amongst
tli« irmlin^ the celebration of marriages, &c. The
' Nambiar' or ; Puttun Kattigal' has the privilege of receiving
( 11 )
the first betel-nut amongst this class of men. The next
degree of headman is called Nattamaikkaran, who is the
recognised head of the village, and whose duties and emolu-
ments are similar to those of Nambiar, though on a small
scale, whilst the office is not hereditary" (p. Ixxxvii). At
Tritrapundi " there are headmen of the fishing castes ; their
post is hereditary, and when all the heirs are extinct it is
bestowed on a competent man, selected for the purpose by
the residents of each hamlet or street. Each headman de-
termines the labour, &c., to be performed by men subject to
his jurisdiction, fixes the rate of wages, &c., and gets such
work done by them. He obtains for his services as much as
each of those working under his control receives as his
wages, and another extra share as a special remuneration for
his headmanship. He also settles ordinary disputes regard-
ing caste and custom that may arise amongst those classes.
His emoluments cannot be ascertained otherwise than in the
aforesaid manner" (p, Ixxxvii). At Myaveram " there are
headmen called ( Nettameigars ;' the post is hereditary. On
the occasion of marriages and funeral ceremonies the fisher-
men caste people act up to his orders. On marriages he has
eight annas to one rupee according to their ability. This is
all his income: he gets nothing for funeral ceremonies"
(p. Ixxxviii). At Thealli "there is one headman for each
' Cuppam' or small village on the sea-coast ; the rank is
hereditary. His duties are to settle the disputes amongst
them regarding their caste, and to be the chief for carrying
out marriage as well as funeral ceremonies. His emolu-
ments are, that he receives from each family a fee at the rate
of eight annas at each marriage" (p. Ixxxix). AiCuddalore
the fishermen caste " have headmen ; the post is hereditary.
They attend marriages and other ceremonies occurring in the
caste, and distribute betel-nut to the people on the occasion,
for which they receive from four annas to two rupees, accord-
ing to the circumstances of the parties" (p. xcii). In the
Nellore Collectorate the " fishermen have one religious head-
man to whom they give at every mamage four annas,
with 2^ seers of rice and other grains. There is another
named priest in their caste to whom also they give at mar-
riages rupees two, with 4 J seers of rice and other grains. The
latter man (priest) has frequently to visit the coast and other
places where fish are taken, but does not go with fishermen.
Their headman in religion has to decide their disputes, and
if he is unable to settle them, the priest has to pass the final
( 12 )
orders. The bead in religion, and also the priest, are heredi-
tary offices" (p. xciv). The Superintendents of Sea Cus-
toms in this Collectorate report that " the fishing castes in
this district are four — (1) Palle, (2) Tuli, (3) Patapu, and
(4) Chambadi. Each caste, and in fact each village or ham-
let, where a number of them club together and reside (form-
ing what is termed a e Palliem'), has its own headman, called
in some cases ' Pedda capu,' and in others c Pedda Arkattu.'
This office is hereditary, and on the failure of heirs, the com-
munity join together and select one from among their num-
ber to be their future headman. The duties are mostly
honorary. The headman presides at all marriage and religi-
ous ceremonies, for which he receives certain ' russooms' or
fees. He settles all petty quarrels and disputes in his
( Palliem :' he is looked up to, and his word obeyed with
greater respect than any one else in that ' Palliem.' He has
the privilege of being exempted from work. If a vessel
strands or comes off his hamlet in distress, he gathers to-
gether all the able-bodied men, and gives help : so likewise
at any Government call he furnishes help and collects labour,
but is exempt from personal work. The duties of the office
are not defined, but recognised merely by custom and long
usage. The emoluments likewise are not regular, but consist
of contributions or fees paid by the people from long ac-
knowledged habits" (p. xcvi) . The Tehsildar of Strikarikota
states that " amongst the fishing castes there is one Adimu-
lam Setti at Madras, who is the principal headman among
the fishermen of the Pattapuvandlu castes : there are two
others, Dalavaya Venkatraya Setti and Mantrichina Venka-
traya Setti as headmen at Puliyenjeri Kuppam in this divi-
sion ; this headmanship is hereditary. The one at Madras is
regarded with priestly reverence, while the other two are
looked to for the settlement of. religious disputes. These
headmen fish like others for their maintenance : at marriages
a fee of 6J annas is paid to the headmen, as well as fines for
breach of religious rites. Half of these collections go to the
headman at Madras, and the remaining portion is enjoyed by
the said two headmen. But this practice is said to be gra-
dually falling off, because some pay on the occasion whilst
others get their wants attended to without payment" (p.
xcvii). In the Kistna District the Sea Customs Superin-
tendent at Bandar observes that " the fishermen possess the
same privileges they had formerly : those who are thus re-
ferred to being privileged to catch fish are headmen. Though
( 13 )
they are not privileged by any competent court, yet they are
enjoying that privilege as hereditary through the favour of
influential members for the time being. Th.eir privileges are
to catch fish and to obtain emoluments at festivals and other
happy occasions. The headmen of the villages claim a right
to fish in the sea ; they do not allow others to catch fish"
(p. xcviii). At Vizagapatam " there are headmen, and the
post is hereditary ; in default of any who have ceased to be
headmen, others are appointed from among the fishermen by
the authorities. Their duties are to perform acts connected
with their religious duties and Government work, such as
exporting and importing goods, &c. At feasts, &c., they
receive at the rate of eight or four annas. They are allowed
to set up stake-nets in rivers, and a share is allowed to them
out of the fish caught by the other fishermen. Their emolu-
ments are small, but the exact amount is not known" (p.
xcviii). " There is a headman at China Ganjam and Peda
Ganjam. He is supreme in matters of religion and festivals,
but derives no emoluments : whilst the moturpha tax existed
he was exempted from it. Among the Pattapu caste, people
who catch fish by employing boats, there is a headman who
settles their family disputes and religious customs : he is
annually allowed eight annas for every boat employed in
fishing" (p. xcix). At Tlapatla "among the fishing castes
each village has one or two headmen : the fishermen do not
understand how the headmen were formerly appointed ; they
do not possess any certificate or patta to show by whom they
were appointed. The offi.ce is hereditary ; the headmen decide
family disputes, and direct the fishermen to furnish supplies
to Government when required. At marriages they receive
betel-nut ; on festive occasions they are asked prior to rela-
tives. During festivals of the village goddess the headmen
perform the ceremony, the cost being paid by the fishermen.
First the headmen's sheep are sacrificed, subsequently those of
other people" (p. c). In Bepalli " each village has a head-
man who is termed Pedda Capoo : he receives four annas at
a marriage. When the moturpha tax existed he was exempt :
he has to obtain boats when required for Government service.
When the fishermen captured fish he used to have a share"
(p. ci). At Coconada, it is observed that " there are two kinds
of headmen of the fishing castes, viz., Kulapeddah (head of
the caste), and Jattupeddah (head of an assembly). The
first sort of headman is hereditary, whilst the latter is con-
ferred on some one by all the inhabitants of the village.
The Kulapeddali will be headman of the caste for two or
three districts, and such headmen employ themselves in set-
tling religious disputes, in conducting such public affairs as
may have to be performed on behalf of fishermen, &c., and
in disposing of cases, such as adultery, &c., if committed in
these castes. They have neither land nor other emoluments.
Presents are given them at times of marriages" (p. ciii). The
same customs respecting headmen are reported as existing
in Coringa (p. civ), also in the Vizagapatam Collectorate at
Bimlapatam, where the headman is termed * Pillaho' (p. cv) ;
likewise at Vizagapatam, where " they have hereditary head-
men, whose duty it is to settle caste disputes. His emolu-
ments are — (1) if he goes and asks the fishermen when they
catch fish they give him two or four pies worth ; (2) in mar-
riages he receives three annas for putting a turband on the
head of the bridegroom" (p. cv).
XV. In Bengal very little information has been re-
Mndras fishermen iuduced to COl'ded respecting the fishermen. At
settle in Bengal. force there is a settlement of Madras-
sees who were induced to go there. These Telinga Lulliyas
" cultivate no land, but live on the sands of the sea-shore, and
are boat-men as well as fishermen : none but these men are
capable of managing surf boats." The inducement to settle
held out " was the promise of certain employment in boating,
salt for four months, and free leave to fish in the sea and
collect shells for burning into lime for the remaining eight"
(p. cxvii), promises most deliberately made, but concerning
which faith with the fishermen does not appear to have been
considered worthy of keeping. In the Chittagong district, at
Noakhalty, " there are headmen of the fishing caste termed
c Sirdars/ who possess an hereditary right to the title. A
vacancy occurring on the death of an heirless headman is
generally the cause of much dispute between those who con-
sider themselves entitled to the right of succession, and is
filled up on the decision arid nomination of their zemindars.
The duties of the headmen are to preside over marriages,
religious ceremonies, and feasts, and to decide all social dis-
putes, for which they receive from one to four rupees, and at
times both money and a cloth according to their rank"
(p. cxxiv).
XVI. The fishing castes in olden times appear to have
and importance of had a much more important standing
the lishinj,' tribes in okicu times, thanthcy at present possess. They
sccin to have had their chiefs, and to even been ready to join
in military expeditions. The Samorin in 1813 sent a de-
putation to Portugal, where the ambassador was induced to
become a Christian, and was knighted by John III under the
name of " John of the Cross." However, on his return to
Calicut, he was banished from the Samorin5 s Court in disgrace,
as a renegade from his father's faith. In 1532 he joined the
fishermen or Parravers, and appears to have been installed as
their chief, as he headed a deputation of 85 of them to Cochin,
imploring the assistance of the Portuguese against the Maho-
medans. The whole of these fishermen, 85 in number, are
said to have been converted. A Portuguese fleet was then
sent to their relief, and 20,000 are reputed to have immediately
consented to be baptised. Ten years subsequently Xavier
organised a church for them.
XVII. It appears probable that the present organisa-
Present organisation of fish- tion of the fishing claSSCS IS the re-
ing classes, mains of some ancient system, for on
no other supposition can the existence of persons hold-
ing such an extensive sway be accounted for. The village
or patriarchal system of an elective headman to a caste
inhabiting each street or hamlet, is only what is seen else-
where amongst other labourers : so likewise is the hereditary
headman over several villages. But amongst the fisher-
men there exists Dries tly chiefs, two of whom are to be
found on the Eastern Coast, one being at Madras, and the
other at Cuddalore, the territory of the former existing up
the Coromandel Coast, the other being more south of Madras.
The third* is in South Canara, where he appears to have
spiritual control over a large district. These persons, whose
posts are hereditary, claim or receive tees and fines from those
of their caste living in large tracts along the sea coast, and
are the final referees in all cases of caste or family disputes
or squabbles. The next grade is also hereditary : they, however,
only hold sway each over a few villages : the duties are the
same, and some of the emoluments appear to have to be
transmitted to the priestly superior. On the death of this
last description of headman without heirs, a fresh one is
usually elected by the people of his caste. The elective
headman is chosen by the residents of a single hamlet, and
his duties are to decide disputes, be present at marriage and
religious ceremonies, often fix the work, and assist in certain
Government duties. His emoluments seem to be trifling.
* It is by no means improbable that others exist, but no notice of them has been re-
corded.
( 16 )
As the duties and perquisites of each of these three grades
of headmen have been fully detailed in paras. XIII to
XV, I have not considered it necessary to recapitulate them
in this place.
XVIII. The next question must be, what is the present
The present condition of the condition of the fishermen, and how
gea-fishermen in sind. d0 ^ey work ? In Sind, after having
paid a license of Us. 5 a ton on their fishing boats, they may
work as they please. The fishermen borrow money from
merchants for purchasing boats and nets, and dispose of
their captures to the mortgagee at half the ruling market
rates (p. x),but whether this goes or not towards liquidat-
ing the original debt is not stated. The Commissioner
observes that "the fishermen are well off" (p. ix).
XIX. In Bombay, the Assistant Commissioner in
The present condition of the charge of the sea-shore salt works
sea-fishermen in the Bombay and ports of Ouzerat, observes that
" fishermen are, as a rule, poor. The
precariousness of their occupation and the uncertain profits
derived from it often compel them to accept service as sailors
in coasting vessels, laborers, and in fact anything that will
ensure them a steady and certain means of living. These re-
marks apply to the whole body of fisherman engaged in the var-
ious kinds of fisheries spoken off" (p. xx). In the Junjura
district, " the fishermen supply themselves with boats and
nets : six or ten club together, build a boat, make a net, and
divide the produce into shares. The sea-fishermen have
decreased" (p. xxvi). In Broach, " the fishermen make nets
themselves, and sometimes purchase them from their caste-
men. They have generally boats of their own, and those
persons "who have no boats get them on hire from others.
The number of fishermen appears to have decreased"
(p. xxvii). In Kaira, " boats are little used; the nets are made
by the fishermen themselves. The fishermen have decreased
with decreasing trade" (p. xxvii). In Rutnagiri, " the prac-
tice of salting fish has decreased within the last fifteen years,
in consequence of the increase in the price of salt. * *
The fishermen supply themselves with boats and nets. The
sea-fishermen have decidedly increasedin numbers" (p.p. xxvii
and xxviii). If the practice of curing fish has decreased,
ami the fishermen decidedly increased, such must either be
due to a much augmented demand for fresh fish, or else the
lishmnen from increased numbers will be considerably
>rcr. An error has probably occurred in the answer
( 17 )
From Kanara the same reply has likewise been received from
the tehsildars (p. xxviii). Mr. Commissioner Pratt observes
that " at present no larger number of men are engaged on fish-
eries than are required to provide an amount of fish sufficient
for local consumption. * * The practice of curing fish
has to a great extent diminished, owing, partly to the fall-
ing off in the amount of fish usually captured, and also the
duty charged on salt in British territory" (p. xviii). In Kaira,
it is stated " that the fishing has greatly fallen off of late
years. The supply of fish is now too scanty to render the
adoption of Dr. Day's suggestion necessary" (p. xxvii).
XX. In the Madras Presidency, in the Tinnevelly Col-
The present condition of the lectorate, " as a rule, the fishermen of
sea-fishermen in the Madras the coast are a very miserable lot of
Presidency. people, and excessively poor : the way
in which they now work is by a system of advances from
their ( chummaties5 or headmen,* a few of whom reside in
each village, and supply nets, lines, boats, &c., for the use of
which a certain share (one-third) of all the fish caught is
taken by the chummaty. Sea-fishing is the daily employment
of a large number of the inhabitants living on the sea-coast :
these men have certain contracts to supply fish with head-
men of the c Paraver' (fisher) caste, distinct from the chum-
maties" (p. iv). In the Nellore Collectorate, "no one claims
any rights as regards sea-fisheries, but different villages are
extremely tenacious of particular local limits, within which
they claim exclusive rights of fishery. The fishermen purchase
their own boats and nets, which are often pledged to .the con-
tractor or soucar who advanced the purchase money. The
number of fishermen has remained stationary" (p. Ixii). The
following remarks have been received from the Native
officials. In the South Canara Collectorate, the tehsildar of
Kasargod observes that the fishermen buy boats and some-
times nets, but usually manufacture these last themselves.
The sea-fishermen have increased of late years (p. Ixxii) : the
same answer com.es from Udipy, where the augmentation of
this class of people between the last and the present census
is set down at 15 per cent. (p. Ixxiii). At Kundapur the
fishermen " who are well-to-do have their own boats or hire
them : nets they make themselves from hemp they grow or
purchase; these people appear to have increased of late
years" (p. Ixxiii). In the Malabar Collectorate, the Super-
intendent of the Sea Customs, Cochin, observes " the Native
* These are not the elective or hereditary headmen previously alluded to, but traders.
C
( 18 )
Christians who engage in sea-fishing here are not of the
fisherman caste in the proper acceptation of the term. * *
About 30 of the fishermen here possess boats and nets : the
owner of a boat has generally sufficient members in his
family to man the boat. Where they falL short of the re-
quired number of hands, neighbours make up the deficiency;
the latter get an equal share each of the fish captured"
(p. Ixxiv). At Ponany, " the majority of the fishermen have
their own boats and nets, which others of more limited means
obtain on hire. There is an annual increase in the number
of fishermen" (p, Ixxiv). At Cannanore, "the fishermen,
boat and net-owners are c Mukuwars', a low caste of Hindus,
the ' Collakars' or Native Christians, and the Moplahs.
The fishermen are supplied with boats and nets and other
requisites for fishery by the owner of the boats and nets, who
also advances them a certain sum of money (charging them
no interest for the same) to ensure their services. The money
thus advanced is not deducted from their daily labor. It is
generally refunded by them, should they be unwilling to work
for the party advancing the money, and in some instances in
case of death, inability to work from extreme old age or
infirmity, or in cases of desertion, the money advanced is a
loss to the boat-owner. The owners remain on shore while
the fishermen go out, and on their return to the shore the
owners of the boats and nets sell their captures. Such as
remain unsold are taken by the boat-owners (for salting pur-
poses*) at the average rate at which the portion sold realized,
and the sale being thus completed, they divide the proceeds
equally between themselves, viz., one-half to the owners of
the boats and nets, and the other half to the fishermen : but
should the latter prove unsuccessful and capture only suffi-
cient to realize their expenses for the day, the boat and net-
owners surrender their share in favour of the fishermen"
(p. Ixxvi). At Tdlicherry " the rich fishermen are the boat
and net-owners ; they do not go to sea themselves, but supply
1 he poor among them with fishing apparatus, and pay them
besides for working them. Such contracts are often reduced
to writing. The remuneration is half the supply of fish
captured, the other half going to the boat-owner, unless the
lake is very small, when all goes to the fishermen" (p. Ixxix).
The fishermen " have, however, by consent, made certain
rules which are strictly observed. The most noticeable
amongst these rules is the right of the first discoverer
• Tho use of snlt-c-nrth nntnxcd is permitted.
( 19 )
among a lot fishing together off a shoal of fish. In this case
the man who first saw the fish is allowed to capture them
without hindrance from the others, even though at the time
when the fish were discovered he was not prepared to launch
his net" (p. Ixxviii). In the Madura Collectorate, " fisher-
men are supplied with nets by the better- to-do of them,
called ' Sammanothy.' The fish caught is divided equally
between the owner of the boat and the fishermen, but the
amount is regulated by circumstances. The sea-fishermen
have increased on the whole, as the lower castes on the coast
have taken to it. The aboriginal fishermen castes, ' Paravars'
and ( Karayans,' have decreased, many of their families having
emigrated to other parts of the coast : a great part of the
Paravar population have given up fishing, and betaken them-
selves to sea-faring. The Pallavarayan and Kadayar castes
have remained stationary" (p. Ixxxiii). In the Tinnevelly
Collectorate, the tehsildar of Ottapidaram estimates " their
average daily earnings at two annas taking all the year round,
excluding costs" (p. Ixxxiv). In Mungery "the contractors
generally allow the workers one-fourth of the captures, the
average daily earnings being from 1 to 6 annas" (p. Ixxxiv).
In Tenkarei, " the remuneration paid by contractors to fish-
ermen is one-third share if large, one-half if they are small,
and their average daily earnings vary from 2 to 8 annas"
(p. Ixxxv). In the Tanjore Collectorate at Muthipettah, " the
fishermen procure small boats and nets at their own cost : but
those who have neither the one nor the other, join those who
have them, and go along with them for fishing, the income de-
rived from the fish captured is divided into as many shares
as there are men engaged in the job, with 1J extra share (one
for the boat and half for the net), thus the share of each man
being equivalent to that allotted to the boat. The number
of sea-fishermen have decreased" (p. Ixxxvi). In Tritra-
pundi, " the fishermen procure nets and boats at their own ex-
pense, and those who cannot afford to do so get a loan thereof,
while some join those who are possessed of nets or boats in
catching fish ; in the latter case, fish caught are divided into
three parts, of which two form the share of the owners of
the nets and boats, the third part going to those who actually
catch them. The fishermen as to numbers have remained
stationary in Topputurai and thereabouts, but decreased in
Mutupettai" (p. Ixxxviii). In My aver am, "all the fishermen
have not got nets : some eight or ten persons engage them-
selves as coolies under a net-holder." The amount of share
( 20 )
the coolies receive is not stated, except that it is a proportion
of the fish, and " every coolie carries at once his share to other
places, and by selling them for grain or cash earns a liveli-
hood" (p. Ixxxviii). In the South Arcot Collectorate, " men
of the Carriar, Patnaver, and Pullie castes fish in the sea,
whilst it is solely Pullies who do so in the hack- waters ; they
are known by the name of Shemdavers. * * The sea-
fishermen on the coast earn between ten and twelve annas a
day. The fish on the coast are said to have diminished, and
the cause is attributed to the bad seasons we have had of
late. The fish appear to have receded into the deep sea"
(p xcii). In Ouddalore, " fishermen supply themselves with
their boats and nets : these men have been on the decrease of
late years" (p. xcii). In the Madras Collectorate, " the fishing
population are decreasing " in Chingleput (p. xciii) : the other
tehsildars report an increase. In the Nellore Collectorate
" some retail traders do not fish, but merely purchase to re-
sell. * * The rule is that the fish are hawked about and
are generally exchanged for grain." In four talooks the fish-
ermen are said to have decreased, in three to have increased,
and in two to be stationaiy (p. xciv). It is also observed
" that Pullie people generally fish in salt rivers and Tuli people
in the sea, but people of both castes give their fish to traders
on contracts, or sell them personally, and use what remains
for themselves. * * Most of the Tuli people are very poor,
their daily earnings only just covering their expenses.
Whenever they may be in need of boats, or nets, or at
least of repair for their old ones, they borrow money from
traders, and give them fish every now and then in satisfaction
of their debts. Some fishermen also obtain money by export-
ing grain in their own vessels, or giving their vessels for
freight. Fishermen in Gundur talook come with their fami-
lies^to the coast pf Ongole about the month of January, and
quit the coast by the end of June, during which period they
export quantities of fish to their own district, and besides
take home with them the remaining lot" (p. xcv). Respect-
ing the fishermen, " some are of opinion that the means of
livelihood have generally decreased, as the demand for salted
fish has generally diminished. Others again think, where
the trade in salt-fish has increased, the income of the fisher-
men has likewise improved" (p. xcvi). "The fishermen of
each hamlet or pollien are very tenacious as to their peculiar
rights to fish within certain limits, whether in the sea or in
any tidal creek or estuary. These limits have never been
( 21 )
defined or recognised by any authority, but have been admit-
ted by long established usage among the fishermen them-
selves from time immemorial ; and if the fishermen of one
hamlet are found transgressing their limits and plying their
trade within the limits of a neighbour, the result is a never-
ending source of dispute and quarrel among the men of both
hamlets. J3ut the quarrel seldom goes further than themselves,
and receives no countenance at the hands of any authority"
(p. xcvi). In Striharikota, "during the last four years, the
quantity of fish taken has been less than in previous years,
consequently the sea-fishermen are in a poor condition "
(p. xcvii), In Handukur, " the practice of salting fish has
decreased, as fewer fish are captured" (p. xcviii). In the
Kistna District, the tehsildar of Bapatla reports that " the
fishermen living along the coast from Peraly up to Peda
Ganjam fish for four miles out to sea, obtaining perches.
Other species are caught along the shore in great quantities,
whilst those taken in the sea are few" (p. c). In the Bunder
talook " the fishermen have decreased since the cyclone, in
which many were washed away : about 20 boats go to sea
for fishing purposes, which, as well as the nets, have de-
creased" (p. c). In Repalli, " fishermen report that
they are decreasing in numbers, as are also their boats and
nets. * * The fishermen go 1^ a miles out to sea for fish,
which they salt, but there is only a demand for the small
sorts. * * The fishermen being unable to purchase
salt for salting fish, take advances of money for their liveli-
hood from fish merchants coming from Bunder, &c., to whom
they deliver their captures, and the merchants have them
salted by coolies employed by them, * * For the last t\* o
years fish have been scarce" (p. ci). In the Godavery
Collectorate, the tehsildar of Ramachendrapur reports " the
daily earnings of those who fish in the sea will be one rupee,
while the other fishermen who fish in canals, &c., earn four
or two annas a day, which is not more than sufficient for
subsistence. The supply is not equal to the demand. The
fishing population has decreased in consequence of a few
having resorted to Moulmein and other coasts for carrying
on their trade" (p. cii). At Poddapurum, " the fishing popu-
lation has increased of late years" (p. cii). In Coconada they
have "decreased of late years" (p. ciii). At Pittapur they
" have not increased, because a few have embarked for Moul-
mein on account of famine, while some have died of
cholera" (p. ciii). At Coringa, "the average daily earnings
( 22 )
of sea-fishermen are about one rupee, but of those who fish
in the rivers perhaps four annas" (p. civj. The Deputy Col-
lector at this place observes that " there are many who claim,
rights respecting sea-fisheries opposite to their huts or places of
residence. Such disputes give rise to civil actions" (p. civ).
In the Vizagapatam Collectorate, at Bimlapatam, Sf the vil-
lagers residing on the sea-shore consider they have a claim
to cast their nets before outsiders" (p. cv). In the G an jam
Collectorate, in the Berhampore talook, " fishermen working
as coolies are not paid in money, but receive half the fish
captured in fresh waters, and one-third of those taken in the
sea goes to the owners of the nets and two- thirds to the
coolies, who earn about two annas a day" (p. cvij.
XXI. In Bengal, in the Pooree Collectorate, " the fisher
Present condition of the sea- class come from southern districts,
fishermen in Bengal. an(j are rather strangers here, so that
their customs are not very easy to get at in this district"
(p. cxx). The people appear to have been induced to come
from Madras districts to settle, and promises made seem to
have been broken (p. cxix). This is a reason why one
must feel averse to recommend such a plan for adoption
again. So long as the civil officer who took an interest re-
mains, all goes well : a new one arrives, and some personal
views respecting the law of supply and demand, which
have no bearing whatever on the subject, induce him to
curtail the promised privileges.
XXII. In Burma the sea-fishermen appear to be well
off: whilst the sea, which is swarm-
Present condition of the sea- jng wj^ £§]} [s no^ properly Worked.
fishermen in Burma. ml°. . -, •'/, . ,,
This is due to two causes— jirst, the
mode in which they prepare their fish (Nga-pee) is not suited
to the Indian market ; secondly, that they prefer fishing along
the shore to venturing further out to sea. Respecting the pro-
position to introduce Madras fishermen (p. p. cxxvii & cxxviii)
to capture the fish and export them to India, I cannot help
thinking (see my remarks p. cxxviii, note) that the plan as pro-
posed will fail. Likewise, now that is self-evident that the
seas of India could provide sufficient fish were the indige-
nous salt within the reach of the fish-curers, why should a
foreign trade be stimulated prior to opening up the home one.
XXIII. If we examine the foregoing replies respecting
ont state of the sea-fish- tbe present state of the fishermen
ermen generally, and the tmoiu- and their mode of working fisheries,
menu they receive for filing. we findj as J shall baVCtO observe
( 23 )
that, well off in Sind, they are, unless in the vicinity of
large towns, miserably off in the Bombay Presidency. Well
off down the western coast of Madras,* but once round Cape
Cornorin, they become, as observes the Collector of Tinne-
velly,t a very miserable lot of people, and such is the same
account, except near large towns, all the way up the Coroman-
del Coast. In most of those places where the fishermen are
said to be poor they are also reported to be decreasing in
numbers, due to cholera, emigration, or taking service as lascars
in coasting vessels. In localities where they are poorest they
appear also to be most litigious, as up the Coromandel Coast,
where they claim the fishing before their huts, and irrespec-
tive of which they generally state the fish are decreasing,
although in some places it is asserted they have migrated to
the deep sea. Their mode of working fisheries is either
employing their own boat (manned by relatives or hired
coolies), or borrowing the money for the purchase of the
same. The mode of remuneration is generally by a division
of the spoil ; and wherever the fishermen are most pros-
perous, it is not the rule that they receive the highest remu-
neration. Along South Canara and Malabar the boat and
net-owner receive half the captures, probably due to the
demand for fish being unlimited, the coolies being always
readily able to dispose of their captures. As Cape Comorin
is rounded the boat-owner receives from one-fourth (Mungery)
to one-third if large, half if small (Tenkarei), or even half
(Madura), one- third (Tripundei, and also in the Godavery
Districts), or the whole of the captures are divided into shares
as follows : if six men go in one boat the fish are sub-divided
into 7-| shares, one being for the boat and half a one for the
use of the net. The emoluments received by the fishermen
being thus returned : Tinnevelley 2 annas a day, Mungery 1 J
annas a day, Tenkarei 2 annas 8 pies a day, Godavery one rupee.
In many districts they accept advances for their season's work,
or contract to supply fish at a certain rate and in a certain
quantity (if procurable) to merchants and others who re-sell
it fresh or prepare it salted, either by themselves, the aid of
hired coolies, or persons of the fishermen caste.
THE FISHES OF THE INDIAN SEAS.
XXIV. The marine fishes may be divided into three
Natural division of the great natural (not zoological) classes.
Marine fishes. First, those which are more preyed
* Salt-earth is allowed to be gathered by the nsh-curer untaxed.
f The collection of salt-earth becomes a penal offence.
( 24 )
upon than predaceous, and which may be sub-divided into
the gregarious and those which are only partially so. Those
which arrive in vast shoals, or the gregarious forms, evidently
approach the coast at certain seasons for breeding purposes ;
they are generally destitute of any considerable means of
defence, but become preyed upon, not only by other fishes
and predaceous animals, but form in a large degree food for
man. Those which are not gregarious or only partially so
evidently likewise come for breeding purpose, and also to
follow some particular form of animal food, which is present
off the shores probably for breeding. The seasons when these
fishes arrive mostly correspond to the cold months of the year,
when the sea is not so agitated by the monsoons. Secondly,
we have the predaceous fishes, which may also be in shoals,
following those on which they are able to prey : or they may
be non-gregarious or only so to a slight extent. Thirdly,
there are the non-migratory forms, some of which are also
predaceous : these live along the shores and backwaters, and
some in the deep sea.
XXV. Amongst those classes of non-predaceous* fish
Non-predaceous marine fish, which arrive at certain seasons, there
The gregarious and the non- are, as observed, the gregarious and
non-gregarious forms. The gregarious,
or those which appear in vast shoals at certain seasons off the
coast for breeding purposes, may again be sub-divided
into those which breed in the fresh-waters, and the remainder
which do so in the sea. In my fresh- water fishery report
I have adverted to the enormous ascents of hilsa (Clupea
palasah] up all the large rivers for breeding purposes, mostly
during the south-west monsoon (June and subsequently),
and it is a most important circumstance that they are al-
most invariably as plentiful in one season as they were in
the preceeding year, provided no impediments in the rivers
exist entirely, barring their ascent. If one examines the
varieties of fish taken along the sea-coast throughout the
year, these hilsa will be found extending their range to where-
ever food is plentiful ; they will only be missed during the
breeding season, and even then young ones will be present.
This would appear to show that they never migrate any great
distance from the shore. In fact this fish is not so capri-
cious in its arrival as are the more marine forms. Thus a
periodical supply of food is afforded to people far inland un-
* This term, of course, is only employed in a comparative manner, to those fish which
are exceedingly predaceous, as nearly all forms are more or less so.
( 25 )
less man in his greed impedes or entirely arrests their ascent
by means of fixed engines and weirs, and so annihilates the
supply. The second sub-division of the gregarious forms
are most important in an economic point of view, provided
man turns this harvest of the sea to a proper account. These
strictly marine shoals are much more capricious as to the
years of their advent than are the hilsa. The forms most
generally known in the Indian waters are perhaps the mac-
kerel, Scomber kanagurta, and the oil sardine Clupea Neohowu,
which are generally so abundant along the Western coast,
Ceylon, and the Andaman Islands. Besides these there are
many species of anchovies which arrive in vast shoals.
Surely it is taking a very narrow view of what the uses
these droves of fish should be put to, if we consider
them exclusively arriving for the benefit of the dwellers
in maritime districts. Nature here provides every re-
quisite for rendering them useful to distant localities, vege-
table substances from which the nets may be constructed,
wood for boats, and salt for the preservation of the captures,
and we shall have to enquire whether full advantage is
taken of all these provisions of nature, and if not, what is
the reason for this apathy?
XXVI. Secondly, amongst these non-predaceous fishes
Migratory non- gregarious we find certain forms which are cer-
tainly not so gregarious as those al-
ready alluded to, as they are only abundant at certain seasons
of the year. There appears to be a constant migration
of some kinds, probably not solely for breeding purposes,
but perhaps they may be pursuing some especial article
of food. For it is not only the fish, but many invertebrata
that are constantly appearing merely for a short period
of time. The little Chcetodon pretextatus has only been
recorded in the Malay Archipelago and Cochin, two
widely separated localities ; and in the latter place I have
merely taken it during the first fortnight of the south-west
monsoon. The curious form and beautiful colours of this
little fish are so remarkable that it is highly improbable, if
they were present during any other period of the year, I
should not have procured them. Another instance occurred
whilst at the Andamans at the end of 1869 and commence-
ment of 1870, when I remarked that even during my brief
sojourn, the beautiful Acanthurus lineatus, which was nu-
merous at the period of my arrival, could not be obtained at
the time I left. The migrations of other non-predaceoua
( 26 )
and non-gregarious fishes will be alluded to under their
respective genera.
XXVII. Amongst the predaceous fishes the gregarious
Predaceous sea-fishes, the gre- are hardly so numerous as those
garious, and those not so. which are not so. They are mostly
found in the order Acanthopterygii as well as among the Chon-
dropterygii. Amongst these fish which appear to be usually
found in shoals perhaps as well known as any is the Bonito
(Thynnus). I was fishing one day off the new breakwater
at Kurrachee, where we obtained a very large number of oil-
sardines (Clupea Neohowu), a vast quantity of which had
arrived in the harbour. All of a sudden a great commotion
commenced, and a shoal of large fish dashed in amongst them,
evidently causing the greatest consternation. I told the
fishermen to make a cast over one, as I required a specimen.
They begged to be excused, as they feared their nets would
be broken. These were evidently Bonito ; they came quite
close to the break- water where I was standing, and that
evening some were captured in the large seine nets. The
fishermen assert that these predaceous fishes, if they cannot
tear through the nets by main force, frequently bite the
meshes, and they consider the Chrysophrys as very much
addicted to this practice. Having made an arrangement
with the fishermen, we pulled over to a rocky island where
these fish were reputed to be found. A cast was made, the
net enclosed a Chrysophrys, it made one dash, was through
the meshes like a shot, spinning right into the air, and cer-
tainly the net appeared as if it had been cut, not torn. I
mention this instance here to show how much more difficult
it may -be to net the predaceous fishes with their cutting
teeth, than the non-predaceous ones that do not possess any
teeth that could be employed for biting nets. The non-gre-
garious predaceous fishes are exceedingly numerous and of
very varied characters. Amongst the most voracious of these
must be placed the sharks, rays, and allied forms. They
follow the shoals of the migratory non-predaceous fishes, and
as a consequence the presence of the food on which they
live is a cause of their appearance in the same waters.
XXVIII. It is in fact evident that the oil-sardines,
HOW small fish arc the baits sma11 though they be, lure the larger
which lure larger species to cer- fishes into the vicinity of tllC shores
which they themselves frequent ; con-
sequently any reason which may induce these fish to go
elsewhere must cause a paucity of supply in the seas which
( 27 )
they desert. This, however, is not only seen on this large
scale, but is likewise apparent in another form. Thus the
larger forms of sea-fishes, as perches, &c., come towards the
shore to prey on immature or small fish, Crustacea, &c. If this
their natural food is destroyed to any very great extent they
have not that inducement to come near the land which they
would otherwise possess. The result, therefore, of denuding
the coasts of small fishes is, that the superior sorts do
not come so close in-shore as they otherwise would, and the
fishermen are reduced to capture merely the non-predaceous
or inferior kinds, or the fry.
XXIX. Amongst the non-migratory forms there are
likewise very great differences, and
Non-migratory sea- fishes. i ,1
some are much more predaceous than
others. Many of these, although termed non-migratory,
certainly change their places of residence at certain periods
of the year, either to follow their food, or to escape from
rough into quiet waters.
XXX. In the suh-class Teleostei, the spiny-rayed
The sea-fishes of the sub-class or Acanthopterygian order furnishes
Teieostei. about 616 of those forms which fre-
quent the seas and tidal waters of India and Burma.
Amongst these are some which attain to a large size, and
are very predaceous in their habits. Some reside in the deep
sea or off marine banks, and when captured are generally of
excellent sorts for the table, but bait-fishing appears to be best
suited for their capture. These do not appear to be furnished
with accessary breathing organs, as was observed (F. W. F.
report, p. 15.), enabling those frequenting inland waters to
migrate from place to place, such an addition would appear
to be unnecessary.* As a full description of the families
and genera has been given in the Appendix (from p. cliii,) a
detailed account here of where each are to be found appears
uncalled for.
XXXI. Amongst the Acanthopterygians and in the
family of perches (Percidce), we find a
Fishes of the Acanthoptery- j. i • ' -L j? • x Y- i_ AT.
gian or spiny-rayed order. great diversity of S1Z6 to Which they
Families i Perdda, Pristipoma- attain. Thus Cantor mentions one
tidce and isquamipinnes. /fv T . 7 ... i ••,/», i
(S err anus horndus, or the adult of the
S. lanceolatus) the weight of which exceeded 130 Ibs. ; and
Hamilton Buchanan observes that the usual size of another
(S err anus coiodes) in the Ganges is between four or five
feet in length. The Mesoprions belonging to this family are,
* That it may be required in sea-fishes, see Genera Clupea, Chatoessus, and Chanos.
( 28 )
however, of usually greater immediate value in the production
of food, because they appear to come further inland to breed,
.and are consequently much more frequently captured : some
also attain to a very large size. Then we have the little
species of Ambassis and Apogon, which frequent places more
inland, and so probably assist in tempting the larger forms
to come nearer in-shore.* In the family Pristipomatidce are
many large and excellent fish, but they are as a rule inferior
to the Percidae, some in fact, as the Therapons, being usually
rejected by Europeans as food. The air-vessels of both the
families mentioned are considered as affording a good quality
of isinglass, but an inferior quantity. In the family Squami-
pinnes those of the genera Chcetodon, Chelmo, Ephippus, and
Holacanthus are very inferior, but when of sufficient size mem-
bers of the Heniochus and Drepane are eaten by Europeans,
whilst the Scatophagus is likewise by the very lowest classes.
XXXII. The family Nandidce do not afford sufficient
Families Nandida, Muiud*, marine species to render any allusion
Sparidoe, drrhitidce, and SCOT- to them necessary. Merely one ex-
ample of Plesiops appears to have been
captured in the Indian seas, and that only at the Andamans.
The family Mullidce are largely represented, but it is remark-
able that they are held in no estimation by the Europeans,
although the far-famed ' Red mullet/ or e Woodcock-of-the-
seas,' as it is termed, is considered so excellent in Europe. In
the family Sparidce there are scarcely sufficient of the genera
Crenidens, Sargus, Lethrinus Sphcerodon, or Pimelepterus to
render them of much economic moment. The genus Pagrm,
however, affords the P. spinifer, which is abundant in places
and excellent for salting. Amongst the members of the
genus Chrysophrys are many that are held in great esteem
whether eaten fresh or salted. The family Cirrhitidce likewise
only afford small fishes, which are not held in any esteem,
whilst those in the family Scorpcenida appear to be almost
universally rejected.
» I have already, para. XXVIII, mentioned how the oil-sardines coming inside a harbour
may be said to bait the locality for larger and more valuable forms, as the ' Bonito.' I will here
mention ii . ~iing circuiustanc " hich occurred in South Canara when I was with
i, *Mr. II. S. Th-Mnas. \V. • going out live-bait fishing early the next morn-
. win-re are the baits ? We will take them en route I was in formed.
At 5 A. 1, still no I ime to a minute rill, when every
one Cf -ho n-fpiired live-baits. First I saw numerous little Haplochili
vxvi) that had ascended to capture the almost microscopic insects.
>t one walking fish, Ophiocephalus gachua, then another were perceived
..'re, they could ascend after their prey in water
lid not cover thdr IM appeared to me a good illustration of the vast com-
B6M of nature's plans.
( 29 )
XXXIII. The family TeutUdida furnishes a vast
Families Teuthidida, Eery- number of fish, and although they are
nd Poiynemida. not considered as of the most superior
quality, still are freely eaten fresh, and also salted and dried.
The family Berycidce do not afford fish which are esteemed
as food. The Kurtidcs, likewise are not of any great value.
Amongst the family Polynemidce are some of the most valu-
able of the sea fish, all as food, and two species on account of
the large amount of isinglass they afford (see Appendix,
p. cxlii). Some of these fishes attain a very large size, especially
in estuaries, where they appear to thrive best, as Ham. Buchanan
observes that P. teria, " in the Calcutta market, is often found
six feet long. I have been assured by a credible native that
he saw one which was a load for six men, and which cer-
tainly, therefore, exceeded in weight three hundred and
twenty pound, avoirdupois.' ' This genus also affords the cele-
brated mangoe-fish, which at the breeding season swarms
into the estuaries and rivers of Bengal and Burma.
XXXIV. The family ScicenidcB is valuable for two
Families Scianidce, xi- reason i first the isinglass, which is ob-
pUida, and TricMurida. tained from most of its members,
which, although said to be of a rather inferior quality to that
furnished by the Percidce and Pristipomatidce, is of a larger
amount. Secondly, the middle and lower classes employ them
very extensively as food, besides salting them for distant mar-
kets. The Xiphiidce, or sword-fish family, are at times
numerous off the Coromandel coast during the cold season of
the year, and are employed as food. The scabbard fishes,
Trie HUT idee, are held in very diverse estimation in different
parts ; off the Meckran coast, where salt was plentiful and
cheap, the fishermen did not care even to bring them to land
asserting that they were useless as food. Along the coasts of
India, on the contrary, they are prized, as owing to their
thin ribbon-shape, the natives can dry them in the sun with
the use of a very small amount of salt, or even none at all.
XXXV. The * Lancet fishes', Acanthuridce, are held in
Families Acanthurida and about the same estimation as the
carangida. TeutUdiCcs, already adverted to. The
e Horse-mackerels,' Carangidce, are amongst the most important
families present in the Indian seas, not only numerous in
species, but also in numbers. They are much more common
along the Coromandel than the western or Malabar coast,
whilst all are excellent, both fresh or salted. Even the Ckor-
imemus is esteemed as a fish well adapted for salting, but some
( 30 )
object to it cooked fresh as rather too dry ; the same may also
be said of the Trachynotm. The little Equulas might be
thought to be of but slight economic value, owing to their
generally small size and almost absence of any amount of
muscle. But it is owing to this very cause they are so sought
after; they can be soaked in the sea and dried in the sun, and
thus as dried-fish are considerably sought after, especially as
they are cheap. The Lactarius is esteemed either fresh or
salted, and for the latter purpose it appears to be well adapted.
XXXVI. The * Pomfrets/ Stromaleida, are very justly
Families stromateida, Cory- celebrated both amongst Europeans
phanida:, and Scombri**. an(j natives ; extensively distributed,
they are common almost everywhere from Sind to the most
southern point of Burma. Besides being excellent fresh, they
also salt well. The * Dolphins/ Coryphcenidce, are common off
the Coromandel coast in the cold weather, and though rather
dry are still considered good as food. The little Mene is useful
in the same manner as observed upon regarding the Equulas.
The ' true mackerels/ or Scombridce, are very valuable, not only
on account of the amount of food they furnish in their fresh
state, but because they are extensively salted : the common
Indian mackerel, Scomber kanagurta, can be preserved
to a certain extent with salt-earth, and this is employed for
the purpose in many places, but when it is proposed to send
the article to distant markets, as from the western coast either
inland to the coffee estates or elsewhere as to Ceylon, a certain
amount of good salt is usually employed. This family also
possesses other fish which are excellent either fresh or salted,
as the ' Bonito', Thynnus, the c Seir-fishes', Cybium, whilst
some natiyes likewise eat the Elacate, but not, I believe, the
* Sucking-fishes', Echeneis, which are usually taken from off
captured sharks, to which they are adhering with great tena-
city.
XXXVII. ' The family Trachinida may be thus sub-
Family Trachinid*. divided, first into those genera which
are rejected or but little esteemed as
food, viz., Uranoscopus, Anema, and Percis-, and secondly, the
highly esteemed genus of whiting, Sillago. These last are
very extensively distributed, and are equally consumed in a
fresh or salted state.
XXXVIII. The < Frog fishes', Batrachida, are so re-
Famiiies Batrachidai and Cot- pulsive in their appearance, that they
tid<s- seem to be everywhere rejected as
food : the family Cottidce have no better reputation, in fact
( 31 )
some species are asserted to be so very poisonous th at they
are even rejected as manure. However, the c crocodile fishes,'
Platycephali, are occasionally eaten, but they are so dreaded,
due to the spines they are armed with, that the first thing a
fisherman who has captured them does, is to knock them on
the head.
XXXIX. The Gobies, Gobudce, have very few represen-
tatives that attain any size, but still
they are numerous and consequently
of considerable use. Being mostly littoral species, they are of
great service in decoying larger fishes in-shore, and thus as baits
are of considerable consequence. They may be divided into
two divisions, first, those as the Gobius, Euctenogobim, Apo-
cryptes, Gobiodon, and Eleotris, 8fc., which die soon after they
are removed from the water; secondly, those which live for a
long time if kept moist after they have been taken from their
native element, as the Periophthalmus and Boleophthalmus,
which may be seen migrating about over moist pieces of tidal-
covered mud, or even up rocks and pieces of wood in pursuit
of insects and such like food, but instantaneously diving out
of sight on the fancied approach of any source of danger.
Large numbers of the B. Boddaerti are brought alive to the
Bombay markets in baskets covered with a wet cloth.
XL. The Blennies, Blennuda, are only found on rocky
coasts as a rule, where other and su-
Family JBlennudce. . , ., , „ ' . ,
perior edible forms exist ; they may
well be considered as food for larger fishes. Clambering over
moist localities, often temporarily made captive in small basins
in the rocks which retain water, they become imprisoned un-
til the succeeding tide relieves them ; they collect small ani-
mal substances as their food, and are in turn themselves
sustenance for the larger kinds.
XLI. The voracious and dangerous Sphyrcenas, termed
Families Sp^ranida,, Ather- ' sharks' in some places, due to their
inida, MugUida, and Opkiocep- destructive powers, are all used as
food, and many are taken along the
coasts, often of a considerable size. The little Atherinidce
come in large shoals along the shores, -and often go up the
estuaries ; they are extensively dried in the sun. The ' Mul-
lets,' Mugilidce, are abundantly represented, and most useful
as food ; but when at Mangalore this year, I was informed
that the higher classes of Hindus resident there have an
aversion to eating them, because they allege their heads re-
semble those of serpents, whilst the same people do not refuse
( 32 )
the c snake-headed fish' or Ophiocephalida, which are esteemed
as highly nourishing. The lower classes likewise had no such
prejudices, whilst they were extensively salted. During the
breeding months of the year large quantities of these fish
are taken, and their roes dried or salted ; in fact, Cochin fish-
roes, which were prepared from these fishes, used to bear a
very good reputation in the markets.
XLII. The families Pomacentridce and Labridce do not
Families Pomacentrida and exist in Sufficient numbers off the low
Labrida. coasts of India and Burma to render
them of much economic importance, besides which they are
generally held in but small estimation as food. They are
more numerous off the Andamans than any other locality I
have personally investigated.
XLIII. The spineless fishes or Anacanthini possess
order of Anacanthini or some descriptions which are exceed-
spineiess fishes. Qadiidce, Op?*i- ingly valuable. They are divided into
two sub-divisions, those more or less
allied to the cod family, but which have only insignificant
representatives on the seas of India, viz., the little fishes of
the genus Bregmaceros, and some of the family Ophidiidce.
The second sub-division, or those allied to the flat fishes or
c soles,' Pleuronectidce, are numerous and attain a consider-
able size. Coloured only on the upper side, and swimmers
close to the bed of the sea, it must be evident that clear
water is not so suitable to their existence as where it is dis-
coloured. They are found most numerous and attaining the
largest size where great rivers as the Indus, the Ganges, the
Irrawaddy and the Salween debouch into the sea; in the
Madras Presidency they are as a rule finer and more common
on its Malabar than on its Coromandel coast.
XLIV. Amongst the Physostomi are the scaleless cat-
Order Phytostomi. Families fishes. SiluridcB are mostly found in
Siiuridai and Scopeiida. ' muddy waters and frequenting the
mouths of large rivers and estuaries. Thus in the clear water
at the Andamans they are but rarely taken, although up some of
the creeks they are occasionally captured. They are common
from Bombay down the western coast, and from the mouth of
the Kistna along the muddy coasts of Bengal and Burma,
whilst in the Mergui Archipelago they are most abundant.
The largest sized ones are captured at the mouths of rivers, es-
pecially when such localities as the Sunderbunds exist there.
It is evident that the number of highly sensitive and muscular
barbels with which they are provided must be for the pur-
( 33 )
pose of feeling their way about in waters that are almost too
dense for vision. The mode in which these marine forms
guard their egges will be alluded to further on (para. Ix, et. seq.).
These fish are mostly armed with a strong bony and toothed
pectoral spine, a most formidable weapon both for offence and
defence. Some years since at Cochin a sea snake was brought
to me alive as a curiosity, it being armed with a serrated
spine on one side of its neck. I opened the reptile and dis-
covered that it had swallowed a cat-fish, Arius, and though
its capacious jaws could permit its entrance, the pectoral
spine of its prey had perforated its neck, and thus pro-
truded externally, giving the appearance as if the snake were
armed. The estimation in which the marine forms of these
fishes are held as food varies ; they are as a rule rejected by
Europeans, and natives commonly consider them as inferior.
But last December when at Cochin I met a fisherman re-
turning from his day's work, his little boy was dragging two
large skates by their tails ; having purchased them, I enquired
what other fish he had. He displayed a few mackerel which
I did not require. After some considerable trouble I obtain-
ed a sight of his remaining spoil, which consisted of ' cat-
fishes' (Arius) ; being at that time investigating this family, I
at once decided he must sell them, but it was with the great-
est difficulty I obtained his consent; he asserted he was going
to carry them home for family consumption, and strongly
urged that the mackerel should be taken instead. In the
report from the Superintendent of Sea Customs at Tellicherry
(p. Ixxvii), it is observed that " cat-fishes are cured to a very
great extent and exported to Colombo, as well as to some
parts of the Tinnevelly district." Under the head of isin-
glass (p. cxl) I have described the appearance of the fish
sounds procured from fishes of this family (p. cxliii), and
how they differ in shape from those obtained from the more
percoid-form of fishes. In the ' scaled-siluroids,' Scopelidce,
there exist a few fishes which are excellent eating, but rarely
found in very large numbers, if we except the e Bomaloe' or
' Bombay Duck,' Harpodon neherem. This fish is numerous
in Bombay, becomes rare all down the Malabar coast, a few
are taken at Madras, but as we proceed towards Vizagapa-
tam they increase largely and are common all along the
coast of Bengal and Burma, ascending large rivers within
tidal influence. Owing to their almost gelatinous cha-
racter and absence of any large amount of muscle they are
easily dried.
e
( 34 )
XLV. Amongst the Scombresocida are many marine
fishes which are most valuable in an
Family Scombresocida. . . „ rrn
economic point of view. The Gar-
fishes, Belone, are exceedingly abundant at Bombay, but not
so numerous elsewhere along the coasts of India. These
fishes are frequently seen in the Bombay markets three feet or
even more in length, and are there generally termed the
c Lady-fish,' why, I have not been able to ascertain. They are
exceedingly voracious, and it is curious to see them pursuing
other small fishes. The terrified little anchovies will dash
out of the water along the surface, but the gar-fish follows,
and appears to skim along the waves after its prey. The curi-
ous Hemiramphi, with, as a native expressed, only a lower
jaw, come in vast droves, and are everywhere considered ex-
cellent for food, although with the exception of H. far none
attain to any large size. Their roes are much prized on the
western coast during the cold months of the year. Flying
fishes, Exoceti, although so very abundant down the Red Sea,
and often seen in quantities off the coasts of India, are not
captured to any extent as food, although they are excellent
eating. They are more often obtained when the weather is a
little windy, on board vessels at sea at night-time, apparently
partially attracted by the lights.
XLVL The Pseudoclupeoids, Pseudoclupeidce, contain
_, .. some fishes of considerable economic
Family Pseudoclupetde. . . < TIJT-II
importance. The salmon-like ' Milk
fish' has been introduced into tanks in South Canara, and
attains a large size. The Elops saurus likewise, besides being
eaten fresh, is salted to rather a large extent.
XLVIL It is, however, amongst the true ' herrings/
n»nj ahfM* Clupeidce that perhaps the most im-
portant of Indian fishes are to be
found, not only as themselves affording a great amount of
food for man, but as being an inducement to other larger and
better species to migrate to the seas which they frequent.
In the genus Chirocentrus the single species is salted to a
great extent : however, like most fish which have a large ex-
ternal row of teeth, it is exceedingly vicious, and the fisher-
men assert that when captured it lays hold of the nearest
object, even if such is merely a piece of wood. The delicate
little sardine-like Dussumieria are usually present in large
numbers in the cold season throughout the coasts, but it is
amongst those termed Clupea in the Appendix that the largest
shoals are seen. The Clupea fimbriata is very common, but
( 35 )
not nearly so much so as the true oil-sardine, C. Neohowu,
whose apparently capricious advent or disappearance has
been adverted in at p. cl. Doubtless were the objects on which
they prey examined into, it would be found that the absence
of the latter was the cause of the non-appearance of the
former. In the same way a complaint was made that at
Calicut the amount of sharks' livers required for the manufac-
ture of the medicinal fish oil could not be procured, and on
investigating the cause it was evidently due to the oil-sardines
which form their principal food being absent. IXoubtless
they had followed the shoals.
XLVIII. The little Clupea melanura I have seen in
vast quantities at the Andamans.
Family ClupeidcB — continued. „,, -i «i i i IT /» i
The hilsa has been already referred
to as a breeder in the fresh waters. The very similar
C. toll does not appear ever to ascend rivers, but curiously
enough disappears from the coast at the time the hilsa
ascends into fresh water, but to where it goes has not been
ascertained. Irrespective of the foregoing, there are vast
numbers of Pellona, Opisthopterm, and Raconda cap-
tured along the sea- coast, and either consumed fresh,
dried, or salted. The genus Engranlis is most prolific in fish,
and these are very extensively consumed either fresh or
dried. Another form, the Chatoessus, is also found along the
coasts, more especially of western India, coming into the
backwaters, but in South Kanara I observed that the existence
of large parasites upon them the rule, a healthy state the
exception. Whether this was due to their residing in these
localities, or whether they had come there to rid themselves
of their tormentors, may well be questioned.
XLIX. The * Eels' of the seas of India are neither in
such number nor so esteemed as to be
Family Muramdoe. . , . ,
of any material consequence in the
food supply, except those of the genus Murcenesox, of which
I have seen specimens ten feet long in the Bombay markets,
where they are cut into transverse slices and thus disposed
of. In fact of the others it is more usual to see them cast
up by the tide during the monsoon months than for sale
in the local bazars.
L. Amongst the order Plectognathi none are eaten in
" Plectognathi : family India, so far as I am aware, except by
the poorest of the poor. Some of the
Tetrodons are however relished by the aborigines of the
Andaman Islands.
( 36 )
LI. The sub-class of cartilaginous fishes furnish some
ckondropteryyii or which are eminently useful to man
cartilaginous fishes ; family Car- as food, although none are what are
considered of the most superior de-
scription. The true sharks if large are mostly captured for their
fins, which are removed, dried and exported to China, or else
for their livers to manufacture into fish-oil (see p. cxlix).
Some of the medium size are cut up and salted, whilst the little
ones are eaten either fresh or salted.
LIT. Salted shark is considered very strengthening by
sharks as food: or their skins the people of Malabar, but th e Ben-
how used- galis, except the very lowest castes,
will not touch it. In Bombay the Africans may be seen
every morning purchasing small sharks for their own con-
sumption. Their skins are used for covering sword belts in
some places, also for smoothing down wood. The hammer-
headed sharks are equally employed with the true ones.
LIU. Amongst the sub-division Batoidei are many sorts
The Satoidei, or rays and equally useful with th e sharks. The
skates- 'saw-fishes'* livers are employed in the
same manner for their oil, whilst the ' skates' are not less
useful. The electric ray, however, which absolutely swarms
along the Meckran coast, appears nowhere to be of any value .
the rays are eaten in many places by the poorer classes, but
they do not appear to be anywhere held in estimation.
LIV. The localities in which some of the marine fishes
Peculiar localities inhabited take their abodes are sometimes very
by fish- peculiar. Wherever there is a wreck,
some species are certain to be inside the vessel, evidently in
search of food, and we can easily understand how others
may be found inside corpses, as there they are finding suste-
nance. But their reason for inhabiting some places can hardly
be thus accounted for. When at the Andamans some of the
aborigines showed me how the beautiful little Glyphidodon
anabatoides could be captured in any numbers. Diving
from off the side of the canoe, they brought up large pieces
of coral, amongst the branches of which these fishes were very
numerous and packed in exceedingly closely. It appeared
to me that as sharks, rays, skates and other predaceous fishes
were numerous, these little fellows sought shelter from their
foes by rushing in amongst the coral branches, from whence
their pursuers could not extract them. But more curious
still is it to find fish inside other living animal substances,
* I have procured the Prut it Perritotteti in a river far above tidal influence.
( 37 )
and which they employ as their home. At Gopaulpore on the
Coromandel coast I was surprised at observing inside a large
Medusa brought to shore in a fishing net a living Therapon
servus, BL, and on enquiring into the circumstance was in-
formed that this was by no means an uncommon place where
they were to be found, and several more were shown me in
the same curious habitations. At the Andamans Captain
Hamilton observed to me that a few days previously he had
remarked some small fish living inside a polype at North
Bay. One day he dug out one, dragged it to the shore, and
captured three little fish from its interior : replacing them in
the sea, they appeared to be doubtful what to do, swimming
round and round as if searching for something. The living
polype was now returned to the water, and they at once swam
towards it, following it as it was dragged back to its original
locality. The species of fish was AmpUprion bifasciatum,
Bl, A few days subsequently when fishing on the ' Jolly
Boys' island, one of the aborigines brought a specimen of
the pretty yellow and white banded Amphiprion percula,
Lacep., and on being told it was ' good,' we were taken to see
where others could be easily captured. They detached Actinic?
from the coral by inserting the hand behind them, and on
shaking it two or more of these little fishes fell out. They
told us the rule was for a pair to reside inside each of these
large sea nettles. We saw this process carried out thirteen
times, an I the results were 27 healthy little fishes.
THE MIGRATIONS OF SEA FISH.
LV. The irregular way in which the true marine
breeding and gregarious fishes come
Migrations of sea-fish, and , °, . *- ,
cause of their being often found and go has been already referred to,
in fresh water which is not con- but there still remains one point
iiected with the sea. , . ,
which requires a few remarks. It is
very common to find true marine fish in pieces of fresh or
brackish water not far removed from tidal influence, and
this is due to their having entered these places whilst the
monsoons were at their height, the rivers and swamps full,
and owing to which a communication existed between them
and the sea. As the waters subsided this channel be-
coming interrupted, the fish have to remain there until
the next year's monsoon re-opens the communication.
A few months since, at Kasargod near Mangalore, on
the western coast, I observed numerous Medusce present in
a piece of water between which and the sea all entrance or
exit had been barred for many weeks. These gelatinous
( 38 )
creatures may be perceived swarming up the rivers and
backwaters of the western coast during the south-west
monsoon, and doubtless predatory fishes pursue them and
other kinds of food into localities where they run the risk of
finding their exit cut off as the body of the water falls.
It does not follow, however, that this is necessarily a cause of
their death, as it is very common to capture such fish in
these places even after the water has ceased to be saline.
Thus the Milk-fish, Chanos salmoneus, is found in a tank at
Cundapur in South Canara, and report says that Hyder Ali
introduced it for his own use. This is certainly a marine
species, although now it breeds and thrives in the fresh or
rather slightly brackish water, attaining to 20 or 30 Ibs. in
weight. It appears probable from local circumstances that
when this tank was dug it communicated with the sea ; that
the fish were thus introduced, and gradually the communica-
tion must have been closed. Along with the Milk-fish is a
sea perch, Mesoprion rangus, also a Chrysophrys and a
Mullet. Centuries since the Romans knew that some sea-
fish could be kept in fresh water if the change were gradual.*
Whilst many sea-fishes, as has been already observed, ascend
long distances up fresh- water rivers in pursuit of their prey
or for breeding purposes.
BREEDING OF TISHES IN SALINE OR BRACKISH WATER.
LVI. The question of where the sea-fishes deposit their
Breeding of sea-fishes, and OVa lias been a fruitful SOUrCC Of COn-
where they deposit their eggs. tention for a long period. Whether it
floats about and is then vivified and subsequently hatched, or
left for this purpose on mud banks in the ocean or along the
shore or in estuaries, are still open to investigation. One
would suppose that fish-eggs would hardly be left to float
about at the mercy of the waves for several reasons, — -first, all
the eggs of fresh-water fish sink in water, so do those of all
* " M. Felix Plateau has undertaken a number of experiments to determine the
question whether the cause of the death of fresh-water animals when removed to sea-
w;itrr, and of marine animals when removed to fresh-water, is the difference in the
density or in the chemical constitution of the water. His observations were made
mostly on various species of Articulata ; be found that those fresh water species which
possess an aerial respiration can survive the change to salt water, while those which
possess only a branchial and cutaneous respiration die quickly. By oxporim -nting on water
in:ulf denser by the solution of sugar, M. Plateau came to the conclusion that the density
of the water is not the destructive agent, but a portion of the salts held in solution. The
chlorides of sodium, potassium, and magnesium, he found to be very quickly fatal to fresh-
water species, but the sulphates of magnesium and calcium had no prejudicial effect. In
the same manner the death of marine animals in fresh water appeared due to the giving off
of sea-salt from their bodies to the surrounding fluid. All these facts he believes explicable
from the laws of endosmosc and diffusion."- -'Nature', August 1871.
( 39 )
the marine forms which I have examined, except perhaps
some of the cartilaginous fishes, but then there exist fila-
ments to the horny case which envelopes the ova, apparently
for the purpose of attaching it to seaweed or other sub-
stances. Irrespective of this, if fish ova floated about at
the merey of the waves they would doubtless be extensively
destroyed by sea birds and fishes, whilst the young would be
hatched wherever currents took the eggs, and probably to
localities entirely unsuited to their condition. All descriptions
of substances, especially if gelatinous, which are floating
about or brought up by the nets from the bed of the ocean,
have been considered by fishermen as the eggs of sea-fishes.
LVII. Wherever eggs are deposited still we find
Breeding of sea-fishes— con- many modes in which the sea-fish
tinued. propagate their kind in India. It is
perfectly certain that the vast shoals which at certain sea-
sons arrive off the coast do so for breeding purposes. Full
of roe when they arrive, some being males (with soft roes)
other females (with hard roes), deficient in roe prior to their
disappearance, and many young ones being found which pre-
viously were not present, no other conclusion can be arrived
at than that they are bred off the coasts of India. Thus
the oil-sardine, Clupea Neohowu, appears off the western
coast of India, Ceylon, &c., and although full of almost
mature ova they are deficient in fat, and it is not until their
breeding has been completed that they commence to fatten ;
consequently by October, sometimes before, and for a couple
or three months subsequently, they are well adapted for
extracting oil from (see Appendix, p. cl).
LVIII. I have already pointed out in my Presh-water
immediate loss of condition Fishery Report that the hilsa, Clupea
after spawning not a necessary palasak, as SOOn as it has Completed
breeding, becomes lean and lanky, and
does not fatten until it has regained the sea, but this rule
does not obtain in the oil-sardine, or rather as it always
breeds in the sea, it has the circumstances around it which
permit its at once fattening on the extrusion of its ova. It
appears to be the rule that those fishes which breed in theseaare
not subject to such a loss of condition (unless due to disease)
after depositing their eggs, as are those marine forms which
emigrate from the sea into the fresh waters for this purpose.
LIX. Amongst the non-migatory sea and estuaries
Diverse modes in which the fishes there appear to be many diverse
young are produced, modes in which the young are
( 40 )
produced : I have already adverted to the common one, but
whether we possess any monogamous Teleosteous sea-fishes
we have as yet no decisive evidence, perhaps such may be
found amongst the Gobuda.
LX. I observed a peculiar way in which the young
How some male cat-fishes °f SOme °f the marine Slluroids Or
carry the eggs about in their c cat-fishes' are hatched, viz., by the
eggs being deposited in the mouth
of the male, who carries them about in safety until the little
ones obtain their exit. At the end of April this year (1873),
owing to the great assistance I received from Mr. H. S.
Thomas, the Collector of South Canara, I was enabled
to make an interesting investigation of some of the coast
fisheries in his district. Upwards of one hundred specimens
of the ' scaleless cat-fishes, Arius and Osteogeniosus, were
obtained, and amongst them were some eggs loose in the
baskets in which they were carried ; these averaged half an
inch in diameter, and were simil r to those I have at
other times observed in some marine siluroids. In the
mouths of some of the males of each of these species there
were from 15 to 20 eggs, some of these they dropped on
being disturbed. These escaped eggs were evidently some
of those which were loose in the basket. On examin-
ing these eggs some were in an early stage of develop-
ment, other more advanced, whilst a few had almost per-
fected embryos inside, in fact, in one the young was
hatched, but with the bag still adherent. These eggs filled
the cavity of the mouth, and extended backwards to the
branchiae, while on dissecting the fish all were males, and
food was entirely absent from the intestines of those that had
eggs in their mouths. The fishermen were positive that
they were thus carried about and hatched, and certainly
appearanoes led to that conclusion. The proportion of sexes
appeared to be frve males to one female.
LXI. Next the females came under examination : on
Breeding of sea 'cat-fishes'— tracing up the ovi-sacs it appeared
continued. that very large numbers of eggs
were present, but not all of one size. Furthest removed
from the external orifice the eggs were of full size, about
fifty in number, whilst other batches of much smaller ones
existed, evidently to take the place of the large ones when
they should have been excluded. The full -sized eggs were
each attached by a pedicle of varying extent to the inside
of the ovi-sac, giving them a considerable resemblance to the
eggs of the crocodile, G. palustris, or of common fowls. The
ventral fins in the females were considerably enlarged, reaching
to well over the commencement of the anal, the rays having
a deposit of fat on them, whilst the innermost ray had
a large pad of fatty matter hehind it. These fins can be
expanded into a cup-shaped surface, and it does not appear
improbable that this is a provision of nature for the reception
of the eggs as extruded. Perhaps the eggs received into this
receptacle are here vivified by the male, who then removes
them in his mouth. Although the males at this interesting
period are reputed to fast, evidently such must be the case if
they carry eggs in their mouths without swallowing them ;
the females do not do so ; their intestines were found to be
full of food. In fact food is a necessity to the females for
the production of the young. These fishes are said to con-
tinue breeding for several months, and they apparently lay
their eggs in batches.
LXII. Why the eggs of marine siluroids should be
carried about by the males until they
Breeding of cat-fishes in are hatched it is difficult to COniCC-
fresh waters different from those T , -, . . , ,
in the sea. ture. I have examined into the ques-
tion of the size of the eggs of fishes
in the closely allied genus Macrones, who breed in fresh
water, and find they are rather minute. Although unable to
give a reason why the eggs of the marine forms are large, it
is clear that if small they could not be conveyed about by
the males without the chance of their being swallowed. Living
amongst constantly shifting mud banks, swarming with
predaceous fishes, probably the eggs would never be permitted
to come to maturity, but protected by their parent whose
osseous serrated dorsal and pectoral rays render it a most
dangerous opponent, this plan for the preservation of the
species may be the most efficacious one.
LXIIL Amongst the Cartilaginous fishes, which are
highest in the scale, the young are
Cartilaginous fishes, and how P , _ . n . ~, ^ O
their young are produced. produced in a different manner from
those in the genera already adverted to.
Many of the sharks and their allied extrude living young,
which are formed in an enlarged portion of the oviduct, where
they either lie free and are surrounded by an albuminous fluid,
or else possess a distinct placenta. Some, however, deposit
ova, which are enclosed in quadrangular horny cases furnished
with filamentous prolongations at either extremity for the
purpose of attachment to suitable spots, and thus prevent the
( 42 )
sea current carrying them away to localities where they
would prohably be destroyed. The hard horny covering in
due time allows the exit of the embryo at its anterior extrem-
ity. These cases, often seen thrown up by the waves,
are termed ( sea purses.'
FlSH IN AN ECONOMIC POINT OF VIEW.
LXIV. The sea-fisheries of India are or should be ex-
ceedingly valuable as affording an in-
Sea-6sheries ought not only , A-I i i n • i n i i , i
to be serviceable to those living exhaustible Supply 01 animal lOOQ both
in their vicinity, but also to the fa persons living in their vicinity as
inland residents. 11 • i i i • i
well as inland, when means exist to
transport the fish either in a fresh or cured state. It surely is a
very narrow point of view to look at this question, as some civil
officers in maritime districts have considered it, viz., " my sea-
coast districts are supplied, what more can be desired ;" surely
it is desirable that these fisheries should be useful to persons
situated far from the coast. Irrespective of mere food, they
may be serviceable directly or indirectly in trade, as producing
isinglass, fish-oils, or manure, as well as requiring materials
for the building of vessels, the manufacture of nets or hooks-
and-lines, whilst the fact they are the nursery of the native
sailors should not be lost sight of.
LXV. The first question for investigation is, what propor-
tion of people would be consumers of
A very large proportion of /? 7 7 7 A 7 ^ • • , ~ i , , . -, .
the people inland would be con- Jisfi couicl they obtain it ? and this di-
sumers of salt-fish could they yides itself into the necessary enquiries
obtain it at a reasonable price. , . . „ , _ ^ , «•
who consume it fresh and who prefer
it salted ? In Sind the use of fish as an article of diet is
almost universal, whether fresh or salted : but as the fresh-
water fish are cured to a considerable extent, there is not con-
sequently that demand for sea-fish for home consumption that
exists elsewhere. In the Bombay Presidency (see Fresh-water
Fishery Report, p. xxxiii), the majority of the inhabitants
of the inland districts are consumers of fish when they can
procure it. There appears to be an unlimited demand inland
for sea-fish either salted or dried, and the supply does not
equal the demand. In Madras, the great majority of the po-
pulation are not precluded by their religious prejudices from
eating fish, but it is evident that in many places it is only the
lower castes and the Christians who consume it when salted ;
this of course may also be due to the inferior quality of the
nrticle as at present prepared. In Bengal we have a slight
dilference, there can be no doubt, that the fresh fish is more
( 43 )
largely in demand than the salted. This, however, I think, I
shall have reason for showing may be partly accounted for
by the repressive duty on salt, which renders it practically
unobtainable for the fish-curing classes, consequently they
simply dry the fish, Thus the article is inferior, whilst the
Bengalee is bigoted. We may sub-divide this Presidency
by first enquiring what the Ooriahs prefer. The Collector of
Balasore (p. cxxi) observes that "even in the town of
Balasore, only six miles from the sea, the fish sold in the
markets is so stale that no European would touch it, and
much of it is putrid. * * The people in this district do not
salt their fish : they dry it in the sun, and eat it when it is
quite putrid. They like it in this way, and there is no rea-
son why they should be interfered with." The foregoing
fact that it is thus sold in Balasore I have personally witness-
ed, but the Collector's reasoning is, I think, open to discus-
sion. A zemindar of the same locality, observing on the
sanitary condition of the fishermen, remarked, " Cholera
seems made for these people " (p. cxv), and that putrid fish
frequently engenders disease* is too well known to require
dilating upon. But we arrive at the conclusion that salt is
rarely employed in the preservation of fish eaten by the
Ooriah. The dried fish is also exported inland to the hill
people. Dr. W. Hunter observes of this often famine-strick-
en population that " all castes in Orissa, below the Karans or
writers, would gladly use salted fish : and at this moment
they consume great quantities of fish imperfectly cured in the
sun and more or less rotten. "With the Chasas, or peasant
population, who form the great body of the people, this is a
favourite article of food : indeed, almost the sole relish which
they can afford to their monotonous rice diet. The hus-
bandman stores up his supply of dry fish in reed baskets,
* It may be well to decide whether it is humane or even prudent in a sanitary point of
view to make the price of salt so excessively high that it cannot be used to preserve fish
with, and thus compel the people to go without or consume it putrid or rotten. We read
that " in Bergen there are two large hospitals devoted exclusively to the treatment of
patients suffering from a peculiar form of disease, brought on by eating badly-cured fish j
the disease is a mixture of leprosy and elephantiasis" (both common in Orissa). In Ireland
in 1645 we are told that the leprosy was driven out of Munster by the English : the disease
being due to the people eating foul salmon or those out of season. This was prohibited and
the prohibition enforced, " whereby hindering these barbarians against their will to feed on
that poisonous meat; they were the cause of that woeful sickness which used so mightily
to reign among them hath in time been almost abolished." The Collector of Rat~
nagiri (p. xxv) states that "the high duty on salt is undoubtedly a source of epidemics and
other serious illnesses induced by eating imperfectly prepared fish." Mr. Cornish in his obser-
vations on the nature of the food of the inhabitants of Southern India, 1864, remarked fish
is often moreover used in a semi-putrid state, from bad salting, and in this condition it
undoubtedly predisposes to disease" (2nd Ed., p. 48). I think the foregoing extract
sufficient to show that compelling a population to eat rotten fish may be a rather impolitic act.
( 44 )
and sparingly doles out the decomposing mass as a luxury to
his frugal household throughout the year" (Orissa, II.
p. 160). The foregoing must drive one to the conclusion
that in districts where salt is cheap the people do eat
salt-fish : where that condiment is dear, so that a sufficient
amount cannot be afforded to adequately preserve it, the
people of even the higher classes do not use it to any great
extent : but where the cost of salt is prohibitory, salt-fish is
totally neglected. Now we arrive at the question, is salt-fish
used in Bengal ? (Orissa has been alluded to). All sorts of
reasons are given why salt-fish is not eaten in Bengal to any
extent, " that it is not very palatable" (p. cxxiii), or that
" the people are not skilled in salting fish." If, however, we
cross over from Bengal into Burma, where salt instead
of being Us. 5 a maund sinks sometimes to 8 annas, we
find that salt-fish is invariably consumed in the form of
nga-pee by the indigenous population. I think the fore-
going shows that in almost every district where salt is
sufficiently cheap to allow of its being freely used in cur-
ing fish that the article is universally consumed. Where
salt is moderately taxed, but salt-earth jnay be employed free
of duty, there is a large consumption, especially amongst the
poorer classes. But when the price of salt renders it un-
attainable by the fish-curers there is no demand for salt-fish.
LXVI. How are the markets supplied with fah ?
The productiveness of the sea, and
The local demand for fish the harvest gathered from it by the
close to the sea is generally well « -, T . «»
met during the cafm months of fishermen, are two very different and
the j ear, but where salt is dear distinct things. In SM the COast
the fish is often sold and eaten -• ' , , , .,, ,. ..
putrid. markets appear to be well supplied, so
much so, that the average exports have
reached Us. 45,889 during the last five years. In Bombay the
local wants of the coast markets appear to be supplied to a
great extent, especially at certain seasons, but very little is
cnred and transported inland, because " home-cured fish
cannot now compete with that cured at Goa and elsewhere,
where a salt excise does not exist" (p. xi). Some, however,
is dried and sent inland. Taking the average imports and
exports of salt and dried fish in the port of Bombay for the
last five years, we find (p. xxv) the average excess of imports
over exports has amounted to Rs. 73,658 annually. At
Batnaffiri it is reported (p. xxv) that " any increase of the
supply of fish would be a boon to the poor inland. At present
there is no doubt that the fish imported to those places are most
( 46 )
imperfectly cured, and if any means can be devised to preserve
them better, a more abundant and more wholesome suste-
nance would be obtainable by people who are at present
in a wretched state of destitution." In the Madras Presi-
dency, as a rule, the supply of fish in the local coast mar-
kets is equal to the demand throughout the fine weather
season, but in many places it does not appear equal to
supplying inland markets. In South Canara (p. xliiii) the
Collector observes that " great quantities of sea-fish are
carried inland by boats up the many rivers which exist, or
being taken by coolies to places as far as ten miles from
the sea, and there exchanged for grain and condiments ;
these are sometimes fresh, but more frequently besmeared
with salt-earth, or a slight amount of Government salt.
But the salt is either so lost in mud or so expensive that
very little is used, and the fish are necessarily so partially
cured that in most cases putrefaction has set in before
they are consumed. Thus, a wholesome food is made an
unwholesome one, and the consumers' demand for it is
doubtless much reduced thereby." The Collector of Tri-
cMnopoly observes — " No doubt good fish could be sold to
almost any amount ; and the supply is nothing equal to the
demand" (p. Ivii). At Cuddalore the Assistant Collector
observer that " the demand of the local market can entirely
consume all the obtainable supply." Some places inland
are supplied from the coast fisheries to a certain extent :
thus salted fish obtains a sale along the Wynaad range of
hills where coffee estates exist. Likewise a fair amount is
carried inland from the Western coast by rail, even for the
purpose of supplying the Negapatam market on the east-
ern coast. Higher up we find some exported inland to
supply Hyderabad, and also the people along the hills. In.
Orissa and Bengal no complaints are given of imperfectly
supplied bazars, simply because from that Presidency the
most incomplete returns have been received. The Officiat-
ing Collector of Poree says that " near the Chilka Lake
the people subsist largely on fish all the year round. At a
distance from the Chilka Lake fish is a rarity and a delicacy,
except during the rainy season, at which period every
chasa plies his net, basket, or trap for small fry " (p.
cxviii). At Balasore, where putrid fish is the common
diet, dried fish are taken to the Tributary States during the
winter for sale (p. cxxi). At jBhaugulpoor the markets,
except during the height of the rains, are stated to be well
( 46 )
supplied. In Chittagong only sufficient appears to be taken
to supply the local markets, and at Noakhally that even
this demand is scarcely met. In Surma the markets
appear to be considered as well supplied with Nga-pee
(see p. cxxix).
LXVII. It will be now necessary to examine in what
Modes in which fish are wa7 fish ^ consumed or prepared
cured or prepared for future for Consumption along the Sea-COasts
consumption. Qf j^ and Burma. and this must
be considered under the following headings : — (1) fresh, how
far can it be carried so as to be fit for food ; (2) dried fish,
the sorts of which it is composed, and how it is prepared ;
and (3) lastly cured or salted fish, which again will have
to be divided into that prepared with monopoly salt, whe-
ther foreign or indigenous, that in which salt or swamp
earth is the condiment employed, and, finally, when sea-water
alone has been used.
LXVII I. Sow far inland can fresh fish be conveyed in
The distance inland uncured th& PMnS °f India S0 aS to be fa far
fish can be conveyed to market human Consumption ? In the CXaml-
nation of this question, it must be
distinctly understood that the use of salt or ice is not here
adverted to. The distance sea-fish can be carried inland whilst
fresh will depend upon several causes. The season may cur-
tail this, as in the hot months putrefaction of course occurs
very rapidly amongst fish packed closely in a basket and
exposed to the full force of the sun. Again, fishermen
do not bring their fish ashore as a rule (unless where there
exist fixed engines and the tide suits) until after sunrise, and
even that brought of an evening will rarely be conveyed in-
land by coolies, as they have a strong aversion to be out after
dark. Of course facilities of carriage must have much to do
with this question, as by rail they may be taken further
than by any other mode ; but this is hardly a normal condition
of things. They can be conveyed by boats some distance
inland in many districts where facilities of water communi-
cation exist. But the common mode is by coolies, and what
with detentions at the time of starting, and the loitering along
the road, I have not yet been in any place where I have seen
sea-fish when carried by coolies anything like fresh above
ten miles from the place of capture. The Collector of South
Canara (p. xliii) likewise observes on sea-fish being car-
ried by coolies to places as far as ten miles from the sea.
The tehsildar of Tenkarei in Tinncvelly, however, states
(p. Ixxxv) " that raw fish are taken as much as 30 miles
inland ;" but I suspect he means fish that have not been
cured, and that these raw-fish have been opened, cleaned,
and rubbed inside with salt, as I shall have to refer to. In
the South Arcot Collectorate, it is stated " fish are some-
times taken six or seven miles for sale, as far as is consistent
with safety to the fish" (p. xcii). In the Madras Collectorate,
the tehsildar of Chingleput observes, "fish are not taken more
than twenty miles for sale" (p. xciii); at Ponnery " fresh fish
is not carried above ten miles" (p. xciii). At Balasore, " only
six miles from the sea, the fish sold in the markets is so stale
that no European would touch it, and much of it is putrid"
(p. cxxi). But the question of the kind of fish carried has
much to do with this subject, the immature fish as a rule be-
coming putrid much more rapidly than the mature. Leaving
aside the cartilaginous fishes, those which are carried inland
chiefly belong to the Acanthopterygian or hard-rayed order
(p. cliii) and the Physostomatous order, or those forms in
which as a rule a communication exists between the air-vessel
and the pharynx (p. cclxxxii). Among the first, (excluding
some, as the mackerel, &c.,) are found the fishes which can be
safely conveyed the longest distances in a fresh state, as the
different forms of sea-perches, the Polynemi, and horse-mack-
erel, &c., whilst the mackerel with its wide gill-openings and
the Trichiurus with its thin skin very rapidly decompose.
Among the Physostomi are two reasons for decomposition,
first the nature of the fish, as the herrings, secondly, due to
the food which they have eaten, as the siluroids ; and these last
very rapidly taint. I think it may be safely assumed that
fresh fish as a rule cannot be conveyed inland by coolies above
ten miles, so as to be fit for human consumption. But if the
fish are first opened and cleaned, some salt rubbed in and care
taken in conveying them as to their being properly shaded
and the direct rays of the sun avoided as much as possible,
they may be carried considerably further. But salt being
dear, instead of a sufficiency being employed, a very slight
amount is used, and putrefaction has often set in prior to
their being sold for human food.
LXIX. Having adverted to how fresh fish are disposed
HOW sea-fish are cured along of, we will next enquire into how sea-
theco<asts- fish are cured along the coasts of
India and Burma, commencing with dried fish. This can be
done with the smaller and thinner species, as Equulcfs, scabbard
fishes or Trichiurus, many of the herrings, the Bombay duck,
or Harpodon nehereus, &c. But for the larger fishes this
( 48 )
process is not adapted ; however, slices can be cut from them
and dried, a plan I found existing in Mergui with respect to
sharks. Without at present referring to the salt-tax, it is
very evident that its incidence must have some bearing upon
this mode of preparing fish. "We first observe solely sun-
dried fish wholesale in the Bombay Presidency, in fact the
Collector of Tanna remarks " fish netted in excess of the
demand is, as a rule, sliced, cleaned, and dried in the sun, and
then packed off mostly to Bheuridy, which is the chief entre-
pot for the sale of dried and salted fish : whether fish is dried
as above in preference to its being salted is a question I have
been unable to ascertain ; the fishing class say that it is their
custom so to treat the fish. It is very probable that it has
been resorted to in the place of curing by salt consequent on
the excise duty levied on salt." As we proceed down the
coast and enquire whether all the surplus fish is dried as des-
cribed in Bombay, we find that it is not, the people being allow-
ed to gather the salt-earth for this purpose, and as a conse-
quence they prepare their fish with it in preference to having
it simply dried. In the Trichinopoly Collectorate, " on the
coast, I believe that all the salting much of this so-called
cured fish gets is being buried in the sea sand, and thus get-
ting slightly briny" (p. Ivii). We hear nothing respecting the
desire of the fishermen to rather dry their fish than salt it,
until we arrive in Bengal, and there we find drying in the sun
the almost sole means employed for curing it. Leaving Ben-
gal and examining the reports from Burma, the sun-dried fish
again become scarcely even alluded to. This brings us to
the following conclusion, that wherever salt is expensive the
natives have a preference ( ? due to the cost) to sun-dried fish :
that where it is cheap, this mode of preparation is but little
employed.
LXX. I now arrive at a most important question for
analysis, viz., how are fish cured with
How is salt-fish prepared ? ,, •; ' ' . , , ,
with the comparative amount salt ? and as I previously remarked,
used in curing with monopoly this must be divided under the follow-
salt or salt-earth. . . - ,_. T,. , i .,1
mg heads. (1) — Fish cured with mo-
nopoly or excised salt, or (2) with earth or spontaneous but
untaxed salt.* Before entering into the subject contained
under each of the above three heads, it will be advisable to
enquire what amount of salt is necessary to properly prepare
a given amount of fish ? At Kurrachee the Collector of the
Sea Customs reports that 201bs. of the best salt is employed
* Soaking fish in sea-water, either partially evaporated or not so, is so very similar
in its results to merely sun-dried lish that observations on it do not appear to be necessary.
( 49 )
for the purpose of curing a maund or 82-f-lbs. of fish. The
Superintendent of Sea Customs at Tellicherry replies " that
about 281bs. of monopoly salt are used to a maund of small
fish, as mackerel, sardines^ &c. ; for instance, 1,000 mackerel,
weighing about two bazar maunds of 321bs. each-, are cured
with five measures of salt equal to 20 and odd pounds ; but
if salt earth is employed, two baskets full of that substanc'e
weighing about five bazar maunds are required. It would
thus appear that for the purposes of trade that the best salt is
used for curing fish in the proportion of one part of salt to
about three of fish ; but if salt-earth is made use of it re-
quires nearly three (above two and a half) parts of salt-earth
to one part of fish. However, at Guadar, where I narrowly ins-
pected the process adopted (salt being very cheap), a consider-
ably larger amount of this antiseptic was used than is reported
to be employed in Sind and in India. In Burma and Mergui
for Nga-pee made from prawns I found one ounce of salt was
required to every two ounces of these Crustacea.
LXXI. How is Government or excised salt used in the
Mode in wbioh excised salt is CUTing of the Sea-fish ? In Sind, Go-
employed in curing sea-fish. vemment or excised salt is stated to
be exclusively used by the fish-curers. In the Bombay Pre-
sidency, either excised salt is not employed for curing fish or
else it is used to such a small extent that the article is of an
inferior quality. In Surat it is used for preparing the
Bombay ducks or Bomloes, but they require a very small
amount of this antiseptic. Pish, it may observed, can be
cured with salt in sufficient quantities to render the article
good, wholesome, and undecomposed for a considerable length
of time, and fit for importation to distant markets. But in
the Bombay Presidency it unfortunately happens that the
duty per maund on salt is Us. 1-13, whilst there being no duty
in contiguous foreign states, it " generally costs two annas
a maund, even if as much" (p. xii). But the sea is the same ;
the identical varieties of fish can be obtained by the fisher-
men at the same cost of capture, whilst no import duty exist
on its entering British territory ; the result is said to be that
this mode of preparing saH-fish does not pay in the Bombay
Presidency. The Deputy Commissioner of the salt revenue in
the Southern Division observes that " at the more important
ports, however, a very large trade exists in salted fish, but this
is almost exclusively the produce of neighbouring foreign ports
(Gba, Daumaun, and Diu)" (p. xvii). The Assistant Com-
missioner observes " foreign fisheries have decided advantages
over ours, as the salt employed by them generally costs
9
two annas a maund, even if as much, whereas British excised
salt could not be removed from the pans under Us. 2 per
Indian maund. Hence the foreign fisheries are ahle to em-
ploy salt freely and to the full extent to cure fish thoroughly.
Our fishermen, on the contrary, hearing in view the compara-
tive cost of salt to them, cannot afford to be so lavish, and
consequently use just sufficient salt to preserve the fish, for
a time, but not to cure it" (p. xxi). In the Madras Presi-
dency, fish is prepared in places with Government salt, espe-
cially for export to Ceylon, but as I shall presently show, there
is good reason for concluding that this antiseptic is not used
to any very great extent for this purpose, as it makes no per-
ceptible figure in the amount of salt disposed of. At Canna-
nore (p. Ixxv) " some of the boat-owners whose means admit
of storing salted fish until they can find a good market use
Government salt for curing both large and small fishes intend-
ed for consumption in the hilly countries of Coorg, Wynaad,
and Mysore, &c., and also for exportation to Colombo, &c."
At Tellicherry it is only those fish " intended for exportation
to Colombo that are solely cured by Government salt, as such
only can be preserved for a long time, ^nd are capable of being
carried, without deterioration, to distant markets" (p. Ixxvii).
In the Travancore State, " the fishermen themselves very sel-
dom go to the expense of salting fish. There are export
agents from Ceylon and other places who buy the fish raw, or
advance money for the harvest of the season. These people
buy the salt for curing" (p. Hi). It is evident from the
returns in the appendix that Government salt is not much
used for curing fish up the eastern coast of the Madras Presi-
dency.; Whilst in Bengal it is scarcely ever thus employed,
in Burma it is used for preparing nga-pee. I think the fore-
going extracts show that the fishermen of India scarcely
ever employ Government or excised salt in the curing of
fish; that when it is so employed the salt is purchased by
agents or else money is advanced by them for it, and that the
article is intended for export as to Ceylon, or into the hilly
countries where coffee estates exist, and the coolies can afford
the better and more wholesome article.
LXXJL Are fish cured to any extent with earth or
HOW ** are cured «ith suit- ^ntaneous but untaxed salt ? This
earth. The cost, and what will enquiry is a most important one, res-
^£^*£$^*" Fating the salt-fish trade, especially
as it appears that Government or ex-
cised salt is only used for this purpose for a small local and
the foreign demand, unless it is cheap. Government salt is
( 51 )
used for this purpose in Sind, but salt-earth or spontaneous
salt is not thus employed. In Bombay we are told that the
use of this salt-earth is prohibited in Surat, but that in some
places in the Presidency it is employed for the purpose of
curing fish, although sun-drying without salt is the usual
practice. At Ratnagiri "the police patell of the village
below Zygurh fort has found it impossible to prevent the
Daldis from tresspassing on an old salt-pan there, now no
longer used. These people come to dig up the earth,
which is impregnated with salt, for the purpose mentioned"
(p. xx v). In the Madras Presidency we must first examine
what occurs on the Western or Malabar coast,* and subse-
quently the Eastern or Coromandel. On the western coast an
enormous increase in the trade of curing fish with salt-earth
has sprung during the last few years, the origin of which
requires a short explanation. In Malabar it has been ruled
that the natives possess the privilege of manufacturing salt
for their own use, and that such cannot be a subject of inter-
ference by the excise. It would be difficult to guage the
amount of salt required for a families use, especially if they
employed such an antiseptic in curing fish for their own
future consumption. Although they cannot legally sell this
salt, there does not appear any law which can prevent their
disposing of any surplus stock of salt-fish which they may
have, and thus it has come to pass that these sea-fisheries are
pretty well fished, the fishermen finding a sale for his cap-
tures is pretty steady at his work, whilst their numbers have
largely increased and comparatively enormous exports of salt
fish to distant places has been the result, even sea ports as
Negapatam being supplied with salt-fish from Malabar by
rail. It must not be supposed that this salt-earth is of the
best or finest quality, for the Collector reports of Malabar salt
" the people dislike it, asserting that it imparts a bitter and
unpleasant savour to food, and brings on that common com-
plaint in Malabar, the itch" (p. xxxviii). But the poor of
India cannot be too particular as to the taste of the food
which they consume ; with them a far more important question
is the cost. A few figures will explain this ; the cost of ex-
cised salt to the fish-curers cannot be less than 2 ru-
pees a maund of about 82fibs. weight : cured with this des-
cription of salt one maund of salt is required to about three
maunds of fish, or omitting the cost of the fish and the wastage^
* From Pondicherry to Cape Comoriu used to be iucluded in the Malabar Coast ; to this
day persons from those districts are termed ' Malabars,' as will be seen in the present Ceylon
report.
( 52 )
we have four maunds weight costing 32 annas. If, how-
ever, we examine the cost of salt-fish prepared with salt-earth,
we find it to he as follows : the cost of a maund of salt-earth
(p. Ixxv) is from two to four pies a basket, according to size,
the largest of which is capable of containing " from four to
4J maunds, the medium 3 to 3 J, and the smallest 2 to 2^ bazar
maunds." Computing the bazar maund at 32fts., we find
the cost to be about 4 pies per 144fts. weight, or 2| pies
per Indian maund of 82fts. It requires, however, about three
times as much of this species of salt to cure fish as it does of
the excised salt, consequently 4 maunds or 3291bs. of fish cured
with monopoly or excised salt require from 801bs. (Kurra-
qhee) to 112 (Tellicherry), which at 32 annas a maund gives
an outlay* of from 32 to 48 annas. Whilst about 4 maunds
or 3201bs. of fish cured with salt-earth at Tellicherry require
SOOlbs. weight, which gives an outlay* of from two annas to
two annas six pies. If, as is proposed, this salt-earth is
subjected to an excise duty of Re. 1-13 a maund, it is very
easy to foretell the result ; it would enhance the cost of salt-
ing fish for the poor by 1,600 per cent., and thus entirely
deprive them of it, and they will have to fall back upon
sun-dried fish ; the fisherman's trade will be depressed, the
market for his takes will be lessened, the price of fish will
fall, and that because there will be no fish-curers to purchase
his captures.
LXXIII. Along the eastern coast, where its salt-earth
, . . , . is not so available for this trade, where
Result of interfering with .. ,, , , n
the collection of salt-earth to its collection and sale may be consi-
both the public, the fish-curers, dered a penal offence, (and by some
and the fishermen's trade. ~ .f . . '.£ . ,{ .,
officers it is, by others it is not), it can
hardly be asserted that the unstricted use of salt-earth is per-
mitted. Consequently it is in the power of any petty official
or even policeman, to interfere. And thus, as will be
presently shown, this coast as to the productiveness of its sea-
fisheries cannot be compared with Malabar, where from a single
port alone, as Tellicherry, is exported more salt-fish than from
the whole extent of the Coromandel coast, whilst the rich-
ness of the fisheries as sources of supply, if utilized, is
about the same. In Madura " the use of salt-earth is prohi-
bited (p. liii) : In Tinnevelly the Collector is pathetic respect-
ing the 'poor fisherman', and begs to record his
decided opinion that any interference with sea fishing is
quite uncalled for. Any restriction, therefore, would affect
* I omit calulating the increased weight due to the use of the salt-enrtb.
( 53 )
a number of persons who have no other means of earning
a livelihood." Certainly restrictions on these poor people
are apparently uncalled for, but the question is, do not they
now exist in the most arbitrary form, and one most disastrous
to the fisherman. He continues, " it is illegal to gather the
spontaneous or earth-salts, and therefore illegal to use it for
fish-curing." Its use is illegal in the Trichinopoly district
(Ivii). In South Arcot it is a penal offence to extract salt
from the earth (p. Ivii). In Madras (p. Ix), in Nellore
(p. Ixi) and the Godavery districts (p. Ixvii) and Vizagapa-
tam (p. Ixix) its use is permitted. But states the tehsildar
of Ongole " it is a custom amongst some people to employ a
•small quantity of salt even for large fish, and lay them
underground on the sea-shore for a day, and expose them to
the sunshine. The poor fishermen, unable to buy salt, wash
fish in salt-water, bury them in saltish earth for a day, and
manage somehow or other to make them salt-fish, but this
salt-fish is not only tasteless but stinking and becomes useless
in a short period" (p. xciv). In the Kistna district salt-earth
is stated " by the Collector not to be employed" (p.
Ixv), but the native officials distinctly deny this (p. xcviii),
saying that it is used clandestinely. And in Ganjam
the fish-curers " are not allowed to use salt-earth untaxed"
(p. Ixx). The Collector of Kurnool states that there are
no restrictions against the use of earth-salt, but there is a
tax of two rupees per annum on each pan (p. Ixxii). In
Bengal, salt-earth does not appear to be permitted for this
purpose, whilst it is not employed in Burma, probably
because of the cheapness of good salt.
LXXIV. Before enquiring into the exports of these
two varieties of salted fish, it will be
Compantive, economic, and sa- . . '
nitary qualities of fish cured necessary to investigate what is the
with good salt or salt-earth. comparative, economic, and sanitary
quality of fish cured with good salt or salt-earth ? We have
already seen the difference in the cost of preparing them is
from 12 to at least 16 times as much if a proper amount of
Government salt is employed, to what it is when the untaxed
salt-earth is used, but that the latter article is what is mostly
purchased for home consumption, probably on account of its
price.
LXXY. First as to salt-fish prepared with good salt.
Fish cured with excised or * Tne Price of salt along the Meckran
monopoly salt. coast and Sind (8 annas a maund)
permits the use of a full amount of salt in curing fish, and
having no duty to pay upon the article, they can easily under-
( 54 )
sell the natives of Bombay with a duty Re. 1-13 per maund,
consequently the article properly prepared is good, whole-
some, and undecomposed for a considerable time. But where
a heavy salt-tax exists the quality of the article is seen to
change, only just sufficient saline ingredients is used to
prevent immediate decomposition, rendering it available for
sale but not for keeping. Thus the article, except in its
superior state, is but little better than fish cured with salt-
earth. As it begins to deterioate some dealers smoke it or
otherwise try to render it saleable, and at once dispose of it.
LXXV1. Secondly, respecting the quality of fish pre-
Quaiity of fish prepared with pared with salt-earth. It stands to
salt-earth. reason that if a small amount of good
salt is insufficient to cure fish properly, the probabilities
must be that those prepared with salt-earth can hardly be of
a superior description, both due to its inferior taste and its
large admixture with impurities. In Guzerat (p. xxi) " the
curing of fish is so utterly neglected that it will not keep for
any length of time. Hence a large portion of it soon be-
comes unfit for human consumption, and is either cast away
or used as manure." The fishermen "endeavour to sell as
much of the fresh fish as they possibly can for local consump-
tion, at exceedingly low rates, and it is only what remains on
their hands unsold that they cure imperfectly and get rid of
anyhow " (p. xxi). " The high duty on salt is undoubtedly a
source of epidemics, and other serious illnesses induced
by eating imperfectly prepared fish" observes the Collector
of Ratnagiri (p. xxv) whether this is due to the insufficiency
of salt employed or to the use of salt-earth is immaterial.
In Tinnevelly, the Collector states " this salted fish is much
affected by the 'Paraver' caste on the coast ; I never tasted
it. The smell was quite enough,5' The upper classes would
prefer a superior article, " but the lower are, I fancy, well
satisfied with t)ie article they now obtain. It has one great
recommendation in their eyes, it is very cheap" (p. Iv).
In Triehinopoly the salt-fish "is liable to give pain in tho
bowels, and itch to those not used to its consumption."
This article " generally stinks pretty offensively" (p. Ivii).
'* If really good salt-fish were made at the present price
of Government salt, the product would be beyond the reach
of the chief consumers" (p. Ivii). Doubtless investigations
in other salt-taxed districts all point to this remark being
at the whole root of the matter, and the people who use
the present article have to undergo a preliminary training of
" pain in the bowels and itch" before their intestines can
( 55 )
digest it. At Udipy, in South Canara, " Government salt is
sometimes used by the fishermen for curing fish for their own
eating, but they employ salt-earth or sea-water for that
which is sold" (p. Ixxiii). At Ponany, in Malabar, "the
majority of the fishermen are very poor, and can ill afford
to procure salt at the present rates. Sea- water is never em-
ployed in curing fish, but salt-earth is largely so, the
consequence being that fish thus salted soon becomes
unwholesome. The chief cause of the frequency of
cholera in this district is popularly attributed to the indis-
criminate consumption of fish salted by the above means"
(p. Ixxiv). At Tellicherry it is remarked of salt-fish, that
" those intended for exportation to Colombo are solely cured
by Government salt, as such only can be preserved for a long
time, and are capable of being carried without deterioration
to distant markets" (p. Ixxvii). In Madura " people on the
coast do not relish the salt-fish cured with salt- earth"
(p. Ixxxiii). In Tanjore the fishermen assert "that if salt-
earth is used, the fish soon becomes wormy and rotten "
(p. Ixxxix). In South Arcot "fish of the smallest kind,
which finds no purchaser if arrived at the stage of putrefac-
tion, is dried up in sand and sold to the poor people" (p. xcii).
LXXVIL Anything which tends to hamper a trade
or occupation must of a necessity be
The incidence of the salt- to a greater or less extent objection-
tax directly on the fish curers* , , , T , J
occupation. able, and I here propose to examine
the following question : — Has the salt-
tax any such effect in India ? If the purchasers of salt-fish
were rich and could afford giving an enhanced price without
decreasing consumption, and if the fish-curers were capital-
ists, the result of largely increasing the cost of salt would
only be to augment the price of the salt-fish. It seems
from the returns that the chief consumers are of a poor
class, and due to this any increase in the price of the salted
article places it beyond their reach ; irrespective of this, the
fishermen are likewise poor, and cannot afford the outlay
which would be necessary to purchase any large amount of
monoply salt.
LXXVIII. The incidence of the salt-tax on the fish-
curers has thus been adverted to in
th.^MT^'l'S: *he dp^nt reports from the various
sind fisheries. Presidencies. In Bind the price of
the best salt is one rupee a maund,
sometimes less. The Commissioner observes respecting salt-
fish " there is a good trade quite equal to the demand, and
( 56 )
the fishermen are well off, what more can be desired ? If
we now examine the exports of dried and salted fish from
this province for the last 20 years, we find the trade to have
been as follows : —
5 years ending 1857-58, value in Rupees ... ... 84,723
6 „ „ 1862-63 „ „ ... ... 1,30,644
5 „ „ 1867-68 „ „ ... ... 1,87,252
5 „ „ 1872-73 „ „ ... ... 2,29,449
This remarkable increase, wherein we see that the ex-
ports are nearly treble now to what they were in the first
five years, is worthy of examination, because about the same
amount is now realised as tax, rent, or license from the
fishermen, as was in the earlier period under review. The
price of salt continues much the same. The number of
fishermen are said to have continued stationary, and for this
stimulus to the trade we must enquire further away. The
first notable augmentation of exports appears occurred in
1860-61, in that year the duty on salt was raised in Bombay
from 16 to 20 annas a maund of 82flfes. avoirdupois : the
second spurt of the export trade in Sind was in 1864-65, in
1865 the duty on salt in Bombay was again increased from
20 to 24 annas a maund : whilst none of these duties affected
the salt trade of Sind.
LXXIX. Has any effect been appreciable in the
Bombay Presidency in the trade of
Effects of the sait-tax in the salt-fish due to the salt-tax ? The
Bombay Presidency on the /. n • ,1 /» -i
fisherman's trade. tollowing are the amounts ot duty
and the quantity of salt and dried-
fish imported, for such years as have been furnished : —
Duty per Value of fish
maund. imported in.
Rs. As. P. Us.
From 1852 to 1858-59... 100 ?
1860-61 it became 140 ?
1865 ... 180 ?
1866-67 ... .180 24,499
1868-r.'.) ... 1,16,246
1869-70 ... 1 13 0 91,222
1870-71 ... 1 13 0 89,899
1871-72 ... ... 1 13 0 64,439
1872-73 ... ~ 1 13 0 82,019
The Collector of the salt revenue in the Northern
Division observes that there can be no doubt that the salt-
tax,* combined with the repeal of the duty on imports of
* In Iluiisan it is stated that salt is given to the fishermen at f of the rate it is
supplied to the public (p. xxvi), yet it is observed that "no Government salt whatever is
I'.ir curing lish." At Camlay formerly the fishermen " were allowed salt free of
Juty (p. xxvii.)
salt-fish (1867) from foreign ports, lias acted most prejudi-
cially to the interests of the British fishermen, and has depriv-
ed them to some extent of their hereditary occupation.
Home-cured fish cannot now compete with that cured at
Goa and elsewhere, where a salt excise does not exist, and
the trade with its profits has now passed almost entirely into
the hands of foreigners. Near Bombay a very small amount
is said to be salted, but some is now dried. Mr. Pratt states
that the fishermen only provide a sufficiency for local con-
sumption : that in olden times salt was allowed free of duty
for this purpose. It may be generally asserted that unless
the fishermen can smuggle salt from the contiguous Native
States, where no salt excise obtains, or are able to collect salt-
earth surreptitiously, the fish-curers' trade in salt fish (exclu-
sive of dried fish) is almost extinct.
LXXX. The most complete figures and answers have
Returns from the Madras been received from the Madras Presi-
Presidency most complete. dency, and it will first be advisable to
tabulate all such as have come to hand, premising that they
only refer to imports and exports by sea.
LXXXI. Imports and exports of salt and dried fish by
Imports and exports of salt S€a' On the Western Coast.
and dried fish by sea on the
Western Coast.
IMPORTS BY SEA — VALUE IN RUPEES. EXPORTS B SEA — VALUE IN RUPEES
YEAES.
South
Canara.
Malabar.
Cochin.
Tra van-
core.
South
Canara.
Malabar.
Cochin
in owt.
Travan-
core.
1853-54
?
?
?
1,008
?
?
?
28,401
1854-55
?
4,170
?
912
?
18,293
?
30,094
1855-56
?
7,887
?
1,171
?
27,687
P
44,474
1856-57
?
10,465
?
1,223
?
62,387
?
31,755
1857-58
?
8,623
?
1,498
?
42,033
?
36,826
] 858-59
?
8,014
?
1,516
?
39,870
p
29,193
1859-60
?
2,487
?
2,281
?
45,246
?
43,944
1860-61
16,918
3,611
?
3,290
562
69,170
?
97,764
1861-62
16,443
5,432
?
4,266
1,034
62,140
?
70,614
1862-63
26,310
7,886
?
4,886
14,445
46,303
? ' 1,08,339
1863-64
24,156
5,573
?
212
10,574
87,345
1,08,340
1864-65
42,007
3,457
?
379
30,366
94.981
329
1,18,806
1865-66
19,061
4,749
?
0
8,750
84,882
112
1,42,264
1866-67
36,366
13,787
?
11,249
95,158
339
1,46,409
1867-68
45,734
25.673
P
8,757
1,19,708
348
1,58,378
1868-69
34,165
39,115
?
1,149
1,21,453
1,687
1,39,512
1869-70
34,285
23,697
p
(
20,533
2,18,573
1,639
1,19,312
1870-71
26,088
10,951
p
39,275
1,50,268
2,644
1,14,096
1871-72
21,478
11,442
?
28,452
1,72,488
2,542
1,34,895
1872-73
22,225
9,055
?
?
59,804
2,45,713
1,617
?
( 58 )
4
I
I
2,
1
1.
LXXXII. If we now examine the returns from the
eastern coast of the Madras Presidency,
continual
2
we obtain the following results : —
CO •t'*
*> fe
00 wfl
co~ co"
CO <N
t>. 00
00 <M
0$
O Ci
co
_? of rj _T
cr
CO
O O
<M CO (M
O r-H «5
i— I CO
w
CO >O CO
00 00 i-(
: :
CO
CO
4^ t^
oooo
The first thing that arrests one's attention is the great
difference in the amount of export trade in salt-fish between
what exists on the eastern from what we perceive on the
western coast of the Madras Presidency. If we divide the
years under examination into quinquennial periods, we see the
following respecting the exports, taking the value in rupees: —
Exports of Salt-fish by sea.
Five years ending.
Western coast ; value in
rupees.
Eastern coast ; value in
rupees.
1857-58
1862 63
1867-68
1872-73
3,21,950
6,28,624
11,18,991
15,75,651*
?
?
17,531
45,137
LXXXIII. It is exceedingly curious to observe how
this trade appears to he flourishing in
Fish-curers' trade flourishing T i • ^ ^ • i • •
in western, languishing in east- western India and languishing m
em coast of the Madras Presi- eastem.f But prior to investigating
the cause, it will be as well to enquire
whether in those districts where the vast increase in the salt-
ing of fish is found to be going on there is a corresponding
sale of monopoly salt.
Exports by sea of salt-fish LXXXIV. Return showing the
from western India,and the sales yearly exports of Salt-fish bu SCCt, and
of salt, the latter having but ~, * * //? //
little connection with the former. tM CLUnUal SCtlCS OJ Salt :
SOUTH CAITAEA.!
CANJTANORE.
TELLICHERRY.
COCHIN.
THAVANCORB.
1
"5
1
1
p
§
ca
g
p
k
CJ
a
|
i
^
p
s
p
p
YKARS.
T»
i
73
i
•e
I
S
•d1
I
•2 oj
.3
1*
a
|[B
p
p
-2
p
&* PH
2
It
*f
E.A
•rf
a.
'O"
o.
ig
Sg
i
Sg
a
03 fc.
"o
03
1
M
03
i
^ P
^
"S fl
«
"S S
^
rg
«
S ~
CO
s'"
<B
s""
i
£
1
51
CO
1863-64
1864-6)
10,574 | 191,002
30,366 168,279
960
2,194
11,653 i 14,594
7,332 ; 15,047
72,505
57,516
"329
249,206 i 54,167
166,147 60,122
479,062
477,750
1865-66
8,750 ! 181,174
111
9,856
1,941
62,135
112
210,970 1 70,505
461,400
1866-67
11,249! 151,113
120
9,728
18,253
57,381
339
34,428
73,039
4fi3,560
1S67-68
8,757
174,629
3,035
8,721
20,119
56,502
348
88,006
77,682
470,760
1868-69
1,149 1/6,465
5,202
9,045
43,195
63,340
1,687
81,639
69,614
492,000
1869-70
1870-71
1871-72
20,533
39,vJ75
28,452
147,173
136,967
177,482
43,405
14,702
6,951
8,807
7,932
12,008
68,395
53,019
53.404
72,616
57,624
88,674
1,639
2,64 i
2,542
96,349
90,674
59,325
55,691
67,336
490,920
497,040
487,260
1872-73
59,804
135,839
9,511
6,985
84,296
77,332
1,617
89,105
* Return from Travancore for 1872-73 not received : taking an average of five years
it would be Rs. 1,33,237 to be added, which would raise the exports to Rs. 1780,888.
f The only district on the eastern coast where anything like an export trade in
salt-fish is shown is in that of Madras, and there only for four years. However, the
people may collect salt-earth without paying duty.
J South Canara being contiguous to foreign states, where there is no salt excise, is
of course one reason why the present salt-earth fish trade should not flourish there to
the extent it does in Malabar.
( 60 )
I think the above table clearly shows that the annual
exports of salt-fish in western India have very little, if any,
connection with the amount of salt sold. If one looks at
the state of Cochin, we see that the sale of salt in ten years,
owing to the augmented rates, has reduced consumption by
two-thirds, whereas it is only since this diminished demand
commenced that the export of salt-fish has sprung up. If
we turn to the report of the native official from the conti-
guous British district of Chowghawt, he informs us that the
sale of Government salt has decreased, although in one year,
1872, the exports of salt-fish amounted to Us. 10,674 worth ;
whereas in Jive years ending 1863-64, the whole value ex-
ported was only Es. 463.
LXXXV. The reason for this is easily found : the people
may gather salt-earth for this purpose,
Why augmented salt-fish cur- x & n . A .
iug has not increased the sale and its value a maund is something
iudiGi°vernment sak iu wcsfceru ver7 small. Thus the fish-curer can
embark in this trade without any great
capital being necessary : this induces a larger demand for fish,
and consequently the fishermen are thriving, and an immense
amount of animal food is used by man that otherwise would
be wasted. That this is a cause is shown by examining the
eastern coast, where this e prescriptive right' to gather salt is
not recognised. The tehsildar of Pattukottai (p. Ixxxix) ob-
serves that the practice of salting fish must be said to be in-
creasing, considering that the price of fish to be cured which
formerly cost one rupee has now been reduced to ten or
twelve annas, and that fish-curers offer only this reduced rate.
The reason of this reduced value is not due to increased
prosperity of the fishing castes, for they are evidently
in a depressed condition, but to the price of salt being such
that a reduction in cost must take place somewhere or the
price of the cured fish will place it beyond the reach of the
consumer. As the price of salt remains the same, the
curers can only afford a diminished rate for the fish, and that
appears to me to be the true reason why their value is less
than it was a few years since.
CAUSE OF DEPRESSION IN TIIE SEA-FISHERIES.
LXXXVI. The foregoing, I think, lead to the following
Cause of present depressed state Conclusions : (1) That tllC fisheries are
of some of the sca-fishcrics. fn a vcry depressed state wherever
salt is expensive or the use of untaxed salt-earth prohibited
as Bombay, the Coromandel coast of Madras and Bengal.
( 61 )
(2) That the fisheries are flourishing where salt is cheap, or the
use of untaxed salt-earth permitted, as Sind, western coast of
Madras and Burma. (3) That good, which means Govern-
ment or monopoly salt, is hardly purchased for the purpose of
curing fish eaten by the largest majority of its consumers,
because it is sixteen times as dear to use this antiseptic as it
is to employ salt-earth. (4) That fish is extensively cured
with salt-earth where permitted ; such a food, however, is a
fruitful source of disease ; the article will not keep for
any very lengthened period, but it is however much pre-
ferred to simply sun-dried fish. (5) That when the use
of salt-earth is prohibited, the fish-curers must do one of three
things, merely dry their fish in the sun, give up their trade,
or purchase monopoly salt, whilst should they do the latter,
they can only keep down the price of their article by reducing
the cost of the raw fish and using a minimum amount of salt.
LXXXVII. This brings us to why it is the salt-tax not
only is affecting the health of the
How the salt- tax afferts the J n V. , ,
health of the people, and ruins people, preventing the export m-
both the fish-curers trade directly lanj Of salt-fish, but also mining the
and the fishermen indirectly, « , 5 , . mi f? •,
fisherman s occupation. The fisher-
man works simply for the local market, he has no capital to
embark in salting fish. Now a local fish market consists of
a demand for the fresh fish for local consumption, and what
ought to be a larger sale for salting and the inland markets
where the demand is unlimited. If you cut off the latter, these
people are left to subsist on the mere local demand, and it ap-
pears clear that by prohibiting the use of cheap local salt you
cut most efficaciously at the very root of the fisherman's occu-
pation ; you check demand as well as the inland consumption,
and " the idleness and apathy of these drunken classes of
people " is not due to their own fault, but to the little sympathy
they have received and the absence of any investigation into
the cause of their impoverished state. I tried to direct at-
tention to these questions in 1865 in my " Eishes of Malabar,"
but until now have been unsuccessful. On May 14th 1873,
however, Madras Revenue Board observed that the fishermen
" number throughout the Madras Presidency 394,735 per-
sons ;" that " the answers elicited by the questions put by
Dr. Day, and the injunction contained in G. O. dated 22nd
April 1873, No. 424, have directed the attention of the
Board to the subject of the influence of the salt duties on
the trade of fish-curing, and they see reason to think that
a great practical hardship exists, which they would advocate
( 62 )
immediate endeavours to alleviate." They go on to say
that the modes now employed to cure fish " may possibly
have a direct tendency to disseminate disease. "
LXXXYIII. There are, however, two other subjects
relating to salt which have a bearing
Salt-fish is imported duty free ,, . c . . .-, ^ . . ,,
into India and this depreciates On tlllS question : tllC JlTSl IS that Salt-
the trade of those who employ fish fs permitted to be imported duty
Government excised salt. j» • T> »A« i ^ \ A
iree in .British ports ; the second, that
no excise exists in contiguous foreign states. It is consider-
ed by most of the reporters that the abolition of the
import duty of 7-| per cent, on foreign cured fish in 1867
has had a disastrous effect on the sea-fisheries of Bombay.
One official, however, disputes this ; it will be therefore neces-
sary to investigate the subject. Such a trade as salting fish
would necessitate a considerable capital in salt-taxed districts,
if it is to be carried on in anything like an extensive scale, so
as to benefit the local fishermen by affording them a mar-
ket for their captures, or the consumers inland by supplying
a recognised demand. Likewise in such a trade a considerable
margin for profit and loss must be left, because the articles
not only are perishable, but they have generally to be con-
veyed some distance by sea or else inland. The excise on
salt is 29 annas per 82fts. in Bombay, 32 annas per 82ft>s.
in Madras, and 48 annas per 82fts. in Bengal. That fisher-
men can personally invest in salt so heavily taxed for fish-
curing, except on a very limited scale, is manifestly impossible ;
the returns would not come in sufficiently rapidly, especially
as they would have to borrow the necessary capital at ex-
orbitant rates of interest in order to carry on such a trade.
As the Collector of Tanna most justly remarks, " the fishing
class, like many others in this country, look alone to im-
mediate returns, obtained by treating of produce in as rude
and primitive manner as possible, rather than prospective in-
creased gains by laying out of capital and resorting to im-
proved methods of preserving" (p. xxiii). The Acting Sub-
Co Hector of Arcot observes that " capital and enterprise are
required to stimulate a waning trade, and curing fish is not the
sort of business men who are making money would be likely
to embark in," yet, observing the trade is waning, he does not
see " why salt-fish should be exempted from a heavy duty '
(p. lix). It has already been remarked that export agents
in Tra van core either buy the salt or advance money for the
carrying on of this trade (p. Hi) . In the Malabar Collectorate
" the salt is generally supplied by the merchants who export
( 63 )
the salted-fish (p. Ixxv), or the traders " obtain advances
of money from the Colombo Merchants " (p. Ixxviii).
In Madura " trade in salt- fish is looked down upon by the
capitalists along the coast as being of an inferior description"
(p. Ixxxiii). In Nellore the fishermen "receive money in
advance from the fish traders that come down from Golakonda
and other places, and thus salt fish. It appears that they
would themselves commence to trade in such fish if the price
of salt is low" (p. xcvii). Without continuing extracts from
the Appendix, it must be clear that at the present price of salt
in India in taxed localities neither fishermen nor the generality
of the residents can afford to embark in this trade, and that
when such is carried on and expensive salt being employed,
either traders advance money for the purpose, or else purchase
the salt. Where, however, as in Bengal, the price of salt, or
rather the duty, is 48 annas per 82ft>s., it would appear im-
possible that any one would embark in such a trade, and
there we find only sun-dried fish is prepared.
LXXXIX. If we now revert to the western coast,
where the great trade in curing fish
Why under present circurn- . . -. -, , « -. .-. °.
stances it does not pay to enter is carried on, we do not find that any
largely on the fish-curers' trade large amount of excised Salt is USed,
in the Bombay Presidency, &c. , 9 , , , , , , , , , , . ,
whilst probably the best article comes
from contiguous foreign ports as Diu, &c. It may be urged
that traders will in time advance money in the British pos-
sessions, and from Sind to Mergui the well-exhausted platitude
of leaving the trade to private enterprise and the laws of sup-
ply and demand is reiterated. It appears marvellous that it
cannot be understood by some of these reporters that if you
tax salt to that extent that it is rendered virtually inaccessible
to the fish-curers, or if it is employed that the article becomes
too expensive for the poor to purchase, you are not leaving the
trade to the natural laws governing such. You are placing
such a prohibitory duty on it, or rather such a protective duty
on salt, that the British fisherman and fish-curer has good
cause to consider himself most unfairly dealt with. How
can traders in western India be expected to advance money
for this purpose, at least in the Bombay Presidency ? They
can purchase the same article, more thoroughly prepared,
consequently better flavoured, and at a very much cheaper
rate in the contiguous foreign states. They have no import
duty to pay on taking it into British possessions, and a dealer
who under such circumstances made advances in British
territory would be somewhat wanting in a due appreciation of
( 64 )
his own interests. If a trader finds good salt at two annas
a maund in one locality, and 32 or 48 annas for the same
quantity in a neighbouring one, with no other differences in
the cost of capturing the fish or the description of the supply,
it appears most probable that he will purchase in the cheap-
est market. Leaving theories aside, thus it has resulted that
the fish-curers' trade in Bombay is a thing of the past. " Home-
cured fish cannot now compete with that cured at Goa and
elsewhere, where a salt excise does not exist, and the trade
with its profits has now passed almost entirely into the hands
of foreigners."
XC. There are certain minor obstructions to the due
Minor obstructions to the development of this trade which re-
fisherman's trade. quire attention being drawn to. It is
generally held, and I believe very correctly so, that all taxes
on fishing nets or on sea-fishing are prejudicial. When salt
is cheap perhaps they are not so injurious,* and the use of
fixed engines in such district, or where the demand for fish
is very great, may be a fit subject for raising revenue from.
But surely such cannot hold good in the Bombay, Madras,
or Bengal Presidencies, as without being of much pecuniary
benefit to Government, they are certainly acting injuriously on
the fishing interests.
XCI. In the Bombay Presidency in the Junjura dis-
Locai taxes continued; the trict the fishermen observe. " The ex-
« Rajah's cat/ 'curry fish/ &c. pense of placing fishing stakes has
increased, and we do not use the ' wandope,' or Targe fishing
net on four fishing stakes, because a tax of E/s. 6 has
been imposed on its use. We have not used this net for ten
years ; we seldom now use any net but the c Boorkea wole' in
deep water (a net fastened by anchors under the surface of
the water), for which we have only to pay Us. 3 per annum"
(p. xxvi). In the Madras Presidency at Cannanore the
' Rajah's cat' appears to be exercising a deleterious influence
on one branch at least of the fishing, viz., that for sharks.
It appears that in olden times one fish daily was taken from
each boat as a perquisite for the Rajah's, cat or the 'Poocha
meenj 'cat fish' collection. The cats apparently have not
* At (Jwadar, where salt is cheap, the contractor for the sea-fisheries receives l-10th
of the captures, and irrespective of this there is a small export duty, still it pays to send fish
to the Indian market. In the time of the Dutch at Cochin each fisherman paid 81bs. of fish
daily to the Governor. The Rajah of Travuncore about the same time claimed from the
fishermen 10 ohuknims (a small coin 28£ to the rupee) and three fish annually from the
Quilon fishermen, because they sometimes used their nets opposite his territory. As soon as
he annexed Culli-quilon a tax was annually levied of 30 chukrams for every large net mid 15
for each small one, aud this was the origin of the so-called poll tux.
( 65 )
augmented so much as the fishing-boats, so this has been
commuted into a money payment of two pies a day on each
successful boat. In addition to this, the Rajah annually
levies a tax of Us. 2-4 on every boat and net. Half of the
sharks' fins are also claimed by the Rajah's ( Poocha meen'
contractor. " The fishermen very seldom turn their attention
to shark-fishing, as they seem to think it not remunerative in
Cannanore, owing to their having to yield one-half to the
Eajab's < Poocha meen' right" (p. Ixxvi). In Madura, at
Ramnad, "the trade in salt-fish is hampered to a certain ex-
tent by the interference of the villagers, who act the part of
brokers between the buyer and seller. The sales are required
to be made through the villagers or their representative and
none else : a breach of this custom is followed by annoyance
to both the buyer and seller, who therefore seek the favour
of the villagers, though such occasions a little pecuniary loss "
(p. Ixxxii). Besides the foregoing, the zemindars of Ramnad
make a collection from fishing villages " called 'karry min'
or ( curry fish :' it is levied upon each boat* returning from
the sea with fish. This is supposed to be fish supplied to the
kitchen of the zemindar's palace" (p. Ixxxiii), In BurmailiQ
taxes on sea-fishing are high, and as they are about being en-
quired into, observations appear to be unnecessary, except to
observe that such ought to fall upon the fixed engines and
not on the movable ones.
SEA-FISHERIES or GREAT BRITAIN.
XCII. Having been directed to include observations
The sea-fisheries of Great on the sea-fishery report of Great
Britain, I proceed to do so here, pre-
mising that I cannot see any analogy between the two cases.
The salt-tax in India appears to be one, if not the chief, cause
of the fisheries of India being so little worked, — such a tax
does not exist in Great Britain. In India the chief subject
of investigation is how to augment the working of the sea-
fisheries ; in Great Britain one of the main objects of the
enquiry was to see if they were being overworked.
XCIII. The sea-fisheries of Great Britain have formed
Enquiry into the fisheries of the subject of enquiry by a Royal
Great Britain. Commission, the result of which -was
* Sir J. Emerson Tennent in Ceylon remarked that when the Government tax on fisheries
was removed such had a disastrous effect, and that in some places the fishermen voluntarily
made the rent over to the Roman Catholic churches. I see, however, that the following occurs
in the report of the sea-fisheries of that country : "The Sinhalese will only give the share
or the Roman Catholic churches, because the rent is sold, and if the share is not paid, the
iites of the Church are refused" (p. cxiv).
( 66 )
submitted in 1866.* On examining this report I have ex-
cluded a vast amount of subject matter that has no bearing
on Indian fisheries, as were such included it would swell my
report without any commensurate advantage being obtained.
The first thing that arrests one's attention is the want in
many parts of a definition of what is meant by the supply of
fish having increased, In some places it is evidently intend-
ed to mean the supply to the markets or the amount captured,
and has no reference to the productiveness of the fishing
ground ; in other parts this is not so. On the whole, how-
ever, the following conclusion was arrived at, that "the
produce of the sea around our coasts bears a far higher
proportion to that of the land than is generally imagined.
The most frequented fishing grounds are much more pro-
lific of food than the same extent of the richest land. Once
in the year an acre of good land, carefully tilled, produces
a ton of corn, or two or three cwt. of meat or cheese. The
same area at the bottom of the sea, on the best fishing
grounds, yields a greater weight of food to the persevering
fishermen every week in the year. * * When we consider
the amount of care that has been bestowed on the improve-
ment of agriculture, the national societies which are estab-
lished for promoting it, and the scientific knowledge and
engineering skill which have been enlisted in its aid, it
seems strange that the sea-fisheries have hitherto attracted
so little of the public attention. There are few means of
enterprise that present better chances of profit than our sea-
fisheries, and no object of greater utility could be named
than the development of enterprise, skill, and mechanical
ingenuity which might be elicited by the periodical exhibi-
tions "and publisations of an influential society specially
devoted to the British fisheries."
XCIV. As regards weirs it is observed : " Suppose, for
Reasons why eve'rybody should example, it could be shown that the
be permitted to do just as they weirs in Swansea Bay destroyed such
an immense quantity of useless fry
of flat fish as to impoverish the grounds of the trawlers in
the British Channel, then the natural check could no longer
be entrusted with the correction of the evil. For the weirs
might well catch a sufficient quantity of fish to repay their
owners, and yet furnish a very far less quantity of food to
* The minutes of evidence extend over 1,379 pages, and comprise 61,831 questions
the report over 107 pages, and its appendix 72, or a total of 1,558 pages, excluding the
index !
( 67 )
tlie people in general, than would be supplied by tbe
trawlers thrown out of employment ; and, indeed, it is quite
conceivable that the profits to the weir owners might be
enhanced in proportion to the damage done to the trawlers.
Supposing such a case as this to be clearly made out, it
would be the obvious duty of the Legislature to interfere,
and insist upon the removal of the weirs, or upon their
being so altered as to be incompetent to retain and destroy
the fry." In short, it was proposed " that all Acts of Parlia-
ment which profess to regulate or restrict the mode of fishing
pursued in the open sea be repealed, and that unrestricted
freedom of fishing be permitted hereafter," and that an iden-
tical course be adopted as regards in-shore fishing, except in
certain localities as a matter of policy. All complaints were
considered to be unfounded, and the best plan in future
would be to let every one do as he liked,
OBJECTIONS TO ANY REMEDIAL MEASURES.
XCV. Although the impoverished state of the fishermen
Objections to any remedial in some districts is admitted, there are
measures in Bombay. SOUie local officials who WOUld be
apathetic, leaving matters as they are and hope for better times.
Still this may be due to their attention not having been suffi-
ciently directed to the subject. However, the following opin-
ions have been advanced by some who reside in the most im-
poverished districts. In Bombay, as at Broach, "that the
salting of sea-fish not being a trade for the most part sys-
tematically followed, but resorted to chiefly when, owing to a
large capture the .supply becomes in excess of the local de-
mand, no plan for its increase is likely to be very successful"
(p. xxii). In Kaira, that of fish "both the supply and
demand are too limited to make it worth while to risk the
great increase of smuggling which would be the first result
of the concession"* (p. xxiii). At Ahmedabad, "that in
the Gogo talooka, the amount of fish caught is trifling,
while in Dhundhooka it may almost be said to be nil. I
only know of one man in Gogo who even professes to get a
living by fishing; and so far as I can give an opinion, I
should say that any arrangements to facilitate salting would
be likely to meet with very little success in these parts"
* The concession referred to is this : whether if large enclosures were made near
favourable localities (away from large towns), and where fish could be salted, would the
following be impracticable ? that salt might be sold inside them, at rates just remunerative,
for the bond fide salting of fish.
( 68 )
(p. xxiii). In Tanna, "that it is very questionable whether
the fisheries would yield greater takes than now made : if
not, the simple result would be an increase of salt-cured fish
with an equal decrease of sun-dried fish. I cannot
concur in thinking that it is in any way the duty of the
State to take action in forcing a particular article of com-
merce into the markets, for there can be little doubt, if
really much sought for, it will be supplied irrespective of
excise duty on salt. If the excise duty be taken off for the
encouragement of one branch of industry, it will be neces-
sary to make a like concession in regard to other industries
requiring salt for manufacturing and other like purposes,
such as chemical works, &c. I am though of opinion,
as regards this district, the question is one not calling for
immediate attention or adoption, as the take of fish is not
so very extensive as to call for immediate action on the part
of Government. Presuming, however, that it is advisable
to give an increased impetus to this industry, it is, I think,
very undesirable that measures should be taken thereto,
until such time as some effective law for the protection of
the various fisheries be passed ; for to, stimulate the industry
by every possible means in the power of Government with-
out passing of laws regulating modes and seasons, &c., of
fisheries, would be tantamount to holding out inducements
for the destruction of the fisheries" (p. xxiv). He also
objects to salting enclosures, &c. (see note, p. 68), on account
of the cost to the State.
XCVI. In Madras the Collector of Malabar is of opi-
objections to any remedial nion that the proposition to foiTn enclo-
measures in Madras. sureg (gee note p. (38) " is not a practi-
cable one in this district" (p. xiv). In Travancore the
Dewan considers that such " would lead to great abuse.
Salt would be purchased more for the purpose of smuggling
than curing fish, as the returns of the illicit trade are sure
to be quicker and more profitable. Besides, as fishing in
Travancore is carried on all along the sea-board, the number
of enclosures will have to be multiplied to nearly the num-
ber of fishing villages. Else the fish will be spoiled before it
arrives at the curing enclosure, and the cost of transit has
to be weighed against the reduced price of salt" (p. lii).
In TinneveUy "the fishermen of the coast are a very miser-
able lot of people and excessively poor. * * I beg to record
my decided opinion that any interference with sea-fishing
is quite uncalled. * * Surely Government interference is
( 69 )
unnecessary, and the employment upon which so large a
number of people are engaged should not be restricted."
He also observes that prohibitions exist against using salt-
earth, and that the high price of salt renders it prohibitory to
the fish-curers (p. Iv). In Tanjore, that if enclosures for
salting fish, &c, (see note p. 68) were made, smuggling would
result, the salt revenue being " far too important a matter to
be interfered with on considerations of promoting particular
objects, such as trade in salt -fish and the like" (p. Iv).
In South Arcot, the Acting Sub-Collector remarks respecting
enclosures (note, p. 68) : "I do not think the proposition is ad-
visable, nor do I see why salt-fish should be exempted from
a heavy duty" (p. lix). The Acting Collector of Nellore
observes, " I cannot think that much sympathy ought to be
wasted on the fishermen, for they are an independent, care-
less, and drunken class of men" (p. Ixiii). The Deputy
Collector in charge of the salt remarks respecting the en-
closures (note, p. 68): "Two points of doubt suggest them-
selves in connection with this proposition — (1) who is to
sell salt in these enclosures ? The Government who hold
the monopoly, or the ordinary bazarrnen and dealers who
now buy from Government and retail to the people ? (2) What
is meant by 6 rates just remunerative ?' If it is the Govern-
ment who is to sell, and ' rates just remunerative ' implies
at a rate other than the fixed monopoly price, just sufficient
to cover all expenses, in other words, at the prime cost
of the salt to the Government, I certainly think the mea-
sure would be inadvisable. It would be the same thing as
a reduction in the monopoly price for the purpose of aug-
menting the trade in salt-fish. * * It would, moreover, I
have no doubt, lead to frauds and smuggling in various
ways" (p. Ixiv). In the Kistna district the Officiating
Collector is opposed to enclosure, (note p. 68) as " the greatest
number of fishing villages within a radius of 20 miles of
any of them (salt-pans) is but 40, and I do not think the
enclosure would pay its own expenses of carriage of salt,
police guard, and of people to keep it clean" (p. Ixv). In
Yizagapatam the Collector replies. " Regarding definite pro-
posals for dealing with salt-water fisheries, I have the honor
to state my opinion that for such fisheries no regulations
are called for, and no interference with the present fishermen
can be otherwise than injurious." If salting dep6ts are
established, he does not believe they will be frequented by
fishermen, who are accustomed to salt their fish at their own
( 70 )
doors, and would not be willing to carry a perishable article
to a long distance ; also that smuggling would be a result
(p. Ixix). Amongst the replies from the native officials, the
Superintendent of Customs at Tellicherry observes of the
proposition respecting enclosures (note, p. 68). " Pish are
generally cured at the place where the fishermen reside, and
this their fishing village is adjacent to the principal quarter of
the town. To make large enclosures as proposed, away from
this place, and there to carry on fish-curing operations, salt
being sold inside the enclosure, would not only cause the
greatest hardship to the persons employed in the trade, but
could only be carried out at enormous cost to Government,
for the land is private property, nor is the plan feasible in
the village itself, as many non-fishermen reside within its
limits" (p. Ixxvii). In Madura the Deputy Collector of the
Salt Department, Ramnad, observes respecting salt enclosures
(note, p. 68), that although practicable, "this measure will
necessarily involve the interference of Government servants,
more or less, with the operation of curing fish. It must at
least be carefully watched for the protection of the salt
revenue, that the salt sold from the Government dep6t is
carried into the enclosure and used for the special purpose
for which it had been sold. This interference will be un-
popular, as it must naturally be for some time at least, with
the tradesmen, who will, notwithstanding any amount of
assurance, suspect the motives of Government, and the sti-
mulus which it is hoped to give to the trade will tend to
hamper it. I do not, therefore, consider the measure pro-
posed hy Dr. Day advisable, and it is my opinion that the
trade should be left to be regulated by laws governing the
demand and supply of other articles of food" (p. Ixxxii).
In Tanjore the Tehsildar of Myaveram observes respecting the
proposal regarding enclosures (note, p. 68): " But it is impossi-
ble to have any enclosures made for the following reasons :
the fish captured in the sea and brought on shore are not
afterwards carried by the men. The women only carry them.
If the enclosures were within a mile or two, those that are
brought ashore within 4 or 5 P. M. can be carried there by the
women before 5 or 6 or 7 P. M. Eish are captured and brought
on shore even after 6 p. M. up to 10 or 12 o'clock in the night.
In such cases it will be impossible for the women to take them
to the enclosures, although they are very near. If the cap-
tures are not taken to the enclosures till the ten morning,
they will become spoiled and useless" (p. Ixxxviii).
( 71 )
XGVII. In Bengal the Collector of Balasore states
Objections to any remedial that " no Government interference is
measures in Bengal. required. * * The people of this dis-
trict do not salt their fish : they dry it in the sun and eat
it when it is quite putrid. They like in this way, and there
is no reason why they should be interfered with" (p. cxxi).
Mr. Verner, the Joint Magistrate of the 24f-Pergunnato.
remarks respecting enclosures (note, p. 68), that " the proposi-
tion is neither advisable nor practicable. The enclosures and
necessary establishment would cost much. Reduced prices
can only mean removal or reduction of duty ; and in this
case a considerable establishment would be required to
prevent the salt being smuggled away for other purposes.
The only form the proposition could take, not to be utterly
visionary, would be a lease to a company. The company
would have to meet the cost of the establishment appointed
by Government for supervision, and would have to pay
largely for the concession of reduced duty ; such a company
would pre-suppose consumers of salt-fish" (p. cxxii). At
Chit tag ong the proposal respecting enclosures (note p. 68) is
not considered advisable. If the demand for salt-fish were
to increase, the supply would increase in the same proportion
(p. cxxiv).
XCVIII. If the foregoing answers are examined, they
objections examined in de- may be divided under the following
heads : (1) that sympathy ought not
to be wasted on fisher men > for they are an independent, care-
less, and drunken set of men. By careless and independent
is here probably meant ' idle/ but the cause of such idleness
is consequent on two reasons, first, that due to the incidence
of the salt-tax only a local demand for fish exists ; secondly,
that were they to exert themselves they would overstock the
market, the result of which would be diminished prices. As
to drunkenness, it is evident all over the world that fishermen,
who have so much to do with the water, do indulge in a drop
now and then. But to refuse justice to a class who, in the
Madras Presidency alone number nearly 400,000 persons,
for this cause would appear to be harsh measure, if not to
the men at least to their families. (2) That it is not the
duty of Government to foster the fish trade. Surely if
Government, by taxing salt and forbidding the use of salt
earth untaxed, have unwittingly ruined a trade and decreas-
ed by such means the food of the people inland to a great
extent, it is a subject which it becomes their duty to look to.
(3; That the supply will come with the demand. No doubt
such is the case, but, as I have shown, the salt laws have stop-
ped the demand, and by raising the price of this article
have placed fish salted with excised salt beyond the reach
of the poorer and labouring classes. (4) That there are
neither demands for fish nor are they captured. Doubtless
the fishermen, finding the laws so ruinous to their occupa-
tion, have taken to other pursuits, and this to the great loss
of the empire at large, because the fish are not caught, the
harvest of the sea is not being collected. (5) That nothing
need be done, as the local markets are well supplied with fresh
fish. Such an argument presupposes that the fish are in-
tended solely for the use of those who live in the vicinity
of the sea, and that a deaf ear should be turned to the
inland demands for salt fish. (6) That the people have
become used to eat putrid fish, and no reason exists
why they should be interfered with. This humane view
omits any consideration of the effect of such diet on
the health of the population, — a subject generally con-
sidered worthy of some little consideration. But it un-
fortunately is only the poorer classes who are thus
directly affected. (7) That there are no fishermen. This
argument resembles one advanced in Southern India that,
it was useless to make roads, as there were no carts ; the
roads, however, were made, and so were the carts. Remove
the burdens from the fishing trade, and in time it will
revive. (8) That any interference must be injurious. It
is the removal of interference I propose ; it is the relief
from present burdens I advocate. (9) That nothing should
be commenced until laws have been passed for the regulation
of the fisheries, or an increase of fishing will lead to the
ruin of the sea-fisheries. This view is, however, so utterly
opposed to what is known of sea-fisheries elsewhere ; laws
on such, restricting the occupation of sea-fishermen, except
as regards fixed engines, have scarcely anywhere proved
anything but vexatious. Whilst with the enormous space
of the Indian seas, with many almost uninhabited shores,
banks, and islands, there is no probability of any injury
being effected by the fishermen. They may scare away
large fish, and only take the little ones, but at present these
suffice for all demands, and could a larger amount be sold
with advantage, the fisherman would soon, were the present
interference with his occupation remedied, ply his occupation
in the deeper water, as we see in Sind and Malabar. Respect-
( 73 )
ing the incidence of the salt laws on the fish-curers (10),
one official would place a heavy tax on salt-fish. It may
be presumed he is utterly ignorant of the subject on which
he is giving such illogical advice. The present tax on salt
being prohibitory of its use, how could such succeed?
Perhaps he means, if he really means anything, that he
would place his heavy tax on salt-fish prepared by salt-
earth. The result would be, its cost would at once place it
beyond the reach of the consumer. With respect to the
proposition of selling salt inside enclosures at a cheap rate
to fish-curers, simply to enable them to exercise their trade,
the following objections have been raised (11) that the erection
of such enclosures would be expensive. In certain places such
may be the case, but not in the majority of localities, as will
be presently referred to. (12) That the cost of maintaining
them and paying the necessary Police guard must be great.
Surely in most localities the civil officers, who are usually
so adroit at administration in all its forms, could conceive
some plan perhaps on the data of that which formerly ob-
tained in England, whereby salt was permitted for this
purpose tax free. In fact this appears to have been for-
merly the case in portions of the Bombay Presidency. (13)
That the plan is an impracticable and visionary one. This
opinion, however, is borne down by facts of what has been
done elsewhere. (14) That it will lead to the smuggling of
salt. In many places there are headmen to the fishermen
caste ; could not they be utilised for this purpose and made
to a certain extent responsible ? (15 ) . That Government
supervision is disliked. So it is everywhere ; but when a trade
can only be carried on profitably whilst such a supervision
exists, it is extraordinary the vast amount of such that will
be submitted to. (16) That the fishermen cure fish at their
own homes, and will not like to send them to any enclosures ;
that as the women carry them after they have arrived on
shore, they could not go there at night, so all brought on shore
after 10 p. m. will be spoiled. The proposition has evidently
been misunderstood ; it is not that they are to salt fish in
these enclosures, but that if they choose to do so they may,
and will only there get good salt cheap for this purpose.
From the answers given this would have to be fully ex-
plained, or else the native officials will perhaps grievously err,*
* I saw last year in a Madras newspaper that rewards in one district had been offered
for venomous snakes. The first day numbers were brought, but the native official decided
that lefore he paid they must be skinned, the skins, 1 conclude, being his voucher. It is
needless to say he at once stopped the slaughter of these noxious reptiles,
Jc
( 74 )
and cause a dissatisfaction, but misunderstanding the plan.
No interference whatever with their present mode of
curing fish ought to be permitted, but an offer made of cheap
and good salt if they wish it. Probably at first such would
not be accepted, but it would be in time.
REMEDIAL MEASURES PROPOSED.
XCIX. As it is evident that the sea-fishermen are in
an impoverished condition almost
Remedial measures proposed. , , •/ . . , n -r •>•
throughout the coasts of India : that
the exceptions are, wherever salt is cheap, as in Sind or
Burma ; or in places where salt-earth may be collected free of
duty and used for this purpose, as in Malabar, &c. ; or a large
local demand exists, as in the town of Bombay or Madras,
Now, it has been considered that it would be advisable were
such misery to be alleviated, such poverty remedied,
especially if such can be done without entailing any cost
on the State, irrespective of the utility of bringing from
the ocean for the use of inland people a good supply of
animal food. That this utilization of the products of the
ocean is practicable, and that without / any great amount of
difficulty, has been allowed by many officials, and that the
admitted hardship is susceptible of partial or complete relief,
is shown from the opinions of some experienced civilians,
whose answers are quoted.
C. In the Bombay Presidency the Collector of salt-
Bemediai measures proposed revenue considers the British and
in Bombay. foreign fishermen should be placed
on an equality, which he considers might be effected by the
imposition of an import duty of 10 per cent., ad-valorem,
on foreign fish (p. xvii). Mr. Pratt observes that "the
fishermen on the coast away from large towns are probably
too poor to provide large enough boats and suitable nets
for deep sea-fisheries, and "iris may be a formidable hindrance
to large captures of fish. It is possible that they might be
induced to extend their operations if they received such
advances as would enable them to provide better boats and
nets. * * With adequate encouragement in the shape of
advances for the purchase of nets or boats, it might be prac-
ticable to persuade men not now engaged as fishers to
qualify to engage in that pursuit. * * There is but little
demand for the inferior article produced by curing with salt-
earth, and it is probable that the demand for salted fish
would improve, if salt could be made available for curing
( 75 )
fish (within large enclosures or otherwise) at rates so cheap
as would permit of salt being invariably used instead of
salt-earth in the curing offish," (p. xviii). The Collector of
Surat remarks that the fishermen in this district are not
possessed of sufficient capital to profit by the measures pro-
posed (enclosures, &c.) (p. xxii). In Broach the Collector
observes " that the proposition referred to in his paragraph
7 (of forming enclosures, &c.,) appears feasible, and is worth
trying as an experiment" (p, xxii). The Acting Collector
of Kaira, respecting the great decrease of fish during late
years, remarks — " Whether this is due to the sea having reced-
ed from the north coast of the Gulf, or to a decreasing trade
in salt-fish, owing to the increased price of salt, I am not
able to state, but I have no doubt that the adoption of
Dr. Day's proposal to reduce the price of salt used for fish-
curing would give a stimulus to the trade " (p. xxiii). The
Collector of Tanna says, " I quite concur in the opinions
expressed, that reduction of the monopoly price of salt is the
one plan by which the trade in salt-fish can be augmented,
provided the classes engaged in fishery can be brought to
see that curing by salt is better and more remunerative
than drying" (p. xxiii). The Supernumerary Assistant Col-
lector of Eatnagiri says, "the proposition mentioned in
paragraph 7 (forming salting enclosures, &c.,) is advisable and
practicable in these districts. * * * The police patell of the
village below the Zygurh fort has found it impossible to
prevent the Daldis from trespassing on an old salt pan
there, now no longer used. These people come to dig up
the earth, which is impregnated with salt, for the purpose
mentioned. I believe that this place might be chosen and
a similar one at the entrance of the creek at Ratnagiri,
where a licensed sale of salt for curing fish on the spot
might take place. Means could be found to prevent the
withdrawal of salt, and as the spot chosen would be close
to the moutb of the creek, a ready way would be at hand to
dispose of the fish. The plan suggested by Dr. Day cannot
be too strongly recommended " (pp. xxv and xxvi). The Col-
lector of Kanara observes that " salting of sea-fish could be
increased, it is generally believed, if salt were cheaper. The
plan of enclosures in certain localities for salting fish, where
salt could be procured at a cheap rate, might be tried ; but
great care to prevent the salt being removed and otherwise
used would be necessary " (p. xxvi). Amongst the natives
the headmen of the Kolies in the Junjura district report
( 76 )
that " the salting of fish could be increased if we could get
salt at a cheaper rate ; now it does not pay us to salt all
the fish we catch, so we dry in the sun a portion, and
sell as much of the fresh fish as we can. We should not
like to have to go any distance to cure our fish ; it would be
more trouble than it would be worth" (p. xxvi).
CI. In the Madras Presidency, the Board of Revenue
Remedial measures proposed state, the average imports from foreign
in Madras. ports for the last 5 years have
averaged Bs. 47,520 annually, whilst the number of the
fishermen population in the presidency is 394,735, and that
to develop a trade in salt-fish " which may be of a per-
manent benefit to the inland as well as to the sea-board
population, the Board believe no other condition is requisite
than the relief of the fish-curers from the burden of the
tax on salt. The Board see reason to hope that no loss need
result to the revenue derived from salt by the adoption of a
system of issuing salt to the fish-curers at or about cost
price, under limits and securities to be hereafter deter-
mined." Mr. H. £ Thomas, the Collector of South Canara,
observes that "with other articles that yielded less than
Es. 1,000 a year in customs dues, salt-fish were at the last settle-
ment of the tariff placed on the free list. Consequently Indian
salters who have to buy their salt at monopoly price com-
pete at a heavy disadvantage with salt- fish, which is im-
ported from countries where salt is free.* If the import duty
on salt-fish were re-imposed at such a rate as would bring
the salt consumed in their preparation up to the monopoly
price prevailing in this presidency, then Indian salters would,
without undue protection, be placed on an equal footing with
the foreigners, and it might be expected that, where fish
were sufficiently plentiful, they would find it worth while
to purchase more salt for their curing, and so we should
find our returns in increased consumption of salt, and the
small customs receipt on imported salt-fish would be no
proof that the customs duty was not a wholesome and re-
munerative tax, though it was an apparently trivial one in
direct proceed, for it would be wholesome in that it restored
* Snlt-fish is now imported into Malabar and the Western coast of India from Arabia
and the I', rsian Gulf. Mr. Thomas observes, B.C. 523, Kgjpt paid a tribute of n.sh to lVi>ia.
Doubtless they were not carried putrid, as that condition is, so far as I know, merely relished
at B:\lasore, consequently they must have been cured by some antiseptic, as salt. Such a
cumbersome article as a tribute would hardly have been selected, if the fisheries of Persia
were in :i healthy condition. They must have been intended for inland consumption ; perhaps
their fresh-water fisheries had been over-worked, as in many parts of India at the j.ieseut
clay; and the Persians considered the food of the people a subject worthy of consideration.
( 77 )
for fair competition the equal balance disturbed by the pre-
sence of a monopoly price, remunerative in that it encour-
aged in direct profits in the more extended use of monopoly
salt in Indian curing. In connection with my proposal,
therefore, I would suggest a re-imposition of a customs
duty on salt-fish." Respecting whether the proposition of
forming enclosures in suitable places, wherein fish could
be salted and salt sold at reduced rates, he replies, " yes ;
I think it would ; and have been at much pains to get men
to undertake the enterprise, and have written to the Madras
Board of Revenue suggesting in detail a trial with salt sold
at Re. 1 a maund, or half the monopoly price, and have
made choice of a fit man to give the question a fair trial"
(p. xli). Mr. Thomas's plan is detailed at pp. xli, xlii, and
xliii. In Tinnevelly, the Collector considers that the way to
increase the trade in salting fish would be " by reducing
the monoply price of salt" (p. Iv). In Tanjore, the Deputy
Collector in charge of the salt department reports that " the
salting of sea-fish might be increased by removing the
restrictions which at present exist regarding the earth and
spontaneously-produced salt." As to whether it would be
practicable to erect large enclosures in suitable places
wherein fish might be salted, and the salt sold at a reduced
price, he continues " yes ; it is practicable in this district on the
great salt swamp near point Calamere, provided the restric-
tions referred to in regard to using salt-earth were removed
inside the particular locale or enclosure" (p. Ivi). The Col-
lector of Trichinopoly remarks that " if the monopoly price
of salt were low, I fancy the trade and quality of the com-
modity itself would increase, but if really good salt-fish
were made at the present price of Government salt, the pro-
duct would be beyond the reach of its chief consumers"
(p. Ivii). In Arcot "doubtless the salt-fish trade might be
increased and improved under systematic encouragement
and arrangement if such could be applied" (p. Ivii). The
Acting Sub-Collector observes, respecting enclosures, &c.,
" one such enclosure might perhaps be tried under the
immediate supervision of the Salt Deputy Collector. It
would cost little or nothing to try the experiment" (p. lix).
In Nellore " the salting of sea-fish might be increased, and
would certainly be improved by cheaper salt. * * The
poorer fishermen would be glad to salt fish if Government
salt were within their means. The proposition in paragraph
7 (see note p. 68) I have carefully considered. In so far as
those who now use no salt at all would then use the cheap
( 78 )
salt, the scheme would not lessen our revenue to any great
extent. Two of my tehsildars suggest that the salt which
is rejected at the pans and destroyed might he utilized for
this purpose. This salt is rejected because it crumhles and
does not remain in a crystallized form, but it is quite good
enough for salting fish. The sale of this condemned salt for
this purpose would not interfere with our monopoly prices,
nor would it diminish our stores of good salt, and it would
benefit the manufacturing ryots, whose salt is often con-
demned because of the result of bad weather, and not
through any carelessness of theirs. The cost price of good
salt which is paid to the ryots is only Rs. 10 a garce "
(p. Ixii). The Collector of the Kistna District considers of
the salt-fish trade that " it might be increased by reducing
the monopoly price of salt" (p. Ixv). Amongst the native
officials, the Superintendent of Sea Customs, Cannanore, be-
lieves "that the salting of sea-fish could be increased if
the monopoly price of the Government salt be reduced ; but
this can only be effected by a license system restricting the
sale to a certain extent to the fishermen alone for the
bond fide use of salting fish" (p. Ixxiy). The Deputy Col-
lector of the salt department, Ramnad, observes respecting
the proposition in paragraph 7, (note p. 68 ) " the measure is
practicable, and the most convenient points of the coast
to form the enclosures are the salt stations. The sale of salt
at a reduced price within the enclosures may not only sup-
press the use of illicit salt, but also improve the quality of
the salt-fish, which from the high price of salt is cured with
other ingredients, as salt-earth, &c. " (p. Ixxxii.) In Tinnc-
velly, the tehsildar of Ottapidaram states " the salting of fish
would be increased if the price of salt becomes cheaper"
(p. Ixxxiv). In the Tanjore Collectorate the Tehsildar of
Tritrapundi considers that the salting of fish could be in-
creased by reducing the price of salt ;that the erection of enclo-
sures, wherein fish might be salted and the salt sold at a
reduced price, would be advisable (p. Ixxxvii). The tehsildar of
Th c 'alii likewise considers " that the salting of sea-fish could
be increased by a reduction in the price of salt ; erecting en-
closures within which fish might be salted is not impracticable"
(p. Ixxxviii). The tehsildar of PattuJcottai reports that " those
who are engaged in salting and curing fish purchased from fish-
ermen complain that their trade suffers much from the time the
price of salt has been enhanced, and offer only 8 or 12 annas
for fish formerly worth one rupee. Under these circumstances,
I consider it advisable that the price of salt should be reduced
( 79 )
as a stimulus for fisli curing. * * Certain restrictions should
be made, such as that salt should be sold at the reduced rate
only in the places where the fish are cured, and that salt
bought there should not be taken out or used for any other
purpose" (p. Ixxxix). In South Arcot the tehsildar states
" people will use fish salted in any way ; they have no idea
of what is called high salt ; the only consideration to them is
the cost" (p. xcii). Another tehsildar considers that "the
salting of fish might possibly be increased if the price of salt
were reduced for the purpose and the forming of enclosures
would be practicable " (p. xcii). In the Nellore Collectorate
the salt superintendent of Sunnapugunta is of opinion that
there has been a decrease in salting fish of late years, because
of the rise in the selling price of salt, which has made it
more difficult for the poor to procure the article and cure the
fish properly (p. xcv). The tehsildar of Handukur observes
that " the cost of salt precludes the fishermen from salting fish ;
it appears that they would themselves commence the trade if
the price of salt is low" (p. xcvii). In the Kistna District
the sea customs house superintendent at Bandar considers
that " the proposition in paragraph 7 (note, p. 68) would be
practicable" (p. xcviiij. The Assistant Superintendent of
Customs at Vizagapatam and Kottapalem ports think it would
be good and practicable" (p. xcviii). The Superintendent at
Ipurupalem likewise considers such will increase the amount
cured (p. xcix).
Oil. Prom Bengal, Dr. W. W. Hunter observes in
Remedial measures proposed Orissa respecting assisting the fisher,
in Bengal. men with cheap salt to cure fish and
the difficulties such would entail, that " Government has to
consider whether it is not worth while to encounter and
overcome these difficulties, rather than to continue to deprive
the often famine-stricken population of the delta of a great
staple article of its natural food " (p. cxviii). The Collector
of Chittagong observes respecting salting fish and there being
no export of it, " the fishermen object on the score of the
high price of salt, and even were this objection removed, the
Collector doubts whether the fishermen would be inclined to
come and prepare their fish for market within the proposed
enclosures" (p. cxxiv).
01 II. Erom the preceding answers we may thus divide
Analysis of remedial measures the propositions advanced by Various
ProP°sed- officials respecting how to ameliorate
the present condition of the fisherman and encourage him
( 80 )
to make larger captures, whereby not only the people in
the vicinity of the sea, but the inland markets, may be sup-
plied with wholesome salt-fish to meet the present demand ;
(1) Reduce the price of salt to the fish-ewer. This pro-
position is most improtant, and appears to be at the root of
the whole of the present depressed state of the fisheries.
But there are a few considerations that must be carefully
considered. The people of India who consume prepared
fish are very poor, and the inferior article they now obtain
is either dried without salt, or untaxed salt-earth is used.
This latter substance costs about 2 annas to cure a maund
of fish, whilst in the Madras Presidency the duty alone on
the amount of salt necessary to cure the same amount is
32 annas. But this latter article will be far superior, more
wholesome, keep longer, and bear transport. Great care
will be necessary to enquire whether, even were salt sold at
cost price and the use of salt-earth prohibited, such might
not raise the prime cost of the article higher than the poorer
classes could afford to give. Bad as is the present quality
of earth-salt-cured fish, the sun-dried is far worse and more
unwholesome. (2) That Government salt should be sold at
cost price to fish-curers* inside enclosures for the bond fide
salting of fish. The remarks made above will be worth
consideration respecting this plan. This scheme is merely
founded upon the modes pursued in Europe in bygone years,
and apparently existed in portions of Bombay , for in Cambay
it is said the fish-curers used to obtain their salt duty free.
(3) That the import duty on foreign salt-fish should be in-
creased, so as to bring up the charges to a level with those
incurred by fish-curers who use excised salt. After having very
carefully considered this proposition, I am inclined to doubt the
benefit which will accrue to the poor. Fish in Indiafor sale
is only prepared with good salt when for the richer classes or
export to distant markets. Raising the import duty on this
article will have no bearing whatever on the present cheap salt-
fish, but only on the first-class article. t (4) That the restric-
tions on the use of salt-earth for fish-curing be removed.
This proposition in reality strikes at the very root of the evil.
Were salt-earth for sale at its cost price for fish-curing within
these enclosures, and also some good salt at cost price, this
* Not necessarily fishermen.
f In the above remarks the question is only considered with reference to its general
bearing, and leaving salt to th^ fish-curers at its present price. Placing a prohibitory duty
on foreign salt- fish will, I should think, benefit very few traders.
( 81 )
would give a great impetus to the trade so soon as the
natural suspicion of the people had been allayed. (5) Where
salt is manufactured, it is suggested that the condemned salt
should not be destroyed, but sold at cost price inside these en-
closures. Of course the cost price of such would have to
be a little less than the best salt, or the manufacturing ryots
would be careless respecting the quality of what they made,
if the same price were given for good or bad. (6) It has
been proposed to give advances for the purpose of enabling
fishermen to buy nets and boats. This State assistance to
fisheries, however, has not answered elsewhere, and I do not
see any reason for believing that it would be of any per-
manent benefit in India. It might give a temporary stimu-
lus to the fishermen, but such would soon subside, unless
Government gave relief from the present cause of the depres-
sion, namely, the price of salt. That done, the trade will
doubtless recover in time ; it only needs fair play to become a
source of profit to the fishermen and fish-curers, as well as
affording an inexhaustible supply of good animal food to
the inland markets.
RESULT OF THIS INQUIRY.
CIV. Unless we have a clear conception of the evil,
it is useless attempting remedial
Result of this inquiry. T , -, «
measures. I therefore propose to
briefly recapitulate the result of this enquiry. (1) It is
impossible to deny that wherever a good demand exists for
fish, either for the purpose of meeting the local consump-
tion or material for the fish-curer, that the fishermen are
in a prosperous state. (2) That wherever salt is dear
the fish-curers' trade is either diminished or entirely destroyed
(unless in the vicinity of large towns), and that as a consequence
the fishermen are in a great state of destitution, both owing
to small local demand for their captures as well as the
decreased price of such in the market, (3) That certain
local taxes exist on the fishermen's trade which are objection-
able, as ' Rajahs cat' at Tellicherry, as c the Rajah's or zemin-
dar's c curry fish' in Ramnad : as all fishing in the sea with
nets which are not fixed engines ought to be free to all, espe-
cially if salt is dear. (4) That one cause depressing the fish-
curers' trade, who use excised salt in Bombay and portions of
South Canara, is the vicinity of foreign ports, where salt is
sold at about 2 annas per 80 Ibs. weight (instead of about 32
annas, as in the British territory), and no duty exists against
their freely importing into British ports fish cured there.
( 82 )
(5) That salt-fish is of two descriptions,/?*^, that cured with
Government salt for the rich, for the sick and for export
to distant markets, as it keeps well, is wholesome, and
nourishing, the cost of the salt employed being equal to
about 1^ pie to 1 Ib. of fish.* Secondly, that cured with
untaxed salt-earth for the poor, which does not keep well,
and is considered as either pre-disposing to or a direct cause
of disease, the cost of the salt employed being equal to TVth
of a pie to 1 Ib. of fish. (6) That in many places where
the salt excise is strictly enforced, the poor have to consume
their fish putrid, or simply bury it along the sea-shore or
soak it in partially evaporated sea-water and then dry it in
the sun, these plans being reported as fruitful causes of
disease. (7) That there is no diminution of fish in the sea
appears clear, because wherever there is a large and steady
demand for them, such appears to be invariably met, and it is
merely in those localities where no steady demand exists that
a decrease is reported. (8) That there may be a temporary
absence of migratory fish, as the mackerel and sardines, that
such may extend over several successive seasons, but proof is
still wanting to definitely conclude what such absence is due
to. In like manner, predaceous fishes, which follow and prey
upon these shoals of migratory ones, will necessarily be
absent at these periods, because they are pursuing their prey.
This, however, can hardly be considered a diminution of these
fishes, but only their temporary absence. (9) There is, how-
ever, in certain places a local decrease of sea-fish due to local
causes, and the result of how the fishermen carry on their
captures confining their labours to capturing the fry and
small fish along the shore and in the estuaries ; but as these
smaller -fish were the baits which induced the larger marine
forms to come in, the fishermen's labours remove this lure ;
they disturb this water and the larger and more valuable species
seek their prey further out to sea. This, however, is only one
of the effects of dear salt, as the smaller fish can be dried and
cured with a minimum amount of this antiseptic quite in-
sufficient to preserve the larger and more nourishing species.
REMEDIAL MEASURES.
CV. If the foregoing deductions from personal investiga-
tions and the reports of numerous
Remedial measures. , ., _ . .
local officials are correct, the con-
clusion cannot be avoided that the chief cause of the
* These figures are approximative, deduced from the Kurrachee and Tellicherry returns,
and likewise from Malabar reports.
( 83 )
present depressed condition of the fisherman's and fish-curer's
trade is to be sought in the incidence of the salt-tax, and
that those who deprecate " any interference with the fisher-
men who are so very poor,55 or in a "miserable state of desti-
tution,55 appear to be unaware of the state of the case. One
cannot suppose such advisers to be oblivious of the distresses
of those amongst whom they reside, or would really wish to
feed the poor on putrid fish, considering the realization of the
salt revenue as of immeasurably more importance than the
lives, health, and comfort of their fellow creatures. Assisting
the fishermen with pecuniary advances for the purpose of
purchasing boats and nets, as proposed, is scarcely to be ex-
pected to be sufficient in itself to place the sea fishermen}s
and fish-curers5 trade in a healthy state ; and if it is in a
healthy condition, such advances would not be required.
Seeing that it is only in the heavily salt-taxed districts, or
in the vicinity of a contiguous foreign state where salt is un-
taxed, that the fishermen are badly off and the fish-curers5
trade may be considered a thing of the past, one feels
justified in laying the blame on the incidence of the salt-tax.
It is evident in portions of the Bombay Presidency that this
was foreseen, for the fish-curers used to have salt to carry on
their trade duty free, a remission which appears to have been
withdrawn, whilst the salt-fish trade has also disappeared.
Thus expensive salt is beyond the reach of the majority of
fish-curers ; it is ruinous to their trade, and whilst diminishing
or destroying that, the demand for fish decreases, and the fisher-
man becomes involved in the common ruin. The evil, how-
ever, does not cease here ; it compels the poor of many districts
to either, entirely go without fish at their meals, consume
them putrid, merely sun-dried, or salted with such impure
salt as to predispose to or even induce disease. This being
the case near the sea-coast is much more apparent inland,
where the fresh- water fisheries, from the reckless manner in
which they are being poached, evidently in places show
signs of exhaustion. To give an impetus* to the fisherman's
calling, to raise him from a miserable state of poverty to
comparative comfort by creating a demand for fish, and
which would aid in supplying the inland markets at no expense
to Government, would surely be both a humane as well
as a politic action, even should such entail some little addi-
tional trouble on the local civil officers. As the root of this
evil is evidently the price of salt, so this of itself is the first
consideration. Of course, as in Burma, there may exist a fisher-
( 84 )
man population who do not care to risk fishing far from land,
but these are for local more than for general considerations.
CVI. With reference to the incidence of the salt-tax
there are two main questions for con-
Incidence of the salt tax. ,. J.T. ^ ,• v
sideration; the first is relieving those
who cure fish with Government or excised salt from unfair
competition with the foreigner, who can now prepare his fish
with the same quality of salt at from 2 to 4 annas a maund
whilst the Indo-British curer rarely gives less than 32 annas
for the same quantity in Bombay, 38 in Madras, and from 54
to 80 in Bengal. This may be met to a certain extent by an
import duty of 10 per cent, ad valorem on foreign cured fish,
but even then it must be evident that the foreigner has an
advantage, as a much higher duty than 10 per cent, would be
necessary to raise his expenditure from say 4 annas a maund
for salt up to from 32 to 80 for the same quantity. But this
will only afford relief to those merchants who now use Go-
vernment salt, and this is employed merely for the richer
classes, the sick, and export to Ceylon or inland, as to the
Wynaad and Hyderabad. If the proposed augmentation of
the salt-tax in Sind is carried out, this tax must also partially
assist the Sind fish-curers to compete with the foreigner in
the Bombay market.
CVII. But it appears to me that there is a very much
curing fish with salt-earth more important question involved than
most important to the poor. simply assisting those few fish-curers
who salt fish for the richer classes or more distant markets.
The general health of the people seems worthy of considera-
tion, and there are three causes at least (irrespective of the
state of the fishermen) that call aloud for remedial measures.
(1) The inland districts are not now supplied with salt-fish
from the maritime ones, because the article, if prepared with
Government salt, is too expensive to be within the compass of
the means of the poorer classes, who would be its chief con-
sumers. (2) Owing to the inability to purchase salt, semi or
quite putrid fish is being consumed by the general popula-
ticn, either in a dried or partially raw state, in certain districts.
(3) That the use of fish cured with salt-earth is productive of
disease, and is only purchased because of its cheap cost. If
the price of the article is raised much above what it stands
at now, it will be placed entirely beyond the reach of its chief
consumers ; and the problem to be solved is this, how can
good salt-fish be sold at its present price ? This I fear is im-
possible, but certain remedial measures might be tried, and
( 85 )
though I here propose pointing them out, I must leave the
civil department, in whose province it lies, to initiate the
details.
CVIII. Admitting dear salt is the root of the evil, we
Selling salt at or about prime arrive at the question how could its
cost to the fish-curers. expense be lowered to the fish-curers ?
There are two articles now to he investigated, pure salt
and salt-earth. If Government would sell, in a way to he
hereafter detailed, salt at prime cost to fish-curers bond fide for
the curing of fish, the result would he a diminution of at least
from 50 to 75 per cent. This would not only cheapen the
article now manufactured, but give an impetus in time to the
fisherman's trade. As the fish-curer found that due to this
concession, and a duty on the foreign article, he could with a
profit increase his trade in the British territory, doubtless it
would induce many to carry it on. Wherever this occurs, a
steady demand for fish must spring up, and the fishermen's
trade revive. Not only this, but the article will be within
the means of a larger number of people ; and if the use of
salt-earth is also permitted in the same place, there cannot be
a doubt but that some of this cheaper Government salt will
be mixed with it, and the salt-fish as a result will be cured in
a better manner.
CIX. If likewise the collection and use of salt-earth for
The collection of salt-earth this trade is permitted, that alone will
for fish-curers used inside en- give a great stimulus to fish-CUring,
closures to be permitted. , ,, , .. .
and those who now have either to go
without cured fish or eat the abominable substance sold in
Bombay, the Coromandel Coast, and throughout lower Bengal,
would procure a more saline article instead of a thoroughly
putrid one. Not one ounce of monopoly salt is now used, and
it will only be by degrees that the employment of this saline
will be introduced ; and as the trade goes on it is to be hoped
that the same benefits would result as have been perceptible
of late years on the Malabar Coast.
CX. The mode in which I proposed that salt should be
Salt disposed of inside en- Sold to the fish-CUrerS Was as follows,
closures, by the erection of enclosures wherein
the fish should be salted, and not removed until cured. If this
were done and a memorandum kept of the salt conveyed in-
side these places, and the amount of salt-fish weighed as it
was taken away, a single glance at the figures would show if
any smuggling were taking place ; and I would draw attention
to the circumstance that in many places headmen of the
( 86 )
fishermen exist in every village with a superintending head-
man over several villages. Prohably the civil authorities
might advantageously employ their services. Of course in
such a plan it must be distinctly laid down that no inter-
ference with the fish-curers will he permitted. If they do
not wish to use cheap salt inside these enclosures, they may
go on as they always have done : if one person commences
and it pays, I have no doubt but others will speadily follow,
but nothing must be done to cause trouble or suspicion to
these people.
CXI. I would strongly urge that in salt-taxed districts
The collection of sait-earth the fish-curers be permitted to collect
from this purpose no loss to salt-earth for use in their trade duty
free, provided they employed it within
enclosures as proposed. Such would be no loss to Government,
but it would permit this ingredient to be employed openly
instead of as now by stealth, rendering the fish-curer almost
at the mercy of every petty official.
CXII. Believe the fish-curer of his present burdens, and
Result of cheapening salt to he will be able to purchase fresh fish
the trade of sait-fish. an(j cure ft {n such a manner that he
can provide a wholesome article to distant inland markets at a
price which the consumer can afford to pay. By cheapening
salt, some at least can be added to the salt-earth now used for
the local supply, so that the article will keep longer and be
more wholesome to the local poor. Permit the use of salt-
earth in salt-taxed districts, and instead of putrid fish being
eaten as a rule, disseminating disease, some saline can be em-
ployed which certainly will be found beneficial to the health
of the poorer classes.
APPENDICES.
BELUCHISTAN.
1. In commencing the appendices to this report on the sea-
Sea-fishery at Gwadar : how fisheries, I have considered it expedient to give
it has sprung up of late years. a short account ot personal investigations
Import duty on salt-fish into made at Gwddar on the Meckran Coast, as
India abolished;
India increased.
salt tax in
the trade in salt-fish may be said to have
almost sprung up since the establishment of a
telegraph station and a British Political Officer at that port. From this
place a considerable amount of salt-fish is exported to Bombay and
elsewhere. Prior to 1867, fish imported into Bombay paid a duty of 7J
per cent., whilst the price of salt has been considerably raised in the
British territory by an increase in the duty levied upon it.
£. At Gwadar the take of fish and the exports had been as follows
Gwadar, its fisheries . mode of • during 10 months in 1871,— the contractor
receiving one-tenth of the captures, and there
being a small export duty : —
Captured.
90,000
3,000
8,000
95,000
preparing the captures.
Pish-hul ...
Seir-fish (Cylium)
Coompa (Pristipoma
Mush-hul ...
Pulla (JClu^ea)
Soh-lee (Scia&na axillaris)
Kur ( „ diacanthus)
Soh-ru (Pagrus spinifer)
Teg-gu-lum (Stromateus, or Pomfref)
Sah-rum (Chorinemus') ...
Suk-kun (Scicena semiluctuosa*)
Gulloo
25,000
73,000
8,500
12,000
10,000
21,000
825
3,000
Exported.
80,000
2,200
8,000
95,000
23,000
71,000
2,500
8,000
10,000
10,000
1,000
The salt used for curing fish is here of a very superior quality, and a
camel-load of about 280 Ibs. weight costs about Re. 1-8-0, or one-seventh
of what it does in many maritime districts in Bombay and Madras. The
following is the method followed in curing fish in this place : — Salt or
brine pits are formed in the ground under a light but high shed, so that,
although the direct rays of the sun are not allowed to fall on the fish,
any breeze that exists blows freely through the building; the whole of
11
this is surrounded by a light wooden enclosure. The pits are usually
about six feet square and three deep, but some are shallower ; they are
puddled with a tenacious blue mud obtained from a neighbouring hill,
and this entirely prevents the water from soaking into the soil. Over
this blue mud is spread a clean bamboo mat and a layer -of salt. The
fish, having been split open and cleaned, are placed as a second flat
layer ; then some salt, next another layer of fish, some more salt, and lastly
sea water just sufficient to cover them is added : the brine was said not to
be used twice . The fins of sharks and fish-maws or sounds are treated
in the same way. After two or three days they are removed, re-salted,
and packed in large heaps, as the people of the country will not purchase
them if too dry : these heaps are either matted or thatched over. Sharks'
fins are not, as in India, simply cut off and dried in the sun, but a consi-
derable portion of the muscles along their bases are also removed, and
the whole cured in the salt-pits as already described : 1 20 kupputs weight,
each of which equals 336 Ibs., had been exported to Bombay, or a total of
360 cwt. in 10 months in 1871. Fish-maws or sounds, known as rough
isinglass, is also largely collected ; it is chiefly obtained from the air-vessel
of the Scicena axillaris and S. diacanthus, their value at the customs house
being estimated at Rs. 65 a hundred. The fishes that are exported to
India form a great part of the merchandise which is sent, and from its sale,
materials for making nets, and country cloth, &c., are purchased. In
touching at some other places along this coast, the same prosperity in
the fishing classes and trade was apparent, and which was not only sup-
porting thousands of fishermen and their families, providing for their
daily wants, but also enabling them to obtain by its produce many articles
of necessity, and even luxury, from the British possessions and other
places. In no locality was a decrease of fishermen complained of; on the
contrary, they were reported to be largely increasing and in a thriving
state. The excellent and cheap salt permits any amount of fish to be
cured ; this ability to preserve large quantities creates a demand for fish
from the fishermen, whilst the quality of the salt-fish is such that it may
be exported to distant markets without becoming putrid like salt-fish
which is merely cured with salt-earth. From the foregoing it would
appear that cheap salt is a proper stimulus to improving the condition
of the fisherman by giving him a market for any amount of fish he can
capture, and the fish-curer an article capable of being exported with
profit to the salt-taxed districts of Western India.
Ill
SIND.
3. The province of Sind does not possess an extensive sea-coast ;
but due to the river Indus opening by several
mouths along its border, a great amount of
food suitable to both large and small fish is carried down to the ocean.
As a consequence, it is a favorite resort for both predaceous and other
marine species, some of which come in vast shoals for breeding pur-
poses. Irrespective of this, salt exists in enormous deposits, and as
yet the Government have not imposed upon it the amount of taxation
that obtains in the rest of British India.
4. Thus everything most favorable for the sea-fisherman's occupa-
Favorable prospects of the tion exists — an inexhaustible wealth of fish,
fishermen. and cheap salt. Irrespective of this — for with-
out a market the trade would be unremunerative — salt-fish may be exported
into India duty-free : there an unlimited market is to be found, provided
the article be good, and the native of Hindustan has to purchase his
salt at double or treble the price at which it is sold in Sind. And thus
the Sindee in good salt-fish can undersell the Hindu in his own market,
as I shall subsequently have to explain.
5. The following figures show the exports and imports : —
Return showing the quantity and value offish-oil, dried and salted fish, and
fish-maws and shark-fins, exported from Sind for the last twenty years.
YEARS.
Fish-oil.
Dried and salted
fish.
Fish-maws and
shark-fins.
GRAND
TOTAL.
Gallons.
Value,
Rs.
Cwts.
Value,
Rs.
Cwts.
Value,
Rs.
Value,
Rs.
1853-54 ...
1,493
859
...
10,750
1,389
32,766
44,375
1854-55 ...
1,181
630
...
11,525
369
10,767
22,922
185556 ...
945
510
...
25,027
645
25,495
51,032
1856-57
...
...
...
21,537
572
20,466
42,003
1857-58
510
600
,,
15,884
476
12,659
29,043
1858-59 ...
25
22
<t
17,376
384
12,012
29,410
1859-60 ...
100
2,197
,.
24,684
392
13,717
40,598
1860-61
1,556
1,274
M
39,629
554
17,214
58,117
1861-62
...
...
33,29f
342
13,690
46,981
1862-63
84
86
15,664
422
19,236
34,986
1863-64
67
60
>t
26,316
363
15,863
42,239
1864-65
...
§<
54,518
819
32,775
87,293
1865-66
...
...
37,742
692
25,595
63,337
1866-67
2,474
2,365
,t
29,976
786
40,979
73,320
1867-68
3,299
3,549
...
38,700
906
54,263
96,512
1868-69
1,231
1,483
...
78,963
1,920
95,750
1,76,196
1869-70
7,633
9,317
...
34,402
1,284
69,680
1,13,399
1870-71
4,572
5,361
...
46,346
1,514
73,024
1,24,731
1871-72
4,670
4,949
...
29,030
1,258
76,869
1,10,848
1872-73
6,309
7,527
...
40,708
1,315
55,440
1,03,675
TOTAL
36,149
40,689
...
6,32,068
16,402
7,18,260
13,91,017
IV
If we divide the foregoing into periods of five years, we obtain the
following respecting the value of the dried, and salt fish exported : —
Value in
Rupees.
5 years ending 1857-58 ... ... ... 84,723
5 „ 1862-63 ... ... ... 130,644
5 „ 1867-68 ... ... ... 187,252
5 „ 1872-73 ... ... ... 229,449
6. In fact, the great stimulus to the trade appears to have occurred
during the last five years under review, which commenced when Govern-
ment took off the duty on imported salt-fish. If we look at the yearly
figures what do they demonstrate ? The first great increase in the trade
was in 1860-61 ; in that year the duty on salt in Bombay was raised from
Re. 1 to Re. 1-4 a maund; the next great rise was in 1864-65 ; in 1865
the duty was again raised in Bombay to Re. 1-8 a maund,— these
duties not affecting the fishermen of Sind.
7. Could the salting of sea-fish be increased in Sind? The Com-
missioner appears to consider no necessity
exists for any extension, the supply being
equal to the demand. But the subject has to be looked at on a broader
basis; the supply in India is not equal to the demand. The native
official considers the practice of salting fish has remained stationary.
But it appears from the sea customs house returns that the trade on
the contrary has largely increased of late years, and, as it is yearly
expanding it may well be left alone, provided the price of salt is not
increased.
8. Government salt is said to be ex-
clusively used for curing fish. Its price is
stated to be aoout one rupee a maund, but it
varies, and is sometimes even less.
9. Although the Tehsildar gives instances in which the fishermen's
privileges have been curtailed of late years,
°perati°ns unre' investigations lead to an entirely opposite
conclusion. They have been relieved of
certain cesses, and instead of the fisheries having been let by auction
to a contractor, who was allowed to tax them largely, they now merely
pay a yearly license on their boats by the ton ; otherwise they are per-
fectly unrestricted in the modes and times of fishing.
10. The fishermen have certain headmen, whose duties appear to
be to settle questions of caste and sundry
. other matters of a trifling nature, and to con-
duct the religious ceremonies connected with marriages and funerals.
11. How are the fishermen supplied with boats and nets ? From
the answer furnished by the Tehsildar it
fisST %%£££& ™W aPPe" ««* /he old ruinous plan is
with nets and boat*. still in force, — a plan which involves the
fisherman so completely that, having once
been entangled by these money-lenders, he can rarely, if ever, disentangle
himself. Without possessing any capital, he looks round for some one
to lend it him for the purpose of obtaining the implements of his craft,
viz., nets and boats. The exorbitant rate of interest charged in Karachi
appears to be this : He borrows the money for the purchase of the
materials, giving a bond to hand over the whole of his captures to the
bond-holder at half the ruling market rates. Thus every means of sub-
sistence is taken away ; the bond-holder now supplies him at usurious
rates with all the necessaries of life, and the fisherman in reality is his
slave. This unfortunate state of affairs was reported upon years since,
and to give relief to this class of people, cesses and other taxes bearing
upon. them were removed; but according to the Tehsildar's statement,
they have not benefitted therefrom.
12. As the captures are much larger than formerly, whilst the
fishermen are said to have decreased, to whom
The fishermen represented by must this increase of wealth have gone ?
^oTvSdedcao8odS.iaaVery If the Tehsildar's statement is correct, an
increase ot captures enected by a decreased
number of persons must have the effect of increasing the emoluments
of the fishermen, or if all their captures go to their bond-holders, they
may obtain the benefit. The Tehsildar states that " some of the
fishermen have given up the business, owing to their inability to procure
nets, boats, &c., which are very costly, and also owing to the
low rate at which they have to sell the fish to the persons from whom
they borrow money ." Figures seem to show that if such is the case,
they must be most apathetic in looking after their own interests, as an
enormous increase of receipts goes now to the fishermen craft above what
they received in former years. "Whilst their taxes have decreased, the
price of salt has not been raised, and a splendid market in India has been
opened to them.
13. But the question arises is such a fact ? I cannot help surmising
that it is not. On personal enquiry I could
Reasons for doubting the not hear of sucll a miserable condition of the
correctness of the Tehsildar s « -, . r^ , , . T ., . , ~ . .
opinion. fishermen at Karachi. Lastly, the Commission-
er observes that " the fishermen are well off/'
and that the salt-fish trade " is in a natural and healthy state now and
needs no assistance ; it is best left alone/' In this conclusion, I cannot
resist coinciding, and to likewise remark that, with salt at one rupee or
less a maund, the fishermen of Sind have enormous inducements offered
them to supply the salt-fish market of Bombay.
14. The sea-fishermen of Sind, besides fishing in the deep sea and
in-shore, engage as lascars in coasting vessels,
the seTft±Cmer y collect JUDS.le fronl within tidal influence, the
bark of which is useful for preserving timber
for building purposes, and the leaves as food for camels and horned beasts.
It appears that during the time of the Amirs, and up to 1846, the fish-
eries were farmed out, and the contractor was allowed to exact his share
either in money or kind. The following were the percentage cesses
which the Karachi contractor was entitled to : — one-sixth of all fish taken
inside the harbour or within Manora Point (the farthest point of the
mainland abutting on the harbour) : one-fourth of those netted or
taken by hook and line outside the harbour, provided they were less than
sixty, but if over that number then one-eighth : on every boat-load
taken outside the harbour, five fish were selected by the con-
tractor : he also received one-sixth of the fish-sounds extracted, and a
little over 10 per cent, of sharks' fins. On every boat-load of fish taken
VI
near Kiamari, one-sixth : on fish exported by sea Rs. 12-11-1 J per cent., —
if to Daraja, Shdhbandar or Sonmiani, Rs. 13-10-9 per cent., if to any
inland village Rs. 14-10-4 J : on fish-sounds conveyed inland Rs. 13-8-8
per cent : on fish caught in nets, the Government share of some kinds
was at the rate of twenty -two rupees a hundred : the same of some cap-
tured by hooks and lines : of others, only sixteen rupees a hundred :
whilst of a few kinds the share was recovered at the market rates. Other
cesses also affected the fishermen, as head-money on lascars, taxes on
charcoal and on wood, &c.* The contract sold annually for between
four and seven thousand rupees. First, the extra cesses were discon-
tinued : in 1845 the contract system was abolished, and for the following
reasons : — up to the period just mentioned the fishermen were all more
or less involved in pecuniary embarrassment, and entirely in the hands
of bania creditors, by whom not only their boats and nets, but even
the necessaries of life were supplied in consideration of the profits of their
labors being relinquished to them, the share of the contractor being
first deducted.f
15. On August 23rd, 1851, the Deputy Collector of Customs
Annual licensing of boats observed that, on the abolition of the Mirs
followed by a return to the taxation, annual licenses were adopted, which
auction system. had produced the following sums : —
Rs. A. P.
1846 . 673 0 0
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
3,255 8 9
2,995 9 9
3,445 8 0
3,473 5 0
757 1 0
and he proposed, in consequence of the small amount realised, that the
fisheries should be sold by auction to a contractor. To this the Commis-
sioner in Sind (Sir 13. Frere) gave his approval, and that year (1851)
Rs. 5,250 were offered and accepted. This plan was persisted in until
1856, when the late General Jacob, whilst Acting Commissioner (Sep-
tember 1856) instructed the Deputy Collector of Customs to introduce a
system of licensing each fishing boat, — a plan apparently not approved of
by the Deputy Collector, as he never carried it out, adhering to the
auction system. However, a year later, the Commissioner directed that
the following plan should commence, and it has been in force since
1858:—
16. The present mode in which the fishermen are taxed is by
levying a license of Rs. 5 a ton on fishing
boats, and this has realised in the five
years ending 1870-71 Rs. 13,596-7-5, or at
about the rate of Rs. 2,719-4-8 per annum. Thus in six years ending
1851 under the annual licensing Rs. 2,4M3 per annum was averaged, or
about Rs. 286 less than the average amount now obtained. The follow-
ing are the scales of licenses now in force : — Canoe or toney Rs. 3
a year: a butel of 1J tons Rs. 5: from 1J to Jj tons Rs. 7-8 : from
2 to 2J tons Rs, 10 : from 2J to 2f Rs. 12-8 : from 3 to 4 tons Rs. 15 :
* Probably it extended to grass cut in the salt marshes, but I omitted to take a note
of it.— F. D.
t According to the Tehsildar, they are in much the same coudition now, the contractor
taking all their captures at,half the market rates
Vll
from 4J to 5 tons Rs. 20 : from 5J and upwards Rs. 5 a ton. Fractions
less than half not charged for; exceeding half charged for as a ton.
17. The amount of fish on the sea coast of Sind are as numerous
as they are off Beluchistan : the supply
Sea-fish very abundant. . f J, • • i ,-11 -n ,1 V^
in fact is inexhaustible. Even the shad
termed here the pulla has the Indus up which to ascend to breed, — a river
fished with the greatest difficulty and not spanned by any works of
irrigation, and they are taken in enormous numbers during the cold season.
I now propose adverting to the manner in which these fisheries are worked,
how the captures are disposed of, and the way the fish or portions of
them are prepared in the bazar. First, as already observed, the fisherman
has to obtain a license for his boat, which pays according to its tonnage,
leaving him at liberty to employ it in any way, in any place, or at any
hour he deems most profitable to himself. During the south-west
monsoon, outside fishing is only practicable during any breaks in the
weather, the best months for the fish and fishermen being those of the
cold season. The larger sea-going boats are mostly engaged in
capturing sharks, skates, saw-fishes, and large Scicenas, the three first
being valuable for their fins, which are exported to Bombay for the
China market ; the last for its air-vessel, termed also ' fish-maws' or ' fish-
sounds/ likewise an article of commerce with China due to the quantity
of isinglass it contains. These fish are taken, as a rule, by means of large
nets, and not by baits as is the custom in Malabar. Having obtained a
boat-load, they make for the shore, not always returning direct for
Karachi, but preparing the fins and oil at the nearest suitable spot on
the coast. I measured a shark captured in one of these nets ; it was
upwards of twenty feet in length, and demonstrated the great strength
of the twine which has to be employed for this purpose. The Scicenas
are also large fish, rarely under 15 or 20 Ibs. weight; their chief value is
their air-vessel, which is worth from 8 to 12 annas when removed from
the fish and simply dried in the sun ; of course wholesale, the price would
not be quite so much. The flesh of these last fish is somewhat coarse, and
not held in much estimation. Moderately-sized boats are also used in the
open sea, but this is more for line or hand-fishing, the most killing baits
being prawns, which are netted with small meshed cast nets in the inner
harbour. In this manner most of the edible fish which take baits are
procured : only two hooks are usually attached to each line : a suitable
bank having been selected, the boat is anchored, and four or five lines are
employed, one to each man. The fish taken a few miles out, of course,
vary with the season of the year, but may be considered to average from
lib. to 2Ibs. each. The booroo, Utolithus argenteus? and small Scianas
were very numerous when I was out fishing in the month of January ;
the nearer inland the smaller the size of the fish, which likewise are
generally of an inferior description as food. In some boats the fish are cut
open, cleaned and salted as taken ; in others this process is entirely carried
out on shore.
18. The fish in 1871 were all or almost all brought to the fish
market outside the town and there sold by
fith P°Smg Action. They arrive by camel-loads, donkey,
loads, or cooly-loads, and as they come are
sold in lots by the Mukaddams who charge one pice or three pice on each
Vlll
rupee realized, and also take a little of the fish which they sometimes
sell. The Tehsildar observes (1873, p. ix) that now the fishermen have
all the fish, except that the person from whom they borrow the money
to supply themselves with boats and nets puts into the bond that they,
the ' banias/ are to have all the fish landed at half the market rates.
1 9. The fish having been sold by auction, and either salted or
dried, and the air-vessels removed from the
sorts which possess them, and the fins from
others, a few points still remain for explanation respecting the fish-maws
or sounds, and also regarding the fish-oil. The principal fish from which
the fish-maws or rough isinglass is produced are the sea perches,
Serrani, as the gussir, S. lanceolatus , attaining a large size ; the dangara
or begti, Lates calcarifer ; the booroo and souwah amongst the Scianas,
and the roeballs or Polynemi. Here the air-vessels are not extracted
from the cat-fishes or Siluroids, which family are, however, compara-
tively rare. This accounts for the shape of the ' sounds ' from Karachi
and the Meckran Coast, differing, as a rule, from those obtained from
Malabar; for the air-vessels of these Sind fishes are, when dried, of a long
oval-purse-shaped or hour-glass form, and no marks of having been
roughly torn away from the back-bone. On the contrary, the Malabar
ones, which are mostly from Siluroids, are rounded, and have a rent on
one side where they have been roughly detached from the vertebral
column to which they are firmly adherent. The air-vessels are removed
from the fish by the purchaser immediately he becomes its possessor,
as it is very essential that they should be prepared as quickly as possible ;
they are taken out with a fair amount of care and subsequently dried
in the sun.
20. The fish-oil at Karachi is obtained entirely from the livers of
Figh oilg the sharks and their allies, the saw-fishes,
rays, and skates. Very little care is taken in
its preparation, and it is of the same foul character as elsewhere. The
oil sardines, Clupea Neohowii, are plentiful at times at Karachi and along
the sea-coast, certainly as high as Gwadar, but they are not employed
for the purpose of obtaining oil from : their arrival and departure are stated
to be too capricious for its being worth while to construct nets for their
capture, whilst often they are usually present only at such periods as
they are unsuited for this manufacture.
21. Fish are either dried in the sun, or else having been salted are
subsequently dried. The fins are generally
first removed from the back and abdomen, as
well as the head, if small ; they are then split open, salt rubbed in, and the
sun does the rest. I could not hear that anywhere in or near Karachi,
the same pains were taken in this manufacture as at Gwadar.
22. I obtained about 190 species of fish when at this port. It is
rather remarkable that in the markets there
was an almost entire absence of the pomfrets,
StromateuS) although S. atous, and S. niger abound in the sea. Horse
mackerels Caranx, roeballs Polynemi, and cat-fishes Silurida, were also
by no means numerous. On the other hand, there was a great abundance
of Sea Perches, Serrani, of Pristipomatidce and Scicenidce, not only in
species but in numbers composing each species. Gobies, more especially of
IX
smaller varieties, were numerous ; they abounded in the muddy estuaries
within tidal influence, running about on the soft mud as the tide ebbs,
in order to obtain any little insect or animal substance that may be mov-
ing about, but diving down out of sight on the approach of anything
which betokened danger. Blennies also were common on the rocks in
the harbour, where they resided in large basins which were covered by
every tide. Soles, Pleuronectidae, were both numerous and attaining a
very large size. Sharks, saw-fishes, rays and skates, as already observed,
were brought largely to the markets for the purpose of obtaining their
fins or converting their livers into oil.
23. The Commissioner of Sind (January 1st, 1873) replies that
breeding and immature fish are not destroyed
of ^nd1™ °f ^ Commissioner in the tidal estuaries, so far as he knows. He
does not see that any increase to the trade of
salt-fish is wanted. "There is a good trade quite equal to the demand,
and the fishermen are well off, what more can be desired." As regards
whether the proposition in paragraph 7 (of forming large enclosures in
suitable places, wherein fish might be salted, and salt sold at a lower rate
for this sole purpose) is advisable or practicable, he continues — " No, there
is no reason whatever for fostering the trade by exceptional premiums.*
It is in a natural and healthy state now and needs no assistance. It is
best left alone/'
24. From the Native Officials the following has been sent. The
Opinion of a Tehsildar. Tehnldar of Kardcki replies that the selling
price of salt is Re. 1 a mauud, that Govern-
ment salt is employed for curing fish, but salt-earth and sea-water are not.
The practice of salting fish has remained stationary of late years. " In
old times the fishermen had the privilege to tunur grass which grew in the
salt marshes about Karachi and its suburbs. The fishermen themselves
used to sell the grass or to charge the persons who cut it at the rate of
one anna per bundle. The money derived from this source amounted to
about Us. 400 or 500 a year. About 10 years ago this privilege of the
fishermen caste was taken away by Captain Giles, the Port Officer, and
Mr. Price, the Superintendent of the harbour works, as stated by them.f
There are four divisions in the fishermen caste, viz., Karachi, Lara, Bun-
dri, and Wungra, each division having its own head. This headman ship
is hereditary ; moreover, their headmen have been recognised as such in
the sanads granted them by Sir Bartle Frere, Commissioner in Sind ;
the duty of the headman is to settle caste and sundry other matters of a
trifling nature, and to conduct the religious ceremonies connected with
marriages and deaths. On marriage occasions, the headman receives
lungis, varying in value according to the circumstances of the parties
undergoing such ceremonies. The emolument to the headman from this
source of income is so small that it is not worth noticing. It will not
be improper to observe that the practice to give a fish to the headman
of the fisherman's own division, on his return from fishing, has been dis-
continued since last year. Formerly the fishermen of this place fished
* Salt is not taxed in Sind as elsewhere in India, thus the fish-curers have exception-
al benefits.
f Instead of the fishermen in Karachi having been deprived of privileges, they have
had many conferred on them, (see p. VI ante.)
B
within certain limits ; no outsider was allowed to fish within these limits.
The fishermen, therefore, complain that they have been deprived of this
right or privilege by the introduction of the license system which was
ordered to be carried out by the then Commissioner in Sind, Sir Bartle
Frere. * The fishermen borrow money from merchants and others to
buy boats and nets. A net (description not recorded) costs about Rs.
400 or 500. The old net being worn out every year, a new one is gener-
ally made. A boat costs about Rs. 1,000, and generally lasts for some
years. The fishermen sell all the fish which they get to the persons from
whom they borrow money for the purchase of boats and nets at half the
ruling rates in payment of the sum borrowed, there being a clause to
that effect in the bond ; for instance, if a fish is worth 1 rupee, the fisher-
men give it to them for 8 annas. The fishermen have decreased, some have
died of sickness, such as cholera, &c., and some have given up the business,
owing to their inability to procure nets, boats, &c., which are very costly,
and also owing to the low rate at which they have to sell the fish to the
persons from whom they borrow money. '*
25. The following shows the weight
^ Amount of fish carried inland of saU_jlsk carried inland by rail from
Karachi : —
Mds. Seers.
From January 1st to December 31st 1872 ... ... 274 18
Do. do. June 1873 ... ... ... 156 14
* This complaint is merely that now any one may take out a fishing license, the con-
tractor having been done away with at the fishermen's request.
BOMBAY.
26. The sea-board of the Presidency of Bombay is of consider-
able extent, and, owing to cercain physical
°f th<3 ^^ circumstances, well adapted for fisheries, ex-
cept during the south-west monsoon. The
Gulf of Cambay affords a moderately quiet expanse of water to some
sorts of the larger marine fish which resort there to obtain food and a
quieter locality than the open sea. Whilst along the coast, especially
in its southern portion, numerous creeks penetrate miles inland and
along the entire length of some districts.
27. Is the supply of sea-fish equal to the demand? If we merely
examine this question with regard to the
The supply of fish only equal local wantg f th ^habitants who live in the
to the demand along the sea- . . ., r ,, ... T1
coast districts. vicinity of the sea, it is generally considered
to be so. But if we take a more comprehen-
sive view, and enquire whether the sea furnishes a good supply of fish
equal to the requirements of the people in the inland markets ? the
answer most unquestionably is, that it does not. An unlimited inland
market exists, and this is moderately or badly supplied with salt or dried-
fish in one of the following ways — (i) imported from countries or districts
where the tax on salt does not prevent the pure article from being used
for this purpose : (2) salt-fish of a very inferior quality, preserved by
the salt-earth which is collected by stealth or which fish-curers are per-
mitted to employ in some few districts, or (3) simply the fish dried in the
sun.
28. What is the state of the salt-fish trade locally, has it in-
creased, decreased, or remained stationary ?
The local salt -fish trade has The Collector of Salt Revenue, Northern Divi-
iSSS5£5&S£y* ™, olHervee that there can be no doubt
that the salt tax, combined with the repeal
of the duty on imports of salt-fish from foreign parts, has acted most
prejudicially Jto the interests of the British fishermen, and has deprived
them to some extent of their hereditary occupation. Home-cured fish
cannot now compete with that cured at Goa and elsewhere, where a salt
excise does not exist, and the trade with its profits has now passed
almost entirely into the hands of foreigners. Near Bombay a very small
amount of fish is said to be salted, but some is sun-dried. Mr. Pratt
states that the fishermen only provide a sufficiency for local consumption ;
in olden times salt was allowed free of duty for this purpose. From
the Guzerat District is the same account, except that Bombay Ducks or
Bomloes are sun-dried, and other fish are very imperfectly cured with
salt: or some take salt to sea and cure what they capture, but only
in small quantities, and of an inferior quality. In Surat, we are informed
Xll
that the rise in the price of salt has not had a restrictive effect on
the trade, which has increased rather than otherwise of late years ;
the fish which are principally exported being the * Bomloes/ which are
dried in the sun with very little salting-. At Kaira, there is a decreasing
trade, the reasons of which are doubtful. In Tanna fish are sun-dried, but
the Collector has been unable to ascertain whether fish is now dried in
preference to being salted, or whether it has been resorted to consequent
on the excise duty on salt. At Ratnagiri, that the high price of salt is
a source of epidemics induced by eating imperfectly-prepared fish. From
the opinions expressed by the foregoing European officials, we observe
that (1) considers the trade has increased, (2) that it has decreased,
whilst the remaining (3) appear to think that either fish is merely sun-
dried or insufficiently salted, and the trade apparently has almost gone
into the hands of foreigners, who have their salt without paying duty,
and are permitted to import the salted article free into the British
possessions.
29. The following are the native opinions given upon this question : —
The headmen of the Kolies in Jungura con-
Four-fifths of the native offi- sider that the practice of salting fish has
hT tore" 10Cal decreased. In Broach that it is stationary ;
in Kaira that it has decreased ; the same in
Ratnagiri and Kanara. Thus, out of five answers, one considers the prac-
tice of salting fish is stationary, the other four that it has decreased.
30. What is the selling price of salt ? is an important question in
this trade. It appears that formerly fisher-
The Government and the re- meilj {n some districts at least, were permitted
[{iLSs? °f SaU hl Vari°US to have salt dlltr free' evidently because this
occupation cannot be carried on with much
pecuniary benefit, if dear salt is employed. The following are the
amounts of duty which have been levied for 20 years ending 1871-72 : —
From 1852-53 to 1858-59 the duty per maund was Re. 1 0 0
In 1860-61 it became ... ... ... ,,140
In 1865 it was raised to ... ... ...,,180
In 1869-70 an augmentation again took place to... „ 1 13 0
On turning to the reported selling price to the public, we find it given as
follows : — In the Concan Districts it varies from Rs. 2 to Rs. 3-8 a maund,
or, as observed in Guzerat, British excised salt cannot be obtained from
the pans under Rs. 2 an Indian maund, including the cost of removal at
1 anna. In Surat it is from Re. 1 to Re. 1-4 per Surat maund.* In
Hubsan it is stated that salt is given the fishermen at two -thirds the rate
it is sold to the public. In Kaira Rs. 2-8 ; in Kanara Rs. 3 a maund. In
short, the cost of salt is at the place of manufacture : — Re. 1-13 the excise,
plus the price of the salt, whilst the carriage of the article and the profits
of the retail dealers have subsequently to be added. It is therefore very
improbable that fish-curers who have to pay this large sum could compete
in the markets with the neighbouring foreign curers, who have salt which
" generally costs 2 annas a maund, even if as much/'
* A Sunit nuund is from 37£ to 38tbs. avoirdupois, whilst ;m Indian nuiund is
82$tbs. avoirdupois.
Xlll
31. Is Government or rather excised salt used for curing fish ?
Mr. Pratt remarks that it is not, as a rule,
Government salt not employ- employed . in Surat solely excised salt is stated
cd by the nsh-curers. i j r j <- T> ij » J.TOI
to be used, but i3omloes are the hsh prin-
cipally exported, and they are dried in the sun with very little salting ;
in Tanna it is not used, neither at Ratnagiri, whilst the Salt Deputy
Commissioner of the Southern Division observes that on his tour he
has " not unfrequently fallen in with vessels returning from sea with
cargoes of fish cured with salt obtained in the Goa territory " The
native officials remark that in Hubsan " no Government salt whatever is
used for curing fish ;" in Broach and Kaira that it is.
32. Is salt-earth or sea-water used Jor curing fisk, or are they
simply dried? Mr. Pratt states that both
f "-water ««* ^It-earth, the latter not large-
ly, are in some places employed tor the pur-
pose of curing fish ; also the same reply comes from Ratnagiri and
Kanara. The use of this article is prohibited in Surat and some other
places, whilst sun-drying, without salt, appears to be the usual practice,
or, as remarked by one set of native officials, we sell all we can fresh,
and dry the remainder in the sun.
33. What is the quality of Indian prepared fish, cured or dried
in British territory? I may here remark
Four descriptions of Indian- upon there being- four main descriptions of
<3£^2%£$Sl fish prepared for commerce-(l) salted with
dried. good materials; (2) cured with salt-earth;
(3) prepared with sea- water ; (4) simply dried
in the sun. Each of these requires a few words of explanation, as the
varieties are infinite.
34. First, as to those descriptions salted with good materials, or
salt of the best quality. This may be used
Fish cured with good salt. • rr* • *•• > ^ /i >• i
in sufficient quantity to render the article
good, wholesome, and undecom posed for a considerable length of time,
and fit for export to distant markets. But when at places contiguous to
the British possessions the identical varieties of fish can be obtained by
the fishermen at the same cost of capture, with salt at two annas a maund,
and no import duty to pay on taking it into British territory, it does
appear sanguine to hope that the Indian fish-curer with salt at as many
or more rupees a maund as the foreigner pays annas, can enter into any
competition. The result is that either he must retire from, the trade
or put less salt into his article ; some have followed one course, some the
other. Consequently it is to be anticipated that sufficient saline ingre-
dients are only used in the British cured s^lt-fish to prevent its im-
mediate decomposition, so as to render it just available for sale, but
not for keeping. As it gets bad, some dealers smoke it ; but without
entering into details I will quote the remark of the Collector of Ratna-
giri — " The high duty on salt is undoubtedly a source of epidemics and
other serious illnesses induced by eating imperfectly-prepared fish/'
35. Secondly, respecting the quality of fish prepared with salt-
earth. It stands to reason that if a small
tcrritty wHhsatea'rft.151'1"811 a™™* of good salt is not sufficient to cure
nsh well, that the probabilities must be that
those prepared with the salt-earth can hardly be of a superior description.
XIV
Its quality is reputed to be very inferior, but, as I have not personally
exarriined it in the Bombay Presidency, I leave my remarks on this
subject to a future occasion under the head of the Madras Presidency.
36. Thirdly, as to the quality of fish prepared with sea- water. This
Fish prepared with sea-water. mav te done in. two ways,— evaporating the
water to a certain consistence, and then using
it for curing fish, or the fish may be simply dipped in the sea, or buried
in some place close to the sea, and subsequently dried in the sun. Of
course, it is only small fishes for which this is adapted, but with such
and also with some larger but very thin ones as the scabbard-fish,
Trichiurus and Equulas, this is very extensively carried on. As long as
the weather is dry, they may be kept for some time, bat as the monsoon
sets in and the atmosphere becomes saturated with moisture, they rapidly
decompose, but are still used as food by the lowest classes.
37. Fourthly, as to the quality of the dried fish. This, of course,
, . , fi , is the same as that of the last-referred-to
description, with this difference that no salt
whatever is used.
38. Has the present rate of duty and the removal of the import duty
on salt-fish had any depressing effect on this
XX^loclbin^ith ^ade? The previous observations will show
the abolition of the import duty that the answers received, as a rule, seem to
on foreign-cured fish, has appa- demonstrate that it has, but one officer thinks
^or^Priid^;:0 m°8t that it ha. not. It will therefore be necessary
to briefly investigate this point. It must be
admitted that to engage in an extensive trade some amount of capital is
necessary, more especially when such concerns perishable articles. Fisher-
men, always improvident, are usually considered as amongst the most in-
digent of the people ; their average earnings in sea-fishing are computed in
several places on the Madras coast at eight annas a day when at work, but
it is only at certain seasons that they are so, and even at this time of the
year storms and other causes may prevent their having daily occupation.
But admit from Rs. 10 to 15 a month as their earnings, how can they
invest in salt at two or three rupees a maund for salting fish ! the returns
would not come in rapidly enough, and they would have to borrow money
at exorbitant rates of interest to carry on their trade ; whilst their articles
being perishable, they are liable to lose their whole consignment. But
it may be urged that traders will advance the money for the purchase of
salt, and the expansion of the trade may well be left to private enter-
prise. Unfortunately this sanguine view of looking at the prospects of
an impoverished class is hardly consonant with the facts brought to
light. Traders can purchase the same article, more thoroughly preserved,
consequently better flavored, and at a cheaper rate in the contiguous
foreign States, whilst, since 1867, the import duty of 7J per cent, has
been removed ; thus any dealer who made advances in the British
territory would be somewhat wanting in due appreciation of his own
interests. If a trader finds salt two annas a maund at one locality,
and in a neighbouring one two or three Rs., and no other differences in
the cost of capture of fish, or the description of the supply, it appears
probable that he will import to Bombay and elsewhere from the
cheapest places. Thus the want of capital amongst the fishermen,
and the enhanced price of salt (2 or 3 rupees a mauud), appear to be
XV
the reason why foreign fish cured in contiguous ports with salt at 2 annas
a maund^ and imported without paying duty, has ruined the occupation
of the fishermen on the coasts of Bombay, and the trade and its profits
have now passed almost entirely into the hands of foreigners. As a
natural result now, the fishermen, who do not reside near large towns,
prefer going as sailors in coasting vessels to following their hereditary
trade.
39. Have the sea fishermen increased, decreased, or remained sta-
tionary ? From the replies received from two
Five-sevenths of the reporters European and five native officials we obtain
ta^rfM^Sr "aVe the following. Both the Europeans consider
that the fishermen have decreased of late
years ; three of the native officials are of the same opinion, but in Ratna-
giri and Kanara an increase is reported. In short, it may be taken as
a fact that, with decreasing trade, the fishermen have taken to other pur-
suits, as sailors, &c., but where salt-earth can be employed for curing fish
without any duty being imposed, a stationary or increased state exists.
40. The foregoing seem to carry the following conclusions : (1) that
the supply of fresh fish on the sea coast is
generally equal to the demand ; (2)thatthe
amount of salt-fish cured is insufficient for
the local inland markets ; (3) that the practice of curing fish has
largely decreased in the British territory ; (4) that the present price of
salt renders it impossible for the British fish-curer to compete with fish
salted in contiguous foreign territories with untaxed salt, and imported
duty free into India ; (5) that excised salt is rarely employed for fish-
curing ; (6) that salt-earth is ; (7) also sea- water ; (8) but chiefly the
captures are merely sun-dried ; (9 » that the quality of the article prepared
in the British possessions is inferior to that in the neighbouring States ;
(10) that the present rate of duty is an almost insuperable obstacle to
the curing of fish ; and (11) lastly, that the fishermen are decreasing.
41. We now come to what remedies have been or are proposed to
ameliorate the present state of ruin to many of
**< Mian fiSherTn? whieh must be con-
sidered under each dinerent proposition that
has been made.
42. The Collector of the salt revenue, considering the repeal of the
import duty of 7J per cent, in 1867 as one
Imposing an import duty of if not the chief cause of the present deterio-
^itbn ^Sid ^ Cation of the sea fisheries, suggests m import
duty of 10 per cent, ad valorem on foreign fish.
Before deciding this to be the best course to pursue, two considerations
arise : first, what relief will this afford the British Indian fish-curer ? and
secondly, what effect will it hav.e on the consumers of salt-fish ? (1) The
cost of capture and carriage to the port of trade will be about equal to
both parties, and it only remains to consider, will a 10 per cent, duty
place the two on the same level ? This must most decidedly be answered
in the negative, the one who purchases his salt at 2 annas a maund and
has a 10 per cent, duty will be in a far better position than the other
who pays from 32 to 46 annas a maund. Another difficulty also arises in
the British territory — from where is the fisherman to obtain the money to
XVI
cure a remunerative cargo of salt- fish if he has to pay so highly for his
salt ? If he had his salt at 2 annas a maund and no duty on his
fish, he could compete with the foreigner, a course it appears to be con-
sidered could not he permitted, due to the smuggling that such would
occasion. However, such a tax would be a little boon to the fishermen, and
perhaps induce some traders to make advances on this article in British
territory. (2) What effect would such a duty have upon the consumers
of salt-fish ? The first result of course must be to raise the price of
the foreign or superior salt-fish from 10 to 20 per cent. Then arises
the question, might not the consequence be that the poorer classes
will be compelled to purchase the cheaper but inferior article produced
in British territory, and may not this be very prejudicial to health ?
It has also been proposed thai Government should give advances to
enable the fishermen to purchase boats and nets. But this mode of
stimulating the fishing trade will no more succeed than did the giving of
bounties increase the real fishermen in Great Britain. If the trade
itself is on a healthy footing, the fishermen are best left to their own
resources. The question here is, have not Government put such a weight
on their own people that they cannot compete with foreigners? Have
they not, by taxing our salt to the extent they have, and by permitting
the salt-fish from foreign states to be" imported free of duty, virtually
created a protective duty not in favor of their own fishermen but in
that of the foreigner ?
43. It was suggested whether, if enclosures were made in favorable
Whether salt night not be localities away from large towns where the de-
sold cheap inside enclosures mand for the Iresh article absorbs most of the
erected in suitable places for captures, and inside which places fish could
the bond fide curing of fish. be saited, would the following be impracti-
cable ? That salt should be sold inside them at rates just remunerative
for the bond fide salting of fish. This scheme which resembles that
pursued in years gone by of letting the fishermen have salt duty-free, meets
with opposition on several grounds. That it would be' expensive or
impracticable, as special establishments would be necessary to supervise
them, a necessity of keeping up considerable supplies of duty-free salt, and
the cost of conveying it to its destination, whilst some of the fishermen
observe. they should not approve of having to salt fish anywhere except
where they do at present. On the other hand, at Broach, it is considered
feasible and worth trying as an experiment ; in Batnagiri, that it is
advisable and practicable; and in Kanara it might be tried, but with great
care to prevent'smuggling.
44. Lastly, we come to the following opinion, that " to stimulate
Opinion that if anything is thc ™^Y ty every possible means in the
to stimulate fishing in the power of Government, without passing of
•irh would in; tantamount laws regulating modes and seasons, &c., of fish-
Ming out inducements for erjefi woujd b tantamount to holding out
the destruction of the fisheries. ., /> ,1 i , • <• ,1 & ,. ,
inducements for the destruction of the fish-
eries/' As the Collector of this very district strongly deprecated pro-
tecting the fresh-water fisheries that are being ruthlessly destroyed by
every means that man can employ, without paying any rent or being
ct to any regulation, it appears surprising that he should be averse
XV11
to any attempts being made to reap the rich harvest in the sea off his
own coast. It appears to me that sea and fresh-water fisheries in India
require exactly opposite treatment : we ought to help ourselves to some
of the inexhaustible wealth of .the former, whilst we should prevent the
annihilation of the fishes in the latter. In the fresh-waters, fishermen,
when permitted, can destroy the breeding fish ; in the open sea, it will be
many generations before such a result can accrue. But this question
is discussed at considerable length in preceding pages.
45. The Collector of Salt Revenue (March 15th 1873) submits ex-
tracts from reports by Mr. Deputy Commis-
sioner Taylor and Mr Assistant Commissioner
Faulkner on the Sea Fisheries of the Southern
and Northern Divisions of this Presidency — " It appears that the de-
mands for fresh fish are amply met everywhere along the coast, but there
can be no doubt that the salt tax, combined with the repeal of the duty
on imports of salt-fish from foreign ports, has acted most prejudicially
to the interests of the British fishermen, and has deprived them to some
extent of their hereditary occupation. Home-cured fish cannot now
compete with fish cured in Goa, Damaun and other places where there
is no salt excise, and the trade and its profits have now passed almost
entirely into the hands of foreigners. The adoption of the measures
proposed in paragraph 7 of Dr. Day's letter (the forming of enclosures,
&c.) would, no doubt, relieve British fishermen, but I doubt whether it
would much increase the trade, as salt-fish is already so cheap as to be
within the reach of the poorest classes. The construction of enclosures
proposed would be expensive, and special establishments would be neces-
sary to supervise them. I think that the expansion of the trade might
well be left to private enterprise if British and foreign fishermen were
placed on an equality, which might be effected by the imposition of an
import duty of 10 per cent, ad valorem on foreign fish." The Deputy
Commissioner of the Southern Division (January 25th 1873) replies— <{ At
all the sea ports on this coast, fish could be easily captured in
larger quantities than are ordinarily netted, but, as a rule, more fish is
taken than can find a ready sale at local markets. In the neighbour-
hood of Bombay, where the consumption is considerable, fish is captured
in large quantities, the markets being chiefly supplied from Mahim,
Worlee, and other large fishing villages situated on the sea-shore on
the west coast of the island of Salsette, and also to some extent from
Trombay, Oorun, and Panwell in more immediate vicinity to the harbour
of Bombay, but at none of these places is fish salted for exportation or even
for local consumption, excepting perhaps in very small quantities. A con-
siderable trade in dried fish is carried on at all the ports on this coast, but
the consumption is restricted to places not remotely situated from the sea-
coast. At the more important ports, however, a very large trade exists
in salted fish, but this is almost exclusively the produce of neighbouring
foreign ports (Goa, Damaun, and Diu) where, owing to the cheapness
of salt, and the fact also of its being more easily obtained, greater in-
ducement is presented to the curing of fish than in the British territory.
On my tours along the sea coast in the Southern Concan, I have not
unfrequently fallen in with vessels returning from sea with cargoes of
fish cured with salt obtained in the Goa territory. These vessels for
XV111
months together are employed on the above work, leaving Ratnagiri
and other places at the opening of the fair season, and returning with
their cargo for disposal before the setting in of the south-west monsoon.
It seems most desirable that greater inducements should be held out to
encourage in our own territory the curing of fish for transport into the
interior. Mr. Assistant Commissioner Pratt, in reference to this subject,
observes that — " the difficulties which stand in the way of promoting the
above object may probably be the following : — (1) Fishermen on the coast
away from large towns are probably too poor to provide large enough
boats and suitable nets for deep-sea fisheries, and this may be a formid-
able hindrance to large captures of fish. It is possible that they might
be induced to extend their operations if they received such advances as
would enable them to provide better boats and nets. (2) At present no
larger number of men are engaged on fisheries than are required to
provide an amount of fish sufficient for local consumption. Large
masses of the population, however, are during a greater part of each year
in more or less distress, and would probably be thankful to be put in the
way of earning a livelihood. With adequate encouragement in the
shape of advances for the purchase of nets or boats, it might be practi-
cable to persuade men not now employed as fishers to qualify to engage
in that pursuit. (3) Salted fish would only find a ready sale in the
interior, if well-cured fish could be put cheaply into the markets. There
is but little demand for the inferior article produced by curing with salt-
earth, and it is probable that the demand for salted fish would improve,
if salt could be made available for curing fish (within large enclosures or
otherwise) at rates so cheap as would permit of salt being invariably used
instead of salt earth in the curing of fish." Mr. Pratt is further of opinion
that the cheapening of salt for the curing of fish would not alone be
a sufficient stimulus to the fisheries. A stimulus, he thinks, seems to be
chiefly required in the direction of encouraging people to make large
captures of fish, and he sees no way of promoting this important object
except by seeking to attract to the employment of fishing (by a judicious
system of advances) larger numbers than now follow that pursuit. " As
a rule, Government salt is not used for the curing of the fish captured
anywhere on this coast. Fishermen object to pay duty on the salt used
for such . purposes, and naturally therefore resort to places where their
wants can be more easily supplied. Prior to the year 1867 there used
to be a levy of 7 i per cent, customs duty on foreign salt-fish : now it
is allowed free import, so that fish cured in British territory cannot
possibly compete with that imported from foreign markets. Hence it is
reasonable to suppose that, of late years, there has been a decrease in
the number of sea fishermen compared with former years. It only re-
mains for me to add that there is too much reason to believe that the
fishermen on the coast are insensible to the improvidence of destroying
breeding and immature fish in tidal estuaries." " In the Concan Districts
the selling price of salt varies from Rs. 2 to 3£ per maund. Govern-
ment salt (i. e.j excised salt) is not as a rule used in the curing of fish on
this coast. Both sea-water and salt-earth (the latter not largely) are
in some places employed for the purpose of curing fish. The practice
of curing fish has to a great extent diminished, owing partly to the falling
off in the amount of fish usually captured, and also the duty charged on
XIX
salt in British territory. Excepting that salt was formerly allowed free,
there appears no ground for supposing that fishermen possessed in old
times any particular privileges. There appear to be no headmen among
fishermen, nor is the pursuit of fishing confined to any one particular
caste. No one possesses any right as regard sea fisheries on this coast.
The fishermen supply themselves with boats and nets. On the whole,
it is supposed that the number of sea fishermen have decreased, but correct
data upon this point are not available/'' The Assistant Commissioner
in charge of the sea-shore salt-works and ports of Guzerat (February 15th
1873) replies — " I beg to submit the following information which I have
been able to glean, regarding the ' fisheries' between Damaun and Surat,
the only portion of the sea-coast within my range that I have been able
to visit since taking charge. It was my intention to have withheld
this report for some time longer, hoping in the meanwhile to extend
my tour further north into the Gulf of Cambay, and include the results
of further inquiry in this letter ; but as it is overdue, and has been
called for, I must confine this notice within the geographical limits
above specified. The ' fisheries in these parts may be divided into four
distinct classes : first, local fisheries ; secondly, sea fisheries ; thirdly, mon-
soon fisheries; and fourthly, foreign fisheries. (1) Every town of im-
portance along the coast has got its f local fishery/ which supplies fresh
fish for daily consumption to the inhabitants. The positions of the
fishery grounds are generally at the entrance of, or up a river, and some-
times in the open sea, but in such cases they are not far removed from
the shore. They are invariably so situated as regards distance that the
fish can be brought into market and disposed of while it is in a perfectly
fresh and sound state. It very seldom happens that the supply exceeds
the demand, except perhaps under unusual circumstances, but it may be
said, as a rule, that the demand is greater than the supply, and this
condition strongly favors the idea that fishing is not looked upon as
either a popular or profitable occupation. The following are the principal
local fisheries between Surat and Damaun which supply the markets
indicated. Although fish is caught and consumed all along the coast,
the ' local fisheries * mainly owe their existence to the demand for
fish by Christians, Parsees, and Mahomedans, who never follow the
occupation of fishermen, and whose circumstances are generally such
as to enable them to pay for the indulgence of using fresh fish,
which, as a rule, is much cheaper than meat or poultry/' Then follows a
list of the local fisheries and the vernacular names of a few of the fish
captured in them, "The supply of the varieties of fish are not equal
throughout the year, but are dependent upon certain seasons when they
are more or less plentiful. Some of them, however, are comparatively
rare, but, as they are met with, they have been placed in the list. Others
again are caught in such large quantities as to exceed the demand for
them in a fresh state, when they are either dried or salted, and retained
for subsequent use. ' Bomloes/ or Bombay ducks (Harpodon nehereus)
and ( Bhing' come under this category. The former are simply dried in
the sun, but the latter and all other kinds of fish require the use of salt
to cure them. The class of boats employed on these fisheries are either
'Much was' or ' Cottias' (canoes), ranging in capacity from two to five
candies each and are lateen-rigged. They are open-decked, and are
XX
unsuited for deep-sea fishing. The fishermen purchase their boats, but
make the sails, rigging, and all other gear necessary to work them. The
fishing nets are made of hemp and cotton (twine and thread), and are
dyed with shemby, babool, and barks of other trees to preserve them.
They are of such forms and sizes as are adapted to the requirements of
each locality and the description of fish to be caught. They are gene-
rally attached to stakes, imbedded in the ground, which are so placed,
either in rivers or by the sea-shore, as to catch the full effect of the tide,
and thus trap the fish that are carried by the current. But hand-fishing
with round and oblong nets is not uncommon, especially in shallow
waters and the banks of rivers. The latter are generally trailed against
the current by two men or women, one of whom has a hold of each extre-
mity. As a rule, the fishermen make their own nets and dye them. They
also manufacture twine and thread from the raw materials (hemp and cot-
ton) of which the nets are made/' The different kinds of nets used in the
f local fisheries' are known by the following names : — l Chog' or ( Choga/
round hand-nets, leaded at the bottom, made of cotton thread; Golwa or
large nets attached to stakes) they are of a conical shape made,as are the four
folio wing, of hempen twine) /Kundaru' and'Mag,' both oblong-shaped hand
nets used in catching mullet; 'Wadee' the same, but for taking prawns;
' Pandia/ a small trailing net used in ponds ; and ' Murree'. There are no
restrictions, tolls or supervision on the local fishing trades. " Fishermen
are, as a rule, poor. The precariousness of their occupation and the uncertain,
profits derived from it often compel them to accept service as sailors in,
coasting vessels, laborers, and, in fact, anything that will ensure them a
steady and certain means of living. These remarks apply to the whole
body of fishermen engaged in the various kinds of fisheries spoken of in
this letter. It need, however, be scarcely pointed out that every fisherman
does not possess a boat or net, and it is chiefly those who are dependent
on their labor for a livelihood — and they are by far the greatest number—
that seek employment in other ways". " (2) The ' sea-fisheries' are not ex-
tensive ; as far as I can learn, only about 200 vessels compose their fleet,
but the number depends on the coasting trade, such having the preference
as being most remunerative. The carrying capacity of each vessel
ranges from 20 to 40 candies. They remain out for about a week, but the
actual period of their stay is regulated by the success thej' meet with.
They take small quantities of salt to cure the fish they catch. The fish thus
obtained is taken to port and sold to dealers, who dispose of it for local
and inland consumption." " The quantity probably thus brought is not
considerable, an4 certainly of a quality and description to meet with
favour only from the poorest class of natives. The fishing season lasts for
10 or 12 weeks between January and March, and the fishing grounds are
most of them south of Demaun, extending as far as Bassim in the Tanna
Collectorate. (3) ' Monsoon fishing' is carried on at the mouths of the
rivers during July and August. It is computed that at least 500 vessels
engage in this occupation annually, at considerable risk to both life and
property. The inducement is the certainty of obtaining large hauls of the
Bhing fish, which is then very abundant, especially in the Nurbudda,
Taptee, and Midhola estuaries, and which is in great request for the roes
that are obtained from them. The fish is salted on board, and finds ready
sale at every port or place the vessel puts into, for by a preconcerted plan
XXI
dealers are always in waiting to purchase the whole stock. The vessels
employed are of the same class as those engaged in the sea-fisheries,
ranging from 20 to 40 candies each. They take advantage of breaks in
the weather to start for their destinations, and so calculate their move-
ments as to be able to make some particular port or place before they are
overtaken by a storm or foul weather. They never cast anchor at sea,
and are careful to keep as close in-shore as possible. The run from one
place to another generally ensures a good haul of fish. This they dis-
pose of and then prepare to start again on the next favorable opportu-
nity. ' Surat fish-roe' has quite a wide-spread reputation. It is esteemed
a great delicacy, and is in demand by all classes of the fish-eating com-
munity, especially the Parsees. There is no doubt that if the Bhing
fishery was properly fostered and conducted, it would prove a source of
considerable emolument to those engaged in it, as the supply appears
unlimited, and the demand would certainly keep pace with the supply.
But, so far as I am able to learn, the catching of this fish is conducted in
a mere helter-skelter manner, and the curing of the fish is so utterly
neglected that it will not keep for any length of time. Hence a large
portion of it soon becomes unfit for human consumption, and is either
cast away or used as manure ; and here I would mention an important
fact in connection with this fishery as operating against success and ex-
tension, viz., that the fishermen employed in it endeavour to sell as
much of the fresh fish as they possibly can, for local consumption, at
exceedingly low rates, and it is only what remains on their hands unsold
that they cure imperfectly and get rid of anyhow. They do not seem
to be alive to the importance of the fishery and the advantages that
might be derived from it if systematically conducted and proper atten-
tion paid to the curing of the fish. They evidently look upon the time
spent in catching the fish as affording them occupation and the means of
subsistence at a period of the year when they cannot pursue their ordi-
nary calling, or obtain employment as sailors, laborers, &c. This fishery,
if properly fostered and conducted, might, in my opinion, be developed to
such an extent as to make it an important item of commerce and means
of industry. (4) Regarding the ' foreign fisheries' of Demaun, Diu,
Jaffiabad, Cutch, &c., I am not in a position to afford any information
beyond stating the fact that salted fish, chiefly Pomfrets, Seir fish and
Bomloes, are largely imported from these places into many of the
ports of Guzerat and the Concan, and find its way beyond the Ghats and
other distant places. Care seems to be taken in curing the fish, as it is
better flavoured, keeps longer, and is consequently preferred to all other
kinds of preserved fish to be met with in the markets. Probably the
simple secret of this superiority lies in the circumstance that good un-
adulterated salt is used in curing the fish. In this respect the foreign
fisheries have decided advantage over ours, as the salt employed by them
generally costs 2 annas a maund, even if as much, whereas British excised
salt could not be removed from the pans under Us. 2* per Indian
maund. Hence the foreign fisheries are able to employ salt freely
and to the full extent required to cure fish thoroughly. Our fisher-
men, on the contrary, bearing in view the comparative cost of salt
to them, cannot afford to be so lavish and consequently use just
* Including cost of removal, 1 auna.
XX11
sufficient salt to preserve the fish for a time, hut not to cure it.
Little or no refuse fish is used for manuring purposes. Sharks' fins and fish
maws or sounds seem to be unknown in this part of Guzerat, hut they
form an important item of traffic between the ports in the Arabian and
Persian Gulfs, the African coast and Bombay, whence they are chiefly
exported to China/' " I may briefly say (1) that breeding- and immature
fish are indiscriminately caught with others ; (2) that the salting of the
' Bhing fish' and roe could be both increased and improved (see ante; ;
(3) that the proposition of forming enclosures, &c., does not seem to me
to be either advisable or practicable, unless at considerable expense to
Government and risk to the revenue." The Assistant Political Agent,
Junjura (October 29th, 1872), observes that the questions on the sea-
fisheries have been put to the headmen, whose answers are believed to be
correct and are appended. The Collector of Surat (October 23rd, 1872)
replies — " Breeding fish are found only in the month of June, and then
they are not caught in great numbers. The fishermen, however, do not
scruple to take such miniature or breeding fish as they can get. The
rise in the price of salt has not had a restrictive effect on the trade, which
has increased rather than otherwise of late years. The fish which are
principally exported are ' Bomloes', which are dried in the sun with very
little salting. The fishermen in this district are not possessed of suffi-
cient capital to profit by the measures proposed (enclosures, &c.) . I doubt
whether any reduction in the price of salt would have a great effect upon
the trade, and the plan suggested must necessarily afford increased faci-
lities for defrauding the salt revenue. The price of salt in this district
is from Re. 1 to Re. 1-4 per Surat maund. The salt used for salting fish
is purchased from sellers, or from the Government ( Agurs/ No salt-
earth is used for salting fish, but sea-water is employed in rare cases.
There has been a slight increase in the practice of salting fish on the
whole. The fishermen have had no peculiar privileges. There are
no headmen of the fishing castes ; no one claims any right in respect to
the sea-fisheries. They buy their nets or make them themselves, and
purchase boats if required. Sea-fishermen appear on the whole to have
decreased.
46. The Collector of Broach (January 14th 1873) answers "that
breeding- and immature fish are destroyed in
considerable numbers in the tidal rivers of
this district. That the salting of sea-fish
not being a trade for the most part systematically followed, but resorted
to chiefly when, owing to a large capture, the supply becomes in excess of
the local demand, no plan for its increase is likely to be very successful.
That the proposition referred to by Dr. Day in his paragraph 7 (of form-
ing enclosures, &c.) appears feasible and is worth trying as an experiment."
Mr. Whitworthy the Supernumerary Assistant Collector, suggests that the
experiment should be made "on the Hansot coast, near the village of
Kutpor, where, by the closing of the salt-works, numbers of persons are
put out of employment and are ready for a new profession."
47. The Acting Collector of Kaira (December 7th, 1872) observes that
as regards sea-fisheries (t there are none worth
in KPa?ra°n8 °f European °fficial the name in this collectorate; except at Cambay
and Baroda, the demand for fish is very small.
The fish-consuming population of Guzerat is very limited. I have ascer-
XX111
tained also from Cambay and from the villages on the tidal portion of
the Mhye that the supply of sea-fish appears to have greatly decreased
of late years. Whether this is due to the sea having receded from the
north coast of the Gulf, or to the decreasing- trade in salt-fish, owing to
the increased price of salt, I am not able to state, but I have no doubt that
the adoption of Dr. Day's proposal to reduce the price of salt used for fish-
curing would give a stimulus to the trade. At the same time I do not urge
the adoption of the suggestion in this collectorate. Both supply and
demand are too limited to make it worth while to risk the great increase
of smuggling, which would be the first result of the concession, and for
which the vicinity of foreign territory offers here peculiar facilities."
48. The Supernumerary Assistant Collector, Ahmenalad (November
29th, 1872) observes that "in the Gogo
talooka the amount of fish caught is tri-
fling, while in Dhundhooka it may almost
be said to be nil. I only know of one man in Gogo who even professes
to get a living by fishing ; and so far as I can give an opinion I should
say that any arrangements to facilitate salting would be likely to meet
with very little success in these parts." The Acting Collector continues (De-
cember 3rd, 1872) — "There is but one fixed net on the Gogo coast; it
catches but little, and the amount of fish caught by temporary and hand-
nets is less. No facilities for salting would, he believes, increase the
number of nets or fishermen."
49. The Collector of Tanna (March 31st, 1873) reports-— " From
enquiries made throughout the district it
Ta°^?i0 does not appear that breeding and immature
fish are destroyed to any extent in tidal
estuaries. It is only at certain seasons of the year that fish enter the
tidal estuaries for breeding purposes, viz., chiefly during the monsoon
months, when there is a considerable influx of fresh water in the estu-
aries. Tn many of the tidal streams stakes are placed down and nets
cast ; little injury though, it is said, is caused by such fishing to fry, the
meshes of the nets used being, as a rule, sufficiently large to prevent
their being caught. Some slight increase to salting of fish might, there
can be no doubt, be effected. It is though very questionable whether
any very great or perceptible increase could be brought about. In
many localities the take of fish exceeds very considerably the local
demand. Fish netted in excess of the demand is, as a rule, sliced, cleaned,
and dried in the sun, and then packed off mostly to Bheuridy, which is
the chief entrepot for the sale of dried and salted fish ; whether fish is
dried as above in preference to its being salted, is a question I have been
unable to ascertain ; the fishing class say that it is their custom to so
treat the fish. It is very probable that it has been resorted to in the
place of curing by salt, consequent on the excise duty levied on salt. If
so, it is though I consider very doubtful, whether salting in the place of
drying would be resorted to, even if the duty were lessened, as the fishing
class, like many others in this country, look alone to immediate returns,
attained by treating of produce in as crude and primitive a manner as
possible, rather than prospective increased gains by laying out of capital
and resorting to improved methods of preserving. I quite concur in the
xxiv
opinions expressed, that reduction of the monopoly price of salt is the
one plan by which the trade in salt-fish can be augmented, provided the
classes engaged in fishery can be brought to gee that curing by salt is
better and more remunerative than drying. On the other hand, it is
very questionable whether the fisheries would yield greater takes than
now made ; if not, the simple result would be an increase of salt-cured
fish, and an equal decrease of sun-dried fish. The proposition made as to
the sale of salt within enclosures at low rates would, I think, be found to
be in practice impracticable, as, to carry out the suggestion, it would neces-
sitate the retention of very considerable supplies of duty-free salt for
curing purposes, over, it may be, extensive areas in each district. Such
salt would, I presume, have to be conveyed to the enclosures at Gov-
ernment cost, and, until consumed, have to be under the supervision
of Government officers, all which must entail cost on the State, un-
less all such expenditure be recovered from the fish-curers. On the
other hand, the cost at which salt would be supplied would have to
be fixed sufficiently low as to induce the fishermen to use it in the
place of drying as now : unless this be so, and it can be proved that
salted fish fetches higher and more remunerative rates than dried fish,
there is, I anticipate, little prospect of the enclosures being extensively
patronised. Throughout, Dr. Day, I gather, assumes that there is a
demand for salted fish in preference to sun-dried. I am though, I must
say, somewhat doubtful as to whether this be the case ; assuming though
that it is, I cannot concur in thinking that it is in any way the duty of
the State to take action in forcing a particular article of commerce into the
markets, for there can be little doubt, if really much sought for, it will
be supplied irrespective of excise duty on salt. If the excise duty be
taken off for the encouragement of one branch of industry, it will be
necessary to make a like concession in regard to other industries requiring
salt for manufacturing and other like purposes, such as chemical works,
&c. That the question of fish-curing by salt should engage the attention
of the Inspector General of Fisheries is apparent. I am though of
opinion,, as regards this district, the question is one not calling for
immediate attention, or adoption, as the take of fish is not so very
extensive as to call for immediate action on the part of Government.
Presuming, however, that it be advisable to give an increased impetus
to this industry, it is, I think, very undesirable that measures should be
taken thereto, until such time as some effective law for the protection of
the various fisheries be passed, * for to stimulate the industry by every
possible means ,in the power of Government, without passing of laws
regulating modes and seasons, &c., of fisheries, would be tantamount to
holding out inducements for the destruction of the fisheries."
50. The Collector of Colaba replies (23rd March 1872) that
"owing to the flatness of the country, the
tides mn S0 far U? the different Creeks;
the fish in them are of a coarse kind, though
sometimes of a very large size."
* NOTE,— 6th January 1872. The Collector of Tanna, in respect to fresh-water
fisheries, observed : " no distinction is made between breeding fish and others, whilst the
young are also caught. There is no restriction whatever ; none is recommended."
XXV
The following statement shows the imports and exports of fish
dried and salted at the Port of Bombay since 1866-67 : —
Years.
Imports.
Exports.
1866-67
24,499
17,450
1867-68
not available.
1868-69
116,246
13,558
1869-70
91,222
10,386
1870-71
89,899
23,755
1871-72
64,439
10,938
1872-73
82,019
16,894
51. The Collector of Ratnaairi (25th January 1873) observes :
" There are several fish-markets in this zillah,
Opinion of the Collector, &c., guch as at Kharepatam, Mhaprul, and in
of Ratnagiri. P •, n j_i i ••n ,-, ,-T i
fact almost all the large villages on the tidal
rivers. The cultivators at these generally barter grain or wood for salt-
fish. The high duty on salt is undoubtedly a source of epidemics and
other serious illnesses, induced by eating imperfectly prepared fish. It
would be a great boon to the poorest classes were Government to reduce
the tax on salt, so as to enable fish to be properly salted. " " Besides the
sea fishery are those up the numerous creeks or arms of the sea which
penetrate inland for several miles along the whole length of the coast
district. Far inland, in depths too shallow for navigation, at low tides,
and during the monsoon, some parts of these creeks contain fresh water."
The Supernumerary Assistant Collector (4th January 1873) reports
that breeding and immature fish are destroyed to a considerable extent.
The proposition mentioned in paragraph 7 (forming salting enclosures,
&c.,) is advisable and practicable in these districts. At the inland
harbours of Ibrahimputan and Sungmeshwur, there is a weekly bazar of
fish, which is exchanged for wood and grain. Any increase of the supply
of fish would be a boon to the people inland. At present there is no
doubt that the fish imported to those places are most imperfectly cured,
and if any means can be devised to preserve them better, a more abund-
ant and more wholesome sustenance would be obtainable by people who
are at present in a wretched state of destitution. The Mamlutdar states
that sea-water and not salt-earth is used for curing fish, but I know of
one place at least where salt earth is employed. The police patell of
the village below the Jygurh fort has found it impossible to prevent
the Daldis from trespassing upon an old salt-pan there, now no longer
used. These people come to dig up the earth, which is impregnated with
salt, for the purpose mentioned. I believe that this place might be chosen
and a similar one at the entrance of the creek at Ratnagiri, where a licensed
XXVI
sale of salt for curing fish on the spot might take place. Means could be
found to prevent withdrawal of salt, and as the spots chosen would be close
to the mouth of the creek, a ready way would be at hand to dispose of the
fish. The plan suggested by Dr. Day cannot be too strongly recom-
mended."
52. " The Collector of Kanara (February 17th, 1873,) replies that
breeding and immature fish are destroyed
KanarT daily to a great extent." « Salting of sea-fish
could be increased, it is generally believed, if
salt was cheaper. The plan of enclosures in certain localities for salting
fish, where salt could be procured at a cheap rate, might be tried, but
great care to prevent the salt being removed and otherwise used would
be necessary."
53. The following are the replies from the native officials : — In the
Junjura district the headmen of the Kolies
report-" Pish are caught the whole year
round ; doubtless many are destroyed which
are immature. Sometimes, not often, from some cause utterly unknown
to us, the fish die in the creeks ; we suppose from bad water. The
salting of fish could be increased if we could get salt at a cheaper
rate ; now it does not pay us to salt all the fish we catch, so we dry in the
sun a portion, and sell as much of the fresh fish as we can. We should
not like to have to go any distance to cure our fish ; it would be more
trouble than it would be worth. In Hubsan salt is sold at one maund
a rupee to all classes but Kolies ; we, the Kolies, get one maund and a half
the rupee. No Government salt whatever is used for curing fish, neither
is salt-earth nor sea-water. The practice of salting fish ' has decreased
in quantity/ because there are many less fish caught ; because the ex-
pense of placing fishing stakes has increased, and we do not use the
' wandope' or large fishing net on four fishing stakes, because a tax of
six rupees has been imposed on its use. We have not used this net for
ten years ; we seldom use now any net but the ' boorkea wole' in deep
water (a net fastened by anchors under the surface of the water)
for which we have only to pay Rs. 3 per annum." " In old times we
had certain privileges which we have not now" (what they were is not
stated). Regarding whether they have any hereditary headmen, they
continue — " Yes, we, the Sir Patell and Chogala of Kolies, have Yakoob
Khan's sunnud authorising us and our heirs to exercise all the authority
and duties of the Sir Patell and Chogala of Kolies : all sircar's orders,
&c., must pass through our hands ; all disputes, &c., amongst Kolies of
Hubsan are decided by us alone, and we both receive kucqs from the
sircar and all Kolies, and the Kolies of Hubsan acknowledge our
rights." * No one claims any rights over the sea-fisheries. The
fishermen supply themselves with boats and nets; six or ten club
together, build a boat, make a net, and divide the produce into shares.
The sea fishermen have decreased, because many of them now go in mer-
chant vessels.
* "This is quite true. I have seen the sunnud, a very old one indeed, conferring on
these men's ancestors absolute authority over all Kolies, ami defining their kucqs, &c." Note
by the Acting Collector.
XXV11
54. From the Broach Collectorate the following replies have been
Opinions of the native officials received from the native officials. The four
of Broach. Mamlutdars answer that " the price of Gov-
ernment salt in the different talookas is as under : —
Broach ... ... ... Ks. 140 per Surat maund,
Ahmode ... ... ... ,,180 „
Jambusar ... ... ... ,,140 ,, „
Anklesar ... ... ...,,180
It is employed for curing fish, but neither salt-earth nor sea-water
are used for the purpose. The practice of salting fish has neither increased
nor decreased of late years. In old times the fishermen -caste had no privi-
leges which they do not now possess. At Broach, Jambusar, and
Hansot this caste has patels at its head. Their appointment is not
hereditary, but is made by their own community, and all the members
have a voice in it. Their principal duty is to settle caste disputes.
They are not paid for their services. The right to sea-fishing does not
vest in any particular person. The fishermen make nets themselves, and
sometimes purchase them from their caste-men. They have generally
boats of their own, and those persons who have no boats get them on
hire from others. The number of fishermen appears to have decreased.
55. From the Kaira Collectorate replies from the Mamlutdar of
Borsud have been forwarded : — A consider -
Opinion of native official in w number of breeding and immature fish
the Kaira Collectorate. , i -i • • -i , • ^
are destroyed during inundations in the mon-
soon. The fishing has greatly fallen off of late years. The supply of
fish is now too scanty to render the adoption of Dr. Day's suggestion
necessary. The cost of salt is Rs. 2-8 per Bengal maund. Govern-
ment salt is used in curing fish, but neither salt-earth nor sea-water is.
The practice of salting fish has decreased of late years. The fishermen
apparently have all the privileges they formerly possessed, except that at
Cambay they were allowed salt free of duty. They have a headman
called ( patel/ The office is not hereditary, but the appointment is made
by the ' Zumat/ He resides at Sarode in Broach, and a few acres of
land are allowed him by the Thakore of that place. His duty is to
settle all disputes, &c., amongst the fishermen. No one claims any
rights in respect to the sea-fisheries. Boats are little used ; the nets are
made by the fishermen themselves. The fishermen have decreased with
decreasing trade.
56. From the Ratnagiri Collectorate, the following reply has
been received from the Mamlutdar: — "The
Price °f Salt is Rs'.2 a maund in the town '> itj
is not used for curing fish . Sea-water is em-
ployed for this purpose. The practice of salting fish has decreased within
the last fifteen years in consequence of the increase in the price of salt.
In the fishing castes there are persons distinguished by the names of
'hodekur* and ( patel/ though these titles find no place in Government
records of any sort; the duties of these persons seem to be those of
mediating between parties engaged in any small disputes, of which there
are a good number. There do not seem to be any emoluments attached
to the office of ' hodekur/ though the latter was exempted from the poll
tax, according to information drawn from the dufters of the office." No
claims are put forward to the sea-fisheries. "In the creeks, posts are
xxvm
placed to serve as boundaries for the exclusive right of fishing in parti-
cular parts thereof." The fishermen supply themselves with boats and
nets. " The sea-fishermen have decidedly increased in numbers."
57. From Kanara the following answers have been received from the
Opinion of the native officials Tehsildars : — The selling price of salt is Es. 3
of Kanara. a maund, and it is not used for curing fish, but
salt-earth is. The practice of salting fish has much decreased; in olden times
the fishermen had no privileges they do not now possess. There are
headmen whose duties are confined to settling caste disputes, for which
they have no regular emoluments. No one claims any rights in respect to
the sea-fisheries. The fishermen build their own boats with timber pur-
chased from Government or elsewhere : they also make their own nets.
The number of fishermen have increased.
58. In examining the returns of the Great Indian Peninsula
Railway as to the amount of fish carried in-
land fcy the land from Bombay or contiguous stations, we
obtain the following : —
Maunds.
Bombay railway.
1868 first half-year
„ second „
1869 first
„ second „
1870 first
„ second „
1871 first
„ second „
1872 first
4,572
1,870
1,931
3,782
8,245
8,021
9,638
6,861
10,998
XXIX
MADRAS.
59. The seaboard of this Presidency is about of equal extent to
those of Bombay and Bengal, whilst being-,
pSSS^S^ ontte £± as a rule, better populated, its marine fisheries
or Coromandel Coast differ from are of very considerable consequence. It may
those on the West or Malabar be divided into two distinct portions, — its
side- Western or Malabar, and its Eastern or Coro-
mandel Coasts. The Malabar Coast receives the full force of the south-
west monsoon, commencing about the end of May or commencement of
June, and continuing for the next three months. Its fishes differ gene-
rally 'from those of the Eastern Coast, as siluroids, clupeoids, and sharks
are very abundant. On the Coromandel Coa,st, there is a large variety
of sea perches and horse mackerels.
60. Is the supply of fish equal to the demand? As a rule, it is so
locally during the fine weather season, but in
The supply of fish,"as a rule, is many places it does not appear to be equal to
supplying inland markets. In fact, the same
reply may be given here as has already been
in the Bombay report.
61. Have the fish increased, decreased, or remained stationary?
Some officials report one thing, some another;
It is difficult, if not impossible, but it must be borne in mind that many of
marlnf ^tVe^saT ays in the replies refer to the vast shoals of fish, as
former years, because certain the sardines, whose advent and disappearance
species migrate and often re- js m0st uncertain. Again, the predaceous fish
SvlVaS/0" severalconsecu' which feed on them, following these shoals,
are of course absent, should their food have
migrated as evidently they migrate with them. Thus, a very large source
of supply becomes suddenly stopped, or rather does not arrive when ex-
pected, and it is thought that the supply is decreasing. Another reason,
which seems to affect this answer, is whether the fishermen are, or are
not, capturing the harvest of the sea which comes almost to their doors ?
62. Are the fish being captured? is then the next point for con-
sideration. If a large local market exists for
If there is a sufficient market, fresh figh and amount captured will find
the fishermen capture the deep , .,' ,1,1 -i P • i n
sea-fiah; if the market is bad, they a sale, " appears that the supply fairly, often
fish along the shore for small entirely, meets the demand. Then the fisher-
fish, and scare away the larger men go further out to sea, because they are
sorts that are coming for their
their captures. Thus in Malabar, we find the
export alone of salt-fish, which averaged Ks. 38,054 annually in five
years ending 1858-59, had augmented to Us. 1,81,699 annually in five
years ending 1872-73, showing increased demand met by increased labour.
On the Coromandel Coast, on the contrary, one hears of no increase of
captures, and in many stations a decrease of fish is reported ; but I do not
think this latter statement can be accepted. It appears due (owing to
causes presently to be explained) to no market existing which would repay
the fishermen to increase his means of capture, If he has no market, he
XXX
naturally only plies his trade along the sea-shore, where, with less ex-
pense, he is able to capture sufficient for the local demand, whilst the
small sorts taken can be dried or cured with care. Disturbing the shore
and taking the small fish, he captures the food which previously decoyed
the large ones in, and thus he scares away the supply of the more import-
ant sorts, and asserts the fish to have decreased.* This, however, does
not signify to him so long as the market is supplied, and sufficient ob-
tained for his family requirements.
63. Kespecting the effect of the salt-tax upon the trade of salting
Salt-tax in the Madras Presi- fish; a few considerations have first to be noted.
dency : when it may not directly In the Madras Presidency, on October 4th,
affect the curing of fish. 1869, the monopoly price of salt was raised
from Re. 1-11 to Rs. 2 a maund, at which rate it still continues. During
the succeeding nine months consumption was checked, but in 1870 an
increase became again apparent. At a first glance the raising the price
of salt might be thought to have an effect on the salt-fish trade, and so it
would, were Government salt employed for this purpose. But if salt-
earth is collected untaxed, might not the raising the selling price of salt
cause the poorer classes to fall back on salt-fish imperfectly cured with
salt-earth ?
64. Is it permitted to gather salt-earth untaxed for the purpose of
Salt-earth permitted to be f ur'in9 fish ? Tt appears that opinions differ
collected free for fish-curing in in different collectorates upon this head : thus
some districts. in twelve districts the following orders are in
force as seen from the answers of the European officials. Its collection is
prohibited in six, viz., Madura, Tinnivelly, Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Gan-
jam, and South Arcot. Whilst it is permitted in the other six, viz.,
South Canara, Malabar, Madras, Nellore, Kistna, and the Godavery.
65. If we examine the returns received from the native officials
How fish are cured in dis- °f those districts where the use of salt-earth is
tricts where salt-earth is pro- prohibited, we find the following statements,
kibited. In the six collectorates where the use of salt-
earth is prohibited, 30 native officials state what they consider occurs in
their districts : —
11 assert Government salt alone is used.
4 „ „ „ and sea-water are used.
2 „ salt- earth alone is used.
" 10 „ Government salt and salt-earth are used.
1 „ sea -water only is used.
1 „ fish are only dried.
1 „ they are only imported.
How fish are cured in those gg. In those collectorates wherein the
^t^t^andelotof «• «/ ^-eartk is periled, «,e have 26
the salt-tax on this trade. answers from native officials : —
9 assert Government salt alone is used.
3 ,, that salt-earth alone is used.
16 „ „ „ „ and Government salt are used.
1 „ fish are merely dried.
• If the Collectorate of Malabar, with a sea-coast hardly one-fifth of that of Coromandel,
can export yearly upwards of Rs. 38,000 worth of salted-fish by sea, one would imagine that
some specific cause must be in operation which prevents any or a very slight quantity being
cured on the latter salt-taxed coast, or obliges the dwellers there to import from Malabar,
where salt-earth is used untaxed for this purpose.
XXXI
Here, however, I would observe that the various reporters may be
referring to different articles. The great place to which salt-fish is
exported from Malabar appears to be Colombo, and the sea customs house
officer at Tellicherry asserts that what is intended for this market is solely
cured by Government salt, or they would not keep : he gives the value of
these exports from Tellicherry for the last five years at Us. 58,460-8-1
annually. Increased steam communication between the two places has
done much for this trade, and also due to a bank having been opened, and
where the fish-curers can obtain advances upon the security of their bills
of lading. But it does not appear that everywhere solely Government
salt is used for this purpose : thus from Cannanore the value of these ex-
ports for the last five years are given at Bs. 13,954 annually, and the sea
customs house officer remarks, it is used to a very limited extent and
that for curing large fish : in this case the salt is generally supplied by
the merchants who export the salted-fish to Colombo, Tuticorin, Negapa-
tam, &c. At Ponany the sale of Government salt is said to have decreased,
but Bs. 10,674 worth of salt-fish were exported in the one year, 1872-73.
whereas in five years ending 1863-64, the export reached Rs. 463 worth
only ; here salt-earth must consequently be the substance employed. Fish
that has to be stored for some time before being exported either inland
to the hilly districts or to Ceylon, has to be cured with good salt. At
Calicut, the difference in the price of the Indian mackerel cured with
Government salt or salt-earth I found to be eight annas a thousand. The
richer classes of natives and fishermen for their own family use are said
to invariably have fish cured with Government salt in some parts of
Malabar. But for the poorer classes the article cured with salt-earth is
evidently what they generally consume. The Collector reports that
the people so dislike the native salt* " that all who can afford the
expense prefer Bombay salt at eight times the price, and if an excise of
Be. 1-13 a maund were added to its present market value (about four
annas) Malabar salt would be utterly unsaleable." Now, it is largely
collected, the pans are described as existing in thousands, and the sub-
stance is very largely used for the curing of fish. If the duty will entirely
stop the manufacture, such must be a very clear proof of the exceed-
ingly small profits these poor people are making on their salt-fish, and
how the proposed excise will probably act in a most deleterious manner
on the occupation of curing fish with salt-earth. The trade that
will be left can only be that for the rich and the foreign market, even
much of this, I anticipate being destroyed, because my conv.ction is that
the amount -of monopoly salt reported in places to be u^ed for this
purpose is overstated. The salt-earth is purified sometimes, or per-
haps mixed with a certain proportion of th e best salt to improve its
quality. Annual returns of the sale of monopoly salt will show this.
Whether any concession could be made respecting the sale of salt to
the fish-curers that would obviate this is a consideration, for if one great
* I have not considered it necessary in this place to advert to the opinions of those
who consider that natives relish badly-cured salt-fish more than they would do a well salted
article j the fact being the poor people cannot afford to buy the expensively prepared salt-
fish, so perforce have to be contented with the inferior, however detrimental to health such
may be.
xxxii
branch of this trade suffers, the fisherman's work is decreased; if the
market for his captured diminishes, those who follow this occupation
must become less, and then a vast amount of animal food now going
to nourish the poorer classes will be left uncaught and consequently
useless to man. The salt-fish trade is now pretty fairly destroyed in
most places along the Coromandel Coast, a diminution in actual food
supply has occurred, and with the proposed introduction of a salt excise
into Malabar and Canara, the same results are not unlikely to result from
similar causes. It must be remembered that every year vessels arrive in
Malabar from the Persian Gulf and Arabain Coast bringing cargoes of
well-salted fish. This untaxed article finds a ready sale, but fishermen
on the Coromandel Coast have no such foreign opposition. Irrespective
of this, in some of the Portuguese settlements in Western India, good
salt may be purchased at two or three annas a maund, and I cannot quite
think that fishermen in neighbouring British ports will be able to
compete if they have to give some 1,500 per cent, more for the identical
article.
67. The returns received respecting the present state of the sea-
fisheries in such places as the salt-tax exists
i4-e?^o"f? %£ »w™ to, *r ^ H is only in South
men where salt my be collected Canara, Malabar, and Travancore that the
free of duty, and ruined it of fish trade is doing well, and some very in-
thosewhohavetobuymonoply teresting facts have to come to lighfc> jn
1868 it was decided that the manufacture of
salt in Malabar and Canara was not illegal. This was originally intended
to be merely for home consumption, but, of course, advantage was at once
taken to employ it for the curing of fish. How much goes to the hill
ranges of the Wynaad is not known, but the rail from Beypore carries
inland on an average upwards of 2,000 tons annually ; it even imports
it into Negapatam on the eastern from the western coast. If the salt
tax is detrimental to the salt-fish trade, the raising the price of salt
ought to be productive of good to the fish-curers of Malabar and Canara,
and the Native State of Travancore, because they being able to collect salt
free of duty, could undersell traders elsewhere who would have to pur-
chase monopoly salt. This is just what has occurred. In Malabar, in
five years ending 1863-64, the exports of salt-fish were Rs. 3,01,204 ; but
in five years ending 1872-73, they had augmented to Rs. 9,08,495. In
Travancore the exports in five years ending 1862-63 averaged 41,320J
cwts. annually; but in 1867-68 they had risen to 67,103 cwts. Out of
30 native officials who have reported on the state of the salt-fish trade,
three give an increase (in one of these, however, it seems he is mistaken) ;
nine give a stationary condition, and 18 a decrease. As this subject is
fully considered in my report, I will only conclude this paragraph by
observing that it seems pretty clear that the salt-tax has a most important
bearing on the salt-fish trade of Malabar. Where the salt-tax, pure and
simple, exists, the fish-curers, as a rule, cannot buy the salt, and must
borrow money for the purpose at exorbitant rates, or give up the trade.
Where salt is cheap, fish-curing flourishes and fishermen thrive, the
two results, I believe, being solely connected with the incidence of the
salt-tax.
XXX111
68. As to whose the fisheries are? The sea ones appear to exclu-
sively belong- to Government, but in some
Government pl'° places headmen, as will be explained, claim
or obtain certain rights ; even in one locality
(Bandar in the Kistna District) they are said to have monopolised these
fisheries to themselves.
69. Who are the fishermen ? These may be briefly divided into
(1) those who fish in the sea, and (2) those
The fishermen : (1) those who ^ ' , . , . . . . , , ' > ' , ,
ply their trade in the sea, but wno employ their time in the estuaries, back-
owing to decreased trade have waters, and such like places. OfiJhe first divi-
togoas sailors, &c., elsewhere ; gion many are ^fl to fce foun(J near large
wt ^y pr^bT/in^S stations, as Madras, or along the Malabar Coast,
were the sellers and curers of but where their trade has languished, they
fish, hut whose occupation has seem to be emigrating or taking to a sea- far-
been ruined by the salt-tax. ^ ^ Q£ ^ ^^ divigion thug described
by the Madras Revenue Board : c ' the estuaries, however, are fished by
a distinct class, who have most probably no other support. " It is very
difficult to obtain any definite information as to who these persons really
were ; of course some are, as explained by the Collector of Madras, mere
idlers, " no man willingly accepting work if he thinks he has a chance
of catching a few fish ; it leads to the waters being perpetually disturbed
and to the fish being frightened away, as no party now intends himself to
preserve the fish. " Again, there appear to be others whose ancestors
from immemorial ages have had something to do with fishing ; that they
never went to sea for the purpose appears clear, but what their exact work
was I have not been able to ascertain. From various enquiries, however,
it appears far from probable that, besides fishing in such localities, they
were the sellers of all captured fish and the curers of those brought
in from the sea ; and it is far from probable that their present degraded
or impoverished condition is due to the incidence of the salt-tax having
destroyed their legitimate occupation. Sixty-three native officials have
remarked upon the present state of the fishermen : — On the Malabar Coast
out of eight answers, six assert they are largely increasing ; one that they
are stationary, due to a local cause ; and one that they are decreasing at
Cannanore, evidently owing to the taxation they are subject to. On the
Coromandel Coast, out of 55 answers, 22 assert they have increased or
slightly so, or on the whole ; 15 that they continue stationary, and IS
that they have decreased : evidently they are in a much worse condition
on the eastern than on the western side of the Presidency.
70. In the Madras Presidency the fishermen have customs of a
nariarchal nature, which are more strictly
flshofmeo ™ """* <***™& "P™ 'he east <*>as* ««» OQ the
west ; but even on the former they appear
to be falling, at least in places, into disuse. There seem to be three
different grades of headmen ; of the highest or priestly which number
two at least on the east coast, one at Madras, the other in Cuddalore.
The Madras one appears to hold religious sway over the fishermen up the
coast, settles quarrels respecting the observances of caste and customs,
and is the ultimate referee for disputes. He receives certain emolu-
ments from the hereditary headman. When he travels, great respect is
shown him, and apparently he has no expenses. The hereditary head-
XXX1T
man holds sway over one or more villages ; should he die without heirs,
an election ensues amongst all the people under the jurisdiction, or else
one is selected from amongst the fishermen by the local authorities.
He is the representative of the people, settling domestic and caste dis-
putes, but in most places has to earn his own livelihood by fishing. In
one locality, however, in the Kistna district, it is stated (correctly?) that
the headman has possessed himself of the sea-fisheries as his by right of
his office. He presides at all bridal and religious ceremonies, taking
the first place, being helped to betel-nut before every one else, whilst he
generally receives some fee for marriages, but not for funerals. Thus it is
observed in one talook that he is paid three annas for putting on the bride-
groom^ turban ; in another district certain lands are said to be attached
to his office. He appears in some places to be exempted from work ; should
a vessel strand or be in distress off his district, he orders out all the able-
bodied men and gives help, or should Government direct men to be col-
lected, it is his duty to do so. In some cases he levies small fines, but the
uses to which they are put are not everywhere the same ; sometimes he
has them personally, in other localities half goes to the priestly headman,
or else he has a percentage, and the remainder goes into a fund to be used
at certain festivals. In some places a small fee is levied on nets or boats
used in fishing, or a percentage of fish is paid him. Lastly, they have
their elective headman, who is appointed by the votes of the people of a
village or hamlet ; he decides minor matters, determines the labor to be
done, fixes the rate of wages, &c., and obtains some few fish for his pains.
On the Western or Malabar Coast, in many towns, the fishermen have no
headmen, and in some localities the Native Christians are largely em-
ployed in this trade. There are, however, to be found places wherein
the same patriarchal customs prevail as on the Coromandel Coast. Thus,
in South Canara there is a priestly headman who appears to have
spiritual control over a large district. He frames rules in regard to
caste matters, and imposes penalties on those who infringe them. The
fishermen raise money amongst themselves from which he receives a
portion of his emoluments. His office is hereditary. There are also
hereditary headmen of one or more towns, and elective headmen of each
village, these last only holding office during the will of the people.
71.- As to whether breeding fish or fry are destroyed? It appears
to be almost universally admitted that they
troyed!ding * and ' are> more especially in estuaries and rivers,
up which the young ascend to procure food and
shelter. This is effected by nets, bamboo screens, or fixed engine's of
many descriptions, and are divisible into (1) those which are fixed and
(2) those which are moveable.
72. Fixed engines for capturing marine fishes are either stake nets
parallel or nearly so to the shore, placed in
Fixed engines for capturing bavs or other favorable localities, or if
±t ra?fflfik±: in rive" «' backwaters, they may partially
sometimes wasteful. or entirely impede the passage or fish. I nose
most adapted to fishing purposes have a
fair-sized mesh and do not entirely impede any waterway ; but when they
have small meshes and go quite across a piece of water, permitting
feeding fish to enter with the tide, but cutting off the return of the most
XXXV
minute, are strongly to be deprecated. I would draw especial attention to
my remarks fat para. 91) on the young fish being sold in the markets of
Madras : captured legitimately along with other and larger fish, and having
become entangled in the nets, cannot be avoided, but the practice of des-
troying their fry for sale as food, does not commend itself to one's
ideas of economy. One way is very much the same as that employed in
irrigated fields to take the fresh-water fish ; the owners of swamps cut
open the banks of rivers so as to allow water to flow in with the full
tide, and as soon as it is thought a fair amount of fish have entered, a
cruise is placed in the opening, and as the water recedes, everything is
captured. Were the interstices of these traps of fair size, so much injury
would not be inflicted, but they capture the most minute fish, and these
little ones are generally left to perish in the mud, not being considered
worth the trouble of collecting. Large weirs are constructed on the same
principle, entirely spanning creeks. There are many other forms of fixed
engines, as the dip-net, so extensively used along the Malabar Coast; but
these, provided the mesh is of fair size, can hardly do much injury to
the fisheries.
73. MoveaUe engines for capturing fish are of diverse forms, from
the casting net to the large seines. In some
bgsel!flsh. engme °rC8PtUr" <>f the latter minute meshes are employed.
As a rule, when the mesh is of a fair size, nets
are a legitimate way of taking the fish, and should not be interfered
with; the fishermen who employ them in the sea are the best judges of
the size of the mesh they find most appropriate for their trade. {Shoals
of mackerel or sardines appear at times off Malabar, as already remarked
upon, and the mesh suited for one species is not well adapted for taking
the other.
74. The replies from the Madras Presidency and personal investiga-
tions seem to show, (1) that the sea is rich
in fish; (2) that the supply, as a rule,is locally
sufficient during the fine weather.; (3) that the fisheries are practically
inexhaustible ; ^4) that on the east coast, except near large stations, these
fisheries are hardly worked; (5) that on the west coast these fisheries are
fairly fished with an increasing trade; (6) that it is not apathy on the
part of the fisherman to which is due the non-capture of^the fish, but the
want of a market ; (7) that when the local demand is not large, the
fishermen only capture those easily taken in ^prexfish, and in doing
so drive away the more valuable kinds ; (8) that in some districts salt-
earth may be collected for curing, fish, in f others' it may not; (9) that,
as a rule, Government or monopolyxsalteis>only used for the larger and
better class of fish; (10) that ajarlge salt-fish trade exists in Malabar
and South Canara, where the. people 'have the right of collecting salt duty
free; (11) that the fisher iesff are : public property; (12) that the fishermen
are in a very impoverisljfed' state on the Cororaandel Coast, but compara-
tively well off- on the .western side of the Presidency; (L3) that in places
certain customs of a patriarchal nature exist amongst the fishermen ; (14)
that breeding fish and their fry are destroyed when they can be taken ;
(15) that fixed engines for the capture of marine and estuary fish exist
everywhere, sometimes spanning whole piece of water, and there the fry
are massacred in a wasteful manner.
XXXVI
75. What remedies have been proposed in order to increase the supply
Remedies which have been of sea-fish and make them more available for the
alluded to. inland market ? Eighteen European officials
reply to this question : one knows of no remedy : one would give systematic
encouragement and arrangement to the trade, but omits to mention what
such should be : four consider that a reduction in the monopoly price of salt
would effect this ; in which nine others concur : two would be apathetic,
one of whom remarks that he does not think any special stimulus is
necessary : one would allow the use of salt earth for this purpose, provided
the salt revenue were not affected : nine give their opinions on a proposition
I submitted, to which I will allude in the next paragraph. Much of the
philanthropy so freely volunteered respecting the poor fishermen as regard
the fresh-water fisheries, appears to have vanished when the subject of
sea-fisheries is mentioned. It seems to have been considered by several
that only the local fish trade in their own districts requires looking after,
the more general question of an adequate inland supply being placed
quite in the background, and, lastly, fears as to the salt-tax being evaded,
&c., which will presently be adverted to. Respecting philanthropy here
as regards helping the sea-fishermen to capture more fish so as to augment
the food supply,"* one official observes, " I cannot think much sympathy
ought to be wasted on the fishermen, for they are an independent,
careless and drunken set of men." Another remarks, " I do not see why
salt-fish should be exempted from a heavy duty, whilst other articles pre-
pared with salt have to pay."
76. The proposition circulated was whether, if enclosures were
made near favorable localities away from large
Answers to a proposition as to towns where a sufficient demand for fresh fish
^t be anticipated it might or might
restrictions. not be advisable to sell salt inside to be used
for the bond, fide salting of fish, at a rate just
sufficient to cover the expense ? Nine have replied to this question : five con-
sider such a proposition as unadvisable or impracticable on account of the
fear of its increasing the amount of salt smuggling : two suggest it might
be tried : one that it is practicable, but not advisable, and one that it is
both practicable and advisable.
77. The Madras Revenue Board (May 28th, 1869,) observe that
" the estuaries, however, are fished by a dis-
Observations of the Revenue , . , , 111
Board on the fishermen, and a tinct class, who have, most probably, no
proposal to extend the excise other support ; and if these waters are farmed
Canar^ to Malabar, and South ^y outsiders, the class of fishermen, who, are
already anything but well off, will suffer.
The Board would, therefore, suggest that either the headmen of these fishing
villages should hold the fisheries at a small royalty, and under some such
rules as are proposed by Dr. Day, or that protective rules should be
embodied in a brief Fishery Act. With regard to the proposed restriction
in the use of nets having meshes below a certain size, it appears to the
* Since this question has been brought to notice from the circular of last year, I
i i.JuiieUth, Ib73,) that the Madras Revenue " Board have called upon all Collect-
ors of iMaritime districts to report what measures can be adopted to obviate tho hardship
of fishermen being- unable to obtain salt tor fish-curing' except at monopoly rates."
XX XV 11
Board impossible to forbid (as proposed by Dr. Day*) the use of a mesh
of less than four inches in circumference, for they believe that whit-
ing- of the average size and all the smaller mullet could pass through
meshes of that size, to say nothing of prawns, immense numbers of
which are daily consumed in Madras and elsewhere, and which are taken
in fine-meshed casting nets." I have been furnished by the Revenue
Board with a most interesting report by Mr. Pennington, (September 22nd,
1871,) respecting the salt-tax from which I make the following extracts :
The Board " are of opinion that the Madras Salt Excise Act should be
brought into operation in the districts of Malabar and South Canara
only in the first instance ; but that no time should be lost in putting it
in force there. The inexpediency of treating these two districts excep-
tionally, as regards salt supply, has been so frequently admitted by
Government that it is unnecessary to discuss the questionf further :
but since it became generally known (in 1868) that the manufacture of
salt in Malabar and Canara is not illegal, there has been (in the former
district at any rate) a very considerable increase in this private manu-
facturej, and the question has become more pressing.. This fact was
duly brought to notice, but * * the Government declared the absolute
right of the people to manufacture and use such salt as they required for
their own purposes, and observed that it was only intended to prohibit
the ' sale of salt to others than Government/ Government proceeded
to say that any such interference with immemorial custom in Malabar
and Canara would be tantamount to a breach of faith, and (in para. 23)
remarked that 'the proper remedy is, undoubtedly, the enactment of
the proposed excise law, which will tax all the salt produced/ * *
Mr. BaLLard (August 27th, 1868,) pointed out that it was 'carried on with
little or no system, wherever there is a backwater or a salt-marsh,
without even regular preparation of the ground, and without any inti-
mation to the authorities either of place or time of manufacture or
disposal of the article/ He added that it would be utterly impossible
for him to effectually guard against the sale of this salt to other than
officers of Government, unless a preventive establishment was allowed him
on a scale which could never be sanctioned, and which would be c corrupt
and inquisitorial to a degree/ He speaks of the manufacture being
* I think my remarks have been a little misunderstood ; provided it is considered
I proposed no nets with a mesh of less than four inches in circumference be employed
within tidal reach. In the report, I conclude, referred to (see Proceedings, Madras Gov-
ernment, April 30th, 1869), I observed as regards the propositions, exclusive of rent,
" I have not entered into the question of the sea and coast-fisheries of the Madras Presi-
dency, as I am not quite certain whether it was intended I should confine my investigations
solely to the rivers." * " The sea-fisheries appear to require as much stimulus as the fresh-
water ones do conservation." * * " Where means of salting fish exist, and the trade is not
carried on, it appears that a stimulus might be advantageous." I then considered that the
poverty of the sea-fishermen might be due to revenue regulations, and the incidence of the
salt-tax, but I required more proof before stating such a belief.
f Surely the interest of " the class of fishermen" has been entirely lost sight of.
Should the Board's views be carried out, the salt-fish trade of Malabar must rapidly sink to a
similar state as that on the Coromandel Coast.
J See the returns of annual exports of salt-fish from Malabar, which tend to show
that the increase in the manufacture of salt must be great at least for this purpose. If
the Madras Government adhere to their decision, " that no interference with the customary
manufacture of salt for private use," will be allowed, of course fish-curers may collect it for
such. But this is difficult to be reconciled with their order that, " all salt manufactured will
be taxed. " -
xxxvin
* spread over thousands of petty pans ; these pans are mere pits, the work
of a few moments with a momety/ and concludes that the Excise Act will
necessarily interfere with the rights of laud-owners as much as the
measures he had proposed, because, of course, the Collector would only
grant licenses to such persons as would manufacture so largely that the
duty leviable at their pans would be sufficient at least to pay for the
expense of collecting it. All other manufacture must be summarily
suppressed ; and it is difficult to see how this should not include by far
the greatest part of the ' thousands of petty pans' referred to by the
Collector/'' " The present price of Madras salt at Coimbatore is about
Us. 2-8 a maund, and it probably could not be sold at Beypore for much
less than Rs. 2-12; Bombay salt, which is popularly considered to be
much stronger, can be imported and sold after payment of the full duty
for about Rs. 2-12 to Rs. 3." "It is evident that the importers of
English salt will soon find it to their advantage to land their cargoes at
Calicut in preference to Madras, as the normal price of the salt there is
likely to be nearly 50 per cent, higher than in the latter place."
78. The Collector of Malabar (March 6th, 1872,) addressed the
Revenue Board on this subject, observing
°f Malabar °n the that—" It may perhaps be deemed almost
superfluous to remark that if the privilege
of manufacturing salt for home use is to remain unaffected by the
Excise Act, the introduction of that Act is a matter of little moment.
The existing law, as at present understood, allows no more, and every
grain of salt made in the district is so made/ under the pretence of be-
ing required for home consumption. It is because this privilege affords
an effectual cover for making salt for sale that a change in the existing
law is desirable. It must not be supposed that an excise of Re. 1-13-0
a maund is compatible with the manufacture of Malabar salt for the
market. The people dislike it, asserting that it imparts a bitter and
unpleasant savour to food, and brings on that common complaint in
Malabar, the itch. Their aversion to it is so strong, that all who can
afford the expense, prefer Bombay salt, at eight times the price, and
if an excise of Re. 1-13-0 a maund- were added to its present market
value (about four annas) Malabar salt would be utterly unsaleable. If,
therefore, Section 11 of the Excise Act be taken as legalizing the levy of
the excise on all salt made, the immediate effect of the Act will be to put
a stop to the manufacture. With regard to the petty pans now in use,
it is impossible to give more than a guess at their number. It was
estimated in 1858 that there were 1,800 acres of land in the district on
which salt might be produced ; but the fact that a vigorous attempt at
manufacture was made on some of what were supposed the choicest spots,
and that the resulting salt ( scarcely exceeded a sample in quantity/
shows that the estimate is not to be trusted. I think, however, that the
extent of land on which the manufacture of salt is actually going on
would not be overstated at 600 acres. The pans, which are sub-divided
into partitions like a chess board, average about four feet square ; and
there may be from one to a score of them on an acre of ground, the
number depending on the soil and the state of the weather. I think it
would be below the mark to take the number of petty pans in use at
3,000. Of these, at least two-thirds are in the neighbourhood of Chow-
XXXIX
ghat, a fact to be accounted for not only by the facilities afforded by the
soil and nature of the place, but also because it was there that in 1867
a notoriously ineffectual attempt was made to stop the manufacture.
The salt-makers are coolies who pay the owners of the land a share of the
salt produced, generally fixed at one-third. At Chowghat, where three
or four hundred persons are engaged in the manufacture under the very
nose of the Salt Superintendent, you may see on the far side of the
marsh several persons carrying umbrellas. These are the overseers
before whom the land-owner's share is measured out. At the sight of a
European they vanish, and the salt-makers hurry off in all directions,
showing that they are still uneasy as to the lawfulness of their calling.
Any few of them who may be intercepted declare that they don't know
to whom the land belongs, and that they are only engaged in making a
hand/til of salt to season their rice. In reality, after the clay filter in
which the salt-earth is dissolved, the basins into which the brine runs,
and the little clay-lined pans in • which the brine is evaporated, are com-
pleted, the amount of salt which one man can make in a day is not less
than a maund. An exact description of the way in which salt is pro-
duced in Malabar, with a sketch in illustration, is to be found on pages
91 and 92 of the " selections from the records of the Madras Govern-
ment, No. XVI, Memorandum of Salt," published in 1855, where the
Collector of Bellary describes the process of manufacture in that district.
The only differences are that here the hollow mounds are only about 18
inches high ; the reservoir is a hole in the ground lined with clay about
the size of an ordinary basin, and the brine, when poured into the pans,
takes less than a day to evaporate. I would respectfully urge that the
new system should not be introduced until the burst of the monsoon
lends us its aid by obliterating the works and putting a natural end to
the manufacture for six full months. This would give the salt-makers
time to become reconciled to the fact that they will next year have to
pay the excise or seek other employment. The number of persons who
have learned to look to the manufacture for their daily food is now very
considerable, and they will not be driven away to other and less profitable
occupations till many of them have been fined and imprisoned, and much
discontent and misery will be the result. When the monsoon has stop-
ped the manufacture, it will be comparatively easy to prevent its recom-
mencing. I think the question of compensation may depend, to a great
extent, on the sagacity of the people ; but it will never be necessary to
award compensation unless a license to manufacture is refused, and I
should propose to grant a license to any land-holder applying for one.
I believe no license will be applied for when the right to manufacture
carries with it the obligation of paying the excise, but should licenses be
applied for, the work of supervision will not be difficult, as, in most
cases, the Taluq establishment is near. The question as to the necessary
preventive force can be decided only after licenses are applied for. With
regard to the withdrawal of Government from the Import trade, the
question in no way depends on the introduction of the Excise Act. I
have no doubt that merchants will be found to undertake the trade.
The only obstacle to as free a supply of salt as of grain, or any other
necessary of life, lies in the indispensable precaution taken at Bombay of
making the exporters find security for the amount of duty, besides taking
xl
from them a deposit of four annas a maund. This suffices to prevent any
but a wealthy merchant from engaging in the trade. I doubt not that
many will seek to avoid the necessity of finding security by importing
salt from Arabia. In that case the importer brings with him no reliable
document to 'show the amount of his cargo, and it rests with the Cus-
toms House officials whether all the cargo shall be brought to account.
To obviate the effects of this, it will be necessary to prescribe the impor-
tation of foreign salt, except salt imported from England to ports where
there is a European officer, viz., Calicut and Tellicherry. Bombay salt
can be imported at each of the six ports where a salt store now exists.
Salt so imported will, of course, be bonded, and the duty paid as it is
taken from the warehouse. The rooms in our present sheds will serve
as warehouses, and no doubt will readily be rented. I feel bound, in
spite of all the correspondence that has already passed, again to urge
the impolicy of throwing open the trade suddenly, instead of, in the
first instance, promoting a growing private trade by an import duty so
fixed as to admit a margin of profit to the private trader beyond what
he gets by supplying Government. The present difference between the
duty and selling price is only three annas a maund, whereas if the mer-
chant sells the salt to us, and then again buys it from us wholesale, he gets
seven annas a maund for putting it into the golah, and 5 per cent, discount
for taking it out again, we bearing, in addition, the cost of warehousing
and weighing. If we abolish the discount, and admit salt at a duty of
Re. 1-6-0, a steady private trade will begin, and in a comparatively short
time, we shall be able to withdraw in full confidence of the withdrawal
being permanent. Otherwise the necessity of re-introducing a Govern-
ment trade appears highly probable, and it is needless to point out that
confidence in the security of private trade from Government competition
having been once shaken, its establishment on a firm basis will be inde-
finitely postponed/''
79. Having, for the purpose of continuing this investigation of
the bearing of the salt tax on the sea fisheries,
Application for returns of ex- applied to the Revenue Board for a return of
g£8&can the annual export and import of salt-fish for
fifteen years, I received the following an-
swer from the Secretary : " I find that I cannot give you a return show-
ing the annual exports and imports of salt-fish from each collectorate
for the last fifteen years. Previous to 1867-68 our accounts show 'salted
provisions' in the aggregate. (*) From 1867-68 they show 'provisions'
without any particulars. We might be able to extract the information
for the last jive years only from the Collectors' monthly reports, if we
have plenty of time and a few extra clerks, but I am not sure even of
this." Unable to obtain this most necessary and important return from
the Revenue Board, the Collectors were applied to, and their various
answers are given in the Appendix, from which it appears that a longer
period than five years might be furnished.
(*) Hams, bacon, and tongues are, I believe, salted to a small extent in Madras for
home consumption, but I think only fish for export ; consequently, one would imagine the
returns spoken of, but not furnished, would give the required information in the gross, if
not iu detail.
xli
80. Sir Arthur Cotton, K. c. s. i., observed (1867) : " I should sup-
pose that the injury to the coast-fisheries
Injury to coast-fisheries oc- must fce yery great now that ge f th
casioned by irrigation weirs. . , . J ° . \
principal rivers on the east coast, viz., the
Coleroon or Cauvery, the Pennair in South Arcot, the Pellaur, the Pen-
nair in Nellore, the Kistna, the Godavery and the Mahanuddy are thus
barred."
81. The Collector of South Canara (March 5th, 1868J remarked re-
garding the improvement of the sea-fisheries:
SouthinCanar°af ^ Collector c " It may also be expected to be a source of
indirect profit in increasing the expenditure
of salt sold at monopoly price, and in swelling our exports, for fish in
different shapes are already exported both by sea and inland. With
other articles that yielded less than Rs. 1,000 a year in Customs dues,
salt-fish were at the last settlement of the tariff placed on the free list.
Consequently, Indian salters, who have to buy their salt at monopoly
price, compete at a heavy disadvantage with salt-fish which is imported
from countries where salt is free. If the import duty on salt-fish were
re-imposed at such a rate as would bring the salt consumed in their pre-
paration up to the monopoly price prevailing in this presidency, then
Indian salters would, without undue protection, be placed on an equal
footing with the foreigners, and it might be expected that, where fish
were sufficiently plentiful, they would find it worth while to purchase
more salt for their curing, and so we should find our returns in increased
consumption of salt, and the small Customs receipts on imported salt-fish
would be no proof that the Customs duty was not a wholesome and re-
munerative tax, though it was apparently a trivial one in direct pro-
ceeds ; for it would be wholesome in that it restored for fair competition
the equal balance disturbed by the presence of a monopoly price, re-
munerative in that it encouraged indirect profits in the more extended
use of monopoly salt in Indian curing. In connection with my proposal,
therefore, I would suggest a re-imposition of a Customs duty on salt-fish."
Subsequently, he (H. S. Thomas, Esq.,) replied (March 31st, 1873,) that
breeding and immature fish, " are diligently destroyed to the fullest ex-
tent possible/'' The salting of sea- fish would be increased, " as suggested
in my piscicultural report of 1870, or as suggested by you, or by a
combination of both plans." Respecting whether the proposition of
forming enclosures in suitable places wherein fish could be salted and
salt sold at reduced rates, he replies : " Yes, I think it would, and have
been at much pains to get men to undertake the enterprise, and have
written to the Madras Board of Revenue, suggesting in detail a trial
with salt sold at Re. 1 a maund, or half the monopoly price, and have
made choice of a fit man to give the question a fair trial." The letter
adverted to (dated April 3rd, 1873,) is as follows : f( In accordance with
the suggestion contained in paragraph 7 of Dr. Day's letter, enclosed
in the Proceedings of Government, dated 2nd September 1872, No. 1274,
I invited tenders to cure fish with salt given at half the monopoly price.
I first applied myself to the fishermen, and tried my best to induce them
or their headmen to undertake the enterprise ; but they are an impro-
vident race, always poor, because always drinking their surplus cash,
and the irrational nature of the objections raised showed very clearly
xlii
that it was vain to hope to persuade them to diverge ever so slightly
from their few stereotyped habits of thought and life. I then addressed
myself with no better success to the Mussalman dealers in imported
salt-fish. I found also that Hindu merchants held back from connec-
tion with what they considered a demeaning trade. I then fell back
on the Christian part of the community, whether Protestant or Roman
Catholic, and the result, after some enquiry, was the enclosed petition
and the promise of two more from others of the same class. The
petitioner is prepared to accept the terms I offered, which were —
I. — That he shall receive as much Government salt as he wants at
half price.
II. — That he shall pay cash, or give security for all he receives.
III. — That he shall receive it inside a guarded enclosure within
which he is to use it, taking out the salted fish only, and
under inspection.
IV. — That the enclosure and the guard are to be provided by Gov-
ernment, and the curing buildings within it to be his
own erection on our site and liable to removal on requisi-
tion.
<( The petitioner adds one stipulation, namely, that the use of salt-
earth shall be prohibited, for he thinks he cannot pay the half price for
salt, and thoroughly cure fish in competition against those who half-
cure with earth-salt for which they pay nothing. The petitioner wished
at first to have the monopoly of curing for a certain period, but I
objected to this on the ground that it would practically give him the
power of compelling the fishermen to sell their surplus fish to him at
any price he chose to dictate. The arrangement, if confirmed, will stand
therefore as follows : petitioner may perhaps secure the monopoly to him-
self for a time by fair dealing, that is, by offering the fishermen a fair
market value for their surplus, by curing well, and by selling the cured
fish at fairly remunerative rates, and yet not exorbitant prices. As soon
as he fails in any of these points he will be liable to the competition on the
same terms within a contiguous enclosure of any one else who may
thereby be led to think he can do better. It will thus become his
interest to treat both the fishermen and the public well. The petitioner
has the- advantage of being able to provide ample good security, and
sale agency at Mercara, as long as his honesty in dealing is to the satis-
faction of the head of the Basel Evangelical Mission, of whose congrega-
tion he is a member. Whether the arrangement will be profitable to
Government is the other side of the question. Salt costs Government from
the contractor eight annas a maund of Bombay salt, or five annas four pie
of Goa salt. Sold to the petitioner at half the monopoly price, or Re. 1
a maund, the margin for Government will be eight annas or ten annas
eight pie a maund, and out of this will have to be paid the guard and the
carriage to the enclosure, and the erection of the enclosure. For the
enclosure, a high bamboo railing will suffice, and that may be very
cheaply run up. The carriage will be a mere trifle, for the site selected
is Sultans' battery, so as to be inoffensive to the town and near the fisher-
men, and one or two boats a month will carry all that is wanted along
the estuary between it and the salt kotaurs, and this may be borne either
by the Government or the petitioner, as thought fit. The guard need
xliii.
not be extensive, no great amount of salt being exposed at a time, and
the only thing to be guarded against being, the carrying of salt out past
the gate by any of the employed laborers with a view to selling it at a
profit. If the amount of fish cured be small, Government will scarcely
be remunerated, but if it be large, there may not only be no loss, but a
decided profit. Though the amount cured may perhaps be small at first,
there is every reason to anticipate that a man who desires to live by it
entirely, and has no lack of means, will endeavour to make it as extensive
as he can. I think the enterprise should be given a trial, for even if it
yield no profit to Government it will still benefit the fishermen, and the.
curers, and the inland public, which last will thus have an additional
food not previously within their reach, and this without any injury to
the salt revenue. It is quite possible, moreover, that the demands in the
interior may be found sufficiently large to develope an extensive trade ;
and in such case, the Government will be the gainers by so much more of
their salt being sold at a price, which, though not the monopoly price, is
still a profitable price. 1 do not anticipate that the use of salt-fish in
curries, can ever be so general as injuriously to affect the ordinary salt
sales. If it does, the time for raising the price of salt to the curer will
have arrived. The illicit salt question, which includes the use of salt-
earth has been dealt with at length by my predecessor, and a decision
thereon is needed, as much in the interests of the salt revenues generally,
as in the decision of the present matter. I have the honor to request,
therefore, that the Board will be pleased to instruct me how I may deal with
the users of salt-earth, and what answer I am to make to the application
enclosed."* In 1870 Mr. H. S. Thomas, in his report on the pisciculture
of South Canara, made some interesting observations on the sea-fisheries of
that district, considering them most fruitful and important. Its sea-board
extends over 120 miles, besides possessing 404 miles of estuaries. Great
quantities of sea- fish are carried inland by boats up the many rivers which
exist, or being taken by coolies to places as far as 10 miles from the sea, are
there exchanged for grain and condiments ; these are sometimes fresh, but
more frequently besmeared with salt-earth or a slight amount of Govern-
ment salt. But the salt is either so lost in mud, or so expensive, that very
little is used, and the fish are necessarily so partially cured, that in most
cases putrefaction has set in before they are consumed. Thus, a whole-
some food is made an unwholesome one, and the consumers demand for
it is doubtless much reduced thereby. So long as the salt monopoly is
maintained at its present repressive figure, so long will the sea-fisheries
of India labor under this disadvantage ; while the price of this necessary
of life is so high, that the poor cannot afford to cansume with their daily
food enough even for the maintenance of health, it is not to be expected
that they can indulge in fish cured with this expensive luxury. As long
also as fish thoroughly salted in countries where salt is untaxed, is
imported into India free of customs duty, so long will the Indian curer be
unable to compete therewith. In the sea and estuaries, as in the rivers,
numbers of immature fish are destroyed in small meshed nets. But here
also, as in rivers, the same difficulty exists in simultaneously permitting
the capture of small sorts of fish, and protecting the young of larger
* When going through some parts of this district, sun-dried and salt -fish which had
been imported from the Arabian Coast were seen being sold in the various bazars.
xliv
descriptions. Nets are hung continuously day and night across the larger
half of tideways, and fish entering the rivers, and passing and re-
passing with each tide are thus intercepted ; but as the centre, which
is deep and required for the shipping, is necessarily left open, the
obstruction is not complete. There are marshes by the river side that
are flooded by every high tide ; the fry of the sea-fish frequenting the
estuaries, are in the habit of coasting along the very edge of the rivers
and running into all shallow places. When the tide rises over these
marshes, the fry go in with it, probably finding more insect food amongst
the swamp grass and on the freshly inundated land. But when they
think to return with the ebbing tide, they are met by long lines of
close wattle and fine leaf basket work, that allows the water to pass, but
not the fry. At every tide in the daytime the fry are thus waylaid
and then left high and dry, thickly strewn in long lines, whence they
are carried away in basket loads. The mullet suffer much in this way.
They are a desirable sea-fish, and the wholesale destruction of their fry in
this manner should be prevented. It is pointed out that shrimps are
the natural food of the larger fishes, and only a luxury to man, and in
order to decrease such destruction on account of luxury, a tax on shrimp
nets is proposed ; the same remarks are almost equally applicable to
prawns. The protection of the smaller sorts of fish and the fry of sea-
fish, by prohibiting meshes less than three inches in circumference, is also
calculated to increase the food, and consequently the numbers and size of
the larger sea-fish, sardines (Clupea Neohowii)j used to visit this coast in
such numbers that they were the ordinary diet of convicts, and the
cocoa-nut trees were manured with them. For nine years, however, they
had disappeared, and only stray individuals were caught at intervals ; but
this year they have reappeared in shoals, and have for the last eight
months been daily captured in such numbers and with such ease, that all
the consumption of the large town of Mangalore and of the interior could
not raise the price above three pies, say a farthing and a half a hundred.
A canoe full has been caught in an hour and a half or two hours with a
single casting net, and the rocks in the neighbourhood are completely
covered with these small fish, besmeared with salt-mud and exposed to
dry in the sun. As was to be expected, the porpoise, the firm fleshed seir,
Cybiumy and otner large fish have followed in their wake, and sea-fish of
all sorts have this year abounded. But rays, hammer headed, and other
sharks are generally plentiful on this coast. There is no lack of the deli-
cate pomfret, Stromateus, mullet, Mugilida, and Indian whiting, Sillago.
xlr
The following statement shows the value of salted-fish, shark-fins,
maws and oil imported and exported from 1860-61 to 1872-73 : —
OFFICIAL YEAR.
IMPOSTS.
EXPORTS,
Fish,
salted.
Shark-
fins.
Fish-
maws.
Fish-
oil.
Fish,
salted.
Shark-
fins.
Fish-
maws.
Fish-
oil.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Es.
Rs.
Rs.
1860-61
16,918
...
562
1,305
763
5,126
1861-62
16,443
...
...
45
1,034
1,685
270
4,363
1862-63
26,310
...
...
66
a 14,445
2,350
263
480
1863-64
24,156
435
37
1,720
a 10,574
4,702
2,498
2,920
1864-65
42,007
140
850
a 30,366
7,961
2,988
1,566
1865 66
19,061
170
62
o 8,750
6,666
1,161
...
Fish-maws and shark-fins, d
Fish-maws and shark-fins, d
1866-67
36,636
345
1,461
a 11,249
...
7,763
225
1867-68
b 45,734
...
565
a 8,757
...
5,928
62
1868-69
34,165
...
660
Utf
...
8,022
205
1869-70
34,285
1,372
c 20,533
8,477
136
Shark-fins and fish-maws, e
Shark-fins and fish-maws, e
1870-71
26,088
200
c 39,275
5,726
5,493
1,762
1871-72
21,478
985
100
...
c 28,452
5,886
1,450
1,177
187?-73
22,225
255
170
13
c 59,804
7,865
4,106
634
fa). Part of the imports re-exported to Malabar.
(b). The Import duty on salt-fish was removed by Act XVII of 1867,
(c). The work chiefly of Bombay fishermen, who catch off our coasts, and some of whom cure with
smuggled salt.
(d). Up to February or March 1866.
(e). Up to September 1869, and October 1870.
82. The Acting Collector of Malabar (April 30th, 1873,) considers
that, tf breeding and immature fish are not
of °Mak°bar&C" Of ^ C°lleCt°r Destroyed in the tidal estuaries to any great
extent. The salting of fish could be increased
if the price of salt were lowered. The present selling price of Govern-
ment salt is not prohibitive of its employment on fish-salting, but there
can be no question, that in this district, wherever salt-earth is easily pro-
curable (as at Tellicherry), fish-salting flourishes. This, of course, is not
the sole reason for the flourishing state of the Tellicherry fishery, but it
has a good deal to do with it." " Colombo is supplied to a very consi-
derable extent with salt-fish from Tellicherry. The Singhalese frequently
come up on fishing excursions in their peculiar outrigger boats, as far
as the Sacrifice rock, which lies a few miles off the coast, midway between
Tellicherry and Calicut." The proposition to form enclosures *wherein fish
may be salted, and the salt sold at a reduced rate, " is not a practicable one
in this district." The Collector of the district informed me that an old
custom, law, or regulation exists ; due to which the people are permit-
ted to collect salt-earth, or use salt prepared by themselves from the sea
xlvi
water, and that without any hindrance from the revenue authorities who
look upon it as a prescriptive right. He also considered that if this were
not permitted, the salting of fish would be decreased. I now propose
offering- a few remarks upon what I personally witnessed or information
which I obtained at Calicut, except with reference to fish-oils, which will be
treated subsequently in a paper by itself. Sharks are captured by means
of baits, putrid beef or porpoise flesh being employed : large pieces are
buried one or two days prior to their being used as baits. The hook is
attached by a chain to the line whilst the fishing is carried on in the
deep sea from 4 A. M. until sunset, but never at night time. The fisher-
men assert that the darker it is the better, and moonlight nights are good
for this species of game ; however, they prefer daylight. The oil sardines
breed in June and July, subsequent to which period they commence to be-
come fat, and from August to November are suited for the manufacture of
fish-oil ; at the commencement of the year they are moderately lean again.
The natives of this coast assert that if eaten when very fat, and in large
quantities, they are liable to occasion sickness, but subsequently, or at the
commencement of the year, any amount may be consumed without
poisonous results. A boatload of sardines computed to contain 14,000
at the time the fish are not fat enough to be used for the manufacture
of oil, is worth from 14 to 15 annas, provided the fish are common.
When oil is present the price rises to five or six rupees. If it is in-
tended to use the bodies of these fish during the oil season, as well as
extract the livers, the following course is pursued:— The heads are cut
off, the abdomen opened, cleaned, prepared with salt, and then dried in
the sun. If the monopoly salt is employed, the article is worth 12 annas
a maund : if salt-earth 8 annas a maund ; from this it must be apparent
how small a margin the trade has, if it is wished to prepare the superior
article, only 4 annas in 82ffb~ of salt-fish. Now, four annas would not
purchase above 4 to 4|tb of good salt, irrespective of which, the profit
has to be made. Most of the deep sea-fish appear to breed between the
October monsoon, and the following March, for which purpose they come
towards the land. Certainly some of the Serrani, Pristipomas, and
Therapons breed early in the north -east monsoon, their young being com-
mon in Malabar in October. Fishes here are dried as well as salted ; if
the former, it is done on the sand, but not on mats ; if the latter, they are
laid on "mats. The Indian mackerel is taken here and off Cochin in
enormous quantities ; from four to five thousand are considered a boatload
valued at from Rs. 10 to 15, sold fresh ; but they must be obtained
cheaper than this by the fish-curers, because if salted with monopoly
salt, their value is only about two rupees a thousand, whilst if earth-salt
is employed, it is one rupee eight annas for the same quantity. Oil is
not obtained from the livers of these fish. The following fish are mostly
those which are salted in this district : roe-ball Polynemus, siluroid, cat-
fishes, seir-fishes, and pomfret. At the town of Cochin, I observed that
(1872) the number of standing dip nets, has considerably increased
during the last ten years. Also along the backwater, that the weirs have
augmented, but these last belong to the native States of Cochin or Tra van-
core. Since the foregoing was written, the Collector of Malabar has
obligingly furnished me with the following returns, to which I have
added those prepared for me, whilst Mr. Ballard was Collector, and pub-
lished in the ' Fishes of Malabar.'
xlvii
I
S
JS * ^^^So^co^oolo^t^t^co^cocD-
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Sj J^^ . ^^I"HcocoS° •66°6Scc(^
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xlviii
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So 10 to •<*
The foregoing
fishermen are doing d
States of Travancore
xlix
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83. The returns of the Madras Railway, for the last few years,
showing the tonnage of salt-fish carried inland
way inland'" * from. the western coast> ha™ ^™ obligingly
furnished by the Traffic Manager, and are as
follows :—
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1,641 tons.
1,465
2,068
2,565
1,863
2,604
2,274
The Acting Traffic Manager, June 24th, 1873, declines furnishing
a copy of the return for 1872, observing that " all statistics compiled by
this Company are sent to the Consulting Engineer to Government, to
where I beg to refer you for any you may require." Time has not
admitted of this further reference.
84. The British Resident of Travancore and Cochin (April 17th,
1873) observes with reference to the first of
these Native States-" The report from the
Dewan of Travancore will follow when it has been received." I extract
the following figures up to 1862-63 from my work on the <f Fishes of
Malabar/' The figures given subsequent to that date are from three
returns furnished me by the Resident on November 6th, 1868, and
August 1873.
Imports and Exports of Salt-fish into Travancore.
YEARS.
IMPORTED.
EXPORTED.
Quantity
in cwt.
Value in
rupees.
Quantity
in cwt.
1
Value in
rupees.
1853-54 ...
958£
1,008
26,982
28,401
1854-55
867J
912
28,590
30,094
1855-56
l,U3f
1,171
42,251i
44,474
1856-57
1,172£
1,223
30,213|
31,755
1857-58
l,424i
1,498
34,984
36,826
1858-59
1,440£
1,516
27,730|
29,193
1859-60
2,167!
2,281
39,116f
43,944
1860-61
2,962
3,290
49,665|
97,764
1861-62
4012*
4266
35,923!
70,614
1862-63
4,395£
4886
54,166f
1,08,339
1863-64
200|
Not given
54,167
1,08,340
1864-65 ...
357
60,122
1,18,806
1865-66 ...
70,505
1,42,264
1866-67
73,039f
1,46,409
1867-68
77,682
1,58,378
1868-69 ...
69,614
1,39,512
1869-70 ...
59,325
1,19,312
1870-71 ...
55,691
1,14,096
1871-72 ...
67,336
1,34,895
Hi
The foregoing shows that the amount of salt-fish, imported from
the British possessions into this Native State, was considerable up to
1862-68, since which period the trade has been ruined. Now it will be
perceived that Travancore, instead of being a large importer, has be-
come, on the contrary, an energetic exporter. The use of salt-earth used
to be, and I conclude still is, allowed for salting fish. An export duty of
about two annas a cwt. also appears to be in existence. The foregoing
table affords some interesting subjects for analysis. Up to the year
1867-68 the imports—
in five years ending 1857-58 averaged cwt. 1,107 yearly,
1862-63 „ „ 2,9954
„ „ „ 1867-68 „ „ 151J „
The extinction of the import trade commenced after 1862-63, and if
we turn to the duty on salt, we find it was raised two annas a maund in
1861-62. That year's supply of salt-fish having been exported from the
British possessions to the Native State, the trade now languished for
two years and then entirely ceased. If, on the other hand, we examine
the export returns from Travancore, we shall see just the reverse. Up
to the year 1867-68, the exports, much of which go to Ceylon —
in five years ending 1857-58 averaged cwt. 32,604 yearly,
„ 1862-63 „ „ 41,320| »
„ 1867-68 „ „ 67,103
in four years ending 1871-72 „ „ 62,991J „
During the early portion of this period the price of black salt was Rs. 77
a garce, or about 10 annas a maund. About 1863-64 the British Gov-
ernment entered into a treaty which binds the Rajahs of Travancore and
Cochin to raise the selling price of salt to what obtains in Madras, or
upwards of 100 per cent.
The amount of salt sold has leen as follows in Indian Maunrfs :—
1862-63 ... 460,450
1863-64 ... 479,062
1864-65 ... 477,750
3865-66 ... 461,400
1866-67 .-.. 463,560
1867-68 ... 4,70,760
1868-69 ... 4,92,000
1869 70 ... 4,90,920
1870-71 ... 4,97,040
1871-72 ... 4,87,260
The system of enclosures, observes the Dewan (July 1873), " would
lead to- great abuse. Salt would be purchased more for the pur-
pose of smuggling than for curing fish, as the returns of the illicit
trade are sure to be quicker and more profitable. Besides, as fishing in
Travancore is carried on all along the seaboard, the numbers of
enclosures will* have to be multiplied to nearly the number of fishing
villages. Else the fish will be spoiled before it arrives at the curing
enclosure, and the cost of transit has to be weighed against the reduced
price of salt. It may be well to note here that the fishermen themselves
very seldom go to the expense of salting fish. There are export agents
from Ceylon and other places who buy the fish raw or advance money
for the harvest of the season. These people buy the salt for curing/'
85. The Dewan of Cochin (April 3rd, ] 873) replied that it is presum-
able that breeding and immature fish are to
Replies from th« Dewan of gome tent destroyed, but there is no data
Cochin. ,, . , J. ' , .,
to form a judgment. In some places up the
backwaters, Cocculus Indicus and other drugs fatal to fish are employed for
liii
tlieir capture., and it is probable that by this means many fish are killed,
besides those actually taken. As regards the trade in salt-fish it " is car-
ried on to a considerable extent, and facilities already exist for indefinitely
increasing it. Should any practical suggestions be offered on the subject,
the sirkar will be prepared to consider them/'
The exports of salt and dried fish from the two ports of Cochin
been as follows : —
cwt. cwt.
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
329
112
339
348
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1,687
1,639
2,644
2,542
1,617
The selling price of salt is now two rupees or 32 annas a maund,
whilst in 10 years ending 1863-64, the average price had been slightly
above 11 annas a maund.
The amount of salt sold has been as follows in Indian Maunds :— —
1862-63
1863-64
1864-65
1865-66
1866-67
249,206
166,147
210,970
34,428
88,006
1867-68
1868 69
1869-70
1870-71
1871-72
81,639
83,199
96,349
90,674
89,105
Returns of the exports in salt-fish alone are not available, conse-
quently the effects of this rise of price on the trade of salt-fish cannot be
observed. However, along the Malabar Coast, there is another considera-
tion, viz., that a great quantity of the salted and cured fish is prepared
from sardines, Clupea Neohowu, C. 8f V.y and fishes of the shark family.
These sardines are very uncertain as to their appearance ; in some
years they arrive in enormous quantities, in other seasons they are
almost entirely absent, whilst the presence of the sharks depends upon
these shoals of small fish upon which they prey.
86. The Officiating Collector of Madura (December 18th, 1869) ob-
^ . . served that " the seaboard in the district
ofSra theCollector belongs to the Zemindars of Ramnad and
Sivagungah, two permanently settled estates,
and we have therefore nothing to do with the salt-water fisheries. The
use of salt-earth is prohibited to the fish-curers of the district; the
quality of the salted-fish is good generally, but the natives would prefer
it of a superior description j knows of no way in which the trade in salt-
ing fish could be augmented. Subsequently (June 1st,, 1873) the same
officer furnished me with the following return : — •
liv
•
1
2
•s «
SIS
r^T CO
^5 so
15* CO
eg
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87. The Acting Collector of Tinnevelly (November 5th, 1869)
reported that, as a rule, the fishermen of the
e Collect°r Ol coast are a very miserable lot of people and
excessively poor ; the way in which they now
work is by a system of advances from their ' Chummaties' or headmen,
a few of whom reside in each village, and supply nets, lines, boats, &c.,
for the use of which a certain share (one-third) of all the fish caught is
taken by the Chummaty. Sea-fishing is the daily employment of a large
number of the inhabitants living on the sea coast; these men have
certain contracts to supply fish with headmen of the Paraver (fisher)
caste, distinct from the Chummaties. Subsequently (February 22nd,
1870) the Acting Collector continued that he was averse to letting out
the right of fishing in the rivers and backwaters of the coast by public
auction " for the reason that it would give the renter a certain power
over a poor class who now earn their living as fishers of these creeks and
backwaters/1' " The effect of giving any one person the right of fishing
the mouths of the Tambrapurni and Vypar, and the creeks and back-
waters along the coast, would be certain injury to the poor fishermen
who with their forefathers have been accustomed to gain their living
from these waters from time immemorial.'" " I beg to record my de-
cided opinion that any interference with sea-fishing is quite uncalled for.
Sea-fishing is the daily employment of a large number of the inhabitants
living on the sea coast. Any restriction, therefore, would affect a number
of persons who have no other means of earning a livelihood. These
men have certain contracts to supply fish with headmen of the Paraver
(fisher) caste (distinct from the Chummaties.) Fish are dried in the sun,
salted, and all those not sent inland for consumption are exported to
Ceylon. The supply of fish is large and not decreasing, and while such
is the case, surely Government interference is unnecessary, and the em-
ployment upon which so large a number of people are engaged should
not be restricted." It is illegal to gather the spontaneous or earth salts,
and therefore illegal to use it for fish-curing, but no doubt they do, as
the high price of salt prohibits their using it in the quantities necessary
to cure the amount of fish caught on the coast: it answers very well
for this purpose. " This salted-fish is much affected by the ' Paraver'
caste on the coast. I never tasted it. The smell was quite enough."
The upper classes would prefer a superior article, ' ' but the lower are, I
fancy, well satisfied with the article they now obtain. It has one great
recommendation in their eyes ; it is very cheap." The way to increase
the trade in salting fish would be " by reducing the monopoly price of
salt."
88. The Collector of Tanjore (January 21st, 1873) replied that
Opinion of European offi- a11 fish ar* destroyed * ith the exception of
cials of Tanjore. verv sma11 ones which cannot be entrapped in
the net. The salting of sea-fish might be in-
creased by reducing the price of salt. The forming of large enclosures
near favorable localities wherein fish could be salted, and the salt pro-
vided at reduced rates, would be " unadvisable, as it would be obviously
impossible to see that the salt sold was actually employed in salting fish
alone, and the salt revenue is far too important a matter to be interfered
Ivi
with on considerations of promoting particular objects, such as trade in
salt-fish, and the like. The present salt revenue of Tanjore alone is four-
teen lacs of rupees, and a revenue more easily collected, and at the same
time attended with so little actual pressure or popular murmurs, can hardly
be imagined. Any measure, therefore, calculated to affect this important
branch of the public revenue should not in my opinion be adopted unless
after the most careful consideration, and after it has been shown to be
urgently needed. The answers of some of the native officials evince an
incorrect comprehension in some respects of the questions put to them,
but they nevertheless give all required information in respect of the mode
in which the salting of sea-fish is carried on, and the present state, as
compared with the past, of the trade in salt-fish, as well as the fishermen
classes. Taken on the whole, these answers do not show that the trade
of salting sea-fish is materially affected by the price of salt." Subsequently
(March 14th, 1873) he continued — " I agree with the Acting Sub-Collec-
tor in considering the proposition in paragraph 7 of Dr. Day's letter
(respecting forming enclosures for salting fish in, and where the salt would
be disposed of below the monopoly price) unadvisable. As pointed out
by Mr. Happell, it would be obviously impossible to see that the salt
sold was actually employed in salting-fish alone, and the salt revenue
is far too important a matter to be interfered with on considerations
of promoting particular objects, such as trade in salt-fish and the like."
" The answers of some of the native officials evince an incorrect
comprehension in some respects of the questions put to them, but they
nevertheless give all required information, &c." The Deptity Collector
in charge of the Salt Department answers that breeding and immature
fish are destroyed in tidal estuaries both by mankind and larger fish
which feed upon them; the latter mode of destruction cannot well
be obviated, being a principle of life and nature's diction ; but the
former is very objectionable on account of the small size of the mesh
of nets employed, and might be put a stop to by legislation. The
salting of sea-fish might be increased by removing the restrictions which
at present exist regarding the earth — and spontaneously produced salt,
but which would detrimentally affect the salt revenue to a certain extent.
As to whether it would be practicable to erect large enclosures in
suitable places wherein fish might be salted, and the salt sold at a reduced
price, he -continues, yes, it is practicable in this district on the great
salt swamp near Point Calamere, provided the restrictions referred to in
regard to using salt-earth were removed inside the particular locale or
inclosure. The Sub-Collector replied that the meshes of the nets are very
small, and fishing is carried on all the year round. It is, therefore, a
matter of course that both breeding and immature fish are destroyed
in large quantities, but no apparent diminution is observable. " In this
district fishermen's hamlets are generally situated at a few miles distance
from large towns or numerous populous villages, so that, generally
speaking, the greater part of the fish caught in the sea are consumed
fresh, and only small quantities salted." Respecting whether forming
large enclosures in suitable places and selling salt inside at reduced
prices for curing fish is advisable, he replies " it would be practicable
enough, but certainly not advisable, as it would be nearly impossible
to see that the salt sold was actually employed in salting fish alone."
Ivii
89. The Collector of Tricliwopoly (October 12th, 1869) replied that
the fish-curers " are not allowed to use salt-
' f ^ taX6df r UUtaXed \ bt °Win°- ^ the
high price of Government salt, especially in
the inland talooks, I have no doubt that this earth-salt is surreptitiously
used pretty largely. On the coast I believe that all the salting, much of
this so-called cured-fish gets, is being buried in the sea sand and thus get-
ting slightly briny. It is illegal to manufacture earth-salt; therefore,
none ought to be produced for curing." The salt- fish " is liable to give
pain in the bowels, and itch to those not used to its consumption. As the
whole subject of earth-salt is kept dark, being illegal, I cannot say how
they do or might employ it when curing fish." The salted-fish " gener-
ally stinks pretty offensively." As to whether the natives would
prefer a superior article were such obtainable, he replies, " no doubt they
would. A few old hands might be so wedded to former usage as to prefer
the present nauseous article, in the same way as there are still found
elderly people in England, who object to the use of hip and sponge
baths." The purchases of Government salt for fish-curing are probably
but trifling. " If the monopoly price of salt were low, I fancy the trade
and quality of the commodity itself would increase, but if really good salt-
fish were made at the present price of Government salt, the product would
be beyond the reach of its chief consumers. No doubt good fish could be
sold to almost any amount, and the supply is nothing equal to the
demand."
90. The Collector of South Arcot (May 28th, 1869) replied that
" there is no express rule either prohibiting
«f use of salt-earth for curing salt-fish or
allowing its use, and I do not believe that
salt-earth is generally used, since the extracting of salt from the earth*
is a task of labor and somewhat expensive, besides being a penal offence.
There is very little salt-earth available near the coast, where the curing
of fish is mostly carried on, and sea-salt is more readily procurable.
Where salt-earth is found in any quantity, there is the least quantity of
fish to be had. The salt-earth must first be purified before using for
curing purposes." Natives would prefer a superior quality of salt-fish to
that now sold were such obtainable. " In some places there is a ready
market for fresh fish for salting, and where the curing is carried on,
Government salt is of course purchased for the purpose ; the extent I
cannot tell, but it will be regulated by the trade, and I am not of opinion
from my enquiries that the trade is anything very great in my district/'
" Doubtless the salt-fish trade might be increased and improved under
systematic encouragement and arrangement, if such could be applied."
* If preparing this substance is a penal offence, one would have imagined that a rule
prohibiting its itse is in existence.
Iviii
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lix
The Assistant Collector (December 2nd, 1872) observed that fisher-
men destroy everything in the shape of a fish that comes into their
power. Does not think that the salting of fish could be increased
in the Cuddalore district, inasmuch as the demand of the local
market can entirely consume all the attainable supply. The Acting
Sub-Collector of South Arcot (January 15th, 1873) reported that fishes
of all size are indiscriminately taken, but that as regards forming
large enclosures in favorable localities, wherein fish could be salted, and the
salt provided at reduced rates, if the suggestion were carried into effect,
the salting of fish could be increased except in the Cuddalore taluq,
where the take of fish barely meets the demand. " I do not think the
proposition is advisable, nor do I see why salt-fish should be exempted
from a heavy duty, whilst other articles prepared with salt have to pay ;
capital and enterprise are required to stimulate a waning trade, and
curing fish is not the sort of business men who are making money
would be likely to embark in. The scheme would be practicable only if
the enclosures were within the police guards at the salt pans ; nobody
could be trusted to take away the salt; one such enclosure might perhaps
be tried under the immediate supervision on the Salt Deputy Collector.
It would cost little or nothing to try the experiment, and six months'* trial
would be worth many sheets of opinion.-" The Collector (March 1st,
1873) remarked that breeding and immature fish are destroyed in the
tidal estuaries. Fishermen are not provident as a class, and literally all
is fish that comes to their net. What they do not use they leave where
they leave their nets. The salting of sea-fish might possibly be increased
if the price of salt were reduced for the purpose, but not probably to any
great extent : as a rule, the demand of the local market absorbs the sup-
ply afforded by the local take, and even the advantage offered by the
reduced price of salt would hardly stimulate fishermen to employ the
extra exertion necessary to increase the latter. The making of large
enclosures near favourable localities inside which fish could be salted,
and where salt might be sold at reduced rates, would be practicable,
but with the employment of an additional preventive force to check
smuggling. It would hardly be advisable as being unlikely to pro-
duce any measure of public good for the reasons already given. The
Assistant Collector (Dec. 2nd, 1872) replies— fishermen destroy every-
thing in the shape of fish which comes into their power. Does not
think the salting of fish could be increased in his (the Cuddalore} district,
inasmuch as the demand of the local market can entirely consume all
the attainable supply. At the end of the Sub- Collector's letter referred
to, follow the ensuing answers from native officials, but, as they
are unsigned and not docketed, they appear to come from the same
official. The cost of salt is Rs. 2 a maund, Government salt is employed
for curing fish, but earth salt is not much used. The practice of salting
fish has decreased of late years in all places except Chellumbrum. The
fishermen have all the privileges they formerly possessed. There are
headmen " Nattamakaran" amongst the fishing castes ; the office is here-
ditary. His dutes are to regulate the ceremonies attendant on marriages
as well as funerals, and to dispose of such disputes as arise among his
caste people. When a fine is levied a small share goes to him, and the re-
mainder merges into a fund reserved for the performance of certain
Ix
festivals among the caste. In marriages he is paid a fee ranging from
4 annas to Ks. 2. No one claims any right respecting the sea-fisheries. The
men use nets and boats of their own. Except in the Cuddalore talook,
there is an increase in the number of sea-fishermen.
91. The Acting Collector of Madras (June 23rd, 1870) replied—
" fish is not cured by salt-earth in the interior
of Madias.3 ° Em'°pean ^'^ °f the district. In the coast villages the prac-
tice does obtain to a certain extent, and no
tax is levied from the people." There are no restrictions against its use.
{: Salt-earth is used in its natural state for curing fish in the district.
I am not aware of any process of purification being gone through
before the earth is used for curing fish." The quality of the
salt-fish is good, and it is largely consumed. A better quality,
however, would be preferred provided it was not too expensive.
Government salt is purchased to a large extent in Pulicat, Coro-
mandel, Sadras, Covelong, and other villages on the sea coast for
salting fish, and large quantities are cured for the purpose of trade.
" I do not think any special stimulus on the part of Government
is necessary to augment the trade of salting fish." The next day
(June 24th, 1870) he continued, — " The salt-water fisheries in this
district have never been rented out. I find, on referring to the records of
the office, that the question of letting by public auction the right of fish-
ing in the various backwaters in the district formed the subject of a
correspondence between the Government and the Collector in June last,
in consequence of a reference made by Mr: Fraser, the Executive Engi-
neer, regarding the right of fishing in the backwaters at Eiinore and
Kattivakum. On that occasion Mr. Fraser advocated the disposal by
public auction of the right of fishing in all the backwaters of the dis-
trict. I enclose a copy of Mr. Jones' letter to Government, and beg to
express my concurrence in the opinion therein expressed. The salt-water
fishery appears to be at present monopolized by a few well-to-do fishermen,
who employ the poorer members of the same caste to catch fish for them
on daily wages. Under the existing system fishing in the backwaters is
carried on most recklessly, and to an unlimited extent, and in con-
sequence there is a wholesale destruction of the young fish. The
only way of putting a stop to this, is renting out the right of fish-
ing under conditions similar to those recommended in the case of
fresh water fisheries." The Collector's letter (June 14th, 1869) referred
to contains the following : — " I must say I do not see why the fisheries of
all the backwaters and canals should not be made to produce a revenue
which would go a long way in supplementing the very inadequate
local funds of this district." " I have no hesitation in recommending the
renting out the fisheries of all backwaters, more especially as, so far as
I can see, the fishery now being in common leads to a great deal of
idleness, no man willingly accepting work if he thinks he has a chance
of catching a few fish; it leads also to the waters being perpetually
disturbed, and to the fish being frightened away, as no party now intends
himself to preserve the fish." [The several fish and meat markets in the
town of Madras are worth a visit by any one desirous of personally
ascertaining the comparative supply of the former article to the demands
for it. This cannot, however, be carried out without some personal
Ixi
discomfort ; the buildings are very inferior though they are better kept
than in Calcutta, but cannot be compared with the well ordered Bombay
markets. There are different periods at which these places should be
examined. The supply is most abundant when the sea is smooth, and
the fishermen able to ply his trade. At such periods (except under very
exceptional circumstances), I do not think the supply will be found to
exceed the demand. I admit that it is easy for those who are well off, and
possess sufficient means to purchase or procure fish at almost any time,
to consider the supply cannot be insufficient as they never have to go
without. But this is not the question, they are as units to the general
population, and it is concerning the latter I mostly allude to. For every
single enquirer after butcher's meat, 30 to 40 persons will be seen looking
after fish, and this being so when the supply is most abundant, the differ-
ence is still more apparent at times when such is comparatively inadequate
to the demand. Every one appears to be elbowing and pushing their
neighbours as to which can first get access to the stalls, whilst the vendors
are careful not to lose the chance of enhancing the price to the utmost
limits they can obtain. When good sea-fish are obtainable, small fresh
water species, unless they are air-breathers, are not much appreciated, but
even in the markets of Madras a vendor of small estuary and sea-fishes will
almost invariably be found, the sea-supply being generally insufficient, the
late comers have to purchase his inferior commodity, another reason also
doubtless being that they are cheap. I closely examined some of their
baskets, in fact I purchased many as they were brought, and in them
found the following : — little specimens of Ambassis ; the small fry often
not one inch in length, of fishes which when adult attain 20fbs.3 30tbs. or
more in weight, as Serranus lanceolatus, Pristipoma hasta ; or those which
also are the young of good table fish which grow to 10 B5s. or 15 ft>s. when
adults, as Mesoprion fulmflamma, M. Jo/mil and M. chirtah, but which
averaged 30 to one ounce in weight, and a large number are left in spirit
in the Madras museum for the inspection of those who are sceptical on
these points. The chief localities from which they are obtained are the
Adyar and Coum rivers, where indiscriminate fishing is permitted, with
nets having any size of mesh. I was informed that about 400 persons were
employed netting in these two pieces of water, which communicate
with one another and with the sea, and up which small fry ascend for the
purpose of obtaining security, rest and food. Exclusive of Crustacea,
these immature fish form the majority of those the prohibition of whose
capture is deprecated. These observations are not the result of hearsay
evidence, but of personal observation and I think that those who deny such
destruction takes place, would do well to personally inspect the quality of
the fish which are there slaughtered. Salt and dried fish are also sold in
these markets, but are not in such request as the fresh. ]
9£. The Acting Collector of Nellore (October 26th, 1869) replied
that there is no tax levied on salt-earth, the
Replies of Nellore officials. ^^ Qf which ig inferior^ whilgt the figh-
curers may purify it if they like. Rich and poor alike consume the salt-fish
which is of an inferior description, and they would probably prefer it of a
better quality. Government salt is purchased to some extent for curing
fish. The trade in salt-fish is purely local, and is not likely to be
augmented, The Collector of Nellore (April 9th, 1873) observed, that the
Ixii
price of salt sold wholesale is Rs. 2 a maund, whilst the bazar retail rate is
somewhat more. Government salt is used in curing fish where there is a
market in which a proper price can be obtained. Thus the Pulicat Lake
fishermen use Government salt for the fish which they send to Madras,
and the fishermen in the north of the district use Government salt for
the fish which they sell to traders and contractors from the Nizam's
dominions and other inland territory. Small fish are dried in the sun.
Earth salt and sea water are used considerably, but fish thus cured is a
very inferior article, and does not find its way far inland. Only a con-
jecture can be made as to whether the practice of salting fish has
increased or decreased of late years. Some officials say that the enhanced
price of salt caused a decrease ; others say that there has been an increased
demand for salt-fish of late. The fishermen of this coast have parted
with no privileges. Each village or Polliem on the coast has its heredi-
tary headman, who was originally selected by the fishermen themselves.
His only emolument is the .exemption from personal labor attached to his
office. His duties are to attend festivities in the village, to procure
labor, &c. There are hereditary headman who exercise priestly authority
all along the coast. They settle disputes and receive fees on occasions of
marriages, &c. There are two of these priests in Triharikota, but they
are themselves subordinate to a headman in Madras, to whom they pay
a portion of their fees. This Madras headman occasionally visits the
villages on the coast, when he travels in a palanquin borne by the
fishermen. But I am not aware that there is any trace in this district
of any system of advances made by the headmen to the poorer fishermen.
No one claims any rights as regards sea-fisheries, but different villages
are extremely tenacious of particular local limits, within which they
claim exclusive rights of fishery. The fishermen purchase their own
boats and nets, which are often pledged to the contractor or soucar who
advanced the purchase money. The number of fishermen has remained
stationary. Breeding and immature fish are destroyed in tidal estuaries
to a considerable extent. From personal observation I know that the
fishermen do not return into the water the innumerable small fry that
are caught along with the large fish in the draw-nets, but I do not think
it is worth while to attempt to change this practice, because any inter-
ference on our part would be vexatious and in all probability useless, and
also because the quantity of fry thus destroyed is trifling in comparison
with that destroyed by birds and fish, and occasionally to a very great
extent by the drying up of estuaries in the hot weather. The salting of
sea-fish might ^ be increased and would certainly be improved by cheaper
salt. In the north of the district, those only can afford to purchase salt
who have obtained advances from traders who carry fish inland or ship
it to Madras. The poorer fishermen would be glad to salt fish also if
Government salt were within their means. The proposal in paragraph 7
I have carefully considered. In so far as those who now use no salt at
all would then use the cheap salt, the scheme would not lessen our salt
revenue to any great extent. Two of my tehsildars suggest that the salt
which is rejected at the pans and destroyed, might be utilized for this
purpose. This salt is rejected because it crumbles and does not remain
in a crystallized form, but it is quite good enough for salting fish.
The sale of this condemned salt for this purpose would not interfere
Ixiii
with our monopoly prices, nor would it diminish our stores of good
salt, and it would benefit the manufacturing ryots, whose salt is
often condemned because of the results of bad weather, and not
through any carelessness of theirs. The cost price of good salt, which
is paid to the ryots, is only Rs. 10 per garce. The 'rates just
remunerative' suggested by Dr. Day would be very much below
monopoly price. The great obstacle to this scheme is the difficulty
and expense of preventing smuggling. The preventive service on which
the police are now employed at the pans, is most unpopular in the force,
and it is to be feared, that in spite of all our watchfulness it is not
always effective. If it is believed that this experiment may establish
an additional source of food for the population, it may be worth while
to undertake it; but it will certainly increase the difficulties of the
Superintendent of Police, and may impair our salt revenue. I cannot
think that much sympathy ought to be wasted on the fishermen, for they
are an independent, careless, and drunken class of men, and their gains
are not dependent upon fluctuations of the season to such an extent as
are those of the agricultural ryots. Subsequently (June 14th, 1873)
he observed that " there have been no exports or imports of fish by sea
from or to this district during the last ten years. There is a large fish
trade with Madras by means of the Pulicat Lake and East Coast Canal,
but we have no returns of this trade." The Deputy Collector in charge
of the Salt Department (November 23rd, 1872) replies that the number
of native officials consulted on the coast (see returns from native officials)
is 18, extending along a length of seaboard of some 170 miles. There
is no doubt that breeding and immature fish are destroyed in the tidal
estuaries of this district and in the Pulicat Lake, which is also tidal,
possessing as it does one or two perennial outlets to the sea, but no re-
liable estimate, even approximately, can be formed of the extent of such
destruction. From enquiries I have made along the length of the coast
above referred to, the returns varied as to the quantities destroyed by
man. Besides these there are no doubt other means of destruction such
as the eating up and consumption of small and immature fish by the
larger species, and full grown ones, by sea gulls and other birds, &c., a
large number also die and putrify annually in the swamps and other
shoals in the hot weather when the bars close, and many of the smaller
estuaries and creeks cease to be tidal, and become perfectly dry. No
idea can be given of the quantities lost by these means, but it is
evident that the destruction one way and the other is by no means
little. Nevertheless it may, I think, be safely assumed that no defici-
ency of fish exists, for not only do local wants seem to be adequately
met, but large quantities are salted and sent from certain places
on the coast by bandy into the interior, and from the shores of the
Pulicat lake and canal by boat into Madras. The only mode that
occurs to me by which the salting of sea-fish could be increased in this
district would be, I think, to make the use of salt-earth and sea- water
in curing fish penal. The practice of using salt-earth and sea-water
for the purpose is now very generally and most freely carried on, and
were it put a stop to under certain penalties similar to those prescribed
for the illicit manufacture and smuggling of salt, the immediate result
would no doubt be to increase the use of salt. The quality of the
Ixiv
salted fish would thus be much improved. It would be more tasty and
wholesome, and fetch a better price, and our salt revenue would, doubt-
less, improve by creating a demand for salt for a purpose to which it
is now very seldom applied ; such a measure would, however, in my opinion,
have an injurious tendency otherwise. By raising the price of salted
fish, it would make it less accessible for purchase to the poorer classes,
and by diminishing consumption, and consequently the demand, it would
further affect the chief livelihood of the fishermen on the coast, and
decrease their already insufficient means of subsistence. The gain, if
any, to Government in the increase of salt revenue would thus be at
the expense of the poorer classes, and I should be loth to advocate
the measure ; moreover, if less fish is sought for and less fish salted, there
will be little or no demand for salt for the purpose, and the question of
gain to Government, thus viewed, becomes altogether chimerical. The
proposition in paragraph 7 of Dr. Day's letter, as now put, stands thus : —
whether, if large enclosures were made near favorable localities (away
from large towns) where fish could be salted, it is desirable or practicable
to sell salt inside those enclosures at rates just remunerative for the
bond fide salting of fish. I do not think the adoption of this proposi-
tion in this district is either advisable or desirable. It may not be
impracticable, but this also is open to question. Two points of doubt
suggest themselves in connection with this proposition. (1) Who is to
sell the salt in these enclosures ? The Government who hold the monopoly,
or the ordinary bazarman and dealers who now buy from Government
and retail to the people? (2) What is meant by 'rates just remu-
nerative' ? If it is the Government who is to sell, and f rates just
remunerative' implies at a rate other than the fixed monopoly price,
just sufficient to cover all expenses, in other words, at the prime
cost of the salt to the Government, I certainly think the measure would
be inadvisable. It would be the same thing as a reduction in the monopoly
price for the purpose of augmenting the trade in salt-fish, and Dr. Day
himself is of opinion, "this being generally effected is very improbable."
It would moreover, I have no doubt, lead to frauds and smuggling in
various ways. The enclosures could not be close to, or supervised by, the
existing agency at our present sale depots, for not only are these not
favorable localities for the salting of fish, but there would be other
objections to their use as such. If, on the other hand, it is the ordinary
bazarmen and dealers that are to sell within the enclosures, why not
their present places of vend in the public bazar and resort of each
village do as well. We have no complaint against their rates, which it
must be presurhed are now just sufficiently remunerative to give them a
small profit of a pie or two per seer. Cut bono then Government interfer-
ence to make them sell in certain places at certain rates. We may be
assured that where a demand exists, a market will establish itself, and it
is useless to set up markets and then try to create a demand.
93. The Officiating Collector of the Kistna district (November
10th, 1869) reported that " sea-fish jiro caught
tl^Etnadltiil in lai'£e quantities both for home and inland
consumption, and cured with salt before
exportation. Fishermen extract oil from certain sea-fish in small
Ixv
quantities for lighting their huts, but not for sale; and I am not aware
that any oil is extracted for medicinal purposes in this district." Salt-
earth is stated not to be employed. The " fishermen say that they always
use salt for curing fish. It is, however, said that salt-earth is also used,
but very rarely, by the poorer classes of fishermen for curing very
small fish of inferior kinds. There are no restrictions against salt-earth
being employed ; it is procured directly after the marshy soil absorbs the
periodical flow of sea-water. It may be purified before being used, but
it is generally applied here in its uncleaned state, and washed off in sea-
water ; after twelve hours the fish are dried. It is tasteful, wholesome,
and can be preserved for several years ; there is a considerable trade in
this article with the interior. Fish cured with good salt is of a very
good quality and is freely used as diet by native physicians." The
quality is good ; the trade might be increased by reducing the price of
salt required bond fide for curing fish. It is stated that the fishermen
of one village prevent those of the neighbouring village from catching
fish within the limits of their own village ; if this practice be put a
stop to, the trade may increase. The district is well supplied, and much
is exported. He continues (June 12th, 1873), that all kinds of fish
that can be caught in the tidal estuaries of the district are captured; that
" the only method (that occurs to me) of increasing the salting of sea-
fish would be to increase the number of fishermen. There are not many
on the coast of this district, and I believe all fish (except the small
quantity that is eaten fresh) that are caught are salted. I do not know
of fish being thrown away, or being used as manure. At the same time,
the coast from north of Bander to Nizampatam, being for the most
part mud, is not by any means favorable for sea-fish, and it may be
that all the fish that are to be had are caught, and that more fishermen
could not find support. Certainly there are no such hauls of fish made
here as I have seen on the Western Coast, or even up in the Vizagapa-
tam and Ganjam districts, while the fishing villages are much smaller,
less largely populated, and much further apart here. I do not think the
proposition in paragraph 7 would be advisable here ; the salt-pans close to
the coast are China Ganjam, Nizampatam, and Manginapudi. The
greatest number of fishing villages, within a radius of 20 miles of any
of them, is but 40, and I do not think the enclosure would pay its own
expenses of carriage of salt, police guard, and of people to keep it clean.
An experiment might, however, be easily made at China Ganjam."
Ixvi
Statement showing tJie Salt-fid, fyc., exported ly Sea from the District
of Kistna for the last ten years.
Official
year.
Articles.
Whither
exported.
Quantity.
Declared real
value.
1863-64 ... -j
1864-65 ... |
1865-66 ... |
1866-67 ... J
1867-68 ... j
1868-69 ... -1
1869-70 ... |
1870-71 ...-j
1871-72 ... j
• Fish-maws
Sharks' fins ...
Fish-maws
Sharks' fins
Fish-maws
Sharks' fins
Salt-fish
Fish-maws
Sharks' fins
Salt-fish
Fish-maws
Sharks' fins
Salt-fish
^ish-maws
Sharks' fins
Salt-fish
Fish-maws
Salt -fish
Fish-maws
Sharks' fins
Salt- fish
Fish-maws
Sharks' fins ...
Madras ...
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Rangoon
Madras
Ditto
Rangoon
Madras
Ditto
Rangoon, &c. ...
Madras
Ditto
Rangoon, &c. ...
Madras
Rangoon, &c. ...
Madras
Ditto
Rangoon, &c. ...
Madras
Ditto
Tons.
1
0
Cwts.
17
1
Qrs.
0
0
fts.
8
8
Rs.
1,853
20
A.
11
0
p.
3
0
1
0
0
18
0
16
1,873
11
10
4
3
3
0
10
4
3
1
i
25
1
548
68
0
15
0
26
616
14
3
n
0
0
0
13
4
1
0
9
0
666
65
8
0
0,
0
1
0
17
1
9
0
3
5
731
65
1,161
60
8
0
13
0
5
0
8
0
6
3
3
— _ —
3
I
15
2
1
1
1
0
2
2
2
3
8
1,286
396
542
48
986
102
436
40
13
0
4
0
8
0
9
0
~9~"
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
3
0
0
0
1
0
27
15
14
0
24
22
4
0
0
0
9
11
2
0
3
0
0
18
578
0
0
0
0
0
17
0
2
0
0
21
316
12
0
0
0
0
17
2
24
328
0
0
0
0
1
1
15
3
0
3
1
2
0
26
2
0
52
776
~89T
0
0
o
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
3
1
0
8
0
0
2
5
6
14
0
6
16
22
96
287
112
495
0000 1 00 I
1 1
0
Ixvii
Official
year.
Articles.
Whither
exported.
Quantity.
Declared real
value.
Tons.
Cwts.
Qrs.
fts.
Rs.
A.
P.
1872-73 ... |
Salt-fish
Fish-maws
Sharks' fins
Rangoon, &c. ...
Madras
Ditto
0
0
0
7
18
3
2
2
3
0
19
22
116
610
72
0
0
0
0
0
0
~~i 1 10
0
13
698
0
0
Grand Total ...
14
4
2
10
8,485
12
4
5
7
2
0
Ir143
0
0
Salt-fish
•
7
6
0
3
6,793
8
4
Fish-maws
1
11
0
7
649
4
0
Sharks' fins
— .
14
4
2
10
8,485
12
4
Ma
dras.
Salt -fish
0
7
3
0
101
0
0
Fish-maws
7
6
0
3
6,703
8
4
Sharks' fins ...
1
11
0
7
649
4
0
9
4
3
10
7,443
12
4
Rnt
joon.
Salt-fish
4
19
1
0
1,036
o
0
Viz
agapatam.
Salt-fish
0
0
2
0
6
0
0
GRAND TOTAL ...
14
4
2
10
8,486
12
4
94. The Collector of the Godavery district (October 28th, 1869)
observes that the use of salt-earth for fish-
curing is not interfered with. It is employed
either purified or not so. The quality of the
salt-fish is tolerably good ; much is exported to Madras and Hyderabad.
A superior quality would be preferred were such obtainable. Govern-
ment salt is never used for this purpose. The markets are fully supplied.
[When I was at Coconada in 1868, there were about 40 fishermen;
the quality of their salted-fish was very inferior; they used salt-earth and
sea- water. When the former was employed they put small fish into it,
left them there for 24 hours, and subsequently dried them in the sun.
They considered monopoly salt as too expensive for it to be profitable to
them to use it in curing fish.]
Ixviii
8.
OQ
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Ixix
95. The Collector of Vizagapatam (July 17th, 1869) observed
that the fish-curers in his district are allowed
*? ™ salt-earth untaxed and without restric-
tion. I£ punned before being used, the puri-
fier becomes subject to punishment for a breach of the salt laws. The
trade of salting would only be augmented by lowering largely the price
of salt, which on other grounds cannot be anticipated. Subsequently
(September 14th, 1869) he continued : — " Regarding definite proposals for
dealing with salt- water fisheries, I have the honor to state my opinion
that for such fisheries no regulations are called for, and no interference
with the present fishermen can be otherwise than injurious. The tidal
backwaters do not require preservation to ensure a plentiful supply of
fish, and any revenue that may be raised by farming them to the
present fishermen is too insignificant to be worth collecting, while its
exaction would be felt as a hardship by a poor and hard-working class of
men." The Collector also observed that until the abolition of the mo-
turfa, a tax was levied upon fishermen, which might perhaps be called a
rent for the right of fishing, but which was in fact a capitation tax on
the castes that exercised the fishermen's profession. At the permanent
settlement the amount of this tax was set down at Rs. 3,463-2-9, but
this sum included the tax on sea fishermen, from whom by far the greater
portion of it was collected, as appears from the incidence of the tax
falling almost entirely on the estates on the coast. At present no
taxes are reported to especially affect these people. The Acting Collector
(November 9th, 1872) reported that he had no reason to suppose that
the demand for salt-fish in his district exceeded the supply. Large
quantities are sent inland and no rise in the price had been heard of.
If salting depots were established, he does not believe they will be fre-
quented by fishermen, who are accustomed to salt their fish at their own
doors, and would not be willing to carry a perishable article to a distance.
Such depots would lead to salt smuggling, a traffic which it is already
sufficiently difficult to keep down in the district.
Return showing the Exports and Imports in the year 1872-73.
EXPORTS.
IMPORTS.
Where to
Description.
Amount.
Value.
Description.
Quantity.
fish-fins.
cwt. Ibs.
Es.
fish-fins.
cwt. Ibs,
Calcutta ...
»
1 52
20
...
0 52
Moulmein ...
»
14 0
23
...
...
Madras
»>
4 0
56
. . «
Gopalpore ...
»>
4 44
60
...
Madras
fish-inaws
0 44
30
...
...
Ixx
96. The Acting Collector of Ganjam (June 14th, 1870) reported
that the fish-curers in his district are not al-
f ^ C°lleCt°r * lowed to use salt-earth untaxed, and that
when used it must be prepared first ; that the
quality of salted-fish is rather good, although they would prefer a supe-
rior article if they could obtain it cheap. Government salt is not pur-
chased to any great extent for salting fish. [When I was at Gopaulpur
in 1868, sea- water was being used for fish-curing. I was informed that
during the preceding few years, shoals of small fish about the size of
sardines had annually appeared about November. They were only em-
ployed as an article of diet ; oil was not prepared from them. At Gan-
jam I also enquired into the fisheries ; salt appeared to be obtained with
great facility, and it was surmised that much of the rejected article was
used by fish-curers. Salt-fish at both these places was exchanged with
the Brinjaris for turmeric and other articles.]
Ixxi
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Ixxii
97. The Collector of Bellary (June 17th, 1869) observes :—" I
believe the trade of salt-fish in this district.
of BeTlarf °n Of ^ C°lleCt°r ?* diminished rates, might be enormously
increased."
98. The Collector of Kurnool (November 6th, 1869) states "that
there is no extra tax for using- earth-salt for
K*nooLS °f the C°lleCt0r °f curing fish; on earth-salt there is a tax of
two rupees per annum on each pan." There
are no restrictions against the use of earth -salt. The natives would pre-
fer a superior quality of salt-fish, but all depends of course on the price.
The supply appears to be equal to the demand.
99. From the South Canara Collector ate y the following reports have
been received from the native officials. The
™**" of Mangalore observed (in 1872)
that the supply of fish in the market is not
always equal to the demand ; about 75 per cent, of the people eat it.
Small dried fish are generally sold at 12 annas a maund, and large ones
at Us. 12 per 100. Fish are speared by torch light. He now (1873)
replies that the average selling price of salt in the bazar is Rs. 2-4 ;
that Government salt is used for curing fish ; sea- water is not employed
for this purpose, but salt-earth is. The practice of salting fish has re-
mained stationary. Fishermen do not appear to have had in old times
any privileges which they do not now possess. There are headmen called
Guricars among Mogers, who form one of the fishing castes ; his office
is hereditary. His duties are to make enquiries regarding the observance
of the caste rules by the members belonging to his caste. He is entitled
to get the usual honors and betel-nut, &c., on occasions of marriage and
such ceremonies, but derives no other emoluments. No one claims any
rights respecting the sea- fisheries. Fishermen purchase boats and also
obtain them on hire. They likewise buy nets as well as manufacture
them ; sea-fishermen appear to have increased. The Tehsildar of Kasar-
god observed (in 1872) that during the rainy season people usually eat
cured fish ; that locally prepared is too small to meet the demand, so
some is imported from Arabia and elsewhere. About 85 per cent, of the
people eat fish; that the average retail price of salt is Rs. 2-6 a maund.
Monopoly salt and salt-earth are both employed for curing fish, but sea-
water is not used. The practice of salting fish has decreased of late
years. The fishermen now possess the privilege of using salt-earth as
they like, the Government having placed no restrictions on the use of the
same, and of freely catching fish. They did not possess any peculiar pri-
vileges in old times. There are no headmen of the fishing caste ; the
fishermen act as they choose ; no one claims any rights in regard to the
sea-fisheries. They buy boats and sometimes nets, but usually manufac-
ture these last themselves. The sea-fishermen have increased of late
years. The Tehsildar of Udipy replied (in 1872) that the markets are
well supplied ; 68 per cent, of the people eat fish. Sea-fish which ascend
rivers are trapped ; also they are speared or killed with knives at night
time, when they are attracted to the surface of the water by the light of
torches. He now (1873) observes that the retail price of salt averages
the following : — Goa salt one anna, Bombay salt one anna two pies a seer;
Ixxiii
this would be Rs. 2-8 or Rs. 2-10 a maund. Government salt is some-
times used for curing fish prepared for their own eating, but they employ
salt-earth or sea- water for that which is sold. On the whole, the practice
of salting fish is said to have increased of late years. The fishermen
formerly had no privileges they do not possess still. Mogers and
Kharves are the only two fishing castes who follow it as an employment.
But the Kharves are only in limited numbers ; they have a common place
of residence which is styled a Ke'ri (a row of houses). For each such
Ke'ri there is a headman called Guricar, who investigates caste matters
amongst all the people who reside there. The office is hereditary ; no
emoluments accrue to it. In a similar way, Mogers live in groups of
houses which are termed Patna (town). For every such Patna there is
a headman. He is termed Guricar, and he decides all questions of caste.
It does not appear that he derives any emoluments, except that he is
entitled on auspicious or inauspicious occasions to precedence in receiving
betel-nut. His office is not hereditary, and his election or removal de-
pends on the will of the people. Over the Mogers of all the Collectorate
(except Kundapur) there is a spiritual preceptor named Mangal Pujary ;
he resides at a place called Benne Kudru, near Barkur. His duties are to
frame rules in regard to caste matters, to see if the people conform to
them or not, and to impose penalties on those who infringe them,
&c. The people of the caste raise money for him ; his office appears to
be hereditary. No one claims any rights respecting the sea-fisheries.
Fishermen procure boats and manufacture their own nets ; their number
according to the last census appears to have increased 15 per cent, over
the former one. The Tehsildar of Kundapur replied (1872) that besides
the local fishermen, Daljis come in the hot season from Bhankot, Ratna-
giri, and other places to the north, take fish, cure them, and carry them
away for sale. The markets on the coast are generally well supplied.
At markets inland the price is double or treble what obtains in Kundapur,
owing to the cost of carriage. Usually paddy or rice is given in
exchange for fish. About 85 per cent, of the people are consumers of fish.
Subsequently (1872) he states that salt is retailed at Rs. 2-8 a maund.
Government salt is mostly used for curing fish; poor people sometimes
employ salt-earth for this purpose, but not sea-water. The practice of
salting fish remains stationary. The fishermen in olden times had no
privileges they do not now possess. There are no headmen of the fishing
caste. All fishermen believe they have a right to the sea and river
fisheries ; those which are well-to-do have their own boats or hire them ;
nets they make themselves from hemp they grow or purchase ; these
people appear to have increased of late years. The Tehsildar of Uppinan-
gadi replied (1872) that at his inland station dried fish are brought from
Mangalore and elsewhere for sale at 1 anna 4 pies a seer. Forty per cent,
of the people are fish-eaters ; the supply of fresh fish is inadequate to
meet the local demands.
100. From the Malabar Collectorate the following answers have been
received from the native officials. The Teh-
• ?T?in|TiV^ntr? °fficials sildar and the Superintendent of Sea Customs,
m the Malabar Collectorate. -. 7. .__ . _-* ^n~n\ -i n > i -i
Cochin (March 13th, 1873) reply that breed-
ing and immature fish are not destroyed to any great extent. That
forming enclosure, &c. (as suggested), is not feasible, the area of British
Ixxiv
Cochin being very limited. The price of salt is Rs. 2 a maund, and
it is used for curing fish, but salt-earth or sea- water is not so employed.
The practice of salting fish has decreased owing to a scarcity of fish of
late years. The native Christians who engage in sea-fishing here are not
of the fisherman caste in the proper acceptation of the term ; they had
therefore no peculiar privileges which they do not now possess, nor have
they any headman. No one claims any rights as regards the sea-fisheries.
About 30 of the fishermen here possess boats and nets ; the owner of a boat
has generally sufficient members in his family to man the boat. Where
they fall short of the required number of hands, neighbours make up
the deficiency, the latter get an equal share of each of the fish captured.
The number of fishermen has remained stationary. The Superintendent
of Sea Customs at Ponany (March 24th, 1873) replies that, during the
breeding season, which embraces the months of January and February,
wholesale destruction of breeding and immature fish is caused by fisher-
men in tidal estuaries. The meshes of their nets are so small that even
the smallest fish cannot escape. The salting of sea-fish cannot be in-
creased at Ponany, as there are only a certain number of persons who
understand the curing of fish. These persons undertake to salt as much
as they are capable of. The proposition in paragraph 7 (respecting
enclosures) would be very advisable if the privilege of manufacturing
salt-earth is removed ; unless this is done, the reduction in the price of
Government salt would be of no material advantage, for, as long as salt-
earth is allowed to be manufactured, its illicit sale in the market cannot
possibly be prevented. The monopoly price of salt is Rs. 2 an Indian
maund ; owing to its high price only a limited amount is used for curing
fish. The majority of the fishermen here are very poor, and can ill afford
to procure it at the present rates. Sea- water is never employed in curing
fish, but salt-earth is largely so, the consequence being that fish thus
salted soon becomes unwholesome. The chief cause of the frequency of
cholera in this district is popularly attributed to the indiscriminate con-
sumption of fish salted by the above means. The manufacture of salt-
earth is openly carried out to a great extent in all the villages of this
talook. In my visits to the sub- ports, I have come across salt pans in
many places, and have seen people manufacturing there. The sale of
Government salt in this district has of late decreased, owing to large
quantities of salt-earth having found its way into the market. Unless
the privilege of manufacturing salt-earth is restricted, it is useless to re-
duce the price of Government salt. The practice of salting fish appears
to have remained stationary of late years. The fishermen had no peculiar
privileges in olden times which they do not now possess. There are no
headmen amongst the fishing castes here. No one claims any right as
regards the sea-fisheries. The majority of the fishermen have their own
boats and nets, while others of more limited means obtain them on hire.
There is an annual increase in the number of fishermen, but no data are
available from which the actual increase in each year can be ascertained.
The Superintendent of Sea Customs, Cannanore (March 27th, 1873)
answers that all fishes, whether breeding or immature, are destroyed with-
out distinction, and to a large extent. That the salting of sea-fish could
be increased if the monopoly price of the Government salt be reduced ;
that this can only be effected by the introduction of a license system,
Ixxv
restricting the sale, to a certain extent, to the fishermen alone for the bond
fide use of salting fish.
Statement showing the annual sale of monopoly salt in the Cannanore
District for the last ten years ending 1872-73.
Years.
Sold at Cannanore.
TOTAL SALE.
1863-64
Maunds.
11,653
Seers.
17
Maunds.
48,634
Seers.
17
1864-65
7,932
0
54,718
0
1865-66
9,856
0
54,649
0
1866-67
9,728
0
60,937
0
1867-68
8,721
0
39,467
0
1868-69
9,045
0
58,076
0
1869-70
8,807
0
63,569
0
1870-71
7,932
0
61,233
0
1871-72
12,008
0
66,848
0
1872-73
6,985
0
58,303
0
That the proposition in paragraph 7 (respecting enclosures) would
be practicable if a large establishment can be provided to check
frauds and deceits. The retail price of Government salt is from
Us. 2-4 to Us. 2-6 a maundjit is used to a very limited extent for curing
large fish ; in this case, the salt is generally supplied by the merchants
who export the salted fish to Colombo, Tuticorin, Negapatam, &c. Some
of the boat-owners, whose means admit of storing salted fish until they
can find a good market, use Government salt for curing both large and
small fishes intended for consumption in the hilly countries of Coorg,
Wynaad and Mysore, &c., and also for exportation to Colombo, &c.
The fish so stored is generally purchased from them by petty merchants
coming from those places. Sea- water is not, but salt-earth is, used for
curing fish ; this earth is procured from marshy lands. The women of
the fishermen caste collect the earth, paying the proprietors of such lands
at the rate of 2 to 4 pies a basket according to their size, the largest
of which is capable of containing from 4 to 4J, the medium 3 to 3J,
and the smallest 2 to 2J bazar maunds. The earth is collected during
the dry weather, stored in large quantities and used in its impure state.
The fishes are cut open, the entrails removed, salt-earth rubbed in, and
then they are thrown in a tub, and left there until the following day,
Ixxvi
when they are washed in the sea- water and exposed to the sun until well
dried. The practice of salting fish has increased of late years, due to
the increased demand from Colombo and other places to which they
are exported. The fishermen still possess all the privileges they ever
had ; they have no headmen ; the owner of boats and nets are consider-
ed to be chiefs of their parties. The Rajah of Cannanore claims a right
in respect to the sea-fishery. This is called the ' Poocha Meen' or ' fish
for the Rajah's cat/ In former days one fish was given from each boat
out of their daily captures, but now or of late years it has been com-
muted into a money payment of 2 pies a day on each successful boat.
In addition to this the boat and net- owners pay the Rajah a tax of
Rs. 2-4 annually on every boat and net. The fishermen, boat and net-
owners, in Canuanore, are the f Mukuwars/ a low class of Hindus : the
' Collakars' or ' native Christians/ and the ' Moplahs.' The Rajah lets
the 'Poocha Meen' right on contract, renewable annually; from this
contract the first-named class of fishermen, boat and net-owners, are ex-
cepted ; and from the others the contractor collects daily the money due
on account of the right in question. The Mukuwars pay annually a
lump sum of Rs. 70 for their boats and nets, and also for the ' Poocha
Meen.' The fishermen are supplied with boats and nets and other re-
quisites for fishery by the owners of the boats and nets, who also ad-
vance them a certain sum of money (charging them no interest for the
same) to ensure their services. The money thus advanced is not de-
ducted from their daily labour. It is generally refunded by them, should
they be unwilling to work for the party advancing the money ; and in
some instances in case of death, inability to work from extreme old age
or infirmity, or in cases of desertion, the money advanced is a loss to the
boat-owner. The owners remain on shore while the fishermen go out,
and on their return to the shore the owners of the boats and nets sell
their captures. Such as remain unsold are taken by the boat-owners
(for salting purposes) at the average rate at which the portion sold
realized, and the sale being thus completed they divide the proceeds
equally between themselves, viz., one-half to the owners of the boats
and nets, and the other half to the fishermen ; but should the latter prove
unsuccessful and capture only sufficient to realize their expenses for the
day, the .boat and net-owners surrender their share in favour of the fisher-
men. The sea-fishermen have decreased of late years in consequence of
the extinction of some families from cholera and other diseases, and also
from poverty. Sharks' fins are cured, and a moiety of the value thereof
goes to the Rajah's ' Poocha Meen' contractor. Fish-maws are also cured.
Fish-oil is extracted in small quantities for the use of boats, as such is
considered to prove a good preservative. The fish-maws and sharks' fins
are only cured to a small extent and exported to Bombay and Calcutta.
Deep sea fishing is resorted to at this place during the seir-fish season,
from November to January. The fishermen very seldom turn their at-
tention to shark-fishing, as they seem to think it is not remunerative
in Cannanore owing to their having to yield one-half to the Rajah's
( Poocha Meen' right. Ceylon fishermen resort to the Malabar Coast for
fishing during the seir-fish season, but do not do much. There are at
present 72 boats at Cannanore and 24 at Highicode. The Superintend-
Ixxvii
ent of the Sea Customs at Tellicherry (April 9th, 1873) replies that
breeding- and immature fish are destroyed in the tidal estuaries of this
place to some extent. At high tide many young1 fish and a small number
of breeding ones at the estuaries of the Darmapatam and Mahe rivers
enter into the marshy grounds along- their sides, where they are either
netted, or caught without the use of any apparatus, when the water
recedes at low tide, and the fish are left on the surface of the ground.
As these rivers seldom, during the hot season, overflow their banks at
high tides, the fishermen, in order to get the fish into the low marshy
grounds enclosed by them for this purpose, often cut open the banks and
thus enable the water to flow in, carrying- fish with it into these enclosed
spaces. As soon as a good supply of fish is collected, that part of the
bank left open is closed by a valve made of split bamboos, generally so
contrived as to let the water flow back through its interstices and at the
same time bar the egress of the fish. When the water has so receded,
the fishermen simply have the trouble of picking up the fish. A good
deal is however wasted, inasmuch as only such fish as are capable of being
used are taken, while the rest, generally very small ones, are left to perish.
This is the process obtaining in the hot season of the year, viz., from
January to May. During the monsoons the Darmapatam river often over-
flows its banks where these latter are low, and water is thereby collected
in various places in the marshes for a long time, and from such localities
the fishermen catch the fish by means of hand nets. The quantity of
fish so obtained is not so great as that captured in the hot season. It
appears that as these estuaries are often covered by the tides, many
young and some large fish enter, the latter for breeding purposes, and are
often taken. Sometimes during the hot season of the year, boat-loads of
fish, including many breeding ones, are known to have been taken. For
the purpose of increasing the salting of sea-fish, no better plan than a re-
duction in the price of salt, and the exemption of the boats and nets
and huts of the poor men among the fishermen caste from the local mu-
nicipal tax, can be proposed. Fish are generally cured at the place where
the fishermen reside, and this, their fishing village, is adjacent to the prin-
cipal quarter of the town. To make large enclosures as proposed, away
from this place, and there to carry on fish-curing operations, salt being
sold inside the enclosure, would not only cause the greatest hardship to
persons employed in the trade, but could be carried out only at an enor-
mous cost to Government, for the land is private property; nor is the plan
feasible at the village itself, as many non-fishermen reside within its
limits. The proposition is neither advisable nor practicable in this place.
Salt is sold wholesale in the bazar at Rs. 2-2 or Us. 2-3 ainaund, and retail
at Rs. 2-6 or Rs. 2-7 a maund; it is used to a great extent for curing fish,
a little more than half the quantity of salt-fish manufactured here being
fish so cured. Those intended for exportation to Colombo are solely
cured by Government salt, as such only can be preserved for a long
time and are capable of being carried, without deterioration, to distant
markets. Fish principally cured with this salt are mackerel, cat fishes,
seir-fish, pornfrets, sharks, &c. Of these kinds of fish, mackerel and
cat fishes are cured to a very great extent and exported to Colombo,
as well as to some parts of the Tinnevelly district. Salt-earth is, but
sea-water is not, employed for curing fish. Sea-water was formerly
Ixxviii
used for the purpose, but that practice was stopped by the inter-
ference of the local authorities, as it was apprehended that fish so cured
would bring on disease. Salt-earth is extensively used for this purpose ; it
is obtained from the swamps here, and is used by being rubbed in its
impure state into the fish. The owners of swamps cut open the banks of
the rivers along which they are situated, thus allowing a sufficient
quantity of salt-water to flow into the enclosed portion of the swampy
ground, and settle there for some days. Fishermen are then allowed to
scrape up the upper crust for a consideration of 8 pies a basket-load of
3 country maunds. The principal fish which are selected for being
cured with salt-earth are mackerel, sardines, eels, cat fish, &c. A large
quantity of this kind of salt-fish is carried inland to the Wynaad and
Mysore. A good lot of the same, intended for Palghaut, Coimbatore,
&c., is taken from here by sea to Beypore, and from thence, the same car-
ried to its destination by rail. It is, however, inferior in quality to the
salt-fish cured with Government salt, cannot be preserved for any length
of time, and is sold at a cheaper rate. A large quantity of this is yearly
exported to the Tinnevelly ports. The following return of the export
trade of this article for the last five years will show that it is on the
increase. The practice of salting fish was formerly confined to the fisher-
men castes only, but of late years fish-curing operations are performed by
Moplahs and Kallakars (Syrian Christians who came from Quilon and
settled here for the purpose) . Increased steam communication, and the
establishment of the Oriental Bank at this place, have augmented the
trade, as the salt-fish traders here now export their cargo to Colombo by
steamer, and can have money advanced to them from the Bank on the
security of their bills of lading. The demand for this article in Ceylon
is so great that the traders here often obtain advances of money from the
Colombo merchants. The fishermen do not seem to have any privileges.
They have, however, by consent, made certain rules which are strictly
observed. The most noticeable amongst these rules is the right of the
first discoverer, among a lot fishing together, of a shoal of fish. In this
case, the man who first saw the fish is allowed to capture them without
hindrance from the others, even though at the time when the fish were
discovered he was not prepared to launch his net. Should any disputes
arise on this head, the matter is laid before certain wealthy men of their
own caste, whose decision is final. In reality there are no recognised
headmen among the fishermen here, but the owners of the boats and nets
have certain respect paid them among this class of people. Certain of
the wealthy among them hear all complaints arising between themselves,
and settle all caste disputes, &c. In some cases these arbitrators are re-
munerated for their trouble, but no fixed compensation is given them.
It depends on the importance of each case. Their meetings for purposes
of arbitration are held in a house built by subscription for this purpose,
their assemblies being generally held at night. It is a noticeable fact that
so thorough is their belief in the integrity of their arbitrators, that their
decisions are always implicitly submitted to. No one claims any rights
as regards the sea-fisheries. The rich fishermen here are the boat and net-
owners ; they do not go to sea themselves, but supply the poor among
them with fishing apparatus, and pay them besides for working for them.
Such contracts are often reduced to writing. The remuneration is half
Ixxix
the supply of fish captured, the other half going to the boat-owner,
unless the take is very small, when all goes to the fishermen. About 200
boats from this port go to sea, besides those which come here from
neighbouring places for fishing and to sell their captures in this town.
The sea fishermen have of late years very largely increased ; every year
people from Chowghaut and Quilon come and settle here for fishing and
fish-curing.
Ixxx
1
10
TOTAL TALUB
EXPORTED.
PL; **
O
rH
OS
»
*- I
«5 «
US
i-H
o
o
i-H
*
« 3
10
O
CO
5
CO
CO
r-T
1
FISH-MAWS OB SOUNDS.
1
• 0j
«
CO
O
o
f-H W5 CO r— 1 Tjt
<3 rH i-H rH rH
A ! i 1 1 i
Weight or quantity.
-49*
2 <M
^2 r-H
CO
<M
Hto
HNi
00
i-H
2 co
«
0
CO
CO
1 § '
OS
s
CO
*>.
(N
CO
B
fi
-on
A
1
I
P4 °*
10
CO
O
o
j 0
u,
i-H
o
CO
d i
PH to
1
(M
oo"
i-H
I
Weight or quantity.
& i
*>.
s
I
HN
OS
s <=
cr
-•
i-H
CO
CO
g S
1
CO
<M
1
DBIBD SALT-FISH.
•5
a; -1
CO
o
*
OS
< •
i-H
00
OS
00
• 2
r^ •*
9
i
OS
1
I
1
•s .
ll
S
i-H
i
CO
i-H
CO
os~
rH
(M
U3
CO
1
H
OS
rH
:
1
1— I
1
1
rH
CO
Ixxxi
But of the foregoing the following was exported to Colombo : —
Rs. A. P.
1868-69 to the value of ... ... ... 13,294 15 3
1869-70 ditto .. ... ... 20,908 7 3
1870-71 ditto .. ... ... 25,655 8 0
1871-72 ditto ,. ... ... 37,653 9 8
1872-73 ditto .. ... ... 64,018 8 9
In the year 1864 (see Fishes of Malabar) I obtained from the
Collector a return showing the exports of salt-fish from this same port,
and the gradual rise in the amount has been most remarkable : —
Export of salt-fish for five years ending 1858-59
Ditto ditto ditto 1863-64
Ditto ditto ditto 1872-73
18,621
50,004
292,311
Statement showing the annual sale of monopoly sail at Tellicherry for the
last ten years ending 1872-73.
Amount of salt
sold in
Value in
Maunds.
Svs.
Rs.
As.
P.
1863-64 ...
72,505
0
1,03,851
14
4
1864-65 ...
67,516
0
83,535
14
0
1865-66 ...
62,135
0
91,662
9
6
1866-67 ..
57,381
0
93,453
3
0
1867-68 ...
56,502
4
93,006
14
8
1868-69 ...
63,340
24
1,02,538
13
0
1869-70 ...
72,616
26
1,29,615
15
4
1870-71 ...
57,624
0
1,06,171
7
2
1871-72 ...
88,674
0
1,67,261
4
6
1872-73 ...
77,332
10
1,46,327
8
11
In the work referred to (page 15), I observed that " in British
Malabar the natives are permitted to collect salt-earth or impure salt
from the ground, and employ it for the purpose of curing fish, as no
duty is levied on it, and no fiscal impediment exists in the way of their
using it, so that for this purpose it is almost exclusively employed, and
manufactured salt used to a very limited extent. It may, perhaps, be a
fact that in the British territory, where salt-earth can be obtained duty
free, the ' salt monopoly* does not directly affect the fish trade, or rather
its price, irrespective of quality. But it is open to question as to the
quantity of saline matter which would be contained in a given quan-
tity of the two kinds of salt, and whether, if the manufacturer could pro-
cure the better commodity at a cheaper rate than at present, he would
not cure his fish in a superior manner. In such a case they would keep
better, be more wholesome for the consumer, or could be conveyed to
Ixxxii
much greater distances inland/' It is to be regretted that up to this
time no returns from any of the Tehsildars have been received, whether
they are in inland talooks or those bordering on the sea. The Superin-
tendent further observes (July 30th, 1873) that about 281bs. of monopoly
salt are used to a maund of small fish, as mackerel, sardines ; for instance,
1,000 mackerel, weighing about 2 bazar maunds of 32 Ibs. each, are cured
with 5 measures of salt equal to 20 and odd pounds ; but if salt-earth is
employed 2 basketsful of that substance, weighing about 5 bazar maunds,
are required. From enquiries now made, it appears that mackerel and
other small fish are cured with salt-earth to a very great extent. But
to cure an Indian maund of large fish, such as sharks, seir fish, large cat
fishes, &c., the above quantity of salt is not sufficient ; thus 82 Ibs. of
monopoly salt is used for curing 100 seir fish weighing about 160 IBs.
This last species of fish are now often cured with monopoly salt alone.
101. From the Madura Collector ate > the following answers have
been received from the native officials : — The
™*M*r of the Madura tatook (1869) says
that the salt-tish imported is generally con-
sidered good, but that a larger supply would meet with a sale. The Tehsil-
dar of the Tiroomungalum talook (1869) replies that the supply is equal to
the demand. The Deputy Collector of the Salt Department, Ramnad (March
31st, 1873), observes, first, with reference to forming enclosures for salting
fish, &c. : " The measure is practicable, and the convenient points on the
coast to form the enclosures are the salt stations. The sale of salt at a
reduced price within the enclosure may not only suppress the use of illicit
salt, but also improve the quality of the salt-fish, which from the high
price of salt is cured with other ingredients as salt-earth, &c. But this
measure will necessarily involve the interference of Government servants,
more or less, with the operation of curing fish. It must at least be care-
fully watched for the protection of the salt revenue, that the salt sold
from the Government depot is carried into the enclosure and used for the
special purpose for which it had been sold. This interference will be un-
popular, as it must naturally be, for some time at least with the tradesmen,
who will, notwithstanding any amount of assurance, suspect the motives
of Government, and the stimulus which it is hoped to give to the trade
will tend to hamper it. I do not therefore consider the measure proposed
by Dr. Day advisable, and it is my opinion that the trade should be left
to be regulated by the laws governing the demand and supply of other
articles of food. There are not estuaries of any importance in this
district, except that formed at the mouth of the river Vigay, near
Attenkarai. This abounds with breeding fish, which are indiscriminately
destroyed between February and September. The mouths of the minor
streams are dry, except during freshes ; any small fish which run up the
si reams during the tides are caught by the villagers. The trade in salt-
fish is progressive in this district. The tradesmen, I may say, live from
hand to mouth, but the readiness with which the salted fish is taken off
their hands has induced many along the coast, chiefly Labbai Mussalmans,
who carried on other occupations, to take up this trade. The trade in
salt -fish is hampered to a certain extent by the interference of the
villagers, who act the part of brokers between the buyer and seller. The
arc required to be made through the villagers or their representative
Ixxxiii
and none else ; a breach of this custom is followed by annoyance to both
the buyer and seller, who therefore seek the favor of the villagers, though
such occasions a little pecuniary loss. Trade in salt-fish is looked down
upon by the capitalists along the coast as being of an inferior description.
If their minds were disabused of this prejudice, and they would invest
money in the trade, it would be likely still more to improve. The retail
Government price of salt is Rs. 2 a maund of 3,200 tolas, but the
market retail rate varies according to the distance of the market from the
Government depot. Government salt is supposed to be used for curing
fish. But fishing villages are the readiest markets for illicit salt ; fisher-
men also use clandestinely salt found on the islands of the southern part
of the coast of this district. Salt-earth is also largely used, collected
from the islands ; and fish so cured is, I am informed, much liked by the
Singhalese, and is therefore exported to Ceylon. People on the coast do
not relish the salt-fish cured with salt-earth ; sea-water is not employed
here for curing fish. The practice of salting fish has of late years in-
creased, but no statistics are available ; from the fact, however, that a
greater number of men along the coast have now betaken themselves to
sea-fishing, and that an improved trade in salt-fish is carried on, it is
obvious that the practice has increased. The fishermen had no privileges
formerly which they do not now possess. The fishing population now in-
cludes principally the following castes : — Mussalmans or Labbai, Karayan,
Pallavarayan, Pavavan, and Kadayan. They have each their caste head-
man in the village. He is the representative of the community, and his
duties are confined to the settlement of domestic or caste differences.
His office is hereditary and supposed to be honorary, but he derives his
own share of fines and penalties levied for breach of caste or social rules ;
this share is regulated by custom. On the coast of this district, except
the right of chank fishery, which belongs to the zemindars of Ramnad
and Thevagunga, that of other sea-fisheries is claimed by none. In fish-
ing villages near the head quarters of the zemindars of Ramnad a contribu-
tion called ( karry min' or ' curry fish' is levied upon each boat returning
from the sea with fish ; this is supposed to be fish supplied to the kitchen
of the zemindar's palace. Fishermen are supplied with nets by the better-
to-do of them, called ' Sammanothy/ The fish caught is divided equally
between the owner of the boat and the fishermen, but the amount is re-
gulated by circumstances. The sea-fishermen have increased on the whole,
as the lower castes on the coast have taken to it. The aboriginal fishermen
castes, Paravars and Karayans, have decreased, many of their families
having emigrated to other parts of the coast ; a great part of the Parava
population have given up fishing and betaken themselves to sea-faring.
The Pallavarayan and Kadayar castes have remained stationary/'
102. From the Tinnevelly Collectorate the following answers have
Opinion of native officials in been received. In the Tinnevelly talook
the Tinnevelly Collectorate. (March 1870) there is no sea-board, and it is
observed that the fresh-water fishes are dried but not salted. The pre-
sent quality of salt-fish supplied from Travancore is preferred to that
from the coast ; an improved quality would find a sale ; the supply is
insufficient for the towns and more important villages. The Tehsildar of
the Sattur talook reports that the salt-fish imported from the coasts of
Ixxxiv
Tuticorin and Vypar are not considered to be so good as the people
desire to have an improved quality would meet with a sale, the supply
is not equal to the demand. The Tehslldar of Ottapidaram replies
that in his talook there are forty fishing villages, having an aver-
age population of 234, and that the fishermen have no other employ-
ment. Their castes are Paravars, Valiars, Shanars, Mussalmans and
Singhalese. Those which fish in the backwaters are mostly the poorer
members of the classes eating fish. The Shanars, Paravars, Maravars,
Mussalmans and Pariahs salt fish which they also purchase for sale. Fish
are taken long distances for sale, as Madura, Dindigul, &c. ; the price is
from " 4 pies to 8 annas for countable fish ; for non- countable, i. e.y
(very small) fisli 6 to 12 annas per thoolam, and for fish which are
brought from a very long distance in the sea by Singhalees, and which
are of a very superior quality, 4 annas to 4 rupees ; but the last men-
tioned are not purchased in considerable quantities by contractors."
Their average daily earnings are 2 annas a day all the year round,
excluding costs. There are no taxes on fishermen. The local market is
sufficiently supplied, but more are not taken than are sold, and perhaps if
more fish were taken they could be sold. Fish for eating is preferred
fresh. The fish in the sea have decreased; the fishing population has
remained stationary; 7 boats, 73 vallums, and 88 catamarans go to sea,
whilst there are two more nets than there were. Very small fish are
taken in great quantities. The best fishing months in the sea are from
October to January. Fish are salted to a great extent with purchased
salt, but not with salt earth, which last, however, is to be obtained in
brooks at Vipar and other villages adjacent to the sea. The present
quality of the salt-fish is considered to be good ; an improved quality
at present prices could be sold in larger quantities. All classes who
consume fish will eat it salt ; and the salting of fish could be increased
if the price of salt becomes cheaper. Salt-fish is exported. Smoking
fish or preserving their roes is unknown, but the maws or sounds are
prepared. Fish oil is manufactured from livers only. Fish are used as
charms. The Tehsildar of Mangunery states that in his whole talook
there are 197 fishing villages, containing 1,16,100 occupants in all;
besides fishing they have other employments. The Paravars, Muckuvars,
and Mussalmans fish in the sea, and those castes which capture fish also
salt them. Fish are taken long distances for sale, and the contractors
generally allow the workers \ of the captures, the average daily earnings
being from 1 to 6 annas. Some markets are fully, others insufficiently,
supplied. Fresh fish is preferred to the salted article ; 315 fishing boats
go to sea, their numbers and those of the nets having remained stationary
of late years. Very small fish are taken to a certain extent. The best
months for fishing in the sea are from April to August. Fish are salted
to a great extent with purchased salt, whilst "the salt earth in the inland
parts is not used in curing fish ; but in the localities bordering on the sea
it is used for curing fish along with salt. " Salt earth is not sold, and
salt is not procured from the sea-water. The present quality of salt-fish
is considered to be good, but an improved one at the present price would
be preferred. Only sea-fish is salted, and no further improvement in
augmenting the trade can be suggested ; some is exported. Roes are
salted, and fish dried but never smoked, whilst the sounds are not preserved.
Ixxxv
Fish liver oil is prepared. The Tehsildar of Tenkarei replies that the
same castes as reported in the last talook fish in the sea, &c. ; that raw-
fish are taken as much as 30 miles inland, but salt-fish are to a longer
distance than this, — even to foreign districts. The remuneration paid by
contractors to fishermen is J share if large, \ if they are small, and their
average daily earnings vary from 2 to 8 annas. The local markets are
fully supplied; fresh fish are preferred to the salted ones. The fishing
population has decreased of late years; about 200 boats go to sea; these
and the nets have also decreased. The best fishing months in the sea are
from September to February ; only a small amount of fish are salted, for
which purpose the salt is bought ; salt earth is also used, being obtained
from the land nearest the sea, but is not sold. Salt is not obtained
from sea-water. Fresh-fish is preferred to the salted, but the quality of
the latter is considered to be good, but a better one would be preferred.
"The salting of fish can be increased,, if the sale of raw-fish be stopped/'
Salt-fish is exported to Ceylon and other places. Fish are not smoked,
but certain ones are dried, whilst roes are salted, and the fins and sounds
preserved. Damaged and salted-fish are used as manure for cocoanut
trees. Oil is prepared from the livers of some species.
103. In the Tanjore Collector ate the following replies have been
forwarded from the native officials. The
TehnUar of Negapatan (January 1873)
observes that salt is sold by Cjovernment at
2 rupees a maund, and by retailers in the bazars at 2 rupees 6 annas
or 7 annas. Government salt is used in small quantities for curing
fish, as are also both salt-earth and sea-water. The practice of salting
fish must be said to have increased of late years in this part, owing to
the railway* as also fairs recently introduced in some places, at which
salt-fish is largely purchased. The fishing classes still possess all the
privileges they have ever enjoyed. Pattanavans, Carayrs, and Samba-
davars had, till the close of 1870, the privilege of catching fish within the
distance of a mile in the estuaries of tidal rivers, without paying any
impost to Government. In pursuance of orders they were then let
out, at which the fishermen complain as an infringement of their immemo-
rial rights and customs. There is at Negapatam one man styled
fnambianj as the head of the Pattanavans of the fishermen castes inhabit-
ing the villages on the coast between Cuddalore and Vedaraniem.
His place of residence is also called 'nambian cooppam' ; his office
is hereditary, and on his death all the fishermen unite together,
and appoint his heir as their headman. His main occupation is to settle
disputes arising amongst the Pattanavans. Sometimes he uses a net
of his own, and employs coolies who catch and sell fish for him. He
goes in a palanquin to the villages inhabited by the said Pattanavans to
enquire into matters of custom ; the villagers come in advance to meet
him, and present their respects to him, and conduct him to the village.
During his sojourn in a village his expenses are borne by the fishermen
* On receiving this statement I wrote to the Traffic Manager of the railway, who
States (June 9th 1873) that "during the last 12 months, the weight of salt-fish received at
stations on this Company's line from the western coast was 288 tons. During the same
period the quantity forwarded from the eastern coast (Negapatam station) was 16J tons/'
Thus the increase of salted fish is due to its being imported from a district where the use of
salt-earth is freely permitted for this purpose, and the Tehsildar's opinion is erroneous.
Ixxxvi
of that village; he enquires into the offences committed,, punishes the
offenders and collects the fines, &c. If a large net is nearly ready to be
used, a present of 7 pon's, an ancient silver coin, and a cloth is made to
the headman, who gives a chit for the same, and it is only thereupon that
the net is worked. If a marriage takes place in a house, it is not to
be performed without a present of 200 betel-nuts, and as many leaves,
and of 2 fanams (5 annas) being first made to the headman. In the
event of a marriage being celebrated in the village where the ' nambian'
resides, rice and vegetables are to be presented to him besides the
aforementioned presents ; the fishermen who live in the same village as
the ' nambian' are in the habit of giving him fish for his diet as
t Valaikari.' These are his emoluments, in addition to the income de-
rived from using his own net ; a document to the above effect, executed
by all the people of the fishermen caste to the nambian in old days, is
still in his possession. The present nambian being a minor, the terms
of the document are not strictly carried out. Pattanavans and Carayrs,
who catch sea-fish, assert that they possess from time immemorial an
executive right to the sea-fisheries ; but their assertion is not supported by
any record, nor does it appear that this alleged privilege has ever been
the subject of contention between them and any other people. The
fishermen make their own nets. Boats are not used in these parts for
sea-fisheries, but the fishermen purchase catamarans at their own cost.
The number of fishermen remains stationary. The Superintendent of Sea
Customs, Muthipettah, replies that the selling price of salt is Rs. 2-3-7, and
that Government salt is not used for curing fish. As regards whether
salt-earth or sea- water is employed for this purpose, he continues, " it
appears no, but fishermen in some places buy large fish for cash, and
cure them as follows. They first split them, put salt into the split, and
bury them for some time in places contiguous to the sea, and then dis-
interring them, wash them in salt-water, and lastly dry them up. As
regards small fish, the process of opening is simpler : it is by spreading
them in the said places and exposing them to the sun. The practice of
salting fish appears to have decreased of late years in these parts, the
profit of fish-curers having, it is stated, become very limited. The ex-
isting privileges seem to have been also enjoyed in old times. But it is
said that, in the estuaries of the sea into which the Coriar and Pama-
niyar empty themselves, the fishermen possessed, till so late as 10 or 12
years ago, the privilege of capturing fish as far as sea-water runs in
the said estuary, without any let or hindrance; but that, as the
fishery in the said estuary has subsequently been rented out by Govern-
ment, that privilege has since been disallowed. [ This probably refers
to the year 1870, as explained by the Tehsildar of Negapatnam^ The
fishermen of this place are Sanagars, who are divided into three factions,
viz., Periakatchi, Sinnakatchi, and Nadukatchi, each of which party
having a headman of its own styled ' Marakayar/ This head manship is
hereditary. The headman of each faction settles disputes as to relationship,
&c., arising amongst the Sanagars, and takes precedence by the chief
men on the occasions of marriage and the like ceremonies ; he, however,
receives no kind of income from fishermen as emolument for his post.
No one claims any right as regards the sea-fisheries. The fishermen
procure small boats and nets at their own cost ; but those who have
Ixxxvii
neither the one nor the other join those who have them, and go
along1 with them for fishing ; the income derived from the fish cap-
tured is divided into as many shares as there are men engaged in the
job, with 1 J extra share (one for the boat, and half for the net), thus the
share of each man being equivalent to that allotted to the boat. The num-
ber of sea fishermen have decreased, because sea-fish are not caught now
to the same extent as formerly. The Tehsildar of Tanjore replies that the
monopoly price of salt at the Government depots throughout the district
is 2 rupees per Indian maund, the retail selling price in the market is
Us. 2-3 in the villages adjacent to the salt depot, and Rs. 2-6 in places
more remote. For the purpose of curing fish Government salt is not used
to any extent, but they are chiefly prepared with salt-earth. The practice
of salting fish has decreased of late years. In olden times the fishermen
possessed no peculiar privileges. There are headmen of the fishermen
castes. There are certain degrees of headmen ; the highest is styled
Nambiar or Puttum Kattigal, who has authority over a number of fish-
ing villages along the coast, and whose word is supreme ; the office is
hereditary and carries with it emoluments in the shape of a percentage
upon the fish captured. The duties of the office, like most hereditary
ones, are light, chiefly of a patriarchal nature, consisting of the settlement
of disputes amongst themselves, attending the celebration of marriages,
&c. The Nambiar or Puttum Kattigal has the privilege of receiving the
first betel-nut amongst this class of men. The next degree of headman
is called Nattamaikkaran, who is the recognised head of the village, and
whose duties and emoluments are similar to those of Nambiar, though on
a small scale, whilst the office is not hereditary. No one claims any
rights as regards the sea-fisheries. As a rule, the fishermen purchase
boats and logs for catamarans (rafts), and make their own nets. The
number of sea fishermen have slightly increased. The Tehsildar of Tri-
trapundi replies that, all fish are destroyed, with the exception of very
small ones which cannot be entrapped in the nets. That the salting
of fish could be increased by reducing the price of salt. That the erec-
tion of enclosures wherein fish might be salted and salt sold at a reduced
price would be advisable. The selling price of Government salt is 2
rupees per maund, but the merchants who buy the salt at this rate sell
it at Rs. 2-4-2 a maund, whereby obtaining a profit of four annas (6 pence)
on every maund. Government salt is used for curing fish, but only after
it has been purchased by merchants. Salt earth is used to a small ex-
tent, according to the Deputy Tehsildar's statement. In other places
neither salt-earth nor sea-water is used for this purpose. The practice of
salting fish has decreased. It does not appear that in old times the
fishermen had any privileges they do not now possess. The Deputy
Tehsildar writes as follows : — "There are headmen of the fishing castes ;
their post is hereditary, and when all the heirs are extinct it is bestowed on
a competent man selected for the purpose by the residents of each ham-
let or street. Each headman determines the labour, &c., to be performed
by men subject to his jurisdiction, fixes the rate of wages, &c., and gets
such work done by them. He obtains for his services as much as each
of those working under his control receives as his wages, and another
extra share as a special remuneration for his headmanship. He also
settles ordinary disputes regarding caste and custom that may arise
Ixxxviii
amongst those classes. His emoluments cannot be ascertained otherwise
than .in the aforesaid manner.-" The Tehsildar continues, that no one
claims any right respecting the sea fisheries. The fishermen procure
nets or boats at their own expense, and those who cannot afford to do so
get a loan thereof, while some join those who are possessed of nets .or
boats in catching fish. In the latter case fish caught are divided into
three parts, of which two form the share of the owners of nets or boats,
the third part going to those who actually catch them. The fishermen
as to numbers have remained stationary in Topputurai and thereabouts,
but decreased in Mutupettai. The Tehsildar of Myaveram states that
breeding and immature fish are being destroyed. The salting of sea-fish
could be increased were all the large ones thus cured. But it is impossi-
ble to have any enclosures made for the following reasons : — The fish
captured in the sea and brought on shore are not afterwards carried by
the men. The women only carry them. If the enclosures were within
a mile or two, those that are brought ashore within 4 or 5 P. M. can be
carried there by the women before 5, 6, or 7 P. M. Fish are captured
and brought onshore even after 6 p. M. up to 10 or 12 o'clock in the
night. In such cases, it will be impossible for the women to take them
to the enclosures, although they are very near. If the captures are not
taken to the enclosures till the next morning, they will become spoiled
and useless. All the captures which are not sold fresh should be split
and salted so soon as they have been brought on shore. All the fisher-
men have not got nets; some eight or ten persons engage themselves as
coolies under a net-holder. The net-holder may deliver his whole share
at the enclosures for being salted, but the coolies will suffer loss if they
are also to deliver up their shares, because they would not get a good
price ; every coolie carries at once his share to other places and by selling
them for grain or cash, earns his livelihood. They can get a better price if
they go to other places ; even in the locality where fish are captured, the
price is not stationary. If the enclosures are made, an arrangement
may be made that salt may be sold there at rates remunerative for the
exclusive purpose of salting fish. The monopoly price of salt is Rs. 2
amaund; it is used for curing fish. Salt-earth is not used, but sea-
water is employed for the purpose. Those that are captured in the even-
ings are split and thrown into a tub filled with salt-water, and allowed
to remain there the whole night. Next morning they are taken out and
dried. The practice of salting fish has decreased for the last ten years,
because a large amount of the fish is sold fresh. The fishing CM
never had any peculiar privileges. There are headmen called Nattamei-
gars ; the post is hereditary. The headman employs coolies of his own
for fishing. On the occasion of marriages and funeral ceremonies, the
fishermen caste people act up to his orders. On marriages he lias
8 annas to 1 rupee, according to their ability. This is all his income ; he
gets nothing for funeral ceremonies. No one claims any right in re-
spect to sea-fisheries; the fishermen supply themselves with their
own nets and boats; their numbers have increased of late years.
The Tehsildar of Thealli considers that breeding and immature fish
are not destroyed. The salting of sea-fish could be increased by
a reduction in the price of salt. Erecting enclosures within which
fish nii«jht be salted is not impracticable. Provision should be made
Ixxxix
for bringing to the enclosures all the fish that are to be salted,
for buying salt just enough for curing them, and for removing
them afterwards out of the enclosures in a cured state. The price of
salt is Rs. 2-3-5 per maund. Government salt, as well as salt illicitly
manufactured from earth, and spontaneous salt collected by stealth,
are used for curing fish. Salt-earth or sea -water is not employed for
the purpose. The practice of salting fish has decreased of late years, as
the captures have become less in quantity. The fishermen have all the
privileges they ever possessed. There is one headman for each " Cup-
pam" or small village on the sea-coast ; the rank is hereditary. His
duties are to settle the disputes amongst them regarding their caste, and
to be the chief for carrying out marriage as well as funeral ceremonies.
His emoluments are, that he receives from each family a fee at the rate
of eight annas for each marriage. He also fishes for his own livelihood.
No one claims any right as regards the sea-fisheries. The fishermen
supply their own boats and nets; they have increased of late years. The
Tehsildar of PattuJcoltai replies that the retail price of salt is Rs. 2-4
a maund ; that it is used for curing fish, the process being as follows :
A long split with a knife is made on the back of the fish from his head
to his tail ; salt is put into it ; then it is closed, and the fish buried in a
pit for some days. By so doing the salt preserves the fish from putre-
faction and draws out the fluid matter which is in the fish. The fish-
curers, however, assert that they don't use sea-water for the purpose, and
plead that if sea- water is poured into the split, and the latter is folded up,
the water, incapable of remaining long in the split, not only comes out
but also has not the power of drawing out the fluid matter in the fish :
so the fish consequently gets putrified by either kind of fluid, emits
stench and becomes thus spoiled. As for using salt-earth they urge the
same plea, and add that if salt-earth is used, the fish soon become wormy
and rotten ; but this I think is said through fear, since I learn, on enquiry,
that they nevertheless do use salt-earth in curing fish. Those who are
engaged in salting and curing fish purchased from fishermen complain
that their trade suffers much from the time the price of salt has been
enhanced, and offer only eight or twelve annas for the fish formerly
worth one rupee. Under these circumstances, I consider it advisable
that the price of salt should be reduced as a stimulus for fish-curing.
A suggestion is made for salting and curing fish in an extensive place
outside large towns, and with this view for selling salt in that place at a
cheap rate. There is no objection to this being done, provided there be a
sea for fishing in the vicinity of such town, or so near it that the fish
caught may be taken there as soon as possible. This precaution is neces-
sary in order to provide against the contingency that if fish have to be
taken to that place from a long distance for being cured, they will be spoiled
unless salted, some kinds within twelve hours, and others within twenty-
four hours, from their being taken from the water. In case of reducing
the price of salt for the sole purpose of encouraging fish-curing, certain re-
strictions should be made, such as that salt should be sold at the reduced rate
only in the place where fish are cured, and that salt brought there should
not be taken out or used for any other purpose. The practice of salting
fish must be said to be increasing, considering that the price of fish to
be cured, which formerly cost one rupee, has now been reduced to ten
xc
or twelve annas, and that fish-curers offer only this reduced rate ; and
seeing- also that large quantities of salt-fish are daily imported by rail.
The fishermen formerly had no privileges they do not now possess ; no
one claims any right respecting the sea-fisheries. Boats are bought
or manufactured by the fishermen themselves at their own expense.
Nets are either bought or made of flax or cotton-thread ; the former
material being purchased in Calamere Point and Vedenaniam, and the
latter in the local markets. Formerly the only classes of fishermen were
(1) Sambadavers, and (2) Karaiyais, whereas now it appears that
certain other classes such as Kadayars, Sanagais and Valayars are also
engaged in fishing, and that the Sambadavers remain stationary. The
Superintendent of Sea Customs, Negapatam, states that salt is sold by
Government at Re. 1-13 a maund, whilst the retail price is Re. 1
per five marcals of 10£ seers. (Tanjore marcal is supposed to be
equal to 3 Bengal seers.) (The Collector notes a marcal is 25J
tolahs of rice). Government salt is used for curing fish, which are
first washed in the sea-water, and then Government salt is employed
for curing them. The practice of salting fish has decreased this
year ; the fishermen still possess all the privileges they formerly
had. Amongst the Pattanaver caste each suburb has one or two head-
men, who are appointed by the villagers, and whose appointment is
hereditary. These headmen procure at their own cost catamarans
and nets in like manner with others, and earn their livelihood thereby.
Pattaneivars claim an exclusive right in respect to the sea-fisheries : but
there is no objection to others also catching fish in the sea. The
fishermen weave their own nets, as the practice of fishing in boats does
not obtain here. Trees called Malaivembu are brought from Colombo,
made into catamarans, and then used for fishing. The number of
fishermen have remained stationary.
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XC11
From the South Arcot Qollectorate the following replies have
been received from the native officials. The
TektOdaf (July 31st 1869) replies that fish-
curers are not allowed to use salt-earth un-
taxed ; if they were, it would better first to have it manufactured into
salt. People will use fish salted in any way ; they have no idea of what
is called " high salt" ; the only consideration to them is the cost. Men
of the Carriar, Patnaver and Pullie castes fish in the sea, whilst it is
solely Pullies who do so in the back-waters ; they are known by the name
of Shemdavers. Fish are sometimes taken six or seven miles for sale,
as far as is consistent with safety to the fish. The sea- fishermen on the
coast earn between ten and twelve annas a day. The fish on the coast
are said to have diminished, and the cause is attributed to the bad seasons
we have had of late. The fish appear to have receded into the deep sea.
Any amount of fish captured would meet with a sale ; everything- is
captured as all find purchasers. Fish are salted to a great extent with
salt stated to be purchased from the Government depots, and to a small
extent perhaps it is. But my impression is that salt is obtained in good
quantities by lixiviating salt-earth which abounds in the marshes and
back-waters on the coast. This is got for nothing, and its manufacture
costs equally nothing. Sea-water is not used. Salt-fish is not exported.
None are smoked : the process observed here is kippering, i. e., to rip open
the fish, clear it of the intestines, and, having incised the fleshy part,
to apply salt and leave it to dry. In reply to " are fish dried" ? he says
" I do not understand this, if it is meant to ascertain whether fish are
dried for sale independent of salting, I answer not to any extent. Sea-
iish, never. Fresh-water fish of the smallest kind, which finds no pur-
chaser, if arrived at the stage of putrefaction, is dried up in sand and sold
to poor people who are unable to purchase the larger fish ; otherwise salt-
fish is essentially dried fish." Neither fish fins nor sounds are preserved.
The Tehsildar of Cuddalore (1872) replies that salt is sold at Rs. 2 a
maund, and is used for curing fish. Salt-earth and sea water are also
employed for this purpose. The practice of salting fish has decreased of
late years. The fishermen caste have no particular privileges ; they have
headmen ; the post is hereditary. They attend marriages and other
ceremonies occurring in the caste, and distribute betel-nut to the people
on the .occasion, for which they receive from 4 annas to 2 rupees,
according to the circumstances of the parties. No one claims any
rights in regard to the sea-fisheries. Fishermen supply themselves with
tlu-ir boats and nets : these men have been on the decrease of late years.
The Tehsildar erf ? (locality not stated) replies that fishermen are 'not
provident as a class, and capture everything. What they do not use,
they leave where they leave their nets. The salting of fish might pos-
sibly be increased if the price of salt were reduced for the purpose, but
not to any extent. As a rule, the take is absorbed by the local market.
The proposition in paragraph 7 (respecting enclosures) would be practi-
cable, but with the employment of an additional preventive force to
check smuggling. It would hardly be advisable, as being unlikely to
produce any measure of public good for the reasons given. The selling
price of salt is Rs. 2 a maund ; it is almost exclusively used for salting
iish : salt-earth or sea-water is not employed with the knowledge of the
XC111
authorities, and probably not at all. The practice of salting fish has
decreased to a slight extent, possibly owing to the price of salt. Fisher-
men had no privileges in old times which they do not now possess. They
have an hereditary headman named " Nattamakar"; the duties are sim-
ply those relating to the social relations of caste, such as presiding at
ceremonies, arbitrating in disputes. The emoluments — petty presents or
fines on such occasions. No one claims any rights in respect to the
sea-fisheries. The number of fishermen has increased except in the
Cuddalore talook where they have decreased.
105. From the Madras Collectorale the following answers have
been received from the Native Officials. The
TeksMar of Con^eran (1871) replies
that his talook does not extend to the sea.
Fish are salted to a great extent ; common salt is usually employed ; only
a few persons make use of salt-earth, but it is criminal to sell such.
The present quality of salt-fish is considered to be good, and the supply
equals the demand. The Tehsilclar of Chingleput (1871) says that the
castes which fish in the sea and back-waters are Patanavur, Pullee,
Parambar, Karayar, and Jonakar. Fish is not taken more than twenty
miles for sale : the local markets are sufficiently supplied. The fishing
population is decreasing, but the boats and the number of nets continue
much the same. The fishing months in the sea are chiefly from January
to June ; it is also carried on, but on a much smaller scale, from August
to November, whilst in November and December respectively it, becomes
still less. Fish are salted to a great extent ; only Government salt is
employed, salt-earth is not used. More salt-fish could be sold ; it is not
exported ; fish are not cured by smoking, but they are dried ; roes are
salted ; fins or sounds are not preserved. Fish liver oil is manufactured.
The Tehsilclar of the Madurantakum Talook (1871) observes that the
local markets are sufficiently supplied. The fishing population is increas-
ing, as are also the boats and nets. Fish are largely salted with ordi-
nary salt, but not salt-earth or sea-water. The quality of salt-fish is
good, and the supply is equal to the demand ; some is exported. Fish are
neither cured by smoking nor their roes or sounds preserved : also fish
are dried and fins collected, but oil is not manufactured. The Tehsilclar
of Ponnery (1871) states that fresh fish is not carried above 10 miles;
the fishing population is increasing ; the number of boats (50) continues
the same, but nets have increased. Fish are salted to a great extent
with Government salt and salt-earth, but sea-water is not employed for
curing fish. More salt-fish could be sold. Salt-fish are exported ; fish
are dried, roes salted, but fish are not cured by smoking, nor are fins or
sounds preserved. Fish liver oil is manufactured. The Tehsildar of
Sydapet (1871) reported that the local markets are sufficiently supplied ;
sometimes the captures cannot be sold fresh, and then they are salted.
The fishermen are increasing : the number of boats (64) have continued
the same, but the nets have increased. Fish are salted to a great extent
with Government salt, but neither salt-earth nor sea-water is employed
for this purpose. The present quality of the salt-fish is considered to
be good. In answer to the question " is there a good market for
salt-fish or could more be sold ?" he replies : " High demand for salt-fish
in the bazars. They could not be sold in greater quantities than at
XC1V
present.13 Salt-fish is exported. Fish roes are salted, small fish dried,
fins are preserved, but sounds are not so. Fish liver oil is extracted.
106. From the Nellore Collectorate the following replies have been
received from the native officials, whose
Opinions of native officials m ., -, , .*, X „ , 3 ,~ ,
the Nellore Collectorate answers are compiled by the Collector (Octo-
ber 26th, 1869). The following castes gener-
ally fish in the sea : Pallevandlu, Pattapuvandlu and Chembadivandlu ;
they all as well as men of many other castes likewise net the back-waters
and rivers. Some retail dealers do not fish, but merely purchase to
re-sell : some is exported to the western districts of Kurnool, Bellary,
Cuddapah, &c., and Hyderabad. The local markets are insufficiently
supplied inland, so fish are brought from the coast talooks of Gudur,
Kandukur and Atmakur. The rule is that the fish are hawked about
and are generally exchanged for grain ; 13 Tehsildars and Deputy Tehsil-
dars give the following as the proportion of people who eat fish : one esti-
mates them at 25 per cent., five at from 50 to 75 per cent., four at from 75
to 85 per cent., and three at from 85 to 95 per cent. In Ongole, Rapur,
Nellore, and Kavali the fishing population is supposed to have decreased
of late years, whilst in Gudur, Atmakur, and Kandukur an increase is
reported, whilst a stationary state exists in the two remaining talooks.
The fishing boats have increased in Gudur, decreased in Nellore and
Ongole. Amongst the five talooks bordering on the sea, the nets have de-
creased in four and increased in one. The best fishing months in the
sea are from January to April, inclusive. In three out of five of the
maritime talooks fish are salted to a great extent : at Atmakur sea-water
is used, elsewhere purchased salt is stated to' be employed, and some of the
Tehsildars consider salt-earth is not used for this purpose. The present
quality of salt-fish is considered good. It is exported from all the coast
talooks except Kavali. Fish are generally dried, fins and sounds are
prepared, as well as fish-oil, and in some places roes are salted. The
Tehsildar of Ongole (January 29th, 1873) replies that salt in the zillali
is sold for Rs. 2 a maund and is made use of for curing fish if large, small
ones being simply dried. "It is a custom amongst some people to employ
a small quantity of salt even for large fish, and lay them under ground on
the sea-shore for a day and expose them to the sunshine. The poor
fishermen, unable to buy salt, wash fish in salt-water, bury them in
saltish- earth for a day and manage somehow or other to make them
kara-vallu (salt-fish), but this karavallu is not only tasteless but stink-
ing, and becomes useless in a short period." Small fish dried and salt-fish
are exported to Hyderabad, Kurnool, &c., whilst some goes to
Madras. The Palle caste people, Patnapu (Tuli) or Mahomedan caste
men catch salt-water fish, and these men, it appears, were formerly
related to one another. But Palle people generally fish in salt rivers, and
Tuli people in seas, but people of both castes give their fish to traders
on contracts, or sell them personally, and use what remains for themselves.
Fishermen have one religious headman to whom they give at every
marriage 4 annas with 2J seers of rice and other grains. There is
another man named priest in their caste, to whom also they give
at marriages Rs. 2 with 4J seers of rice and other grains. The
latter man (priest) has frequently to visit the coast and other places
where fish are taken, but does not go with the fishermen. Their headman
xcv
in religion has to decide their disputes, and if he is unable to settle ifc
the priest has to pass a final order. The head in religion and also the
priest are hereditary officers. The Tuli caste people have lived by fish-
ing for an indefinite period of time, and they appear to think that they
have an indisputable right to fish in the sea. Most of the Tuli men are
very poor, their daily earnings only just covering their expenses. When-
ever they may be in need of new boats or nets, or at least of repair for
their old ones, they borrow money from traders, and give them fish every now
and then in satisfaction of their debts. Some fishermen also obtain money
by exporting grain on their own vessels, or giving their vessels for freight.
The number of fishermen in the Ongole talook is 200 or thereabouts. Fish-
ermen in Gudur talook come with their families to the coast of Ongole
about the month of January and quit the coast by the end of June,
during which period they export quantities of fish to their own district,
and besides take home with them the remaining lot. The Tuli fishermen
are few and do not possess above 10 or 15 nets and boats. The opinion
suggested to decrease the value of salt only in the case of selling
to fishermen, is thought favourably of, and an encouragement to men of
the Tuli caste to salt fish, yet it appears that the Government will
become partial. Now in stations, officers of the Salt Department throw
away some quantity of salt in the water on the ground that it is
something like powder or black -coloured. The Tehsildar suggests that
this would do for the fishermen, selling it at E/e. 1 a maund, and pro-
hibit it from being re-sold. The replies of the Salt and Sea Customs
officials along the coast or on the shores of the Pulicat lake are thus given.
(November 23rd, 1872.) The selling price of salt is Rs. 2 a maund. The
Salt Superintendents of Kanuparti, Pakala and Gogulapalli, and the Sea
Customs Superintendents of Kottapatam and Ramayapatam state that
Government salt alone is used for curing fish, and that salt-earth or sea-
water is never made use of. The Padarti Salt Superintendent says, Gov-
ernment salt is chiefly so used, but that sometimes spontaneous salt
also is smuggled and applied for the purpose. At Tunnualapentah large
fish are said to be cured with Government salt, and small ones with salt-
earth and sea-water. At Kristnapatam also, both Government salt and
sea- water or salt-earth is made use of, but fish cured with Government
salt fetches a better price. The Isakapalli Salt Superintendent states,
that mostly salt-earth and sea-water is made use of, and that Govern-
ment salt is seldom or never known to be bought for the purpose ; and the
Dugarazupatam, Tada, and Sunnapugunta Superintendents appear to
be of the same opinion and express a doubt as to the quantity cured one
way or the other, but they seem to think that both measures are com-
monly resorted to. The Salt Superintendent of Kanuparti expresses a
doubt as to whether the practice of salting fish has increased or decreased
of late years. The Sea Customs Superintendent of Kottapatam, and the
Salt Superintendents of Padarti, Tunnualapenta, Isakapali and Sunna-
pugunta are of opinion that there has been a decrease of lateyeais; the
last named because of the rise in the selling price of salt, which has made
it more difficult for the poor to procure the article and cure the fish pro-
perly, and the others on account of generally deficient rain-fall of late years,
whereby the bars have become silted up, and many tidal creeks closed
from the sea, The Gogulapalli, Duguraznpatam and Tada Salt Superin-
XCVl
tendents think that the practice has increased owing- to a greater demand
for salted fish, whilst the Superintendents of Kristnapatam and Pakala
and the Sea Customs Superintendent of Ramayapatam are of opinion that
it has remained stationary. The fishermen have now all the privileges
they formerly possessed, but some are of opinion that the means of
livelihood have generally decreased, as the demand for salted fish has
generally diminished. Others again think, where the trade in salt-
fish has increased the income of the fishermen has likewise improved.
The fishing castes in this district are four, (1) Palle, (2) Tuli, (3) Patapu
— and (4) Chambadi. Each caste, and in fact each village or hamlet
where a number of them club together and reside (forming what is
called a Palliem), has its own headman, called in some cases ' Pedda
Capu' and in others ' Pedda Arkattu/ This office is hereditary, and on
the failure of,heirs, the community join together and select one from
amongst their number to be their future headman. The duties are
mostly honorary. The headman presides at all marriage and religious
ceremonies, for which he receives certain 'russooms' or fees. He settles
all petty quarrels and disputes in his ' Pollien ;' he is looked up to and
his word obeyed with greater respect than any one else in that ' Pol-
lien.' He has the privilege of being exempted from work. If a vessel
strands or comes off his hamlet in distress, he gathers together all the
able-bodied men and gives help, so likewise at any Government call he
furnishes help and collects labour, but is exempt from personal work.
The duties of the office are not thus defined but recognised merely
by custom and long usage. The emoluments likewise are not
regular but consist of contributions or fees paid by the people from long-
acknowledged habits. All the Superintendents are unanimous in stating
that no one claims any right to the sea-fisheries, but the fishermen of
each hamlet or pollien are very tenacious as to their peculiar rights to
fish within certain limits, whether in the sea, or in any tidal creek or
estuary. These limits have never been defined or recognised by any
authority, but have been admitted by long-established usage among
the fishermen themselves from time immemorial, and if the fishermen
of one hamlet are found transgressing their limits, and plying their
trade within the limits of a neighbour, the result is a never-ending source
of dispute and quarrel among the men of both hamlets. But the quarrel
seldom goes further than themselves, and receives no countenance at the
hands of any authority. For the purpose of supplying themselves with
boats or nets, they purchase materials and construct them themselves;
when unable themselves to make them, they employ men skilled in
the work for the purpose and pay such men the ordinary rates of cooly
hire. The Kanuparti Salt Superintendent states that in his division no
fishing boats are used, but only nets. The Tunnualapenta Salt Superin-
tendent says that the value of a large net for sea-fishing is 100 ruj
and of small nets used in tidal creeks and estuaries 4 to 5 rupees. The
Iskapalli Superintendent thinks that the fishermen will sell a lar^v
net to any one wanting the same for 50 or 60 rupees. As regards whether
Hie number of fishermen have increased, decreased or remained stationary,
Ihe Superintendent of Kanuparti, Pailarti, Tunnualapenta and Tada
and the Sea Customs Superintendent of Kottapatnam are of opinion that
the number has decreased. In Tada the decrease is attributed 1
XCVll
falling-off in the means of livelihood. The Iskapalli Salt Superintendent
also thinks there is a decrease, except in the 'Pattapu' caste of fishermen,
in which caste, owing- to a larger number of nets, he thinks there is
an increase. The Salt Superintendent of Gogulapalli, Kristnapatam,
Dugarazapatnam and Sunnapuguuta, and the Sea Customs Superintendent
of Ramapatam, state that the number has increased on account of increased
means of livelihood. The Pakala Salt Superintendent is the only one who
reports the numbers to remain stationary, but he assigns no reasons
for his belief. The Tehsildar of Striharikota (1872) replies that in this
district the breeding and immature fish are caught and destroyed by
means of nets, by the class known as Pallepuvandlu, &c. The breeding
months are September and October, and one-tenth of the fish caught at
these times are breeding. Salt-fish is purchased by merchants and exported
to Madras. If the price of salt thus used were to be reduced, the salting
of fish would very likely increase. The working of the proposition (enclo-
sures) in paragraph 7 is impracticable, because there are no salt stations in
the division except beyond a distance of 10 or 15 miles. Government salt
appears to be used for curing fish. Small sea-fish after being washed
are exposed to the sun on the sands, but salt-earth does not appear to be
used for this purpose. The practice of salting fish has remained sta-
tionary. Fishermen have the same privileges now that they formerly
possessed. Amongst the fishing caste there is one Adimulam Setti at
Madras, who is the principal headman amongst the fishermen of the
Pattapuvandlu caste : there are two others Dalavaya Venkatraya Setti
and Mantrichina Venkatraya Setti as headmen at Puliyenjeri Kuppam
in Strikarikota division ; this headmanship is hereditary. The one at
Madras is regarded with priestly reverence, while the other two are
looked to for the settlement of religious disputes. These headmen fish
like others for their maintenance ; at marriages a fee of 65 annas is paid
to the headmen, as well as fines for breach of religious rites. Half of
these collections go to the headman at Madras, and the remaining portion
is enjoyed by the said two headmen. But this practice is said to be gra-
dually falling off, because some pay on the occasion, whilst others get
their wants attended to without payment. No one claims any rights
respecting the sea-fisheries. The fishermen Pattapuvandlu freely fish in
the sea. Fishermen procure boats and nets at their own cost. During
the last four years the quantity of fish taken has been less than in
previous years, consequently the sea-fishermen, are in a poor condition.
The Tehsildar of Handukur (1872) observes that fishes of all sizes are
captured : that the small ones are destroyed by fishermen, large fish,
and birds. The fishermen residing in the villages along the sea coast
in this talook are not themselves able to salt fish, as they are poor ; but
men of the Palle and Pattapu caste receive money in advance from the
fish traders that come down from Golakonda and other places and thus
salt fish. It appears that they would themselves commence to trade in
such fish if the price of salt is low, and thus the work would come to a
prosperous state. It would be advisable to store up the quantity of
salt required for fish in extensive premises selected for the purpose with
reference to the said paragraph 7, and to sell it at a lower price, and
strict orders may be issued, so that the salting of the fish may be
effectual in the said premises only and no salt removed from it. If
M
XCV111
they are allowed to g#ll the fish in any other place but in the particu-
larized one, they would sell the salt to others at high prices. Therefore
it is advisable to salt the fish in a particular place, or the plan will not
prosper. It appears that some salt manufactured by the ryots is
destroyed as of a bad quality, but such might be sold at a low price for
this purpose. Government salt is used for curing fish, but if salt-water
were employed the fish would putrify, and if salt-earth is used the fish
will be destroyed by insects. The practice of salting fish has decreased,
as fewer fish are captured. The fishermen have all the privileges they
formerly possessed ; they have a headman termed Aurikuttu ; the office
is hereditary ; he also fishes and sells his captures like other fishermen.
He investigates their religious disputes, but receives no fees. No one
claims any right regarding the sea-fisheries. The fishermen provide
themselves with nets and boats. Their numbers are stated to have
increased.
107. From the Kistna District, the following replies have been
received from the officials in the Sea Customs
Department. The Sea Customs Superintendent
the Kistna District. _<_ , . -,0«o\ ,1
of Bandar observes (May 1873), that breed-
ing and immature fish are destroyed by fishermen and birds. The
headmen of the villages consider themselves as privileged, being used
to capture fish to the exclusion of others : the practice of salting fish
has not increased. The proposition in paragraph 7 would be practic-
able. The price of Government salt being high, it has not been usual
in this district to purchase it ; salt-earth and swamps salt being pro-
curable everywhere, fish are clandestinely cured with the same. In the
Vizagapatam and other countries sea- water is used for curing fish, but
not in this district. The fishermen possess the same privileges they
had formerly : those who are thus referred to being privileged to catch
fish are headmen. Though they are not privileged by any competent
court, yet they are enjoying that privilege as hereditary through the
favour of influential members for the time being. Their privileges are
to catch fish and to obtain emoluments at festivals and other happy
occasions. The headmen of the villages claim a right to fish in the
sea; they do not allow others to fish. The fishermen are stated to
have remained stationary. The Assistant Superintendent of Customs at
Vizagapatam and Kottapalem ports answers (May 1873) that all
descriptions of fish are destroyed, viz., small fish by nets of close meshes,
and large fish by nets made of hemp. January, February, and March
being the breeding seasons, the fish come in shore when they are netted.
Persons who trade in salt-fish go in the first instance, purchase salt
from the Government store, and either cure the fish on the sea-shore
or at their own homes. The proposition in paragraph 7 would be good
and practicable. Retail price of salt Rs. 2 and wholesale Rs. 1-14 a
maund ; it is used for curing fish, but salt-earth or sea-water is not for
such fish as arc required in the trade, but some people cure small fish by
means of the salt obtained from the process of mixing the salt-earth in
water clandestinely, but this cannot be proved. Owing to paucity of
fish last year due to northerly winds, the amount salted is said to have
decreased. Fishermen have all the privileges they ever possessed.
There arc headmen, and the post is hereditary; in default of any who
XC1X
have ceased to be headmen,, others are appointed from amongst the fisher-
men by the authorities. Their duties are to perform acts connected with
their religious duties and Government work, such as exporting and import-
ing goods, &c. At feasts, &c., they receive at the rate of 8 or 4 annas.
They are allowed to set up stake nets in rivers, and a share is allowed to
them out of the fish caught by the other fishermen. Their emoluments
are small, but the exact amount is not known. The number of fishermen
remains stationary. The Superintendent of Sea Customs at Ipurupalem
(May 1873) remarks that breeding and immature fish are destroyed in
the tidal estuaries and in the sea ; they are usually salted, but some are
disposed of fresh, which the purchasers salt. As there is an estuary
between China Ganjam and Peda Ganjam within my range, large quan-
tities of fish are caught there by means of rafts and nets : elsewhere
fish are not in any large quantities. If an enclosure be made near the
China Ganjam Salt Depot, and fish salted inside it with salt sold at the
proposed rates, the amount cured would be increased. The retail dealers
sell salt at Us. 2-4-0 a maund. At the port of Ipurupalem it is sold
at Rs. 2-8-0 ; it is used for curing fish, but neither salt-earth nor sea- water.
Formerly, large quantities of fish were procurable at the ports of Pacha-
magali, Ipurupalem, Naidupalli and Motupalli. The fish are not pro-
curable now in such large quantities. There are no headmen of the
fishermen caste at Ipurupalem port ; every man is independent, There
is a headman at China Ganjam and Peda Ganjam. He is supreme
in matters of religion and festivals, but derives no emoluments ; whilst
the moturpha tax existed he was exempted from it. Among the
Pattapu caste people who catch fish by employing boats there is a
headman who settles their family disputes and religious customs ; he is
annually allowed 8 annas for every boat employed in fishing. The
fishermen at Ipurupalem have remained stationary, whilst those at
China Ganjam, Peda Ganjam, Motupalli and Naidupali have increased.
From the Kistna District the following returns have been received
from the other native officials. The Tehsildar of the Bapatla talook
(1871) replies that the fishermen both capture and salt fish, and
that their numbers continue about the same, with the exception of
the Tulis who have migrated here within the last ten years, and fish in
the sea, consequently boats and nets have become more numerous. Du-
ring the months of November and December fish are reported to be taken
in small quantities, and during January, February, and March in large
quantities ; a considerable amount of fish is salted, for which purpose
Government salt is used and not salt-earth (chowdu) : however, the latter
is said to be collected : sea-water is not employed. The quality of the
salt-fish is reported to be good ; it is exported inland but nob by sea.
Fish roes are dried, not salted. Fish are thus cured : as soon as caught
they are opened, the entrails removed, they are washed in sea- water,
then unground salt is put into them, and they are exposed to the sun.
The next day more unground salt is put in, and they are again exposed
to the sun's rays. On the third day, they put in a little quantity of
ground salt and lay them out in the sun : on the fourth day they are
again put out in the sun and then stored until sold. Sharks' fins are
dried ; Jonangi people come from the south and purchase them at a dear
rate. Some small fish are simply dried. Shark's liver oil is manufac-
tured ; fish sounds are prepared, and it is used as a glue for repairing
boxes. Subsequently (May 1873), in reply to the questions circulated in
1872, he observes : except the sorah chapa (sharks) all other fish produce
roe, that of the perch is useful, while that of the other species becomes
useless so soon as the fish is opened. Pundu chapa is rarely netted in
the estuaries. The fishermen living along the coast from Peraly up to
Peda Ganjam, fish for four miles out to sea, obtaining perches. Other
species are caught along the shore in great quantities, whilst those taken
in the sea are few. The fish when brought ashore are sold to merchants
who salt and trade in them. Should no merchants arrive the fishermen
salt the fish themselves. Though the price of salt is now high, yet the
fish fit to be cured* are being salted when they are procured in sufficient
quantities. By reducing the price of salt, the trade in salt-fish would
not be augmented, as all the fish caught along the sea-shore and estuaries
are salted. There are no considerable number of fishermen in this taluq.
Fish merchants usually salt fish at their own houses, as do also the fisher-
men. Salt is sold at Rs. 2 a maund at the Government depots, and in
distant villages at an increase of 1 anna in the rupee. Government salt
is ifsed for curing fish both by merchants and fishermen. Were
sea-water employed the fish would putrefy, not being sufficiently saline ;
salt-earth likewise is not used. The best fishing months are January,
February and March. The practice of salting fish has remained station-
ary. Among the fishing castes, each village had one or two headmen ; the
fishermen do not understand how the headmen were formerly appointed ;
they do not possess any certificate or patta to show by whom they were
appointed. The office is hereditary ; the headmen decide family disputes,
and direct the fishermen to furnish supplies to Government when re-
quired. At marriages they receive betel-nut ; on festive occasions they
are asked prior to relatives. During festivals of the village goddess the
headmen perform the ceremony, the cost being paid by the fishermen.
First the headman's sheep is sacrificed, subsequently those of other
people. Any one may fish as they please in the sea or estuaries, but the
Public Works Department sometimes prevent raising dams across
Romparu, between Peda Ganjam and China Ganjam to catch fish, 011
the plea that the drainage of surplus water will be prevented from pass-
ing into the sea. Boatmen from the Nellore district, or about 20 fisher-
men, have emigrated to China Ganjam, and certain other fishermen from
Negapatam to Perali, consequently the fishermen along the coast in
this taluq have somewhat increased. The Tehsildar of the Bunder Talook
(1869) answers that the large fish which are caught in the sea, salted
and dried in the sun, are very good, whilst the smaller ones thus prepared
are not so tasty. The fishermen have decreased since the cyclone, in which
many were washed away ; about 20 boats go to sea for fishing purposes,
which as well as the nets have decreased. The best months for fishing
in the sea are from December to March. Fish is not salted to any great
extent. Government salt is employed for this purpose, and earth-salt is
not usedf in curing large fish ; when used it is collected from the
* The superior kinds of fish, if of a large size, must be cured with good salt or they
will decay if kept any length of time.
f See commencement of this paragraph, where this is distinctly contradicted by the Sea
Customs Superintendent of this port, the meaning, I suspect, being that Government
salt is used for curiug the larger and better sorts of fish.
Cl
swamps. Salt is not prepared from sea-water by the fishermen; the
quality of the salted fish is excellent; the quantity made continues
about the same. Some is exported to Hyderabad and other countries for
sale. Small fish are dried in the sun ; none are smoked ; fins are collected,
and fish-oil is manufactured. Subsequently (May 1873) he replied that
breeding- and immature fish are destroyed in the tidal estuaries to any
extent without distinction. Immature fish are caught by means
of thick nets, the meshes being as small as Bengal gram. Fish to be
salted are first split open ; their intestines removed ; they are then
rubbed \fith salt and dried for a week. " I do not think that the
proposition iu paragraph 7 would be advisable or practicable. Government
salt is used for curing fish, but neither salt-earth nor sea-water. The
salting of fish increased prior to the cyclone, when a great number of
fishermen perished and their nets were washed away. Whilst the
moturpha tax existed, the residents of villages had the peculiar privilege
of catching fish in channels and estuaries within their respective villages.
After the abolition of the moturpha tax, the fishermen have not had that
privilege. Now-a-days every one catches fish. There are no headmen,
in the fisheries. Estuaries and the mouths of the Kistna have fisheries.
It has been usual for the fishermen living there to fish in them. The
usage observed many years ago was that each fisherman among the
villagers had a fixed number of nets. The limits within which they
could catch fish were fixed. If the residents of some village had set
up stake nets contrary to usage, complaints were made to the local au-
thorities who decided them. This usage is observed in the port of
Bunder, Gilakaladindi, the sea-side and estuaries of Latchimipuram and
Padapatnam, &c., villages in this taluq. All fishermen have an equal
privilege in regard to the sea, Kistna river, and other channel fisheries.
The fishermen who decreased due to the cyclone are now stated to be
increasing." The Tehsildar of the Repalli talook (1869) observes : Salt-
fish sells at two rupees a mauiid ; each fish weighs one quarter of a maund,
and when fresh is worth four annas. The supply of fish does not equal
the demand ; dried fish are exported ; fishermen report that they are de-
creasing in numbers, as are also their boats and nets. Salt-earth is
said not to be used for curing fish, nor is sea-water employed. Small fish
are simply dried in the sun. No fish-oil is prepared. Subsequently
(May 1873) he replied that the fishermen go 1 J mile out to sea for fish
which they salt : but there is only a demand for small sorts. At Nizam-
patam, Kottapalem, and Lankavenidibba fish of good quality are salted
and exported to Hyderabad and elsewhere. The fishermen being unable to
purchase salt for salting fish, take advances of money for their livelihood
from fish merchants coming from Bunder, &c., to whom they deliver their
captures, and the merchants have them salted by coolies employed by
them. These are exported inland, there being no local demand for them.
Government salt is used for curing fish, but neither salt-earth nor sea-
water. For the last two years fish have been scarce. Each village
has a headman who is termed Pedda Capoo : he receives four annas at
a marriage. When the moturpha tax existed he was exempt ; he has
to obtain boats when required for Government service. When the
fishermen captured fish he used to have a share. When the moturpha
tax existed they were allowed palmyra trees for canoes and palmyra
leaves for covering their houses without taxing them for the price of the
Cll
same. Those fishermen who are unable to obtain nets, &c., employ
themselves as boatmen, sailors, &c.
108. From the Godavery Collectorate the following returns were
Opinions of native officials iu received from the native officials. The Teh-
the Godavery Collectorate. «7//ar of Ramachendrapur replies (1869),
that both fishermen and boatmen salt fish. " The daily earnings of those
who fish in the sea will be one rupee, while the other fishermen who fish
in canals, &c., earn four or two annas a day, which is not more than suffi-
cient for their subsistence." The supply is not equal to the demand.
" The fishing population has decreased in consequence of a few having
resorted to Moulmein and other coasts for carrying on their trade." The
best fishing months in the sea are November, December and January.
Fish are salted with Government salt ; salt-earth is not employed :
sea-water is not used for this purpose. Salt-fish is not exported. Some
fish, after they have been dried in the sun, are smoked. Fish roes are
salted ; small fish are dried without being salted. A few sharks' fins are
preserved and sounds are collected. Fish liver oil is manufactured. The
Tehsildar of Amalapuram answers (1869) that his district does not reach
the sea coast, but that fish which remain unsold fresh are salbed with
Government salt, the salt-earth not being collected, nor the sea-water
used. The salt-fish is considered to be good, and the supply sufficient to
meet the local demand. The Tehsildar of Narsapuram (1869) observes
that men of the Pallevallu, Bestavallu and Vaddi castes fish in the
rivers and back-waters; they also sell and salt fish. The fishing popula-
tion remains stationary ; catamarans not boats are used for sea-fishing,
and their numbers as well as those of the nets remain the same. The
best months for sea-fishing are from November to February inclusive.
Fish are salted to a small extent with salt purchased in the markets, but
salt-earth is not employed, neither is sea- water used for this purpose. The
present quality of salt-fish is considered to be good and the quantity suppli-
ed equal to the demand. The only sort of fish cured by smoking are
damaged cray fish. Fish are dried and roes salted ; fins and sounds are
preserved to a very small extent. Fish liver oil is also prepared. The
Superintendent of Sea Customs at Narsapur (1872) replies that the
local markets are fully supplied during eight months of the year:
from March to June insufficiently so. The Tehsildar of the Ped-
dapuram talook (1869) reported that salt-fish is carried coast-wise
for 500 or 600 miles, and in a fresh state 40 or 50. The local
markets are insufficiently supplied, the fresh being preferred to the salted
article. The fishing population has increased of late years; about ],500
boats go to sea, and those as well as the nets are more numerous than for-
merly. The best fishing months in the sea are from December to March
inclusive. Fish are salted to a great extent; for some Government salt
is used, for others salt-earth, which is excavated from the swamps. Sea-
water is not employed for this purpose. The quality of the salt-fish is
considered good. Fish are cured by smoking or drying ; the roes are
salted ; sharks' fins are also preserved. In the Tanaku talook, which does
not border on the sea, salt-fish are said to be preferred to the fresh, and
the supply does not equal the demand. In the Ellore talook, an inland
one, salt-fish are said to be preferred to the fresh, but as they are dearer
the poor cannot purchase them. If salt-fish were brought in enormous
cm
numbers and their price reduced a little, every one will purchase them.
The Deputy Tehsildar of Coconada (1869) replied that there are nine
fishing villages, two of which have 200 occupants, whilst the others have
from 20 to 30. The fishing population has decreased of late years ; about
40 boats go to sea, and both these and the nets are less than formerly.
The best fishing months in the sea are February and March. Fish are
salted ; salt-earth is employed, which is obtained free of cost from the
swamps near the sea-shore : sea-water is also used. Fish salted during
the summer are considered good, and those prepared during the cold
season are not so. Salt-fish is exported. Fish are dried; prawns
are smoked ; roes are salted ; fins and sounds are preserved. The por-
poise is taken for obtaining oil from, and this oil is used for curing
rheumatic pains. The tail of the ray is used for smoothening wood,
and sharks' fins for colouring palanquins, &c. Fish liver oil is also
manufactured. The Deputy Tehsildar of Coconada (1872) replied that
Government salt is seldom used for curing fish, but salt-earth and
sea-water are often employed for this purpose. The practice of salt-
ing fish has remained stationary. Fishermen had no particular pri-
vilege in old times which they do not now. possess. There are two
kinds of headmen of the fishing castes, viz,, Kulapedda (head of the
caste) and Jattupedda (head of an assembly) . The first sort of head-
man is hereditary, whilst the latter is conferred on some one by all the
inhabitants of the village. The Kulapedda will be headman of the caste
for two or three districts, and such headmen employ themselves in settling
religious disputes, in conducting such public affairs as may have to be
performed on behalf of fishermen, Sec., and in disposing of cases such as
adultery, &c., if committed in these castes. They have neither land nor
other emoluments. Presents are given them at times of marriages.
Inhabitants of villages claim the right of the fisheries in front of
their land. The number of fishermen continues stationary. Tke Deputy
Tehsildar of T-u.ni (1869) observed that his talook does not border on
the sea, but that sea-fish are brought there daily. That fresh and salted
are equally preferred ; the quality of salt-fish is considered to be good.
The Deputy Tehsildar of Pittapur (1869) reported that there are eleven
fishing villages, the occupants of which number 627, and that they have
other trades as well. A fisherman generally earns 2 annas a day. The
Sudras prefer fish fresh, the Pariahs prefer it salted. Fishermen have not
increased, because a few have embarked for Moulmein on account of
famine, while some have died of cholera. About 50 fishing boats go to
sea ; both they and the nets have decreased. The best fishing months in
the sea are from December to March inclusive. Fish, for which there is no
sale whilst in their fresh state, are usually salted with salt-earth collected
from tidal creeks, but not with Government salt. The salt-earth is
mixed with the sea-water and is thus employed for curing fish which
are subsequently dried in the sun. The quality of the salt -fish is con-
sidered to be good, and more could be sold ; it is consumed by Pariahs to a
great, and by Sudras to a small, extent, but is said not to be fit to be export-
ed. Fish fins and sounds are preserved ; fish liver oil is manufactured ; and
its gall used as medicine. Subsequently (March 26th, 1873) he continues,
that the monopoly price of salt is Rs. 2 a maund in his district ; that it
is not used for salting fish, but both salt-earth and sea- water are employed
CIV
for this purpose. The practice of salting fish remains stationary. One
person acts as headman in each fishing village ; the rank is hereditary ;
they both fish and act as palanquin bearers, whilst it is reported that
they have lands in some villages. Persons of all villages on the sea-
side are privileged to use nets in certain places allotted. Fishermen
make their own boats and nets ; their numbers have remained stationary.
The Deputy Tehsildar of Coring a (1869) replies that fish is exported to
Moulmein and other places ; the average daily earnings of sea-fishermen
are about one rupee, but of those who fish in the rivers perhaps four
annas. Sufficient are taken to supply the local markets. Fresh fish
are generally preferred to the salted article. Fish are salted to a great
extent with Government salt : and salt-earth, which is taken from, the
swamps along the coast, is used for curing mackerel; sea-water is not
employed. Fish are dried, roes are salted, and fins and sounds are
preserved; fish liver oil is also manufactured. Subsequently (1873) he
continues, salt is usually sold in this division at Rs. 2-4 a maund. It
has been reported that the fishermen residing in the villages of Coringa,
Tallaveru, &c., use the Government salt, and that those residing in the
suburbs in the immediate vicinity of the sea, employ salt-earth for
curing fish. It has also been reported that salt-earth is used for
this purpose. The practice of salting fish has remained stationary.
Fishermen had no peculiar privileges in old times which they do
not now possess. It does not appear that there are any headmen of the
fishing castes. No one claims any rights in regard to the sea-fisheries.
The fishermen purchase boats and nets at their own cost. Their numbers
have remained stationary. The localities where fish are caught are about
5 or 6 miles distant from the place where the fishermen reside. It
will therefore be convenient to fishermen to cure fish at their homes, conse-
quently the sale of salt at the places where fish are caught does not
appear to bring about any benefit. The Deputy Collector (February
28th, 1873) observes that salt is sold at 3 rupees a maund in this divi-
sion, and is generally used for curing fish. Salt-earth and sea-water aje
employed in some places for this purpose secretly, because rich men will
not prefer to eat such fish. The practice of salting fish has certainly in-
creased of late years', as salt fish is exported to Hyderabad and other
places from this district in large quantities. Fishermen possess all the
privileges they formerly had, besides being freed from the moturpha tax.
In villages where there is a fishing caste, the fishermen themselves
appoint a person to be a headman. His duties are to settle caste
disputes, &c.', to visit with fines, &c., those who commit immoral
crimes, such as adultery, &c. The office is hereditary indeed. No
emoluments are assigned to him, but he is allowed to receive certain
presents, and is much respected on the occasion of marriages, &c., of
fishermen. There are many who claim rights regarding sea-fisheries oppo-
site to their huts or places of residence ; such disputes give rise to civil
actions. The fishermen generally construct boats themselves, as they are
apt carpenters, while some who are ignorant of the work get them con-
structed by workmen. Likewise they prepare their nets. In some cases
they hire boats from soucars, &c. There is an increase in the sea-fisher-
men as in other classes of late. This is attributed to the bounty of
Providence, but not to any particular reason.
ev
109. From the Vizagapatam. Collector ate the following returns of
native officials have been received (November
Opinions of native officials in 18?2) The Deputy Tehsildar of Bimlapatam
the Vizagapatam Collectorate. t. ,, il • u ^V. «
replies that salt is sold at the pans at Ks. &
a maund, but retailed in the bazar at nearly Rs. 2|. The Government
salt is used for curing large fish, and salt-earth or sea- water for
the small ones. The practice of curing fish has remained stationary
of late years. In old times the fishermen had no peculiar privileges
they do not now possess. There are headmen of the fishing castes
termed Pillaho ; the office is hereditary : the headman settles all
caste disputes, for which he receives a small remuneration in money or
fish as a present. As regards sea-fishing, the villagers residing on the sea-
shore consider they have a claim to cast their nets before outsiders.
The number of fishermen has remained stationary ; they supply them-
selves with boats and nets. The Deputy Tehsildar of Vizagapatam
observes that salt is retailed in the town at Rs. 2-10-8 a maund. It is
customary amongst Vaddi caste people (sawyers) and certain fishermen
in the town who have money to cure big fish with Government salt, but
the poorer fishermen do not employ it. Salt-earth and sea-water is used
in curing fish. The practice of salting fish has neither increased nor
decreased of late years. In old times the fishermen had no peculiar
privileges they do not now possess : they have hereditary headmen
whose duty it is to settle caste disputes ; his emoluments are (1) if he goes
and asks the fishermen when they catch fish they give him 2 or 4 pies'
worth; (2) in marriages he receives 3 annas for putting a turband on the
head of the bridegroom. No one claims any right as regards the sea
fisheries. The number of fishermen has remained stationary of late years.
110. In the Ganjam Collectorate the following are the returns
from the native officials. The Tehsildar of
CKeacok (June 1870) observes that there are
about 38 fishing villages in his district,
averaging from 90 to 900 persons. In some the persons are also
agriculturists or labourers. Those of the Meela, Wuda, and Jalary,
castes fish in the sea, whilst some of the Meela, Pully, Khandra, Jelary,and
Neyala castes employ themselves in the rivers and back-waters ; the latter
and also the Kavety and Relly castes sell and salt fish. Fish is carried
long distances for sale to the various fairs and into the interior. The
general scale of remuneration to fishermen on the coast is two-thirds
of the fish taken by them, and one -third to the owner of the nets ; this
gives each man about Rs. 4 a month. For eating it is preferred
fresh. The fishing population continues about the same : about 200
boats go to sea between this and Poondy : both boats and nets continue
about the same. The best fishing months in the sea are from Novem-
ber to January inclusive. Fish are salted to a great extent ; neither
salt nor salt-earth is employed for this purpose, but sea-water is used in
a fermented state. The quality of the salt fish is pretty good, but an
improved one would be preferred, and more could be sold, as all classes
who eat fresh fish will also consume the salted article. Fish, except
Crustacea, are not smoked ; roes are salted, sharks' fins are dried, sounds
are not preserved. Fish liver oil is extracted from sharks and skates.
The Tehsildar of Berhampore replies that in his district there are about
CV1
sixteen fishing villages, having an average of about 219 occupants. Men
of the Tero, Kevuti, Kandra, and Mila casts fish in the sea, back-waters,
and rivers. Those of the Tero, Kevuti, Kandra, Mila, Reddika, Jalari,
and Haddi or Pariah caste sell fish, whilst Kevuti, Mila, and Kandra men
salt them, and the salt-fish is taken a long Distance for sale. Fishermen
working as coolies are not paid in money, but receive half the fish cap-
tured in fresh-waters, and one-third of those taken in the sea goes to the
owners of the nets and two-thirds to the coolies, who earn about two
annas a day. The supply is sufficient for the demand ; for eating it
is preferred fresh. The fishing population continues about the same ;
about 400 boats and 500 catamarans go to sea, which, and the nets, are
about the same numbers as formerly. The four months of the cold
weather are those in which most fish are taken ; salting is carried on
to a great extent ; salt is not used, neither is salt-earth, which is obtain-
able from swamps and places near the Chilka lake, but cannot be taken
without the circar's permission. Sea- water is used by some persons for
seasoning the fish. The present quality of salt-fish is good, the supply
of which does not equal the demand. Fish are dried and their roes
salted ; neither fish fins nor sounds are preserved. Fish liver oil is pre-
pared ; crocodiles are not in large numbers, but are found in fresh water
here and there. There are some creatures like cats (otters) which de-
stroy fish a good deal.
111. The following return* from the Collector of South Canara had
it arrived in time should have been inserted at page xlv : —
* Statement showing the quantity and value of (i Fish," dried and " salted," and
" Fish oil " imported into, and exported from, the Port of Bombay during
the last twenty years.
IMPORTS.
EXPORTS.
YEARS.
Fish dried
Fish dried
REMARKS.
and
Fish oil.
and
Fish oil.
i
salted.
salted.
Rs.
Gals.
Rs.
Rs.
Gals.
Rs.
1853-54
1854-55
1855-56
.:
90,856
1,09,274
2,842
31,870
63,751
1,827
.
80,243
1,73,587
2,806
65,999
1,01,022
1,804
The information regard-
ing fish, dried and
salted (which is
1866-57
8,998
6,508
10,845
7,843
registered in value
1857-58
1858-59
] 859-60
77,631
10,982
35,268
62,381
8,824
28,340
29,180
53.532
41,222
23,449
43,017
33,170
only), for the year
previous to 1866-67
and for 1867-68 cannot
1 860-61
t
19,096
8 982
8,627
6,852
be furnished, the
1861-62
1862-63
•
18,866
12,006
6,911
34,891
17,729
80,932
14,269
same not having been
separately registered.
1863-64
45,821
30,278
36,494
32,220
1864-65
13,629
7,687
12,308
69,235
1865-66
62
40
..
140
135
1866-67
1867-46
24 499
1,16 246
600
*
9800
2,695
3,856
17,460
13^558
1,880
99
4,931
2,203
40
7,064
* Not separately regis-
tered.
1669-70
:•! -J2- 386
1,327
10,386
1,231
1,364
1870-71
V...MKI 1,008
1,717
23,755
...
1871-72
1872-73
64,4*0
82,019
' 698
5,800
MM
10,938
16,894
4,608
21,432
5i554
25,833
CV11
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CV111
CEYLON.
112. The Colonial Secretary, Ceylon, observes (Sept. 20th 1872)
that the selling- price of salt bas been thus
Price of salt in the island of from 1825 to i836 . « During these 12 years
Cevlon: and table of imports ,, . » -,,
of salt fish and salt. tne Pnce of salt appears to have been at
the rate of 18 fanams, or 2*. §d. per c parrah/
equal to about 2/3 of a bushel. Taking the average weight of salt at
70 fl5s. per bushel, the price of 1 Ib. was f J of a penny, or a little more
than f of a penny. From 1837 to 1842: the price during this period
was at 2$. &d. a bushel, or f- of a penny per IB., which is slightly above
the former rate. 1843 to 1845 : during these three years the price was
2*. 8d. a bushel, or |f of a penny per 115., that is, a little above y7^ of a
penny." The Auditor General of Ceylon, in his report on the salt revenue
of Ceylon (June 22nd 1871), observes :" the Central, I need hardly say,
not being a maritime province, derives its supply from the Southern and
North- Western Provinces, whence also the Colombo market and the
Western Province generally is furnished, there being no production or
manufacture of salt along its sea-coast. The monopoly rate is 4*. Sd.
per cwt., whereas that in Madras is Rs. 2 a maund = 5*. 5\d. per cwt."
Imports into Ceylon for 10 years ending 1871.
FlSH DRIED AND SALTED.
SALT.
YEAR.
Cwts.
Qr.
rbs.
Year.
Cwts.
Qr.
ibs.
1862
61,041
3
9
1862
121
1
25
1863
60,905
0
19
1863
4,996
0
9
1864
75,21-8
2
3
1864
133
3
8
1865 -
66,970
2
6 1 1865
4,037
0
22
1866
70,190
2
11
1866
96
2
11
1867
71,794
3
17
1867
4,555
1
I
1868
73,293
3
22
1868
6,481
2
25
]869
75,188
3
0
1869
293
0
21
1870
76,968
1
15
1870
71
0
2
1871
78,574
3
16
1S71
3,213
0
4
113. From the Report of the Commissioners appointed to enquire
Investigations into the state into the sea-fisheries of Ceylon I have ex-
of the sea-fisheries of Ceylon. tracted the following information, premising
that the whole question of imports and exports of salt fish, dried fish,
fish oils, fins, and sounds does not appear to have been examined. It
would have been more interesting to have investigated the following
questions : — Has a rise in the price of salt had any effect on the fishermen
C1X
and fish-curers' trade ? Has an increased amount of salt fish been imported
from India as the monopoly price of salt was augmented in the island ?
Sir J. Tennent observed — " and it is a remarkable fact, as illustrative of
the singular habits of these people, that each diminution of the duty (or
rather a tax, or license on fishing), instead of leading to increase of the
trade, and an addition to the revenue, had, in every instance, the directly
contrary effect. On an average of four years from 1830 to 1833, whilst
the tax was one quarter, the average amount of revenue was £7,389 per
annum. From 1834 to 1837, when it was reduced to one-sixth, the
average annual receipt was £6,694. And from 1837 to 1840, when the
duty was one-tenth, the receipts fell off to £4,82 1." Now this decrease
of trade may have been due to the incidence of the salt tax, there being
only two ways of disposing of fish, viz., fresh or salted. The reduction
of captures is given as between 1834 and 1837, and it was in the latter
year that the price of salt was increased. These figures are absolutely
necessary before coming to any conclusion. The Commissioners consider
that scarcity of fish was the cause. But whether this dearness ought to
be attributed to the diminished supply and scarcity of the article' is a
point on which surmises only can be made. " On the western side of
the island (no salt produced?), so far as we have been able to carry our
investigations, it appears that fishing operations are almost continuous,
being interrupted only by the changes of the south-west and north-east
monsoons. The mode of fishing during the one monsoon differs in some
measure from that which is carried on during the other. * * We have
now to consider the complaints which have been brought against foreign
fishermen, that is, men who come here from the continent of India.
Fishermen of nearly every class complain that their operations are
injuriously aifected by the mode of fishing adopted by these strangers,
and there is reason to believe that its prosecution is not beneficial to the
public. The principal objections to its use are, that the fishermen, not
content with having the open sea to fish in, resort to the well-known
bait grounds, disturbing the settlement of the fish there, and in captur-
ing everything without regard to the interests of the other fishermen,
that they bring up with the fish, amongst other things, a peculiarly
offensive matter called mudu-hori, all which objectionable refuse is
packed up in mat bags or baskets with the fish and brought on shore.
Though the condition of the fish is thus much deteriorated, it is admitted
that the poorer classes purchase the fish on account of its cheapness.
However, it is important that there should not only be an abundant and
cheap supply of fish in the market, but also that it should furnish a
wholesome and nutritive food, and we are therefore of opinion that some
restriction should be imposed on this style of fishing. * * After giving
the best consideration to the evidence, and the law as it exists at present,
we are of opinion that it is advisable to legislate for the preservation
and improvement of the sea-fisheries of this island, so as to secure to
the public the greatest possible advantage from the various modes of
fishing. In this view, the law should provide that rules may be made ;
that a breach of those rules should be rendered penal ; that the fish
captured under such breach should be forfeited and destroyed ; and that
the implements of capture should be publicly burned. * * That the
rules be submitted in pursuance hereof may permit the prohibition of the
ex
use of the following nets: — The pdweni or wali-dela, the suda-dela,
the adappu valljei* and restriction in the use of the kaltumarang*
dela ;f and that they may also render penal the bringing ashore and
sale of small and ill-conditioned fish."
114. The following are the descriptions given by Mr. Pareira
in the report as to the various modes of
^Modes sea-fishmg m ^^ and nets in use. ^ The fishing dis-
trict of Colombo may be said to extend from
Mount Lavinia on the south as far as Pamunugama on the north,
embracing a coast line of about twenty miles. I shall therefore confine
my remarks to the fishing operations carried on along this sea border,
as my connection with this part of the coast qualifies me to speak from
Eersonal knowledge. The South-west monsoon, which sets in about the
itter end of May, and is called by fishers the Warakan season, is
marked by considerable disturbance of the currents and tides, but this
disturbance soon subsides, and a few days after the break of the monsoon
the sea along the western coast settles into its ordinary calm, when
fishing operations, which had been temporarily suspended owing to the
wind and waves, are again resumed. The fishing during this season is,
however, carried on further out at sea, and is principally confined to large
fish which are taken by hook and line. The md-dela, or seine, is never
used during this season. The boat-fishing is divided into two classes,
those that go out at early dawn, and at midnight. The former first
proceed to some well-known bait ground, where, by suspending a small
thread net from the boat, while at the same time still moving on, a suffi-
cient quantity of small fish and prawns are caught to serve as bait.
From these bait grounds the boats proceed a .considerable distance sea-
wards, and when arrived at the proper fishing ground, especially over
sunken rocks, the boats are anchored and the fishing by hook and line
commences. The fish caught in these boats are generally of the large
descriptions, such as the wetiya, tumbeya, maguruwa, laweya, kat-
tawa, seir, &c., being mostly good table fish. The boats that start at
midnight fish with artificial bait made of strips of cocoanut and the fibrous
bark of the ehetu tree. This bait, attached to a hook and line, is cast into
the sea, while the boat is under full sail, and attracts fish of the bonito
class, principally kelawalla, etawalla, baleya, and even seir fish, &c.
The boats that start in the morning continue out at sea till about 3 or 4
o'clock, and those that start at midnight till 12 or 1 o'clock, and return
on shore. There are only two descriptions of nets used during the south-
west monsoon — the mora-dela and the kumbutu-dela. The former is
made of thick twine, and, as its name implies, is intended to catch sharks,
although other varieties are also caught. The latter is made of finer
twine, and is intended to take any kind of small fish indiscriminately.
There is a third description called the katta-dela, also made of fine
* This net was introduced from India about 1861. During the ebb tide in the
lake, men fasten " several nets together, and bury the lower edge below the mud : and at
the flood, the upper edge is raised and propped by sticks, thus making a kind of fence. At
the second ebb, these men go out and pick up the fish which have been left on the mud,
having been prevented from escape by this fence of nets. Only the large fish are picked up,
the smaller kinds being left to rot on the mud. The quantity so left is much greater than
that which is picked up."
f Catamaran fishermen,
CXI
twine, and is intended to take larger sized fish than the kumbutu-dela.
The mora-dela is laid overnight, and is dragged in the morning. The
others are laid in the morning, and are dragged ashore during the fore-
noon. Each description of these nets has its own particular ground and
rticular hours for spreading, and the ground or time of the one cannot
interfered with by the other. As is well known, boats assist in the
laying of these nets, as they proceed along the intended line, and when
the whole has been paid off the boats return for line fishing, or come on
shore. After a sufficient time has elapsed for the fish to get into the
nets, the boats go back, and haul them on board, and return on shore
with the captures. These nets have not the small bag attached ; but the
fish arc caught in the meshes. The nets are kept straight by means of
floats at the top and weights at the bottom, and the ends are marked by
buoys. A floating net called the paweni-dela, made of hemp, is also used.
One end of this net is attached to a buoy which is left at a selected spot,
from whence the boat moves on across the line which fish generally take
in entering the harbour, and the net is dropped and allowed to drift
with the current. This net is so laid on during the night, and is hauled
up the following morning. The fourth description, called the uda-dela,
is used at the middle of the south-west monsoon. It is made of cotton
thread, and is spread in the same manner as the ma-dela. A rope
attached to one end being left on shore, the net is carried out to sea by
a boat, and, after a considerable circuit has been made, the rope at the
other end is brought ashore, and the area so enclosed is dragged. The
fish captured are generally of the smaller descriptions. The time of
laying the net depends altogether on the quantity of fish present in the
harbour, the operation being sometimes repeated three or four times in
the day, when an abundance of fish offers inducement. Another net,
the suda-dela, is employed at the middle of the south-west monsoon.
Each of these nets is about 30 fathoms long, and sometimes as many as
five or six are joined together. The net is broad enough to reach the top,
where it is kept straight by floats, and at the bottom there are stones
which make it rest on the ground. The net is made of thread, and the
meshes are very small. This net is carried out by a boat, and when a
large shoal of small fish is found, it is laid out in a circle to enclose the
shoal. After this is done, a terrible splash and noise is made in the
enclosed space by beating it with oars and clubs. The fish are caught
in the meshes, and are generally of the sardine class. Throughout the
year, angling from the rocks on the coast is also carried on, but the fish
generally caught are small, and belong to what is commonly known as
the rock-fish class. The last description is known as kattumarang-del.
This is a recent introduction. This net is carried out into deep sea in a
kattamarang or raft manned by three men, accompanied by a second
raft with two men. When the fishing ground has been reached, a portion
of the net is put into the second raft, and both commence paying it off
from this point, proceeding in a circle, until both meet again, when they
lash the rafts together, and haul up the net. All the fish enclosed are
forced by the gradually diminishing circle into the sack attached to the
middle of the net. All descriptions of fish, from the largest to the
smallest, and even the spawn, are scraped and taken. During the
n or th-east monsoon, the two descriptions of boat-fishing carried on in the
CX11
south-west monsoon are practised, and the same kind of fish caught.
Besides, a boat called the Gahenang Oruwa goes to sea, carrying nets
for securing bait. These nets, which are known as gahenang-del, are
small cast nets, which are cast in the different bait grounds (Maddes).
When a sufficient quantity of bait has been secured, these boats go far
out to sea, and they fish with rods. The rod is generally a bamboo,
and the hook is of considerable size. The seir fish, the angilas, etawal-
las, kattaawas, &c., are thus easily captured. Another class of boats
called Eng-oru go out especially to the bait ground, where, after captur-
ing small fish for bait, they are bound to supply the deep-sea fishers
with them. The net used by the Eng-oru is made of thread, is of a
circular shape, and is cast from a rope attached to the middle. Pudu-oru,
another description of boat, goes out in the mornings, proceeds to the
fishing ground with an artifical bait made of the bark of the ehetu plant.
These boats being small do not go beyond the roadstead. The fish is
caught with a hook and rod, and the description caught is the katuwalla.
There is night fishing in the north-east monsoon, which, unlike the
night fishing of the south-west monsoon, commences in the evening, and
continues till the following morning. The boats are anchored at the
rocks, and fishing by line and hook commences. The fish thus caught
are generally of the large size. Night fishing by torchlight is also
practised during the prevalence of this monsoon. The people of Pam-
unugama are those only of the district who practise this kind of fishing.
They generally go in boats provided with a sufficient quantity of chools
(torches) at 9 or 10 in the night, and having arrived at a favourable spot
in the sea, they hold the blazing torch in one hand, and with the other
employ a small attangua, to take in the prawns and other fish that
come up to the surface, dazzled by the light. This fishing continues
till the following morning, and prawns are taken in the largest number.
The principal and peculiar net of the north-east monsoon is the md-dela,
which is made of coir, except the bag, which is of hemp. One end of
this net is left on shore in charge of one party, and the rest, laden in a
boat, is rowed off, and while it proceeds, the net is gradually paid
off ; a semicircle is described as the boat approaches the shore,
and the enclosed space is dragged. All kinds of fish, from the
largest to the smallest, as they enter the bag are caught in this net. " The
nul-dela- is made of three sections; the ends are of coir, the next
section of hemp, and the middle section of cotton thread. The
meshes are very small, and allow no escape, even to the smallest fish.
This is also laid in the same manner as the preceding. The fish, princi-
pally small, are caught not only in the bag, but in the meshes also all
throughout. The puiunu-dela is carried by a boat to which one of its
ends is attached, and it is paid off as the boat moves on. It is kept
straight stretched by floats and weights, and the boat being made
stationary at the extreme end, a few hours' time is allowed for the fish
to entangle themselves in the meshes, when it is hauled into the
boat. Katta-del, suda-del, udu-del, and kattumarang-del are also used
during the north-east monsoon. The fishing operations above described
may be divided into two classes, the legitimate and the illegitimate.
The legitimate or proper kind of fishing nets to be used during the
south-west monsoon are the mdra-del, kumkutu-del, and katja-del ; and
CX111
the md-del, the laru-del or gahaneng-del, during the north-east mon-
soon. The other description of nets already enumerated are all more or
less calculated to damage the fishing by scaring away the fish that enter
the harbour, or by disturbing and destroying the spawn. The pulunu-dela,
though an old net, is now made broader, and it has completely changed
its character. The kattumar?ng-dela is undoubtedly the most injurious
to the fishing interests of the people. The pavenne-dela is also a most
objectionable description of net. The third description of objectionable
net is the suda-dela. The fourth description of objectionable net is the
udii-dela. The fifth description of objectionable net is the nul-dela.
Fishing ly torchlight is also calculated to injure the interests, both of the
legitimate net and boat-fishers. Another objectionable method of fishing
is adopted by some of the fishermen at a particular season. This system
of fishing is highly injurious to the interests of the common fisher-
men, as these boats start almost in the midnight, and sail about the sea.
The fish mostly being found close to the surface at this time are
frightened by the noise and rapid motion of the boats at this unusual
hour."
115. The following is a synopsis of some of the evidence given
Native opinions respecting by the natives, mostly fishermen. Appu deals
the fisheries. in fisJ^ an(J nas some coast fishermen under
him. They come here in gangs of five or six holding one net among them.
They bring hardly any money. In Colombo, there are five or six capitalists
who advance them money, and thus at once acquire a control over them,
provide them dwellings, and requisites for fishing. When they bring
fish on shore, the landlord makes his own selections, taking about one-third
in kind during the sale, which he conducts. The sale over, he takes T'2 th of
the receipts. At Batiicoloa a disturbance arose amongst the fishermen,
one party having infringed the old modes of fishing by drawing a seine
net within the bar. The parties made charges and counter- charges for
breaking customs, whioh all admitted were as follows: — " (1.) No
seine or drag net to be used within the bar. (2.) No nets are ever
to be cast in those parts of the lake set aparts for fishing with hook
and line. (3.) Cast-nets (sanel vallei) may, with the foregoing
exceptions, be used at all times during the day, but not at night, until
the 22ud night of the moon's age, the use of this net being prohibited
for the first 21 days of the moon's age reckoning from the new moon.
(4.) Fish spears, made of Palmyra wood may not be used, the descrip-
tions permitted being those the shafts of which are made of Sam-
andale and Yinangu wood. The reason for this is, that Palmyra
spears being very heavy, cause so much disturbance that the fish are
frightened away by their use/' Many of the fishermen consider
that the use of small-meshed nets has largely increased during the
last few years, and with great injury to the fisheries, by destroying
the small ones or bait, consequent upon which the larger fish that prey
upon them are either frightened away, or not finding sufficient food
have migrated elsewhere. Natives of India appear to be largely con-
cerned in this mode of capturing fish, and their captures are sold cheaper
than the larger ani more wholesome varieties. "The Malabars lay their
nets at night and draw them up early in the morning, securing all the
small fish which would otherwise have served as bait for the larger fish
CX1V
which come towards the shore early, and it is these large fish which would
have served for fishing with the Ma-del." A fish-dealer and net-holder thus
explains why he rather deals with natives of India than with the Sinhalese :
" We can't get so much out of the Sinhalese fishermen; they would not
give us anything. We have only to make a sham of giving a Tamil a
crack on the head, and he will give anything. The Sinhalese will only
give the share for the Roman Catholic churches, because the rent is sold,
and if the share is not paid, the rites of the church are refused." Many
persons suggest prohibiting fishing from kattumarangs during August
and September, so that the fish may be permitted to come in peace
towards the shore and congregate : subsequently there does not appear to
be so much objection raised to their use.
116. Bennett, writing upon the 'Capabilities of Ceylon (1843, p. 162) /
observes " that a method of curing fish upon
Bennett's remarks on the sea improved system to the primitive one
fisheries. ,1,1 i , • j • .1 • i j /
that has obtained in the island from immemo-
rial time would both ensure very ample profits to those concerned in it,
and prove a blessing to the colony." In salting fish in the tropics air
and shade are necessary, open platforms of split bamboo canes raised on
tiers, so that if salt only is necessary it can be done, or fish smoked " by
lighted wet rice straw being laid under the lower tier" (p. 167 J. Sand, he
observes, is present in Indian cured fish, likewise incipient putrefaction ;
for this last they should be boiled with charcoal. " I therefore earnestly
endeavour to impress upon the attention of individual capitalists that
there is no speculation more certain of success amongst the many other
very encouraging ones that present themselves at Ceylon than that of
establishing factories for the curing of fish, at such places upon the
coast as have the best fisliing and little or no demand for fresh fisu"
(p. 186).
cxv
BENGAL.
117. The sea-board of the Bengal Presidency, unlike that of
Bengal sea-board not adapted Madras, is intersected with rivers debouching
for fisheries, due to some local into the sea. The most southern of these is
causes : its sea and estuary the Mahanuddi, or great river of Orissa, and
fisheries, several others intervene between it and the
Sunderbunds, where the various mouths of the Ganges emerge in the
Bay of .Bengal, through a country which has become depopulated and
is now in most parts dangerous to reside in, due to endemic diseases and
other causes. In such a district one could hardly expect the sea fisheries
to be carried on very vigorously ; but one might have imagined something
could have ere this been discovered to remedy the almost total apathy
which exists, the deadening effects of which are extended even into Chit-
tagong, also under the Bengal Government. It is not until we step
over the boundary into Burma that any activity in the fisheries is per-
ceptible. Having mentioned some of the physical difficulties to carry-
ing on the occupation of fishermen, we will next briefly consider whether
the fisheries themselves are of any importance. Along the coast of Orissa
and the Midnapore districts, which are well inhabited, fish are found in
great abundance, but due to several causes, which will be pointed out,
there does not appear to be a disposition on the part of the natives to avail
themselves of the bounties of nature. However, before we blame the
fishermen, it might be as well to take into consideration whether the
rulers of the country are or are not responsible for much at least of this
apparent apathy. If we investigate the Sunderbunds, we find every
water-course and estuary filled with excellent varieties of fish, many
growing to a very large size ; but the crocodile and other vermin obtain
far more sustenance from them than does man.
118. The fishermen appear to be of two classes — the inhabitants and
„,, fi , Madrassees who were induced to settle at
The fishermen. . .
Fooree, and probably elsewhere, on certain
conditions, which the local officials have since disregarded.
119. The fisheries appear to be but little worked to what they
might be, consequently the amount of fish
* obtained is nothing like what it ought to be.
This is apparently due to the want of a local
market ; fresh fish finds a sale, but the salting of fish is a trade but little
carried on. When I say fresh fish I must modify my remarks, for the
putrid substances sold in Balasore and elsewhere I have been, are in such
a condition that even an approach to them is most undesirable. The
Collector of Balasore pithily remarks on the natives " not being averse
to fish far advanced in decomposition/'' Salt being evidently too dear
to be procured, they are stated to dry their fish (t in the sun, and eat it
when it is quite putrid. They like it in this way, and there is no reason
why they should be interfered with." A predecessor of his enquiring
as to the sanitary state of these fishermen from a local zemindar, was
CXV1
informed "Cholera seems made for these people.1" Pish captured in their
stake nets were cheap, but why ? because they had no means of preserv-
ing them ; if they are too large to sun-dry, they must be eaten or sold
fresh or else spoil.
120. What is the price of Government salt is rather an import-
ant consideration, although the Collector of
Ba'aTfi\Whl° ™"d those people on
putrid fish, observes " the price of salt had
nothing to do with their not salting it." As he gives no answer as to the
price of salt, I conclude it is about what prevailed when I was there, from
Rs. 4-8 to 5 a maund. Out of six European officials whose opinion
are recorded, three consider the high price of salt has acted detrimentally
on the curing of fish ; 2 that people do not like salt fish ; and the remain-
ing one, as remarked on above, that the price of salt has nothing to
do with it. Here I would observe that there are two varieties of salt in
Orissa, the English imported and the sun-dried native-made, the
latter being considered by Hindus on religious grounds as the correct
article to be employed. The high price of salt appears to be one of the
reasons that fish are merely sun-dried along the coast ; for, as observed,
it is not only the cost of the article that has to be considered, but the
ruinous interest fish-curers would have to pay the usurers who lend the
money whereby only they can obtain this antiseptic.
121. But other causes have been adduced for the absence of a good
salt-fish trade, viz., a decrease of sea fish :
' to a real
, ,
nution or the nsn themselves, or that the
fishermen are not reaping the harvest of the sea. In some places, as at
Balasore, " the fishermen state that the supply of fish has much decreas-
ed of late ; but I do not find that this statement is borne out by facts. l
They probably make it in the interest of their trade." A local cause
may have been at work at this place, for the chief mode of capturing
fish is here by stake nets and in-shore fishing, as previously described
and the fish been scared away. Or the decreased supply may be due to
a less demand, owing to the inability to cure the surplus, and this having
eventuated in less exertions being made to capture the fish. One reason
brought forward by Mr. Geddes at Pooree is alluded to in para. 127,
mz.y that a Hindu deity's temper has been upset by the killing of cows
and other abominations, and that in anger the earth, &c., does not bring
forth its wonted increase. This cause and my not advocating devil
worship I have alluded to further on.
122. What remedies have been proposed ? Dr. W. Hunter has suggest-
ed that something should be done to cheapen
Remedies that have been pro- the ^ ^ ^ fish.cure^ but jt doeg ^
appear that any one else has proposed such a
course. The usual objections to smuggling have been raised, and the
matter becomes dropped : for such only refers to the loss of good food to
the teeming thousands who are of or below the caste of karans or writers.
» It would have been more to the point, if the facts, whatever they may be, had
been stated, also the length of time and opportunities that have given the Collector such
cause to deny the fishermen's statements.
CXV11
123. In answer to my enquiry whether it would be practicable or
advisable to construct enclosures in favorable
Respecting the sale of salt at localities, where fish could be salted and salt
f*Td f ™% at I1;ates Jus* «TTra«ve
lor the oona jide salting ot nsh, the five
answers have been as follow. . First, that as there is no hope of decreas-
ing the price of salt, it is useless to discuss the question further. The
four others consider such as either visionary, not practical, not advisable,
or inapplicable. The two chief reasons adduced are, difficulty of prevent-
ing smuggling, and that either the people do not know how to salt fish,
or the supply is merely equal to the demand.
124. The Commissioner of Orissa observed (December 4th 1865)
during the late famine, " whilst the condition
in OrisiT8 Of ^r0pe&n °&C™lB of the residents of this place, where my camp
is, which is called Nijhur Bulbudderpore or
Kentesakee, is somewhat easier as living by their fisheries, they are not
so affected by present circumstances.'" But on the other hand their
condition in some places, I was informed, was " not better than that of
their neighbours, as at Bhudruck, Balasore, and Pooree they suffered
greatly, but this suffering seems most to have affected the sea fishermen,
who perhaps found the sea too rough to fish in in their exhausted state."
(Report on Fisheries of Orissa.)
125. The Collector of Cutlack (October 28th 1872; stated that fish
as food is generally preferred in its fresh
Opinion of the Collector of fc t th estuarieg o£ the different
Cuttack. . . _- _ . .. .
rivers it is salted and dried, but the process is
very incomplete, and the fish when offered for sale has an offensive
strong smell.
126. The Officiating Collector of Pooree observed (July 27th 1858).
" Shamfodra machdiya. The fishings in
Opinions of Officials in Poree. . V1 ,-, , ? - -\/r r\ j
estuaries, like that facing Mr. Drares and
Captain Saxton's bungalows here, are not salt-water fisheries, as
I find the entry exists in the account of the estates previous to the
settlement, that to the present time the Telinga Lulliyas are the
only parties who fish in the sea, and it is well known that they were
first brought here in Mr. Wilkinson's time, or subsequent to the time
to which, these accounts alluded to refer * * Sdrpat machdiya, or
fishing on flooded plains. I would here observe that, as a general rule,
all fishings have been left unassessed. The zemindars now demand
rent from these people on account of the sea fishery, but their land only
went to the sea. Lulliyas cultivate no land, but live on the sands of
the sea-shore, and are boatmen as well as fishermen : none but these
men are capable of managing surf boats." The inducement to settle
held out ' was the promise of certain employment in boating, salt for
four months, and free leave to fish in the sea and collect shells for burn-
ing into lime for the remaining eight/ ' There is one other point
which suggests itself while considering the matter, and that is by declar-
ing such fishing free, you may enormously benefit the whole country ;
you allow of better nets and tackle being used, and improved methods
introduced in curing the fish ; you not only increase production, but you
lower prices aud raise the standard of diet throughout the country.
CXV111
Indeed, the matter appears to me of such moment, involving as it does
the consideration of the best means of availing ourselves of a ( harvest'
hitherto allowed to remain untouched, that I have often wondered that
the Indian Government did not follow the example of the British and
French, and make the advancement of sea-fisheries a special object of
legislation and care." The Revenue Board wrote to the Commissioner of
Cuttack (August 17th 1858), in reply, "that the Board quite agree with
you, that no parties have an exclusive right to sea-fishing, or to shells
and other productions of the sea between high and low water mark."
In a letter from the Collector of Pooree, 1862, it is observed that the
zemindars collect rents for stake nets in estuaries. Dr. W. W. Hunter,
(Orissa, i, p. 45) observes how the fisheries are carried on " on the
northern point of Parikud, where the channel opens towards the sea. I
came upon a region of endless shallows and stake fisheries, in which
even my light draught pinnace had to be pushed by main force through
the mud. The stakes form close wattle fences, about five feet high, of
which two-thirds are under water. They are arranged as three sides of
an oblong, or as two of a triangle, sometimes a mile in length, with
narrow-mouthed baskets opening from their sides, like the pockets along
a billiard-table. The tide flowed in with a gentle ripple, bringing up the
fish, who swam along the fences till they came to the mouths of the
baskets, which they forthwith entered and were caught. The most
lucrative enclosure or pocket was of course the one in the angle where
the stake lines met. Fishers in box-shaped canoes punted from one basket
to another, and bagged the prey." Respecting these fishermen, he remarks
(p. 31) that the " fishing communities, and especially the hamlets of boat-
men, are Telinga settlers from the Madras coast. They speak a differ-
ent language, observe different customs, and worship different gods from
those of the agricultural population ; and here I may notice, as I shall
not again have to recur to the subject, that the boating villages along the
whole coast, up to the Devi river and even above it, consist of similar
Telinga colonies from the south ; they are indistinct remnants of the
aboriginal races ; and although their separate origin is forgotten, they are
excluded from the Hindu commonwealth. They disregard a thousand
customs and scruples, religiously observed by the Hindus. There is a
little village of them on the sands of Puri, which although situated
within holy precincts, is denied an entrance into the great national temple
of Jagannath." Respecting the effects of the salt duty in Orissa, he
observes (ii, p. 160) of fish, that "the climate renders it impossible to
keep them in a fresh state long enough to reach the cultivated parts of
the province; a'nd the high duty on salt renders it impossible to cure
them. * * I have heard two objections urged to my views on this point.
The first is, that any system of drawbacks, which would allow the cur-
ing of fish with cheap salt, would lead to smuggling, and give rise to a
host of difficulties. One of these difficulties would unquestionably be,
that, owing to the high duty on salt, it would pay people to cure fish
with the duty free commodity, and then dissolve the salt out again. (1.)
But this might be overcome by a differential rate, calculated so as to
(1.) If this were so, whj is it not done with the salt-fish imported duty free into Bombay
and elsewhere ? Silt, in smiic <>f these foreign places, is sold at two uimas a uiauiid or less,
yet such a course would not pay !
CX1X
enable the fishermen to salt, and yet to render it unprofitable for the con-
sumer to dissolve out the saline ingredients. I do not deny the grave
practical difficulties of such a proposal ; but Government has to consider
whether it is not worth while to encounter and overcome these difficul-
ties, rather than to continue to deprive the often famine-stricken popula-
tion of the delta of a great staple article of its natural food. The
second objection is, that even although the people could get salt fish,
they would not eat it. Undoubtedly this is the fact as regards the
Brahmans and the high castes. But it is most certainly not the fact
with regard to four-fifths of the population. All castes in Orissa, below
the Karans or writers, would gladly use salted fish ; and at this moment
they consume great quantities of fish imperfectly cured in the sun, and
more or less rotten. With the chdsas, or peasant population, who form
the great body of the people, this is a favourite article of food ; indeed,
almost the sole relish which they can afford to their monotonous rice diet.
The husbandman stores up his supply of dry fish in reed baskets, and
sparingly doles out the decomposing mass as a luxury to his frugal
household throughout the year."
127. Mr. J. G. Geddes, Officiating Collector of Poor ee, (August 29th
M r ,, >„••„ .1872) observes that— " near the Chilka
Mr. Geddes opinions. » i_ ii i 1-^1 i /• t_ ii
Lake the people subsist largely on fish all
the year round. At a distance from the Chilka lake, fish is a rarity and
a delicacy, except during the rainy season, at which period every chasa plies
his net, basket or trap for small fry/' te There is some trade in salted fish
from the Chilka with the Gurgats. People have a liking for salted fish,
both there and on the plains, but there is some complaint amongst the
fishermen of being hampered by the greater stringency of late years in
matters of salt tax, It is a pity that there is this difficulty ; were it not
for this, the people of the interior, who at present have little animal food
of any kind during the dry season, might share in the ample supplies of
the Chilka Lake. This is all the more to be regretted at a time, when,
owing to various circumstances, which I need not recount, milk diet of
any kind is becoming less and less accessible to the bulk of the population.
With regard to the question whether the supply of fish is falling off,
the universality and unamimity of popular opinion seems to me to de-
monstrate the fact. Among other reasons assigned for this, irrigation
anicuts are mentioned, but this, of course, is stated to be only a local
aggravation of a general hardship. The usual reason assigned is that
the divinity is becoming less gracious to mankind in these days, and that
the earth is no longer bringing forth its wonted increase ; now that per-
jury is rampant in the courts, kine are slaughtered and other wicked-
nesses abound. This sort of reasoning will of course be set down as
theological superstition (') by the Director General of Indian fisheries,
but it seems to me to be relatively more scientific than Dr. Day's
postulate of an innate viciousness, impelling the natives to a reck-
less destruction of fish.2 The common Hindu notions about the
(') I must decline admitting this to be 'reasoning', or being responsible for setting
such down to so fine a term as • theological superstition'.
(2) I must be pemitted to remark that this idea imputed to me is no emanation of
mine.
cxx
Kali ' Jug (fourth or degenerate age), with its blight over nature,
may be silly, but in every relative and scientific view it is at least as
reasonable as the similar English nonsense which has been written up
in our day, about the golden age of the Indo-European antecedent caste,
polygamy, and polytheism, when the Ayran herdsman was milking the
Ayran cow high on the table land of Asia, and praising the true God
in monetheistic Rig-vedas. At a time when rubbish of this sort passes
for learning, I see no reason for requiring a hypothesis more scientific
than that current among the Urias, as to the decaying supply of fish.
At all events, the official view of Dr. Day, that natives are more cruelly
inclined than they used to be against finned creatures, is not worth set-
ting up in the place of the anger of Parameshwara.1 Until the facts
have been properly co-ordinated, it is useless to propose or discuss a remedy.
It may or may not be hopeless to propitiate Parameshwara,2 which
would be the natural remedy according to the Hindu explanation, but
it is more certainly hopeless to police net and trap throughout the em-
pire, which is what Dr. Day, I believe, has actually proposed. With
respect to one conspicuous though local evil of recent introduction, viz.,
the undue exposure of fishes at irrigation weirs, the Hindus have often
mooted a practical suggestion which the Inspector General of Indian
Fisheries has adopted from them, viz., that fishing at these places should
be placed under stringent restrictions/'3 Subsequently (November 26th
1872) he continued "that there are certain customs among the fisher
people whereby a sort of close or breeding season is meant to be secured.
Thus there are certain better kinds of fish which it is considered im-
proper to net between the Kartick purnima and the Dol purnima, or
say from November to February. During this period it is customary
to seek for certain small fry, whose breeding season does not come on
until after February. In the same way they have a close season for
(') The decrease of fresh-water fish being admitted, of course, different persons may
consider such due to as many various causes. My opinion is, that iu certain localities
increased modes of capture and a decreased size of the nieshes of nets has eventuated in a
diminution of the fresh-water fish supply. This however with Hindus may not be worth
setting up against the Divine anger of one of their idols.
(2) As Mr. Geddes and I appear to have different opinions as to the cause, so we
certainly have as to remedies. I think if the plans which have been adopted with success
in other countries, in South Canara by Mr. H. S. Thomas, and in the Doou by Mr. Ross,
were tried in Orissa, there would be more reason to hope for beneficial results than were we
to turn to Devil worship, and attempt to propitiate Parameshwara. I may add that a great
difficulty in Bengal appears to be to induce European officials to obtain replies from their
native subordinates, who ought to be able to give native opinions. However, when such
answers as the following are returned, it becomes a labour to unravel them. When, asked
as to what difficulties there are in regulating the size of the mesh of nets, and what mini-
mum size is considered advisable ? I received this reply : — " The only difficulty would be
that of supervision. Economy forbids increase of expenditure, and justice demands avoid-
ance of oppression : any prohibition would be sure to eventuate in thoroughly sumptuary
hyperregulation."
(*) Mr. Geddes here indulges in an incorrect assertion. He states "irrigation
anicuts" as one cause given by the natives for a decrease of fi.-h in Ori^sa, a Tamil term
which Ooriuhs would hardly employ. Next, he would have found iu English law works that
restrictions as to fishing near weirs in England was in existence in 1861, prior to the first
English-constructed weir iu Orissa. Lastly, had he gone into irrigated fields during the rainy
or drying-up season, he would find miniature weirs of all size, and so far from Hindus
sparing breeding iish and fry they trap them by every device. If, therefore, stringent regu-
lations are necessary at British-constructed weirs, ou what grounds arc they unnecessary at
Native ones ?
CXX1
some particular fish during the Ruth Jatra. The rule is expressed in
theological form, thus, that the thakuranie will be wroth if such or such
a fish be caught at this or that festival, but substantially it is correspon-
dent to a close season. At the same time it is notorious that the rules
are not well observed. The absence of sufficient arrangements for curing-
fish is not conclusive to economy or to forbearance in this matter. On
the Chilka lake the salting of fish would be increased enormously if salt
were in free use for the purpose. As there is no hope of securing this
privilege, it is useless to discuss the matter further. The proposed immu-
nity for salt curing is incompatible with the present stringency of salt
administration. The present retail price of salt is 9 seers per rupee.
A small amount of duty-paid salt is employed in curing fish, but the
salting, such as it is, is done with saline earth. The Pooree fisher class
come from southern districts, and are rather strangers here, so that their
customs are not easy to get at in this district/'' The title of headman
is hereditary, if the heir is competent, if not another is elected by the
people or selected by the zemindar. Boats for fishing are imported
from Ganjam. " The sea fishermen have diminished in numbers of late
years. Their trade has been hampered by the greater stringency of the
salt laws in recent years; also many fishermen were cut off by the
famine of 1866."
128. The Collector of Balasore some years since remarked : — "the
coast fisheries are exceedingly rich, and con-
°f ^ °r tribute in an important degree to the diet of
the people of the town of Balasore." When
I was at Balasore in 1868, I found that the hilsa forms a portion of the
fish taken throughout the year, excepting during the time they are as-
cending the rivers to breed : while in the rivers north of Midnapore the
the young hilsa were being taken in thousands. Consequently, if weirs
are to be erected across the large rivers without gaps or fish passes,
permitting neither the old fish to ascend to their breeding grounds nor
the young to descend to the sea, the species must of a necessity be ex-
terminated, as it only breeds in fresh water. At Balasore the Borabolung
river which though fresh is tidal, and the mesh of nets employed here is
above 6 inches in circumference. The amount of sea fish in it was as-
serted to be stationary. Besides investigating the Borabolung river
at Balasore, I went three times to its mouth at Chanderpore, about nine
miles from the former station. The spring tides were present, and quan-
tities of fish were brought into the market, but it was always those
captured the previous day which were offered for sale ; the fishermen and
coolies admitted that " the smell was a little high, but they were only
for native consumption and not for the Europeans, so a slight amount of
putridity was immaterial/'' Whether this has much effect in a sanitary
point of view it would be out of place to enquire into here. A gentle-
man in the station, however, informed me that not long since he was
near the coast, and made some remarks to a zemindar on the horrible
smell from the drying fish, enquiring if it was not very unhealthy ?
' Yes/' rejoined his companion, " cholera seems made for these people."
The mode in which the Chanderpore fishing was carried on was as fol-
lows : — Stakes extending about |ths of a mile are so placed as to surround
a semicircular portion of the sea, the base being formed by the shore.
CXX11
Ta these stakes are attached the nets, and at points where the water is
deepest is a second net placed parallel to the first, and also supported by
stakes. Here I saw a good number of hilsa captured, and the fisher-
men assured me that they are always present, except during1 the south-
west monsoon, when they ascend the large rivers to breed. I took a full
sized one out of season, and another half-grown one that appeared very
healthy, therefore it may fairly be concluded that were this species of fish
destroyed the coast fishery must suffer. To show how cheap they were, I
may mention that I purchased a roe-ball (Polynemus tetradactylus) , weigh-
ing about 30Ibs., for 8 annas. The Collector of Balasore (July 27th, lb?2)
observed that " in this district sea, river, and tank fish are procurable in
considerable abundance. On inquiry the fishermen state that the
supply of fish has much decreased of late, but I do not find that this
statement is borne out by facts. They probably make it in the interest
of their trade. Three-fourths of the people use fish ; it ' is generally
preserved by drying in the sun and mixing it with salt'; these dried fish
are used as a relish. ' The fish that are caught are brought at once to
the nearest market, and meet with a tolerably ready sale, though the
people are not in a hurry to get rid of them, not being averse to fish far
advanced in decomposition. Even in the town of Balasore, only six
miles from the sea, the fish sold in the markets is so stale that no Euro-
pean would touch it, and much of it is putrid. Dried fish is always
taken to the Tributary States during the winter for sale.''' He continued
(September 16th 1872) : — " No Government interference is required. The
sea is regularly fished, and large quantities of fish are daily exposed for
sale in the town and at the hats in the rural parts of the district. The
people of this district do not salt their fish ; they dry it in the sun, and
eat it when it is quite putrid. They like it in this way, and there is no
reason why they should be interfered with. They do not like salt fish, and
the price of salt has nothing to do with their not salting it. With regard
to para. 8 of Dr. Day's report, I would therefore briefly reply as follows : —
Question 1.— No. Question 2.— No. Question 3.— No/' With this brief
reply the answers from native officials, if collected, were not forwarded.
129. The Commissioner of the Presidency Division (February 10th
1873) observes — "no deep-sea fishery is carried
Opinion p: European officials on here, and only those sea-fish are caught
in the Presidency Division. ... ' •/, T_ , , *»,•,, n?
which come up the Hooghly, Mutlah, Echa-
mutty, and other tidal estuaries." The proposal for forming enclosures
for salting fish is, therefore, "neither advisable nor practicable here.
It does not seem that the capture is in excess of the local demand, and
the only fish salted here is the 'hilsa/ especially at the time it finds its
way up the streams for breeding purposes. It might be practicable,
though not without difficulty, to carry out the proposal at places espe-
cially selected on the sea-coast, near a port to which salt is imported,
and near which there are great takes of fish, but not in this division."
Mr. Yerner, the Joint Magistrate of the %&-Pergunnah8j remarks—
" from the wording, it is difficult to be sure what that proposition
exactly is. It is perhaps this, that the Government should make large
enclosures * where fish could be salted, and should sell salt within
1 The question was ".would the proposition in paragraph 7 be advisable or practi-
in your district ?" The proposition was-—" if large enclosures were made near favour-
exxiii
these enclosures at reduced prices. If this is what is meant, I think
the proposition is neither advisable nor practicable. The enclosures and
the necessary establishment would cost much. Reduced prices can only
mean removal or reduction of duty, and in this case a considerable
establishment would be required to prevent the salt being- smuggled
away for other purposes. The only form the proposition could take, not to
be utterly visionary, would be a lease to a Company (1). The Company
would have to meet the cost of the establishment appointed by Govern-
ment for supervision, and would have to pay largely (£) for the concession of
reduced duty, such a Company would pre-suppose consumers of salt fish."
Mr. Smith, the Collector of Jessore, replies as to whether the fisher-
men have increased, decreased, or remained stationary ? " This is a very
difficult question to answer, as we have nothing like statistics on this
point ; there are two castes of fishermen, the Hindu Jalais who are
mostly employed in catching fish."
130. From Bhaugulpoor. — The Officiating Collector of MongJiyr
observes (March 7th 1873)— " fish in this
t fcrict is veiy cheap* if r raay judge fronj
the price, an average of one anna a pound
throughout the year. I think there is no
reason to suppose that the supply is falling off. The markets are in-
variably well supplied, excepting perhaps during the height of the rains,
when, as every one knows, it is very difficult to catch fish of any kind.
All classes in this district eat fish, — Christians, Mussalmans, and Hin-
doos, from the Brahmins to the lowest castes. From the abundance of
fresh fish procurable there is little inducement to dry or salt it. The
people in Pergunnah Farkya, however, where fish is very abundant,
dry their superabundant stock, and export it in the countries lying to
the east, and to Calcutta. The fish thus dried is of every description.
Fish is not salted in this district, probably partly in consequence of the
high price of salt, and partly because salt fish is not very palatable."
131. The Commissioner of Dacca forwards report from the Officiat-
ing Collector of Backergunge, who observes (November 16th 1872) — "that
he is not aware that breeding and immature fish are destroyed to any
extent in the tidal estuaries of the district. " I do not think that the
salting of sea-fish could be much developed in this district, as the
amount of sea-fish which can be caught is not very great. I do not
think that the proposition in paragraph seven (see ante, enclosures)
would be practicable in this district. The selling price of salt is Rs.
6 a maund. Government salt is employed when salt is used at all, but
very often the fish are simply dried. Sea water or salt earth is not
employed. The practice of salting fish, I believe, is stationary. I never
heard of fishermen having any priviliges. There are no headmen.
able localities (away from large towns), and where fish could be salted, would the following
be impracticable ? That salt might be sold inside them, at rates just remunerative for the
bond fide salting of fish." This gentleman observes that — " from the wording it is difficult
to be sure what that proposition exactly is."
1 Without entering into the comparative expenses of a single or more capitalists
and that of companies, it may be well to refer to where officials both European and Native
understood the proposition made and considered that a trial might lead to beneficial result
for the food of the poor of India.
2 If they are to pay largely for the concession, and be put to all sorts of expenses,
it would appear the result must be to entirely vitiate the proposition.
CXX1V
The fishing ID ihe tidal estuaries is, I believe, perfectly free. The fisher-
men supply themselves with boats and nets ; their numbers are station-
ary. In conclusion, I have the honor to state that there are no deep-sea
fishings in the district, and that the fishings in estuary of the Megna and
along the coast of the Sunderbunds do not appear to be of any great value.
In the cold weather, a number of boats come from Jessore, and fish on
the coast off Chapli, and other parts to the south of this district, and
Mugh boats come from Chittagong, and catch and dry fish."
132. Dr. Cantor observes (Journal Eoyal Asiatic Society, V., p. 170,
1839) that — "with a view to ascertain how
^Opinion of the late Dr. Can- for th(J locality and climate would favour the
process of salting and drying fishes on the
coasts of Bengal, Captain Richard Lloyd, who as Marine Surveyor-
General always has evinced a strong desire to enquire into the natural
products and resources of those localities, which by his indefatigable zeal
have been surveyed, caused a series of experiments to that effect to be
tried on board his own vessel. The materials submitted to trial were
either purchased from fishermen at the rate of Rs. 3 a hundred, or sup-
plied by the nets belonging to the fishing boats attached to the navy.
The experiment turned out so satisfactory that I feel convinced that the
process of curing, salting, and drying fishes may be easily accomplished
there during the north-east monsoon, that is, during the period from
15th October to the 15th April."
133. From the Chittagong Division, the Collector of Chittagong
replies (April 29th, 1873) that "at present — a
Chittagong Division Opi- R quantity O'f hilga fish is galted and ^^
nions of European officials. ;i J __ . . .
to Chittagong from Moiscal, Chuckena, and
Ramoo ; but it appears that the whole is consumed locally, and there is
no export. The fishermen object on the score of the high price of salt :
and even were this objection removed, the Collector doubts whether the
fishermen would be inclined to come and prepare their fish for market*
within the proposed enclosures. Moreover, these enclosures would have
to be carefully guarded to prevent the low-priced salt being smuggled
out. In short, the Collector does not consider that the action suggested
in Dr. Day's para. 7 would be advisable. Both breeding and immature
fish are supposed to be destroyed to a considerable extent in the district
of Chittagong, no restriction being placed on the operations of the
fishermen. The Collector thinks, that if the demand for salt fish were
to increase, the supply would increase in the same proportion.f The
latest quotations of salt in the district of Chittagong are as follows :
Sudr station, Rs. 4-6 per maund ; at Koomereia, Rs. 5 per maund; at
Hathazaree, Rs. 4-6 per maund ; at Cox's bazar Rs. 5 a maund :" it is
* It is not proposed that any one should he obliged to cure their fish inside these en-
closures, but whether if those who did so were allowed previleges, open to every one, some
would not avail themselves of such. The prepared fish would be more for export than local
consumption, and if it answered it would increase the local demand and with such the
fishermen's work, for had they a good market, doubtless it would be adequately supplied.
Now Chittogong fishermen go to Akyab to carry on their trade, because salt is cheap there
instead of working off' their own coast.
f I would here suggest that this must greatly depend on the price of the salt. If
the charge is so much that the curers cannot purchase it, how can they make use of it ?
or if they eau employ it at such a cost, who would be able to buy the salt fish ?
cxxv
used for curing fish, and as far as our information goes it only is em-
ployed. The practice of curing fish has probably remained stationary.
The system of headmen amongst fishermen is not known to prevail
in Chittagong : they buy their boats, make their own nets, and it is
believed their numbers have continued the same of late years. The
Collector of NoaMally answers, that the suggestion of enclosures for
salting1 fish in — " would be inapplicable in his district, both because the
people are not skilled in salting fish and because the supply of fish barely
meets the requirements of the local markets. The destruction of breed-
ing and immature fish in the tidal estuaries of the district, is estimated
to average 200 or 300 a day. Sea-fish is not salted. The present aver-
age selling price of salt is Rs. 5-2 per maund. Government salt is used
for curing the hilsa for home consumption, but to a very limited extent,
as this particular species is rarely procurable : neither salt earth nor sea
water is employed. Fishermen had no privileges in the earliest times
which they have not at present. But after the resumption, and before
the release of the fisheries by Government, rents were more strictly
exacted from the fishermen than either in the oldest times or at present.
There are headmen of the fishing caste, termed 'Sirdars' who possess an
hereditary right to the title. A vacancy occurring on the death of an
heirless headman, is generally the cause of much dispute between those
who consider themselves entitled to the right of possession, and is filled
up on the decision and nomination of their zemindars. The duties of
the headmen are to preside over marriages, religious ceremonies and
feasts, and to decide all social disputes, for which they receive from one
to four rupees, and at times, both money and cloth according their rank ;
the sea-fisheries are owned by Government and by zemindars. The fisher-
men purchase their boats from Chittagong and Tipperah, and manufac-
ture their own nets from hemp grown in the district. The number of
the fishermen is believed to have remained stationary.
134. From the Presidency Division, the following replies to the
questions sent to tehsildars, or native officials,
Pi"i0a tave been received The selling price of
salt is from Rs. 4-6 to Rs. 5 a maund ; it is
used for curing fish in Jessore, but not in the 24-Pergunnahs, but neither
salt earth nor sea water are. As to whether the practice of salting fish
has increased or not, it is observed that there are no available statistics
from which a definite answer could be given to this question. It is not
the practice now in the 24-Pergunnahs to salt fish, and there is nothing to
show that it ever was the practice there. There are no headmen to the
fishing castes. Nets are made by the fishermen, and they buy boats or
wood to construct them of, or hire them at about Re. 1-8 a month each.
As to whether the fishermen have increased, it is observed, " there are no
regular sea fishermen here, though occasionally fishermen pass through
the Sunderbunds and catch fish in the open water/'
CXXV1
BURMA.
135. The sea coast of British Burma extends nearly 1,000 miles
Sea coast and fisheries of along the eastern shore of the Bay of Bengal,
Burma, how they are now but from the Naf estuary, which is about 20° 50'
little worked. north latitude, forming the boundary between
Arracan and Chittagong, to the Pakchan stream, that separates Tenasse-
rim from Siam, a little south of the 10° of north latitude. In many
respects the seas of this coast differ considerably from what we find else-
where in India (if we except the portion off the Sunderbunds). The
shore is very low, the waters very muddy, and abound in animal life ;
Crustacea are in myriads, and marine fish which prey upon them, are in
abundance. It is, I think, evident to everyone who has been in Burma
that these deep-sea fisheries are but slightly worked ; it may be that
some stimulus is requisite to incite the Burmese to capture the fisb, or
even to a slight extent it may be due to taxes existing on their fishing
nets. Although, doubtless, it is quite reasonable to tax fixed engines, the
general belief throughout the world seems to be that marine fishing nets
that are not fixed should be tax-free. One reason why the deep-sea fishing
is not carried on, doubtless, is, that these people do not much care to go
far out to sea or incur the expense of making deep-sea nets ; but it seems
strange that with such magnificent fisheries they are scarcely worked.
One reason adduced for this is, that persons migrating from inland to
the sea shore are liable to suffer severely from fever. The monsoon of
course totally prevents this form of fishing from being carried on during
some months of the year, and the fixing of weirs is an easier and less
dangerous occupation than venturing out to sea in the fine months. The
Chinese and people from Madras and Chittagong fish in some of these
waters.
136. What the amount of cured fish may be there are no returns
to show, but as the customs house between
British and Upper Burma appear to demon-
strate "that the exports are annually exceedingly large. (See para
141) There is a complaint that fishermen are migrating from Tavoy
to Mergui, but this is probably due to the latter town being on the sea
shore, where fish abound, whereas the former is up a river.
137. Finally, it may be remarked that the Indian salt tax is not
in existence in Burma and this condiment, it
Price of salt. ^ stated, in Arracan costs from 10 annas to
12 annas a maund, 8 annas sometimes; in Rangoon, imported salt
from 12 annas to Re. 1-4 a maund, or of the country-made article,
from Re. 1-8 to Rs. 3-12 for the same quantity; in Tavoy, Re. 0-9-7
a maund.
138. The Officiating Secretary to the Chief Commissioner of British
Burma (February 21st 1873) observes :— " It
Opinion of the Chief Com- would ear that ag a result of the previou8
uussioner. . . • *A j i T\ T\ i_ i i A
investigations made by Dr. Day, he was led to
CXXV11
believe that sea fisheries in those localities far removed from large towns
required some stimulus, in order that the harvests of fish might be ren-
dered more conducive to the general good. He thought this object would
best be gained by the fish being cured and exported to other places where
it would find a ready sale. He found it asserted by several officials that
the monopoly price of salt is such as to interfere with the extensive
manufacture of salt fish, and he asks whether that is the case in British
Burma, or whether there be other causes preventing the development of
this particular trade. The Chief Commissioner desires me to observe
that there is already an exceedingly large production of prepared fish for
consumption in British Burma and the neighbouring inland native
States. The particular article in use among the Burmese is called
' nga-pee/ and its preparation is described by Dr. Day in the ' Digest'
of his previous investigations. This ' nga-pee' is extensively employed
as a condiment by the Indo-Chinese races. The quantity consumed in our
own territory is not known accurately, but the average yearly export to
Upper Burma during the past four years has been upwards of sixteen
thousand tons, with a value of £170,000 ; and the home consumption in
British Burma is certainly far greater than the quantity exported. The
sea coast of the delta of the Irrawaddy is the locality where this nga-pee
is principally prepared; and from the two districts of Rangoon and
Bassein, which there furnish the sea board, there is derived an annual
revenue from the rent of the sea-fisheries of £22,000. It does not appear
to the Chief Commissioner that there is any special call for stimulus as
regards the traffic in prepared fish in this Province and the neighbouring
States, and there is no difficulty thrown in the way of the extension of
the trade by reason of the high price of salt. There is no Government
monopoly of salt in Burma, and an ample quantity can always be obtained
by the fish curers at a very moderate cost. It is very certain, as remarked
by Dr. Day, that new markets would produce increased manufacture of
cured fish in places where at present they only prepare for home con-
sumption, and this result will, in the opinion of the Chief Commissioner,
gradually be arrived at from improved means of carriage. The district
of Mergui at the southern extremity of the province has long been
famous for its cured fish, which it has exported in considerable quantities,
but the district is much isolated, and has a difficult and dangerous coast.
Quite lately, however, a merchant steamer has commenced to run
between Rangoon and Mergui *, and undoubtedly that will have the
effect if the line be kept up of increasing the export of fish from that
district. Mr. Eden has lately returned from a tour in the Mergui
Archipelago, and was very much struck by the enormous supply of fish
among these uninhabited islands ; these fisheries are now untouched and
unvisited by any fishermen. The sea is literally alive with fish, and it at
* It appears to have been overlooked that up to 1851 a monthly steamer ran between
Mergui and Moulmein. At this period, due to the Burmese war, a sailing vessel was employ-
ed. After the war another monthly steamer plied, and only stopped for a few months during
1857. From Moulmein to Rangoon and Calcutta, &c , the mails have been carried regularly
for years in Peninsular and Oriental or British India Steam Navigation Companies steamers
consequently it may be open to a doubt whether a fresh line from Rangoon to Mergui will
have very much effect in stimulating this trade. Steamer rates and contingent charges are
high.
CXXV111
once occurred to the Chief Commissioner to suggest to the Government
of India the possibility of establishing a colony of fishermen and fish-
curers among these islands. Dr. Day will probably be able to say what
prospect there would be of inducing a colony of 100 or 200 fishermen to
come over from Madras and establish themselves. It might be necessary
to make them advances for the purchase of nets and boats, and to
guarantee them a certain minimum of earnings. * If a system of this
sort could be established and carefully maintained, Mr. Eden believes that
a supply of salt-fish would be obtained which would lead to a very large
export to India; and it seems to him that a small portion of the proceeds
of the fishery tax could not be employed in a more legitimate manner.
With this exception, it seems to the Chief Commissioner that the expan-
sion of trade in the article of salted or cured fish may be left to national
development, and requires no exceptional measures on the part of Govern-
ment. It will be observed that the Deputy Commissioner of the Ran-
goon district remarks that the tax on sea fisheries in his district is con-
sidered too high, or at least that the manufacture would be increased if
the tax were reduced and altered in its mode of collection. The Chief
Commissioner will cause further enquiry to be made into this question,
and the effect it would have on the revenue derived at present from the
fisheries, and will take into consideration the advisability or otherwise of
lowering the present rates/'
139. Dr. Heifer, in his fourth report on the Tenasserim district,
published in the Journal of the Asiatic
Modes of presemng fish. ^.^ Qf ^^ (18^ p ^ obgerveg^
respecting the sea fisheries of Mergui, "'it seems that a fishery carried
on by Europeans on a similar scale with that of Newfoundland would
be much more remunerative, as a ready market here and in India will
always be found, cured fish forming a universally relished condiment
and ingredient of native dishes/'' Crawford in his ( Indian Archipelago'
" asserts that fish are almost if not always dried without salt, but this
* There are two countries from which fishermen could probably be introduced, viz.,
Madras or China. Some from the east coast of the former part of India have already
migrated in considerable numbers to Burma, and it might be advisable to enquire whether
they might not be available for this purpose, provided they had certain inducements offered
them, such as being permitted to manufacture salt in these islands free of duty, &c. If
Government guarantee a minimum of earnings in a sea fishery, it does not appear impro-
bable that the measure would be a failure, but if the captures in excess of those required by
the fishermen were purchased at a certain rate, and fish salted as proposed, more satis-
factory results might be obtained. Or the salted or cured article might be bought at a
fixed price, for the worker must have an interest in bis own success. Another important
consideration is, that the siluroids or cat-fish, which are of a very inferior description as food,
but are easily captured, may be parsed otf in selling the excess to Government: this
however would not signify if the trade were for Ceylon, Rules would be necessary for the
sorts of fish, as some of the very finest species exist in this Archipelago. If the fresh
fish were bought, arrangements would have to be made for salting them on the spot, this
occupation being usually carried on by the women and children of the families of the
fi-hermeii, but in Burma it is improbable that the Madras fishermen would be provided
with these encumbrimes, whilst, were men solely thus employed, it would raise the price of
the article. It must not be forgotten that those islands at present are unsuited for living
on during the months of the South-west monsoon, but could fishermen be induced to go there
with their families, doubtless they might become populated in time. Fish obtained in the
\\atersoftheseislandsmightbesoldbyauction or contract in the Mouhncin or Mergui l.a/.ar,
leaving it to the enterprise of the loeal merchants to develop the expansion of the trade.
CXX1X
is not quite correct,* for although the greater portion of the fish
taken are sun-dried or smoked, some salt is employed. The fishermen
proceed to some of the islands to the south of Mergui, and there capture
and prepare their spoils, but their plans are rude and primitive, probably
having remained unchanged for ages, consequently the article is very
inferior." It will, from the foregoing, be observed that the salt-fish is
very inferior, whilst, due to the moisture in the Burmese climate, it would
require a fully salted and prepared article to keep well in such a country.
The mode in which the Burmese salt their fish is peculiar, and termed
nga-pee, a description of which I give, and it will be easily understood
that such an article is not, or very little, affected by their climate.
140. 'Nga-pee' is a Talaing word of the following component parts : —
nga, fishy pee, three, this last syllable having
reference to the three ingredients out of which
it is formed, — fish, salt, and the action of the sun's rays, the last not
being essentially necessary. It is divisible into two sorts, nya-pee-goung
or nga-pee, ' whole / and nga-pee-toung, or nga-pee, ' pounded.' The
general mode pursued, without specifying details, in making the ' nga-
pee-goung ' is, after having removed the head, the fish, if large, is split
in two, then washed, and dried in the sun for a few hours : good salt is
now rubbed in, and the fish (along with others similarly prepared) is
packed in a jar, from which the next day they are all removed, again
dried in the sun, have more salt rubbed in, and are then re-packed as
before. In some inland fisheries, where large quantities have to be thus
prepared, they are laid in long bamboo baskets in alternate layers of
salt and fish, and buried for some time underground. The best species
out of which this compost is manufactured in British Burma are con-
sidered to be as follows : nga-myin (Pseudeutropius taakree, Sykes) : nga-
khoo (Clariasmagur, H.B.): ng&-kyee(Sacco&rancftusfossilis, Bloch) :nga-
bat ( Wallago attu, Bloch) : nga-yan-gyee (Ophiocepkalus siriatus, Lacdpede) :
nga-byays-ma (Anabas scandens, Dald.) : nga-tha-louk (Clupea palasah,
C. and V.): nga-oik (Macrones menoda, H.B.) : nga-phe (Notopterus kapi-
rat, Bonn.) : kabaloo : kakooyan : nga-wek-ma (Nandus marmoratus, C.
and V.) : nga-gyein (Cirrhina mrigala, H. B.) : nga-hoothan (Labeo calbasu,
H. BO : kakadit : (Lates calcarifer, Bloch.) : nga-thaing( Catla Buchanani,
C. and V.) : nga-chong-ma (Barbus chola, H. B.) : nga-phyin-thaleb (Tri-
chogaster fasciatus, Bl.) The second sort of ' nga-pee/ termed ' nga-pee-
touny* or ' pounded nga-pee/ is either made of fish or prawns ; the latter
being chiefly prepared at Tavoy and Mergui, and is known in Rangoon as
' Ba-lee-chong'. When fish are used, they and the salt are placed together
in a large trough, which has a tube or pipe opening from its floor. Men
wearing wooden clogs now tread the fish and salt into one pulpy mass. The
superabundant fluid runs off by the tube, is collected for sale, and employ-
ed as a condiment. The roughly trodden down or pounded f nga-pee '
is either used as it is or undergoes refinement. This last is accom-
plished by pounding it up with the bark of the on-don, which gives
it a colour, and now more white salt and flour are mixed with it.
When it is desired to prepare this nge-pee at once, the fish having
Report on the Sea- fisher ies of Burma, 1869, p. 9.
cxxx
been cleaned, and their heads removed, are pounded with salt in a
mortar. Different species of fish, the quality and amount of the salt
employed, and other causes, give a varying value to the nga-pee.
Some of the siluroid or scaleless fishes are most approved of for the
manufacture of ' nga-pee/ In Bengal I have observed that some of
the same class of fish (as Saccobranchus fossilis and Clarias magur, both
having an accessory apparatus for breathing) are esteemed highly
nourishing. In making nga-pee with siluroid fish no scales can be-
come mixed with the preparation, which, if present, must occasion intes-
tinal irritation. It is observed that the smaller the species of scaled fresh
water fish that are employed the more inferior is the article. It is a very
common, though according to my local investigations, a very erroneous
statement, that the poorer classes prefer making nga-pee from very
small fish, such being only due to their being permitted to slaughter
the immature and smaller kind. Whilst for nga-pee-toung the usual
length of the fish is from 8 to 10 inches. I observed that the term
balachung was applied in Rangoon to that form ot ' nga-pee-toung '
which is made from prawns at Mergui, but at the latter station they
reserve this term for the superior Malay article, which is of the consis-
tence of chocolate cakes, instead of being a paste, although the two are
otherwise much the same, being prepared from identical substances.
At Mergui there are two kinds of nga-pee, — the first made of very small
prawns or shrimps, which are there captured in enormous quantities,
coming in shoals and being taken in boatloads at a time. When the
manufacture commences in the morning, these Crustacea are mixed
with about one-third of their weight of white salt, and dried on mats in
the sun for 5 or 6 hours ; then they are pounded up in a wooden mortar ;
or if the process is carried on in the island, they are trodden down into
a mass by persons wearing wooden clogs. This mass, if possible, should
be again dried for 4 or 5 hours in the sun the same day, and the pound-
ing is repeated in the evening. The next day the drying has to be
again gone through, and it becomes the f nga-pee toung/ The super-
fluous fluid is collected and termed ' nga-pya-gee', and is much esteemed
as a condiment. Dampier describes this condiment and ' balachaun' in his
Voyages and Travels, observing, " the mashed fish that remains behind is
called balachaun, and the liquor poured off is called nuke-mum. The
poor people eat the balachaun with their rice. 'Tis rank scented, yet
the taste is not altogether unpleasant, but rather savoury, after one is
a little used to it. The nuke-mum is of a pale brown colour, inclining to
grey, and pretty clear. It is also very savoury, and used as a good
sauce for fowls, not only by the natives, but also by many Europeans,
who esteem it equal with soy/' The second form of nga-pee made at
Mergui is termed damin, and for its preparation small sea fish are em-
ployed. They are first well washed and cleaned, or the substance will be
of a dark colour and inferior quality, due to the contained blood. These
small fish are mixed with salt, dried in the sun, and pounded in a
similar manner to the prawns as already described. Smoking fish is like-
wise carried on in the island, round Mergui, where firewood is obtainable
without cost and an inexhaustible supply of fish close at hand. Open
platforms of wood are raised, which are generally and should always be
in the shade ; the firewood is burnt beneath, and being green emits a
CXXX1
dense smoke. Drying fish in the sun is also very common. When the flesh
of large fish, as sharks, is thus prepared, it is cut into strips and dried
upon the rocks, but I could only ascertain that this was done to the young
ones from two to three feet in length. Tamarind fish prepared at Mergui
is held in high estimation, and is chiefly made from the white pomfret
(Stromateus) . The fish I understood is first boiled, then the bones are
removed, when having been highly spiced it is left to soak in vinegar,
&c., for some days, and subsequently packed in small jars or chatties
containing about one viss in each. The exact receipt could not be
obtained. A small amount of fish oil is made along the coasts of
Burma. The fins of sharks are dried and exported to China, as are also
the air vessels or sounds of some fish, especially the siluroids and the
Sola pama, H. B.
141. As regards the exports and imports of nga-pee, dried fish,
and salt, I have only obtained those existing
™™** Upper and Lower Burma, as the
British territory is the highway to the
Native State. My figures, obtained locally from the custom house
authorities, widely differ from those of the Secretary to the Chief Com-
missioner, which I can only account for by supposing he merely refers
to nga-pee, whilst the custom house authorities gave me ( nga-pee and
dried fish.3 Amongst the latter I found large quantities of the sepia
Octopus imported, it being highly esteemed by the Chinese.
Imports from British to Upper Burma.
YEABS.
NGA-PEE AND DEIED
FISH.
SALT.
Annual
value.
Maunds.
Value.
Maunds.
Value.
Ks.
Ks.
Ks.
1861-62 ...
5,53,706
16,64,343
1,51,885
1,67,946
18,32,289
1863-64 ...
4,62,102
14,34,102
2,28,747
2,78,967
17,13,069
1864-65 ...
5,25,751
18,50,296
2,42,320
2,88,281
21,38,577
1865-66 ...
3,96,035
14,15,585
2,05,618
3,43,379
17,58,964
1866-67 ...
3,41,980
14,64,180
2,32,192
5,19,783
19,83,963
1867-68 ...
4,21,394
20,01,774
2,74,691
5,35,364
25,37,408
1868-69 ...
4,32,688
18,91,482
3,17,965
4,69,916
23,61,398
Thus, in the three last years shown in the above return, the imports
of dried fish and nga-pee from British into Upper Burma give Rs.
53,57,436, or £535,743-125., against £463,978-6$. in the previous three
years, ostensibly showing an increasing trade. But if we examine the
CXXX11
weight imported we find that the increased trade is due to a higher value
having been placed on the articles. Thus in 3 years ending 1866,
13,83,888 maunds were valued at Rs. 46,99,983: whereas in 3 years
ending 1868-69 the smaller amount of 11,96,062 maunds were valued
at 53,57,436.
142. The Burmese, although excellent fresh-water sailors and boat-
men, do not appear, as a rule, to venture far
me^u out to sea for fishing purposes. In fact, they
cannot be termed good salt-water fishermen,
but mostly take what they are able within an easy distance from the
shore, sometimes by means of nets, more commonly by fixed engines,
and not, so far as I could ascertain, by means of hooks and lines. The
Chief Commissioner's observation that in the Mergui Archipelago the sea
is literally alive with fish, is only what has again and again been brought
to the notice of the authorities, but without inducing any steps being
taken to utilize this harvest. The Burmese, however, so long as they
can capture fish near the land, will not venture out to the best fishing
grounds, and it now will be necessary to give a short description of the
modes employed by them in the capture of sea fish. The following
remarks are from the Administration Report in 1867-68. In Ramree,
Arracan, it is observed that a revenue is levied in this district on the
various descriptions of nets used in the sea and river fisheries, showing
a decrease of 22 nets/' The Arracan fisheries or net tax is insignificant
and apparently stationary. In Rangoon, it is observed — " During the
year under review I have had opportunities of visiting the circles where
the greater portion of the sea-fishery is carried on, and where inland
fisheries exist. To carry on fishing on the sea-board requires a capital
of some Rs. 500 to purchase a seaworthy boat. The necessary fishing
apparatus, termed ' hunyoon/ having either been worked from bamboos
during the leisure moments of the fishermen during the rains, and the
month previous to the actual time they proceed down to the sea-board
station ; or if the person is a capitalist he purchases it from others. In
these boats they proceed out to sea to their fishing grounds, and fix
stakes to attach the hunyoon traps for the fish. These grounds are
visited daily. * * On the whole this kind of fishing is attended with
danger, and generally conducted by needy men with borrowed capital,
and who have to pay high rates of interest. The average number of
traps to each boat is 15, and each trap pays a revenue of Rs. 4. The
' dameng' fishing is carried on in the main river by boats, which have
broad bamboo traps thrown out on each side, and let down at the ebb
tide ; each boat' is assessed at Rs. 4." Fish are taken in the Tavoy and
Mergui districts in rather a different manner from other localities. The
tsanda is in common use (see Fresh Water Fishery Report, p. 212, &c.).
Colonel Fytche observed in 1853 — "These stakes are sometimes worked
all the year round, but not generally; for, being situated near the
mouths of rivers, the freshes during the south-west monsoon drive away
the salt-water fish/' This must be accepted with a reservation that many
migratory sea and littoral species remain even when the water is fresh.
" There are generally eight or ten men employed in the working of a
Isanda, and they work one tide in the twenty-four hours, sometimes
bringing in MS much as GO rupees worth of fish in one trip ; but the stakes,
CXXX111
owing to the attacks of acephalous testaceous molluscs, which ahound in
these waters, require to be renewed twice or thrice in a year, and it takes
the party from two to three months (weeks ?) to erect new ones. The
fish are divided in kind, the headman, or he that finds the capital, tak-
ing two shares to the other's one, and each man generally makes his own
bargain with the people who keep stalls in the bazar. A single share in
a tsanda, when fairly worked, is said to be worth Rs. 1 80 a year. It
is not worked during neap tides." Hloot-gyee. — " Some seven or eight
men are employed on this trap, which is erected on a spot dry at low
water. It is constructed similar to the tsanda, but without a stage.
The fish go up the passage, which is closed shortly after high water, and
the fish are taken as the tide recedes." Hloot-ngay " resembles the for-
mer, but much smaller." Lamoo-gyee. — " The stakes for this trap are
erected in a somewhat similar manner to those of the tsanda, but the
stakes are smaller and made of split bamboo and cane, instead of the
wood of the mangrove, which is principally used for the tsanda, and
are always erected close in-shore, whereas the tsanda is sometimes three
or four miles out. It is worked in like manner to the tsanda, but does
not require so many men. The fishing by the Lamoo-gyee does not last
more than six months in the year ; hardly any fish are caught during the
neap tides, and it is comparatively more expensive to erect than a tsanda,
whilst it is not quite so profitable." Henyan-paik-gyee. — " A large net
consisting often of twenty separate pieces, a set being worth about
Rs. 80. These nets are taken out during the spring tides in a boat by
two men. They are floated by buoys and allowed to drift with the tide.
These nets are not used during the south-west monsoon. Large hauls of
fish are often made with these nets, but the yield is uncertain. One
man occasionally owns two or three sets of the henyan-paik, and
each set is said to be worth to him Rs. 200 a year. Tshwai-paik-
gyee. — " A similar net to that used in the Sandoway and Henzada dis-
tricts, and used exactly in the same manner as the seines used in salmon
fisheries." Lamoo-byay. — " These are moveable screens made of bamboo
and cane ; these cost about two months' labour, and do not last more than
four months ; these screens are put up on sand and mud flats, which are
left exposed during spring tides. The lamoo-byay are taken out to
some eligible spot in the archipelago where a small fishery station is
made, and the fish caught, dried, and smoked for conveyance to the
nearest market. A large number of skate and sharks are caught in
these nets. This mode of fishing is nearly as profitable as the tsanda."
Gawa. — " This is a net in a frame, which is lowered over the side of a
boat, and is only used for about three months in the north-east monsoon.
It is used for catching prawns. It costs about Rs. 4 ; when worked by
an industrious man would bring him in from Rs. 80 to 100 during
the season." Gwy-gawa. — " A net very similar to the one last describ-
ed. It is used for catching shrimps or small prawns, and in the same
way as the shrimping net is used in England, the only difference being,
that the man who uses it pushes a canoe along with him instead of
carrying a basket. During the season a man can earn about eight
annas a day with it, but he must then be at work whenever the tide
suits for wading over the mud or sand, in water about two or three feet
deep." At Akyab, Major Spilsbury furnished me with the following
CXXX1V
return of the taxed implements employed in the fisheries. Khyan-
lamoo. — Temporary bamboo screens, erected on the shore and used
throughout the year ; they are worked by from six to fifteen men, and
one or two boats. Laig-wen-paiJc. — Bamboo screens which stretch across
a stream, and are used throughout the year. Bashoo-paik. — A floating-
net, employed both in the rivers and sea, used in one set from 10 to 14
pieces, each 32 by 8 cubits in extent ; it is worked by five men and one
boat. Ran-paik is a net stretched along the shore, suspended by posts,
and captures fish which come in with the high tide ; it is used through-
out the year, Tansoung — A long floating net used by 10 men in a boat in
the sea during the fine season of the year. Hsway-paik-kyee, or paik-
btook-kyee. — A single net about 12 or 16,000 cubits long, and 12 deep;
when employed in the sea its lower margin is weighted ; it is kept open
by means of props or sticks, fastened to both sides of the opening ; two
boats are employed, manned by 10 or 12 persons. Kyan-myel-kweng are
permanent bamboo screens, from 8 to 1,600 cubits long, and four deep;
they are fixed on the shore, and used throughout the year. A system
of levying taxes on nets used in the sea and tidal creeks existed at Akyab
until September 1866, after which it was levied on a set of nets. "Major
Broadfoot, Commissioner of the Tennasserim Provinces, in 1843, published
an order abolishing all the then existing fish taxes, both on nets and
traps, and levying in lieu thereof a tax of so much per head ; in short,
the present capitation tax, there first levied, and which to the present day
is called by the people of the country a ' fish tax/ and is so termed also
both in the English and Burmese translations in the printed Revenue
Rules for the Tennasserim Provinces" (Colonel Fy tche's report, 1862). At
this date it was decided to levy a general capitation tax throughout
Burma, so the nets and traps employed by the fishermen were again sub-
jected to the revenue laws. Major Spilsbury describes some other des-
criptions of engines used for taking fish in Tavoy, but which are also em-
ployed in the remainder of the districts. Hmyone. — "Cylindrical bamboo
baskets from 3 to 6 feet in length, and from 1 to 2 feet in diameter,
with a trap-door on both ends in which fish are caught, used in the
streams (and tideways) . Khaya is a long cone-shaped basket, held under
water in a strong tide ; the fish get in and are jammed at the sharp end,
and when the tide is slackened the basket is taken up by means of a
rope; distance between the rods or screens fths of an inch/'
143. The Commissioner of Arracan forwards reports with remarks
(dated July 22nd 1872). The Deputy Com-
^m^.r ,/ ^y^ observes that shrimps are
taken in large quantities from October to
May, the greater portion of which are used in making nga-pee. The
nets in which these shrimps are taken is roughly wove, like cloth, the
holes being about ^th of an inch in size. The Deputy Commissioner of
Sandoway (December 24th 1872) replies — "I am of opinion that a reduc-
tion in the price of salt would neither increase the local sale nor induce
larger exports of fish. Salt is already cheaper in this mart than in
Bengal, and yet the people prefer agriculture to the pursuit of fishing.
The fishing being merely carried on to provide the local consumption, it is
probable that a good many breeding and immature fish are destroyed in
the tidal estuaries, but to what extent it is impossible to say. I do not
cxxxv
think the salting of sea-fish could be increased in this district. Salt
is cheap, and scarcely ever exceed Rupees 8 (he probably means annas 8)
per maund, and can often be purchased at the rate of Rs. 2-8 and Rs. 3
per 100 viss, which is the equivalent of 4 maunds.* The Deputy
Commissioner of Eamree observes (1st February 1873), that breeding and
immature fish are destroyed in the tidal estuaries, but not to any great
extent. Does not think the salting of sea-fish could be increased in his
district.
144. In the Tenasserim Division, the Commissioner replies (24th
December 1872) that — "fish are caught at all seasons of the year, but
chiefly on the coast during December, January, February, March, and
April." Subsequently (3rd January 1873), he observes — "that the price
of salt does not interfere with the curing of salt-fish in this division,
and that no arrangement is required by which salt, free of duty, would
be sold to fishermen. The trade in salted fish is generally very brisk,
especially at Mergui, where some 500 boats are employed every season,
the profits in each boat averaging from Rupees 6 to 800 a season. For
each net a yearly tax of Rupees 20 is levied. Breeding and immature
fish are, in large numbers, destroyed in the tidal estuaries of this division.
The sea along the coast, in this divison, is 'swarming with fish. To
increase the salting of fish, all that is required are men to catch them,
and an increased demand for the increased supply when the fish are
salted." The Deputy Commissioner of Tavoy (14th January 1873) replies,
that — <f breeding and immature fish are destroyed in the tidal estuaries to
a small extent. The salting of sea-fish could not be increased, because
the fish caught are not so abundant as to require salting ; and besides
fresh fish sells better than salted fish in this district, and therefore very
little is salted. As salt is cheap — and can be procured without difficulty
in any place, whilst the people do not go far from the town for fishing,
what they get is brought to market, and they are not in the habit of
salting fish. A great quantity of salt fish is imported from Mergui and
other parts of Burma ; little is here salted/7
145. The Deputy Commissioner of Rangoon (24th December 1872)
observes, that— " breeding and immature fish are not, it is believed, des-
troyed to any great extent in the tidal estuaries ; a few might be caught
for consumption, but not for sale. It is believed that the salting of sea-
fish might be increased by a reduction in the rate of tax, and perhaps
by changing the method of collecting it. The tax at present is Rupees 4
a trap, and this is considered high. Persons report to the Thoogye
of the circle in which they reside the number of traps they are going
to use, and they have to pay according to this number, whether they
use them or not ; some no doubt use more traps, but some again lose
them in bad weather and have to pay all the same. The tax is collected
some time after fishing operations have been carried on, by which time
many have lost their gains in gambling and do not like to return. A
fixed sum to be paid for a license for the season, at the time of taking
out the license, without reference to the number of traps to be used,
would, it is believed, be a better arrangement, and be likely to encourage
* The Burmese viss of 100 tikals (3651b. avoirdupois) is exactly equal to 140 tola
or rupees weight of ludia.
CXXXV1
persons to take to this occupation. Salt used for curing fish is not
imported, but manufactured in the country."
146. I now propose detailing what I personally witnessed in 1869,
Personal observations. ?r *£"*** "^ ^^ ^^ ™St~
ly from the Myookes. At Mergm, there
were about 700 fishermen in the township, amongst whom about
326 live entirely by this occupation. These fishermen are Burmese,
Mussalmen, Chinese, Portuguese, and Malays. When 1 was there, the
inhabitants were suffering so severely from small-pox that but little sea
fishing was going on, except at the fixed stakes and weirs. There were two
bazars in the town, which were said to be well supplied with fish during
the spring tides, as at that period the fixed engines came into use ; but
during neap tides fish were more or less scarce. All the people, with
the exception of some Hindoos, consume fish, which article had no fixed
price, but varied from nine annas a viss to Re. 1-12-0, in accordance
with its size and quality. In the bazars I specially noticed several
species of pomfret, stromateus ; horse-mackerel, caranx ; the begti, lates
calcarifer ; a sea perch, serranm suillus; and the bola pama, all of which
appeared to find a ready sale for food. The skates and rays did not seem
to meet with much approval. I enquired respecting sharks, for the
purpose of making fish-liver oil, but the larger ones, though numerous,
were but seldom captured, the usual size being from 2 to 3 feet in
length. The Myookee observed that — "more small fish were caught at
the fishing stakes during the rains than during the dry season," this
being the period much of the young are about and seeking their food in
the shallows. With many contiguous islands, a quiet sea for above half
the year, a very limited population and myriads of fishes, generations
after generations must pass away before any regulations need be framed
to protect those in the open sea ; augmentation of capture is required,
and a long period will probably elapse before Burmese fishermen will be
found who will make deep-sea fishing an occupation. They appear satis-
fied with placing fixed engines in the shallows, dredging at the prawns,
and netting such fish as come near the shore, and thus they kill the
food that would bring the finer species inland and frighten them into
the deep sea or off to the neighbouring islands, instead of capturing them
for sale. Fish variously prepared were being exported to Tavoy, Rangoon,
and Moulmein. When steaming along between the islands and the
mainland, many seir fish and enormous numbers of siluroids were seen.
Along the coast of Moulmein and as high as the north of the Rangoon river,
the character of the fish was much the same, and in no place were large
sharks taken to any extent ; neither did the oil sardines appear in suffi-
cient numbers to render their capture for the preparation of oil of any
commercial importance. At Akyab, the Kolodyne river enters the sea, and
fishing in-shore was carried on to a considerable extent, but the strict
sea-fisheries were very little worked. Captain Porter, the Master Atten-
dant, in opposition to the views of the fishermen, considered these fish- .
cries had become impoverished during the 13 years he had resided at this
place, and which he attributed to the small mesh of the nets and the
minuteness of the distance between the split bamboos forming the fixed
fishing screens which were placed across every small creek, opening, or
available spot. The smallest fly could not escape ; the meshes in those of
CXXXV11
the large fixed nets I saw were 1T3Q inches in circumference, and that of
the bag- T3Q of an inch. Fish were salted at Akyab, but only to a limited
extent, and chiefly by persons who came for that purpose from Chittagong
about November, at which time the sea is pretty smooth. Bombay ducks
(Harpodon nehereus), mackerel (Scomber Jcanagurta), various species of
horse mackerel (Caranx), seir fish (Cybium), also some fine Trachynotm and
pomfrets (Stromateus) being the sorts which were mostly cured by salting,
drying, or converting into nga-pee. The isinglass-producing fish were
not rare, as Qtolittns, Bola, and Polynemus, but their air-vessels were said
not to be prepared, but they must be in reality, as they as well as sharks'
fins are exported from this port. - But whilst I was there the daily
supply of fresh fish merely equalled the daily demand. It must not be
omitted to be mentioned that along the sides of rivers, across all
creeks, openings or available spots within the influence of the tides, as
well as above such, weirs or screens of finely-woven split bamboos were
permitted, and which allowed the fry of fish and those seeking food
to pass up these places, but as the tide receded left them floundering in
the drying up mud, from whence the owner of this fixed engine could take
what he required.
147. In Tenasserim the native officials of Tavoy report that the
average selling price per maund of salt is
P ""• B". 0-9-7, the tax being Be. 0-1-2 ; that the
salt manufactured in the district and which
has paid tax being employed in salting fish, whilst neither salt earth nor
sea-water is used. Only fish which cannot be sold fresh is salted. There are
no headmen to the fishermen. The sea-fishermen have gradually decreased
during the past five years, because fishing in Mergui waters is more pro-
fitable, and fish there more plentiful.
148. From the native officials of Rangoon the following reply has
been forwarded. The price of imported salt
tivfoffidal;. Pml°n Da" Caries from Es. 3 to 5 per 100 viss, and of
country manufactured salt from K/s. 6 to 15.
Imported salt is not used for curing fish ; it is sometimes used in the
manufacture of nga-pee. The use of salt earth or sea-water is not
known in the district. There is a very great increase in the practice of
salting fish, compared with the Burmese time. There is said to be suffi-
cient nga-pee manufactured to meet the demand, but not salt fish.
Persons go out (to sea), and fix their stakes where they please, the
bolder ones out of sight of land, and the more timid ones near land. Some
get advances on the promise of supplying a certain quantity of fish at a
low rate, and with this money purchase boats and other necessaries ;
others again hire boats, and some purchase them with their own money.
A headman generally employs three or four labourers, to whom he pays
Us. 50 to 80 for the season. As to the number of fishermen, they vary
every year; if there has been a bad season, or an outbreak of fever, as
is said to occur every three or four years, the numbers drop off for a year
or two, and then increase again. On the whole, the number of those
whose regular occupation is that of sea fishing is supposed to be much
the same, as those only who have been living for any time near the sea
are able to stand the climate. Persons living inland are generally
subject to fever when they first reside near the sea.
cxxxvm
ANDAMAN ISLANDS.
149. These islands have been fully reported upon, so merely a few
Situation, &c., of Andaman remarks are necessary. In 1789, Lieutenant
Island. Blair first established a convict settlement
here, which, on account of its unhealthiness, was abandoned in 1793.
Again, in 1857, it was re-occupied by Dr. Walker as a penal settlement
for mutineers and convicts. Port Blair is in 11°42' N. Lat., and 93° E.
long ; it has a harbour of moderate size in the deeper parts, but extending
a long distance in its shallower portions ; across its mouth and running
nearly north and south is the island of Ross, protecting it from the full
force of the easterly gales, but leaving a passage for vessels on either side
between it and the mainland on the north-east and south-west. The
waters are beautifully clear, except during the stormy months of the year,
whilst where corals and rocks do not exist the bottom is sand. The
inhabitants consist of two great elements, the aborigines and the immi-
grants, the latter being principally of the convict class.
150. The Chief Commissioner of the Andamans and Nicolars
observes (October 31st, 1872), that the fishing
operations of this colony are at present
strictly confined to its local requirements,
owing to the demand for labour on account of the more important works
on hand. Independently of this, however, the difficulties which must
continue to exist under the present constitution of the settlement are so
great and irremediable that the methods now employed are capable of but
little improvement. The fisheries are of necessity restricted to the inner
harbour at Port Blair, because it is impossible to trust even term -con-
victs with really sea-worthy boats. A few of the oldest of these term
convicts are now allowed to ply their trade in the deep sea outside, but
we shall soon have none of this class available, and our operations must
then be rigidly confined to the harbour, unless police guard boats could
be employed as escorts to the fishing gangs when at sea. Again, the har-
bours and coasts of the Andamans are so hemmed in and fringed by rocks
and coral reefs, that seines and drag-nets of any size cannot conveniently
be used, and in those cases where such nets are employed they are con-
stantly torn by sharks if they escape the rocks. Under these circum-
stances, it will be seen that it is neither expedient nor practicable, in the
present condition of the colony, to attempt more than is needed for the
wants of our population, and to this extent our operations are fairly
adequate/'
151. The fishes of the Andamans are exceedingly varied in their
character, and chiefly remarkable by the ab-
Fishenes of the island. *> -i • i 1-1 -\ • i
sence of siluroids, which revel in mud, and
also of carps, due to a deficiency of fresh water. The modes of fishing
are stake enclosures, drag-nets, cast-nets, and hooks and lines. Stake-
fishing is carried on by means of bamboo fences or screens, which are
fixed in the muddy bed of some appropriate locality ; a large piece of
water is enclosed, and at its centre, opening inwards, are three chambers
CXXX1X
communicating one with another, the innermost having1 a door which can
be closed at pleasure ; it is cleared out at low water. The upper edge
has to be about one foot above high-water mark. Owing to the large
number of barnacles and other destructive animals, they rarely last above
a few months, whilst, unless kept clean, fish will not enter. They have
to be shifted every ten days or a fortnight, as the fish become too know-
ing to enter after it has been standing a few days. Owing to the large
amount of coral, it is not always possible to discover a place where
bamboos can be driven in. The captures are greatest during the rainy
season, when the water becomes turbid, or from June to September.
Drag-nets can be employed in places, but are seriously interfered with
by coral reefs. Cast-nets are at times exceedingly productive, es-
pecially when the oil sardine, Clupea Neokowu, the species with a black
tipped tail, C. melanurus and an anchovy Engraulis boelama, arrive in
droves, not only around the islands, but also extending their
range within the limits of the harbour. These fish are used as baits, or
for food, and their best season appear, to be from November to March.
There appears to be no difficulty during this period in capturing, in
appropriate places, quantities of these fish by means of cast-nets, but as
food they are considered inferior to those fishes which are taken by hooks
and lines, or the large species captured in the enclosures. Port Mouat
seemed to be especially visited by these fishes ; but as they rapidly putrify
they cannot be carried to the larger station, and are. generally dried
when caught. Thus, one day we sent out four convicts with cast-nets,
and in four hours they returned with about 260R). weight, their canoe
not being able to hold more. They asserted that they could continue
taking at this rate for months had they a market, and it may be worthy
of consideration whether fish-oil could not be manufactured during the
season these fish are in sufficient condition for the purpose, and nga-pee
at other times for the Burmese jails. Hooks and lines are employed
amongst the coral reefs and rocks, and out at sea. The description of
fish thus obtained being excellent.
cxl
ISINGLASS.
152. Isinglass appears to have been discovered many ages since,
for certainly it was known to the Romans,
' * "' ""' being mentioned by Pliny. It is obtained
in several parts of the world from the air-
vessels (termed f sounds ' or ' maws ') of various species of sea, estuary,
and fresh-water fishes, England procuring her best from Russia, where
it is principally collected from the family Accipenserida or sturgeons,
and the following species according to Brandt and Ratzeburg (1829J.
Accipenser sturio, the common sturgeon ; A. huso, the great sturgeon :
A. Quldenstadiii, the Osseter; A. rathenus, the sterlet; A. stellatus, the
Sevruga or starred sturgeon, in which account are likewise included the
A. brevirostris ; A. schypa;A. Ratzeburgu : A. Lichtensteinii, also A.
maculosus, and A. oxyrhynchus from North America. * The Russians
are also said to obtain it from the Acanthopterygian Lucioperca Wol-
gensis, Pall. ; from the siluroid, silurus glanis ; and from certain Barbels,
Barlus, amongst the carp family. Inferior descriptions are likewise
received from the Brazils and North America.
153. Dr. McClelland discovered, about the year 1839, that the
Chinese had been importing isinglass from
thr"b°Sce0ffromeioed?aOTtD0r! India in enormous quantities and from im-
Royle's pamphlet ou the subject, memorial ages,' and an investigation was com-
menced into this subject. He ascertained that
from one village, six miles south-east of Calcutta, from eight to nine
hundred maunds yearly, valued at from Rs. 25 to 40 the maund, were
exported. Lord Auckland, when Governor-General, sent some specimens
to England as a new export, and, according to Dr. Royle, gave " a general
view of Indian fisheries, and the propriety of attending more extensively
to the curing of fish", f Dr. Royle, in 1842, in a pamphlet " on the
production of isinglass along the coasts of India, " gives a resume of what
had been previously accomplished, as well as some very interesting figures
and experiments on the value of this article, as received in London, both
in an economic and financial point of view.
154. Isinglass, the purest known form of animal jelly, has, in a
measure, had its consumption checked by its
are ta^Jt'S fmatLt high price, and substitutes are employed such
a gelatine (of which it is itself the purest
form). It is of a highly nutritious and
unirritating nature, admirably adapted for the sick room, and the pre-
paration of some forms of confectionary and cookery, besides being em-
ployed both externally and internally in medicine ; in the preparation of
court plaister, in some arts and manufactures, but more extensively for
* In looking over the last published we
detailing all the fishes of this family (British
Mus. Catal. Vol VIII.) I see these eleven species aro reduced to eight by considering A
Lichtensteinii the young of A. sturio, and A. oxyrhynchus, a variety — by uniting A, Raize.
Iburgii with A. stellatus, whilst A. schypa, Bramll and Hatz. is placed as a doubtful
species.
f This despatch I have not been able to trace.
cxli
clarifying or fining wines and beer. The brewer employs it as follows : .
some having been finely divided, is dissolved in sour beer, to the consis-
tence of a thick mucilage, and a portion is added to the fluid which it is
intended to clarify, and after a longer or shorter period suspended sub-
stances subside. Some suppose that all floating particles become entangled
in the isinglass, and, uniting with it, form an insoluble compound which
becomes precipitated ; others, that when dissolved in a fluid it lessens its
affinity for the suspended particles, which, being thus set free, subside.
The finest description of isinglass is thin, tough but flexible, white, semi-
transparent, and destitute of both taste or smell ; it almost entirely dissolves
in boiling water, and provided " it contains as much as _L of its weight
of gelatine, has the property of gelatinizing or assuming the form of a
soft, tremulous solid as it cools " (Solly) . The inferior sorts are thick,
opaque, white, or yellow, having a fishy taste and smell, and only parti-
ally dissolve. The commonest kind, termed cake-isinglass, is of a brownish
colour, having an unpleasant smell, and is only used in the arts,
and for the preparation of glue. Isinglass, observes Dr. Royle " is
brought to the market in different forms, sometimes in that of simple
plates, at other times rolled up into different shapes, or cut into
fine threads" (p. 10). The Brazilian is very inferior to the Russian,
and is in the form of pipe, block, honey-comb, cake, and tongue isinglass.
The North American is like long ribbons, produced from the air vessel
of the Otolithus regalis. Bl. Schn.
155. The species of fishes from which this useful substance has
been obtained in India do not appear in all
instances to have been correctly defined, as
it has been suggested as derived from some
which are destitute of air vessels. There are two great and very different
orders from which they are derived; — the best being collected from the
(1.) — Order ACANTHOPTERYGII in its more percoid families, as Percidce
and Polynemidos : and the inferior from the (2.) — Order PHYSOS-
TOMI and its family Silurida or cat-fishes. These fishes, suited
for the production of isinglass, are not all found in the same
localities, nor in the like proportions in each different district. With-
out entering too minutely into the subject, it may be stated that
the first division are most numerous towards Sind, and as we come to
Bombay they are somewhat equal with those in the second division.
Along the western coast, and down Malabar, the siluroids are in the
majority; but wherever large rivers debouch into the sea, there the
Polynemi are captured. As we advance up to the eastern coast, at first
the Acanthopterygians are in excess, whilst off Masulipatam, to the
north again, the Polynemi become numerous, especially off the Sunde**-
bunds. In Burma, due to the character of the water, the siluroids again
obtain the predominance.
156. Amongst the isinglass-producing Acanthopterygians, the
Polynemi are most noted, but the species cons-
titutingthis genus are peculiar, in having
filamentous prolongations at the base of each
pectoral fin ; these are remarkably elongated in Polynemus paradiseus,
known in Bengal as the Tupsi mutchi or mangoe-fish. By correctly
cxlii
ascertaining the number of these prolongations in a specimen, a deci-
sion may be arrived at whether the species possesses or is destitute of
an air vessel ; or, in short, if isinglass can, or cannot be obtained from it.
The following are the Indian species with the synonyms given by
Dr Royle : (1.) Polynemusparadiseus, Linn., P. risua, H. B., VII pectoral
appendages ; it attains nine or ten inches in length, and is destitute of an
air vessel. (2.) P. heptadactylus, Cuv. & Val., VII pectoral appendages,
attains about six inches in length ; no air vessel. (3.) P. xanthonemus , Cuv.
& Val., VII pectoral appendages; no air vessel. (4.) P. sextarius, Bloch.
VI pectoral appendages, attains about seven inches in length, has a
small air vessel. (5.) P. Indicus, Shaw, P. uronemus, Cuv. & Val., Maga
booshee, Russell, P. sele H. B. ; P. lineatus, McCelland, V pectoral appen-
dages, attains about 3 feet in length ; has an air vessel, the form of
which is oval, and its membranes thick and silvery; it occupies the
whole length of the abdomen, terminating posteriorly in a very sharp
point, which penetrates the muscles of the tail over the first inter-spinal
of the anal : from either side of the ventral surface proceed from 28
to 35 appendages. (6) P. plebejm Gm. Linn., V pectoral appendages ; it
has a simple air vessel. (7) P. tetradactylns, Shaw, P. teria, H. B., Maja
jellee Russell, IV pectoral appendages, attains six feet in length, has no
air vessel. Thus out of seven species at present recognised in the seas
or estuaries of the coasts of India, merely two are useful for this manu-
facture, and they are the only ones which have five pectoral appendages ;
consequently, unless a large Polynemus possesses five only of these fila-
mentous appendages at the base of its pectoral fin, it will be useless
looking for its air vessel ; it has none, and isinglass cannot be prepared
from it. When dried, the air vessel is tongue-shaped, as are also those of
others of the Acanthopterygians whose air vessels are loose in the cavity
of the abdomen, have no communicating duct leading to the pharynx
and are not attached to the vertebrae.
157. Amongst other estuary or marine isinglass — producing fishes
Other estuary or marine fishes of the Acanthopterygian order, we have a
from which isinglass is pre- considerable number. At Gwadur it is chiefly
Pared- obtained from the Sciana axillarisy and
S. diacanthus ; at Karachi, in Sind, the sea-perches, Serrani, the Begti,
Lates calcarifer, the 8cicenas} Otolithus, and Polynemus were the forms
from which it was taken, never, so far as I could ascertain, from the
siluroids. Of Bombay, the Malabar, and Coromandel coasts I have
already alluded to. Of Bengal and Burma the Scitenoides pama ascends
with the tides all the large rivers, and its air-vessel is of a good quality.
The same may be said of the Otolithits ruder found along the coasts of
India.
158. But if we examine the air-vessels of the siluroid or
scaleless cat-fishes which are used for
Isinglass from siluroid fishes. • • t r-i.i >• i j-/r»
isinglass we find them entirely different.
They are like short rounded bags with an open mouth, this latter being
where they have been torn away from their adhesions to the vertebrae.
The fishes which furnish these descriptions of air-vessels are mostly
found in muddy waters, estuaries, and the mouths of rivers, but do not
thrive where the sea is clear. The Rita ritoides, C. & V., or P/wr;/W//v
rliat H. B., which attains a large size, and is found far up rivers is said
cxliii
to afford this substance in large quantities. The fish maws, sounds,
or air-vessels that the India House received were 3 or 4 inches across in
both diameters, something1 in the shape of short purses with spring
clasps,* of a light colour and semi-transparent. Having seen the speci-
mens, no doubt can be entertained but that they have been derived from
siluroid fishes, the principal genera from which they are collected being
AriuSy Osteogeniosus, and perhaps Macrones.
159. Mr. Remfrey sent two specimens of Indian isinglass to the
India House, one being simply the air-
iJrket™ iSingkSS ^ the h°me vessel removed from tlie fish' an.d sun-dried;
the second being that organ laid open when
fresh, its lining membrane removed, then washed with cold water, and
subsequently beaten flat. Dr. McClelland despatched 46 seers taken
from the Polynemus Indicus, and the Scianoides puma-, it sold at
one shilling and seven pence a pound. It cost in India one shilling and
a penny a pound, but charges in India and England were so heavy,
that the receipts did not quite amount to one third of the outlay. Spe-
cimens were sent in entire pieces cut into shreds, whilst some chalk had
been added to preserve it dry and free from insects. He remarked — " the
sounds, when received fresh, are opened, and stripped of the vascular
covering and internal membrane, washed, and at once made into any
form the manufacturer finds most convenient for packing. * * When
dry, before it reaches the manufacturer (which is commonly the case,
the fish being caught at a distance towards the sea), the sound is
to be opened, and as much of the lining membrane as pos-
sible removed by the hand. A large earthen vessel is then filled with
sounds, and water poured into it, and the whole covered up for twelve
hours, when the sounds will have been brought back to their original
soft state, in which they may be as perfectly cleaned as if they had been
obtained, fresh/'' It seems more than probable that this will account for
the fishy odour of this isinglass, as the sounds should be quite fresh
when prepared. .Dr. McClelland bleached his specimens in alum water,
(one ounce to four or five gallons), soaking then a short time, and, when
saturated, removing them to a linen or cotton cloth, likewise saturated
with alum water. In this they were tightly rolled up and set aside for
twelve hours, the process being repeated until they were white. Some
were sprinkled or dusted with chalk, in case of exposure to damp in their
homeward voyage ; it can be easily rubbed off. At Gwadur, as I have
already observed, the air-vessels were soaked in brine before being dried ;
but elsewhere I have seen them simply removed and dried in the sun.
160. Jackson, reporting on isinglass and its uses in 1765, observed
that its mode of preparation in Russia was
iS manufactured in then unknown to either Russian or British
merchants at St. Petersburg, whilst any im-
prudent enquiries on the subject might render the investigator liable to
" banishment, imprisonment, or a worse fate." But, in 1783, he was
enabled to report fully on this subject in the ' Philosophical Transactions/
The sound, he states, was — " taken from the fish while sweet and fresh,
slit open, washed from the slimy sordes, divested of every thin membrane
* Mr. Yarrell thought they must have been obtained from some species " allied of
the Gurnards," in which conclusion he was evidently mistaken.
cxliv
which envelopes the sound, and then exposed to stiffen in the air."
When the sounds of the cod or ling- are prepared, the only difference is,
that — " they are slit open, washed in lime water in order to absorb their
oily particles, and then in clean water, when they are laid upon nets to
dry." In the present Russian factories of the Caspian and Volga, the
fresh sounds are first split open, well washed to separate the blood and
impurities, " then spread out and exposed to the air to dry, with the
inner, silvery- white membrane turned upwards. This, which is nearly
pure gelatine, is carefully stripped off, laid in damp cloths (or left in the
outer covering), and forcibly kneaded with the hands. It is then taken
out of the cloths, dried in the form of leaf isinglass, or rolled up, and
drawn out in a serpentine manner into the form of a heart, horse-shoe,
or lyre (long and short staple) between three pegs, on a board covered
with them ; here they are fixed in their places by wooden skewers.
When they are somewhat dried there they are hung on lines in the
shade, till their moisture is entirely dissipated. The oblong pieces are
semetimes folded in the form of book-isinglass. In order to obtain
good isinglass, it is necessary to have well-arranged rooms to dry it in,
as at Astrachan.* * According to Pallas, at the lower parts of the
Volga, a fine gelatine is boiled out of the fresh swimming-bladders, and
then poured into all kinds of forms. In Gurief, a fine boiled fish-glue
is prepared, perfectly transparent, having the colour of amber, which
is cast into slabs and plates. The Ostiaks also boil their fishglue in a
kettle. The common cake-isinglass is formed of the fragments of the
other sorts ; these are put into a flat metallic pan, with a very little
water, and heated just enough to make the parts cohere, like a pan-cake,
when it is dried" (Royle). The lining membranes of the air vessel of the
sturgeon, as already noticed, yields the best isinglass, but it has been
rejected in the Indian forms, which accounts for its more fibrous nature,
although not proving that this lining portion in India is of the best
quality.
161. East Indian isinglass possesses all the characteristics of
isinglass, for which reason it is valued
Characteristics of East In- b ^ Cninese and imported into their
diail ISinglaSS. J ' n PTT -\r , -,
empire from the ports of India. Yet it has
some positive defects, such as retaining a fishy smell, besides being
partially insoluble, perhaps due to some portions of the albuminous
membranes remaining. In fact, it requires more care in its prepara-
tion, which should be undertaken whilst it is quite fresh ; and greater
caution is necessary in the drying process. Should " it not be properly
dried, it might possibly undergo a slight change or decomposition, and
become partially converted into a more insoluble form of gelatine. A
more important objection is the smell, which, however, may likewise, to
some extent, be traced to the preparation"* (Royle}. Care should be taken
* In 1868, I removed the air-vessel from an Otolithus ruler, and having simply dried ifc
in the shade sent it to Mr. Broughton at Ootacamund. Having analysed it, he replied
(May 2nd, 1868) " I have examined the fish bladder sent : it contains about 80 per cent, of
gelatine (isinglass containing about 90 per cent). It will set to a jelly iu about 26 times
its weight in water. I do not know which part of the membrane is richest in gelatine,
but it will require very different preparation to the specimen you sent, which possessed a
most fishy odour, and that extended to the jelly, and would quite preclude its use for the
ordinary applications of isinglass."
cxlv
that it is not contaminated by the animal fluid of the fish, for subse-
quently it becomes very difficult to purify. Likewise, it is too thick,
which may be obviated by beating or pressure, as is now done with some
American and Brazilian kinds. " The extra labour that this would
require," observes Royle, (< might be profitably saved by not tearing it
into fibres, in which state it is disapproved of in the market ; but it
might still be cut or rasped into a state fit for domestic use." The
same authority likewise states that — " it is preferable, and will be cheaper
to prepare the article and send it as sheet-isinglass, that is, in the
form of the slit sounds themselves, or their purest membrane, washed,
cleaned, and dried in the best manner.* * Isinglass cut into threads is
unsuitable for the English market, because there is a great prejudice
against purchasing wholesale, things in a cut and powdered state, in
consequence of the innumerable methods adopted for falsifying and
adulterating almost every drug.* * By these means, or by others which
will no doubt suggest themselves, when the objections to the Indian
isinglass are known, the manufacturers will be able to improve it to the
degree requisite to enable it to occupy a permanent as well as high
place among the isinglass imported into the principal markets of
Europe. Though the first quantities sent from India brought only one
shilling and seven pence, others have been sold for three shillings, and a
few samples have been valued at four shillings per pound. Besides this
opening to an extensive sale in the European markets, even in its
present state, we know there is always a constant demand in China for
the isinglass of Bengal. This will, no doubt, afford sufficient encour-
agement to persevere in the extension and improvement of this newly
established and highly promising article of the export trade of India
to Europe.
162. As an export from Madras and
Exports. Bombay to China it is thus recorded for the
years 1837-38 :—
WEIGHT.
VALUE.
From
Cwts.
1*
Rs.
Bombay
5,088
39
2,55,145
Madras ...
1,082
34,407
TOTAL ...
6,170
39
' 2,89,552
Unfortunately fish-fins and fish-sounds are mixed up together in
the Sind returns, but I find the quantities given thus. For four years
ending 1869-70, cwts. 4,896 of the value of Rs. 2,60,672
for 1870-71, „ 1,514 „ „ „ 73,024
cxlvi
FISH-OIL.
163. The following return* shows the annual amount of the
. , r exports of fish-oil from the undermentioned
Presidencies and Provinces during the past
official year. As no exports occur in Bengal, that Presidency has been
omitted.
YEAB.
MADRAS.
BOMBAY.
SlND.
TOTAL.
Number
of fts.
Value in
Rs.
Number
of fts.
Value in
Rs.
Number
of Ibs.
Value in
Rs.
Number
of fts.
Value in
Rs.
1861-62 ...
1,431,328
80,469
272,586
30,932
...
...
1,703,914
111,401
1862-63 ...
81,414
5,452
138,336
14,229
...
219,750
19,681
1863-64 ...
1,387,188
163,568
285,109
32,220
...
...
1,672,297
195,788
1864-65 ...
3,194,672
203,829
96,156
69,235
...
...
3,290,828
273,064
1865-66 ...
20,891
2,074
1,094
135
...
...
21,985
2,209
1866-67 ...
1,133
225
13,031
1,755
19,328
2,365
33,492
4,345
1867-68 ...
820
120
...
...
25,773
3,549
26,593
3,669
1868-69 ...
10,383
1,676
38,523
7,064
4,898
758
53,804
9,498
1869-70 ...
6,781
815
9,617
1,364
58,586
9,039
74,984
11,218
1870-71 ....
TOTAL ...
1,425,531
191,220
Stateme
nt not re
ceived.
7,560,141
649,448
854,452
156,934
108,585
15,711
7,097,647
630,873
164. As very considerable misapprehension appears to exist, not
only in respect to the character of these oils,
Different varieties of Indian bufc how th are prepared J pr0p08e to give
fish-oils. , * *Zi_ • 1 ,• n L j rr£
a resume oi the information collected. Inese
Indian fish-oils are mainly of two descriptions (1) medicinal fish-liver-
oil, and (2) common fish-oil. Slight variations in the mode of preparing
it occur in different places, but the main features will be here alluded
to.
* From a report by Dr. Salfour, Inspector General of Hospitals, Madras, dated
8th September 1871. Burma is not shown. The average export value in fts. is given thus —
Madras Rs. 0-1-4; Bombay Rs. 0-2-11; Sind Rs. 0-2-3; avongc Rs. 0-1-5, due to the
largest exports being from Madras where the article is cheapest.
cxlvii
165. Medicinal fish-liver oil has for some years been prepared on
the Western Coast of India mainly from the
livers of the "Cartilaginous" or Ckandrop-
terygious sub-class of fishes* This manufacture was originally com-
menced in Cochin (about 1852) by the Civil Surgeon of that station,
when the cost of the article was Rs. 0-2-2 per Ib. Owing to the limited
space in British Cochin, the making of this oil was removed to Calicut
and placed under the supervision of the Civil Surgeon of Malabar. On
October 24th, 1871, the Madras Government resolved that its manufac-
ture should be discontinued, as it was ascertained that, whereas its cost
about 20 years previously was Rs. 0-2-2 or S^d. a Ib., from 1863 to
1871 it had averaged Rs. 0-13-6 or Is. S^d. a Ib.; whilst in 1869-70 a
consignment of cod-liver-oil was delivered in Madras atRs. 0-9-1 or ^th of
a penny over Is. \\d. per Ib. Taking these figures as the average cost,
the loss had become upward of 6^d. a Ib. It was observed by Dr. Balfour
that Indian fish oil was being sold at Rs. 0-1-5 per Ib. ; " it is an article
valued in the currying of leather ; but whether or not sent for that pur-
pose, or to be purified and whitened by passing it through boiling water
with the aid of sulphuric acid, or of chlorine or other gas, and hot
filtering through animal charcoal, can only be surmised. The Home
Government might, however, be asked to trace its ultimate disposal,
though I have no doubt that it ultimately finds its place amongst the
cod-liver oils of Europe. I, however, bring to the notice of Govern-
ment the extensive export from India of fish- oil, because its manufac-
turers would doubtless readily enter into contracts for the supply of any
quantity of it, and Government would get it in that way both cheaper
and of better quality than they now obtain it of their own manufacture.""
That the cost of the manufacture of Indian fish-liver oil has become too
heavy there can be no question, but an equally good article could not be
obtained from the native manufacturer at the price mentioned, for he
only, as I shall presently show (para. 1 73), makes a most horribly fetid
common fish-oil.
166. About the year 1854, the manufacture of this oil was com-
menced at Calicut ; the building, which was a
Its manufacture at Calicut. -, j i i j j •
mere shed, was soon blown down, and various
temporary edifices were used until 1866, on the 27th October of which
year, another building, costing Rs. 854-12-4, was constructed. It was
made of stone pillars, thatched with leaves, and surrounded with mats.
However, on June 5th 1 868, it shared the fate of its predecessor, being blown
down, and a third building was raised and completed in August 1869, at
a cost of about Rs. 1,080. A wall was sanctioned in 1870 to enclose
it for the purpose of preventing cattle breaking in and destroying the
bottles and jars.
167. The cost of the raw livers, from which this oil is manufac-
The cost of its manufacture.
annas
has risen from 8 pie a pound to 1J-
; to If annas in 1869-70, whilst it fell
to 1 anna in 1870-71. Now, as every pound of liver is computed to yield
half a pound of oil, it can hardly be admitted that this must be the only cause
of the increased cost of the Indian oil, from Rs. 0-2-2 a Ib. to Rs. 0-13-6
* It has been erroneously asserted that the livers of the seir fish, Cybium, are
employed for this purpose, and the error is still being re-copied and thus reproduced.
cxlviii
a lb., especially as the processes employed are much the same, for 4 pie
a Ib. difference in the cost of the raw livers would only be Rs. 0-1-4
a Ib. rise in that of the oil, or if the article could be manufactured at
Rs. 0-2-2 a Ib., then, other things being equal, it would be now at
Rs. 0-3-6, or less than one half the cost of cod-liver oil
168. I will now trace out how this augmented cost has come about.
In the earlier days of the manufacture, the
The ^reason why the cost has working months were from December to
March, when the sharks and other appropriate
species of fish are about, and for that period only was the working
establishment kept up at an outlay of about Rs. 564 per annum, the
oil costing from 4 to 5 annas a pound. But in 1863 an increased
establishment was sanctioned, augmenting it to Rs. 1,176 a year,
although the amount of the manufactured article continued the same
(or about 4,500 Ib. a year), thus raising its cost by more than 2 annas
a Ib., which being deducted from Rs. 0-11-1, its cost in 1871 reduces it
to slightly below Rs. 0-9-1, the price of the cod-liver oil referred to.
The following table shows the amount of oil manufactured, with the total
cost, taken from a return furnished me at Calicut by Dr. Roberts : —
EXPENDITURE FOB
Year.
Number
of Ibs.
man ufact ured.
Material.
Packing.
Freight.
Cost of
establishment.
Rs. A. P.
Rs. A. P.
Rs. A. P.
Rs. A. P.
1863-64 ...
3,820 ...
1,145 9 3
133 1 1
...
2,174 3 4
1864-65 ...
5,469
1,131 12 1
415 12 0
645 2 8
1,176 0 0
1865-66 ...
5,000
2,502 2 2
413 10 8
548 6 3
1,193 0 0
1866-67 ...
5,350
2,082 6 5
587 9 4
663 8 10
1,126 0 0
1867-68 ...
2,626
1,412 4 7
166 8 0
293 2 4
1,176 0 0
1868-69 " ...
1,871
866 5 7
169 0 3
167 14 5
1,076 1 0
1369-70 ...
2,390
The cost per Ib. has been as follows from the figures furnished me : —
Year.
Rs. A. P.
1863-64 ...
0 15 0
1864-65 ...
1865-66 ...
0 9 10|
0 14 10$
1866-67 ...
0 13 4±
1867-68
125
1868-69 ...
1 4 3|
1869-70 ...
~ 0 15 9|*
• It was stated in 1870 " that the last fish-oil received from Calicut cost Re. 0-10-7
per Ib.; cod-liver oil from England Re. 0-11-2, " whilst Dr. Balfour gives the last at
cxlix
169. The consignments of this article on an average of four
The amount prepared. ?«« from 1867'68 to 187°-71 have been as
follows : —
Bombay Ibs. 1,530
Calcutta „ 1,400
Madras „ 404
TOTAL ... Ibs, 3,334
170. The oil is manufactured from the livers of sharks and saw-fishes.
They are mostly obtained during the months
hat thC °n ^ P1'e" of October and November, when sardines are
plentiful ; some are likewise taken in July and
August. The supply of these fishes evidently depends very much, if not
entirely, upon the presence or absence of the oil sardines (Clupea neohowii,
C. & V.), which are variable in their arrivals and departures, sometimes
forsaking the coast for years, and then as suddenly returning in
droves, consequently in some seasons sufficient sharks cannot be captured
for the requirements of the factory. Shark-livers appear equally good
at any season of the year, but the size has much to do with the com-
parative amount of oil which they yield ; thus other things being
equal, small livers give only one-third their weight of oil, but large ones
nearly one-half. No livers under 40Tbs. weight were purchased. Some-
times very large ones were received, one of 290Tbs. weight was brought,
and another of a female saw-fish, 14 feet long, weighed 1851fos. There
are three recognized qualities of livers (1) the best is firm and pinkish';
(2) the medium is also firm, greyish externally, and reddish when cut
into ; (3) whilst the most inferior is flabby, whitish externally as well
as internally, and is useless, or nearly so.
171. Owing to the large size of the fish from which such livers
How the fish are captured. "» tal£n> *he Malabar fishermen, unlike
those on Smd, are unable to capture them
with nets. Putrid beef, or porpoise flesh is employed, large pieces being
buried for a day or two previous to their being used. The hook is
attached by a chain to the line, whilst the fishing is carried on as des-
cribed in para. 82.
172. The process employed in the manufacture of this medicinal
oil has undergone change. Formerly the oil
Process of manufacture. wag dark.colo8ured) ha(j6a bad> exclu*jve of a
fishy odour, whilst it did not keep. It deposited a dark sediment,
irrespective of a whitish one (squalin), whilst further changes occurred,
which often rendered it unfit for internal administration. Some few
years since this was remedied by the employment of a thicker species
of thick twilled cotton cloth (termed satin-cloth in the bazar) in some
parts of the straining. In 1854, Dr. Barker observed, that if this oil
were kept for any length of time in casks, it re-acquired its fishy odour
and became like train oil. Livers had to be received at the factory
within six hours of the death of the fish, the gall-bladder was at
once removed, and the gland thoroughly washed. The veins were slit
up to admit the blood's draining off, and for this purpose the liver was
left in a large, flat, copper vessel, and water frequently poured over it until
it was no longer discoloured by blood. Then it was cut up into pieces
cl
of about 41bs. weight each, two being placed in an earthen vessel, cap-
able of containing from four to five gallons ; over it was poured about a
quart of water, or just sufficient to cover the liver with 1J inches of
fluid. This had now to be placed for 15 or 20 minutes over a slow fire,
and when the temperature reached 130° it was stirred up; as froth
began to ascend, the vessel had to be at once removed from the fire and
placed on sand to cool. The oil was soon perceived floating, and was
skimmed off into large glazed earthen-ware jars, by means of a wooden
ladle formed by half a small cocoanut shell, attached to a bamboo handle.
This oil, or rough oil, had now to be strained through flannel, what did
not pass being rejected. The straining-stands resembled chatty-stands,
having four posts five feet high, at each angle of a square, and three
transverse connecting bars about one foot long, with the same vertical
distance between each. This rough oil had now to stand three or four
days, when it was again strained through four layers of long-cloth and
thick satin-cloth, and four layers of flannel to remove the stearine, &c.
After fifteen or twenty days the straining was repeated through two
layers of long-cloth and thick satin-cloth in each bar of the strainer,
and two layers of flannel in addition in the centre bar, and this had to
be repeated four times at intervals of twenty or twenty-five days between
each. During these intervals the oil had to remain quiet in the large
glazed earthen-ware jars, and if any crystals or portions of stearine
were seen, the straining had to be repeated. The sixth, and generally the
last straining was through cloth, and filtering paper, in funnels direct
into the bottles in which it was bottled off t and sent away. This oil
should have no deposit, be of a light, clear, straw-colour, its odour much
resembling pure cod-liver oil, although it occasionally is somewhat
stronger.
173. Secondly. — Common fish-oil. This may be prepared from the
, sea or fresh-water fishes, but the latter seem
Common fish-oil, now prepared. , f . ? .
mostly to be used for this purpose in Burma.
If we turn to the table of exports of Oil* from India (para. 163 ante),
one cannot help being struck with the very great variations in different
years. Now these variations are not caused by the oil-producing fishes
migrating along the Indian coast, so that if they were absent one
year in Malabar they might be expected to le present at an-
other spot, as Sind for instance, but the years they are plentiful in
one portion of the coast so they also are at another, and when rare at
one spot an equal paucity is perceived every where. The oil sardine, how-
ever, is the basis of all the oil, for if not prepared from it, a great amount
is from the eharks and fish who live upon them. " When Dussumier
was in Malabar, probably about 1827, he observed that those not eaten
were used for manuring the fields, as they were too fat to salt well ; at
the present time (Fishes of Malabar, 1865), mostly from this species,
an average of upwards of seven thousand pounds worth of fish oil is
annually exported from Malabar. But the oil-sardine is very capricious
as to its arrival and departure. Thus in 1855-56, from the port of Cochin,
only 45 cwts. offish-oil were exported; the next year merely 181 cwts.; but
in the year 1857-58, 68,499 cwts., which augmented in the succeeding
* The whole of this is common fish -oil ; not a pound is the medicinal substance.
cli
year to 102,924 cwfc. and the year after to 133,143 cwts.* Again, it
gradually fell off, until in 1862-63 as little as 115 cwts. were exported,
but the shoals suddenly returned, and in 1863-64 the exports rose to the
enormous quantity of 148,206 cwts." In 1864-65 still larger exports
were made, whilst during the next five years comparatively nothing was
done in this trade, but in 1870-71 the shoals re-appeared as abundantly
as ever, and with these shoals returned the sharks whose absence had in-
creased the cost of the manufacture of medicinal fish-oil so much at
Calicut, by the expenses being the same, but the out-turn so much below
the average. When the sardines arrive off the coast to breed it is most for-
tunate that they are deficient in fat, as they would be turned into oil; but
it is not until they have done breeding that deposits of fat commence,
and by October, sometimes before, and for a couple or three months they are
fat, and well adapted for making oil from ; subsequently they again become
lean. This fish is believed, as a rule, only to come to the Western Coast
of India to breed, to Ceylon and the Andaman Islands, but small por-
tions show themselves along the shores of the Bay of Bengal. They are
captured either by long float nets attached at either end to a boat, and
by making a circuit a shoal is surrounded, or else several canoes put off
together, and pull off to a shoal of these fish, which they take by cast
nets.
174. A boat-load of sardines is computed to hold 14,000, and at
the seasons when they do not afford oil they
Common fish-oil continued. X ., . /
are much cheaper than when it is present.
Unless their livers are fat it is useless attempting to manufacture oil from
them, and it is prepared either by removing the livers or by decomposi-
tion. The natives prepare fish-oil from the livers of sharks, skates, saw-
fishes, rays, cat-fishes, as arius, fyc., oil- sardines, and some other varieties.
The cat-fishes' livers have the most oil about January, just before they are
breeding. Should the livers of any of these fishes alone be employed,
they are heated up to about 130° in water, having about 1 J inches in depth
over them; after about 15 or 20 minutes, on being stirred, the froth rises,
and it, with the oil, is skimmed off into large vessels, in which state it is
sold as fish-oil. There is no washing of the livers, fresh or semi-putrid,
bloody or clean they are put into the pot ; the oil undergoes no straining
or purification, and is exported to Europe, where I understand it is worth
about £30 a ton. In Calicut this oil is worth about four and a half rupees a
maund in the bazar, or less than one anna a lb. If oil is to be obtained by
decomposition the following process is adopted : a boat about three quarters
full of fat sardines is placed in the sun, and about midday sufficient boil-
ing water is poured over the fish to cause the oil to float; it is then skim-
med off, and this is repeated on three successive days. West of Bombayf
the fish-oil may all be said to come from fish of the sub-class Chondrop-
terygii or sharks, saw-fishes and skates, the oil-sardines in that quarter
being said to be unsuited for the purpose. When I was at Gwadur and
* These figures were taken direct from the Customs House returns in Cochin, and do
not coincide with the Collector of Malabar's report. But I feel satisfied that the amounts
given here were actually exported.
f In answer to some questions I sent to the Collector of Sea Customs, Kurrachee.
Mr. Cole observes that all the oil is made from the livers of sharks and such-like fish.
" The flesh of the largest is thrown away, the middle sized ones are salted and eaten, the
smallest are eaten, fresh and salted,"
clii
Karachi about January they had just arrived, and certainly had no fat ;
probably those which had done breeding were migrating1, if so, the
shoals go to the west towards Sind and Beluchistan ; perhaps up the
Persian Gulf or off the south-east side of Arabia. Unfortunately our
knowledge of the fishes of the Persian Gulf has yet to be acquired. Its
presence is not noticed off the eastern coast of Africa in the fishes of
Zanzibar, neither have Ruppell or others observed it in the Red Sea. If
we enquiro more to the south-east of Burma, neither Cantor nor Bleeker
appear to have seen it amongst the Malayan fishes."*
175. The Officiating Magistrate of Rangoon (January 28th 1867),
observed that the average quantity of fish-
Burmese fish-oil. ., i , • 1 i . ,1 p T»
oil obtainable in the town of Rangoon is
about 500 viss a month (or 77 tons and 20 Ibs.), but from November to
May much larger quantities are procurable, it being only made at these
times. The price fluctuates from Rs, 40 to Rs. 50 per 100 viss (a viss is
365 Ibs. avoirdupois) . It is used for lamps, even for curries, and frying
fish, never as medicine. It is obtained by boiling the intestines of some
fish, the heads of others, and even whole fish, in an iron vessel with
water in it, and the fatty substance, as it floats, is skimmed off again into
another pan and boiled again until the oil floats. It is said to be chiefly
extracted from the Nga-bya-ma, Anabas scandens ; and the Nga-khou-ma,
Barlus chola, which species, and other small ones, are boiled entire. It is
also extracted from the Nga-tha-louk, Clupea palasah' and the intestines
of the Nga-yan, OpJiiocephalns striatus. Some oil is likewise made from
the livers of the saw-fish. This is a simple fish-oil of no better descrip-
tion than that described in the last paragraph.
* If Clupea lemuru, Bleeker, is the oil-sardine, this fish would appear to be found in
the Malay Archipelago.
cliii
SEA-FISHES OF INDIA AND BURMA.
176, The sea-fishes of India and Burma are divisible into* the
strictly marine ones, and those which
The sea-fishes of India, Bur- ascend within or even above tidal influence
ri retrod A C0mpilati°n either to deposit their ova in suitable locali!
ties, or else to obtain sustenance. In some
of the strictly marine forms the fry are hatched along the coast, and
subsequently pass into small estuaries, creeks, rivers and streams, in order
to find security and also food suitable to their infantile condition. In
the ensuing list, some fishes, recorded amongst those which are taken
in the fresh-waters, must of necessity find a place; but to obviate
filling up more space than is absolutely necessary, they will only be
referred to in accordance with the number under which they are enumer-
ated in the fresh-water fishery report. This list must be merely looked
upon as a compilation showing those sea-fishes whose existence in the
waters of India, Burma or Ceylon has been distinctly recorded, or else
which I have personally satisfied myself of their presence. A very
large proportion of my specimens having been sent to Europe, to my
collection there, I have not, as yet, had an opportunity of comparing
many which appear to me doubtful forms, with types of some insuffi-
ciently described species, consequently they will be omitted, but included
in my ' Fishes of India', should I subsequently publish such a work.
Many fish also have been introduced upon the statements of those who
have examined the types which I have not yet seen, whilst some have
been omitted, as they have either been asserted by others to be merely
synonyms, or else believed to be so by myself.
Sub-class — TELE os TEL
177. Pishes having an osseous skeleton,completely
separated vertebrae, and the posterior
Fishes with bony skeletons. &c. ., #11 j_ i i i
extremity of the vertebral column
either bony or armed with bony plates. Bulb of aorta simple,
with a pair of valves at its origin. Branchiae free.
Order— AcANTHOPTERYGIL
A portion of the dorsal, anal and ventral fin-rays unarticulated,
forming spines, air-vessel, when present, completely closed, not having
a pneumatic duct.
Family — PERCIDM, Cuv.
Percoidei, pt. Cuvier : Percida, pt. et Theraponidce, pt. Richardson.
Branchiostegals from five to seven : pseudobranchise, as a rule, present. Form of body
generally oblong. Eyes lateral. All, or some of the opercles (except in Apsilus)
serrated or armed. Mouth in front of snout having a lateral cleft, occasionally
situated on the lower side. A barbel on the lower jaw in Pogonoperca. Teeth
villiform or conical in the jaws, canines occasionally present, the vomer and gene-
rally the palatines armed with, teeth. Anterior portion of dorsal fin spinous :
ventrals thoracic, each having one spine and five rays. Scales ctenoid. Lateral
line, when present, continuous, except in some species of Ambassis. Air-vessel
usually present, and when so, simple. Pyloric appendages in varying numbers.
* See appendix to report on the Fresh-water Fish and Fisheries of India aud Burma,
p. ccxlviii et seq.
T
cliv
Genus — LATES, Cuv. and Val.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice. Pre-orbilal, and shoulder bone
serrated: preopercle with strong spines at its angle, and denticulated
along its horizontal limb : opercle spinate. Teeth villiform on jaws, vomer
and palatine bones, tongue smooth. Two dorsal fins united at their bases,
the first with seven or eight spines, the anal with three: caudal rounded.
Scales of moderate size. Cacal pylori few.
Lates calcarifer, Bloch. (See No. 1. F. W. F. Report.) To-dah, Anda-
manese : — Koduwa, Tarn.
Genus — SERRANUS* Cuv.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchia. Eyes lateral, of moderate size.
Preopercle with its vertical limb more or less serrated, its horizontal one
entire, opercle with two or three fiat spines. Teeth villiform in the jaws.
Tongue smooth. Dorsal fin single, having from eight to twelve spines : anal
with three : caudal deeply forked, emarginate, truncated or rounded,
whilst its two central rays may be prolonged. Scales small. Pyloric
appendages many, in moderate numbers, or few.-\
Fishes of this genus may be divided in accordance with the
shape of their caudal fins and the number of spines in the dorsal.
But colouration cannot be accepted as a means for grouping species,
because vertical bands, the same as in many of the Carangidte or
the Osphromejtus are frequently merely a sign that the specimen
is immature. The fins of these fishes sometimes alter with age,
the spines not increasing in length so rapidly as the rays, conse-
quently they become comparatively shorter in the adult ; but even the
rays in the adult are less in their proportionate height to the length of
the fish, then they are in the young. The form of the preopercle is not
invariably identical amongst specimens of the same species, or even in
the opposite sides of the same specimen. Most of the serrani or " Sea
perches" appear to attain to a large size and are esteemed as food,
whilst the air-vessels of some are used as isinglass.
2. Serranus altivelis, Cuv. & Val. D. n A. — Upper profile
18-19» 9-105
of head concave. Preopercle finely and evenly serrated. Caudal round-
ed : dorsal and anal fins elongated. Yellowish, covered with widely
separated black spots margined with white. China and Port Essington,
a large specimen in the British Museum, is reputed to have come from
the East Indies..
* Fishes of this genus are termed Cullawah, Tamil.
t In the Proc., Zool. Soc., March, 12th 1868, I described a new species of percoid fish
from Madras as the type of a fresh genus. Priacanthichtys differing from Serranus in
the existence of a preopercular spine, and a serrated ventral one, it was as follows : — P.
Maderaspatensis, Day. B. VII, D. \\, A. $, L. 1.70. Violet, with two bluish bands, one from
the upper edge of the orbit to the middle of the soft dorsal ; one from its lower edge to
the centre of the caudal fius, I observed ; "appearance that of a Serranus except in the
preopercular and ventral spines." It may be related to S. grammicus as the specimens
hardly exceeded 14 inches in length. I have, however, not as yet seen any young Serrani
with the ventral spine serrated. Dr. Qiinther, "Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.," November
1871, says: " Priacanthichthys has proved to be the young of Serranus.1' This proof I
have not yet seen. I suggested they were like ; he asserted they were identical, and it is a
subject worth investigating, I therefore place this genus as u doubtful one, but probably
the young of Serranut.
civ
3. Serranus lineatus, Cuv. and Val. D. n , A. -L, Csec. Pyl.
17*18 8"9
above 50. Preopercle with two or three denticulations at the angle,
rather well developed. Caudal rounded. Brown with four or five blue
longitudinal bands. India and China, attaining at least four feet in
length.
4. Serranus hexagonatus, Forst : Naambu, Bel. Pulli cullawah,
"spotted perch/' Tarn. D. ^ A. f, L r. 105, Csec. Pyl. 32. Preo-
percle with strongest serrations at the angle. Caudal rounded. Brown
covered with large hexagonal or rounded spots. Red Sea, East coast of
Africa, Seas of India, Malay Archipelago to the Pacific.
5. Serranus flavo-caruleus, Lacep. Mungil cullawah, Tarn.
D. n , A. f , Serrations on preopercle weak, strongest at its angle.
Caudal slightly emarginate. Purplish blue, tail and fins gamboge
yellow, ventral and anal with black tips. From the East coast of Africa
throughout the seas of India.
6. Serranus oceanicus, Lacep. D. y^, A. J. Preopercle rather
strongly serrated, most so at its angle. Caudal rounded. Orange, with five
cross bands : the dorsal with a black edge. One specimen 9 inches long
exists in the Madras museum. Red Sea, Mauritius and Madras.
7. Serranus argus, Bl. Schn. D. j-£, A. f , L. 1. 95, Case. pyl. 8.
Preopercle very finely serrated ; three opercular spines well developed,
the central one the longest. Caudal rounded. Reddish brown, usually with
cross bands, head, body and all the fins covered with numerous small
blue dark-edged spots. Seas of India, very common at the Andamans,
amongst the coral reefs.
8. Serranus Hoevenii, Bleeker. D. j-|-, A. f, L. 1. 80. Preopercle
serrated. Caudal rounded. Greyish olive, darkest along the back.
Body and head covered with irregularly-sized pearly-white spots, whilst
a black line exists on the maxilla. Fins dark grey, externally nearly
black ; but the margins of the pectoral, ventral, soft dorsal, and caudal
have a very narrow white border. The whole of the dorsal fin with
white spots, as on the body. East coast of Africa, seas of India, and
Burma, to the Malay Archipelago.
9. Serranus sexfasciatus, Cuv. and Val. Dambat Sind, and Chaan-
cha, Beluch. D. }^|, A. -j$, L. L 100, Csec. Pyl. 11. Preopercle with
strong teeth at its angle. Pinkish brown on the back, rose coloured on
abdomen. Six vertical dark bands, the first on the head. Fins with dark
margins. Found throughout the seas of India to Java. Is very common
in Sind, and specimens reach 18 inches or more in length.
10. Serranus marginalis, Bloch. D. ~~? A. |, L. 1. 80-90. Similar
to S. Oceanicus, except in colouration. Bright red, with four or five darker
cross bands. A dark red band from snout to base of dorsal spines ; another
to the angle of the preopercle. Spinous portions of dorsal and sometimes
of the caudal dark edged : soft dorsal with a yellow margin. East coast
of Africa through the seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
11. Serranus lanceolatus, Bloch. Gussir, Scindee : kurrupit, Mai.
Commaaree, tfyouug,wutla-cullawa&,OY " Sore-headed perch/" Tarn. D. -11^
A. f , L. 1. 95. Csecal pylori numerous, but very short. When young it
is gamboge yellow, with five blackish blue cross bands. Fins yellow
clvi
with black bands and spots. As it becomes adult the bands become broken
up into irregular markings, and the yellow colour disappears, except from
the fins, in which the black becomes also broken up into black spots (S.
horridus. C. V}. East coast of Africa, seas of India to the Malay Archi-
pelago. Very numerous at Kurrachi : it attains a large size.
12. Serranus erythrurus, Cuv. & Val. D. •}-£, A. f. Preopercular
border rounded and finely serrated in its vertical portion. Fins rounded.
Head and back greenish shot with red ; under surface of the body silvery.
Dorsal greenish ; pectorals, ventrals, and anal yellowish ; tail and free
portion of caudal reddish. Specimen 8 inches in length, but said to
attain 4 feet. Malabar.
13. Serranus dermochirus, Cuv. & Val. D. j^, A. f . Said to be
of a short and thick set form, and that the pectoral rays are invested in
a thick skin, this fin being large and rounded. Dorsal spines short and
very stout. Serrations at the angle of the preopercle very weak. Uniform
brown without spots. A specimen 9 inches in length from the Coro-
mandel coast.
14. Serranus bontoo, Cuv. and Val. Madinawa bontoo, Tel.: Row-je-
1 1 —1 2
dah, And. D. i6.i7.i5, A. f , L. r ca. 120, Csec. pyl. 50-60. Vertical limb
of preopercle finely serrated, having from four to seven coarse teeth at
its angle Fins rounded. Brownish grey on the back becoming lighter
towards the abdomen. Whilst living there are from five to six dark
vertical bands, usually dividing on the abdomen to two each ; they com-
monly fade after death. The whole of the head and body, covered
with large round dark brown or black spots, the largest approaching to
blotches being on the sub- and inter-opercles and the lower jaw. Fins
dark grey, often spotted like the body ; dorsal darkest in its upper half.
Iris with a narrow golden edge. East coast of Africa, seas of India
to the Malay Archipelago. In the Fishes of Zanzibar, p. 5, this species
is given as a doubtful synonym of S. suillus, Cuv. and Val., S. coiodes,
H. B.
15. Serranus coiodes, H. B. JBontoo, Tel. Rab-na-dak, or 0-ro-tam-
daJij Andamanese : Punni-Cullawah, Tarn. D. |j, A. f, Ca?c. pyl. 50-60.
Vertical limb of preopercle serrated, strongest at the angle. Fins round-
ed. Brownish, with about eight cross bands, the first over the the head,
the second over the nape. Head and body covered with large round
yellow spots, that usually become brown in dead specimens; yellow
spots also on the dorsal fin, which sometimes coalesce and form bands.
East coast of Africa, Seas of India to the Phillipines. It attains a
very large size.
16. Serranus salmonoides, Lacdp. D.^^ie, A. J, L. 1. 90, Cul-la-wa,
Tarn. Vertical limb of preopercle serrated with three or four coarse teeth
at the angle. Fins rounded. Brownish yellow : body and fins entirely
covered with black or yellow spots. From the Red Sea through the
Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
17. Serranus diacanthus, Cuv. & Val. D. i^, A. f, L. 1. 90.
Vertical limb of preopercle strongly serrated and with two or three spinous
teeth at its angle. Caudal rounded. Brownish, with five vertical cross
bands : spotted with orange or gamboge yellow, which becomes brown
in Hried specimens. Seas of India to China, attaining a large size.
clvii
18. Serranus semipunclatiis, Cuv. & Val. D. {J-, A. T3G. The
serrations of the preopercle are fine. Caudal rounded, Body with six
or seven broad cross bands; head and fins only are spotted. Pondi-
cherry, to 1 foot in length.
19. Serranus summana, Forsk. D. Jl^. A. |. Canine teeth small.
Preopercle serrated, with a shallow notch above its angle. Second anal
spine longest and strongest : caudal rounded. Brown, body and vertical
fins covered with small, round, white dots. Scarcely any spots on the
head: a black streak above the maxillary. Red Sea, East coast of
Africa and Andaman Islands, where it is very common. This species re-
quires examining with serranus merra, which is stated in Cuv. and Val.
to be found at the Seychelles, &c.
20. Serranus radiatus, Day. D. }j, A. f, L. 1. above 120. Pre-
opercle with three strong teeth at its angle. Caudal rounded. Greenish
olive, becoming dull yellow on the abdomen ; several irregular bluish-white
bands radiate from the orbit or exist on the head, whilst others are seen
on the body. Madras, from whence a single specimen, 4 inches long, was
procured.
21. Serranus glaucus, -Day. D -[£, A. f, Csec. pyl. 13-14. Three
strong denticulations at angle of preopercle. Caudal lunate. Greyish,
head and body covered with large closely-set yellow spots. Fins spotted,
and all, except the pectoral, with black white edged margins. Andamans.
22. Serranus dispar t Playfair. D. —*1_, A. |, L. 1. ca. 80. Canine
teeth feeble in the upper and not apparent in the lower jaw. Vertical
limb of preopercle rather strongly serrated, but more coarsely at its angle :
third anal spine longest, but not so strong as the second : caudal rounded.
Greyish, with brown spots of a larger or smaller size irregularly disposed.
East coast of Africa : Andaman Islands.
23. Serranus nouleny, Cuv. & Val. D. -J|. A. f. Preopercle, with
fine serrations, coarsest at the angle: scapular strongly denticulated.
Canine teeth in the upper jaw very strong. Back golden yellow : abdo-
men rosy : head and paired fins reddish : caudal yellowish. Coromandel
coast, to 5 inches in length.
24. Serranus grammicus, Day. D. •}-£, A. f , L. 1. 90. Preopercle
serrated, more coarsely at its angle. Caudal fin cut nearly square. Greyish,
with a golden gloss about the head. ^ hree narrow black bands ; the
superior passes from the upper edge of the orbit to the last dorsal spine ;
the second from the upper third of the orbit over the superior opercular
spine to the base of the sixth dorsal ray ; and the third from the lower
edge of the orbit to below the middle opercular spine, and on to the
upper third of the caudal fin, where it takes the form of rounded blotches.
Dorsal fin with a row of black spots along its centre, and edged with
black j anal and caudal edged with black, the latter with numerous black
spots. Madras to at least 15 inches in length.
25. Serranus lemniscatus, Cuv. & Val. D. J-J-, A. f . Height of
body 1/3 of its length. A brown baud from the eye to the caudal fin, and
an obsolete one below. Ceylon, to 4 inches in length.
26. Serranus pavoninus, Cuv. & Val. D. {§, A. f. Muzzle pointed.
Preopercle serrated with long and strong spines at its angle. Caudal cut
square. Reddish : under the first four soft rays of the dorsal is a black
ocellus, surrounded by a brilliant silvery ring : caudal yellow, with a
clviii
small vertical black line at its base. This species was named from a
single specimen one inch in length. Bombay.
27. Serranus formosus, Shaw. Ferri-cullawah, Tarn. D. 9 A. JL
L. r. about 90. Preopercle most coarsely serrated at its angle. 'Caudal
rounded. Yellowish brown : snout pale blue : lips and throat spotted with
a darker blue : and about five fillets of the same colour diverge from the
orbit and cross the opercles. Tortuous blue lines along the body. Seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago and China.
28. Serranus cyanostigmatoides, Bleeker. D. T^IS, A. IMO", L. r. 150,
Caec. pyl. 12 (Madras) to 16 (Andamans). Sub- and inter-opercles ser-
rated, as is also the vertical limb of the preopercle : opercle, with three
spines, the upper the shortest. Caudal rounded. Scarlet : body, cheeks,
dorsal, caudal, and anal fins covered with large blue spots. Two dark streaks
from the orbit along the snout : fins darkest at their outer edges. Two
rows of large blue spots along the hard dorsal, and six or eight over the
soft and the anal. Madras, Andamans, to the Malay Archipelago.
29. Serranus guttatus, Bloch. D. jJL, A. JL. Preopercle not
emarginate : edge very slightly if at all serrated : brownish black,
head body and all the fins with round blue black-edged, spots, caudal, anal,
and the posterior half of the dorsal with a white edge. Red Sea, seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago, China, and Australia.
30. Serranus Sonnerati, Cuv. & Val. Siggapu cullawah, Tarn. D.
T9j, A. |, L. r. 120, Csec. pyl. 11 or 12. Vertical limb of preopercle
finely serrated : caudal rounded. A dull lake colour, with the head and jaws
covered with reticulated bright blue lines, enclosing spaces equal to about
one-sixth of the diameter of the orbit. Some very indistinct spots over
the whole of the body. Fins lake colour, darkest at the edges. Soft
dorsal, anal, and caudal with some lightish blue badly-marked spots. East
coast of Africa, seas of India to Sumatra, and the Louisiade Archipelago.
81. Serranus urodelus, Forst. D. T9j, A. f , L. 1. 85. Vertical limb of
preopercle finely serrated : caudal rounded. Of a sanguineous colour, with
a purplish tinge : caudal and anal with pale red and blue spots. Two
oblique lines with white borders on the caudal, converging posteriorly. A
specimen in the British Museum is reputed as having come from India.
Malay Archipelago.
32. Serranus louti, Forst. D. _•_ A. |, L. 1. 70. Vertical limb of
preopercle slightly emarginate and finely serrated. Caudal rounded.
Madder brown, with seven or eight darker cross bands, and a dark spot
between the two upper opercular spines. Fins brown, the vertical ones
with black edges and white margins. East coast of Africa, Ceylon.
33. Serranus llomfrayi, Day. D. T\, A. |. Caudal rounded.
Whitish, with roseate spots. A dark band over the free portion of the
tail : the longest specimen (7£ inches) having the body with nine bands.
Fins spotted with red and edged with white : upper half of caudal with a
dark margin. Andamans, longest of two specimens 7J inches.
Genus — GRAMMISTES (Artedi.), Cuv.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchia. Body oblong and compressed.
Opercle and preopercle unserraled but spinate. Eyes lateral. Teeth villi-
form in the jaws and palatines : no canines. Tongue smooth. Two dorsals,
clix
the first with seven spines, the anal spineless. Scales minute, adherent,
and enveloped in the epidermis. Pyloric appendages few.
35. Grammistes Orientalis, Bl. Schn. D. 7/T'j, A. 9. Three spines
on preopercle. Caudal rounded. Deep brown, with seven narrow longitu-
dinal white bands, which anteriorly are continued on to the head. Seas
of India, Philipines, and Australia ; it attains a few inches in length.
Genus — DIPLOPRION (KM. and V. Hass.), Guv.
Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchia. Body oblong, compressed.
Eyes lateral. Opercle spinate ; preopercle with a double denticulated limb.
Teeth villif or m in jaws and palatines : no canines. Tongue smooth. Two
dorsals, the first with, eight spines, anal with two. Scales small, adherent.
Pyloric appendages few.
36. Diploprion bifasciatum (Kuhl. & V. Hass.) Cuv. & Val.
D. 8/15, A. T%, Vert. 12/13, CJBC. Pyl. 3. Yellowish with two broad black
cross-bands. Seas of India, Malay Archipelago and China; attaining
six inches and more in length.
Genus — GENYOROGE, Cantor.
Diacope, sp. Cuv. : Mesoprion, sp. Bleeker.
Branchiostegals seven. Snout somewhat elongated, the preorbital
rather high,. Preopercle serrated, having a notch above its angle, as deep
as broad, receiving a spinate knob of the interopercle. Opercle with two or
three fiat spines. Villif orm teeth on both jaws and palatines : with canines
in either jaw. Tongue smooth. Dorsal fin single, with from ten to eleven,
but rarely more, spines : anal with three spines. Scales of moderate size.
Cereal pylori, few or absent*
37. Genyorogos Seba, Cuv. & Val. Viri-cut-ta-lay, or nai-herruchi,
"smelling like a dog/' Tamil. D. _^_., A. JL^ L. 1. 40, Ca3c. pyl. 4-5,
Vert. 10/14. Caudal fin emarginate. Reddish, a black band passes
from before the dorsal fin through the eye to the snout : a second from
the summit of the second to the sixth dorsal spines to the ventral fin : a
third from the soft dorsal, curving downwards to the lower half of the
caudal fin : a black band along the upper half of the caudal : ventral and
lower half of anal black. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, &c.
38. Genyoroge Amboinensis, Bleeker. D. T^, A. f, L. 1. ca. 70,
Ccec. pyl. o. Caudal slightly emarginate. Rose coloured, five or six yellow
longitudinal stripes along the sides : fins yellow : a black blotch imme-
diately above the lateral line, not apparent until after death in
Andamanese specimens. Andamans to the Malay Archipelago.
39. Genyoroge Bengalensis, Bloch. Viri-keechan, Tarn. D. T|,
A. f , L. 1. 48, L. tr. 8/1 8. Caudal slightly emarginate, yellowish brown
superiorly, becoming yellowish white inferiorly. A light finger mark,
black in the immature, exists on the lateral line, under the first portion
of the soft dorsal fin. Five bright blue bands pass from the orbit across
the opercles : the superior to the ninth dorsal spine : the second to the
fourth dorsal ray : the third to the last dorsal ray : the fourth to the
centre of the base of the caudal : and the fifth across the base of the
clx
pectoral to the posterior extremity of the anal : fins yellowish. Seas of
India, Malay Archipelago, China, &c.
40. Genyoroge rivulaia, Cuv. & Val. Kalee maee, Tel. : Cuttu-
pirriun, Tarn. D. |£, A. JL L. 1. 45-50, L. tr. 9/19, Csec. pyl. 5,
Caudal slightly emarginate. Colours (in the immature) , back olive, with a
slate coloured spot in the centre of each scale, thus forming lines passing
upwards and backwards : abdomen greyish with horizontal golden lines
crossing the centre of each scale, and vertical dark ones along their
bases. Several bright blue lines pass downwards and backwards over
the preopercle and opercle, and two larger ones along the snout. A large
white blotch on the lateral line opposite the third to the fifth soft ray,
having a wide black edge anteriorly and .posteriorly in its upper third.
This white mark covers four scales transversely, is one below and three
above the lateral line. Dorsal, slate coloured, superiorly reddish with a
narrow white edge. Pectorals reddish : ventrals slaty with a dark edge.
Caudal bluish, tipped with red. (In the adult) as about 15 inches in
length, the mark on the lateral line has wholly or entirely gone, the
golden shade is wanting, but the blue spots remain. The white edge to
the fins is also usually absent. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
41. Genyoroge notata, Giinther. D. {£, A §. Second anal spine
longer and stronger than the third. Back reddish brown, a black
blotch above the lateral line, and bright blue lines along the body. East
coast of Africa and seas of India according to Giinther and Playfair.
But it seems very doubtful if some error has not occurred and the Mesop-
rion Russellii got mixed up with this Zanzibar species which is not
Ruppell's fish. (See No. 57.)
42. Genyoroge melanura, Riipp. D. {-£, A. §^, L. 1. 55-60. Csec.
pyl. 4. Preopercle serrated, strongest at the angle : the notch well
developed. Uniform crimson : dorsal, caudal and anal fins with a black
margin having an external white edge : pectoral and ventral yellow :
basal portion o£ the caudal black. Red Sea : Andamans.
43. Genyoroge marginata, Cuv. & Val. Cul-meen* Sungarah,
and YeJckerday, Tamil. D. |§, A. f, L. 1. 50-55, L. tr. 6/14. Pectoral
reaching to above the first anal spine : second anal spine strongest and
rather longer than the third : caudal emarginate. Purplish yellow,
caudal fin deep purple with a white edge : no lateral blotch. Seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago, is not a large species.
44. Genyoroge grammica, Day. D. -f g, A. f- , L. 1. 45, Csec. pyl. 5.
Second anal spine longest and strongest : caudal lunated. Yellow with
five blue lines on the body, the upper three going to the dorsal fin, the
fourth to the middle of the caudal, and the fifth to the end of the base
of the anal. Four blue lines on the head, two from the eye join the second
and third body lines : two from the snout become the fourth and fifth on
the body. A black finger-mark exists on and above the lateral line,
opposite the commencement of the soft dorsal fin. Andamans, to about
g inches in length.
* Cul-meen or 'stone fish/ Tamil, is a very common term, applied to some s
the fishermen know, and many they have not previously observed.
clxi
Genus — MESOPIUON, Cuv.
Diacope, sp. Cuv. & Val. : Ruppell, &c.
Branchiostegals seven. Snout somewhat elongated, the preorbital
rather high. Preopercle serrated, without or with a very open notch.
Opercle with three or two, or more rarely one indistinct point. Villiform
teeth in both jaws witfi canines, teeth on the palate : tongue smooth.
Dorsal fin single, with from nine to twelve spines: anal with three. Scales
of moderate size. Ccecal pylori few or absent.
45. Mesoprion dodecacanthoides , Bleeker. D. -}-|, A. f , L. 1. 46.
Spinous portion of dorsal fin higher than the soft. Caudal very slightly
emarginate. Rose coloured, with seven oblique brownish streaks : a
brown spot at the base of the tail. Fins yellow. Madras and Malay
Archipelago.
46. Mesoprion chirtah, Cuv. & Val. Soosta, Ooriah : Rettum-pirriun,
Tarn : An-na-kah-ro-dah, And. D. I3ni4 , A. f , L. 1. 54, L. tr. |J, Vert.
10/14, Csec. pyl. 5-6. Third anal spine longest. Caudal truncated. Co-
lours (in the immature M. annularis) crimson with orange reflections, a
dark mark along the base of the dorsal fin commencing at the opercles :
a black band across the back over the free portion of the tail behind which
it is of a whitish colour. Fins, except the pectoral, with a fine black
edge. In specimens about five inches in length there are many longitu-
dinal black lines. (In the adult) they become of a uniform rose colour,
somewhat orange on the fin, the edges of which are darkest. . When
alive, even in some large specimens, the remains of the mark on the tail
is perceptible.
47. Mesoprion Malabaricus, Bl. Schn. D. _il_, A. f , L. L 52.
Second anal spine longest and strongest : caudal truncated. Rose coloured
with oblique yellow streaks above the lateral line and longitudinal ones
beneath. A bluish violet band along the back at the base of the dorsal fin,
and a reddish violet spot on the back of the tail : dorsal and caudal fins
with a black edge. Seas of India. This, it is suggested, may be a variety
of the M. annularis.
48. Mesoprion Mitchelli. Giinther. D. -} \, A. ,-%, L. 1. 50, L. tr, 9/18.
Body elevated and compressed : lower jaw considerably the longer.
Caudal lunated : anal spines weak, second and third of equal length.
Yellow, red along the . back, becoming rosy below the lateral line : dark
olivaceous stripes along the rows of scales above the lateral line, but more
yellow below it. Fins olive edged with black. Madras up to 10 inches
in length. This fish appears to closely resemble genus Odontonectes,
Giinther.
49. Mesoprion rubellus, Cuv. & Val. Jahngarah, Tel. D. ^'j1 - , A.
-JL, L. 1. 46, L. tr. T77. Second anal spine strongest but shorter than
the third : caudal emarginate. Back greyish brown, chest orange,
abdomen and sides of a light violet, each scale with a white edge.
Spinous portion of the dorsal greyish, but the soft with a more yellow
tinge : pectoral reddish : dorsal spines greyish, and caudal tinged with
brown. Seas of India and Red Sea, attaining four feet in length.
50. Mesoprion Johnii, Bloch. Doondiawah, Tel.: Chembolay, Mai
D. j J, A. |, L. 1. 48, L. tr. 7/10. Second anal spine longest and strongest :
clxii
caudal slightly emarginate. Yellowish,, lightest on the abdomen, with a
large black finger-mark on the lateral line between the 22nd and 80th
scales. A dark line in some localities is observed along the centre of each
row of scales, and then the finger-mark is usually badly developed. Fins
yellowish dashed with red. Seas of India, Malay Archipelago, China,
Australia, and the Pacific. The very young has a long spine at the angle
of the preopercle, as is observed in M. pomacanthus, Bleeker.
51. Mesoprion sillaao, Cuv. and Val. Sillaao, Tel. D. 10 , A. f,
L. 1. 50, L. tr. 7/12. A slight knob at the upper angle of the interoper-
cle. Second anal spine strongest, the third the longest : caudal slightly
emarginate. Back brownish red, the base of each scale darkest, below
the lateral line of a bright lake colour.' A tinge of orange along the
lower surface of the body. A blue zig-zag line over the sub-and pre-
orbitals. Spinous portion of dorsal and anal greyish, the soft orange-
scarlet. Pectoral scarlet. Seas of India, attaining a large size.
52. Mesoprion flavipinnis, Cuv. and Val. D. •{£, A. |. Greyish
on the back, becoming whitish on the abdomen, with a general silvery
tint. All the fins are yellowish. Pondicherry, attaining five feet in
length. This may be M. sillaao.
53. Mesoprion rangus, Cuv. and Val. Rangoo, Tel. : To-go-re-dah,
And. D. -™_, A. |, L. 1. 46-50, L. tr. _?_, Cac. pyl. 4. A slight tu-
13-15 15-16
berosity on the interopercle. Second anal spine longest and strongest :
caudal slightly emarginate : first ventral ray prolonged. Dark reddish
brown on the back, becoming dull cherry red below the lateral line. Fins
reddish. A blue line along the sub-orbital ring of bones. The young
have eight or nine irregular and very narrow white bands : an orange
streak along the edge of the spinous dorsal : and a white streak on the
external side of the ventrals. Seas of India and Malay Archipelago.
Attains two feet and upwards in length.
54. Mesoprion vitta, Quoy and Gaim. D. . *^** , A. f , L. 1.
55-62. A tuberosity on the interopercle : second anal spine stronger than
the third, but the two of nearly equal length : caudal slightly emarginate.
Yellowish, with oblique streaks above the lateral line, and horizontal ones
below it. A black band from the eye to the base of the caudal fin : dor-
sal and- caudal blackish. Andamans, Malay Archipelago to China and
Japan, &c.
55. Mesoprion gembra, Bloch. D. .. 10 , A. f, L.I. 46. Second anal
spine slightly Jonger and stronger than the third : caudal truncated.
Olive, scales with dark bases : dorsal, anal, and ventral with darker mar-
gins. Immature with cross bands. Seas of India to the Moluccas.
56. Mesoprion aurolineatus, Cuv. and Val. D. ^L , A. f, L. 1. 46.
Second anal spine longest and strongest : caudal slightly emarginate.
Olivaceous : abdomen with several brilliantly golden horizontal lines,
divided by a darker one, and running along each row of scales. A large
black blotch on the lateral line from the 21st to the 31st scales, two-
thirds of it being below the line. Fins yellowish. Seas of India.
57. Mesoprion fulviflamma, Forsk. Antika doondiawah, Tel.
D. -J14, A. |, L. 1. 48—54, L. tr. 7/16, Csec. pyl. 4—6. Second and
third anal species of about equal length and strength : caudal slightly
clxiii
emarginate. Olivaceous yellow or rosy along the back, with four narrow,
and brilliant golden bands passing obliquely upwards and backwards
from the lateral line : four similar golden bands exist below the lateral
line, the first proceeding from the posterior edge of the orbit to the
lateral finger mark ; the second from the middle of the opercle to
opposite the end of the soft dorsal, where it is lost on the lateral line ;
the third from below the orbit to the base of the caudal ; and the fourth
from below the base of the pectoral to the base of the anal. A large
black finger-mark exists on the lateral line opposite the commencement
of the soft dorsal fin from the 23rd to the 26th scales. Prof. Kner.
(Novara fische, p. 35) appears to have correctly identified this species
with Russell's pi. 98, which is the same as Diacope notata, Cuv. and Val.
Seas of India, East coast of Africa, Malay Archipelago and China.
58. Mesoprion carui, Cuv. and Val. Karooi, Tel. D. |£, A. f , L. 1.
50, L. tr. 6/12, Lower jaw slightly the longer. Second anal spine
strongest, but not quite so long as the third : caudal lunated. Yellowish
red along the back, becoming rosy below the lateral line : olive stripes
passing obliquely upwards and backwards above the lateral line, and
brilliant yellow ones below it. Fins orange. Coromandel coast. This
species requires comparing with M. flavipinnis, Cuv. and Val.
59. Mesoprion decussatus, Cuv. and Val. Jeu-win-dah, Anda-
manese. D. J°-, A. f, L. 1. 54, L. tr. 6/17, Ca3c. pyl. 3. Third anal
spine slightly the longest and strongest : caudal forked. Whitish, with
six black horizontal bands along the body, and six badly-marked short
vertical ones in its upper third from the dorsal (in, the crossing of
the two sets of bands forming large white spots. A deep black mark at
the base of the caudal fin. A white band across the occiput, which is
continued on to the preopercle. Fins greyish. Seas of India, Malay
Archipelago to the Philipines.
60. Mesoprion multidens, Day. D. f J, A. f , L. 1 52, L. tr. 7/17,
Csec. pyl. 5. Six canines in the lower jaw : some smaller ones in the
upper. Last dorsal and anal rays elongated ; second anal spine strongest,
third the longest : caudal deeply forked. Rosy, with about six longitudi-
nal yellow bands along the body, and one golden one from the inferior
angle of the eye to the snout, and another across the forehead. Anda-
mans obtaining a large size.
Genus — AMBASSIS* (Comm), Cuv. and Val.
Chanda, Hamilton Buchanan; Bogoda, pt. Bleeker.
Branchiostegals six. Body compressed, more or less diaphanous. Lower
limb of the preopercle with a double serrated edge: opercle without a promi-
nent spine. Tilliform teeth on the jaws and palate: generally no canines*
Two dorsal fins, the first with seven spines, the anal with three : a recumbent
spine directed forwards in front of the base of the dorsal fin. Scales of
moderate or small size, frequently deciduous. Lateral line complete, in-
terruptedy incomplete, or absent.
A. Lateral line continuous.
61. Ambassis Commersonii, Cuv. and Val. D. 7/— , A. f, L. 1.
30-33, Vert. 9/15. Preorbital rather strongly serrated: serratures
* Gu-nas-si, Mugh.
clxiv
passing downwards and slightly backwards. Vertical limb of preopercle
finely serrated : its inferior limb with its double edge also serrated : two
or three coarser teeth on the angle. Inferior edge of interopercle finely
serrated. Two or three small and very blunt denticulations at the pos-
terior superior angle of the orbit. Second dorsal spine the longest :
second anal spine the strongest, and about as long as the third. Silvery,
with purplish reflections : a bright silvery line from the eye to the
caudal fin. Red Sea, East coast of Africa, through the seas of India
to those of North Australia : ascends estuaries, attains 7 inches in length.
62. Ambassis urotcenia, Bleeker. D. 7/ ^, A. -^ L. 1. 27, L. tr.
4/10. Second spine of first dorsal fin rather above half the height of the
body : third anal spine the longest in the fin but not so long as the
second of the dorsal. Silvery, with a burnished lateral band. The inter-
spinous membrane between the second and third spines black : a black
longitudinal band on each lobe of the caudal. Andamans and Malay
Archipelago.
B. Lateral line interrupted.
63. Ambassis Dussumieri, Cuv. & Val. D. 7/ JL- A. ^L L. 1. 27,
L. tr. 3/6. Preorbital with six strong denticulations directed downwards
and backwards on its anterior edge, and a few serratures on its posterior:
anterior serratures on the double serrated edge of the preopercle the
largest. Two or three strong spines directed backwards at the posterior
superior angle of the orbit, sub-and inter-opercle entire. Third anal spine
longer, but not quite so strong as the second. Lateral line inter-
rupted after about the eleventh scale. Silvery, with a bright lateral
band : blackish between second and third dorsal spines : a blackish edge
to the caudal. East coast of Africa, seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago and China.
64. Ambassis Buruensis, Bleeker. D. 7/ g-L A. i- L. 1. 28, L. tr.
?^ . Above the eye two small spines directed backwards : interopercle
with a small spine at its angle. Second spine of first dorsal J of the total
length : third anal spine considerably longer than the second. Lateral
line interrupted below the commencement of the soft dorsal fin. Two
broad bands of scales on suborbitals. Silvery, with a lateral band : fins
yellowish, blackish between second and third dorsal spines. Andamans
and Malay Archipelago.
C. Lateral line incomplete.
65. Ambassis macracanthus, Bleeker. D. 7/-JLQ, A. -JL, L. 1. 27-29.
Anterior margin of orbit serrated, two spines at its posterior superior
angle : preorbital serrated. A double serrature on vertical limb of preo-
percle. Sub-opercle with four denticulations at its angle. Second dorsal
spine one-half the length of the body : third anal spine the longest in
the fin. Lateral line incomplete. Silvery, without any lateral stripe.
Second dorsal spine bright orange : the interspace between it and the
third black. Estuaries in the Andamans, Malay Archipelago.
clxv
Genus — ApouON, Lacep.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchite absent. Opercle spinate :
preopercle with a double serrated ridge. Teeth Mliform in jaws vomer and
palatines, no canines : tongue smooth. Two separate dorsal fins, the first
with six or seven spines, the anal with two. Lateral line commences
opposite the upper edge of the opercle. Scales large, deciduous.
66. Apogon nigripinnis> Cuv. & Val. D. 7/ J, A. §. Caudal round-
ed. Dorsal, ventral, and anal fins black. Seas of India, Malay Archi-
pelago to China ; attaining at least 2J inches in length.
67. Apogon chrysotcenia, Bleeker. D. 7/ £, A. f, L. 1. 26, L. tr.
§. Caudal notched. Brilliant golden with black head. A silvery white
median band on the head, which divides, one branch proceeding to the
upper half of the tail on either side : a second band goes from the orbit
to the middle of the tail : a third to its lower half : and a fourth from the
angle of the mouth to the base of the pectoral. Fins orange. Andamans
and Nicobars amongst the coral reefs ; also in Malay Archipelago.
68. Apogon maculosus, Cuv. & Val. D. 7/J, A. f . Brown with four
rows of brown spots on either side : fins also brown spotted with darker,
none on the head. This fish is said generally to have come from the seas
of India, and to attain three inches in length.
6.9. Apogon Nova Guinea, Valen. D. 7/ $, A. -§, L. 1. 24-25, L. tr.
8-9. Fourth dorsal spine the longest : caudal slightly notched. Head
with brown spots : body and fins yellowish. Seas of India, Malay
Archipelago, &c.
70. Apogon annularis, Ru'pp. D. 7/ -g, A. §, Caec. pyl. 4.
Body pinkish shot with gold, a broad black or dark band round the free
portion of the tail. Fins reddish. The first dorsal tipped with black :
ventral spine black, and a narrow black edge to second dorsal, anal and
caudal. Some fine black or brown spots on the snout and head : a black
horizontal band through the eye. Red Sea, seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago. Attains at least 4i inches in length.
71. Apogon quadrifasciatus , Cuv. & Val. D. 7/ -J, A. |. Caudal
notched. Silvery red, on either side two longitudinal bands, the lowest
going from the mouth and eye to the middle of the base of the caudal
fin : the highest from above the orbit to the upper portion of the base
of the caudal. Fins yellowish, the upper half of first dorsal black. From
the East coast of Africa through the seas of India to the Malay Archi-
pelago and China.
72. Apogon fasciatus, White. D. 7/£, A. §, L. 1. 26, L. tr. 8-9.
Caudal notched. Olive, a black stripe from the upper edge of the orbit to
the end of the second dorsal : a second below it to the tail above the
lateral line : a third parallel to it below the lateral line : a fourth from
the upper part of the lower jaw to the root of the pectoral. Dorsal
yellowish tinged with darker. Ventral, anal, and caudal reddish. East
coast of Africa through the seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and
Australia.
73. Apogon Bleekeri, Gunther. D. 6/£, A. T% (14-17), L. r. 20.
Caudal slightly forked. Whitish, having a pink tinge on its fins : and a
rather large black mark on the lateral line at the root of the .caudal :
opercles silvery. Seas of Madras and the Malay Archipelago.
clxvi
74. Apogon Ceylonensis, Cuv. and Val. D. 6/^, A. T2T. Caudal
slightly forked. Reddish shot with gold, but neither spots nor transverse
bands. Ceylon, to 2 inches in length.
75. Apogon hyalosoma, Bleeker. D. 6/^, A. f , L. 1. 24, L. tr.
2J/8J. Caudal slightly forked. Of an olive colour, with a darkish blotch
at the root of the caudal fin : between second and third dorsal spines
black. Seas of India and Malay Archipelago, to at least 6 inches in
length.
76. Apogon thermalis, Cuv. and Val. D. 6/i A. §. Uniform yel-
lowish, with a black blotch at the side of the tail : between second and
third dorsal spines black. This species, due to having been taken in warm
springs at Cania in Ceylon, is considered to be a different sort from
the preceding : a comparison is needed
77. Apogon arbicularis (Kuhl. and v. Hass.), Cuv. and Val. D. 6/g-,
A. f , L. 1. 25, L. tr. f- . Olive : a dark zone round the body in front of
the first dorsal fin : head spotted with black : a cloudy band below the
second dorsal : free portion of the tail spotted : first dorsal with black
spots : base of second dorsal cloudy : ventrals nearly black. Andamans
and Malay Archipelago.
Genus — ApoGONICHTHYS, Bleeker.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchite absent. Opercle spinate: pre-
opercle with a double ridge but destitute of any serrature. Teeth villiform
on the jaws and palatines : no canines : tongue smooth. Two separate dorsal
fins, the first with six or seven spines, the anal with two. Scales large, deci-
duous.
78. Apogonichthys auritus, Cuv. and Val. D. 7/$, A. £, L. 1. 23.
Caudal rounded. Lateral line ceases under the middle of the soft dorsal
fin. Body and head spotted and marbled all over with brown, a round
black spot on the opercles having a white lower edging. Andamans and
Nicobars, also Red Sea and the Mauritius.
Genus — CHEIL ODIPTEE us, Lacep.
Branchiostegals seven. Opercle without spines : preopercle having an
interior ridge and generally a double serrature. Villiform teeth in both
jaws, and usually canines as well: teeth on the palatine bones. Two dorsal
fins separated by an interval, the first with six spines^ the anal with two.
Scales large, deciduous.
79. Cheilodipterus lineatus, Forsk. D. 6/£, A. f , L. 1. 28. Caudal
notched. Lower preopercular edge serrated. Silvery, with from 7 to 16
horizontal black bands, apparently dependent upon age; a black mark on
the side of the base of the tail : a black blotch between the second and
third dorsal spine : fins red. Red Sea, East coast of Africa, seas of India,
to Malay Archipelago.
80. Cheilodipterus guinquelineatus, Cuv. and Val. D. 6/^, A. |,
L. 1. 25. Five black bands along the sides : a black spot at the root of
the caudal, with a bright yellow ocellus round it. Nicobars, Malay
Archipelago.
Genus — DULES, Cuv. and Val.
Branchiostegals six. Eyes of moderate size. Opercles spinate, without
a membranous lobe : preopercle serrated : chin moderately prominent. Villi-
clxvii
form teeth on jaws and palatines : no canines. One dorsal fin with ten
spines having a deep notch between the ninth and tenth : anal uith three
spines. Scales ctenoid and of moderate size.
81. Dules rupestris, Lacep. D. J^L , A. _?_, L. 1. 40-42, L. tr. 5/8.
Preorbital and inferior limb of preopercle finely serrated : opercle with
two spines. Fourth and fifth dorsal spines longest : the third of the
anal longer than the second : caudal slightly emarginate. Greyish, be-
coming silvery beneath the lateral line : all the fins edged with white, and
having a dark grey band along their bases : sometimes every scale with a
black central spot : the vertical fins brown spotted, edged with black.
Andamans, Mauritius, Malay Archipelago, and Feejee Islands.
82. Dules taniurus, Cuv. and Val. D. J-§, A. T3T, L. 1. 50-55, L. tr.
6/12. Fourth and fifth dorsal spines the longest: caudal deeply notched :
third anal spine longer but not so strong as the second. Bluish, becoming
silvery on the abdomen : soft dorsal with a brown anterior and superior
edge : caudal brown, with an oblique white band on either lobe, they
converge posteriorly. Andamans, Malay Archipelago, and China.
83. Dules Bennetti (Bleeker), Peters. D. y>, A. y^, L. 1. 50, L.
tr. 6-12. Similar, if not identical, with the last, but with a black streak
along the centre of the caudal fin, and two oblique bands on either lobe.
East coast of Africa and seas of India.
Family — PRISTIPOM ATID.E .
Percoidei, pt., Scianoidei, pt., Sparoidei, pt, et Mcenides, pt. Cuv.:
Theraponida, pt., Hcemulonidce, pt. Richardson.
Branchiostegals from five to seven : pseud obr an chia3 generally well developed. Body
oblong, compressed. Eyes of medium size, lateral. Mouth, moderately or very
protractile, placed in front of the snout, and having a lateral cleft. Muciferous
system of the head rudimentary, or slightly developed. Preopercle entire or
serrated. Barbels absent. Teeth in villiform bands, with conical canines in some
genera, but neither molars nor cutting ones in the jaws : palate usually edentulous.
A single dorsal fin: the length of the bases of the spinous and soft portions
being of about equal extent, the first containing strong spines, or being continuous
with the soft : anal mostly with three spines, its soft portion similar to that of the
dorsal : lower pectoral rays branched : ventrals thoracic, with one spine and five
rays. Scales finely ctenoid or cycloid, extending over the body and head : cheeks
not cuirassed. Lateral line continuous. Air-vessel present, more or less simple,
being divided by a constriction in some species into an anterior and posterior
portion. Stomach csecal. Pyloric appendages few or in moderate numbers.
Genus — THERAPON,* Cuv.
Datnia, sp. Cuv. and Val.: Pelates, sp. Cuv.
Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchia. Eyes of moderate size. Opercle
with spines : preopercle serrated. Teeth villiform in both jaws, the outer
row being sometimes the larger : deciduous ones on the vomer and palatines.
Dorsal Jin single, but more or less notched, having eleven to thirteen spines :
anal with three. Scales of moderate size. Air-vessel divided by a con-
striction. Pyloric appendages in moderate numbers.
84. TAerapon puta, Cuv. and Val. Keelputa, Tel. : Keetchan, Tarn,
and Mai. D. i^, A. _B_, L. 1. 90—100, L. tr. ££, Csec. pyl. 7, Vert,
-j-f . Preopercle with five strong denticulations on its vertical limb, the
* Sabah-za, Mugb.
clxviii
middle usually the longest. Opercle with two spines, the inferior longest
and strongest. No teeth on the palate, except in the very young.
Greyish, with three or four longitudinal straight blackish-brown bands ;
spinous portion of dorsal in its upper three quarters blackish between
the third and seventh spines. Two oblique bands pass across the upper
caudal lobe, and one, sometimes two, across its lower one. Seas of India
to the Malay Archipelago. This species is the T. trivittatus, of Cantor
and Giinther : Hamilton Buchanan's original drawing of his Coins ttivitta-
tus having been copied by Hardwiche is considered another species
T. servus, a conclusion open to discussion.
85. Therapon servus, Bloch. D .1^?, A. _J_, L. 1. 80—86. Vert.
\ % (see ( F. W. Fishery Report/ No. 8, p. ccl.)
86. Therapon quadrilineatus, Bloch. D. IH2, A. T5^, L. 1. 70, L. tr.
^f, Csec. pyl. 18. Preopercle with rather stronger serratures at its angle:
lower opercular spine the strongest. Five horizontal black bands along
the body : the first passes backwards to the anterior portion of the soft
dorsal, the second to the posterior end of its base, the third to the upper
third of the base of the caudal, the fourth to its lower third, the fifth
to the end of the base of the anal. A large black blotch exists on the
shoulder. Dorsal with a black mark between its third and sixth spines :
a black tip to the soft dorsal, and a badly-marked band along its centre :
anal and caudal with black edges. Seas of India, Malay Archipelago,
and China, attaining 6 inches in length.
87. Therapon argenteus, Cuv. & Val. D. -j§, A. f, L. 1. 56, L. tr.
25, Csec. pyl. 11. No palatine teeth. As Cuvier observes, this fish has a
more elevated body than the typical Therapons, a concave profile, a
pointed snout, the dorsal spines being stronger and their base occupying
a comparatively greater length of the back than the rays, and there being
a very slight notch between the last two. In fact, it is his first species
of Datnia. Silvery, darkest on the back : a narrow black edge to the
spinous dorsal, and a blackish blotch on the soft anal. Seas of India
and Malay Archipelago.
88. Therapon tkeraps, Cuv. & Val. D. -{-£, A. f, L.I. 50-55, L. tr.
|£. Serrations at angle of preopercle rather coarser than along the rest
of its vertical margin, but of an even size. Lower opercular spine longest,
but not "equalling that of T. servus. Three horizontal blackish brown
lines, the first from the second to the last dorsal spine : the second from
the nape to the second and third dorsal ray, and continued on to the fins ;
the last to the , upper third of the tail. Dorsal with a black mark
between the third and sixth spine, a dark band along the upper portion
of the soft rays : a brown band along the centre of the caudal, and two
oblique ones across either lobe. East coast of Africa, seas of India
through the Malay Archipelago to China. It attains 6 inches in length.
89. Therapon squalidus, Cuv. & Val. D. {£, A. f, Csec. pyl. 13.
Preopercle almost rectangular. Vomerine and palatine teeth (in a specimen
34 inches long). Of a pale colour, with two broad silvery bands : two black
bands on each lobe of the caudal, anal with two large black spots.
Indian Ocean ; locality not given.
90. Therapon iransversus, Cuv. & Val. D. J-f, A. f, Csec. pyl. 11.
No palatine.teeth (specimen 3 inches long). Yellowish brown, with pale
clxix
bands, and five or six indistinct cross bars : a black spot on the spinous
dorsal, another on the soft rays : five bands on the caudal, and a spot on
the anal. Malabar and the Indian Ocean.
91. Therapon virgatus, Cuv. & Val. D. -}|, A. f. Preopercle
strongly denticulated : preorbital smooth. The length of the base of the
spinous portion of the dorsal fin is double that of the soft. No teeth on
the palate. Brown, with small bluish spots : three longitudinal yellow
bands along the body, the central one being prolonged on to the caudal
fin, two other oblique bands on each of its lobes. Spinous dorsal with a
long blackish spot : soft dorsal and anal, each with two brown spots. Bay
of Bengal, to 3 inches in length.
92. Therapon cinereus, Cuv. & Val. D. |g, A. -gTo- Preopercle
rounded, with moderate serratures, coarsest at the angle. Uniform colour,
with a black blotch between the third and sixth dorsal spines. India.
Genus. — PRISTIPOMA, Cuv.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice. Body oblong, compressed.
Eyes of moderate size. Cleft of mouth horizontal : gape not very wide :
intermaxillaries moderately protrusible : jaws of nearly equal length.
A central longitudinal groove below the chin. Preopercle serrated :
opercle with indistinct points. Teeth villiform without canines : palate
edentulous. Dorsal with eleven to fourteen spines, and sometimes with
a very deep notch between the last two : anal with three spines. Vertical
fins scaleless or only scaly along their bases. Scales of moderate size,
ctenoid. Air-vessel without any constriction, simple. Pyloric appendages
in small numbers.
93. Pristipoma paikeeli, Cuv. & Val. Paikeeli, Tel. D. jf, A. f ,
L, 1. 55-60. Silvery, with six light brown parallel bands edged with black
along the sides : fins with black dots and darker edges. Seas of India ;
Malay Archipelago.
94. Pristipoma stridens, Forsk. D. H/-^, A. _3_, L. r. 63, L. tr. |J,
Csec. pyl. 5-6. Its colours much resemble those of a Therapon : purplish
on the back, becoming dirty white on the abdomen : a golden band from
the eye to the centre of the caudal fin, and two more lighter ones above
it : a dark blotch at the upper third of the opercle : the lower half of
the anal stained darkish. Bed Sea, along the Meckran Coast and very
common at Kurrachee.
95. Pristipoma operculare? Playfair. D. 11/y1^, A. f, L. 1. 57, Caec
pyl. 5, very long. Height of body equals the length of the head and 2/7 of
the total. Length of snout equals 14 diameters of the orbit: otherwise
its form agrees with P. operculare, Playfair, Fishes of Zanzibar. Silvery,
a black blotch at the upper and posterior corner of the opercle : upper,
half of body with numerous black spots, which in some do, in others do
not, form undulating bands : a black spot at the base of each dorsal
spine and ray : dorsal and caudal dark edged. East Coast of Africa ?
Meckran Coast, and Kurrachee.
96. Pristipoma Dussumieri, Cuv. and Val. D. }|, A. f, L. 1. 46-50.
Fourth dorsal spine the longest : caudal slightly lunated. P. Neilli is
identical with this species. Its colours are greyish, becoming white
along the abdomen. A brilliant yellow band passes from the eye to the
caudal fin : a similar one parallel to and above it. Dorsal and caudal
\v
clxx
greyish : soft dorsal with a light edge. Pectorals, ventrals, and anal
yellowish. Coast of India.
97. Pristipoma guoraka, Cuv. and Val. Guoraka, Tel. D. -l2^
13-14?
A. JL, L. 1. 44, L. tr. 6/11. Diameter of eye 1/3 of length of head : 1
diameter from end of snout. Fourth dorsal spine the longest : second
anal spine thick, a little longer than the fifth of the dorsal, striated in
grooves along its anterior edge, and one-fourth longer than the third
spine of fin. Greyish above : abdomen silvery white: minute brown
points 011 the membrane of the dorsal fin : its edges rather dark. Seas
of India and Malay Archipelago, attaining 2 feet in length.
98. Pristipoma hasta, Cuv. and Val. Corona, and Corake, Tarn. :
Coompoo, Bel. D. 11/T^, A. J|, L. 1. 47, L. tr. 7/10, Caac. pyl. 6-7.
Diameter of eye 1/5 of length of head, 1J diameter from end of snout.
Fourth dorsal spine the longest : second anal spine longest and strong-
est. Four or five lines of dark grey along the sides, and three or four
above the lateral line : sometimes they coalesce and form bands. Two or
three rows of spots along the dorsal fin, and in the adult a single row of
full blotches at the base of the fin. Red Sea, East coast of Africa, Seas
of India, Malay Archipelago to North Australia, and attains 1| feet or more
in length. This fish appears to have been described under several different
names. P. kaakan, Commersonu, and hasta, Cuv. and Val., seem to be iden-
tical. Coiits gudgutia, Ham. Buch. pp. 94,370 : Mesoprion gutgutia,Q>. V.,
or Polotus nitidus, = P.gutgutia, Blyth, and is evidently this species.
99. Pristipoma maculatum, Bloch. Caripe, Tel. : Erruttum corah,
Mai., Curutche, Tarn. D. H/^, A. f, L. 1/52-56, L. tr. 8/12, Cajc.
pyl. 6. Posterior preopercular limb emarginate and serrated. Fourth
dorsal spine the longest : second anal spine longer and stronger than the
third : caudal emarginate. Greyish, becoming white beneath, and having
a purplish tinge about the head : a blackish band over the snout : a
second from the occiput touches the posterior edge of the orbit, and de-
scends over the opercles. A vertical black band, about eight scales wide,
passes over the nape, and terminates about three scales below the lateral
line : posterior to this are six black blotches, three or four above, and two
or three below the lateral line, not forming bands, but placed like squares
on a chess board. First dorsal with a large black mark in its centre
between its fourth and seventh spines : upper edge of both dorsals stain-
ed with black, as is also the caudal. From the Red Sea and Eastern
Coast of Africa through the Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and
New Guinea : .it attains at least 16 inches in length.
100. Pristipoma argyreum, Cuv. and Val. D. -ff, A. £, L. 1. 45.
Eyes half a diameter from end of snout. Angle of preopercle slightly
produced, serrated. Third dorsal spine longest, being 2/3 the height of
the body : second anal spine strong, as long as the first ray : caudal cut
square. Silvery: a dark blotch on the opercle : membrane of first dorsal
blackish. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
Genus— DIAQRAMMA, Cur.
P lector Jiynchus, (Lac^p.) Cantor.
Branchiostegals six or seven : pseudobranchia. Body oblong, com-
pressed, with the upper profile of the head parabolic. Mf/es of moderate
clxxi
size. Mouth small, slightly protractile, the lips thick, and folded back.
Preopercle serrated-, suborbitals entire. Four or six pores on the undrr
surface of the lower jaw, but no median groove. Teeth in jaws mliiform
without canines. One dorsal f.n with from nine to fourteen spines, anal
with three : caudal not forked. Scales ctenoid, usually small, but in some
species of a moderate size. Air-vessel without any constriction, simple.
Pyloric appendages few.
101. Diagramma altum, Day. B. vi, D. Ji^, A. f, L. 1. 56-59,
L. tr. 10/24. Eyes one diameter from end of snout. Third and fourth
dorsal spines the longest : second anal spine longer and stronger than the
third: caudal rounded. Purplish : tips of dorsal spines, outer third of the
dorsal, anal and caudal rays, pure white. Coasts of India, Andamaus,
and Burma.
102. Diagramma nigrum, Cuv. & Val. D. •]£, A. \, L. 1. 45-47,
L. tr. 10/17, Ca3c. pyl. 6. Eyes 1|^ diameters from end of snout. Fourth
dorsal spine the longest : second anal spine stronger and one-third longer
than the last. Greyish, or slate colour, with a brassy tinge on the body,
and a violet one on the head. A few irregular coppery spots on the body,
and a tinge of the same colour over the hard dorsal : the other fins of a
violet slate colour, lightest along their centres. Seas of India, Malay
Archipelago to North- West Australia. This fish appears identical with
Pristipoma nigrum, a term given it by Cuv. & Val. from a Russian
drawing by Mertens, brought from Manilla. Cantor thought he re-
cognised the species in the present (his specimen is still in existence in
the British Museum), but overlooking it being a Diagramma, termed it in
1850, as Cuv. & Val. had in 1830, Pristipoma nigrum. In 1859, in the
Catalogue of the fishes of the British Museum, it was re-named Diagram-
ma affine, Giinther. In 1865 in the Proceedings of the Zoological
Society, page 14, I observed, on the D. nigrum, C. & V., being identi-
cal with D. affine, Giinther : in the Fishes of Zanzibar, by Dr.
Gunther and Playfair, this name is, however, retained, although it is ad-
mitted that Cantor's specimen is a diagramma, and identical with this
species, but it is still doubted whether it is Cuvier's fish. Anyhow, if not
JJ. nigrum (Mertens) C. & V., it certainly should be D. nigrum, Cantor,
and not D. affine, Gunther, unless a still older designation is brought
to light.
103. Diagramma Orientale, Bloch. D. , A. f , L. r. 65. A white
mark across the snout, a second over the nape, a third near the last dor-
sal spine, and a fourth round the free portion of the tail. Dorsal fin black
with white spots : caudal white with a black edge, and a longitudinal band
of the same colour. Ceylon and Coromandel Coast, Malay Archi-
pelago.
104. Diagramma griseum, Cuv. & Val. D. J^, A. f, L. 1. 74,
Csec. pyl. 9. Eyes 1^ diameters from end of snout. Third dorsal spine
the longest : second anal spine very strong and longer than the third.
Uniform grey, with the fins nearly black. East Coast of Africa, Meck-
ran Coast, and throughout the seas of India, attaining at least 18 inches
in length.
105. Diagramma lineatum, Linn. Gm. B. vi, D. £g, A. f , L. r. 75.
Fourth dorsal spine the longest : caudal rounded. Brownish, with six
chcxii
longitudinal yellow bands, the first on occiput, the second from the eye
to the soft dorsal, the next three to the caudal fin, the sixth from the
mouth to the anal. Fins yellow : anal and dorsal with black margins
and bases. Caudal with a median and a lateral band on either side.
Pectoral with three black blotches : ventral with one. Red Sea, seas of
India, to the Malay Archipelago.
106. Diagramma Blochii, Cuv. & Val. B. vi, D. £°, A. f.
Second to the fourth dorsal spines equal to £ the height of the body :
the last two anal spines also equal. Orange yellow: a brown band along
the base of the dorsal fin : a second from the orbit divides into two,
uniting again above the pectoral and continued to the posterior part of
the soft dorsal: the third and broadest from the eye to the root of the
caudal : the fourth below and parallel : the next two from the muzzle to
the end of the abdomen : the seventh from the gill opening to the end
of the base of the anal fin. Dorsal edged with black, a black spot be-
tween its third and fourth spines : an oblique band along the fins uniting
with the first of the body : caudal with black spots. Anal and ventral
greyish, edged with black. Pectoral orange, with black bands. Seas of
India and Malay Archipelago.
107. Liagramma punctatum (Ehrenb. ), Cuv. & Val. B. vii,
D..J2_, A. f, L. r. 90-105, L. tr. 15/20. Second and third dorsal spines
the longest : third anal spine somewhat the longest, the second the
strongest. Body and vertical fins with numerous round brown spots :
ventrals stained in their outer half. Red Sea, East Coast of Africa,
seas of India, Malay Archipelago to China; attaining at least 20 inches
in length.
108. Diagramma pictum, Thunb. D. £1?, A. f, L.r. 90-100, Csec.
pyl. 5. Second anal spine longest and slightly strongest. Back and
sides brown, with about four white longitudinal bands. Spinous dorsal
black, but white between the first three spines : rays with a white band :
caudal with three black bands : anterior half of anal black, the remain-
der white : ventrals black in their external half. East Coast of Africa,
seas of India, Malay Archipelago, and China.
109. JJ?agrammap&c?lopterum,C\iv.&Va\. D. /7, A. f-. White,
with six or seven longitudinal bands on either side, alternately com-
plete and interrupted. The dorsal and caudal with round or irregu-
larly shaped black spots : ventrals and anal nearly black. Found in
Pondicherry during the north-east monsoon. Seas of India, Moluccas,
and Japan : attains at least 8 inches in length.
Genus — LoBOTES, Cuv.
Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchice. Body and fins somewhat ele-
vated : upper prof le of head concave. Eyes rather small. Snout rounded :
mouth moderately protractile , its cleft oblique, lower jaw the longer. Oper-
cle with obtuse points : preopercte serrated. Villiform teeth in the jaws,
without canines. One dorsal with twelve spines, anal with three. Scales
ctenoid, of moderate size. Air-vessel without any constriction, simple.
110. Lobotes Surinamensis , Bloch. Parrandee, Mai. Musalli,
Tarn. D. _g-6, A. _§-, L. 1. 48, L. tr. 8/11, Csec. pyl. 4. (3), Vert. 13/11 .
Brassy brown, blotched with darker and having the extremity of the
clxxiii
caudal dirty white. East Coast of Africa, seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago : it attains at least 2 J feet in length. This fish has several
synonyms : in its immature state it appears to be L. Farkharii, Cuv. &
Val : in its adult stage, L. incurvus, Richardson : also L. auctorum,
Giinther,
Genus — DATNO1DES, Bleeker.
Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchics. Body elevated. Eyes of
moderate size. Intermaxillaries very protractile. Preopercle serrated:
opercle with short spines. Villiform teeth in the jaws, without canines. One
deeply notched dorsal fin having twelve stout spines, anal with three : cau-
dal rounded. Scales ctenoid, rather small. Air-vessel simple. Pyloric
appendages few.
111. Datnoides polota, Ham. Buch. D. -}|, A. J^, L. 1. 70, L,
tr. 12/25, Csec. pyl. 5. Fifth and sixth dorsal spines the longest : se-
cond anal longest and strongest. Brownish glossed with copper, having
six or seven narrow blackish brown vertical bands on the body, as well as
some similar ones radiating from the orbit. From the estuaries of the
Ganges to the Malay Archipelago.
Genus — GERRES, Cuv.
Catochcenum, Cantor : Diapterus and Synistius, Gill.
Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchice. Body elevated or oblong t
compressed. Mouth very protractile and descending when protruded. Pre-
opercle mostly entire. Eyes rather large. Villiform teeth in the jaws,
without canines. Inferior pharyngeal bones firmly united by a suture. (J)
Length of the base of the spinous and soft portions of the dorsal fin of
nearly equal extent, having a scaly sheath into which it may be almost
entirely received. The spines nine or ten, the rays ten or eleven: anal
with three spines : caudal forked. Scales of moderate size, when ctenoid
very slightly so. Air-vessel simple. Pyloric appendages few.
112. Gerres setifer, Ham. Buch. D. ®iL°, A. f, L. 1. 38, L. tr.
5/10. Eyes not quite one diameter from the end of snout. Inter-
maxillary groove scaleless, and extending behind the front edge of the
orbit. The third dorsal spine the highest, its height being four-ninths
of that of the body. Free portion of the tail higher than long. Sil-
very, a narrow dark edge to the dorsal interspinous membrane. This
appears to be G. altispinis, Giinther.
113. Gerres punctatus, Cuv. & Val. D. 1%, A. *, L. 1. 48. Se-
cond dorsal spine prolonged to sometimes as much as three-fourths of
the height of the body. Silvery, dorsal with a narrow black edge and
a brown spot on the middle of each " ray. The young with transverse
brown bands. Seas of India: attaining at least nine inches in length.
114. Gerres filamentosus, Cuv. & Val. Oodan, Tarn. D. T90,
A. £, L. 1. 45-47, L. tr. 6/14. The second dorsal spine prolonged, some-
times extending as far as the caudal fin : second anal spine stronger, but
shorter than the third, or half the length of the head. Seas of India,
Malay Archipelago to Australia.
(') Due to this circumstance the genus (Family Gerridoe, Gunther) would be amongst
the Acanthopterygiipharyngognathi when such a sub-order is recognised, a division of which
the advisability appears more than doubtful.
clxxiv
115. Genes acinaces, Sleeker. D. T90, A. f, L. 1. 45, L. tr. 0/11.
Eyes not quite one diameter from end of snout. Intermaxillary groove
scaleless, extending- beyond the front edge of the orbit. Second dorsal
spine longest, 2/7 of height of body : third anal spine slightly the
longest. Silvery, with indistinct and interrupted longitudinal bluish
brown bands along the sides. East Coast of Africa, seas of India, Malay
Archipelago ; attaining at least 9 inches in length.
116. Gerres limbatus, Cuv. & Val. D. T%, A. f, L. 1. 37, L. tr.
5/10. Eyes rather more than one diameter from end of snout. Intermaxil-
lary groove scaleless, extending beyond the front edge of the orbit. Second
dorsal spine longest, being above half the height of the body. Second
anal spine stronger and a little longer than the third. Silvery, caudal
with a dark edge : spinous dorsal with a narrow black margin. Seas of
India and Malay Archipelago.
117. Gerres oyena, Forsk. D. r9n, A. *, L. 1. 35-38, Case. pyl. 3.
Eyes rather more than one diameter from end of snout. The second
dorsal spine is half the height of the body and twice as long as the
second anal spine which is not longer than the third. Silvery, with in-
terrupted and very indistinct longitudinal spots : caudal posteriorly edged
with black. Red Sea, East Coast of Africa, seas of India and Malay
Archipelago.
118. Gerres poeti, Cuv. & Val. D. T90-, A. f, L. 1. 35, L. tr. 5/10.
Eyes not quite one diameter from end of snout. Dorsal spines strong
and broad, the third the longest, and 4/9 the height of the body :
second anal spine very strong, nearly as long as the third. Silvery.
Seas of India.
119. Gerres abbreviates, Bleeker. D. ^, A f, L. 1. 33, L. tr. 5/10.
Second dorsal spine highest, nearly as long as the head. Second and third
anal spines half the height of the body. Silvery, dorsal with a black
edge. Andamans and Malay Archipelago.
120. Gerres lucidus, Cuv. & Val. D. -f^, A. f . Said to be very
similar to G. limbatus, but with a shorter body : the dorsal spines less
curved. Silvery, with the back a little reddish : caudal without any black
border : ventrals yellow. Pondicherry.
121. Gerres oblongus, Cuv. & Val. D. ^ A. f. Height of body
less than 1/4 of the total length. Spines weak. Silvery, with five or six
indistinct brown bands. Ceylon : to five inches in length.
Genus — ScOLOPSIS> Cuv. fy Val.
Branchiostegals five, : pseudobranchice. Body oblong. Eyes of medium
size or large. Mouth moderately prolrusible, jaws of equal length anteriorly :
cleft of mouth horizontal. Infraorbilal arch with a spine directed back-
wards : preopercle as a rule serrated : opercle with a weak spine. A single
dorsal jin with ten spines, anal with three : caudal forked. Scales ctenoid.
Air-vessel without any constriction) simple. Pyloric appendages few.
122. Scolopsis bimaculatus, Riipp. D. y>, A. f , L. 1. 46, L. tr. 6/14.
Slaty brown becoming dull white on the abdomen. A broad white opercular
band. Branchiostegal membranes blood red. A brownish band over the
snout and two blotches on the lateral line, the first is large being from the
llth to the 22nd scale, the other smaller and behind the posterior
extremity of the dorsal. Fins orange. Seas of India and China.
clxxv
123. Scolopsis bilineatus, Bloch. D. !g°, A. £, L. 1. 43, L. tr. 4/14,
Csee. pyl. 5. A yellow brown-edged band passes from the mouth to the
commencement of the soft dorsal and two or three more exist on the head.
A large yellow blotch below the last half of the soft dorsal, which latter
fin is edged with black : anal black in its anterior, white in its posterior
half. Andamans aud Malay Archipelago.
124. Scolopsis phffiops (?) Bennett. D. \°, A. f, L. 1. 45, L. tr.
5/16. Greenish olive, lightest below. A light band along the base of
the dorsal fin. A wide bright blue band from the eye to the angle of
the mouth, another to the axil, where it ends in a blue spot. Fins red-
dish. Sind and the Mauritius.
125. Scolopsis monogramma (Kuhl & v. Hass.) Cuv. & Val. D. y»,
A. f , L. 1. 44, L. tr. 5/14. Olive with a deep black band, one scale in width,
passing through the eye to above the base of the caudal fin, until op-
posite the end of the dorsal fin it is below the lateral line. Fins immacu-
late. Andamans, Malay Archipelago.
126. Scolopsis Japonicus, Bloch. Cundul, Tarn. Kurite, Tel. D. y>,
A. f , L. 1. 44, L. tr. 5/14. Back reddish yellow, the rest of the body slaty.
A light buff band over the nape opercles and on to the branchiostegal
rays. Opercular spine with a blood red mark having a dark margin :
inside of mouth red. Fins dusky yellow. Red Sea, East Coast of Africa,
seas of India to the Malay Archipelago : attaining 8 inches or more
in length.
127. Scolopsis cancellatus, Cuv. & Val. D. ^°, A. f, L. 1. 42,
L. tr. 3/12, Ca3C. pyl. 6, Vert. 10/14. Back marbled with greyish
brown : two longitudinal yellowish bands from the upper half of the
orbit : a black spot between the first three dorsal spines. Andamans,
Malay Archipelago, &c.
128. Scolopsis auralus, Mungo Park. Kundul, Tarn. D. y, A. f,
L. 1. 42, L. tr. 5/12. Of a pale flesh colour, becoming rosy on the fins
and head. A whitish streak extends from the upper edge of the opercle
to opposite the middle of the soft dorsal : in the anterior half of the
body each scale has a dark mark along its centre. Seas of India, and the
Malay Archipelago.
129. Scolopsis ciliatus, Lac^p. D. '/, A. f, L. 1. 40, L. tr. 4/15,
Caec. pyl. 5, Vert. 10/14. Greenish olive above, becoming lighter on the
abdomen : a silvery white line extends between the lateral line and the
back from near the head to opposite the commencement of the soft
dorsal : the scales below the lateral line have each a golden spot. Fins
reddish. Andamans, Malay Archipelago, &c.
Genus— DENTEX, Cuv.
Synagris, pt., Giinther.
Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchm. Body oblong, rather elongat-
ed and a little elevated. Mouth moderately protractile, its cleft more or
less horizontal : jaws of nearly equal length. Preopercle entire, or very
indistinctly serrated : distance between the eye and the angle of the mouth
considerable. Generally strong canines in both jaws, almost invariably
present in the upper. One scaleless dorsal, having from ten to thirteen
spines, anal with three : caudal forked. Scales ctenoid, of moderate size,
more than three rows on preopercle (Den(ex), or only three (Synagris).
clxxvi
Air-vessel not constricted, but posteriorly notched. Pyloric appendages
A. More than three rows of scales on preopercle (Dentex).
130. Dentex hasta, Cuv. & Val. D. ^|, A. f. Six large canine teeth
in either jaw. Dorsal and anal spines strong. Greenish brown on the
back, becoming silvery on the abdomen : ten to twelve violet lines on
the sides : fins blue shaded with violet. Malabar, to 8 inches in length.
B. Three rows of scales on preopercle (Synagris) .
131. Dentex fur cosus, Cuv. & Val. D. \°, A. f, L. 1. 48-50,
L. tr. 4/14. Six canines in either jaw. Fourth to sixth dorsal spines
longest, and about 3/7 of the length of the head : posterior dorsal and
anal rays slightly elongated. Rosy with golden reflections : caudal
bright red, its lower lobe margined with orange : dorsal rosy and orange.
Ceylon, Malay Archipelago to Australia.
132. Dentex notatus, Day. D. r^0, A. f, L. 1. 48, L. tr. 3/10. Four
canines in the upper, six in the lower jaw. Fifth and sixth dorsal spines
the longest, nearly 1/3 as long as the head. Rosy, with a brilliant spot
on the first five scales below the lateral line, the upper half red, the lower
yellow. Five or six longitudinal yellow bands below the lateral line, and
three silvery white ones. A broad purplish band below the eye leading
to the shoulder mark. A yellow band along the base of the dorsal and
anal fins. Andamans.
133. Dentex grammicus, Day. Chungarah, Tarn. D. J5L, A. I,
9-10
L. 1. 48, L. tr. 4/10. Preopercle finely serrated in its lower half. Six
canines in the upper jaw. Dorsal spines from the third, continue about
the same length, or 1/3 of that of the head. Yellowish red, with longi-
tudinal red lines along each row of scales. Dorsal fins yellowish, with a
grey base and pinkish margin. Seas of India.
134. Dentex luteus, Bl. Schn. D. y>, A. f, L. 1. 40. Canines, 6
or 8 in the upper jaw. Body red, abdomen silvery. Third ray of the
caudal prolonged into a filament. Coromandel Coast, to 7 inches in
length.
135. Dentex filamentosus, Riipp. D. y>, A. f . The posterior dorsal
spines the longest, being 1/3 of the height of the body : upper caudal
lobe sometimes prolonged. Reddish with longitudinal yellow streaks.
Red Sea, Coromandel Coast.
136. Dentex striatus, Bloch. D, '/, A. f Scales less than 40.
Preopercle not serrated. Reddish. Tranquebar.
Genus — SMARIS, Cuv.
Branchiostegals six : p&eudobranchia. Body oblong or cylindrical.
Eyes of medium or large size, mouth very protractile. Preopercle entire.
Teeth in the jaws, none on the vomer. A single, sometimes deeply notched
scaleless dorsal fin, with from nine to fifteen feeble spines, anal with three.
Scales ctenoid, rather small. Air-vessel not constricted, but generally
forked posteriorly. Pyloric appendages few.
137. Smaris balteatus, Cuv. & Val. D. \%, A T3n. Dorsal fin
deeply notched : caudal forked. Along the back reddish brown, with small
but brilliant silvery spots. A silvery band from the eye to the caudal.
Ceylon, to 4 inches.
clxxvii
Genus — Q&sio (Comm.), Guv.
Branchiostegals six or seven : pseudobranchia. Body oblong. Mouth
moderately protractile , its cleft oblique, lower jaw sometimes slightly the
longer. Preopercle entire or minutely serrated. Teeth in the jaws, none
on the palate. A single dorsal, more or less scaled, with the anterior por-
tion the higher, and having from nine to thirteen feeble spines : anal with
three. Scales ctenoid, of moderate or small size. Air-vessel not constrict-
ed, simple. Pyloric appendages few.
138. Casio curing Bloch. B. vi., D. |f , A. T3T. Of a yellowish
colour, stated to have come from the Indies.
139. Casio aurolineatus, Day. B. vi, D. {§, A. T3^, L. 1. 72, L. tr.
8/16. Height of body 2/7 of the total length. Third and fourth dorsal
spines the longest. Above the lateral line of a light lake colour : from
the eye to the base of the caudal a shining golden band : three scales deep
anteriorly, decreasing to one posteriorly : below this band pinkish white :
caudal fin tipped with black. Madras.
140. Casio c(srulaureus, Lacdp. D. {f , A. T3^. Height of body 1/5
o£ total length. Bluish above, with a golden longitudinal band along the
lateral line : a black band along the middle of either caudal lobe. A
black spot at the axil. Red Sea, seas of India.
Family— SQUAMIPINNES, Cuv.
Chatodontida, pt. Richard son. (*)
Branchiostegals six or seven : pseudobranchise well developed. Body elevated and
compressed. Eyes lateral and of moderate size. Mouth generally small, with a
lateral cleft, and situated in front of snout. Teeth villiform or setiform : neither
incisors nor canines : in most of the genera the palate is edentulous. Soft portion
of the dorsal fin of greater extent than the spinous, sometimes considerably more,
rarely slightly so : anal with three or four spines, its soft portion similar to that
of the dorsal: lower pectoral rays branched : ventrals thoracic, with one spine and
five rays. Scales cycloid, or very finely ctenoid, extending to a greater or less
extent over the vertical fins, but occasionally absent from the spinous portion.
Air-vessel present, generally simple. Intestines usually much convoluted : stomach
csecal. Pyloric appendages in moderate numbers.
Genus — Cn^TODON, Cuv.
Branchiostegals six. Body elevated and strongly compressed. Snout
of moderate length, or short. Preopercle entire, or slightly serrated and
destitute of any spine at the angle. Palate edentulous. Spinous and soft
portions of the dorsal fin not separated by a notch, the rays of slightly or
considerably larger numbers than the spines, none of the latter elongated :
anal with three or four spines. Scales of large, moderate or small size.
Lateral line continuous, sometimes incomplete. Air-vessel may be con-
stricted or with horns. Intestines much convoluted.
A. With four anal spines.
141. Chatodon plebejus, Gmelin. D. -Jf , A. T%, L. 1. 50. Eye nearly
one diameter from end of snout. Preopercle finely serrated. The
(>) Genus Tholichthys, Giinther, is the young state of some fishes of this family which
have large suprascapular, humeral, and preopercular plates. They exist in the seas of India,
some are immature Chcetodons, others probably Holacanthi or Heniochi, whilst in the fry
of the Scatophagus argus, a bony ridge terminating iu a spine passes from the eye above the
opercle to the shoulder.
clxxviii
dorsal ami anal lins rounded posteriorly. Yellow, the ocular band black,
having a white edge. An ocellus at the base of the caudal fin having a
white margin. Andaman Islands and the South Seas.
J5. With three anal spines.
142. Chatodon vagabundus, Linn. Pah-noo-dah, Andam. D. ^f,
A. -/(j, L. 1. 30. Eyes, diameter slightly shorter than the snout. Preo-
percle finely serrated. Soft dorsal and anal fins rounded. A black ocular
band descends to the angle of the interopercle. Numerous dark bands
pass downwards and forwards to the centre of the depth of the body,
when they pass backwards. Dorsal and anal fins margined with black.
Two black vertical bands on the caudal, the anterior of which is concave.
From the Red Sea through the seas of India to Polynesia.
143. Chfstodon auriga, Forsk. D. |f, A. /T, L. 1. 33. Eyes, 1J
diameters from end of snout. Preopercle finely serrated. Third to fifth
dorsal rays elongated. A brown ocular band having a white anterior
edge passes through the orbit to over the interopercle. Body with
darkish lines, passing upwards and backwards in the anterior third of the
body, and downwards and backwards posteriorly. A darkish band pro-
ceeds from the base of the soft dorsal across the free portion of the tail and
to the lower half of the anal. A dark band goes through the middle of
the anal fin. Dorsal anal and caudal edged with white. Red Sea to seas
of India.
144. Chatodon setifer, Renard. D. ^|_, A. ^ , L. 1. 33. Snout
equals 1 i diameters of the orbit in length. Preopercle finely serrated.
Fifth dorsal ray elongated. The ocular band widens after it has passed
the orbit and extends to the interopercle. Body with darkish bands
passing upwards and backwards in the anterior third of the body, and
downwards and backwards posteriorly. A dark ocellus on the centre of
the middle dorsal rays : fins dark edged. From the Red Sea through
the seas of India to Polynesia.
145. Chatodon guttatissimus, Bennett. D. ^f, A. T3^, L. 1. 32.
Eyes rather above one diameter from end of snout. Preopercle serrated.
Dorsal and anal fins rounded posteriorly. A brown ocular band narrower
than the orbit, superiorly edged with yellow, passes from the nape to the
lower edge of the interopercle. Body yellow : each scale with a black
spot : dorsal and anal purplish brown, edged with yellow, and dotted with
black : caudal with a black crescentic mark across its centre. Ventrals
yellowish , Ceylon ,
146. Chatodon vittatus, Bl. Schn. D. _i^, A. fo L. 1. 36. Eyes
3/4 of a diameter from end of snout. Preopercle finely serrated. Dorsal
and anal fins rounded. A dark line passes over the snout, separated by
a thin white band from the ocular one, which is half as wide as the
orbit, and passes to the chest. Another dark line exists parallel to it,
with an intermediate fine light one. Body with about fifteen fine lines
passing backwards. A dark band along the base of the dorsal fin,
becoming wider over the free portion of the tail : another band along
the centre of the soft dorsal. A light yellow band along the base of
the anal, with a dark one above it. Fins margined with dark and edged
with yellow. A dark vertical band on the posterior third of the caudal.
Ventrals white. From the Red Sea to Polynesia.
clxxix
147. Chatodon prcetextatus, Cantor. D. ~*^, A. _!_, L. 1. 20.
Length of head 2/7, height of body 1/2 of the total length. Eyes, 1/2
a diameter from the end of snout. A few fine serrations at the angle of
the preopercle. Brownish olive, each scale light citron colour in its
centre. A bluish-white band passes from in front of the dorsal fin over
the opercles and on to the throat, where it expands : a second
across the preorbital and over the cheek to the throat : opposite the
orbit it gives off another branch which passes to the angle of the mouth
and the throat. Another similar line exists on the forehead, and is lost
opposite the anterior edge of the orbit. Dorsal and anal fins tinged with
reddish violet, the upper fourth of the soft portion being margined with
six coloured bands in the following order from without : white, black,
scarlet, black, pearl white, and black : anal tipped with three rows, white,
black, and scarlet. Posterior half of caudal pearly white, divided by a
black band from a scarlet base. Ventrals black. Cochin and Malay
Archipelago.
148. Chatodon xanthocephalus, Bennett. D. ^f, A. £%, L. 1. 38,
L. tr. 8/15. Snout longer than the diameter of the eye. Preopercle
indistinctly serrated. Dorsal and anal fins rounded. A small dark
blotch above the orbit. Body brownish yellow, with five indistinct dark
vertical streaks. Dorsal and anal fins blackish, having white edges :
caudal and ventrals yellowish. Ceylon.
149. Chatodon pictus, Forskal. D. ||, A. JLg. Length of head
above 2/7, height of body 2/3 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 2/5
of length of head; one diameter from end of snout. Soft dorsal and anal
fins angular. Snout with a black band : a dark ocular one descends
through the eye over the interopercle to the chest : a third from the two
anterior dorsal spines passes downwards at first forwards, then bends
back to the base of the ventral fin. Numerous fine dark lines descend
downwards and forwards to the middle of the body, where they change
their direction to downwards and backwards. Dorsal and anal fins dark,
having a black margin and a light external edge : the dark line is con-
tinued over the posterior third of the body : there is another dark line
over the free portion of the tail, and a dark semilunar mark on the caudal
fin. Ventral darkest in its centre. Red Sea, through the seas of India
to the Malay Archipelago.
150. Chatodon Uocellatus, Cuv. & Val. D. J?_, A. _?_, L. 1. 42.
223-25 18-20
Eyes, 3/4 of a diameter from end of snout. Preopercle indistinctly
serrated. Dorsal and anal fins rounded posteriorly. A dark ocular
band scarcely so wide as the orbit, crosses the occiput, and going through
the eye is lost on the cheek, posterior to it is a wider white one. Along
the base of the dorsal spines and first half of the rays is a broad brown
oand, which passes down to the abdomen : another similar band exists at
the base of the caudal, with a white one anterior and posterior to it : and
another is present posterior to it. Soft portions of dorsal and anal have
black tips. A large black ocellus with a white edge is present in the
centre of the soft dorsal fin : the other fins white. Andaman Islands to
the Malay Archipelago.
151. Chatodon hinula, Lac^p. D. J|,, A ^ L \ 33^ L tr<
8/14. Length of head 2/7, height of body 1/2 of the total length.
clxxx
Eyes, 1J diameters from end of snout. Preopercle finely serrated.
Ocular band of a deep chestnut colour, rather wider than the orbit : a
second brown band passes from the five first dorsal spines, and unites
with the occipital one : a third band from the fifth and sixth dorsal
spines gradually widens and goes as low as the base of pectoral fin : a
band along the base of the soft dorsal passes over the free portion of the
tail. Caudal with a dark band in its posterior third : dorsal and anal
with a dark edge and white margin. Andamans, seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago.
152. Chatodon dig acanthus, Bleeker. D, J^, A. ^, L. 1, 46-48.
Length of head 1/4, height of body 2/3 of the total length. Eyes, diameter
2/5 of length of head, 2/3 of a diameter from end of snout. Lower limb
of preopercle minutely serrated, occasionally some serratures on its ver-
tical one. Lateral line ceases opposite the posterior fourth of the dorsal
fin. Yellowish white, with five vertical bands: the ocular one is brown
and narrower than the orbit : three more similar bands pass from the
back to the abdomen : at the upper part of the back is a dark ocellus at the
base of the 8th to 12th dorsal rays inclusive : the fifth band is over
the free portion of the tail. The posterior half of the ventrals is some-
times black. Ceylon and the Malay Archipelago to the Philipine
Islands.
Genus — CHELMO, Cuv.
Branchiostegals six or seven : pseudobranchics. Body elevated and
compressed. Muzzle produced as a long round tube, the gape of the mouth,
anteriorly being small. Preopercle without any spine. Teeth on the
jaws : none on the palate. One dorsal with from nine to thirteen spines,
none being elongated : anal with three. Scales of moderate or small size.
153. Chelmo longirostris, Broussonat. D. |f, A. §, L. 1. 75, L. tr.
£g. Length of snout much more than £ that of the head. Yellow :
a black triangular patch extends from the base of the first dorsal spine
to the snout, its lower margin going through the eye to the opercle : a
small round black spot at the posterior angle of the anal fin : caudal
grey. East Coast of Africa through the seas of India, to the Malay
Archipelago.
154. Chelmo rostratus, Linn. D. ^, A. /7, L. 1. 47-50, L.tr. 9/20.
The anterior margin of the orbit is in the middle of the entire length of
the head. Head and body with five orange cross bands edged with brown,
and the last two with white : a round black white-edged spot in the
middle of the soft dorsal and within the fourth cross band : a dark band
round the free portion of the tail. Soft dorsal caudal and anal with
blue and white edges. East Coast of Africa, through the seas of India,
Malay Archipelago, and China.
Genus — H(ENIOCHUS, Cuv fy Val.
Taurichthys, Cuv. and Val.
Branchiostegals five: pseudobranchm. Body elevated and strongly
compressed : mouth short, or of moderate length. Preopercle finely serrated
or entire. Teeth, villiform : none on the palate. A single dorsal fin, with
from eleven to thirteen spines, the fourth of which is elongated and filiform :
clxxxi
anal with three. Scales ctenoid or cycloid, of moderate size, and more or
less covering the vertical fins. Lateral line continuous. Air-vessel present.
Pyloric appendages few.
155. Haniochus macrolepidotus , Artedi. Chuddukun, Tarn. : Pah-no-
dak, Andam. D. ^g, A. —5^, L. 1. 60, L. tr. 9/22, Vert. 10/14, Csec.
pyl. 6. No knob over the orbit. Pearly white, with a dark purplish
band over the summit of the snout, another over the eyes : a third broad
one extending from the three first dorsal spines and posterior two-thirds
of the opercle, passing- downwards includes the whole of the ventral
fin and extends backwards to the anal : the last commences at the sum-
mit of the fifth dorsal spine, passes downwards to the base of the seventh,
is as wide as to the first ray, and ends on the posterior third of the anal
fin. Pectoral, soft portions of dorsal, anal, and caudal fins bright yellow.
East Coast of Africa through the Indian Ocean and Malay Archipelago
to Australia : is said to attain 18 inches in length.
Genus — HoLACANTHUS, Lacep.
Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchm. Body compressed and as a rule
much elevated. Preopercle with a strong spine at its angle. No palatine
teeth. A single dorsal fin with from twelve to fifteen spines : anal with
three or sometimes four . Scales of moderate or small size, more or less
covering tke vertical fins. Air-vessel with two horns posteriorly. Pyloric
appendages many.
156. Holacanthus imperator} Bloch : Chippee, Tarn. D. ~^> A. 3
Preopercular spine reaches to the base of the pectoral. Body blue, having
a greenish tinge along the back : about nineteen canary-coloured lines
pass upwards to the dorsal, horizontally to the caudal, or downwards
towards the anal fin. A large black descending band with a blue ante-
rior edge, on the shoulder : chest chestnut. A light blue stripe across
the snout, round the cheeks and to the preopercular spine which is near-
ly black. A brown band superiorly edged with blue crosses the eye and
passes on to the preopercle. Opercle yellow edged with blue and the
branchiostegals black. A narrow black edge to the caudal : ventral
dark with orange-coloured rays : pectoral blackish. Scales very small,
From the East Coast of Africa through the seas of India, to the Malay
Archipelago,
157. Holacanthus semi-circulatuSj Cuv. and Val. D. 13~14. A. !_
21 ' 20-21.
Preopercular spine smooth, extending to opposite the posterior edge of
the opercle. Scales minute. Reddish brown, with semi-circular light lines
alternately white and bluish, the white being the broader. These lines
are continued on the head, body, dorsal, anal, and caudal fins. East
coast of Africa, seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, &c.
158. Holacanthus xanthurus, Bennett. D. [|, A. — JL_, L. 1. 46, L.
tr. 7/22. Preopercular spine smooth, reaching the base of the pectoral
fin. Brownish : caudal yellow. Ceylon and Madras.
159. Holacanthus diacanthus, Boddsert. D. ||, A. r3^, L. 1. 50.
Preopercular spine reaches the base of the pectoral fin. Yellow, with
about eight blue, broadly brown edged vertical body bands continued on
to the dorsal fin : anal with bluish streaks running parallel to its base :
caudal yellow. Seas of India and Malay Archipelago.
clxxxii
ICO, Holacanthm annularis, Bloch. Sahni-tschapi. Tel. D. 13
20-21'
A. -—^i -k. ^ ^' Preopercular spine rather flat, and reaching to below
the posterior edge of the opercle. Of a brownish green colour, with a
blue ring on the shoulder, Two blue streaks from the opercle, the one
through, the other below the eye. Body with six or seven arched blue
bands radiating from the pectoral : caudal yellow. Seas of India, &c.
161. Holacanthus striatus, Ruppell. D. ^^> A. ?3T. Preopercular
spine smooth (but both in my specimen are bifurcated at their extre-
mities), reaching to below the posterior edge of the opercle. Deep blue,
with curved concentric, alternately light and darker bluish transverse
lines, the lighter ones being broader : caudal white with a narrow black
edge. Red Sea, Bombay, where I procured a single specimen three
inches long,
Genus — ScATOPHAGUS, Cuv. fy Val.
Cacodoxus, Cantor.
BrancliwstegaU six : pteudobranchia. Body much compressed and
elevated : snout of moderate length. Preopercle spineless. Palate eden-
tulous. Two dorsals, united at their base, the first having ten or eleven
spines, and anteriorly a recumbent one directed forwards : the soft dorsal
covered with scales : anal with four spines. Scales very small. Air-vessel
simple. Pyloric appendages rather numerous.
162. Scatophagus argus, Linn, Qu-ee, Sind : Chitsilloo and Eesputti, Tel.:
Nutchar char, Mai. : Nga-pa-thoom, Mugh : Po-ra-dah, Andam. D. 10/16J17
A. 14^15, Csec. pyl. 18 (20). Purplish, becoming white on the abdomen:
large round blackish or greenish spots on the body, most numerous along
the back. First dorsal brownish-blue, having a few minute spots : second
dorsal yellowish, with slight brown markings between the rays. In the
very young, a bony ridge, ending in a spine, passes from the eye
to above the opercle on to the shoulder. Indian Ocean to China and
Australia, attaining a foot in length : it enters backwaters and rivers,
but is a foul feeder.
Genus—EpHlPPUS, Cuv.
Ilarches, Cantor.
Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchice. Body much compressed and
elevated. Snout short, the upper profile parabolic. Preopercle without a
spine. No teeth on the palate. Dorsal with eight or nine flexible and
elongated spines, receivable into a groove at their base : interspinous mem-
brane deeply cleft, and a deep notch between the spinous and soft portions
of the fin : three anal spines : pectoral short. Scales of moderate or small
size, some over soft dorsal, anal, and caudal fins. Air-vessel bifurcated
anteriorly, and with two long horns posteriorly. Pyloric appendages few.
163. Ephippus orbis, Bloch. Nulla torriti, Tarn. : Kol-lid-dah,
Andam. D/ 8-9/TV, A. T3j, L. r. 35, L. tr. 7/15, Ca?c. pyl. 4. Back
and head greyish green : sides and abdomen silvery shot with pink : fin
membranes diaphanous, finely dotted with black, more especially in their
marginal halves : rays bluish white. Seas of India and Mal;iy Archi-
pelago, attaining at least 6 inches in length.
clxxxiii
Genus — DltEPANE) Cur. fy I' a/.
Harpockiru*) Cantor.
Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchia. Body elevated and much com-
pressed. Snout short. Preopercle spineless. Palate edentulous. Dor-
sal having anteriorly a concealed spine directed forwards, and eight or nine
spinous rays which, as well as those of the anal, are receivable into a groove
at their bases : interspinous membrane deeply notched : pectoral long and
falciform. Scales of moderate size. Air-vessel posteriorly prolonged into
two horns. Pyloric appendages few.
164. Drepane punctata, Linn. Pnn-nur, Sind. : Shuk, Beluch.:
Pundthee, Mai.: Pulli or Torriti, Tarn.: Thetti, Tel. D. ^
A. IT?I§, L. 1. 50, L. tr. 14/33, Ca3c. pyl. 2 (3)» Silvery, with a gloss "of
gold : fins yellow, their edges being slightly stained with grey. About
six dark greyish bands pass downwards from the back, and in them are
several round black spots, none of which are below the middle of the
body. The older the specimens the less apparent the bands, but usually
the more decided are the spots. Sometimes, however, in adults spots are
absent. Red Sea, East coast of Africa, seas of India, to the north-
west coast of Australia. It attains at least 15 inches in length, and in
most places is esteemed as food.
Family — NANDID^J, Gunther.
Pseudochromides pt., et Mcenoidei, pt. Mull. & Trosch.
Branchiostegals from five to six : pseudobranchise present in marine genera, but some-
times concealed or absent in those of the fresh-water. Body oblong and com-
pressed. Teeth feeble, but dentition more or less complete. Dorsal fin single : the
length of the base of the spinous portion of greater or equal extent to that of the
soft portion : anal with three spines, its rays similar to those of the dorsal : ven-
trals thoracic, with one spine and four or five rays. Scales ctenoid, covering the
body. Lateral line interrupted or absent. No super-branchial organ. Air-vessel
present. Pyloric appendages few or absent.
Genus — PLESIOPS, Ouv.
Pharopteryx, Riipp.
Branchiostegals six : pseudobrannhifB. Body oblong and compressed.
Mouth moderately protractile. None of the bones of the head serrated.
Small teeth on the jaws, vomer, and palatines. Eleven to twelve spines in
the dorsal fin : three in the anal : ventral with one spine and four rays, the
first being elongated and bifid. Scales cycloid, of moderate size. Lateral
line interrupted. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages absent.
165. Plesiops corallicola (K. & v. H.), Bleeker. D. £«, A. f , L.
1. 26-29, L. tr. 3/10. Brownish, each scale with a blue centre. Opercles
with a large black ocellus, generally lost after death. Short vertical
or oval bluish spots sometimes exist on the caudal and vertical fins.
Andamans and Malay Archipelago. This is considered as probably a
variety of P. nigricans, Riipp.
Family — MULLIDj^y Bleeker.
Branchiostegals four : pseudobranchise. Body rather elongate. Profile of head more
or less parabolic. Eyes of moderate size, lateral. Mouth in front of snout
rather small, and with a lateral cleft. Two stiff barbels below the chin belonging
to the hyal apparatus. Teeth feeble and variously inserted. Two dorsal fins
clxxxiv
situated at some distance asunder : the anal similar to the second dorsal : ventral
with one spine and five rays. Scales large, very feebly ctenoid. Air-vessel, when
present, simple. Pyloric appendages few or in moderate numbers.
Genus — UpENEOIDES, Sleeker.
UpeneuSj sp. Cuv.
Definition as in the family, except : — teeth fine in the jaws, vomer,
and palatine bones.
166. Upeneoides vittatus, Forsk. D. 8/£, A. 7, L. 1. 39, L. tr. 3/6.
No air- vessel. Two or three bright yellow longitudinal bands along the
sides : first dorsal fin black-edged and with two blackish bands : upper
caudal lobe with six yellowish-brown bars with dark edges across it, and
a black tip, whilst on the lower lobe there are three oblique dark bars
and a white tip. Red Sea, seas of India, and Malay Archipelago.
167. Upeneoides divittatus,Cuv.,C&ak-ti-ing-ud-dah,Audam. D.8/^-,
A. 7, L. 1. 36-38, L. tr. 3/5, Csec. pyl. 11. An air-vessel present.
Darkish chestnut along the back, two or three yellow longitudinal bands
along the sides : upper caudal lobe with four dark bands, the lower with
three : the internal one of each lobe horizontal, the others oblique. Seas
of India and Malay Archipelago.
168. Upeneoides tragula, Richardson. D. 8/£, A. 7, L. 1. 30,
L. tr. 2/5, Ca3c. pyl. 6. Vomerine teeth in two lateral stripes. Dorsal fin
with dark bands, each caudal lobe with five or six obliquejblack bands :
the other fins, head and body irregularly spotted with brownish. A
brown longitudinal band from the snout through the eye to the base of
the caudal fin. Easti Coast of Africa, Andainans, Malay Archipelago.
169. Upeneoides guttattis, Day. D. 7/£, A. f , L. 1. 32, L. tr. 3/5.
Vomerine teeth in two lateral stripes. Air-vessel absent. Chestnut along
the back, becoming golden on the abdomen: head reddish: a silvery
stripe from the eye to the centre of the caudal fin, with a row of red
spots above it and another below it. Dorsals tipped with black, and
having two reddish bars across them : caudal with four reddish oblique
bars on the upper lobe, the lower being destitute of any. Pectorals,
ventrals, and anal yellow. Madras. This may be identical with the
last species.
170. Upeneoides cairuleus, Day. D. 7/£, A. 7, L. 1. 32, L. tr. 3/5.
Teeth in a single row on vomer and palate. Air-vessel present. Leaden
colour superiorly, becoming dirty white below. First dorsal with a black
tip, a whitish band along its centre and a badly marked one at its base.
Second dorsal dark with a light band along its centre. Extremities of
caudal stained with black and a band across the upper lobe : pectoral,
ventral and anal yellowish. Madras, to 4 inches in length.
171. Upeneoides Bensasi, Tern. & Schleg. D. 7/^, A. 7, L. 1. 30.
Vomerine teeth in an uninterrupted angular band. Rose coloured :
dorsal fins with two or three deep red longitudinal bands : upper caudal
lobe with four oblique ones. Seas of India and Malay Archipelago.
172. Upeneoides fasiciolatus, Day. D. 7/|, A. 2/5, L. 1. 36, L. tr.
2^/6. Teeth on vomer in an uninterrupted semilunar band. No air-
vessel. Of a reddish chestnut colour on the back, becoming silvery
along the abdomen. A brilliant golden stripe, two-thirds as wide as a
scale, passes from the orbit to the upper third of the tail. First dorsal
milk white, edged with black, having two horizontal yellow lines finely
clxxxv
dotted with black. Second dorsal with only one band. Caudal reddish,
with a black white-edged tip. Madras, to 3 inches in length.
173. Upeneoides taniopterus, Cuv. & Val. D. 7/£, A. 7, Csec. pyl. 2.
Teeth on the vomer, and in two oval groups on the palatines. Air-
vessel large. Back reddish, becoming white on the abdomen. A large
triangular reddish spot on the base of the free portion of the tail. First
dorsal with three brownish bands, the second dorsal also banded : caudal
with six longitudinal and parallel streaks on either lobe, and black at
the tip. Ceylon, to 9 inches in length.
Genus— MuLLOIDES, Bleeker.
Upeneus, sp. Cuv. & Val.
Definition as in the family, except that the teeth in the jaws are in
several rows : palate edentulous.
174. Mulloides flavolineatus, Lacdp. D. 7/£, A. 8, L. 1. 34-36,
L. tr. 3/6, Csec. pyl. 18. No air-vessel. Upper surface of head and
back of a reddish chestnut, becoming whitish along the sides, and
tinged with yellow on the abdomen. A brilliant golden longitudinal band
passes from the posterior margin of the eye to the centre of the caudal fin,
it is rather above one scale in width. Fins flesh coloured, the outer edge
of the lower caudal lobe grey. Red Sea, seas of India to China.
175. Mulloides Zelonicus, Cuv. & Val. D. 7/£, A. 7. Red: the
first dorsal yellowish blended with brown, the second pure yellow with a
black line at its base : on both sides of the base of the caudal is a
triangular patch of a carmine colour. Ceylon, where it is said to be
very common.
Genus— UPENEUS (Cuv. fy Val. sp.), Sleeker.
Definition as in the family, except that there is only a single row
of teeth in either jaw, and the palate is edentulous.
176. Upeneus barberinus, Lacdp. D. 8/9, A. 7, L. L 29-31, L. tr,
2/7, Vert. 10/14. A dark band passes from the eye along the lateral line,
ceasing below the end of the soft dorsal : a dark mark at the root of the
caudal fin : a black band along the base of the soft dorsal : caudal with
a black edging. Red Sea, seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
177. Upeneus Indicus, Shaw. Rahtee goolivinda, Tel. : Hussar a f
Tarn. D. 8/9, A. |, L. 1. 30, L. tr. 3/7. Red, with a shining golden spot
on the lateral line disappearing after death, and a dark mark on either
side of the free portion of the tail between the end of the dorsal and
the base of the caudal fin. Seas of India and China.
178. Upeneus Malabaricus, D. 8/9, A. 7, L. 1. 30, L. tr. 3/7. A
large whitish oval spot on the lateral line, above the end of the pectoral
fin : a dark spot on the side of the root of the tail. Malabar and Phi-
lipines.
179. Upeneus trifasciatus, Lacep. D. 8/9, A. 7, L. 1. 30, L. tr. 3/7,
Vert. 10/14. A black vertical band from the anterior portion of the
second dorsal fin, a second over the free portion of the tail, the interme-
diate parts yellow or white. Sometimes another vertical black band
passes from the base of the first dorsal. An oblong black spot behind
the eye : a black band along the lower half of the second dorsal : the
anal with dark bands. Seas of India to Polynesia.
clxxxvi
180. Upeneus displurus, Playfair. D. 8/9, A. f , L. 1. 29, L. tr. 2/7.
Ked, with a black band over the free portion of the tail, from the base
of the dorsal to this there is a light blotch. East Coast of Africa and
Kurrachi, attaining at least 11 inches in length.
1M . I'peneus pleurotcenia, Playfair. D. 8/9, A. 7, L. 1. 29, L tr.
2i/7 Reddish, scales \\ith dark edges. Two shining light longitudinal
bands, the first from the orbit to the middle of the soft dorsal, and the
second, which is broader, from the upper lip to the middle of the back.
A li<?ht mark over the free portion of the tail. First dorsal marbled
with brown, the second with four, and the anal with three reddish bands.
East Coast of Africa and Kurrachi, attaining at least 8 inches in
length.
182. Upeneus spilurus, Bleeker. D. 8/-J, A. 8, L. 1. 28. Rose
coloured, with a black blotch above the lateral line on the free portion of
the tail. Andamans and Malay Archipelago.
183. Upeneus cinnabarinus, Cuv. & Val. Of a red vermilion
colour : darkest on the back, paler on the abdomen : dorsal and anal
rays yellow, the membrane reddish : upper caudal lobe orange, the lower
red. A large purple spot covers the opercle and descends on to the sub-
opercle. Barbels rosy. Ceylon, where it is said to be very common.
Family — S p A R I D 3: , Cuv.
Squamipinnes pt. Cuv. : Chcetodontida, pt. Richards.
Branchiostegals from five to seven : pseudobranchise well developed. Body oblong and
compressed. Eyes of moderate size, lateral. Mouth in front of snout, having a
lateral cleft. Bones of the head with a rudimentary muciferous system. No
teeth on the palate (except in Genus Pimelepterus) : more or less broad
and cutting or conical teeth in front of the jaws, or a lateral series of molars, or
both conjoined, A single dorsal fin formed by a spinous and «oft portion, their
bases being of nearly equal extent : anal with three spines : lower pectoral rays
generally branched, but not so in some genera : ventrals thoracic, with one spine
and five rays. Lateral line continuous, not extending on to the caudal fin. Scales
cycloid or minutely ctenoid.
Genus — CRENIDENS, Cuv. & Val.
Branchiostegals jive: pseudobranchia. One or two rows of broad
teeth in both jaws, with the cutting edge crenulated : a band of granular
teeth posteriorly but no pointed lateral ones : neither molars nor vomerine
teeth. A single dorsal with eleven spines which can be received into a
groove : three anal spines : lower pectoral rays branched. Scales of
moderate size, covering cheeks and opercles, but not the vertical fins. Air-
vessel simple. Pyloric appendages in small numbers.
184. Crenidens Indices, Day. Keen-see, Beluch. D. l^J, A. T3T,
L. 1. 53, L. tr. 7/15, Csec. pyl. 5. Height of body 2/5 'of the total
length. Two rows of scales on the cheeks. Silvery, outer edge of scales
darkest, also the margin of the vertical fins : pectorals yellow. The
C. Forskalii is said to have A. f , Csec. pyl. 8., &c. Kurrachi and Madras.,
to 12 inches in length.
Genus — SAEGUS, (Klein) Cuv.
Branchiostegals five or six: pseudobranchia. Opercles not armed.
A single row of cutting teeth in the front part of the jaws, and several
lateral rows of rounded motors. A single dorsal with from ten to thirteen
clxxxvii
•spines receivable into a groove along its base : anal with three. Scales of
moderate size covering the cheeks. A ir-vessel sometimes notched anteri*
orly and posteriorly. Pyloric appendages few.
185. Sargus noct (Ehren.), Cuv. and Val. Keen-see, Beluch. D. 12
13-14*
A. T5y, Csec. pyl. 8 (5). On either side of the free portion of the tail a
black band. Eed Sea to Sind, attaining 12 inches in length.
Genus— LETHEIX us, Cuv.
Branchiosfegals six : pseudobranchia. Cardiform teeth in front of
the jaws, as well as canines : lateral teeth in a single row conical or
molar-form, sometimes very obtuse. Dorsal with ten spines : anal with
three. Scales of moderate size : none on the cheeks. Air-vessel generally
notched posteriorly, and with short lateral appendages, Pyloric appen-
'dages few.
186. Lethrinus restrains (Kuhl and v. Hass.), Cuv. and Val. D.
V>, A. f, L. 1. 50, L. tr. 6/16., Csec. pyl. 3. Height of body 1/4 of the
total length. Eyes 24 diameters from end of snout. Canines of mo-
derate size. Lateral teeth conical and pointed, only the most posterior
ones molarform. Olive, with a black blotch between the pectoral and the
lateral line : rays of Vertical fins with dark streaks : ventral rays white,
membrane blackish. Seas of India and Malay Archipelago,
187. Lethrinus Jcarwa, Cuv. and Val. Karwa, Tel. D. y>, A. f,
L. 1. 46, L. tr. 5/16. Height of body 1/3 of the total length. Eyes
2J diameters from end of snout. Teeth as in the last species. Oliva-
ceous brown, becoming lighter on the abdomen : the centre of each scale
having a ccerulean blue spot forming lines in the direction of the rows of
scales. Pectoral flesh coloured; base of second ray a bright blue. Dor-
sal and anal slate coloured, margined with orange. Inside of mouth
bright orange. Coromandel coast, to 15 inches in length, at least.
188. Lethrinus harak, Fofsk. Po-iang-dah, Andanu D. !g°, A. f,
L. 1. 47, L. tr. 6/14, C&c. pyl. 3. Height of body 3/10 of the total
length. Eyes 1-| diameters from end of snout. Canines anteriorly,
with distinct molars laterally and posteriorly. Greenish olive, with an
oblong lateral blotch of a blackish colour below the lateral line and op*
posite the middle of the dorsal fin. Red Sea, through the seas of India.
189. Lethrinus ramak, Forsk. D. '-g0, A. f, L. 1. 48, L. tr, 6/15.
Height of body 4/17 of the total length. Eyes 2 diameters from the
end of snout. Teeth rather small: canines anteriorly, with distinct
molars laterally and posteriorly. Olive, with an indistinct longitudinal
streak of a shining yellow colour. Red Sea, seas of India.
190. Lethrinus xanthotcenia. Bleeker. D. ^°, A. f, L. 1. 48-50,
L. tr. 6/16. Height of body 4/13 of the total length. Eyes 1 diame-
ter from end of snout. Canines small : posterior teeth tubercular. Green-
ish olive, with five or six yellow longitudinal bands : opercular membrane,
dorsal, and caudal fins red, the others yellow. Andamans and Malay-
Archipelago.
191. Lethrinus fasciatus, Cuv. and Val. D. 1^°, A. f. 'Eye small.
Cheeks blue, the sides with 7 or 8 longitudinal bands of yellow and
blue alternately. Abdomen rosy with five or six blackish stripes. Dorsal
and caudal violet : pectorals orange, with a violet spot in the axil : ven-
clxxxviii
trals blackish: the interior of the mouth orange. Trincomalee, to 7
inches in length.
192. Lethrinus frenatus, Cuv. and Val. D. '3°, A. f . Teeth small.
Back greenish, becoming white on the abdomen. Eighteen to twenty
yellowish-olive longitudinal bands : above the lateral line are bluish
spots. Head olive: before the eyes on the preorbital are three blue or
violet oblique lines, another more anteriorly, whilst a fifth is on the
suborbitals. Inside of mouth orange. Dorsal fin violet, mixed with
orange. Ceylon, to 9 inches.
193. Lethrinus korely, Cuv. and Val. Said to be very similar to
the last. One of the teeth is a little larger and more rounded. It has
only two streaks between the end of mouth and the eye. When fresh it
is said to be of a vinous brown colour on the back, with a white
abdomen, and the dorsal spotted with red. Pondicherry, to 2 feet in
length.
194. Lethrinus maculatus, Cuv. and Val. Body more oval than the
last : snout a little shorter, and the teeth smaller and more pointed.
Superiorly the head and the back are reddish or of a vinous brown colour :
below the eye two rows of brown points: on the sides below the lateral line
is a black spot, and five or six badly-marked cloudy brownish bands.
Pondicherry, to 7 inches.
195. Lethrinus cinereus, Cuv. and Val. Is said to have a more ele-
vated body than the four preceding ones, with a shorter snout, and
more rounded teeth. Reddish on the back and greyish on the sides and
beneath. Fins grey: the caudal with some traces of blackish vertical
bauds : pectoral yellowish. Ceylon, to 6 inches in length.
196. Lethrinus geniguttatus,C\rt. and Val. D. y), A. f , L. 1. 45, L.
tr. 21. Height of body about 3/10 of the total length. Eyes, 1 diameter
from the end of the snout. Canine teeth anteriorly, conical pointed ones
laterally, with three molarform ones posteriorly. Reddish on the back,
becoming silvery on the sides and abdomen : some pearly spots along the
back : some white spots on the cheeks, and red spots on the dorsal. Seas
of India, to 7 inches.
Genus — SpHJERODoN, Rtipp.
Chrysophrys sp., Cuv. and Val. : Pagrus, sp. Bleeker.
Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchia. Jaws with conical canines an-
teriorly and a single row of molars laterally. A single dorsal fin, with
ten spines receivable into a groove at their base : three anal spines. Scales
of moderate size extending on to the cheeks. Pyloric appendages few.
197. Spharodon heterodon, Bleeker. D. jg, A. f , L. 1. 48, L, tr.
5/14. Dorsal spines not elongated. Rose coloured : scales with darker
edges : base of pectoral violet. Ceylon and Malay Archipelago.
Genus— PAGRUS, Cuv.
Eranchiostegals six: pseudobranchia. Jaws with an anterior row of
conical canines, and laterally two rows of rounded molars. A single dorsal
fin with from eleven to twelve, sometimes elongated, spines, receivable into
a groove at their base : anal with three. Scales of moderate size, extend-
ing on to the cheeks. Air-vessel simple. Pyloric appendages, when present,
in small numbers.
clxxxix
198. Pagrus spinifer, Forsk. Soh-ru, Beluch: Kooroota Tel Punun-
talai,Tzm. D. }§, A. JL, L. 1. 53, L. tr. 7/15, Oec. pyl. 5.' Dorsal
spines from the third usually flexible and elongated. Whitish, with
pinkish bands passing along the centre of every scale becoming rather
indistinct below the middle of the height of the body. In specimens
up to 4 inches in length there are five vertical bands on the body.
Bed Sea, East coast of Africa, Seas of India, to the Malay Archipelago.
Genus— CHRYSOPHRYS, Cm.
Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchia. Body oblong, compressed.
Four to six conical or blunt teeth anteriorly, and three or more rows of
rounded molars laterally in either jaw. A single dorsal fin, with from
eleven or twelve spines, receivable into a groove at their base : anal with
three spines. Scales of moderate size, extending over the cheeks. Air-vessel
sometimes notched or with very short appendages. Pyloric appendages few
199. Chrysophrys hasta,~B[., Schn. Mutti-wyan^&m. T>. 11-11-12 (13)'
A 3 l y 12-11-10 (9)>
•"•• Q^ 9 L. 1. 42-48 L. tr. 5/9. Eyes, two diameters in the adult from
the end of snout. The molar teeth are numerous, being in four or five
rows in the upper, and three or four in the lower jaw. Second anal spine
longest, very strong, and 2/3 the length of the head. Silvery, scales with
dark bases : dorsal fin black tipped, the other vertical fins dark. Coasts
of India to China.
200. Chrysophrys sarba, Forsk. Tin-til, Beluch.: Chitchillee, Tel.
D. _J^, A. f-lt L. r. 55, L. tr. 7/14. Eyes If diameters from end of
snout. The molars in four rows in either jaw, with a large oval posterior
one. Second and third anal spines of nearly equal length and 4/1 1 of the
length of the head. Silvery, with. dark streaks along the rows of scales.
From the Red Sea through the seas of India.
201. Chrysophrys haffara, Forsk. D. _-, A. _»_ L. 1. 48, L.
tr. 6/16. Csec. pyl. 3. Eyes 2 diameters from end of snout. Molars in
three rows in the upper and two in the lower jaw, and having an outer
row of conical ones, with a large ovate one posteriorly. Second anal spine
much the strongest slightly longer than the third, and 2/5 of the
length of the head. Greyish, a black edge to the dorsal fin and a dark
mark on shoulder. Sind, to 15^ inches long.
202. Chrysophrys calamara, Cuv. & Val. Dun-de-a, Sind : Gala-
wara, Tel. : Aree, Mai. : Coorrie, Tarn. : Kala mudwan, Hind. : Nga-wah,
Mugh : Moo-roo-kee-dah, Andam. D. \\, A. J_, L. r. 35. Eyes 1 to 1|
diameters from end of snout. Four rows of molars in the lower, five in
the upper jaw, the outer ones the largest. Second anal spine very strong,
about 2/5 of the length of the head. Greyish, scales with dark edges :
fins edged with blackish. Indian Ocean to the Malay Archipelago : attain-
ing 12 inches or more in length.
203. Chrysophrys bifasciata, Forsk. Bah-mear, Beluch. D. y^, A.
io3-, L. 1. 48-50, L. tr. 7/15, Csec. pyl. 2. Eyes two diameters from end
of snout. Molars more numerous in the anterior part of the lateral baud,
but larger posteriorly. Second anal spine longer and stronger than the
third, being 4/11 of the length of the head. Silvery, with two black cross
bands, the first through the eye, the second over the posterior edge of
cxc
-the opercle. Red Sea and seas of India, attaining at least 15 inched
in length.
Genus — PlMELEPTERUS (Lacep) Cuv.
Kyphosus (Lacep.), Cuv.
Branchioslegals seven : pseudobranchia. Preopercle as a rule ser-
rated. Villiform teeth in the jaws, with an outer row of cutting ones :
fine teeth on the vomer, palatines, and tongue. A single dorsal with
'eleven spines, anal with three. Scales of moderate size, fine ones over the
$oft portions of the vertical fins. Air-vessel divided posteriorly into two-
long processes, sometimes notched anteriorly. Pyloric appendages feud
or very numerous.
204. Pimelepterus tahmel, Forsk. Thendala, Tarn. D. {£, A. T3, , L. 1.
60, L. tr. 10/18, CSBC. pyl. short and numerous. Eyes 2/3 of a diameter
from end of snout. Spines of dorsal not quite half so high as the rays.
Silvery grey, with a dark band between each row of scales. Fins slate
colour, nearly black. Air-vessel as described by Cuv. & Val. in
P. Dussumieri, which appears to be the same species. Red Sea, seas of
India.
Family — C IERHITID^, Gray.
Branchiostegals three, five, or six. Body oblong and compressed. Mouth in
front of snout having a lateral cleft. Eyes of moderate size : cheeks not cuirassed.
Teeth in the jaws villiform or pointed, sometimes canines as well : vomerine and pala-
tine teeth present or absent. A single dorsal fin composed of spines and rays of nearly
equal extent: anal with three spines. Lower pectoral rays simple, and generally
thickened : ventrals thoracic, at some distance from the insertion of the pectorals, and
having one spine and five rays. Scales cycloid : lateral line continuous. Air-vessel
absent, or with many appendages. Pyloric appendages few.
Genus — CIRRHITES (Comm.}, Cuv>
Branchiostegals six. Preopercle denticulated: opercle unarmed*
Villiform teeth in both jaws : canines also : teeth on the vomer : none on the
palatines. A single dorsal fin, with ten spines : the lower five to seven
pectorals rays unbranched. Scales -of moderate size. Air-vessel absent.
Pyloric appendages few.
205. Cirrhites Forsteri> Bl. Schn. D. {$, A. J, L. h 50, L. tr»
5/12, CSBC. pyl. 4, Vert. 10/16. Seven unbranched pectoral rays. Head
and chest with black spots : a broad black band from the middle of the
body to the upper half of the caudal fin : a wide yellow band from above
the pectoral to the lower half of the caudal fin. East Africa, seas of
India, &c.
206. Cirrhites fasciatus, Cuv. & Val. D. }§, A. f . Dorsal inter-
spinous membrane very deeply notched : five simple pectoral rays. Grey-
ish, becoming white below. Head, back, and dorsal interspiuous mem-
brane with small white spots. Pondicherry.
Genus — CiRRHITICHTHYS, Bleeker.
Branchiostegals six. Preopercle denticulated : opercle spinate. Vil-
liform ieeth and canines in the jaws : teeth also on vomer and palatines.
A single dorsal fin with ten spines : anal with three : five to seven of the
lower pectoral rays unbranched. Scales of moderate size. Air-vessel
absent. Pyloric appendages few.
CXC1
207. Cinlt iticUliys ~Bleekeri, Day. Shun-gun, Tarn, D. [§, P. 8 -f-
VII, A. f, L. 1. 45-46, L. tr. 5/10. Eyes 3/4 of a diameter from end
of snout : fifth and sixth dorsal spines the longest. Rosy, with a large
badly-defined dark blotch below the soft dorsal, extending half away
down the side : a small black dot behind the upper edge of the preo-
percle : dorsal, caudal, and anal fins more or less banded : soft dorsal
darker than the spinous portion. Madras, up to 4 inches.
208. Cirrliitichthys maculaius, Lacep. D. |£, P. 7 + VII, A. f ,
L. 1. 40-42, L. tr. 4/9, Vert. 10/16. Palatine bones with a very small
batch of teeth anteriorly. Body and vertical fins spotted with brown : a
row of dark spots along the base of the dorsal. Red Sea, seas of India,
to the Pacific.
209. Cirrhitichthys oxycephalus, Bleeker, D. |§, A. f , P. 9 -f-
VI, L. 1. 40, L. tr. 5/10. Eyes not quite one diameter from end of s>nout.
Fourth and fifth dorsal spines the longest. Rosy, head with two trans-
verse bands. Body with five oblique cross bands and with spots inter-
mediate. Madras and Malay Archipelago.
Family — SCORP.ENIDJE.
Sclerogenidce, pt. Owen.
Branchiostegals five to seven : pseudobranchise. Body oblong, compressed or sub-
cylindrical. Eyes lateral. Cleft of mouth lateral. Some of the bones of the head
armed : suborbital ring articulated with the preopercle. Teeth in villiform bands,
occasionally small canines. Two separate dorsal fins or two distinct portions in
the fin : the anal usually similar to the soft dorsal : ventrals thoracic. Body
scaled or scaleless, sometimes with plate-like scales. Air-vessel not always present.
Pyloric appendages when present, few or in moderate numbers.
Genus — ScORP&NA, Artedi.
Scorpanopsis, Heck. : Scorpanichthytj Bleeker,
Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchia. Head large with a scaleless
groove on the occiput, armed with spines and usually with skinny flaps.
Villiform teeth on the jaws, vomer, and usually on the palatines. A single
dorsal fin deeply notched, dividing the two portions, haoing twelve spines, and
three in the anal which latter fin is not elongated ; pectoral large, without
free rays. Air-vessel absent. Pyloric appendages few.
210. Scorpcena polyprion, Bleeker. D. H/TOJ A. f, L. 1. 47. In-
terorbital space deeply concave and with ridges that do not terminate
in spines : vertex with a shallow groove, broader than long, surrounded
with spines : preorbital with a skinny flap : no orbital tentacle. Pala-
tine teeth present. Fourth dorsal spine about 1/3 of length of head and
shorter than the second anal. Brown, marbled with darker : axil with
or without lighter spots. Ceylon, Malay Archipelago.
211. Scorpcena rosea, Day. D. ll/^j> A- s> L- r- 43, L. tr. 7/18.
Interorbital space deeply concave, with a ridge on either side that do not
terminate in spines. Vertex surrounded with spines : preorbital with a
spine and small skinny flap : an orbital tentacle. No palatine teeth.
Fourth dorsal spine equals half the length of the head, but shorter than
the second anal. Rosy, marbled with greyish : one or two irregular
vertical grey bands on the caudal fin : dorsal, anal, and ventral also banded :
pectoral with numerous dark spots. Madras.
CXC11
212. Scorpcena venosa, Cuv. & Val., maybe either of the foregoing,
but the description is too brief: no orbital tentacle was observed however,
and no remarks are made as to the dentition.
Genus — SEBASTES, Guv. fy Val.
Branchiostegals seven : psetidobranchite. Head and body somewhat
compressed. i\o groove on the occiput, usually a few small spines : pre-
opercle armed. Villiform teeth on the jaws, vomer and usually on the pala-
tines* Fins not elongated : a single dorsal, but the spinous portion sepa-
rated from the soft by a notch, spines twelve to thirteen : anal not elongated,
with three spines : no free rays to the pectoral fin. Scales present and of
moderate or small size, extending as far forwards as the orbit or even
beyond : no skinny appendages. Air-vessel, as a rule, present. Pyloric
appendages few or in moderate numbers.
213. Sebastes polylepis, Bleeker. D. 12/£, A. f , L. 1.35, dia-
meter of eye from 1/3 to 2/7 of the length of head : no groove beneath
it. Preorbital spines obtuse, but prominent ones on the crown of the
head. No palatine teeth. Brown, marbled with darker. Malay Archi-
pelago, and said to have been brought from the East Indies.
214. Sebastes strongensis^Cuv. & Val. D. 11— 12/^, A. f, L. 1.
45, L. tr. y5^. Eyes 3/4 of a diameter from end of the snout: no groove
below the orbit. Three strong spines on the preorbital, and one on the
shoulder : supraorbital ridge spinate and others exist on the crown of the
head. No palatine teeth. Brownish, banded with darker, the first pass-
ing downwards through the eye : a large brown spot on opercle : fins
irregularly banded in dotted lines. Ceylon, Andamaus, Malay Archi-
pelago.
Genus— PTEROIS, Guv,
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchia. Head rather large, armed
with spines and having skinny flaps : no occipital groove* Villiform teeth
in jaws and on vomer : none on the palate. A single dorsal fin, deeply
notched, having from twelve to thirteen spines : anal with two or three
spines and few rays : rays and sometimes spines elongated : no pectoral
appendages. Air-vessel large. Pyloric appendages few.
215. Pterois kodipungi, Bleeker. D. Wj^, A. f, L. 1. 70.
Eyes, diameter 2/7 of length of head, and one diameter apart. An
orbital tentacle of moderate length. Pectorals reach to or beyond the
caudal. Reddish, with eleven or twelve dark vertical bands, and inter-
mediate narrow ones in the posterior portion of the body. Fins reddish
unspotted : ventrals almost black. Madras, Malay Archipelago.
216. Pterois muricata, Cuv. & Val. D. 12/u_^2, A. f. Eyes, dia-
meter 1/4 of length of head, l/£ from end of snout, and 1 apart : a supra-
orbital filament. Many spines on the head well developed. The ven-
trals reach beyond the pectorals, which do not extend to the caudal.
Scarlet, with many bands across the cheeks and on the body. Pectorals
black with white spots : rays of vertical fin spotted with black. Red
Sea, Seas of India, to the Malay Archipelago.
217. Pterois miles, Bennett. D. 12/TV, A f. Eyes, diameter near-
ly 1/4 of length of head, 1/J from end of snout and nearly one apart. No
supraorbital filament. Many well developed spines on the head, which
CXC111
along the cheek have numerous spines upon them. Pectoral reaches to
the middle of the anal rays. Of a much darker colour than P. muricata :
the bands more numerous, darker, and broader : lines on the lower jaw-
curved : two of an S shape over the chest. Dorsal spines annulated with
black : rays black spotted, as are also those of the caudal and soft anal :
pectoral stained with black : ventral nearly black, with some white spots :
a few also over anal spines. Both coasts of Madras and Ceylon.
218. Pterois volitans, Linn. Purrooak, Mai. : Cheeb-ta-ta-dah,
Andam. D. 12/-L., A. -M, L. r. 90, Csec. pyl. 3, Vert. 10/14. Eyes
' 10-11 7-6
1/f diameters from end of snout, and one apart. Pectoral reaches
beyond the base of the caudal fin. Red, with vertical bands of reddish
brown : spines and rays of the vertical fins spotted : a large white spot
in the axil. East coast of Africa, through the seas of India to Australia.
219. Pterois cincta, Riipp D. ll/^, A. £, L. 1. 45, L. tr. 7/25.
Eyes one diameter from end of snout, 1/3 of a diameter apart. Orbital
tentacle distinct. Pectoral reaches as far as the end of the caudal.
Snout uncoloured : a deep brown band edged with white extends from
the eye to the angle of the interopercle : the second encircles the neck,
and there are six more on the body. A dark band at the base of the
pectoral, which is also stained in its outer half. Ventral greyish, its
spine white : caudal spotted. Red Sea, Andamans.
Genus — AriSTUS, Cm.
Polemius fy Cocotropus, Kaup. : Prosopodasys, Cantor : Peniaroge fy
Tetraroge, Giinther.
Head large, it and the body compressed. Several bones of the head
armed, more especially the preorbital and preopercle. Villiform teeth in
the jaws, vomer, and sometimes on the palatine bones. One or two dorsal
fins, with from twelve to seventeen spines : anal with three : pectoral
elongated, and without or with one filamentous appendage. Scales ctenoid,
when present, of moderate size, small, or rudimentary. Air-vessel present.
Pyloric appendages few.
This genus in its East Indian species has been subdivided as follows : —
a. A cleft behind the fourth gill : one pectoral
appendage: body scaled ... ,.. Apistus.
b. A. cleft behind the fourth gill : one pectoral
appendage : body scaleless ... ... Minous.
c. No cleft behind the fourth gill : no pectoral
appendage: one dorsal fin ... ... Tetraroge.
d. No cleft behind the fourth gill : no pectoral
appendage : two dorsal fins ... ... Prosopodasys.
A. A cleft behind the fourth gill : one pectoral appendage : body
scaled. (Apistus) .
220. Apistus alatus, Cuv. & Val. Woorrah-minoo, Tel. D. y,
A. f, L. r. 70. A long barbel under the symphysis of the lower jaw,
and another on either limb of mandible. A notch between the two por-
tions of the dorsal fin. A single pectoral appendage. Air-vessel thick,
constricted in the centre. Body greyish along the back, becoming rosy
on the abdomen : pectorals deep black : appendage milk-white : dorsal
diaphanous, tinged with grey and edged with black, a deep black blotch
CXC1V
from the 8th to the 14th spines : three oblique brownish streaks on the
soft dorsal, which also has a brown edging : caudal with four vertical
black bands : anal greyish, with a yellow horizontal band. Madras,
Andamans, to the Malay Archipelago. Apistus carinalus, Bl., appears to
be this species, although it is said to have only 13 dorsal spines.
B. A cleft behind the fourth gill : one pectoral appendage : body
scaleless. (Minous.)
221. Apistus (minous) monodactylus, Bl. Schn. Cul-plaachee,
Tarn. B. vii., D. i^, A. 9-11. No scales. Head greyish-brown
above, sides and abdomen lighter or flesh coloured, with dark blotches
and marks : dorsal fin light brown margined with black : anal buff, with
its outer half black : pectoral black, its appendage white : caudal buff,
with three vertical brown bars. Seas of India to China : attaining 4 or
5 inches in length.
C. No cleft behind the fourth gill : one dorsal fin, no pectoral appen-
dage. (Tetraroge.)
222. Apistus (tetraroge) t&nianotus , Lac^p. B. v., D.1/, A. f, Case.
pyl. 4. Dorsal commences between the eyes, high anteriorly, no notch,
and slightly continuous with the caudal. Scales rudimentary. A brown
mark between the fifth and sixth dorsal spines. Seas of India and Japan.
223. Apistus (tetraroge) macracanthus, Bleeker. B.vii., D. y, A. f.
Eyes 3/4 of a diameter from end of snout,, one diameter apart. Palatine
teeth present. Dorsal commences before the eye, is high anteriorly, the
first three spines being at some distance from the others, it is slightly
joined to the caudal. Scales rudimentary. Brown. Andamans and Malay
Archipelago.
224. Apistus (tetraroge) echinata, Cantor. B. v., D. |f, A. £<|£>
C. 12. Eyes 1J diameters from end of snout, and one apart. No pala-
tine teeth. The single dorsal commences over the anterior half of the
orbit, the first spine being the longest, and no division between the two
portions. Buff colour; upper edge of dorsal purple. Some large
brownish blotches in the upper half of the body : all the fins more or
less dotted with brown : five brown lines radiate from the eyes. Andamans
and Pinang.
225. Apistus (tetraroge?) Belengerii, Cuv. & Val. D. y, A. }.
Height of body 1/3 of its length. Dorsal commences opposite the
posterior border of the eye, this fin is not united to the caudal. Scales
very small. Body grey, finely dotted with brown, except on the abdo-
men, which is white. A black spot on the dorsal fin, from the fifth to
the eighth spine. Malabar, to 2J inches in length.
D. No cleft behind the fourth gill: no pectoral appendage-: two
dorsal fins. (Prosopodasys.)
226. Apistus (prosopodasys) niger, Cuv. & Val. Pom-tho-cho-rogue-
dah, Andam. D. 3/?^?, A f . Fine teeth on vomer and palate. Eyes one
diameter from end of snout. Scaleless, except a few rugosities here and
there in the skin. Brownish black: caudal yellowish white striated
with brown, having a dark band in its last fourth and a white external
edge. Coromandel coast, Andamaus, Malay Archipelago.
227. Apistus (prosopodasys) dracoena, Cuv. & Val. B. vii., D. 3/§,
A. |. Fine teeth on vomer and palate. Eyes one diameter from end of
cxcv
snout. Scales minute. Greyish brown : dorsal and anal fins black :
pectoral black in its last half. Malabar, common in South Canara, to
3 inches in length.
Genus — AMPHIPRIONICHTHYS, Sleeker.
Branchiostegals four (six). Body compressed. Preorbital, preo-
percle and opercle armed, the two last small and not covering the gill mem-
branes. Villiform teeth in the jaws , the vomer and palatines edentulous. A
single dorsal fin, with a moderately deep cleft, having seven or eight spines,
anal with two. Body scaleless.
t/
228. Amphiprionichthys Zelonicus, Day. B. iv., D. 7/14, P. 13,
A. T2T, C. 15. Eyes 1£ diameters from end of snout. A strong
preorbital spine : and two on the opercle. Bluish along- the upper half of
the body, becoming- dirty brown on the abdomen. An irregular series
of about eight yellow blotches along the back, increasing in number
towards the abdomen. Fins light coloured. Dredged off Point de
Galle.
Family — TEUTHIDIDJB, Cuv.
Teuthyes, pt. Cuv.
Branchiostegals five : pseudobranchise well developed. Body oval and strongly
compressed. Eyes of moderate size, lateral. Mouth slightly cleft, and but little
protractile. A single row of cutting incisors in either jaw : palate edentulous. One
dorsal fin with the spinous portion more developed than the soft : anal with seven
spines. Ventrals thoracic, with two spines and three intermediate soft rays. Scales
minute. A complete lateral line, but no armature on the side of the free portion of
the tail. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages few.
Genus — TE UTHIS ( 1 ) , Linn .
Siganus, Forsk. : Centrogaster, Houtt. : Amphacanthus, Bl. Schn. :
Buro (Comm.) Lacep.
Branchiostegals five : pseudobranchia. Body oval, strongly com-
pressed. Teeth small, denticulated. A single dorsal fin with thirteen
spines and a horizontal one anteriorly : anal with three : each ventral with
two, an outer and an inner one. Scales minute, cycloid. Air-vessel large,
forked both anteriorly and posteriorly. Pyloric appendages five or six.
229. Teuthis Java, Linn. Thar-oar-dah, Andam. : Worahwah,
Tel. D. \\, A f Height of body 2/5 of the total length. Head, back,
and sides of a dark brownish neutral tint, becoming lighter on the
abdomen. On the head and back many pale grey rounded spots, be-
coming more elongated on the sides and abdomen. The upper spots are
not so wide as the ground colour. No streaks on the head : fins imma-
culate. Seas of India, Malay Archipelago, &c.
230. Teuthis concatenata, Cuv. & Val. Thar-oar-dah, And. D. -j-J,
A. £, Csfic. pyl. 5-6, Vert. 10/13. Height of body 2/5 of the total length.
Dark greyish brown, covered all over with light orange spots, which along
the back are larger than the interspaces, but decrease in size towards the
abdomen. A blue band extends from below the orbit to the angle of
the mouth, and another passes along the preopercle. Andaman Islands
and Malay Archipelago.
(1). Worah, Tarn . Nga-pron-ka, Mugli.
cxevi
231. Teuthi* vermiculata (Kuhl & v. Hass.), Cuv. & Val. Kut-e-rah,
Mai. : Chow-lud-dah, Audam. D. |g, A. £. Height of body from 1/2 to
4/9 of the total length. Light brown, running into bluish green on the
back, and nearly white on the abdomen. The whole of the body, head,
and Hps lineated with undulating bluish lines of about one-fourth
the width of the ground colour, being broadest nearest the abdomen :
caudal fin with brown lines. Seas of India, Malay Archipelago, &c .
attaining at least 1 1 inches in length.
232. Teuthis tutor, Cuv. & Val. D. |§, A. £. Height of body
not quite 1/3 of its length. Greenish grey, spotted with dull blue.
Seychelles and coast of Malabar.
233. Teuthis albopunctata, Tern. & Schleg. D. |g, A. J. Height
of body 2/7 of the total length. Brownish olive, with small scattered
white ( ? blue) spots on the back and sides, much smaller than the inter-
spaces. A brown shoulder mark. Andamans, Malay Archipelago to
China.
234. Teuthis stellata, Forsk. D. JJ, A. J. Height of body near-
ly or quite 1/3 of the total length. Caudal fin forked. Greyish, covered
all over with small angular spots of a purplish brown colour (a specimen
in the Calcutta Museum, apparently of this species, from the Red Sea,
has a fine white upper edge and dark lower one to each spot) . Dorsal
and anal also spotted with brown : the border of the soft rays and caudal
yellowish : a greenish yellow spot in front of the dorsal fin. Red Sea,
seas of India.
235. Teuthis marmorata, Quoy. & Gaim. D. {-J, A. ^. Height of
body 1/3 of its length. Body bluish superiorly, becoming white below :
almost entirely covered by violet lines which are wider than the inter-
spaces : those on the back form marblings and reticulations, whilst on the
sides they are more longitudinal. Seas of India and Malay Archipelago.
236. Teuthis Russellii, Cuv. & Val. Worakwah, Tel. D. J-g, A. J.
Scales stated not to be visible. White, darkish on the chest and abdo-
men : blackish, marbled with black on the rest of the body. Coromandel
Coast.
237. Teuthis virgata, Cuv. & Val. Tah-rneer-dah, Andam. D. J-g,
A. J, Csec. pyl. 4. Height of body 2/5 to 3/7 of the total length.
Upper two-thirds of body coppery yellow, covered with round blue spots,
and having blue lines on the head. A brown band, as wide as the orbit,
extends'from before the dorsal fin through the eye to below the jaws :
a second from the sixth and seventh dorsal spines to the base of the pec-
toral, both these bands are edged with blue. Fins yellowish. Andamans,
Malay Archipelago, China, &c.
Family — B E u Y c i D ^E , Lowe.
Branchiostegals from four to eight. Form of body oblong, or rather elevated and
compressed. Opercles more or less armed. Head with large muciferous cavities.
Eyes large, lateral. Cleft of mouth more or less oblique, extending to the sides of
the muzzle. Teeth villiform in both jaws, and usually so on the palate Dorsal
fin, when single, having the spinous portion of less extent than the soft, or with
isolated spines in front of the fin : or there may be two dorsals, the first being
spinous. Ventrals thoracic, each with either less or more than five soft rays.
Scales ctenoid, seldom bony or absent : none on the head. Pyloric appendages
numerous or in moderate numbers.
CXCV11
GCHUS—MYRIPRISTIS, CUV.
Branchiostegals eight, rarely seven. Eyes large, mostly lateral.
Muzzle short, lower jaw prominent. Cleft of mouth oblique, in one species
horizontal. Opercular pieces serrated ; opercle generally with one spine :
none on the preopercle. Teeth villiform on jaws, vomer, and palatines.
Two dorsal fins, scarcely united : ventral with one spine and seven rays :
anal with four spines : caudal forked. Scales large, ctenoid. Air-vessel
transversely contracted near its centre. Pyloric appendages in moderate
numbers.
238. Myripristis kuntee, Cuv. & Val. Sullanaroo kuntee, Tel.
B. VIII, D. 10/TV, A. T*y, L. 1. 28, L. tr. 3J/7J. Rose coloured with
scarlet fins: gill-opening deep blackish brown. Dorsal, caudal and
anal fins with white margins, sometimes a deep black mark exists upon
the anterior five dorsal rays extending to one-third of their height :
another on the anal from the second to the fifth : occasionally the caudal
lobes are tipped with black. Coasts of India and the Andamans :
attaining at least 11 inches in length.
239. Myripristis murdjan, Forsk, Botche, Tel. B. VIII, D.
10/JLy A. T*y, L. 1. 30, L. tr. 3/5, Vert. 10/15. Head scarlet, with a
black blotch, having the appearance of congealed blood, behind the
opercle. Body pink, each scale having the edges deeper coloured. Fins
scarlet, with the outer ventral, anal and caudal ray milk-white. Tips of
soft dorsal and anal black. Red Sea, seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago.
Genus — HoLOCENTRUM, Artedi.
Corniger, Agassiz.
Branchiostegals eight. Eyes large lateral. Jaws of equal length, or
the lower slightly the longer : snout of moderate length. Opercles and
suborbitals serrated : opercle with two spines : generally a large spine at the
angle of the preopercle. Villiform teeth on the jaws, vomer and palatines.
Two dorsal fins scarcely united : ventral with one spine and seven rays :
anal with four spines, the third being long and strong : caudal forked.
Scales ctenoid, of moderate size. Air-vessel oval and simple. Pyloric
appendages numerous.
240. Holocentrum caudimaculatum, Forsk. B. VIII, D. 11/14,
A. TV Height of body b/10 of total length. The lower opercular spine is
the smaller : sub-opercle entire. Third anal spine strongest and longest,
equalling 2/9 of the total length. Uniform red, with a white spot on
the back of the tail. Red Sea and Ceylon.
241. Holocentrum diadema, Lace'p. D. 11/TV, A. $, L. 1. 48, L. tr. 3/7,
Vert. 11/16. Height of body 5/18 of the total length. Opercle with
two spines, the upper nearly equal to that of the preopercle. Third anal
spine very strong and equalling about 1/5 of the total length. Red,
with from eight to eleven longitudinal silvery bands : spinous dorsal
black with a white longitudinal band : the other fins rosy. Red Sea, seas
of India to China.
242. Holocentrum Andamanense, Day. D. 11/14, A. £, L. 1. 42, L.
tr. 3/74. Height of body 4/13 of the total length. Opercle with two
flat spines and its lower edge serrated. Third anal spine strong and
CXCV111
equal to 1/6 of the total length. Uniform rosy scarlet. Andamans
8 inches in length.
243. Holocentrum rubrum, Forsk. Cul-kah-catchee, Tarn. D.
11/12-13, A. $, L.I. 35-37, L. tr. 3/6, CJBC. pyl. 20, Vert. 11/16.
Height of body 1/3 of the total length. Third anal spine from 2/9 to
1/5 of the total length. Silvery white, with longitudinal dull rosy
bands from the opercles, the second and third coalesce, as do also the
fourth and fifth, opposite the end of the dorsal fin. Head more or less
rosy, as are also the fins : anal spines white. Having examined a male it
had no black blotch at the bases of the soft dorsal, anal, and the axil of
the pectoral. Red Sea, seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
244. Holocentrumsammara,~FoYsk. D. 10/lT^, A. _4§, L. 1.40,
L. tr. 4/7, Vert. 11/16. Height of body 1/4 * of the "total length.
Third anal spine 3/14 of the total length. Spinous dorsal with a black
mark between the first and fourth spines, and two rows of white spots,
one along the base, the other along its upper edge. Red Sea, seas of
India, Malay Archipelago.
Genus — RHYCHICHTHYS (1), Cuv. fy Val.
Branchiostegals eight : snout more or less elongate, pointed, with tJie
upper jaw prominent. Opercular bones serrated : opercle and angle of preo-
percte with distinct spines. Villiform teeth on the jaws, vomer, and palate.
Two dorsal fins scarcely united : ventral with seven rays : anal with four
spines, the third the longest : caudal forked. Scales ctenoid and of moderate
size.
245. Rhynchichthys ornatus, Day. H.12/J? A. -§, L 1., 36, L.
tr. 3^/6. Bluish silvery along the back and sides, rosy on the abdomen :
fins yellowish : dorsal orange, with black spines : interspinous membrane
between the first three spines and also between the sixth and last of
a deep black colour.
Family — KURTID^}.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchise absent. Body oblong and compressed.
Eyes large. The infraorbital bones do not articulate with the preopercle. Cleft of mouth
oblique : lower jaw prominent. Villiform teeth on jaws, vomer and palatines. A
single dorsal fin, the spinous portion being of less extent than the soft : some spines
may even be rudimentary : anal elongated, with two or three spines : ventrals thora-
cic with one spine and five rays. Scales of moderate or small size. Air-vessel present.
Pyloric appendages few.
Genus — KuRTUS, Bloch.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchia absent. Body oblong and
strongly compressed : back elevated. Cleft of mouth oblique and deep, the
lower jaw prominent. Preopercle denticulated. Villiform teeth in the jaws ,
vomer, and palatines. A single dorsal Jin of much shorter extent than the
anal, its spines being rudimentary : between the ventrals is a horizontal
backwards directed spine. Scales very small. Air-vessel present, enclosed
(1) Dr. Giiuther observes in " Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist," November 1871, that
" I think before long Rhynchichthys will be shown to be the young of Hol^centrum." This
supposition is most probably correct. The elongated snout reminds one of the identical
form in some of the immature Indian silnroids.
(2) My specimens being in Europe, I am unable to re-examine the number of the
dorsal rays.
CXC1X
in a conical cavity made by the ribs, which are dilated, convex, and
forming rings in contact with each other.
246. Kurtus Indicus, Bloch. Kakasi, Tel. : Oordah, and Valliaul
cutchul, Tarn. D. J^, A. ^ Vert. 8/15. Height of body ]/3 of the
total length. Preopercle with three strong backward directed spines on
its lower edge. Males have a cartilaginous arched process directed for-
ward and somewhat downwards. Silvery, shot with steel blue or lilac
reflections : back with fine black dots which behind the occiput form a
rounded black spot. Seas of India, Malay Archipelago, and China.
Genus — PEMPHERIS, Cuv. fy Val.
Branchiostegals seven. Body oblong, compressed : head obtuse. Eyes
large. Cleft of mouth oblique, with the lower jaw prominent. Opercle with
a small spine. Yilliform teeth on the jaws, vomer, and palatine bones.
A single short dorsal fin with six spines and nine rays : anal with
three spines and many rays. Scales small, extended over the anal fin.
Air-vessel divided into an anterior and posterior portion, Pyloric append-
agesfew.
247. Pempheris Otaitensis, Cuv. & Val. D. f , A. -^r^, L. 1.
55-65, Csec. pyl. 6—7, Vert. 10/14. Height of body 2/5, of caudal
1/5, length of head 1/4 of the total length. Eyes, diameter rather above
half the length of head. Preopercle entire. Bows of scales along the
lateral line larger than the others. Silvery grey, upper third of dorsal
rays black : pectoral orange, with a dark base : anal rather dark ante-
riorly and inferiorly : caudal with its posterior margin stained grey.
Beluchistan, Sind, Malay Archipelago.
248. Pempheris Molucca, Cuv. & Val. D. |, A. ^L, L. 1. 60.
Height of body 1/3, length of head 3/13 of the total length." Eyes, dia-
meter rather less than 1/2 the length of the head. Violet brown
superiorly, becoming silvery below : fins rose coloured, with fine dots :
axil and base of pectoral white. Seas of India and Japan.
249. Pempheris mangula, Cuv. & Val. Mangula Jcutti, Tel. D. f ,
A. 3 j L. 1. 45. Height of body 1/3 of the total length. Brown with
#8*40
minute dark points : dorsal black anteriorly : anal and caudal with black
edges : pectoral without any dark mark at its base. Coromandel coast,
Malay Archipelago, &c.
Family — POLYNEMUXE, Richards.
Uranchiostegals seven : pseudobranchise. Body oblong, somewhat compressed. Eyes
large, lateral, more-or less covered by an adipose membrane. Mouth on the lower
side of a prominent snout, and having a lateral cleft. Muciferous system on the
head well developed. Villiform teeth on the jaws and palatines, present or absent
on the vomer. Two dorsal fins : several free and articulated appendages below
the pectoral fin : ventrals thoracic, with one spine and five rays. Scales finely
ctenoid or cycloid, and more or less covering the vertical fins. Lateral line conti-
nuous, continued on to the caudal fin. Air-vessel, when present, varying in form
and structure. Pyloric appendages of varying numbers.
cc
Genus — PoLYNEhUS, (*) Linn.
Preopercle serrated. Teeth villiform on the Jaws, palatines, vomer
and pterygoid bones. First dorsal fin with seven or eight weak spines : soft
dorsal and anal of nearly equal extent. Scales rather small, extended on
to the vertical fins. Air-vessel, when present, varying inform, size and
structure. Pyloric appendages few, in moderate numbers, or many.
250. Polynemus paradiseus, Linn. D. 7/ ,-'3, P. 15+ VII, A. -/22,
L.I. 70, L. tr. 5/14. Csec. pyl. 5 (10), Vert. 10/15. The seven
free rays below the pectoral fin are longer than the fish : the three upper
ones being frequently twice as long. No air-vessel. Colours golden.
Seas of India, entering rivers as far as the tide reaches.
251. Polynemus heptadactylus, Cuv. & Val. D. 7/ ^, P. 15 +
VII, A. -fV, L. 1. 50, L. tr. 5/11. Csec. pyl. 4. Of the seven pector-
al appendages, the two highest and the lowest are of equal length and
shorter than the remaining four, which reach to the third or fourth anal
ray. No air-vessel, Silvery, with a yellowish tinge : pectorals deep black.
Seas of India and Malay Archipelago, to at least 6 inches in length.
252. Polt/nemus scanthonemus, Cuv. & Val. D. 8 / T'T, P.
15 4- VI, A. jJL2. Csec. pyl. 12. The six pectoral appendages just
reach beyond the end of the ventral s. No air-vessel. Silvery, pectoral
black : other fins yellow, edged with black : end of free rays also black
tipped. Seas of India : attaining 6 inches at least in length.
253. Polynemus sextarius, Bloch. D. 8/ _i_, P. 15 + VI, A. _^_
' 12-13J 12-13,
L. 1. 48. Csec. pyl. long and rather numerous. The six pectoral
appendages reach slightly beyond the end of the ventrals. Air-vessel of
moderate size, simple. Sometimes a black spot on the shoulder : pector-
als black. Seas of India and Malay Archipelago : to 6 inches in length.
254. Polt/iiemus Indicus, Shaw. Maga-boshe, Tel. : Tahlun kalah,
Tarn, : Yeta, ' Mai. D. 8 / ^, P. 20 + V, A. £±, L. 1. 62-70, L. tr.
7/13, Vert. 5/19. Caec. pylori numerous. The upper of the five pector-
al filaments is the longest, reaching as far as the commencement of the
anal fin, whilst the inferior or shortest one extends as far as the end of
the pectoral. Air-vessel present, having many appendages. Back greyish
freen : abdomen silvery white : dorsal and caudal edged with fine
lack points. Seas of India, Malay Archipelago to Australia : attain-
ing 3 feet or more in length.
255. Polynemus plebejus, Gm. D. 8/ ^ P. 18 + V, A. ^
L. 1. 50, L. tr. 5/10, CaBC. pyl. numerous. Of the five pectoral fila-
ments some extend beyond the end of the fin. Air-vessel simple.
Silvery in the ' young : a dark blotch near the commencement of the
lateral line. Sind, through the seas of India, Malay Archipelago, &c.
256. Polynemus tetradactylus, Shaw. Maga-jellee, Tel. : Polun-
kalah, Tarn. : To-bro-dah, Andam. D. 8 / j_i_, P. 16 + IV, A. _?it, L. 1.
75-85, L. tr. 10/14, Caec, pyl. numerous. No air-vessel, Silvery, a
dark mark on the opercle. Seas of India, Malay Archipelago, &c.: attain-
ing 6 feet or more in length.
(') Kalah, Tarn. Nut-tiah, Alngh.
CC1
— S C I M N I D 2&, GUV.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchise sometimes concealed, or even absent. Body
somewhat compressed and rather elongate. Eyes lateral, of moderate or small size.
Mouth in front of or below the snout. Cheeks unarmed : opercles sometimes
with weak spines. Barbels present in a few genera. Muciferous system on the
head well developed. Teeth in villiform bands : canines present in some genera
but neither cutting nor molar ones in the jaws: palate edentulous. Two dorsal
fins, the second much more developed than the first or than the anal : spines of first
dorsal usually feeble : anal with two spines : pectoral rays branched : ventrals
thoracic with one spine and five rays. Scales ctenoid. Lateral line complete,
often continued on to the caudal fin. Stomach caecal. Air-vessel, when present,
as a rule with branching or elongated appendages. Pyloric appendages generally
few.
Genus — UMBRINA, Cuv.
Brancliioslegals seven : psrudobranchice. Body oblong. The upper
jaw overlapping the lower. Preopercle, as a rule, serrated. A short barbel
under the chin. Villiform teeth in the jaws. Two dorsal fins, the first
with from nine to ten flexible spines : the anal with one or two. Scales of
moderate size. Air-iessel with appendages* Pyloric appendages in
small numbers.
257. Umbrina macroptera, Bleeker. D. 10/ JL_, A. f , L. 1. 49, L. tr.
6/15, Csec. pyl. 11. Length of head 1/4 of the total and equal to the
height of the body. Diameter of eye 1/5 of length of head, nearly 2 dia-
meters from end of snout. Preopercle serrated. Barbels not quite 1/2 as long
as the orbit. Pectoral and ventral fins of equal length : caudal rhomboidal.
Greyish, becoming silvery below : fins yellowish : minute black points
everywhere. Madras, Malay Archipelago.
258. Umbrina Russellii, Cuv. and Val. Qualar-katchelee, Tel. D.
lO/^, A. 72_, L. 1. 52, L.tr. 6/13, Csec. pyl. 7. Length of head 1/4,
height of body 2/7 of the total length. Eyes rather more than 1 dia-
meter from end of snout. Preopercle crenulated. Barbel slightly above
]/2 a diameter of the orbit in length. Caudal rhomboidal. Dark nearly
blackish brown and shot with gold. Fine dark points all over the head
and body : fins yellowish, also stained with dark spots especially the first
dorsal and base of the pectoral. Seas of India and Malay Archipelago,
attaining at least 10 inches in length.
259. Umbrina Dussumieri, Cuv. and Val. D. 10/JL, A. |, L. 1. 51,
L. tr. 7/19. Length of head 4/1 5, height of body 5/19 of the total
length. Eyes much less than 1 diameter from end of snout. Preoper-
cle entire. Barbels short. Back fawn colour with greenish -golden
reflections : abdomen silvery : fins of a reddish tinge^ except the ventral
which is yellow. Coromandel Coast : attaining at least 6 inches in
length.
Genus — Scicsna (Artedi), Cuv.
Joknius, Bloch : Corvina, pt. Cuv : Leoislomus, pt. Cuv. and Val :
Homoprion, Holb.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchitz. Body comprised and rather
elongate. Eyes of moderate size, with the interorbital space rather broad and
* Said to be abseut iu American species.
ecu
slightly convex. Snout rounded: cleft of mouth horizontal or
oblique : the upper jaw generally longer than the lower, or both may be of
equal length. Barbels absent. The outer row of teeth usually the largest :
no canines. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages few, or in moderate
numbers.
This genus has been artificially sub -divided, in accordance with the
length of the second anal spine, thus : —
a. Weak, or about half the length of the first ray Scioena.
b. Moderately strong, nearly two-thirds „ „ Johnius.
c. Very strong, about equal to ... „ „ Corvina.
(a.) Second anal spine moderately strong nor much above 2/3 the
length of the first ray, — (Johnius.)
260. Scioena Dussumieri, Cuv. and Val. I). 9-10,/__L, A. f , L. 1. 52,
L. tr. 6/15, Ca3C. pyl. 9, Vert. 10/14. Eyes diameter ~l/4 of length of
head, 1 diameter from end of snout. Upper jaw the longer. Preopercle
finely serrated. Second anal spine moderately strong, 3/5 of the length
of the first ray.. Greyish purple, with a golden gloss, and a dark mark
on the opercle : vertical fins with dark edges. Seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago.
261. Scioena sina, Cuv. and Val. D. 10/^, A. _*g, L. 1. 46. Eyes
not quite 1 diameter from end of snout, rather more apart. Jaws of
about equal length. Preopercle serrated, especially at its angle. Second
anal spine 2/5 of the length of the head. Greyish, becoming white on
the abdomen : a dark blotch behind the opercle, extending to the axil.
First dorsal fin very dark. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago :
said to attain a foot in length.
262. Scicena maculata, Bl. Schn, Taan-tah, Bel. : Sari kullah, Tel. r
Cooroowa, and 7ari katchelee, Tarn. D. 10/^J_, A. _|, L. 1. 45-48,
L. tr. 11/16, Csec. pyl. 8. EyeslJ diameters from end of snout. Upper
jaw the longer, overlapping the lower. Preopercle with about six strong
denticulations near its angle. Second anal spine of moderate strength,
2/3 as long as the first ray. Air-vessel with about 15 lateral processes
on either side, each having two or three roots. Silvery, with five broad
black bands passing downwards from the back, these are sometimes
interrupted. Seas of India, attaining at least 10 inches in length.
263. Scioena diacanthus, Lacdp. Nella or Cora katchelee, Tel.
D. 10/JLy A. f L. 1. 52, L. tr. 7/18, Csec. pyl. 8. Eyes 1J diameters
from end of snout. Upper jaw the longer. A few badly marked
serrations at the angle of the preopercle. • Second anal spine of moderate
strength, and at least 1/2 as long as the first ray. Brownish-grey in the
adult, but slaty-grey in the young, with black blotches on its sides and
fins : the immature are usually banded. Seas of India to China, attain-
ing 5 feet in length.
(b.) Second anal spine rery strong, and about equal to the length of the
first ray, — (Corvina.)
264. Scioena semiluctuosa, Cuv. and Val. Suk-kun, Belu ch.
"D. 10/2^, A. f, L. r. 45, Csec. pyl. 8. Eyes, 1J diameters from end
com
of snout. Upper jaw the longer. Margin of preopercle scarcely cre-
nulated. Second anal spine nearly 1/4 shorter than the first ray.
Deep grey, with a blackish band running along the centre of each row
of scales : head tinged with purple : fins deep black, becoming lighter
after death. Coasts of Beluchistan and India, attaining at least
8 inches in length.
265. Scicena lobata, Cuv. and Val. D. 9-1 0/^ A. f Csec. pyl. 8.
Eyes about 1 diameter from end of snout. Upper jaw overlapping
the lower. Preopercle not serrated. Second anal spine moderately
strong, but nearly 1 /4 shorter than the first ray. Greyish, with five
wedge-shaped or triangular crossbands descending along the upper half
of the body : fins with dark margins. Malabar.
266. Scicena miles, Cuv. and Val. Telia Jcatchelee, Tel. D. 9-1 0/ -L_
29-30,7
A. f . Eyes 1 diameter from end of snout. Upper jaw overlapping the
lower. Preopercle feebly serrated. Second anal spine very strong, as
long as the first ray. Greyish, dashed with green along the back, be-
coming white on the sides and abdomen. A small brownish spot in
front of each dorsal ray : the external margins of all the fins nearly
black, except the ventral, which is whitish. Seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago, attaining at least 2 feet in length.
267. Scicena Belengerii, Cuv. and Val. D. 9-10/JL, A. f, L. 1. 48,
Csec. pyl. 5. Eyes not 1 diameter from the end of snout. Upper jaw
overlapping the lower. Second anal spine strong, 2/3 to 3/5 of the
length of the first ray. Greenish brown along the back, becoming
lighter on the abdomen : minute brown on black dots- over the whole
body and fins : margins of caudal, anal, and ventral fins blackish. Seas
of India and Malay Archipelago.
268. Scicena cuja, Ham. Buch. D. 107 J_, A. f, L. 1. 50-56,
2/-29
L. tr. 7/15. Eyes 1 diameter from end of snout. Jaws of nearly equal
length. Second anal spine very strong, and nearly or quite as long as
the first ray. Oblique streaks above the lateral line : horizontal ones
below it : dorsals with two or three longitudinal rows of black spots.
Ganges and Japan, attaining several feet in length.
269. Scicena carutta, Bl. D. lO/^, A. f , L. 1. 50. Eyes 1
diameter from end of snout. Upper jaw overlapping the lower. Preoper-
cle indistinctly crenulated. Second anal spine very strong, 2/3 the
length of the first ray : head and back of a brownish colour : upper
half of first dorsal black : four large black blotches on the second dorsal :
outer half of ventral, anal, and caudal black. Seas of India and Malay
Archipelago.
270. Scicsna axillaris, Cuv. and Val. Goal-mutchee, Bel. D. 10/-J-.
A. f, L. 1. 43-50, L. tr. 8/14, Caec pyl. 9 Eyes, 1 diameter from end'of
snout. Jaws of nearly equal length. Preopercle serrated, with two
rather strong teeth at its angle. Second anal spine of moderate length,
much shorter than the first ray, and 1/3 of the length of the head.
Air-vessel large and anteriorly bulging out on either side like a hammer.
Silvery, tinged with brownish along the back : a black spot above the
axil : first dorsal blackish, more especially in its outer half: the other
fins grey. Western coast of India and along the Mekran coast.
CC1V
271. Scicena coilor, Ham. Buch. Botahl and Putlheri-ki, Ooriah :
Nga-pok-tMn, Burmese : Sohlee, Beluch. D. 10/2-'7, A. f , Case, pyl. 7-9.
Eyes 1 \ diameters from the end of snout. Upper jaw overlapping- the
lower. Preopercle slightly serrated. Second anal spine strong, 4/5 as
long1 as the first ray. Silvery green above, becoming white below : fins
darkest externally. Seas of India, also the larger rivers: attaining 12
inches in length.
272. Scicena allida, Cuv. & Val. D. 9-10/-L- A. f , L. 1. 53. L.
tr. 24, Csec. pyl. 5. Eyes not quite one diameter from the end of snout.
Jaws equal in front. Preopercle indistinctly serrated. Second anal spine
strong, 4/5 as long as the first ray. Silvery, with a light streak along the
centre of each scale : first dorsal with a dark edge : ventral, anal, and
caudal yellowish. This is identical with Corvina Neitti, Day. Seas of
India and China.
Genus — OTOLITHUS, Cuv.
Branchiosfegals seven : pseudobranchia. Body oblong. Eyes of mode-
rate size. Snout obtuse or a little pointed, the lower jaw being the longer.
Preopercle crenulated, serrated or denticulated No barbels. Conical canine
teeth usually well developed in both jaws or merely in the upper. Two dorsal
fins, the first with nine or ten weak spines : anal with one or two small ones.
Scales of moderate or small size. Air-vessel present, some having on either
side an anteriorly directed process : others with lateral appendages. Pyloric
appendages few .
273. Otolithus maculatus, Cuv. & Val. Birralli, Ooryah. D.
10/303* A. ,-2T. Eyes, 1J diameter from end of snout. Preopercle
finely denticulated. A pair of canines in either jaw. Air-vessel with
about 54 lateral appendages on either side. Greyish in the upper part
of the bod}r, golden below : five or six rows of black spots on the body
and caudal fin : the other fins stained at their edges. Bay of Bengal
and Malay Archipelago : attaining at least 16 inches in length.
274. Otolithus ruber, Bl. Schu. D. 10/_i_, A. j, L. 1. 54, Ca>c.
30-31
pyl. 4-5. Eyes one diameter from end of snout. Preopercle finely denti-
culated. On either side of the symphysis of the upper jaw a pair of
large canines, the inner of which is the longer : on either side of the
symphysis of the lower jaw is one canine. Air-vessel with 34 lateral pro-
cesses on- either side. Brownish red shot with silvery, becoming quite
white below the lateral line : some fine black points on the fins. Seas of
India and Malay Archipelago : attaining 2£ feet or more in length.
275. Otolithus argenteus, Cuv. & Yal. Bu-ru, Sind. D. 10/^L.
A. f, L. 1. 70, Csec. pyl. 6. Eyes, 1J diameter from end of snout. Pre-
opercle finely denticulated. On either side of the symphysis of the upper
jaw two or three canines, the posterior of which (or the centre one if
three) is the longest, but all are shorter and wider apart than in 0. ruler :
on either side of the symphysis of the lower jaw is one very small canine.
Air vessel with 25 lateral processes on either side. Greyish superiorly
with violet reflections, becoming golden on the abdomen : some fine black
points on the fins. Seas of India, Malay Archipelago to China: attain-
ing: upward* <•!' '\\ I'-rl in length.
ccv
276. Otolithus aneus, Bloeh. Chal-burn-dah, Andara. D. 10/ JL
/ 23-24*
A. *, L. 1. 52, L. tr. 9/19, Csec. pyl. 10. Bloch gives D 8, &c., but the
plate shows D. 9, the first small spine having been overlooked as in Bola
coibor, H. B., which seems to be the same species. Eyes one diameter from
the end of snout. Preopercle crenulated. Canines not well developed.
Silvery grey, becoming dirty white along the abdomen : first dorsal black
tipped. Air-vessel with 30 lateral processes. Seas of India.
277. Otolithus versicolor, Cuv. & Val. Pottee-kanasah, Tel. D.
10/2\, A. 1 (<2). Teeth as in the 0. maculatus. Silvery. Coromandel
coast.
278. Otolithus brunneus, Day. D. 9/^j A. f, L. r. 102. L, tr.
21/34. Eyes, 1J diameter from end of snout. Preopercle scarcely
crenulated. Canines small. Brownish, golden below ; fins dark edged.
Bombay, to 8 inches in length.
Genus— Sci&NOIDES, Blyth.
Bola, pt, Ham. Buch. Collichthys, Gunther, Sciana, sp. Cuv. & Val.
Otolithus, sp. Cantor.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice absent. Eyes small. Head
broad with its upper surface very convex. Cleft of mouth oblique and deep.
No barbels. Two dorsal fins, the second with many rays : two weak anal
spines; caudal wedge-shaped. Air-vessel generally having a horn-like
process on either side directed forwards, and with many lateral appendages.
Pyloric appendages few or in moderate numbers.
Scicenoides pama, Ham. Buch. Coii bola, Bengali : Yen begti and
Botul, Ooriah : Nga-pouss-was, Hugh. D. 10/^g, A. f , L. r. 70—80,
L. tr. 9/25, Csec. pyl. 9. Eyes two diameters from end of snout. Two
skinny flaps to the opercles. Air-vessel dividing anteriorly into two
short processes, whilst springing from near its posterior extremity are
two more long processes which extend anteriorly as far as the auditory
apparatus. Of a whitish colour. It is termed whiting in Calcutta.
Bay of Bengal, entering estuaries and rivers : it attains at least 5 feet
in length.
280. Scicenoides lucida, Richardson : Otolithus bispinosus, Blyth.
D. 9/ ^\y A. §, L. 1. 52, (L. r. 75), Csec. pyl. 4. Eyes one diameter from
end of snout. Air-vessel without any projections anteriorly, but with
about 14 lateral appendages. Silvery. Seas of India to China.
281. Scianoides biaurita, Cantor. D, 9/^, A. f, Csec. pyl. 13.
Two skinny flaps to the opercles. Air-vessel with 25 lateral appen-
dages. Silvery. Seas of India, Malay Archipelago, and China.
Family — X I p H 1 1 D M, Agass.
Sword fishes.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchiae. Eyes lateral. Body compressed, the upper
jaws (comprising ethmoid, vomer, and intermaxillaries) produced into a long,
sword-shaped process : cleft of mouth deep. Teeth absent or rudimentary.
One or two dorsal fins, without any distinct spinous portion: ventrals, when
present, thoracic and rudimentary. Scales absent or in the form of rudimentary
dermal productions. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages numerous.
CCV1
Genus— HiSTIOPHORUS, Lacep.
Notistium, Herra : Tetrapturus, Cuv. & Val.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchia. Upper jaw much prolonged.
Minute teetk on the jaws and palatines : vomer edentulous. Two dorsal and
two anal fins, the anterior of each of which is the longer and composed of
spines and ray : ventrals in the form of one or two spines. Scales absent,
rudimentary dermal productions may be present. Air-vessel present.
Pyloric appendages numerous.
282. Histiophorus immaculatus, Riipp. Temungolah} Tarn. D. 47/7,
A. 10-11/7, V 3. Length of head about 1/3, height of body 1/10 of the
total length. Dorsal fin much higher than the body, the eleventh ray
about the longest. Dermal productions lanceolate. Colouration uni-
form: dorsal fin blackish. Red Sea, seas of India: a specimen in the
Madras Museum is nearly 6 feet in length.
283. Histiophorus gladius, Brouss. Myl meen, f Peacock fish',
Tamil. D. 40—50/7, A. 10/7, V. 2, Vert. 14/10. Length of head 1/4,
height of body 1/7 to 1/8 of the total length. Dorsal fin much higher
than the body. Dorsal fin of a bright Prussian blue, with darker spots :
body bluish, becoming white beneath. Seas of India : I procured one 9
feet long at Madras.
284. Histiophorus brevirostris, Playfair. D. 35/7, A. 11/7, V. 2.
Length of head 3/10 of the total length. Height of dorsal fin nearly
equal to that of the body. Dermal productions lanceolate. Colour
uniform. East coast of Africa, Madras : attaining upwards of 10 feet
in length.
Family — T RICHIURID^E, Gunther.
Branchiostegals seven to eight : pseudobranchiae. Body elongated and compressed.
Gill openings wide. Eyes lateral. Cleft of mouth deep. Teeth in -jaws or palate,
several being strong and conical. Dorsal fin, both in its spinous and soft portion,
and the anal, many rayed : there may be finlets behind the dorsal or anal fins :
ventrals, when present, thoracic, but sometimes they are rudimentary : caudal
absent or present. Scales when present rudimentary. No prominent pupilla
behind the vent. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages few or many.
Genus— TmCHWRUS 0, Linn.
Branchiostegals seven. Body very elongate, strongly compressed,
ribbon-shaped, tapering to a point at the tail. Cleft of mouth deep.
Teeth in jaw and palatines, those in the jaw strong. A single long dorsal
fin extending *the whole length of the back : ventrals, when present, in the
form of a pair of scales : anal spines minute, sometimes concealed beneath
the skin : caudal absent. Pyloric appendages numerous.
285. Trichiurus haumela, Forsk. Savala, Tel.: Sona-ka-wahlay,
Tarn.: Pa-pa-dah, Andam. D. 127-133. Length of head 1/7, height of
body 1/15 to 1/17 of the total length. Eyes, diameter from 1 4 to 2^ in
the length of the smout. Silvery, the upper half of the dorsal fin
dark coloured. Seas of India and Malay Archipelago.
(') Nus-suh-fuf. Mngh.
CCV11
286. Trichiurussavala,V\iv. Karte-ka-wahlah , Tarn. D. 112-130.
Length of head 2/13 to 4/29, height of body 1/13 to 1/16 of the total
length. Eyes, diameter 2/7 of the length of the snout. Silvery white.
Seas of India and Malay Archipelago.
Family — A c A N T H u R I D M, pt. Richards.
Acronurida, Giinther.
Branchiostegals from four to seven : pseudobranchise. Body oblong or elevated and
compressed. Eyes of moderate size and lateral. Cleft of mouth very slight.
Teeth in both jaws in a single compressed row, often lobate or serrated, and taper-
ing incisors may be present : palate edentulous. A single dorsal fin with less
spines than rays : anal with two or three spines : ventrals thoracic. Scales minute.
Lateral line complete and continuous. The side of the free portion of the tail
usually armed with one or more bony plates or spines, these are small or absent in
the immature, developing with age. Air-vessel present, forked posteriorly. Pyloric
appendages few.
Genus—- ACANTHURUS P), Bl.
Acronurus, Cuv. (?) young : Keris, pt., Cuv. (?) young.
Branchiostegals five : pseudobranchice well developed. Body elevated
and strongly compressed. Teeth in a single row with lobate or crenulated
margins. A single dorsal fin with less spines than rays : anal with three
spines : ventral usually with one spine and jive rays. Scales minute,
ctenoid, sometimes spinate. Air-vessel large, posteriorly forked. Pyloric
appendages Jive to seven.
287. Acanthurus leucosternon, Bennett. D. 29^0", A. 2^28- Height
of body 9/5 of the total length, excluding- the caudal fin. Five trun-
cated and lobate teeth on either side of the upper jaw. Blue, head black :
chest white, as is also a ring on the lower part of the mouth. A cres-
centic black band across the base of the caudal, a second along the mar-
gins of the fins. Ceylon, Mauritius, and Malay Archipelago.
8-9 ^
288. Acanthurus lineatus, Linn. D. ^r, A. 27". Height of body
1/2 the total length. Six lobate incisors on either side of the upper jaw.
Ground colour canary yellow, with nine oblique blue bands passing from
the head to the back or to the base of the caudal fin : two more curved
blue bands pass from the eye to the base of the pectoral fin. Blue lines
likewise on the caudal fin. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago :
common at the Andamans up to 10 inches in length.
9 3
289. Acanthurus matoides, Cuv. & Val. D. 2^28, A. 25^8- Height
of body 4/9 of the total length. Seven or eight lobate incisors on either
side of the upper jaws. Brown, with badly developed undulating lines
which fade soon after death. Vertical fins yellowish with bluish lines
or blotches. Dr. Giinther considers A. annularis, Cuv. & 'Val., with a
white caudal ring, 'fas immature specimens'", but there are certainly
large ones thus marked. Seas of India, Malay Archipelago, &c.
290. Acanthurus rasi, Cuv. & Val. Mat a, Tel. D. 25^7, A. 23^5.
Height of body 6/13 of the total length. The incisors of both jaws are
rounded and with from 13 to 15 serratures on their sides and summits.
(') Kobli-meen, Tain.
CCV111
Colour brownish with a light ring at the base of the caudal fin. Coro-
mandel coast, to 9 inches in length. There is a good specimen 7 inches
long in the Madras Museum.
291. Acanthurus nigrofuscns, Forsk. D. 2*^7, A. 33^- Height of
body 1/2 the total length, excluding the caudal fin. Eight or nine lobate
incisors on either side of the upper jaw. Blackish brown. Ceylon,
Malay Archipelago.
292. Acanthurus melas, Cuv. & Val., and A. melanurus, Cuv. &
Val. D. gy7, A. 25<j, &c., probably are the young of some of the foregoing
or following species.
293. Acanthurus Tennentii, Giinther. D. ?97, A. /^. Height of body
1/2 the total length, excluding the caudal fin. Six lobate incisors on either
side of the upper jaw, and eight on each side of the lower. Brown, with
a roundish dark ring on the shoulder ; caudal with a broad white edge.
Ceylon.
294. Acantharus triostegus, Linn. Mootah, Tel. Kara hamoowah, Cing.
•^' 2&5> 20^1- Height of body nearly 1/2 the total length. Seven lobate
incisors on either side of the upper jaw, eight on each side of the lower.
Greenish, with a brownish tinge along the back : one dark band along the
snout ; a second through the orbit : four along the body, and one over the
base of the caudal fin, the last of which is in the form of two round
spots, one above the other : fins stained darkish. Seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago and beyond.
295. Acanthurus ctenodon, Cuv. & Val. D. (24) 28-30 • A. (22)~~2<f2?»
Height of body nearly 1/2 the total length. Teeth setiform, dilated at
their external 1/3, where they are laterally serrated. Lineated all over
with blue and yellow lines, the latter being somewhat the wider. Nu-
merous red spots about the head, more especially around the eyes. Dorsal
and anal fins also lineated. East coast of Africa, seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago and beyond.
296. Acanthurus xant/iurus, Blyth. D. -^~^t A. ^21 • Height of body
2/5 of the total length. Ten lobate incisors or either side of the upper
jaw. Blackish : caudal light yellow. East coast of Africa and Ceylon,
to at least 8 inches in length.
297. Acanthurus velifer, Bloch. D. -^, A. 23-24. Height of body
nearly 1/2 of the total length. Six lobate incisors on either side of the
upper jaw. Greyish, head and body with ten vertical cross bands going
from the back to the abdomen. Dorsal with four curved blue bands,
six on the anal and four on the caudal. Andamaus and Malay
Archipelago.
Genus — NASEUS, Commerson.
Monoceros, Bl. Schn.: Aspisurus, Riipp.: Axinurus, Priodon and (?)
Keris pt. young, Cuv. & Val.
Branchiostegals four or five : pseudobranchia. Head sometimes with
a bony prominence. A single row of compi essed incisors which t
have serrated edges : palate edentulous. A single dorsal Jin with from
four to six spines, and many rays : anal with two spines, its rays nit/ii'lar to
of the dorsal: ventral with one spine and three rays. Scales minute,
CC1X
forming a rough covering. Side of the tail with from one to three bony
plates, most developed in the adult. Air-vessel large and forked pos-
teriorly. Pyloric appendages rather few.
298. Naseus unicornis, Forsk. D. J5L1, A. ^f^ Csec- PF1- ?-8-
A horizontal horn-like protuberance from the forehead. Teeth not
serrated. Two spinous plates on the side of the tail. Brownish grey :
dorsal and anal fins with longitudinal blue stripes. From the Red Sea,
through the seas of India, Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
299. Naseus brevirostris , Cuv. & Val. D. J±, A. J!L. A hori-
zontal horn-like protuberance from the forehead. Two horn-like plates
on the side of the tail. Teeth small, serrated. Greyish brown poster-
iorly, with many short blue transverse lines : caudal with a light margin.
East coast of Africa, through the seas of India to the Malay Archi-
pelago and beyond.
300. Naseus tuberosus, Lace'p. D. J^L, A. — 1_. Snout with a
convex and compressed hump above it. Teeth small, about twenty on
either side of the upper jaw. Brown, with blue dots or short vertical
lines : fins blackish, the vertical ones with light edges. East coast of
Africa, seas of India, to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
Family — CARANGIDJ:.
Scomberoidei, pt., et Squamipinnes, pt., Cuv. : Scombrisidce, pt.,
Richardson.
Branchiostegals usually seven, occasionally less : pseudobranchiae as a rule present,
but absent in Lichia and Trachynotus. Body oblong, elevated, or sub-cylin-
drical and compressed. Gill-openings wide. Eyes lateral. lufraorbital bones
do not articulate with the preopercle. Dentition varied. The length of the base
of the spinous portion of the dorsal fin is of less extent than that of the soft,
and is sometimes formed by isolated spines : the spinous may be continuous with,
or distinct from the soft portion : the posterior portion both of the dorsal and
anal sometimes consists of detached finlets : the soft dorsal and the anal of nearly
equal extent. Anal spines, when present, may or may not be continuous with the
soft portion. Ventrals, when present, thoracic, sometimes rudimentary. Scales
usually small, unless absent. Lateral line may be wholly, partially, or not at all
armed with shield-like plates. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages usually
in large numbers. Vertebra 10/14 (Naucrates 10/16).
Genus— CARANX (a), Cuv. fy Val.
Olistus, Scyris, Blepharis, Gallichthys, et Hynnis, Cuv. & Val. :
Megalaspis,Decapterus,Selar, Carangoides, Leioglossus, Uraspis, Selaroides,
et Gnathanodon, Bleeker : Carangus, Girard.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchiez. Body oblong, sub -cylindrical,
and more or less compressed. Eyes lateral. Dentition feeble. Two dorsal
fins : the first continuous, with about eight weak spines, and sometimes rudi-
mentary, having anteriorly a spine directed forwards : the second dorsal
longer and similar to the anal : sometimes the last rays entirely or semi-
detached: two pre-anal spines (which may be rudimentary) separated by a
space from the rays. Scales minute. Lateral line with an anterior curved
portion, and the posterior straight, having large plate-like scales, which are
usually keeled and sometimes spinate. Air-vessel bifurcated posteriorly.
Pyloric appendages in large numbers.
BB
ccx
1. The second dorsal and anal with the posterior ray or rays
detached.
a. With eight or ten detached rays. (Megalaspis) .
301. Caranx Rottleri, Bloch. Woragoo and Sora parah, Tel.
D. 6-8/JL 4- V1II-X, A. 2/ ^ VIII, L. 1. 55. p) Height of body 2/9
of the total length. Villiform teeth in jaws, vomer, and palatines.
Lateral line makes a short and abrupt curve above the base of the
pectoral fin, and opposite its first third proceeds direct to the base of
the caudal. Back glossy green : abdomen silvery, tinged with yellow :
a large black spot on the upper and posterior portion of the opercle.
Fins yellow : dorsal and anal tipped with black. From the Red Sea and
east coast of Africa, through the seas of India to the Malay Archi-
pelago and beyond: is said by native fishermen to attain 5 feet in
length.
1. A single ray of dorsal and anal fins detached. ( DecapterusJ .
302. Caranx kurra, Cuv. & Val. Kurra-wodagahwah, Tel.
D- 8/y1u + I* A-. *li7 + l> L- 1- 33. Height of body 1/6 of the total
length. Teeth in a single row in both jaws ; also on vomer and palate ;
three rows of sharp teeth along the middle of the tongue. Lateral line
nearly straight, until opposite the end of the first dorsal, it then slopes
downwards until opposite about the fifteenth ray, when it passes direct
to the centre of the caudal. Bluish above, silvery beneath : a deep
black spot on the upper margin of the opercle : upper surface of the
head minutely dotted with black : fins yellow, darkest at their edges.
Coasts of India : is a small species arriving at Madras about October.
The Caranx kiliche, Cuv. & Val., from Pondicherry, may be this species:
the teeth are not referred to : the fin rays are given thus, D. 8/^7 + I,
A. 2/£y + I, L. 1. about 30.
2. No dorsal or anal rays detached.
a. None of the fin rays elongated.
303. Caranx gymnosteihoides, Bleeker. Tanga-parrah, Tarn.
D. 8/JL., A. 2/2-J^, L. 1. 25. Height of body 1/4 of the total length.
Eyes two diameters from end of snout. Teeth in the jaws small, in a single
row, also present on the vomer, palatines, and tongue. Lateral line
very slightly bent, becoming straight below the middle of the soft dorsal
fin. Chest scaleless. An indistinct opercular spot. Madras and Malay
Archipelago.
304. Caranx macrurus, Bleeker. D. 8/2^L_ A. B/ L. 1. 60-69.
Height of body nearly 1/4 of the total length. Teeth on the jaws in a
single row ; also on the vomer, palatines, and tongue. Lateral line with
a strong bend anteriorly, becoming straight below the commencement
of the second dorsal : its plates are well developed. Chest scaled. An
indistinct opercular spot. Madras and Malay Archipelago.
305. Caranx Ljeddaba, Forsk. D. 7-8/JL. A. 2/^JL L. 1. 48-50.
Height of body 3/11 of the total length. Lower margin of opercle
(!) L. 1. in the Genus Caranx denotes the number of plate-like keeled scales along
the straight portion of the lateral line.
CCX1
very concave. A single row of teeth on the jaws : teeth on the palate.
Pectoral fin 1/4 of the total length. Lateral line with a strong bend
anteriorly, becoming straight from below the first dorsal : the plates are
well developed. Chest scaled. No opercular spot : a black edge to the
second dorsal and anal. Red Sea, east coast of Africa, seas of India.
306. Caranx vari, Cuv. & Val. Fari-parrab, Tarn. D. 8/ *
A. 2/^_ L. 1. 55-58. Height of body 1/3 of the total length. Lower
margin of opercle slightly concave. A single ? row of teeth in the
jaws and palate. Pectoral fin 2/7 of the total length. Lateral line with a
strong bend anteriorly, becoming straight under the commencement of
the second dorsal. None of the plates are more than 1/9 or 1/10 of the
height of the body. A black opercular spot : and the first dorsal blackish.
Coromandel coast and Malay Archipelago.
307. Caranx Bidii, Day. Ramak-parrak, Tarn. D. 8/_L_ A. 2/JL
L. 1. 24. Height of body 1/4 of the total length. A band of' fine teeth
in the jaws : none on the vomer or palate. Lateral line is nearly straight
until below the first third of the second dorsal, where it curves very
gently downwards, and passes straight to the caudal. Plates small. Chest
scaled. Silvery, with a broad golden stripe from above the eye to the
upper edge of the tail : lower two-thirds of dorsal yellow, upper third
dark : outer third of anal white, the rest yellow. A large black spot on
the shoulder. Madras.
308. Caranx calla, Cuv. & Val. D. 8/^, A. S/^, L. 1.
42. Height of body 2/7 of the total length. Teeth in a single row
in the jaws, also present on the vomer, palatines, and tongue. Lateral
line with a strong bend anteriorly, becoming straight under the com-
mencement of the second dorsal : the plates well developed. Chest scaled.
A distinct black spot on the opercle. Red Sea, seas of India to China.
309. Caranx xanthurus (Kuhl. and v. Hass.), Cuv. fy Val.
MataK-parrah, Tarn. D. 8/ JL_ 9 A. 2/T'g, L. 1. 36-40. Height of body
3/11 of the total length. Teeth in a single row in the jaws, also pre-
sent on the vomer, palatines, and the tongue. Lateral line with a
slight curve anteriorly, becoming straight below about the sixth dorsal
ray : plates well developed. Chest scaled. A distinct black spot on the
opercle. From the east coast oi: Africa and seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago and beyond.
310. Caranx malam, Bleeker., D. 8-9/^4, A. 2/^a, L. 1. 50-56.
Height of body about 3/10 of the total length. Teeth in a single row in
the jaws, also present on the vomer, palatines, and the tongue. Lateral
line with a strong bend anteriorly, becoming straight below the com-
mencement of the second dorsal. Chest scaled. A distinct black spot
on the opercle : first dorsal black. Madras, Malay Archipelago.
311. Caranx melampygus, Cuv. & Val. Kuguroo-parah, Tel
D. 8/5^4, A. 2/-/^, L. 1. 34-36. Height of body 2/7 of the total length.
Teeth in the jaws villiform, with an outer stronger row, also present on
the vomer, palatines, and the tongue. Lateral line moderately bent
anteriorly, becoming straight below about the fifth dorsal ray : plates
well developed. Chest scaled. A small black spot on the opercle :
ccxn
the dorsal and anal fins are black anteriorly. Mauritius, Coromandel
coast, Malay Archipelago and beyond.
312. Caranx hippos, Linn. Wotim-parah, Tel. D. 7-8/i^ A,
2/i6T7> L. 1. 30-36. Height of body nearly 1/3 of the total length.
Teeth in the upper jaw in a villiform band, and an outer stronger
row, those in the lower jaw in a single row but of irregular sizes.
Lateral line with a strong bend anteriorly, becoming straight below
the third dorsal ray : plates well developed. Chest scaled. An
indistinct spot sometimes apparent on the opercle : top of the second
dorsal blackish. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond :
it attains a large size.
313. Caranx ire, Cuv. & Val. Ire-par rah, Tarn. D. Z-S/^s
A. 2/2-l0, L. 1. 30-34. Height of body 3/10 of its total length. Teeth
in the jaws in a narrow villiform band : teeth on the palate. Lateral
line with a slight bend anteriorly, becoming straight below the first
fourth of the dorsal : plates moderately developed. A large black spot
at the summit of the anterior portion of the second dorsal fin : none on
the opercle. Coromandel coast.
314. Caranx mel an ost ethos, Day. D. S/^y, A. 2/r^, L. 1. 28.
Height of body 1/4 of the total length. Teeth in the jaws villiform,
also on vomer. Lateral line with a very gentle curve anteriorly, becom-
ing straight below the middle of the second dorsal : plates not well
developed. Chest scaled. Head and chest of a brownish black colour,
no opercular spot : fins yellowish, with black points, the upper portion
of the anterior part of the second dorsal black with a white summit.
Seas of India.
315. Caranx jarra, Cuv. & Val. Jarra-dandree-parah, Tel. D.
S/^, A. 2/,V, L. 1. 36. Height of body 2/7 of the total length. Teeth
on the upper jaw in a band with an outer enlarged row : in a single row
in the lower jaw, also on vomer, palatines, and tongue. Lateral
line with a bend anteriorly and undulating in its course, it becomes
straight below the fifth dorsal ray : the plates pretty well developed. No
opercular spot : the tip of the upper lobe of the caudal black. Coroman-
del coast and Malay Archipelago.
316. Caranx carangus, Bloch. D. 7-8/^ A. &/!£& L. 1. 30-33.
Height of body 1/3 of the total length. Teeth on the upper jaw in a
band, with an outer enlarged row, in a single row in the lower jaw.
Lateral line with a bend anteriorly ending abruptly below the sixth
dorsal ray : plates well developed. Chest scaleless. A dark opercular
spot. Madras, Malay Archipelago, and the Atlantic provided the species
is identic;. 1.
317. Caranx ekala, Cuv. & Val. Ekala-parah, Tel. D. 7-8/T!g,
A. 2/T1Tj, L. 1. 26. Teeth strong. Lateral line becomes straight under
the first third of the second dorsal : plates well developed. Chest scaled.
Upper angle of the second dorsal blackish : no opercular spot. Seas of
India.
318. Caranx talamparoides, Bleeker. D. 7-8/g'j, A. 2/7!H, L. 1.
25-30. Height of body 2|— 2f in the total length. Profile before
the pyes rsil.her concave. TVdh in the jaws villiform, also on
CCXlll
palatines, and tongue. Lateral line moderately bent, becoming straight
behind the middle of the second dorsal : plates slightly developed. Chest
scaleless. A brown opercular spot. Ceylon and Coromandel coast.
319. Caranx Malabaricus, Bl. Schn. Talem-parah, Tel. D. 8/^,
A. 2/TV, L- 1- 25-80. Height of body 2i— 2f in the total length.
Teeth in the jaws villiform, also on vomer, palatines, and tongue. Lateral
line moderately bent, becoming straight behind the middle of the second
dorsal : plates slightly developed. Chest scaleless. A black opercular
spot : dorsals stained dark at their margins. Seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago and beyond
320. Caranx compressus, Day. D. 8/^, A. 2/T^, L. 1. 13.
Height of body 2/7 of the total length. Villiform teeth in the upper
jaw, and in a narrow band in the lower, also on vomer, palatines, and
tongue. Lateral line gently curved anteriorly, becoming straight
below the tenth dorsal ray : plates well developed. Chest scaled. A small
black opercular spot : a black edging to the vertical edge of the pre-
opercle. Andamans.
321. Caranx sansum, Forsk. Gundi-parah,^}. D. 8/19^0, A.
2/1^17, L. 1. 28-30. Height of body from 1/3 to 2/7 of the total length.
Teeth in the upper jaw in a villiform band with an outer larger row,
those in the lower jaw in a single row. Lateral line with a moderate
bend anteriorly, becoming straight below the seventh dorsal ray : plates
well developed. Chest scaled. No black spot on the opercle. Red Sea,
Mauritius, and Coromandel coast.
322. Caranx nigrescens, Day. D. 7/iV> A. 2/T]7, L. 1. 25. Height
of body 2/7 of the total length. Teeth in villiform bands in both
jaws, also on vomer and palate. Lateral line with a moderate curve to
opposite the thirteenth dorsal ray, when it becomes straight : plates
badly developed. Chest scaleless. A well marked black opercular spot :
fins nearly black. Madras.
323. Caranx speciosus, Forsk. D. 7-8/-T8-W, A. 2/T^T6~, L. 1. 34
(15 large ones). Height of body 1/3 the total length. Teeth in the
adult almost or quite imperceptible. Lateral line with a gentle curve to
below the sixth dorsal ray, from whence it proceeds straight : plates badly
developed, the last 15 being most conspicuous. Chest scaled. Golden, with
a greenish tinge along the back, with eight vertical greenish black
bands : caudal lobes tipped with black. Red Sea, through seas of India
to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
324. Caranx parah, Cuv. & Val. D. 7[J7, A. 2/2-V, L. 1.
36-40. Height of body 3/13 of the total length. Diameter of eye
more than 1/3 in the length of the head. Teeth almost imperceptible :
present on the palate. Lateral line moderately curved, and under the
first fifth of the second dorsal it becomes straight. Seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago.
b. — One or more of the dorsal or anal rays elongated.
325. Caranx atropus, Bloch. Mais-parak, Tel. : Canni-parah^&m.
D. 8/2^, A. 2/TV, L. 1. 32-35, Vert. |£. Height of the body 2/5 of the
total length. Teeth villiform in both jaws, also on vomer and palate.
Some of the dorsal rays generally produced. Lateral line with a strong
CCX1V
bend anteriorly, becoming straight below the first fourth of the second
dorsal: plates moderately developed. Chest scaleless. A black oper-
cular spot : ventrals deep black : the young- are vertically banded.
Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and China.
323. Caranx oblongus, Cuv. fy Val. Ro-thul-dah, Andamanese.
D. 8/^T, A. 2/T^; L. 1. 36-40. Height of body about 1/3 of the total
length. VilHform teeth in the jaws, also on vomer, palate and tongue.
The first dorsal ray elongated. Lateral line moderately bent anteriorly,
becoming straight below the second fifth of the soft dorsal : plates well
developed. Chest scaleless. No opercular spot. Andamans, to Malay
Archipelago and beyond.
327. Caranx armatus, Forsk. Tohawil parak. Tel. D. 6-8/_J_
' 20-21 >
A. jgLpL. 1. 20. Height of body about 1/3 of the total length.
Teeth villiform in the jaws, also on vomer, palate, and tongue. The first
dorsal ray and often some of the others elongated. Lateral line
moderately bent, becoming straight under the middle of the second
dorsal fin : the plates but little developed. Chest scaleless. Opercular
spot moderately distinct : first dorsal blackish. In the immature, six
vertical dark bands. Red Sea, east coast of Africa, seas of India to
the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
328. Caranx chrysophrysoides, Bleeker. Tanga parrak, Tarn. D.
8/TV, A. 2/TV, L. 1. 24-28. Height of the body 1/3 of the total length.
Eyes 2 diameters from end of snout. Teeth villiform in the jaws, on
the vomer, palatine bones, and the tongue. Lateral line moderately
bent, becoming straight below the last half of the second dorsal fin :
plates not well developed. Chest scaleless. A black opercular spot.
Specimens in the Madras Museum from Aden and Madras : it appears
to resemble C. ckrysophrys, Cuv. & Val. Seas of India to Malay
Archipelago.
329. Caranx ciliaris, Bloch. D. 6/f^, A. 2/j-^, L. 1. 15. Height
of body from 1/2 to 2/3 of the total length. Teeth villiform in both
jaws, also on vomer, palatine bones, and the tongue. Spines of first
dorsal fin rudimentary: rays of second dorsal and anal villiform and
elongated. Lateral line with a bend anteriorly and becoming straight
below the middle of the soft dorsal : plates but little developed. Scales
absent, except on the lateral line. A black opercular spot : the very young
banded. Red Sea, through the seas of India to the Malay Archipelago
and beyond.
330. Caranx gallus, Linn. D. T^, A. y1^, L. 1. 8, Vert. 10/14.
Height of body from 3/5 to 3/7 of the total length. Teeth villiform in
both jaws, also on vomer, palatines, and the tongue. Anterior dorsal,
anal, and ventral rays elongated, filiform. Upper profile very concave to
the origin of the dorsal fin. Lateral line with a strong bend anteriorly,
becoming straight below the middle of the dorsal fin : plates but little
developed. Scales absent, except on the lateral line. Silvery : young with
vertical bands. Red Sea, through the seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago and beyond.
Genus— SERIOLA, Cuv.
Branchiostegals seven. Body oblong, and moderately compressed-
abdomen rounded. Cleft of mouth sometimes deep. Preopercle entire:
ccxv
Villiform teeth in the jaws, vomer, and palatine bones. First dorsal fm
continuous j the spines not strong : the second dorsal and anal with many
more rays : as a rule a pair of pre-anal spines, remote from the rest of
the fin. Scales small or rudimentary. Lateral line unarmed. Air-vessel
simple. Pyloric appendages many.
331. Seriola nigro-fasciata, Rtipp. D., 5-6 (7)/JL-, A. 0-2/-J_9
Csec. pyl. 7. Height of booty nearly 1/4 of the total length. Eyes,
diameter 2/7 of length of head, one diameter from end of snout. Back
crossed by six brown cross bands. Red Sea, east coast of Africa, seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
332. Seriola Dussumieri, Cuv. & Val. D. 5/^V, A. 2/T£. Body
with seven vertical brown bands. Gulf of Bengal : specimens not above
2 inches in length.
Genus — SERIOLICH TH YS, Sleeker.
Branchiostegals seven. Body oblong, compressed : abdomen rounded.
Cleft of mouth of moderate depth. Preopercle slightly crenulated or entire.
Villiform teeth on the jaws, vomer, and palatines. First dor sal fin continuous,
the second and the anal with many more rays, with one or two detached
finlets posteriorly : a pair of pre-anal spines remote from the rest of the fin
may be present or absent. Scales cycloid, small. Lateral line unarmed.
333. Seriolichthys bipinnulatus , Quoy and Gaim. Kulul, Tarn.
D. 6/ g^g + L, A. 0-2/ m , L. 1. 96, L. tr. 16/28. Height of body 1/5
of the total length. Eyes 1J diameters from end of snout. Two longi-
tudinal blue bands, one from the eye to the end of the dorsal fin, the
second to the middle of the caudal fin. From the east coast of Africa,
seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
Genus — NAUCRATES, Cuv.
Nauclerus, Cuv. & Val. (young) .
Branchiostegals seven. Body oblong, sub-cylindrical. Cleft of mouth
moderate. In the very young there is a spine at the angle of the
preopercle, which is absorbed as age advances. Villiform teeth in the
jaws, vomer and palatine bones, The first dorsal fin, which is con-
tinuous in the young, becomes reduced to a few spines in the adult :
the second dorsal and anal with many rays; no spurious fins: in the
young two pre-anal spines remote from the soft fin, and which become
lost with age. Scales small: lateral line unarmed: a keel on either
side of the tail. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages in moderate
numbers.
334. Naucrates ductor, Linn. D. 3-6/, A. 0-2/_«L Ca?c.
^
pyl. 12-15, Vert. 10/16. Height of body 1/4 of thtotal lengtlBluish,
with five or six dark vertical bands. Most of the seas of both tropical
and temperate regions.
Genus — CHORINEMUS, Cuv. fy Val.
Scomberoides, Lacep.
Branchiostegals seven or eight: pseudobranchice. Body oblong and
compressed. Eyes lateral. Cleft of mouth moderate or deep. Teeth
CCXV1
villif or m on jaws, also present on vomer and palatines. Two dorsal fins,
the first (preceded by an immoveable, recumbent spine, directed forwards},
is formed by a few free spines, but in a less number than the rays of the
second dorsal or anal, the posterior rays of both of which last are either
detached or semi-detached, a pair of pre-anal spines separated by an
interspace from the remainder of the fin. Dermal scales lanceolate.
Lateral line continuous, not keeled. Air-vessel bifurcated posteriorly.
Pyloric appendages numerous.
335. Chorinemus sancti-Petri, Cuv. & Val. Pallagay, " a plank/'
Mai. : Toal parrah, " leather or skinned horse mackerel/' or Tarelul,
Tarn. D. T/^r, A. 2/i^9: Height of the body 2/11 of the total
length. The maxilla reaches to rather behind the vertical from the
middle of the eye. Eyes two diameters from end of snout. A bluish grey
spot on the opercle and a row of from six to eight above the lateral line,
sometimes another row below. Summit of second dorsal black. East
coast of Africa, seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond : it
attains at least 20 inches in length.
336. Chorinemus tol, Cuv. & Val. To I parah, Tel. D. 7/s1^, A.
2 / Jg. Height of body 2/11 of the total length. The maxilla reaches
to beneath the anterior edge of the orbit. Four or five vertically oval
spots on the lateral line, the last opposite the commencement of the
second dorsal : top of dorsal fin black. Seas of India and Malay Archipel-
ago : attaining at least 15 inches in length.
337. Chorinemus lysan, Forsk. Toal parrah, Tarn. D. 7/-1-
19-20J
A. 2/-J_. Height of body 1/4 of the total length. Eyes 3/4 of
17-18
a
diameter from end of snout. The maxilla reaches behind the pos-
terior end of the orbit to a distance equal to 1/3 of its diameter, it is
widened and rounded posteriorly. Six or seven large greyish oval spots
above the lateral line. Red Sea, seas of India to Malay Archipelago and
beyond.
338. Chorinemus tala, Cuv. & Val. Tala parah, Tel. D.
A. 2/ J_ . Height of body 2/7 of the total length. Eyes rather above 1/2
a diameter from the end of snout. The maxilla reaches to below the
posterior edge of the orbit. Six to eight indistinct spots along the
sides. Seas of India : attaining 2 feet in length.
339. Chorinemustooloo,Cuv.&Va\. Tooloo parrah, Tel . D. 7/-J^
A. 2/-1-. Height of body 1/4 of the total length. Eyes one diameter
from the end of snout. The maxilla does not extend posteriorly so far
as to below the posterior margin of the orbit. About six spots exist
along the sides : the tips of the dorsal and anal, also the lobes of the
caudal, blackish. Red Sea and seas of India: attaining at least 18
inches in length.
Genus — TRACHTNOTUS* (L&cep), Cuv. fy Val.
Acanthinion fy Ccesiomorus, Lace'p.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchia absent. Body compressed,
more or less elevated, with the frontal region prominent. Eyes lateral.
* Cvtalli, Tarn.
CCXV11
Snout obtuse and swollen: cleft of mouth small. Teeth on the jaws , vomer,
and palatines, usually lost with age. Two dorsal fins, the first composed of
spines (having a small connecting membrane), and a horizontal one directed
forwards, anterior to the fin : second dorsal and anal each with more rays
than spines in the first dorsal : the anterior portion of the second dorsal
and anal pointed and elongated: two pre -anal spines separated by an inter-
space from the remainder of the fin : nofinlets. Scales small. Lateral line
unarmed. An air-vessel, bifurcated posteriorly. Pyloric appendages numer-
ous, or in moderate numbers.
340. Trachynotus Bailloniif Lacep. Botla-para, Tel. D. 6/JL^
A. 2/_L. Csec. pyl. 12. Height of body from 1/3 to 3/10 of the total
length. The anterior dorsal rays when laid backwards reach to about
the middle of the fin : the anal to the end of its base : length of caudal
lobes 2/7 of the total length. Lobes of dorsal, anal and caudal black,
some white likewise on those of the tail : a row of three or five blotches
along the sides. Red Sea, east coast of Africa, seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago : it attains at least 19 inches in length.
341. Trachynotus oblongus, Cuv. & Val. D. 6/_^_, A. 2/J^.
Height of body 2/7, length of the caudal lobes 2/9 of the total length.
The anterior dorsal and anal rays when laid flat reach to about the middle
of their respective fins'. Lateral line nearly straight. Three or four, some-
times five, indistinct grey blotches above the lateral line : a blackish
anterior border to the dorsal and anal and the inferior border of the
caudal fin. Pondicherry and Malay Archipelago.
342. Trachynotus ovatus, Linn. Mookalee parah, Tel. D. ft/ V
A. a/_^_, Csec. pyl. 12. Height of body 1/2 to 3/7 of the total length!
The length of the dorsal and anal lobes varies with age. More or less
golden colour : the upper half of the first five dorsal rays tipped with
black, and the fin generally with minute black points : sometimes the
anal and caudal are similarly marked. Red Sea, east coast of Africa,
through the seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond : it
attains at least 20 inches in length.
Genus — PsETTUS (Comm.)} Cuv. & Val.
Monodactylus, Lacep.
Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchia. Body much compressed and
elevated. ^ Eyes lateral. Cleft of mouth small, snout short. Teeth villi-
form on jaws, vomer , palatine bones and tongue. A single dorsal fin with
seven or eight spines : anal with three, continuous with the rest of the fin :
ventrals rudimentary. Scales small, covering the vertical fins. Lateral
line unarmed. Air-vessel present, bifurcated posteriorly. Ccecal appen-
dages numerous.
343. Psettus falciformis, Lacep. D. ^ A. ^, L. r. upwards of
120. Extreme height 3/4 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/2 of
length of head, 1/5 of a diameter from end of snout. Silvery, with
blackish marks on the dorsal and anal lobes. Red Sea, seas of India to
China : attaining at least 9 inches in length.
344. Psettus argenteus. Linn. Kauki-sandawa, Tel. : Nga-pus-
soond, Mugh : Oo-chra-dah, Andam. D. 8 V. -1 . A. - 3 L 1 75
28-30 3-5 ' 28-30 '
ID
CCXV111
Eyes, diameter about 1/3 of length of head, 1/2 a diameter from end of
snout. Silvery, with a wide black band from the nape to the centre of the
eye, and a second from the three first dorsal spines to the opercle : dorsal
and anal lobes stained with black. Eed Sea, east coast of Africa, seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond : it attains at least 7 inches
in length.
Genus — PLATAX, Cuv. & Val.
Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchia. Body compressed and much
elevated. Eyes lateral. Cleft of mouth small : snout short. Teeth seti-
form, with an external larger row, trilobedat their summits, teeth also present
on the vomer. A single dorsal Jin with from three to seven spines, which are
nearly hidden : anal with three, continuous with the rest of the fin: ventral s
well developed. Scales of moderate size or small, extended on to the verti-
cal fins. Lateral line unarmed. Air-vessel simple. Pyloric appendages
few.
345. Platax vespertilio, Bloch. Sadyan, Tarn. D. JL, A. _JL
35-37 '26-28 J
L. r. 64. The height of the body is more than its length. Snout
obtuse. Dorsal, anal and ventral fins elongated. Brownish, sometimes
spotted : a brown vertical band through the eye. Ked Sea, east coast
of Africa, through the seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and
beyond.
346. Platax orbicularis, Forsk. D. -*± , A. -3_, L. I. 55-60.
36-37 ^6-27
The height of the body is less than its length. Snout prominent. Dor-
sal, anal and ventral fins moderately elongated. Brownish, with a rather
indistinct vertical band through the eye. Red Sea, seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago and beyond : attains at least 18 inches in length.
347. Platax Raynaldi, Cuv. & Val. D. -^ A. _^_. Height of
the body 4/5 of the total length. Snout obtuse. Dorsal, anal and ven-
trals elongated. Silvery, with a vertical ocular band and another in-
distinct one passing to the pectoral fin : dorsal, anal and ventrals tinged
with black. Ceylon and Pondicherry : attaining at least 5 inches in
length.
348. Platax Leschenaldi, Cuv. & Val. Kahi-sandawa, Tel. D. _J_,
31-32
A. 8 . Height of the body equals its length. Dorsal, anal and ventral fins
moderately elongated. A brown ocular band, and a blackish border to
the caudal. Coromandel coast.
Genus — PsENES (')> Ouv. fy
Branchiostegals six. Body compressed and elevated, with t/ie frontal
region swollen. Eyes lateral. Cleft of mouth shallow, with a short snout. A
row of fine teeth in the jaws, none on the palate. Two dorsal fins, the first
continuous, the second with more rays and similar to the anal, which last
has two or three spines joined to the soft portion of the fin : no finlets.
Lateral line unarmed. Air-vessel bifurcated posteriorly.
(') Tins Genus is amongst family Carangida, Giint^er (1860), in which the vertebrae
are given at 10/14, but Naucleres with Vert. 10/16 is included, probably because no skeleton
existed. Unfortunately my specimens of Psenes are not at present available for examination,
but I doubt the genus having Vert. 10/14, and consequently my species Cubiceps Indicus will
require re-exaroinatiou. If, however, we go by the Vertebrae it belongs to (Komeida). But
the question is, where should Psenes be located ?
CCX1X
349. Psenes auratus, Cuv. & Val. D. lO/^, A. £f, L. 1. 55, L.
tr. 5/18. Height of body 1/3, length of head 1/4 of the total length.
Eyes, diameter 1/3 of length of head, 1/2 a diameter from end of snout.
Maxilla extends to below the anterior third of the orbit. Lower edge of
preopercle indistinctly crenulated. Leaden colour, fins black : pectoral
yellow : caudal with a yellow tinge. This is probably P. Javanicus, Cuv.
& Val. Bay of Bengal, very common in Madras about October.
Genus — EQUULA ft, Cuv. fy Val.
Branchiostegals from five to six : pseudobranchia. Body oblong or
elevated and strongly compressed. Eyes lateral. Mouth very protractile.
Lower edge of preopercle serrated. Minute teeth of equal size in the jaws :
palate edentulous. A single dorsal fin, having less spines (S-1QJ than rays
(\b-\l) : anal with three spines continuous with the soft portion3 which has
less rays ^13-14^ than the soft dorsal: no finlets : ventrals thoracic. Scales
small, cycloid, and generally deciduous. Lateral line unarmed, usually
complete, but in some species ceasing beneath the end of the dorsal fin.
Air-vessel terminating anteriorly in two horns. Pyloric appendages few.
A. Without a black blotch on the dorsal fin.
350. Equula caballa, Cuv. & Val. Tottah-karah, Tel.: kulli-karah,
Tarn. D. T8^, A. _§_. Height of body 1/2, length of head 3/11 of its
14-15
total length. Mandible very concave. Lower edge of preopercle finely
serrated : a pair of small spines above the anterior edge of the orbit.
The second dorsal spine as long as the head. Scales well marked.
Silvery : no black on dorsal fin : axil blackish. Seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago.
351. Equula edentula} Bloch. Koma-karah, Tel. D. g8 ., A. T3£
L. 1. 60. Height of body 2/5, length of head 2/7 of the total length. A
pair of small spines directed backwards at the anterior-superior angle of
the orbit. Mandible very concave. Lower edge of preopercle scarcely ser-
rated. Second dorsal spine 1/6 of the total length, compressed, arched, and
with a serrated process in its lower anterior third : second anal spine
similar to the second of the dorsal except in being equal to only 1/7 of
the total length. Silvery, greyish along the lateral line : the soft dorsal
stained with grey on its upper edge. Red Sea, seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago and beyond: attaining 10 inches and more in length.
352. Equula Dussumieri, Cuv. & Val. D. T8^, A. T3^, Height of
body 2/5, length of head 1/4 in the total length. A pair of small spines
above the anterior-superior angle of the orbit. Mandible very slightly
concave. Lower edge of preopercle minutely serrated. Second dorsal
spine strong (serrated?), about 1/7 of the total length : and the second
anal spine shorter. Vertical lines from the back to a little below the
lateral line : the fins colourless, except the anal which is orange.
Coromandel coast.
353. Equula fasciata, Cuv. & Val. Karah, Tel. D. &, A. -^.
Height of body 3/7, length of head 1/4 of the total length. A pair of
small spines above the anterior-superior angle of the orbit. Mandible
(1) Fishes of this genus are termed Caraputty in Madras, and are eaten salted by
natives who are suffering from malarious fevers. At Akyab they are called Nga-dan-gah.
ccxx
concave. Lower edge of preopercle indistinctly serrated. Second dor-
sal and anal spines long, sometimes considerably so. Scales distinct.
Silvery, with vertical lines from the back. Red Sea, seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago and beyond.
354. Equula lineolata, Cuv. & Val. D. f7, A. T\. Height of
body 1/3, length of head 2/9 of the total length. A pair of small spines
above the anterior-superior angle of the orbit. Mandible slightly con-
cave. Lower edge of preopercle serrated. Second dorsal spine equals
about 1/6 of the total length. Scales minute or absent. Some irregular
dark spots on the back, but no black mark on the dorsal fin. Coroman-
del coast to the Malay Archipelago.
b. With a black blotch or mark on the dorsal Jin.
355. Equula insidiatrix, Cuv. & Val. Paarl coorchee, Mai. D.
S7, A. T\." Height of body 2/5, length of head 1/5 of the total
length. A pair of minute supraorbital spines : the middle third of the
supraorbital region finely serrated. Mandible not concave. Lower
edge of preopercle finely serrated. Scales minute in the pectoral region.
The lateral line does not extend to the tail. Three or four horizontal lines
of dark spots with bronze reflections, form eight or ten vertical bands
along the upper half of the body. Dorsal tipped with black. Seas of
India and Malay Archipelago.
356. Equula bindus, Cuv. & Val. Bindoo-karah, Tel. D. T86,
A. T\. Length of head 3/10, height of body 1/2 of the total length. A
pair of well marked supraorbital spines : supraorbital edge finely serrat-
ed. Second dorsal spine and second anal spine both 1/7 of the total
length : ventrals equal one diameter of the eye in length. A dark line
along the base of the dorsal, the upper edge of which is margined with
black. Coromandel coast and the Malay Archipelago.
357. Equula splendens, Cuv. Goomorah karaht Tel. D. jg^ A.
T\. Length of head about 1/4, height of body 3/8 of the total length.
A pair of small supraorbital spines. Mandible slightly concave. Lower
preopercular margin finely serrated. Second dorsal spine 1/5 of the total
length, and the second anal 1/3 shorter. Scales small. A dark line along
the base of the second dorsal fin : upper half of the first dorsal edged with
black. Red Sea, seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
358. Equula brevirostris , Cuv. & Val, D. y8^, A. T\. Its pro-
portions as E. splendens, but its spines shorter and less strong. A black
spot on the dorsal fin. Malabar.
359. Equula daura, Cuv. Dacer karah, Tel. D. -^~ A. -^
Height of body 'nearly 1/3, length of head 4/15 of the total length. A
pair of small supraorbital spines. Mandible slightly concave. Lower
preopercular margin serrated. Second dorsal spine 3/14 in the total
length, and second anal 3/4 of it. A dark line along the base of the
dorsal : a darkish triangular spot between the occiput and dorsal fin :
upper half of first dorsal blackish. Ceylon and Coromandel coast to the
;iy Archipelago.
360. Equula Blochn, Cuv. & Val. D. fT)) A. r54. Body more
oblong than E. daura, head higher and shorter : its mandible inferiorly
concave and its dorsal and anal spines nearly as strong as in E. edentida.
OCX XI
A longitudinal silvery band separates the greyish back from the
silvery abdomen : first dorsal with a black blotch. Malabar.
361. Equula nuchalis, Tern. & Schleg. D. T8^, A. T\. Height of
body 3/8, length of head 1/4 of the total length. A pair of small supra-
or bital spines. Mandible slightly concave. Lower preopercular margin
finely serrated. Second dorsal spine 1/6 of the total length. Scales
minute. An oval black blotch on the upper half of the first dorsal fin,
and a transverse blotch on the nape of the neck. Andamans to China.
Genus — GAZZA, Rupp.
Equula, sp. Cuv. & Val.
Branchiostegals five : pseudobranchia. Body oblong, elevated and
compressed. Mouth very protractile. Lower preopercular margin serrated.
Teeth in the jaws of moderate size, with a pair of canines in the upper. A
single dorsal fin, having less spines (8) than rays (16) : anal with three
spines continuous with the soft portion which has less rays (\ty than the
soft dorsal: nofinlets. Lateral line unarmed.
362. Gazza minuta, Bloch. I), y8^ A. T\ , Canines of moderate size.
Second dorsal spine 3/8 of the height of the body, the second anal
longer and stronger. Silvery, axil black : spinous dorsal brownish an-
teriorly. Ceylon to the Malay Archipelago.
363. Gazza equulceformis, Riipp. D. JL_, A. JL . Canine teeth
large. Second dorsal spine 1/5 of total length : the second anal is
stronger and not so long. Silvery, axil of pectoral br°wn. Red Sea,
through the seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
Genus — LACTAEIUS, Cuv. fy Val.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchiae. Body oblong, compressed. Eyes
lateral. Cleft of mouth deep, with the lower jaw prominent. Preopercular
margins entire. Teeth in jaws small, with one or two pairs ff strong
canines. Two dorsal fins, the first with seven or eight feeble spines, second
and the anal with many rays, and no finlets : anal with three spines joined
to the remainder of the fin. Scales cycloid, of moderate size, some over
the second dorsal and anal rays. Lateral line continuous, unarmed. Air-
vessel bifurcated both anteriorly and posteriorly . Pyloric appendages few.
364, Lactarius delicatulus, Bl. Schn. Purruwah, Mai. : Chundawah
and Sudumu, Tel. : Sudumbu, Tarn. D. 7-8/ -V A. J_ L. 1. 74-80, Csec.
21-22, 25-28}
pyl. 6. A black spot at the upper and posterior part of the opercle
Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
•lly — S TROMATEIDJE.
Branchiostegals from five to seven : pseudobranchise. Body oblong or slightly
elongated and compressed. Gill-openings wide. Eyes lateral. The infraorbital
bones do not articulate with the preopercle. Small teeth in the jaws, palate
edentulous : barbed teeth extend into the oasophagus. One long dorsal fin
without any distinct spinous division, or with rudimentary spines anteriorly :
ventrals, when present, thoracic. No prominent papilla near the vent. Air-vessel,
when present, small. Pyloric appendages few, in moderate numbers, or numerous.
Vertebrae exceed 10-14.
Genus— STROM ATEUS, Artedi.
Peprilus Cuv. : Apolectust Cuv. & Val. (young having ventral fins) ;
Rhombus (ventrals reduced to a spine) (Lacep.) Cuv. and Val. : Seserinns
(with minute ventrals,) Cuv. & Val.
CCXX11
Brmchiostegals from five to seven : pseudobranchm. Body compressed,
more or less elevated. Cleft of mouth narrow or of moderate depth. Teeth
small, in a single row in the jaws : palate and tongue edentulous : oesophagus
armed with numerous barbed teeth. A single long dorsal and anal fin,
having rudimentary spines anteriorly : ventral fins not present in the adult
stage. Scales small, covering the vertical fins. Lateral line, as a rule, smooth
(keeled in S. niger). Air-vessel absent. Pyloric appendages numerous.
365. Stromateus cinereus, Bloch. Sudi-sandawah,^Q\.: Grey pomfret
of Europeans. B. vii, D. 7-8/-^L_ A. 5/_Lg. Height of body 1/2, length
of head 1/5 of the total length. Dorsal spines appear above the skin in a
truncated form, as do also those of the anal : both dorsal and anal point-
ed anteriorly, the latter being most produced : pectoral 3/8 of the total
length and similar to the dorsal. Lower caudal lobe twice as long as
the upper, and equalling the length of the body without the caudal fin.
Lateral line unarmed. Of a grey colour on the back, becoming lighter
below : dorsal and anal grey, with dark points : pectoral buff : caudal
orange, with dark points. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
366. Stromateus argenteus, Bloch. Vellavoval, Tarn. : Telia sandawa,
Tel. White or silver pomfret. B. vii, D. 5-9/^3, A. 6/g-A_. Length of
head 2/9, height of body 1/2 of the total length. Dorsal and anal spines
appear above the skin in a truncated form : the caudal lobes are equal
to 1/3 of the total length. Lateral line not armed. Of a greyish colour
along the back, becoming white on the abdomen, but everywhere covered
by minute dark points : dorsal and anal grey : caudal and pectoral yel-
lowish white, all having minute dark points on them. Seas of India to
the Malay Archipelago and China, &c.
367. Stromateus Sinensis, Euphrasen. Atookoia, Tel. : Vella arwoolee,
Mai. : Mogangvoval, Tarn. D. ^JL} A. ~L.. Length of the head 1/5, height
of body 2/3 of the total length. The height of the dorsal and anal lobes
equals 1/4 of the total length, there are some concealed spines anterior to
both these fins : caudal lobes equal 1/5 of the total length. Lateral line
unarmed. Greyish, with minute brown points. Seas of India, Malay
Archipelago to China.
368. Stromateus niger, Bloch. Nala-sandawah, Tel. : Baal, Ooriah :
Curroopoo-voval, Tarn. : Kar-arwoolee, Mai. : Ko-lig-dah, And. D. ^JL^
A. g-|^. Height of body from 2/5 to 1/3, length of head 2/9 of the
total length. Lateral line in its straight portion is keeled, as in Genus
Caranx. Deep brown, fins edged with black. Seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago and China.
Family — C ORYPH.KNIDJB.
Branchiostegals from five to seven : pseudobranchiae present or absent. Body oblong
or elevated and compressed. Gill-openings wide. Eyes lateral. The infraorbital
bones do not articulate with preopercle. Teeth in the jaws, present or absent on
the palate, none in the oesophagus. One long dorsal fin, without distinct spinous
division: ventrals thoracic, except in Pteraclis, when they are jugular. No
prominent papilla near the vent. Air-vessel present or absent. Pyloric ap-
pendages few or many. Vertebras exceed 10/14.
Genus — CoRYPHJENA (Artedi), Cuv. fy Fal.
LanywflH* (immature), Cuv. 8f Vol.
Branch inxht/als seven: pseudobranchm absent. Body rather elongated
and compressed. Cardifvrm d.'i'f/i /'// ////• ./>///•* : rUHfonn one* o»
CCXX111
palatines, and a patch on the tongue. A single long dorsal fin extending
from the occiput nearly to the caudal, but without distinct spines, neither
are they apparent in the anal : ventrals well developed. Scales small.
Air-vessel absent. Pyloric appendages numerous.
369. Coryphcena hippurus, Linn. Badahlan, Tarn. B. vii, D. 58-63,
A. 25-27. Length of head 1/6, height of body 1/7 of the total length.
The anal fin commences in the centre of the distance between the anterior
edge of the orbit and the base of the caudal fin. Back greyish, shot
with gold : abdomen golden, covered with blue spots, which become
black after death : dorsal fin light blue at the base, becoming black
towards the summit. These dolphins are not uncommon in Madras, and
are eaten by the natives. Seas of India, Malay Archipelago, &c.
Genus — MENE, Lacep.
Branchiostegals seven. Body oval, strongly compressed, with a pro-
minent and sharp-edged abdomen. Mouth very protractile. Villiform
teeth in the jaws, palate edentulous. A single long dorsal fin, without any
distinct spinous portion : anal spineless, the rays enveloped in skin and
having very broad free extremities : ventral with one spine and five rays,
the first of which is very elongate. Air-vessel large and bifurcated pos-
teriorly. Pyloric appendages numerous.
370. Mene maculata, Bl. Schn. Ambutan-parah, Tarn. D. ±19
A. 30-33, Csec. pyl. 25-30. Anterior to the dorsal fin are three spines
concealed in the skin. Deep blue along the back, becoming silvery white
on the sides and abdomen : from two to three rows of large spots along
the superior half of the body above the level of the pectoral fin. Seas
of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
Family — N o M E I D m .
Branchiostegals five or six. Body oblong, more or less compressed. Gill-openings
wide. Eyes lateral. Cleft of mouth shallow or deep. The infraorbital bones
do not articulate with the preopercle. Teeth in the jaws, present or absent on
the palate. Dorsal fin in two distinct portions, the spinous either continuous
with or separated from the soft part, finlets sometimes present: anal spines
generally indistinct : ventrals thoracic, with one spine and five rays. Scales
cycloid, of moderate or small size. No prominent papilla near the vent. Air-
vessel present, and pyloric appendages numerous, at least in genus JVomeus.
Vertebrae exceed 10/14.
Genus — CuBlcEPS, Lowe.
Antimostoma, Smith : Navarchus, Fillipi.
Branchiostegals five or sia\ Body oblong and compressed. Cleft of
mouth shallow : snout rather obtuse : margin of preopercle entire (or crenu-
Cated) . No teeth on the palate in mature specimens. The first dorsal
continuous, with about ten spines : the second and the anal with a larger
number of rays : no finlets. Scales cycloid t of moderate size. Lateral line
unarmed. Vertebrae, exceeding 10/14.
371. Cubiceps Indicus* Day. D. 10/y1^, A. T5y, L. 1. 33.
Height of body 3/8, length of head 3/1 0 of the total length. Preopercle
crenulated. Silvery. Madras, to 3 inches in length.
* See remarks under genus Psenes.
CCXX1V
Family — S COMBRID^:, Cuv.
Branchiostegals seven or eight : pseudobranchise. Body oblong or sligbtly elongated
and compressed. Gill-openings wide. Eyes lateral. The infraorbital bones do not
articulate with the preopercle. Teeth present in the jaws, absent or present on
the palate. Two dorsal fins, the first being distinct from the soft, which has more
rays than the first has spines : finlets present or absent : ventrals thoracic
(jugular in Hypsiptera). No prominent papilla near the vent. Side of tail
sometimes keeled. Scales, if present, small. Air-vessel present or absent. Pyloric
appendages moderate, numerous, or dendritical. Vertebra exceed 10/14.
Genus — SCOMBER, Artedi.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchia. Body rather elongated and
compressed. Cleft of mouth deep. Small teeth on the jaws, vomer, and
palatine bones. Two dorsal fins, the first spinous and separated by an
interspace from the second, behind which and also posterior to the anal
are five or six finlets : less spines in the first dorsal than there are rays in
the second dorsal or in the anal : ventrals thoracic. Two slight keels on
either side of the root of the caudal fin. Scales small. Air-vessel, when
present, simple. Pyloric appendages numerous.
372. Scomber microlepidotus , Hupp. D. 10/12 + V, A. TV + V.
Length of head 1/4, height of body 2/9 of the total length. Two rows
of distinct black spots during life, and a black mark concealed by the
pectoral fin. Red Sea, Kurrachee, and China.
373. Scomber kanagurta, Cuv. & Val. Ila, Mai. : Karnakita, or
Karnang-kullutan, Tarn. : Kanagurta, Tel. : Nga-congree, " Large head/'
Hugh.: Look-wa-dah, Andam. D. 8-9/T'T + V, A. r'r + V-VI. Length
of head 3/10, height of body 1/4 of the total length. Air-vessel present.
Greenish, shot with purple. A row of about 16 spots along the back,
sometimes badly marked yellow longitudinal bands. Vertical fins with
dark margins. "Red Sea to the Malay Archipelago, rarely exceeding 10
inches in length.
374. Scomber Reani, Day. D. 6/T^ + V, A. VT + V- Length of
head 1/4, height of body 1/4 of the total length. Air-vessel present.
Back bluish green, becoming silvery-white on the abdomen : a dark
longitudinal band along the lateral line, three above it, and two yellow
ones below it. Andamans, common up to 12 inches in length.
Genus — TjHYNNUS, Cuv. fy Val.
Branchiostegals seven. Body oblong, somewhat compressed. Cleft of
mouth deep. Small teeth on the jaws, vomer and palatine bones. Two
separate dorsal fins, the spines weak and finlets behind the soft dorsal and
anal. Scales small : those in the pectoral region form a kind of corselet.
Lateral line unarmed, a longitudinal keel on either side of the tail.
Air-vessel, when, present, simple. Pyloric appendages numerous.
375. Thynnus affinis, Cantor. Suraly, Tarn. D. 15/T3<j + VIII,
A. T3r + VII. Length of head nearly 1/4, height of body 1/4 of the total
length. Bluish along the back, with a number of undulating oblique
bands, below silvery : first dorsal marked with brown. Madras and Malay
Archipelago : one specimen of this Bonito in Madras was 23 inches in
length.
Genus — CYBIUM, Cuv.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchia. Body somewhat elongated.
Cleft of mouth deep. Teeth large and strong in the jaws, wlliform on
ccxxv
vomer, palatines, and tongue. Two dorsal fins, the first with feeble spines,
extending to the commencement of the second ; more rays in the second dorsal
than spines in the first : seven or more finlets behind the second dorsal or
anal. Scales, when present, rudimentary. A slight keel on either side
of the caudal lobes. Air-vessel present.
376. Cybium guttatum, Bl. Schn. BucTc-Jcu, Beluch.: ArraJceeah,
Mai. : Wun'geran and Yelrah meen, Tarn. : Wingeram, Tel. : Nun-ni-o :
Mugh. D. 16-18/19-21 +VIII-X, A. 20-22 + VII-IX. Height of body
1/5, length of head 3/16 of the total length. Teeth lancet-shaped and
compressed. Lateral line becomes undulating opposite the commence-
ment of second dorsal. Bluish above, silvery beneath : back and sides with
numerous round and oval spots that are most apparent after death : the
membrane between the first and eighth spines black, the rest pure
white, edged with black. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and
beyond : this Seir fish attains at least 3J feet in length.
377. Cybium Commersonii, Lace'p. Chumbum, Mai. r Konam, Hah-
wu-laachi,<K Ah-ku-lah,^m. D. 16-17^ + IX-X, A. j^ + IX-X.
Length of head 1/4 to 1/5, height of body 2/11 to 1/7 of the total
length. Teeth lancet-shaped. Lateral line forms an angle beneath the
twelfth or thirteenth dorsal ray. Bluish above, silvery below : first dorsal
minutely dotted with brown, its upper edge black : basal half of pec-
toral black. After death numerous vertical undulating lines and spots
appear on the sides. Red Sea, east coast of Africa, seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago and beyond : it attains at least 4 feet in length.
378. Cybium interruptum, Cuv. & Val. D. 16/iy + IX, A. f? -trJX.
Length of head 1/6 of the total length. Teeth rather conical. Lateral
line undulating on the posterior third of the tail. Oblong longitudinal
spots form three bands on either side. Pondicherry.
379. Cybium lineolatum, Cuv. & Val. D. f!6/16-f IX, A. ^ +X.
Length of head 1/5, height of body 2/13 of the total length. Blue
above, becomes silvery below, with numerous short black longitudinal
streaks. Seas of India and Malay Archipelago.
Genus — ELA CA TE, Cuv.
Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchice. Body fusiform : head de-
pressed. Cleft of mouth of moderate depth. Villiform teeth on the jaws,
vomer, and palatine bones. The first dorsal reduced to a few free spines :
the second with many rays and somewhat similar to the anal : no finlets.
Scales very small. No keel on the side of the tail. Air-vessel absent.
Pyloric appendages dendritical.
380. Elacate niger, Bloch. Cuddul-verarl, Tarn. : Peddah mottah,
Tel. D. 8/28-35, A.' 25-29, Vert. 12/13. Height of body about 1/8
of the total length. Back and upper half of sides deep brown, below
a lighter color, giving the fish the appearance of being longitudinally
banded. Red Sea, east coast of Africa, seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago and beyond : attaining at least 3 feet in length.
Genus — EcHENEIS, Artedi.
Branchiostegals seven or eight : pseudobranchiae. Body elongated,
fusiform, head depressed and superiorly furnished with an adhesive organ.
DD
CCXXV1
Eyes lateral or directed downwards and outwards. Cleft of mouth deep.
Villiform teeth on the jaws, vomer, palatine bones, and generally on the
tongue. The first dorsal fin modified, on the summit of the head and occi-
put, into an adhesive disk: a long second dorsal and anal: no finlets :
ventrals thoracic. Scales very small. No keel on the side of the tail.
Air-vessel absent. Pyloric appendages in moderate numbers.
381. Echeneis naucrates, Linn. Putthu-muday , 'catching mouth'
Mai. : Ubbay, Tarn. : Ala mottah, Tel. D. 22-25/33-41, A. 32-38.
Length of disk 1/5 of the total length, generally with 22 transverse
laminae. Brownish or with indistinct longitudinal bands. Red Sea,
seas of India, Malay Archipelago and beyond : attains at least 3
feet in length.
382. Echeneis remora, Linn. D. 17-18/22-24, A. 25, Csec. pyl.
6. Length of disk 2/7 in the total. Brown. Same localities as E. nau-
crates. The most usual place where these sucking-fishes are obtained is
from the back or sides of sharks.
Family — T RACHINIDJB, Gunther.
Percoidei, pt., Scicenoidei, pt., Gobioideit pt., Cuv. : Uranoscopidcz
pt., Richardson.
Branchiostegals from five to seven : pseudobranchise present. Body low and more or
less elongated. Gill-openings more or less wide. Eyes lateral or superior. The
infraorbital ring of bones does not articulate with the preopercle. Villiform
teeth in the jaws, canines present or absent : no molars or cutting teeth : palate
with or without teeth. One or two dorsal fins, the spines being less in number
than the rays, anal similar to the soft dorsal \ ventrals with one spine and five or
six rays : lower pectoral rays simple or branched. No prominent papilla near tha
vent. Lateral line continuous, incomplete, or interrupted. Air-vessel present or
absent. Pyloric appendages, when present, few or in moderate numbers. Ver-
tebrse exceeding 10/14.
Genus— URANOSCOPVS, Cuv.
Agnus, pt. Gunther.
Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchia. Body somewhat cylindrical.
Head large, broad, and partly covered with bony plates. The opercles
usually armed. Besides the inferior gill-opening there is generally a
second above the opercle. Eyes on the upper surface of the head. Cleft
of mouth vertical, generally with a filament below or before the tongue.
Villiform teeth on the jaws, vomer, and palatine bones; no canines.
Two dorsals, the first with from three to five spines : ventrals jugular :
lower pectorul rays branched. Scales, when present, small. 'Lateral
line continuous. Air-vessel absent. Pyloric appendages in moderate
numbers.
383. Uranoscopus marmoratus, Cuv. & Val. D, 4/1, A, 13,
Length of head nearly 2/7 of the total. Five spines on the preopercle :
a strong spine at the shoulder. Chestnut brown, becoming bluish
white on the abdomen : the whole of the upper part of the head and
body covered with bluish spots : fins dark grey, edged with white :
upper three-fourths of first dorsal black. Coromandel coast, to 6 inches
in length.
CCXXV11
384. Uranoscopus guttatus, Cuv. & Val. D. 4-5/12-13, A. 13,
Csec. pyl. 8. Length of head 1/3 of the total. Five or six spines on
the preopercle, and two on the shoulder. Slaty brown, with two or three
rows of bluish white spots along the back and half way down the sides.
First dorsal pure white, with its upper two-thirds black : second dorsal
black along its upper two-thirds : caudal with a wide vertical black band
covering its middle third : anal white with a black base : pectoral black,
its lower margin edged with white. Seas of India.
Genus — AN EM A, Gunther.
Uranoscopus, sp., Cuv. & Val.
Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchia. Body somewhat cylindrical*
Head large, broad, and partly covered with bony plates. No superior gill-
opening. Eyes on the upper surface of the head. Cleft of mouth vertical*
Some of the bones of the head armed. No filament below or before the
tongue. Villiform teeth on Jaws, vomer and palatines. One continuous
dorsal fin with less spines than rays, the latter similar to the anal :
ventrals jugular : lower pectoral rays branched. Scales small. Air-vessel
absent. Pyloric appendages in moderate numbers.
385. Anema inerme, Cuv. & Val. Nillum Koranjan, "a, diver into
the mud/' Tarn. D. ^L, A. 16-19, Caec. pyl, 9 (8). Length of head
2/7 of the total length. Of a yellowish buff colour, becoming white
beneath : the upper half of the body with large round or oval white spots :
the dorsal yellowish reticulated with brown : a dark bar across the
pectoral and caudal fins. Seas of India to Japan.
Genus — P EEC IS, Bl. Schn.
Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchia. Body rather elongated and
sub-cylindrical* Eyes lateral, directed somewhat upwards. Cleft of
mouth slightly oblique. Opercle with two small spines: preopercle some-
times slightly serrated. Villiform teeth and canines in the jaws, teeth also
on the vomer, but not on the palatines. The first dorsal fin with four or
five spines, more or less continuous with the second dorsal, which has a
moderate number of rays similar to the anal : ventrals slightly anterior
to the pectorals, the lower rays of which are branched. Scales ctenoid,
rather small. Air-vessel absent. Pyloric appendages few.
386. Percis punctulata, Cuv. & Val. D. 5/21, A. 17, L. 1. 60. Pre-
opercle entire. Fourth dorsal spine the longest. Brownish grey, body
banded : some white spots over the snout : neck and sides spotted with
brown: spinous dorsal black with a white edge : three ro\vs of brown
spots along the second dorsal : caudal with three or four rows of black
spots between the rays : anal with two rows of dark spots. Andamans
and Mauritius.
387. Percis hexophthalma, Cuv. & Val. D. 5/19—21, A. 17-18,
L. 1. 62, L. tr. 8/21. Along either side of the abdomen three or more
white spots having a black centre : a black spot at the base of the dorsal,
three rows along the soft dorsal, and one along the anal : a large dark
blotch on the caudal. From the Red Sea through the seas of India :
attaining at least 8 inches in length.
CCXXV111
388. Percis millepunctata, Gunther. D. 4/21, A. 18, L. 1. 62,
L. tr. 4/8. " The height of the body 7§ in the total length : the length
of the head four times. The width of the interorbital space is one-
fourth of the length of the snout. The second and third dorsal spines
are the longest, much shorter than the intermaxillary bone ; the ventrals
reach the vent. Body with blackish dots not banded : snout and lips
blackish. Coast of Ceylon, 80 lines long : not good state/'' (GiintJier).
Whether the following Madras species* is identical is very doubtful
without comparing the specimens. D. 5/22, A. 18, L. 1. 58, L. tr. 4/12.
Length of head 2/9, height of body 1/7, of the total length. Eyes l£
diameters from end of snout, 1/2 a diameter apart. Preopercle entire.
Fourth dorsal spine the longest, rather longer than the snout : caudal cut
square, its upper ray rather prolonged : ventrals do not quite reach the
vent. Reddish, with six crossbands of a darker colour : a light pinkish
band along the side, becoming yellow along the centre of the caudal fin,
which is dark reddish in its lower half: some fine vertical bars in its
upper half. Head spotted with dark purplish -black marks superiorly :
three well-marked vertical blue bands cross the sub and inter-opercles.
Dorsal fins yellow : the fins black in their lower half : the soft with a
single row of spots along its upper half: anal yellowish in its lower two-
thirds, with five rows of round canary-coloured spots : its outer third
reddish : ventrals reddish, stained at their edges. Several specimens from
Madras, up to 5 inches in length. I see I have marked it P. Grayi.
Spec. nov. in my notes.
Genus— SILL A G 0, Cuv.
Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchia. -Body elongated, somewhat cylin-
drical. Head rather pointed, with its mueiferous system well developed. Gill-
openings wide. Eyes lateral, or directed slightly upwards. Cleft of mouth
slight : the upper jaw the longer. Preopercle serrated or crenulated: opetcle
ending in a point. Tilliform teeth in the jaws and vomer: none on the pala-
tines. Two dorsal fins, the first with nine to twelve spines, which are lets
than the rays of the soft dorsal, which last is similar to the anal : ventrals
thoracic, with one spine and Jive rays : lower pectoral rays branched.
Scales ctenoid. Air -vessel simple. Pyloric appendages few.
a. With an elongated dorsal spine.
389. Sillago domina, Cuv. & Val. 11 arr a- soring, Tel. : Tool-danti,
Ooriah, D. 9/^, A. ^, L. 1. 90, L. tr. 6/13, Csec. pyl. 4.
Length of head 1/4, height of body 1/7, of the total length. An ex-
ternal row of enlarged teeth in either jaw : second dorsal spine elongated,
usually reaching the base of the caudal. Greenish yellow, shot with
purple. Bay of Bengal to the Malay Archipelago.
6. Without an elongated dorsal spine.
390. Sillago sihama, Forsk. Soring, or Telia-tori* ff, or Arriti-ki,
Tel.: Cullingah, Tarn.: Cudeerah, Mai. : Thol-o-dah, And.: Nga-rui, M'ugh.
D. lO-ll/jJ, A. _, L.I. 70-74, L. tr. 4/11, f Caec. pyl. 3-4.
* I have another species from Madras with 3 spines at the angle of the preopercle
and otherwise hardly corresponding to described specimens.
f Either this species, as at present described, consists of several distinct ones, or
else the number of scales between the lateral line and the dorsal fin varies between 4 and 7.
CCXX1X
Length of head from 3/10 to 1/4, height of body 1/6 of the total
length. Olive green along the back, becoming light on the abdomen,
the whole having a brilliant purple reflection : a silvery longitudinal
band : minute black points on the dorsal and anal fins. Red sea, seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond. It is known as Whiting
at Madras.
391. Sillago maculata, Quoy and Gaim. D. ll/^, A. ^ ,L. 1.
70. Length of head 1/4, height of body 1/5, of the total length. A
longitudinal band along the side, and seven or eight dark blotches : the
second dorsal dotted with brown. Andamans to Australia.
Genus— OpiSTHOGNATHUS, Cuv.
Branchiostegals six. Body rather elongated, and posteriorly some-
what compressed : the upper profile of the snout parabolic. Head not
cuirassed. Gill-membranes conjoined inferwrly. Eyes large and lateral.
Cleft, of mouth deep, the maxilla being considerably produced backwards.
Operdes unarmed. Teeth in the jaws cardiform and fine : palate edentu-
lous. A single dorsal Jin, with weak and flexible spines : ventrals jugular :
lower poctoral rays branched. Scales small, cycloid. Lateral line incom-
plete. Air-vessel small. Pyloric appendages absent.
392. Opisthognathus nigromarginatus. — -Riipp. D. 24, A. 18.
Length of head about 1/4, height of body 1/6, of the total length.
Greenish yellow : a black lower edge to the maxilla. Base of dorsal
and anal spotted : a large oval blue mark between the fourth and eighth
dorsal rays. Red Sea, east coast of Africa, Pondicherry.
Genus — PsEUDOPLESIOPS, Bleeker.
Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchics. Oblong, and somewhat com-
pressed : eyes lateral. Preopercle entire. Villiforrn teeth and canines in the
jaws : teeth also on the vomer. A single spineless dorsal fin : ventrals spineless
thoracic. Scales cycloid, of moderate size. Lateral line interrupted.
293. Pseudoplesiops typus.—D. 25, A 16, V. 5, L. 1. 36. Height
of body 3/10 of the total length. Two outer ventral rays elongated.
Greenish yellow. Ceylon and Malay Archipelago.
Family — BATRACHID.E Gunther.
Pediculati, pt. Cuv.
Branchiostegals six : pseud obranchise absent. Body low and more or less elongated :
head large : the muciferous system well developed. Gills three. The gill-open-
ings narrow, in the form of a slit before the pectoral fin. Opercle armed. Teeth
conical, and of moderate size or small. First dorsal with few spines : the second
and the anal with many rays: ventrals with two rays, jugular : pectorals not
pediculated, Scales, when present, small. Air-vessel present.
Genus — BATRACHUS, Bl. Schn.
Branchiostegals six. Body anteriorly somewhat cylindrical, and
posteriorly compressed : head broad, depressed. Gill-openings narrow.
Eyes lateral. Gape of mouth wide. Gill covers with several spines. No
canine teeth. First dorsal with three strong spines. Scales, if present,
very minute. Air-vessel divided with two lateral parts. Pyloric appendages
absent. Vertebra .
ccxxx
394. Batrachus Gangene, Ham. Buch. D. 3/20, A. 16-18, V. 1/2.
Gill covers with four spines directed backwards : no foramen in the axil.
No scales. Brown, marbled with darker.
395. Batrachus grunniens, Bloch. D. 3/21, A. 15-16. Gill
covers with four spines directed backwards. A foramen in the axil. No
scales. Yellowish, marbled with darker. This is the common species
all along the western coast of India.
396. Batrachus trispinosm, Gunther. D. 3/22, A. 18, V. 1/5.
Gill covers with three spines directed backwards : a foramen in the axil.
No scales. Brownish olive marbled with darker. West coast of India to
the Malay Archipelago.
397. Batrachus Dussumieri, Cuv. & Val. D. 3/20, A. 16, V,
1/2. Gill covers with three spines directed backwards. Foramen? No
scales. Brown, with three indistinct cross bands.
Family — P EDICULATI, Cuv.
Branchiostegals five or six : pseudobranchiae absent. Head and anterior portion of the
body large, the former depressed or compressed. Gills two and a halt' or three
and a halt': gill-opening reduced to a small foramen, situated in or near the axil.
Eyes superior or lateral. Teeth villiform or cardiform. The spinous dorsal, when
present, composed of a few isolated spines : the carpal bones prolonged, forming
a sort of arm for the pectoral fin : ventrals, when present, jugular, with four or
five soft rays. Skin smooth, or covered with small spines or tubercles. Air-
vessel present or absent. Pyloric appendages few or absent.
Genus — ANTENNARIUS, (CommJ Cuv.
Chironectes, pt. Cuv.
Head large, elevated, and compressed. No cleft behind the fourth
gill: only one half of the anterior branchial arch is provided with lamella.
Cleft of mouth nearly vertical. Eyes lateral. Cardiform teeth in the jaws
and palate. The spinous dorsal in the form of three isolated spines, the
anterior of which, situated upon the snout, is modified into a tentacle: the
second dorsal of moderate length : anal short. Body smooth, granulated,
or covered with minute spines, and sometimes with cutaneous tentacles.
Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages absent.
398. Antennarius marmoratus, Schn. D. 3/12, A. 7, P. 10, Vert.
9/9. A small knob on the rostral tentacle, when it is present. Colours
various. Red Sea, East coast of Africa, through the seas of India to
the Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
399. Antennarius hispidus, Bl. Schn. D. 3/12, A. 7. Anterior
dorsal spine of moderate length, terminating in a lanceolate, ciliated flap :
a cutaneous fold from the third dorsal spine to the commencement of the
second dorsal fin. Skin rou^h, spinate : a few short fringes on body and
head. Yellow, with brown spots and streaks, some radiating from the eye,
other small ones on the dorsal fin. Seas of India to the Malay Archi-
pelago.
400. Antennarius nummifer, Cuv. D. 3/12, A. 7, P. 10. Anterior
dorsal spine short, with a cuneiform extremity. Skin with fine spines and
a few cutaneous fringes. Reddish, with darker cloudings and scattered
violet colored spots, the largest of which is beneath the posterior part
of the second dorsal fin : bases of dorsal and anal fins marbled with
brown. Red Sea through the seas of India.
CCXXX1
Family — C o T T i D M.
Branchiostegals from five to seven : pseudobranchise. Body more or less elongated,
posteriorly compressed : head often large. Eyes lateral, or directed upwards.
Cleft of mouth almost horizontal, lateral, or even nearly vertical. Some of
the hones of the head usually armed: the suborbital ring of bones articulates
with the preopercle. Teeth villiform in ^the jaws, present or absent on the
vomer and palatines. Dorsal fins sometimes in two distinct portions, but
more or less connected : the spines may be in excess of the rays, but as a rule
there are more of the latter : anal generally similar to the soft dorsal : ven-
trals thoracic : pectorals with or without appendages. Body scaleless, scaled,
or with a single series of plate-like scales. Air-vessel present or absent.
Pyloric appendages few.
Genus— SYNANCID1UM, Mull.
Branchiostegals seven. Head monstrous and irregularly shaped, but
without sharp spines. Villiform teeth on the jaws and vomer but not on the
palatines. The soft dorsal continuous with the spinous, less rays (6-9) than
spines (13); anal with few (5) rays : no pectoral appendages. Scales absent :
body and sometimes the head with skinny flaps. Air-vessel small. Pyloric
appendages few.
401. Synancidium horridum, Linn. D. 13/6, A J, Csec. pyl. 3, Vert,
j- J. Crown of the head irregularly saddle-shaped : a deep groove on the
cheek. Brownish fawn colour above, becoming lighter below. Seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
Genus— SYNANCEIA, El. Schn.
Branchiostegals seven. Head monstrous, irregularly shaped but spine-
less. Villiform teeth on the jaws ; vomer and palatine bones edentulous.
The soft dorsal continuous with the spinous, less rays (5-6) than spines
(13-16): anal with few (5-7) rays: no pectoral appendages. Air-vessel
present. Pyloric appendages few.
402. Synanceia verrucosa, Bl. Schn. D. '/, A. -f, Case, pyl. 4, Vert.
-{ ^. Interorbital space very concave : a slight groove on the cheek.
Greyish, the pectoral and ventrals with white edges : two whitish vertical
bands on the caudal. Red Sea, east coast of Africa, seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago and beyond : attaining at least 10 inches in length.
Genus — MiNOUS-
Branchiostegals seven. Head and body somewhat compressed. Several
of the bones of the head> and especially thepreorbital, are armed. Eyes lateral.
Villiform teeth in the jaws and vomer but none on the palate. A single
dorsal fin with a moderate number (9 to 11) of spines which may be more or
less than the rays (9-12) : anal with from one to three spines, its rays some-
what less than those of the dorsal : pectoral rather elongate with a single
free ray inferiorly. Scales absent. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages
few.
403. Minous monodactylus, Bl. Schn. Toomba and Cul plaachi,
Tarn. : Worrah minoo, Tel. D. Tf -£* , A. 9/11, Csec. pyl. 4. Length of head
1/3, height of body 1/4, of the total length. A barbel on either mandible,
sometimes a few more shorter ones. Greyish-brown superiorly, sides and
abdomen flesh coloured with dark blotches and marks : dorsal fin light
brown edged with black : anal buff, with its outer half black : pectoral
black, its appendage white : caudal buff with three vertical brown bands.
CCXXX11
Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond : attaining- 4 or 5
inches in length.
Genus — PELOR, Cuv. fy Yal.
Branchiostegals seven. Head irregularly formed. Villiform teeth
in the jaws, vomer and palatine bones. The three fins dorsal spines
connected ly a membrane and a little distant from the others (12 — 14),
which are somewhat isolated one from another, due to the inters pinous
membrane being deeply cleft : two free rays at the base of the pectoral
fin, having a connecting membrane : ventrals thoracic. Scales absent. Head,
body and fins with skinny appendages. Air-vessel small. Pyloric appen-
dages few.
404. Pelor didactylum, Pall. D. 3/1M-4, P. 10 + 11, A. 12-13.
Length of head 2/7, height of body 2/7, of the total length. Interorbital
depression divided by a transverse ridge. Caudal yellow, with a black ver-
tical band across its middle, and another at its base which crosses the last
dorsal rays, Andaman Islands and Malay Archipelago : attaining at
least 54 inches in length.
Genus— CHORISMODACTYLUS, Richards.
Branchiostegals six. Head and body compressed. Bones of the head
with osseous ridges, the preorbitat, preopercle, and opercle with spines : a
groove on the occiput. Villiform teeth on the jaws : palate edentulous. A
single dorsal fin with more spines flSJ than rays (9J : anal with two spines:
pectoral fin with three free rays : ventrals with one spine and five rays.
Scales absent: some skinny appendages on the, body. Air-vessel absent.
Pyloric appendages few.
405. Chorismodactylus multibarbis, Richards. D. !/, P. 15 + III,
A. f . Length of head 1/4, height of body 1/3, of the total length. Two
rather large barbels on the mandible. Brownish, with a yellow shoulder
mark, and two or three vertical orange bands : base of ventral and anal
with fine white spots. Fins blackish brown, with a light band between
the fourth and sixth dorsal spines : margin of pectorals orange : caudal
with a black band at its base : outer third of anal blackish : free rays
black, with white in their middle. Madras and China, to about 4 inches
iii length.
Genus — POLYCAULIS, Gunther.
Synanceia, sp. Bloch.
Branchiostegals seven. Body anteriorly sub-cylindrical, posteriorly
compressed : head broad, rather depressed. Eyes directed upwards. Pre-
opercle armed. Gill-opening with an opening above the opercle as well
as posteriori//. Villiform teeth in the jaws. A single dorsal fin loith
flexible spines and rays : anal somewhat elongated: no pectoral appendage* :
ventral* l/ioracic. Scales absent.
406. Polycaulis elongatus, Cuv. & Val. D. _!!_, A. 15, Vert.
10/17. Height of body 1/5 of its total length. Upper surface of head
uneven : no groove on the cheeks. Preopercle with four blunt spines.
No vomerine or palatine teeth. Brownish with white dots : pectoral and
anal with a dark edge. Seas of India and Malay Archipelago.
CCXXX111
407. Polycaulis adhesipinnis. D. j-f, A. 11, P. 13. Length of
head 2/9, height of body rather above 2/9 of total length. Upper surface
of head uneven. Five blunt denticulations along the margin of the
preopercle. Gill-openings with a small rounded superior orifice in addi-
tion to their posterior one. Villiform teeth in jaws, vomer, and palatine
bones. Lower four pectoral rays unbranched. Brownish, lighter below :
pectoral and caudal stained at their edges. Calcutta.
Genus — PLATYCEPHALUS, * Bl. Schn.
BrancMostegals seven : pseudobranchia. Head broad, depressed and
armed with spines. Eyes lateral or superior. Villiform teeth in the jaws,
vomcr and palatines, sometimes intermixed with larger ones. Two dorsal
fins, the first having a small isolated spine anterior to it: the soft portion
similar to the anal: ventrals thoracic: no pectoral appendage. Scales
present, ctenoid, small or rather so. Lateral line complete, in some species
armed with spines. Air-vessel absent. Pyloric appendages in moderate
numbers.
a. Lateral line unarmed.
408. Platycephalus Malabaricus, Guv. & Val. D. 1/8/12, A. 12,
L. 1. 75. Length of head 4/13 of the total length. Two preopercular
spines, the upper long, the lower short. Superciliary ridge serrated.
Greyish brown, spotted with darker. Malabar and Malay Archipelago,
to 10 inches in length.
409. Platycephalus serratus, Cuv. & Val. D. 1/8/12, A. 11, L. r.
84. Length of head 1/4, height of body 1/7 of the total length. In-
fraorbital ring serrated. Interorbital space 1/4 of the length of the
orbit, which is 1J diameters from end of snout. Upper preopercular
spine strong, the lower short : two more on the border of the interoper-
cle. Reddish brown, with vertical bands : fins with black spots : dorsal
with a black blotch : ventrals superiorly blackish. Ceylon and Arrakan.
410. Platycephalus Quoyi. D. 1/8/11, A. 11, L. 1. 110. Length
of head 2/7 to 1/4, height o£ body 1/9 of the total length. Eyes H
diameters from end of snout. Anterior nostril with a red barbel.
Upper preopercular spine rather above twice the length of the lower.
Hose coloured, marbled and dotted with brown or black. First dorsal
with an oblique black band, rays and spines spotted : upper half of pec-
toral dark and spotted, lower half yellow: end of caudal blackish.
Madras to the Malay Archipelago : it attains at least 9 inches in length.
411. Platycephalus punctatus, Cuv. & Val. D. 1/8/11, A. 11, L. 1.
80-90. Length of head 4/13 in the total length. Upper preopercular
spine much longer than the lower. Greyish brown, with five vertical
brown cross bands and numerous scattered black dots : first dorsal yellow
superiorly, and posteriorly black : pectoral and second dorsal rays with
brown spots : caudal with large, irregular, black spots. Ceylon to the
Malay Archipelago.
412. Platycephalus Tasmanius, Richardson. D. 1/7/14, A. 14,
L. 1. 115. Length of head 2/7 of the total. Lower preopercular spine
the longer. Brown, the posterior portion of the caudal black. Madras
and Australia.
* Utu parti, Tuiu.
EE
CCXXX1V
413. Platycephalus insidiator, Forsk. Irrwa, Tel. : Ool-parthy, Tarn. :
Nga-paying-H, Mugh. : A-ra-wud-dah or Chou-ur-dah,Andi. D. 1/6-7/13,
A. 13, L. r. 94, L. tr. 12/24, Csec. pyl. 14 (8). Length of head nearly
1/4, height of body 1/7 of the total length. Lower preopercular spine
the longer. Brownish above, becoming dirty white beneath : fins spot-
ted. Caudal yellow, "with a deep black band having a white border ob-
liquely crossing its upper lobe, a second along its lower lobe. Red Sea,
East coast of Africa, seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
b. Lateral line wholly or partially spined.
414. Platycephalus sealer, Linn. Irrwa, Tel. D. 1/7-8/12, A. 12,
Length of the head nearly 1/4 of the total. Superciliary ridge serrated.
Upper preopercular spine very long, would reach the orbit if laid forwards.
Anterior portion of lateral line spiny. Greyish brown above, white be-
low : its first dorsal with a black band : the second, caudal and pectoral
with brown spots, the last half of the caudal black : anal whitish : end
of the ventrals stained with black. Seas of India to the Malay Archi-
pelago and beyond.
415. Platycephalus neglectus, Trosch. D. 1/7/12, A. 12, L. r. 105.
Length of head nearly 1/4 of the total length. Superciliary ridge
serrated. Upper preopercular spine would reach 1/2 way to the orbit if
laid forwards, the lower shorter. Lateral line with about 55 spines.
Brown, the first dorsal blackish, the other vertical fins with black spots.
Madras to China. [A specimen of this genus in my collection agrees
partially with both these last species : the upper preopercular spine if
laid forwards reaching 2/3 of the way to the orbit. Body banded, with
red spots, &c.]
416. Platycephalus tuberculatus, Cuv. & Val. Ool-putti, Tam.
D. 1/7-8/11-12, A. 11-12, L. 1. 55, L. tr. 6/13. Length of head about
1/3, height of body 1/6 of the total length. Eyes 1/4 of a diameter
apart, li diameters from end of snout. Ridges serrated. Upper pre-
opercular spine the longer, in a few specimens there are three : the length
varies with age. Lateral line spiny in its first 15 scales. Brown, with
darker vertical bands : pectoral with brown spots in its upper two-thirds,
and a black margin with an external white edge along its lower border :
outer half of ventrals grey. Ceylon and Coromandel coast.
Family — C ATAPHRACTI, Cuv.
Triglidce, pt. & Pegaaidoz, pt. Giinther.
Pseudobranchise present or absent. Suborbital ring of bones articulated with the
preopercle. Head and body more or less angular, cuirassed with plates or keeled
scales entirely covering the body. The opercular pieces may or may not be anchy-
losed to one another. Teeth present or absent in the jaws, in one species present
on the vomer. One or two dorsal fins : pectorals may be simple, with or
without free rays, or they may be divided by a notch into two portions and
elongated or not so : ventrals thoracic, with five or less rays. Lateral line present,
or absent. Air-vessel present or absent. Pyloric appendages, when present, in
small, moderate numbers, or numerous.
Genus— LACTYLOPTEKUS, Lacep.
Head with its surfaces more or less flattened, loth laterally and
superiorly bony. The angle of the preopercle and the shoulder bone pro-
duced into the form of long spines. Granular teeth in the jaws only.
Tiro (lorxal Jinx of about equal tcnyl/t : /,rr/<>/;//.\ much elongated,
ccxxxv
the lower portion detached from and shorter than the upper. Scales
on body keeled and of a moderate size. Lateral line absent. Air-vessel in
two lateral portions, each furnished with a large muscle. Pyloric appen-
dages in moderate numbers or numerous.
417. Dactylopterus Orientalis, Cuv. & Val. D. 1/1/5/8, A. 6,
Csec. pyl. 18, Vert. 9/13. The first ray is elongated and on the occiput :
the second, which is shorter, is half way between it and the rest of the
dorsal fin. Brownish red, pectorals with bluish blotches and white
spots : other vertical fins brown spotted. Seas of India to China, &c.
Genus — PEGASUS, Linn.
Branchiostegal one; pseudobranchios absent. Gills four: gill-
opening narrow, in front of the pectoral fin. Body broad and depressed,
covered with bony plates, which are anchylosed on the trunk and moveable
on the tail. Gill cover formed of one bony plate, and a small interopercle
concealed by it. No teeth. One short dorsal and anal fin opposite to one
another : pectorals horizontal and long, composed of simple rays, some of
which may be spinous: ventral with, one or two rays, the outer being
elongated. Air-vessel absent.
418. Pegasus draconis, Linn. D. 5, A. 5, P. 11, V. 2. Tail with
eight rings, the first, fourth and fifth with a spine directed backwards.
Body with brown markings : snout and last caudal rings black : pectoral
with a white edge and white band. East coast of Africa, seas of India
to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
Family — Gr ORIIDM*
Pseudobranchise present, sometimes rudimentary. Gill-openings varying from
extremely narrow to wide : the gill, membranes attached to the isthmus :
four gills. Body generally elongated. Eyes lateral, occasionally prominent.
The infraorbital ring of bones does not articulate with the preopercle. Teeth
of varying characters, canines present or absent : inferior pharyngeal bones
may be separated (*), or coalesced with a median suture, as in Euctenogobius.
A single rayed dorsal fin, sometimes divided into two portions, the spines are
flexible, whilst this part of the fin has less rays than the remainder : anal
similar to the soft dorsal : ventrals sometimes united so as to form a disk, or
arising close together. Scales and lateral line present or absent. Air-vessel
generally absent. Pyloric appendages, if present, few.
Genus — GOBI US, Artedi.
Branchiostegals five: pseudobranchias. Gill-openings of moderate
width. Body low and elongated. Opercles unarmed. Teeth in several
rows in the jaws : canines sometimes present. Anterior portion of the dor-
sal fin, with from five to six flexible spines : the posterior more developed
and of the same character as the anal : ventrals united, forming a disk,
which is not attached to the, abdomen, each has one spine and five rays.
Scales present or absent, and either cycloid or ctenoid. Lateral line
absent. Air-vessel, when present, generally small. Pyloric appendages
usually absent.
(*) If the PJiaryngognathi are to be considered as a distinct order, the genus Eucte-
nogobius must be placed in such and removed from the Gobudce. I have not considered
the order Pharyngognathi as one which can be retained, but this is not the place to entor
upon arguments on the subject, much of this portion of my report being a compilation.
CCXXXV1
a. Canine teeth, present.
419. Gobius Bynoensis, Richardson. D. 6/y1^, A. y^, L.I. 65, L.
tr. 16*. Height of body 1/5 to 2/11 of the total length. Eyes, dia-
meter 1/5 of length of head, 1/2 a diameter apart. Caudal rounded. Scales
ctenoid. Greenish, back with from eight to ten cross bars. Two longi-
tudinal bands, the superior from the snout, at first black becomes yellow
on the body : the second also black from the mouth to the pectoral fin.
A dark spot at the upper part of the base of the caudal. Anal with a
greyish edge. Andamans, Malay Archipelago to Australia.
420. Gobius acutipinnis, Cuv. & Val. Mang-moo-goo-da-lah-dah,
Andam. D. 6/r\,, A. IT, L. 1. 25, L. tr. 6. Height of body 1/5, of
first dorsal 1/3 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/3 of length of
head, 1/2 a diameter apart. Anterior dorsal rays filamentous: caudal
pointed. . Greyish, with four or five dull blotches on the body, and a
dark mark at the root of the caudal : a brown band from the eye to
the corner of the mouth. Dorsals and caudal spotted. Coasts of India
and the Andaman Islands.
421. Gobius venenatus, Cuv. & Val. D. 6/TV, A. |, L. 1. 35, L.
tr. 10. Height of body 1/5 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/5 of
length of head, less than one diameter apart. Head as broad as high :
cheeks with pores. Dorsal rays not prolonged : caudal somewhat pointed.
Reddish olive, with a series of ill-defined darker spots along the sides.
.Fins dusky or black. Coasts of India.
422. Gobius ocellatus, Day. D. 6/TV, A. 10, L. 1. 32, L. tr. 8.
Height of body 1/7 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/9 of length
of head, 1J diameter apart. Head slightly broader than high. Second
dorsal spine may be elongated : caudal wedge-shaped. Scales, ctenoid on
body, cycloid on the head. Olive, a dark green spot above angle of opercle,
and six indistinct blotches along the sides. Some spots on fins and a
yellow ocellus at the top of the caudal in its last half. Anal whitish,
basal half covered with fine black dots : ventrals yellow. Bombay, to
5 J inches in length.
423. Gobius poly nema, Bleeker. D. 6/11, A. 10, L. 1. 28-30, L.
tr. 8. Height of body 1/8 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/4 of
length of head, 2/3 of a diameter apart. Head as broad as high, several
small barbels under the lower jaw. First dorsal lower than the body,
caudal pointed. Scales ctenoid. Purplish black, fins blackish : an
ocellus e'dged with white or yellow on the upper portion of the base of
the caudal fin. Seas of India to China and Japan.
424. Gobius Masoni, Day. D. 6^, A. £, L. 1. 27, L. tr. 10.
Height of body 1/5 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/6 of length
of head, 1| diameters apart. Head as wide as long, fine wart-like glands
on it. First portion of dorsal fin low : caudal wedge-shaped. Scales
ctenoid. Air-vessel large. Olive, with numerous brilliant blue spots on
the nape and behind the pectoral fin : some blackish ones along the side.
Dorsal, anal, ventral and caudal black, pectoral yellow margined with
black. Bombay, to 4 inches in length.
425. Gobius Andamanensis, Day. D. 6/TV, A. 10, L. 1. 26-29, L.
tr. 9. Height of body 2/9 of the total length. Eyes, diameter ]/4 of
(*) By L. tr. is signified in the Gobies the number of rows of scales between the origins
of the second dorsal and aiiul fins.
CCXXXV11
length of head, 3/4 of a diameter apart. Head 2/3 as wide as long.
Dorsal spines elongated : caudal rounded. Scales ctenoid. Olive, spotted
with rusty : fins likewise spotted. Andamans.
426. Gobius brevirostris, Giinther. D. 6/^5, A. 10, L. 1. 46, L. tr.
13. Height of body 1/4 to 2/9 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/5
of length of head, one diameter apart. Width of head equals its length
posterior to the centre of the orbit. Dorsal spines flexible, the longest
equals the length of the postorbital portion of the head : caudal wedge-
shaped. Scales ctenoid. Olivaceous, with an irregular band from the
mouth to the caudal fin : a second from the eye to the axil, where there
is a large light-blue ocellus. Kurrachee, also China, to nearly 3^ inches
in length.
427. Gobius viridi-punctatus , Cuv. & Val. Nga-bu, Mugh. D. 6/TV,
A. i, L. 1. 28-34, L. tr. 13. Height of body 1/8 of the total length.
Eyes, diameter 1/4 of length of head. Spines of anterior dorsal some-
what prolonged : caudal wedge-shaped. Scales ctenoid. Brownish,
blotched with darker, the whole of the dark portion of the body with
small, metallic green spots. Seas of India, to 6 inches in length.
428. Gobius Bleekeri, Day. D. 6£, A. -|, L. 1. 33, L. tr. 11.
Height of body 1/6 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/3 of length of
head, very slightly apart. Height of head less than its length. Dorsal
spines villiform, caudal wedge-shaped. Scales ctenoid. Olivaceous,
clouded with darker : a large bluish spot from the first to the fourth
dorsal spine : fins spotted : a blue ocellus on the upper part of the base
of the pectoral : ventrals blackish. Madras, to nearly 3 inches in
length.
429. Gobius caninus, Cuv. & Val. D. 6/J9, A. |, L. 1. 27-30, L.
tr. 9. Height of body from 2/11 to 1/6 of the total length. Eyes,
diameter 1/4 of length of head, very slightly apart. Small warts on
the cheeks. Second and third dorsal spines produced : caudal rounded.
Light brown, with darker blotches : some have a dark violet shoulder
spot. Seas of India to China, also east Africa : attaining 6 inches in
length.
430. Gobius Madraspatensis, Day. D. 6/i, A. 9, L. 1. 27, L. tr. 7.
Height of body 1/4 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/4 of lengtlT
of head, 1/4 of a diameter apart. Dorsal spines flexible, one or more
slightly prolonged : caudal rounded. Scales ctenoid. Olive, with
irregular brown blotches and dots. Five to eight narrow vertical
black bands. Dorsals and caudal spotted : ventrals tipped with black.
Madras.
431. Gobius Neilli, Day. D. 6/^, A. 9, L. 1. 28, L. tr. 7. Height
of body 1/4 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 2/7 of length of head,
not 1/4 of a diameter apart. Spines of first dorsal prolonged : caudal
somewhat pointed. Scales ctenoid. Ochreous colour, with rusty spots :
first dorsal with a black mark between the first and fifth spines, to about
half the height of the fin : caudal barred. Madras.
^ 432. Gobius gobiodon, Day. D. 6/J, A. 10, L. 1. 22, L. tr. 9.
Height of body 1/3 of the total length. Eyes 1/2 a diameter from end of
snout. Gill-opening narrow. Warty tubercles on head. No elongated
dorsal spines. Scales ctenoid. Brownish, ventrals nearly black. Anda-
maiis and Nicobars; to about 2 inches in length.
CCXXXV111
b. Canine teeth absent.
433. Gobius grammepomus, Bleeker, D. 6/TV, A. TV, L. 1. 50-55.
Height of body from 2/11 to 2/15 of the total length. Eyes, diameter
1/4 to 1/5 of the leugth of the head. Height of head equals its width.
Spinous dorsal somewhat lower than the body. No scales on head. Green,
spotted with brown , a streak from the eye to the maxilla. Dorsal and
caudal spotted, a blotch at the base of the pectoral. Seas of India to
the Malay Archipelago.
434. Gobius Stoliczka, Day. D. 6/11, A. 11, L, 1. 48, L. tr. 14.
Height of body 2/9 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/6 of length
of head, one diameter apart. Spinous dorsal without any prolongations.
Scales ctenoid, some on head and cheeks. Olive, marbled with darker :
head spotted with black : a dark ocellus at the base of the pectoral :
dorsal spotted, and a black mark at the posterior portion of the base of
the first : caudal barred. Andamans.
435. Gobius planifrons, Day. D. 6/TV, A. 10, L. 1. ca. 46, L. tr.
15. Height of body 2/11 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/6 of
length of head, 1J diameters apart. Head as broad as long, excluding
the snout. First dorsal half as high as the body below it : caudal
rounded. Scales finely ctenoid. Olive, fins very dark grey, second dorsal
spotted : a black blotch at the base of the pectoral. Bombay, to 4 inches
in length.
436. Gobius elegans, Cuv. & Val. D. 6/TV, A. £, L. 1. 36, L. tr.
9. Height of body 1/6 of the total length. First dorsal rather lower
than the body : caudal rounded. Buff dotted with brown, and three or
four indistinct lines on the upper half of tfye side. A dark spot behind
the orbit, another at the upper part of the root of the pectoral, and a
third at its lower portion. Dorsal and caudal spotted. Bombay to the
Malay Archipelago.
437. Gobius macrostoma, Steind. D. 6/11, A. 10, L. 1. 33.
Height of body 2/15 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/7 of length
of head, nearly one diameter apart. Head broader than high. Spinous
dorsal not so high as the body, caudal rounded. Vertical fins with dark
streaks. Bombay.
438. Gobius ornatus, Riipp. D. 6/^, A. A, L. 1. 26, L. tr. 7.
Height of body 1/6 to 1/7 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 2/7 of
length of head, very close together. Head rather broader than high.
Dorsal lower than the body. Greyish brown, with three or four horizon-
tal rows of oblong black patches. Fins, except the ventral, dotted with
black. Red Sea, Andamans, to the Malay Archipelago.
439. Gobius albo-punctatus, Cuv. & Val. D. 6/|, A. £, L. 1. 35-
40, L. tr. 10. Height of body 2/11 of the total length. Eyes, about
one diameter from end of snout, very close together. Head broader than
high. First dorsal somewhat lower than the body. Brownish, irregu-
larly marbled, sides of head and body studded with white spots. Dorsal
and caudal fins spotted, lied Sea, Andamans, Mauritius, Feejee Islands,
and Port Essington.
440. Gobius biocellatus, Cuv. & Val. D. 6/£, A. £, L. 1. 35-38, L.
tr. 9. Height of body 1/6 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/5 of
length of head, 1 to 1J diameters apart. Height and breadth of head
CCXXX1X
equal half its length. First dorsal spine generally, but sometimes the
fifth, the longest. Scales ctenoid. Greyish brown, with irregular dark
blotches along the sides. Dorsal fin with several irregular whitish lines
along its lower half : a black blotch with a white edge between its fifth
and sixth spines. Coasts of India, to 6 inches in length.
441. Gobius criniger, Cuv. & Val. D. 6/^, A. £, L. 1. 34, L. tr. 9.
Height of body 1/6 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/4 of length
of head. Width of head equals 3/4 of its height. Dorsal fin as high as
the body, second spine sometimes prolonged. Pale ochreous, spotted and
blotched with black, caudal and anal fins with black edges. Coasts of
India to the Malay Archipelago.
442. Golius spectabilis, Gunther. D. 6/10, A. 9, L. 1. 34, L.
tr. 9. Height of body 1/7 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/6 of
length of head, rather above one diameter apart. Head broader than
high. Dorsal fin slightly higher than the body, spines filamentous.
Yellowish brown, with indistinct blotches along the sides : fins spotted.
This species is distinguished from G. giuris, because the caudal fin (in the
single specimen procured at Ceylon) is elongated, pointed, and 1/4 of the
total length. Ceylon, probably from fresh-water : attaining at least 10
inches in length.
443. Gobius sadanundio, Ham. Buch. Ontoo-mossal, Mugh. (Akyab.)
D. 6/J, A. -J, L. 1. 28, L. tr. 8. Height of body 1/4 of the total length.
Eyes, diameter from 1/3 to 2/7 of the length of the head, 1J diameters
apart. Head wide, equalling the length without the snout. Second and
third dorsal spines elongated : caudal pointed. Scales ctenoid. Olive,
with very large deep black, white-edged blotches on the body : first dorsal
black, with a white ring on its two last rays : second dorsal and caudal
spotted. Mouths of the Ganges, and along the Chittagong and
Burmese coasts, attaining at least 3 inches in length.
444. Gobius gutum, Ham. Buch. D. 6/y1 , A. 11. Head and eyes
small. Caudal rounded. Scales ctenoid. Greenish, with many black dots
clustered into irregular spots resembling clouds in form : dorsal and
caudal fins spotted. Lower portion of the Hooghly, to 3 or 4 inches in
length.
445. Gobius nunus, Ham. Buch. ? D. 6/11, A. 11, L. 1. 25, L.
tr. 9. Height of body 1/3 of the total length. Eyes in the anterior
half of the head, one diameter from end of snout, 1/2 a diameter apart.
Caudal wedge-shaped. Chestnut colour : three broad white bands across
the head and nape : three short white bands descend from the base of
the first dorsal fin. Andamans and mouth of Hooghly ?
Genus — EuCTENOGOBIUS, Gill.
Branchiostegals six. Gill-openings rather narrow, not extending to
tie lower surface of the head. Body elongated. Eyes not prominent.
Teeth in one row in the upper jaw, in several rows in the lower : no canines :
palate edentulous. Inferior pharyngeal bones of an elongated triangular
form, having a median longitudinal suture. Dorsal Jin divided into two
portions, the first with six flexible spines : ventrals united, forming a disk,
but not adherent to the abdomen.
446. Euctenogobius cristatus, Day. D. 6/14, A. 14, L. 1. 48, L. tr.
11. Height of body 1/6 of the total length. Eyes close together, diame-
ccxl
ter 1/4 of length of head. Width of head equal to its length behind
the middle of the eye : a low crest on the nape : several rows of
warts on the cheeks. Caudal elongated and pointed. Scales cycloid,
none on the head. Olivaceous : a light ocellus having a brown edge
at the base of the pectoral fin : body blotched and spotted : some
black bars on upper half of dorsal, and a badly defined violet ocellus
edged with yellow on its last ray : caudal spotted in its upper half.
Bombay and Madras : in the month of March, at the former place, they
were breeding.
Genus — APOCRYPTES, Cuv. fy Val.
Pseudobranchia rudimentary. Gill-openings of moderate width.
Body elongated. Teeth conical in a single fixed row in either jaw, with
canines in the lower (a pair being generally present above the symphysi*
posterior to the fixed row), and frequently in the upper as well. The
first portion of the dorsal fin containing five or six spines, and either distinct
from or continuous with the soft portion, which is similar to the anal.
Ventrals united, forming a disk, and not adherent to the abdomen. Scales,
when present, small, becoming larger posteriorly.
447. Apocryptes macrolepis, Bleeker. D. 6/29, A. 28. Height
of body 1/11 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/5 of length of head.
A pair of large canines near the symphysis of the lower jaw. Dorsal
fins continuous at their bases. Scales small. Green, clouded with
brown : dorsals spotted with black : caudal nearly black with green rays.
Andamans and Malay Archipelago.
448. Apocryptes serperaster, Richardson. D. 6/27, A. 27. Height
of body 1/9 to 1/11 of the total length. -Eyes, one diameter from end
of snout. A pair of small posterior canines near the symphysis of the
lower jaw, another on each side. Dorsal fins not continuous. Greenish
olive : caudal darker. Bengal and China.
449. .Apocryptes Borneensis, Bleeker. D. 5/27-30, A. 26-27.
Height of body 1/12 of the total length. Eyes close together, diameter
1/5 of length of head. A pair of posterior canines near the symphysis
of the lower jaw. Scales exceedingly minute. Slate colour, tinged
with violet along the abdomen : some black dots in the upper fourth of the
dorsal, and upper half of caudal. Akyab and Malay Archipelago, to 4
inches in length.
450. Apocryptes rictuosus, Cuv. & Val. D. 6/24-27, A. 26-29,
L. 1. ca. 75. Height of body 1/13 of the total length. Eyes, diameter
1/7 of length of head. About 28 teeth in the lower jaw, and a pair
of posterior canines near the symphysis. Dorsal fins continuous.
Greyish, lighter towards the abdomen : eome ill-defined oblique bands
pass downwards and forwards from the base of the dorsal fin : caudal and
last third of the dorsal dark grey, sometimes spotted with brown. Seas
and estuaries of India : it attains 7 inches in length.
451. Apocryptes Cantoris, Day. D. 6/27, A. 26. Height of body 1/6
of the total length. Eyes in the second fifth of the head, 2/3 of a diameter
apart. A pair of posterior canines near the symphysis of the lower jaw.
Dorsal fins not continuous. Scales minute. Olive, cheeks and under sur-
face of head with black spots : first dorsal dark with three black horizontal
bands : the upper portion of the caudal dark and spotted. Andamans.
ccxli
452. Apocryptes Madurensis, Bleeker. D. 6/24, A. 22-23, L. 1.
53-55. Height of body 1/7 of the total length. Eyes in the second
fifth of the length of the head, 1/2 a diameter apart. Teeth, 25 to 30
bilobate ones on either side of the lower jaw, and a pair of fine posterior
canines near the symphysis. Scales cycloid. Olive brown, the upper
third of the first dorsal between the second and fourth spines with a
black mark : pectorals and caudal nearly black, with a white lower edge :
anal black : ventrals white. Coasts of India and to the Malay Archi-
pelago : it attains about 4 inches in length.
453. Apocryptes glyphidodon, Bleeker. D. 6/22, A. 22, L. 1. 50.
Height of body 1/9 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/6 of length
of head. Teeth, about 25 bilobate ones on either side of the lower jaw,
and a pair of fine posterior canines near the symphysis. Greyish, with
five light brown spots along the sides, forming bands over the back ;
numerous fine dots over the head and body : pectorals deep olive with a
white edge : the other fins dark. Bombay, also Malay Archipelago, to
4 inches in length.
454. Apocryptes Andamanensis , Day. D. 6/13, A. 13, L. 1. ca. 60.
Height of body 1/5 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/5 of length
of head. A crest on the nape of the neck. A pair of posterior canines
near the symphysis of the lower jaw. Dorsal fins separated by a notch.
Deep green, with a dark mark at the base of the caudal : fins dark.
Andamans, in brackish water, to 4 inches in length.
455. Apocryptes dentatus, Cuv. & Val. D. 5/32, A. 31. Height
of body 1/14 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/6 of length of head.
A pair of posterior canines in the lower jaw near the symphysis. Scales
very small. Brownish, caudal dotted with brown. Coromandel coast
of India.
456. Apocryptes lanceolatus, Bl. Schn. Nulla ramah, Tel. :
Pitallu, Ooriah. D. 5/31-32, A. 29-30. Height of body 1/7 to 1/9 of the
total length. Eyes small, 1/4 of a diameter apart, 1| from end of snout.
A pair of small posterior canines in the lower jaw near the symphysis.
Scales very small. Brown, blotched with darker : fins with dark spots
and blotches. Shores of India and the Malay Archipelago.
457. Apocryptes bato} Ham. Buch. Rutta, Ooriah. D. 5/—1-J A. sls.
Height of body 1/7 to 1/8 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/6 of
length of head, 1| diameters apart. A pair of moderately-sized posterior
canines near the symphysis of the lower jaw. Scales minute. Greenish
white, with about twelve ill-defined narrow bands, descending towards the
abdomen : scales with brown points : fins white, but also with minute
dots : a dark band at the base of the pectoral. Orissa and Lower Bengal,
within tidal reach, attaining 5J inches length.
Genus — GoBIODON) Bleeker.
Gill-openings of moderate width. Body oblonp and compressed : head
large. Teeth conical and fixed : a pair of canines generally present near
the symphysis of the lower jaw. Two dorsal fins, the first with six spines
and united at the base to the second ; ventrals united. Scales absent.
458. Gobiodon quinque-strigatus, Cuv. & Val. D. 6/y1^, A. -A.
Height of body 1/3 o£ the total length. Eyes small, 1 diameter apart.
FF
ccxlii
and 1 J from end of snout. Canines in the lower jaw. Head with five
vertical orange stripes : two irregular bands of the same colour pass along
the body, breaking up into blotches, and a row of spots exists along the
posterior third of the body. Andamans and Nicobars, to 2J inches in
length : is also found in the Malay Archipelago.
459. Gobiodon Ceramensis, Bleeker. D. 6/y1^ A. \. Height of
body 2/7 of the total length. Eyes rather less than 1 diameter from
end of snout. Small canines in the lower jaw. Dark brown : fins near-
ly black, except the caudal, which is almost white. Galle, also the Malay
Archipelago.
Genus— PEEIOPHTHALMUS, Bl. Schn.
Branchiostegals five : pseudobranchia rudimentary. Gill-openings
rather narrow. Body sub-cylindrical. Eyes placed close together, very
prominent, and the outer eyelid well developed. Teeth in both jaws, erect
and conical. Two dorsal fins, the first with a varying number of flexible
spines : base of pectoral muscular : ventrals united in their lower two-thirds :
caudal with its inferior edge obliquely truncated. Air-vessel absent.
Scales small or of moderate size, ctenoid, covering the body and the base
of the pectoral fins.
460. Periophthalmus Schlosseri, Pall. D. 7/TV, A. 14. (See F. W
F. report No. 21). Coasts of Bengal, Burma, and Andamans.
461. Periophthalmus Koelreuteri, Pall. Chood-mud-dah, And. D.
10-15/12-13, A. 11-14. L. 1. 75-100. Height of body 2/9 to
2/11 of the total length. The first dorsal fin is very variously formed,
sometimes produced, at other times not so. Second dorsal and anal
generally banded, but the other colours are as diverse as the forms. Seas
of India, ascending tidal rivers.
Genus— BoLEOPHTHALMUS, Cuv. fy Val.
Branchiostegals five : pseudobranchia , a slit behind the fourth gill.
Gill-openings narroio. Body sub-cylindrical : head oblong. Eyes very
prominent, situated close together, the outer eyelid well developed. Cleft
of mouth nearly horizontal, the upper jaw sometimes slightly the longer.
Teeth in a single row, the anterior ones in the upper jaw enlarged and
stronger than the others : those in the lower jaw of about equal size and
in a single horizontal row , having a pair of posterior canines near the
symphysis. Two dorsal fins, the anterior with five flexible sjnnes: I he
second many rayed and about equal to the anal : pectoral with its /,
portion muscular and generally free : ventrals united: caix/til /'•>/// //.v
inferior edge obliquely truncated. Air-vessel absent. Scales whenpr<
rudimentary <cr small, generally largest posteriorly.
462. Boleophthalmus Dussumieri, Cuv. & Val. D. 5/ — L_, A. JU,
20 — 27
L. r. ca. 125, L. tr. 12. Height of body 1/8 of the total length.
Eyes, diameter 1/7 of length of head. Teeth three on either side of
middle of upper jaw elongated and directed downwards : a pair of pos-
terior canines in the lower jaw near the symphysis. Scales distinct on
the body, but somewhat indistinct on the head. Grey, first dorsal pur-
plish, covered with round black spots : the second with two or three
rows of oblong white spots : caudal black. Bombay and coast of Siud
to 6 inches in length,
ccxliii
463. Boleopkthalmus dentatus, Cuv. £ Val. D. 5/>~, A 1
25 26«
Height of body 2/15 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/7 of length
of head. Teeth three on either side of the middle of the upper jaw
elongate, directed downwards, and slightly forwards. Scales only dis-
tinct in a narrow band on the abdomen, along either side of the anal
fin, and a few towards the head, elsewhere they look like rough points.
Olive grey, with dull vertical bands on the body, six or eight of which
are continued to the lower half of the second dorsal fin. First dorsal
purplish, covered with black spots, having whitish edges, whilst the
upper margin of the fin is yellowish : second dorsal with about five rows
of oblong white spots, and some black ones having white edges along the
first-half of its base. Upper margin of the caudal with a white band
and yellow spots between its black rays. Bombay and Kurrachee, to 7J
inches in length.
464. Boleophthalmus viridis, Ham. Buch. D. 5/J^-, A. ^. Height
of body 2/11 of its total length. Eyes, diameter 1/6 of length of head.
Scales minute. Greenish, sides vertically banded. Caudal spotted.
Bengal and Andamans to the Malay Archipelago and China.
465. Boleophthalmus Boddaerti, Pall. Dahrm-brow, Mugh. D. S/g1^,
A. ^y, L. r. 70, L. tr. 21. Height of body 1/5 of the total length.
Eyes, diameter 1/6 to 1/7 of length of head. Teeth, the six central
ones in the upper jaw elongated : a pair of moderately sized posterior
canines near the symphysis of the lower jaw. Inferior pharyngeal
bones spoon-shaped, approximating along the inner side with a row o£
fine teeth merely at the opposed margins. Greenish blue, with seven or
eight vertical black bands : body covered with opaque blue spots :
first dorsal likewise blue-spotted, and three rows on the second, with
four large series along its base. Pectoral orange with a black edge :
anal and caudal blackish : ventrals purplish. Coasts and estuaries of
India and Burma to the Malay Archipelago. It climbs up rocks and
pieces of wood, when it resides in shallow estuaries. If kept damp it
lives some time out of water, and is brought in considerable numbers to
the Bombay markets in baskets, covered with a wet cloth.
466. Boleopkthalmus sculptus, Gunther. D. 5/25, A. 22, L. tr. 8.
Scales said to differ from the last in being smaller. Colours much the
same, except in wanting the blue spots. India.
467. Holeopktfialmus pectinirostris , Linn. D. 5/— - — , A. - *
L. tr. 17. Height of body 2/9 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/4
of length of head. The body with small dark tubercles, and verdigris
spots. Vertically placed lilac spots on the first dorsal fin, and six or
seven transverse ones on the second : some also on the caudal : the other
fins brownish. Coast of Burma to the Malay Archipelago.
Genus — ELEOTR1S, Gronov.
Philypnus, Cuv. and Val. : Bostrichthys, Dum. : Culius, Butis, Va-
lenciennea, Belobranchus fy Eleotrioides , Bleeker : Lembus, Gunther.
Branchiostegals from four to six, occasionally terminating anteriorly
in a spine : pseudobranchia present. Gill-openings of moderate width.
Body sub-cylindrical : head oblong. Eyes lateral, not. prominent, and of
moderate size. Teeth small, present or absent on the vomer. Two dorsal
fins, the anterior with Jew (5-8) spines, and these sometimes filamentous :
ccxliv
lase of pectoral slightly muscular : ve/ilrals placed close together lul not
united. Scales present. Air-vessel large. Anal papilla distinct. Pyloric
appendages generally absent.
468. Eleotris Jerdoni, Day. D. 8/12, A. 12. Reddish fawn-
colour : a row of small red spots on the back, followed by a second larger
one, and this by a band of red edged with lilac on the sides. Several
red spots on the head and cheeks, two on the first dorsal and five on the
second : fins whitish. Madras : to 6 inches in length.
469. Eleotris macrolepidota, Bl. D. 7/J, A. TV, L. 1. 30. Height
of body 1/4 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/4 of length of head.
Interorbital space swollen. Teeth villiform. East Indies.
470. Eleotris Sinensis, Lacdp. D. 6 -n^, A. |, L. 1. 140. Height
of body 2/13 of the total length. Eyes small. Teeth, a semi-oval patch
on the vomer. Scales on head and neck rudimentary. Dark brown,
marbled : a black, white-edged ocellus at the upper part of the root of
the caudal fin. Andamans to China.
471. Eleotris sexguttata, Cuv. & Val. D. 6/TV, A. ^, L. 1. 75-80.
Height of body 1/7 to 1/8 of the total length. Teeth in a single row,
their sizes unequal. Second to fourth dorsal spines filamentous. Greenish
shot with rosy : blue spots, with dark edges on the side of the head :
occasionally a violet spot before the dorsal fin, which latter has a black
superior margin : second dorsal with six longitudinal violet stripes,
anal with two : caudal with pearl-coloured ocelli edged with violet. Cey-
lon to the Malay Archipelago.
472. Eleotris macrodon, Bleeker. D. 6/10-11, A. 9, L. 1. 90-100.
Height of body about 1/5 of the total length. Diameter of eye ,1/9 of
length of head, 3 diameters apart. A small barbel on either side of the
upper jaw. A reddish brown ocellus, edged with white, on the upper part
of the base of the caudal fin. Hooghly.
473. Eleotris feliceps, Blyth. D. 6/TV, A. 11, L. 1. 27, L. tr. 12.
Height of body 1/5 of the total length. Dorsal spines filiform. Brownish
white, irregularly spotted and blotched with a darker colour : bands pass
downwards from the orbit : fins more or less spotted. Andamans.
474. Eleotris ophiocephaluSj Cuv. & Val. A-rig-dali and Mu-took-.
dah, Andamanese. D. 6/AQ, A. |, L. 1. 32-36, L. tr. 12, Coec. pyl. 2.
Height of body 1/5 to 1/6 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/5 of
length of head, 2 diameters apart. Palate edentulous. Fins without
filamentous prolongation. Scales ctenoid, those on the top of head large.
Olive brown, some irregular blotches along the sides, whilst three black
bands radiate from the eye : a light ocellus edged with dark at the upper
half of the base of the pectoral fin : vertical fins with light margins.
Andamans, the coast of Africa, and Malay Archipelago : to at least 9J
inches in length.
475. Eleoiris cavi/rons, Blyth. D. 6/J, A. 8, L. 1. 65, L- tr. 17.
Height of body 1/5 of the total length. Eyes, diameters 1/6 of length
of head, 2 diameters apart. A depression before the orbits. Light brown,
with dark lines radiating from the eyes : fins barred in spots. Anda-
mans : to 4 inches in length.
476. Eleotris fusca, Bl. Schn. D. 6/J, A. J, L. 1. 60-65, L. tr.
16. Height of body 1/6 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/5 of
length of head, one diameter from end of snout, and also apart. Angle of
ccxlv
preopercle with a blunt spine, projecting forwards. Leaden black, Jig-liter
on the abdomen, which sometimes has a yellow tinge : horizontal bar
on the dorsal fins, sometimes vertical ones on the caudal. Coast of India
to the Malay Archipelago, also the African coast, &c.
477. Eleotris Soaresi, Playfair. D. 6/i, A. £, L. 1. 62-65, L. tr. 17.
Proportions much the same as in E. fusca. Height of body 2/1 1 of the
total length. Head broad and depressed, as is also the snout : a blunt
spine exists at the angle of the preopercle. Dark brown or brownish black,
fins with dark spots. Andamans and Mozambique : to 6 inches in
length.
478. Eleotris scintillans, Blyth. D. 6/J, A. 8, L. 1. 47, L. tr.
15. Height of body 2/9 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/5 of
length of head, 1 J diameters from end of snout and apart. Brownish,
dorsal, caudal, and anal spotted, having white edges. Akyab and the
Andamans.
479. Eleotris Cantoris, Gunther. D. 6/i, A. \, L. 1 36-37, L.
tr. 12. Height of body from 2/11 to 1/6 of the total length. Eyes,
diameter 1/5 to 1/6 of length of head, 1/2 a diameter apart. Head
obtuse, depressed. Scales on neck small. Deep blackish-brown
marbled : second dorsal and caudal with brown spots. Andamans and
Burma, to the Malay Archipelago.
480. Eleotris caper ata, Cantor. Qu-suf-foo, Mugh. D. 6/|, A. J-,
L. 1. 30, L. tr. 9. Height of body 2/9 of the total length. Eyes, diameter
2/9 of length of head, situated close together. Supraorbital margin ser-
rated, likewise a serrated ridge on either side of the posterior limb of the
intermaxillary. Scales ctenoid. Leaden brown, fins blackish, a deep
scarlet spot edged with black on the base of the pectoral rays. Coasts of
India and Burma to China, also the Andamans.
481. Eleotris Amboinensis, Bleeker. Gagi-bala-kera, Ooriah. D.
6/J, A. i, L. 1. 28, L. tr. 9. Height of body 1/6 to 1/7 of the total
length. Eyes, diameter 1/5 to 2/11 of the length of head, !£ diameters
from end of snout and apart. Supraorbital margin serrated and other
similar ridges around nostrils and approximating to the intermaxillaries.
Scales ctenoid. Generally of a leaden or brown colour, but occasionally
blotched. A scarlet spot edged with black at the base of the pectoral
rays. First dorsal nearly black, the second, also the anal and caudal,
yellowish with irregular dark bands. Coasts of Orissa and Bengal to
the Malay Archipelago : attaining 3 to 4 inches in length.
482. Eleotris butis, Ham. Buch. D. 6J, A. J, L. 1. 28, L. tr. 9.
Height of body 1/5 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/6 to 1/7 of
length of head, 1/2 a diameter apart. Scales cycloid. Brownish, blotched
with darker. A deep black spot on the lower half of the base of the
pectoral rays : second dorsal spotted. Coasts of India to China, &c.
Genus — AjMBLYOPUS, Guv. fy Vat.
Gobioides, Lacep.
Branchiostegals four or Jive : gills four : pseudobranchidB absent.
Body elongated : head oblong : no cavity above the opercles. Lower jaw
prominent, causing the cleft of the mouth to be directed upwards. Eyes
lateral, minute or indistinct. Teeth in a land, with a single anterior row
of large, curved, conical and distantly placed ones. The first portion of
ccxlvi
the dorsal fm consisting of five undivided rays, is separated by an in-
terval from the soft portion, in the centre of which is a single si 'M un-
divided ray. Second portion of dorsal and anal with many rays and more,
or less confluent with the caudal: ventrals united. Scales rudimentary or
absent. Air-vessel, when present, small or large.
483. Amblyopus gracilis, Cuv. & Val. D. ^T-T^ A. 47-49. Length
of head from. 2/21 to 1/11 times in the total length. Lower jaw with
small barbels. Dorsal and anal confluent with a short caudal : pectorals
very short. Scales absent. Pondicherry, and perhaps the Hooghly.
484. Amblyopus cirrhatus, Blyth. D^y, A. 46. Length of
head TV of the total length. Eye exceedingly minute, sometimes almost
invisible until the specimen has been some days in spirit. Short barbels
on the chin. Vertical fins enveloped in skin and not confluent with
the caudal : pectorals short, not quite half so long as the ventrals.
4.«85. Amblyopus caculus. Bl. Schn. Gogee-ramah, Tel. D. JL
A. 45. Length of head 1/7 to 1/8 of the total length. Small barbels on
the chin. Eyes minute. Vertical fins enveloped in skin and scarcely
confluent with the caudal : pectorals short. Scales absent, except a
few near the tail. Brownish, becoming dirty white tinged with red on the
abdomen. Fins grey, central caudal rays black. Air-vessel large, oval.
Seas and estuaries of India to the Malay Archipelago and China : attain-
ing 14 inches or more in length.
486. Amblyopus Buchanani, Day. D. £s, A. 36. Length of head
1/7 of the total length. Eyes distinct. A short pair of barbels behind
the symphysis of the lower jaw, and a second smaller pair further back.
Vertical fins continuous, their posterior portions enveloped in skin :
caudal 1/8 of the total length : pectoral -2lj. Air-vessel large and oval.
Scales, a few crypts in the hinder part of the body contain some.
Olive, outer halves of pectoral and ventrals black. Hooghly : attain-
ing at least 1 1 inches in length.
487. Amblyopus Hermannianus, Shaw. D. 3^55, A. 36-38. Eyes
minute. No barbels. Vertical fins confluent and not enveloped in skin :
caudal pointed : pectoral of moderate length. Scales present, rudimen-
tary, and embedded in minute crypts in the skin. Pinkish, fins yel-
lowish. Estuaries of India to the Malay Archipelago and China : attain-
ing at least 8 inches in length.
488. Amblyopus tania, Giinther. D. •£•%, A. 33. Length of head
1/11 of the total length. Eyes minute. No barbels. Vertical fins con-
fluent and not enveloped in thick skin : caudal elongated and pointed :
pectoral two-thirds as long as the head. Scales, a few crypts in the
hinder part of the body contain some. Greenish olive: caudal blackish.
This species requires comparing with A. rubicundns, Ham. Buch.
489. Amblyopus roseus, Cuv. & Val. j|, A 1. Length of head
1/8, of caudal 3/13, of pectoral 2/17 of the total length. Rose
coloured with the vertical fins blackish. Bombay, where it is said to
attain 18 inches in length.
Genus — TRTPAUCHEN , Cuv. 8f Val.
Branchiostegalsfour. A deep blind cavity above the opercfr, ami
wJiick is not in communication with that of the branchia. Body elongated
compressed: lu-ud likewise compressed, fiyc* fafcrtil, mif
ccxlvii
elevated. Teeth in a band : no canines. Dorsal Jin single, the anterior
portion consisting of six spines, the soft with many rays, as has also the
analj whilst both are confluent with the caudal : ventrals united, forming a
disk. Scales small.
490. Trypauchen vagina, Bl. Schn. Na-vettee, Tarn. D. ^
A. 39-46, L. r. 60-80, L. tr. 15. The five lowest pectoral rays very
short and unbranched. Reddish. Coasts of India through the Malay
Archipelago to China : attaining at least 6 inches in length.
Family — C ALLIONYMID^B.
Branchiostegals five to six : pseudobranchise. Gill-openings of moderate width or
very narrow. Body mostly elongated. The infraorbital ring of bones does
not articulate with the preopercle. Teeth in the jaws, none on the palate.
Two dorsal fins,the anterior with from four to seven flexible spines : second
dorsal and anal similar : ventrals wide asunder. Scales and lateral line present
or absent. Air-vessel absent.
Genus. — CALLIONYMUS, Linn.
Branchiostegals five or six : jpseudobranchite, a slit behind the fourth
gill. Gill-openings very narrow, sometimes merely a round hole at the
upper edge of the opercle. Head and anterior portion of the body depress-
ed. Eyes of moderate size, usually directed somewhat upwards. Mouth
narrow, upper jaw protractile. A strong, variously armed spine at the
angle of the preopercle. Teeth in jaws minute : palate edentulous. Two
dorsal fins, the anterior consisting of three or four flexible spines : ventrals
with jive rays, and widely separated one from the other. Lateral line
single or double. Air-vessel absent.
491. Callionymus sagitta, Pall. D. 4/9-10, A. 9. Preopercular
spine stout, having four large teeth directed inwards and slightly up-
wards, whilst a fifth at its base is directed forwards. Gill-openings
small, on the upper surface of the head. Scales absent, Lateral line
single. Yellowish brown, with many black ocelli, edged with yellow,
and some dark spots below. First dorsal with some black upon, it.
Bombay, through the Seas of India and the Mauritius.
49£. Callionymus Goramensis, Bleeker. D. 4/8-9, A. 7. Preoper-
cular spine with five strong teeth internally and one at its base exter-
nally. Gill-openings small, on the upper surface of the head. First
dorsal spine, and both its last ray and those of the anal elongated. Lat-
eral line double. Head and body dotted with blue : first dorsal black
edged : anal with its lower half black : caudal unspotted. Andamans
and the Malay Archipelago.
493. Callionymus altivelis, Schleg. D. 4/8, A. 7. Preopercular
spine bifurcated. Gill-openings small on the upper side of the neck,
but close to the superior margin of the opercle. First dorsal with white
bands and spots : the second dorsal brown, with white spots : anal dark,
with two rows of dark blue spots : caudal with two dark bands :
pectoral blackish, spotted : its edge white. The back banded. Madras
to Japan.
494. Callionymus opercularis, Cuv, & Val. D. 4/9, A. 9. Preo-
percular spine with six teeth superiorly : none at its base. Gill-openings
on the side of the neck not covered by the extremity of the opercle.
Madras and Pondicheriy.
ccxlviii
495. Cattionymns lineolatus, Cuv. & Val. D. .4/8, A. 7. Preo-
percular spine strong-, with two teeth at the external third at its inner
side. Gill-openings covered by the end of the opercle, which is not
produced. Scales absent. Lateral line single. Five or six greyish
bands cross the back, and are continued down the sides : one more crosses
the head. Mouth and lower surface of head scarlet. Three or four
irregular transverse white spots with dark edges, also some round ones
over the upper half of the dorsal fin : three oblique brown bauds on the
second dorsal : two brown bands on the ventral and caudal. Anal red,
with a dark edge, and having two or three blue, black-edged spots behind
each ray. Madras and Bourbon.
496. Callionymus Qrientalis, Bloch. Schn. Preopercular spine
short, with three teeth. The first ray of the first dorsal equals 1/2 the
total length, and the second little shorter : second dorsal and anal nearly
double the height of the body : pectoral about 1/4, and caudal more than
1/5, of the total length. Orange with black spots, and a few smaller
white ones sparsely scattered amongst them. Dorsal and anal with
round brown spots between their rays, also white points on the first of
these fins : anal tinged with blackish, especially towards its margin : three
brown or black bands across the pectoral, and five on the caudal :
ventrals grey. Trauquebar, to 6 inches in length.
Family — B LENNIID^:, Mull.
Pseudobranchise present. Gill-openings of varying extent. Body elongated,
more or less cylindrical. The infraorbital ring of bones does not articulate
with the preopercle. Teeth may be fixed in the jaws, or merely implanted in
the gums : a posterior canine may be present, whilst some genera have molars.
One, two, or three dorsal fins, occupying nearly the entire length of the
back, the spinous portion when distinct being legs, nearly equally or more
developed than the soft : in some the whole fin is entirely composed of spines,
whilst in others none are perceptible. Ventrals when present jugular (except
in PseudoUennius) : they are sometimes rudimentary. Anal with a moderate
or large number of rays, Caudal, when present, may be confluent, with or
distinct from the vertical fins. Scales, when present, generally small. Air-
vessel as a rule absent. Pyloric appendages absent.
This family can be divided thus : —
A. — The spinous and rayed portion of the dorsal fin of somewhat
equal extent.
B. — The dorsal fin mostly composed of spines.
C. — The dorsal fin entirely composed of spines.
D. — The dorsal fin entirely composed of rays.
A. — The spinous and rayed portion of the dorsal fin of somewhat
equal extent.
Genus. — BLENNlUSj Art all.
Pholis, Cuv. & Val.
Branckiottegai* */./•. Gill-openings wide. Body somewhat elongated^
with a short snout. Cleft of mouth narrow. Generally a tentacle «
the orbit. Teeth in a single row, fixed in the jaws : a posterior c/1 ,
( on I h usually present in one or both jaws. Dorsal fin single, the spinous
pnrl'nm bi'iiif/ less or equally developed with the rayed: ventrals jugular,
'xl'imj <>f one x/finr '///'/ ///'« /v//.v : randal distinct. Scales all*
\d pal <>,•}<• aft • •//.
ccxlix
497. Blennius leopardus, Day. D. |f, A. (2 +) 13. Height of
body about 1/3 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 2/7 of length of
head, one diameter apart. A transverse crest of tentacles crossing the
occiput, and a fringed orbicular one, half as long as the eye : one at the
nostrils : two more bifid ones 011 either side of the symphysis of the lower
jaw. No canines. A notch between the two portions of the dorsal fin :
lower eight pectoral rays only connected by membrane in their lower
halves. Brown, becoming white on the chest, and blotched all over with
dark markings, leaving narrow interspaces of the lighter ground colour :
fins spotted. Galle, to 4 inches in length.
498. Blennius Steindachneri, Day. D. fj-, A. (2 +) 16. Height
of body 2/9 of the total length. A small fringed orbital tentacle about
half the diameter of the eye in length : another at the anterior nostril :
a line of about eight fringed tentacles from between the eye to the base of
the dorsal fin. No canines. Dorsal fin not notched. Light olive, with
six indistinct brownish bands, as wide as the ground colour, and extend-
ing to the base of the dorsal fin : the whole of the body and fins dotted
with black. A large black white-edged ocellus between the first and
second dorsal rays. Some vertical red bands on the pectoral and caudal
fins. Anal black, having a narrow white edging. Kurrachee, to 4 inches
in length.
Genus — SAL ARIAS, Cuv.
Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchice. Gill-openings wide. Body
somewhat elongated. Mouth transverse, rather wide : generally a tentacle
above the orbit, especially in the males. Sometimes a crest upon the head.
A row of moveable small teeth in the gums, and usually a posterior curved
canine on either side of the lower jaw -.palate almost invariably edentulous.
Dorsal fin single : a notch exists in some species between the spinous and
rayed portions : ventrals jugular, with one spine and two or three rays.
Scales absent. Air-vessel and pyloric appendages absent.
The fishes of this genus may be thus sub-divided : —
A. Dorsal fin not distinctly notched.
B. „ distinctly notched.
In some species the dorsal fin is more distinctly notched in the im-
mature than in the mature. A crest on the head generally
shows the specimen to be a male, and in these the dorsal fin
is often comparatively higher than in the females. The
presence or absence of an orbital tentacle is occasionally only
a sexual distinction.
A. Dorsal fin not distinctly notched.
499. Salarias tridactylus, Bl. Schn. D. I|i*, A, 26-27. Height
of body 1/9 to 1/10 of the total length. Male with a crest on the head.
A small, simple, orbital tentacle. Canine teeth, when present, small.
Dorsal fin not distinctly notched, but slightly emarginate between the
two portions, it does not extend on to the caudal. Bluish, with irregular
white spots : dorsal with pale oblique streaks : other vertical fins nearly
black. Coasts of Sind and Andamans.
500. Salarias fasciatus, Bl. D. J^L, A. 19-21. Length of head
1/6 to 2/13, height of body 1/4 to 1/5*^ the total length. Anterior
GG
ccl
profile nearly vertical. No crest. A bifid supraorbital tentacle, and one or
two on the nape of the neck. Brown, with yellow and blue dots and spots,
immature ones banded. Throat and chest with yellow bands. Red Sea,
East Coast of Africa, through the seas of India to China, &c.
501. Salarias frenatus, Cuv. & Val. D. 4|, A. 18, V. 1/3.
Length of head 1/5, height of body 1/7 of the total length. Anterior
profile very oblique. No crest. A small fringed tentacle above the
posterior angle of the orbit. Grey, four white blue-edged lines proceed
from the throat to the eye : and one or two of the same colour pass from
one eye to the other. Dorsal with oblique blue and black lines : these
stripes are transverse and undulating on the caudal : anal bluish with the
tips of the rays blackish. Malabar.
B. Dorsal Jin distinctly notched.
502. Salarias quadricornis , Cuv. & Val. D. £J, A. (2 +) 23-24.
Length of head and height of body from 2/11 to 1/6 of the total length.
Snout very obtuse. A crest present. A short simple supraorbital
tentacle, and a fringed nasal one. No canines. Body greenish, with
brown bands forming oblique streaks on the dorsal fin : anal with three
longitudinal bands.
503. Salarias aquipinnis , Giinther. D. ^f, A. 25. Height of
body about 1/10, length of head 1/7 of the total length. No crest. A
short tentacle over the posterior angle of the orbit. No canine teeth.
Olive, with dark bands : dorsal and caudal rays black : anal greyish, having
a black external band with a white margin. Kurrachee, Amboyna.
504. Salarias lineatus, Cuv. & Val. D. J^, A. 23-25. Height
of body 1/6 of the total length. A low crest on the crown of the head
in the males : none in the females. A short bifid orbital tentacle. No
canines. Brownish, with from five to seven longitudinal stripes on the
sides, and also obliquely on the dorsal fin : anal yellowish, edged with
brown. Kurrachee to the Malay Archipelago.
505. Salarias cyanostigma (?), Bleeker. D. £|, A. f£. Length of
head 2/13, height of body 1/8 of the total length. Snout obtuse. A crest.
A simple tentacle over the orbit nearly as long as the eye : a bifid nasal
one. A canine tooth in the lower jaw. Greenish, with cross bands, first
dorsal spotted, it and the anal edged with black. Andamans.
506. Salarias lellus, Gunther. D. _^, A. 22-24. Length of head
1/4, height of body about 1/5 of the total length. Snout obtuse. A
crest on the head. A simple supraorbital tentacle shorter than the eye,
another nasal one. No canine tooth. Brownish, with bluish white dots
most apparent, in the posterior half of the body : both dorsals and caudal
with black lines having white between : they are oblique on the dorsal and
longitudinal on the caudal : anal black edged. Kurrachee, Andamans
to China.
507. Salarias Sumatranus, Bleeker. D. ££, A. 22. Length of
head 1/6, height of body 1/5 of the total length. No crest on the head.
A short, simple, supraorbital tentacle, and another bifid nasal one.
No canine tooth. Greyish green, blackish longitudinal bands on the
first dorsal : oblique yellow stripes on the second, with a row of black
dots along its summit : two or three rows of dots on the anal.
Andamans and Malay Archipelago.
ccli
508. Salarias Liissumieri, Cuv. & Val. D. ^1, A. 22. Height
of body from 1/5 to 1/6 of the total length. No crest on the head. A
long fringed orbital tentacle in the female, not in the male. No canine
tooth. Body banded and spotted : dorsal fin darkish with oblique lines.
East coast of Africa, Seas of India.
509. Salarias periophthalmus, Cuv. & Val. D.^f, A. fj. Length
of head 4/25, height of body 1/7 of the total length. No crest.
Snout very obtuse. A simple supraorbital tentacle, a fringed nasal one.
A canine tooth in the lower jaw. Rose-coloured, with indistinct violet
cross bands, and two rows of blue spots along the side : red spots on. the
head, and a red line behind the eye. The lower half of the dorsal
bluish with oblique streaks, the upper half yellow with red spots :
outer half of anal dark : caudal yellow. Andamans and Malay Archi-
pelago.
510. Salarias unicolor, Ruppell. D. jf, A. 18-19. The height
of the body is 2/11 of the total length. The male has a crest on the
head which is absent in the female. A long fringed orbital tentacle and
a short nasal one. No canine teeth. Dorsal fin not continuous with
the caudal. Colours in the male olive brown with indistinct blackish
blotches along the sides and extended on to the dorsal fin : two or three
rows of blue spots on the body and head. The female olive brown, be-
coming white beneath, and marbled all over with brown lines forming
large insulated spaces. Head and upper two-thirds of the body dotted
with light blue : fins yellowish : dorsal and anal, horizontally and sin-
uously banded in spots : caudal with five or six vertical dark bands.
A brown band, divided by a light blue line at the base of the
pectoral, which is yellowish barred with brown. Red Sea, and Kur-
rachee.
511. Salarias vermiculatus, Cuv. & Val. D. -™-, A. (2 +) 18.
13-15
Length of head and height of body from 2/9 to 1/5 of the total. Snout
obtuse. No crest on the head. A moderately long fringed supraorbital
tentacle, and a small nasal one. Large canine in the lower jaw.
Superiorly brownish, becoming bluish-white inferiorly, with a series of
nine brown bars descending to the lateral line. The body, head, and
fins reticulated with brown lines, enclosing circular or irregularly formed
spaces. East Coast of Africa, Andamans.
512. Salarias marmoratus, Bennett. D. ^f, A. 18. Height of
body 2/11 of the total length. No crest on the head. A long fringed
supraorbital tentacle, having some filaments at its base : a small frontal
and another nasal one. A strong canine tooth. Brownish, marbled
with darker. Ceylon.
Genus — ANDAMIA,
Differs from Salarias in that it possesses a broad adhesive sucker
behind the symphysis of the lower jaw.
51 3. Andamia expansa, Blyth. D. ^f, A. 26. Height of body
1/9 of the total length. A short fringed orbital tentacle, and a small
simple nasal one. No canines. Olive, banded with a darker shade : head
spotted. Fins with dark edges, except the anal, which has a white
margin. Andamans and Nicobars : to 3 or 4 inches in length.
cclii
Genus — PETROSCIRTES, Rupp.
Blennechis, Cuv. & Val. : Aspidontus, Quoy & Gaim.
Branchiostegals six. GUI-openings reduced to a small orifice above
the root of the pectoral Jin. Body somewhat elongated. Snout short or
of moderate length : cleft of mouth narrow : head sometimes with tentacles.
Teeth y a single row of fixed ones in the jaws, generally with a strongly
curved posterior canine. Dorsal fin single (a semi-detached portion has
been recorded in one species): ventrals jugular, with two or three rays. No
scales. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages absent.
514. Petroscirtes punctatus, Cuv. & Val. D. ^f, A. 23. Height
of the body equals 1/6 of the total length. Upper canine half the size
of the lower. The dorsal fin reaches to the root of the caudal. Grey,
with three rows of small dark green spots. Bombay.
515. Petroscirtes cyprinoides, Cuv. & Val. D. 30. A. 19-20.
Height of body 2/11 of the total length. Dorsal fin does not reach the
root of the caudal. A white band along the side, above which are seven
vertical bars : caudal yellowish. Bombay (?)
516. Petroscirtes breviceps, Cuv. & Val. Height of body 4 times
and 2/3 in the total length. Dorsal fin reaches to the root of the caudal.
A black lateral band : dorsal with black dots : caudal yellowish. Bay
of Bengal.
Family — S PHYRjENIDJS, Agassiz.
Percoidei, pt. Cuv.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchise. Body elongate, sub-cylindrical. Eyes
lateral, of moderate size. Cleft of mouth deep. Teeth in the jaws large and
cutting : present on palate, none on vomer. Two short dorsal fins remote
from each other : anal similar to the second dorsal : ventral 'abdominal, situ-
ated opposite the first dorsal spine, and consisting of one spine and five rays.
Scales small, cycloid. Lateral line continuous. Air-vessel present, bifurcated
anteriorly. Pyloric appendages in moderate numbers or numerous.
Genus — SpHYRJENA, Artedi.
Definition as in the family.
517. Sphyrana jello, Cuv. & Val. Jellow, Tel. D. 5/j, A. |,
L. 1. 120. L. tr. 35. Length of head 2/7 to 1/4, height of body 1/9 of
the total length. Anteriorly a short fleshy appendage to the mandible.
The firs_t dorsal and ventrals commence on a vertical line opposite
the end of the pectoral fin. Superiorly grey, becoming white on the
abdomen. On the upper part of the side a festooned band intersecting
the lateral line. Ventrals whitish : the other fins yellowish with fine
black points, most numerous towards their margins. Red Sea, east coast
of Africa, seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond : attaining
at least 4 feet in length.
518. Spkyrana Forsteri, Cuv. & Val. D. 5/J, A. |, L. 1. 110. L.
tr. 30. Length of head nearly 1/4, height of body 1/9 of the total
length. Anteriorly a conical tubercle on the mandible, and about 19
strong trenchant teeth. The first dorsal commences on a line opposite
the end of the pectoral fin : the ventrals arise under the posterior half of
the pectorals and anterior to the first dorsal. Greenish above, silvery
beneath. Dorsal and caudal violet, the other fins yellowish. Bay of
Bengal, Malay Archipelago and beyond.
ccliii
519. Sphyrana Dussumieri, Cuv. & Val. D. 5/£, A. |, L. 1. 95,
L. tr. 10/16. Length of head 2/7, height of body 2/15 of the total
length. A short fleshy appendage to the lower jaw, and about 22 tren-
chant teeth. The first dorsal and ventrals commence on a vertical line
opposite the end of the pectoral fin. Bluish above, silvery beneath : dor-
sal, caudal, and anal black with white tips. Seas of India : attaining
at least 4J feet in length.
520. Sphymna obtusata, Cuv. & Val. D 5/£, A. ^, L. 1. 90. L. tr.
12/15, Csec. pyl. 24. Length of head 3/10, height of body 1/6 to 1/7 of the
total length. Lower jaw with a very small fleshy appendage anteriorly.
Greyish-green superiorly, clouded beneath the lateral line : abdomen
white : pectorals greyish, the other fins yellowish. Seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago and beyond : attaining at least 2£ feet in length.
521. Sphyrcena Commersonii, Cuv & Val. D. 5/-g, A. J, L. 1.
80-90. Length of head from 2/7 to 1/4, height of body from 1/8 to
1/9 of the total length. Anteriorly a conical tubercle on the mandible,
and from 15 to 18 strong posterior teeth. The first dorsal commences
on a vertical line opposite the end of the pectorals, whilst the ventrals
arise a little anterior to this line. Bluish green superiorly, silvery be-
neath : dorsal, caudal, and anal violet. Seas of India to the Malay Archi-
pelago.
Family — A THERINIDJE, Guntker.
Branchiostegals five or six : pseudobranchiee. Four gills : gill-opening wide.
Body more or less elongated and somewhat sub-cylindrical. Eyes lateral.
Gape of mouth of moderate width : cleft not very deep. Teeth minute.
Two dorsal fins, not conjoined, the spines of the first feeble, and less in num-
ber than the rays of the second, which is similar to the anal : ventrals ab-
dominal, with one spine and five rays. Scales of medium size, cycloid. Lateral
line indistinct. Pyloric appendages, if present, few. Air-vessel present.
Vertebrae numerous in the abdominal and caudal portions.
Genus — ATHERINA) Artedi.
Body somewhat sub -cylindrical, with slightly compressed sides. Snout
more or less obtuse, with the cleft of the mouth oblique, extending back-
wards to at least as far as to below the anterior edge of the orbit. Teeth
very minute, but usually present on jaws and palate. Ventrals at some dis-
tance posterior to the pectorals. Scales of moderate size. Air-vessel pre-
sent. Pyloric appendages, when present, few. Ova comparatively very
large. A silvery lateral band.
522. Atherina pinguis, Lacep. D. 6/-^, A. ^^ L- J- 42-45,
L. tr. 7. Length of head 3/14, height of body 3/17 of the total length.
Diameter of eye 2/5 in length of head, and much longer than the snout.
Upper jaw overlapping the lower. Teeth distinct in jaws, vomer and
palatines. The silvery lateral band includes the whole of the third and
the upper quarter of the fourth rows of scales : a blackish mark on the
posterior end of the pectoral. East coast of Africa, seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago and beyond.
523. Atherina Forskalu, Rupp. Ko-re-dah, Andam. D. 5-6/ 1
A. i^T4, L. 1. 40, L. tr. 7. Length of head 3/13, height of body 1/6
of the total length. Diameter of eye 2/5 in length of head and much
longer than the snout. Jaws equal in front. Teeth distinct in jaws,
ccliv
vomer, and palatines. Margins of scales smooth. The silvery lateral
band includes the whole of the third and the upper half of the fourth
rows of scales. Red Sea, east coast of Africa, seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago.
524. Atherina duodecimalis , Bleeker. D. 5/£, A |y, L. 1. 35.
Length of head 4/17, height of body 2/11 of the total length. Diame-
ter of eyes nearly 1/2 of length of head, and twice the length of the
snout. No black dots along the sides of the body. Ceylon and Malay
Archipelago.
I — M u G i L i D M .
Branchiostegals from four to six : pseudobranchiae. Gill-openings wide : gills four.
Form of body oblong, compressed, whilst the bead aiid anterior portion may
be depressed. Eyes lateral, with or without adipose lids. Mouth narrow or
of moderate width. Opercles unarmed. Teeth very fine, sometimes absent.
Two dorsal fins, the first consisting of four stiff spines : anal slightly longer
than the second dorsal : ventrals abdominal and suspended from an elongated
shoulder bone, consisting of one spine and five rays. Scales cycloid, rarely
ctenoid. Lateral line absent. Pyloric appendages generally few. Vertebra 24.
Genus — MUGIL, Artedi.
Branchiostegals from four to six : pseudobranchia. Eyes with or
without an adipose lid. Mouth more or less transverse, with a shallow
cleft, and the anterior edge of the mandible sharp. Teeth, when present,
minute. Pyloric appendages generallg few ('2 — 10^1. Upper portion of
the stomach very muscular.
A. Adipose eyelid well developed, sometimes covering at least the
posterior third of the iris : upper lip usually not very thick.
525. Mugil carinatus ? (Ehreng), Cuv. & Val. D. 4/£, A. f ,
L. 1. 40-42, L. tr. 12. Csec. pyl. vi. Length of head 1/5, height of
body nearly 1/5 of the total length. Eye with a broad adipose lid ante-
riorly and posteriorly, snout shorter than the eye : preorbital scaly,
scarcely emarginate or denticulated : end of maxilla visible. Each
scale with a raised line along its centre : 25 scales between the snout and
the spinous dorsal : an elongated scale in the axil, and also along the side
of the dorsal fin : vertical fins scaled. Caudal slightly emarginate ; pec-
toral as long as the head without the snout. Cheeks golden : dorsal and
caudal with minute dark spots, making the upper edge and posterior
margin of the second dorsal blackish. Common along the coasts of
India. Appears to be very similar to M. Speigleri, Bleeker.
526. Mugil cunnesius, Cuv. & Val. Kunnesee, Tel. D. 4/J-, A. f ,
L. 1. 42-43, L. tr. 13. Length of head 1/5, height of body nearly 1/5
of the total length. Eye with adipose membrane. Preorbital neither
notched nor denticulated : end of maxilla visible. Twenty-two scales be-
tween the snout and the spinous dorsal : vertical fins not scaled. Dorsal
and caudal fins with indistinct dark edges : anal with a dark mark along
its centre : pectoral dark grey, with a white posterior and inferior edge,
and a darkish superior one sometimes forming a dark spot in the axil.
Seas of India and Malay Archipelago.
527. Mngil parsia, Ham. Buch.* Tarrui, Beng. D. 4/|, A. |,
L. 1. 35, L. tr. 12. Csec. pyl. 5. Length of head 1/5, height of body
* Bleeker, a most accurate observer, gives L. 1. 40 —45. Dr. Gunther stated his de-
scription, accepted above, was drawn up from Hamilton Buchanan's 'types. ' Arguing now
cclv
2/9 of the total length. Posterior adipose lid well developed. End of
maxilla visible. Twenty-one scales between the snout and the dorsal fin.
Second dorsal and anal scaly. Silvery, without marks. Seas of India.
528. Mugil longimanus^ Giinther. D. 4/£, A. |, L. 1. 35.
Length of head from 1/5 to 4/21, height of body from 3/14 to 1/5 of
the total length. Eye with both anterior and posterior adipose lids :
upper lip thick. The maxilla is hidden when the mouth is closed. Silvery.
Seas of India and Malay Archipelago.
529. Mugil engeli, Bleeker. D. 4/|, A. f, L. 1. 33—34, L. tr.
10-11. Length of head 2/9, height of body 3/5 of the total length.
Eye with a broad anterior and posterior adipose lid. The maxilla is
quite hidden by the preorbital, which is scaly, slightly emarginate, and
indistinctly denticulated. Eighteen rows of scales between the snout and
the dorsal fin. Coloration uniform. Seas of India to the Malay Archi-
pelago.
530. Mugil planiceps, Cuv. & Val. Sanffon, Beng. D. 4/J, A. f,
L. 1. 33-35, L. tr. 11, Csec. pyl. 5. Length of head 3/14, height of
body 1/6 of the total length. Eye with a posterior adipose lid. Lips
thin. Extremity of maxilla not covered by the preorbital. Twenty
scales between the snout and dorsal fin : soft vertical fins scaly. A darkish
line along each row of scales. This species I take to be M. cejphalus ?
or M. bangon, m. s. H. B. Coasts of India and China.
531. Mugil Kelaartii, Gunther, D. 4/-J, A. f, L. 1. 32—33, L. tr.
12. Length of head 1/5, height of body 2/9 of the total length. Eye
with a broad anterior and posterior adipose lid, one diameter from end of
snout. Upper lip thin. Maxillary hidden by the preorbital, which is
slightly notched anteriorly, and with a rounded denticulated extremity.
Nineteen rows of scales between the snout and the dorsal fin. Silvery.
Ceylon and Philippine Islands : to 4| inches in length,
532. Mugil Sundanensis, Bleeker. D. 4/£, A. -|, L. 1. 30—32.
Length of head 1/5, height of body 2/9 of the total length. Adipose
eyelid well developed. Maxillary not; concealed by preorbital, which
latter is notched anteriorly. Anterior half of anal before the origin of
the second dorsal : caudal emarginate. Silvery : caudal with a black
edge. Bay of Bengal to the Malay Archipelago.
533. Mugil loevis, Ham. Buch. m. s. M. Nepalensis? Gunther.
D. 4/1., A. |, L. 1. 29-30, L. tr. 11, Ca3c. pyl. 4. Length of head 2/11,
height of body 1/5 of the total length. Eye with an adipose anterior
and posterior lid, the latter most developed. Extremity of maxilla not
hidden by the preorbital, which is angularly bent, indistinctly denticu-
lated at its extremity and scaled. Scales angular : no elongated one at
the axilla, but one along the side of the first dorsal fin : soft dorsal and
anal scaled. Sixteen rows between the snout and the dorsal fin. Darker
above than below, Seas of India, ascending rivers : attains at least 6J
inches in length. This is figured in H. B's drawings, No. 69.
from observations in the preface to Catalogue of Fishes, Vol. Ill, the last three lines of page
iv. of Preface, and Proc. Zool. Soc., 1872, p. 877, I cannot help thinking that there may
still be room for examination and enquiry. H. B. only give 8 soft rays to the anal fin, and
does not show that either it or the anal are scaly.
f The specimen in the British Museum is said to have come from the " East Indies,
Presented by G. R. Waterhouse, Esq." If H, B's, type, it must be of his " M. cephalus ? or
M, bangon, Ms.
cclvi
534. Mugil cephalotm, Cuv. & Val. D. 4/|, A. -^_, L. 1. 38—40,
L. tr. 14-15. Length of head 1/5, height of body nearly 1/5 of the
total length. Eye with a broad adipose lid. Maxillary entirely hidden
by the preorbital. Twenty-one scales between the snout and the dorsal fin.
Silvery, with rather shining lines along the rows of scales. Red Sea,
seas of India to China and Japan.
535. Mugil sudviridis, Cuv. & Val. D. 4/£, A. f, L. 1. 30, L. tr.
11. Length of head 3/16, height of body 2/9 of the total length.
End of the maxillary not hidden by the preorbital, which latter is angu-
larly bent and denticulated at its extremity. Eighteen scales between the
snout and the dorsal fin. Greenish, with golden reflections. Seas of
India.
536. Mugil Cantoris, Bleeker. D. 4/_J_, A. _J_, L. 1. 33. Length
of head from 2/9 to 2/11, height of body from 3/13 to 3/14 of the total
length. Eye with anterior and posterior adipose lids. Maxillary entire-
ly concealed by the preorbital, which is distinctly notched. Second
dorsal much higher than long : anal scaled. Calcutta.
537. Mugil poicilus, Day. D. 4/£, A. f, L. 1. 32, L. tr. 10, Csec.
pyl. 5. Length of head and height of body about 1/5 of the total
length. Eye with anterior and posterior adipose lids. Maxillary not
concealed by the preorbital, which latter is bent, having a rounded ser-
rated margin, and scaled. Twenty rows of scales between the snout and
the dorsal fin. Vertical soft fins largely covered by scales. Almost each
scale on the body has an irregularly formed, usually round, central hole,
which is deep black. From Bombay (where they appear to arrive about
November and continue throughout the cold season) down the Malabar
coast : attaining about 8 inches in length.
538. Mugilcnn*umboo,Dij. D. 4/|, A. , L.I. 34, L. tr. 17.
Length of head 1 /5, height of body 1/5 of the total length. Eye with
an anterior and posterior adipose lid. End of maxilla not hidden by the
preorbital, the extremity of which latter is rounded and denticulated.
Twenty-one rows of scales between the snout and the dorsal fin. Lower
half of second dorsal and basal two-thirds of anal scaled. A dark mark
along the centre of each scale : a dark axillary spot at base of pectoral :
caudal darkest at its extremity.
B. ' Adipose eyelids not developed : upper lip usually very thick.
539. Mugil caruleo-maculatus, (Lace'p), Bleeker. D. 4/|, A. |*
L. 1. 38, L. tr. 12. Length of head from 3/17 to 1/5, height of body 2/9 of
the total length. Maxillary concealed by the preorbital, which latter is not
emarginate and hardly denticulated. Second dorsal and anal scaled and
commence opposite one another : caudal forked. Silvery, with a black
spot at the axil on the base of the pectoral. Bay of Bengal, Malay
Archipelago.
540. Mugil Ceylonensis, Gunther. D. 4/|, A. f, L. 1. 32, L. tr. 12.
Length of head and height of body each 3/14 of the total length. Maxillary
concealed by the preorbital, which has a slight notch anteriorly, a rounded
end and denticulated edge. Second dorsal commences above the first
anal ray, both fins are scaled. Ceylon : to 5 inches in length.
cclvii
541. Mugil Troschelli, Bleeker. D. 4/|, A. f, L. 1. 31-32, L. tr.
10-11. Length of head and height of body each 1/5 of the total length.
Maxillary not concealed by the preorbital, which latter is scaled, slightly
emarginate and indistinctly denticulated. Eighteen or 19 rows of scales
between the snout and the dorsal fin. Anterior third of second dorsal before
the origin of the anal. Second dorsal and anal scaled. Silvery. Seas
of India to the Malay Archipelago.
542. Mugil Waigiensis, Quoy. & Gaim. D. 4/yk, A. f, L. 1. 26-27,
L. tr. 9, Csec. pyl. 10 and bifurcated. Height of body and length of
head each 2/9 of the total length. Lips thin. The maxilla is not quite
concealed by the preorbital, the extremity of which is rounded, with a
denticulated margin. Sixteen rows of scales between the snout and dorsal
fin : soft dorsal and anal scaled. Fins deep black, and a dark streak along
the centre of each row of scales. Red Sea, seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago and beyond.
543. Mugil amarulus, Cuv. & Val. D. 4/i0, A. |. Body com-
pressed, and the head much shorter than the height of the body. A
short axillary scale. Uniform, said to resemble a carp. Arrian-coupon
river at Pondicherry during November and December. If it is identical
with M< oligolepis, Bleeker, it has L. 1. 26, L. tr. 10-11. Height of
body 1/4, length of head 1/5 of the total length. Maxillary concealed
by the preorbital, which latter is emarginate and denticulated.
544. Mugil macrocheilus, Bleeker. D. 4/|, A. f, L. 1. 41-42.
Length of head 5/27, height of body 4/21 of the total length. Lips
fringed. Maxilla nearly concealed by the preorbital, which is not
notched. A black spot superiorly at the base of the pectoral fin. Anda-
mans to the Malay Archipelago.
Family — A ULOSTOMATID^, Cantor.
Fistularida, pt., Mull. : Aulostomatoidei, pt. Bleeker.
Branchiostegals five to seven : pseudobranchise. Gills four, attached to the hume-
ral arch. Form of body elongated : the anterior bones of the skull produced,
forming a long tube, and having a small mouth at its anterior extremity.
Teeth small. Spinous dorsal, wben present, formed of isolated spines : soft
dorsal and anal of moderate length : ventrals abdominal with six rays, no
spine, and separated from the pubic bones which are attached to the humeral
arch. Scales small or none, but parts of the skeleton or else dormal produc-
tions may be in the form of external plates. Air-vessel large. Pyloric
appendages few. Vertebras numerous,
Genus — Fistularia, Linn.
Solenostomus , sp. Klein and Gronov. : Cannorhynchus, Cantor.
Branch iostegals seven. Mouth slightly cleft. Dorsal and anal fins com-
posed entirely of undivided rays : caudal forked, with its two central rays
very elongated and filiform. No scales, but some bony casing behind the
head above and below.
545. Fistularia immaculata, Comm. Goorum., Tel. D. 13-15,
P, 13, A. 14-15, V. 6. Length of head to end of caudal (excluding the
filaments) 2/5 of the total length. Eye, 1J diameter in the postorbital
portion of the head. A serrated ridge from the anterior superior angle
of the orbit to the nostrils. Brown, becoming dirty white beneath :
HH
^ cclviii
sometimes with light spots. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago
and beyond.
Family — C ENTRISCIP^:, pt. Sleeker.
Fistularia, pt. Muller : Awphisiloidei, pt. Bleeker.
Branchiostegals three to four: pseudobranchiae. Gills four. Form of body oblong
or elevated and compressed : the anterior bones of the skull produced, form-
ing a long tube and having a small mouth at its anterior extremity. Teeth
absent. Two dorsal fins, the first short and having of one its spines strong :
the soft dorsal and anal of moderate extent : ventrals abdominal, spineless and
rudimentary. Scales, if present, small-: the body either covered with a cuirass
or ossifications which are not confluent with one another. Air-vessel large.
Pyloric appendages absent. Vertebrae few.
Genus — A^PHISILE (Klein), Cuv.
Branchiostegals three or four : pseudobran-chia. Gill-openings of
moderate width. Body elongated and strongly compressed. A dorsal
cuirass formed by portions of the skeleton. Txeth absent. Two dorsal Jins
situated far back: ventrals rudimentary. Air-vessel large. Pyloric appen-
dages absent.
546. Amphisile scutata, Linn. Marri kola} Tarn. B. III. D.
3/10-12, P. 10, V. 3, A. 12, C., 10 Vert, 6/1 I. The dorsal cuirass ends in
a long spine not confluent with any in th? dorsal fin. Whitish. Seas of
India to China.
'— -T KACHYPTERID.E, Gunther.
Tcenoidei, pt. Cuv : Gymnelridce, Gray.
Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchise present. Body elongated, and strongly
compressed. Gill-openings wide : gills four. Eyes lateral. Cleft of mouth
slight. Dentition feeble. A single dorsal fin occupying the whole length
of the back, with a detached anterior portion, the whole composed of rays
that are neither branched nor articulated : anal absent : caudal not in the lon-
gitudinal axis of the fish, or else rudimentary : ventrals thoracic. Pyloric
appendages numerous. Vertebrae many. Bones soft.
Genus — REGALECUS, Brunn.
Gymnetrus, Bl. Schn.
Each ventral Jin reduced to a long filament) dilated at the extremity :
caudal rudimentary or absent.
547. Regalecus Russellii* Shaw. D. 4-5/320. Height of body
1/20 of the length. Teeth absent. Caudal rays distinct : ventrals in
the form of two filaments as long as the rays of the crest. Silvery, with
yellowish fins : second dorsal with a dark edge. Coromandel coast : to
2 feet 8 inches in length.
* Jerdon observes, " XipUchttys Russellii, Sw. Russ. 39. I one day procured two
specimens of this very curious species of Gymnetrus, »vbich Swaiuson has named from
Russell's figure, which however is very defective. Its tail ends in a long filament, and the
dorsal and anal fins are much higher than is there represented." M. J. L. & S., 1851, p.
139. Jerdon's specimens must have been an entirely different fish, if no mispriut has
occurred.
c'dix
Family—? OMACENTRID-E,* Richardson.
Scianoidei, pt., Cuv.: Labroidei ctenoidei, Miiller: Ctenolabridce, Owen.
Branchiostegals from five to seven : pseudobranchise present. Gills three and a
half. Eyes lateral. Body more or less short and compressed. Bones of head
variously armed or smooth. Teeth in jaws feeble, palate edentulous. A
single dorsal fin with the spines equal in number to or somewhat less than
the rays, very rarely more : the soft anal similar to the soft dorsal, and with
two or three spines: ventrals thoracic with one spine and five rays. Scales
ctenoid. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages few.
Genus— AMPHlPmON (Bl. Schn.), Cuv.
Cor acinus, sp. Gronov.
Branchiostegals five : pseudobranchitz. All the opercles and preorbital
denticulated, those on the opercle and subopercle being almost spinate.
Teeth in the jaws in one row, conical and small. Scales of moderate or
rather small size. Lateral line ceases below the end of the dorsal fin.
Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages few.
548. Amphiprion ephippium, Bloch. D. J|^, A. T25, L. 1. 55, L.
tr. 7/8, Csec. pyl. 2. The immature, A tricolor, Gunther, are of a brown-
ish colour, becoming of an orange tinge on the abdomen and free portion
of the tail : a pearl-coloured band goes from the nape across the opercles :
the ventral externally blackish. The adult becomes of a dirty yellow,
the white band being lost, and the black part of the ventral changes to
brown. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
549. Amphiprion percula, Lacep. Ed-ole-jo-do-dah, Andam, or
' Turtle's stomach/ because they are generally found inside Actinia, which
are looked upon as those organs. D. ^, A. _1_, L. 1. 55, L. tr. 7/23.
Length, of head 1/4, height of body 1/3 of the total length. Ground
colour bright yellow, with three broad milk-white cross bands having a
black edging, the anterior being convex, the convexity being forwards
over the hind part of the head. The centre one from the middle of the
dorsal fin to the vent, and the posterior one over the free portion of the
tail. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
550. Amphiprion intermedius, Schleg. D. (MJ£, A. *_, L. 1. 50-55,
L. tr. 6/21. In the two specimens I have examined from the Andamans,
the length of the head 2/7, height of body 2/5 of the total length.
Brownish, with a curved milk-white band from the nape over the opercle
and sub opercle : a second from the last few dorsal spines to in front of
the base of the anal, it is rather produced anteriorly : a third over the
free portion of the tail. Fins brownish edged with black, and tipped with
white. Andamans and Malay Archipelago.
551. Amphiprion Clarkii, Cuv. & Val. D. J5L, A. {\, L. 1. 54-55,
L. tr. 6/19. Length of head 1/4, height of body 2/5 of the total length.
Light brown, with three milk-white cross bands, the first, passing from
* The following families of Acanthopterygiaus are left together as they and the
genera Gerre.? and Euctenogobius at least, form the Order, AcantJiopterygii pharynaoana-
thi, Mull : denned as diifering from the remainder of the Acanthopterygians, owing to
the inferior pharyngeal bones being coalesced, and with a median longitudinal suture.
cclx
in front of the dorsal fin, goes over the opercles just touching1 the pos-
terior edge of the orbit : the second, commencing at the base of the last
five dorsal spines, passes to the front of the base of the anal fin : the
third crosses the free portion of the tail. Andaman Islands to the Malay
Archipelago and beyond.
552. Amphiprion bifasciatum, Bloch. D. -1L_, A -L, L.I. 50-55.
13*15 12-13
L. tr. J^. Brownish black, with two milk-white cross bands : the
anterior from the nape passes over the opercles just touching the pos-
terior edge of the orbit : the second from the last three spines and first
few dorsal rays is continued downward to the middle of the body, and
backward to the summit of all the dorsal rays : caudal black with a white
upper and lower edge.
553. Amphiprion akallopisus, Bleeker. The specimen in the Cal-
cutta Museum is bleached, but appears to belong to this species. D. T9T,
^L, A. T2y, L. 1. 60. Length of head 2/7, height of body nearly 1/2 of the
total length. Apparently orange, lightest on the head, chest and base
of caudal : a light band runs from the orbit along the base of the dorsal
fin to the caudal. Andamans (to the Malay Archipelago).
Genus — PltEMNAS, Cuv.
Branchiostegals five or six: pseudobranchia. All the opercles
serrated: a long strong spine at the posterior edge of the preorbital.
Teeth in a single row, conical, and small. Two anal spines. Scales of
moderate size. The lateral line ceases below the end of the dorsal fin. An
air-vessel. Pyloric appendages three.
554. Premnas biaculeatus, Bloch. D. ±™, A. _L_, L. 1. 50-60
16-18 13-15
Csec. pyl. 3, Vert. 12/14. Length of head 1/4, height of body 2/5 of
the total length. Chestnut brown, fins edged with black. A broad
white band margined with black, passes over the occiput and on to the
opercles and sub-opercle : a second from the three last dorsal spines to
in front of the base of the anal : a third over the free portion of the
caudal. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
Genus — DASCYLLUS, Ctiv.
Tetradrachmum, Cantor.
Branchioslegals five : pseudobranchice. Preopercle, and occasionally
the preorbital are serrated. Teeth villiform in a narrow band the outer
being somewhat the larger. Anal fin with two spines. Scales large or of
moderate size. Lateral line ceases below the soft dorsal, but is continued
along the central row of scales in the form of a circular hole in each.
Air-vessel large. Pyloric appendages two or three.
555. Dascyllus aruanus, Linn. D. |-|, A. &, L. 1. 25-27, L. tr.
3/11, Cffic. pyl. 3, Vert. 12/14. Length of head 1/4, height of body
nearly 1/2 of the total length. Pearl white, with three vertical black
bands, the anterior descending from the first three dorsal spines through
the eye over the snout to the under surface of the lower jaw : the second
from the sixth to the ninth dorsal spines to the ventral fins, which are
black : the third from the base of the soft dorsal to the anal : caudal
cclxi
dark, light posteriorly. Eastern Coast of Africa through the seas of India
to Polynesia, &c. : it is much rarer in Western than in Eastern India,
and numerous at the Andamans, Nicobars, and Burma.
Genus — PoMACENTEUS (Lacep), Cuv.
Pristotis, Hupp.
Branchiostegals five: pseudobranckice. Preopercle and usually in-
fraorbital ring serrated. Teeth small, compressed : the crowns smooth or
emarginated. Two anal spines. Scales rather large. Lateral line ceases
below the soft dorsal fin. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages few.
556. Pomacentrus Jerdoni, (*} Day. D. if, A. T2T, L. 1. 34, L.
tr. 5/11. Length of head 1/5, height of body 2/7 of the total length.
Preopercle finely serrated on its vertical margin, more coarsely at its
angle. Infraorbital ring entire. Teeth compressed into a single row
of about thirty. Olive, becoming light below : seven rows of light blue
spots running across the gill cover : one row along the suborbitals, and
one over the snout. A row of light lines along the centre of the scales
on the sides. A black spot at the base of the pectoral. Fins dark
coloured. Base of caudal barred in lines. Madras, to 5 inches in length.
557. Pomacentrus trilineatus (Ehren), Cuv. & Val. D. |f, A. T2^-,
L. 1. 28, L. tr. 3/9. Height of body 4/11 in the total length. Preor-
bital denticulated with two strong teeth anteriorly. Olivaceous : caudal
yellow : each scale with one or two blue spots : three to five blue lines
on the forehead, the outer of which are continued on to the nape, and
sometimes along the base of the dorsal fin. A dark round spot on the
opercle : a black spot margined with blue across the free portion of the
tail. The immature have a similar spot on the anterior third of the soft
dorsal. Red Sea, East Coast of Africa, Nicobars, and beyond.
558. Pomacentrus punctatus, Quoy. & Gaim. D. 1***, A. _ ?_
f J 15-14 13-14*
L. 1. 27, L. tr. 3/9, Csec. pyl. 3. Length of head 2/9, height of body
3/8 of the total length. Preorbital nearly as deep as long, denticulated.
Brownish, head with irregular blue dots, and one on each scale. A black
spot anteriorly edged with white across the free portion of the tail:
opercle with a dark spot superiorly. Red Sea, Mauritius, and Andamans.
559. Pomacentrus Bankanensis, Bleeker. D. -}-|, A. 2 , L. 1.
26-28, L. tr. 3/9. Height of body 3/8 of the total length. Preorbital
denticulated. Brownish : two blue lines along the forehead anteriorly
converging on the snout and posteriorly extended on to the back : two
more through the eye to the maxilla. A dark blue mark on the opercle :
each scale with a blue spot, and a black white- edged ocellus at the base
of the ninth to eleventh dorsal spines. Andamans, Nicobars, and Malay
Archipelago to China.
560. Pomacentrus vanicolensis, Cuv. & Yal. D. ||, A. T2¥, L. 1.
26, L. tr. 2i/9. Length of head 2/7, height of body 2/5 of the total
length. Preorbital and suborbital ring of bones serrated, the former
(*) Dr. Gunther has a genus Lepidozygus separated from Pomacentrus on account of
the increased number of scales (L. 1. 36), quite a peculiar physiognomy, and by a different
dentition. The above seems ' the missing link.'
cclxii
longer than deep. Preopercle denticulated : two opercular spines. Third
and fourth dorsal spines the longest. Brownish : a black spot having a
light anterior edge over the base of the free portion of the tail : a dark
spot on the opercle. Dorsal, anal and caudal fins dark (spec. 3^- inches
long). The immature is said to have a dark spot in the middle of the
soft dorsal. Andamans (and Vanicolo).
561. Pomacentrus bifasciatus, Bleeker. D. |£, A. -£%, L. L 25.
Height of body 1/3 of the total length. Preorbital entire. Yellow,
with a curved blue line on the preorbital : a black band from the nape
over the opercles, and a second below the last dorsal spines. Fins
yellow. Andamans and Malay Archipelago.
562. Pomacentrus trimaculatus , Cuv. & Val. D. |f, A. •&, L. 1.
28. Height of body 1/3 of the total length. Preorbital serrated.
Violet, with two transverse blue lines between the orbits : two or three
large blackish spots along the back : bluish spots on the scales along the
bases of the dorsal and anal fins : dorsal with two blue horizontal bands :
anal with one. Andamans, Malay Archipelago to China.
563. Pomacentrus albofasciatus, Schleg. Height of body 1/3 in the
total length. Suborbital ring of bones serrated, preorbital entire. Dark
olive, with bluish spots on the cheeks : a curved blue line below the eye,
and a broad vertical yellowish band underneath the last dorsal spines :
sometimes a black spot on the base of the last few dorsal rays, and at the
base of the pectoral. Andamans and Malay Archipelago.
Genus — GLYPHIDODON (Lacep) , Cuv.
Euschistodus, Hypspops, sp., Gill. Parma, Gunther.
Branchiostegals five or six: pseudobranchics. Body short, compressed.
Cleft of mouth small. Opercles entire. Teeth compressed and in a single
row, sometimes the alternate ones being similar. A single dorsal fin icith
the spines rather more or less, or equal in number to the rays : anal with
two spines. Scales of moderate size. The tubular portion of the lateral
line ceases below the end of the dorsal fin, but is continued in the form of
minute circular orifices. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages few.
564. Glyphidodon sordidus, Forsk. Chdk-mud-dah, Andam. : Gala-
moiapGta,Td.T>. ^ A. ^ L. 1. 29-30, L. tr. 4/12, Vert. 12/14.
Length jof head 1/5, height of body nearly 2/5 of the total length.
Teeth very narrow. Vertical fins somewhat rounded : caudal deeply
forked. Greenish-brown with five or six darkish vertical bands, broader
than the ground colour : a dark spot across the summit of the free por-
tion of the tail.' Immature with the anterior half of the spinous dorsal
black. Red Sea, seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
565. Glyphidodon affinis, Gunther. D. ||, A. &, L. 1. 29, L. tr.
4/11. Height of body nearly 2/5 of the total length. Teeth very
narrow. Vertical fins angular : caudal forked. Body with six dark
vertical bands narrower than the ground colour, the last being over the
free portion of the tail. Andamans and China.
566. Glyphidodon ccelest.inus (Soland) . Cuv. & Val. Eahi'i pofa/i,
Tel. D. -jjj, A.' L. 1. 29-30, L. tr. 4/11, Vert. 11/15. Length of
cclxiii
head 1/4, height of body 2/5 of the total length. Soft dorsal produced
into a point : caudal forked. Brownish, with five vertical dark cross bands
which are not wider than the ground colour : caudal sometimes with a
black upper and lower border. Bed Sea through the seas of India and
beyond.
567. GlypTiidodon notatus, Day. D. -J-f, A. r2-, TJ. 1. 30, L. tr.
5/12. Brownish, each scale with a light centre. White vertical bands
pass from the back, the anterior from the first dorsal spine to the base of
the pectoral : the second from the middle spine to the base of the ven-
tral : the third from the last three spines to the anal : and the fourth
over the free portion of the tail : a black spot in the axil : caudal whitish.
Andamans : to 3^ inches in length.
568. Qlypkidodon unimaculatus , Cuv. & Val. D. -J-J, A. _J_, L. 1.
26, L. tr. 2J/8. Length of head nearly 1/4, height of body 2/5 of the
total length. Teeth very slender, the alternate ones being posterior and
narrower to the front row. Greenish, each scale having a bluish transverse
mark : a jet black line along the upper part of the free portion of the
tail. Bay of Bengal, Andamans, Borneo.
569. Glyplndodon antjerius, (Kuhl. & v. Hass.), Cuv. & Val.
D. ^ A. jA_, L. 1. 26-28, L. tr. 2J/9. Length of head 2/7, height
of body 1/2 of the total length. Teeth slender, with a posterior nar-
rower set that are alternate with the front row. Ccerulean-blue above the
lateral line, and a black ocellus at the end of the dorsal fin : in one
specimen two ocelli at this place. This fish is very variously marked,
and most of the markings are absent in the adults. East coast of Africa,
through the seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
12-1 S
570. Glyphidodon Batyanensis, Bleeker. D. 15^3, A. T2^-, L. 1. 25.
Length of head 1/4, height of body 2/5 of the total length. Head and
anterior portion of the body violet : cheeks dotted with blue, and two
blue lines from the eye to the snout : sides of the body, its posterior
extremity and fins, yellow, except the spinous dorsal which is violet : a
brown spot in the axil. Andamans and Malay Archipelago.
571. Glyphidodon Bengalensis, Block D. ||, A. f^, L. 1. 30, L. tr.
4/11. The height of the body 4/7 of the total length, excluding the
caudal fin. Soft dorsal produced into a point. Body with seven dark
vertical bands, the last across the free portion of the tail. Seas of India
to the Malay Archipelago.
572. Glyphidodon Cochinensis, Day. D. -f-f-, A. loin, L. 1. 25-28,
L. tr. 3/8. Length of head 2/11, height of body 1/3 of the total length.
Two opercular spines. Soft dorsal and anal very elongated and pointed.
Purplish black, rather lighter on the abdomen, edges of scales sometimes
with a lighter tinge : pectoral not so dark as the other fins. Cochin and
the Andamans.
573. Glyphidodon Sindensis, Day. D. j£, A. •&, L. 1. 26, L. tr.
3 J/10. Length of head nearly 1/4, height of body 3/8 of the total length.
Eyes, diameter nearly 1/3 of length of head, 3/4 of a diameter from end
of snout, and one apart. Depth of preorbital above the angle of the
cclxiv
mouth not 1/3 the diameter of the orbit. Upper profile of head convex.
Anterior teeth notched. Dorsal spines increase to the 4th, from thence to
the last nearly equal : caudal forked, the upper lobe the longer : pectoral
rounded and as long as the head without the snout. Deep violet, which
extends on. to the dorsal and anal fins : pectoral hyaline with a dark
mark at its base : ventral nearly black : the posterior extremities of the
dorsal and caudal canary yellow : all the scales on the free portion of the
tail with a light blue central spot. Some blue lines about the head in the
young, which has also the free portion of the tail yellow and the chest
light coloured. Kurrachee : very common at to 4T2^ inches in length.
574-. Gli/phidodon anabatoides, Bleeker. D. [Q , A. -f$, L. 1. 26,
L. tr. 2J/9. Length of head 1/4, height of body 2/5 of the total length,
Width of preorbital 1/3 of that of the orbit: suborbitals very narrow.
Olive, each scale with a blue dot : a blue spot at the commencement of
the lateral line : dorsal dotted with blue, and with a dark edge : anal
dotted with yellow and also with a dark margin : caudal with a brownish
longitudinal baud on either lobe. A black axillary spot on the pectoral .
ventrals green. Andarnans and Malay Archipelago.
Family — L A B R I D &, Cuv.
Labroidei cycloidei, Mull. : Gyclolabridce, Owen.
Branchiostegals five or six : pseudobranchiae. Gills three and a half. Body
oblong or elongated. Teeth in the jaws, palate edentulous : lower pharyn-
geal bones anchylosed into one without any median suture. A single dorsal
fin with usually as many or more spines than rays : the anal rays similar to
those of the dorsal : ventrals thoracic, with one spine and five rays. Scales
cycloid. Lateral line complete or interrupted. Air vessel present. No
coecal sac to the stomach nor pyloric appendages.
Genus — CH&RQPS, Ruppell.
Cossyphus, sp. Cuv. & Val. : Hypsigenys, Giinther.
Branchiostegals five or six : pseudohranchia. Body oblong, compressed.
Snout obtuse. Preopercle serrated or entire. The four anterior teeth conical
and free, whilst the lateral ones are more or less confluent into an osseous ridge,
a posterior canine tooth may be present ; inferior pharyngeal teeth not con-
fluent or pavement-like. A single dorsal fin with more spines (J3) than
rays (7) : the anal with three spines and more rays than the soft dorsal
(9-10). Scales large : cheeks high, covered with small scales, which usually
are not imbricated : opercle scaled. Lateral line continuous.
575. Charops ancharago, Bloch. D. V3j A. f, L. 1. 30. Preopercle
serrated : a posterior canine tooth in adults. Yellow cheeks with large
scarlet spots. A black vertical band extends from the interspace be-
tween the fourth dorsal spine and sixth ray to the middle of the depth
of the body, divided anteriorly from another by a whitish ground colour :
whilst nearer to the head exists a third dark band. Dorsal and caudal fins
edged with orange. Andamans and Malay Archipelago.
Genus — CossTPHUS, Cuv. & Val.
Harpe, and Lepidaplois, Gill.
Branchiostegals six : pseucJobranchitf. Body oblong, compressed.
Snonl more or less pointed. Preopercle serrated or entire. The four
cclxv
teeth conical and free : the lateral teeth in a single row, and
a posterior canine is as a rule present : inferior pharyngeal teeth, not
confluent or pavement-like. A single dorsal fin with more spines (11-13)
than rays (9-11) : the anal with three spines and more rays (10-14)
than the soft dorsal. Scales of moderate size, those on the cheeks and
opercles imbricated : the bases of the vertical fim scaled. Lateral line
continuous.
576. Cossyphus axillaris, Bennett : Cul-moonjilli, Tarn. D. j^-.,
A. T87, L. 1. 34, L. tr. 5/13. Snout pointed, 1/3 the length of the
head. Purplish red anteriorly, becoming1 yellowish posteriorly, and on
the fins : a black axillary spot, three more along the bases of the dorsal
fin, and sometimes a black spot at the base of the caudal. Seas of
India.
577. Cossyphus Neilli, Day. Moonjilli, Tarn. D. ]£, A. -fa, L. 1
34, L. tr. 5/13. Snout pointed, about 1/3 of length of head. Scarlet
without any dark marking : anal yellow : its central rays scarlet : dorsal
red with its last few rays yellow : its sheath also with a yellow tinge :
pectorals flesh-coloured : lips reddish. Madras.
Genus — LABRICETHYS, Bleeker.
Body oblong, compressed. Snout more or less pointed. Preopercle
entire. Teeth in a single row, the anterior ones being conical and free,
<t posterior canine present or absent : inferior pJiaryngeal teeth not conflu-
ent or pavement-like. A single dorsal Jin with less spines (9) than rays
(11): anal with three spines, and less rays (10) than the dorsal. Scales
large : opercles scaly, and cheeks more or less so. Lateral line continuous.
578. Labrichthys bicolor, Day. D. T9T, A. T3?, L. L 26, L. tr. 5/12.
Length of head nearly 1/3, height of body 1/3 of the total length. No
posterior canine. The body, behind a line from the commencement of
the dorsal to the base of the anal, dark violet, some cf the lower scales
being blue spotted : anterior to this nearly white beneath, but darker
along the top of the head, whilst most of the scales have more or less
dark spots. Andamans : 4 inches in length.
Genus— LA£RWIDE§, Bleeker*
Diproctacanihus , Bleeker.
Body oblong, compressed. Gill-membranes attached to the isthmus.
Snout pointed, lips prominent, one of them having a notch anteriorly.
Preopercle entire. A band of small teeth in the jaws, with a pair of curved
canines in either jaw, the upper pair being received when the mouth is
closed, between the lower ones : a posterior canine tooth: inferior pharyngeal
teeth not confluent or pavement-like. A single dorsal Jin with usually
less spines (9) than rays (9-11) : anal with two or three spines, and rays
nearly similar to those of the dorsal (9-10). Scales on body of moderate
size, they are extended over the opercles, cheeks and base of the vertical
fins. Lateral line continuous.
579. Labrioides dimidiatus, Cuv. & Val. D. JL-, A. T^, L. 1.
46-50, L. tr. 4/15. Length of head and height of body each 2/7 of the
total length. Nearly . white, with a black band through the eye to the
ii
cclxvi
upper third of the base of the caudal fin when it bends slightly to reach
the centre of that fin : a black band along- the anal, which passes to the
caudal and joins the upper band at the end of that fin : a dark band
along the dorsal fin. Red Sea, Andamans to the Malay Archipelago.
Genus — CHEILINUS (Lacep), Cuv.
Oxycheilinus et Crassilabrus, Gill.
Body oblong, compressed. Preopercle entire. Lower jaw not pro-
duced backwards. Teeth in one row, two canines in either jaw , none being
directed outwards : no posterior canine : inferior pharyngeal teeth not con-
fluent or pavement-like. A single dorsal fin, the number of spines (9-10)
being about equal to the rays (9-11). Anal with three spines, the third
being the longest, its rays rather less (8-9) than those of the dorsal.
Scales large, two rows on the cheeks. Lateral line interrupted.
580. Cheilinus chlorosus, Bloch. D. V°> A. |, L. 1. 22. Olive
brown, round yellow spots on the head, and body similarly dotted:
spinous dorsal olive, with red edges, and spines with brown dots : soft
dorsal reddish : anal, ventral, and caudal with small yellow dots. Bay
of Bengal to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
581. Cheilinus trilobatus, Lace'p. D. TV A. f, L. 1. 21. L. tr. 3/5,
Vert. 10/13. Length of head and height of body each nearly 1/3 of the
total length. Caudal fin rounded in the immature, trilobate in the adult.
Green, red dots and stripes on the head, the latter being before and below
the eye : each scale on the body with one or two vertical red streaks.
Vertical fins green : dorsal and anal with red margins : soft dorsal some-
times red, and a black spot on the base of the last few rays. Andamans
to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
Genus — EPIBULUS,
Body oblong, compressed. Preopercle entire. Mouth very protractile,
the ascending processes of the intermaxillaries, also the mandibles and
tympanics, being elongated. Teeth in one row, and two canines in either
jaw, but no posterior canine : inferior pharyngeal teeth not confluent or
pavement-like. A single dorsal fin, with less spines (9) than rays (10) :
three anal spines, the rays less numerous (8) than those of the dorsal.
Scales large, two rows on the cheeks. Lateral line interrupted.
282. Epibulus striatus, Day. D. TV A. f , L. 1. ] 9, L. tr. 2/7.
The posterior extremity of the lower jaw extends to below the hind
edge of the orbit, and the ascending processes of the intermaxillaries
to opposite the posterior third of the orbit. A white line between
the orbits, and two more on the head, the first of which runs from the
eye to the snout : the second descending from the orbit, meets one from
the opposite side. Body greenish brown, with five narrow milk-white
vertical bands, the first from the opercles to before the ventral fin, the
next from the second dorsal spine to the end of the ventral fin, the third
from the centre of the dorsal spine to the base of the anal, the fourth
from the end of the dorsal fin to the end of the anal, the fifth round the
free portion of the tail. Soft dorsal, and termination of the anal white.
Andamans, a single specimen 1 \ inches in length.
cclxvii
Body oblong, compressed. Preopercle entire. Teeth in jaws in one row,
the two front ones in each being prominent, directed forwards , and com-
pressed, with cutting edges : no posterior canine tooth : inferior pharyn-
geal teeth not confluent or pavement-like. A single dorsal fin, the spines
(9) being less than the rays (12) : anal with three spines, and the same
number of rays as the dorsal. Scales rather large, none on the head.
Lateral line continuous.
583. Anampses caruleo-punctatus, Riipp. D. -,%, A. T%-, L. 1. 27,
L. tr. 4/10, Vert. 11/15. Length of head 2/7, height of body 1/3 of
the total length. Many bluish vertical lines radiating from the orbit.
Reddish, each scale with a central blue spot : caudal with a white margin.
Red Sea, Bay of Bengal. Two specimens to 7 inches in length exist in
the Calcutta Museum, being those referred to in the J. A. S. for I860,
p. 448, as presented by Mr. Edwards.
Genus — HEMIGYMNUS, Gunther.
Halichceres, sp. Ruppell : Tautoga, sp. Cuv. & Val.
Body oblong, compressed. Preopercle entire. Teeth in a single row*
two canines anteriorly in either jaw, the lower ones being received when
the mouth is closed between the upper pair, generally a posterior canine :
inferior pharyngeal teeth not confluent or pavement-like. A single dorsal
fin, with less spines (9) than rays (11) .- anal with three spines and the
same number of rays (11) as the soft dorsal. Scales of moderate size,
none on the opercles, but a stripe of very small ones on the cheek. Lateral
line continuous.
584. Hemigymnus melapterus, Bloch. D. T9y, A. T^, L. 1. 29, L. tr.
5/14. A posterior canine tooth concealed by the skin. Brownish above,
becoming yellowish beneath : a dark mark behind the orbit : scales
dotted with blue : dorsal and anal light at the external third, followed by
a bluish band, external to which it is darker : caudal dark. Andamans
to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
Genus— STETHOJULIS, Gunther.
Jutis, sp. Cuv. & Val.
Body oblong and compressed. Preopercle entire : anterior teeth coni-
cal: a posterior canine: inferior pharyngeal teeth not confluent or
pavement-like. A single dorsal fin with less spines (9) than rays (II):
anal with three spines and the same number of rays as the soft dorsal.
Scales of moderate size : none on the head. Lateral line continuous.
585. Stethojulis strigiventer, Benn. D. -fT, A. r2T, L. 1. 26, L. tr.
2/9. Length of head 2/7, height of body 1/4 of the total length.
Greenish, a black band from the mouth passes below the eye to the
opercle, several longitudinal yellow lines and some black dots along
the sides in the lower half of the body : a black spot on the last dorsal ray,
another at the base of the caudal fin, which last mark is apparently some-
times absent. From East Africa through the seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago.
cclxviii
586. Stethojulis Finlaysoni, Cuv. & Val. Greenish. Commencing
at the corner of the mouth and passing below the eye is a brown lateral
band covered with deeper coloured spots. The dorsal, bordered with red,
is dotted with this colour : the anal is similar. Three oblique orange
bands bordered with blue on either lobe of the caudal. Under surface
of the head silvery, with a tinge of orange below the brown band in
its entire length. Ceylon, from a drawing by Major Finlayson.
Genus — PLATYGLOSSUS (Klein), 'Sleeker.
Halichceres, sp. Ruppell : Julia, sp. Cuv. & Val. : Macropharyngo-
don, Guntheria: and Hemitautoga, Bleeker: Cheer ojulis, Gill.
Body oblong, compressed. Anterior teeth conical, but neither bent out-
wards nor backwards : a posterior canine : inferior pharyngeal teeth not
confluent or pavement-like. A single dorsal fin with less spines (9) than
rays (10-14) : anal with three spines and about the same number of rays
(11-14) as the soft dorsal. Scales rather large : those on the thorax
smaller than on the remainder of the body : none on the head (except a few
rudimentary ones behind the eye in two or more species) . Lateral line
continuous.
587. Platyglossus notopsis (Kuhl. & v. Hass.), Bleeker. D. T93 ,
A. -*, L.I. 27-28, L. tr. 3/11. Length of head 1/4, height of body
2/7 of the total length. Purplish brown, with four or five red longi-
tudinal bands. Two black ocelli on the dorsal fin, largest in the young :
the smallest one between the first and second spines : the larger between
the third and sixth rays : caudal with a yellow band at its base, and
yellow edges. Andamans to the Malay Archipelago.
588. Platyglossus marginatus, Ruppell. D. 3%, A. T5f, L. 1. 27
L. tr. 3/10. Length of head 2/9, height of body 2/7 of the total
length. Blackish-green : head and anterior part of the body with
undulating grass-green streaks edged with blue. Numerous red blue
edged streaks and spots on the vertical fins, which have blue margins :
a large green crescentic-shaped mark on the basal half of the caudal.
Red Sea, through the seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
589. Platyglossus Dussumieri, Cuv. & Val. Sahnee moia, Tel. :
Kullaray meen, Tarn. Length of head 1/4, height of body 2/7 of the
total length. Green, with some irregular violet bands between the eyes,
and one from it to the snout : two or three pass irregularly over the
opercles : back with five or six bands of deep blue, which are chequered
•with dull purplish red. A black spot at the base of the pectoral, with a
light anterior e*dge. Dorsal and anal greenish, with an oval yellow spot
between each ray, the soft portions with a broad purplish external mar-
gin : a blackish ocellus, with a yellow edge between its fifth and seventh
spines. Caudal tipped with blue, its angles being orange with a red
base and transverse red bands. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago
and beyond.
590. Plalyglossus leparensis, Bleeker. D. 9 , A. fV, L. 1. 26.
Length of head 1/4, height of body 2/9 of the total length. A broad
brown streak from the eye to the maxilla, and a brown spot behind the
orbit : four curved yellowish lines on the upper portion of the opercle.
cclxix
A silvery line from the eye to the caudal fin, and below it four or five
more : many of the scales with brown spots. Two black ocelli on the
dorsal fin, the anterior between the first two spines, and the posterior
between the first two rays : caudal fin yellowish red. Andamans to the
Malay Archipelago.
591. Plaiyglossus hortulanus, Lacep. D. ~JL. A. T3T, L. 1. 28,
L. tr. 2i/9, Vert. 10/15. Length of head 1/4, height of body nearly
1/4 of the total length. Two rows of minute scales behind the orbit.
Yellowish brown : broad bluish longitudinal bands on the head, and the
anterior portion of the back with bluish spots. One (may be two
or three more) yellow spot on the back below the fourth dorsal spine,
and sometimes a black spot behind it. Oblique brown streaks on the
dorsal fins, sometimes enclosing spaces : a black axillary spot : usually
another at the upper part of the base of the caudal, on which brown
spots may be present or absent : anal with longitudinal bands. Eastern
coast of Africa, through the seas of India to the Malay Archipelago
and beyond. A specimen from the Andamans in the Calcutta Museum
is 8J inches in length.
592. Platyglossus nelulosus, Cuv. & Val. D. T^-, A. fT, L. 1. 28.
Length of head rather more than the height of the body, which is 3/13
of the total length. Olivaceous : several violet bands on the head, the
one on the cheek being curved, but not completing a circle : the oper-
cular lobe violet : a dark band passing from it to the tail, in its course
it gives off several superior and inferior short processes, between which
are silvery spots, and there are more along the base of the dorsal fin :
gome oblique silvery streaks covered by the pectoral fin. A' minute
spot sometimes present between the first two dorsal spines : and a larger
one between the first two rays : two or three red ocelli margined with
blue between the dorsal spines and oblique violet bands ascending for-
wards : anal with a band along its centre and ocelli at its base : caudal
occasionally with black dots. Bed Sea, seas of India, to the Malay
Archipelago.
593. Platyglossus Umaculatus, Riipp. D. T9T, A. T3T, L. 1. 27, L.
tr. 2/10. Length of head and height of body each 1/4 of the total
length. Green, light violet streaks radiate from the eye : a blue
longitudinal band passes across the opercle, and is continued direct to
the upper part of the base of the caudal fin. A black spot on the
ninth and tenth scales of the lateral line. Dorsal and anal fins with
their basal halves reddish. Violet, with blue dots : their external halves
with red, black, blue, and green longitudinal bands : caudal with blue
spots. Or else the dorsal may have two longitudinal and the caudal
three transverse rows of ocelli. Red Sea, Ceylon.
594. Platyglossus kawarin , Bleeker. D. T9T, A. ^T, L. 1. 27,
L. tr. 2^/9. Length of head and height of body each 2/7 of the
total length. Caudal rounded. Head with a blue band from the eye to
the snout : a second from the angle of the mouth along the posterior margin
of the orbit to the upper part of the head : a third from the interopercle :
a blue blotch on the centre of the opercle, and a light-blue wide band
above : some blue spots on the summit of the head. Colours below the
cclxx
lateral line are blue, each scale having a rosy central spot, forming seven
longitudinal bands. Dorsal and anal fins blue, with three rows of round
reddish spots : caudal yellowish, with a dark edge. Andamans, 3J inches
in length.
595. Platyglossus scapularis, Bennett. D. -fT) A. T£, L. 1. 25,
L. tr. 2£/10. Length of head and height of body each 1/4 of the total
length. A broad red blue-edged band passes from the snout to the
eye : a second irregular one goes obliquely upwards from the eye to the
wide lateral band, which, of a brownish violet colour, passes from the
shoulder to the back of the tail : a red streak extends from the axil to
the abdomen : dorsal and anal margined with a green blue-edged band.
Caudal with reddish-violet transverse bands. From the east coast of
Africa, through the seas of India, to the Malay Archipelago.
596. Platyglossus Ceylonensis, Bennett. D. -^ A. T3T. Yellow-
ish. "Head grey rivulated with yellow : a yellow interrupted band along
the lateral line : another lateral band of the same colour, edged with
blue, runs along the side and emits numerous short processes towards
the belly : an oblique yellow streak across the base of the pectoral to
the belly : vertical fins yellow : a band along the base of the dorsal
edged with blue infer iorly : an oblique blue streak behind the base of
each dorsal ray, a second behind its middle, and a spot of the same
colour behind its top : anal fin with two blue bands : caudal with three
irregular transverse rivulated blue bands." Ceylon.
597. Platyglossus purpureo-lineatus, Cuv. and Val. Green, with
violet streaks on the back, on the middle of ,the body and on the borders
of the dorsal and anal fins : pectorals yellow : head yellowish, spotted
with violet : the caudal with small red streaks : the base of the dorsal
spotted with very vivid red. Ceylon.
Genus — NoVACULA, Cuv. fy Val.
Xyrichthys, sp. Cuv. & Val.
Body oblong, compressed: the head compressed, with its upper edge short
or obtuse. Anterior teeth conical : no posterior canine : inferior pharyngeal
teeth not confluent or pavement-like. Dorsal fin single with less spines
(9) than rays (12) : the two first dorsal spines sometimes more or less
separated from the others. Scales rather large : head may be entirely
scaleless, or the cheeks with two or more rows of small ones. Lateral line
interrupted.
This Genus has been sub-divided into the following Sub-genera.
A. Cheeks without any or only a few rudimentary
scales: no anterior division of the dorsal fin. Xiriohthys et
Malacocentrus, Gill.
a. Upper edge of the head sharp. Novacula, Bleeker.
b. „ „ „ „ rather obtuse. Novaculichthys, pt.
Bleeker.
B. Cheeks with two or three rows of scales : no an-
terior division of the dorsal fin. Novaculichthys, pt. Bleeker.
cclxxi
C. Cheeks scaled : no anterior division of the dorsal
fin.
D. Cheeks scaleless : the two first dorsal spines more
or less separated from the remainder of the fin. Iniistius,
Gill.
a. Upper edge of the head sharp. Xirichtkys, Bleeker.
b. „ „ „ „ rather obtuse. Novaculichthys,
Bleeker.
E. Cheeks scaled : the two first dorsal spines more or
less separated from the remainder of the fin. Hemipterono-
tus, Bleeker.
598. Novacula cyanifons, Cuv. & Yal. D. ^, A. T|, L. 1. 26.
Two first dorsal spines a little longer than the others : ventrals produced,
reaching the origin of the anal : scales said to be similar to N. cultrata,
which has none on the cheeks. Rose coloured: a blue band along the
•upper ridge of the head to the dorsal fin : dorsal fin with oblique and
caudal with transverse blue streaks : pectorals blue : ventrals yellow.
Pondicherry.
599. Novacula rufa, Day. D. fg-, A. ^, L. 1. 26, L. tr. 5/13. Length
of head 2/7, height of body nearly 1/3 of the total length. Body strongly
compressed, and the upper edge of the head sharp : some small scales
behind and below the orbit. Two first dorsal spines produced, and a
deep notch in the interspinous membranes separating them from the
remainder of the fin. Rose colour, becoming yellowish on the abdomen :
the fins yellowish, except the caudal, which has dark greyish reticulated
bands. Madras.
Genus — JuLIS, sp. Cuv fy VaL
Body oblong and compressed : snout not produced. Anterior teeth coni-
cal: no posterior canine tooth j inferior pJiaryngeal teeth not confluent or
pavement-like. A single dorsal Jin with less spines (8) than rays (11-14) :
anal with two or three spines and about the same number of rays as the
soft dorsal (11-14). Scales large: none on the head. Lateral line con-
tinuous.
600. Julis dorsalisj Quoy. and Gaim. D. j%, A. -^T, L. 1. 29.
L. tr. 2J/9, Vert. 11/14. Length of head and height of body each rather
above 1/4 of the total length. Caudal lobes somewhat produced. Broad
red bands radiating from the eyes : six vertical cross bars along the back,
sometimes extended on to the dorsal fin : a black spot in the axil : a
red band along the side of the tail : usually a black band on the dorsal fin,
and the anal with a black spot anteriorly. East Coast of Africa, seas of
India, to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
601. Julis lunaris, Linn. D. T%, A. T2T L. 1. 27-28, L. tr. 2J/11,
Vert. 11/14. Length of head 2/9, height of body nearly 1 /4 of the total
length. Head violet, with several oblique reddish bands : body green,
each scale with a vertical red streak, forming bands : an oblong reddish-
violet spot on the pectoral. Dorsal red, with a blue and yellow margin :
anal violet, with a yellow edge : caudal yellow : its base and lobes green.
cclxxn
Red Sea, East coast of Africa, seas of India, to the Malay Archipelago
and beyond.
602. Julis trilobate, Lacep. D. T8?, A. T3T, L. 1. 29, L. tr. 8J/11.
Length of head and height of body each a little more than 1/4 of the
total length. Caudal lobes slightly produced. Green or blue ; a red band
passes across the opercle to the caudal fin : a second of a brownish-violet
colour goes along the back to the upper margin of the caudal fin : and
a third along the abdomen to the lower margin of the caudal, the rays
of which latter are green and the membrane red and violet. Dorsal fin
green, with a broad band along its middle, and having a black spot
anteriorly : anal green, with a dark basal band : the posterior half of the
pectoral blackish. From the Red Sea and east coast of Africa, through
the seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
603. Julis amblycephalus, Bleeker. D. •&, A. •£., L. 1. 27, L.
tr. 2/9. Length of head 4/ 19, and b eight of body 4/21 of the total length
excluding the caudal fin. Caudal lobes produced. The upper two-thirds
of the head and body olive-brown, each scale having a vertical streak :
the lower third of the body white : a narrow blue dark-edged line passes
from the lower angle of the orbit to the axil : a second across the angle
of the preopercle : a broad triangular spot exists in the axil of the pectoral,
which fin is yellow with a blackish extremity. Dorsal fin black
anteriorly, becoming a little lighter posteriorly, the soft portion having a
narrow white edge : caudal lobes dark olive. Ceylon to the Malay
Archipelago.
604. Julis purpurea, Forsk. D. •£$, A. -/T. Length of head and
height of body each 1/4 of the total length. Caudal lobes slightly-
produced. Bluish or greenish, five red bands, one of which passes
through the eye over the base of the pectoral, and joins its fellow
from the opposite side : a red band from the opercle to the caudal : a
second above and a third below this one. Fins greenish : dorsal and
anal with a red longitudinal band. Red Sea and Bombay.
Genus — GoMPHOSUS, Lacep.
Body oblong : compressed. Snout produced, tubiform. Gill
membranes attached to the isthmus. Anterior teeth conical : no posterior
canine tooth : inferior pharyngeal teeth not confluent or pavement-like.
A single dorsal fin with less spines (8) than rays (13) : anal with two or
three spines and Less rays (11) than the soft dorsal. Scales rather large,
none on the head. Lateral line continuous.
605. Gomphosus cwruleus, Lacep. D. fs, A. T2T, L. 1. 29, L. tr.
3/10. Caudal fin emarginate. Violet, vertical fins yellow, the dorsal
and anal with blue edges : the upper and lower margins of the caudal
blue. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
606. Gomphosus melanotus,l$leeker. D. T8?, A. M-, L. 1. 26, L. tr.
3/10. Caudal fin cut square or rounded. Upper part of head and back
deep brown, becoming lighter on the sides : each scale darkest at its
base : cheeks pinkish. Pectorals yellow : vertical fins dark-coloured,
becoming deep brown externally, having a very narrow light edge :
caudal the same, with a black margin and a rather wider white border :
cclxxiii
ventrals whitish, the outer ray brown. Andamans and Malay
Archipelago.
Genus — CoRIS, Lacep.
Hologymnosus et Labrus, sp. Lacep : Halichceres, sp. Ruppell : Julis,
sp. Cuv. & Val. : Pseudocoris, Hemicoris, et Ophthalmolepis, Bleeker.
Body oblong, compressed. Anterior teeth conical : a posterior canine
may be present : inferior pharyngeal teeth not confluent or pavement-like. A
single dorsal fin with less spines (9) than rays (11-12-) : anal with three
spines, and about the same number of rays (11-13) as the soft dorsal.
Scales rather small : none on the head (except in C. lineolata] . Lateral line
continuous.
607. Coris formosa, Bennett. D. -^, A. -f^. Caudal rounded.
" Bluish -grey, with circular black spots : head yellow, with two oblique blue
bands ascending towards the origin of the dorsal, one commencing from
the snout and passing through the eye, the other parallel to the first, run-
ning below the eye. Dorsal and anal fins brown, the former with a red
margin and with two green lines running within the red : black dots
between the rays. Anal with a narrow green edge, and a narrow green
intermarginal line : a series of green dots within the margin. The inner
half of the caudal red, the outer yellowish white.5' Ceylon.
608. Coris cingulum, Lacep. D. T%, A. r\, L. 1. 60, L. tr.
Length of head and height of body each 1/4 of the total length. No
posterior canine. Caudal rounded. Head and anterior part of the body
olive brown, occasionally with two brown blotches, also small blue spots
over the head, and a black spot on the opercle : a black axillary spot, a
pale cross band opposite the end of the pectoral, behind which the colours
are brown, sometimes with red blotches on the back of the tail. Verti-
cal fins dark with black spots and white edges, or with a wide yellow
margin. Red Sea and seas of India.
Genus — CYMOLUTJES, Gilnther.
Xyrichthys, sp. Cuv. & Val.
Body oblong, compressed. Snout rather elevated. Anterior teeth free :
no posterior canine. A single dorsal fin with less spines (9) than rays
(12-14) : anal with three spines, and an equal number of rays to the soft
dorsal. Scales small. Lateral line interrupted.
609. Cymolutes prcetextatus , Quoy & Gaim. D. T%, A. T32, L. 1. 73.
Greenish, with a dark-blue-edged band across the shoulder. Ceylon,
Mauritius, and Malay Archipelago.
Genus — PsEUDODAX, BleeJcer.
OdaXj sp. Cuv. & Val.
Body oblong, compressed. Each jaw with two pairs of broad incisors,
having cutting lateral edges : teeth in the inferior pharyngeals confluent
and pavement-like. A single dorsal fin having nearly the same number
of spines (11) as rays (12) : anal with three spines and more rays (14)
KK
cclxxiv
than the second dorsal. Scales of moderate size, extended over the cheeJcs and
opercles. Lateral line continuous.
610. Pseudodax Moluccanus, Cuv. & Val. D. f J, A. T\, L. 1. 32,
L. tr. 4/12. Back reddish, becoming white on the abdomen : dorsal and
anal with black reticulated lines : anal with from two to four undulated
dark longitudinal bands : caudal brown, white at its base. Nicobars to
the Malay Archipelago.
Genus — CALLYODON (Gronov.), Cuv. fy VaL
Body oblong, rather compressed. Teeth in jaws soldered together into
one deep-cutting lamina : the anterior ones are imbricate and more or less
distinct : the inferior pharyngeals, where the teeth (which are pavement -like)
are present, broader than long. A single dorsal fin with less spines (9)
than rays (10) : anal with two spines and less rays (8) than the soft dorsal.
Scales large : a row on the cheeks. Lateral line strongly bent or interrupt-
ed below the posterior end of the dorsal Jin.
611. Callyodon viridescens, Riipp. D. T%, A. f, L. 1. 24. Green, with
dark brown spots along the side : two red streaks on the snout : dorsal
and anal with oblique brown bands, and a black spot between the two first
dorsal spines. Red Sea, Andamans.
Genus — PsEUDOSCARUS Bleeker.
Body oblong, somewhat compressed. The upper jaw projecting beyond
the lower : the upper lip double in its whole extent. The anterior teeth
soldered together, arranged in quincuncial order : the teeth in the inferior
pharyngeal bones pavement-like, and the space they cover longer than
broad. A single dorsal fin with less spines (9) than rays (10) : anal
with two spines and less rays (8-9) than in the soft dorsal.
612. Pseudoscarus chrysopoma, Bleeker. D. -fty, A. §„ L. 1. 24-
Three rows of scales on the cheeks, the inferior of which cover the lower
limb of the preopercle. A pointed tooth at the angle of the jaws. Green.
Upper lip with one, lower with two cross bands, passing into a subtrian-
gular spot between the eye and the angle of the mouth : three short lines
radiate from the eye. Scales with a reddish margin. Dorsal and anal
fins rosy, with a narrow band along their bases, and green margins :
caudal green. Seas of India and Malay Archipelago.
613. Pseudoscarus rivulatus, Cuv. & Val. Ah-dah, Andam. D. y*0-,
P. 14, A. |, L. 1. 22, L. tr. 2/7£. Two rows of scales on the cheeks,
and two scales on the lower limb of the preopercle. Two small pointed
teeth at the arjgle of the jaws. Green, each scale with a reddish edge.
Snout with several undulating green lines, its ground color reddish.
A narrow green band along the base and edge of the dorsal fin, with an
intermediate row of spots : anal green, becoming lighter towards its
margin, which is edged with dark green : caudal with green spots.
Andamans and Malay Archipelago.
614. Pseudoscarus pyrrhostethus, Richardson. D. f$, A. f. Two
rows of scales on the cheeks, and two scales on the lower limb of the
preopercle. Head reddish : jaws whitish : a blue cross band on the lips :
a curved blue streak from the angle of the mouth to below the eye :
scales on the body with a blue edge : vertical fins red, with blue bases
cclxxv
and margins : caudal sometimes with blue spots, and occasionally they
are also present on the dorsal. Ceylon, Malay Archipelago, and China.
615. Pseudoscarus Troschelli, Bleeker. D. •£$, A. |, L. 1. 23-24.,
Two rows of scales only on the cheeks. Eyes small. Edge of jaws denticu-
lated. Pointed teeth at the angle of the upper jaw. The colours of this
fish differs widely, being pink, green, or brown, and variously marked. East
Coast of Africa from Beluchistan, through the Seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago.
616. Pseudoscarus Russellii, Cuv. & Val. Sahnee moya, Tel. D. $>,
A. f , L. 1. 24. Eyes diameter 1/5 of length of head. Sea green. Each
scale, except those on the chest, having a semilunar reddish base equal to
about half its width : the scales between the bases of the ventral and
anal fins reddish : head rosy : a few short blue lines radiate from the
lower edge of the orbit, anteriorly one passes to the upper edge of the
lip, which it skirts, another goes to its lower margin, which it encircles.
Dorsal fin bluish-green edged with light blue : an irregular reddish band
extends along its centre, another at its base, and a third just below its
blue margin : caudal reddish, with four or five vertical bluish-green
bands : anal of a light blue : pectoral and ventral reddish, the outer ray
being blue : eyes hazel. Coromandel coast. A female, 18 inches long,
captured July 12th 1868.
Order— ANA CANTHINI.
178. All the rays of the vertical and ventral fins articulated, the
latter, when present, being jugular and tho-
Fishes without any spinous racic. Air-vessel, if existing, not having a
pneumatic duct.
Sub- Order— ANA CANTHINI— GA DOT DEL
Structure of head symmetrical on the two sides.
Family — GADID^J, Cuv.
Gadoidei, pt. Cuv.
Pseudobranchise, when present, glandular and rudimentary. Body more or less
elongated. Gill-openings wide : gill-membranes, as a rule, not being attached to the
isthmus. From one to three dorsal fins, occupying nearly the entire length of the
back, the rays of the last being well developed : one or two anal fins : caudal usually
free, but sometimes united to the dorsal and anal The dorsal with a separate anterior
portion. Ventrals jugular, consisting of several rays, or should they be reduced to a
filament, the dorsal fin is divided into two. Scales cycloid, of moderate or small size.
Air- vessel and pyloric appendages usually present.
Genus — BREGMACEROS, Thompson.
Calloptilum, Richardson.
Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchia absent. Body fusiform, pos-
teriorly compressed. Gill-openings very wide, the gill-membranes being
united beneath the throat, but not attached to the isthmus. Eyes lateral.
Mouth anterior and oblique. Teeth in jaws minute and moveable, also on
vomer ; none on palate. Two dorsal fins, the anterior consisting of an
elongated ray arising from the occiput : the second and the anal having
each a central dwarfed portion almost forming a distinct fin. Centrals
cclxxvi
jugular , consisting of five or six rays, the outer of which are elongated.
Scales cycloid, of moderate size. Lateral line continuous. Air-vessel
present. Pyloric appendages few.
617. Bregmaceros McClellandi, Thomp. B. VII, D. 1/16 + X + 15,
P. 25, V. 5-6, A. 22 -f X + 15, C. 15, L. 1. 64, L. tr. 6/8. Silvery:
back shaded with green : occiput, upper half of pectoral, and first half of
dorsal spotted with black. Coasts of India to China and the Philippines :
attaining three inches in length.
618. Bregmaceros atripinnis, Day. B. VII, D. 1/20 4- XV + 22,
P. 21, V. 6, A. 22 -f X -|- 26, C. 17, L. 1. 70, L. tr. 18, Csec.
pyl. 2. Rich brown, becoming lighter on the abdomen : fins black, except
the ventral, which is of a dirty white. Bombay, coasts of India, Burma,
and the Andamans : up to 5 or more inches in length.
Family — OPHIDIID^, Mutter.
Pseudobranchise present or absent. Body more or less elongated. Gill-openings wide ;
the gill membranes not being attached to the isthmus. Eyes of moderate size, rudi-
mentary or absent. Barbels present or absent. Sometimes canine teeth in the
jaws, the vomerine and palatine ones absent or present. Vertical fins usually con-
fluent, without any distinct anterior dorsal or anal. The dorsal occupies the
greatest portion of the length of the back. Pectorals may be absent : ventrala
when present rudimentary and jugular, except in Brotulophis, where they are
situated opposite to the pectorals. Scales present or absent : lateral line when
present may be single, double, or interrupted. The vent may be at the throat. Air-
vessel usually present. Pyloric appendages when present of small numbers.
Genus — BROTULA, Cuv.
Branchiostegals eight. Body elongated, compressed. Eyes of moderate
size. Barbels present. Villif orm teeth on jaws, vomer, and palatines. Verti-
cal fins confluent : ventrals reduced to a single filament, which is some-
times bifurcated: the fin is attached to the humeral arck. Scales present,
minute. Air-vessel large, either rounded posteriorly or with two horns.
A single pyloric appendage.
619. Brotula maculata, Day. B. VIII, D. 115, V. 1, A. 107. Six
pairs of barbels : 2 on the snout : 2 pairs on maxilla : 3 pairs on mandible.
Eyes diameter 1/3 of length of head and 2/3 of a diameter from end of
snout. Air-vessel large and rounded posteriorly. Light dirty greenish
colour, with a few reddish brown spots about the body and a dark round
mark behind the eye. Muzzle and rostral barbels black. Fins greyish,
black externally.
Genus — XiPHOGADUS, Gunthcr.
Xiphasia, Swainson.
Branchiostegals five. Body elongated and compressed. Eyes of mode-
rate size. Barbels absent. A single row of teeth in the jaws and a paw
of strong canines. Vertical fins confluent, the dorsals commencing above
the eyes. Ventrals reduced to a single filament, and the fin attached
to the humeral arch. Scales absent.
620. Xiphogadus setifer, Swainson. B. V, D. 223, A. 112, C. 10.
Two of the caudal rays filamentous. The single specimen found by
Russell at Vizagapatam was 14 inches long.
cclxxvii
Genus — BLEEKERIA,
Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchm composed of lamella. Bod// low
elongated and compressed. Gill-openings very wide : the gill-membranes
not united. Gills four : a cleft behind the fourth. Eyes of moderate size.
Barbels absent : lower jaw very prominent. Teeth absent. Dorsal single and
long: anal of moderate size. Lateral line single. Air-vessel absent.
Vent remote from the head.
621. BleeJceria Tcallolepis, Giinther. B VI., D. 40, A. 15, L. 1.
100, L. tr. 3/14. Back olive coloured : sides silvery. A single specimen,
55 lines long, was sent from Madras by the late Dr. Jerdontothe British
Museum.
Sub-Order— AN ACANTHINI—PLEURONECTOIDEL
Structure of head unsym metrical on the two sides.
Family — PLEURONECTIM, Flemm.
Heterosomata, Bonaparte.
Pseudobranchise well developed. Gills four. Body strongly compressed*
flattened, with one of its sides coloured, the other being destitute of colouration, or
having merely some spots. Both eyes (except in the very young) placed on the
superior or coloured surface, sometimes rudimentary. The two sides of the head not
equally developed, one remaining almost rudimentary. The jaws and dentition may
be nearly equally developed on both sides, or more so on the blind than the coloured.
A single long dorsal and anal fin. Pectorals, if present, may be rudimentary. Scales
present or absent. Lateral line on the coloured side single, double, or triple, curved
or straight. Air-vessel absent.
Genus — PsETTODES, Bennett.
Branchiostegals seven. Cleft of mouth deep, the maxilla being about
half the length of the head. Gill-membranes scarcely united at the throat :
gill-rakers replaced by groups of minute spines. Eyes on the right or left
side. Jaws and dentition nearly equally developed on both sides. Two
TOWS of curved, slender, sometimes barbed, distant teeth in either jaw, the
anterior of the inner row in the mandible being received into a groove an-
terior to the vomer : teeth present on vomer and palate. Dorsal Jin com-
mencing on the nape. Most of the dorsal and anal rays branched. Scales
small, ctenoid. Lateral line gradually descends to the straight portion.
622. Psettodes ernmei, Bloch. Schn. D. 47-56, P. 16, A. 35-41,
C. 17, L. 1. 70-75. This fish may be coloured on either the left or the
right side. Brownish or blackish, with the vertical fins edged with white ;
a lightish band usually present across the free portion of the tail. Cross-
bands have likewise been observed. Seas of India, attaining at least 16
inches in length.
Genus — PaEUDORHOMBUS, Bleeker.
Branchiostegals six. Cleft of mouth deep, the maxilla being nearly
half as long as the head. Gill membranes united beneath the throat but
not attached to the isthmus. Gill-racers lanceolate. Eyes on the leftside:
interorbital space not concave. Jaws and dentition nearly equally developed
cclxxviii
on loth sides : teeth in both jaws of unequal sizes and in a single row :
vomer and palate edentulous. Dorsal fiu commences on the snout : its rays
and those of the anal are simple. Scales of moderate size, or rather small*
Lateral line having a strong curve anteriorly.
623. Pseudorhombus Rusiellil, Gray and Hard. B. VII, D. 70-77,
P. 12, V. 6, A. 56-60, C. 17, L.I. 75. Scales ctenoid. Lateral line smooth :
its anterior curve equals half its length. Reddish brown, sometimes
spotted or blotched with a darker tint. Seas of India and Burma, attain-
ing a foot in length.
624. Pseudorhombus nauphala, Ham. Buch. D. 73, P. 13, V. 6,
A. 58, C. 17, L. 1. 76. Greenish-brown superiorly, with some scattered
black spots. Estuaries of India and Burma, to eight inches in length.
625. Pseudorhombus arsius, Ham. Buch. D. 75-81, P. 12, V. 6,
A. 55-60, C. 15, L.I. 65. Greenish-brown, with darker blotches : two
black ocelli edged with white exist on the straight portion of the lateral
line. Found from Sind throughout the Coasts of India and Burma : it
attains at least 7 inches in length.
626. Pseudorhombus triocellatus, Bl. Schn. D. 61-69, P. 12, V. 6,
A. 49, C. 19, L. 1. 65. Scales ctenoid, smallest in the anterior portion of
the body. Height of curve on lateral line equals half its length. Of
a rich brown colour, with three large heart-shaped purplish ocelli
having light centres and yellowish edges, placed in the form of a
triangle, the two anterior being on a vertical line slightly anterior to
the middle of the length of the fish, and the third midway between
them and the base of the caudal. Seas of India : to 6 or 8 inches in
length.
Genus — PLATCPHRTS, Swains.
Bothus, Bp. : Rhomboidichthys, Bleeker.
Branchiostegals six. Cleft of ' mouth moderate or of small extent ,
maxilla being about one-third or less in the length of the head. Eyes on
the left side separated by a concave interorbital space of a varying extent.
Jaws and dentition nearly equally developed on both sides. Teeth minute,
of an equvl size and in a single or double row : vomerine and palatine
ones as a rule absent. The dorsal Jin commences on the snout: its rays
and those of the anal are simple. Scales ctenoid. Lateral line having a
strong curve anteriorly.
This genus has been divided into sub-genera as follows : — (1) scales
very small, Rhomboidichthys : (2) of moderate size (40 rows in lateral
line) and deciduous, Platophrys : (3) of moderate size and not decidu-
ous, Engyprosopon.
627. Platophrys leopardinus, Giinther. D. 80-86, A. 67-68,
L. 1. 76-80. Brownish, with numerous ocellated spots. Andaman
Islands.
628. Platophrys pantherinus, Ruppell. D. 85-93, P. 11, V. 6,
A. 65-69, C. 17, L. 1. 84-90. Brown, with rich chestnut-coloured
blotches, and numerous bluish-white spots. Andaman Islands.
cclxxix
Genus — SOLE A (Lacep}, Cuv.
Cleft of mouth narrow, twisted round to the left side. Eyes on the
right side, the upper being partially or entirely in advance of the lower.
Nostrils variously formed. Dentition most developed on the blind side, where
the teeth in the jaws are in villiform rows, none on vomer or palate.
The dorsal fin commences on the snout, and is not confluent with the caudal :
flectorals present or absent. Scales small, ctenoid. Lateral line straight.
This genus lias been sub-divided : —
A. — Pectorals developed, Microbuglossus.
a. — Nostrils on blind side not dilated, Solea.
6. — One of nostrils on blind side dilated and broadly
fringed, Pegusa.
jB. — Pectorals on both sides rudimentary or small, Buglossus.
Pectorals absent, Aseraggodes.
629. Solea heterorhina, Bleeker. D. 88-94, P. 9-8, A. 80-82,
L. 1. 110-112. Nasal tube not dilated, longer than the eye. Both
pectorals developed. Olive, with from 20 to 25 vertical dark bands.
Andamans.
630. Solea Indica, Giinther. D. 55, P. 4, A. 44, L. 1. ca. 85.
Left pectoral absent, the right not much longer than the eye. Colours
brownish : dorsal and anal fin dark. One specimen, 22 lines long, was
sent from Madras by Dr. Jerdon to the British Museum.
Genus — d-CHIRUS} sp. (Lacep) Cuv.
Pardachirus, Giinther.
Gill openings narrow, the membranes being broadly united below the
throat : gill-rakers rudimentary. Eyes on the right side, the upper in
advance of the lower. Mouth narrower on the left side. Teeth minute
and only on the blind side. The dorsal fin commences on the snout and
ends close to the root of, but is not confluent with the caudal ; each dorsal
and anal ray scaly and with a pore at its base. Two ventrals. Pectorals
absent. Scales small, cycloid, or very indistinctly and partially ctenoid.
Lateral line straight, on the blind side there are two, the superior commen-
cing at the snout passes along the upper profile of the neck.
631. Achirus pavoninus, Lacep. D. 66-68, P. 4, A. 50-56,
C. 15, L. r. 94-96. A few scales on head and anterior portion of the
body, ctenoid. Greyish-brown, body and fins with various sized white
spots, each having a black border, and some a central black dot.
Andamans.
Genus — SyNAPTURA, Cantor.
Achiroides, Bleeker : JEsopia, sp. Euryglossa et Eurypleura, Kaup.
Branchioslegals six. Eyes on the right side, the upper in advance
of the lower. Cleft of the mouth narrow, twisted round to the left side :
minute teeth on the left side only : palate edentulous. One of the nos-
trils on the blind side dilated in some species, not so in others, whilst
amongst the latter both pectorals may be present, the right being somewhat
cclxxx
the longer, amongst which some have the nasal tube small and simple
(Synaptura), or bifid (Euryglossa). Secondly, the left pectoral may be
longer than the right (Anisochirus) . Thirdly, the left pectoral may be
rudimentary (jfflsopia). Fourthly, both pectorals may be absent (Achiroides) .
Vertical fins confluent. Scales ctenoid, small. Lateral line straight
Synaptura pan, Ham. Buch. (see No. 50, F. W. F. Report.)
632. Synaplura foliacea, Richards. D. 62-65, P. 7-9, V. 5, A.
46-51, C. 16-20, L. 1. 80-99. No dilated nostril on the blind side : the
tube small and simple. Pectorals on both sides. Greyish brown, with
several vertical irregular blackish bands. Seas of India, extending to
China ; attains at least 9 inches in length.
633. Synapturajerreus, Cuv. D. 65-68, P. 9-10, V. 6, A. 52-56,
C. 16, L. 1. 96, L. tr. 25/31. Scales on neck not larger than those on
the body. Greyish brown, with ten reddish -brown vertical bands,
commencing on the dorsal and continued on to the anal fin, where they
become nearly black : caudal black, with some irregular white markings
towards its edges. Ceylon and Coromandel : attaining at least 6 inches in
length.
634. Synaptura albomaculata, Kaup. D. 74, P. 7-8, A. 59, C. 16,
L. 1. 105 (?) L. tr. 38/45. A barbel between two prominent nostrils.
Body with five rows of yellowish-white dots. Attains probably above
12 inches in length. Coromandel.
635. Synaptura Commersoniana, Lacep. D. 71-81, P. 9, A. 61-66,
C. 12, L. 1. 155. Leaden grey, vertical fins black, with a broad white
edge. Some have minute white spots over the body. Seas of India
and Malayan Peninsula.
636. Synaptura Orientalis, Bl. Schn. D. 66-67, P, 7-6, A. 48-52,
C. 14, L. 1. 78. Nasal tube bifid. Two pectoral fins. Deep grey, with
blackish blotches, and in specimens 5 or 6 inches in length short narrow
black bands go to the lateral line. Seas of India : attaining 12 inches in
length.
637. Synaptura multifasciata, Kaup. D. 93, A. 67, P. 7-10, L. 1.
110. Nasal tube longer than the eye. Left pectoral fin rudimentary.
Head and body with 27 narrow cross bands.
638. Synaptura zebra, Bloch. D. 77-89, A. 66-79, C. 13-15,
L. 1. 12-6-128. Nasal tube short. Left pectoral fin rudimentary.
Olive, with twelve pairs of brown bands, three of which are on the head.
Caudal with some whitish marks. Seas of India.
639. Synaptura quagga, Kaup. D. 66-68, P. 9, A. 58-60, C. 18,
L. 1. 90-100. Nasal tube not elongated. Eyes, each generally having a
small filament. Left pectoral fin rudimentary. Yellowish, with 1 1
brown cross bands wider than the interspaces, three being on the head.
Caudal brownish, with a pair of black spots edged with yellow on its
posterior half. Seas of India and China to 6 or 8 inches in length.
Genus — JEsoplA, sp. Kaup.
Eyes on the right side, the upper slightly in advance of the lower.
Cleft of mouth narrow twisted round to the left Me. A short tubular
cclxxxi
nostril on the coloured side. First dorsal ray thick and prolonged, the
succeeding few low. Both pectorals rudimentary. Vertical fins con-
JBsbpia cornuta, Cuv. D. 72-75, P. 10, V. 3-4, A. 61-62, C. 17,
L. 1. 100. The first dorsal ray is considerably thickened and prolonged,
the succeeding1 few are lower than the remaining ones in the fin.
Twelve to thirteen vertical chestnut bands on a light ground colour,
the anterior of which is on the snout. Fins black, the caudal with
white markings, dorsal having a white edge. Coromandel coast : attain-
ing at least 6 inches in length.
Genus — PLAGUSIA, pt. Cuv.
Gill-openings very narrow. Eyes on the leftside. Anterior portion of
snout prolonged and curving downwards and backwards in the form of a
hook covers the mandible. Mouth rather narrow and unsymmetrical : lips
on the coloured side fringed. A single nostril on the left side before the
angle, of the lower eye, but none in the interorbital space. Vertical fins
confluent. Pectorals absent. Scales ctenoid, small. Lateral line on the
coloured side, double or triple.
641. Plagusia marmorata, Bleeker. D. 99-106, V. 4, A. 75-85,
C. 10, L. 1. 100. Rostral hook long, reaching to some distance behind
the lower eye. Two lateral lines on the left side, separated by 17 rows
of scales. Brown, marbled with darker. India to China.
642. Plagusia bilineata, Bloch. Nah-lah-ku, Tel. D. 96-101.
A. 70-74, C. 8, L. 1. 84-90. Rostral hook reaches to below the hind edge
of the eye. Two lateral lines on the left side, separated by from 12 to
14 rows of scales. Brownish, each scale lightest in its centre, fins
dull orange. Seas of India to the Malayan Archipelago.
Genus — CYNOGLOSSUS, pt. Ham. Suck.
Cantoria, Arelia, Trulla, et Icania, Kaup.
Gill-openings very narrow. Eyes on the left side. Anterior portion
of snout prolonged, and curves downwards and backwards in the form of
a hook. Mouth rather narrow and unsymmetrical. Lips not fringed.
There may be two nostrils on the coloured side, one of which is in the in-
terorbital space (Arelia) : or two nostrils before the lower eye, the inferior
of which is broader than the superior (Cantoria} : or only one nostril
which is in front of the lower eye (Trulta) : or no conspicuous nostril
(Icania). Minute teeth on the right side only. V er tic al fins confluent :
pectorals absent. Scales ctenoid (in C. dubius, cycloid). Lateral line
on the coloured side, double or triple.
643. Cynoglossus potous, Cuv. B. vi., D. 107, V. 6, A. 87, C. 12,
L. 1. 87. Rostral hook ends below the vertical from the anterior edge
of the upper orbit. Three lateral lines on the left side. Darkish brown
superiorly : vertical fins with a light edge. Coromandel coast.
644. Cynoglossus lingua, Ham. Buch. D. 142, V. 4, A. 110,
C. 8, L. 1. 105. Two nostrils (Arelia}. Cycloid scales on right side.
Two lateral lines on the left side, separated by 13 rows of scales. Brown-
ish, some with cloudy markings. Seas of India : attaining at least 18
inches in length.
LL
cclxxxii
645. Cynoglossus Borneensis, Bleeker. ? D. 108-112, V. 4, A.
88, C. 12, L. r. 93. Two nostrils (Arelia). Scales ctenoid on both
sides. Two lateral lines on the left side, separated by 16 rows of scales.
Brownish, without markings. Seas of India, to 20 inches in length.
646. Cynoglossus macrolepidolus, Bleeker. D. 111-116, V. 4, A.
86-89, L. 1. 54. Two nostrils (Arelia}. Scales cycloid on the right
side. Two lateral lines on the left side, separated by 6 rows of scales.
Brownish, with an ill-defined bluish band along the bases of the dorsal
and anal fins : a bluish blotch on opercles. Seas of India, extending to
the Malayan Archipelago.
647. Cynoglossus dubius, Day. D. 110, V. 4, A. 88, C. 12,
L. r. 104. Rostral hook does not extend backwards so far as to below
the orbit. Two nostrils (Arelia). Scales cycloid on both sides. Two
lateral lines on the left side, separated by 21 rows of scales. Brown,
without marks. Seas of Sind, the largest specimen, 20 inches in length,
taken at Gwadur.
648. Cynoglossus quadrilineatus, Bleeker. D. 102-112, V. 4, A.
83-86, C. 10, L. -1. 95. Rostral hook does not extend backwards so far
as to below the orbit. Two nostrils (Arelia). Scales cycloid on the
right side. Two lateral lines on the left side, separated by 14 rows of
scales. Brown, fins yellowish : a darkish band on opercle. Seas of
India to the Malayan Archipelago.
649. Cynoglossus Bengalensis, Bleeke^. D. 103, V. 4, A. 80,
C. 10, L. 1. 90. Rostral hook extends to behind the mandibular sym-
physis. Two nostrils (Arelia) . Two lateral lines on the left side,*sepa-
rated by 13 rows of scales. Brown, with some dark vertical ^blotches :
fins dark, with light edges. Seas of India.
650. Cynoglossus brevis, Giinther. D. 95-98, V. 4, A. 76, L. 1.
100. Rostral hook extends to behind the mandibular symphysis.
Two nostrils (Arelia). Two lateral lines on the left side, separated by
from 16 to 18 rows of scales. Brownish, with blackish vertical bands
which are continued on to the fins. Seas of India.
651. Cynoglossus Hamiltonii, Giinther. D. 100-102, V. 4, A.
76-78, C. 10, L. 1. 80. Rostral hook short. No perceptible nostril. Two
lateral lines on the left side, separated by 13 rows of scales. Reddish
brown, with irregular brownish black spots, sometimes banded. Ganges
to Malayan Archipelago.
Order— PHYSOSTOMI, Milller.
179. All the fin rays articulated, with the exception of the first in the
Fishes in which as a rule a dorsal and pectoral, which are frequently
communication exists between more or less ossified. Ventral fins, when
the air-vessel and the Pharynx. present, abdominal and spineless. Air-
vessel, if existing, having a pneumatic duct, except in the family
Scombresociaa.
cclxxxiii
Family — S I L u R I D 2E .
Margin of the upper jaw formed by the intermaxillaries : the maxilla rudimentary,
often constituting the base of a barbel : no sub-opercle. Either the rayed or
adipose dorsal fins, may be present or absent. Skin scaleless, and either smooth
or covered with osseous plates. Air-vessel, when present, either free in the abdo-
minal cavity (Silurinae), or more or less enclosed in bone (Ambfycepinae) : it
communicates with the organs of hearing by means of the auditory bones.
Sub-family— S i L u R i N M .
Air-vessel not enclosed in bone,
Genus — MA CR ONESj Dumeril.
Bagrus, pt. Cuv. & Val. : Hypselobagrus > Hemibagrus, Pseudobag-
rus and Aspidobagrus, Bleeker : Batasio, pt. Blyth.
Branckiostegals from about six to twelve. Eyes with free circular
margins. A separate interneural shield on the nape (Macrones), or no such
shield (Hemibagrus). Mouth terminal, transverse : upper jaw -generally the
longer. Barbels eight, one nasal, one maxillary, and two mandibular pairs.
Villiform teeth in the jaws, and in a more or less uninterrupted curved
band on the palate. First dorsal fin with one spine and from five to seven
rays : adipose dorsal of varying length : pectoral spine serrated : anal
short or of moderate length : ventral with six rays : caudal forked. Air-
vessel of moderate or large size, attached to the under surface of the bodies
of the anterior vertebra.
A. No separate interneural shield on the nape.
Macrones gulio, Ham. Buch. (see no. 61, E. W. E. Report.)
Genus — Amus, Cuv fy Val.
Sciades, sp. et Ariodes, Mull & Trosch : Hexanematichthys, Guitinga,
Hemiarius, Cephalocassis, Netuma et Pseudarius, Bleeker.
Branchiostegals from five to six. Head osseous superiorly, or cover-
ed with very thin skin. Eyes with free orbital margins. Mouth anterior :
upper jaw generally the longer. Anterior and posterior nostrils placed
close together, the latter being provided with a valve. Barbels six, one
maxillary, and two mandibular pairs. Teeth in the jaws villiform : always
palatine, and sometimes vomerine ones : these may be villiform or granular.
First dorsal with one spine and seven rays : the adipose of moderate length
or short : pectoral spine strong and serrated : ventral with six rays, situated
behind the vertical from the posterior margin of the first dorsal fin : cau-
dal forked or emarginate. Air-vessel not enclosed in bone.
A. Vomerine teeth present, forming a continuous or but
sliqhtly interrupted band, more or less confluent with those on
the palatines.
(a) . Palatine teeth villiform.
652. Arms nenga, Ham. Buch. B. vi., D. f/0, A. 20. Occipital
process nearly as broad at its base as it is long : basal bone narrow and
crescentic in form. Maxillary barbels reach the hinder third of the
pectoral fin. Teeth in two broad triangular patches, approximating
cclxxxiv
anteriorly. Dorsal spine strong, as long as the head, granulated in front,
serrated behind : pectoral spine rather shorter, externally granulated, in-
ternally serrated: upper two-thirds of adipose dorsal deep black.
Hooghly : attaining at least 13 inches in length.
653. Arius sagor, Ham. Buch. D. -f/0, A. 17-18. Occipital pro-
cess rather wider than long : the basal bone large and somewhat butter-
fly-shaped. Maxillary barbels reach the end, the external mandibular
the middle of the pectoral fin. Teeth in two pairs of confluent villif orm
patches, each of which has a rounded posterior free edge. Dorsal spine
strong, four- fifths as long as the head, granulated or serrated in its anterior
upper fourth, and moderately serrated posteriorly : pectoral spine stronger
than the dorsal, serrated on its external fourth and along its whole inner
margin. Greyish-brown, whitish below. Seas of India, ascending large
rivers, is found in the Malay Archipelago : it attains at least 3 feet in
length,
654. Arius sona, Ham, Buch. D. |/0, A. 16-17. Occipital pro-
cess keeled, granulated, wider at its base than it is long, and convex at
its posterior extremity, where it meets the basal bone, which is narrow
in the centre, and somewhat of a S-shape. Eyes in the anterior half of
the head. Maxillary barbels reach the end of the head, or even further.
Teeth in two triangular patches with their apices converging, their
bases emarginate, the vomerine ones in two small patches almost con-
fluent with one another and also with the palatine ones. Dorsal spine
strong, as long as the head without the snout, and posteriorly serrated :
pectoral stronger, but slightly shorter, serrated internally. Brownish
above, bluish on the sides glossed with gold, dirty white below. Seas
of India, entering the mouths of large rivers : it attains 3 feet in length.
655. Arius thalassinus, Riipp. D. J/0, A. 15-17. Occipital pro-
cess slightly keeled, rather longer than broad at its base : basal bone
narrow and crescentic in form. Maxillary barbels reach to about the
root of the pectoral fin, the external mandibulars are slightly shorter.
Teeth in three spots on either side of the palate, coalescing anteriorly
so as to appear as if there were one large triangular patch. Dorsal spine
as long as the head without the snout, granulated in front, serrated
behind : the pectoral stronger but a little shorter, granulated externally,
feebly serrated internally. A black spot on the upper third of the
adipose dorsal. Found from the Red Sea through those of Africa and
India to the Malay Archipelago,
656. Arius doroides, Cuv. & Val. D. }/0, A. 17. Occipital pro-
cess twice as broad at its base as it is long : basal bone large and
reniform. Maxillary barbels reach the posterior border of the opercles.
Teeth, the palatine patches ovate and not triangular. The anterior edge
of the dorsal and the external one of the pectoral spines are granulated :
ventrals shorter than pectorals. Seas and estuaries of the Coromandel and
Bengal coasts of India : attaining 2 feet in length.
6. Palatine teeth granular or obtusely conical.
657. Arius Dussumieri, Cuv. & Val. D. f/0, A. 14. Occipital
process keeled, longer than broad. Maxillary barbels reach the root of
the pectoral. Teeth on palatines in four patches, a small one also on
cclxxxv
either side of the vomer. Dorsal spine strong1, as long as the head
without the snout, and finely serrated on both edges : pectoral spine
equally strong. Malabar and Ceylon.
J5. The teeth on the palate usually in two widely sepa-
rated patches ; if the vomerine ones exist they are in two dis-
tinct and separate spots, which may be confluent with those
on the palatines.
a. Palatine teeth villiform.
658. Arms Burmanicus, Day. Nga-young, Burm. D. -f/0, A. 20-22.
Mouth spatulate. Occipital process as long as wide at its base.
Maxillary barbels reach the base or middle of the pectoral fin ; the ex-
ternal mandibulars are nearly as long. Teeth in palatines in two small,
oval, and widely separated patches. Dorsal spine strong, half as long
as the head : pectoral of equal length, stronger and serrated on both
sides. Purplish above, white beneath. Dorsal fin externally stained
with black. Rivers of Burma, and taken within tidal influence.
659. Arms coquibarUs, Cuv. & Val. D. J/0, A. 22. Maxillary
and outer mandibular barbels of equal length. Caudal lobes equal one-
fourth of total length. Rangoon and Bengal.
660. Arms subrostratus, Cuv. & Val. D. f/0, A. 20. Occi-
pital process rather longer than broad at its base : basal bone narrow.
Maxillary barbels scarcely reach the eye, the external mandibular are
shorter. Teeth in two widely separated patches. Dorsal spine half as
long as the head, nodulated anteriorly, serrated posteriorly : pectoral
spine somewhat shorter, serrated internally in its anterior half. Silvery,
fins with fine black spots. Western coast of India.
661. Arms calatus, Cuv. & Val. D. f/0, A. 18-20. Occipital
process as long as wide at its base, it is slightly keeled, and a little
broader at its base than at its concave anterior extremity, where it
meets a rather narrow V-shaped basal bone. Maxillary barbels reach
the middle of the pectoral fin, the external mandibular are one-fifth
shorter. Teeth in two widely separated triangular patches, those on
the vomer confluent with those on the palate. Dorsal spine nearly as
long as the head, serrated superiorly on both sides : pectoral spine as
strong, rather shorter, and serrated internally. Adipose dorsal with a
large black spot. Seas of India to Malay Archipelago : attaining a
large size.
662. Arms Sumatranus, Bennett. D. ^/O, A. 19. Occipital pro-
cess somewhat keeled, slightly longer than broad at its base : basal
bone rather narrow and V-shaped. Maxillary barbels reach the pos-
terior end of the head, the external mandibular the base of the pectoral
fin. Teeth in two widely separated triangular patches. Dorsal spine as
long as the head without the snout, serrated posteriorly : pectoral rather
shorter and internally serrated. Leaden colour, lighter beneath.
663. Arms restrains, Cuv. & Val., D. -f/0, A. 17. Occipital pro-
cess somewhat keeled, wider at its base than it is long : basal bone
narrow. Eyes in the commencement of the posterior half of the head.
cclxxxvi
None of the barbels reach so far as to the posterior edge of the orbit.
Teeth in two triangular widely separated patches nob so long as the
diameter of the eye. Dorsal spine half as long as the head, serrated
posteriorly : pectoral a little longer and serrated internally. Silvery, a
series of fifteen minutely spotted vertical lines exist along the body :
vertical fins stained with grey. Malabar coast : to at least 11 inches
in length.
b. Palatine teeth granular or obtusely conical.
664. Arms maculatus, Thunb. D. J/0. A. 20-22. Occipital
process keeled, rather longer than broad. Maxillary barbels much shorter
than the head. Teeth in palate in two separate oval patches. Dorsal
spine strong, not so long as the head, serrated on both edges : the
pectoral slightly shorter. Adipose dorsal with a large black spot. East
Indies.
665. Arms gagora, Ham. Buch. Nga-young and Nga-yeh, Burm.
D. f/0, A. 18-19. Occipital process keeled, slightly longer than broad :
basal bone narrow. Maxillary barbels somewhat longer than the head.
Teeth in palate in widely separated, somewhat rhomboidal patches, and
slightly convergent posteriorly. Dorsal spine nearly as long as the head
without the snout, slightly serrated anteriorly, more strongly so pos-
teriorly : pectoral spine stronger, a little longer, rugose and slightly
serrated externally, strongly so internally. Greyish, silvery above, be-
coming white beneath. Fins stained with grey, a blackish mark on the
adipose dorsal. Seas of India and Burma, ascending rivers, often far
above tidal influence : it attains upwards of $ inches in length.
666. Arius macronotacanthus, Bleeker. D. -f/0, A. 18. Occipital
process shorter than broad at its base : basal bone small. Maxillary
barbels extend to the middle, the external mandibular ones to the base
of the pectoral fin. Teeth, or two separate elliptical patches, often as
long as the eye, and slightly divergent posteriorly. Dorsal spine very
strong, as long as the head, slightly serrated on both edges : pectoral
spine strong, shorter than the dorsal. Adipose dorsal with a large black
spot, the other fins yellow.
667. Arius jatius, Ham. Buch. D. j/0, A. 19-20, very similar to
A. gagora, but with a wider mouth. Occipital process keeled, broader
at its base than long. Maxillary barbels reach the base of the pectorals.
Teeth granular, frequently almost imperceptible on the palate, if distinct,
in oval patches, somewhat convergent posteriorly. Dorsal spine with a
soft termination, it equals the length of the postorbital portion of the
head, granulated anteriorly, serrated posteriorly : pectoral spine two-
thirds as long as the head. Bluish superiorly, becoming white inferiorly:
maxillary barbels black : a black spot on the soft dorsal fin. Estuaries
of the Ganges.
Qenus—BATRACHOCEPHALUS, BleeJcer.
Branckiostcgals jive. Gill-membranes united at the throat, without a
notch. Cleft of mouth wide: lower jaw the longer. Eyelids with a free circular
margin. Barbel* two, rudimentary, and inserted at the chin : nostrils approxi-
mating, the posterior provided with a valve. Teeth obtusely conical in either
cclxxxvii
jaw, in a broad longitudinal band on the palate: none on the vomer. Dorsal
fin with one spine and seven rays, inserted anterior to the ventrals : adipose
fin short. Anal of moderate length, not confluent with the caudal, which
is forked. Ventral with six rays. Air-vessel in the abdominal cavity not
enclosed by bone.
668. Batrachocephalus mino, Ham. Buch. B. V, D. f/0, A. 20.
Occipital process longer than broad at its base. Silvery. Seas aud
estuaries of India and Burma, entering rivers.
Genus — KETENGUS, Bleeker.
Branchiostegals five. Gill-membranes united, and also grown to the
isthmus, but having a free posterior edge, which is notched. Head osseous
superiorly. Eyelids with a free circular margin. Barbels six, small,
no nasal ones. Nostrils approximating, the posterior provided with a valve,
A single row of small compressed teeth, which are sub-truncated or almost
tricuspid in the jaws: palate edentulous. Dorsal fin with one spine and
seven rays, inserted anterior to the ventrals : adipose fin short : anal of
moderate length and not continuous with the caudal, which latter is forked.
Ventral with six rays.
669. Ketengus typus, Bleeker. D. f/0, A. 20. Gape of mouth
wide : upper jaw the longer : dorsal spine as long as the head. Silvery.
Andamans and Malay Archipelago.
Genus — OsTEOGENIOSUS) Bleeker.
Branchiostegals five. Gill-membranes united at the throat, emargi-
nate and overlapping the isthmus : upper surface of the head covered with
very thin skin: mouth anterior: upper jaw the longer. Barbels, a single
pair of semi-osseous maxillary ones. Nostrils approximating, the posterior
provided with a valve : teeth in the jaws villiform : obtusely conical on the
palate, where they form two widely separated patches. Dorsal with one
spine and seven rays inserted anterior to the ventrals : adipose fin short.
Anal of moderate length not united with the caudal, which is forked.
Ventral with six rays. Air-vessel in the abdominal cavity not enclosed in
bone.
670. Osteogeniosus militaris, Linn. D. f/0, A. 20-23. Head
granular superiorly, its depth being equal to two-thirds of its length.
Diameter of eye 1/4 of width of interorbital space, which last is more
than 1/2 of length of head. Silvery. Seas of India and Burma, entering
rivers.
671. Ostegeniosus Talenciennesii, Bleeker. D. f/0, A. 19-22.
Head nearly smooth superiorly, its depth being equal to rather more
than half its length. Diameter of eye 1/3 or 2/7 of interorbital space,
which last is less than 1/2 of length of head. Silvery. Seas of Burma,
entering rivers.
Genus — PLOTOSUS, Lac4p.
Branchiostegals twelve. Gill-membranes separated and not attached
to the isthmus. Head depressed. Gape of mouth transverse. Eyes small,
lids with a free orbital margin : nostrils remote from one another, the
anterior being on the front edge of the snout. Barbels eight, the nasal
cclxxxviii
pair situated before the posterior nostril : one maxillary and two man-
dibular pairs. Teeth conical in the upper, mixed in the lower jaw,
and molar-form on the vomer. Two rayed dorsal fins, the first with one
spine and four or five rays, the second many rayed and confluent with
caudal and anal, the latter of which is also elongated. Ventral fins many
rayed (12). Air-vessel of moderate size, with a thick tendinous covering,
but not enclosed in bone.
672. Plotosus canius,Ham. Buch. : Irung-leellettee^waa. B. XII,
1 D. £, 2 D. + C. -f A, 224 to 271. Nasal barbels reach the nape, the
maxillary ones the end of the opercles. Teeth, intermaxillary band
twice as long as broad, a crescentic vomerine band. Brownish, fins with
black edges. Estuaries of India, Burma, and Malay Archipelago : it
attains 3 feet and upwards in length.
673. Plotosus Arab, Fosk. B. XII, 1 D. _^_, 2 D. + C. -f A.
169-190. Nasal barbels reach the eye: the maxillary ones are half the
length of head. Chesnut colour, with two white longitudinal bands :
the vertical fins with black edges. From the East Coast of Africa to
Japan and Polynesia.
Family — S COPELID^E, Muller.
Branchiostegals as a rule numerous. Pseudobranchise well developed. Gill-
openings very wide. Opercular pieces sometimes incomplete. Margin of the upper
jaw formed by the intermaxillaries. Barbels absent. Adipose dorsal fin present.
Scales present or absent. Ova enclosed in sacs in the ovaries, and excluded by oviducts.
Intestinal canal short. Pyloric appendages, when present, few in number. Air-
vessel absent.
Genus — SAURUS, sp. Cuv.
Branchiostegals from eight to sixteen. Gill-openings very wide : Hie
gill-membranes not attached to the isthmus. Body elongated, subcylindrical :
head oblong, muzzle short. Eyes of moderate size, lateral. Gape of moid h
wide, cleft very deep : edge of the upper jaw entirely formed by long and
thin intermaxillaries : the maxillary likewise elongated, thin, and adherent
to the intermaxillaries. Teeth numerous, pointed, some of which are
elongated and slender, and can be laid downwards and inwards : they exist
on the jaws, tongue, and palatine bones, a single row being on the palate and
usually none or only a few on the vomer. First dorsal, with a moderate
number of rays, situated nearly in the middle of the length of ilic //*/ :
adipose fin small. Ventral with eight rays, the internal being the longest : it
is inserted anterior to the origin of the dorsal, and not far behind the pec-
torals, which are short: anal of moderate length or short. Caudal forked.
Body covered with moderately sized scales. Lateral line complete. Pyloric
appendages few.
674. Saurus Indicus, Day. B. XV, D. 13/0, P. 13, A. 9, L. 1. 55,
L. tr. 3£/7. Upper jaw slightly the longer. Width of snout equals the
length of the concave interorbital space. Brownish in the upper two-
thirds, dirty white beneath. Numerous bluish irregular spots or blotches
along the back and sides, in places almost forming horizontal bands.
cclxxxix
Dorsal and caudal white, with greyish spots, forming irregular horizontal
bands. Madras, to 7 inches in length.
675. Saurus my op*, Cuv. B. XVI, D. 12/0, A. 15-16, L. 1. 56-58,
L. tr. 8J/7. Lower jaw slightly the longer. Upper half of body of a
golden colour, with four longitudinal blue lines having black edges, and
nearly as wide as the ground colour. A black spot at shoulder. Abdomi-
nal surface silvery. "Dorsal fin with three rows of yellow spots : a yellow
band along the middle of the pectoral : outer half of anal yellow. Seas
of India, &c.
Genus — &AURIDA, Cuv.
Differs from Saurus as follows. — Teeth cardiform, the inner ones being
the longest and slender, all can be laid downwards and inwards, they exist
on the jaws, tongue and palatine bones : those on palate are in a double or
treble band on either side, the inner ones being the shortest. Ventral fin
with nine rays, the inner not much longer than the outer ones. Pectoral
short or of moderate length.
676. Saurida tombil, Bloch. Arranna. Mai. : Oolooway, Tarn.
D. 11-12/0, A. 10, L. 1. 53-64, L. tr. 4J/7. Brownish-grey along the
back, white beneath, the whole with yellow reflections. Seas of India,
mostly during the cold months, is not much esteemed as food : it attains
a foot in length.
Genus — HAEPODON, Lesueur.
Branchiostegals from twenty-three to twenty-five : pseudobranchice.
Gilt-openings wide. Body elongated and compressed. Eyes small. Snout
short : bones of head soft and partly modified into wide muciferous channels.
Cleft of mouth deep : margin of the upper jaw formed by the inter maxillaries,
which are thin and tapering, maxiliaries absent. Teeth cardiform, recurved
and of unequal size, the largest being on the mandible and barbed. Teeth
exist on the intermaxillaries, mandibles, palatines, the tongue and hyoid,
those on the palatines are large and can be laid downwards. Dorsal fin in
the middle of the length of the body, with a moderate number of rays : adipose
fin small. Pectoral and ventrals long, the latter with nine rays, and insert-
ed below the anterior dorsal ones, at some distance behind the pectorals.
Anal of moderate length. Scales thin and deciduous, especially in the
anterior portion of body. Air-vessel absent. Pyloric appendages sixteen.
677. Harpodon nehereus, Ham. Buch. Cucah sawahri, or Coco
mottah, Tel. Bummaloh or Bombay duck, D. 12-13/0, A. 14-15. The
scales commence opposite the origin of the dorsal fin. Of a brownish
colour. Seas of India and Bui ma, ascending rivers : it attains a foot in
length, and is esteemed as food either fresh or dried, in which latter form
it is extensively employed as a relish with curries, and known as the
" Bombay duck/'
M M
ccxc
Family — SCOMBRESOCID^.
Pkaryngognatki malacopterygii, Miiller.
Pseudobranchise concealed, glandular. Margin of the upper jaw formed, mesially
by the intermaxillaries, laterally by the maxillaries. Barbels present or absent.
Lower pharyngeals united into a single bone. Dorsal fin rayed, with or without
finlets posterior to it, situated opposite the anal, and in the caudal portion of the
vertebral column : no adipose dorsal. Scales present, frequently a keeled row
along either side of the free portion of the tail. Air-vessel generally present,
sometimes cellular, and destitute of a pneumatic duct. Stomach and intestines
in one straight undivided tube. Pyloric appendages absent.
Genus — BE LONE, Cuv.
Branchiostegals rather numerous. Gill-openings wide. Body elon-
gated, sub -cylindrical or compressed. Eyes lateral. The jaws prolonged
into a beak, the upper of which is formed by the intermaxillaries. Fine
teeth y or rugosities in both jaws, with a single row of long, widely -set
conical ones : palate toothed or toothless. The anterior dorsal rays may
or may not be elevated, forming a lobe to the fin, whilst the middle and
posterior ones may be short or elongated: no finlets : caudal usually
forked. Scales small. Lateral line on free portion of tail, with or without
a keel.
This Genus has been thus sub-divided : —
A. Anterior dorsal rays elevated, forming a lobe, (Belone.)
B. „ y, „ not forming a lobe, (Potamorrhaphis,) Giinther.
A. Anterior dorsal rays elevated^ forming a lobe, Belone.
678. Belone schismatorhynchus, Bleeker. D. 24-25, A. 26-27.
Length of head about 1/4 of the total. A wide shallow groove on the
head, scaled in its anterior half : superciliary edge striated. Vomerine
teeth absent. Free portion of tail moderately depressed, without a dis-
tinct keel. Posterior dorsal rays nearly reach the base of caudal fin,
which is forked. Pectoral black in its outer two-thirds : most of the
other fins with black stains. Seas of India : it attains at least 18 inches
in length . I have taken specimens full of roe in February.
679. Belone annulata, Cuv. & Val. Pahmum £<H&£/?Tant D.
23-24, A. 21-22. Length of head about 1/4 of the total. Diameter of
eye 2/5 of length of postorbital portion of the head. A wide shallow
groove on the head : superciliary edge striated. Vomerine teeth ab-
sent : tongue rough from tubercles. Free portion of tail moderately
depressed, with* an ill-defined lateral keel. Posterior dorsal rays nearly
or quite reach the base of the caudal fin, which is forked : ventral arises
midway between anterior edge of the orbit and the root of the caudal.
Centre of caudal stained blackish. Seas of India : to at least 2 feet in
length.
680. Belone choram, Forsk. D. 22-23, A. 20-21. Length of head
nearly 1/4 of the total. Diameter of eye 1/2 of length of postorbital
portion of the head. A wide shallow groove on the head : superciliary
edge striated. Yomerine teeth absent : tongue rough with tubercles. Free
portion of tail depressed so as to be as wide as high, and having a nar-
row keel along its side. Posterior dorsal rays nearly or quite reach the
CCXC1
base of the caudal, which is forked. Ventral arises nearer the head than
the root of the caudal.
681. Belone melanostigma, Cuv. & Val. D. 23-24, A. 25. Length
of head nearly 1/4 of the total. Superciliary edge striated. Teeth
small. Posterior dorsal rays nearly reach the base of the caudal. Ven-
tral arises midway between the posterior edge of the orbit and the end
of the base of the anal. Caudal forked. Sides with from one to seven
large black blotches, which seem occasionally to be absent in the females.
Bombay and Red Sea : attaining 2 feet or more in length. Females
were taken full of roe in November and also in February.
682. Belone leiurus, Bleeker. D. 19, A. 22. Length of head 2/7
of the total length. A wide shallow groove on the head, broadest
anteriorly. Superciliary and parietal regions striated. Vomerine teeth
absent : tongue smooth. Free portion of tail compressed, higher than
wide, without any distinct lateral keel. Posterior dorsal rays do not
extend nearly so far as the root of the caudal fin, which last is not
forked. A silvery lateral band : caudal stained. Coasts of India to
the Malay Archipelago : attaining at least 23 inches in length. Female
full of roe captured in February.
683. Belone strongylurus (V. Hass.), Bleeker. Cun-gur, Sind :
Ooshee collarckee and Coco meen " long nosed fish," Tarn. : Thook-o-doo-
noo-dah, And. D. 13-14, A. 15-16. Length of head nearly 1/3 of the
totallength (*) . A shallow median groove on the head: superciliary
region scarcely striated. Vomerine teeth absent. Free portion of
tail compressed, higher than wide without any distinct lateral keel.
Posterior dorsal rays do not extend nearly so far as the root of the
caudal fin, which last is rounded. Ventral fin arises midway between
the orbit and the base of the caudal. Pectoral longer than the distance
from the orbit to the margin of the opercle. A round deep black spot
near the centre of the root of the caudal fin. Coasts of India to the
Malay Archipelago : attaining 2 feet or more in length.
Genus — IlEMIRAMPHUS, Cuv.
Hyporhamphus, Euleptorhamphus, Zenarchopterus , and Oxyporham-
phus, Gill: Dermatogenys (K. and v. Hass.), Peters : Hemiramphodon,
Bleeker.
Branchiostegals rather numerous. Gill-openings wide. Body
sub -cylindrical and elongated. Eyes lateral. Upper jaw, which is formed
by the intermaxillaries , is more or less trianqular in form and short :
t/ ' v e/
whilst the lower jaw, in the mature, is elongated far beyond the upper.
Teeth villiform in both jaws. The number of dorsal and anal rays may be
about equal, or either may be in excess of the other : the dorsal fin may
commence anterior to, abo')e, or behind the origin of the anal : no finlets
posterior to the dorsal fin. Pectoral may or may not be prolonged : caudal
mostly forked or emarginate, sometimes rounded. Scales of moderate or
large size : air-vessel large, occasionally cellular. Dorsal and anal rays may
be modified : some are viviparous. No pyloric appendages.
(*) Dr. Giinther considers there are two species for the second of which he reserves
the specific term strong ylurus, known by its eye being a little larger arid its head slightly
longer. For the above he retains th'3 specific name of caudimacttlata.
ccxcn
This genus has been thus divided : —
A. Pectorals short.
JB. „ long.
A. Pectorals short.
684. Hemiramphus Russelli, Cuv. and Val. D. 17, A. 13. Length
of head without the beak 1/6, of the beak rather more than 1/6 of the
total length. Eyes diameter 1/4 of length of head. Ventrals in the
posterior 1/3 of the distance between apex of intermaxillaries and base
of caudal fin, which latter is forked. A silvery band. Coromandel Coast
to the Malay Archipelago.
685. Hemiramphus Reynaldi, Cuv. and Val. D. 16, A. 15.
Length of beak 2/11 of the total length. Upper jaw pointed: caudal
forked : dorsal higher than long. Silvery band not very distinct : dorsal
and caudal edged with black. Intermediate between H. Dussumieri
and H. Gaimardi. Seas of India, to 9 inches in length.
686. Hemiramphus Georgii, Cuv. and Val. D. 16, A. 15, L. 1. 58-60.
Length of entire head 2/5, of beak 1/4 of the total length. Eyes,
diameter one and two-thirds in the postorbital portion of the head, and
3/4 of the interorbital space. Dorsal and anal fins scaleless, the latter
commencing under the sixth dorsal ray. Ventral in the posterior 1/3
of the distance between the anterior margin of the orbit and the base
of the lower caudal lobe, which latter fin is lobed, its central rays being
much longer than the eye. A silvery band : upper two-thirds of the
anterior portion of the dorsal black : caudal grey in its posterior half :
each scale spotted on its edges. Seas of India to the Malay Archi-
pelago, attaining at least 8 inches in length.
687. Hemiramphus leucopterus, Cuv. and Val. D. 16, A. 14.
Fins white : all the body is transparent white and silvery : the lateral
band very brilliant : beak black. Bombay, to 5 inches.
688. Hemiramphus xanthopterus , Cuv. and Val. D. 15, A. 16.
The beak is shorter and the eye larger than in H. limbatus. White back,
with the edges of the scales bordered with greenish and having nacreous
reflections : the single fins are yellow, and the paired ones transparent :
the skin of the beak is black, and its extremity scarlet. Alleppey, to
6 inches in length.
689.. Hemiramphus Dussumieri, Cuv. and Val. D. 15, A. 14,
L. 1. 52. Length of entire head from 1/3 to 5/16, of beak from 2/11
to 1/6 in the total length. Eyes 1 diameter apart, 1| diameters in the
postorbital portion of the head. Triangular portion of upper jaw wider
than long. Dorsal commences anterior to the anal : its upper edge
concave : ventral arises slightly nearer the base of the caudal than the
axil of the pectoral : caudal deeply forked, lower lobe the longer, its
central rays being as long as the postorbital portion of the head : no
scales on vertical fins. Back dark : lateral band well developed : a dark
mark on the anterior part of the dorsal fin. Seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago.
690. Hemiramphus plumatus, Blyth. D. 15, A. 13, L. 1. 66.
Upper jaw 1/3 longer than wide. Eyes 1J diameters apart, and rather
nearer the posterior extremity of the head than the anterior end of the
upper jaw. Dorsal commences anterior to the anal : its upper edge
ccxcin
concave : caudal forked : the lower lobe the longer : the ventral com-
mences in the last third of the distance between the end of the snout
and the base of the caudal fin. A lateral band. Ceylon, attaining at
least 8 inches in length.
691. Hemirampfaa Gaimardi, Cuv. and Val. D. 14-16, A. 15-16,
L. 1. 50. Length of entire head about 1/3, of beak 2/11 of the total
length. Eyes one diameter apart, and two-thirds the length of the postocu-
lar portion of the head. Upper jaw broader than long. Base of dorsal a
little longer than that of the anal : both with some very fine scales
anteriorly : ventral arises slightly nearer the eye than to the base of the
caudal fin, which is moderately forked, its central rays being much longer
than the eye. A silvery band as wide as a scale : a scarlet tip to the
mandible. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
692. Hemiramphus far, RiippelL Verrikolak, Tarn. D. 13-14,
A. 11-13, L. 1. 52-54. Length of head, including beak, 1/3 of the total.
Eyes 1^ diameters in the postorbital portion of the head. Ventral
arises midway between the end of the pectoral and the base of the
caudal. Dorsal and anal scaled in their anterior portions : caudal forked,
its central rays being shorter than the eye. Air-vessel cellular. A silvery
streak : four black blotches along the side. Seas of India, attaining at
least 13 inches in length. This appears to be identical with H. Commer-
sonti, Cuv. and Val.
693. HemiramjpJms angwlatus, Ham. Buch. Gungaturi, Ooriah.
D. 13-14, A. 13-15, L. 1. 50-52. Length of entire head nearly 1/3, of
beak 1/6 of the total length. Eyes 1 diameter apart and 1J diameters
in the postorbital portion of the head. Upper jaw keeled, 1/3 wider at
the base than it is long. Dorsal commences slightly in advance of the
anal, the anterior portion of each being the higher : ventrals commence
midway between the posterior margin of the eye and the base of the
caudal fin, which last is lobed, the lower being the longer. Pectoral
pointed, two-thirds as long as the head : no scales on the vertical fins.
A brilliant silvery longitudinal band nearly covering the depth of one
scale. Estuaries of the Ganges and rivers in Orissa. This is the species
I described as Esox ectunlio, H. Buchanan. The specimens in the
Calcutta Museum were labelled H. Iracliynotopterus, Bleeker, which
designation is incorrect.
694. Hemimmphus marginatus, Forsk. Kuddera, Tel. D. 12-14,
A. 11-12, L. 1. 50-52. Upper jaw as broad as long. Length of head,
including beak, from 3/8 to 1/3 of the total length. Diameter of eyes
4/7 of the length of the postorbital portion of the head. The ventral
arises somewhat nearer the caudal than the axil of the pectoral. Dorsal
and anal fins scaleless. Caudal deeply forked, its central rays being
shorter than the orbit. An indistinct silvery band. Red Sea, Seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago.
695. Hemiramphus limbatus, Cuv. and Val. D. 13, A. 13-14,
L. 1. 51. Length of head nearly 1/3, of beak 1/6 of the total length.
Eyes nearly 1 diameter apart and 3/i of the length of the postorbital
portion of the head. Dorsal arises anterior to the anal, than which its
base is much longer : root of the ventral rather nearer to the base of
the caudal than the posterior margin of the orbit : caudal lobed but not
deeply, the lower being the longer, its central rays being as long as the
CCXC1V
postorbital portion of the head. A well-marked silvery longitudinal
band nearly as wide as the depth of one scale : beak tipped with coral
red. Seas of India.
696. Hemirampkus cirrhatus, Day. D. 14, A. 12, L. 1. 42,
L. tr. 7/3. Length of entire head 2/5, of beak nearly 1/4 of the total
length. Eyes 1 \ diameters in the postorbital portion of the head. A
barbel at the posterior nostril half the length of one diameter of the
orbit. Pectoral pointed, rather longer than the head without the snout :
ventral arises in the last third of the distance between the front end of
the snout and the base of the caudal, which last is rounded or very
slightly emarginate : anal with a very short base commencing slightly
behind the origin of the dorsal, but the length of its base is only 1/3
of that of the latter fin. No scales on the vertical fins. A narrow
longitudinal silvery streak until nearly below the base of the dorsal,
when it becomes one-third as wide as a scale : upper half of dorsal
black. Bombay. This appears somewhat similar to H. amblyurus,
Bleeker, but the H. cirrhatus has its intermaxillaries only ] /4 wider
at the base than long, instead of being twice as wide.
Males with the anal rays modified : viviparous.
697. Hemiramphus ectunctio* Ham Buch. : H. ectunctio, Blyth. :
H. neglectus, Day. D. 14, A. 10-12. Length of entire head about 1/3,
of beak 1/5 of the total length. Eyes 1J diameters apart and 2£ in the
length of the postorbital portion of the head. Upper jaw twice as
long as wide at its base. The ventrals commence in the last third of the
distance between the orbit and the base of the caudal fin, which latter is
rounded. Silvery : lateral stripe distinct: 'the tip of the mandible milk
white. Ganges and large rivers of Burma, mostly within tidal in-
fluence.
698. Hemiramphus Buffonis, Cuv. & Yal. Koo-door-rock-o-dah, And.
D. 10-13, A. 10-12. Length of entire head 2/5, of the beak 2/9 of the
total length. Eyes 2/3 of a diameter apart and from 3/5 to 2/3 in the
length of the postorbital portion of the head : a nasal barbel. Upper jaw a
little broader at its base than it is long. Ventral arises in the last third of
the distance between the snout and the base of the caudal, which latter
is somewhat rounded : anal commences under about the third dorsal ray,
its base is only half the length of that of the former fin. A silvery streak :
the upper half of the dorsal fin either very dark or black. Andamans
and Malay Archiplego : said to ascend brackish waters.
699. Hemiramphus dispar, Cuv. & Yal. D. 11-12, A. 11-12,
L. 1. 40. Length of entire head 2/5, of beak 1/4 of the total length.
Eyes rather above 1 diameter apart, from 2/3 to 4/7 of the length of the
postorbital portion of the head. Upper jaw as broad as long. A small
nasal barbel. Dorsal fin in the posterior 1/4 of the distance between the
eye and the base of the caudal, which is cut square or rounded : anal
commences somewhat behind the dorsal, and some of its rays modified :
the ventrals commence in the beginning of the last third of the distance
between the anterior extremity of the upper jaw and tho base of the tail.
* In my fresh-water fishery report I gave this species as H. ambiyurus, Bleeker, with
which it appears to agree in every respect except that it has no nasal barbel. As the
existeoce of one was not referred to in the description of the ipeOiiDoni in the B'itish
museum, it may be that they arc not invariably present, never I think in Indian exiimplcs.
ccxcv
No scales on dorsal or anal fins. A silvery lateral band. Seas of
India.
700. Hemiramphus brachynopterus,~B\eeker. D. 9, A. 16, L. 1. 43.
Length of head nearly 1/3, of beak 4/19 of the total length. Eyes
nearly 1 diameter apart and 2 diameters in the postorbital portion of
the head. Anal commences somewhat anterior to the dorsal : the caudal
convex. Hooghly river.
B. Pectorals elongated.
701. Hemiramphus longirostris, Cuv. & Val. D. 22, A. 20.
Length of the beak 1/4 of the total length. Length of the head
without the beak 1/6 of that of the trunk. Eyes 1 diameter apart and in
the length of the postorbital portion of the head. Pectorals very long,
equalling 3/11 of the length of the trunk : ventral s very small : caudal
deeply forked. A silvery band. Coromandel coast.
Genus — JExoC(ETUsj Artedi.
CypsiluruSj Swains. : Halocypselus3 Weinland. : Farexocatus
Bleeker.
Body moderately oblong. Gill-openings very wide. Jaws short : the
inlermaxillaries and maxillaries separate. Barbels present or absent. Man-
dible in some species with a cutaneous appendage. Teeth, when present,
minute and rudimentary. Pectorals elongated used as an organ of flying :
the dorsal fin may be much or only moderately elevated-, ventrals long,
short, or of moderate length. Air-vessel large. Pyloric appendages
absent.
702. Exoccetus mento, Cuv. & Val. D. 10-11, A. 10-13, L. 1. 38.
Length of head and height of body each 2/9 of the total length. Eyes
diameter 2/5 the length of the head and 1/2 a diameter from end of
snout. No barbels. Dorsal fin elevated* as high as the body, and its
membrane deeply cleft: 16 to 17 rows of scales between the occiput and
origin of this fin : ventrals in some specimens reaching to the anus, in
others to the anal fin, the fin arises midway between the anterior edge of
the orbit and the base of the caudal fin : pectoral reaching to opposite
the middle or end of the dorsal. Bluish, becoming silvery along the
abdomen : dorsal fin black : upper half of pectoral black, having a white
edge : ventral white : anal white with a dark mark along its base :
upper lobe of caudal white with a black bar along its base : lower lobe
greyish. East coast of Africa, seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
In the cold season it is occasionally numerous at Madras, but I never
obtained it above 4T3n inches in length.
703. Exoccetus furcatus, Mitchell. D. 13, A. 9-10. A pair of long
barbels at the symphysis of the lower jaw. Dorsal fin moderately high,
but its longest rays do not extend to the caudal. The ventrals reach the
root of the caudal and the pectorals nearly as far : the former fin
arises slightly nearer the base of the caudal than to the anterior extremi-
ty of the snout. The posterior part of the ventrals and the lower part of
* As many of the species of flying fish are only known from young specimens, the
size of the eye, and the length of the fins must be accepted with a reservation. It has also
been remarked of barbels " that one may well suspect that in some species at least they
are peculiar to the young state only."
CCXCV1
the anal black. Young, with three broad vertical bands* across the
anterior half of the abdomen : opercles and pectorals marbled with black :
lower caudal lobe with three dark cross bands. India and the Atlantic
Ocean.
704. Exocatus micropterus, Cuv. & Val. D. 15, A. 14-16. Length
of head 2/9, pectoral 2/7, height of body 1/6 of the total length ex-
cluding caudal fin. A pair of short barbels at the symphysis of the
lower jaw, which is prominent : mandible with a cutaneous appendage.
The ventral, which does not extend to the anal, arises midway between
the axil and the base of the caudal. Dorsal fin not so high as the body.
Bluish above, silvery on the sides and below : fins dark. Seas of India
to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
705. Exocatus evolans, Linn. D. 12^14, A. 13-15, L. 1. 42.
Length of head 2/9, height of body 1/6, of dorsal fin 1/14 of the total
length. Eyes diameter 2/7 of length of head, 3/4 of a diameter from end
of snout and 1$ apart. No barbels. Dorsal commences slightly in
advance of the anal : pectoral reaches the base of the caudal : the
ventral arises midway between the anterior edge of the orbit and the
posterior end of the base of the dorsal fin, it only reaches half way to
the anal : caudal deeply forked, lower lobe the longer. East coast of
Africa, Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
706. Exocatus obtusirostris , Giinther. D. 13, A. 13, L. 1. 40.
Said to be " closely allied to E. evolans, but has the snout shorter and
the head more elevated." India and tropical and sub-tropical seas, to at
least 9 inches in length.
707. Exocatus pacilopterus, Cuv. & Val. Parravay-Jcolak, Tarn.
D. 12-15, A. 9, L. 1. 45. Length of head 1/5, of caudal 2/7 of
the total length . Eyes diameter 1/3 of length of head, 3/5 of a diameter
from end of snout and 1 apart. No barbels. Dorsal commences some
way in front of the anal, the height of its anterior rays 1/10 of the
total length, 27 scales between occiput and origin of the dorsal fin :
ventral arises somewhat nearer the posterior edge of the orbit than to
the base of the caudal, and reaches to the end of the base of the root
of the anal : the pectoral reaches as far as the end of the dorsal. Pect-
oral with many rounded and oval spots, sometimes transversely arranged
in bands, in others irregularly placed. Out of 3 specimens up to 13 inches
in length taken together, two have black spots above the dorsal fin :
ventral white or with spots. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago,
Exocatm spilopterus, Bleeker, appears very similar to the adult of this
species.
708. Exocatus Bahiensis, Ranzani. D. 12-13, A. 9-10, L.I. 50.
Height of body 2/ 13, length of head 2/11 of the total length. Eyes
diameter 1/3 of length of head, nearly 1 diameter from end of snout.
No barbels. Dorsal commences someway in front of the anal, and mid-
way between the posterior edge of the orbit and the end of the lower
caudal lobe, the height of its anterior rays being 2/3 as long as the
head : ventral arises midway between the end of the snout and that of
the upper lobe of the caudal fin : it reaches to the centre of the base of
the anal : the pectorals reach to the end of the base of the dorsal fin.
* Vertical bands in Hemiramphi, Exocceti, and many of the Scombresocidce, &c.,
are usually a sigu that the specimen is immature.
CCXCV11
Dorsal with a dark mark on its summit : the pectoral appears sometimes
to be darker than the remainder of the fins. Seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago and beyond.
709. Exocatus brachysoma, Bleeker. D. 11-13, A. 8-9, L. 1. 44.
Height of body 2/11, length of head 1/5 of the total length. Eyes,
diameter nearly 1/3 of length of head, not quite 3/4 of a diameter from
end of snout. No barbels. Dorsal commences someway in front of
anal and midway between the anterior edge of the orbit and the end of
the lower caudal lobe : there are 24 scales between the occiput and its
commencement, the height of its anterior rays being 2/3 as long as the
head : ventral arises midway between the middle of the eye and the
base of the caudal fin : it reaches to the centre of the base of the anal : the
pectorals reach to the middle of the base of the dorsal fin. Pectoral dark,
lighter posteriorly. From the East Coast of Africa through the Seas
of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
Family — PSEUDOCLUPEID^I, Bleeker.
Albulina, Elopida, and Chanina, Giinther.
Branchiostegal in varying numbers, may be numerous (35) : pseudobranchise present.
Body more or less compressed : abdominal edge not spinate. Head scaleless, or
merely a few fine ones behind the maxillary region. Eyes lateral. Opercular pieces
four : mouth bordered mesially by the intermaxillaries, laterally by the maxillaries.
No barbels. A single dorsal fin with weak rays placed opposite or nearly so to
the ventrals : anal having about the same number of rays as the dorsal. Scales
sometimes deciduous. Lateral line present. Stomach with a blind sac. Air-
vessel present, more or less simple. Pyloric appendages in moderate numbers
or numerous.
Genus — CHANOSj Lacep.
Lutodeira, (Kuhl). E-iipp.
Branchiostegals four: pseudobranchia present. Gill-membranes
entirely united below and not attacked to the isthmus. Body moderately
elongated and compressed: abdomen rounded. An accessory branchial
organ in a recess behind the true gill-cavity. Mouth small, anterior and
transverse. Teeth absent. Ventral fin opposite the dorsal, which last has
more rays than the anal : caudal deeply cleft. Scales rather small. Lateral
line distinct. Air-vessel with a constriction. Pyloric appendages nu-
merous.
710. Ghanos salmoneus, Bl. Schn. Tulu candal, Tarn. : Palah
bontah, Tel. : Hu-meen, Canar. : Pu-meen, Tulu. D. 13-17, A. 9-11,
L. 1. 75-80, L. tr. 12/15, Vert. 19/26. Length of head and height of
body each about I/a of the total length. Attains three feet at least
in length : is called the milk fish by Europeans in south Canara, where
Hyder Ali introduced it from the sea into tanks of fresh water and
there it still thrives. Red sea, Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago
and beyond.
Genus — ELOPS, Linn.
Branchiostegals numerous : pseudobranchia. Gill-membranes en-
tirely separated. Body rather elongated and compressed : abdomen
rounded. An osseous gular plate is attached to the symphysis of the
mandible, and covers the intermediate part. Mouth wide, anterior, upper
jaw the shorter : the maxilla forming the lateral edge of the mouth.
Yilliform teeth in the jaws, vomer, palatine, and pterygoid bones, also
NN
CCXCV111
on tJie tongue and base of the skull. Ventrals opposite to the dorsal, which
last has a few more rays than the anal. Scales small. Lateral line
distinct. Pyloric appendages numerous.
711. Elops saurus, Linn. Jinnagow, Tel. : Ullahti, Tarn. D. 22-24,
A. 15-17, L. 1. 95-100, L. tr. 12/14. Length of head and height of body
each 1/5 of the total length. Silvery: fins yellowish, with a greenish
tinge. Red Sea, East Coast of Africa, through the Seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago and beyond.
Family — CLUPEHXE, Guv.
Gill-openings usually very wide : pseudobranchiae, when present, well developed.
Abdomen mostly compressed, generally into a sharp edge, and usually serrated.
Opercular pieces four. Eyes lateral, with or without adipose lids. Margin of
the upper jaw formed mesially by the intermaxillaries, laterally by the maxil-
laries, which are composed of three pieces not ossified together. Mouth may
have a deep cleft, with small intermaxillaries and the maxilla elongated, and
either the upper or lower jaw projecting, or the mouth may be transverse.
Barbels absent. A single dorsal with a few or moderate number of weak rays :
anal sometimes many-rayed. Scales on the body : none on the head. Lateral
line absent. Stomach with a blind sac. Air-vessel more or less simple. Pyloric
appendages, when present, numerous.
Genus — CHIROCENTRUS, Cuv.
Branchiostegals eight : pseudobranchice absent. Body much elongated
and compressed : abdomen with a sharp but not serrated margin. Gill-
membranes united for a short distance : gill-opening wide. Eyes with
adipose lids. Cleft of mouth oblique and deep : the lower jaw the longer.
A row of canines in the mandible 3 and a horizontal pair in the intermaxil-
laries: minute teeth on the palatines, pterygoids, and tongue. A single short
dorsal Jin placed far backwards opposite to a long anal : an elongated osseous
appendage in the axil : ventrals very small. Scales thin, small, and deci-
duous. Air-vessel cellular. Pyloric appendages absent. Intestines short,
the mucous membrane forming a spiral fold.
712. Chirocentrus dorab, Forsk. Mooloo-alley and Jciru-wahlah, Tarn.:
Wahlah, Tel. : Kunda, Ooriah. D. 16-17, A. 33-34, Vert. 29/46. Length
of head about 1/6, height of body 1/7 of the total length. Bluish-green
along the back : silvery sides and abdomen. Red Sea, through the Seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond, attaining 12 feet in length.
Genus — DussUMIERA, Guv. and Vol.
Branchiostegals numerous : pseudobranchi(B well developed. Gill-mem-
branes entirely separate. Body somewhat elongated, compressed: abdomen
rounded. Snout pointed: upper jaw not projecting: cleft of mouth
of moderate width. Eyes without adipose lids. Small fixed teeth
in the jaws -, and villiform ones on the palatines, pterygoids, and on the
tongue. Dorsal fin opposite to the ventral : anal of moderate length.
Scales of medium size, very deciduous. Pyloric appendages numerous.
713. Dussumiera Hasseltii, Bleeker. B. XV, D. 18-20, A. 15-16,
L. 1. 52-60. Length of head 2/9, height of body 1/6 to 2/13 in its
total length. Eyes diameter 1/4 of length of head, 1 apart, and rather
more from end of snout. Back deep bluish-green, divided by a narrow
golden band from the silvery sides and abdomen. Seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago and beyond, attaining at least 8 inches in length.
CCXC1X
714. Dussumiera acuta, Cuv. and Val. Poonduouringa, Tarn. :
0-pul-dah, Andam. B. XIV— XV., D. 18-2], A. 15-17, L. 1. 40-42.
Length of head 1/5, height of body 1/5 to 4/21 of its total length.
Eyes, diameter 1/3 to 2/7 of length of head, 2/3 of a diameter apart,
and slightly more from the end of snout. Back deep bluish-green, divid-
ed by a narrow bronze-coloured band from the silvery sides and abdo-
men. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
Genus— SPRATELLOIDES, Bleeker.
Branchiostegals six : pseudolranchice well developed. Gill-membranes
entirely separated : no osseous gular plate. Body elongated, moderately
compressed or sub -cylindrical : abdomen rounded. Snout compressed : the
mouth anterior with a lateral cleft : the upper jaw not overlapping the lower.
Eyes without adipose lids. Teeth small and deciduoas, but may be present
on the jaws, vomer, pterygoids, and tongue. Dorsal fin placed opposite the
ventrals : anal of moderate length or short. Scales of medium size, rather
deciduous. Pyloric appendages in moderate numbers.
715. Spratelloides Malabaricus, Day. D. 14, A. 18, V. 8, L. 1. 38,
L. tr. 9. Pale silvery without any marks. It is a small species found
down the Western Coast of India : it ascends rivers and enters estuaries.
Genus — CLUPEA* sp. Artedi.
Body oblong or sub-elongate, with the serrature of the abdomen exten-
ding anteriorly into the thoracic region. Upper jaio not projecting beyond
the lower. Mouth anterior or antero — superior. Teeth, when present,
rudimentary and deciduous. Dorsal fin situated opposite the ventrals :
anal with a moderate, or large number of rays : caudal forked. Scales
large, of moderate or more rarely of small size.
716. Clupea albella, Cuv. and Val. B. VI, D. 19, A. 23. Length
of head 1/5, height of body 2/7 of the total length. Small teeth on the
jaws and pterygoids only. Ventrals below the middle of the dorsal fin.
Brilliant silvery, with a bluish tint, and darkest on the back : in certain
reflections there are some longitudinal bands. Pondicherry, from whence
t\vo examples 3J inches long were brought.
717. Clupea fimbriata, Cuv. and Val. Kich-uh-louar , Sind: Guttay
charlay, Malabar: Poondu ringa. Tarn. : Charree-addee, Hind. D. 18-20,
A. 16-20, L. 1. 46, L. tr. 11. Length of head 1/5, height of body 1/4
or more of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/4 of length of head, 1
diameter from end of snout. Deciduous teeth in the jaws : an oval
patch on the palatines, and a minute central band on the tongue. Ven-
trals below the middle of the dorsal fin. Scales in regular rows, adherent,
their edges striated, jagged, or indented. Greenish with silvery sides. Seas
of India and probably Malay Archipelago. It abounds in certain years
on the Malabar Coast.
718. Clupea Moluccensis, Bleeker. D. 17-19, A. 17-18, L. 1. 45
(40), L. tr. 12. Length of head 1/5 height of body 2/9 in the total
* Dr. Bleeker, in his admirable and truly magnificent Atlas Ichthyologique, ^considers
Genus Alosa, Cuv., as distinct, not only due to the absence of teeth on the jaws and
inside the mouth, but principally by the conformation of their jaws, the upper being notched
to receive the more or less compressed tip of the mandibles. I propose deferring ;L is and
several other similar points for the present. Nos. 726 to 728 would be Alosa's, if this genus
is accepted, as I think it ought to be.
ccc
length. Lower jaw projecting. Eyes, diameter 2/7 of length of head,
1 diameter from end of snout. A narrow row of teeth on the palatines,
pterygoids, and on the tongue. Ventrals inserted below the middle of
the dorsal fin. Scales regularly arranged, with their edges roughened
or crenulated, Bluish along the back : sides and abdomen silvery.
Ceylon and Malay Archipelago, where it abounds. This appears to very
closely resemble C. kowal.
719. Clupea longiceps, Cuv. and Val. D. 16, A. 16. Length of
head 2/7, of caudal 1/7. Teeth on the palatines, pterygoids, and tongue.
Pondicherry, to six inches in length, said to have been received in a bad
state.
720. Clupea Icowal, Riippell. Kowal, Tel.: No-na-li, Tarn. D. 17-18,
A. 17-19, L. 1. 44-46, L. tr. 12. Length of head 1/5, height of body
1/4 of the total length. Lower jaw projecting. Eyes, diameter 3/10 of
length of head, 1 diameter from end of snout. A few rudimentary teeth
along the centre of the tongue and in a band on the palate. Ventrals
inserted below the middle of the dorsal fin. Scales regularly arranged,
each crossed by several vertical lines. Bluish along the back : sides and
abdomen silvery. Red Sea, East Coast of Africa, Seas of India, and per-
haps the Malay Archipelago.
721. Clupea NeoJiowu, Cuv. and Val. Lee-gur, Beluch.: Louar,
Sind : MuttJiiy Canerese and North Malabar : Charlay, South Malabar.
D. 17, A. 15-16, L. 1. 45-48, L. tr. 13. The proportions differ widely,
and are affected by the times of breeding. Length of head 2/7 to 1/4 of
the total length. Eyes diameter 1/5 of length of head, 1 diameter from
end of snout. Minute teeth on the tongue, palatines, and pterygoids, but
are easily lost. Lower jaw projecting. Ventrals inserted below the last
half of the dorsal fin. Scales regularly arranged, and their edges indistinct-
ly serrated. Bluish along the back : sides and abdomen silvery,
with a golden line dividing the two colours. I have obtained them
on the western coast, from whence ' Cannanore' Dussumier brought
them. They come in shoals to the shores of Beluchistan, Sinde,
all the way down Malabar and Ceylon, also to the Andaman Islands ;
but I have not yet seen a specimen from the Coromandel Coast or Burma ;
they may, however, sometimes go there. This appears to resemble very
closely C. lemuru, Bleeker.
722. Clupea leiogaster, Cuv. and Val. D. 17-18, A. 18-20, L. 1.40,
L. tr. li-12. Length of head 1/5 to 4/21, height of body 2/11 to 1/6
in the total length. Lower jaw not projecting. Eyes, diameter 1/4 of
length of head, more than 1 diameter from end of snout. Fine teeth
on the palatines, pterygoids, and along the middle of the tongue. Ventrals
inserted below the second fourth of the dorsal fin. Scales regularly
arranged. Greenish along the back : whitish shot with purple along the
abdomen, the two colours being divided by a longitudinal silvery band,
with about 14 or 15 black spots in its course. Ceylon and Malay
Archipelago.
723. Clupea lineolata, Cuv. and Val. Sardinella lineolata, C. & V.
D. 18, A. 17. Height of body 3/14 of the total length. Teeth on the
palatines, pterygoids, and on the tongue. Bluish on the back, becoming
silvery below, with two or three plumbaceous coloured lines dividing these
two colours. Ceylon to 4 inches in length.
CCC1
724. Clupea tile, Cuv. and Val. B. V, D. 14-15, A, 17, L. 1. 38-40,
L. tr. 9-10. Height of body 2/7, length of head 1/5 of the total
length. Profile of dorsal surface nearly straight: of abdomen
very convex. Teeth on pterygoids, and a central band along
the tongue. Ventrals inserted below the anterior dorsal rays.
Scales adherent. A silvery longitudinal band along the side. Bombay
and down the Western Coast of India. This species appears to very closely
resemble or be identical with C. argyrottenia, Bleeker.
725. Clupea melanura, Cuv. and Val. D. 14-16, A. 17-18, L. 1.
35-38, L. tr. 11. Length of head 1/5, height of body 2/7 of the total
length. Eyes diameter 1/3 of length of head, nearly 1 diameter from end
of snout. No teeth inside the mouth. Ventrals inserted opposite the
commencement of the dorsal fin. Scales smooth, in regular rows. Back
blue, shot with purple : a fine yellow line dividing it from the silvery sides
and abdomen : outer third of caudal lobes black. Seas of India and the
Malay Archipelago.
726. Clupeai palasah, Cuv. and Val. (see F. W. Fishery Report
No. 373). D. 17-19, A. 18-19, L. 1. 45-49, L. tr. 17. Length of head
1/5, of caudal 1/6, height of body 1/4 of total length. Width of oper-
cles 2/3 of depth. Caudal peduncle, as deep as long. 14 scutes behind
ventral fin, 16 anterior to it. No spots along the body, except occasion-
ally one behind the opercles. All the large rivers of India and Burma.
H. Buch's. description must have been intended for this species, but Dr.
Giinther considers his figure to represent the following, and which he
believes identical with C. kanagurta, Bleeker.
727. Clupea ilisha, (H. B.) Giinther. B. VI, D. 18-19, A. 19-21. L. 1.
40-44, L. tr. 15. Height of body a little more than 1/3, length of head
2/7 of the total length without the caudal fin. Width of opercle about
1/2 its depth. Caudal peduncle as deep as long. 12 or 13 scutes behind
the ventral fin. The young are said to have a dark shoulder spot. From
East Coast of Africa to the Malay Archipelago. Ham. Buch's.
figure does not, according to Dr. Giinther, represent the common Hilsa
fish of Bengal, but the one here described, and he marks with a doubt
Russell's Keelee as perhaps this fish. Bleeker considers the Keelee identi-
cal with C. Jcanayurta, so it may be that H. B. figured the adult Kanagurta
as the young of the palasah.
728. Clupea toll, Cuv. and Val. D. 16-18, A. 17-19, L. 1. 41, L.
tr. 14. Length of head l/53 of caudal 2/9, height of body 4/13
of the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/4-1/5 of length of head, 1 diameter
from end of snout. Opercle 1/2 higher than wide. Dorsal commences
nearer snout than base of caudal. Caudal peduncle, rather deeper than
long. 18 scutes before ventral fin, 12 behind it. A dark shoulder
spot in the young. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago. This
species does not appear ever to ascend rivers to breed like the
C. palasah.
? — PELLONA, Cuv. fy Val.
Platyaster, Swains. : Ilisha, (Gray) Richardson and Bleeker.
Branchiostegals six. Body rather elongated and strongly com-
pressed, with the thoracic and abdominal edges serrated. Mouth of
moderate size, upper ja*v generally emaryinate and shorter than the lower.
CCC11
Fine sharp teeth itt the jaws, palatines, and pterygoid bones, also on the
tongue, but none on the vomer. Dorsal fin small, medial. Ventrals small,
inserted anterior to the dorsal: anal elongated. Scales large, or of
moderate size, rarely small.
A< Dorsal fin wholly or almost entirely anterior to base
of anal.
729. Pellona Indicus, S wains. : Ditchoa, Tel. : Poo-na-no-dah. And.
D. 16-17, A. 37-39, L. 1. 45, L. tr. 13-14. Length of head 2/9,
height of body nearly 1/3 of the total length. Eyes diameter nearly
1/3 of length of head, 2/3 of a diameter from end of snout. Origin
of dorsal fin midway in the distance between the snout and the posterior
end of the base of the anal, it is situated entirely in front of the anal,
the length of the base of this latter being equal to 1/3 of the total
length excluding the caudal fin. There are 8 or 9 spines along the ab-
dominal profile posterior to the base of the ventral fin, and 18 anterior
to it. Silvery. From the East Coast of Africa through the Seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago.
730. Pellona megalopterus, Swains. Jangarloo, Tel. : Pauniapuiee,
Ooriah. D. 18-19, A. 42-44, L. 1. 48-50 (54), L. tr. 14-15. Length of
head 2/9, of caudal 2/11, height of body 1/4 of the total length.
Eyes, diameter scarcely 1/3 of length of head, and 3/4 of a diameter
from end of snout. Origin of dorsal fin midway in the distance
between the snout and the posterior end of the base of the anal, it is
not situated entirely in front of the anal, the length of the base of this
latter being equal to 2/7 of the total length, or 1/3 excluding the caudal
fin. There are 8 to 9 spines along the abdominal profile posterior to
the base of the ventral, and 20 to 21 anterior to it. Golden, glossed
with purple. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago. It is very
common in India, and appears to be identical with P. Dussumieri, C.
& V. ; and P. motius, C. & V. may be the young of this species.
731. Pellona motius, Ham. Buch. Ursi or Alise, Ooriah. D. 16-
18, A. 39-46, L. L 43-45, L. tr. 13. Length of head from 1/5 to
2/11, of caudal nearly 1/5, height of body 1/4 of the total length.
Eyes, diameter 1/3 of length of head, 3/4 of a diameter from end of
snout, and 1/2 a diameter apart. Origin of dorsal fin slightly nearer to
the snout than to the base of the caudal, and is situated entirely in front
of the anal, the length of the base of this latter fin being equal to 1/3
of that of the total length excluding the caudal fin. There are 9 spines
along the abdominal profile posterior to the base of the ventral, and 14
or 15 anterior. to it. Silvery, with a burnished lateral band, and
some fine dots on the fins. Coasts of Bengal and Orissa : ascending
rivers high above tidal influence : it does not appear to attain much above
4 inches in length. Pellona micropus, Cuv. & Val., with D. 17, A. 42,
L. 1. 47, and 27 spines along the abdominal profile may be this
species.
732. Pellona ditchelaj Cuv. & Val. D. 14-J5, A. 40, L. 1. 36,
L. tr. 9. Length of head 1/5,* of caudal 1/5, height of body 2/7 of
* The proportions given to Russell's fish by Cuv. and Val. are height of body and
length of head each 2/9 of the total length. The specimen, if it is the same species
described above, was scarcely 3fc inches in length. Russell observes his species attains to
6 inches.
CCCI11
the total length. Eyes diameter about 1/3 of length of head,, 1
diameter from end of snout and also apart. Origin of dorsal fin nearer
the snout than the base of the caudal, and entirely in front of the anal,
the length of the base of this latter fin being equal to 1/7 of the total
length. There are 11 spines along the abdominal profile posterior to the
base of the ventral, and 22 anterior to it. Silvery, with a burnished
lateral band. Coromandel Coast.
733. Pellona melastoma, Bl. Schn. D. 17, A. 38. Length of
head 2/9, height of body 3/11 of the total length. Eyes, diameter
above 1/3 of length of head. Origin of dorsal fin on a vertical
line with that of the ventral : anal low and extended to below the whole
of the length of the free portion of the tail. Twenty-eight spines
along the lower profile. Coromandel coast.
734. Pellona Leschenaultii, Cuv. and Val. D. 21, A. 42, L. 1. 70.
Height of body a little less than 1/4 of the total length. Pectorals
large, posteriorly rounded, and reaching beyond the insertion of the
ventral, which is 8 or 9 scales before the dorsal. Pondicherry, described
from a dried specimen 20 inches long.
735. Pellona filigera, Cuv. and Val. D. 21, A. 52. Height of
body 1/4 of the total length. The rays of the fins, especially of the
caudal, are prolonged into filaments. Coasts of India, to 4 inches in
length.
Genus — OpisTHOPTERUS) Gill.
Pristigaster, sp. Cuv., &c.
Branchiostegals six. Body oblong, compressed . The lower jaw pro-
jecting : the maxilla elongated posteriorly . Small sharp teeth in the jaws,
palatines, ptery goids, and tongue : none on the vomer. Dorsal fin situated
behind the commencement of the anal, which has many rays : ventrals
absent. Scales of moderate or small size, very deciduous : serrature along
the abdominal profile well developed.
736. Opisthopterus tartoor, Cuv. and Val. D. 13 (17), A. 58-61,
L. 1. 50. Length of head nearly 1/5 (5/24), length of caudal 1/6, of
pectoral 1/5, height of body 1/4 of the total length. Eyes diameter
1/3 of length of head, 2/3 of a diameter from end of snout, 1/3 of a
diameter apart. Opercle nearly 3/4 higher than wide, without any
emargination. Origin of dorsal fin rather nearer the base of the caudal
than the axil : pectorals reach to above the first anal ray, whilst the latter
fin commences midway between the snout and the posterior extremity
of its own base. Spines along the abdominal profile 28 to 32. Silvery.
Seas of India. Dr. Bleeker questions whether his Malay Archipelago
species is identical with the Malabar one, and I must concur in his
opinion, for in the latter the pectorals are longer than the head reaching
to the commencement of anal fin, the body is higher, the caudal shorter,
and the opercle differently formed.
Genus — RACONDA, Gray.
Apterygia, Gray.
Branchiostegals six. Body oblong, compressed. The lower jaw pro-
jecting; the maxilla may be elongated posteriorly or truncated. Small
i
CCC1V
teeth on the jaws, palatines, ptery goids, and tongue: none on the vomer.
Dorsal and ventral fins absent : anal elongated. Scales rather small and
deciduous. Serrature along the abdominal profile developed but weak.
737. Raconda Russelliana, Gray. A. 83-92, L. 1. 60-64, L. tr. 12.
Length of head 3/19, height of body slightly exceeds 1/5 of the total
length. Eyes, diameter 3/10 of length of head, and more than the
distance from the end of the snout. In adults the maxillary is said
to extend to the gill-opening. From 31 to 38 weak spines along the
abdominal edge. Silvery, with a dark spot behind the upper part of the
opercle. Bay of Bengal to the Malay Archipelago.
Genus — ENQRAVLIS, Cuv.
Branchiostegals short and rather numerous. Gill- openings wide: the
membrane connecting the two sides being short, thus leaving the isthmus
uncovered. Body oblong or elongated, compressed, and serrated along
the abdominal edge. Cleft of mouth lateral : snout conical : the upper jaw
the longer : maxillaries of varying length, but always long, having a
membraneous attachment to the checks. Teeth small, sometimes of unequal
size, usually present on the jaws, vomer , palatine and pterygoid bones. The
dorsal fin may be wholly or partially in advance of or entirely posterior
to the origin of the anal : the upper pectoral rays may or may not be
prolonged : anal with many or a moderate number of rays. Scales large or
of moderate size.
A. — Dorsal fin entirely in front of anal.
738. Engraulis Bcelama, Forsk. B. XI, D. 14-16, A. 29-32, L. 1.
40-42, L. tr. 9-10. Length of head 2/9, height of body 1/4 of the
total length. Snout much projecting over the lower jaw. Maxilla
extending to the gill-opening : it is somewhat enlarged opposite the man-
dibular joint. Fine teeth in both jaws. Origin of dorsal fin rather nearer
snout than base of caudal : anal commencing just posterior to its termi-
nation : 21 or 22 gill-rakers on the lower branch of the outer branchial
arch. Weak spines on the abdominal edge posterior to the ventral fin.
Black venules behind the upper angle of the opercle on the shoulder.
Red sea, east coast of Africa through the seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago.
739. Engraulis Malabaricus, Bloch. Monangoo, Mai.: Poor-relan,
Tarn. : G-pul-dah. And. D. 14, A. 40-42, L. 1. 39-41, L. tr. 11-12.
Length of head 1/5, of caudal 2/11, height of body 4/15 of the total
length. Eyes, diameter 1 /4 of length of head, 3/4 of a diameter from end
of snout, and li apart. The maxilla reaches to just beyond the gill-
opening. Origin of dorsal fin midway between snout and base of caudal :
anal commences behind the last dorsal ray : pectoral as long as the head.
Gill-rakers from 21 to 25 on the horizontal limb of the outer branchial
arch. 10 spines on the abdominal edge posterior to the ventral fin, and
1 7 anterior to it. Black venules behind the upper angle of the opercle
on the shoulder : dorsal and end of caudal blackish : pectoral sometimes
entirely black. Abundant on the Malabar coast, found also in the Bay
of Bengal.
740. Engraulis Hamiltonii, Gray. D. 13, A. 36-40, L. 1. 47. L.
tr. 12-13. Length of head from 1/5 to 4/21, of caudal 1/6, height of
cccv
body 1/4 of the total length. Eyes, diameter nearly 1/4 of length of head,
3/4 of a diameter from end of snout. The maxilla reaches to just
beyond the gill-opening. Origin of dorsal fin rather nearer snout than
the base of the caudal : the anal commences behind the last dorsal ray :
pectoral not so long as the head. Gill-rakers 13 on the horizontal limb
of the outer branchial arch. The abdominal edge strongly spined.
Black venules behind the upper angle of the opercle on the shoulder.
Seas of India and Malay Archipelago.
741. Engraulis mystacoides, Bleeker. D. 13-15, A. 35-40, L. 1.
42-43 (45), L. tr. 12. Length of head and of caudal each 1/5, height
of body 2/9 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 2/7 of length of head,
1/2 a diameter from end of snout, which projects. The maxilla extends
backwards to about as far as the posterior end of the root of the pectoral
fin. Origin of dorsal fin midway between the anterior edge of the
orbit and the base of the caudal fin : the anal commences behind the last
dorsal ray : the pectorals reach to the last third of the small ventrals.
Gill-rakers 13 on the horizontal limb of the outer branchial arch. 11
strong spines on the abdominal edge behind the ventral fin, and 17
anterior to it. Black venules over the scapular region. Seas of India
to China.
742. Engraulis mystax, Bl. Schn. D. 13-15, A. 34-36, L. 1. 40-42,
L. tr. 9. Length of head 2/9, of caudal 2/11, height of body 2/9 of
the total length. Eyes, diameter 2/7 of length of head, 2/3 of a di-
ameter from the end of the snout, which projects. The maxilla extends
backwards almost to the ventral fins. Dorsal commences nearer snout
than the base of the caudal, the anal beginning a short way behind its
last ray. 7 to 8 strong spines on the abdominal edge behind the ventral
fin, and 13 to 14 anterior to it. Coppery colour along the back : a dark
shoulder mark formed of black points : caudal with a dark extremity.
Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
743. Engraulis rhinorkynchus, Bleeker. Tampuri, Ooriah. D. 13,
A. 32-37, L. 1. 37, L. tr. 9. Length of head nearly 1/4, of caudal 1/5,
height of body 2/7 of the total length. Eyes, diameter 2/7 of length of
head, 3/4 of a diameter from end of snout, and 1 apart. Snout pointed, over-
hanging the mouth : the maxilla produced backwards as far as the gill-
opening. Origin of dorsal fin midway between the end of the snout and
the base of the caudal : the anal commencing at a short distance posterior
to the last dorsal ray. 8 to 9 spines on the abdominal edge behind
the ventral fin, and 15 or i 6 anterior to it. Greenish along the back,
becoming silvery-white on the sides and below : a blackish band over the
nape, extending down to the shoulders. Ceylon and Coromandel coast
to the Malay Archipelago.
744. Engraulis setirostris, Brouss. Yelm-poorawah, Tel. D. 14-] 6,
A. 34-38, L. L 36 (44), L. tr. 10-11. Length of head 1/6, of cau-
dal 1/6, height of body 4/17 to 1/5 of the total length. Eyes,
diameter 2/7 of length of head, 1/2 a diameter from end of snout, and 1
apart. Snout hardly projecting. The maxillary very prolonged, extending
to the posterior end of the ventral fin or even beyond. Origin of dorsal
midway between end of snout and base of caudal fin : the anal commences
just posterior to the last dorsal ray. Abdominal edge spinate. Gill-
rakers 10 on the horizontal limb of the outer branchial arch. Black
oo
CCCV1
venules in the region of the scapula. Seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago.
23. — Dorsal fin wholly or in part above the anal.
745. Engraulis Indicus, (v. Hasselt) : Bleeker. Nattoo, Tel.: Nettellee,
Tarn.: Zoo-roo-cart-dah, And. D. 14-16, A, 19-21, L. 1. 40, L. tr. 8-9,
Csec pyl. 16. Length of head 1/5, of caudal 1/6, height of body 1/6
in the total length. Eyes, diameter 2/7 of length of head, 2/3 of a
diameter from end of snout, and nearly 1 apart. Snout much projecting
beyond the mouth. The maxilla extending to just behind the mandibular
joint. Teeth fine. Origin of dorsal fin rather nearer base of caudal fin
than the anterior extremity of the snout : the anal commences below its
centre. Spines on abdominal edge slender. A lateral silvery band. Seas
of India to the Malay Archipelago.
746. Engraulis Commersonianus, Lacdp. D. 15-16, A. 20-21,
L. 1. 36-40, L. tr. 8-9. Length of head 1/5, of caudal 2/11, height of
body from 2/9 to 1/6 in its total length. Head 1/3 longer than high.
Eyes, diameter from 1/3 to 2/7 in the length of the bead, 1 diameter
apart, and 1/2 from the end of snout, which much projects beyond the
mouth. The maxilla, which is posteriorly pointed, reaches the angle of
the preopercle. Origin of dorsal fin midway between the posterior edge
of the orbit and the base of the caudal : the anal commences below the
last third of the dorsal. Abdominal edge with weak spines. A silvery
longitudinal band along the sides. From the East Coast of Africa through
the Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
Genus— C01L1A, Gray.
Mystus, Lac^p : Trichosoma, Swains. : Chcetomus, McLelland : Collia,
Schleg. : Leptonurus, Blkr. (1)
Branchiostegals nine to eleven. Body elongated, compressed and
tapering to a pointed tail: abdomen trenchant and serrated along the
abdominal edge. Snout pointed and projecting. Mouth cleft to behind the
eye : the maxilla produced posteriorly. Teeth on the jaws, vomer, palatine,
and pterygoid bones, also on the tongue. A single rather short dorsal Jin
placed in the anterior portion of the back: anal elongated and confluent
with the caudal : from four to seven of the upper pectoral rays produced
into moderately thick filaments. Scales of moderate or small size.
747. Coiliaramcarati, Ham. Buch. D. 13, P. 6 + VI, A. 94-110,
L. 1. 70. Length of head 1/6, height of body 1/5 in the distance
from the end of snout to the commencement of the dorsal fin, 3/11
of the total length, excluding the caudal fin. Eyes, diameter 1/5 of
length of head. The maxilla reaches the mandibular joint. The
upper six pectoral rays elongated : abdomen not serrated anterior to the
ventral fin. 28 gill-rakers on the horizontal limb of the outer branchial
arch. Golden colour, with the edges of the anal and caudal black. Estu-
aries of the Ganges.
748. Coilia Dussumieri, Cuv. and Val. Oorialli, Ooriah. D. 14-15,
P. 12 -f VI, A. 80 to 110, L. 1. 70-80, L. tr. 10-11. Length of
(1) Toika, Tel,
CCCV11
head 1/6 to 2/13, of caudal 2/17, height of body 1/5 to 2/11 in the distance
from end of snout to the commencement of the dorsal fin, 3/10 of the
total length. Eyes, diameter 1/4 of length of head, 1/2 a diameter
from end of snout, and 1J apart. Maxilla extends to the branchial
opening. Abdomen strongly serrated, 8 spines behind the ventral fin
and 3 anterior to it. 25 gill-rakers on the horizontal limb of the outer
branchial arch. Golden colour, with two or three rows of round
burnished golden spots along the lower half of the side. Seas and
estuaries of India to the Malay Archipelago.
749. Coilia Reynaldi, (*) Cuv. & Val. D. 14, A. 110. The anal
longer than in C. ramcarati. The distance from the end of the snout
to the anal fin is less than a third of the total length. Eyes smaller than
in C. ramcarati. Six pectoral filaments. Irrawaddi, to 4 inches in length.
750. Coilia quadragesimalis,C\w. & Val. B. X. D. 15, P. 6 + VI,
A. 42. Height of body 4/15 of the total length. Mouth obtuse. Eye
small, and the maxillary does not pass the angle of the jaw. Silvery, shot
with gold, having nacreous reflections : fins yellowish. Ganges.
Genus — CHATOESSUS, Cuvier.
Branchiostegals from four to six. Body oval, short, deep, and moder-
ately compressed, with a sharp, serrated abdominal edge. Snout overhang-
ing a rather narrow, transverse mouth. The superior combs of the first
branchial arch unite with those of the opposite side, forming two angles,
one pointing forwards, the other backwards, the fourth branchial arch
having an accessory respiratory organ. Teeth absent. A single dorsal fin,
having the last ray prolonged in some species : ventrals anterior to or
beloio the dorsal fin : anal commencing posterior to the dorsal and with
many rays : caudal forked.
A. The last dorsal ray elongated.
751. Chatoessus nasus, Bloch. : Noonah, Mai.: Muddu candai, Tarn. :
Rome, Tel. and Ooriah. D. 15-16, A. 20-25, L. 1. 46-50, L. tr. 18-19.
Length of head 1/5 to 2/11, height of body 1/3 of the total length.
Eyes, diameter 1/3 of the length of head, 3/5 of a diameter from end
of snout, and 1 apart. Snout much projecting over the mouth. Origin of
dorsal fin nearer the end of the snout than the root of the caudal
fin. The pcales in the upper rows are darkest at their bases, thus form-
ing dark lines : a bluish spot on the upper portion of the opercle pos-
teriorly. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
-Z?. None of the dorsal rays elongated.
752. Chatoessus chacunda, Ham. Buch.: Muddeeru,^\.\ Kore-
paig-dah, And. D. 17-19, A. 20, L. 1. 40, L. tr. 13-14. Length of
head from 2/9 to 1/5, of caudal 1/5, height of body from 2/5 to 1/3 of
the total length. Eyes, diameter 1/3 of length of head, 2/3 of a
diameter from end of snout, and 1 apart. Snout much projecting over
(*) Bleeker's Atlas having only been received up to p. 140 of the volume containing
the Clupeoids, his definition of this species is not available. But as he states there are 6
species in the Malay Archipelago and 6 are figured, whereas the text of the last, which is
wanting, is termed C. quadrifilis, Giinther, and the sixth figure is named Reynaldi,
Cuv. and Val., with 4 pectoral filaments, he may consider the 2 identical as did Cantor.
CCCV111
the mouth. Origin of dorsal fin much nearer snout, than base of caudal.
Scales regularly arranged. 28 spines along the abdominal edge, 11 of
which are behind the ventral fin. A dark mark on the shoulder. Seas
of India to the Malay Archipelago, attaining at least 8 inches in length.
753. Chatoessus champole, Ham. Buch. D. 15, A. 21, L. 1. 46,
L. tr. 19. Length of head a little above 1/4, height of body 2/5 of the
total length, excluding the caudal fin. Snout not much projecting beyond
the mouth. Origin of the dorsal fin much nearer snout than base of
caudal. A black shoulder spot, sometimes succeeded by several other
smaller ones. Estuaries of Bengal and also in fresh water. Ham. Buch.
gives a C. gagius like it, but larger, from N. Behar.
754. Chatoessus manminna, Ham. Buch. D. 14, A. 22-25,
L. 1. 58-60, L. tr. 22. Length of head 1/5, of caudal 2/11, height of
body 2/7 of the total length. Snout projecting. Origin of dorsal fin
between the snout and base of the caudal fin. 32 spines along the
abdominal edge, 12 being behind the ventral fin. A black spot generally
present on the shoulder. The fresh waters and estuaries in Bengal and
Burma, attaining 8 inches in length.
Family — S YMBRANCHIDJJ-
Gill-openings confluent into a single slit, which is situated on the abdominal
surface. Gills well developed or rudimentary. Body elongated. The
humeral arch may or may not be attached to the skull. Margin of the upper
jaw formed by the intermaxillaries, the maxillaries being internal and paral-
lel to them. Barbels absent. Palatine teeth, when present, in a single row
or a narrow band. Vertical fins in the form of mere folds of skin, and no
paired ones. Scales if present minute. Vent far behind the head. An
accessory breathing sac present or absent.- Air-vessel absent. Ribs present.
Stomach destitute of a blind sac. No pyloric appendages. Ovaries with
oviducts.
Genus — MQNOPTERTJS, Lacep.
Fluta, Bl. Schn. : Ophicardia, McLelland : Apterygia, Basil.
Branckiostegals five or six. Gill-membranes almost entirely attach-
ed to the isthmus, having a single transverse opening. Three branchial
arches, with the lamina rudimentary, having moderately wide intermediate
slits. Palatine teeth in a narrow band. Scales absent. No accessory
breathing sac.
755. Monopterus Javanensis, Lacdp. Of a cylindrical form, with
its greatest diameter at the occiput, from whence it tapers to the end of
the tail. Brownish above, becoming of a dirty yellow below, with nu-
merous deep brown or black spots. Estuaries of India to the Malay
Archipelago and beyond.
Family — MuR^NID^;, Muller.
"Body elongated, cylindrical, or band-shaped: the humeral arch not attached
to the skull. The branchial openings in the pharynx may be -wide or
narrow slits, and either separate or united. Margin of the upper jaw is
constituted anteriorly by the intermaxillaries, which are more or less coale-
I with the vomer and ethenoid, whilst laterally the sides of the upper
jaw are formed by the maxillaries. Vertical fins, when present, are confluent
or separated by a projecting tail : pectorals and ventrals present or absent.
Scales, when present, rudimentary. Vent may be situated close to the root
of the pectoral fins, or a long distance posterior to the head. The heart may
CCC1X
be situated just, or a long distance behind the gills. Stomach with a blind
sac. No pyloric appendages. Ovaries destitute of oviducts.
Genus — MURJENESOX, McLelland.
Cynoponticus, Costa : Brachy conger, Bleeker.
Gill-openings wide, approximating to the abdomen. Snout rather
elongated, the upper jaw the longer. Two pairs of nostrils, the posterior of
which are opposite to the upper part or centre of the orbit. Teeth in the
jaws rather fine, with some canines anteriorly : vomer with several rows of
teeth, the middle of which are conical or compressed. Dorsal fin commenc-
ing above the gill-opening ; it, the anal, caudal and pectoral well developed.
Anus a long distance from the gill-opening.
756. Muranesox talabon, Cuv,: Tala-bon fy Culim-poun, Tel.:
Kotah, Tarn. Eyes, diameter from 2/7 to 1/4 in the length of the snout.
The vomerine teeth are conical and widely set, none of them with basal
lobes. Golden green superiorly becoming yellowish-white below. Ver-
tical fins with blackish margins. Seas of India to the Malay Archi-
pelago. This eel attains a very large size : they are common in the
Bombay Bazars to 10 feet or more in length.
757. Miircenesox talabonoides, Bleeker. Snout long and narrow.
The vomerine teeth are straight, the posterior ones being compressed
and having basal lobes : the external mandibular teeth directed outwards.
Estuaries of the Ganges to the Malay Archipelago.
758. Murcenesox cinereus, Forsk. Eyes, diameter 1/2 the length
of the snout. The vomerine teeth are compressed, and have an anterior
and posterior basal lobe : the external mandibular teeth are not directed
outwards. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
Genus — MUR^ENICHTHTS, BleeJcer.
Body elongated and cylindrical. Gill-openings narrow. Eyes small.
Nostrils on the edge of the upper jaw. Dorsal fin low or rudimentary,
commencing a long distance posterior to the gill-opening. Pectorals
absent.
759. Muranichthys vermiformis, Peters. Angle of the mouth slightly
posterior to the eye. Teeth in the jaws and on the vomer in a single
row. The origin of the dorsal fin behind the vent. Ceylon.
760. MuranicJitliys Schultzu, Bleeker. Angle of mouth consider-
ably posterior to the eye. Teeth mostly in two rows. The origin of
the dorsal fiii opposite the vent. Andaman Islands and Malay Archi-
pelago.
Genus — OPBICHTHYS, (Ahl. sp.^, Gunthtr.
Gill-openings may be close together. Snout greatly or moderately
produced. Cleft of mouth wide or of medium width : lips may or may not
be Jringed. Teeth in jaws and on vomer, either pointed, granular, or
small and conical : in the maxilla they may be in from one to four rows,
or in bands, whilst in the mandibles they may be in one or two rows ;
canines present or absent. Dorsal fin, when present, commences either
in advance of or nearly above the gill-opening, or 'behind the root of 'the pec-
toral : the pectorals, when present, may be rudimentary, or only developed
in the adult, or of good size : anal present or absent ; extremity of tail
free.
cccx
A. Teeth pointed : pectorals developed in the adult.
761. Ophichthys hyala, Ham. Bueh. Eye small. Cleft of mouth
extending slightly behind the orbit. Teeth of nearly equal size, pointed,
those in the intermaxillaries the strongest : the posterior mandibular
teeth are in one row, the remainder in two. Dorsal commences at a short
distance behind the end of the pectoral. Colours uniform. Estuaries
of the Ganges.
762. Ophichthys ornatissimus, Kaup. Cleft of mouth very deep :
snout moderately produced. Teeth pointed, the maxillary and an-
terior vomerine in two, the remainder in a single row : no large canines.
Dorsal commences behind the end of the pectoral. 16 to 17 large
round spots along the lateral line, which are separated by another band
of spots of different sizes. Irregular spots on the head : a transverse and
two longitudinal rows of white spots on the occiput : curved whitish lines
between the eyes : dorsal with black marginal spots and stripes. Malabar,
B. Teeth obtuse or granular : pectorals developed or rudimentary.
763. Ophichthys boro, Ham. Buch. Eyes small. Cleft of mouth
extending to behind the eyes. Teeth granular, in several rows. The
dorsal commences behind the base of the pectoral. Colouration uniform.
Seas of India and Malay Archipelago.
764. Ophichthys colubrinus, Bodd. Eyes very small. Cleft of
mouth of moderate width, extending to just behind the eyes. Teeth
conical, in two rows. The dorsal fin commences in front of the gill-opening
just behind the nape ; it and the anal are rather low : pectoral rudimen-
tary. Numerous (25 to 35 ) brown rings surround the body. Andamaus,
Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
C. Teeth, conical and of about equally small size. Gill-openings
contiguous longitudinal slits on the ventral surface : pectorals sometimes
rudimentary, but, as a rule, absent.
765. Ophichthys Orientalis, McLelland. Eyes small. Cleft of
mouth of moderate width. Teeth pointed and in one row. The dorsal
fin commences at a short distance behind the gill-opening, it and the
anal being low : pectoral absent. A row of round whitish spots across
the occiput, having a short, forward — directed line. Ceylon and Bay of
Bengal.
Genus — MoRIJfGUA, Gray.
Raitaboura, Gray : Ptyobranchus, McLell. : Aphthalmichthys, Kaup :
Pseudomoringua, Bleeker.
Body sub -cylindrical, with the trunk considerably longer than the i<til .
Gill-openings rather narrow and inferior : heart far posterior to the brun-
chia. Cleft of mouth narrow. The posterior nostril situated in front of
the eye. Teeth in a single row. Vertical fins limited to the tail: pectorals,
if present, small. Scales absent.
766. Moringua raitaboura, Ham. Buch. The dorsal and anal
fins occupying the greater part of the tail, and both interrupted in the
middle, the last commences at some distance behind the head : pectorals
present. Purplish above, with black dots. Estuaries of the Ganges to
the Malay Archipelago, attaining at least 22 inches in length.
767. Moringua macrocephala, Bleeker. Length of head 1/9 of
the total length. A few rays at the end of the tail, otherwise the
CCCX1
vertical and pectoral fins are reduced to mere cutaneous folds. India and
Malay Archipelago.
Genus — MURJENA, sp. Artedi.
Gymnothorap, Bl. : Huranophis, Lace'p. : Echidna, Forst. : Tharo-
dontis, Strophidon, and Locodontis, McLell. : Sidera, Eurymyctera, Thyrso-
idea, Limamurana, Polyuranodon, Pacilophis, Gymnomumna, Priodonophis ,
and Tceniophis, Kaup. : Pseudomuroena, Johnson.
Body moderately or exceedingly elongate. Gill-openings narrow. Two
nostrils on either side of the upper surface of the snout, the posterior a
round foramen, which may or may not be furnished with a tube : the
anterior tubular. Teeth well developed and acute or molarform : the
maxillary teeth may be in one or two rows. Dorsal fin elevated or not so.
A. Teeth acute. Posterior nostril not tubular.
768. Murana punctata, Bl. Schn. : Calamaia paum, Tel. Teeth in
a single row : canines moderately developed. Tail rather longer than
the body. Blackish brown, with dark white-edged ocelli. Seas of India.
769. Mur&na Ruppellii, McLelland. Teeth in a single row in
the adult : canines moderately developed. Tail longer than the body.
Yellowish, with from 18 to 20 black rings encircling the head and body :
they are narrower than the ground colour : the first 3 are on the head,
the others sometimes become less distinct as age increases. Andamans
and Malay Archipelago.
770. Murana reticularis, Bl. Teeth in a single row, some being
slightly serrated: canines very small. Tail longer than the body.
Buff, with about 16 cross bands on the body, which are somewhat broader
than the interspaces and most defined on the ventral surface : head and
back brown spotted : sometimes a band on the former. Andamans,
Malay Archipelago, and China.
771. Mur&na tessellata, Richardson. Teeth in a single row in
the adult : canines moderately developed. Tail nearly as long as the
body. Dark polygonal or rounded spots on the head, body, and fins,
either separated by narrow light lines or interspaces, the spots being the
widest. From the East Coast of Africa through the seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago, and China.
772. Murana tigrina, Ktippell. Teeth in a single row, except at
the anterior portion of the vomer. Tail nearly twice as long as the body.
Yellowish, with three longitudinal rows of round brown spots, the middle
being the largest. Red Sea and Andaman Island.
773. Murcena undulata, Lacep. Teeth in a single row, with some-
times two additional teeth forming an inner maxillary row : canines
strong, normally 4 pairs in mandibles and 2 in maxillaries. Tail longer
than the body. Brownish, with spots and blotches on the head, and pale
yellowish undulating or reticulating lines over the body and fins : no
black spot at gill-opening, nor a white edge to the fins. East Coast
of Africa, Andamans to the Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
774. Murana tile, Ham. Buch. Teeth in two rows, except the
lateral mandibular ones, which are single ; canines small. Tail slightly
shorter or as long as the body. Umber colour, with numerous small
yellowish specks on the body and fins. Seas of India and Malay
Archipelago.
CCCX11
775. Murana picta, Ahl. Teeth in one row, except on the vomer
and in front of the mandibles, where anteriorly there are two : no dis-
tinct canines. Tail about as long as the body. Greyish, with many
small dark spots separated by a light net-work or marbling. East Coast
of Africa, Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
776. Murana flavomarginata, Hupp. Teeth in one row, except
in the anterior part of the vomer, where there are two canines of
moderate size. Tail as long as the body. Head and end of tail black,
the remainder brown, marbled with black, or with large dark spots some-
times forming three rows : gill-opening in the middle of a black spot,
and fins occasionally with a white edge. Red Sea, East Coast of
Africa, Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
777. Mur&na sathete, Ham. Buch. Teeth in one row, except in
the maxilla, vomer, and front mandibular, which are in two rows : canines
badly developed. Tail rather longer than the body. Superiorly brown-
ish back, becoming dirty yellow beneath. Estuaries of Ganges and Penang.
778. Murana macrurus, Bleeker. Teeth in the maxilla and man-
dibles in two rows : canines badly developed. Tail twice as long as the
body. Deep brown externally being blackish. Seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago.
B. Teeth generally obtuse or molarform.
779. Murana zebra, Shaw. Teeth in molarform bands. Tail
half as long as the trunk. Deep brown, encircled with five yellow whole
or half-bands, which are more irregular in shape on the head. Andamans,
Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
780. Mur&na nebulosa, Ahl. Teeth - molarform. Yellowish, with
black vermiculated lines along the back, and two rows of black spots
along the sides : white dots may be included within the black spots. East
Coast of Africa, seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
781. Muraena nigra, Day. Teeth molarform : those in the
maxillary in a double row and pointed. Tail nearly half the total
length. Uniform black. Andamans.
Genus — GYMNOMUR&NA, Lacep.
Muranoblenna, Lacdp. : Ichthyophis, Lesson : TJropterygius, Rupp. :
Channamurowa, Richardson.
Gill-openings of moderate width or narrow. Two pairs of nostrils on
the upper surface of the snout, the posterior being a round for aman, or
with a short tube. Teeth small, pointed, and numerous. Scales absent.
782. Gymnomurana tigrina, Lesson. Maxillary and front mandi-
bular teeth in -two rows : no canines. Brownish, with various sized black
spots and blotches. East Coast of Africa, Seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago, and beyond.
Order— LOPHOBRANCHII, Cuv.
180. Fishes having a dermal, segmental skeleton, with the opercu-
„ , ,, lar pieces reduced to a single plate. Gill-open-
Order of fishes with small tuft- . -,, .,. . ,.° 1 *
like Sis attached to the bran- ™gs small : gills consisting of small rounded
chial arches : dermal skeletons tufts attached to the branchial arches. Mus-
and apparently no pneumatic Cular system very slightly developed. Snout
ducfc- produced : mouth terminal, but small. Teeth
absent. Air-vessel stated to be destitute of a pneumatic duct.
CCCX111
Family — SYNGNATHID^, Kaup.
Gill-openings small, round, and situated at the posterior-superior angle of the
gill-cover. A single dorsal fin. x Ventrals, and occasionally one or more of the other
fins, absent.
Genus— SYNGNATHUS, Artedi.
Corythoichthys, Trachyrhamphus et Halicampus, Kaup.
Body with more or less distinct ridges : the dorsal edge of the trunk not
being continuous with that on its caudal portion : humeral bones firmly united
into the breast ring. The opercle may be entirely crossed by a distinct ridge,
or it may be only at its base, or the ridge absent. Dorsal fin either opposite
or nearly so to the vent : its base may be raised or not so : pectorals well
developed: caudal present. An egg -pouch on the tail of the males, the eggs
being covered by cutaneous folds.
A — A bony ridge entirely crossing the opercle.
783. Syngnathus spicifer, Riippell. Ea-de or Lah-a-tha-dah , And.
D. 23-27. Rings 15-16 + 39-42. A sharp median ridge along the centre
of the snout, crown of head, and nape. Dorsal commences behind the vent.
Abdomen with about 13 black bars, as wide as the interspaces : sometimes
uniform brown. Red Sea, East Coast of Africa through the Seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago.
784. Syngnathus cyanospilus, Bleeker. D. 20-23. Rings 13-15 +
33-35. A low median ridge along the snout, crown, and nape : a second
along the side of the head. Dorsal commencing on the anal ring. Body
with irregular brown cross bars, each with a white posterior edge : black
dots on the dorsal. East Coast of Africa, Seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago.
J9 — Sony ridge on opercle absent or only on its base.
785. Syngnathus serratus, Schleg. Cul pamboo, Tarn. D. 26-27,
Rings 21-25 + 45-47. Snout less than half the length of the head, and
with a serrated crest, Base of dorsal fin elevated. Tail black with a
white lower edge. Seas of India to China.
786. Syngnathus Ceylonensis, Giinther, D. 26. Rings 24 + 46.
Snout more than half the length of the head, and with a slight superior
ridge. Base of dorsal fin elevated. Zanzibar and Ceylon : may be a
variety of the last.
Genus — NEROPHIS, Kaup.
Netasomata, Eichwald : Scyphius, Risso.
Body rounded and ridges when present very indistinct : the tail tapering
to a point without possessing any or only a rudiment al caudal Jin. Dorsal
fin of moderate length placed opposite to the vent : the pectorals absent. Ova
attached to the loose integument of the abdomen in the males, and not cover-
ed by lateral cutaneous folds.
787. Nerophis ~Dumerilu, Stein. D. 37. 27 body rings, the dorsal
fin placed on the last 7 and first 3 of the tail, this last portion being
twice as long as the trunk. Forehead concave : snout half as long as
head. Bombay.
p P
CCCX1V
Genus — GASTROTOKE&S, Kaup.
Body depressed, with smooth shields and a prehensile tail, which latter
is not so long as the body. Dorsal fin of moderate length placed nearly
opposite the vent : pectorals present. The lateral line passing along the
margin of the abdomen. Ova imbedded in soft substance on the abdomen
of the males, but destitute of any lateral cutaneous folds.
788. Gastrotokeusbiaculeatus, Bl. D. 40-45, P. 17-23. Rings 18 -f
45-55. Superciliary edge more or less spinate posteriorly : old individuals
sometimes with filaments. East Oast of Africa, Seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
Genus — ACENTRONURA, Kaup.
Body rather compressed, with shields without tubercles, and a pre-
hensile, finless tail : occiput compressed into a crest without any coronet.
Dorsal Jin with rather few rays : pectorals present. Ova carried by the
males in a sac, which is situated below the tail and opening near the vent.
789. Acentronura gracillima, Schleg. D. 16, Rings 13 -f 41. Snout
short 2/5 of length of head. Dorsal fin stands on 4 rings, 2 of which
belong to the tail. Andamans and Japan.
Genus — HIPPOCAMPUS, Leach.
Trunk compressed, the shields being furnished with, tubercles or spines :
the tail prehensile, finless, and longer than the trunk. Occiput compressed
and forming a coronet at its posterior superior corner, which is usually
surmounted by spines or knobs. Dorsal and pectoral fins present. Ova
carried by the males in a sac, which is situated below the tail and opening
near the vent.
790. Hippocampus trimaculatus, Leach. D. 20, Rings 11 + 36.
Tubercles not much developed : coronet low, with 4 or 5 spines : supraor-
bital spine and one on either side of the throat claw shaped. Ochre :
two rows of blackish spots on the dorsal fin. Burma and Malay
Archipelago.
791. Hippocampus guttulatus, (*) Cuv. Coodara meen,Tam. D. 17.
Rings 11 + 33. Tubercles blunt: coronet low: supraorbital spine
obliquely truncated. Colouration various. Red Sea, East Coast of Africa,
Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
792. Hippocampus hystrix, Kaup. D. 17-18. Eleven body rings.
Tubercles developed into acute spines. Light coloured, with numerous
brown dots : snout with broad darkish rings : each spine with a black tip.
Zanzibar, Aden, Andamans, and Japan.
Order— PLECTOGNATHI, Cuv.
181. Fishes with the bones of the head completely ossified,
whilst those in the remainder of the body
Fuhesbavrng mated jaw* are incomplete,y BQ . vertebra few. Gill-
openings narrow, situated in front of the pectoral fins : gills pectinate.
(') I marked H. comes, Cantor, as obtained at the Andamans, the specimen not being
at present available for re-examination, it may have been H comes, Kaup,, or H guttulatut,
Cuv., consequently Cantor's fish is not included in this list.
cccxv
Head generally large. Mouth narrow : the bones of the upper jaw
mostly united, sometimes produced into the form of a beak. Teeth may
be distinct in the jaws or absent. There may be a single soft-rayed dorsal
fin belonging to the caudal portion of the vertebral column, and situated
opposite the anal : in some a rudimentary spinous dorsal is also present :
ventrals, when existing, in the form of spines. Skin either smooth, or
with rough scales, or ossified in the form of plates or spines. Air-vessel
destitute of a pneumatic duct.
Family — S CLERODERMI, Cuv.
Body compressed or angular : snout somewhat produced. Distinct teeth in the
jaws of various characters. A barbel in one genus. The elements of a
spinous dorsal and ventral fins generally present, but mostly variously modi-
fied. Skin rough or spinate, or the scales in the form of a firm carapace.
Genus — TRIACANTHUS, Cuv.
Body compressed, ending in a somewhat elongated caudal portion. Eyes
lateral. Teeth in two rows in both jaws, the outer 10 in number, being
incisor-like, the inner, from 2 to 4, being more molarform. First dorsal
Jin consisting of a long and strong spine, followed by from 3 to 5 smaller
ones : ventrals formed by a pair of strong spines articulated by a joint or
ossified to the pelvic bones. Scales minute and rough. Air-vessel strong.
793. Triacanthus biaculeatus, Bl. Satura, Ooriah. : Moolahral,
Tarn. : Ko-tah-thoo-lay-po-dah, And. : Turgoorch, Beluch. D. 5/22-25,
A. 16-19. Second dorsal spine not much longer than the third. Silvery,
with or without a black spot on the first dorsal fin. Seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago and beyond, attaining at least 9J inches in length.
A popular term for it is ' file fish.'
794. Triacanthus strigilifer, Cantor. D. 5/22, A. 16. Second dorsal
spine two or three times as long as the third : scales larger than in the
other species. No black on spinous dorsal.
Genus — BALISTES, sp. Artedi.
Baliastapus, Tiles : Xenodon, Erythrodon, et Pyrodon, EAipp. : Melich-
thys, Leiurus, Swain. : Balistapus, Kaup. Sub-genera, Parabalistes, Pseu-
dobalistes, Canthidermis, Bleeker,
Branchiostegals six. Body compressed. Barbels absent. Sometimes.
a groove before the eyes. Upper jaw witfi a double series of incisor-
like teeth, 8 in the outer, 6 in the inner row: mandible with 8
similar teeth in one row, these teeth may be white, uneven, and
more or less notched : or white, even, and incisor-like, or of a burnt
sienna colour, and the supero-lateral pair projecting. The first dorsal fin
consisting of a strong spine succeeded by two weak ones : ventrals as an
osseous appendage. There may or may not be oval, flattened osseous pro-
ductions on the scales behind the gill-opening. Scales forming a carapace :
in some species there are rows of spines or tubercles on the side of the
free portion of the tail, which is either compressed or depressed.
A. Free portion of the tail depressed' — (Leiurus.)
795. Balistes stellatus, Willugh. D. 3/27, A. 25, L. 1. 44, L. tr.
24. P) Two obtuse ridges along either side of the free portion of the
(1). — The lateral transverse is counted on a Hue from the origin of the dorsal fin to
the vent.
CCCXV1
tail. A patch of enlarged scales posterior to the gill-opening-. Posterior
margin of caudal fin undulated, and the lobes with filamentous prolonga-
tions in the adult. In the immature grey with some large bluish white
blotches along the head and back, and smaller ones over the side of the
body : in the adult a whitish band passes along the side and there are
dark longitudinal stripes along the dorsal and anal fins. Ked Sea, Seas
of India to China.
B. Free portion of the tail compressed : the teeth
white , uneven and more less notched.
796. Batistes maculatus, D. 3/26, A. 24, L. 1. 55-56, L. tr. 31-39.
A groove in front of the eye below the nostrils : cheeks entirely scaly : no
patch of enlarged scales behind the gill-opening. Scales granulated,
having a prickle at their base, most apparent in the young : neither spines
nor tubercles on the side of the free portion of the tail. Caudal truncated.
Uniform brown or black, with white oval or round spots. Seas of India
to China, and beyond.
797. Batistes vetula, Linn. D. 3/30-32, A. 29, L. 1. 61-63, L. tr. 37.
A groove in front of the eye below the nostrils : cheeks entirely scaly,
a patch of enlarged scales behind the gill-opening. No spines or
tubercles on the side of the tail. In adults the anterior dorsal rays and
caudal lobes may be filamentous. In the immature some oblique black
lines go along the rows of scales. In the adult there are two curved
blue dark-edged bands along the side of the head, and a black one with
a light margin under the eye, from which other similar ones radiate :
caudal with its upper and lower edge blue, and a bluish band near its
posterior extremity : transverse bluish bands on the dorsal and anal fins.
Coromandel Coast of India, and beyond
798. Batistes niger, Mungo Park. D. 3/26-28, A. 23, L. 1. 47, L.
tr. 24-26. A groove in front of the eye below the nostrils : cheeks
entirely scaly : a patch of enlarged scales behind the gill-opening. From
6 to 8 rows of rather small recurved spines on the side of the tail.
Caudal truncate. Brownish-black, caudal with white edges : a light ring
round the lower jaw. Red Sea, Seas of India to the Malay Archi-
pelago, and beyond.
799. Batistes mitis, Bennett. Rahtee-yellakah, Tel. : Cul fcorawa,
Tam.D. 3/30-31, A. 27-28, L. 1. 55-65, L. tr. 34. A groove in front of the
eye below the nostrils : cheeks entirely scaly : a patch of enlarged scales
behind the gill-opening. Most of the scales on the side of the tail with
a small round smooth tubercle. Caudal slightly emarginate or truncated.
Blackish or yellowish brown : lower surface of mandible yellow, and a
yellow stripe generally goes towards the base of the pectoral fin. Fins
darkest at their edges. East Coast of Africa, Seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago, and beyond.
800. Batistes conspicillum, Bl. Schn. Lama-yellakah, Tel. D. 3/25-26
A. 21-22, L. 1. 46, L. tr. 29. A groove in front of the eye below the
nostrils : cheeks entirely scaly : a patch of a few enlarged scales behind
the gill-opening. Two and a half rows of tubercles on the scales
on the side of the tail. Caudal truncate. Colours vary, generally
greyish brown or brownish black with white marks : and a light band
across the posterior part of the snout from eye to eye, and a white one
CCCXV11
across its anterior extremity : caudal white with black edges and a brown
band across its base. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, and
beyond.
801. Batistes viridescens, Bl. Schn. D. 3/24-85, A. 23, L. 1. 29,
L. tr. 18. A groove in front of the eye below the nostrils: cheeks entirely
scaly : a patch of a very few enlarged scales behind the gill -opening.
Four and a half rows of recurved spines on the side of the tail. Caudal
rounded. A light ring round the muzzle joining one from below, and
dividing the black lip from a black band on the forehead : body brown-
ish olive, each scale darkest in the centre : a wide blackish band from
the eye to the base of the pectoral fin : vertical fins yellowish with dark
margins : large blue blotches on the first dorsal fin. Red Sea, Andamans
to the Malay Archipelago.
802. Batistes flavimarginatus , Riipp. D. 3/26-27, A. 23-24,
L. 1. 30-35, L. tr. 20. Anterior part of snout partly covered with
tubercular rudimentary scales, neither in the adult are the cheek entirely
scaled : a few enlarged scales behind the gill-opening. Four to six rows
of rather small recurved spines on the side of the tail. Caudal varies
from rounded in the immature to deeply lunated in the adult with
elongated lobes. Immature with dark spots in the centre of some of
the scales : vertical fins with a black and white margin. Adults become
of a nearly uniform colour. Red Sea, Andamans to the Malay
Archipelago.
S03. Batistes aculeatus, Linn. D. 3/25, A. 22, L. 1. 40, L. tr. 23.
No groove in front of eye below the nostrils : a patch of enlarged scales
behind the gill-opening. Two and half rows of recurved spines on the
side of the tail. Caudal rounded in the immature, undulated in the
adult. Greyish with two pair of oblique white bauds passing from the
middle of the body to the anal fin : a black interocular band : three blue
lines pass from the eye to the base of the pectoral, and an orange band
from the angle of the mouth to the same place : base of caudal spines
black. West Coast of Africa, Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago,
and beyond.
804. Batistes undulatus, Mungo Park. D. 3/26-27, A. 24, L. 1.
41-44, L. tr. 24-30. No groove in front of the eye : cheeks entirely
scaly : a patch of a few enlarged scales behind the gill-opening : six strong
spines on either side of the tail in two rows. Caudal fin truncated.
Brownish with numerous undulating yellow lines from the eye and back
to the anal and caudal fins : three or four likewise pass from the angle
of the mouth and lips to between the ventral and anal fins : a dark
band along the base of the second dorsal and anal. Red Sea, East Coast
of Africa, Seas of India to the Malay Archpelago, and beyond.
805. Batistes rectangulus, Bl. Schn. D. 3/23-24, A. 20-21,
L. 1. 42-46, L. tr. 28-35. No groove in front of the eye : a patch of
enlarged scales behind the gill-opening. Three and a half rows of
recurved spines on either side of the tail. Caudal fin slightly convex.
Olive with a black band in front of the eyes and a second between them,
which is continued to the vent, where it increases in width extending
along the anterior two thirds of the base of the anal fin : another black
band passes from behind the gill-opening towards the end of the soft
dorsal : fins light coloured : pectoral with a black base. East Coast of
Africa, Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
cccxvm
C. Teeth brownish red : the superior lateral pair pro-
jecting (Erythrodon.)
Batistes erythrodon, Gunther. D. 3/85, A. 30, L. 1 33. A patch
of enlarged scales behind the gill-opening, slightly raised lines along
the scales on the sides of the tail. Caudal lobes elongated. Black with
the hind edge of the caudal fin white. East Coast of Africa, Seas
of India to the Malay Archipelago.
Genus — MONACANTHUS, Cuv.
Alularius,Cuv. : Stephanolepis,<j\\\\ Chatodermis, ParamonacanthuSj
Amanses Gray: Pseudomonacanthus, Liomonacanthus, Oxymonacantkus,
Branchaluteres, Acanthaluteres, Ceratacanthus, Paraluteres, Pseudaluteres,
and Aluteres, Bleeker.
Body compressed : in some species the side of the tail peculiarly armed
in adult males, but less apparently so or not at all in the females. Barbels
absent. Incisor-form teeth in both jaws, in two rows in the upper with six
in the outer row, and a single row of six in the mandibles. The first
dorsal fin composed of a strong spine, occasionally a second rudimentary
one: ventral fin, when present, reduced to a single osseous process, sometimes
rudimentary and either moveable or fixed. Scales minute and rough.
Vetebra 7/11-14.
A. Dorsal spine with 2 rows of barbs.
807. Monacanthus setifer, Bennett. Kora*wan, Tarn. D. 28-34,
A. 29-33. Dorsal spine above hind edge of orbit : ventral spine small,
moveable : caudal rounded. Sides of tail with fine short bristles in the
adult. Brown, with badly-marked spots and streaks. East Coast of
Africa, Seas of India to China, and beyond.
B. Dorsal spine rough but barbless.
808. Monacanthus monoceros, Osbeck : Korawan, Tarn. D. 48,
A. 50. Dorsal spine above the middle of the orbit : no ventral spine :
caudal short, truncated. Brownish, East coast of Africa, seas of India to
the Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
809. Monacanthus scriptus, Osbeck : Chipi-kora-wan, Tarn. : Mullah
purroah, Mai. D. 44-48, A. 47-52. Dorsal spine very weak, above the
middle of the orbit : no ventral spine : caudal long, rounded. Yellowish,
covered with small brown spots, and blue blotches. East coast of Africa,
seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, and beyond : attaining at least
10 inches in length.
Genus — OSTRACWN, Artedi.
Lcetophrys, Telrosomus, Swains. : Acanthostracion, Bleeker : Cibotion,
Kaup. : Aracana, Gunther.
Branchwstegals six. Body shortened and angular, with the integu-
ments modified into a solid carapace composed of angular osseous plates in
juxtaposition with one another, but leaving the snout, bases of the fins and the
hind portion of the tail covered by soft skin. They may be destitute of spines
or have them variously situated. The carapace from three to five ridged, and
CCCX1X
open or closed behind the anal fin. Mouth small, maxillaries and inter-
maxillaries coalescent. Teeth slender and in one row. A single spineless
dorsal fin placed opposite the anal. Fentrals absent.
A. Carapace closed behind the anal fin. (Ostracion.)
810. Ostracion gibbossus, Linn. Cul plaachee, Tarn. Carapace
three-ridged, the dorsal one terminating in an elevated, compressed, triangu-
lar spine: four small backwardly directed spines along each ventral
ridge : a small supraorbital spine. Caudal rounded. A blue spot in the
centre of each osseous plate. Red Sea, East coast of Africa, seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago.
811. Ostracion cubicus, Linn. Culplaachee, Tarn. Carapace four-ridged,
spineless : an obtuse hump above the snout in the adults. Greenish or
yellowish olive, having one — rarely more — large dark-edged blue spots,
generally in the centre of each plate along the side : a round brown
mark at the base of the dorsal fin, and generally a few scattered spots
or blotches over the caudal. Red Sea, East coast of Africa, seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
812. Ostracion punctatus , Bl. Schn. Carapace four-ridged, pineless.
Covered with numerous white dots, some being confluent into lines. East
coast of Africa, seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
813. Ostracion cornutus, Linn. Hartoo plaachee} Tarn. Carapace
four-ridged : a long anteriorly-directed spine above each orbit : a posteri-
orly directed one at the termination of each ventral ridge : a prominence
in the middle of the dorsal ridge. Carapace and tail with rather large
round dark blue spots. Red Sea, east coast of Africa, seas of India,
to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
Family — G YMNODONTES, Cuv.
Body more or less short. Some possess the means of dilating an elastic portion
of the O3sophagus, or an abdominal sac, with air : or this power may be entirely
wanting. Bones of the upper and lower jaw in the form of a beak, having a
cutting edge, and being covered with a layer of ivory-like substance in which a
median suture may be present or absent. A spineless dorsal, anal and caudal
exist : pectorals present : ventrals absent. Dermal covering modified into small
or large spines or laminae. Pelvic bones and air-vessel present or absent.
Genus — TuioDON, (Reinw). Cuv.
Branchiostegals six. The upper jaw with, the lower without, a median
suture. Two separate nasal orifices on either side. Tail elongated, ter-
minating in a bilobed fin : dorsal and anal with few rays. Abdomen
possessing a large sac, the upper portion of which can be dilated with air,
whilst is kept distended by elongated pelvic bones. The dermal covering
consisting of spinate} osseous lamince which are not imbricate. Air-
vessel present.
814. Triodon bursarius (Rein.), Cuv. D. 10, A. 10, C. 18. A
large, irregularly shaped, black yellow-edged spot on the upper portion
of the sac. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
Genus — TETRODON, (1) Linn.
Back broad, or compressed into a ridge. Either jaw with a median
suture. Should a conspicuous nasal organ exist : — there may be two on
(1) Globe or puff fishes. Plaachee, Tarn, : Kappa, Tel.
cccxx
either side in a papilla (Tetraodon, Bleeker^ : or a single tubular one
(Cray radon, Bleeker) : or an imperforate one having a fringed edge
and spiny body (Chelonodon, Miiller) : or a simple round cavity and
smooth body (Monotretus, Bib.) : or two imperforate tentacles on either
side, (Arothron, Mull.) : or the nasal organs may be inco?isjncuous, and
the back compressed into a keel (Anosmius, Peters). Dorsal and anal
fins with few rays. Body wholly or partially covered with fine dermal
spines j or such may be absent. There may be a more or less distinct fold
along the loiver part of the tail, and very apparent nasal organs (Gastro-
physus, Mull.^ : or the fold be absent, but the body be spinate and
the nasal organs very distinct (Cheilichthys, Mull.,/ : or the fold be absent
and the skin smooth (Liosaccus, Giinther) . A portion of the oesophagus
dilatable and able to be distended with air. Air-vessel present.
A. Sack broad : two nasal openings in a papilla : a
fold of skin along the lower side of the tail (Gastrophysus.)
815. Tetrodon lunaris, Bl. Schn.: Kappa Jcoorawah, Tel. : Cha-mo-
dah, Andam. The back is entirely, or only anteriorly spined, abdomen
similarly protected : snout, sides and tail spineless. Greenish olive above,
sides and abdomen of a white satin, having a yellowish line from
the eye to the centre of the caudal fin : end of caudal dark. Red
Sea, seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, and beyond : attaining at
least a foot in length.
816. Tetrodcn sceleratus, (Forst) Gin. Linn. Weldiah plachay, Tarn.
Head and back finely shagreened : abdomen with three rooted spines :
sides spineless. Olive-green, superiorly witn some brown spots : whitish
laterally and below, with a silvery longitudinal band : a white spot in
front of the eye : a brown band round the mandible : gill-openings deep
black. East Coast of Africa, Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago,
and beyond, attaining at least 2 \ feet in length.
817. Tetrodon oblongus. Bl. Back and abdomen with two rooted
spines : sometimes bands of spines before and behind the pectoral fins.
Superiorly brown with white spots, occasionally with badly marked brown
transverse bands on the sides : there is often a large black humeral
spot. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond, attaining at
least 15 inches in length.
B. Sack broad : a single nasal opening, sometimes with
two lips at its extremity on either side : body spinate '. (Cray-
radon, Bleeker).
818. Tetrodon viridipunctatus , Day. Anterior two thirds of the dis-
tance between the snout and the dorsal fin, also the abdomen, spinate.
Superiorly light green with emerald spots : a similar interocular bar, and a
second posteriorly across the back : abdomen white : four black spots
under the throat. Cochin.
C. Back broad : a simple circular nasal cavity : body
smooth, (Monotretus, Bib.)
819. Tetrodon immaculatus, Bl. Schn. Generally spinate, except
the lips and last half of the tail. Greenish superiorly : brownish along the
CCCXX1
middle of the side, and dirty white below : upper and lower edges of the
caudal black. In some there is a white spot over the eye : occasionally
there are several parallel greyish longitudinal bands on the sides. From
the Red Sea, through the Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, and
beyond, attaining at least 12 inches in length.
820. Tetrodon mappa, Less. Generally spinate, except the lips and
last half of the tail. Brownish superiorly, becoming white below.
Upper half of caudal fin and the abdomen in the young covered by a
net- work of lines, which are indistinct on the dark back. A. blotch in the
adults below the pectoral fin : brown lines radiate from the eye, and the
vent is in the centre of a black spot. East Coast of Africa, Seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago, attaining at least 12| inches in length.
821. Tetrodon stellatus, Bleeker. Generally spinate, except the lips
and the posterior portion of the tail. Colours differ : the upper portion of
the body with black or brown dots, which are confluent in the young.
In the immature there are usually oblique bands more or less broken up
on the abdomen or sides, but which generally disappear in the adult.
Vent in a black ring : some black spots round the base of the pectoral :
brown spots on the fins, which are sometimes absent from the dorsal and
anal. East Coast of Africa, Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, and
beyond, attaining at least 2 feet in length.
822. Tetrodon reticularis, Giinther : Paatha, Mai. : Ko-pud-dah, And.
Generally spinate, except on the lips. Upper surface of body deep grey,
becoming white below, with from eight to ten longitudinal black stripes,
which, under the eye, as well as round the mouth and pectoral fin, are con-
cave : on the back are darker blotches anteriorly, (where blackish band sur-
round spots of white or grey) , and chequered with black posteriorly : caudal
reticulated with black on a white ground. Seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago, attaining at least 1 7 inches in length.
823. Tetrodon hispidus. Lacep. Generally spinate,- except the
lips and hind portion of the tail. Brown superiorly, with a moderate
number of bluish-white spots : one or two bluish bands round the orbit,
gill-opening and pectoral fin : sometimes there are lines or spots of black
on the abdomen. From the Red Sea, through the Seas of India to
the Malay Archipelago, and beyond, attaining at least 20 inches in
length.
824. Tetrodon londarus, Cantor : Eonclaroo kappa, Tel. Generally
spinate, except the lips and the hind portion of the tail. Olive superiorly,
with an interrupted black net- work surrounding brownish- white spots : a
large black spot on either side of the head : another on the throat, from
whence a dark line ascends to either pectoral fin : a yellow spot in front
of the pectoral fin ; inside and behind it a large black one, in which is a
yellow halfring. Coromandel Coast of India to the Malay Archipelago.
*
Genus — DiODON, (Linn.} Cuv
Body nearly globular. Jaws without median suture. Nasal tentacle
simple, with a pair of lateral openings. Body covered with stiff and erec-
tile dermal spines, each having a pair of lateral roots. A portion of the
* Sun -fishes.
CCCXX11
oesophagus dilatable, and can be distended with air. No pelvic bones. Air-
vessel present.
825. Liodon hystrix, Linn. : Moollu plaachay, Tarn. Frontal spines
of moderate size : those on the body strong, with a pair of grooves on
their dilated base : those behind the pectoral the longest : at the posterior
portion of the back broad and short. The back, sides, and fins with
numerous brown spots. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and
beyond.
Sub-class— -CHONDROPTERYGII.
182. SkeletoD cartilaginous: no cranial sutures. Rarely a
Sub-class of cartilaginous single gill-opening, as the gills
fishes. are attached by their outer edges
to the skin, and there exists an intervening gill-opening
between each : no gill cover. Three series of valves at
the bulbus arteriosus. Optic nerves, although united, do
not decussate. Body with vertical and paired fins, the
posterior pair abdominal : caudal with an elongated
upper lobe. Intestines with a spiral valve. Male sex
with prehensile organs attached to the vertical fins.
Ovaries containing large ova, which are fertilised, and in
some likewise developed internally. Embryo with ex-
ternal deciduous gills, No air-vessel.
Order— P LA GIOSTOMA TA.
183. Body more or less cylindrical or depressed : the trunk may or
An order of cartilaginous fish may not pass into the tail, From five to
with transverse mouths. seven gill-openings, which may be lateral
or inferior. Jaws distinct from the skull.
Sub-order— SELACHOIDEI, OR SHARKS.
Body more or less cylindrical, gradually merging into the
tail. Gill-openings lateral.
Family — C ARCHARIID^.
The snout may be produced longitudinally (Carchariida, 'true sharks') or laterally
(Zygcenina, ' hammer-headed sharks'). Spiracles absent or present. Eye with
a nictitating membrane. A small pit may or may not exist above the root of the
tail, and a second behind the angle of the mouth may be present or absent. Mouth,
crescentic, inferior. Teeth may be erect or oblique, with a single cusp, having
sharp and smooth or serrated edges : or they may be small, the cusps being
obsolete : or with one in the centre and one or two lateral ones : or even obtuse.
The first dorsal fin, destitute of a spine, is placed opposite the interspace between
the pectoral and ventral : anal fin present.
Genus — CARCHARIAS, Mull. 8f Henle.
No spiracles. A pit before ihe root of the caudal Jin. Snout longi-
tudinally produced. Mouth crescentic : the labial fold or groove rarely
extends beyond the angle of the mouth. Teeth with a sharp triangular
cusp, sometimes dilated. The first dorsal fin, destitute of a spine, is placed
CCCXX111
opposite the interspace between the pectoral and ventral: caudal with a
distinct lower lobe.
A. Teeth entire ', the upper and lower oblique and not
swollen at the base, (Scoliodori).
826. Carcharias laticaudus. Mull. & .Henle : Dun-da-nee, Sind.
Length of preoral portion of snout equal or slightly above the distance
between the eye and the gill-opening : a short groove at the angle of the
mouth not extending on to the upper jaw. The length of the base of the
anal fin is nearly or quite equal to its distance from the ventral : the
pectoral does not extend so far as to below the origin of the dorsal : its
posterior edge is nearly straight. Uniform colour, with the pectoral of
a deep grey or black. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and
beyond.
827. Carcharias acutus, Riipp. Purrooway sorah, Tarn. Length of
preoral portion of snout equal to or slightly less than the distance between
the eye and the gill-opening : a short groove at the angle of the mouth not
extending on to the upper jaw. The length of the base of the anal fin
is one -half or less than its distance from the ventral : the pectoral extends
to at least below the origin of the dorsal ; its posterior edge is slightly
concave. Bronze colour above, white below : posterior edge of pectoral
pure white : upper edge of caudal dark. Ked Sea, seas of India to the
Malay Archipelago, and beyond : said on the Malabar Coast to attain a
large size, but the largest I obtained was 25 inches long, whilst all were
females.
828. Carcharias Walbeehmii, Bleeker : Ei-dah, And. Length of
preoral portion of snout more than the distance between the eye and the
gill-opening : a short groove at the angle of the mouth extending a little
distance on to both jaws. The length of the base of the anal fin is equal
to about two-fifths of the space between it and the ventral : the pectoral
extends a little beyond the origin of the dorsal : its posterior edge is
slightly concave. Back greenish, becoming white below : anterior edge
of dorsal fin dark, and a similar tinge along the upper edge of the
caudal. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
B. Teeth entire, the central lower, smaller than the lateral
ones, having swollen bases and slender points: those on the
upper jaw flat and oblique, (Physodon).
829. Carcharias Mulleri, Mull, and Henle. Snout elongated and
pointed. Ventral commencing below the end of the base of first dorsal :
anal in advance of the second dorsal, which is very small. Bengal.
0. The upper teeth only with the bases serrated.
830. Carcharias Macloti, Mull, and Hen. Snout long, pointed : its
preoral portion nearly equalling the distance from the eye to the gill-
opening, the nostrils being nearer the mouth than the end of the snout.
The bases of the teeth in the upper jaw denticulated on both sides : those
in the lower jaw erect. Seas of India to New Guinea.
831. Carcharias hemiodon, Mull, and Henle. Snout rounded : nostrils
midway between its end and the mouth : distance between the nostrils
CCCXX1V
equals the length of the snout. Seas of India, to at least 28 inches in
length.
D. Some or all the teeth serrated on their bases and also
on the edges of the cusps (Prionodon.)
832. Carcharias Malabaricus, Day. Preoral portion of snout nearly
as long as the mouth is wide : a very small groove at the angle of the
mouth. Upper teeth 28 in number, oblique, triangular, with rather enlarged
bases, and serrated in their whole extent: lower teeth slender, erect. The
entire pectoral fin not so long as the head, but 1/4 longer than broad,
scarcely emarginate : the posterior end of the dorsal is at an equal distance
from the ventrals as its anterior extremity is from that of the pectoral.
Grey above, white below : upper half of the anterior and two-thirds of
the second dorsal deep black. Malabar Coast, to 16 inches in length.
833. Carcharias Gangeticus, Mull, and Henle. Snout very short
and obtuse : nostrils close to its extremity. Teeth 27-30 on either jaw,
and all serrated. First dorsal commences behind the base of the pectoral.
Of a grey colour. Seas of India to Japan, &c., ascending rivers to above
tidal influence, and attaining from 5 to 6 feet in length.
834. Carcharias melanopterus, Quoy. and Gaim. Snout short and
obtuse : nostrils nearer its extremity than the mouth. Teeth serrated,
25-31, upper ones oblique, the outer edge notched, the inner straight :
the lower narrower. The pectoral with its upper edge 3 times as long
as its lower, reaches the end of the base of the dorsal fin, which latter is
slightly nearer the root of the pectoral than that of the ventral.
Ends of all the fins deep black. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago.
835. Carcharias Bleekeri, Dumeril. Snout of moderate length, the
nostrils being between its extremity and the mouth. Teeth finely
serrated,f§, upper ones oblique, the outer edge notched, the inner straight:
the lower narrow, with a broad base and nearly erect. Pectoral with its
upper edge 4J to 5 times as long as its lower. A deep black spot at the
lower edge of the end of the pectoral fin : a second at the end of the inferior
lobe of the caudal. East Coast of Africa, Seas of India, attaining at
least 27 inches in length.
836. Carcharias limbatus. Mull., and Henle. Snout somewhat
pointed, the length of its preoral portion being less than the width of the
mouth : nostrils between its extremity and the mouth. Teeth serrated
25~29 . Pectoral with its upper edge nearly four times that of the lower. The
lower edge of the end of the pectoral, second dorsal, anal, and lower
caudal lobe black. Seas of India, and beyond.
837. Carcharias Temminckii, Mull, and Henle. Preoral portion of
snout almost as long as the width of the mouth : nostrils nearer the
mouth than the end of the snout. Teeth |^, upper rather narrow, with
a broad base erect and serrated : the lower entire. Pectoral with its upper
edge nearly three times that of the lower. Second dorsal opposite anal,
and nearly as large as the first. Of an uniform colour. India.
Genus, — GALEOCERDO, Mull, fy Henle.
Spiracles small. Membrana nictitans present : pupil of eye round.
Mouth crescentic. Teeth oblique, serrated on either edge, and with a deep
cccxxv
notch on the outer margin. The first dorsal spineless, placed opposite
the interspace between the pectoral and ventral Jins : caudal with a double
notch. A pit on the tail, both above and below, at the base of the caudal
Jin.
838. Galeocerdo Rayneri, McDonald and Barren. Wulluven sorah,
Tarn. Pi-eoral portion of snout of considerably less length than the
distance between the inner angles of the nostrils : a long labial fold
along the upper jaw. Caudal fin a little above 1/4 of the total length,
and not quite equal to the interspace between the two dorsals. Obscure
spots and vertical stripes on the body. Seas of India to Australia.
859. Galeocerdo tigrinus, Mull, and Henle. Preoral portion of
snout of less length than the distance between the inner angles of the
nostrils: a long- labial fold along the upper jaw. Caudal fin 1/3 of the
total length and considerably exceeding the interspace between the
two dorsals : second dorsal slightly in advance of the anal. Numerous
brown spots over the body. Seas of India to Japan and beyond.
Genus — ZYGJSNA* Guv.
Cestracion, Klein : Cestrorhinus, Blainv. : Sphyrna, (Rafin) Mull, and
Henle : Euspfyra and Reniceps, Gill.
The anterior portion of the head is broad, flattened, and laterally elon-
gated with the eyes situated at its lateral extremities and the nostrils at its
fore border. A membrana nictitans present. Spiracles absent. Mouth cres-
centic. Teeth similar in both jaws, placed obliquely and notched. The first
dorsal fin spineless, situated above the interspace between the pectoral and
the ventral : caudal with one notch, and a pit at the commencement of
the fin.
840. Zygana Blochii, Cuv. The two lateral expansions of the
head from twice to thrice as long as broad, with a deep groove along the
anterior edge. Nostril much nearer mouth than the eye. Mouth angu-
lar. Greyish. Seas of India to China.
841. Zygana malleus, Risso. : Koma sorah, Tel. The hind edge of
the lateral expansion of the head nearly equals its width near the eye,
and with a groove along almost its entire anterior edge. Nostrils close
to the eye. Body and fins slaty-grey : undersurface white. Red Sea,
Seas of India to Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
842. Zt/gana tudes, Cuv. Anterior edge of head much curved, but
not continuous with the lateral one : the length of its hind margin less
than its width near the eye. Nostril close to the eye and a groove run-
ning along the anterior edge of the head. East Coast of Africa, Seas
of India to the Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
Genus — MUSTELUS,
Membrana nictitans present. Small spiracles behind the eyes. Mouth
crescentic with long labial folds. Teeth small, numerous, similar in both
jaws, pavement-like, obtuse or with indistinct cusps. The first dorsal fin
spineless, situated above the interspace between the pectoral and ventral :
the second nearly as large as the first : caudal without a distinct lower lobe,
and no pit at the commencement of the fin.
* Combun sorah, Tain.
CCCXXV1
843. Muslelus manazo, Bleeker. Preoral portion of snout rather
less than the distance between the angles of the mouth. Teeth without
distinct cusp. Origin of dorsal fin opposite the inner angle of the pectoral.
No placenta. Grey, sometimes with white spots. Japan and perhaps
Ceylon.
Family — SCYLLIID.E.*
Spiracles distinct. Eye without any nictitating membrane. Nasal and buccal cavities
confluent or distinct. Mouth inferior. Teeth small, several rows being generally
in use. The first dorsal fin spineless, placed above or behind the ventrals : an
anal present, which may be in front of, below, or behind the second dorsal.
Genus — SQYLLIUM, Cuv.
Scylliorhinus, HaMurus, Poroderma, and Cephaloscy Ilium, Gill.
Spiracles behind the eyes. Nasal and buccal cavities distinct. Teeth
small, in several rows, usually with a central and one or two lateral cusps.
Origin of anal fin in advance of that of the second dorsal : upper edge oj
caudal not serrated.
844. Scy Ilium marmoratum^QrmQii. Nasal valves confluent, having
a single transverse uninterrupted flap, and a well developed labial fold.
Brown spots, bands, or ocelli superiorly. Seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago, and beyond.
845. Scyllium Capense, (Smith) Miill. and Henle. Nasal valves not
confluent : a short labial fold superiorly. With whitish spots and darker
and lighter vertical bands. Seas of India and the Cape.
Genus — STEGOSTO MJ Mull, fy Henle.
Spiracles about the size of the small eyes, behind which they are situat-
ed. Fourth and fifth gill-openings close together. Nasal and buccal
cavities confluent. Snout obtuse : upper lip thick, ending in a barbel on
either side. A well-developed labial fold. Teeth small, sometimes tri-
lobed, and forming an almost quadrangular plate. Two dorsal fins, the first
above the ventral, the second anterior to the anal, which is near the caudal,
the latter being very elongate.
846. Stegostoma tigrinum, Gm. Linn.: Pollee-makum,^}. : Corungun
sorah, 'monkey-mouthed shark/ Tarn. Of a buff1 colour with dark spots or
brown vertical bands. East Coast of Africa, Seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago, and beyond, attaining at least 6 feet in length.
Genus — CHILOSCTLLIUM, Mull, fy Henle.
Hemiscyllium, Mull, and Henle.
Spiracles below the eyes. Fourth and fifth gill-openings close together.
Nasal and buccal cavities confluent : nasal valve with a barbel. Lower lip
continuous or interrupted in the centre. Teeth small, triangular, with or
destitute of lateral cusps. Two dorsal fins, the first above or behind the
ventral, the second considerably anterior to the anal, which is near the
caudal.
847. Chiloscy Ilium Indicum, Gm. Linn. : Corungun sorah, Tarn. :
Poos-hee, Beluch. : Bokee-sorah and Ra-sorah, Tel. Lower labial fold
* Dog -fishes.
CCCXXV11
continuous. Origin of first dorsal fin behind the base of the ventral.
Sometimes smooth or tubercular ridges along the back. The colours
vary exceedingly : they may be simply of a reddish brown, or with dark
cross-bands, which may or may not include white or black spots : some-
times the cross-bands break up into spots or bands. Seas of India to
the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
Sub-order— BATOIDEL
Spiracles present : gill-openings in five pairs, and on the
ventral surface of the body. Body depressed, forming, due to
largely-developed pectoral fins, a more or less flat disk, and
having usually a thin and slender tail. Dorsal fin, when pre-
sent, on the tail : anal absent.
Family — PBISTIIXE .
Saw-fishes.
Snout much produced, flattened, and having a saw-like appearance, due to large
teeth existing on its lateral edges.
Genus — PRISTIS, Latham.
Body elongate and depressed. Gill-openings inferior and of moderate
width. Spiracle wide and posterior to the eye, which latter has no nicti-
tating membrane. Nostrils inferior. Teeth minute and obtuse. Dorsal
fins spineless, the first quite or nearly opposite the ventrals : front edge of
pectoral free.
848. Pristis pectinatus, Latham. From 24 to 32 pairs of teeth,
the anterior placed close to one another, the intervening space not ex-
ceeding double the base of a tooth : the three posterior teeth are twice
as far asunder. Dorsal fin arises opposite the ventral : second dorsal
scarcely smaller than the first : no lower caudal lobe. Red Sea, seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
849. Pristis zysron, Bleeker. From 26 to 32 pairs of teeth, the
anterior placed close to one another, the intervening space not exceeding
double the base of a tooth : the three posterior teeth are thrice as far
asunder. Dorsal fin arises opposite the middle of the root of the
ventral : second dorsal scarcely smaller than the first ; it extends back-
wards nearly to the root of the caudal, which has no lower lobe. Seas
of India to the Malay Archipelago.
850. Pristis cuspidatus3 Latham. Yahla, Tel. From 23 to 34 pairs
of broad teeth, which do not commence so far forwards as in the other
species : in the young their hinder edge is barbed. Dorsal fin arises
behind the root of the ventral : caudal with a lower lobe. Seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago : ascending rivers.
Family — RHINOBATID^J .
The disk not much dilated laterally : the rayed portion of the pectoral fin not con-
tinued on to the snout. Tail thickened, and moderately elongated with two well-
developed dorsal fins : likewise a caudal and a longitudinal fold on either side.
No electric organs.
CCCXXV111
Genus — RnYNCHOBATUS, Mull, fy Henle.
Rhina, sp. et hinobatus, sp. Bl. Schn. : Rhamphobatis, Gill.
Body depressed and elongated. Gill-openings inferior, narrow, and
internal to the base of the pectoral Jin. Spiracles wide and behind the
eyes, which latter have no nictitating membrane : snout rather elongated and
acute : nostrils inferior, oblique wide slits. Teeth obtuse, ridged, the dentary
plate having an undulated surface. Dorsal fins spineless, the first opposite
the ventrals : front edge of pectoral free, not extending to the head : caudal
with a well-marked lower lobe.
851. Rhynchobatus ancylostomus, Bl. Schn. Snout very broad with
a semicircular outline. Longitudinal rows of tubercles one on either side
of the head, continued on to the sides of the body, and a median one
along the back : a few round the front edge of the eye and below the
spiracle. Dental plate deeply undulated. Reddish -grey. East Coast
of Africa, seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, and beyond.
852. Rhynchobatus Djiddensis, Forsk.: Walawah tenkee, Tel. Snout
pointed and elongated. The tubercles are arranged somewhat as in the
last species, but they are generally absent from below the spiracle, and
some usually exist along the supraorbital margin. Dental plate slightly
undulated. A round black ocellus generally present on the shoulder, with
about six small white -ones around it : four or five rows of large white
spots may or may not exist along the sides, and also be present on the
pectoral fin. Red Sea, seas of India to the Malay Archipelago, and
beyond.
Genus — RuiNOBATUS) sp. BL Schn.
Syrrhina, Mull, and Henle.
Body depressed and elongated. Spiracles wide and behind the eyes. Snout
elongated, the cranial cartilage being produced, and the interval between it
and the pectoral fin being filled by a membrane. Nostrils oblique and wide :
the anterior nasal valves not confluent. Teeth obtuse, ridged. Dorsal fins
spineless : both far behind the ventral : no lower caudal lobe.
853. Rhinobatus granulatus, Bl. Schn : Purrungun, Tarn.: Cun-da-
ree, Sind. Anterior nasal valve with no lateral dilatation. The distance
between the external angles of the nostrils equals about 3/5 in the pre-
oral portion of the snout : the two rostral ridges narrow and closely ap-
proximating : mouth transverse. Tubercles on the back, and a row of
compressed spines along its middle, which may become obsolete
with age : some spines on the edge of the orbit and on the shoulder. Seas
of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
854. Rhinobatus obtusus, Mull, and Henle. Anterior nasal valves
with no lateral dilatation. The distance between the external angles of the
nostrils equals 2/3 in the preoral portion of the snout : the two rostral
ridges widely divergent posteriorly and confluent in their anterior third.
Mouth transverse. Back with rough scales, but no tubercles or spines at
the orbit or shoulder. Seas of India.
Family — TORPEDINIOSI.
Trunk broad and disk smooth. Anterior nasal valves confluent and forming a quad-
rangular flap. Tail with a rayed dorsal (except in Temera) and caudal, also a lon-
gitudinal fold along either side. An electric organ situated between the pectoral
fin and the head,
C CCXX1X
Genus — NARCINE* Henle.
Disk distinct from tJie tail, which has a lateral fold on either side and is
longer than the disk. Spiracles close behind the eyes : nasal valves confluent,
forming a quadrangular flap. Teeth nearly flat, with a central point. Two
dor sal fins, the anterior behind the ventrals and usually smaller than the
posterior. Electric apparatus present.
855. Narcine timlei, Bl. Schn. Posterior edge of caudal confluent
with the lower and rounded. Reddish brown, with chocolate-coloured spots :
white below. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
Genus — AST RAPE, Mull, fy Henle.
Tail with a fold on either side. Spiracles close behind the eyes, which
last are minute. Anterior nasal valves confluent, forming a large flap.
Teeth pointed, extending slightly beyond the outer edge of the jaws. A single
dorsal flu on the tail: caudal well developed : an electric apparatus on the
side of the head between it and the pectoral fin.
856. Astrape dipterygia, Bl. Schn. Spiracles not fringed; Vent
slightly nearer the head than the posterior extremity of the caudal fin.
Dull reddish-olive above, whitish below. A white spot near the posterior
end of the head, another above the end of the ventral, and generally a
third at the root of the caudal : ventral with a white edge. Seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
Family — RAJIIXE.
Disk broad, rhombic : tubercles or spines usually present : the pectorals extend to
the snout : tail with a longitudinal fold on either side : no serrated caudal
spine : electric organs absent.
Genus — PLATYRHINA, Mull, ty Henle.
Disk rhombic with a fold on either side : tail distinct. Nasal valves
distinct. Two dorsal fins on the tail : caudal well developed : ventrals separ-
ated one from the other. Body covered with rough asperities and spines.
857. Platyrhina Schonleinii, Mull, and Henle. Disk sub-circular:
snout obtuse : tail as long as the disk. Dental plate undulating : three
elevations in the lower and three in the upper jaw. Nostrils wide apart.
A row of strong spines, having smaller lateral ones along the median
line of the back and tail : some more along the edge of the orbit and on
the shoulder. Brown, covered with light blotches. Coromandel Coast
of India.
Family — TR YGONIDJB .
Disk wide : the pectorals are continued to the extremity of the tail, which is long
and slender without any lateral fold : no vertical fins, unless modified into the
form of a serrated spine.
Genus — UROGJMNUS* Mull, fy Henle.
Anacanthus, Ehren. Rhachinotus, Cantor.
Disk sub-circular : tail long and distinct, destitute of any spine, but
with a narrow inferior fold : pectorals united anteriorly. Teeth flattened.
Body covered with osseous tubercles, amongst which are sharp conical spines.
858. Urogymnus asperrimus, Bl. Schn. Moollan tiriki, Tarn. On
the pectoral fins are numerous small conical spines, irrespective of those
RR
cccxxx
over the body amongst the tubercles. East Coast of Africa, Seas of
India to the Malay Archipelago.
Genus — TRYGON, Adanson.
himantura , Eemitrygon and. Hypo lop bus, Mull, and Henle. Paratry-
gon, Dumeril.
Disk oval or rhomboidal : tail elongated and tapering. Nasal
valves coales cent, forming a quadrangular flap. Teeth flattened or with a
central point or transverse ridge. Pectoral fins united anteriorly: tail
destitute of a fin, or if with a cutaneous fold, such does not extend to its
extremity : it is armed superiorly with one or two lanceolate spines serrated
on both sides. Body smooth or with tubercles.
A . — Dental lamince transverse ; if undulating, very slight-
ly so : no caudal cutaneous fold. (Himantura.)
859. Try gon uarnaJc, Forsk. Sona Jcah tiriki, Tarn. Disk about as
wide as long : tail about three times as long as the disk. Snout some-
what pointed. One or more large tubercles in the middle line of the
back : in the adult the back is shagreened, but almost smooth in the im-
mature : no large tubercles in the median line of the tail. Brown,
sometimes with darker spots : tail of the young annulated with white
and brown. Red Sea, Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and
beyond, often ascending rivers.
860. Try gon Gerrardi, Gray. Disk broader than long : tail about
three times as long as the disk. Snout somewhat obtuse. One or more
large tubercles in the middle line of the back, round which some smaller
ones are grouped. Brown with round yellow spots : young with the
tail annulated. Bay of Bengal to the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
861. Trygon Bleelceri, Blyth. Tail from about 1/3 to 1/4 times
as long as the disk. Snout prolonged and pointed. A large round tu-
bercle in the centre of the back, and commonly three smaller triangularly
disposed before it, and three similarly placed behind it. Tubercles con-
tinued along the upper surface of the tail to the caudal spine, from
whence, in adults, they are continued to its extremity. Brown above and
below, with a narrow white median longitudinal patch on the abdomen.
Bengal.
86£. Trygon walga, Mull. & Henle. Disk nearly as broad as long :
tail rather longer than the disk. Snout prolonged and pointed. No
large tubercles on the back, but several short spines along the tail, anterior
to the usual large one. Of an uniform colour. Bay of Bengal to the
Malay Archipelago.
863. Trygon polylepis, Bleeker. Disk slightly longer than broad :
tail about as long as the disk. Snout prolonged and pointed. Inter-
orbital space tuberculated, with a narrow band of tubercles along the
median line of the back, and widening in the scapular region, where it
has a cruciform appearance. No tubercles on the tail. Seas of India.
864. Trygon nuday Giinther. Disk about as broad as long : tail
half longer than the disk. Snout rather pointed. No tubercles. Seas of
India to China.
865. Trygon marginata, Blyth. Disk slightly longer than broad :
tail half longer than the disk. Tubercles not only over the upper surface,
CCCXXX1
but also on the broad dark margin of the lower parts : an irregular row
of pointed tubercles on either side of the middle line of the back : tail
tuberculated as far as its spine. Grey above, buffy- white below, with a
dark border, except in front.
B. — Dental lamina transverse ; if undulating, usually
slightly so : tail with an upper or lower cutaneous fold.
( Trygon.)
866. Trygon Bennettii, Mull. & Henle. Disk about as broad as long :
tail about 3 times as long as disk, and with a low cutaneous fold along
its inferior surface. Snout somewhat pointed. A tubercle in the middle
of the back in adults, with some flat ones around it, and which extend
backwards to the caudal spine. Seas of India to China and beyond.
867. Trygon imbricata, Bl. Schn. Disk as broad as long : tail
about as long as the body, with low upper and inferior cutaneous folds.
Small tubercles on the nape and back, with a row of conical spines along
the shoulder and back : along the tail as far as the spine are large
tubercles intermixed with smaller ones. Seas of India.
868. Trygon zugei, Mull. & Henle. Chumbara Jcah, Tarn. Disk
about as broad as long : tail twice as long as disk, and with an upper
and lower cutaneous fold. Snout much produced and pointed. Dental
laminaB much undulating. About six or more pointed tubercles com-
mencing opposite the ventral fin in the middle line of the back and
continued to the caudal spine. Brownish superiorly. Seas of India to
the Malay Archipelago and beyond.
C. — Lower dental lamina somewhat pointed, the upper
being angularly bent for its reception. (Hypolophus.)
869. Trygon sephen, Forsk. Wolga tenlcee, Tel. Aart wallan tiriki,
Tarn. Disk rhombic: angles rounded : tail about three times as long as
the disk, with a broad inferior cutaneous fold. Some large globular
tubercles in the scapular region, elsewhere the whole upper surface
covered with flat ones. Red Sea, through the seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago and beyond.
Genus — PTEROPLATEA, Mull, fy Henle.
JEloplatea, Mull & Henle.
Body at least twice as broad as long : tail thin, generally shorter than
the body, with or without a rudimentary fin, but having a serrated spine :
spiracles with or without a tentacle: nasal valves confluent, and forming a
quadrangular flap. No papilla at bottom of the mouth. Teeth with from
one to three cusps. Pectoral fins united in front. SJcin smooth or tubercular.
A. — Tail destitute of any fin.
870. Pteroplatea micrura, Bl. Schn. Tenkee-Jcunsul, Tel. No ten-
tacle to spiracle. Two small spines on caudal fin. Skin smooth. Red-
dish brown : tail annulated with white and brown : in the centre of each
light ring superiorly, generally a brown spot. Seas of India to the Malay
Archipelago and beyond.
cccxxxu
Family — MYLIOBATUXE.
Pectoral fins large, developed along the sides of the body, occasioning it to appear
very "broad : these fins are not present on the sides of the head, hut re -appear at the
end of the snout as a pair of detached fins.
Genus — MYLIOBATIS, Cuv.
Head distinct from disk : snout with a soft prolongation, internally
supported by fin rays : nasal valves coalescent, forming a quadrangular flap.
Teeth hexagonal, flat, the central ones being broader than long : the external
rows narrow. Tail very long and whip-like, having a dorsal fin near its
base, and usually a serrated spine posterior to it. Body smooth or tuber-
culated superiorly.
871. Myliobatis Nieuhofii, Bl. Schn. Disktwice as broad as long.
Dark above, white below. Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and
beyond.
Genus — MTOBATIS, Mull, fy Rente.
Slovsodon, Cantor.
Head distinct from disk: snout with a soft prolongation, internally
supported by fin rays. Nasal valves distinct, each forming a long flap.
Teeth hexagonal, broad, flat, with the lower dental lamina projecting beyond
the upper. Tail very long and whip-like. Dorsal fin present, and a ser-
rated spine posterior to it.
872. JEtabatis narinari, Bl. Schn. Eel-tenkec, Tel. Currooway tiriki,
Tarn. Ra-ia-charm-dah, Andam. Dorsal fin situated on a vertical between
the ventrals. Superiorly of a dark leaden colour, but often with round
bluish-white spots. Red Sea, Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago
and beyond.
Genus — RHINOPTERA, Kuhl.
Mylorina and Micromesus, Gill.
Head distinct from the disk, but with a pair of rayed appendages on
the lower edge of the snout. Nasal valves confluent, forming a broad flap.
Teeth broad, flat, in five or more rows, the central ones being the ^broadest.
Tail whip-like, with a dorsal fin and a serrated spine posterior to it.
873. Rhinoptera adspersa, Mull, and Henle. Mutta tiriki, Tarn.
Teeth in nine rows in the upper, and seven in the lower jaw. Upper
surface rugose. Said to have come from the East Indies.
Genus— DICEROBATIS, Blainv.
Cephaloptera, Dumeril. Mobula, A. Dumeril.
Pectoral fin not extended on to the sides of the head, which latter is
pruncated in front, whilst on either side is a forwardly-pointing horn-like
Trojection, which is internally supported by fin rays. Nostrils not confluent.
Teeth in jaws very small, flat, or tuberculated, and in many row Tail
whip-like, with a dorsal fin situated above and between the ventrals , and with
or destitute of a serrated spine.
874. J)icerobatis eregoodoo, Cantor. Eregoodoo tenkee, Tel. Teeth
in from 80 to 90 rows in the upper jaw, about twice as wide as long, and
having one or two points posteriorly. Body and tail smooth. No spine.
Seas of India.
REPORT
SEA FISH AND FISHERIES
INDIA AND BURMA.
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