Republic : Greek text

Presented to
The Hibrary
of the
University of Coronta

by
Professor W. S, Milner

UNIVERSITY OF
TORONTO PRESS

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in oa» funding from

ation

‘

PLATO'S RERSSLIC

JOWETT AND CAMPBELL

Bondon
HENRY FROWDE

OXFORD UNIVERSITY Press WAREHOUSE
AMEN Corner, E.C.

MACMILLAN & CO., 66 FIFTH AVENUE

» th ia Site >. ae

50

Plate. Respublien

A Lge A fo
PLATO'S REPUBLIC

THE GREEK TEXT

EDITED, WITH NOTES AND ESSAYS

BY THE LATE

B. JOWETT, MA.

MASTER OF BALLIOL COLLEGE
REGIUS PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
DOCTOR IN THEOLOGY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LEYDEN

AND

TEwisS CAMPBELL, M.A. LL.D.

HONORARY FELLOW OF BALLIOL COLLEGE
EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE UNIVERSITY OF
ST. ANDREWS

IN THREE VOLUMES

VOL. Ill. NOTES

Orford
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

1894

. PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
BY HORACE HART, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY

CONTENTS OF

Notes To THE REPuUBLIC—

poox. I .*.. ; : ;
Book II , : ; ;
Boox III ; , , :
Boox IV j ; . :
Book V . ; ; ‘ i
Book VI 3 : , :
Boox VII ; : a) sa
Book VIII _. : : :
Boox IX P A Ce :

VOL.

ILI

PAGES
1-56
57-108
109-161
161-209
209-262
262-313
314-359
359-406
497-439
439-484

485-512

NOTES ON THE REPUBLIC
Omid TO

BOOK I.

MOAITEIA] The second title, wept dixaiov, found in Par. A and aagatit
other MSS., is probably a later addition. The plural form, modrrea@v
y, &, &, &c., also occurs.

The scene is laid in the house of Cephalus at the Peiraeus, and
the whole discourse is supposed to be repeated by Socrates the day
after it actually took place. To the Republic as to the Charmides,
Lysis, Parmenides, and in a less degree to the Protagoras, Euthy-
demus, Symposium and Phaedo, Plato has given the form of
a narrated dialogue. By this device he is enabled to combine
description with dramatic effect.

The unfinished trilogy of the Timaeus, Critias, and Hermocrates
professes to be a continuation of the Republic (cp. Tim. ad znzt.),
but may have been added long afterwards (cp. the parallel relation
of the Sophist and Statesman to the Theaetetus, which last would
seem, from a comparison of the style, to have been written at
an earlier time). The Republic contains no hint of the more
comprehensive scheme. In the Timaeus Socrates is represented
as having on the previous day set forth the principles of his
ideal commonwealth to a select company, consisting of Timaeus,
Critias, Hermocrates, and a fourth person, whose name is not
mentioned.

TA TOY AIAAOrOY MPOraNA] Socrates is the principal speaker,
the chief interlocutors being Glaucon and Adeimantus, the sons of
Ariston and Perictioné, and brothers of Plato, who, like a painter,
introduces the names and portraits of his family in several of his

VOL. Wk 4 L B

2 Plato: Republic.

nah ag dialogues (himself and Adeimantus in the Apology ; Charmides and

Critias in the Charmides; Critias in the Timaeus .and Critias ;
Adeimantus, Glaucon, and Antiphon in the Parmenides). There
are present also Thrasymachus, the sophist, who is ‘ charmed’ into
silence at the end of the First Book (cp. ii. 358 8), Cephalus and
his eldest son Polemarchus, who soon vanish from the scene,
Lysias (the orator) and Euthydemus, also sons of Cephalus,
Niceratus the son of Nicias (cp. the Laches), Charmantides and
Cleitophon. The last five, if we except a few words from Cleito-
phon (i. 340 A, B), are mute auditors. The circumstances of the
opening scene are quickly lost sight of. Polemarchus once again
appears, v. 449 B. ‘Thrasymachus interposes once in v. 450, and
is made the subject of a good-humoured remark in vi. 498 c.
Critics have discussed at length not only the date at which the
Republic was written, which can only be approximately guessed at,
but the date which the author intended to be represented in it.
The year assumed by Boeckh? for the imaginary scene is 411 or
410 B.c. Most of the characters in the Republic and also in the
Timaeus and Critias agree with this date. Socrates himself was
then about fifty-seven or fifty-eight years old, Lysias had just
returned from Thurii to Athens in 411; the calamities of the year
of the thirty had not yet fallen upon his house; Prodicus and
possibly also Protagoras, both of whom are referred to as living
persons in x. 600 c, may have been still alive (the date of Protagoras’
death is quite uncertain: Prodicus is spoken of as a living person
in the Apology). Hermocrates, if, as is probable, the Syracusan
general of that name is intended in the Timaeus, may well have
been at Athens at the time, after his banishment, and on his way
to Pharnabazus. The minor discrepancy respecting the death of
Cephalus, which is said by the pseudo-Plutarch (Vit. Or. iii. 3)
to have occurred before the settlement of Lysias at Thurii
(B.c. 443), is not worth noticing. Even if we accept this last
statement on such authority,—and it is more or less contradicted
by Lysias,—there is no reason to suppose that Plato would have
cared about accuracy in such a minute detail. He is careless of
such dramatic proprieties. His dialogues, like the plays of Shake-
speare, are works of fiction, which have only a certain degree of
historical truth. Many anachronisms occur in them, e.g. Ismenias
_ the Theban, who did not become famous until some time after

‘ De tempore quo Plato Rempublicam peroratam finxerit, dissertationes
Ill: Kleine Schriften, iv. 437 sqq.

ea _— Se

Notes: Book /. 3

Socrates’ death, is mentioned by him in the Republic (i. 336 a) Republic
among great potentates; in the Menexenus, Aspasia, the mistress
of Pericles, continues her survey of Greek history down to the peace
of Antalcidas, B.c. 387 ; in the Symposium (193 a), Aristophanes,
at the banquet of Agathon, which is supposed to have taken place
in 416 B.c., uses an illustration taken from the dismemberment
of Arcadia, or rather of Mantinea, by the Lacedaemonians
(B.c. 385). It is doubtful whether Parmenides and Socrates can
ever have met, as they are said to have done in the Theaetetus
(183 £), Sophist (217 c), and Parmenides (127 8); and certainly
the meeting is not to be taken as historical on the authority of
Plato. These examples are enough to show that Plato is not to be
appealed to as an authority for the dates of his dramatis personae,
any more than Shakespeare or Sir Walter Scott. It is not known
at what date the worship of Bendis was introduced in Attica, though
it appears to be referred to in an inscription found at Salamis
(Foucart, Associations religieuses, p. 209), but for the reason just
stated this point is likewise unimportant.

To defend uncertain, or try to reconcile inconsistent, statements
in a work of imagination is out of place and alien to the true spirit
of criticism.

Socrates and Glaucon are about to return from the Peiraeus after Paar
a festival, when they are detained by Polemarchus. He takes them se D.
home with him, and Socrates enters into conversation with Cephalus,
the aged father of the household.

C. Age is in itself a time of peace. The sorrows of old men are
to be attributed to their own faults and tempers.

S. The world will say that you are happy in old age because
you are rich.

C. Neither a bad rich man can be happy in age, nor a good
poor man. -

S. What is the chief advantage of riches ?

C. Wot to have deceived any one in word or deed, and to have
paid one’s debts to gods and men.

S. But is justice simply to speak the truth and pay your debts,
or are there exceptions to this rule ?

C. Yes, there are.

‘And yet, interrupts Polemarchus, ‘ the definition which has been
given has the authority of Simonides.

Cephalus retires to look after the sacrifices.

; B2

Republic
ff,

327
A

4 Plato: Republic. ©

KATE’BHN x@és] The old anecdote that the words with which

‘the Republic opens were found after Plato’s death with various

transpositions in his tablets—which is narrated by Diogenes Laertius
(fl. 200? a. p.) on the authority of Euphorion (fl. circa 241 B. c.) and
Panaetius (185 ?-110? B.c.)—Diog. Laert. iii. 25. 37 Evqopiov dé
kat Ilavairios eipnkaot moAddkis eotpappéerny etpnoba tiv dpxny Tis
mokireias—and by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (fl. circa 30 B.c.) de
comp. verb, v. p. 209 (Reiske) ri dédrov fv redevTHGavros avrod (Sc.
Tov Idrwvos) A€yovow ecvipebijvar, mokiiws perakerevny Thy apxiny THs
Tlo\treias €xovoav rhvd_, KatréBnv xOés eis Tletpad pera TAavxwvos rod
*Apiotwvos,—may be true, but is more likely to have been invented.

Ty 96] Bendis, as is proved by the words of Thrasymachus,
i. 354 A tadra 67 cor, & Sewxpares, eictiacOw ev trois Bevdideiors. The
prominent part which the Thracians take in the procession seems
to show that she is a Thracian goddess: Proclus (Theolog. 353)
and others identify her with Artemis. Cp. Schol. in Rep. émei kat
Bevdis map’ adrois (sc. trois Opaglv) 4 “Apreuis xadeira. It is not
a little curious that the Platonic Socrates should care to be present
at the inauguration of one of those ‘ strange divinities’ who seem
to have clustered about the Peiraeus in the fourth century, B.c. and
even earlier (Foucart, op. cit. p. 57). See especially Laws x. g1oc.

kai 4) Tav émyxwpiwv| «ai anticipates the mention of the Thra-
cians, who are equal if not superior to the natives of Peiraeus. The
second xai and a 8€ corresponding to per, which might have been
expected, pass into od pévrot Hrrov .. . fy=oby Arrov b€ ... Kal fy.

Oewpyjoavtes| ‘Having seen the spectacle,’ corresponding to
p?) g P P S

dpa thy éopthv BovdAduevos Oeacacba.

kaTidav otv méppwlev pds otkade dpynpévous Modeuapxos 6
Kepddou éxédeuce Spapdvta tov maida mepyseivat € kehedoar| ‘There-
upon Polemarchus, the son of Cephalus, catching sight of us from
afar, after we had set out on our way home, bade (éxéAevoe) his
servant run and bid us (xeAedoar) wait for him.’

odtos, ey, Smicbev mpocgpxerar]. ‘There he is coming up
behind.’ Oéros is ‘ deictic.’

GANG wepipévere ... GANA Tepipevodpev| ‘ But, pray you, wait.’
‘But we intend to wait’: cp. infra 328 B d\Ad peévere. ‘This expostu-
latory use of dAdd implies resistance and opposition, which is to be
overcome in the mind of another. The second dddd deprecates
the assumption implied in the first, that they do not intend to wait.

eb:

Notes: Book J. 5

és dd tis wopmis| ‘As if from the procession,’ i.e. it was she
natural to suppose they had been there. From the direction in
which they were coming, Socrates infers that they had been at the a
spectacle, but does not know it.

Spas obv tpas, py, Sco. éopév;] A similar playful threat occurs
in the Philebus, 16 a dp’, & Sdxpares, vdx dpas yay rd mdqROos, rt
véot mavres éopev ; Kai ov poBet py vor pera DAnBou EvverOdpeba ; in
the Phaedrus, 236 c éopév S€ pdvw pév ev epnuig, ioxupdrepos 8€ eyo
kal ve@repos: in the Charmides, 176 c as Bracopevov, pn, émerdyrep
68¢ ye émrdrrea. Cp. also Symposium 213 c, where Socrates claims
the protection of Agathon against the apprehended violence of
Alcibiades. Plato frequently repeats not only the same thought,
but even small dramatic traits and terms of expression.

obkody, hv 8 ey, ere ev Aelwerat] éAdelmera is the reading of
A tl Mand other MSS. ‘Is there not still left out the supposition
of our persuading you?’ For the use of the passive cp. Philebus
18 Dro 8 airé pou rod Adyou viv Te Kai opixpdv Eumpoobev éddeimerat.
See Goodwin, MZ. and T. 490, 2. The marginal reading of A é&
Aeimerat, ‘ Is there not still one alternative which remains?’ is perhaps
better and more emphatic and has been adopted in our text; but
the other reading may still be defended. ‘The emendation may be
due to the fact that ém is otiose; it does not introduce a second
omission. ‘There is a combination of two ideas: ‘Is there not
still the supposition ?’ and ‘ Have you not omitted the supposition ?’
Both = ‘ Have you not omitted the supposition which still remains?’

és toivuy pi dxousonévwv| The genitive absolute is placed in
a dependent relation to the main verb StavoetoGe by the addition of
ds: cp. vii. 523 c ds éyyidev ... dpwpévous Aéyovtds pou Siavood : Xen.
Cyr. viii. 4. 27. Goodwin, JZ. and T. 864, 918. ‘The expression
of the antecedent in oérw adds a peremptory emphasis like ‘even’
in Shakespeare. See Schmidt's Shakespeare Lexicon, s.v. ‘even,’
§ 8. ‘You may even be assured we won’t listen,’

Gpd ye . . . od8 tore Ste Aapwads ~orar] ‘Are you really not 328
aware that—?’ Adeimantus is surprised at the ignorance of the A
torch-race which Socrates’ early departure betrays,

tH 9G] For the torch-race see the article Aapmadndpopia in
Smith’s Dictionary of Antiquities. ‘There is a difficulty in recon-
ciling the form of the race described in Pausanias (Attica c. xxx. 2
év "Axadnpia 8€ éote LpounOéws Bapds* kat Oéovew an’ avrod mpds
thy méddw Exovres Kavoévas Aapmddas* TO b€ ayonopa dSpod tO Spdup

6 Plato: Republic.

paren gudraka tiv dada ere xavopévny eoriv’ dmooBeabeions S€, ovdev Ere ths

328
A

vikns TO mpare, Sevtépw b€ dvr’ airod péreatw* ef S€ pnd€ TovT@ Kaiotro,
6 tpiros éotlv 6 xparav’ ei 8€ kal maow droaBeabein, ovdeis eoTw, br
karaXelrerat 4) vikn), which is between single competitors who run
the whole course and where there is no passing on of the torch, with
the favourite use of the image in such passages as Laws vi. 776 B
yevvaevtas te Kai exépovras mraidas, kaOarep Aaurdda tiv Biov mapadiddv-
tas @Ados €€ GAdov: Lucretius ii. 79 ‘Et quasi cursores vita
lampada tradunt’: Persius vi. 61 ‘Cur me in decursu lampada
poscis ?’ Compare also Aesch. Agam. 312, 313 Aapmadnpdpor vopor,
ddXos map’ dAdXov diadoxais mAnpovpevor, and the application of the
image in Herod. viii. 98 to the Persian a@yyapo or royal post-
runners. All these latter passages seem to imply a line of runners,
each of whom carries the torch a certain distance and then hands
it on to a successor. The form of the race which Plato has in
mind in this passage was probably of this kind, the contest being
between several competing lines running side by side.

Siaddcovow adAnAors GpihAdpevor tots twmos;| The relation
between dpdAopevor and diadecovew is not to be pressed: all that is
necessarily implied is that the competitors were on horseback, and
that they passed the torch from one to the other: not that the
transmission took place while the riders were at full speed.

etavactnodpeba ydp| Tdp does not merely refer to dgtov bedoacba,
but introduces reasons for the mention of the mavvuxis. [‘I mention
the night-festival,] for we will rise after supper,’ &c. The supper,
torch-race and night-festival are entirely forgotten in the sequel.

eis tod Modepdpxou| Cephalus, the rich Syracusan, had settled
in Attica at the invitation of Pericles (Lys., c. Eratosth. § 4, p. 120)
about 440 B.c. He was joined there by his three sons, Polemar-
chus, Lysias and Euthydemus, who are mentioned here, and are
spoken of by their aged father as young men (328 pD). Pole-
marchus, however, is represented as head of the household, although
Cephalus, whom Plato has probably kept alive for the purpose of
the dialogue, still acts as the family priest. And Lysias, who was
born in 458 s.c., would at the imaginary date of the dialogue
(if that is p.c. 411) be forty-seven years old. In the Phaedrus
(257 B) Socrates suggests that Lysias should cease to busy himself
with the composition of paradoxical orations, and, like his brother
Polemarchus, turn to philosophy. Polemarchus was put to death
by the order of the Thirty Tyrants in 404 B.c. Of Euthydemus,

‘oS

ea ew
= ‘

Notes: Book J. q

who must not be confounded with the Sophist of that name, epee

nothing more is known.

kal 8} xat] calls particular attention to the stranger Thrasy-
machus, a sophist or rhetorician who came to Athens about the
year 430 B.c.: facetiously described by Plato in the Phaedrus
(267 c) asasort of rhetorical Titan (rd rod XaAxndoviou oOévos), ‘ He
was a great master of the pathetic—would put people into a rage
and out again.’ ‘No one better at inventing or answering
calumnies’’, In the Rhetoric of Aristotle (ii. 23) the same
character appears: ‘ Herodicus was wont to say of Thrasymachus
that he was ever Thrasymachus (bold in battle), as Conon said of
Thrasybulus that he was truly Thrasybulus (bold in council)*” He
is spoken of with more respect by other writers (Cic. de Orat.
iii, 32°).

Cleitophon may be inferred to be a disciple of Thrasymachus
from the part which he takes in the skirmish with Polemarchus
(infra, 340 a). In the Cleitophon Cleitophon charges Socrates
with exhorting people to virtue, but with not telling them what it
is; and for this reason he resorts to Thrasymachus and other
sophists. The dialogue recalls in many passages the First Book
of the Republic: it is probably spurious and may have been
suggested by the passage just cited.

Sid xpdvou yap Kai éwpdxn adrév] ‘For indeed it was a long
time since I had seen him.’ Kai adds emphasis to the sentence
and refers to pdda mpeoBirns po eofev x.rA. (not ‘It was long
since I had actually seen him’), The connexion of the sen-
tences is: ‘He appeared to me very aged. And no wonder,
ea ed |

ob 8€ Oapifles] Compare II. xviii. 385:

f tintre, Oért tavirenXe, ixavers Hyérepov da

aidcin re Pidn te; mdpos ye pév od re Oapicers.

* Phaedrus 267 c, D trav ye pi olerpoydav em yijpas Kal meviay éAxopévaw
Adyaw kexpatnkiva Téxvy por paivera: 7d Tod Xadxndoviov abévos* dpyiaa 7 ad
modAovs dua Sevds dvip yéyove, eal mad dpyopivas énddav Knrg<iv ds épn
daBdrdrew re wai dwodrvcacda biaBodrds SOevdi) xpariaros. ib. 269 D Scov
8 avrod (sc. Antophs) réxvn, odx % Avoias re wal @pacipaxos mopedera,
Boxe? por palvecda % uéB0d0s.

* Aristot. Rhet. ii. 23, 29 wal ds Kévav OpaciBovdror OpacdBovdroy txdre, wai
“Hpddixos Opactpaxov “ alei Opacvpaxos «f.”

* ‘Quid de Prodico Chio, quid de Thrasymacho Chalcedonio, de Protagora
Abderita loquar? quorum unusquisque plorinyias vemgoroes illia, etiam de
natura rerum, et disseruit et scripsit.’

a
B

Republic
7.

328
Cc

8 Plato: Republic.

The latter words have suggested the emendation ot in this
passage. But this is unnecessary, and less expressive. The
dé in od 8é may be explained as adversative to the idea contained
in jnomdgero: i.e, ‘You are welcome, Socrates, but you do not
come often enough,’

xeqv pévror| The imperfect here, as in jy, ée, jyer imme-
diately following, is quite general, but there is a shade of difference
between it and xpy infra. xpqv, ‘you ought to do what you have
not been doing’: xp simply, ‘you ought to do what you can do.’

ovSev dv oe €e.] Goodwin, I/. and T. 423, points out that in
such cases ‘the leading verb takes a when the chief force falls
on the necessity, propriety, or possibility of the act rather than
on the act itself’—‘ There would be no need (as there now is)
of your coming hither.’

pets] The familiar use of the plural for the singular.

viv 8€ oe xph muKvdtepov Seipo i€var}| ‘But as things are
(ie. seeing that I am an old man) you should come here oftener,’
In the Laches (181 c) the old man Lysimachus addresses Socrates
in a similar strain: ypyy pev ody cal mpdrepdv ye horrav airov map’
npas Kal oixeious jyeioOa, Somep TO Sixaov. viv 8 odv and tHade tis
npépas, ered) aveyvwpicayev GddAndovs, py GAdws moiet, GAA oinabi Te
kal yropife kal muds kal rovade trols vewrépous, das dv diaga{ynre Kai
ipeis thy jperépay gidiay, x.t.\., in which as in the speech of
Cephalus there is an imitation of the garrulity of old age.

Toiasé te Tots veaviats] Cephalus thus speaks of his sons,
although they are men of middle age. Some early interpreters
and Boeckh make roiodé re rois veavias refer only to Glaucon
and Adeimantus, the Athenian youths, and Serranus renders ‘et
hos adolescentes tecum adducas velim.’ This notion, which
was probably strengthened by the v. r. veavioxots, is really in-
admissible.

kai phy... xalpw ye] ‘Believe me, Cephalus, that I have
a real pleasure in talking to very old men:’ ye is omitted in A and
other MSS.

kal 8h Kal cod HSdws Gv muboiyny] kai di) xai, as often, intro-
duces a special instance: ‘I take a pleasure in conversing with
all old men . . . and of you in particular I should like to ask.’

toiro . . . éfayyédders] The vague phrase 6 ri oo ¢aiverar
rovro is made clearer by the explanatory clause mérepoy . . . e£ay-

Penny “aa "etna ef Pers or ee
ay hg eee ee er toe

Notes: Book J. 9

yeAX\as. rovro refers to dddv .. . moia ris ort, «r.A., ‘the nature Republic

of the path of life in old age;’ but the meaning is defined by the
addition of ened)... momrai, which gives the reason for asking
Cephalus to give his own experience in the matter. od Biou is
a partitive genitive depending on xadendv, ‘a harsh part of life.’
xaderdvy sc. éore: this is preferable to making it an accusative
governed by ¢fayyéAdes, which might seem natural but for gaivera
preceding. As in Iliad xxiv. 486:

pvnoa marpos oecio, Oeois émeixed’ ‘Axidded,

thrixov dSorep éyov drow em yipaos 0080,
and Odyssey xv. 246:

ov8 ikero yhpaos obSdv,

life is compared to a house, of which Cephalus is standing on
the threshold—i.e. old age—preparatory to leaving it: (or old
age or even death may be a house which he is entering). The
meaning of the metaphor has been generalized by familiar use.
It occurs also in Herodotus iii. 14, 12 és mrwyninv amixrat émi yhpaos
0080,

SiacdLovtes thy madardvy wapoiov] ‘Keeping up the old
adage, —fAé pAcka repre.

fuvidvres| is the resumption of cuvepydueba. The present in
both cases has a generalized meaning, not ‘are coming’ but
‘come together. Cp. vi. 493 Cc # ody ti rovrov Soxei duahéepew 6 Thy
Tév To\@v Kal mavrodaray Euvidvtwy dpyjy Kai dovds Karavevonkévar
sopiay iyovpevos; f~vydvres, the correction of Ast and Buttmann, is
unnecessary.

évaptpvnoxdpevor| ‘calling to mind,’ ‘ reminding one another.’
The word more commonly governs the genitive: mepi here gives
indefiniteness.

kat GAN’ drra & trav tovodtTwy éxerar] ‘and other things con-
nected therewith. For this idiomatic use of gyera cp. Theaet.
145 A 60a madeias €xerat.

tote pev €0 Lavres] The participle is in the imperfect tense.

én todTw Sh 7d yijpas Spvodow Scwv Kaxdv opiow atriov] ‘and
from this they take occasion’ (rovr@ referring to mpomndaxices Tov
yipes) ‘to bewail old age as bringing upon them innumerable
evils.’ tpveiv is used in a depreciatory sense, as viii. 549 D ola
pirovow ai yuvaixes repl rav rovovrov Spveiv.

328
E

329
A

Republic
i.

329
B

= a |
"7 Pv - oa

10 Plato: Republic.

évexd ye yjpws| is resumptive of rovro: ‘if old age were the
cause, as an old man I am sure that I should have felt the same.’
Cp. 337 D aAX’ évexa dpyupiou éye (‘if money is the question ’).

kat Gdows, kal 8 Kal Eopoxdet] “The first «ai prepares the

way for the particular example of Sophocles.

éru olds te ef . .. cuyyiyveoOar| Hirschig, approved by Cobet,
would delete these words. But they are required by the cry of
shame, edpypet, which follows.

dmopuydévy| This passage is imitated by Cicero, De Senectute
c. 14 ‘Quum ex eo quidam iam affecto aetate quaereret, utereturne
rebus Venereis, “ Dii meliora, (inquit,) libenter vero ‘(yévroz) istinc
tanquam a domino agresti ac furioso profugi.”’ Cp. the description
of Sophocles in Aristophanes, Ran. 82 6 & edxodos pev evéad,
edxodos 8 éxei, which expresses the same character.

Tavtdmac. yap... émeddv at émOupiat mavowvta: KaTateivoucat
kat xahdowor.. . danAAdxar| It is best to omit ydp after émedav with
Par. A: the clause émeday ai emOupia . . . xaddowor being taken as
an explanation of év 7 ynpg. This involves an asyndeton of ravrdract,
which introduces an emphatic resumption of the first clause of the
sentence mavranact ... edevOepia. The asyndeton at Seomoray x.r.r.
is the common asyndeton which is allowed in an explanatory
statement. We note the absolute use of xarareivovoa and xaddowsr :
the word xarareivovoa has the same general sense with ovreiva,
avytéves, and other compounds of reive.

gort] ‘it is the case.’ Arist. Ath, Pol. ch. 55 (Kenyon: Col.
28) gore d€ Wnpiterda, ‘and the case is one of voting.’

Lal , Led 4 , 4 , ,
a) TovouTe | SC. TO py Koopi@ Kal evKOA@, K.T.Ar.

fupBaiver] These words are also imitated by Cicero, De
Senect. cc. 2, 3, and the story of Themistocles and the Seriphian
is repeated. Cicero, like Virgil (who mdvras dvOpmmous éxéxacro
kkexroovvn), freely appropriates the turns of expression, as well as
the subject matter, of his Greek master. But while the Latin
poem is moulded by Virgil into a true work of Roman genius, the
Latin dialogue is an inartistic imitation of the Greek model, being
neither Greek in character nor Roman: a monologue rather
than a dialogue, in which the grace of conversation, as well as
much of the subtlety of philosophical thought, is lost.

éxivoww] ‘tried to draw him out. Cp. Lysis 223 a &

‘

Notes: Book J. II

eiyov @AXov dn Twa trav mpecBurépwv Kuwveiv: Xen. Mem. iv. 2. 2
6 Swxparns BovdAdpevos kwveiv Tov ELOvdnyor,

7d Tod Gepioroxddous| For a different version of the story, in
which Timodemus of Belbina in the Saronic gulf (now the Island
of St. George) called also the Aphidnean, takes the place of the
Seriphian, see Herod. viii. 125.

ed gxec] ‘is in point.’ The abruptness of the expression is
softened by the repetition of it with 6 avrds Adyos (330 A), in the
corresponding clause, where also the words rois mAovoios are
parallel with r@ Sepei in the preceding part of the sentence.

év xéxtnoat| Socrates returns to the fact on which the con-
versation turns, supra 329 E dia rd rodAny ovdciav Kextjaba,

mot” érextnoduny| ‘Acquired, do you say?’ This use of motos
is not necessarily derisive or ironical, as in Gorg. 490 Cc molwy
inatiov; but only implies a humorous feeling of contrast between
the suggestion and the fact. Cephalus may be supposed to speak
with a gentle smile, remembering that his additions had been but
small to the diminished fortune which he had received. Cp. infra
ey d€ ayard, x.r.d.

routo.si] ‘to my sons here’—an emendation of Bekker for
rovraow, the reading of the MSS. The ‘Ionic’ dative plural form in
ov) is rare in the Republic and occurs mostly in passages which
have a poetical tinge, i. 345 £, iil. 388 pD, 389 B, viii. 560 E, 564 C.

Simry H ot GAdow dowdLovtar adtd|] The dative or adverbial
termination in dAj probably here expresses the manner and not
the measure of excess: ‘in a two-fold way’ as compared with,
rather than ‘double as much as.’ It is taken up in ravry and in
Kata THY xpeiav, Hep of dAdo. The MS. emendation kal od xara ri
xpeiav is clearly erroneous and makes havoc of the sense. With
dimdji Ff Cp. vii. 539 D ern SumAdora fh rére.

xarerol . .. guyyevéoOar] For the construction cp. Phaedr.
275 B xaderoi Euveivat.

katayeddpevor|] The participle is imperfect = of xareyehavro.

kal adtés ... Sixnxev] The sentence becomes anacoluthic at
xa8opg, which would naturally have been xaOopay: cp. vi. 495 D
ob 5) édeepevoe modXoi, «.r.A. where a main verb similarly takes the
place of a participle. The resumptive 8 odv, ‘however this may
be,’ make the irregularity less striking. Cp. Tim. 28 p 6 8% mas
ovpavos kdopos 4 Kai GAXo 6 ri more dvopatdpevos .. . oxentéov 8 ody Trepi
abrov mparov.

Republic
L.

329
-E

¥ PS’ ee
ce ae ae

12 Plato: Republic.

Republic 10 S€ . . . ynpotpdpos] ‘but if a man is conscious of no in-
d. justice, hope is ever present to cheer him (#8eta), and to be his kindly
33! nurse in age.’ The order of the words is not éAmis #deia kat dyabn,
A but 7d¢ia mapeots Kai mdpeoriy dyabi) -ynporpdpos.

B AAG ye Ev dvO évds obk eXdxvoTov ... elvar]. & dv vs, an
adverbial idiom, like é& mpds & Laws i. 647 8. The emphasis is
on otk €Adxtorov. ‘ But, comparing one thing with another, I should
not reckon wealth as least useful for this object.’ In ov« éAdyuorov
. «+ Xpnousoraroy there seems to be a confusion of two constructions :
ovx HkisTa xpnoyov and xpnomorarov. Stobaeus gives ddr’ é&v ye.

Cc todto 8 adté...dBy] ‘but as to this very thing, justice I mean,
shall we say thus simply (as you imply), that it is truthfulness, and
the restoration of what a man receives from another?’ rodro &
aird refers to eis rovro, which itself goes back to rd yap jndé dxovra

. amévat dediéra, The train of thought is as follows: ‘ You imply
that a man may depart from life with a clear conscience if he has
only told the truth and paid his debts, and that justice consists in
this. But is it simply this—no more and no less? Are there not
circumstances—e.g. if the man to whom we are speaking or to
whom we are in debt is mad, in which to tell a lie or refuse to
return a loan would be right; to speak the truth and return the
loan wrong?’

For the indirect and natural way in which the subject of the
dialogue is introduced, compare the Charmides; and for the
familiar Socratic manner of commencing the argument with an
external and superficial definition which is afterwards set aside
or deepened by criticism and the consideration of instances,
see the opening passages of the Charmides, Laches, Meno,
Theaetetus.

Casuistry has a place in ancient as well as in modern thought,
in Greek philosophy as well as in the theology of the Schoolmen
and the Jesuits. It is not essentially the product of civilization
or the consequence of deep pondering over moral problems.
Amongst barbarous nations we already notice a tendency to
casuistical distinctions: the letter, not the spirit of a contract,
is observed by them; if the word of promise can be kept to the
ear, the real or natural meaning of it is of no account (Thucyd.
iii. 34). Early morality is legal and external, easily giving
opportunity for such evasions; it is a morality of compulsion,
not of willing obedience: the attitude of the savage towards a duty
or obligation is to avoid fulfilling it so far as he can. In civilized

Notes: Book J, 13

societies too a strong tendency to casuistry sets in when there is an
abrupt transition from the old to the new, when the younger genera-
tion becomes dissatisfied with it and dares to criticize traditional
morality and belief. It is this tendency which asserts itself in the
transitional stage of Greek philosophy. Serious doubts arise when
it is discovered that the old rule, which formerly claimed un-
questioning obedience on all occasions, is found in the eye of
reason and an enlightened conscience to admit of an exception.
The course of such a revolution is well represented in the
criticism and development of Cephalus’ definition: but Plato
artistically avoids the indignities which often arose out of such
conflicts of the old and new by first requiring the retirement of
Cephalus.

That simple rules, ‘Thou shalt not lie,’ ‘Thou shalt not steal,’
are modified by circumstances, was apparent enough to the
contemporaries of Socrates. Aristotle, in the Nicomachean Ethics,
is fond of turning aside into these by-paths of morals, which
seem however to have rather an intellectual than a practical
interest for him. Casuistical inquiry was carried still further
in later writers, for example, in Panaetius, from whom Cicero
partly borrowed his treatise ‘De Officiis’; and the tendency
was strengthened in later times by the parallel growth of law cases.
Ancient casuistry is fresher than modern, and nearer to the first
thoughts of mankind about right and wrong, growing up not
so much out of the conflict of established principles, as in the
effort to establish, widen, or purify them,—becoming in the hands
of Socrates and Plato a sort of dialectic which undermines the
maxims and aphorisms of the older times and prepares the way
for higher and more universal conceptions of morality.

?

GthGs obtws] (1) ‘thus absolutely :’ otras, i.e. ‘as your words
imply’; dmAds, ‘ absolutely,’ i.e. making no allowance for circum-
stances. Cp. Laws i. 633 D ri dvdpeiav dé, pepe, ti Oper ; mérepov
dmd@s otras (as implied in what precedes) «iva mpds dBous kai
Avmas Sitapdynv pdvor, } Kat mpds méBovs re Kai Hdovas Kai twas dewas
Owmeias xodaxixds ; infra iii. 386 B AowWopeiv dmda@s otras Ta ev “Aidou,
referring to the opinion of the terrors of the other world which
has been just alluded to. Or, (2) ‘just absolutely,’ otras being
used idiomatically as in padiws obre (ii. 377 B, 378 A) without any
special reference.

& dmo8iS0ds] ‘The restorer in the case mentioned’; hence the
article, which is omitted with ¢@é\ev in what follows (ov8 ad...

Republic
Zl.

331
i

14 | Plato: Republic.

Republic déyew), ‘any more than if he were willing to tell the whole truth

ae to a person in this condition.’ The subject of dmod dots and

re éOéhwv is one and the same person: ‘neither the restorer... nor
the same person tf he wished.’
D Spos éotl Sixatoodvns| ‘The definition or determining principle

of justice :’ dpos is here used as in Aristotle but in a less technical
sense. Like other Aristotelian terms in Plato it retains several
other meanings. The logical sense of ‘term’ or ‘ proposition’
which appears occasionally in Aristotle is as yet unknown.

.
mévu peév obv| ‘Nay, but it is.’ Mev ody isa corrective of the
preceding sentence.

kai pévro.... kat} like xai 5) xai implies a sort of meditative
transition, pevro calling attention to a new feature in the case.
‘Well, said Cephalus (since you take up the argument), I hand
it over to you.’ The intervention of Polemarchus appears to
Cephalus a fit opportunity for retiring: so he takes advantage
of it to bequeath the argument to him. The second xai indicates
that as Polemarchus has put in a word, the natural consequence
of the interruption is that Cephalus should resign the argument.

331 D- Polemarchus, who ‘inherits’ the argument,.is now called upon
~336 A. to defend the thesis of Simonides.

S. What does the divine poet mean by ‘debt’ in his definition
of justice? Not simply that which has been lent; e.g. to the
madman ?

P. Certainly not; for if the madman were our friend, we .
should be doing him harm; whereas Simonides thinks that
harm should be done to enemies, as is fitting (mpoonxe), not to
Sriends.

S. So Simonides meant by ‘debt’ ‘what is fitting’ (ro mpoojxor),
And Justice is the art of benefiting friends and harming enemtes.
But when does it benefit us, as piloting benefits us when we are at
sea P

. When we make war. |
. Then Justice ts of no use in time of peace ? q
. In partnerships. !
. Partnerships in what ?

. Ln money transactions.

. Lot in buying and selling: in buying or selling a horse
a horse-dealer will be a better partner than a just man.

P. Wo, but in keeping money safe.

NON WMD

= ey

ce
}
s

Notes: Book J. 15

S. That is, while it is not put to any use? Justice, then, ts only
useful when the money is useless. But he who is strong in
guarding is strong in attacking, as we see in medicine and in war,
and so the just man, who is a good guardian of money, must also
be an accomplished thief,—but always for the benefit of friends and
harm of enemies.

Polemarchus, in desperation, repeats his definition—Justice
benefits friends and harms enemies. Socrates proceeds to ask:
Who are our friends ? those who seem good to us, or those who are
good P

P. Those whom we think good.

S. Then, if they seem and are not, the just will do good to bad
men, and harm the good, who to him seem bad.

Polemarchus cries out against this conclusion and in order to
avoid it, proposes to emend the definition. ‘A friend must not only
seem, but also be a good man.’

S. Then Justice now means doing good to our friends who are
good and harm to our enemies who are bad. But stay! Will the
just do harm to any man? When harm is done to any creature,
that creature loses something of his proper virtue. If harm therefore
is done to any man, he loses something of justice. Our theory
would make the just man the author of injustice, which ts contrary
to reason. That cannot have been the meaning of the wise
Simontides, but must have been suggested by Periander, or Perdiccas,
or Xerxes, or some other rich and seeming-powerful man. (Cp.
Gorg. 466.)

The first book of the Republic is a preface to the rest; Socrates
pulls out the stuff which is hereafter to be spun and woven. The
analogy of the arts is introduced, but fails to give any clear
conception of the virtues.

5 Nohépapxos tay ye odv KAnpovdpos ;| ‘Is not Polemarchus your
heir?’ That is, ‘since the argument is yours’ (ye adding emphasis
to cay), ‘does not Polemarchus inherit it?’

The character of Cephalus is distinguished by gentleness and
goodness. There may also be traced in him the mannerism and
garrulity of age: the love of anecdote and quotation, the
matured experience of ‘the evening of life.’ Cicero (Ep. ad
Att. iv, 16), who acknowledges himself to be what he truly is, an
imitator of Plato in very minute particulars, remarks as follows on
the retirement of Cephalus: ‘Quum in iis libris quos laudavi

Republic
Zl

331 D-

-336 A

wes

Republic

Ys
331
D

E ff.

16 Plato: Republic.

desideras personam Scaevolae, non eum temere demovi, sed feci
idem quod in Modreia Deus ille noster Plato. Quum in Piraeum
Socrates venisset ad Cephalum locupletem et festivuam senem,
quoad primus ille sermo haberetur, adest in disputando senex;
deinde quum ipse quoque commodissime locutus esset, ad rem
divinam dicit se velle discedere, neque postea revertitur. Credo
Platonem vix putasse satis consonum fore, si hominem id aetatis in
tam longo sermone diutius retinuisset.’ So in the Laches (189 B,c)

the old man Lysimachus apologizes for the shortness of his memory:

he ‘ cannot recollect the questions he would ask, or the answers to
them.’ Accordingly he subsides into a listener, who, though
unable to take a part in the argument, is ready to act on the
conclusions obtained. It may be noted also that the simpler con-
ception of life and duty, the poetical and proverbial expression of it
is better suited to the aged than to those who were deeply versed
in the Sophistical and dialectical method of a later generation.

Sophistic cynicism, superficiality, and vehemence of assertion
prove to be no match for the dialectic of Socrates. Many questions
are raised, ‘of which we have a taste only and not a full meal,—
among them the question whether the just or unjust man is the
happier, which in the sequel (iv. 445 a) ‘ becomes ridiculous. The
second book proceeds to ask in a more earnest strain, ‘ What is
justice stripped of its externals?’ Socrates then considers justice in
the State, to help him to find justice in the individual. The justice
thus found exists somewhere in the relations of society (ii. 372 a).

heye 5, ... . €y 8€ dyvod] Observe the pretended awe for the
authority of Simonides; the ‘accustomed irony of Socrates’ in
professing his own ignorance, and assuming the knowledge of his
companion. Simonides’ definition, however, is not set aside,
though certain explanations of it are, cp. esp. 335 E. ©

GANG pévto., .... TodTo pévrot] *AAAa Opposes the words which
follow to, pévra regards them as a limitation of, Socrates’ rejection
of Cephalus’ definition. The second pévra limits the limitation intro-
duced by the first. ‘ But (as opposed to what I have said) I said, it is
true that it is not easy to disbelieve Simonides—for he was a wise and
inspired man: still what he means by this... I fail to see. It is
true’that the criticism of Cephalus’ definition must be modified, if that
definition has the authority of Simonides: but before we can appeal

to his authority we must first understand his meaning. For rodro 6 ru

Aeyet, ‘ what he means by this,’ cp. Symp. 178 D A€yw d¢€ 87 ri TovTo ;

Notes: Book I. 17

gods] With a light touch of irony, as in Theaet. 151 B roAAovs peév Hapa
di) eEéSaxa Tpodixw, moddovs 8 Gdois copois re kal Oeomeciors avdpact.

ph} cwppdvws}] i.e., ‘when not in his right mind.’ The adverb 331
refers to the condition of the agent, not to the mode of action. E
It is probably used to avoid the awkward conjunction of two
participles: pi) cwdppovotvre amaroivrt,

@matrot] i.e. ‘at a time when you might suppose him to de- = 332
mand it.’ Cp. Goodwin, M. and T. 555. He explains the optative
as due to the fact that dmo8oréov= den dv drodiddva (resuming the
previously expressed condition «i pavels dmaroi). Cp. also ib. 521,
for the forms of indefinite sentences.

4 78 tovodtov] +‘ Than this sort of thing’—i.e. than the making
restoration to a man who is out of his mind.

GAdo pevror. . . . kaxdv $e pydev] ‘Something different, certainly,
said he; for he thinks that the debt which friends owe to friends
is a benefit, and no injury whatever.” Meéevro as elsewhere in
answers is used in confirmation of a previous suggestion: cp. v.
469 E ‘Earéov dpa tas vexpoovAias...; "“Earéov pevtra, en, vy Aia.
Phaedo 73 D Ada mov pupia road?’ dy ein, Mupia pévros vi) Aia.

pavOdve, iv 8 éys| <A similar argument occurs in the Memora-
bilia of Xenophon (iv. #. 16, 17) where Socrates says that deception
may be just towards enemies, and in some cases even towards
friends ; e.g., a general may fairly deceive dispirited troops by falsely
telling them of the approach of allies; or, again, you may steal
a sword from a melancholy friend who is about to destroy himself.

édvrep| Emphatic; ‘that is to say, if’ The defining ep B
limits the assumption to the case in point. Cp. Theaet. 166 c
eavTrep avopoiwars yiyynrat.

qvigaro dpa . . . dethdpevov] Compare similar expressions in
Charm. 162 a qvittero dpa, as Eorkev, orep Giptt ey €deyov, 6 eyo To Ta
airov mpdtrew cwppooiwny eiva: and Theaet. 152 c rovro nyuiv pev
qvigaro ro moAA@ ouphers.

- dvépacer, ‘he called,’ is slightly opposed to S:evoetro, ‘he meant.’ Cc

GANG ti ole; . . . Xtypwvidy] This is the reading which gives
the best sense and which is found in nearly every MS. Like ri 8n,
ri pyv in some of their uses, ri ots ; = ri olec GAXo; ‘ But what else do
you suppose him to have done?’ Cp. Gorg. 4808 ri yap 8)
@pev; sc. dAdo. There is a touch of humour in making Polemar-
chus agree so heartily in the views suggested by Socrates, as if they
had always been familiar to him. The same confidence is shown

VOL. II. c

Republic
Z.

332
C

18 Plato: Republic.

in his previous answers, into which he is led by the arguments of
Socrates. The Zurich edition of 1881, adopting Madvig’s punctua-
tion, reads "E¢y with a capital letter, making adda ri otet; a part of
the previous sentence. But the use of "Edy in the sense of évvedy
is doubtful; and the use of adda in continuing the previous sentence
is very abrupt.

Another expedient is to cancel ¢fy and the stops, and place
a dash after kadeirar: dAda ri olet, & mpds Atds, Hv 8 eyo (qv F eyo
being repeated, cp. infra 348 p én ... 4 & és). This receives some
support from ri av ofec below, but no change is really necessary.

Ss

& mpds Ards} Socrates now fairly warms to the argument ; he
exults in the train of thought which occurs to him; he begins
enthusiastically with a frequently recurring formula (v. 459 a,
Lysis 214 ©, &c.—‘ By Heaven, I said’ —to construct the Sorites
which follows.—‘ To invite Socrates to an argument is like inviting
horsemen to a plain’ (Theaet. 183 p).

4 odv 8h tice ti, «.7.4.] ‘And what then will that be which the
art called Justice gives, and to whom?’

ei pev . . . eipnuévors] dei, sc. (1) jas, ‘If we are to be consistent
with what we said before’: or (2) 7d viv Aeydpevor, ‘If this case is
to go along with the rest.’ ”

tt 8é 6 Sikatos ;] sc. duvards éore woeiv, gathered from duvarwraros

. «0 moteiv above. An elliptical form of expression, in which we
must supply some word to be gathered from the context: cp. infra
341 C ri b€ xuBepyynrns; «.7.d., and Gorgias 502 a ri d€ 6 marhp abrod
MéAns; «.T.A.

év T@ mpoomohepetv] ‘In going to war with others.’ Thucyd.
Vili. 96. 5 ev TovT@ pdvm Aaxedaypdrot "AOnvaios mavtov 8) Evppope-
Tato. mpoorodepjoa €yévovro, The repetition of év r@ with Evppayeiv,
though not necessary to the sense, is retained as having the greater
MS. authority.

Xpyopov dpa] dpa, ‘Then I am to understand.’ Socrates carries
on the argument a little further by extracting the answer from the
respondent in a more general or abstract form. An explanation or
new mode of statement, especially in dialogue, often takes the form
of an inference.

ti $é 84 ;| marks the resumption of the main subject.

fupBdraca .. . Kowwvyjpara| ‘By contracts do you mean partner-
ships?’ The more general word is substituted for the sake of
extending the analogy.

aut

Notes: Book /. 19

mett@v] merroi are ‘draughts,’ which were played in various
ways. According to one mode of playing the game, you blocked
up your antagonist so that he was unable to move. This process
of ‘shutting up’ is used as an illustration of Socrates’ method of
arguing in vi. 487 B, C Gomep tmd ray merrevew Seway of pu) TeAEUTOVTES
dtrokXelovrat, K.T.A, .

GdX’ eis whivOwy}] The new illustration is suggested by the word
bears.

dowep 6 xiOapiotixds Tod Sixaiov] Plato in his lively manner
passes unexpectedly from one illustration to another.

eis Kpoupdtwv] sc. xoweriay: ‘as a partner in playing the harp.’

Stay... o@v etvar] ‘When you want to deposit it and have it
kept safely’: cay eiva sc. rd dpyvpov: the subject is changed, as
below—érav pndév d€n aire xpioOat adda KeioBat (sc. avré).

kai kowy kal i8ia is a transition from the word xowevia: ‘whether
the guardians of it are partners or not.’

Socrates’ ‘incessant talk of cobblers, physicians, curriers, and
cooks’ (Gorg. 491 A) has left an impress on many passages in
Plato. Both his political and his moral ideal are influenced by the
analogy of the arts. But he repeatedly shows his sense of the
inadequacy of the comparison of the ‘art of living’ to any par-
ticular art. And in the Statesman, 297 £, where the examples of the
pilot, the physician, and the weaver are once more elaborately
employed, he dwells expressly on the imperfect and provisional
nature of the argument from example: ibid. 277 c.

odk Gy odv] Par. A reads ov« odv omitting dy, but od« dy odv was
clearly written in the margin, until a wormhole interfered with the
v of dv. The ‘?’ in the critical note may therefore be cancelled.

etre tuxtixy is added to vary the notion of wdyn from dmdcrixn
above, which has suggested the new topic; and also to introduce
guddgacGa, ‘to parry a blow.’

‘wal haGeiy .. . Eumorffoor;] The Zurich edition (1887) reads
€umouncas, the conjecture of Schneider; but the emphasis falls on
the wrong word, for the principal point is not that he who can
guard against disease can be secret in producing it, but that he
can produce it at all: that he does it secretly is merely a way in
which Plato prepares for nAéyac and gap dewds in the following
lines. It is better to retain the reading of the MSS., placing the
comma after @uvAdgacbau, although the construction Aadciv eumoujou

C2

Republic
L.

333
B

20 Plato: Republic.

Republic =dOpa éuroijou (‘ best skilled to implant it by stealth’) is not free
Z. from suspicion. The second infinitive (sc. dare én.) may be excused
$35 by the emphasis and by the position of d8ewéraros. Early ‘editors,
following the MSS., put the comma after Aaéeiv. But Aabeiv\ydcor,
‘to elude a disease,’ is hardly defensible ; and in leading up to\the
parallelism of PvAagé with xAéyae and with dap in what follows, it 7
essential that @uAdfacGa and Aaéeiv should be in separate clauses.
Other emendations are (1) kat ») wabeiv in g 8’: but these MSS. are
of questionable authority : (2) the omission of kai \adeiv—suggested
by Muretus; in support of which it might be urged that the
‘accretion’ may have been due to a gloss on ¢vddfacOa having

been py waéeiv. [L. C.]

To this it is right to add the following note by Professor
Jowett :—

There is no MS. authority worth speaking of for any variation
of the text in this passage. The principal emendation is that of
Schneider, ¢umoujoas for europea, but to this it may be objected that
the proper opposition is between qvddfacba and éymojoa, not
between gvddfacda and dAabeiv. The suggestion of Muretus that
kai AaGeiv Should be omitted, as well as the MS. correction kat py
mabeiv (g 8’), is hardly worthy of notice. It is better to retain the old
punctuation which places the comma after Aaeiv and not after
gvAdgacba. The chief reason why the passage has given trouble to
interpreters is the impression that AaOeiv can only be used with a
personal object, and that therefore AaGeiv vécov, ‘ to dodge a disease,’
is not good Greek. To this it may be replied that such personifi-
cation involves a less flaw of language than the false opposition of
prdrdgacba and dabeiv.

334 khépar] ‘To steal an enemy’s plans and proceedings.’ KAdpa =
= ‘by stealth’ (1) ‘to get possession of,’ or (2) ‘to obtain advantage
over.’

&s yoiv...onpaiver| ‘That is certainly what the argument
implies. The qualification with yody indicates Polemarchus’
reluctance to admit the conclusion, although he cannot rebut the
argument.

évarépovtar| expressing an unexpected result, as infra, 350:
Sophist. 233 c dofacrixyy dpa... 6 coguoris . . . Exav avamépavra,

B kata gé . . . . XtpwviSyv] Compare Theaet. 160 p, where there
is a similar ironical use of the poets: kara pév “Opnpor kal “Hpdxdevrov
kal may TO rowtrov pidov...... xara 8€ Geairnrov. For the humour

Notes. Book J. 21

of attributing to the respondent what Socrates has drawn out of Republic

him, compare also Gorg. 470 B, 503 c; Theaet. 163 a; Euthyd.

‘290 E.

éw dpedia..... éx9pav] ‘For the good, however, of friends,
and the harm of enemies.’ There is a humorous pretence of
fairness in adding this limitation, which is also the link of con-
nexion with what follows.

odxér . ... €Xeyov] Cp. the passage in Meno 80 a, B, in which
the influence of Socrates on his adversary is compared to that of the
torpedo (vdpxy tH Oadarrig): adnOds yap éywye kal riv uxny kal rd oTdpa
vapk®: and Euthyphro 15 8, where Socrates himself is compared to
Daedalus, as he makes the arguments of his adversary ‘ walk away’:
Alcibiades I. 127 p, which has perhaps been imitated from this
passage : dAda pa Tods Oeovs, & Saxpares, ov8’ adrds ol8 6 re hyo, K.T.d.

dpedetv ... Sixatocdvn| Sc. 8oxei supplied from the previous
words. Cp. vii. 517 Bra & ody eyol pawépeva odrw paivetat, ev rH
yrooTe redrevtaia } TOO dyabod iSéa Kal pdyss dpacOat, k.7.r,

Kal éx@pods dcattws | Sc. rods Soxodvras evar movnpois, 4 rods
évras, Kav py Soxdor,

toutots ... idor| ‘ These then have the good for their enemies
and the bad for their friends.’ ovrois, "sc. rots mepit taira dpuap-

tdvovow,

GAN’ pws Sixacov] suos—i. e. notwithstanding their mistake, the
principle which has been laid down is to be applied, and the result
in this case is that the evil are to be benefited and the good harmed.

pndapas] Polemarchus, moved not by shame, like Gorgias or
Polus (Gorg. 482 c, &c.), or Thrasymachus (infra 352 B), but by
honest indignation, entreats Socrates to alter the course of the
argument. ‘Do not let us have that conclusion, Socrates.’ Cp.
infra 335 A KeAeveis, x.7.A. For the ellipse of ovrw @apev, or some
similar expression, cp. Gorg. 497 B pndapas, & KadXixders : Euthyd.
294 C.

door SinpapryKacr tav dvOpdmwv| ‘That is to say, those of man-
kind who are in error. These words are added to explain moddois,
and refer to dp’ ody dyapravovew (supra, c). For the compound
verb (a = diverging from the aim) cp. Theaet. 178 a # ody xai
ruyxaver dei, i) wodda kai Siapapraver Exdorn ;

movnpol yap adrois eloiv] ‘For they have bad ones.’

tov Boxoivtd te... kai rdv dvra] The article, though repeated

I.
334
B

Republic
re
334
i

335
A

22 Plato: Republic.

for the sake of emphasis both with évra and 8oxoivra, refers to the
same person. It may be expressed: ‘He is our friend, who not
only seems, but who also is a good man.’

% adth Ogo1s| ‘The same mode of statement’: cp. peraddpeba
supra: viz., ‘our enemy is he who not only seems, but is so.’

kehevers . . . €X€youev] ‘You would have us add to our idea of
justice more than we included in our first statement.’ The particle
# depends on the notion of a difference or comparison which is
contained in mpooGetvar. Cp. Phaedr. 228 p ois én dicapépew ra rod
€pavros } Ta Tov pn: Gorg. 481 C aAAd Tes Huey tidy Te emacyxe Tabos
of Xo. In what follows the words viv mpos rovr@ Sde Aéyew are in
apposition with zpoo@civa and explanatory,—hence the asyndeton.
héyew is governed by keAevers. By the terms of the argument the
words dyaGév évra, xaxov dvra are added, not in limitation, but in
definition of iAov and é¢x@pdv: ‘our friend who is good,’ ‘ our
enemy, who is bad.’

€or dpa... BAdrrew] Cp. Crito 49 B, C oddapas dpa dei ddtxeiv,
Ov dpra. Odd€ adiKovpevoy dpa davradieiv, &s of moAXOl oiovrat, émerd ye
ovdapas Sei adixetv. Ov Ghaivera, Ti dé dn; Kaxoupyeiv dei, . . . 08;

That it is not right to harm even the evil is proved as follows :—
When animals are harmed, they are made worse in that quality
which is characteristic of them. That quality in man is justice:
therefore, when man is harmed, he is rendered more unjust: whence
follows the absurdity that justice is the cause of injustice. The
argument is verbal, but hints at the truth more fully stated in
ii. 379 C ff. (088 dpa, jv 8 eyd, .. . of 8€ dvivavro Kodagopevor).

pi) obra ppev| ‘Shall we be told that we must not say in like
manner...?’ Cp. 337 B pi dmoxpivopa Sv mpoeimes pndév ;

Ada TY Bixacoodvy 84] 57 emphasizes the real subject of inquiry ;
of which the previous cases are only illustrations. ‘And by justice
then can the just make men unjust?’ So in ov8¢ 8: rod dyaéoi (infra, p).

todto 8€ 8} voet adta] ‘And this moreover means for him.’ Cp.
Euthyd. 287 p 6 ri pot voot 76 pra ;

gopav ... paxapiwv| Both cody and paxapiov are here ironical.
pakxdpos Originally means ‘ blessed,’ and is sometimes applied to the
dead: also, as here, to persons who have any cleverness or
excellence—‘ blest with Madersianaing: * Cp. Meno a B xwduvevo
cot Soxeiv pakdpids tis elvat, aperny yooy etre didaxrdv cire ér@ =e
mapaylyverat eidévat,

ae er ein wr FF es Seth see ee hh ae m4
ork. | FA a e , : te ba
— ‘
~ *. 7

Notes: Book J. 23

éywy’ ody . . . pdxns| ‘for my part, anyway (ody) I am ready Republic
to share in the battle’ :---said in answer to the previous words of “4
Socrates—‘ you and I will make war together.” The reading ¢ywy’ 535
ovv is better than the emphatic éy® yoo». After Socrates has
declared that both are ready to take up arms, there would be no
meaning in Polemarchus’ asseveration—‘I at all events am ready
to do so,’ as though there were a doubt of Socrates.

7d ffjpa.. BAdwrev] 7d pdva isin apposition with rd piya: ‘the 336
saying which affirms that it is just to do good to friends and harm A
to enemies.’

*lopnviou tod @nBaiou| Cp. Meno go a, where Ismenias is said to
have made himself a fortune in some sudden or irregular manner.—
He was put to death by the Lacedaemonians in B.c. 382 after the
seizure of the Cadmeia, on the ground that he had taken bribes
from Persia.

péya oiopévou Sdvac8ar| ‘ who imagined that he had great power,’
but had it not really, because Plato is not prepared to admit, as he
here intimates by the word oiouévov, that any man is really great or
powerful who ‘ cannot do what he will.’ (Gorg. 466 ff.)

o88€ todro] Through the windings of dialectic we arrive at
last in view of the Christian precept,—‘ Recompense to no man evil
for evil.’ After every caution and reservation something more is
needed than the text of the old poet, which is only on a level with
the old Hebrew saying, ‘Thou shalt love thy neighbour and hate
thine enemy,’ "

Yet the definition of Simonides is really a very good one, nor
can any objection be raised to the explanation of deAdpevoy as
mpoonkov. Socrates is unfair to it, in his attempt to elevate into
a universal principle, that which is only a maxim or rule of
conduct.

Thrasymachus breaks in with an impatient cry —‘ Instead of 336 B-
asking questions and criticizing answers, why not at.once give your 3#° B
definition of the just? But don’t treat us to such stale rubbish as
‘ the fitting’ or ‘ the expedient.’

Socrates deprecates the anger of the great Sophist and assures
him that his own and his host's error is involuntary. They are
only too ready to learn, tf he will teach them.

Thrasymachus laughs sardonically at ‘the accustomed irony’ of
Socrates,—who now alleges the further difficulty that the most
obvious answers have been forbidden him. He ends by prevailing

Republic
Z.

336 B-
340 B

336
B

24 Plato: Republic.

on Thrasymachus (who ts really eager to speak) to give his own
definition, that justice ts the interest of the Stronger. In States, for
example, the government, whether despotic, democratic or oligarchical,
makes all tts laws with a view to its own maintenance and security.
And tt ts just for the subject to obey the laws. ‘ But do governments
never make mistakes in the laws which they pass ?’

T. ‘ Yes, sometimes.’

S. ‘Zhen it ts sometimes just for the subject to do what ts
inexpedtent for the ruler.’

Polemarchus sees the point at once. But Cleitophon takes up the
cudgels to defend his master’s thesis. By ‘what is expedient for
the Stronger, he says that Thrasymachus meant what the Stronger
thought expedient for himself.

Siaeyopévav . . . wetagd] ‘In the midst of our discussion :’
peragv is to be taken with the participle: cp. Apol. 40 8, where
Socrates says of the Satpdrov anpeiov—moddaxov 87 pe exéoxe A€eyovra
pera€v.

Sppa .. . Svexwdvero| ‘had been attempting,’ ‘ had been repeatedly
prevented,’—the iterative force of the imperfect.

dvtiAapBdveoGa1 | meaning originally ‘to seize,’ ‘ grasp’; has two
secondary senses in Plato, (1) ‘to lay hold of with the view of

objecting ’:—so Soph. 239 D avriAapBavdpevos judy: infra, vi. 497D

Pé8m Sv ipeis avrikapBavdpevor Sedn\@kare pakpav . . . Kal yadremny
airod thy amddeéw ; (2) ‘to get possession of’: so Parm. 130 £,
where Parmenides says of Socrates—otrw gov avreidnmrar dido-

copia, os &re avriAnwera. ‘To get hold of,’ i.e. ‘to interpose in,’ «

is the meaning here. Cp. Gorg. 506 4 xpi dvriAapBaverOa Kai
edeyxetv.

The sketch of Thrasymachus may be compared with that of
Polus in the Gorgias, or of Dionysodorus and Euthydemus in the
dialogue which bears the name of the latter: or with the vanity of
Hippias and Prodicus in the Protagoras. The greater masters of
the Sophistic art, such as Gorgias and Protagoras, have a higher
character attributed to them; they preserve a stately equanimity,
and are treated with a certain degree of respect by Socrates.

ds 8é Sietavodpeba . . . efnov] ‘when we had ceased, and I had
thus spoken.’ The two clauses refer to the same moment. The
last words of Socrates coincided with the break in the discussion.
The emendation of Cobet—és 8) éravodueba,—which appears to
arise from a supposed difficulty in explaining dmavodpeda, is

Notes: Book J. 25

needless. Cp. Symp. 191 c iva . . . dcamavowro Kai emi ra Epya Republic

tpérowro. The compound signifies ‘ intermission.’ “a
ovotpépas | i.e. ‘gathering himself up,’ i.e. for a spring. Cp. the B

Homeric éadyn te xavov (Il. xx. 168), of the angry lion. xev is

rather to be taken as the aorist of imu than as the imperfect of

jxo. Cp. Herod, ix. 49, § 2 émixe tiv immov én rods "EXAnvas. éavrdv

is easily supplied from what precedes: ‘He gathered himself

together and sprang upon us as if to tear us in pieces.’ Cobet’s

conjecture (Varr. Lecit. ed. sec. p. 526), d:acmacdpevos for Srap-

magdpmevos, is quite unnecessary. Cp. Il. xvi. 355 alva d:apragovew

(sc. of AdKoe Tas dpvas).

SterronOnpev| ‘ We were panic-stricken,’ a metaphor taken from
the scaring of birds. Cp. Od. xviii. 340 dverroince yuvaixas, i.e. ‘ he
scattered them in terror, whereupon Bay 8 teva 81d. Sapa.

eis 7d péoov pbeyEdpevos| ‘ He called out to the whole company.’
Cp. Laws ii. 664 c ra rowmira els ro péoov dodpevos: Herod. vi. 130
€reEe és pécov rade.

dmoxataxhwvopevor]| The verb is used by Plutarch (1) of Cc
a wrestler allowing himself to be beaten, (2) of one who in
a banquet takes the lower place. The latter seems to give the
more natural metaphor here. See Liddell and Scott, s.v. The
word here, taken in the sense of ‘ giving way to,’ or ‘ giving place
to,’ may have a suggestion of either or both associations.

obk dmodségonar, édv| ‘I will not tolerate this sort of nonsense.’ D
As elsewhere (infra, vii. 525 D ovSapp drodexdpuevor, édv tis, «.7.d.), the
object of the verb is resolved into a hypothetical or relative clause.
kat éy ... yevéo@ar] Cp. Theocritus xiv. 22 od pdey&i; Avxov
eldes; Emagé tis: Virg. Ecl. ix. 53 ‘Vox quoque Moerim | Iam
fugit ipsa; lupi Moerim videre priores. It is suggested, rather
than expressed, that Thrasymachus is a wolf.

ei ydp| i ydp m, the reading of Ven. 1, is perhaps better suited E
to the irony of the passage; cp. Gorg. 488 a éy® yap ef re pi) dpOas
mpatrw Kata Tov Biov rdv éuavrod, ed io Tovro Ort ovx éxdv eLapaprave,

GAN apabia rH éui.

ph yop 8h)... Suvdyeba] ‘If we were looking for a piece of
gold, we should not, if we could help, allow ourselves to give place
to one another and spoil our chance of finding it. Do not then
imagine that in looking for justice, a thing more precious than
many pieces of gold, we are weakly yielding to one another, and

.

Repubiic

336
E

RY
A

26 Plato: Republic.

not doing our utmost to bring the hidden thing to light ; believe me,
friend, that we are doing our best ; but the fact is that we cannot.’

After ob $uvéye8a some such word as ‘ find’ or ‘ bring it to light’
has to be supplied from gavivat airs.

For this mode of expression, in which an antithetical compound
sentence is treated as a simple one, and is contained within a single
negative or interrogative, cp. ii. 374 B: Phaedo 68 a, B.

oiou ye ot] ‘ Believe it, friend, we are.’ The reading of =, and
of the old editions—oisv ye éariv, is feeble and without authority.
The text may be said to have the support of the great majority of
MSS., being the least possible correction of them. otov must be
connected with orovddfew 6 rt pddcora (not with od omovddgew). Cp. the
use Of otecOai ye xpy in a very similar sentence (Phaedo 68 s), where
it is in the same way disconnected from the negative —ov« dopevos
claw adtéce ; olecOat ye xpy (SC. dopevor iéva airdv): also Crito 53 D
ovk ole. Goxnpov haveiaOa td Tov Swxpatous mpaypa; olecOui ye xpn.
Another reading, but of small authority, is pu) otuv ov.

tav Sewav| cp. infra E tn dvdpds od avidov: dewds has several
transitions of meaning from the literal one of ‘ terrible’ to ‘ strange,’
‘admirable,’ ‘ wonderful,’ ‘wise’; and so of pretended wisdom—
‘awful. <A favourite meaning of dewds, always with a slight
reproach, is that of ‘one who is too much for another.’

xaderratverGar| ‘Than to be the victims of your anger.’ To
form passives of verbs governing the dative, like pOovéw, morevo,
&c., was a growing tendency in the Greek of this period. See
Essay on Platonic Syntax in vol. ii. p. 180, 8.

capddviov| probably from catpey, ‘to grin.’ The word occurs
already in Homer (Od. xx. 302).

eipwveia] cp. Symp. 216 E iyyetra: 8€ mdvra raita Ta Krnpata oddevds
kia, kal nuas ovdev civar, A€ywv pev ov, eipwvevdpevds Te Kat maifwy mavra
tov Biov mpos tovs avOpm@mous diarekei: and Theaet. 150 C dyovds cit
copias, kal dmep 75n Todi por aveidioav, ws Tos pév GAous épora,
avros d€ ovd€y amroxpivona tepi oddevds dia 1d pydev Exew cody, adnbés
évedifovor. For the meaning of the word cp. Ar. Eth. N. ii. 7,
12 9) 8 éni rd €darrov (mpooroinais) eipwveia kal eipov: and Theophr.
Charact. 7 peév otv eipwreia Sdkeev dv civa . . . mpoomoinas emi rd
x¢ipov mpagewv kat Xéyov. The word gains a new association from
the application of it to Socrates, who not only pretended ignorance
with the view of gaining an advantage in argument, but sincerely
believed it to be the natural condition of man.

ies

+]

Notes: Book J. 27

BiAov . . . tuOavonévw] ‘To a questioner who puts the question
in this form, I believe you clearly saw that no one would answer.’
The words 8iAov ofpai gor Hv resume ed ody #dno6a, the previous
sentence being repeated in odtw. For the enclitic after ofya in
parenthesis cp. Theaet. 147 A i ole ris te auvinai tivos dvopa, 6 pi

olde ri eorew ;

pys .. . dv] ‘Not even if the answer to the question (sc. 7d
épwrapevov) happens to be one of these?’ Others would render,
‘Not if one of these chanced to be the truth?” Such an emphatic
or predicative use of év with rvyydve is doubtful, whereas the
omission of a nominative, which is easily gathered from the rest
of the sentence, is in the manner of Plato.

ds 8h Sporov todro éxeivw| ‘Just as if the two cases were alike.’
For this use of os 87 cp. Aesch. Agam. 1633 as 8) ob poe rvpavvos
’Apyct@v ree: Soph. O. C. 809 as 87 od Bpayxéa, raira 8 év Kaip@
eyes.

oudsév ye .. . ys] ‘ There is nothing to prevent it’ This is said
in the same spirit as ov« dv @avydoayu, a few lines below (cp.
Charm. 164 A kal ovdev yé oe tows Kodver ddnOy Eyer).

jpets| is ironical. Socrates provokingly says: ‘A man can’t
help thinking as he does, though you and I join in forbidding
him.’

Go te ov, . . . momoers;| Go 7m is used by Plato chiefly in
two ways: (1) dAdo m #—‘Is it not the case that ...? ’—where
the ellipsis of é¢ori or ytyverat is lost sight of in the familiarity of the
phrase; cp. Phaedo 70 c dAdo te f elev dv ai yuxai qpay exci;
Theaet. 154 E GAXo tt if) npeua, @s mavy modANY oXOAnY ayovTes, TaAW
éravackeyopeba . . . 3 ‘Shall we not,’ &c.: (2) # is dropped and
@dXo te like otet, Soxeis, Bove, and the like words, is taken adverb-
ially: ep. Gorg. 495 c dAdo Tr ody . . . dt0 taira €deyes; ‘ You spoke
of them as two, did you not?’ and infra i. 342 D dAdo mt ov...
ovdé larpos oddcis . . . rd T@ larp@ Evppepov oxomet...; ‘Then said I,
neither does any physician consider what is for the interest of the
physician: is not that true?’. See Riddell’s Diges/, § 22. In the
present passage Thrasymachus says: ‘And that is what you are
going to do, is it not?’ i.e. ‘I am to presume then that this is
your intention,’—as if the absurdity were too glaring to be further
expressed. Instead of saying sharply ‘Do you mean to tell
me ...?’ he says with assumed calmness ‘I am to understand

then that you intend. ..?’

Republic
L.

337
B

338
A

- > as eS 1

28 Plato. Republic.

480s . . . dpyvpiov] This is a jest at the expense of the sophists,
which Socrates is always either repeating or insinuating, as infra,
345 A. He has not had the good fortune ‘to hear the fifty
drachma course of Prodicus’ (Cratyl. 384 8). He is informed
by Callias, ‘who has spent more than all the rest of the world
upon the Sophists,’ that a complete course of education may be
had of Evenus at a cost of five minae (Apol. 20 a): Hermogenes,
the younger brother of Callias, who is poor, must get these
expensive lessons at second hand (Cratyl. 391 c). And the trains
of disciples who follow them in dutifui order (Protag. 315 8B), and
are ready almost to carry them about on their heads (infra x. 600 p),
are constantly ridiculed. The gains of Protagoras (Meno gr p),
which are greater than those of Pheidias or ten other sculptors, are
ironically assumed as a proof of the truth of his doctrines. Com-
pare also the mention of Socrates’ own circumstances in Apol. 23 B

ev mevia pupia eipi.
tis]. See above note on d7Aov oipai cou supra B.

éweita .. . ein] ety, though apparently redundant, is found in all
the MSS. deipnpévoy atte ety is written as if not a participle uy
eldas but ef yy eidein had preceded.

08 gaddou] ‘who is not to be disregarded.’ Ironicé: see above
ind tpav rev Sewarv (337 A) and note.

Mpoceroetto . . . dmoxptvduevov| ‘ He pretended to contend for
my being respondent.’ guAdvecxos, ‘loving contention’: hence
gidoverxetv, ‘to show a contentious spirit,’ ‘to be contentious.’
But like other words in Greek, it passes readily from the sfaée
to the ac/, and the feeling of the etymology is lost through frequent
use. Cp. Protag. 360 E qudoverkeiv pot Soxeis Td ee evar Tov amoxpt-
vopevov: Phil. 14 B od Shou mpds ye aitd rodro didovetxotper, The
Venetian MS. T. has qidovxeiv. C. F. Hermann and Cobet
would restore @iAdukos, priouxéw, dirouxia in Plato throughout,
relying on Plato’s own remarks connecting the word with vixy
(ix. 581 a, 586 c), in which he is followed by Aristotle (Rhet.
ii. 12, 6). But Plato’s fanciful etymology is no sufficient ground
for judging of the orthography of a word.

axoue 84]. The sham compliment which precedes is too much
for Thrasymachus, who immediately begins like a crier (oyez /
oyez /) to proclaim his idea of justice. For the definition cp.
Laws iv. 714 C ore yap mpds Tov médepov obre mpos aperiy SAnv Brérew

Notes: Book /. 29

deiv act rods vopous, GAN’ iris dv Kabeotynkvia 7 mwodereia, ravry deiv 1d
Evudéport, Sas dpker re det Kal pi) KaradvOnoera, Kal tov pice Spov Tov
Sixaiov héyerOai kao virws. Tlés; “Ore 1d rod xpeirrovos Evpdépov
éori.

73... undpov] The participle with the article is used as a noun ;
hence rod xpeirrovos, not r@ kpeirrouw. The new philosophy is first of
all damaged by a broad joke from Socrates. If Polydamas the Pan-
cratiast, who is our superior, finds the expediency of eating beef, does
not expediency, and therefore justice, require that we, who are his
inferiors, should eat beef too? Thrasymachus replies angrily and
pompously, endeavouring to re-invest the subject with the dignity
that has been lost. A similar jest occurs in the Charmides
(161, 162), where justice, having been defined, as in iv. 443, to be
To Ta éavrod mpdrrew, the question is raised whether this means
‘making one’s own coat.’ Cp. also Gorg. 490 c, where a similar
question is provokingly asked—whether, as the wisest is to have
most, the wise physician is to have most food.

GN’ odk eeAHoers] The future here appears to be used as a
stronger present: a sense of predetermination being expressed in
it: ‘But you won't. Cp. Charm. 166 a éxes ody po . . . Seiga ;
GN ody ees: Prot. 354 D GAN’ ovy e€ere.

kal todto... ti more héyers ;] ‘And with what meaning do you
say this?’ «ai indicates surprise, as in kal més ;

el Novdu8dpas Apdv Kpetrrwv| Polydamas is mentioned by many
ancient writers as a Pancratiast of great strength and stature,
who was at one time in the pay of Darius Ochus, and, amongst
other wonderful feats, slew lions, and fought unarmed with
armed men.

Bdedupds . . . Adyov| ‘ That is abominable of you, Socrates: you
understand me in the sense in which you can do my argument
most mischief.’ kaxoupyetvy implies malice.

riBerar . . . &pxy| ‘ The government in each case makes the
laws. The articles rovs and # are correlative—ridera 4 dpxi Tods
vépous. This removes Schneider’s objection to 7. The interchange
of the generic present and gnomic aorist (riderae . . . O€uevar. . .
drépnvav . . . kodafovow) is noticeable. Par. A reads ékdéory—a
manifest error. The thesis of Thrasymachus has a verbal and
superficial truth, There are governments everywhere who have
power in their hands and make laws for their own interest, and

Republic
i.

338
C

30 Plato: Republi.

Republic obedience to government is right. The abstract notion of law is
* the same amid every variety of law and custom, and authority in
338 the ruler is the correlative of justice in the subject. The statement

is a paradox which partly gains force from the appearance of
honesty in confessing what other men are trying to conceal. Cp.
Callicles in the Gorgias 483 ff.

An opinion equivalent to this is cited by Aristotle, Pol. i. 3, 4
tois pev yap Soxei emornun ré tis elvar ) Seomureia . . . Trois dé mapa vow
76 deondfew. Nor are modern parallels wanting. When Hobbes
says that power is the source of right, this is really the enunciation
of a principle which is carried out only in his own ‘kingdom of
darkness.’ He seems to have confused the duty of obedience to
authority in the abstract with the duty of obedience to a particular
authority. That authority always exists and always claims obe-
dience may be readily allowed: the dispute is whether the authority
does or does not reside in a certain person. ‘ Mankind are rightly
jealous of their principles being reduced to the level of their
practice. It must be allowed that the theory of the Sophist is
realized in fact whenever power is preferred to justice, or con-
ventionality perverts truth. But the elevation of this distortion
of life and nature into a philosophical theory is deservedly hated.

339 adté®.] Sc. év rH of dmoxpioe. 84 is emphatic and ironical:

‘it is true.’

oUmw ...peyddyn] Socrates, ignoring the irony of cpexpd, says
gravely: ‘It is not yet clear, even whether it is a great one,’ i.e.
‘it may be a great one for anything we yet know.’

tait’ éorat, x.7.A.] ‘ That is what I am going to do’—implying
that the grumbling exhortation of Thrasymachus was rather
unnecessary. ‘The special use of pévro. in interrogations with od
may be compared with the use of 8yov in claiming the recollection
or agreement of the person addressed. But pevroe further implies
a transition of thought, or the renewal of an old thought, cp. infra
vii. 521 D ov« aOAnras pévror modepou &papey tovrovs dvuyKaioy eivat
véous évras; and 346 A odxl éxdorny pévrow hapev Exdortore Tay Texvav
TovT@ érépap eivat, K.T.A.

Justice is the expediency of the superior, but the superior may
err, and then inexpediency becomes justice. This ‘reductio ad
absurdum,’ which Polemarchus receives with triumph, is rejected by,
Cleitophon, who argues that the word ‘expedient’ is to be taken as.
‘expedient in the thought or mind of the ruler’ The idea which \

—

Notes: Book J. 31

the ruler has of his interest, however inexpedient in fact, always
remains the idea which the ruler has of his interest. Polemarchus
truly retorts that this is an after-thought : Socrates, however, does
not object to the change, but Thrasymachus prefers a different
mode of shifting his ground. He argues not that the expedient is
what seems to the ruler to be expedient, but that the ruler when he
errs is not to be called a ruler.

tods 8€ twas] For the qualifying use of the indefinite after the
article, cp. Phileb. 13 c ras 8€ twas ér€pas adrav xaxds: Herod. i. 114
tov d€ Kov twa aitav dpOadrpov BaowWéas elvat.

ti héyers ot; fy] The reading of Stephanus ri Aéyers; omitting
av, is adopted by Schneider and inferred by him from Bekker’s
silence to rest on the authority of Par. A, where, however, ov is read,
but is marked as doubtful (.cv'), For the text, which gives more
point to ov in the reply, cp. Aristoph. Nub. 1174 rodro roimydprov
dteyvas éxavbei, TO ti A€yers UV; The question of Thrasymachus is
rudely expressive of indignation and surprise. Socrates returns
witha stroke of the hammer: ‘Iam saying what you say yourself.’
There is the same form of the ‘ retort courteous,’ infra in olwat and
otou—‘ I think so,’ said he. ‘Then,’ said I, ‘you must further
think,’ &c. Compare a similiar repetition in iv. 430 c dmodéyoua
roivuy rovro avépeiav eivat, Kat yap dmodéxou, iv 8 eya, moderixny ye, Kat
dpOas anodefet, :

Stay of pev dpxovtes, k.t.\.] The sentence has a second apodosis :
dpa rére x.t.A. resuming olov . .. @podoynoOa. Cp. Theaet. 171 B
€& amavtwv dpa... Tote. . . Evyxwpyoerat.

dpa téte .. . dmwo8exape8a] The whole argument may be briefly
summed up as follows: ‘ Justice is the interest of the superior.’
‘ But what if the superior is mistaken about his interest?’ But,’
says Cleitophon, ‘he cannot mistake about what he thinks to be
his interest ; and that was what Thrasymachus meant.’ ‘ But that,’
retorts Polemarchus, ‘was not the assertion actually made by
Thrasymachus.’ ‘Never mind,’ says Socrates; ‘we will take
this instead of the other.’ Cleitophon tries to evade the ‘ reductio
ad absurdum ’ of Thrasymachus’ argument by substituting after the
manner of the Sophists appearance for reality. Justice thus
becomes not the stronger’s interest, but what appears to the
stronger to be his interest. This, bowery! is not what Thrasy-
machus actually said (338 c, EF).

obk dvayKaioy . . . A€yers:] ‘ Must it not then follow that, in that

Republic
FA

339
B

Republic
I.

339
E

340
A

32 Plato: Republic.

case, it is just to do the very opposite of what you say?’ Ac-
cording to Madvig’s punctuation, which is here followed, aéré
(emphatic) is joined to todvavytiov. (Madvig also, unnecessarily,
reads cupBaive.) The older punctuation was ovpBaivew aird obraci,
dixavov elvai, x.7.A.,—ad7é unemphatic and referring to the case put in
the first part of the sentence ; the antecedent, as in Polit. 263 B
pynote map’ énod dns adrd evapyas Stwpiopévoy axnxoeva, having inexact
reference to what precedes. [L. C.]

*odk dvaykatov...Aéyets;] ‘Is it not necessary for the matter to
turn out thus, that it is just to do the opposite of what you say?’
aird, ‘the matter,’ has a vague antecedent in what precedes: cp.
Polit. 263 B pnrore map’ euod dd6€ns aité évapyas Siwpiopéevov axnkoévat.
obtwoi is explained in the clause which follows. It is better to
explain the passage thus—placing the comma after otrwoi, than
with Madvig (who unnecessarily reads cvpBaiver) to delete the
comma connecting atré with rotvayriov and making otrwoi mean
‘in that case.’ ‘Must it not then follow that, in that case, it is just
to do the very opposite of what you say?’ [B. J.]

7d yap Td keheuspeva, «.7.A.] The first ydp introduces a justifi-
cation, ‘ You are right,’ says Cleitophon, and in that ‘ Thrasymachus
was consistent, since he defined justice to be obedience to the com-
mand of the ruler.’ The second ydp with cai admits Cleitophon’s
assertion so far, but proceeds seriously to justify the argument by
adding what had been suppressed. ‘Yes, I was right: for he also
defined justice to be the interest of the stronger. And these two
general principles are rendered inconsistent by his admission that
the ruler sometimes makes a mistake about his own interest.’

GN’, En... ériBero] ‘ But, said Cleitophon, he meant by the
expediency of the superior, what the superior in his view thought
expedient for him; this, he said, was to be done by the subject,
and this he maintained to be justice.’ The asyndeton is relieved
by an emphasis on toéro. For the optative see Goodwin MZ. and T.
694, 700.

Todto Tointéov elvat TH Hrtow| Edeyev has to be repeated with
these words. Cleitophon’s dialectic recalls the passage with
Polemarchus, supra, 334 c ff. Thrasymachus passes by the inter-
position of Cleitophon and defends himself from another point of
view. He maintains not that what the superior thinks for his
interest is just, but that the superior, gva superior, can never err.

Notes: Book J. 33

Socrates ts an to argue the question on the new ground proposed kage
by Cleitophon. But Thrasymachus takes a different line. ‘ The 3 ae C-
ruler makes no mistake qua ruler ; when he gives commands which 342 E
are inexpedient for him, he loses his title to be called the ruler or
stronger.’
S. Very well ; — We will speak of the ruler in the strictest sense
of the term. Turning to the analogy of the arts we note that the
physician qua physician is a healer only ; and he takes fees not as
physician, but as money-maker. The pilot, qua pilot, considers not
his own safety but that of the passengers in his ship. Theartwhich
rules each function is self-sufficing and perfect and in need of nothing,
while that whereto it ministers has need of many things. In other
words, a true form of government does not regard tts own interest,
but the interest of that which ts governed by it. And in all cases,
the ruler, who is truly such, rules not for himself but for his
subjects.

’

Hxord y’, py, «.7.A.] Thrasymachus raises a new objection: 340
‘The superior is not the superior when he errs.’ We say indeed Cc
that ‘ the ruler has erred,’ as in the case of other arts we say that
‘the physician, the calculator, has erred.’ But this is an incorrect-
ness of language ; for in erring ‘the physician is no longer physi-
cian,’ ‘the ruler is no longer ruler.’ Yet the possibility of error in
the ruler had been admitted by Thrasymachus in 339 c without this
restriction. The question which is here introduced—viz. how far
words are to be restricted to their good senses—is one which has
occasioned considerable perplexity in the infancy of philosophy.
Are etBovdia, mpoaipeois, réxvn, ppdvnois, copia, and the other names
of habits which occur in the Ethics of Aristotle, to be taken only in
their better signification ?—e. g. ei8ovAia,as implying a good end,
mpoatpeors, as the deliberate choice always of good, copia and dpdyn-
ois as concerned with truth only? How far, again, is the meaning
of such terms to be extended by analogy? The answer seems to
be that the use of language is determined by custom and associa-
tion, and aims only at such a degree of precision as is necessary
for the attainment of perspicuity. Words are not necessarily
ambiguous because they are taken in good, bad, or neutral senses,
if the sense in which they are taken is clearly indicated by the
context.

The Sophist in Plato is apt to develop his argument into a
speech—he ‘ goes running on in a long harangue, like brazen pots

VOL. III. D

Republic
i

340
Cc

D

341
A

i i

34 Plato: Republic.

which, when they are struck, continue to sound unless some one
puts his hand upon them’ (Protag. 329 a). So Protagoras, in the
dialogue which bears his name, objects to the short ‘cut and
thrust’ method of Socrates, and prefers a stately display : and in
the Gorgias, Socrates himself, when he can get no more answers
out of his adversaries, is obliged to make ‘ one man do the work of
two,’ and embody a series of questions and answers in a single
long speech.

ouxopdvrns . . . éfapaptdver| ‘ You are a sharper, Socrates, in
argument.’

For the argumentative use of abdrixacp. Protag. 359 E atrika
eis tov méAepov of pev ebédovow iévat, of 5é ovk eéAovow., The most
general meaning of the word is ‘immediately ’-—‘to begin with’ ;
when used as it is here, it may be conveniently translated ‘for
example.’ '

hoytorixdy] Aoyiorexds is used in Plato in both senses, (1) of
calculating and (2) of reasoning. The latter sense, however, is
chiefly confined to the neuter. For the first sense cp. vii. 526 B of re
ice Aoyorikol eis mdvra Ta paOnpata... d&eis pvovra : for the second,
iv. 439 D 7d peév. . . Aopotixdy mpocayopevovres. Cp. the converse
transition of meaning in the use of the word pa@jyara.

Aéyopev 7G phpar.] ‘The expression which we use is.’ Plato
is fond of contrasting the expression with the thought: cp. Theaet.
166 D rov dé Adyov ad pH TS pryari pov Siwxe: Gorg. 450 D ody Sri
TO phuate ovrws elves: piya, in the sense of ‘expression,’ is opposed
to dvoya, ‘a single word.’ Cp. Cratyl. 399 a, B, where Ad iros,
which is a pjua, when contracted into Aigutos becomes an évopa.

75 8, otuat] ‘Whereas in fact, as I conceive.’ Cp. Laws i.
630D 7d S€ was xpqv Hpas Aéyew; ‘ but how in fact ought we to say?’
ro 6¢ is often thus used in Plato, and may be explained either as an
accusative, ‘as to this,’ or as a nominative, ‘the fact is.’

TowodTov .. . . d&oxpiveoOar}] ‘ Understand, then, that my answer
to you just now was of this nature.’

elev] Like ‘So’ in German, and ‘ Well !? or ‘Good!’ in
English, implies assent with every degree of expression, grave or
ironical—in this passage making rather light of the attack of
Thrasymachus : ‘ Very well, Thrasymachus ; you think me unfair?’
Elsewhere «dev simply expresses agreement with a former proposi-
tion for the sake of getting on to a new one: cp. infra 349 D,
Protag. 312 E «fev 6 d¢ 3) coguoris mepl rivos dewov moved heyew ;

veer. i

Notes: Book J. 35

od8€ y’ Gv emyerproaipt] Sc. Buioacdu 7G dy. The boisterous-
ness of Thrasymachus is contrasted with the provoking quietness
of Socrates. Cp. infra’ 345 B ij els riy Woxiy pépwr évO0 rdv Adyor ;
where the rejoinder is pa Aia,. . . pi ov ye.

toodrov| ‘Any similar misunderstanding.’

$v viv] 8 viv—(6 written over an erasure) is the reading of Par. A.
Cp. év dpri €deyes infra c: either 6 or dy is quite admissible, but the
masculine is more lively.

od8év Gy kal taéta] (1) ‘Though here again you are nobody,’
i. e. ‘ with as little effect as ever.’ Thrasymachus has been prophesy-
ing that Socrates will try to cheat, but without success: Socrates
replies that he is not such a madman as to try and cheat Thrasy-
machus. The latter rejoins that he has made the attempt, though
in this case, as on former occasions, unsuccessfully ; or (2) [B. J.]
‘ Although you made a fool of yourself at this too,’ i. e. at cheating
Thrasymachus, as you would also have done at shaving a lion if
you had attempted it. For ovdev dv cp. viii. 556 D avdpes jpérepoi
clow ovdév (according to one reading), and for the idiomatic «ai
ravra, Charm. 154 E mdvv adds kai dyabds €ott kal TadTa.

Thrasymachus now argues that justice is the interest of the ruler
regarded in his capacity of ruler, and therefore as unerring.
Socrates accepts the position, and retorts that the ruler in his
capacity of ruler has no concern with his own interests. To prove
this, an appeal is made to the favourite analogy of the arts. The
physician in his capacity of physician is not a taker of money, but
a healer of the sick: the pilot is not to be thought of as a sailor,
but as having a function of his own. And every man who has an
art and function has in one sense an interest ; but that interest is
only the perfection of his art, and the art when perfect has no
further need or interest.

od8év . . . Swodoyioréov| ‘This must not be taken into the
account:’ i.e. as interfering with our conception of him. Cp.
Laws iii. 702 C undév imodoyLopevous rd Eekdv adirar.

Gp’ odv...tedéav elvar] There is a slight play upon the word
évpdépov, which is here used not of the artist but of the art. ‘But
has any of the arts an interest other than its own perfection?’ In
other words they are complete in themselves and self-contained.
There is no reason to stumble at the words, or with MSS. g #’ and
some modern editors to alter the text by the insertion after dAdo of

D2 a

Republic
i.

341
B

Republic
-
341
D

E

342
A

36 Plato: Republic.

ob mpoodeira, i e€apkei exaorn ait abt dSore (deleting 7). This is an
interpolation rather than an emendation—a clumsy attempt to
improve on the original text.

Gowep, &pyv éyd] Thrasymachus does not understand the
meaning of this self-sufficiency of art. Socrates therefore adds an
illustration. ‘The body is not self-sufficing, because it requires
the assistance of medicine: but the art of medicine (or any other
art) is self-sufficing, because needing nothing external.’

viv] adds a slight emphasis which is sufficiently’ expressed in
English by ‘has been’: but the word seems otiose, and may
perhaps be a corruption of piv.

émi todtw) ‘ For this purpose,’ referring to the whole clause, viz.
ent toit@ Srws tovr@ (sc. TH cawpart) éxmopitn Ta Evpéporra. Cp.
supra D él rovr@ mépuxev, K.T.A.

éo0” 8 1 mpoodetrat tivos dperis] ‘Does art at all require any
excellence?’ Socrates maintains a purely ideal conception of art
or knowledge, because Thrasymachus had insisted on a purely
ideal conception of the ruler. Thrasymachus might indeed have
replied that this ideal of art is a mere fiction, or that the arts and
sciences are dependent on one another. But such an answer,
though familiar to modern thought, would have been strange to
early Greek philosophy, perhaps even to Socrates, who has
a clearer idea of art in the abstract than of the circumstances by
which the arts are conditioned, or of their relation to one another.

oxepoueyvns Te Kal éxmopiLovons] Here as elsewhere the present
and future are combined. Cp. x. 604 A payeioOai re kai dvtireivew.

Set Exdorn téxvy] Whether the reading of Par. A, dei det, is the
result of dittographia, or the omission of dei in the other MSS. is
due to the resemblance of AEI—AEI, is uncertain.

kat tour éotw a&wépavtov| The argument from infinity is a re-

ductio ad absurdum characteristic of Greek speculation. How

could art and knowledge, like the good, be other than finite ?
Unless they were a law to themselves, what limit was there to
them? So Plato argues in the dialogue which bears the name of
Parmenides (132 E ff, 133 a), that behind an idea and the particulars
corresponding to it there may arise another idea and again another
idea of that idea and its particulars, and so on to infinity. Aris-
totle, in his criticism of Plato’s Ideas (Met. i. 9. 3), repeats the same
objection in a particular form, which he calls the argument of the

——- |

Notes: Book J. 37

tpiros dvOpwmos : i.e. behind the idea of humanity and individual men

there arises another idea inclusive of both, and so on to infinity.
73 funhépov oxomeiv] is a further explanation of ém ri aris

movnpiay, ‘ for its own defect, to consider what’ is expedient.’

adrh Sé dBAaBijs . . . dp0h oda, x.7.A.] ‘ And it is itself whole and
unimpaired while it remains true—that is, so long as each art in its
entirety is exactly what it is. The latter words are an expansion
or explanation of ép6)) oda.

obtws, En, daiverar | Cp. infra c ghaivera, én, ovrws. aiverat is
expressive of a careless indifference, ‘so it seems ’—which develops
into reluctance (infra ovwveydpnoev . . . pdda poys), as .Thrasymachus
becomes more alive to the impending consequences.

GANG py. . . téxvar] ‘But the arts have rule in their several
spheres.’ The missing link is now supplied, and Thrasymachus
begins to be aware that he is caught in the toils of his adversary.
For if the arts have no interest of their own, and yet are rulers or
superiors, then in this case the ruler or superior does not seek his
own interest. This idea that the only ruler is the scientific ruler,
that government is an art, frequently recurs in Plato, and is the
foundation of the famous notion of the ‘philosopher-King.’ Cp.
viii. 552 B; Theaet. 170 a, B; Polit. 303 B.

TO dpxopevy] like éexeivp ob réxvn éoriv above, is neuter, including
both things and persons: there is therefore no occasion to change
the reading from éxeivo to éxeivoyv against the authority of the best
MSS. Cp. infra 345 p ef’ @ réraxra . . . éxeivp TH apxopev@ Te kal

Ocparevoperm : 346 D exeivo ef & réraxrat.

© év abrds Syproupyq| ‘And that (i.e. the person or thing) for
which he himself executes the work.’ For the dative after dnyroupyeiv
cp. Laws viii. 846 E.

The impatience of Thrasymachus bursts forth again: ‘ As if the
shepherd cared for the sheep and not for his own wages or profit !
Justice is in reality another's good, that is to say the advantage of
the ruler. The just man everywhere reaps harm and loss. But
the unjust man who has power,—he ts the happy man ; above all
when his power is supreme. For injustice, if practised on a sufficient
scale, is stronger than justice, and much more worthy of a free and
aspiring nature.

émeS}} ody, «.7.A.]) Thrasymachus, foreseeing the inevitable

Republic
ye

342
Bb

343 A-
344. C

Republic
Ye

343
A

38 Plato: Republic.

conclusion, makes a bold diversion. He is indignant at the para-
dox of Socrates, that the ruler seeks only the interest of his subjects,
and places the opposite point of view in the strongest light. ‘Even
a child might know that the idealism of Socrates is the very reverse
of the truth. This he expresses in a coarse Aristophanic manner.
Cp. the part taken by Callicles in the Gorgias; see especially 449 B,
5II A, 21 Cc, where several retorts courteous are given. For ti
and 6m cp. Hipp. Maj. 290 c kal éya ri padiora; Gnow. Sri, épei,
tis "AOnvas rovs dpOadrpors od xpvoois émoinoev. to adds a slight
emphasis: ‘ because, to say the truth. Cp. supra 330B ob ro
évexa npdounv.

airy] ‘as far as she is concerned.’ Cp. Lys. 208 D ékeivn oe €4
moveiv 6 te dv BovAn, Ww’ adri paxdpios 7s: Soph. 229 E drav avrois éEapap-
Tavoot,

ob8é mpdBara od8€ moinéva| ‘You do not know either sheep
or shepherd,’ i.e. you do not know which is which. For this dis-
junctive form of expression cp. x. 605 B otre ra pei{w ore ta €AdtTw

Stayeyv@okortt.

Stu Sh ti pddiota;| ‘ Because of what?’ i.e. what is that which
makes you say it? a verbal notion=yiyvera has to be supplied.
The second 61 is a repetition of the first. Cp. Charm. 161 c ére 89
ri ye; &py. “Ore kt.d. Or... 7é is a combination of a causal with an
interrogative construction; or ért which would properly introduce
a causal sentence is converted into an interrogative by ri. There
is no doubt about the meaning: the difficulty is to explain the
syntactical relation. In an idiom the syntax may be lost or
cannot certainly be traced. Compare wa ri (sc. yévnra): Apol. 26 c

a , a“ , .
iva Ti TavTa Eyes ;

drt otet, k.t.A.] The state of Thrasymachus’ temper is worthy
of attention. His imagined superiority is not greater than the real
interval between himself and Socrates. He may be compared to an
angry child struggling in the hands of a giant, who for a moment
lets him go. Immediately his spirits begin to rally, and his
impudence revives, only to entitle him to a more thorough castiga-
tion. The instinct of self-defence leads him to avoid the short
interrogatory method of Socrates; he makes an oration, and after
having had the pleasure of hearing himself speak, is about to
retreat with dignity. But Socrates, with the help of the rest of
the company, practises a method of detaining him which is quite
as effectual as physical force. He is at first reluctant to be cross-

——

Notes: Book J. - 39

examined, but afterwards in the skilful hands of the master, he
shows real good-humour, and takes some interest in the subject
of inquiry.

Siavoeiobar mpds| Cp. Laws, i. 626 p air 8€ mpos airdv mérepov
as trodepi@ mpds trod€mov diavontéov; 628 D aca’rws . . . mpds médews
eddapoviav . . . Eravoovpevos. Faesi, Badham, and Cobet would
read d:axeioOa, a change not required by the sense and which has
no authority.

ojrw mwéppw ef] ‘You are so far out of the way.’ Cp.
Lys. 212 A otro méppw elpl rod xrjyaros: Theaet. 151 C méppo
dvres rod eidévat,

GAAStpiov dyabdv . . . oixeia S€... BAGBy] Cp. Ar. Eth. N. v. 1,
$17; 6, § 6.

ot 8 dpxspevor] Either ‘and the subjects—,’ or ‘and they, as
subjects—.’ For the latter cp. ii, 380 B of 8€ dvivavro Kohafdpevor :
Protag. 315 B obs dye . . . kndov TH hovy .. . of b€ Kata THY horny

€rrovrat KexnAnpevot.

6 pev Sixatos dad tév towy| ‘the just man contributes a larger
sum out of an equal fortune, the unjust a smaller.’

dméx8ec8ar| appears to be used (as the accent implies) for the
present passive. Cp. dpeAcioda supra.

Aéyw . . . wheovexteiv| Svmep, not dep, which is found in some
inferior MSS., is the true reading; the antecedent is inferred from

343 B rovs év rais médcow Gpxovras . . . dpxovow,
# 76 Sixatov] sc. eivar.

Thy tehewrdtyy ddixiav] cp. Euripides’ description of tyranny
(Phoen. 549) as ddiiay eddaipova, and the preceding speech of
Eteocles concluding with the lines:

elmep yap adixeiv xh, tupavvidos mépt
Ka\\orov ddixeiy, radAdka 8 evocBeiv xpewv.

€or. S€ rodro tupavvis| Villainy on a large scale is no longer
villainy, just as successful treason is no longer treason. The
picture of the tyrant, which is faintly given here, is further
developed in the next book, and finally worked up in Books viii
and ix.

ot. . . Tav ToLodTwy Kaxoupynpdtwy| ‘For robbers of temples,

_ man-stealers, burglars, swindlers, and thieves are the names which

Republic
d.

343
B

344
A

Republic
l.
344
B

344. D-
348 A

E

40 - Plato » Republic.

are given to those who do wrong in the particular branches of this
class of crimes.’ The genitive depends on xaté pépy (which is a
resumption of 颒 éxdor@ péper). The class implied is the class which
comprises the various forms of robbery, rowvirey referring back to
radddrpia... Snpdoia, For this use of rowodros cp. iv. 430 B thy 87

rotavrny Svvay.v Kat owrnpiav: Crat. 405 B dmo\voy Tay TowvT@Y KaKov,

éreiSdv 8€ tis] The interchange of singular and plural varies
the style. So above—éray ris ddicnoas pi) Addy, And elsewhere—
vi. 498 c Grav S€ Any pev

c

cr - ‘ ‘ ~ > .
7) popn, modettk@v O€ kat oTparer@y exTos

yiyyntat, tore dn ad€rous vépecOar,

Socrates entreats Thrasymachus to stay and answer the momentous
question. ‘ What way of life is best?’ He witl thereby confer an
zmmense benefit on the whole company. Only let him be consistent
and not shift his ground. If the physician is to be regarded as
a healer of the sick, not as a receiver of fees, the shepherd ts not to
be described as a glutton, or a money-maker, but simply as a feeder
of sheep. \ In so far as he ts a shepherd, he tends his flock not for
his own advantage, but for their good. All art is exercised for the
good of its object—else why does the artist ask for pay? Every
art has its proper function, beyond which it has no interest or
requirement. And the earning of payment is the function of
a separate art (u.0bwrixn) which ts only accidentally associated with
the other arts, such as medicine, shepherding, or the government of
men. Hence the true rulers will not take office without reward,
unless they are threatened with the penalty of being ruled by their
infertors. . The last is the only motive by which a good man can be
induced to govern.

domep Badaveds hpav Kkatavythjoas ... Tov M6yov]| Compare the
imitation of the expression by Lucian (Encom. Dem. § 16)—4 mow
ye, pny, dvavon xatayeiv pov tev Stwv Somep Badaveds xatavrAnoas Tov
Aourdvy Adyov ; + &Ppdov—‘in a mass ’_expresses the flood of words
which the Sophist pours out upon them.

| opuxpdv . . . fon] For the form of the sentence compare
Laches 185 A #) wept opixpod oleoGe vuri xuvduvevew Kal od Kai Avoipaxos,
GAN’ ov wept rovTou Tov KThparos, 5 Tdv tperépwv peyorov by Tvyxdve ;
For the sentiment cp. Gorg. 500 c, where Socrates in like manner
pleads with Callicles that he should be serious in speaking of
a subject so important as the end of human life.

Staydpevos] sc. rdv Biov, The middle voice marks the personal

Notes: Book J. 41

interest which each man has in his own way of life. ‘ How his life
may be passed by each one of us to the greatest advantage.’

éy yap ... éxew] [There is no use in my remaining:] ‘ for
Iam of a different opinion about the matter’ (i.e. about the
nature and profitableness of justice). This is the most satisfactory
way of taking the passage.

Some editors place a mark of interrogation after ¢yew. Thrasy-
machus would then be understood to say, in answer to the
question 4 opxpdy . . . <n; ‘Do I think anything else?’ i.e.
about the importance of the question. But this is wanting: in
point. Schneider gives to the sentence a slightly different turn
by placing a full stop after ¢yew, and supposes the words to be
ironical: ‘Just as if I think otherwise!’ But the irony is not
sufficiently marked.

Zouxas, Hv 8 éyd, .. . nnSecOar| orcas sc. oleobar routi ddAws Exew,
‘So you seem; or rather you seem not to care a bit about us.’
Socrates affects to understand Thrasymachus to mean that he
thinks differently about the importance of the question.

oUror Kax@s oo. xeicerat| ‘It will not be a bad investment.’
For the use of xeioOa in the sense of ‘ being invested or laid up’
so as to yield a return of profit or interest, cp. Soph. O. C. 1518
d oo | ynpws addrvma ride xeivera méde, and above 333 C Gdda xeiobat

_ which is the explanation of rapaxarabécOa kai cdv eivat, i.e. ‘to be

left on deposit.’

The Sophist is presented in a ludicrous point of view. He has
been clamouring for a fee (337 D), and now the fee is offered to
him as a bribe to prevent his running away.

éyh yap... mei@opar| ‘For my part (76 y’ éudv) I tell you that
I am not convinced.’

gow pev GSixos] ‘Let a man be unjust,’—not ‘Let her (sc.
injustice) be as unjust as she will,’ which is poor and tautological.

dpws . . . KepSadedtepov| ‘Still this does not convince me, for
one, that injustice is more profitable than justice.’ 06 wei@e: sc.
this supposed impunity of injustice. The nominative to meie is
gathered from the previous sentence. ‘Grant that the unjust
man may be unpunished, still this does not convince me,’ &c.
The slight difficulty of this accounts for the reading of Ficinus
(mihi suades).

Republic
L.

344
E

345
A

Republic
i.

345
B

D

42 Plato: Republic.

4 eis thy wuxiv . . . ph od ye| (Cp. vii. 518 cc.) ‘Must I take -
and put the argument bodily into your soul?’ ‘By Heaven,’
I said, ‘don’t. The impatience of Thrasymachus is met by
Socrates with a cry of horror. ‘God forbid !—not that, whatever
you do. The coarseness of the Sophistic method of imparting
knowledge is compared to forcing food down another person’s
throat.

ért yap . . . guddgar] Socrates, as his manner is, resuming, —
returning on the old track (dva\aBav, ixvos pereAbwv), says to Thrasy-
machus: You see that ‘having at first defined the physician as
the true physician (341 c, 342 A) you did not think fit afterwards
(343 B) to retain the same accuracy in speaking of the shepherd.’
For gvAdrrew, ‘to keep in mind,’ cp. Theaet. 182 c rodro pdvor

vAddtrre@per.

tropatve| Par. A has maivew here in the text, which agrees
with péAAovra éoridcecOar mpos tiv evoxiay infra, and with mayiver
supra 343 B. But the same MS. has qomaivey in the margin by
the first or second hand,—which is clearly right and necessary
to the sense.

TH Sé Twouenky ... etvar] Cp. supra 342 B. Plato is speaking
ideally. No art ever perfectly fulfils its function.

émel . . . mouperext etvar] ‘Since it has sufficiently provided
what concerns itself with a view to its being perfect, so long as it
lacks nothing of being the art of shepherding.’ The subject of é«-
menméprorat (Perf. Mid.) is 7) mouuenky, as is shown by the nominative
Bedtioty.

év te twodttiKy Kal iStwriky dpxy| ‘In a public as in a private
exercise of power’: that is to say :—‘ And this applies not only to
the shepherd and the physician, but also to the statesman.’

ad 8€ Tods Gpxovtas . . . GAN’ ed of8a] The words tods d&dnds
dpxovtas recall Thrasymachus’ own assumption (343 B) that the
term is used in the strictest sense. The fact that the artist will not
work without pay, shows that as far as his art is concerned he
studies not his own interest but the interest of his subject-matter.
This is also the case with the true ruler: he too, for the same
reason, will not rule without being rewarded.

obk | Sc, otopat.

Tas dAas dpxds| There is a slight inaccuracy in the expression,

oo! J. 2 i ee
hip. heal

Notes: Book J. 43

*

which arises out of the somewhat forced analogy supposed to exist
between the art of government and the other ‘arts’ or ‘ offices.’
Cp. 342 c dpxovai ye ai réyvar, and infra 346 E.

adroiow|] The rare Ionic form is here adopted for emphasis
and euphony. The other passages where it occurs in the Republic
are iii. 388 Dp, 389 B; viii. 560 E, 564 c.

érei toodvSe eimé| In assigning to each art a separate power or
function, Socrates is preparing to distinguish the other arts from
the art of pay.

add] deprecates the imputation of perversity conveyed in
Socrates’ last words :—‘ But I admit that to be the difference.’

obdkodv kai proBwrixh probdy| ‘The art of pay,’ as the giving and
receiving of money is quaintly termed, is distinct from the other
arts: the art of the physician is no more pucOwrexn because the
physician takes fees, than the art of the pilot is the art of medicine,
because a sea-voyage may accidentally improve the health of the
sailor. ‘The art of pay’ has a curious sound to modern ears,
because there is no such use of language among ourselves. But
Plato might have defended the expression by saying that although
applicable to all the arts, the art of pay had, like them, an end and
a function, viz., that of providing maintenance for the practitioners
of all of them.

domep bébou] ‘as you proposed.’ Cp. supra 341 B.

éotw, &py| Thrasymachus becomes more reserved in his
replies, as he begins to see the inevitable consequence. ‘ Let us
suppose so.’ Cp. Gorg. 504, 505.

Hvtwa ... dedodvtar| ‘Whatever benefit all craftsmen have in
common manifestly arises from their additional use (mpooypapevor)
in common of some one and the same thing ’—(rwi r@ airg)—
since the arts are peculiar and the benefit common. mpocypdpevor,
i.e. using in addition to their peculiar arts. am’ éxeivou, ‘from that’
and not from their own art.

ob gaiverat] ‘Apparently not.’ od gaivera, like qaiverae (cp.
note on 342 c) has various shades of meaning which can only be
determined by the context. As with of gnc, od« é@, the negative is
attracted to the main verb: od daiverar = gaivera odk (dpedrcivGar).

Gp’ obv... olwar éywye| ‘ Does the art then confer no benefit,’
when the artist works for nothing?’ ‘I should think it does.’

Republic
Z.

345
E

346
A

Republic

346
E

347
A

D

44 Plato: Republic.

The point of Socrates is to show that the good which the art does
is separable from the good of the artist. Now the artist is not
benefited unless he is paid, but his art confers a benefit all the
same,

kai émrdrret] The arts have already been spoken of in several
places as exercising command: supra 342 C, E; 345 E.

Sid 8h tadra . . . GANA TH dpxopévw] ‘ For which reason,’ i.e.
because the ruler considers the interest not of himself but of his
subjects. tatra refers to the preceding, sentence. The clause
which follows, 81s 6 pé\\wv, «.7.4., is a resumption and further
explanation of it, and is itself again resumed in dv 8) évexa.

kata Thy téxvyv émutdétrwv| Thrasymachus is again and again
reminded, and in every form of speech (cp. of dAnOas dpxovres: 346 B
éedvrep Bovdn axpiBds diopifew, and D ei Set dxpiBas oxomeicOa, x.T.d.),
that at his own suggestion (346 £) they are speaking of the ruler
qua ruler.

prcbdv Seiv imdpxew] deiv, sc. eAéyoper, the construction being
continued from the previous sentence; and this is assisted by the
interposition of @s goue.. Cp. Phileb. 20 p rdde ye pny, as olpar, rept
aitov dvaykaidratov eivac éyev: Soph. 263 D mavraracw, ws ZouKev, 7
rowaitn oivOecis . . . yiyver Oar Adyos Wevdis.

S0ev KwvSuveder . . . aloxpdv vevouicbar| ‘And this would seem
to be the reason why the willingness to hold office, without waiting
to be compelled, has been thought discreditable.’ ‘Nos autem
versamur non in republica Platonis, sed in faece Romuli.’ Com-
pare the fable of Jotham (Judges ix. 8-15).

édv ph adtds €6€dy| referring to the indefinite twa which is the
subject of dpxeoOa, For airés referring to an indefinite word cp.
Gorgias 520 c. .

émel KivSuveder . . . Td TO Gpxouévw| Compare the derisive words
of St. Paul (1 Cor. vi. 4): ‘If then ye have judgements of things
pertaining to this life, set them to judge who are least esteemed in
the church’: and of Christ (Matth. xx. 26, 27), in which there is
a similar irony arising out of their intense contrast to the spirit of
this world: ‘ Whosoever will be chief among you, let him be your
servant.’ i

Tas... 6 ytyvéoxwv| ‘every man of understanding.’

GANG TodTO péev Bh Kal eicaibs cxepspeba}] Socrates, as else-
where, availing himself of the facilities of conversation, breaks off

Notes: Book [. 45

(Protag. 347 B, 357 B, 361 BE, &c.), and defers a topic which is
liable to become tedious, Instead of arguing out the question
whether justice is the interest of the ruler, he takes up the sub-
sequent statement of Thrasymachus, viz., that the unjust life is
better than the just.

motépws| This reading, which has the support of the best MSS.,
is preferred to Ast’s conjecture mérepov.

métepov|] mérepoy ws, the reading of A I, admits of explanation,
the és being used pleonastically, as in os ddndas, os érépws (Phaedr.
276 c, Soph. 221 c). But it may also be due to a variation of
reading between mérepov and rorépas.

Hkougas, jv 8 éyé| Plato thus prepares the way for the part to 7

be taken by Glaucon in Book ii.
éfeupeiv| sc. dnp dv meibwper, to be supplied from wetOwpev.

dy pev toivuy... éodpeOa] With dvtiatareivaytes, ‘replying to
each other in set speeches,’ compare Protag. 329 A Sodxdv kara-
reivovoi Tov Adyov. For dprOpetv Senoer compare Cratyl. 437 D ré ody
rovro, & Kpatude, Gomep Wnpous SiapOunodpeba ra dvdpara, kal év Tovr@
éora 7 dpOdérns ; where Socrates, in a similar manner, repudiates the
arithmetical method of determining the principles of language ;
also Gorgias 471 £, where Socrates refuses to permit the element
of numbers to influence his judgement, and Theaet. 171 a, where
the method of ‘ counting noses’ is ironically retorted on Protagoras,

Soa... Aéyouev] doa (sc. dyaba) éxdrepor év Exarépw (ev TO Sixarov
elvat kal év rq Gdixov evar) Aéyouer. :

dvopohoyoupevor mpds GAAHAous| ‘by the method of mutual
admissions.’

dbrotépws, k.T.A. | gentler and less direct than morépws. ‘ Would
you tell me which of the two ways you prefer?’ Cp. Euthyd. 271 B
éndrepov kai épwras, & Kpirwr ;

odrws, €py] ‘As you propose,’ referring to the words dy 8é
donep ... prropes éodpeba,

* Perfect injustice, says Thrasymachus, ‘ts more profitable than
perfect justice. ‘ Then will Thrasymachus maintain that the unjust
are wise and good?’ ‘ Undoubtedly, if only they have supreme
power. In that case injustice ts not only wise and good, but noble
and strong” And now Thrasymachus has told Socrates his whole
mind, and they can argue on a satisfactory basis.

Republic
L

347
E

348 B-
350 C

Z = ie le ,
ee

46 Plato: Republic.

Republic Socrates begins by putting Thrasymachus to the question :

‘ Well :—but will the just man try to gain advantage over the
just? or aim at more than what is just?’ ‘Df he did, he would
not be the diverting creature that he is. ‘ Or would he claim to take
advantage of the unjust?’ ‘ He might claim to do so, but he would
not be able” But the unjust claims to take advantage both of his
like and of his opposite, the just. Analogy shows this to be incon-
sistent with goodness and wisdom. No true musician aims at
overstraining the lyre,—no artist seeks ‘to do better than well.’
And so the just man is like the good and wise artist, the unjust man
like the bad artist. Now things which are alike have similar
qualities, and therefore the just man is wise and good. To all this
Thrasymachus is reluctantly forced to assent.

348 é€ dpxfs| ‘Beginning at the beginning,’ as in Theaet. 179 £
B

a lol ,
HadXov oKerréov’ kal €& dpyns, onep avrot broreivoyra.

348 B-
350 C

C eixds y’, py ...48 8s] ‘ That’s a charming notion and a likely,
seeing that I affirm injustice to be profitable and justice not.’ ‘ Then
what do you say?’ ‘The opposite,’ said he. For #8ore, as we
might say in English, ‘you funny man,’ which expresses the affected
amusement of Thrasymachus at being supposed to entertain such
an opinion, see: above 337 D Hots yap ef: vii. 527 D dvs ed, .. . dre
€otxas dedidtt Tods moAdovs: also Gorgias 491 E as Hdvs ef rods HABious
Aéyers Tos aHppovas. GAA Ti pv in this and similiar places is
equivalent to dAdd ri pay Gddo: as below 349 D adda ri péeAder; for
adda ri péAAer GAO; and adda ri ote; for adAAa Ti ole. GANO; supra
332 c and elsewhere. Cp. also Sympos. 206 £ fort yap, & Zaxpares,
pn, ov Tov Kadob 6 Epws, ws od ote. "ANAA Ti pH; THs yevvncews Kal
Tov TéKov €v T@ Kad.

7 Thy Sixaoodvyy . . . yervatay edyBerav| Thrasymachus is at ~
first unwilling to hazard the assertion that injustice is virtue and
justice vice. He says that justice is simplicity, injustice discretion.
The statement is at length extracted from him that injustice is to be
classed with wisdom and virtue, justice with their opposites. This
proposition, which has been craftily drawn out of him, is the step in
the argument which leads to his destruction. 4 marks the astonish-
ment of Socrates: ‘And you mean to say?’ Cp. infra iii. 396 B
} ptpnoovra ;—ndvu yevvatay edyPerav: ‘sublime simplicity.’ For
the ironical use of yevvaios cp. infra ii. 372 B das yevvaias, V. 454 A
h yevvaia ... ) dvvauis tis avridoyexns Téxyyns: Vili. 544 C H yevvaia 87
rupavvis: Soph. 231 B 4 yéver yervaia coduorixn: and for edndee iii.
400 E ovy fy dvoray odcav broxopiCépevor Kadotpev ws einOeav.

ees _
eas:

Notes: Book Jf. 47

kaxoryMevav] a paronomasia: xaxo#dea is not the opposite of
«in@ea in the sense in which Thrasymachus uses it. But Socrates
snatches at the etymological meaning of ei7@«a to make a point
against Thrasymachus.

od 8 . . . Aéyeww] to transfer these words to Socrates, as is done
on the authority of Par. A in the Zurich edition of 1887, interferes
with the flow of the passage. The occurrence of 4 8’ és after én,
though uncommon, is sufficiently accounted for by supposing
a pause after roeioda. Cp. Xen. Oecon. c. xvii. 8 mavy pév ody,
en’ fy S€ ye 7, Eby, «7A. and infra 351 A viv d€ y', env. The dis-
tinction of persons in Par. A, however, is clear.

_ Auovtedet . . . EXeyov| ‘ Even this sort of thing is advantageous,
if undetected, but not worth mention: the real profit (@AAd sc.
éorly dfia Adyov) is in what I was just now speaking of,’ that is, in
tehéa adixia, viv 8H refers chiefly to 344 B, c.

€avpaca| Aorist of the immediate past.

Todto . . . arepedtepov| (1) ‘This new position is firmer,—
‘ now you are on more substantial ground’: or perhaps (2) ‘this
is harder to make an impression upon, i.e. to deal with satisfactorily
in argument. Par. A here reads paov for padior, as padiov for paov
in ii. 370 A.

GdnPéotata ... pavteder] ‘That guess of yours is wonderfully
near the truth.’

GAG THE por wetp@, «.t.A.] A singular argument follows the
admission that the unjust desires universal excess. The admission,
which is rather unmeaning, seems to have arisen out of the desire
of Thrasymachus to attribute to him every possible_preeminence.
In the argument the grasping nature of the unjust is contrasted
with the moderation of the just, whose desires reach no higher than
justice, and\ this, as Thrasymachus says, is the reason why he is
such an amusing creature. ‘The aim of the one. is affirmed to be
excess in all cases, the aim of the other, excess over deficiency, and
attainment of the right measure. Immediately Socrates appeals to
the analogy of the arts. No true artist desires excess in all cases,
and the true artist is wise and good; therefore the just, not the
unjust, is wise and good. But the conclusion thus arrived at con-
tradicts the hasty assertion of Thrasymachus, that injustice is to be
classed with wisdom and goodness, justice with their opposites.
Compare the French proverb, ‘Le mieux est l’ennemi du bien,’

Republic
i.

348
D

349
A

Republic
ra

349
B

48 Plato: Republic.

and the words of Pembroke to King John (Shak., King John,
iv. 2. 28)—
‘When workmen strive to do better than well,
They do confound their skill in covetousness.’
Also Lear i. 4. 369 ‘ Striving to better, oft we mar what’s well’ :
and Sonnet 103. 9, 10 :—
‘Were it not sinful then, striving to mend,
To mar the subject that before was well?’
Cp. also Gorgias 508 A od 8€ mdcove§iav ole, Seiv doxeiv’ yewperpias
yap duedeis: and the Kantian conception of freedom as obedience
tolaw. ‘The two kinds of measure in the Politicus (283), viz. (1) the

comparative measure of more and less; and (2) the reference to

a standard, belong to the same line of thought. Summed up in a
word or two, the argument is that justice, if it be like the arts, aims

/ not at excess, but at law and measure,

ob8apdas . . . ed4ys| ‘Far otherwise, else he would not have
been the amusing and simple-minded individual that heis.’ déoretos,
‘townbred,’ as opposed to ‘living far off in the fields.’ Hence it
acquires the meaning of ‘ witty,’ ‘ clever,’ which easily passes into
that of ‘amusing,’ ‘ charming,’ ‘the cause of wit in others,’ Cp.
Lysis 204 doreidy ye, 7 8° ds, Ste épvOpias. ‘It’s charming to see
you blush,’

oS tis Sixaias| sc. mpdgews, which is found in one MS.
ei... py] Although «i is interrogative, uy and not od is used,
because Socrates asks whether this, in the opinion of Thrasymachus,
is probable. The use of a in the preceding sentences has given
a hypothetical turn to the expression. Cp. Goodwin, WZ and T.
667, 5. ,

Tod Se 68ikou | Sc. d&wot mréov éxew. ‘But he does claim to
have more than the unjust.’ The context shows that this only
applies where the unjust errs on the side of deficiency. For the
use of d¢, when a negative has preceded in the first clause, compare
i. 354 A GOddy ye eivat ov Avorrede?, eddaivova dé: iv. 422 D tiv Be:
and for the use of mAcovexreiv in this passage cp. Laws iii. 691 a
mAcoverteiy Tv TeOevT@Y voor.

tt 8é 8) . . . mpdgews] ‘What of the unjust? Does not he
claim as his due more than the just man, more than the just
action ?’

&Se Bh . . . tod dvopoiov] ‘Let us put the matter thus: the
just does not desire more that his like, but more than his unlike ;

Gu eats 6

Notes: Book J. 49

but the unjust desires more than both his like and unlike.’ With
this statement Thrasymachus is remarkably well satisfied. Cp.
Philebus 27 x, where Philebus is similarly entrapped: 780) kai
Avan... Tav Td padddv Te Kal Hrrov Sexouevwv é€ordv; BI. Nai, rav rd
padXov, & Scxpares* od yap dv Hdovi) wav dyabdv jy, el pi) Gmecpov érvyyave
mecbukds kal mANOet Kai TH padAor,

Gpiota, ey, elpnxas . . . Kat todr’, &py, €6] Thrasymachus
accepts with ludicrous eagerness and want of foresight the restate-
ment of his own opinion,

§ 82 ph ph eouxdvar] Par. A (reading 6 8¢, ij éovxévac) omits the
first yn, which, though not necessary, makes the meaning more
distinct.

TovodTos dpa... orev] SC. ro.oiros, olvi elow exeivor olomep Eouxer.

GANG ti péANer ; | Sc. dAdo.

_ bx obtws| sc. AEyets ;
Gppotrépevos Adpay| ‘In tuning his lyre.’
év tH €8wd5q 4 mécer| i.e. ‘in the diet which he prescribes.’

GAN’ tows . . . odtws éxew] Thrasymachus makes a grudging
admission: ‘I suppose that this must be as you say.’

éywye, €pq| Thrasymachus still holds this fast.

dvamépavror| ‘has turned out to be.’ The word expresses the
new light in which the subject is suddenly revealed to Thrasymachus
and the company. Cp. i. 334 A*kAémrns dpa tis 6 Sixaos . . . dvareé-
gavra, The skilful management of refractory opponents in the hand
of Socrates is one of the comic elements of the Platonic dialogue.
Other striking examples are the treatment of Polus and Callicles in
the Gorgias, of Anytus in the Meno, of Euthydemus and Euthyphro
in the dialogues which are named after them. Perhaps the highest
exhibition of this dramatic power is to be found in the Protagoras,
in which Socrates adapts himself to numerous adversaries with the
happiest versatility.

5 8) Opacdpaxos] The reading 8%, which is found in Ven. 0,
but not in Par. A, is more emphatic and expressive than é¢, which
however has the authority of AM r. 6 marks the transition from
a dramatic to a descriptive passage and may be translated: ‘ Now
Thrasymachus assented to all this,’ 8¢, according to the English
idiom, is better omitted, and the words may be translated simply :
‘Thrasymachus assented,’ &c. The latter reading has been
retained by Hermann and Baiter.

VOL. Ill. E

Republic
if.

350
D

350 D-
352 B

350
D

50 Plato: Republic.

+

téte kat| is probably a mock heroic form of expression (like the
imitation of Homer in Protag. 315 D Kat peév 81 kai Tdvraddv ye
eigeidov): cp. esp. Il. v. 394 TéTe Kat puv dvnxearoy AdBev Gdyos, Kal
adds emphasis to rére efSov: ‘Ay, and then I saw.’ The unusual
order has led to the erroneous punctuation of Par. A, which
places the point after rére.

Cpacipaxov épuOpidvra] Compare Protag. 312 a, where the
youthful Hippocrates is seen by the light of the opening dawn
to have a blush upon his face, as he professes his intention of
becoming a disciple of the Sophist.

The comparative strength of justice and injustice ts tested by an
independent argument. Suppose a city to have triumphed in complete
injustice, and to have subjugated many other cities. Can this triumph
be secured without the help of justice? Cana city or an army or
a band of robbers do any unjust thing in common, tf they do not
keep faith with one another? And what is true of large bodies of
men ts true also of two or three. Tf they are absolutely unjust,
they will quarrel and fight and hate each other and be paralysed in
action. And it ts true also of the individual. Tf he ts completely
penetrated by injustice, he will be divided against himself and cannot
stand. And he ts the enemy of just men, and also of the Gods
whose justice even Thrasymachus will not venture to deny.
Complete injustice, therefore, ts complete powerlessness.

epapev| Cp. supra 344 c. Socrates, with an apparent gracious-
ness, but really with the object of drawing Thrasymachus into
a fresh contradiction, reasserts a proposition formerly maintained
by Thrasymachus (supra 344 c). Thrasymachus, who has learnt
from experience to be cautious of Socrates, is in reply surly and
reserved. For the plural, including the speaker as well as the
respondent, cp. Theaet. 210 B 7 ody ére kuodpev .. . & pire;

od8é & viv héyers dpéoxer . . . Sypnyopeiv dv pe patns| ‘Iam
not contented with your last conclusion any more than with the
former ones, and I could answer you: but if I did, I well know
that you would say I was haranguing.’

pySapas ... mapd ye thy cautod Sdgav| Cp. Gorgias 500 B
kal mpos didiov, & KaddikAes, pte adros otov Seiv mpds cue maifew, pnd

, cel
6 te dy ruxns mapa ra Soxodvta amoxpivov.

toito . . . Swep dptt] Cp. supraD éapev. . . wépynoa ;

ecw

Notes: Book J. 51

' tva Kat é€fjs... dBexlav] Cp. Politicus 281 p mouréov 8 Aéyoner,
iv’ epegiis jiv 6 Adyos ty.

viv 8é y’, €pnv] Par. A reads épy. But env is obviously the right
reading ; v has been dropped from the compendium ¢pn~.

@\N’ of m1 obtws dmwhds . . . oxépaca} ‘I do not wish to
consider the argument in this simple and abstract manner’ (i. e. that
injustice is folly and therefore weakness), but to show, by the
example of states and individuals, how it actually works.

médw pains av. . . Soukwoapévny| ‘You would not deny that a
state may be unjust and may be unjustly attempting to enslave, or
may have utterly enslaved other states, while already holding many
in subjection under her.’ Three stages are supposed :—(1) states
attacked with a view to subjection; (2) states utterly subdued in
recent struggles (kataSeSoukdo8at) ; (3) states held in subjection
(woddds . . . Exerv Soukwoapévyy). As elsewhere, the complexity of
the thing imagined makes the language harsh.

ei pev . . . GBixias] ‘If the case is as you were saying, and
justice is wisdom, then, with justice; but if as I was saying, with
injustice. The MS. authority is strongly in favour of éxet, the
other reading, éori, being an obvious correction which is meant to
remedy the anacoluthon. The repetition of e? before 4 Sicacoodvy
(a conjecture of Baiter’s) is unnecessary, and also objectionable on
the ground of the hiatus. The irregular construction may be
defended by other passages of Plato, in which one of two clauses is
an explanation of the other. Cp. Theaet. 203 E ’Exérw 4n, as viv
paper, pia idea... €& Exdotwv Tv auvapporrévT@Y aTotxeiwv yryvouevn
) avdda8n, where the reading has been questioned equally without
reason.

peta Sixarogdvys| sc. tiv dvvapw rabryy dvdykn exe.
mwdvu &yapor] Cp. a similar mode of practising on Meletus in

the Apology 27 ¢ as dynaas, drt pdyts dmexpivw bmd rouvrwri dvaykaCopevos,
See also Gorgias 449 ¢, D. -

obx émveders . . . dvaveders| Cp. supra 350 E.

got yap, épn, xapiLopar| Thrasymachus wishes to intimate that

the defeat which he sustains is to be attributed to his own good

nature. The imperative moods which follow, éore, éyérw, orwaar,

imply that he is ready to admit anything which Socrates likes : ‘let
E 2

Republic
Mi
350 E
351
A

Republic
’

351
Cc

352

52 Plato: Republic.

us say so,’ ‘agreed,’ ‘if you will,’ ‘we won’t quarrel about that.’
And he is encouraged in his self-conceit by Socrates’ words—E®@ ye
avd roa, & dpore, &c., of which he fails to see the irony. Callicles
in the Gorgias (516 B) in the same temper says—lavu ye, wa oor
xapicopa. This is an ingenious device by which Plato is enabled
to carry on the argument to the end, without requiring his adversary
to undergo a process of sudden conversion.

4 yap ;] This formula used interrogatively expects an affirmative
answer. ‘Surely that is so?’

év édeuBépors Te Kat SovAors] ‘ alike in freemen and in slaves.’

éav 8€ 84] For the conflict with self cp. Laws i. 626 D aire
d€ mpos aitov mérepov &s modewio mpos modéutov Stavoyntéov, } ms Ere
Aéyoper; also viii. 560; Soph. 223 B.

& Oavpdove] marks the intense interest of Socrates as the con-
clusion he has been preparing rises in full proportions before his
mind (dvarépavrac supra 350 C).

pov py] like other interrogative particles, used with some
uncertainty of meaning, which has to be defined by the context ;
for instance, in this passage, it seems to require a negative answer,
but in Phaedo 84 c it merely suggests a doubt (ra AcxOevra pov
pip Soxei évdeds edéxOar; moddas yap 4) ere exer trowias). It is
a pleonastic expression which intensifies the interrogation. Either
pov or py might be omitted without any perceptible difference,
except a slight weakening of the sense. pay, having lost its
etymological sense of pi) ody, allows the pn to be repeated.

airé] sc. mddis, yévos Or orpardmedov.

kat TG évaytiw mavtt Kal to Sixatw] ‘with all that opposes, and
therefere (inclusively) with the just.’

kat Qeois dpa] Oeois ¢xOpds was a common form of abuse (and
therefore a term to be deprecated beyond others). See Soph.
Phil. 1031 més, & Oeois €yOore, k.r.A. : Demosth. de Cor. p. 241 Bekk.,
§ 46 viv kddaxes Kat Beots €xOpoi Kai raAr’ & pooner mavr’ dxovovow.

Compare with this whole passage the description of the tyrannical
man in Book ix. (577 ff).

edwxod Tod Adyou .. . dméxPwyar] Socrates takes up the word
evoxod with éoriaois, which is again echoed by Thrasymachus at the
end of the book, 354 A taira 8j co... elorida Ow év Trois Bevdideious. —

Thrasymachus is seeking to cover his defeat by casting upon his

Notes: Book J. 53

adversaries the reproach of intolerance. ‘I shall make enemies Repuélic
here if I oppose you.’ Compare the discomfiture of Gorgias and *
Polus through their fear of incurring odium: Gorgias 487 A, B ro
dé gévw rade, Topyias re kal Lddus, coped pév kai hilw éordv eyo,

352
B
évieearépw dé mappyaias Kai aloxuvtnpotépw paddov rod déovros.

Once more, are just men happier than the unjust, as wellas wiser, 352 B-
better and stronger ? 354A
Every creature has a work or function. And everything does its
own work best, when it has its proper excellence. For example, the
eye sees best when it ts possessed of perfect vision, which ts the
opposite of blindness. Now life is the function of the soul, and
justice (as we have seen) is the virtue or excellence of the soul.
Therefore the soul lives best when it has justice. And to live well
is to be happy.
Justice, then, ts more profitable than injustice, if to be happy is
profitable.

St. pev yap . . . 7d mpdrov érideco] After a somewhat long 352
digression (ob yap av . . . mpdrrewv ddvvara) the sentence is resumed in
the words—radra pév ody Sri ovrws exer pavOave. ‘The first part, as
far as Aéyouev, is governed by én, and rodro ov mavradmacw adnbés
Aéyouev proceeds as if ods payev had been drav paper twas. add’ odx

. . érieao which is opposed to ors éye, repeats and emphasizes
the antithesis. There is also a slight inexactness either of
expression or of citation here, which is worth noticing as a point
of style. The phrases os od 16 mp@rov érideoo and émep 10 torepov
mpovbéueba oxeyracba do not strictly agree. 1d mp@rov refers vaguely
to the past discussion and suggests Socrates’ subsequent criticism
of the theory: ‘which you maintained at first, but which-1 have
since shown to be false.’ The theory in question is that injustice
is stronger than justice; and this, like the assertion next discussed
—that injustice is happier than justice, is one aspect of Thrasy-
machus’ second contention—that injustice is generally superior to
justice. 1d dorepoy therefore contains a more exact reference than
7d mporov, alluding, not indefinitely to the past discussion, but to
a definite point in it—the ‘second contention,’ as opposed to the
first, that justice is the interest of the stronger (see above, 347
p, E). There is a slight inaccuracy in substituting a particular
form of superiority—superior happiness—for superiority in general ;
and the introduction of ré terepovy obscures the fact that the second

Republic
Z.

352
B

353

ca Plato: Republic.

contention of Thrasymachus involves superior strength quite as
much as superior happiness.

ot 8é aSixor od8é[v] mpdrrew] The various reading od8é (M),
though inferior in manuscript authority, is not to be disregarded.

dxovcats| dy is to be continued from tos. The omission of dy
in the following sentence, payaipg. . . . droréyors, where however
it is inserted in some MSS. of inferior note, may be defended on
similar grounds.

dv...aipey] Schneider defended the manuscript reading dv hapev
by comparing Laws iv. 712 E éy@ 8€ otra viv éfaidpyns dv épwrnbeis
dvtws, Omep Etmov, ovK Ex Siopiodpevos eimeiv tis TOUT@Y €oTl TY TOALTELOY,
and infra x. 610 A épOdrara av, én, A€yets (SO MSS.). But the latter
passage is easily corrected,—see note in loco,—and in the former
éxyw eineiv = dv etmoyu. There is no sufficient ground for refusing
to admit so slight an alteration as the addition of an iota here
any more than in vi. 494 B év *maoclv . . . €v draow, where
Schneider vainly defends the manuscript reading év maow.

paxatpa [av] déymédou] dy is omitted in Par. A, but may have .
dropped out between a and au.

ti 8€; dtwv qv tm epyov;| ‘Did we speak of any function of
ears?’ The imperfect refers to what has preceded, 352 E ri d€;
axovsas GA@ # aciv; odvdauds, as in Cratylus 410 C ri ody piv jy
ro pera rovro, referring to 408 p, and Soph. 263 c 6m rév dduvdrev
jv Adyov dvra pndevds eivar Adyov. fv = ‘ was admitted by us.’

odkoiv Kal dpery ;] Cp. Gorg. 468 B, 499 E, where the notion of
an end appears in a still more rudimentary form. The conception
of an épyov and an dperi) mpos 7d épyov is derived from the analogy of
art, the province of which has not yet been thoroughly distinguished
from the sphere of nature and of morals. The conception exercised
a great influence on Logic and Ethics in the ancient world, leading
to the dya6év of Aristotle, the opposition of means and ends, and
the division of moral and intellectual virtue. Modern philosophy
has moulded Ethics into another form. The favourite notion of
a rayaééy or ‘summum bonum,’ of which the conception of an
épyov is the germ, has been replaced by modes of speech such as
duty, law, the will of a superior being, or resolved into the more
concrete abstractions of utility and pleasure.

- ge 8H] ‘ Well then,’ is used with various degrees of force for
‘hold,’ ‘stay,’ passing also into a mere invitation to attend or con-

=

aie

Notes: Book J. 55

sider. Cp. Laws i. 639 D éxe dy .rav modd@v Kowondy Evprdras Kai
évprdoia Ocipev dv piay twa Evvovoiay elvat ;

dp av ... Kadds dwepydoawro| Heindorf conj. amepydoaro,
perhaps with reason. The use of the plural verb with the neuter
plural nominative has been explained as a remnant of Epic usage,
as a personification, or as due to the substitution in thought of
a masculine plural substantive for a neuter plural*having the same
meaning, or to some other natural association. Cp. Thucyd. iv. 88
ra réXy (the magistrates) :. . adrév efémepwar.

The construction in any of these cases follows the sense rather
than the grammatical form. A doubt however is thrown on the
passage by various readings, amrepyacovra, dmepya{wrvrat, dmepyacarba,
and by the use of dra with the singular amepydoera in the next
sentence. The reading of the MSS. has however been retained in
the text; because Greek usage is not absolutely uniform in
requiring the neuter plural to be joined to a verb singular.

tts... €pwrd] ‘Say rather, whatever their virtue is, for I have
not come to that question yet.’ He means that he would rather
affirm a general proposition (ei ry oixeta pev dpery . . . eb épydoerat
Ta épyaLé.eva), and not anticipate the particular. Every step is to
follow regularly in the dialectical process.

tiQepev . . . Méyov;] ‘Do we include all other things under the
same statement ?’

Td... Gpxev, x.7.A.] Cp. Phaedo 94 8. The pronoun adrdé
resumes 76 émpedetoOar . . . mdvta.

éxeivys| The gender follows puxy, and not étw addy.

edSaipova 8é] Cp. supra 349 c,D Tov d¢ ddixov, and note.

Thrasymachus ts silenced, but Socrates is not satisfied. For he
feels that he has passed on too quickly to consider certain attributes
of justice, before he has defined what justice ts.

GdX’ dowep ot Aixvor, x.7.4.] This is imitated by Polybius, B. P.
ili. 57, 7 et 8€ rwes mavrws ém{nrover Kata Térov Kai KaTa Epos THY TOLOUT@Y
dxovew, irws ayvoovor mapanAnaiwy Te mda xovres Tois Aixvors Tov Servnrar,
kal yap éxeivor, mavT@v droyevdpevor TOY mapaketpévwv, odte Kata Td Tapdv
ovdevds aGAnOwas arodavover trav Bpwydtar, odr’ eis Td peAdov OPeApov
e€ abray ri dvddoow Kai tpopiy koplfovra. The passage is a good
example of the manner in which later writers amplified the ideas of
Plato. See also Julian, Orat. ii. p. 69 c and Themist., Orat, xviii.
Pp: 220 B.

Republic
1.

353
B

D

Republic
r?

354
B

56 Plato: Republic.

A similar image occurs in the Sophist 251 B d0ev ye, olpat, rois re
véots Kal Tay yepdvTwy Tois dyipabéor Ooivny mapeckevdxapev: and in the
Lysis 211 C, D ré tpeis, py 6 Krnourmos, aitd pdvw éotiacbov, jpiv dé
ov peradidoroy rav M6yov ; Compare also the opening words of the
Timaeus.

mplv & Td mparov, x.t.A.] Plato is loose in recapitulating here.
The question—‘ What is justice?’ was immediately followed by the
question which Thrasymachus raised, whether justice or injustice
was the more expedient, and the question whether justice is wisdom
or folly was subordinate to this. But in glancing backwards from
the conclusion that the just man has the better life, Socrates recalls
the argument about the wise and good (349), as if it had arisen
independently. The order (1, 2, 3) is not that in which the
questions were raised by Thrasymachus, but that in which they
were discussed. Such slight inconsistencies are very natural to the
freedom of discourse. See above, 352 B.

dote por. . . €08aiywv| Socrates ends the discussion with the
truly Socratic thought, that the result of a long inquiry is ignorance.
The First Book of the Republic, and the first half of the Second
Book, though here and there (335 a—-E, 352 A) containing true and
deep thoughts, are in general destructive only. The controversy
with the Sophists which has been carried on in the Protagoras,
Meno, Gorgias, and other dialogues, is now concluded, or takes
another direction (cp. Sophist and Politicus). In the Republic,
as elsewhere in Plato, they are the representatives of the popular
morality in a better or worse form; their theory accords with the
practice of the world, which is the great Sophist (vi. 492 a): this is
contrasted by Socrates with the deeper truths and higher aspirations
of philosophy. The thought that he who is ignorant of the nature
of anything cannot know its qualities or attributes is very character-
istic of Plato, and is the germ of a distinction which has exercised
a lasting influence on philosophy. Compare Laches 190 a, B «
yap pnd’ airs rovro eideinuer 6 ti mor Eorw dus } 6 Te Eorw akon, TXOAF
dy ctpBovroi ye aor Adyou -yevoiyeOa kai iarpol 4 mepi dpOarpav h rept
dtav, dvtwa rpdrov akony i) du Kdddor’ dv krnoard ms: Protag. 361 Cc:
Meno 71 B oupmévouat Trois moXirats rovTov Tod mpdyparos, Kal éuavrov
karapéupopat ws ovK ides mept dpetis Td mapdnav' 6 8¢€ py oida Ti ere,

mas dy éroidv ye re eldeinv;

Notes: Book I. 57

BOOK II.

Glaucon is determined to continue the argument. The theory Republic
which Thrasymachus has ineffectually maintained is one which i.
passes current in various forms, and although it has no practical 5,4,
influence on ingenuous youths, yet their minds are confused by
incessantly hearing it preached on every side.

73 8 fv dpa, ds oie, mpoolpiov] As a parallel of style we may
compare Laws iv. 722 D vduous 8€ dpre por Boxotpev eye ApxerOa, Ta A

w
we
N

8’ Eumpoober jv mavra jyiv mpooiuwa vouwr, td in rd dé resumes tabta
eirev: ‘ What I had said, I thought was the end, but it turned out
to be (dpa) only the beginning.’

5 yap PAadkwr . . . mpds Gwavra] Another example of this
‘intrepidity of talk’ in Glaucon occurs in Xen. Mem. iii. 6, where
he is described as dragged from the Bema, and with difficulty
persuaded by Socrates that at twenty years of age he does not
possess the qualifications of a statesman. In viii. 548 p he is com-
pared to the representative of timocracy for his @iAovexia. Glaucon
is also the ‘juvenis qui gaudet canibus avibusque’ (v. 459 A),
who breeds animals and birds; and the man of pleasure who is
acquainted with the mysteries of love (v. 474 D). He is an inter-
locutor in the introduction to the Parmenides and Symposium.
For dv8pedraros cp. Polit. 263 p, where the young Socrates is
called & mdvrwy avdpedrare after a similar exhibition of boldness:
also Theaet. 204 E dvdpixds ye, & Ccairnre, pdyer.

dei te before dv8peératos is closely connected with kal 8) Kat,
which, as frequently, introduces an instance illustrating the general
statement. The Greek expresses by a co-ordinate clause what in
English would be introduced by a relative: ‘For Glaucon, who ts
always, &c.

thy dwéppynow] ‘Renunciation of the argument’ (cp. supra i.
35° D, EF, 354 4). Cp. the use of dmemeiv, Phaedo 85 c: dmayopedew,
infra 368 c, viii. 568 c: Theaet. 200 p: amepeiv, ibid, See also
Phileb. 11 c &iAnBos yap jpiv 6 Kadds areipyker.

mavti tpdmw| ‘in every way,’ cp. infra 368 c 6 re ody TAavKwv kal
oi GdAor édéorvTo mavti tpém@ BonOjoa—i.e. ‘to do all that he could
to assist.’ The expression is passing into an adverb, and may
be compared with mdvres, ravrdmact, mavtayy, mdoy pnxavg, macy
rexvy.

Republic
fT,

357
B

58 Plato: Republic.

08 toivw ... (Dp) dn aérav] With the threefold division of goods
which is given in the text may be compared the Aristotelian dis-
tinction (Eth. Nic. i. 6, 9) of goods which are pursued for their

own sake, and goods which are means to other goods; also the .

statement (Eth. Nic. i. 7, 5) that the highest good (ed8atpovia) is the
end of other goods, and not pursued for the sake of anything else :
which implies a slightly different point of view from that of
Plato in this passage. Yet afterwards (vi. 508) a higher good
which gives reality even to virtue and knowledge and reaches
beyond them, is also admitted. In the Philebus (65, 66) Good is
measured by three tests—beauty, symmetry and _truth,—and
arranged in five degrees or stages: (1) measure; (2) symmetry ;
(3) reason and wisdom ; (4) science, art, and true opinion; (5)
unmixed pleasures.

od toivuy . . . 8 Bowker] Socrates in his refutation of Thrasy-
machus has been led to dwell on the superior profitableness of
Justice. He seems to acknowledge himself that this is an unsatis-
factory way of treating the subject. For (i. 354 c) he cannot know
whether the just man is happy until he knows what justice is, any
more than in the Meno (100 B) he can tell how virtue is acquired
until he knows the nature of virtue. The question which Socrates
had left unexamined is raised again by Glaucon, who, proceeding
from another point of view, asks ‘What is Justice stripped of its
externals ?’

kat pndev ... ylyverat] The reading of the text is that of the
best MSS. kai pndev has been altered by Stephanus and some of
the later editors into «av pndév, and ylyverar into yiyyyra, on slight
external authority, from an objection to the use of pydé& in an
independent clause. But the indefinite force of the relative (Seat) is
continued, and therefore the use of ynSeév is justified: 81d tadras is
added because the subject is changed and the Greek idiom does not
allow of the repetition of the relative (8 dcas). 8a tattas yiy-
vera = at mowiow. Cp. i. 337 E dmeipnpevov aire cin, which is
used as though ¢/ px eidein or ds px) eidetn had preceded.—Glaucon’s
eager logic separates in idea what cannot be separated in fact.
He forgets that harmless pleasures may be loved both for their
own sake and for their effects,

4 xatpew exovra] (1) éxovra, sc. airds, or (2) ‘to go on rejoicing,’
L, and S. s. v. yo B iv. 2. °

ae at ts ied 3 ~ 0 @ ©. =o YS). CT
eons @ aii 0X lind

Notes: Book II, 59

7) Kdpvovra larpedeo@ar] Corresponding to the mixed or con- Rajullie

trasted pleasures of the Philebus (44 ff.).

idtpeuois te Kal 6 GAAos xpnpatiopds| (1) ‘The practice of heal-
ing and other modes of money-making,’—the practice of medicine
being included under money-making. The thought of larpeveoOa
has suggested idrpevors, and hence this is given as the most obvious
example of xpnyatiopnds. This is better than (2) understanding the
words to mean—healing and also money-making,’ according to the
well-known idiom. Cf. infra 371 a rév fAdov dSnuovpydv and ray
Mov diaxdvov, Gorgias 473 C modirav Kal trav dAdov Eévar,

éautév| the reflexive pronoun here does not refer to the subject
of the verb.

€or. yap ody... ti 8y;| ‘There is, I said, certainly this third
class also. But what then?’

év t@ kadXiotw| This ‘fairest’ intermediate class may be com-
pared with the ‘mixed’ or concrete essence of the Philebus. See
especially Phileb. 26 c ofov pe iyteias xadXos Kai ioydv, kai év Woyais ad
maprodXa érepa kat mayxada: ibid. 27 D vixadvra pev Ebepev Tov Tov puKTov
Biov ndovns re kai hpovncews.

GANG TOG émumdvou eiBous| sc. evar. ,

A8ixia 8 éwawwetrat| The omission of these words in Par. A
may be due to the likeness of terminations (Wéyera, émaweirat). See
Essay on Text, p. 103. The statement of the other side of an
alternative where one only is in point is frequent in Plato.

GAN’ é€yd tis . . . Sucpabys] ‘ But I, you see, am a slow sort of
person.’ ’

édv got tadta Soxy| A shortened or elliptical form of expression
—‘and then we shall see whether or no you and I agree. éav
gives a softened and colloquial turn to the hypothesis. Cp. Theaet.
156 c GOpe, édv mws dmoreheo Op, ib. 192 E: Xen. Cyr. ii. 4, 16 dxove
toivuy ... av ri aot ddEm Aeyerv.

In order to elicit from Socrates a convincing argument in favour

of absolute Justice, Glaucon restates the Sophistic feats in a more
abstract and more developed form.

86... éwawav| ‘And so I will do my utmost to declare the.

praises of the unrighteous life.’ . For xararelvw cp. 367 B as divaya

_ padiora xarateivas Aéyw. So diareivew, ouvreivew, évteivew, Evrovos

3
c

D

358
A

60 Plato: Republic.

Republic occur in a metaphorical sense, implying a high degree of effort or
zr tension: v. 474 A Oeiv dcaterapevous: vii. 536 C paddov evrewdpevos
R cirov: Soph. 239 B 6 Tt padiora Sivaca cvvteivas revpaOnrt.

et gor Boudkopévy & Aéyw] The suppressed word is probably :
éoriv, or possibly Aéyw, echoed from the relative clause.

E otdv te] sc. éoriv. This reading, though not of much authority,
‘seems probable, the reading of Ven. 0, ri ofdv re being perhaps an
emendation of ri dv re, the reading of Par. A Mz, &c., which is
also possible, notwithstanding the harshness of the construction
(‘ being what, and whence, it arises’), and has far higher manuscript
authority. ti otovrac g Bis derived from ri oidy re. [ré évre may be a
corruption of ri éori, L.C.] The nature of Justice is distinguished
from its origin, although in the following argument the two are
discussed together. Cp. infra 359 B avrn re kat rovavrn, kal e& dv

-, ~
nm eécbuke ToLavTa.

358 E- _ In the nature of things to do wrong is a great good, but to suffer

3592 wrong is a still greater evil. Whence those who have not power to
escape the evil and secure the good make an agreement with their
Jellows, by which they try to get rid of both. This ts the origin of
law and right, and the neutrality so brought about is Justice.

358 mrepukévar . . . (359 B) @s 6 Abyos] Cp. the words of Thrasy-
machus in i. 344 ov yap Td moeiv . . . tiv ddikiav, The same
theory is otherwise stated in the Gorgias, where the favourite
opposition of vdyos and gos also occurs: see especially Gorg.
483 B GAN’, oipat, of riOépevor rods vdpous of dabeveis avOpwroi ict
kat of mooi, x.7.A. (Callicles is the speaker), ‘The makers of laws
are the many and the weak; so that legislation and praise and
blame have all a view to them and to their interest. They terrify
the mightier sort of men who are able to get the better of them, in
order that they may not get the better of them; and they say that
to take advantage of others is base and unjust and that injustice is
the attempt to take advantage. Their reason is, as I believe, that
being inferior they are well pleased to share alike.’

Soxet] Ast conj. doxeiv, in keeping with the oratio obliqua
which precedes and follows. But the number of consecutive
infinitives, which is supposed to have led the copyist to try his
hand at emendation, may rather be said to account for the return
to the indicative here, although the infinitive construction is
resumed immediately afterwards.

&
wm
2)

Notes: Book II. 61

EwvOjKas abtdv] (1) ‘Agreements with one another ’—a‘ray for er
@Anrwv as elsewhere: Laws x. 889 E émn éxaoro éavroic. ovv-
wporsynoav vopoberotpevr, Or (2), reading airav: ‘ And this they 359
say is the beginning of the imposition of laws and covenants among
them.’ airay is best; the objective genitive is equivalent to mpds
avrovs, Sc. ddAndous. So in Thucyd. i. 140 1d Meyapéor Whdiopa
= 1d mpds Meyapéas Wngiobr : infra iii. 391 C tmepnpaviay Oedy, i.e.
mpos Oeovs.

dyamao@a:| implies acquiescence rather than decided preference.

Cp. dyannrés.

Gppwotia tod d&ixeiv] ‘through want of confidence in their B

power to do wrong.’

Lf men had power to be unjust with impunity they would agree 359 B-

to no such compact. This is illustrated by the legend of Gyges ring, 36° P
which changed him from an innocent shepherd into a guilty usurper,
simply by enabling him to become invisible. Let the just man and
the unjust each have such a power, and they will both act alike.
ei rordvSe ... . dfer] The clause Sdvres éfouciay . . . éwaxohou- = 359
&

Oyjcaiper is an explanation of rodvde.

8 waoa. . . wépuxev] 4, Sc. mAcovegiav, as elsewhere in Plato, the
neuter referring to the feminine. Theaet. 146 E yrOva émorhpny
aird 6 ri mor’ éoriv: infra x. 612 B, where aird dixacootivny (or avro-
diavootnv) is the reading of most MSS.: Laws ii. 653 B ri more
Aéyonev Hyiv elvae tiv dpOiy madeiav, ovo ydp, K.T.A.

vépw 8é Bia] Cp. the words of Hippias in Protag. 337D 6 de
vépos, tupavvos dv tav avOporav, Toda ‘rapa tiv vow Biderat.
For the adverbial Sia with the other dative cp. viii. 552 E obs ém-
pedeia Bia xaréxovow ai dpyai. The active verbal use of tus, as in
the words which follow, is rare.

toudde ... dao... . yevéoOar}] rodde is grammatically connected
with otay: the construction is hardly interrupted by the addition of
ei adtots yévorto, which adds liveliness to the expression. ‘The
liberty of which I speak would be realized by their obtaining such
a power as this,’ &c. The repetition of Suvapw after éfovciay is
occasioned by the additional words. This is the earliest mention,
according to Mr. A. Lang, of the invisible-making ring.

7G [Téyou]. . . mpoydvm] It is Gyges himself, not the ancestor
of Gyges, of whom Herodotus tells nearly the same story (without

62 Plato: Republic.

Xepublic the marvel), and Gyges himself, who is intended by Plato, as

“a appears from x. 612 B édv 7 éyy Tov Twyou Saxriduov, édv re py.
Hence there is reason to suspect a miswriting of the text.
Stallbaum reads, on slender manuscript authority, r@ Téyy, and,
without authority, encloses rod Avéod mpoydye in brackets. But as
Gyges was not the ancestor of Lydus, who is the eponym of the
race, it is difficult to see how these words can have found their way
into the text even as a gloss. A more satisfactory alteration would
be the substitution of! Kpoisov for Tvyou—r@ Kpoicov tov Avdod
mpoydvm yeverOa, of which Tvyy may have been the explanation in
the margin; or the original reading may have been [yy ro

Kpoigov, «7...

359
D

mouséva, Ontevovta] ‘Serving as a shepherd.’ The phrase
marks the contrast between his present and future condition.
Cp. Eur. Alc., line 6.

duBpou 8é, x.7.4.] Translated by Cicero, de Off. iii. 9 cum sferra
discessisset magnts quibusdam tmbribus, in illum hiatum descendit
aeneumque equum, ul ferunt fabulae, animadvertit, cutus tn lateribus
Sores essent, §c.

ddda te 8h [&] pubodoyodor.} a puOodoyoto. is the reading of
the greater number of MSS., but not of Par. A. If @ is omitted,
prOodoyovor is a repetition of daci, ‘they tell,’ resumed by ‘they
say in the tale.’
E toirov S€ GdAo peév [exew] od8€v] The insertion of éyew has
not the authority of Par. A, but appears to be required in order to
avoid a harsh ellipsis. & omitting éyew reads daxrvdAvov pepe.

iv éfayyé\Novev] The present is the true reading (not eayyéAoev
with some MSS., a second aorist which is rarely, if ever, found;
or the future éegayyedoiev, which is ungrammatical). The tense
expresses the general habit of making the report and is suggested
by eiw@dros. It is further confirmed by xara piva.

Thy opevddvynv| the collet of the ring, in which the stone was
placed as in a sling. kat SiakéyeoOar changes the subject: ‘he
became invisible to the company, and they began to speak of him
as though he were not there.’

360 kal aitd obtw fupBaivew] ‘and he found this to be the case,’
referring partly to et tatryny exo thy Sdvapiv: also to the words
which follow, otpépovts pev eiow, «.7.., which are a further expla-

nation of ravrny ri dvivapur.

—— OU

Notes; Book IT. : 63

és 8éfeev] The optatives may be accounted for by assimilation , Repudlic
(Goodwin, IZ. and T. 558, cp. 531). But Glaucon speaks through- :
out as putting the case for another who is the objector. See the
Essay on Syntax, vol. ii. p. 175.

odrw Se Spav.. . . dugdrepor] For a similar piece of sophistry C
at an earlier. stage compare Hdt. iii. 72. 6, 7 rod yap adrov yArxdueba,
of re Wevddpevor kal of rij GAnOnin Siaxpedpevar. of pév ye Wevdovra rére,

360
B

émedy te pedAdwot Toior Wevdeot meivavres xepdnoeaOa’ of 8 dAnbifovrat,
iva te TH aAnOnin emiomdcwvra xKépdos, kai te padAdv oguoe émerparnrat.
A more refined form of the same doubt occurs in Aristotle, Eth, Nic.
V. 9, 9 érépou yap ayabod, ei Ervxev, meovexrei, olov SdEns i) rod dds Kadod.

ds odk dyabod i8ia dvtos| gives the reason of dvayxaldpevos :
‘under compulsion, because justice is not a good to him indi-
vidually’ ; toéro refers to émt rairdy touev and is further explained
in the clause éwel dou y’ av. . . ddixetv.

5 wept tod Torovrou Adyou Aéywy| Either (1) ‘he who makes this D
argument his theme’; or (2) in the: Homeric sense of zepi, like
dyuvdpevos nept marpns, ‘who argues in defence of this thesis.’ Cp.
infra 362 D ikxavds eipjoba mepi tod Adyou.

Toradtns éfoucias émAaBdpevos| ‘Having got such an oppor-
tunity into his hands,’ a more graphic expression for éfovaiav
AaBov. Cp. mpodpdowos emdaBéoda in Hdt. iii. 36. 53; vi. 13.33 49. 3.

Which ts the happier, the just life or the unjust ? 360 E-
Before we can answer this question, we must view them as they 362 C
are in their perfection, the one entirely just, the other entirely unjust.
The unjust man, seeming just, shall receive the rewards of justice in
addition to the gains of injustice: the just man, seeming unjust, shall
sacrifice his own advantage and also suffer the penalties of injustice.

thy 8€ xpiow adtyy| ‘But the decision itself,’ or ‘the actual 360
decision.’ The judgement, as of supreme importance, is distin- E
guished from the preliminary description.

mépt] Either mépc or wepi: on such a point the authority of MSS.
is of no value. It is best to read még and make the genitive
antecedent to év depend on xpiow. ‘The decision, in the case of
the persons in question, as regards their life.’ The accusative
kpiow is first placed out of construction, and then resumed as
a cognate accusative with xpiva.

tis obv 8} 4 Sidoracts;| For the sudden question compare infra .
376 E ris ody » madeia 5

64 Plato: Republic.

Republic Ideas of justice and injustice cannot really be isolated from their

4. consequences. (Compare the attempt which is made in Phileb.
20 E to divide pleasure and knowledge: pire ev r@ tis Hdoras
evéotw ppdynots, wre ev tq THs ppovicews HSovy.) Truths which
have any meaning or interest for man cannot be wholly withdrawn
from the conditions of human life. Aristotle remarks on the
absurdity of such paradoxes, Eth. Nic. vii. 13, 3 of 8€ rdv rpoxigd-

s
pevov kai tov Svoruxias peydAas mepurinrovta evdaipova ddacxovtes

360
E

-

*

elvat, €av 9) ayabds, i) éxdvtes i) dkovres oddév A€yovow. And Socrates
brings his hearers back to a more natural point of view when he
requires that the meaning of justice should be sought for not in the
individual, but in some relation of men to one another (infra 372 4).

The construction of the sentence is noticeable. First ofoy, «.r.A.
is added in explanation of éozep of Sewot Syysovpyol, then the whole
clause, domep . . . moveirw, is resumed in ovro.

361 Thy teXewrdtyy aSixtay| Glaucon again recalls the phraseology
A of Thrasymachus, i. 344 a.

B Tt éy~| ‘In our description.’ So infra p émefedbciv ro ddyo.
Cp. infra 363 c eis “Acdou yap dyaydvres tH Abyq, said of Musaeus and
his son taking their heroes down to the world below in their
descriptions : 369 A ei yryvouevny morAw Ocacaipeba dNOyw: C TH Ady@
€€ apxns mom@pev modkw—‘ let us create the state’: vii. 534 D ods
T@ Adyw tpepes . . . ef more Epyw tpepas. So Tim. 27 A avOporovs
T@ Adyw yeyovdras might be translated ‘the men whom we have
created.’ The word iorépev suggests the image, éomep avdpidvra,
&c., in what follows, infra p.

ob Soxeiv] Aesch., S. c. Th. 592 (said of Amphiaraus)
ov yap Soxeiy dpioros, GAN’ elvac Oédet,
BaGeiavy Gdoxa dia hpevds Kxaprovpevos,

e€ fis ra xedva Braordver Bovdcvpara.

c GSndov ov. . . TovodTos ein] ddydov, sc. dv ef: ‘In that case
it would be uncertain whether he were such (i. e. just) for justice’
sake, or for the sake of the gifts and rewards.’ ei is the true
reading, not dy etm, which has slight manuscript authority (Vind. E,
Flor. x). The optative accords with the conditional nature of the
case in an imagined future. See note on as défeey 360 B supra.

téyyecOa1] lit. to be ‘ softened by moisture,’ like a stiff piece of
leather. Cp. Aesch. Prom. 1008 réyye yap ovdév ovdé pal@doon
xéap | Aerais: Soph. O. T. 336 add’ SS Greyxros xarehedrnros Gavel ;

a

Notes: Book 11. 65

rav ax aérijs] dé is not found in any of the MSS, which all Republic

read ind. It is adopted from citations of the passage in Eusebius
and Theodoret, and is better adapted to the context. The con-
fusion of imé and dard is frequent in MSS. For ine here, however,
cp. Theaet. 200 £ ra in’ abrod (sc. rod dogdfew ddnOn) yeyvopeva. _

&dda itw] The reading of the best MSS. jro is a late form,
which has probably crept in by mistake. Better ira (cp. vii. 534 ¢
dvaropevnra). The 7 of #rw in Par. A appears to have been made
from +. éorw is probably a conjectural emendation for jro.

BaBai}] is an exclamation of wonder, parallel in form to mémo:,
marai. * Wonderful, said I, dear Glaucon. In what a spirited
manner you polish up your two heroes for the decision, as if each
were a statue.’ Cp. the reversal of the two portraits in the true
state, in which the King and the Tyrant (ix. 577) and the just and
the unjust (x. 613) receive their final reward.

éxxav@yoerar] (A II), and not éxkomjoera (7) Or éxxopOnoera (M),
is the reading of the best MSS., and is confirmed by a further
reference to this passage in x. 613 E Kal & Gypotxa &pyoba od civa
GdnOiy Aéywv,—eira otpeBrooovra Kai éxxavOyjoovrar. ‘The Gorgias
contains a germ of the second book of the Republic; we find there
(473 Cc) the parallel words, édv ddicav avOpwros AnpOn rupavvidi ém-
Bovredwv, cat Anpbels orpeBrt@rar xai exréuynra Kai rors épOarpors
éxxdntrat, which also confirms the reading in this passage. The

-corruption in M is due to the later pronunciation of av.

Using a bold inversion, Glaucon says that the life of the unjust
is more real than that of the just. For the reality of justice, when
without the appearance of justice, is annihilated by suffering. But
the hypocrisy of the unjust man is a part of his business, which is
unmistakably real. The discourse of Adeimantus which follows is
a further development of this paradox: cp. 362 £ & 9 capéorepov
6 pot Soxet BovdeoOar TAavkoy. Adeimantus however represents the
worldly or prudential, rather than the sophistical point of view.

Gpa] ‘As may be inferred from this.’

GAnGeias éxdpevov] ‘which has to do with truth,’ a favourite
Platonic usage of €xouat, e.g. Theaet. 145 A dca madeias éxerar: ddnOea
was a favourite word, not only with Plato and Socrates, but with
the Sophists, meaning with them, not reality, but appearance,
which they asserted to be reality. Cp. Theaet. 167 a, c and the
title of the book of Protagoras ( ’AAj@e«a—Theaet. 161 c); also
Sophist 246 B rip Acyouerny im’ airdy ddjPecav,

VOL. Il, F

361
¢

D

362
A

65 Plato: Republic.

Republic Babetav adoxa. . . Bouhedpata] Glaucon resumes the quota-
“1. tion, which he applies to the unjust man. In what follows the
362 ‘ gounsels’ and their results are confused.

B mp@tov pev . . . Stkaiw elvat | The words Soxotvre dixai elvat are

governed by Bdaordver, with the subject of which dpxew agrees.
The accusative takes the place of the dative in xepSaivovra, and with
the words eis dy&vas roivuy idvra the construction reverts to pjaover
(supra a). For the former change cp. iv. 422 B odd «i efein . . .
Smopevyovte tov mpdrepov dei mpoodepspevoy dvaotpépovta Kpovew. . «5

fupBdddew] ‘to have dealings with:’ cp. iv. 425 c EupBodaiwv
re mépt. . . A mpds GAAnAovs ~vpAddAdovew. With the juxtaposition of

fupBdddew and Kowwveiv cp. i. 333 A EvpBddraa Se Aéyers Kowwvyjpara,
4 Tt GAXo 5

Tapa taita mdévra| ‘in all this:’ cp. iv. 424 B émas dy... mapa
mavta avto dvAdtT@ct,

Tous te gidous e€0 moety . . . BAdwrew] A link of re-
miniscence connecting this with the previous discussion: supra

1. 334 B.

c Oepamevey ... Tods Beods| This also contains an allusion to
what precedes, supra i. 331 B, where Cephalus gave his simple
definition.

Beopihéotepov ... paddov mpooyjKew| For the redundant com-

parative compare Laws vi. 781 A Aadpadérepov paddov and the
redundant superlative in i. 331 B ov« €Adxtorov . . . xpnoywrarov.

D ovxodv ... émdpuve| ‘ Well then, let brother help brother, as the
proverb says. The proverb is a natural one and appears to be
remembered in the lines of Homer :—

Iliad xxi. 308:
pire xaciyynre, oOévos avépos apddrepoi mep
ox@pev.
Od. xvi. 97:
# Te Kaovyyntos emipéeueat, oloi mep avyp ;
papvapévoror mrémoe, Kat ef péya veikos Spyra..
76 heydpevov, as elsewhere, is an accusative in apposition to the
sentence. For the optative wapein, expressive of a wish or gentle
command, see Monro’s Homeric Grammar, § 299 b.

E ot] sc. Ady, which, as elsewhere, are personified.

~a
nine

>

—. Cs 2 halal
ey ee

Notes: Book I. 67

Glaucon had endeavoured to isolate justice and injustice from i

their consequences: ‘let the just suffer and the unjust be rewarded.’
‘But what are justice and injustice in their nature?’ Adeimantus
would wish also to make them independent of the opinion of men,
who maintain, not that the just will suffer, but (1) that he will be
rewarded (rods évavriovs Adyovs) in this world and also in another
(these are the sort of motives that they inculcate): (2) that injustice
is only condemned by opinion and custom, and may be readily
expiated. Here then is another reason for having a clear account
of the nature of justice and injustice.

Adeimantus, whose character is contrasted with that of Glaucon
throughout, as the more solid and practical is opposed to the eager
and impulsive nature,—(two contraries, which, as Plato remarks in
Ut. 503 C, are seldom to be found in the same person)—now urges

_ on Socrates a different set of considerations. Glaucon has shown

how the opponents of justice declare that seeming is better than
reality, and that the praise of justice arises from the fear of injustice.
According to Adeimantus, the world ts always, repeating that virtue
is honourable, but toilsome and difficult, vice easy and profitable,
although disreputable. The young are told to pursue justice, not for
its own sake, but for the sake of reputation and reward, and to
avoid injustice only from the fear of punishment. Poets and prose-
writers alike tell of temporal prosperity attending on justice here,
and sensual delights awaiting the just hereafter, and in speaking of
the penalties of injustice they bury souls in mud or make them carry
water in a sieve ; their imagination reaches no further (cp. Theaet.
177 A).
Aéyouot| resumes Adyous supra.

adtd Sixaoodvyvy] For this apposition of neuter and feminine,
which has led some of the copyists to write abrodicaoovyny in one
word on the supposed analogy of avroayabsy, cp. infra v. 472 C
éCnrodpev aird te Sixawoovvny oldv éortt, kal dvdpa tov redéws dixaoy:
also x. 612 B.

ylyyntar] not yiyvwvra, is the true reading. The singular has
a collective force which is assisted by the neuter écamep. Cp. infra
v. 463 A for... dpxovrés te kai Sjpos: Euthyd. 302 c fon... wal
Bopot kai iepd, x.r.d.

76 &8ixw| is read in x g v and is probably right, though perhaps
only a manuscript conjecture :—r@ dai, which is the reading of

F 2

a
E

Seer. Se
Pe ee Sts :

68 Plato: Republic.

Republic most MSS., including A 1M, may have arisen out of a logical con-
: * fusion. Madvig would delete the words, which are omitted in one
a MS. (Par. K). It is hardly conceivable that Plato should have

written dixaig = Soxodrre dixaig.

ent mhéov . . . & aor Geods Si8dvar] ‘ Now these make still more
of reputation ; for throwing in the good opinion of Heaven, they
have numberless benefits to relate, which the Gods, as they say,
confer on the pious.’ That is to say, they add the favour of Heaven
to the good opinion of men.

domep ... (c) wapéxn ix@ds] The first quotation is from Hesiod,

Opera et Dies, 230 :—-

Toior peper pev yaia moddv Biov, ovfpecr de dSpis

axpn pev te eper Badavovs, peoon S€, K.7A.
as in the text. There is no reason to suppose any variation in this
passage in the text of Hesiod. Plato has adapted the words to
suit the construction of his own sentence. The second passage is
quoted from the Odyssey, xix. 109-113, where ore rev is the
beginning of the verse, rev depending on «Aéos in the previous line,
and # is correlative to another #, which would have followed if the
sentence had been completed.

’

Mouoaios 8. . . Tots Sixators| ‘ And the blessings which Musaeus
and his son (Eumolpus? cp. Suidas s.v.) represent the Gods as
giving to the just are still more glorious.’ In the lively language
of Plato the poet is the maker of what he relates ; he takes his
heroes down into the world below, and lays them on couches, and
puts them into a state of intoxication, while others extend the
heavenly rewards yet further to their descendants (D paxporépous
droteivovar puobors mapa Oedv), paxpotépous is to be taken with
dmoteivovor. The jingle in cupméctov tv dciwv is perhaps inten-
tional: cp. Symp. 185 c Maveaviov d€ mavoapévov, diddoKover yap pe

G

toa déeyew- obTwot oi codoi.

D eis wyddv twa. . . dvayxdLoucr pépew| Phaedo 69 c xivduvevovar
kai of ras Tederds Hiv obra KataoTHoavtes ob paddoi twes elvat, GAAa TO
dvre mddat alvirresOut, Ste bs Gv ayvynros Kai aréAeoros eis “Adov adixyra,
év BopBép@ xeicera, K.7.A.: GOrg. 493 B as Tov év “Aidov . . . obrot GOAd-
ratot dy elev of dpinros, kat opoiev eis tov Terpnpévoy Tridov Ddap érépm
TOLOUT®@ TeTpNLEr@ KOTKiVe,

E adda 82 odk Exouerw] sc. A€yev. Plato has in his mind the only
real punishment of injustice, which such reasoners cannot see. Cp.

— =.
,

Notes: Book II. 69

Theaet. 176 D dyvoodar yap {nuiav ddiias, 6 87 ferra dyvoeiv, ob yap
carw hv Soxodor, mAnyal re Kal Oavaror, Sv éviore macxovow ovdév adixodv-
res, GAAa Hv advvarov éxpvyeiv, viz. that by their wicked acts they
become like the pattern of evil.

éxatépwv| i. e. r&v dixaiwy kai rdv adixov.

Again, they tell us that the way of virtue, though honourable, ts
grievous and toilsome, whereas vice is easy and pleasant, although
disreputable. And while dwelling on the rewards of virtue, they
speak also in the same breath of the prosperity of the wicked, and of
the misfortunes of the just, attributing both to the action of the Gods.
There are prophets, too, and mendicant priests, who profess to have
the means of reconciling the Gods to sinners, and these declarations
of theirs are confirmed by poets, who represent the Gods as not
inexorable,

What conclusion will a youth of lively parts gather from all
this? Will he not avoid the hard road which leads to possible
disaster and follow the smooth pathway of appearances, holding up
to the world a show of virtue, while in secret he pursues his own
interest? If a doubt ts suggested whether he can elude exposure, he
ts ready with an answer. Is there not rhetoric, the science of
persuasion, and the power of combination into clubs for mutual
security? May we not hope even to circumvent the Gods? And
perhaps there are no Gods. But tf there are, those who have told
us of them tell us also that they may be propitiated by sacrifice.
Then let us share our gains with them. You speak of the punish-
ments of the world below. But are there not mighty deities who
will give us absolution ?

mpds 8€ rovros... Kal dwd monty] ‘Further, Socrates, con-
sider yet another way of speaking about justice and injustice to
which utterance is given, not only by the poets, but also in prose
writing.” Cp. infra 3668 aird 8 éxdrepov ... . oidels mamore obt’ év
romoe ovr év idiors Adyous ere=NAOEV ixavds THAdyy. iBia is opposed to
ind wointav in the same way that iiimrns is opposed to a skilled
person. Cp. Phaedr. 258 p ev pérp@ as mouths, i dvev pérpov as iudrns.

ds émi 7d whos] ‘in general.’ Cp. Phaedr. 275 B dyvdpoves os
émi rd mAnOos Svres.

Kai movnpods mhoucious . . . Exovras] ‘wicked men who are rich
or have any power besides riches.’ das, sc. 4 mAodrov, understood
from mAovoious.

Republic
I.

363
E

363
_£

ps ee a

70 Plato: Republic.

Republic ebxepds| ‘lightly,’ is a word of blame here and in vii. 535 £
ns a GAN ebxepas Gorep Onpiov vevov év dpabia poddivyrat,

A toutwv S¢.. . évavtiav poipav| Compare infra 379 p, where the
Homeric sentiment of the two vessels of Zeus, the one full of good,
the other of evil destinies, is condemned ; also the words of Psalm
Xxxvii. 35 ‘I have seen the wicked in great power, and spreading
himself like a green bay tree,’ which are in like manner followed
by a justification of the ways of God to man.

B

Savpacidtaror héyovtat| Gavpaciwraro is the predicate of Aéyovrar,
in which the notion of Adyor is repeated. ‘The tales which are told
about the Gods and Virtue are the most wonderful of all. The
following words show the connexion implied in te kai. ‘ How the
Gods are disposed towards virtue.’

dyJptar] ‘begging priests.’ Cp. infra 381 p “Hpay dX\owwpevny
ws lépevay ayeipoveay,

Cc Bdayer}] ‘A man shall hurt, sc. weiovow as 6 Behav Braye.
The passage may be taken in two different ways according as-the
prophet or the person who consults him is supposed to be the
subject of dxeto8at supra. In the latter case there is no difficulty
in supplying the subject of BAae:. The regularity of construction
is interrupted by the sudden introduction of the direct form of
speech, which adds vividness to the passage. And the main thread
of the sentence is taken up again in émaywyats . . . dwnpereiv.
If the prophets are the subject throughout, the reading PAdpew
is more convenient though still not necessary. But the man
who has recourse to the prophet or priest is clearly the nomin-
ative to é0é\y, and is referred to in tov supra. Cp. 365 A py
Oicavras. PAdWe is found in almost all the MSS. and is a reading
which the scribes were unlikely to invent. Sddya is an emendation
of Muretus.

ot pev. .. 88dvres| ‘Those of them (i.e. of the persons men-
tioned in 364 a) who offer facilities for vice’ (calling Hesiod to
witness that, &c.). The conjecture of Muretus, approved by
Cobet, of pév . . . dBovres, ‘Some of them singing about the facility
of vice’ was needlessly adopted in Baiter’s edition of 1881. For
diddvres = Sidocba A€yovres Cp. Supra 363 C, D diddacx, ‘ represent as
being given,’ xaraxNivavres, katopvrrovow.

D hein pev 686s] The reading in the text of Hesiod (Opera et Dies,
286) is ddéyn, not Ai, which is found here and in Laws iv. 718 x,

| ee ee Mem, | ——
eal —

Notes: Book II. 71

where the quotation occurs again, and three other lines are added, Republic
the two last of which are quoted also in Prot. 340 p:— 7
304
aOdvaror, paxpds S¢ Kai dpOios olpos és airiy, D
kai Tpnxds Td mpa@rov" émiy 8° eis dkpov ixna,
pnidin 8 erera wéd\e, xarern wep éovoa.

The substitution of Xe for ddAtyn in Plato and also in Xenophon
(Mem. ii. 1, 20) and Plutarch (Mor. 77 p) is supposed to have been
intended to avoid tautology of the two ideas, édiyn 6dés and pdda
€yyo@& vaier, but such a tautology is frequent in Epic poetry: dédéyn,
of which pada 8 éyyi& vaiee is an explanation, is probably the true
reading, and is opposed to paxpés following.

atpemrot 8€ te Kai Geol adroit} The MSS. point to an early
variety of reading between Aroroi, and orpenroi which is the reading
of the original passage, II. ix. 497. The word Aords does not
occur elsewhere, though @\oros is found in Empedocles (frag. 50),
and rpiAdoros in Homer (Iliad viii. 488).

BiBdov 8€ Spasov mapéxovrat Mougaiou kat "Opdéws| For the E
_ ‘host’ of books cp. Eurip. Hippol. 953 :—
Ophea 7’ dvaxr’ exw
Baxxeve, moAX@v ypappdtev Tidy Karvous,

also Alcestis, 967 :—

Opnocas ev caviow, Tas

’Opheia xaréypaer

yipus"
and for the general thought in what follows, Soph. Fragm, 719

Dindorf (753 Nauck) :—
@s TptordABor

keivot Bporay, of raira depyOévres rédn
podrwo’ és “AiWov* roiade yap pdvois éxet
Civ €or, trois 8 &ddowwt mavt’ exe Kaka,
Homer, Hymn to Demeter, 480-482 :—

ddABtos, bs rad’ Orwmev émtyboviav dvOporevr

ds 8 dreds iepav, és 1 Eppopos, ottro8 dSpoinv

alcav éxet, POivevds wep, tmd Copm edpwevre.

Suidas has given a list of twenty-one Orphic works, which he

attributes to various authors ; one class of them being called rederai
and ascribed to Onomacritus. This and other passages (Phaedo

ies ae Mi)
teats

72 Plato: Republic.

Republic 69 Cc; Orat. 402 B; Phileb. 66 c) show that a body of writings,
. s * older probably than any Orphica which have come down to us,
= existed under the name of Orpheus in the age of Plato.
kai matStas %Sovav] ‘and sportive delights. The pleonasm

gives a scornful emphasis.

365 teetds| Compare Laws x. 908, 909, where the enemies of
religion are divided into two classes: (1) open unbelievers, who
may be honest and good men; and (2) insidious priests and
magicians, who practise upon the souls of the living and dead:
908 D yiyvovrat bé €& adray (sc. pavrewv) orw Gre Kai ripavvor Kai Snun-
yopot kat orpatnyol, Kai rederais dé idias émiBeBovdevkdres vodiaTay Te
émixadovpévey pnxavai: gog B dca 8 av . . . xaradhpovowvres de tev
avOparar uyaywyace pev ToddOds TOV CovTwr, Tos Sé TeOvedras pacKov-
res Wouxaywyeiv kat Oeois imirxvotpevor meibew, x.7r.. Both the open
unbeliever and the religious impostor are to be punished, the former
with a view to reformation, the latter more severely : both capitally,
if they persist after a five years’ imprisonment.

taita ... deydpeva] The accusativus pendens receives a con-
struction from dKovodeas, as the sentence proceeds.

és... Tis] tu) is here used in the active verbal sense—‘re-
gard ’—cp. supra 359 C emt ri rod icov riyny.

ti... movetv] ‘ How will they behave’ or ‘be affected?’ Essay
on Diction, vol. ii. p. 282.

donep émimtdpevor cuddoyicac0a.| The words suggest the image
of a wandering bee, gathering honey from each flower in passing.
Cp. Ion 534 B ek Moved knrov twav kai var@v Sperdpevor Ta péAn

npiv pépovow, Sorep ai péderrat.

B héyou yap ay . . . Aéyerar] aciv, like Aéyera, at the end of the
sentence, is a resumption of ra pey . . . Aeydpeva, which is out of
construction or rather in suspense. For the anacoluthon cp.
Polit. 295 D # may TO rowdrov ... EvpBaivoy ... yéAws av 6 péyoros

ylyvoiro tev ToLovT@y vouobernparT ay ;

métepov Sika Teixos Troy, x.7.A.] The same passage is cited by
Cicero ad Attic. xiii. 38, 41; Maxim. Tyr. xviii. init.; Atticus
Platonic. apud Euseb. Praep. Ev. xv. 798 p; and Dionys. Halic. de
Comp. verb. c. 21. From these sources Bergk gives the fragment
thus :—TIIdrepov Sixg reixos tyro | i oKohigis dmdras dvaBaiver | ém-
x4énov yévos avdpav, | Biya wor vdos arpéxecav eimeiv. Bergk observes

——s = = ‘et een |S” » oP on ee
eas a . ies -

> = “4
oa “See 7 °

. . “.

Notes: Book 11. ny

that Oeomeoios Bios and xiprov edSauovias in what follows have also
a poetical ring.

dav kai ph S0xd] ‘If at the same time I have the opposite
reputation. This, and not éav pi kai dona, is the reading of
a majority of MSS., and is more idiomatic.

adixw 8é] SC. évrt.

Td Soxeiv ... kai Tav GAdBerav Bidrar| The words of Simonides,
quoted by the Scholiast on Eur. Or. 782.

Kai Kdptov edSaipovias] sc. eori,

mpdOupa peév kat oxfpa} ‘As a vestibule and exterior.’ mpdééupa,
x.7.A., are accusatives in apposition to oxtaypadiav . . . weprypatréov,
and the whole sentence is explanatory of émi toéro 3) tpewréov ddws
and therefore in asyndeton.—cxaypadia in its simple meaning is
painting in light and shade. In Plato the word is metaphorically
used to imply illusion or unreality of any kind: cp. ix. 583 B ovde
mavadnOns eat 7 Tav Gdev Hdov)... addr’ éoxiaypadnuern : Phaedo
69 B py oxcaypadhia tis 7 1) TovavTy dpern, K.t.A. GAdTreka, ‘the fox,’ is
a more lively reading and better suited to the epithets xepSadéav and
_ roKiAny, ‘cunning and versatile,’ which are quoted from Archilochus,
than ddwrexjy, the fox’s skin, which is quoted in the Lexicon of
Timaeus. The fox—as the emblem of cunning—is to be trailed
behind. Cp. Themist. Orat. xxii. 279 A dvOpwmia opixpa Kal dvehev-
Gepa ras ddwmexas Omirbev epeAxdpeva: and Solon, Fr. 10. 7 dAwmexos
ixveot Baiver.

ob fadiov del NavOdvew Kaxdv dvra] For the failure of the wicked
in later life cp. x. 613 B of pév Sewvoi re kai GdiKxor Spdow Sep of Spopijs,

7 - ,
doo dv Oéwow db ard tev Kato, and 8€ TH ave pn.

tauty irdov, ds... €éper] ravry, ‘in this path’ (i.e. the path of
dissimulation and appearance) ‘we must proceed, following in the
track of the argument.’

émt yap 7d avOdvew| ‘ For’ (as to what you say of the difficulty
of escaping detection) ‘ with a view of escaping it,’ &c.—referring
to the previous words od padiov det AavOdvew Kaxdv dvra.

é§ dv] ‘So drawing from these resources.’ The antecedent to
év is the whole sentence from fuvwpooias to diddvres. The clubs
supply force ; the rhetors give the means of persuasion.

088" piv pednréov 100 AavOdvew] xal jyiv peAnréov is the reading of

¥ Geol a 3

74 Plato: Republic.

Republic ATIM. Buta wrong sense is thus given to the clause kai jpiv peAnréov

iI, 0% NavOdvew : ‘We must take care to conceal our crimes.’ Various
ways of removing the difficulty have been suggested. (1) Stall-
baum, in his later edition (1858), reads ri cai jyiv., .: and this is
supported by slight manuscript authority (Flor. x); but the new
interrogative beginning is too abrupt after odxody. (2) For peAnréor
the Zurich editions substitute dweAnréov, the conj. of Baiter. But
the meaning is not ‘We ought nof to attend to concealment,’
but ‘we eed not attend to concealment.’ The difficulty in the
passage is clearly the omission of the negative, which is a very
common kind of corruption. It may be supplied either by reading
with g od8 instead of «ai (as in the text), or with a still smaller
alteration, adopted by Schneider, of inserting od before peAnréov—
kai nuiv od peAnréov: or by throwing back the accent on ovkovv (sz),
a suggestion of Hermann’s, who thus obtains the required negative.
But in that case the force of ovcovy cannot be supposed to extend
equally to both members of the sentence, which are distributed by
pev and d€; in the second clause «i d¢, «.7.A., it must be assumed that
the negative is forgotten and the construction changed.

365
D

E edxwdais dyavyor] The reading dyavjo. here, as well as in
364 D, where some MSS. also read cdxwAgs, may possibly be
a correction of @yavaio. taken from the ordinary text of Homer.

ei 8 odv| ‘Now if we are to believe.’ The alternative con-
sequence which follows from the supposition ‘if we believe neither’
is too obvious to be expressed.

dnd tay d8ixnpdtov| ‘From the results of wrong-doing.’ For
the sense compare Shakespeare, Hamle/ iii. 3. 59 ‘And oft ’tis
seen the wicked prize itself Buys out the law: but ’tis not so
above.’

366 Sixaror.. . dLypror *pev, x.7.A.] The various reading pévoy, which

A is found in 11M and several other MSS. but not in Par. A, after
the first d¢nyioc, helps somewhat clumsily to point the sense: ‘ If
we are just, all that we gain is,’ &c. jév, the conjecture of Muretus,
gives a possible account of both the manuscript readings.

Gdixor Sé| sc. dvres,
Aroodpevor . . . &paptdvovres]| The line of Homer already
quoted — 364 E Aoodpevan, Ste kev tis tmepBnn Kai dpapty —is
ingeniously turned so as to Suggest the notion a sinning and
praying at once.

—- ? LOE ee
“yy elses "

Notes: Book 11. 75
% waides waidwv| Cp. supra 363 p.

ad péya Sdvavrar] These words happen to be omitted in Par.
A, showing that the best MSS. not unfrequently err. It is quite
unnecessary with Hermann to spoil the effect of a very spirited
passage by the introduction of a very tame emendation — add’
wpernrovaw ayviouevous ai rederat cai of Avow Gevi—in order to
vindicate the accidental omission of ad péya divavra in Par. A.

ai péywora: wéders] Meaning Athens, where the Eleusinian
mysteries had become part of the state religion.

Kai ol Gedy raises mointai] Either (1) ‘and the poets, who are
the children of the Gods’: sc. évres, absorbed in yevépevor, ‘and have
become their interpreters’: or (2) ‘the children of the Gods who
have become poets and the interpreters of the Gods.’ The
authority of states is contrasted with the genius of individuals. Cp.

infra ray moAd@v te Kar axpov.

tis pnxavy| This phrase from the more precise —‘ What
contrivance is there?’ has passed into the more general sense—
‘What possibility is there?’ Cp. Phaedo 72 p ris pnxav) pi odyi
mdvta katavahwOjva ; ‘How can it be but that all things would be
consumed ?’

ds 84 To... (D) add Spay] For a like humanity of feeling cp.
Vv. 476 E énixpumrdpevor Ste obx byaiver: vi. 492 A foll., 499 E;
Phaedr. 268 £; Laws x. 888, 903. The conviction that vice is
at any rate in some degree involuntary leads men to regard it in
a more tolerant spirit.

mv et tis Oeia ice] Cp. again vi. 492 E otre yap ylyera
obre yéyovev ovd€ ody pi) yévntat aAdoiov 00s mpos dperiy mapa Thy
rovrov madeiav remadevpevov,—avOpameiov, & éraipe’ Oetov pevror xara
Tv mapomiay éLatpSpev Adyov. See also the question raised in the
Meno and in Aristot. Eth. Nic. i. 9, whether virtue is not a
divine gift.

péyer| supply e&kacros from odSeis, as in Symp. 192 E raira dxovoas
... 008’ dv els eLapynbein .. . GAN’ dreyvas otoir’ dv dxnxodvat.

és 8é, SHAov] ‘And that this is so, is plain.’ Cp. Dem. c. Tim.
730, 25 as 8€, ey ppdow.
-° -tév TotovTwv] sc. rav Weydvrwy ri ddixiay,

Republic
71.

3766 D-
FOV E

366
D

367
A

76 Plato: Republic.

For these unworthy thoughts the friends of justice must be held
responsible, if they continue to dwell mainly on the consequences of
virtue and do not rather employ their eloquence to show that justice
is in its own nature the highest good and injustice the greatest evil.
Let Socrates apply himself to the task of showing this.

Sppynce.. . eimeiv| ‘And all this arises from one thing, which was
the beginning of our whole argument with you. My brother here
and I were impelled to say to you,’ &c. imeiv is an explanation of
Adyos and receives a subject from rede Kat ésoi—éore révde Kai eye
eineiv. For the expression cp. Hdt. vi. 86, 16 row 8€ eivexa 6 Adyos
66¢, & *AOnvaior, opunOn Aéeyer Oar és ipéas, cipnoerat.

& Saupdore] ‘What surprises me in all of you who praise
justice is that...’ The mode of address, & @avpdore, identifies
Socrates with the ordinary panegyrists of justice, with whom
Adeimantus is expostulating. Cp. Phaedr. 260 pb ri mor, &
Oavpdowo, Anpeire ;

dnd tov e& dpxiis. . . Aehetwpévor] Plato is referring to well-
known tales and maxims, which the poets and logographers had
put into the mouths of ancient heroes, such as the choice of
Heracles, or the advice of Erechtheus to his son in Euripides
(Fragm. 364, ll, 11-17) :— c

adikws S€ pi KT@ yxpnpat’, fv BovAn moddv
xpdvoy perdOpors eupever” ra yap Kakos

m” > , . > »” ,
oikovs éxehOdvt’ ovK exer TarTnpiar.
” ‘ a. ~ sy , > > ‘
éxew S€ meip@ Tovto yap rd 7r’ evyeves

A ‘ , / A , ”*
kat tovs ydauous didwar Tovds. mporous Exe.
ev to méverOa 5° ear qf 7 ddogia,
civ 7} copds tis, 7 T atuia Biov,

Sdgas, «.7.A.] Sc. émawav Kai péeyor.

év i8iors Adyous| ‘in ordinary speech,’ i.e. in prose. The poet
is a professional person. Cp. idia supra 363 ©, Phaedrus 258 p.-

adtés abtod ... pudag| After xaoros some MSS. (I g) introduce
aporos, which Bekker approved. The weight of authority seems
to be against it.

bwép] ‘Concerning.’ Cp. Apol. 39 © dws dv diadexBeinv imép

Tov yeyovdtos TouvToUt mpayparos.

goptixas] ‘grossly,’ ‘unworthily.’ The word has an associa-

Notes: Book Il, 77

tion of vulgarity or bad taste: infra vii. 528 2 ds poprixas émawodvrt :
Theaet. 183 & x) hoprixds cxorapuev—‘ lest we consider the subject
in an unworthy manner.’

god émOupdv dxoicat tavavria] is emphatic: ‘it is because
I wish to hear from you the opposite side, that I speak with so
much earnestness, for I may as well be open with you.’

és Stvopar pddiora] Cp. supra 358 p, where Glaucon says—

806 karareivas €pa@, «.7.2.

ei yap... péyew GANA 7d Boxeiv| ‘ For unless you subtract from
both of them their true reputation, and unless you add on the false
one (p¥ is to be repeated with mpoo@yeets), we shall say that you
do not praise justice, but the appearance of justice, nor blame the
being unjust, but the seeming to be.’

While the essences of justice and injustice remain the same,
their consequences are supposed to be interchanged. The second
G\Aa 7d Soxeiv is Omitted in the text of A, but has been added in
the margin by the second hand.

Td pév Bikatoy Addétprov dyabdy, x.7.A.] Cp. i. 343 €.

Td 8€ GSinov adrd pév, x.t.d.] The unjust is expedient to
a man’s self, as above i. 344 c 1d & ddiKov éavt@ Avouredody re
kai Evyépor.

reid}, obv Gpoddynoas ... paddov adta abtav] See above 357
B foll. Plato is fond of ‘looping up’ the argument by allusions
to what has preceded. At the beginning of the Book, justice was
placed in the second or ‘fairest’ class of goods, that is to say, goods
desirable in themselves and for their consequences. Adeimantus
in the words—rokd 8é paddov alta aétov—has slightly altered this
statement of Socrates, making justice belong to that class of goods
which are desired much more for their own sakes than for their
results.

We may observe rte followed by 8€ as otre by ovd¢ when
a clause is emphasized, as below vi. 499 B odre méds ore modt-
teia ovde y avnp,

kal dycatvew 81] 84 calls special attention to dyaivew. Cp. Theaet.
156 B kat ndovai ye 5) Kai Admac: Meno 87 E loxds Kai Kdddos kai
mrovros 87, infra vi. 503 E.

yévusa} ‘genuine,’ ‘real.’ Cp. yévpov mouwrqy in Aristophanes
(Ran. 96).

Republic
I.

367
D

367 F-
369 A

368
A

78 Plato: Republic.

todr ov add... BAdwrer] 8 adrh, x.7.A. is an explanation of
rovr’ aité, which also refers to the previous context. ‘She by
herself ’—setting aside the consequences which flow from her. kat
éS.xia BAdmre: is an instance of an unnecessary (and here ungram-
matical) addition of a correlative clause.

dvacxoiuny av] The MSS. vary between dmocyoiuny, drodexoluny,
and dvacyxoipny, the reading of 2, which has also the authority of the
Scholiast and is represented in the version of Ficinus. The
construction of the genitive with dvéyoua: occurs again in viii.
564 D kal ovK dvéxerat tod GAda Aéyorros, Protag. 323 A eikdras

a > > 7
dravtos avdpos avéxovrat,

ei pi od Kedevers| KeAevors is the reading of Par. A (with the iota
over an erasure) and should perhaps be preferred to xedevess.

édv te NavOdvy, x.7.A.] These words are repeated almost verbatim
in two other places, iv. 427 D, ix. 580 c,—where Socrates claims
to have fulfilled the present demand. See note on 367 c ered)

ovv @poddynoas, K.TA.

Socrates ts greatly struck by the divine instinct which has kept in
the paths of virtue two young men who are able to plead so eloquently
for the opposite of virtue—-He is discouraged at not having satisfied
them, but in the sacred cause of Justice he may not falter. He
suggests an expedient by which the discussion may be facilitated.
Justice is an attribute of States as well as of individuals, and in the
state it must surely be present on a larger scale. Justice in the state
may be compared to a writing in large letters, and in the individual
to a writing in small letters. Having failed in our attempt to
decipher the small characters, let us now begin with the larger, and
afterwards return to the smaller letters.

kat éya ... etmov| For the form of the sentence cp. Protag,
335 E det pev ¢ywyé cou thy dirocopiay ayapat, drap Kal viv emawe Kal
prs.

éxetvou tod dv8pés] Not Thrasymachus, as Stallbaum ridicu-
lously supposes (quoting in proof of his opinion Phileb. 36 p,
where Protarchus, who supports the doctrines of Philebus, is
jestingly addressed as & sai ’keivov ravdpés), but Ariston, whose
name immediately follows, and is connected with the phrase by the
repetition of the word zaides. What the passage of the Philebus
really proves is that this was a familiar mode of address amongst

Notes: Book /1. 79

intimate friends. As in other passages (Theaet. 207 p aira : Sophist
263 & avréd), the demonstrative waits for the correlative word, which
is supplied by the verse. The ‘pronominal phrase’ éxeivou tod
évSpds, ‘of that man,’ prepares for the quotation from the Elegiac
Poem and avoids the repetition of the name of Ariston.

epi thy Meyapot pdxnv| The battle of Megara here referred to
may be one of those mentioned by Diodorus (xiii. 65, 72) as having
taken place in 409 or 405. As the Athenians were constantly at
war with the Megarians, it may also be some minor engagement
which is unrecorded. It certainly could not have been the battle
in 424, because Plato, who was the eldest of the family, was only
born in 430 or 428. We may be certain of so much :—(r) that
Glaucon and Adeimantus were Plato’s brothers; (2) that they
did distinguish themselves at a battle of Megara; (3) that this
battle was not the famous one in 424. Cp. Béckh 439, 440.

ed Soxet éxew] ‘seems to be very appropriate.’ Cp. i. 329 E.
Soxeire 84 por . . . Amlotouw ay spiv] ‘I do believe that you
are really not convinced; and I gather this from your general

character, for if I judged by your words only, I should not trust
you.’

éx tod Gdou] dAdos here, as frequently in Plato, and occasionally
in other writers, is used adverbially ; not ‘I judge from the rest of
your character, but ‘I judge from something else [than your
speech] which is your character. Cp. supra 357 .c. The anti-
thesis is further pointed by aérous in adtods tods Adyous.

& 1 Xpyowpat] used absolutely, as in Protag. 321 c nmdépe 6 te
xpnoaro: Gorg. 465 E eay ... cod dmroxpwapevou py exw 6 Te xpno@pat.
ph Bondeiv] sc. 77 dxaoodyy.

éwerd}) ody, x.7.A.| For od Seivoi cp. Theaet. 154 D ovxoiy ef pév
Servol kai cool eye re kai od jpev, x.7.., and, for the favourite illustra-
tion from letters, Polit. 277.8 foll., where the argument is from the
simpler to the more complex, as here from the greater to the
smaller. otaymep av ei may be compared with the elliptical formula
Gonep dv ci. The sentence is complicated. It would naturally
have run thus: ‘We should make such an enquiry as near-sighted
people would make, if they were bidden to read small letters
at a distance, and some one discovered that the same letters
‘existed elsewhere larger and on a larger ground. It would be
thought a gain to read the larger letters first, and then proceed to

Republic
/7.
368
A

Republic
Lh
368
D

369
A

80 Plato: Republic.

the lesser. These two sentences are compressed into one, the
apodosis of the first (eroujoaré ts), or some such words, being
omitted, and éppatov av épdvn, strictly an epexegesis of it, taking its
place. For a similar accusative out of construction, cp. especially iv.
434 D (where this passage is referred to) viv & éxrekéowper tiv oxeyw
iv @nOnuev, x.r.4. Compare the use of domep ei with a sentence
following : e.g. Theaet. 197 c aAX’ Gomep cf tis . . . tpépor, and else-
where.

odtws| SC. mpa@rov dvayvorras,

ei Ta ata Svra tuyxdver}| ‘To discover if they are really the
same. See the transition from the state to the individual, which
is made with a reference to this passage in iv. 434 D.

ti tovodrov . . . KaBopas| ‘What do you see like this in the
inquiry respecting justice?’ i.e. how is the inquiry facilitated by the
simile of the large and small letters?

tows roivuy .. . évein| There is a touch of Socratic irony here.

Thy Tod peiLovos . . . émiaxotodvres| ‘ Looking for the likeness
of the greater in the form of the less.’

yevopévou adtod| ‘ When we have done as we propose.’ Sc. rod
‘ A , /
yiyverOar thy TOdAw Adyy.

Soxet ody xpivat, x.7.A.] The apparent backwardness of Socrates
has the effect of stimulating his hearers. The crowning instance
of this is in v. 472 A.

The state is the offspring of mutual need. No individual can
supply a tithe of his own wants. Each therefore invites the co-opera-
tion of others, and the resulting association constitutes the state.

Primary wants are those of food, shelter, raiment and shoes, and
these are supplied by the husbandman, the builder, the weaver and
the cobbler.

Their labours must be divided, and each must produce enough of
his commodity, and that of the right quality, to supply the rest.

This division of labour is approved upon the following grounds :—
1. Watural aptitudes differ. 2. A man who has one calling only
is more likely to excel in it. 3. Work must be done at the right
time, and therefore there should be no risk of the workmen being
otherwise engaged. A market must also be provided ; and a medium
of exchange.

And the principle must be carried further. The manufacture of

Notes: Book 11. 8r

tools and implements must be committed to the carpenter and smith, —_
and there must be a class of herdsmen and shepherds to rear the 6 a
animals required for husbandry and for use in building, and for the ee E
supply of wool and leather to the weaver and the shoe-maker.

Our city is growing in size and can hardly be self-supporting.
This deficiency leads to importation, and this to the creation of
a mercantile class, and then, as imports necessitate exports, there is
an increase of the number of persons in the city who are engaged in
production. There must also be ships and satlors, and as exchange
within the city grows more complex, barter becomes purchase,
a currency is established, and a class of retail merchants is
created. Lastly, the bulk of the commodities now carried to and
Sro necessitates a class of hired porters, who complete our simple
State.

yiyverat toivuy... modus] The real origin of society is beyond 369
the horizon of human history. We reconstruct the fabric on some
modern basis of contract, divine right, division of labour, mutual
necessity, or obligation, which is ascribed by us to the earliest ages.
But the society which we put together is only that which we have
previously taken to pieces. We mistake the scientific exposition of
a subject for its historical growth and development. The prin-
ciples which we suppose to have been known and recognized by
all mankind from the beginning, are really working in them, but
unconsciously. They grew like children according to certain laws,
but they did not understand these laws.

tiv’ ote... . wédw oixifew] ‘Or to what other origin would
you attribute the foundation of the state?’ (Literally, ‘ What other
beginning, think you, founds the state?’) Necessity is the mparos
oixeatns. For the liveliness of the expression, cp. infra c moon
8€ airy... 7) jperépa xpeia,

otrw Sh dpa . . . €éueOa wédw Svoua] The plural isthe main C

subject : this is subdivided by wapakapBdvwv, which is attracted by
Gos into the singular: cp. juav éxagros in the last sentence.

Gos GAov . , . éw GAdou xpeia] ‘One taking to himself one
person for one purpose, another taking another for a different
purpose, and yet another for another purpose still.’ The complex
expression reflects the mutual interlacing of various needs.

peradidwor $i)... dpewov elvar] ‘And so one gives to another
VOL. Ul. G

Republic
I.

369
C

D

82 Plato: Republic.

or receives from another, because he believes it to be better for
him’ (to do so).

i. SH . . . Hperépa xpeia| ‘Well then, said I, let us in idea
create a city from the beginning ; although our need will be the
real creator.’

kai tav tovovtwy| preparing for oxvrorépos infra.

dépe 84, «.7..] Aristotle, misunderstanding the imaginative and
artistic treatment of the subject, which he takes as matter of fact,
makes a superficial criticism on this passage in Pol. iv. 4, § 12, which
is as follows: ‘ Socrates says that a state is made up of four sorts
of people who are absolutely necessary; these are a weaver,
a husbandman, a shoemaker, and a builder; afterwards, finding
that they are not enough, he adds a smith, and again a herdsman,
to look after the necessary animals; then a merchant, and then
a retail trader. All these together form the complement of the first
state, as if a state were established merely to supply the necessaries
of life, rather than for the sake of the good, or stood equally in
need of shoemakers and husbandmen.’ Stallbaum (note on 369 B)
says: ‘ Aristoteles causam (die Veranlassung) et finem (den Zweck)
non distinxit, licet alibi discrimen eorum non neglexerit.’ It is
quite true that Plato is not here speaking of the final cause of the
state, but of the immediate cause of its origin. It is Aristotle who
substitutes one for the other and thereby introduces confusion.

énl tocadtyy mapackeuyy| ‘To provide all this.’ Socrates play-
fully exaggerates the wants of his primitive state. Cp. the serious
use in Vii. 535 C rocatryy pdbnow. ,

yewpyds pev els] sc. éora, implied in the previous verb.

oxutotépov| This word, like ‘cobbler’ among ourselves, appears
to have had ludicrous associations. Cp. infra 374 B; Vv. 466 B xara

Tov T@Y OKUTOTOMwY. . . Biov.
aitéce] ‘thereto,’ i.e. to those already mentioned.

tiv wept 7d cdpa] Either (1) neuter, or better (2) masculine:
‘another of those who minister to the body.’

H ye dvayxasordry wédts] Either ‘the barest idea of a state,’ or
‘a state which provides for the barest necessities.’ Probably
a slight play is intended on both senses of the word dvayxaios.
There appears to be a similar double meaning in vii. 527 A A¢yover
pév mov pada yedolws re kal dvaykatws, ‘ they speak very ludicrously and

“

Notes: Book I. 83

meagrely,’ i.e. with a view to mere necessities ; but not without an Repudlic
allusion to geometrical necessity. Also in ix. 574 B évexa.. . ovx :

6
dvaykaias éraipas . . . THY . . . dvayxaiay pntépa. The geometrical oY
meaning is also played upon in v. 458 D od yewperpixais ye, . . . GAN
€pwrixais dvdykas.

épehyjoavta} sc. Tay Gov. E

Ta abtoG mpdtrew] Compare Charm. 161 £, where this simple 370
notion of doing one’s own business, which has been suggested as
a definition of cappoovvn, is humorously set aside: Soxet dv cou modus
ev olxeicOat ind rovrov Tod vdpou Tod KeAeVovTos TO éavToOd ipdtiov ExaaTov
baive Kai mrovvew, kai Urodjpata oxvroropeiv, Kai AnKvOov Kai orheyyida
kat Ta\\a mdvra Kara roy avrdv Adyov, Ta pév addXoTpiov pi) GnrecOa, Ta

d€ éavrod Exaorov épyateoOai re kal mpdarrew ; Ov« Epyorye Soxei, i 8 ds,

GAN’ tows . . . pdov % *kelvws| ‘ But surely, Socrates, the former
way (oUtw, sc. by co-operation) is easier than the second way’
(éxeivas, by isolation). ¢d:0rv, which is the reading of Par. A and of
the great majority of MSS., is supported by Meno 94 £ padidv éore
Kak@s troveiy avOporous f} ev. ‘The manuscript emendation, paorv, may
be right (see v. rr. on i. 348 E), but is not absolutely necessary. The
confusion, if so be, arises from dz/ographia and the similarity of
A to A (pao, paraov, padiov), ottw refers to the more familiar of
the two alternatives, which is nearer in the speaker’s mind.

évvod yap . . . eimévtos aod] ‘It comes into my mind now you
speak.’ Socrates has been leading Adeimantus to this result, which
he now characteristically pretends to gather from him. The geni-
tive absolute indicates the occasion rather than the cause: cp. infra

383 A ovras, eqn, Eporye kal aire Haiverac coi eyovros.

gverar| © This word has the chief emphasis, and is resumed in
gvow. The first point is that all have not the same natural
aptitudes.

mpatw] The reading mpdfe (Mr) is not impossible. B
Srav ploy ets] sc. epydtnrar.

of ydp, oluo... . é€v mapépyou péper| ‘For the business, I con-
ceive, will not wait for the leisure of the doer of the business, but
the doer must keep at the work, making it his first object.’ For
the metaphorical application of é@é\ew to things without life, cp.
infra iv. 436 B ravrév ravavria Troeiv } maoxew. . . ok eednoe, So
Hdt. i. 74 ovpBdores ioxvpai oix €bédovoe ovppéverw.
G 2

Republic
I.
370

3

D

84 Plato: Republic.

éraxohoubeiy] Cp. iii. 406 B mapaxodovdv yap TO voohpart.

éx 8} todrwy ... mpdtry| The order is inverted, whelw referring
to xaipéy, KddALOv to Grav piav els, fdov to vera, in what precedes.

téxtoves 84| 87, not 8¢, is the true reading. ‘And so,’ &c.

GAN’ ok Gv mw] ove, like odxérs (373 A, 468 B), is used to imply
stages in the argument. Cp, supra i. 353 c od ydp mw rovro épara—
‘I have not yet come to that question.’ —

iva of te yewpyol... xpio8a dmofuyios| ‘That the husband-
men may have oxen to plough with, and builders, as well as
husbandmen, the use of cattle for draught.’ éxovey is used in
a double sense and construction—é€yoev (‘ possess’) Bods and ¢xoev
(‘be able’) ypjcOa; ¢xoev follows the mood of mpocbcipev: ‘if we
were to give them shepherds and other herdsmen that the husband-
men might have oxen for the plough.’ Every possible use of the
animals is enumerated except that‘of eatingthem. This is reserved
for the luxurious state. Cp, infra 373 c Seve b€ cai trav Mdov
Booknpdrey raurdddov, ef tis atta Eera. [bmofvyios, which should
have been accusative after ¢youev, is attracted into construction with
xp7ncOa.—L. C.]

aithy thy wékw] ‘To place the city itself’ (not to speak further
of the things contained in the city) ‘where no imports are required,
is well-nigh impossible.’ airny opposes the state to the previously
mentioned individuals who are included in it. Cp. especially Thuc.
ii. 60, § 4 drdre ody modus pev Tas dias Evyppopas ota re Hépewy, ets 8 Exaaros
Tas exeivns advvatos, Ts ov xpi) TavTas auvvew adTh ;

xevds &v ty] ety is found in all the manuscripts with the exception
of 78’. But the meaning of the words xevds dy ein is poor and feeble,
and the asyndeton at xevés Gmevow indefensible. The reading xevis
ay t, though probably a manuscript conjecture, is most likely to be
the true one. ‘But if the minister come empty-handed, and bring
nothing which the other people want, whoever they may be from
whom they obtain the supply of their needs, he will depart empty-
handed. ‘The position of xevéds before ay ty is emphatic, and
prepares for the repetition of the word.

Set 84] ‘ And, therefore, what they produce at home must be not
only enough for themselves, but also enough and of the right kind
to accommodate (subaud. ixavd éorw) those of whom (i.e. of whose
commodities) they stand in need.’ The slight difficulty of explain-
ing the last words of this sentence has probably Jed to the insertion of

a)

me a. q

Notes: Book Ll. 85

dfovow of peradorovew before dy av Séwvrat in g. Either (1) Sv may
be taken as masculine: in this case the construction is peculiar and
different from dv éxeivor déovrat in the preceding sentence : ‘ Those
of whom they stand in need’: i.e. of whose commodities they stand
in need; or (2), placing a comma after éxeivos, the clause Sy dy
déwvrac may be taken as epexegetic—ola rai dca ékeivois, SC. ixavd,
‘but in quality and measure suited to them (viz. those of whom they
buy, map’ Sv av xopifovrar)—whatever the things are which they
require.’ The former interpretation (1) is the more probable.

tav G&\Awv Siaxdvav| ‘And we shall also want the ministerial
class of whom we spoke before, who will have to import and export
the various products.’ @ddwv is adverbial. The article recalls the
previous mention of them in 370 £. Itis implied, but not expressed,
that this-class also must be increased.

év aéry tH mode] ‘In the city itself’ The pronoun here
distinguishes the internal from the external commerce of the city.

dv 8% évexa| sc. rod peradiddvat, x.7.A., supra 369 C.

dyopd...é« rodrou] ‘The next step will be to have a market-
place, and a money-token for purposes of exchange.’

Thy Siaxoviay ....tadtyy] ‘this service ’—of selling, as infra z
Thy tysnvy taitny. The antecedent has to be collected from the
previous words év dyopa xaOjoat.

airy... 74 mode] ‘This want, then (i.e. of ministers of
exchange), calls retail-traders into existence in the state.’

tods 8€ mAdvyntas émi tas méders] He recalls the gsmopo
mentioned in 371 a in order to distinguish them from the xdmndou,

Thy typhy tadrny picbdv Kadodvtes| ‘Who, selling the use of
their strength, because they call the pay thereby obtained hire are
called hirelings.’ tatrny refers to mwAodvres: cp. Theaet, 168 B dvri
proodpov picovvras roiro rd mpaypa (=duidocopiay) and supra Cc rH
Staxoviav . . . TavTny,

Plato is not a bad political economist ; he saw the advantage of
a division of labour (cp. Laws viii. 846 p, £) in saving the time and
improving the skill of the labourers, and the accordance of such
a division with the natural differences of mankind. The distinctions
of manufacturers and dealers, and of soldiers and citizens, are based
by him on the same principle, of which he also makes a fanciful

Republic
171.

371
A

Republic
/1.

371
E

372 A-
373 €

86 Plato: Republic.

application in his objections to the drama (iii. 395 a, B ‘One
man cannot in his life play many parts’). He further saw the
necessity of foreign trade or ‘territorial division of labour,’ in
speaking of which Plato almost uses the formula of modern
economical writers.

mAjpwpa... pic@wroi] ‘Then hirelings also go to make up
a state.’

Where in the state are Justice and Injustice and at what point
in the growth of the state do they come in? Adeimantus thinks
that Justice somehow springs out of the mutual intercourse of the
different classes with each other. Socrates then proceeds to describe
the way of living in the primitive state.

But the rudeness of this Arcadian simplicity is distasteful to
Glaucon, who, as a man of pleasure, demands that thetr citizens
should have the comforts of civilized life.

And Socrates does not object. For the contrast between Justice
and Injustice is likely to be more apparent when luxury has set in.

The first consequence is a further enlargement of the city by the
addition of classes devoted to the supply of artificial wants ; animals
will be reared for food ; more servants too, amongst others the class
of swine-herds, as well as cooks and confectioners, will be required.
The sphere of medicine also will be greatly extended.

xpeta| Here used in the sense of ‘intercourse ’ or ‘ dealings with
one another.’ Cp. Aristot. Rhet. i. 15, 22.

Opépovrar . .. wédepov] The main verb @péyovra is forgotten in
the accumulation of participles: and when the sentence is resumed

-with greater emphasis in the words pdfas, «.t.A., a word more

suitable to the context (edwxyjovra) takes its place. Hence an

. asyndeton.

Tav kpiOav ... tav mupav| The article refers to sirov supra.

Td pév| SC. ra GAevpa.

Ta 8€] sc. ra GAdura—a simple chiasm. See vol. ii. p. 160, 1. 48.
patas yervaias] ‘Noble bannocks,’ see note on i. 348 c.

émi oTtBddev eotpopevwy piraxt te Kal puppivas| ‘On pallets
spread of yew and myrtle boughs.’

Too oivou| the article referring to irév re movodvres Kai olvov.

Notes: Book I. 87

_ obx Omép Thy odeiav morodpevor Tols waidas| cp. iv. 421 E-423 C,
where the question of population recurs.

edhaBodpevor . . . wédepov| cp. infra 373 p, where war is seen to
be occasioned by the excess of population over territory.

Gveu Sou .. . dotiwpévous | éorimpévovs conveys a sarcastic allusion
to ebwxjoovra. ‘ You call it feasting when they have nothing but
dry bread }’

kal BodBods Kat Adxava . . . épyoovrar| ‘And they will boil
truffles and cabbages—such vegetables for boiling as, you know,
are to be had in the country.’ Xen. Cyr. i. 2, § 8 asserts that cress
(xdpSapov) was the only éyor allowed to the Persian youth when
under training.

Socrates assumes a charming unconsciousness of Glaucon’s
meaning when he asks for éwov, and, like Grumio, ‘feeds him with
the name of meat.’

petpiws dmomivovres] ‘Drinking moderately the while.’ io-
implies that the wine was an accompaniment of the ‘ dessert.’ Cp.
Anacreon f. 63 (quoted by L. and S. s. v.) xadois imomivovres ev

ad
vpvots,

et S€ bGv wédw, «.7.A.] This picture of paradisiacal simplicity
and vegetable diet has no attractions for Glaucon, who abruptly
exclaims : ‘ And if, Socrates, you were establishing a common-
wealth of pigs, how else would you be feeding the beasts?’ (xoprdfew
is used properly of animals). ‘But what ought I to do, Glaucon?

said I. Let them have the usages of civilized life: people who are

to be comfortable should lie on sofas and dine off tables, and have
dainties and dessert after the modern fashion.’ In this easy,
humorous style Plato makes the transition from the first simple
notion of a state to the more complex. With adda mds xpq and Garep
vopiferar, some general words like woiew and dddéva have to be
supplied from éxdéprates.

emi Te kKAWav KaTaKeioOat | in apposition with Gwep vowiferar. xdivn,
‘a couch,’ is opposed to orBas, ‘a pallet,’ supra B.
Spa] sc. éxew, absorbed in exouar.

oxomouvtes yap . . . éuddovrar| Socrates ironically dissembles
his real meaning, which is that without taking into account the evils

attributable to luxury, and amongst other evils war. any real inquiry
into the origin and growth of justice and injustice would be

Republic
I.

372
E

373
A

88 Plato: Republic.

impossible. Plato does not seek for justice in the simple state,
because his idea of it and his anxiety to elaborate a parallel between
the virtues of the individual and the state requires a more complex
and highly organized form of society. There must be three classes
in the state (as there are three parts of the soul)—each having its
appropriate virtue of temperance, wisdom, courage,—before there
can be justice, which is the harmonious blending of three virtues or
cooperation of the three classes in the state. These three virtues
and classes have no sufficient razson d étfre in the city of pigs.

pev ody... byens tus] The word bys, which is softened by
domep, prepares the way for the stronger metaphor of $Aeypatvoucay
médwv, which follows. Cp. Laws iii. 691 E vows tis... xariotca
ipa thy dpxny pdeypatvougay ere,

ei 8 ad BovdeoGe . . . Oewpyowpev| The subjunctive in phrases
of this kind was originally interrogative, but the exact relation of
the words was forgotten in the course of time. Goodwin, 1. and
T. § 287, 288.

taita yap 84 tow] Socrates thus playfully alludes to the
displeasure which Glaucon expresses at the simple state.

kNivat, K.7.A.] «Aiva are’ to supersede the yew and myrtle boughs,
tpdmeLat to take the place of the clean leaves.

éraipat| are introduced mapd mpoodoxiav among cakes and oint-
ments, as below éri 5€ kal cv8arav mpoodenodpeba, in contrast with the
more refined ministers of luxury. A link of association is supplied
by the mention of the rich perfumes and other sensual delights,
A similar juxtaposition occurs in the Theaetetus, 175 E pndé éyov
jddvac } mas Aéyous. So infra iii. 404 D weyers dpa Kal Kopwliav
képnv pidnv eiva, where the Kopw6ia xépy is mentioned along with
the luxuries of the table.

kat Spa 8] the particle 47 calls attention to the special demand
of Glaucon for éyov in 372 c, which Socrates now satisfies.

éxaota Tovtwy tavtodamd| The asyndeton adds to the effect, as
in iv. 434 A mdavra ra\da peraddarrépeva,

kai 8} kat... Oeréov] The antecedent to 4 is repeated with
a limitation in ta dvayxata. ‘In providing what we first spoke of
(shelter and covering) we must no longer ordain mere necessaries,
as houses, garments, shoes, but set-a-going the arts of decoration,’

kal thv mouxdiav] These words are omitted in Par. A and

Notes: Book I. "89

several other MSS., but their presence in 0 shows the reading i
to be an early one, and as decoration is required for houses in
the luxurious state, so embroidery is required for clothing. 373

peiLovd te ad] The correlative sentence is deferred; it is B
probably to be found in kai 4 yapa mov, «.7.d. (infra p).

Sykou . . . kai mAnOous| ‘It is to be increased in bulk and
number.’ The words have a depreciatory tone, and are suggestive
of a huge unwieldy multitude.

otov . . . pipntai] (x1) It is not certain whether in this passage
@npevtai simply means ‘ huntsmen,’ who may be supposed to supply
the wants of the luxurious citizens, or whether it includes the
association of ‘hunters of men,’ ‘birds of prey,’ who live by their
wits at the expense of others (observe the addition of mdvres sug-
gesting a multifarious class). The love of fanciful language in
Plato, and also the tendency to fanciful comparisons and generali-
zations, which is apt to prevail in the infancy of dialectic (see
especially the Sophist and Politicus, in both of which @ypeuricy and
piuntiexn occur together, as Onpevrai and pupnrai in this passage,—
Soph. 265 A, Polit. 299 p), makes it likely that this mischievous
second intention of the word has not been forgotten by Plato. So
the Sophist is termed véwv kal rrovalwv expr bos Onpevtns (Soph. 231 D),
and the art of the Sophist (Euthyd, 290 B), Onpeutixi . . . réxvn avOpo-
mov: in Laws vii. 823 B, the term 6npa is extended to men as well
as to beasts and birds, so as to include thieves, pirates, &c.,—as
also in the Sophist and Politicus, where the @npa rav jpépwov has
many subdivisions, including piracy, kidnapping, law, rhetoric, and
sophistry (Soph. 222 B foll.)—and orparyy«y is included under
Onpevrixy (Polit. 299 D otparnyixijs Kai Evpmdons jotwocodv Onpevtixis
kai ypaduxis f) Evpmdons pépos dtiodv piuntixyns). Cp. also Xen. Mem.
ii, 6. 29. (2) On the other hand, although the metaphorical
use of @npevrns is common, it may seem that the word could
hardly be applied in this way without some preparation or
explanation.

ot mepi Ta oxypard te Kai xpdpara| Simply ‘forms and colours,’
a general expression, including probably sculptors, painters, archi-
tects, as well as inferior decorative artists—not dancers, who are
referred to under the next head (xopeurat).

moutai] The poets are allowed to enter with other peuyrai, but
most of them in Book iii are afterwards driven out. And by this

373
D

Ss we ee

90 Plato: Republic.

reform of povown Socrates professes to have done something to
purge the fevered commonwealth: cp. infra iii. 399 E kat vy Tov Kiva,
cirov, NednOapev ye Siaxabaipovres médw ty dpre rpuvpav epayev modu.
The purgation is made more complete in Book x. fawpwSoi,
émroxpitai, xopeutat, épyohdBor are the ministers of the poets.

maisaywyav| Fathers will no longer look after their sons them-
selves. Mothers will not suckle their own children. All sorts of
persons will be required to minister to the extravagances of fashion
and the luxuries of the table.

ért 8€ kai cuBwrdv| This is humorously added. Swine are fed
only for eating; they were not wanted in a state that dispensed
with animal food.

toito . . . tovtou|. The vagueness of the reference renders the
transition easy to ‘the other animals,’ as if swine, and not their
keepers, had been mentioned at first. In what follows the emphasis
is on wapméd\dov. The other animals (that were included in the
former state) will be needed in far greater numbers than before,
i.e. not only enough for ploughing, draught, &c. (supra 370 E),
but also for the table.

iatpav év xpetats] The plural in xpeias is occasioned by iarpav.

A further consequence of luxury ts that we shall be no longer content
with the boundaries of our original territory, nor our neighbours
with theirs: each will covet a portion of the others land. And so
we shall go to war :—which to states ts the source of so many evils.
For self-protection we must now have a soldier-class, which, like the
other classes, will devote itself exclusively to its own pursutts.

In appointing the guardians, we must first of all select suitable
natures. But what natures are suitable? The example of the
watch-dog may instruct us here. For he, too, is a guardian.
And we observe that courage and gentleness are united in him.
Is such a combination possible in man? The difficulty seems at
first sight insuperable; yet our illustration of the watch-dog
shows a way out of it; for dogs are fierce to strangers, but
gentle to those whom they know. May we not then infer that
the love of knowledge in a spirited nature is the combination for
which we are seeking. 7

&oowv abtods| It is this prevalence of the lower nature (adnpoor,
xpypariorixdv) which occasions the degeneracy of the state in Book

f

o fia “calla Pia 2 Se) ee ae =

Notes: Book Il, 91

viii. (pp. 547, 550° ff.). Cp. also the downfall of Atlantis in the
Critias (120 p ff.).

mohepjoopey . . . Stray yiyymrat} Without enlarging on the
precise effects of war, Socrates is content to argue that war
arises from the same cause (i.e. luxury), as most of the other
evils of mankind.

._ €§ dv] Either (1) referring to rod¢yov (plural to singular, whence
two MSS, read é& of), or (2) = €& exeivav yeyvouévov Sv. For Stay
yiyrnrat, which is equivalent to éxdorore, cp. Euthyphr. 7 p ¢x@poi
dAnrots yryvdpeba, Grav yryvopeba,

dk» otpatorédw| follows the construction of opixp@ which is
a dative of measure or excess.

imép Gv viv 8) éXéyopevy] perhaps with an ironical reference to
ritOat Kopperpia xoupeis, &c.

abrot ox ixavot] ‘Are they not enough to take care of them-
selves without adding to them?’ The answer is: ‘Not enough;
for if we are to carry out our principle of a division of labour, the
soldier’s must be a separate calling.’

Plato separates the profession of the soldier on much the same
grounds as standing armies would be defended in our own day.
Yet, as he himself allows afterwards, the soldier may also be
a philosopher, nor is the utmost military training inconsistent
with other employments in modern times. Large standing armies
may be required by the exceptional circumstances of politics, and
are not necessarily attended by political dangers. Yet the division
between the calling of the citizen and the soldier is probably
injurious to both, as tending to separate elements of character
which should rather be united—in Plato’s language, as dividing
courage from gentleness, and also as superseding a patriotic by
a merely professional feeling.

é\X’ dpa] applies, not only to the first, but also to the second
member of the sentence (ra 8¢ 8; . . . eb dwepyarGévra), which latter
is the emphatic part of it: ‘But are we to infer then that while we
make one rule for the cobbler and for the husbandman with a view

to their attaining a special excellence, the attainment of special

excellence in the military art is not of the greatest importance?’
ep’ & gpedde . . . épyaldopevos} (1) ‘ With a view to which keep-

ing himself free from all other pursuits’—or better (2) ‘ attending

Republic
i,

373
E

374
A

92 Plato: Republic.

Republic to which,’ ‘in which,’ i.e. ‘leaving other things and doing this.’

a 6 belongs either (1) to exoA}v &ywv, or (2) to the whole sentence,
being resumed emphatically in 8a Biov aird epyafépevos.—€pedne, i. e.
‘if he was to do his work well,’ as supra 372 D rovs péAAovras pi)

radarwpeia ba.

374
B

C 4 obrw fddiov . . . (p) txavhy mapacxonévw| For the complex
form of sentence, where two clauses, which cannot be true together,
are included in one interrogation or negation, cp. especially supra
i. 336 E py yap 41 olov, «i pev xpvotov e{nrodpev . . . Sixavoovvny dé
(nrowvras, «.7.A., and note. The implied disjunctive argument, If
war is to be left to citizen soldiers it is either less important or
easier than other pursuits, is characteristic of Plato, as also is the
introduction of fresh examples, merreia xai xvSeia, when those
already adduced were sufficient.

aitd todto| sc. merreiav i) xvBeiav, understood from werreutiKds 4
xuBeutikds.

D haBov . . . AnpOév] The momentary tense is significant: ‘the
instant he takes it’ or ‘it is taken in hand.’

Sthwv te kal dpydvwv| The addition of dpydvey points the
analogy. The weapons of the warrior are his tools.

modod yap dv, K.T.A.] SC. ef odrw Taira jy.

tv &\Xwv] To be joined with oxodjs: ‘Leisure from other
pursuits,’ sc. émrpdevpdray, Cp, supra 370 C oxo tev doy ayer,
374 B.

E Gp’ odv ...émrySeupa| * Will he not also require a natural aptitude
for the particular occupation?’ émirpdevpa (cp. éemrndés, émirndedo)
has a wide range of meaning,—what a man practises, makes an
object or profession: hence also the customs and institutions of
a state.

¢
hpérepov pévror| jpévror gives a deliberative assent to the new
and somewhat disturbing suggestion.

dcov y’ dv Sdvapis mapeixy] ‘as far as our power allows,’
Theaet. 150 D olomep dv 6 Ocds mapeixy: more often impersonal—
Sympos. 187 E xa@’ dcov mapeixet, pudaxréor.

375 ote... . StapdxeoGar] Compare with what follows the conclusion
A of. the Politicus 306-311, where courage and gentleness are to be

=. e, oat
a —

Notes : Book UW. 93

interwoven in a state. Also infra iv. 441 £: vi. 503 B,c: Laws
vi. 773.

eis GuAaxyv] is to be taken closely with Siapdpew. aleBavdnevor
is masculine: ‘When he has the game in view.’ ale@yois has
a special use in hunting, cp. Xen, Cyn. 3. 5.

ds duaxdv te kal dvixnrov @upds] Cp. the saying of Heracleitus
(fr. cv Bywater) @up@ payerOa xarerdr’ 6 re yap dv xpnitn yiverOa,
Wuxijs dvéerat,

Taira 8€ dSuvdrois gone] ‘Now this seems an _ impossible
requirement ’—viz. that a nature should be found, having both
these opposite qualities. For a similar affectation of despair on
the part of Socrates cp. Theaet. 203 D mpoyeyyooxew ra orotxeia
draga avaykn tT péddovri more yoooesOa cvdAdaBny, kal ovrws Huiv 6 Kadds
Adyos amodedpaxas olynoerat,

Stxaiws ... dwedeipOnpev| ‘ My friend, said I, we deserve to be
in a puzzle, for we have lost sight of our own illustration.’ Theaet.
189 C dixaiws dv xadoiro Wevdy dSogdfwv. So dixais vi. 504 A pi yap

”
pynpovevoy ... Ta Nowra dy einv Bixatos pH) axovew.

od évevorzjoapey...taita] The greatest characters are those in
which opposite qualities, instead of extinguishing one another, exist
side by side, and are developed by the occasions which require
them. Besides the strength or goodness, the range or play of
a character has also to be considered. dpa, ‘then,’ as this example
shows.

oloGa ydp mou... todvaytiov] tay yerwvatwy xuvav has a double
construction: (1) after olo@a, as a poetical genitive, which may be
defended by such passages as Laws i. 646 D rijs mept rdv olvoy dpa
diarpiBis aoaitws di:avonréov. (2) The use of the genitive is further
supported by the resumption of xuvdv in adrav, which is governed
by 900s. Cp. infra iv. 439 B rod rogdérov ob Karas exer Aéyeww, Ste adrod,
KT,

otSa pévro| ‘Certainly.’ jévroe marks Glaucon’s assent to the
new point to which attention is called.

Kal Todt, iv 8 éyd,.. . mpomemovOds| Compare the fragment of
Heracleitus (cxv Bywater) «ives xat Baifovor by dy pi) ywooxwor.
This double character of friendliness to acquaintances and savage-
ness to strangers—rd giAnrixods per elva trav yopiper, mpds Sé Tois
dyv@ras dypiovs—is attributed by Aristotle to @vpés, which he makes

376
A

Republic
1.

376
A

94 Plato: Republic.

the principle of friendship, instancing in support of his statement
the fact that we are more liable to be excited against friends when
we are slighted by them than against enemies (Pol. vii. 7,§ 5). 84
after od8év is well supported by manuscript authority, although Par. A
has d¢, and the particle is omitted by Stobaeus. 87 is more forcible
than dé. ‘He has manifestly received no injury from one whom he
has never seen.’

od mdvu . . . mpoaécxov tov voiv| ‘I never before gave any
attention to the point.’ od mary, ‘not at all’ or ‘certainly not,’ the
absoluteness of the negative being used to intensify the statement,
as also in od wdvrws, with which the expression may be compared.

GANA py . . . gddcopov] ‘But surely this instinct of canine
nature is charming, and quite like a philosopher.’ Kopipés is one
of the facetious words in Plato. Compare the following: viii.
558 A % mpadrns éeviov tov dixacbérvrwy ov Kouwn; ‘charming,’ as in
this passage: iii. 405 D rovs xopyovs ’AckAnmdédas, ‘ clever sons
of Aesculapius’: v. 460 A kAjpot Kouwoi, ‘clever,’ ‘cunningly
devised lots’: vi. 489 c 6 rovro KopWevoduevos éevoaro, ‘the inge-
nious inventor of this told a fib:’ Phaedr. 230 c mavroy 8¢€ kop drarov
td ths méas, ‘most charming of all is the grass.’ In all these
passages there is an idea (1) of fineness or subtlety: (2) of
amusement.

my 84; ... Kal 73 ddAdtprov] Socrates works the illustration
with ironical gravity. ‘Your dog, as he would say, ‘is a philo-
sopher; for he loves those whom he knows, and what is the love
of knowledge but philosophy ?’

For the use of wy and 4—* Interesting in what way? In this
way ’—cp. vi. 510 B oxdme 31) ad Kat tiv Tov vonTod Tony 7 TunTéov,
Ij ; “He 1d pév adrod trois rére trunbciow ws cixdor xpoperm Wuxi Cyreiv
dvaykaterar €£ tmobécewy; Theaet. 172 D, where 9 in like manner
introduces a sentence: mp 6; 7 Tois wey .. . det mapeors oXOAN, K.T.A.

otxody ... Seiv elvac] ‘And may we not say confidently of man 4
also that he who is to be gentle to his friends and acquaintances
must by nature be a lover of wisdom and knowledge?’ The
following sentence shows that vce. is construed with ¢Adcopov
and not with mpaos.

obtos pev... . obror| The abrupt change of number is ‘gain
noticeable. Cp. supra 373 E.

Notes: Book 11. 95
aité] The antecedent is to be gathered from waSeubjoorrat.

oxorodct|] = div oxomapev.

wa ph .. . Sregiwpev| For the use of ixavds see Gorg. 512¢
ixavds yap aird 6 Adyos: and for ouxvds, implying tediousness, cp.
Theaet. 185 £ pada avxvod Adyou: Soph. 217 D éxreivavra dropnkd-
vew Adyov auxvov kar éeuauvrév: Phil. 23 B BaBai .. . ovxvou péy
Adyou rod Aowwod. ‘For we do not want to be tedious, and we do
not want to leave unsaid what is required for completeness ;’ i.e.
‘For we want enough, and not too much.’ Cp. x. 601 Cc py roivy
juicews aitd xatadim@pev pnbév, dAX’ ixavds Bopev. teavdv Aéyov,
like wAjpopa supra 3718, is a collective word used _partitively.
This clause is omitted in the text of Par. A, but has been added in
the margin by an early hand.

kat 6 Tod TAatkwvos d8ehpds] Glaucon, who was provoked by
‘the city of pigs, has been the interlocutor in the lively discussion
of the luxurious commonwealth and of the nature of the guardians.
Adeimantus now interposes on the question of method and con-
tinues the serious discussion about education, till on the question
of music Glaucon is again too much interested to keep silence.

How are these select natures to be reared ?

In youth they are to be educated, according to the dictates of long
experience, in gymnastic and the liberal arts (povotxn).

The liberal arts come first, beginning in the nursery with Sables,
in which truth is to be conveyed through fiction.

Considering the extreme importance of early impressions tt ts right
to legislate even for these first beginnings of education.

The rules to be laid down may be exemplified by considering those
great fables which the poets have embodied.

Their account of Gods and heroes is apt to insinuate wrong
notions, which are injurious to the young and tender mind. Our
poets must not.tell of wrong done by Gods, nor of wars in heaven.
Such tales are false and of bad example. Nor can they be defended
as allegorical, for the child cannot distinguish allegory from fact.

God must be represented as He really is: (1) good, and (2) true.

ris ody | maiSeca ;] Education in modern as well as in ancient
times hangs to the past: the study of the poets who were com-
mitted to memory by the Athenian youth in the age of Plato
(Protag. 325 & foll.: ‘ And when the boy has learned his letters, and

Republic
41.
. 376
D

376 E-
383 C

Republic
I.

376 .
E

96 Plato: Republic.

is beginning to understand what is written, as before he understood
only what was spoken, they put into his hands the works of great
poets, which he reads sitting on a bench at school; in these are
contained many admonitions, and many tales, and praises and
encomia of famous men, which he is required to learn by heart, in
order that he may imitate or emulate them and desire to become
like them,’—Laws vii. 810 foll.) may be compared with the study
of the classics in our own day.

ind . . . xpdvou edpnuevns| Cp. Aristot. Eth. Nic. i. 7, $17 Kai

~ 9.
6 xpdvos Tav To.ovTway ebperis ) Tuvepyos ayabds eivat.

4 pev emt odpact yupvacrixy| This, the commonplace point of
view (mou), is stated here, but corrected afterwards (iii. 411 £).

povorkis 8 eimav...%00;| ‘In speaking thus, do you include
literature under music, or not?’ The genitive depends on Aédyous.
For ev without an object (sc. odras or povoikny) cp. supra 370 A
eimévtos cou,

The manuscript authority is divided between eirév and efrov: the
latter reading would mean, ‘And do you include literature,’
I said, ‘under music?’ ¢imév is to be preferred as having
better authority.

maSeutéov 8 . . . Weuddo.w] Truth of feeling rather than of fact
or reasoning is the form of truth which the mind is most willing to
receive during the first years of life. The child has to go through
a stage which is not unlike that of the infancy of mankind, and is
only partially corrected by the experience of older persons. That
the pupil may have as little as possible to unlearn (mapyooper . . . rods
maidas kai AauBdvew .. . evavrias dd£as éxeivas, ds, eresdav rehe@bacw, Exew
oinospeba Seiv adrovs; infra 377 B: cp. alsoiii. 411 £, Laws ii. 653 B),
whether in religion or in anything else, considering especially the
shortness of life, is what Plato would have termed a ‘ point of first-
rate importance’ in education. Compare again Laws vii. 792 4
gate S¢ 5 xpdvos ovTos Tptay ovK éddtr@y érdv, pdptov ov opiKpdy Tov
Biov duayayeiv xeipov 4} pi) xeipov, Nor has the power of the love of
truth, regarded only as an instrument of enlarging and deepening
the faculties, ever been sufficiently considered either in ancient or
in modern education. For the falsehood of the poets cp. the
familiar quotation from Hesiod—Theog. 27 ‘pev yevdea moda
Aéyew eripoow dpoia, Also Pindar, Olymp. i. 28 foll.: .

— a ok ee wl ee

Notes: Book /1. 97

}} Oavpara moddAd, cai mov ti Kail Bporav hdrw imép rov ddaby Republic
x MZ,
dyov

Sedaidarpevoe Weddeor moxiios eLanaravre por.

and Arist. Met. i. 2, 13 xara riv mapoipiay moddd Wevdovra doidoi.

376
E

todro $€ wou . . . ddnO4] ‘These, I conceive, speaking generally, 377
are fictions, but they contain some elements of truth.’ Mythology, “4
taken as a whole, is false, but may contain elements of historical
or moral truth.

toGro $i éXeyov. . . yupvaorafs| ‘That was my meaning in
saying that (1) they (the young), or (2) that we (the teachers) must
take in hand music before gymnastics.’

Gmréov] (1) sc. rois véos (infra vém kai dradp). Cp. infra iii.
389 B té ye Towirov larpois Soréov, iBimrais 8€ ovx daréov. Or (2)

SC. Tois mawWevovow Hyiv.

mAdrrerat] sc. 5 tpepduevos. The word occurs presently in B
a different connexion (yiOovs mdacGévras): but cp. infra c mAdrrew
Tas Wuxds adrar.

év8vera: tumos| ‘A deep impression is made.’ For évdver@a in
the sense of ‘ penetrate,’ ‘sink in,’ cp. Laws i. 642 B edvoa é« véwv
evOds évdverat éxactov: also Theaet. 169 B ovrw tis Epws Sewds évde-
Suxe ris mept raira yupvacias: infra iii. 401 D pddtora Katadiera els
rd évrés tis Wuyxis 6 te pvOpds Kal dppovia. For the sense compare
Timaeus 26 B as 87 rot, Td Aeydpevov, TA waidwy paOnpata Bavpacrdy
éxee Te pynuciov: Theaet. 194 C ra onpeia. . . ixavds rov Babous
éxovra mroduxpdma . . . yiyverat.

Compare the saying—dpxi fuucv mavrds—or, as Plato, altering
the well-known line of Hesiod, says in the Laws vi. 753 E dpx).. .
mov 4 rd fuov mavrds: an adaptation which is repeated by Aris-
totle, Eth. Nic. i. 7, § 23. See also infra iii. 401 E ra pév xara
érawoi,... 7a 8 aloypa eyo 1° dv dpOas Kal pucoi ere véos dv, mply
Adyov Suvards elvar AaPeiv, eXOdvros 8€ Tov Adyou domd{or’ dy abrév
yropifer 8° olkedrnta pddicra 6 ovrw tpadeis ; and Laws ii. 653 B.

padiws obrw] (1) ‘ Thus lightly,’ i.e. as we should be doing if
we went no further; like dwAés odras i. 331 c and elsewhere, and
viv obrws: or, rather (2) ‘lightly, as is now commonly done’ (with
the customary indifference). Cp. infra iii. 403 & ) révde ray doxn-
rav eis; viii. 544 C Kpnrexi) . . . abrn, SC. wodireia. The same
difficulty arises infra 378 a.

VOL. Il. H

Republic

3

E

378

98 Plato: Republic.

bv pev dv Kaddv ... dmoxpiréov] xaddy, sc. poy, understood
from pu@orotots, in the same way as infra iii. 399 D ri 5€; atAomods
}} aidnras mapadééer cis tiv médAw; 4) od Todro (sc. addAds, understood
from avAomowts) rodvxopdérarov ; this ‘ word understood’ is added
in the text of Ven. 11.

kat wAdtrew ... Tats xepoiv| A good commentary on these
words is afforded by Plutarch, De Educatione Puerorum, ed.
Reiske, 3. 26 damep yap Ta péAn Tod owparos evOds ard yevéerews TAATTELY
Tay Téxvev dvaykaidv ott, iva Taira dpba Kai dotpaBn vnrat, Tov abrov
tpémov €& apyns Ta Tav Téxvav 7On prOpiCew mpoonxe. A similar use
of mAdrrew with reference to the adult body occurs in Plut., De
Sanitate, ed. Reiske, 4. 93, where the editor vainly conjectures

mahacodpeva,

tov adtév tumov elvar| sc. Trav petdvav Kal éarrévov pidov,
which is easily supplied either from the previous or the following

clause.
ee ’

kal tadtdv Suvac8ar] ‘And should have the same effect,’ i.e.
embody the same principles.

kal A€youow] This is said either (1) of Homer and Hesiod,
whose poems still live and are recited, or (2) of contemporary
poets, who are included in ot &AAot qornta’. Probably the latter.

Smep, Hv 8 éyd . . . pepheoPar| i.e. rd pevdeoPa mepi Ocav.
Plato means (1) that any falsehood about the Gods is blameworthy,
but (2), above all, when it has an immoral tendency.

Gos te kat... pedSntar] ‘ Especially when the fiction is bad
as well as false.’ The meaning of ph xadds may be illustrated by
the repetition of the expression (0% xadés) in describing what Socrates
terms the ‘immoral fable of Uranus and Cronus.’

3 te ad Kpdvos @s| as here is not a mere resumption of the
previous @s, but is emphatic and means ‘ in what way.’

dropov| The meaning is that the difficulty of procuring the
victim was to make the representation nearly impossible:

kal yap .. . xaderoi] ‘Why yes, he said, these stories are
certainly indefensible.’

ob8€ yap d&yO4] i. e. ‘for they are false, as well as bad.’
el ye Sei jpiv, x.7.A.] ‘if we are to have them think.’ piv, here

Ss -. - ee, i oe a oe
ee St ee en

Notes: Book 11. 99

as elsewhere, is the dative of the person interested. See on
1. 343 A Ss ye abr, wrd.

mwohhoG Set. . . kal woixiAréov|] ‘Far be it from us to tell them
of the wars of the giants and (1) make them the subject of decora-
tive work,’ or (2) ‘embroider them on garments.’ ‘To the same
stories Euthyphro appeals in justification of his own conduct in
bringing an action against his father. See Euthyphr. 6 B, c «a
médepov dpa iyei od elvar tH dvte ev Tois Oeois mpds dAANAOUS, Kal
€xOpas ye Sewas kai pdayas Kal ada rowira moddd, ola Aéyerai re
ind trav romrav, kai bd rev dyabav ypapéwv rd re GAda lepd tiv
katareroixiArat, Kat 81 Kal Trois peydAos Tlavabnvaias 6 mémdos peords
TOY ToLOUTw@Y ToKiAudrwy dvdyera els Thy axpérokw: and the previous
passage, 5 FE, in which Euthyphro defends his impiety by the
example of Zeus binding his father.

The sentence is an emphatic repetition of what has preceded :
the emphasis justifies the asyndeton. modAov dei has passed into an
adverb = jrora.

Towaita Aextéa .. . Aoyorroteiv | ‘Such, rather, must be the
stories told to them in earliest childhood by old men and old
women alike, and as they grow up, we must compel the poets also
to compose for them in a similar spirit’ (cp. infra 380 B,c). This
punctuation, with a comma after ypavet, was first adopted in
Baiter’s edition of 1881. Previous editors, including K. F. Hermann,
made the pause at mpeoButépois yryvopévois. The passage, when so
punctuated, was variously understood: (1) ‘by old men and old
women, and all elderly persons’ (Davis and Vaughan): (2) ‘this is
what old men and old women should begin by telling children,
and the same when they grow up’ (Jowett’s Plato, first edition).
These ways are unsatisfactory, although the change from mpés ra
madia to the dative in (2) may be defended by examples (Soph.
248 a). The omission of Aexréa in Par. A may be accidental, or the
insertion of the word in other MSS., although necessary, may be
only conjectural.

vidos] is proved by the antithesis of matpds to be the true reading;
the old correction Avs (= m), which is mentioned by Suidas and
Photius, appears to have arisen from a reference to another story,
which is told in Iliad xv. 18 ff. The legend of the golden throne
containing hidden chains, which was presented by Hephaestus to
his mother out of revenge for her rejection of him at his birth,
is given by Pausanias i. 20. 3. It is to this legend that Plato refers.
H 2

Republic
77
78
%

Republic
il.

378
D

379
A

379 B-
380 C

.

100 Plato: Republic.

év Srovolas memonpévas| ‘Composed with a hidden meaning.’
Cp. év appdxov «ide (iii. 389 B) and similar expressions. imdévoa
was looked upon as an old-fashioned word in Plutarch’s day. Cp.
Plut. de aud. Poet. ii. 19 E rais mdda pév irovoias dAAnyopias 8é
viv Aeyouevas.

mpos dperyvy] ‘In regard to fitness for producing virtue.’ Cp.
Phaedo 69 A 7 6p6) mpds dperjy dddayn, and see Riddell’s Digest,
p. 128.

exer yap... aipev| ‘ Yes, said he, there is reason in that; but
suppose a person were to ask us with regard to this what these
noblest kinds of fiction (sc. ra xdd\Atora pepvOoroynuéva mpds aperny)
are and what the tales in which they are found, what answer should
we give?’ The first taéta refers vaguely to what precedes, the
second more precisely to céA\tora pepvdodoynpéva mpds dpernr.

Compare Laws vii. 811, where the question is asked, what literary
pattern the guardian of the law shall use in the education of youth,
and is answered (not without a certain degree of egotism) that
Plato’s own book of the Laws affords the best pattern.

aitd 8} todro| in apposition with the sentence. _ ‘ But as to this
very point—the forms of theology, what shall they be?’

otos .. . tpaywdia| ‘God should ever be rendered to us as he
in truth is, whether the form of verse which the poet chooses for
the description of him be Epic, Lyric, or Tragic.’

édv te év pédeow| though omitted in Par. A, is found in Eusebius
(p. 376) and is probably genuine. The insertion seems to be
required by the sense, and agrees with the divisions of poetry, infra

iii. 392-394.

1. God is good. He can never be the author of evil. He is not
the cause of all things, but only of the good.

How many poems will be cancelled by this simple rule |

Lf human calamities are referred to God, it must be added that
they were inflicted for the good of those on whom they fell.

od dpa... &yadv] Cp. x. 617 E airia opévou" Eds dvairwos : Tim.
42 D Siabecpoberioas . . . Taira, iva ris émera ety Kalas éxdoror
dvaitwos. Some of the inferences in the preceding Sorites are verbal
only. The unnecessary multiplication of the steps is a charac-
teristic feature of the Platonic dialectic.

a

ena

Notes: Book 11. IOI

ddtyov pev... Tav Kaxdv Hpiv| Such pessimism seems more in
harmony with the spirit of the Timaeus or the Laws than of the
Republic. Cp. however infra v. 473 p. It is a strain of reflection
always apt to recur in Greek literature: Iliad xvii. 446: Hdt.
vii. 46, 3.

tadtyy Thy dpapriav| sc. the error of making God the author of
evil, as is further explained in what follows.

xnpov| ‘ lots,’ not Knpaw, ‘fates.’ Cp. Iliad xxii. 210 :—
év & érider S00 xnpe ravnreyéos Oavarouo,

The lines are not found in our text of Homer exactly as they are
quoted ; the passage referred to is Iliad xxiv. 527-532 :—

Soi yap te miBor Karaxeiarar év Avds ode,
dapav, ola didwor, Kaxaov, Erepos 8€ édwv"

@ pev x’ dupitas day Zeds repmixépavvos,

Gddore pév te Kaxk@ O ye Kvperat, Gddore 8 eaOd@"
@ 8€ Ke trav Avypav Bay, AwByTdv EOnke,

cai € kak) BovBpwotis én xOdva Siav édavvet.

The quotations from Homer in Plato often show slight variations—
which are sometimes intentional departures (see infra iii. 388 a) from
the old manuscript text which has come downto us. The changes,
however, are far from being sufficient to justify Wolf’s assumption
of the unsettled state of the Homeric text before the times of the
Alexandrian Grammarians.

és tapias| as follows Aéyovros, in the same construction as és
Soot midoc supra. The words which follow are not found in
Homer; they probably arise out of a confusion of the preceding
quotation with Iliad iv. 84 :—
Zevs, dot dvOpdmwv tapins mod€uowo réruKTaL,

jv] cognate accusative.

Gedy épw ... kal Aids] (1) The strife and combat in the @eouayia

in Iliad xx takes place after an assembly of the Gods, convened
by Zeus, whose command is carried to them by Themis,—in Plato’s
view a most inappropriate person for such a message. xpious is
here ‘ dispute,’ ‘altercation,’ from xpiverOa. (2) Others suppose an
allusion to the judgement of Paris, and the confention which led to it:
éeav is then from éed. This explanation, however, rests on a con-

Republic
I.

379
Cc

102 Plato: Republic.

Eepesiite jectural emendation of Proclus’ abstract of the Cypria (vis. O€uuros

is
E

for @éridos—Heyne), See W. R. Hardie in the Classical Review,
vol, iv, p. 182. And the strife of the goddesses is only the first of
a chain of incidents leading to the events which the Cypria spoke
of as planned between Zeus and Themis (or Thetis).

GAN’ dv tus, K.7.A.] Ta THs NudBns 7éOy is used in two senses: (1)
‘the sufferings of Niobe,’ which is the object of wovg, ‘if any one
shall make a poem on this theme:’ (2) as the description of the
play, which is the antecedent to ofs. Plato is quoting from the
Niobe of Aeschylus. -

aétots| probably refers to the poets, the singular being exchanged
for the plural, as momwrnv in the next sentence is followed by Aéyorev.
eds in this passage is used in a generic sense, and 6 6eés is relative
to the @eés which has preceded. But the abstract term is already
tending to pass into a proper name—a philological transition
which in some degree assisted and also veiled the change in the
Greek mind from many gods to one. Cp. infra 381 c 060...
éxaotos adtav, and note : x.5978B,c. For the sentiment cp. Butler’s
Analogy, part I. c. ii On the government of God by rewards and
punishments. ‘Perhaps there may be some impossibilities in the
nature of things, which we are unacquainted with (i.e. which
prevent God from making men’s happiness independent of their
actions). Or less happiness, it may be, would upon the whole be
produced by such a method of conduct, than is by the present.’
Again c. vii ‘Though the actual permission of evil may be
beneficial (of 8¢ dvivavro xohafépevor) . . . yet notwithstanding it might
have been much better for the world if this very evil had never been
done.’ The difficulty which Plato and Butler thus attempt to solve
is, perhaps, reduced to the smallest proportions by regarding the
whole of human existence as a course of education in which evil is
ever lessening in the advance towards a higher good.

The amount of evil, rather than the permission of evil, seems to

‘be the real difficulty. For what is called the permission of evil is

only another way of describing the mixed nature of man. And no

’ one can seriously complain that he does not belong to another

order of beings, or that, having the power of doing right, he was
not made incapable of doing wrong. And even in reference to the
amount of evil there is no limit to the power which a man has of
improving his own state and that of his fellow-creatures.

See on Book i. 352. In a solitary passage of the Laws (x. 897).

; . ae 7 = | ia

Notes: Book I. 103

which is imitated in the Epinomis (988 £) Plato seems to explain
the origin of evil as in the Zoroastrian system, by supposing
a power of evil as well as of good. No trace of this double
principle of good and evil is to be found in Plato except in these
two passages.

&s GOAvor of Kaxoi] Cp. infra ix. 591 A my 8 dduotvra avOdvew
kai py Siddvae Sixny Avorredeiv ; 7) odxt b.pév AavOavav Ere movnpdrepos
ylyvera, «rd,, and Gorg. 472 foll.

éaréov . . . Siapayntéov| sc. jyiv: cp. Evppopa jyiv infra.

év tH abtod wédec] is added with solemnity; it does not imply
that he might do so in another country.

puBodoyodvra | agrees with the subject of héyew, although vedrepov
is probably suggested by pte twa dxodew which is inserted da
pégov. Cp. for the general meaning supra 378 c.

ds od're Sova Gv Aeyspeva] Cp. Goodwin AZ. and T. §§ 214; 479.

obtos peév toivuy... pi) wdvtwv| ‘This then will be one of our laws
and patterns relating to Theology, which will have to be observed
in speaking and writing,—that God is not the author of all things,
but of good only.’ That morality in the highest and purest sense
must be at the foundation of religion and especially of our con-
ception of the nature of God, is a truth the repetition of which is
rendered necessary by the corruption of the human intellect in
Christian as well as in heathen times.

2. God is true. He changes not, nor does he deceive.

(a). He is not changed by another, for that other would be stronger
than he ; nor by himself, for that which ts — can only change
Sor the worse.

(6). He never deceives mankind. He is pcunatle neither of true
falsehood, nor of falsehood in word ;—neither of false-thinking
(which all beings hate), nor of false-speaking, which men sometimes
jind necessary, when they want to elude an enemy, to humour an
insane friend, or when they do not know the truth about ancient
times, to make mythology as much like truth as they can. But God
knows all things and ts all powerful, and no madman ts the friend
of God. In this particular, as in the former, Homer and Aeschylus
have committed grievous errors.

_ ri 82 84, «.7.A.] The connexion of these paragraphs is as follows :

= r “~~ ="

Republic

380 D-
383 C

380
D

Republic
17.

380
D

104 Plato: Republic.

(1) God is good; (2) God is true, and this (a) in himself (i.e.
unchangeable either from without or from within), and (8) in relation
to us—i.e. he cannot lie or appear other than he is.

adtév ytyvdpevoy] sc. ddXoiov ri idéar, i.e. ‘actually in his own
person becoming different,’ as opposed to ‘merely appearing to
become so.’ The predicate is to be gathered from what precedes
(pavrdfeo@ar .. . iS€ars), and any ambiguity which might have been
felt is cleared up by the addition of the words kal &Addrrovta 15
abtod elSos, «7.4. God is described, first as really taking some
other form; in the second part of the sentence (rére 8€ . . . Soxeiv)
the metamorphosis is only an illusion.

4 dmdody te elvar ... Tis éautod iSdas exBaive;| ‘Or is he of
a simple nature, and least of all going out of his own proper form ?’
What is this form? The true answer to this question can only be
gathered from the context, viz. that God is good, and God is true.
The highest idea of beauty is described in the Symposium (211) as
‘that final cause of all our toils, which in the first place is ever-
lasting, not growing or decaying, or waxing and waning ; secondly,
not fair in one point of view and foul in another, or at one time
and in one relation, or at one place fair, at another time or in
another relation or at another place foul, as if fair to some or foul
to others, or in the likeness of a face or hands or any other part of
the bodily frame, or in any form of speech or knowledge, or existing
in any other being, as for example, in an animal, or in heaven, or
in earth, or in any other place ; but beauty only, simple, absolute,
separate, and everlasting, which without diminution and without
increase or any change, is imparted to the ever-growing and perish-
ing beauties of all other things.’ Cp. also infra vi. 508 £, in which
is described what Plato there terms the idea of good: this is that
nature ‘ which imparts truth to the known and the power of knowing
to the knower, which is the author of science and truth, and yet
surpasses them in beauty, and which is not only the author of
knowledge, but of being and essence,—which is to the intellectual
world what the sun is to the visible.” See also Tim. 29 £.

ims péev GAdou] pev takes up one of the two cases which are
supposed in the previous sentence. The second case is omitted,
or rather deferred to infra 381 B GAN’ dpa airés abrdv, kth.

oopa... kal wav gurév| gurdv, in the most general sense, would

Notes: Book I. 105

be inclusive of the human body. Cp. vi. 491 D mavris . . . purod,
cire éyycior, cite ray (pov.

od tHv|] This is the reading of Par. A and several other MSS.
Bekker read with Stephanus and some of the old editions airjy od
ryv. Aldus and Eusebius give airjy. One*MS. (f’) has ad ry. If
airny is read it must mean ‘the soul herself’ as opposed to the
body mentioned in the previous sentence.

kal piv wou... dddovodrar] For the meaning of oxedos compare
Soph. 219 A 16 re ad mepi rd EvvOerov xai mhaardy, 6 81) oxevos dvoudxaper,
The words kat dpotéopara are omitted in Par. A.

5 Beds ye| 5 eds re, Par. A, may perhaps be right.

éxav airév, «.7.A.] These words contain a fresh application of
the Socratic principle of the involuntariness of Evil.

éxagros adtay| sc. rav beav, referring to eo. See note on 380 a.

péver... popy] Cp. the impressive language of the Timaeus,
42 E cai 6 peév by dravra tavra diardgas euevev €v TO éavtov Kata tpdrov

Hoe.

Geoi geivorowv, x.t.d.] Odyssey xvii. 485, 486. Plato has some-
what unfairly omitted the following line, which expresses a higher
feeling, and is therefore unsuited to his purpose :—

dvOpdorav UBpw re Kal edvopuiny épopartes. :,
In Soph. 216 c he alludes to the whole passage, and applies it to

the philosophers, whom Socrates compares to unknown mysterious
visitants, xadopavres iyydbev tov t&v Karw Biov.

@ér80s] Thetis, according to Sophocles (Troilus fr. 556 Nauck;
cp. Schol. in Pindar, Nem. iii. 60) and other writers, took various
forms in order to escape from her nuptials with Peleus.

py® €v tpaywdias ... BroSdpos| ‘Nor let any one, either in
tragedy or in other poetry, introduce Heré disguised, in the form
of a priestess, collecting alms for the life-giving sons of the Argive
river Inachus.’ For the significance of dyeipovcay see the noun
dyvprns with the feminine dyiptpa and the compound pyrpayiprns,
‘a begging priest of Cybele.’

*Wwdxou, x.7.A.] It is uncertain from what poet this quotation is
taken. The children of Inachus are the other rivers of Argolis
on whose waters the fruitfulness of the plain depended.

\

Republic
71.

381
A

Republic
UW.

381
E

382
A

B

106 Plato: Republic.

Aéyoucar tods pubous kaxas] ‘not telling their stories as they
ought to be told.’ Cp. od cadés supra 377 E.

Such charges may be illustrated by the tales which are alluded
to in the Laws, ii. 672, of Dionysus losing his reason through the
devices of his step-mother Heré, and revenging himself by infusing
madness into the rest of the world. Plato with a feeling like that
of Herodotus is afraid to repeat the story (éya dé ra pév rovaira trois
dodares tyyoupevors eivac héyew wept Oedv apinue réyew): he appears,
however, in the spirit of Pindar, to explain the madness innocently,
as meaning the excess of youthful life.

ivSadddpevor] The poetic word recalls the spirit of the mythology.

ad’ &pa| ‘But are we to suppose then...?’ Apa (as above
381 B) expresses doubt or wonder about the alternative which
remains. ‘The emphasis is on the latter part of the sentence fpiv
Sé tovoden, «.T.d.

e0édor dv] ‘Can we imagine that God would lie or be willing to
lie?’ ¢6€dw here, as in 375 A, is nearly equivalent to peAdo. - ‘Is
God likely to do so?’ ‘Is it in His nature?’

4 Epye ddvtacpa mpoteivwy| ‘Or in act, by putting forth a false
appearance.’

76 ye ws GdnPds Petdos| Plato is fond of this and similar
oxymora. Cp. Theaet. 189 c ovk div, oipat, coi Sox@ rod dAnbas
WeviSous dvriAaBéoba: Soph. 263 vp: Phil. 23 B dp’ dre 7d advvarov

a ,
eimov, Avrreiv ndovny ;

7 kuptwtdtw ... €autdv] For this as an expression for the soul,
cp. Phaedo 94 B-E.

€xei| SC. €v TO Kupiwrdro.
aité] sc. rd Weddos.

éy 8¢ A€yw] Here, as often in antithesis, the pronoun, although
not emphatic, partakes of the emphasis which belongs to the whole
clause. ‘ What I really mean is this.’

evSeo0ai te Kal epedoOa}] ‘To be and remain deceived.’
éetoOa is added to explain or correct pevderOa, ‘the lie in the
soul’ being a thing infixed or permanent, and the whole phrase
answers to éxew te kal kextjo8a in the following clause. Cp. supra
i. 351 B dovAcicOa . . . kal karadedovAdcOa,

Notes: Book I. 107

év r@ rowodTw] ‘in such a case’; when the lie is in the soul and
about real being. Cp. Laws v. 731 c rév yap peylorov xaxdv obdels
ovdapuod oddév exdv kextijro dv more’ word bé feiota év Trois trav éavTow
tyuwrdras. Cp. for évraia (=e rH Wuxi) vi. 505 D dAAa ra Svra
(nrovat, tiv 81 ddgav évraia H3n mas dripdce.

| @dAd phy... dxparov peiSos| The lie in the soul is unconscious
falsehood respecting the highest matters. To regard God as false
or immoral, or, according to Plato, as deluding men with
appearances, or to deny the existence of God would be a lie
of this hateful sort, which may be compared with Aristotle’s dyvoa
xadddov (Eth. Nic. iii. 1,§ 15), and is a contradiction of the essential
nature of the soul, which, according to Plato, lives on truth, Soph.
228 Cc dAAa phy Wuxnv ye topev dxovoay macay nav dyvootcay, Plato
considers this unconscious falsehood to be much more disastrous
spiritually than the mere conscious or verbal falsehood.

€pevopevou] is masculine, referring to a person (as supra éeioOac)
‘on the part of him who is in error’ ; and the genitive depends on
the whole phrase, 4 év tH Wuxy dyvora, resumed with 4%.

Tav Kahoupevwy pidwv]| is a suspended genitive which finally gains
construction from a&wotpomijs évexa. The emendation of dy for érav
is unnecessary ; Stay is correlative to tére. This is perhaps said
with a glance at the discussion in Book i, as to who are our friends
(i. 334: cp. supra 362 B, c).

Bid 7d ph cid€var Say TaANOes Exer, «.7.A.] Compare Timaeus
40 D advvaroy ody Ocav maclv dmorteiv, kaimep dvev Te eixdrwy Kai dvay-
kaiwy drodelgewy déyovow, SC. mepi Sayrdvov yevéoews. This notion of
the functions of mythology may be illustrated from the Politicus,
Timaeus, Critias, and Laws (Book iii), in which Plato gives the
imaginary history of a ‘ world before the flood.’

Kata Ti Sh... dv pevBorro ;] ‘ Then on which of these grounds is
lying useful to God? Will he lie in imitating the truth, because he
is ignorant of the events of other days ?’

_ mouths... odx é] ‘Then in God there is nothing of a lying
poet.’ For the personification of a quality compare Phaedo 77 &
@N tows fu tis Kai ev hpi Tais, doTis ra Toaira oeira: also Phil.
39 A, B, where the faculty of memory is personified as a scribe,
6... map’ jpiv ypappareds, and imagination as a painter, and some

Republic
i,

108 Plato: Republic.

— ludicrous lines of Diphilus, quoted by Harpocration, s. v. devao-

382
D

383
A

Tous -—
dyabis Bapels Eveorw év tO tradi’
tavti yap jpyiv Sevoomod mavtehas
Ta ondpyav’ amodéderxev.

GAG... WedSorro ;] ‘ But shall we suppose him to speak falsely,
for fear of his enemies ?’—"Ay is to be supplied from ddopomy dy
Wevdaro above. Cp. supra i. 352 E dxovoas, and note.

6 eds dmdoiv Kal ddyOés] The neuter is continued from the
preceding sentence.

oure kata avtacias| These words are omitted in Par. a,
probably from the repetition of otre.

auyxwpets ... Eautods] ‘You agree then that here is a second
principle, according to which the Gods are not enchanters who
transform themselves?’ ‘toérov refers to what has preceded, and is
further explained by @s pire, «.T..

nmapdyew] The construction is changed from ds . . . 6vras,
probably in consequence of the clause 7 petaBddeu, x.7.A., coming
between.

ob8e Aicxddou] sc. rotro émaverdpeba. éds is changed from pds
to suit the former part of the sentence, and the less usual form is
chosen to preserve the rhythm of the verse.

éipmavtd 1 eimdv, x.t.A.] (1) ‘And in saying all, he raised
a note of triumph over the blessedness of my lot.’ tdxas is governed
by watav’ érevpypyoev in one phrase. Or (2) joining «may... rdxas,
‘Having spoken of my lot as in all things blest of heaven.’

dtav Tis ToLadTa A€yn| This sentence begins with a resumption
from érav oj, «.r.A. supra: hence the asyndeton.

xareravodpey| ‘We will frown,’ says Socrates, speaking with
the imaginary authority of the ruler and lawgiver.

ude Tods SiBacKddous edoopev . .. et péAAovow, K.7.A.] There is
a confusion or combination of two constructions. ‘ We will not,
because’ and ‘ we must not, if.’ For this condensation see Riddell’s
Digest, § 256: and cp. Thucyd. i. 40, 2 doris pi) rois defapevors, ef
cwhppovovar, médrcpov avri eipnyns mouoet.

:

— ! aie Ts kh ee
ee
Di I all i?

Notes: Book II. 109

BOOK III.

Besides their false representations of the Divine nature, the poets
and mythologers are guilty of other falsehoods, which must likewise
be forbidden in the interests of morality. The tales about the
world below are such as cannot fail to inspire cowardice in all
that hear them. But our guardians must be brave and have no
Sear of death. And our poets must tell the truth concerning Death,
and rob him of imaginary terrors.

They will therefore be forbidden to represent their heroes as
lamenting for the death of friends, since to die is not an evil, and
the hero is sufficient for himself, and the loss of money and friends
does not affect him greatly. Achilles must not mourn inordinately
Sor Patroclus, nor Priam for Hector ;—still less the chief of the Gods
Sor his son Sarpedon.

Not only excessive grief, but excessive laughter must be dis-
couraged. For every extreme brings on a reaction to the opposite
extreme. The ‘tinextinguishable laughter’ of the Gods must be
erased from Homer.

Then our guardians must be taught veracity in their youth. For
even ‘ the liein word’ has been reserved as a medicine for exceptional
cases. And such a remedy must be solely entrusted to the physician,
that is, to the ruler. No other in the state may ever dissemble
what he knows.

In some things we may praise Homer—as where Diomed enforces
obedience, or the good discipline of the Achaeans is described. But
not the passage in which Achilles reviles his chief, nor where Odys-
seus rejoices over the banquet. For temperance, orderliness, and
chastity are to be enforced, and such fortitude and self-control as
Odysseus shows when he ‘ strikes upon his breast and chides his
heart.

Liberality is another virtue to be fostered by us. Our poets must

not sing that gifts prevail with kings, or tell how Achilles took
a ransom for the body of Hector.

‘Nor must we listen to those passages in which the same hero
is represented on the other hand as proud and impious. To hear of
one so born and so brought up as being possessed with the opposite
vices of meanness and insolence cannot but be ruinous to the morals
of the young. The preceding rules, then, must restrict the choice
of subjects in mythologising about Gods and Heroes and the world
unseen.

Republic
1171.

386 A-
392 A

Republic
LTT,
386
A

Se aoe

110 Plato: Republic.

toair’ tra} viz. that God is good and true.

kai yovéas . . . monoopévois| This is added in allusion to the
stories of Zeus and Cronos, and of quarrelling among the Gods.
The words form a transition to the human virtues and duties which
follow. The effect of such stories on the conduct of children
towards their parents is again referred to in Laws x. 886 c ff.

Tots émxerpodor Aéyew] ‘ who essay to speak.’ emrxetpeiv is often
used in Plato as an amplification of the word which is attached to
it. Cp. Phaedr. 265 £ 1d mddw kar’ cidn divacOa répvev, Kat’ apOpa,
2) mécpuxe, Kal pa) emrxerpeiv Karayvivat pépos pndév, kaxod payeipov Tpdér@
Xpepevov—‘ and not go about to break any part,’ &c. Here the
periphrasis is more significant. wept todrwv trav pdOwv is (1) governed
by émotarety: (2) repeated with Adyew: cp. ii. 360 D 6 mept rod

A és ’
Totourou Adyou Aéyor.

SeicGar| sc. aitav. The construction is again changed at Aé€yovras,
which refers back to AoWopety: ‘since, in reviling the world below,
they do not say what is either true or expedient.’ In some MSS.
(Ven. = p.m., Vind. E, &c.) @ is inserted after Aéyovres which
implies a suppressed condition: not ‘since what they say is not
true,’ but (sc. ef Aoopoiev), ‘since if they did so they would not
speak truly.’ Compare ii. 380 c as ore dora dv Aeydpeva, ef Aéyorro.

dmd todd tod mous] ‘ beginning with this verse’ of the speech
of Achilles to Odysseus: Od. xi. 489. For émos in the sense of an
Epic line cp. infra 393 A olo@ oy drt péxpe péev rovrav trav émar, K.T.d.

[S ph Blotos modds ein]] These words are omitted in Par. A
and may possibly have been inserted by some scribe from recollec-
tion of Homer.

oixia 8€...Qeot wep] Il. xx. 64, 65. The lines occur in the
description of Poseidon striking the earth with his trident :-—
deioas 8 éx Opdvov Gdro (sc. Hades) kai axe, pr of dmepbev
yaiav dvappngee Moceddwv évocixbov,
oikia 8€, x.7.d.
& woo... odk @n mdépmav] Il. xxiii. 103, 104: the words of
Achilles on awaking from the dream in which the ghost of
Patroclus appears to him.

kat 16, «.1.A.] And the verse about Tiresias :—‘ To him alone
[after death did the goddess Persephone grant] to have under-

Notes: Book 17. III

standing, but other souls flit as shadows’ (Odyss. x. 495). The
feminine tai is due to the attraction of oxiai ;—the verse is quoted
also in the Meno (100 a) drt olos mémvuta ray év “AiBov, al 8é arial
diccovet. Plato seems to presuppose the construction and context
to be in the memory of his hearers. Though he sometimes quotes
inaccurately, both he and they must have been intimately familiar
with the Iliad and Odyssey.

pox) F ek febdwy] Il. xvi. 856. On the form dv8porira see
Monro and Leaf in loco.

ux} 8 kara xPovds| II. xxiii. 100.

ds 8 Ste... Gp’ qeoav}] Odyss, xxiv. 6-9, ‘ As bats in hollow of
a mysterious cave, whenever any of them falls off out of the string
from the rock, fly squeaking and cling to one another, so did they
move together with gibbering cry.’

tpifw is here used of a shrill treble sound—the squeak of a bat.
The thin treble cry of the bat (inaudible to some persons) has been
the recognized similitude in many lands for the voice of a ghost.

Siaypdpwpev| dcaypdpew is here to ‘cancel’ or ‘strike out,’ as
elsewhere (vi. 500 £) to ‘ describe’ or ‘ draw a plan of.’

dxovotéov | sc. dv, in construction with és supra.

Ta wept taita... oBepd|] The order is ra dewd re xai poBepa
évépara mdvra Ta wept ravra : ‘ We must cast aside all the terrible and
dreadful names which are used in describing this subject, Cocytus,
Styx,’ &c.

éroBAnréa| though ‘plural, takes the accusative after it, like
dxovoréoy supra.

kat GdAa . . . dvopaldpeva] i.e. rdAda dvdpata rovrov tov rimov
évra, 4, x,7.A,

dpitrew 8h move, x.7.A.] ‘At the mention of which names
a shudder passes through the soul of him that hears them.’

The words ds of¢v re are probably genuine, though resting on
slender manuscript authority, which is chiefly that of g. The reading
which is found in almost all the MSS. is és oiera, i.e. ‘as the poet
thinks’ or ‘imagines, he produces a fine effect ; whereas we fear
that this effect of terror will spoil the courage of our soldiers.’
This is forced ; and the emendation of éca érn, which is supposed to
be an allusion to annual recitations of the rhapsodists, is worse.

a.

387
A

Republic
1.

387
Cc

388
A

112 Plato: Republic.

Another conjectural reading is as éred, ‘ believing them to be true.’
The reading otras may have easily sprung out of oldy re through
clovra : compare the converse confusion, i. 336 E olov ye ov,
& ire, where for oiov ye od Ven. = reads oldy ye éoriv, The
meaning of s oidvy re may be supported by the frequent recurrence
of as oidy re pddtora, péyora, elsewhere in Plato. Protag. 349 E
ddov tov Kaddv as oldy Te pddvora.

kat tows... dAdo 1] (1) ‘ And this sort of thing (sc. dca adda,
x.t.A.) may be well enough for some other object,’ i.e. to excite
interest, or to teach not courage but something else. Cp. supra B
ovx as ov mointixd, K.7.A: infra 390 A ef dé twa GAAny HSovny mapexerat,
Oavpacriy ovdev. (2) Or does Plato mean— this effect of fear may
be well enough for another purpose,’ viz., to discourage vice (cp.
the judgement of the dead in x. sub fin.)? Cp. infra 394 p where,
under a similar vague expression, a very important matter seems to
be concealed, viz. the expulsion of Homer.

Geppdrepor|] ‘Too heated,’ i. e. ‘nervous,’ or ‘ excitable,’ not cool
enough. Geppdrepor suggests padaxdrepor, ‘softer,’ the ordinary effect
of heat being to soften. Plato is fond of the conjunction of deppds,
and similar words with padakés. The effect of heat on wax is
probably present to his mind. Cp. infra 411 B; Cratyl. 432 B;
Laws ii. 671 B ras Wuxds tav mudvrav dianvpovs yyvopevas
padOaxwrépas yiyverbar: oF 666 B padax@repov ék oxAnporépov Td Tis
Wuyis 700s, kaOdrep eis mip oidnpov évrebévra, yeyvopevor.

Ast conjectured dévpérepo, and this reading was subsequently
found by Bekker in MS. v (Angelicus).

kal Tods SSuppods ... dvSpav;] ‘ And shall we also get rid of the
weepings and wailings of famous men?’ The genitive é\doyipev
dvSpav is the subject, not the object, of otxrous; otherwise the
argument from "AAAd piv... KaraddBp infra would be irrelevant.
Cp. infra £ robs Opyvous ray dvopacray dvipav: also 390 D: Soph.
O. C. 1636 6 &, &s dvjp yevvaios, odx oixrov péra, K.7.A.

Siadepdvrus . . . mpoodetrar] ‘He is distinguished above his
fellows by standing least of all in need of another.’

fixvota dp’... xatadéBy] ‘ And therefore will be least likely to
lament, but will bear with the greatest equanimity any misfortune
of this sort which may befall him.’ The infinitive is dependent on
Aéyouev (supra D), to which the construction returns.

ddAor emt mheupas .. . dds Arpuyéroio] Iliad xxiv. 10-12,

a ee

Notes: Book I1l, 113

slightly altered. Plato has dropped the metre (in the words rére...
dvaordvra) to save the construction. It is probable that he has
further altered dwevecxe (Il. xxiv. 12) into mdwi{ovra, which does not
occur in Homer, for the same reason, and also to increase the
mock-heroic effect : the word darpvyéroo does not occur in Homer,
but is added to round off the line. mditew is found in Hesiod
(Op. et Dies 632), and seems to be introduced here in a humorous
sense (‘sailing along ’), in order to throw ridicule on the description.
Cp. vii. 529 c kav e€ imrias véwv év yj. Heyne’s conjecture, mpwiforra,
a word not found, but formed on the analogy of éyWifovra, ‘ taking
a morning walk,’ is ingenious, cp, the words ovd¢ pu "Has | patvopevn
AnOecxevy, which follow in the text of Homer; but no change is
necessary.

€xeivos| sc. 6 “Opnpos.

kuhwSdpevov| The unmetrical cvdAwSovpevor is read in MZ, where
the copyists have probably substituted the later prose form «vAwdeiv
for xvdivdev, which is the only form in Homer. The same may or
may not be true of duporépacon (duorépdict Par. A).

Gpo. éyd, «.t.A.] The words of Thetis in Iliad xviii. 54.

dvopoiws | = ‘in a manner unlike him,’ recalls ii. 379 a olos rvyxavee
6 Oeds dv, dei Siwou dmodoréov. |

& wéwor... Sapfvar} Il. xxii. 168, 169; xvi. 433, 434-

dvagiws| sc. rav bear.

ei kai €mio aéto}] ‘Should it even come into his mind.” Com-
pare Phaedr. 264 B rd émév, ‘ what came into his head’: infra viii.
563 C obxobv Kar’ AloyvAov, pn, épodper 6 re viv RAW Emi ordua ; Eurip.
Med. 1051, 1052 adda ris epijs Kaxns, | 7d Kal mpoéorOat padOaxods Ad-yous
gpevi. The very inclination to such words and actions is to be
rebuked and suppressed. So in the Theaet. 173 D omovdai d€, K.r.A. . .
ovdé dvap mpdrrew mpoolotatat adrois.

&Aw kaddion} ‘Another and a fairer one:’ sc. Aéye. For
the term «adds applied to an argument cp. i. 334 p, where Pole-
marchus says—otros éxeivov xadXiwv haivera: Theaet. 203 D, 209 E.

Srav tis €>9 icxupe yéAwt] ‘when a man gives way to violent
Jaughter’ Cp. Tim. 59 p (Bekker’s reading) rairy 8} (sc. rf 9Sov7)
kal ra viv épévres (déevres, Par, A), and Protagoras 338 A oipia épévra,
‘running before the wind.’

The same thought occurs in viii. 563 & 1d dyav re woceiy peydAny

VOL. Il. 1

ne

Republic
411.

388
E

‘'. —_— = ooe

114 Plato: Republic.

grrei eis toivavriov peraBodjv dvrarodidéva, For the personification
of the neuter with {net (‘ requires,’ ‘demands ’), compare ii. 370 B
od yap, olpat, €Oédet Td mparrdépevov Ti Tod mpdrrovros aXoAHY mepipevery,
and note: Symp. 189 A ei rd Kéapiov Tod capatos émibupet rootrer
Popov, K.7.A.: CP. X. 595 C ti BovdAerat (SC. ¥) pipnors) elvac.

mond 8€ frrov, édv Geods] The particle 8¢ after re (in odre) is
emphatic : ‘ but surely much less so if they are Gods,’

oux dmodextéov . . . oF yap ofv 8h dmodextéov] ‘On your
views we must not admit them.’ ‘On my views, if you like to call
them mine: that we must not admit them is certain.’ For a similar
piece of raillery compare v. 475 A «i Bovde, eqn, ex’ ewod réyew .. .
ovyxw@p@ rov Adyou xapu.

GANG py, «.7.4.] How far does Plato sanction falsehood? Only
in the governors, who are allowed to use the ‘lie remedial’ in the
management of their subjects ; the subject is not allowed to have the
privilege of lying in return, The higher sense of the inexpediency
and immorality of all falsehood seems to be wanting here, as above
in ii, 382 .c. Yet falsehood is denied to the Gods, and only
admitted as a necessary imperfection among men. Possibly some
thread of irony is here interwoven (see especially eimep reoiv adAXors).
Plato seeing that falsehood plays a great part in the government of
the world, is willing to sanction it for certain purposes: so for
example in the marriage lots (v. 459 p), and in the noble lie—
Powrkixdvy t—about the origin of classes in society (infra 414 Cc).

ei yap dpOds Ehéyonev Gpte| sc. at the end of Book ii. 382.
' ds év dappdKou eiSe.] Cp. v. 459 D ePaper S€ mov ev apcixov

ciSec mavra Ta ToLadTra xpnoma eivat.
iSwrats S€ obx dmtéov| sc. rod rorovrou.

Tois dpxouor 8}... wodttav Evexa| The disjunctive form of
sentence is occasioned by the negative implied in etmwep tuaiv &dors.
‘None but the ruler is to do so, either for warlike or peaceful
purposes.’ For the meaning of tohepiwv évexa, cp. ii. 382 c rd év
Tois Adyous Weddos. . . xpnommov .. . mpds Te Tos moAEpious, K.TA.

mpds ye 8} tTods torodrous dpxovras| ‘To our rulers, being ~
what they are.’ Plato does not acknowledge the same obligation
towards unskilled rulers such as the demagogue or tyrant. Here,
as supra i. 346 & Plato without distinctly anticipating the great

— so.
+

Notes: Book L/1., 115

revolution of making philosopher-kings already hints at a better
sort of government than any at present existing among mankind,

In Par. A rowvrovs is written only in the margin, but by the first
hand. It is omitted in Stobaeus and in v. It may therefore
possibly be a repetition of rocovrov.

Aéyovrt | agrees with i8éry supra, the construction being slightly
changed from Aéyew.

dv dp’ Gddov... év tH wéder| ‘If then a ruler catches any one
besides himself lying in the state.’ dpyev is understood from rois
dpxovot,—apxorras supra.

Tay ot . . . téxtova Sodpwv| Od. xvii. 383, 384.

édv ye . . . €pya redfjrar| ‘ Yes, said he, that is, if our theory
is carried out.’ ‘If over and above the word there should ever be
the fact’ (€pyov rédos). For the use of émi cp. Odyss. xvii. 308 «i
di) kui raxds Eoxe Oke emi eidei r@de.

Plato has opposite ways of enlivening his language. The first
creation of the state is confessedly theoretical (ii. 369 a, c), but it
soon appears that ‘we are the legislators or oekists’ (ii. 379 a,
v. 458 c), ‘and do what we describe ; or rather not we, but necessity
is the founder of the state’ (ii. 369 c). Then again we are
reminded that this is a mere argument or similitude, and the fact,
quite another thing, which is to be added over and above (émi Adyw),
as in this passage. Elsewhere the two modes of speech alternate
with one another.

&s whyGer] ‘for a body of men,’ such as the army of guardians
whom we are training. The qualifying phrase is probably added
to prepare for the defifiition of owdpootm in the individual in
Book iv. For a similar qualifying addition, cp. iv. 430 C moderuxny
ye. (The phrase is so understood by Van Heusde, Spec. Crit. in
Plat. p. 52 and by Matthiae, Greek Grammar, § 388.)

térra .. . pl0w| Il. iv. 412.

7a todtwy éxépeva] either (1) ‘ other lines which are of the same
order with these,’ as expressing a similar feeling, or (2) ‘ which go
along with these.’ Plato, who is quoting from memory, supposes

_ that all which he quotes occurs in the same passage.

toav . . . Axarot,—oryy SetSidtes onpdvtopas| The first line is
found in Iliad iii. 8: the second in Iliad iv. 431. It is improbable
that we have a trace here of a Pre-Alexandrian Homer, nor is there
12

Republic
LM.

389
E

116 Plato: Republic.

any reason for supposing that the second verse is interpolated in the
text. Some Homeric illustration of obedience to chiefs is needed,
and Plato has taken the liberty of bringing together two half-lines
out of different passages, perhaps by a slip of memory, perhaps not
intending that they should be connected. Cp. supra 388 B.

oivoBapés .. . €Adporo] Il. i. 225.

kai 7a tovtwy és] <éijs is variously construed with a genitive or
dative (infra vii. 528 a ro éfijs.. . Ti yewperpia).

veaneduata| ‘impertinences. So the verb, Phaedr. 235 a
epaivero bn po veaneverba evdexvipevos: Gorg. 482 c: and the
adjective veauxés, Gorg. 508 D rd veaxdy 81 ToiTo Tov god Adyov.
veavxevara is the form in Par. A. In other MSS. there are traces
Of veancketpara. Xenophon, Cyr. 1. 2.15, appears to have used

veanoxeverOa :—Pollux, 2. 20; see Stephanus’ Thesaurus, ed.
Dindorf.

ei 8€ twa GAAnv HSovnv| ‘If however, apart from this, it gives
any pleasure, —dddny being ‘ adverbial.’

Tapatdeta. Gor tpdmeLat, x.7.A.] altered from Odyss. ix. 8 mapa
8€ mAnOwor tpdwe(ax. Plato has somewhat unfairly left out the
minstrel, who, in the same passage, is placed foremost among the
delights of the banquet.

hip@ 8 oiktiotov ... émomeiv] Odyss. xii. 342.

4 Ala... émdavOavéuevov| ‘Or to hear that Zeus, while the
other Gods and mankind were sleeping, lightly forgot all that
he had planned while he alone was awake.’ The construction is
dxovew Aia &s émiAavOavdpevov = as Zeds eredavOdvero (cp. ii. 383 A os
.. . yonras dvras). The nominatives, pdvos éypyyopés, agree with the
subject of ¢Sovdetcaro, the relative being transposed as supra ii.
363 A Tois daios & pact Trois Gears &iddvar, Kabevddvrav ... & €Bovdev-
garo is a paraphrase of Iliad ii. 1, 2 ff.

@AdAou pev pa Oeoi te Kai avépes immoxopvatat

cidov ravvixior Aia & ovk exe vndupos vmvos* x,t.
And the chief allusion is to Iliad xiv. 294-351. The words pidtous
Andovre toxjas, Which occur in the poet’s narrative (l.c. l. 296), are
inaccurately ascribed by Plato to Zeus in person.

73 Swpdriov] The diminutive is comically substituted for the
6ddapos of Iliad xiv. 338, and is perhaps meant to burlesque the
aigépa Ads dwpudrwv which Aristophanes (Ranae roo) ascribes to
Euripides.

= ero Tie mT am ©

Notes: Book Ill, 117

80 érepa rovaira}| ‘for something else of the same kind,’ ‘ for
the same sort of thing.’ These words are euphemistic and con-
temptuous. Plato does not care to give the second tale in full:
Odyss. viii. 266 foll. The sentence passes out of the interrogative
form. o08¢, sc. émirnderdv eorw dxovew.

GN’ ei mod twes... dxouveréov] ‘But any extreme deeds of
endurance which are either performed by famous men or told
concerning them, our youth should see (represented at the theatre)
and hear.’ déyovrat, sc. wept €AXoyipwr avdpav : bd, «.7.A., is in con-
struction only with mpdrrovrat. For mpds Gmavra cp. Thuc. iii. 82, 4
Td mpds Grav Evverdy.

tods dv8pas] is used pronominally,—‘the men before us,’ ‘ our
pupils.’ Compare infra 391 Cc rovs jyerépovs. This familiar way of
speaking adds a touch of reality to the conversation. Cp. Theaet.
144 D, where Socrates says in reply to Theodorus’ description of
his pupil—yevrixdy A€yers Tov GvBpa.

SGpa ... Baodfjas| This verse is said by Suidas (i. p. 623) to
be taken from Hesiod.

Goivixa, x.t.d.] Il. ix. 432, 515 sqq.
tis pyvos| The Epic word recalls the theme of the Iliad.

mapa Tod "Ayapeuvovos SHpa AaBeiv] Il. xix. 278. Plato does
injustice to the character of Achilles, who is indifferent to the gifts.
It is a misconception of the Homeric idea to charge him with dvedev-
Gepia or didoxpnyaria, as infra 391 c. See especially Il. xix. 147, 148
Adpa pév, ai «’ &ehyaOa, raparxéper, ds éncecxés, | eit’ éxéyev, mapa coi.

80 “Ounpov] Compare x. 595 B kairoe dudia yé tis pe Kai aldds éx
maidos €xovea repi ‘Opnpou aroxwAver eye.

EPrawds p exdepye ... wapein| Il. xxii. 15, 20.
kal @s mpds tov motapdv ... dmeOds elxe| II. xxi. 130 Ff.

kat ad...00 mwevoréov| Il. xxiii. 151. ‘Or that he said “Let
me offer to Patroclus,” who was a lifeless corpse, ‘to take with him
the locks,” which had been consecrated to the other river Spercheius,
or that he did so, we should not believe.’ ds is to be repeated with
épn. The accusative, tas ...tpixas, is in a loose construction,
which becomes more precise when the phrase is resumed in xépyy.
The genitive tod .. . wepxevod is to be taken closely with tepds in
the usual construction.

Republic
Wd.

391
B

118 Plato: Republic.

tds te a “Exropos .. . Narpéxdou] Il. xxiv. 14 ff.: cp. xxii.
395 ff.

Tas tav Lwypnbévrwv opayds eis thy mupdv| Il. xxiii. 175, 176.
The plurals €\gets and odayds refer to a succession of distinct acts.
The body of Hector was dragged day after day, and twelve human
victims, not one only, had been offered on the funeral pyre.

Oedv te Kai dvOpdmwv] For the genitive of the object after
btrepynpaviay cp. supra ii. 359 A gvvOjxas avraév, and note.

ph toivuy ...dpmayds| ‘Then let us equally refuse to believe,
or allow to be repeated the tale of Theseus, son of Poseidon, and
Pirithous, son of Zeus, going forth to perpetrate such horrid acts of
rape.’ Pirithous aided Theseus in carrying off Helen, and Theseus
joined Pirithous in his attempt to steal Persephone away from Pluto
(Isocrates, ‘Edévns éyxoptov, 20-22). The plural dpwayds includes
both actions. Sewds marks not the danger of the descent to Hades,
but the heinousness of the offence. d&ppneay is read in Par. A after
all, and not Spunaer, as stated by all the Editors from Bekker down-
wards. This determines the balance in favour of the plural verb.
ottws is to be joined with devas. Cp. Symp. 192 c obtws én
peyaAdns oovdis.

pndé tw’ GAdov] aAdor is clearly preferable to aAdov, although
addod (sic) is the reading of Par, A.

&s ot Oeot Kaka yervaor| ‘That the Gods are progenitors of
evil.’ The doers of evil cannot be sons of God. Else evil would
proceed from God. Cp. ii. 379 c.

as dpa} dpa, ‘then ’—if these stories are true.

ot Geav d&yxiomopot, x.t.A.] These lines are taken, like the quota-
tion in ii. 380 a, from the Niobe of Aeschylus. The lines are also
quoted by Strabo (xii. 870), as they occur here, with the exception
that ofs ev "Idai@ may is read for dv kat’ *ISatov maéyov. The reason
of the resolution (kai od mw), which occurs in all the MSS. but not in
Strabo, may be either that Socrates is putting together lines from
different places, as at pp. 386, 387, or that the copyists supposed
him to have done so.

Aeschylus seems to imagine a sort of heavenly Ida, like Olympus
in Homer, where the demigods sacrifice to their father in the sky. —

Pe eT ee ee

Notes: Book II. 119

It is the mountain whose top reaches to Heaven in the imagination
of the poet. Cp. the similar consecration of Mount Oeta in Soph.
Trach. 1191.

What principles are to regulate the representation of human
things? The point is reserved until after the decision of the main
question, concerning the nature of Justice, and whether it is profitable
or not to him who has it,—-and this whether it be known or unknown
to Gods and men.

[Hiv] before fv 8 éyd is omitted in Par. A, probably owing to
iv following.

hourdv elS0s Adyww wép.] ‘ What department still remains that has
to do with the subjects of discourse.’ The reading Adyor mépu is
confirmed by ra pév 8) Adywv wép infra c, and by the expression
«l8os vdpov mépt, infra iv. 427 a. The periphrasis is nearly equiva-
lent to a simple genitive. The reading of =, which was also the
reading of the text before Bekker, is mepsope{opevors, a word the
existence of which could not be allowed on the authority of this
passage only, even if the other reading had not the authority of
11M. The scribe who wrote mepiopifopey ofs as in A must have

' understood the relative clause to mean ‘ what is to be told to whom,’

For the meaning of Ady cp. supra ii. 376 E povosns 8 cindy ridns
Adyous, } o} ; where the subject was first started,

@sGpa| ‘to infer from what we admitted,’ ‘according to our
view,’ viz. in Book ii.

Plato remembers that the poets (as Adeimantus pointed out,
ii. 364 A) err equally in their ideas about men, as about the Gods.
But how can we determine the truth about human virtue till we
define justice? This is an ironical or fanciful excuse for varying
the order of the subject. Cp. iv. 430.

GANStprov pev dyabdy, «.7.A.] i. 343 ¢, ii. 367 Cc.

& wdédat * Lytodpev] ‘ which we have been seeking all this while.’
The manuscript reading is ¢{nrodper, ‘ which we were seeking for
long ago’: sc. in the inquiry about justice, before we began to
construct the state. But the conjectural reading (nrodper, which is
confirmed by the version of Ficinus, is more probable. Cp. iv.
420 C Kariddvres S¢ Kpiva dv & wddat fyrodper. For the use of such
a pronominal phrase in recapitulating, to avoid tautology, cp.
Phileb. 50 c ra viv modAdxes Acyopeva.

Republic
L717.
392 C-
397 E

392
D

120 Plato: Republic.

So much ts said with regard to the substance of the new literature.
Next, as to the form. Shall it be (1) narrative, or (2) dramatic, or
(3) a mixture of both?

The speeches in Homer are dramatic, but they are linked together
with bits of narration. Tragic poetry is dramatic throughout.
Homer, again, would be entirely narrative, if the speeches were
reported indirectly. And this ts the mode actually adopted in the
Dithyramb,

The purely dramatic form is to be excluded from our state. For
we have long since decided that simplicity ts to be our rule; and the
imitation of various characters ts fatal to simplicity. Our youth
may be allowed to impersonate the virtuous and good, but nothing
that is vicious or mean, nor a female in any condition, nor a slave ;
still less, as happens in comedy, a drunkard or a coward. They
must indeed know such characters from without, but never for a
moment must they be identified with them. Nor may they mimic
mental arts, of which they are to know nothing, nor unmeaning
noises, such as the neighing of horses or the sound of thunder.

In narrating the fortunes of some hero, if they are carried away
into impersonating him when he is about some noble deed, well and
good. Orif they scornfully throw in a dramatic touch in character-
izing some bad man, there is no great harm, provided that such
points in their discourse are few and momentary. But the main
tenour of the recital will be pure narration, and the manner of
the recitation tn the pitch and cadence of the voice will be simple and
uniform.

Sinyynots odca] The participle is attracted to the noun instead
of agreeing with mdévta supra.

dp odv... mepatvouow] There are three kinds of poetry :—(r)
the simple narrative, of which the dithyramb is given as an example
(394 c): (2) the opposite kind, which has only action and no
narrative, as is the case in tragedy and comedy: (3) the union of
the two, as in Epic poetry, which, if you leave the speeches only,
becomes a drama, or if you omit the speeches or report them in
oratio obliqua, takes the form of simple narration.

Compare Aristotle’s Poetics, c. iii. § 2 xat yap év rois abrois kai ra abra
pipeioOa ear dbré pev amayyéAdovra f) Erepdv te yeyvdpevov, Gomep “Opnpos
move, i) ws Tov avTov Kai yu) peraBddXovTa, i) Tavras ws mpaTrovTas Kai év-
epyowvras tovs pipoupevovs.—hé€is, aS a separate element, is over-
looked in Gorg. 502 c épe 3, ei ris mepiehorro rhs momoews maons Td

e Notes: Book IIT. 121

te pédos kai rov pudpdv Kai rd pérpov, GAXo te f Adyou yiyvovrat td Newwd=
pevor 5

Plato’s test of the moral character of poetry, while including
dithyrambics, would exclude the tragedies of Sophocles and
Aeschylus. On the relation of Plato to the poets, see further
notes in Book x.

mepaivovow] ‘proceed.’ For this absolute use cp. Laws iv.
715 E 6 per 37 Oeds . . . eiOeia mepaive (‘fulfils his course ’).

GmohaBdy pépos 1] ‘ breaking off a part,’ i.e. making use of an
example. Cp. Gorg. 495 E mepi drov Bote tov coparos d&rokaBav
oxéme, and Theaet. 182 A od pavOdvers aOpdov eydpevov" Kata pépy

obv dove, «

od érdyxave] The imperfect as in ov« érede.

kat €\iogeto ... Nady] Il. i. 15, 16.

tov év “Ody Kal Sdn “OSucceia tabmpdtwv| ‘the things which
happened at Ithaca and in the Odyssey generally,’ i.e. not only in
Ithaca, but at Sparta, Phaeacia, and elsewhere. Observe that év is
not again repeated, but is implied in a somewhat different meaning
with ‘Odveceia.

otxody Sijynots . . . tav fpricew] Epic poetry is narrative
throughout ; but the szmple narrative, i.e. the descriptive part is to

be distinguished from narrative through imitation, i.e. the speeches:

amdy Sepynots avev pepnoews from dupynors dca pipnoews.

G dv tug dporot] sc. éavrdv, to be supplied from dpovody éaurdy
at the beginning of the sentence.

iva 8é pi elmys, Ste odx ad pavOdvers} ‘ But that you may not
say “Once more I do not understand you.”’ ‘The order of the
words appears to be euphonic. Cp. Theaet. 161 A @s ovx ad exe
oUT@ TavuTa.

adtovs| emphatic— themselves,’ opposed to thy Ouyarépa oi.

MGcat}] depends on the general notion of urging implied in
eUXeTO,

ph. . . od éwapxéoo.] This is the orasio obliqua of wi). . . ode
érapxéoet, Plato’s prose version of pi). . . 0b xpaiopy in Homer.
The future indicative after a verb of fearing is rare, but occurs in
Aesch., Soph., and Xen. See Goodwin, MZ. and 7., § 367. Cp.
V. 451 A py oadeis . . . xeivopat, and for the optative Euthyphro,

Republic
UL.

392
D

393

oe 4

Republic 15D GAG Kai todis Ocods dv CSewwas. . . pi ox dpOas adrd rowmoos.
“I. The future indicative after py in a final clause, although rare, is not
SS unknown (Ar. Eccl. 495 elkds . . . wi) Bpadiver .. . wi) Kai tis dwerat),

so that, as Goodwin remarks, M7. and T., § 132, there is no objec-
tion to pi). . . émapxéoo being so taken here. In places of this
kind the notions of purpose (‘lest’) and fearing (‘for fear that’)

are nearly coincident.

dmévat 8 éxédeve. . . otkade €\Oor.] ‘He told him to be off,
and not to provoke him, if he wished to get home safely.’ Plato
omits the accusative case after épeBifew (ddd’ th, py p’ épébrce),
which has been unnecessarily restored by Valckenaer (yu €) with-
out manuscript authority.

122 Plato: Republic.

394 dmoxwpyoas S€ ek tod otpatomédou| ‘This is prose for dmdvevde
A sme Ul. i, 36.
tds Te émwvupias. . . vadv oikodouyceow| Il. i. 37-9 :—

KADOi prev, apyupdrog’, ds Xpvanv auptBeBnxas
KaAav re Cabénv, Tevédod te ide avaoces,

a ” , / , ee ‘ ”
Spied, «i more tow xaptevt’ emt vnov epewa,

which last seems to have been understood by Plato, not of crown-
ing shrines of the God with garlands, but of roofing them (év vay
oixodopnoeow), as Eustathius explains the word épepa by apépeca,
which is probably the true meaning. ‘épewa seems to indicate
the most primitive form of temple—a mere roof to protect the
image of a God standing in a grove.’ Leaf’s note on Il. i. 39.
Cp. Paus. x. 5, § 9.

ta & Sdxpua] 4 is an archaism or Homericism, into the use of
which Plato is probably led by his subject. Cp. supra ii. 383 B ras
éas evradias,and note. There is a similar use of a poetical form in
the Phaedrus, where Socrates ‘plays’ at dithyrambics: 237 a gdp
por AdBeoGe rod pvdov.

B tadtns at évavtia] sc. dupynors, i.e. 7 did popnoews.

kai todro . .. towdrov| ‘That again I understand; and I
perceive that your remark applies to tragedy.’

dpQérata . . . obx olds tH] ‘ You perfectly catch my meaning,
and now I think I make you see what before I could not.’

éumpooOev. . .(c) tére| supra 392D xai rovro (the first siate-
ment about dujynats) . . . ere Seopa cahéorepoy padeiv.

wae weer

Notes: Book I11. 123

domep od Aéyets] supra parOdvw . ..rowirov, The respondent Repub

gets full credit for his contribution. The reference to this definition
is repeated infra 395 a.

ei por pavOdvers] ‘If I make you understand.’ The dative po,
which is the reading of the MSS., has been altered into pou by
Heindorf. This is unnecessary, although ei pou pavOdves occurs in
Phileb. 51 c. Compare Laws i. 644 c kai pot d¢ eixdvos drodétacde.

73 mpd ToUTou] 392 C.

Todro tolvuy . . . €keyov| ‘ That was just what I meant.’ todro
aéré refers to what follows, tt xpein . . . prpetoOar, as well as to
the words ds 8é Aextéov in what precedes.

ouSe pipetobar] sc. edvoper.

tows 8€ kai mdeiw| ‘And there may be more than this in
question,’—an anticipation of the condemnation of epic poetry in
Book x.

TohhGv épamrspevos| ‘attempting many things, he will altogether
fail to be eminent in any (qov).’ éote depends on some positive
idea, which is gathered from émotuyxdvor: ‘he will not succeed (od
tvyxavoi dv) in any so as to be eminent.’ Cp. Protag. 314 B, where
ére ver GoTE = ot'rw Hdixiav Exouer, Sore.

otov KwpwSiav, x.7.d.] Yet Socrates at the end of the Sympo-
sium (223 D) maintains that comedy and tragedy belong to the
same artist: 1d pévroe xepadaov, én, mpocavayxdtew tov Swxparn
sporoyeiv adrods Tov adrov dvdpds elvat kwp@diay kai tpaydiay érictacba
Trove, Kai Tov TExVN Tpaypdiorody dvta Kopmdcorrordy elvat.

For a judgement on tragedy compare Gorg. 502 B ri d€ 3) 9
cep aitn kai Oavpaoth 7 ths tpay@dias moinas, ef @ éomovdake ;
where he proceeds to say: ‘Is the vocation of tragedy to please
the spectators only? Or does she refuse to speak of pleasant
vices and proclaim only what is wholesome but unpleasant? We
must say Yes to the former; and if so, all the pretensions of
tragedy will not hinder our classing her creations under the head
of flattery. The same test is applied to other kinds of poetry.

Plato’s enmity to the drama seems to rest on grounds which
are partly fanciful and partly real. The mimetic sympathetic
power of the actor is unfavourable to strength and unity of pur-
pose: the genius of imitation is certainly akin to weakness. But
a man will not be induced to become a murderer by acting the

rr
Cc

395
A

Republic
f11.

395
A

124 Plato: Republic.

part of a murderer; nor is the inference sound that the same indi-
vidual cannot act many parts because he cannot succeed in many
serious pursuits. The evil of the drama does not consist in the
imitation of evil any more than of good, but in the effect of con-
tinued emotion and excitement on the character of the actor and
spectators.

Gptt] 394 B, C.
papwSot ye] sc. divavra: evar.

o88€ to. Swoxpitai...ot adrot] ‘And you know that the same
actors do not perform in tragedy and comedy.’
and similar expressions.

Cp. rpay@dois uxav,

mdvta S€ Taira piuyjpata| i.e. the rhapsode and the tragic or
comic actor are ‘imitators,’ as well as the poets whose works they
produce; or, in modern language, there is a sense in which the
actor, too, ‘creates’ his part. Plato, however, fails to realize that
true art is not mere imitation, but the embodiment of an ideal ;
although he comes near the expression of this truth in 401 B
(infra).

dote Gduvatos elvar. . . dopowdpata| (1) If 4 is unemphatic,
‘And becomes unable to imitate many things well or to do the
things themselves well, if they are many’; (2) or taking # emphati-
cally—‘ Or else’ (if able to imitate) ‘is not able to do the things
themselves.’ For the latter (which resumes cyodj dpa émrndevoet,
K.T.A.) Cp. Vie 503 A # Tov ddvvarodvra dmoxpitéov: Vil. 525 B THs

Ee. ae. > , > , a , - ,
ovoias drréov eivar yevéoews eavadivtt, i) pndemore Aoytotix@ yevéoOat,

Ta ToUTOLS TMpooyKovTa] rovros is probably masculine = PvAage
kat Snptoupyois ehevOepias tis mékews, Cp. infra E dca SovAwv: 396A
keAevovtas TOUTOLS.

iva ph . . . Gwokatowow] ‘Lest by imitation they should
become imbued with the reality of that which they imitate.’ Cp.
infra 401 B,C wa pr év kaxias eixdoe rpepdpevar . . . &v Te Evmordvres

AavOavwot kaxdv péya ev tH abray Wuyx7.

édv éx véwv méppw Siatekéowow| ‘If, beginning in youth, they
continue far into life.’

els €0y te Kai picw xabioravrar| ‘Acquire the fixedness of
habit and nature.’

se ee
— —_~ ‘ ’ ia o a. =

CY

Notes: Book 111. 125

dvBpi AowBopoupérnv] ‘ Reviling’ (1) ‘a man,’ opposed to mpds
Geods following, or (2) ‘ her husband.’

mohdod Kal Seyoopev| xai adds to the emphasis: ‘We shall be
far indeed from that.’

peOdovras 4 Kal vipovras|] These words qualify the preceding
participles. ‘Abusing and reviling one another whether drunk or
sober.’

dpaptdvouow els adtods te kal eis GAAous] ‘Sin against others
and against themselves,’ i.e. degrading themselves as well as in-
juring others. ’

yrwordoy pev ydp, «.t.A.] Cp. infra 409 D dper)) 8€ icews
madevouérns xpdvm dua abris te Kai rovnpias émrtnuny AnwWerat,

KeXevovTas Todrors | SC. tois éAavvovow: ‘ giving the time to the
rowers,’ i. e. doing the work of the xeAevorys on board ship.

ob8e mpocdxew tov vodv toUrwy odSevi| supra ii. 374 D, E.

H ptpyoovrat] 4%, which is emphasized by its position in the
sentence, asks the question with a tone of indignation. Cp. v.
469 c ri 8€; oxvdcdew . . . rods TeAeuTHOavTas MARY Gmhwv, éreadav
vKnowow, I Karas exer;

Gmeipntat adrois, x.t.A.] supra A.

ei. . . pavOdvw & od dAéyers] Socrates again ascribes his own
reflections to the respondent.

08 ay éxoro] ‘In which he will persist. Cp. Soph. 264 £
exdpevoe tis Tod goducrov Kowwvias: Thuc. i. 140 Ths pev yoouns
. +. THS avrns Exouat,

5 pév por. . . pérpros dvqp| 6 is the definite article before
pérpws avmp. The words which intervene give an additional
emphasis to pérpios.

enous] ‘in earnest,’ is opposed to ma:diis xdpw.

otk eehjcew] like édeAjoew supra, dependent on doxei.

abrév éxudrrew te Kal énordvat, «.7.A.] ‘To mould and adapt
himself to the baser shapes,’ like the clay of the statuary which
would be said évicracOa rG rin, ‘to settle into the shape of the
mould” But in Tim. 50 D & @ éxrumotpevoy éviorara, the same
word is used conversely of the form being impressed on the
matter,

Republic
Wl

395
E

Republic
LH.
396

E

397
A

126 Plato: Republic.

kal gorat ... THs piynoews|] ‘And his style will partake of
both kinds, of imitation and also of narrative’ (rijs Gdns depyjoews :
see on ii. 357: it may be remembered however that dsjynors
alone, when not distinguished by the epithet 4x7, may include the
imitative, as well as other kinds, as in the beginning of this passage,
supra 392 D): ‘only there will be a few grains of the former in
a long recital’ Bekker alters the text into opipov 8€ te pépos pupn-
sews €v TOAAG Ady ths Supynoews, for which there is some faint
manuscript authority ; but the alteration is unnecessary ; the text
is neater and gives an equally good sense. °

dow dv hauddrepos 7. . . Sinyjoetor| It seems necessary to adopt
Madvig’s emendation here. Of the two manuscript readings, that
of g, although probably conjectural, is the more plausible: ‘ The
more vulgar he is, the more constantly will he employ imitation.’
The reading of Par. A, &c., mdvra re paddAov duyynoera, could only
mean: ‘the more ready will he be to tell about anything and
everything ’"—laying a strong emphasis on mdyra, and implying
that there are some things which a good man will not even narrate.
If Plato had meant this, he would have said it more clearly. And
the form of the sentence (te. . . kat od8€v ... doe, k.7.4.) is much
better adapted to bring out the additional point—that not only does
the bad man always prefer imitation, but there is nothing which
he is ashamed to imitate. The expression mdvra 8unyjoertat is also
too obviously out of keeping with the concluding words, opxpéy re
dunynoews Exovea. [The avoidance of a mere awkwardness does not
justify an emendation which has no real manuscript authority. B. J.]

tpoxthiwy| ‘pulleys.’ Perhaps, as Ast suggested, rpoyidudv
should be read, rpoxsAia, not tpoxiAvov, being the usual form.

oxypacw] ‘gestures’: cp. Soph. 267. dérav. . . rd cov oxipa
Tis T@ EavTodD Xpdpevos THpaTt mpogdpnov f poviv hovj paiverOat ror,
pipnots rovro tis avruotixis pddiota Kékhytai mov. The word is
differently used supra ii. 373 B.

ddiyou mpds Thy adthy ... Kal év pia dppovia| (1) mpds Thy
adriy, sc. Aééw (‘ferme ad eandem orationis formam, Fic.). ‘The
result is that he speaks nearly in the same style and with a uniform
cadence.’ [(2) dAtyou mpds thy adrhy, Sc. xopdyv. mpds New rd heyew
is hardly a natural expression, and the question here is not that of
the style itself, but of the cadence and tone adapted to it. The
cadence is uniform and approaches monotone. Cp. mpdéaxopdos

Notes: Book I11, 127

(Laws vii. 812 p) and the ellipsis of xop8y with vedrn, imdrn, worn (infra
iv. 443 D): also Lucian, de Salt., c. 80 droya xevotpevor kal pndtv, de
pact, mpds ri xopdnv. The narrative style, as it has less alteration
of meaning or feeling (opexpal yap ai peraBodai), has fewer and
slighter variations of tone than the dramatic.—As there is no
authority, however, for this elliptical phrase, this interpretation,
though suited to the context, is only conjectural. L.C.] For the use
of dp0@Gs compare 403 B od Kowwvnréoy adris épaoth te Kai masdéxois
bpOas épaai re Kai épwpévars. The words te dp0ds Aéyorr: (‘ when one
recites properly’) are balanced by « wéAde ad olkelws XéyeoOa (infra
c), i. e. ‘when the enunciation on is appropriate to the style.’ It is clear
that dppovia here is not “used in the strictly musical sense, but is
applied to the changes of pitch and tone which occur in speaking
and reciting. Cp. Ar. Rhet. iii. 1, where Aristotle says that the
_ three elements of utterance are péyeOos, dppovia and pvbuds, and
identifies dppovia with rdvos.

ti 8é 1d Tod érépou elBos; . . . Tav petaBoday Exew;] ‘ But what
about the character of the other style? Will it not require the
opposite? Will it not require all harmonies and all rhythms, if
it is to be appropriately expressed, because it has every variety
of change?’ The jeraBodrai here referred to are changes in the
style.

dp’ odv, x.t.d.] The words Adyos, A€£ts, dppovia, pududs, Baors,
may be distinguished as follows :—

Adyos, the subject, which is true or false, moral or immoral.

Ae&s, the style, which is dramatic or narrative, or a composition
of the two.

dppovia is a musical term: it was applied (a) to the Enharmonic
genus (this is the only sense it has in Aristoxenus), (8) to the modes,
which according to some differed in the arrangement of the
intervals, according to others in pitch. The word really means
‘ scale,’ as defined in Laws ii. 664 £ etropev ... os... TH) 5} THs KUNTEws
rage pvdpds dvoua ein, r7 Sé ad ris hovis, row te dkéos dua cai Bapéos
avykepavvupévav, Gppovia Svoua mpocayopevoro: (y) Plato also applies
the term in a still wider sense, as in the preceding sentence, to
cadence or variation of tone in speaking and recitation—infra
398 D rod pi @dopevov Adyov.

fvOpés is a term which applies equally to the music and to the

128 Plato: Republic.

Republic words: the division of time in metre (e.g. Paeonic, Dactylic,
4. Trochaic, proceeding respectively in a ratio of 3, #, #) and the

ag? corresponding accentuation of the music.

Baors is the movement considered as a system of times or quantities,
3,32,2. In 400 A tpi’ drra éoriv cidn && dy ai Baoes mrExovra Plato
implies that the term dows applies to the whole of each of the three -
systems of which the Paeon, Dactyl, or Trochee is the characteristic
element.

€& dudotépwvy twit guykepavvivtes| tui sc. timp: ie. Ff rue €
dudorepwr, Evykepavvivres te eldos &€& dudorepwr. ~vyxexpayévm would
have been more natural, But the preference for the active is
characteristic of Greek.

D Tawi te Kal madaywyois, K.T.A.| Kal madaywyois is humorously
added. He knows that his regulations will be unpopular, not with
the children only, but with their attendants, who are ‘ children of
a larger growth. Cp. Gorg. 502 p (speaking of tragedy)—viv dpa
wets etpykapev pytopixny tiva mpos Sjpwov To.ovrov, olov maidwv te dpod Kal

- yuvatkév kai avdpar, kai Sovd@v kali ehevOépwv. The expression recurs in
Laws iii. 700 c with reference to the earlier custom of the theatre :
mat d€ kat madaywyois Kal To mAcict@ bxrAm paBdouv Kocpovons 7

vovbernats éyiyvero.

E kal ob xpynpatiotyy| See Thuc. vi. 31, § 5: vii. 13, § 2.

398 The genial versatile poet shall be sent into honourable exile: his
A,B - severe didactic brother shall be alone retained.

398 aités Te kal Ta Toinpata, «.t.A.] (1) ‘himself, and wanting to
show his poems.’ Cp. iv. 427 D airés re kai rov ddeApdy mapaxddet,
and Phaedr, 253 B pipovpevor airol re cal ra masdink metOovres: OF
perhaps (2), ‘ himself and his poems which he wishes to display’;
Ta moujpata being taken first as nominative to dgixo:ro and then
also as accusative after émudeigacOar.

mpookuvoipev ay, x.t.A.] The words that follow are an ironical
glorification of the dramatic poet: He is a holy and marvellous
being—a delightful creature (cp. Ion 534 B Kotor yap xphya mourns
€orTt kai mrnvov kai iepdv), But as the like of him is not allowed
among us, let us fall down before him and crown him with wool,
and anoint his head with myrrh,—and show him the way out.

A similar, though more serious strain is addressed to the tragic
poets in the Laws, vii. 817 a.D., where they are told that they will

Notes: Book I11. . 129

not be allowed to perform their plays until they have been submitted
to the censorship of the magistrates, and this severity is humorously
attributed by Plato to professional jealousy. The law-giver who is
a tragic poet in that ‘his whole state is an imitation of the best and
noblest life’ cannot be expected to allow his rival and antagonist
‘to erect his stage in the agora and introduce the fair voices of
actors, speaking above his own,—very often in contradiction.’ Cp.
also Phileb. 50 B rf rod Biov Euypmdon tpay@dia Kai kopwdia.

épiw orépavres| (1) ‘ Crowning him with wool’: or (2) ‘ providing
him with a woollen fillet’ (oréupa), which he is to carry on a wand
in token of the sacredness of his person.

kat dpxds| ii. 379 A ff.
ei ep’ fpiv ety] ‘If we really had the power.’ For a similar

reference to the possibility of the Republic being realized in fact
cp. supra 389 D édv ye... emi ye Ady@ Epya TeARTa, and note.

So much for the subjects and the style of spoken discourse. And
with regard to song the principles will be the same.

The difference lies in the addition of tune and metre. As we have
Jorbidden our poets to use lamentation, we shall forbid our musical
composers to employ pathetic melodies, or any kind of music which
tends to relax the moral fibre. No ‘soft Lydian airs’ for us, nor
the ‘linked sweetness’ of Ionian strains! But only the manly
Dorian and the martial Phrygian mood. Or, to speak more
exactly, we must have one sort of music which expresses warlike
resolution and patient fortitude, and one which breathes the serene
temper of philosophic aspiration and wise counsel and calm rejoicing
in the triumph of good.

For this we shall need no elaborate instrument, least of all the
infinitely variable tones of the flute—nothing but the lyre and
simple reed. We renounce Marsyas and hold to Apollo.

The passage which follows has been fully discussed by Westphal,
Griechische Harmontk, ed. 1886, c. 5, §§ 25-31, pp. 187-240.

mept @Sis tpdmou Kal pedkGv| ‘ About the character of songs and
the tunes.’

éxtds tév mdvtwy]| is a play upon the word mas (dp’ obv ob mas H8n
dy etpou). - Socrates argues that the application to song of the
principles which have been already laid down will be evident to all.
Glaucon answers with a smile: ‘I do not seem to be included in
the comprehensive word “all,” and am therefore at a loss to con-
VOL. II. K :

1. ae

Republic
7.

398
A

130 Plato: Republic.

jecture at present (though I have a suspicion) what sort of things
we ought to say.’ Cp. Soph. 233 £ Aéy roivuy o€ kai éué TOV WdvTww :
infra vii. 529 A mavti... dpdov, . . tows, iy 8 eyo, mavti dpAoyv TARY
epot,

Aéyou. . . pubpod] See note on supra 397 c.

kal daattas| I.e. év rij airg Aeket, viz. rH dadp Sepynoer.

kat piv, «.7.A.] This general truth has been admitted above,
397 B édv tis arrodid@ mpérovoay dppoviay kai pvOpov ri AeEet, although
this is there said of speaking and recitation only.

pigohuBeri] ‘That famous mode which Sappho invented, and
which Aristoxenus declares to be perfectly adapted to tragedy’
(Westphal, Griechische Harmonik, ed. 1886, p. 198). The authority
for this is Plutarch, De Mus., c. 16 kai 7 pugoddd.0g 8€ mabnrixh tes éore,
tpaywbdias dppdfovea, "Apiotd€evos 8€ not Tampa mporyy epacba riv
prgoduds.oti, map’ fis tods tpaypdorotots pabeiv’ aBdvras yoiv adrods
oveiga tH Swpiori, eel ev Td peyadomperes Kal agoparixdy adrodidwow,
9 8€ 1d maOntexdv, pémixrar S€ dea rovrwv tpay@dia, But Plutarch, in
the same passage, attributes to Aristoxenus other statements at
variance with this.

Gs Set émetkets etvar] Cp. supra 387 E cal ovd€ ratras onovdaias.
The suggestion that some women are to aim high is one of the
preparations for the surprise in Book v.

aitwes xadapat Kxadodvtat| ‘The sort of melodies called lax.’
The indefinite relative suits with Plato’s affected ignorance (cp.
infra 400 c), and the antecedent is in apposition to “laoré and
Auster! taken together. The ‘ relaxed harmonies’ include Ionian as
well as a species of Lydian (térodvéiori), but there appears to be no
distinction among Ionian melodies; although Westphal (§ 28, p. 200),
assumes it. xadapai is probably a technical term of music, imply-
ing a lower pitch, and opposed to cwvrovos, but is used by Plato
with an ethical association, for which cp. ix. 590 B rpu@y dé Kai
padOakia ovk emi rH abrov rovrou (rod Oupod) Xaddoet re Kal dvérer eyerar.
Aristotle, Pol. viii. 5, § 22 says: ‘Some of the modes make men
sad and grave, like the so-called Mixolydian, others enfeeble the
mind, like the relaxed harmonies, others again produce a moderate
and settled temper, which appears to be the peculiar effect of the
Dorian ;—the Phrygian inspires enthusiasm.’ Aristotle’s word for
‘relaxed’ is dveimévat, and in this he is followed by Aristoxenus and
later writers. It is generally assumed that xadapai in Plato means

Notes: Book II. 131

the same thing. Aristotle in Pol. viii. 7, § 14, censures Plato for
rejecting the ‘relaxed’ harmonies: he would keep them because
less difficult for aged persons to sing.

gpuyiori] Why should Plato choose the Phrygian mode to suit
the ‘modest stillness and sobriety’ becoming men in peace?
Aristotle’s criticism of this passage in Pol. viii. 7, §§g—-11, seems
only natural: ‘The Socrates of the Republic is wrong in
retaining only the Phrygian mode along with the Dorian, and the
more so because he rejects the flute; for the Phrygian is to the
modes what the flute is to musical instruments—both of them are
exciting and emotional, Poetry proves this, for Bacchic frenzy,
and all similar emotions are most suitably expressed by the flute,
and are better set to the Phrygian than to any other harmony.
The dithyramb, for example, is acknowledged to be Phrygian,’
Either Phrygian melodies had other than orgiastic uses, or Plato is
proceeding on some abstract ground, as that the Phrygian was in
the mean between excess and defect in pitch.

év mao. tovrois] is a resumption of év modepixi mpage and what
follows: ‘In all these cases repelling the attacks of fortune with
a firm front.’

éautév éréxovta| ‘giving his attention to.’ Cp. Laws xi. 926 B
eri peifoor yapus tiv diavoray enéxov. After Seouévou the construction
is changed and the accusatives éwéxovta . . . mpdgavra, «.1.4., are
governed directly by papjoaro. The cofrection éwéxovra, ‘ resigning’
or ‘submitting himself,’ which is found in a single manuscript
(=), is unnecessary.

tadtas Sdo dppovias, x.7.A.] Cp. Laws vii. 814 £, where it is
said of dancing rot 8) omovdaiou [«lvae kinow | THY pev Kata mOAELov
kal év Biaiois eumdaxevtay mévos Topatov pev Karov, Wuyxns 8 avdpucfs,
tiv & év ev’mpayias te otons Wuxis cappovos év ndovais re éupérpois®
elpnuixiy dv tis Aéyor kata vow rihv roavTny dpxnow héyor,

Suotuxovvrwy . . . dvBpeiwv| The genitives depend on $@édyyous.
The second dppovias, here bracketed, should probably be omitted.

obx dpa... aiverar] ‘Then we shall certainly not want in our
songs and tunes a multitude of strings or notes, or an instrument
which has all the harmonies.’ ‘Clearly not.’

The Panharmonic instruments were those which were adapted
for the performance of all the modes and musical genera; in other
words, which admitted the greatest possible variety in the intervals
and arrangement of the scale.

K 2

Republic
fT.

399
e

399 E-
400 E

152 Plato: Republic.

Tprydvev dpa kat myktiSwv, «.7t.A.| ‘Then we shall not maintain
the artificers of lyres with three corners and composite scales, nor
of any of the many-stringed curiously harmonized instruments.’
‘Manifestly not.’ Cp. Arist. Pol. viii. 6, §§ 12, 13, who says that
these and other elaborate instruments were gradually disused, as
men learned to distinguish what conduced to virtue. The zpkxris,
like the pdyadis, was of Lydian origin (Herod. i. 17), and was
played with the fingers without a plectrum. See Susemihl’s note on
Arist., l. c.

ti 8é; ... pipnpa;| ‘ Next, will you admit makers and players
of flutes into the state? Has not this’ (rodro, sc. a’Ads understood
from avAnrys and avdAomods) ‘more strings than all of them? And
are not panharmonic instruments themselves an imitation of the
flute ?’

Plato says playfully that the flute, which has no strings, is ‘ the
most many-stringed of instruments’: that is to say, the flute has those
qualities in the greatest degree which he has just been denouncing
in stringed instruments. According to Proclus, in Alcib. p. 197,
each aperture of the flute gave three or more sounds: this variety
was obtained by the use of shifts and slides. It was natural that
the panharmonic principle should be first applied to an instrument
of which the notes could be easily modified. (Paus. ix. 12, § 5.)

In the Laws iii. 7oo p, Plato describes the degenerate musicians
as Kepavvuvres dé Ophvous re Uuvors kai maravas SibvpdpBors, Kai add@dias 81)
tais KiOap@dias pypovpevor, Cp. Pind. Ol. vii. 21 maygpovooi 7’ ev

évreow aidav: Isthm., iv. 35 év atdAa@y re rappavors dpoxdais,

xtQépa] The Dorian mood includes the ‘Yrodepori (otherwise
called the Aeolian), of which Arist. Probl. xix. 48, § 1, says that

it is kOap@dixwrarn Tdv apponar.

vh_ tov Kiva] may be regarded as a jest mapa mpocdoxiay (cp.
Phaedr. 236 E duyym . . . rhv mAdravov ravrnvi). It. occurs in
a lengthened form, which perhaps explains the allusion, in the
Gorgias 482 B pa Tov kiva, roy Alyymriav bedv—<‘ By the Dog, the God
of Egypt.’ It is observable that another oath of the same kind,
pa tov xiva (which is likewise attributed to the followers of Socrates
see Schol. on Ar. Birds 521), refers to an Egyptian deity.

By thus simplifying music we have purged our luxurious state.
And we must also simplify rhythm and metre. Not to enter into —
technicalities of dactylic, spondaic, iambic, trochaic metre, and the

Notes: Book I1/. 133

merits of the corresponding rhythms, we observe once for all that the
rhythm must be noble and appropriate to the style, as the style is to
the subject, and all must harmonise with the mental character which
we desire to create.

See Westphal’s Mefrik (1885), pp. 237-230.

Ta howd KaBaipwney] ‘Let us finish the purgation.’ In other
words—‘ Let us do with the metres what we have done with the
modes.’

pi torkidous . .. Bdcers| ‘not to aim at having complex rhythms
or varied systems of metre.’

GANG pa A’, Epy, «.7.4.] ‘But in good faith I cannot tell. That
there are three kinds of feet out of which metrical systems of feet
are formed, as in sounds there are four notes whence spring all the
modes,—so much I have observed and can say: but of what sort
of life they are severally the expressions, I am unable to affirm.’

(1) The elements of metrical systems are simple, like the elements
of musical systems :—since all systems of metre are based on three
proportions of time, 3, 2, 7, and all the musical genera and modes,
are produced by different intervals, or a different order of intervals,
in the four sounds of the tetrachord. This is the simplest explana-
tion of the words, év tots @@dyyors térrapa, sc. «dn. Cp. Theaet.
206 Av S€ KiBapiorod rehéws pepabnxévat pov GAXo Te hv f To TH OOdyyw
éxdotw divacOa émaxodovbeiv, roias xopdijs ein, & 8) ororxeia mas dy
6pohoynrese povorxis héyerOa ; (2) Westphal, who interprets the words
év rois POdyyous rértapa as = etdn dppomudy rérrapa (€idn Corresponding to
the yém of later writers), is compelled to assume that Plato here
includes the Locrian mode, to which he has nowhere alluded:
Griechische Harmontk (1886), § 31, p- 234. (3) Mr. Monro
believes that ra év rots POdyyos rérrapa are the Pythagorean ratios
% 3 $> .

kat peta Adywvos| It is Damon in the Laches who is supposed
to have imparted to Nicias his ideas about education (Laches 180
C,D: 200 a). Compare p. 200, where Laches ironically says to
him: mdvv 8) peydAny Amida elyov as TH mapa rod Aduwvos codia airiy
(sc. dvSpeiav) dvevpnoes. Damon is said by Plutarch, de Mus. 16,
to have invented ‘the relaxed Lydian mode’ (see above). «ai, as
in xai elaai&is. We are not limited to our own wisdom in this,
but may confer with Damon too.

399
E

134 Plato: Republic.

tois évavtiows| sc. Trois éAevbepiows Kal o&ppoow, &c.

otpar 8€ pe... mpoojmre] The masculine accusatives in this
sentence belong not to the rhythms as such, but only to the feet,
which have been spoken of above as the «tidy é Sv ai Bdoess mAéxovrat.
[B. J. questioned this, pointing to the words rods pudpods adrovs below
as well as to svOuovs in the sentence itself. But can the words 8d«rvdor,
iapBov, rpoyaiov be used for the corresponding rhythms (Saxruduxdr,
&c.)? L. Co The cretic (€vérAwos) is composite (£dveros), being made
up of a trochee and a Iong syllable -U|-, in fact a ditrochaeus
catalecticus. pos, which is elsewhere an epithet of the dactylic
hexameter rhythm, seems here (sc. zovs) to stand for the spondee,
and the following words are an obscure way of saying that the
spondee is equivalent to the dactyl, which is only a resolved
spondee: ‘a dactylic and also an heroic foot, which he somehow
arranged so that arsis and thesis were equal, and long syllables and
short were inter-changeable. By expressing himself in this
awkward way, Socrates parades his affected ignorance of the
subject. His use of the terms ava, xarw, however, is quite accurate.
See Westphal’s Aeirzk (1885), pp. 103, 104, and Aristoxenus, § 16,
p- 20. (The inversion of the terms dpovs and 6eo1s need not detain
us here.)

évomdudy té Tia, K.7.A.| That évdmdws is the Cretic we learn amid
some variety of statement from the Scholiast on Arist. Nubes 651:
oi 5€ evdmduov, rov .ducivaxpoy, bs kat Kpntixds xadeira, The view in
question is confirmed by this passage in which the mention of the
Cretic or Paeon in illustrating the three kinds of metres (rpia a@rra
eién) could hardly have been omitted. Plato takes no account of
epitrite and Ionic metres. He probably discarded them as too
composite and irregular. For Damon cp. Isocrates mepi dvridécews
251 where he is described as one of the wisest of the citizens and
the teacher of Pericles.

kat todtwv . . . fuvappdrepdv te] ‘And in respect of some of
these he appeared to praise and blame the movement of the foot
quite as much as the rhythms themselves ;—or perhaps the combined
effect of both. The meaning of tas dywyds tod wodds is the
comparative speed or slowness of singing or reciting (/empo). The
foot has clearly different effects in different times.
This agrees with the definition of Aristides, quoted by Westphal,
Metrik (1885), p. 336: ’Aywy) 8€ éore puO pix xpévev réxos 7 Bpadvrns,

oluv ray tev Adyav oo {opevav ods ai Oéceis movodvrar mpos Tas apres

wae ee

Notes: Book IT. | 135

diadpws éxdorov xpdvov tra peyéOn mpopepmopeba. And it is confirmed
by Aristoxenus, quoted by Porphyr. ad Ptolem. p. 255 (Westphal,
op. cit. p. 78) etrep eloiv éxdorov rav prdsav dywyal dmepo, drepor
Erovrat kai of mparos (sc. xpdvor) ... ds dv Ano trav pvOpav, Sporov
clmeiv 6 tpoyxaios, én ris bn twos dywyis rebels dreipwy éxeivor mpdrov eva
twa Anwera els abrdév: i.e. the time depends on the metrical unit vu,
and conversely the length of the metrical unit differs according to
the time.

GAG Taira pév, x.7-A.] Is Plato serious or affected in his ignorance
of music and metres? He probably knew all that was known of
music and mathematics in his own day. The feigning of ignorance
seems therefore to be an artistic excuse for touching lightly on
a subject, of which the lengthened discussion would have been out
of place.

A od ote. ;| sc. opexpod Adyou elvas.
Taitd ye Asyw dxodou8yréor | = dei ravra axodovbeiv.

eddoyia dpa... Sidvorav| Subject, style, metre, music, make up
a fourfold harmony which in modern times has become dislocated
and discordant, the style not being perfectly expressive of the
subject, nor even lyric poetry always intended for song, and the
time of the music being generally divorced from the metre of the
words. Whether such an ideal as Plato imagines can be attained
may be doubtful, as music can rarely express ideas, and the
principles of articulate and inarticulate sound are necessarily
different. :

This musical harmony Plato partly confuses with a well-balanced
life, and partly regards as the great instrument of attaining moral
harmony. He is right in supposing that simplicity is a first
principle both of art and life. Compare the defence of the
ordinary education in povowxn which he puts in the mouth of
Protagoras—Protag. 326 B xal rods juOpovs re Kui ras dppovias dvayKd-
(ovow oixewioba tais Wuyais trav raidwv, va npepwrepoi re dot, Kai
eipvOpdrepor Kai evappoordrepor yryvopevor xpnoyor dow eis rd Aéyew Te
kai mparrew* mas yap 6 Bios rod avOpamov eipvOpias te wal ebappoorias
Seirat,

76 aitav mpdtrev| ‘To do their duty as guardians.’

aitév] sc. of the principles of rhythm and order implied in
raira supra. For the expression cp. Phil. 56 a wear pév rou

poveki) mp@rov, «.7.A.

Republic
lH.

gor B-
403 C

401
B

136 Plato: Republic.

The rules which have been laid doun for poetry and literature
must now be extended to the other arts—building, painting, &c.
For in these likewise there is the expression of mind and character.
And when the true harmony and rhythm, inspired by nobleness of
heart, is observed by all of them, our youth will be able to feast eye
and ear on fair sights and sounds ; they will dwell in a land of

health where refreshing breezes blow and will gather good from all

things.

But of all the arts music, taken in the larger. sense, ts the most
potent for good or for evil. And he who has been rightly trained in
this will take less harm from outward things and will grow into
natural conformity with reason, so that rational ideas when they
are presented to him in due time will be recognized by him and find
their way into his soul—just as one who has learnt the alphabet will
attain to the power of reading the most complex writing, and will
recognize the faintest trace of the familiar characters, even when
reflected in water. ;

The fairest of all sights ts the incarnation of these principles—as
zhen a fair soul finds habitation in a body as fair, or even not so
fair. The liberal education of our youth will culminate in having
such a friend, not as the object of passionate longings, but of
affectionate and well-attempered intercourse.

iva ph év Kaxtas eixdor, «.7.A.] In what relation does good taste
stand to morals, or beauty to truth, or character to virtue, or strength
to right, or in general, what is external to what is within us? About
these and similar questions there is in Plato a degree of ambiguity
arising partly out of the Greek nature and education, partly out of
the imperfect modes of conception which prevailed in the beginning
of philosophy. To us the difference between art and morality is
almost as permanent and settled as the distinction of intellect
and will, and hardly less important. The dexterity or skill of hand
of the mechanic is at once seen to be perfectly distinct from his
moral character: though of course the hand is only the executor of
the mind. In the fine arts, as we call them, here again making
a distinction unknown to the ancients in the time of Plato, there is
more danger of confusion, because a moral, or rather, perhaps,
a sentimental, element enters into them. That is to say, the poet,
painter, &c., must, at the time of executing his work, feel the
thought to which he gives expression, But this temporary senti-
ment is really distinguished from the permanent basis of his

es een S|
;

Notes: Book T/T. 137

character. Ancient philosophy was little concerned with criticisms
on art, and failed to make this analysis. Aristotle does indeed
discuss the question whether the good citizen may be also a good
man: but he never asks the parallel question, whether the good
poet or good artist must be also a good man. In Plato, art has
a large share in early education, but seems in later life to be
superseded by speculative intelligence, which becomes the centre
of truth and goodness. The discussion of such questions realizes
to us the difficulty of reproducing a mental world which is different
from our own. Compare the speech of Pericles in Thucydides
(ii. 39-41).

éd0ev . . . mpooBddy] ‘From whatever source some influence
of fair works stirs the sense of sight or hearing.’ mpds Spw not
exactly = mpds 6uua but includes the notion of mpds 1d dpav. Cp.
Theaet. 152 E—157 A.

domep atpa] ‘like a breeze which wafts health from wholesome
places.’ avpa, not Avpa, as in the critical note, is the reading of
Par. A.

$épovra| For the neuter plural, referring to two words (pu8pes
and dppovia) which are not in the same gender, cp. Herod. iii. 57 jv
rére 7) ayopy Kai Td mpuTavniov Mapip idm noxnpeva.

kat tt ab... 6 odtw tpadeis] Education may be truly regarded
as a process in which instincts, feelings, impressions, words, rules,
are gradually ennobled and lighted up by reasoning and reflection.
The results of reasoning and reflection may again become instincts
and feelings; no conscious effort of thought is required to recall
the first principles of morality. But this practical intuition of
morals which is gained by use must not be confounded with that
narrower and feebler perception of right and wrong which is given
in childhood ; or with the simple abstractions of right and wrong
which are gained by later reflection.

Plato is conscious of the importance of educating the sense of
beauty in childhood. The standard of taste, as of manners and
morals, may be indefinitely raised by the atmosphere of early
life.

éxei] sc. ev povoxp: cp. infra 404 E ovkoiv éxet pév dxodagiav i)
moukiria évérixrer.

kal dp0as 8) *xalpwv . . . xataSexdpevos} Baiter, in the Zurich
edition of 1881, adopted this very plausible conjecture of Maur.

138 Plato: Republic.

Republic Vermehren. Cp. Arist., Eth. Nic. ii. 3, § 2 det RyOui mas ek véwr, os
ae, Sandee pnoiv, dore xaipew re kat Avmeioba ofs dei. [B. J. would
have retained the manuscript reading xaipwv kai xaradexdpevos =
‘rejoicing in them and receiving them into his soul.’]

401

402 _Gonep dpa, x.t.d.] The image of letters, helped by the ambiguous
A use of the word orotxeiov, had a considerable influence on Plato’s
mind. At the end of the Theaetetus (201) an attempt is made to
explain knowledge as a combination of elements, eroxeia, which,
like the letters of a word, have a meaning only in combination ;
and the same image occurs in the Sophist, 252 ©. Cp. Polit. 278 p
Tavrov TovTo Huav H ux} pioe wep TA TOV TavTwWY OTOLXELA Temovbvia,
x7.d.: Phil. 17 a: Tim. 48 s.
re Ta oTorxeta ... wh AavOdvor] ‘ Whenever the letters, thodgh
few, were detected by us.’
ots] sc. ev ois.

B és 0b 8€0] ratio obliqua, depending on the thought implied in
AtiydLopev = ‘under the idea that we need not notice them.’ So
below, mpiv . . . €xouzev is indirect in past time for mpl a...
EX@per,

én94| The sentence from éomep dpa is an anacoluthon ; the
thought is interrupted by the eager assent of Glaucon to the
illustrative statement (dA767), and after being expanded with ov«oty,
«.7.A., is resumed and completed in the words, dp’ ody, 6 Aéyw, mpéds
Oedv, ovrws ovd€ povorkol, x.r.4. For a similar interruption of a com-
parison softened in the same way by a reference to what precedes,
cp. Theaet. 197 C, D GAN’ domep et Tis, K.T.A,

kal eixdvas ypappdtwv| Plato remembers that the highest forms
of virtue to be found in human life are but shadows of the ideas,
reflected on a fleeting stream.

aitdé| the letters themselves—opposed to their shadows.

Ee kat é\euBepidtntos Kat peyahompereias| Cp. vi. 486. The list
of four ‘cardinal’ virtues is not here regarded as exhaustive. And
in the present enumeration Justice is held in reserve.

TavTaxod mepipepopeva yrwpiLwpev| Cp. Theaet. 197D évias 8é .
povas dia racav, Sy av tUXwor, TeToMévas: Polit. 278 D peraTiWépeva

8 cis ras rév mpayparwy paxpis Kai pi) padious ovAdaBas . .. ayvoei ;

dtipdLwpev] Compare Parmen. 130 E otm@ cov dvreiknmra ido-
codia ws ert avridnyerat kar’ epi dd<av, dre ovdev adta@v aripacers,

——_-- dia

Notes: Book IT]. 139

éxeivors] Sc. Trois Occ,

Tév 8 8 T. pddiota ... od Gv épwn] ‘The man who has the
spirit of harmony will be enamoured, then, of those who have
most of this character; but of one who is inharmonical he will not
be enamoured.’

Compare Symp. 209 B ra re ov odpara Ta Kaha paddov #) ra aleypa
dondtera dre xvav, cal av évrixn Wuxi Kaj Kal yevvaia cai edqpuei, mdvy
8) damatera rd Evvayddrepov: ibid. 210 B, C pera b€ raira rd ev rais
Wouxais kddrXos rysudtepov Hryncarba Tov év TH gopatt, Sore Kal edv emcees
dv rhy Wuxny tus Kai dav opixpdy dvOos xn, eapxeiv air@ kai épav Kai
cnderOa, K.7.d.

pavOdvw . . . kal ovyxwp@| A similar allusion to Glaucon’s
character occurs in v. 474 D @AXq, elrov, Experev, & TRavixwv, déyew &
Aéyers’ dvdpit 8 epwrix@ ob mpérer duynpoveiv, x.tr.A. The opdrns of
Theaetetus is a case in point (Theaet. 185 k).

H ye Exppova moet] Cp. the description of the marvellous effects
of pleasure in Phileb. 47 a.

TH GAAn dpery| sc. Kai Hdov7p imepBaddovon Eore Tis Kowwvia ;

Ta 8 GAda .. . bb€fovra] ‘ But for the rest he should so associate
with him for whom he may care as never to be found to pass
beyond this limit; and if he does, he is to be censured for coarseness
and bad taste:’ i.e. if he goes beyond what is implied in the
words pureiv, ~vveivat, dnrecOa Gorep viéos. omovddLo.—the optative
(for av omovddty), because the legislation applies to an imagined
future, or as Riddell would say, Digest § 74 B, is intended to
belong to all time. 86g. is not to be taken emphatically ; not
‘even appear to’ but simply ‘be thought to.’ A fact is spoken of,
not as unreal or uncertain, but with reference to the impression
which it creates. Cp. Thue, iii. 10, § 1 « pw) per’ dperns doxovons
és dAAnAdous yiywowro: Soph. O. T. 402 ef d¢ pi) 'Bdners yepwr | elvar.

ipdtovra] is dependent on vopoernous, the construction changing
from the infinitive to the participle. Cp. supra 389 c Aéyovrs.

Aristotle in the Politics (ii. 4, § 3) refers to this passage : dromov
Be Kowods . . . duahépew Kai rd Tv cuvovoiay dere 38 GAnv per
alriav pndepiav, ds dNiav 8’ loxvpas rhs Hdovis ywouems* dre 8 6
pev marip # vids, of & adeAol adrdAnrov, pybév olerba diahépev.
There seems to be some misunderstanding here. Plato has said
that love is not to go beyond the innocent sort of familiarity which

Republic
ZL

403
B

Republic
417.

403
B

403 C-
405 D

403
D

There is something doubtful and ambiguous in such a notion, but

OP ete

140 Plato: Republic.

subsists between members of a family. This is only an illustration
of what is to be permitted. But Aristotle seems either to assume
that Plato allows of improper intimacy between near relations, or to
think that he ought to have distinguished different cases on some
other ground than the mere violence of the pleasure. As he is
evidently referring to this place, he has probably been misled by
a confused recollection of the words, dnrecOat Somep viéos, or is
drawing a strained inference by connecting this passage with the
regulations in Bk. v.

Meanwhile their physical education will not have been neglected.
We may observe that a good mind makes a good body, not a good
body a good mind; and so if the mind be well trained, it will
be enough for us to lay down general rules about gymnastics,
leaving the more particular care of the body to the mind hersedf.
The first rule will be that of temperance, and tt must follow that
our system of training must be different from that of the Hellenic
athlete, which ts both dangerous to health and inconsistent with
mental activity. Our youth must be always on the alert, and their
training must be sutted to their warlike duties.

In gymnastics as in music simplicity will be the guiding principle.
And in this we shall follow Homer, whose warriors ate no fish nor
stewed meats, but simple roast, and that without sauce. Far be
Jrom our youth the luxury of Sicily and the Jasciviousness of
Corinth, or even the niceties of Athenian confectionery.

Living in this simple fashion they will have no need of the law-
courts and the doctor’s shop.

époi pév -ydp, x.7.4.] The excellence of the mind is not depen-
dent on the body, but the excellence of the body on the mind.
Plato does not mean to say that greatness of soul will give the
strength of Milo, or that an effort of the will is able to raise men
above their bodily condition. But the mind has the initiative; it
trains the body when duly trained itself; beginning in youth and
considered. with reference to the whole of life, the power of reason
is really very great, if not supreme, over health and strength,
‘Every man is either a fool or a physician’ in some degree: he
is his own best watchman, and has the power of observing and
controlling his bodily habit.
' Plato also regards the subject from another point of view: the
mind is prior to the body as ideas are prior to sensible objects.

avast cee eo

ete SC hU Se re Ae

Notes: Book 1/1. 141

there is also the crude form of a truth which in modern times has Repudlic

been greatly neglected. Compare the fragment of Democritus,
Frag. Mor, 128 (Mullach): dvéparove appddiov Wuyxis paddov 4h oopa-
ros moerOat Adyov' Wuyi) pev yap Teewrdtyn oKyveos poxOnpiny dpboi,
axnveos 8€ loyds dvev Aoyirpod Wuyi oldéy te dyeiva tiOnor. Also
Charmides 156 £ mavra yap én ék ris Wuyis oppioba Kai ra Kaka Kat
ra dyaba TG oopars kal ravti tO avOpare, kai éxeiOev émippeiv Saorrep ex THs
cechadjjs emt ra dupara’ Beiv obv exeivo Kal mp@rov Kal pddcota Oeparever.
See also Laws x. 891 ff. for the priority of mind. That the object
of Gymnastic is mental and not bodily training (¢? ya) «i mapepyov) is
a truth which is more fully brought out infra, 410 B, ff., 411 E.

péOys . . . dpexréov adrois] supra 390 A, B: 395 E.

ti 8é 8h... dy@vos} ‘ But next what shall we say of their food?
For the men are in training for the greatest of contests.’ Compare
Laws viii. 829 B, where the legislator is supposed to ask himself :
épe, tivas more tpépw tiv médAw GAnv mapackevdcas ; dp’ ovx aOAntas rav

?
peyiorwy ayaver, ols dvraywuortal pupiot tmdapxovet ;

dp’ ody, x.7.A.] Training is of use as the preliminary of any
extraordinary bodily exertion, yet dangerous to health generally
because inducing an artificial state, and increasing the muscular,
while often impairing the constitutional powers.

4) tavSe tav doxntav gis] ‘The condition of our ordinary
athletes.’ Cp. Symp. 211 C dpydpevov amd tavBe Tov Kadav.

ods ye domep Kivas... bylevav| Cp. ii. 375 a dftv ré mou bei
avroiv éxarepov elvar pos aicOnow kai éhadpov mpds 7d aiaOavdpevor diwKd-
Gew, kai ioxupdv ad, éav b¢n Advra dStapdyerOa.

kal Tay GANwv oirwy} ‘And of food also.’ dAdAwv adverbial.

dxpoopaheis| ‘Easily upset.’ Cp. dxpdxodos.

dmh mou Kal émetkhs yupvactixy, Kal pddvora 1 tav mepl tov
médepov] The subject of the first part of this sentence. is ) BeAriorn
yunvaorixy and the predicate of the second part pddura andj} Kai
émuexns, The verb in both cases—dv eiy—is supplied from the
preceding words. The force of ris (d8eXpy tes) must be continued
with dm Kai émecxns. The whole would be: 4 BeAriorn yupvactixy
mdi mov Kai émerxis tis yupvactixi) dy ein, Kai i) tev mept Tov méepov
padtora ami Kai émceckis dv ein.

kal map’ ‘Oprpou. .. pdOor dv ms] ‘Even from Homer,’ whom
in other cases we blame, ‘one may learn such simple matters as

1/71,
403
D

" 404
A

a

Republic
LI.

404°
B

D

405
A

142 Plato: Republi.

this.’ Cp. supra ii. 383 B: Crat. 391 c dAX’ ef pi ad oe taira dpécet,
map’ “Opnpov xpi) pavOdvew kai mapa rev &\dwv Tomrar.

év “E\Anondvtw| ‘at the Hellespont.’ The name is here given
not to the straits merely, but to the country near them.

kai dp8ds ye . . . dméxovtat| dpOas applies mainly to dréyovra.
‘They know it, and rightly abstain.’

péyers dpa . . . edmabeias] ‘You would not have men keep
a mistress, who mean to preserve their constitution?’ ‘ Certainly
not.’ ‘And you disapprove also of the delights, as they are
termed, of Athenian confectionery?’ For a similar association
Cp. li. 373 A éraipat xal méupara. See also in the Laws, viii. 840 a,
the account of Iccus of Tarentum and other athletes who did rév
"Odupriaci Te dy@va Kai tovs Te GAous . . . ovTE Twos MawToTE yuvatKds

WWaro, «.7.d.

ddnv yap... dmecxdLousev| ‘We should not be far from the
truth in comparing generally this way of feeding and living to the
composition of melody and song in the panharmonic style and in
all the rhythms.’

tavappoviov here means ‘panharmonic style,’ the style in which
all the modes were combined and there were frequent transitions
from one to another: above, 399 c, it was used of the instrument

_adapted to this style.

éxet| év TH pedorotia Kal gdp. .
Sixavixy | Cobet would read 8:xaorky as in 409 E: unnecessarily
and against the MSS.

Stav 8}... cmouddLwow] ‘when even free-men concern them-
selves about such matters in great numbers and with much
eagerness. For kat é\ed@epor cp. infra pi pdvov rods havdouvs, x.7.A.

[kat] d&mopia oixetwy] «ai is found in all the MSS., and, though
somewhat difficult, is defensible. There is a double evidence of
the want of education: (1) that like a slave you receive a justice
that is imposed on you from without, and (2) because you have
none of your own. The last clause not only adds emphasis but
gives a new point.

9 Soxet gor. . . (c) exetvou ér aicxiov] The difficulty of this

sentence arises chiefly from its length, and from the ambiguous use
of rodrou, todro in the first clause. The mind has to be carried on

Notes: Book II, 143

from mdvrav pév odv, épn, aloxiorov, to obk, GAG Tovr’, hy, éxeivou Ere
aicxwov, ‘Is it not a most disgraceful thing to send out for justice
because you have no supply at home’ (dzopia olxeiwv) ?—such is the
general meaning of the previous sentence. To which the answer
is that ‘nothing can be more disgraceful.’ The argument pro-
ceeds: ‘Do you think this importation of justice (toéro) is more
disgraceful than the further stage (rodrov) of the same evil, in which
a man takes a pride in litigation?’ &c. ‘No,’ is the reply, ‘ that is
more disgraceful still.’ For the play on words in atoxiorov and ére
aicxwov cp. infra iv. 423 C Kui paiddy y’, én . . . pavddrepov rdde.

ds Sewds dv... AuyiLépevos] ‘under the idea that he is a master
of crime, who is able to wriggle into and out of every corner and
hole, bending like a withy (Avyt{épevos) and getting away.’ The
reading Aoyi{spevos, which is that of the majority of MSS. (but not
of Par. A or the Scholiast), is feeble: it affords an instance of the
substitution common in MSS., of a well-known word for a less
known one. Another various reading—avd (or avd) Aoy<dépevos
(Vind. F. Flor. X. Aug. v) is an indirect testimony to the reading
of the text, as it has probably arisen from a confusion of the two,

Vv
joyitlaies becoming pees For the imagery cp. Arist. Nub.
449, 45° :—
pacOAns, eipwv, yows, adalov,
Kévtpwv, plapds, otpddus, apyadéos, «7A.
vuotdLovtos Sixacrod| ‘of a nodding justice.’ The epithet is
intended to cast a slur upon the law-courts.

76 8€ iatpixijs| The words $vcas te kai katdppous correspond to
peupdtwv te kal mveupdtwv in the words immediately preceding. For
gioa cp. especially Xen. Cyr. i. 2, 16 aioypdy . . . ert wai viv éore
Ilépoas .. . rd Gvons peorors haiverba..

dd] is adversative to the negative idea contained in 8 te py.

Sicttav olay SimAOopev| viz.in 403 D ff., although the errors in diet

have been rather hinted at than described. But see especially 404 p.

How simple were the prescriptions of the sons of Asclepius, for the
wounded heroes who had lived as Homer describes! Very different
ts the practice nowadays, since Herodicus, himself a valetudinarian,
has taught men to prolong their sickly lives by regimen.

The common workman has no time to be ill. Neither has the

Republic
ZL.

405

Republic
LI.

405 D-
408 C

405
E

144 Plato : Republic.

rich man, tf,.as Phocylides says, he ought to practise virtue. For to
this or any other serious pursuit valetudinarianism is a great
obstacle. :

And Pindar and the tragic poets offended against principle when
they said that Asclepius, who was a son of Zeus, was bribed to
bring a man back to life, who in the course of Nature ought to have
died.

Edputédkw| It is Machaon (the Asclepiad), not Eurypylus, who
receives the potion at the hands of Hecamede (Il. xi. 624). The
name Eurypylus is repeated below, 408 a. It is observable that
the same circumstance is rightly narrated of Machaon in the Ion
(538 c). The mistake is natural (as the wound of Eurypylus
occurs only a few lines earlier Il. xi. 575 ff.), and ought not to be
adduced as a proof that the text of Homer was different in Plato’s
time.

& 8} Soxet] ‘which, as you know, are considered to be rather
inflammatory.’

TH Tadaywyiky Tv voonpdtwy| ‘That watches over the course
of a disease, —as a tutor (madaywyds) over a growing boy. Cp.
infra mapaxodovdav ... 76 voonnatt. The word madaywyeiy recurs in
the same sense in Tim. 89 p, but the passage in which it is found
has a very different spirit, for Plato has changed his mind :—é0
madsaywyety dei duairas mavra Ta TowaiTa, Kad’ dcov dv 4 Te aXOAH, GAN

> , ‘ ’ > ,
ov dappaxevovta Kaxdv SvaKodov epebioreov.

“Hpddrxos S€ madorpiBys dy, «.7.A.] Little is known of Herodicus
(6 SyAvpBpravés, 7rd S€ dpxaiov Meyapeds Protag. 316 £). From
Plato’s account we infer that he substituted regimen for medicine ;
in so doing he was probably in advance of his age. Two other
notices of him in Plato agree with this passage: (1) Protag. 316 E,
where he is called, with some degree of depreciation, ‘a first-rate
Sophist ’—but this we may observe to be only said of him in the
same sense in which Plato speaks of the poets as Sophists: (2)
there is a pleasant mention of him at the commencement of the
Phaedrus, where he is supposed to recommend walks in the open
air, as far as the walls of Megara and back again (Phaedr. 227 p),
According to Aristotle, Rhet. i. 5, § 10, Herodicus himself ex-
pressed an opinion not far removed from Plato’s here: moddol...
bysaivovow domep ‘Hpddixos déyera, ods ovdeis dv eddaimovicere tis iyeias

bia 7d wavte@v améxerOa Tov avOperivey h Tov msiorov.

Notes: Book LI. 145

voowSns yevdpevos] ‘ having fallen into bad health.’ -Cp. Plato’s
own opinion that the physician should not be in robust health—
408 D, E.

SvcGavatav . . . dpixero] ‘So struggling against death by his
cleverness he reached old age.’ His sickly life, prolonged by care,
was in fact a lingering and painful death. Cp. Tim. 75 B rots mepi
Tiv jperépav yeveow Snprovpyois, avadoyifopevors mérepov mudvxpoma@repov
xeipov 4 Bpaxvxpoudrepov BéeAriov amepydoawro yévos, Evvédoge rod
mreiovos Biov avrorépov 8€ rdv éAdrrova dpeivova dvta tmavtl mavtws
aiperéov.

xahév| For the ironical use of caddy cp. Theaet. 183 A Kaddv dv
Huiv oupBaivoe rd éravépOwpa tis amoxpicews, K.T.A.

otk dyvoia, x.7.4.] It is assumed that Asclepius, as Apollo’s son,
must have had a Divine knowledge of the art of healing, and Plato
implies that the innovation in question is not merely erroneous, but
impious.

Tao. tots edvonoupevois| is a dative of the persons interested :
‘for the behoof of any well-governed community.’

8 tpets ... odk aicbavdueba] ‘This we observe in the case of
the artisan, and ludicrously enough fail to make the application
to people of the richer sort.’ The adverb yedoiws has a predicative
force (=yeAoia Sparres). Cp. supra i. 332 A dadre tis pl) cwppdvas
draroi; Thuc. i. 21, § 1 driorws em rd prvdades éxverixnkdra, Soxodvtwv
is used with a slight contempt.

paxpdv| Some MSS. read pxpdy, among them Par. A. But
paxpav has sufficient manuscript authority and agrees better with the
context, even if pixpa Siacra were a natural expression for ‘ low diet.’

elmev . . . darmAAdyn] are gnomic aorists, used in general] state-
ments to give greater liveliness, as in the Homeric similes. éuBds
has an association of boldness, ‘embarking on his accustomed
mode of life.’

a

fv tT atte épyov . . . éduowréXex] The past tenses refer to the
previous supposition, 406 c, p.

&Biwrov| recalls ov« édvarrerer Civ.
_ otKouv 8% Aéyetat ye] sc. 6 mrovaros Exew toodrov Epyov mpoxeipevor.

pydév, elroy... (B) odSév gumodifer] ‘Let us not quarrel with
him on this head’ (viz. at what time a man is to commence a life of
‘VOL. II. L

Republic
f1I.

406
A

B

407
A

Republic
f11.

407
A

146 Plato: Republic.

virtue), ‘ our object is rather to inform ourselves whether the rich
are bound to practise virtue; he who fails to do so having no
true life; or whether valetudinarianism is an impediment to
the application of the mind in carpentering and other arts,
but is no impediment to that which Phocylides enjoins.’ The
disjunctive sentence, which is complicated by the expansion of the
second clause with pév and 8é, might be paraphrased as follows,
‘if the rich man is allowed to be a valetudinarian, either he is not
supposed to have any duties, or his duties must be of a kind with
which the care of health does not interfere, as we found that it
interfered with the work of the artisan.’

Plato is urging that the rich man, so far from having time to be
an invalid, has the business of virtue always on hand, and that
valetudinarianism is just as great a hindrance to the pursuit of this
as it is to the occupation of the artisan. For the complex sentence
cp. supra ii. 374 c and note: infra c, D.

Two MSS.,¢ 8’, read r@ . . . mapaxeAevpars for 76 . . . Tapakédeupa,
but the accusative, which is found in all the other MSS., is prefer-
able. Cp. Phaedo 66 c eumodifovew . . . tiv Tod évros 6npav: Xen.
Mem. i. 2, 4 ravrnv yap thy eEw byewny tre ixavds eivar kal Thy THs
Woyis empeérecav vik éeumodifev épn: Aeschines 85, 35 ¢umodifey rovs
Tis modews Katpovs. ‘But to the duty which Phocylides enjoins it
(valetudinarianism) is no hindrance.’ The datives, texrovexy peév Kat
tais dANats téxvats, depend in the first place on éumdbiov, but also
on ty mpooéget tod vod, which is added in further explanation.

éSpaious év moder dpxds] opposed to otpareias.

7d 8€ 8h péytotov] 7d péyorov is a ‘ Noun-Phrase in apposition’
(Riddell, Digest, § 13) to thé notion of éumodifer, or dieKudos (€oriv)
which is continued in thought. jv & éy# is omitted here, as above
in ‘O d¢€ 8% mAovatos, K.T.d.

pedéras mpds éautdév] i.e. Grav pedera ris Te mpds éavrdv. |

kegadfis . . . Statdcers] ‘tensions’ or ‘fulnesses of the head,’
i.e. headaches. This reading has the authority of Galen and
Stephanus. Par. A and most other MSS. read duordoes, ‘ dis-
tractions ’—as we say, ‘a splitting headache’—a violent use of the
word.

8ry tadrg| tadry sc. év Pudogopig, including not only dialectic,
but the preparatory studies of Bk. vii. For the two adverbs cp.
Theaet. 194 a mévty Tatty Wevdera 7 Sidvova: and for the general
meaning Phaedo 66 B pupias pév yap iypiv doxodias mapéexee Td odpa

—

Notes: Book I/1, 147

. . re Be, dy res véco mpoorécwow, (urodifovew Hay thy Tov dvros
Onpav . .. Gore, . . od8€ povioa hpiv éyylyvera otdémore otdév, When
Plato wrote the Timaeus he looked more seriously on the disorders
occasioned by over-much study (87 & ff.) rabrdv 3) diavonréov . . .
airaoOu rove’,

Tods pev pice... Ta 8 eiow, x.7.A.] For the double form of the
sentence (the two members of which may be joined by ‘ whereas’)
Cp. supra B rexromxy per, K.T.A.: iV. 445 A GAN’, Epn . . . Biwrdy dpa
gota. The accusative in both parts of the sentence (rods péev . . .
€xovtas . . . iexovras) is a loose construction for which the dative
touvrots is afterwards substituted.

Ta 8 ciow. . . AvorteAq] (1) Ta 8 ciow caopara is accusative of
reference. Both odx émyetpetv and ph oieoPar depend on daper in
spite of the difference of negative, wy in indirect discourse being
often used where we should expect od. See Goodwin, M. and T.,
§ 685. dmarvthobvta, sc. airav: émyéovta, sc. eis attra. ‘ But as for
bodies diseased to the core, shall we not say (@é@pev) that he (sc.
Asclepius) would not have attempted by regimen, that is by gradual
processes of evacuation and effusion, to make a man’s life long and
evil, and to make men beget children probably as good for nothing
as themselves,—he did not think that he ought to prescribe for
any one who did not live in the accustomed round of life, under
the idea that such an one was useless alike to himself and to the
state.’ [B. J.]

(2) Ta... owpara are in a pendent construction similar to rovs
pev, x.t.A. above. Of the infinitives, mpoorarrew and émyepetv are in
the construction with kataSdetgat : movety is governed by emyecpeiv, and
gutedew apparently by moeiv : ph oteoBar, however, would seem to
depend on karadeiéa larpixnv supra, i.e. ‘ he taught his disciples so.’
This seems required to justify the change from od to ph, which

helps to point the correspondence between tév ph Suvdpevov . . . Liv
and what follows. [L.C.] - | .

ph oteoPar Seiv Oepameverw|] Cp. Laches 195 c # od modXois ote ék
Tis voocou Gpewvov elvae pi avaoriva i dvacriva; for the same thought.

| mohetixdv, En, éyers “AokAnmédv| ‘You make out Asclepius to
have been a statesman.’ Some of the commentators defend Plato
against the charge of cruelty. But it is not necessary to view this
half-ironical passage in so serious a light. His main conclusion,
that the art of medicine should be made simple, is justified by the

_ uncertainty of the subject and confirmed by modern science.

L 2

Republic
M17.

497
Cc .

Republic
LTT,

407
a

408

148 Plato: Republic.

Sidov, Hv 8 éyd: «.7.h.] The reading of the inferior MSS, xat oi
aides avrov Serxvdorey Gy dri rovodrus fv’ H ody, «.7.A, was due to a
mistake as to the meaning of ér. Sauppe would read dAdo. . . kal
oi maides adrovd Ste rowdros Hv, comparing Crito 44 D dyAa ta mapdvra

. or, x.7.A. But the text is right. ‘That is manifest,’ I said;
‘and because of his statecraft, do you not see that his sons at Troy
not only showed themselves brave in war, but practised medicine
in the way I have described.’

at’ éxpuljocavt émt 7 ima ddppax’ éragcov| Plato is quoting
from memory, as is shown by the substitution of re for dpa,
exuu(noavr’ is dual. Asclepius had two sons, Podaleirius and
Machaon. The words in II. iv. 218 aiw éxputnoas én ap’ ifmua pdappaka
eiSas | maooe refer to Machaon only. Purves’ rendering, ‘He
squeezed out the blood and sprinkled,’ &c., is supported by the
gloss in Suidas: éxuutnoas, exmécas, ékOdivas. The notion seems
to be that of pressing together the /zps of the wound.

Mi8ou|] Plato probably has in mind the verses of Tyrt. Eleg. iii.
(12 in Bergk) 5, 6 :—
ovS ef TiOwvoio puny xapréotepos cin
mAovtoin S€ Midew kai Kuipew pddtov.
The latter line is quoted with slight variation in the Laws ii. 660 &
eav 5€ dpa mAovtH pev Kuvipa te cai Mida padXov.

mdvu Kopwpods . . . maidas] ‘From what you say, the sons of
Asclepius must have been very clever’ (perhaps referring to 405 D
tous Koppovs ’AoxAnmabas).
kat Miv8apos}] Pindar, Pyth. iii. 55 :—
€rpamev kal keivoy aydvope picO@ xpuods ev xepolv aveis
avép é« Oavdtrov Kopioa
90n Gdwxera, k.T.A.
Cp. Aesch. Agam. 1022, Eurip. Alc. 3, 4.

kata Ta mpoeipnéva| sc. the principle laid down in 391 p—that
no one can be at once a son of God and a bad man,—which is
also alluded to in the words dmeOoivres ye jyiv supra.

kal pada... Tovovrous| ‘ Assuredly I mean good physicians, but
do you know whom I consider to be such?’ Socrates evades the
point of Glaucon’s question, viz. how the physician can see enough
of disease in the ‘ healthy’ commonwealth. Cp. supra 399 £, 405 & ff.

Notes: Book 1/1. 149

av eis) sc. eideinv dv. ‘I should, if you would tell me.’

— GNAG Teipdoopar . .. Hpov] (‘It is difficult,) but I will try,
I said. Let me note, however, that in the same words you join two
things which are dissimilar.’

iatpot, «.7.A.] The most skilful doctors are those who combine
experience of disease in their own persons as well as in those of
others with the theoretical knowledge of their art. Plato is right in
maintaining that the profession of a physician is one for which
rude health is not in every respect a qualification. A delicate
organization helps to give an intelligence of the bodily state of
others.

abté| sc. ra copara abrav.

yevopévny te Kai odcav| ‘which has been and is. The peri-
phrasis gives dignity to the expression. The phrase repeats xapovev
kal elev. . . elvai more kal yevéoOa supra. It is implied that past evil
leaves its trace in the soul.

Sixacrhs Sé ye, «.7.A.] The case of the judge is different: his
knowledge of evil ought not to be derived from the conversation of

early companions, or the experience of his own ‘ wild oats.’ ‘The

princely heart of innocence’ is the foundation of a sound judgement
in questions of right and wrong. The knowledge of evil and of
the world had better wait until a man is older, and be obtained, not
by introspection, but by study and observation of others.

On the other hand, that there may be in the best of men
a narrowness of virtue and ignorance of human nature, which
degenerates rapidly into a moral fault is not to be denied. And
the tendency to believe that all the world are rogues is almost as
characteristic of good men as of bad. There may also be in good
men as well as bad, even without experience, a natural insight into
the wickedness of mankind: this is a reflection which Plato stops
short of making.

Trapadeiypara SpovoTrai tois movnpois| ‘Samples of experience
shared in common with the wicked,’ i. e. wapadeiypata mabdv dpoiwv

_Tois TOY Troyvnpar.

kai dyaQds ye. . . od fpdras] ‘Yes, and good too, which is
what you were asking ’—in the words above, 408 c dp’ otk dyabovs
dei ev rH moder KexrioOa larpovs ; x.r.d. Socrates insists that the good

judge must be a good man. ‘

Republic
117.

Republic
Fé op

409
D

410
A

OS ade 2

150 Plato: Republic.

cops oidpevos elvac| Cp. supra 395 D olopévny eddaivova eivat.

gopdtepos . . . aitw te kat dAdows| ‘He is more apt to be held
wise than foolish, both in the opinion of others and in his own.’

dper) 8€ gucews, «.7.A.] ‘But virtue, in a nature which is
educated by time, will attain to a knowledge of herself and of vice
likewise.’

xpévw reads better if taken with mardevopévns than with Ajwperac.
In the latter case there is a want of point, as the fact has been already
stated that the knowledge of evil is obtained by time, above 409 B
€v TOAAS xpbv@ SiacoOaverOa olov wépuxe xaxdv. The principle that
knowledge is of opposites is assumed.

GNX’ obx 6 Kaxéds] sc. the rogue described above in the words—

£ ‘ A > - . f
6 O€ dSewds exeivos Kal kaxvTortos, k.T.A.

adtol dwoxtevodow| ‘ ultro occident.’ airoi refers to Sixaorai and
iarpoi understood in dicaorixjs and iarpexnvy, which are the antecedents
to at: although strictly speaking only iarpoi goes with édvovor and
only dixaorai with amoxrevotow,

Gp otv ... dvéyxn; | ‘And may not our student of music by
following the same track—(i.e. aiming at simplicity) in his pursuit
of gymnastic, gain an immunity from doctors, except in extreme
cases?’

Simple training in music corrects the evil tendencies of law ;
simple gymnastic minimizes medicine. For the meaning of atpeiv,
‘to win’ or ‘gain,’ cp. supra ii. 358 E rots py Suvapévors Td per
exevyew 7d d€ aipeiv.

aira phy. . . peraxerpretrar] The ‘muscular’ philosophy of
Plato aims at steadying the nerves,—mpds Td Oupoerdés . . . €xetvo,—
at courage and endurance rather than at strength. |

ot Kabotdvtes . . . watSedev]| ie. those who institute an education
in music and gymnastic.

For the optative which follows see Riddell’s Digest, § 75. Either,
(1) as is there suggested, ‘the dependent verb is intended to belong
to all time ’—xabtoraéow being a generic present, ‘who at any time
appoint’ (cp. viii. 566 B éfevpicxovew), or (2) the present tense may
include a reference to the past as in Aristoph. Ran. 23 :—

airos Badifw kai mova, rovrov 8 6x,
iva py Tadaure@poiro pnd axOos péepor—
i.e. ‘I have been walking and toiling all this while.’ Goodwin,

Notes: Book I11. 151

M. and T., § 323. The institutions of the legislator are present in
their operation, but the grounds for them were considered in past
time. So of xabtordvres . .. madedev. ‘Those who are the authors
of the system of education which now prevails.’

aithy thy Sidvorav] ‘Even in their minds ’—though you might
not expect the mind to be affected by their bodily training.

éywye, py] sc. evvod, from ov évvoeis above.

7d Hpepov... duos] Cp. ii. 375 E.

aitod] sc. ris prordpouv pigews: the neuter for the feminine,
as elsewhere. That édve@évrog here means ‘relaxed’ rather than

‘indulged’ or ‘set free’ is proved not only by émraéév supra, but
by the use of ameioa in iv. 442 A 7d d€ ducioa mapapvOovpern.
dupotépa ... ToUTw TH ducer] thy Te Ovpoerdy Kal thy Gidrdoodor :
cp. ii. 375 E.
Seth} Kai dyporxos| The verbal parallelism is maintained without
considering that the two vices are not necessarily combined.

Cowardice arises from excess of music and deficiency of gymnastic—
rudeness from deficiency of music and excess of gymnastic.

odxodv Stay . . . éwoincey| ‘Accordingly, when a man allows
music to play upon him and to pour over his soul through his ears,
as through a funnel, those sweet and soft and melancholy strains of
which we were just now speaking, and when his whole life is passed
in warbling and under the glamour of song, at first whatsoever
passion there is in him he tempers like iron, and makes useful
instead of brittle and useless.’

For the use of wapéxew with the infinitive cp. Charm. 176 B iv
éradew mapéxns Swxpdre, and for the fanciful meaning of kataudetv
viii. 561 C peOvov kai karavdovpevos: Laws vil. 790 E arexvas
olov xatavAovor tay madiov: Eurip. H. F. 871 raya o° éyd p@ddov
xopevow kal katavAnow pdBq.

ds viv Sh tpets EXéyopev| referring to supra 398 p, E.

76 pev mp@tov. ..(B) padOaxdy aixunryy] ‘At first he attempers what
spirit he had in him, as steel is tempered, and makes it serviceable
instead of stiff and useless. But when he perseveres to fascination-

point, thenceforward he begins to waste his spirit away, till he have
melted the spirit out of him, and as it were cut out the sinews from

Republic
111.

410

ea

his soul, and made thereof a feeble warrior.’ éyddage, xndy, THKEL, —

heiBer.—sc. 1d Oupoedés: mowjon, sc. tH» Wuxnv from Ths Wuxis

/

Republic
WI.

411
B

,

52 Plato: Republic.

preceding. Also in what follows, yuyjv is to be supplied with
dvpov and bvpoedy. For éréxov ph avin, of one who keeps on doing
anything unremittingly, cp. Theaet. 165 D #Aeyxev dv éeméxov kal
ovc aveis. For the Homericism pad@axov aixpyriy see II. xvii. 588,
where Menelaus is so called.

kal édav peév ye, x.7.A.] ‘And if he act upon a nature originally
wanting in spirit, he quickly accomplishes this : but if upon a spirited
nature, he makes the spirit in him weak, and therefore excitable,
quickly flaming up on slight occasions and quickly extinguished.’
The above interpretation (subaud. yvxnv) affords a more natural
construction than to supply @upév, with which aupov and Oupoedq
could hardly agree. For édv AdBn = ‘if he have taken in hand,’ i.e.
to be submitted to the process in question, cp. Theaet. 159 c érav
. « « AdBy byaivovra Lwxparn.

dvtl Oupoedods| The use of the singular here seems to imply
that the adjective in this and similar expressions is neuter. Cp.
Theaet. 185 E xadds yap el, & Ocairnre... mpos S€ TH Ka@ ed eroinads
pe: Symp. 195 C véus... €ori, mpos d€ TO vem dmadds.

kat edwx Tat ed pdda| (1) ‘and fare sumptuously’—with reference
to the heavy feeding of Polydamas and his like (supra i. 338 c):
or [rather, L. C.] (2) ‘If he take his fill of it,’ sc. ris yupvacrexijs.
Cp. i. 352 B ev@xod tod Adyov: Gorg. 518 E edwxodvres Sv émeOvpour.

oure Néyou petioxov ovTe THs GAAns pouotkis| ‘having no share
in reason or in musical culture,’ i. e. in those harmonies and rhythms,
which are in accordance with reason. Cp. supra ii. 376 &, iii.
402 A.

aétoi| sc. rod dvOpwrov, i. e. the indefinite subject of rovp, edwxnrar,
mpattn, Koweorvn, &C.

Big, 8é kai dypidtmt... Sy] ‘And his only way of managing is
by violence and fierceness, as if he were a wild beast, and he lives
amid ignorance and perversity, with no sense of proportion or
grace.’ :

mpds tévra follows Stampdérrerat, the genuineness of which there is
no reason to doubt. For a similar use of d:amparreoOa as a neuter
verb cp. Protag. 319 c mepi pév obv dv olovra ev réxvn elva, ovr
Svar parrovra.

éml 82 80° Svte TodTw, x.7.A.| With Plato the effect of gymnastic
on the body is of secondary importance compared with its effect

Notes: Book Td. 153

on the mind (cp. 1 Tim. iv. 8 4 ” Topariky yupvacia mpos ddLyoy éotiv —

eopéedipos).

ei ph el wdpepyov] The reading of the text, whichis that of Ven.
II, is partly confirmed by the first hand of Par. a, which reads «i py
elep epyov (sic). The omission of the second ¢i, or the substitution
of em in some MSS., are probably emendations, arising ftom the
comparative singularity of the expression « jy «i. But cp. ix.
581 D el py) et te adray dpyipior mai: Gorg. 480 C ef pi) tf Tes brodaBor
émi rovvavriov.

_Tehéws pouorkdtarov] Compare a fine passage in the Laches
188 D Kai Koptd) por Boxed povorkds 6 roodros elvat, dppoviay Kaddiorny
Hppoopévos, ov Avpav ovd€ maidias Spyava, ada TH Svre CHv Hppoopévos,
and the definition of c@ppoctivn as a kind of harmony in iv. 430 E.
Cp. also note on 400 pb.

ovxoov ... odLeoar;| ‘And in our city, if the form of govern-
ment is to last, shall we not have need of some one to preside over
it, who is of the character now described?’ tod tovodrou refers to
the class which is definite, twvds to the individual who is undefined.
It is obvious that this minister of education will be one of the chief
magistrates, but this point is for the present left undetermined.

Our guardians have now been chosen, and the main lines of their
training have been laid down. But which of them are to be
placed in command? At present we must be contented with pro-
viding that the officers or rulers shall be of ripe age and appointed
on the principle of merit. And by merit ts to be understood a steady
loyalty, which neither forgetfulness nor sophistry nor pain nor fear
nor even pleasure ts able to shake or undermine.

xopeias ydp .. . xahewd edpeiv] As elsewhere, Plato avoids
details : cp. his treatment of music (especially 399 A, 400 8B), and
his unwillingness to legislate about the smaller proprieties of life
(iv. 425).

Tourots | SC. Tois TUrots,

Ste péev mpeoBurépous, k me See Essay on Structure, vol.
pp: 8, 9-

gpovinous te . . . Suvarods] ‘both wise and efficient for this
object.’ is todro, sc. eis pudakiy Tddews.

When he first selects his rulers Plato is contented that they should

a
E

412

4i2 B-
414 B

412

Republic
/11.
412

413
B

154 Plato: Republic.

be wise, capable and patriotic: they are not supposed to be
philosophers. In Books v-vii he places his requirements far
higher. He refers to this passage in vi. 502 D, E mapakimdyre .. .

Thy TOV apxévT@v KaTdoTacw, k.T.A,, Vil. 536 C.

kal [Srav pddtora] | The MSS. read érav pdduora, but dre paduora
(‘as far as is conceivable’) is read in the quotation of Stobaeus.
Hermann cancels both words, and Baiter (1881) plausibly suggests
that they are due to the eye of the scribe having wandered back to
tovr|é y' dv pddtora, It is not probable that érav is ever followed by
the optative mood: either read ért pddtora with Stobaeus, or follow
Hermann and Baiter in the omission of the words. ékeivou, not
ob, is written because the relative is not repeated in Greek: cp. ii.
357 Bai ndovat daa aBdaBeis kai pndev .. . dia Tadtas yiyvera,

ph 8€] i.e. py ed 8€ mparrovros éxeivov. The other reading, « dé
pn, is probably conjectural.

gudakikot . . . To Sdyparos| Plato is playing, as elsewhere, on
the word vAaxes. They are guardians of the city, and guardians of
the patriotic principle which is implanted in them by the laws.

paiverai por Sdga, x.7.A.] Plato takes occasion, in the descrip-
tion of the true guardian, to remind us that ignorance is involuntary,
because no one can be supposed voluntarily to part with a good;
and knowledge is a good. Compare Arist. Eth. Nic. vii. 2: supra
ll. 382 A.

Tpaytkds ... kwduvedw Aéyew| ‘I seem, 1 said, to be speaking
like a tragic poet,’ i.e. obscurely: viii. 545 E Papev adras TpayiKas,
ws mpos mraidas jpas mafovoas kai épeaxndrovoas. In the latter passage,
however, there is an association of mock solemnity which is hardly
present here. For xdérrew used in tragedy with a similar reference
to memory cp. Soph. Ant. 681 « yy To xpdve@ Kexreupeba.

viv ydp mou pavOdvers| [‘I say no more] for now, I suppose,
you understand.’

ims péBou tt Seicavtes| 7 is a cognate accusative—not ‘fearing
something,’ but ‘ having some fear.’

Tod wap abtois Séypatos| map’ adrois is a little more emphatic
than atr@y—‘ which has been imparted to them.’ Cp. Soph. O. T.

612 Tov map’ aire Biorov.

8 dv . . [adtots movetv] | airois is in the dative, because the
interest of the state is also their own. ‘ That which they conceive

ee eee

Notes: Book IIT. 155

it best for their state that they should perform.’ But the two words
are better omitted.

Thpntéov| sc. Hiv.

kat dydvas adrois Oeréov| eréov is used with immediate reference
lO dyavas,

obKodv, Hv 8 eye, ... xpyotpdraros ein| This passage is referred
to in vi. 503 E, in the second education, where Socrates proceeds
to speak of intellectual tests.

tpitou etSous ... G&piddav] ‘A trial of a third sort, with regard
to enchantments. ‘The genitive yonreias adheres closely to dAdav
Cp. ayay etyuxias (Eur. Med. 402) and the like expressions.

Three dangers were mentioned above (A) in the words xAarévres
i) yonrevOevres 7 BracGévres, and three tests are proposed of the
capacity of the youths to meet them. ‘Tasks are to be set them
with a view to ascertain if they are proof against the two great
thieves, Forgetfulness and Persuasion. They are to be subjected
to hard toils and wearisome labours in order to show whether they
can hold out against the violence of pain. A third and more subtle
trial will test their powers to withstand the assaults of pleasure and
fear. In the preceding sentence efamarg@ro has no reference to
anata, but recalls kdamevras and perameoéevras supra. The accidental
use of the same word in different connexions is slightly confusing.

kal eis HSovds ad peraBAnréov] ‘And again pass them into
pleasures,’ just as metal is passed through different processes of
heating and cooling.

tdpwv . . . Kayxdvovra| ‘having allotted to them the highest
honours of sepulture and of the other memorials,’ which the dead
have, such as celebration on festival days, inscriptions on columns,
sacrifices, and the @ypados pynun spoken of by Pericles in Thucyd.
ii. 43. Aayxdvovra is made to agree with Gpxovra, the intervening
clause tipds Soréov . . . reMeurHoavte being neglected.

as év tumw. . . eipia%a| These words are inserted to prepare
the way for Books v-vii.

Gp obv ds ddnOds . . . Kakoupyeiv] axes is used in two
different senses with wohepiov and giAiwv: ‘to keep guard against
the foe without and to watch over friends within.’ Smws is depen-

dent on of gvddgovew implied in @UAakas. The form $idtos occurs .

here as elsewhere in Plato (Symp. 221 B) in connexion with moAéios,

Republic
M1.

413
Cc

D

414
A

Republic
LH.

414 Be-
415 D

414
B

156 Plato: Republic.

as Pidos goes with éyépdés, perhaps from some affinity of rhythm.
ot peév, i.e. of evrds pidtor: ot B€, i. €. of Ember modemor.

Now is the time for the founders of the state to invent a myth
respecting its origin. ‘ Like the warriors of Cadmus, our citizens’ —
so the tale will run—‘ have sprung in full armour from the bosom
of the land, who ts their mother, so that they are brethren all.
The rulers have Gold in their composition: the auxiliaries Silver,
the artificers and husbandmen Brass and Iron. But, as they all
spring from a common stock, these class-differences will not be
absolutely hereditary. Jt will therefore be a task of the chief rulers
to test the metal of the children of the citizens, and assign them to
their proper classes, so that brass and iron may never take the place
of gold and silver in the government of the state.

tis Gv... pyxavh... Tov Weuddv ... yervatidv TL Ev Weudopnevous
tretoat, «.7.A.| The genitive rav Wevddr is to be taken partitively
with yevvaidy re év: ‘ Would that by telling one of those necessary
falsehoods which we were mentioning,—just one noble lie—we
might find a way of persuading,’ &c.

dv 8} viv éhéyonev] supra 389 B.

pndév kavév] An implied imperative. ‘I don’t want anything
new. It is an old story.’

Gowixixéy tt, x.1.A.] The mythical origin of the Cadmeans is
again alluded to in Laws ii. 663 16 pev rod Sdwviov pvOoddynua
padiov eyévero meibewv, ovtws amiBavov bv, kai GAda pupia. People have
been readily persuaded of the tale of Cadmus. Why should not
the legislator be able to persuade them of a similar tale?

yeyovds . . . yevdpevoy dv] It is not clear whether yeyovds and
yevopevoy av refer to the acceptance of the story or to the occurrence
of the facts mentioned in it. The ambiguity is perhaps intentional.
Plato is half inclined for the moment ‘to credit his own lie.’ But
Cp. 1V. 425 B ovre ydp mov yiyvera, k.T.A,

meicat 8 cuxvis mevods| sc. dv. ‘But needing much persuasion
to persuade men of it.’

ds gouxas, &pn, dxvoivr. Aéyew| There is a similar hesitation
on the part of Socrates in the Fifth Book, 450 p, 471 ff., where he
is about to introduce his two great theses of communism and the
philosopher-king. The fear is, of course, only pretended.

—

Notes: Book L1l, 157

ds dp’ & tpeis, x.7.A.] dpa, ‘according to our tale.’

€dxouv tadta mdvra méoxetv, K.t.A.] €ddxour is emphatic, opposed
to jaav—‘ they only thought.’ raira mavra is the object of maoxew
and the subject of yiyveo@a.—‘ they imagined that they suffered all
these things and that they happened to them.’

kal # yi adrods, x.7.A.] «ai helps to mark the correspondence
of the clauses. They were being fashioned in the Earth, and when
they were ready, even then the Earth sent them forth. dmévar is
rightly used of the offspring of the ground: cp. Soph. O. T. 270,
1405. For the creation of man in the bosom of the earth, compare
Protag. 320 D rumovcw aira Oeol ys évdov, x.r.A. Plato has a special
fondness for the fable of an earth-born race. Compare Symp. 190B;
Soph. 247 c, 2488; Polit. 2698; Tim. 238; Critias rogc.

kat viv Set ds wept pytpds, x.7.A.] Cp. Eteocles’ appeal to the
Cadmeans in Aesch. S. c. Th. 16-20 (de 7° dpyyew). . .
yn Te pyntpi, prrdarn tpode@
i) yap veous Eprovras eipevet médq,
dmavra tavdoxovca matdeias br)ov,
eOpeyar’ oixiotijpas aomdnpdpovs
miotovs, Smws yévoirbe mpds xpeos Tdde.
See also the description of Melanippus in the same play, 412-416:
onaptav 8 am avdpav, dv “Apns édeicaro,
pi{op dvettat, xapra 8 gor eyxapwos,
MeAdummos’ épyov & év KvBots “Apns xpwei'
Aixn & épaipwv xdpra vw mpoorédderat

eipyew Texovon pntpt tmodeuwoy Sdpv.

ovx érés . . . A€yeww] ‘ You had good reason to be ashamed of
the lie which you were going to tell.’

ixayol dpxew...émixoupo.] The distinction between the dpyovres
or @vAaxes proper and the émixovpor has an important place in the
analysis of the virtues (Book iv) and the development of philosophy
in the state (Books vi and vii).

dre ov guyyeveis Svres mdvtes| These words refer to the second
member of the sentence, éom 8’ dre, «.7.4., which has the chief
emphasis. ‘As you are all originally of one family,’ specific
differences will not always be maintained.

8 m1 adrois.. . . mapapéptxrar| (1) ‘ What they (the rulers) find to

Republic
WI.

414
D

415
A

ioe = a ,
> See

158 Plato: Republic.

Republic be mingled in the souls of the young.’ abrois, sc. rois dpxovow :
ML cp. i. 343 A bs ye adrf, .r.., or (2) [B. J.] ‘which of these metals is
” mingled in their souls.’
aérepos| ‘ belonging to their own (the rulers’) class,’ according

to the familiar use of oes.

éwéxadkos| ‘having a proportion of brass.’

C katehenooucw]| xara- in composition here implies blame (as in
karaxapi{oua), * improperly pity them.’

vhy. .. Tysyv] riwnv has here rather the meaning of ‘ office or
occupation’ than of ‘rank.’ Cp. Phileb. 61 c &i@ éatts Beau ravTny
Ti Ty etAnye THS avykpdcews : Hat. vii. 36 airy 9 dxapis TU?

ék TouTwv | sc. rav Snuroupyav 4 yeopyav. It is observable that
in our own day the industrial class still tends to divide into these
two sections—artisans and husbandmen.

tipnoavtes| ‘ Having estimated their values.’

drav...guddéy| The readings in this passage vary considerably.
The principal variations are as follows: ov8npots pudag A secunda
manu and M; oidnpos pida& A prima manu and 11; odnpods with
the omission of vAaé =, Either 6 oidnpos 4 6 xadxds, omitting
prrak, or 6 at8npods pddag H 6 xadkods give a good sense, the latter
reading resting on the best authority.

D od8apas| Plato means to intimate that almost any fable may be
rendered credible by time. The new account of the origin of man
is not more improbable than the old one was at first, or the old one
more true than the new.

oxedév ydp Tr pavOdvw & déyers] ‘I think that I understand
what you mean:’ viz. the difficulty of persuading the present
generation. The first rulers must be taken into our confidence.
Cp. supra 414 C pddwora per, x7).

415 D- Enough of the fiction, and now let the rulers lead them to their
417 B camping-ground. They will select a position commanding both
Jriend and foe; and there they will build habitations for themselves,
of a humble sort, such as are suitable for soldiers and will afford
them no temptation to break the rules of their education. They will
live together and call nothing absolutely their own ; they will be
Jed on rations at the public expense, and share a common table. As
Jor gold and silver, they will not tarnish the pure metal of Divine

ne A

Notes: Book II. 159

origin which is within them, by having anything to do with the
corrupted coinage which passes current amongst men.
Glaucon quite approves of this.

kai toiTo... dydyy| ‘And this will turn out as rumour directs
it,’ i.e. according to the success with which the fiction is rumoured
abroad.

émXicavres|] Here, as elsewhere, the distinction between the
guardians and the lower classes appears to be lost sight of.

Odcavtes ofs xpy| The particulars of religious service are left
undetermined : see iv. 427 B.

val, iv 8 éys. . . xpnpatiotixds| ‘ Yes, said I, lodgings for
soldiers, not for traders.” Compare supra 397 E kal rov moXepixdv

TroAemiKdy Kai Ov xpnparioTiy mpos TH TOEuLKI.

trouéot| The shepherds here are the lawgivers and the rulers
who are to succeed them’ The dative with aicyierov takes the
place of the accusative before the infinitive tpépew. Cp. Soph. O. C.
1201, 1202 Nenapeiv yap ov Kaddv | Bixara mpoo xpyfovew.

émxeipyoat . . . Kakoupyetv| (1) is a confusion between émyet-
pia kaxoupyeiv ra mpdBara and emtxeipjoa tots mpoBdros. Cp. supra
li. 370 E xpjoOa trofvyios and note; or (2) more simply ‘so that
they attack the sheep to do them harm’: kakoupyeiv, epexegetic
infinitive.

&popoww0dow] As elsewhere, the asyndeton is allowed where
the second clause is explanatory of the first. For a similar apposition
compare Eurip. Heracl. 176 :—

pnd, onep ircire Spar,
mdOns od ToiTo, Tos dpyeivovas mapdv

hirous A€aba, rois xaxiovas AGBys.

odxody . . . eioiv;] ‘Will they not, if they are really well
educated, be provided with the best of safeguards ?’

Thy peyiorny tis eddaBeias| With this phrase cp. ris yas
dpiorn, Tov meiotov Tov Biov, tiv mreiaTHy THs orparias (Thuc. vii. 3).
The adjective takes by attraction the gender of the noun following.
The accusative is used adverbially after mapeoxevaopévor: cp.
Riddell’s Digest, § 7. ,

Todro péev . . . ATs wore éorw| We cannot be confident that
they have the right education, but we may be confident that they

Republic
117.

415 D-
417 B

415
D

Republic
LM.

416
Cc

417
A

160 Plato: Republic.

ought to have. This touch of unlooked for modesty psa for
the higher education of Book vii.

kal dp0ds ye] sc. éAéyoper.

mpds toivuy, x.t.A.] The perfect harmony of a society is an idea
only, which can never be realized in practice. Yet class-differences,
though unavoidable, are still an evil. The antagonism of different
sections deducts from the total strength of the whole of a com-
munity. The differences of interest create jealousy and party-
spirit ; the exclusive opinions of a class, whether of the highest or
lowest rank, are always more or less untrue, and require to be
adjusted by those of other classes. The happiest condition of
society seems to be that in which different ranks insensibly fade
into one another, or in which the transition is easy from one to the
other, and personal merit, as in the Republic of Plato, readily
acquires the privileges and estimation of rank. And although the
individual is always in danger of sinking into his own class or
imitating the one above him, yet he may lay aside the impress
of any class in the sense of a higher freedom. Compare Aristotle,
Pol. ii. 5, § 26, who in his matter-of-fact way objects that the con-
finement of office to a single class will be a cause of faction in
a warlike state, and adds—ér: 8’ dvayxaiov air@ moveiv rods abrods
dipxovras, pavepdv' od yap éré pev Gddos dre S€ GAois pépixrar Tais
yuxais 6 mapa rod Oeotd xpvods, Gd det trois adrois. But he does
not seem to remember that Plato has already met this objection, in
part at least, by allowing merit to rise in the social scale.

?

GvSpes GOAntal wodduou}] ‘ Men in training for war:’ cp. 403 E
dOdnrai . . . of Gvdpes tod peyiotov ayavos.

Xpuctov S€ Kai dpydpioy, «.7..] ‘But as for gold and silver
coin, we must tell them that they have that (viz. gold and silver)
of a divine quality in their souls.’ That the words are used in

the first instance of money appears from voucpa a few lines
below.

Thy €xeivou Kriow] sc. rou Oeiov xpuciov.

ind tov abrdv Spodov iévar] The slight exaggeration and comic
formality of the language keeps up the humour of the passage.

é& dpyipou 4 xpuood| The inverted repetition has the effect
of a sort of legal phraseology.

Ogovres . . . €yydtaTa 8déepou] A metaphor from navigation.

Notes: Book IV. 161

mdvu ye, i 8 &s 6 FAadKwv}] Glaucon, who began by protesting
against the omission of the luxuries of life in the dvayxatorarn méXs,
has by the art of Socrates been insensibly brought round to deny
his own position. Cp. supra ii. 372 ¢, D.

BOOK IV.

Adeimantus here points out the apparent incongruity of making
the highest class in the state the poorest. They have the city in their
power, and yet they are to get no enjoyment out of tt. Socrates will
not ask at present whether plain living ts or is not consistent with
true happiness ; he would rather insist that the law-giver ts bound
to consider the welfare of the whole community, and not of a part
only, however important. Now the welfare of the community
depends on the single-minded devotion of the guardians to their
proper work, and the possession of private property would be
subversive of this.

Indeed one of the chief duties of the guardian will be to prevent
excessive inequalities of fortune from arising at all in the city. For
the city in which there ts wealth and poverty is no longer one. Two
nations are already struggling within her. And so long as our
state avoids this evil condition and remains really one, she will have
nothing to fear from her neighbours, although in bulk and outward
semblance they may be many times more powerful than she ts.

kat 6 "ASeipavtos, k.t.A.] Happiness is the result, not the aim,
of our Utopia. We do not separate the advantage of our ruling
citizens from the well-being of all. Their life is not exactly a life
of enjoyment, yet in the end a happiness incomparably beyond the
lot of other men will fall to their share: cp. x. 612, 613.

ti ofy . . . dwohoyyoet] Cp. Phaedo 638 Aixaa, én, Aéyere.
oluat yap tyas déyew ore ypy pe mpds tadra dmodkoyjoacba domep év
dixaornpip. For 80 éautods, ‘ by their own act,’ compare i. 354 4
ob pévrot Karas ye cioriaua, 80 éuautdv, add’ od dia o€: and for
the meaning, Gorgias 492 B ols é€dv drokavew trav dyabav Kai pndevds
€proday bvros, adrot éavrois Seamdrny erayayowTo Tov Tav muAd@v avOpa-
mov vépov Te Kai AMéyov kai Wéyov. There is areference to this passage
in v. 465 E Méuynoa ody, jv 8 eyw, Sri ev rois mpdadev ovx oida Srov
Adyos ipiv émémAnkev, dre rods idaxas ov« eddaipovas mowwiper, ols éFdv
wavra Exew Tih Tay Todiraey ovdey Exorev ;

VOL, III. M

Republic
WL.
417

B

Republic
LV.

419-
423 B

419

Republic
IV.

419

420

162 Plato: Republic.

_ ph... pndé] pp is used not unfrequently in oratio obliqua,
especially when as here the main sentence is conditional, édv tis
ve pr, K.T.A,

viv 84] supra iii. 416 b.

GN’ dtexvds ... ppoupodvres] ‘they simply appear, he would
say, like mercenaries to be stationed in the city doing nothing but
mounting guard.’ The infinitive is used after datvovrat to avoid
a confusion of participles.--Badham would cancel pto@wrot, but
Socrates in saying o068€ puoédy, k.7.X., tacitly corrects the respondent.

gain dv] resumes édy ris oe pf in an independent construction.

, Ww 8 éyd, ... dvadioxouor| Socrates at first, instead of
answering, reinforces the objection. Cp. vi. 487 E dkovos dv, dre
epnovye paivovrat radnO7 Aeyeww. emoitior... AapPdvovtes is a correction
of domep émixovpo picOwroi, ‘ Yes, said I, and this for their food only,
and not even receiving pay in addition.’

ot GAXot] Sc. éixoupor.

ot edSaipoves Soxodvtes elvar| Soxodvres with a slight contempt,
as in ili. 406 C ray mrovoiav re kai eddaydvav SoxotvTwy evar: CP. xX.
612 A Tay evdaipdvor heyopévwy éExtidcewr.

When Adeimantus is exhausted Socrates carries on the charges
against himself, and as a final stroke he adds—‘ they will have no
money to spend on courtesans, or other objects, which, as the
world goes, make happiness.’

. drohoynadspeda] ‘What, then, shall be our defence, you
ask?’ Socrates, in repeating the question from supra 419, would
have Adeimantus make common cause with him.

Tov adrév otpov, «.7.A.| refers to the division of labour, as appears
from the words éemortdpeOa yap, «.r.A. infra E.

épodpev . . . Sn Hf Wodts] Aristotle (Pol. ii. 5, § 27) has the
following remarks on this passage: ‘ Plato deprives the guardians
of happiness, and says that the legislator ought to make the whole
state happy. But the whole cannot be happy unless most, or all,
or some of its parts enjoy happiness. In this respect happiness is
not like the even principle in numbers, which may exist only in the
whole, but in none of the parts; not so happiness. And if the
guardians are not happy, who are? Surely not the artisans, or the
common people.’ It seems incredible that any one who has read

\y

Notes: Book IV. 163

the beginning of Book iv should have so utterly misunderstood it.
Plato, it is true, deprives the guardians of happiness, but only in
the vulgar sense of the word: he believes that they will attain true
happiness to the full in the performance of their proper function.
So too of the other classes in the state.

épodpev| The future implies: ‘The spirit of our previous
remarks will lead us to say. Cp. iii. 392 A olwat judas épeiv, x.7.d.

kal ad... &Scxtav] This was not clearly said at first, although
the presence of evil was acknowledged as a condition of the search
(ii. 368 EB, 372), but is added in anticipation of the bad states
(infra 445 ¢, viii, ix). Compare infra c abrixa 8€ rh évavriay.

émohaBdévtes| Compare iii. 392 E dmokaBdv pépos te mepdcopai
got év rovrm dyAdoa: Gorg. 495 E oloy mepi drov BovrAe rod goparos
dtrohaBay oxdre:.

70évres| is altered in some manuscripts (II = ¢) into Oéres,
apparently for the sake of symmetry with dmodaBdvres: but the
present agrees better with the present wd trope.

domep obv ... (D) 7d Sov Kaddv trotodpev| Why should the eyes
of a statue be coloured black? The colouring of Greek statues
was conventional, the ‘design being, not to imitate life, but to bring
out form. Perhaps the blackness of the eye was also conventional,
or refers only to the pupil. Compare the Hippias Major 290 B
drt, epet, THs "AOnvas rods dpOadrpuods ov xpucors emoinaev, ovdé TH AAO
mpdcwrov, ovde tods médas ovd€ tas xeipas, elmep xpvoory ye 51) bv Kad-
Arorov Eyedre haiverOa, Grd’ eechavrivor.

All true art proceeds in the artist’s mind from the whole to the
parts—from composition and proportion to ornament and detail.
The power of the whole, however simple, is the highest excellence
of art, as the weakness of the whole, however finished in detail, is
the greatest fault. The Greeks, though not much given to art
criticism, were quite sensible of this first principle of art. Compare
Soph. 235, 236, where symmetry of form and harmony of colour
are declared to be the first principles of ‘image-making,’ with the
single exception that in large works a slight deviation is necessary
from the true and symmetrical line in the upper part of a statue to
make up for distance.

émotdueQa| ‘We know how to,’ i.e. we could do so, if we
chose. )

Republic
LV.

420

421
A

164 Plato: Republic.

émSééia| This word may mean (1) ‘from left to right,’ cp.

Homer, Odyss. xxi, 141, 142:

épvud® é€eins émidéfia mavres éraipot,

ap&dpevoe Tod xwpov, dOev ré wep olvoyxoevet,
or (2) ‘dexterously,’ ‘ cleverly.” If the former sense is preferred, it
must be taken with Samivovtas: if the latter, with kataxXivavtes :
‘having cleverly stretched them by the fireside challenging each
other to drink.’ [Against the former view it may be urged that it
introduces a particular which is too minute and adds nothing
telling to the description. B.J.] The manuscripts do not agree
here, some reading émdéfia (Par. A), others emi defd (m): if the
sense ‘dexterously’ is preferred émde&a alone can be read: if the
sense ‘ from right to left,’ either reading is possible.

kepapetew]| sc. emordueba xehevery,

oUte GANos oddeis ... && Gv wédis ylyverar] (1) ‘ Neither will
any one else have any of the characteristics which go to make up
a city ’—or (2) ‘ Neither will any of the persons who make up the
city have any distinct character.’ The antecedent to é€ &v may be
either a plural oynpara implied in oxfjpa, or a masculine ékeiver
dependent on &dXos od8els.

veupoppdpor| Plato, as his manner is, in recapitulation adds
a new touch to the picture. The word is chosen as humbler even
than oxvrorépos.

For other references to the lowest class of citizens in Book iv

- see infra D, E, 423. D, 425.C, D, 428 B, C, E, 431 C—432 A, 434, B;

cp. also v. 456 D # rods oxvtordpous, Th oxutixn TmadevOevras,

pudaxes S€... Tov Koipdv éxouow] The subject of éxouow is
oudaxes, without the addition pi... Soxodvres. For &p8yv cp. Laws
iii. 677 C Oapev dn ras... nde... dpdnv ev ro tére xpdvo-Siuapbei-
pecOa; And for oixetv, used in a neuter sense, cp. viii. 543A TH
pedAovun akpws oixeitv médec: also Thuc. ii. 37 dia 7d pa) es dALyous GAN

> , > Lal
és mAelovas OLKELY.

ei pév odv . . . (B) GANo Gy Te H WéAW A€éyor|] ‘ Now if our way be
to make guardians in the truest sense (as 4dn8s opposed to Soxoiv-
res), who are the reverse of harmers of the state (cp. macav dpdny
mé\w aroAdvact), but he who asserts the other view imagines (sotet
understood from trovodpev, or A¢ye from Aéywv) a sort of ploughman,
—a happy merry-maker, as we may fancy, at a high festival, not in
a state-—he means something which is not a state.’

ig

——

Notes: Book IV. 165

The sentence is a good deal involved, and is one of the few
passages in the Republic which, like many in the Laws, seem to
require the ‘curae secundae’ of the author. The perplexity in
some degree arises from the antithesis to the previous sentence,
which occasions the awkward apposition of jxora . . . wédews: also
from the omission of the verb in the second clause (which is Aéyee
rather than moet), and the tautology of wédAw and é wéde. The
difficulty is increased by the complex ‘paratactic’ structure. More
simply expressed, the sense is as follows: ‘If the idea of a state
requires the citizens to be guardians, he who converts them into
rustic holiday-makers will mean something that is nota state.’ médw
(without the article) is used in the same general sense as ods in
ii. 369 B. éxetvo refers to the objection of p. 419 as expanded in
420. Instead of finishing the sentence Socrates breaks off abruptly
with a tone of impatience.

Todto pév| sc. 6, re mAciory evdatpovia,

dvaykacrtéoy moveiv] sc. juiv, ‘ youand1 must compel.’ Socrates
persists in treating Adeimantus’ imaginary objector as a real person
who is certainly not Adeimantus. Cp. 420 a ri ody 81 drodoynadpeba,
pis ;

kai oUrw ... edSaipovias| éaréov anticipates the infinitive pera-
apBavery edSatpovias, which, however, is drawn into construction
With drodiSwor.

&8ehpdv| For this metaphorical use of ddedgds cp. Soph. 2248
adeaArAP@O tw ris mpdgews dvdparc: Crito 54 c, where the laws of the
world above speak of the laws of the world below as of jpérepor
adepoi. Compare the use in Soph. Ant. 192 kai viv ddedpa ravde
knpvfas éxyo. petpiws is modestly substituted by Socrates for xadés
in Adeimantus’ reply.

Tods GhAous a0 Syproupyols]| The @vraxes have been called
Snpeovpyot in a secondary sense, supra c; Socrates now speaks of
the artificers properly so called. That this, and not the adverbial
use of “AXos is intended here, is shown by the use of ad to point the
antithesis.

dote Kai kaxods yiyveo@ar| (1) ‘ To the extent of rendering them
worthless.’ Cp. for the meaning infra xaxiwv yurpeds ylyveray, er. :
and for the expression Thuc. ii. 51, §6 dere kal xreivew, occurring
in a negative sentence to which the interrogative (with et) here
corresponds ; or (2) ‘So that they become bad workmen.’ kai is

Republic
IV.

421
B

Republic
IV.

421
D

166 Plato: Republic.

used idiomatically to give emphasis and is equivalent to an
attenuated ‘even.’ [B. J.]

mapéxes@ar] ‘To supply from his own resources.’ It is not
necessary to depart from this, the common use of zapéxopar, though
some here prefer the directly reflexive meaning, ‘to provide for
himself.’

SiSdgeroar] (1) It is usually said that in Attic dddoxw means ‘ to
teach,’ dddoxopa ‘to get some one taught by another.’ (2) Hence
Dr. W. H. Thompson (Journal of Philology, vol. xii. p. 184) and
Cobet, Var. Lect. 310, would read édagee here. (3) But it is
doubtful whether this distinction can be strictly maintained. See
Riddell’s Digest, § 87. (4) The middle seems to be used for
the sake of variety without any difference of meaning from the
active: ‘others whom he may teach, he will teach to be inferior
workmen.’ [B. J.] (5) The rare use of the middle is justified by
the personal relation subsisting between the xutpevs and his sons or
apprentices. The same observation applies to é:dagaiyny in Ar.
Nub. 783 ovk dv ddakaipny o° er, ‘I won't have you any longer
for my pupil.’ [L. C.]

mdodtés te, x.7.A.] That riches are the bane of a state was
a favourite notion with the ancient world; nearly the opposite view
is current among thinkers on these subjects in modern times. How
is this difference to be accounted for? (1) The first impressions
of men about riches and poverty are derived from poetry rather
than philosophy, and this has led to a sort of inconsistency in our
ideas of them (madad peév tis Stapopa pirocodia re Kai mountixp). (2)
There is a real difference in the influence of wealth among the
ancients and moderns. In the modern world, the possession of
wealth is the cause and effect of industry and progress; accumula-
tion implies distribution; and many moral qualities, justice, order,
independence, energy, are the accompaniments of wealth. In the
ancient world wealth was generally acquired by the labour of slaves,
or by corruption and violence: in the early times of the Greek
republics accumulation was really a disturbing agent in the relation
of classes, and in the later days both of Greece and Rome implied
an admixture with foreigners which sensibly impaired the force and
intensity of the national character. . (Compare the extreme opposi-
tion of rich and poor which Plato describes as prevailing in the last
stage of oligarchy, Book viii. 551-556.) (3) It may be conceded
that modern writers have erred in making wealth and security the

Notes: Book IV. 167

sole business of government, and that political economy, after every
allowance for difference of circumstances, has something to learn
from ancient philosophy on this subject. (4) Declamations against
luxury in modern times have sometimes arisen insensibly from the
application of the language of ancient writers, as in other instances,
to an altered state of society. The same remark may be applied
to the language of the New Testament about poverty, which presents
an ideal only, not immediately applicable to other times and
circumstances.

modtos] The noun agrees with the subject of Ajoet.

ds olév te . . . mapeokevacpévos| ‘trained to perfection in the art
of boxing.’ émt rodro, i.e. eri rd muxrevew. For this use of mapa-
oxevafm cp. especially Gorg. 448D Kada@s . .. mapecxevacba eis
Adyous,

088’ ei... mviyer] (1) ‘ Not, said I, if he were able to run away
and then turn and strike at the one who first came up, and suppos-
ing he were to do this repeatedly (wodAdxts) in the heat of a suffo-
cating sun?’ odddxts, ‘several times,’ adds a point to the descrip-
tion. Or (2) according to the other meaning of the word, ‘perhaps,’
‘it may be,’ adding an accidental particular (‘ possibly in stifling
heat’) which would be much in favour of a trained boxer.—The
change of case dropevyovr: . . . dvaotpéporvta is due to the affinity
which the infinitive has for an active subject.

Gpéder . . . Oaupacrdv| ‘Certainly, said he, there would be
nothing wonderful in that.’ dpédeu implies a full admission.

edSainwv ef... Str oie.] ‘I envy you your simplicity in fancying.’
The word etéaipwr has a similar ironical sense in other places:
V. 450 od padiov, & evSaipov . . . dueAGeiv—as here implying a sim-
plicity in the previous question. So & paxdpie Phaedr. 241k, al.

GAG ti piv; €>q| ‘But what would you have? said he.’ ti
pyy, Sc. @AAo. Cp. i. 348 c and note.

pecLdvws, x.7.A.] ‘You must give a grander name to other
cities.’

73 tav makdvrwv] may either mean, (1) ‘as people jestingly say’
(cp. ix. 573 D Td trav marfdvrar, én, rovTo od Kai euol épeis: and Laws
vi. 780 c) in allusion to some saying od médus GAAG woes (OF woreis,
the Epic plural of wodkvs—‘ not a city but a many’), the exact
application of which has not been preserved to us: or (2) ‘as in
the game’ where there is more than one city, in reference to the

Republic
IV.

421
E

422

Republic
LV.

422

423
A

168 Plato: Republic.

expression maifew méres which, according to Suidas and the
Scholiast, had passed into a proverb. Cp. Dict. of Ant. vol. ii.
p- 12. In this case there is an allusion to the game called modes,
for a description of which, see Pollux, iv. 98. It was a species of
draughts, in which the pieces (kives) were ranged on opposite sides
of the board (médes), the game consisted in their taking one
another.

Sto pév... mhougiwy| Kay Sriody 7, ‘if it be anything at all’: the
xai is to be taken with érioéy, according to a common use. For the
meaning of ériodv compare Polit. 308c ef ris mov ray ouvberixav
emioTnpav mpaypa 6tiotv Tov avrns epyar, kay el ro bavAsdrarov .

uvvictnow : Apology B rovs Soxovvtas Kat 6TLOOY eivat.
”

travtés av dpdptos| Cp. Phaedr. 235 £ os Avoias ‘rod mavtés
napTHKe,

kat €ws ay... Tay mpowoepodvtwy] ‘ And as long as your city
is governed wisely in the order just now prescribed, it will be the
greatest of states, I do not mean in distinction or estimation, but in
fact, though it number only a thousand fighting men.’ eéSoxipetv
has been altered into doxeiv in one manuscript (Par. K), which is
followed by some editors.

Soxovcas Sé... THs THAtkadtys| ‘But many that appear even
many times greater than one of such a size.’

The same rule must be applied to population and territory. In
neither way must our city attain a size which ts inconsistent with
unity.

Another ‘ trifling’ rule they have to keep ts that already laid
down about maintaining the purity of the several classes: that
so each individual may do one work and be truly one.

But indeed all else is really trifling tn comparison with the great
principles of Education as we have laid them down. Tf this all-
important point be observed, all else ts sure to go on rightly. 4 Above
all, the regulations respecting musical harmonies must be most
jealously watched and preserved. No other innovation creeps in so
insidiously, or ts so destructive in its consequences, as the alteration
of taste in music.

The minor details of conduct, including rules of behaviour, are
matters which men educated as our citizens have been may be left
to discover for themselves. But how if the greater principles are

Notes: Book IV. 169

not observed? They will tinker away at these minor matters of a
legislation, like men who will not give up a life of debauchery, but

423 oi
wish to avert its consequences : instead of getting rid of the cause of 427 A
disease, they will strive by petty legislation to minimize its evils.
What ts this but trying to cut off the head of Hydra?

otyar pév, K.7.A.] The limit of the state was a natural idea to 423
the Greeks, who had no experience of any organization which could »
give unity to a great empire. Aristotle (Pol. vii. cc. 4, 5) agrees
with Plato respecting the necessity of having a limit to the state,
which is to be large enough to contain the elements of political
well-being, and small enough to have a form of constitution
(wodreia) and enforcement of the Jaws, within sight of the govern-
ment (edovvorros), and within the hearing of the herald. Much of
his reasoning on the subject, however, turns on the abstract
principle of measure in men, animals, and works and instruments
in general. He approaches most nearly to Plato in the passage
where he says that the greatness of the city depends, not on the
numbers of the citizens, but on fulfilling the end for which political
society exists (c. 4, § 5).

pyre peyddn Soxodca}] ‘Nor one that gives the idea of being ¢
large’ (since none is really so). The qualifying word 8oxodca is
added with reference to the preceding argument. Cp. supra B
Soxovcas (sc. eivat peyaas) d€ moAXas.

Kal paiddv y’, &py . . . mpootdgouev|] ‘And surely,’ said he, ‘ this
is a light matter to impose upon them.’ ‘ And this,’ said I, ‘a
lighter still.’ Adeimantus says ironically ‘This, i.e. the preser-
vation of the unity of the state, is a trivial matter,’ meaning that it
is grave and difficult. Socrates with a deeper irony says, ‘And
this (i. e. the assignment of the citizens to their several classes) is
more trivial still... Then, throwing off irony, he adds in sober
earnest, ‘All is light in comparison of the one great thing,
i.e. education.’ Cp. the ironical uses of yewvaios, xapieis, Kadds,
evdaipwr, &c.

toto 8 éBoudero . . . Set kouiLew] ‘And this meant thatin the p
case of the other citizens also (as well as of the guardians) we
must put each individual man to that one particular work for which
nature designed him.’

He means that the transposition of ranks in individual cases is
in accordance with our old principle of the division of labour, and

170 Plato: Republic.

— that this is to be carried out in detail; not only as between the

423
D

424
A

guardians and the rest of the citizens, but as applied to the indus-
trial classes amongst themselves.

@dAG els yiyyntat, x.7.A.] Cp. v. 462, where he insists that
there must be unity in the state.

ovo... . ixavév] The words paddov 8 dvti peyddou ixavdv are
added with characteristic moderation, because adequacy is better
even than greatness. In using the familiar (75 Xeyépevov) expression
év péya puddrrew (cp. Polit. 297 A péxpierep dv ev péya vddrreor),
Socrates reflects that the whole spirit of his previous remarks is
against aiming at bigness in anything. Compare the curious
passage in i. 349. The construction is slightly altered: péya is at
first merely attributive to év, but tkavdv is added as if péya were
a supplementary predicate. ‘So long as they observe one great
thing, or rather, if they observe it, not to a great but to
a sufficient extent.’

pérpior Gv8pes| ‘Sensible men.’ Cp. iii. 396.

ydpwv Kat ta8omoias| These genitives depend upon some
word of more general meaning supplied from xrjow. ‘ The matter
of marriage,’ &c.

Kowa Ta Gitwv| Cp. Lys. 207 c xowad ra ye pidwv Aéeyera: Arist.
Eth. Nic. viii. 9, § 1.

dpOdrata ... ylyvoir dv] Adeimantus is led on by the familiar
yropn, kowd Ta hidwy, to assent easily to a proposition which he
does not fully understand. Polemarchus calls his attention to this
at the beginning of Book v, and. brings into prominence the
question which is here briefly indicated,

kal piv... avgavonévy|] The truth is, said I, that a state, if
once started well, goes on with accumulating force like a wheel.’

The efforts of ancient philosophers were directed to the attain-
ment of permanence ; they sought to preserve the type, which the
legislator had fixed, by education, Their want of historical
experience prevented them from perceiving that the institutions of
one age are not adapted to another, or that in politics, as in the
action of organic bodies, true permanence is also a progress.
Nor had they the modern feeling that education has higher objects
than merely political ones, and is degraded by serving the purpose

of a governing body.

Notes: Book IV. 171

Epxerar domep xixdos] The word adgavopérn is not to be pressed
into the comparison. A hoop or wheel, when once started well,
goes on smoothly. This is true also of the growth of the state.

TovadTns tmadeias| Torattys, SC. xpnoris.

Republic
IV.

424
A

dvrihapBavépevar| Lit. ‘getting a firm hold of, i.e. being .

thoroughly imbued with it.

mapa mdvta] ‘On all occasions.’ Cp. Parmen. 144 £ 680° dvre
dei Tapa wavra: Protag. 325 D map Exaotov kai épyov kai Adyov.

Td ph vewrepiLew, K.t.A.] 70d pi) vewrepifev, in agreement with
toutou dvOexréov, would have been the natural construction, but
the proximity of aéré, which refers to todrou, in the epexegetic
clause, determines the structure of the sentence against what
would be its more grammatical and logical form. Strictly only the
words ré pi) vewrepifew ... puddrrew are epexegetic of aird: hence
poBovpevoe agreeing with the subject of gudattwot would have been
more correct than the accusative. But the nominative oSovpevo
is attracted into agreement with the subject of the dependent clause
Td pr veorepifew ... puddrrev, sc. ohas. The notion of duty (de
implied in drOexréov) is also influential in favour of the accusative
being used in place of the nominative in agreement with the subject
of the main verb as required by the common rule.

For the use of wodddxts ( = ‘perhaps’) cp. ix. 584 B iva pr) modAdKts
olnOjs €v tH mapdvte ovtw Troiro meuxéva. The quotation is from
Homer, Od. i. 351, where, however, not émepovéove’, but émxdelove’
is read.

Sei 8 ovr’ éwawveiv . .. ore GwohapBdverw| ‘But this ought not
to be praised or conceived to be the poet’s meaning,’ i.e. that he
approves a new kind of song.

elSos yap . . . kwSuvedovra] ‘For we must beware of a change
to a new kind of music, as endangering the whole.’ For the use
of pera8dd\r\exv=to take in exchange, cp. Theaet. 181 ¢ Grav mT yopav
«x xopas petaBaddy : or perhaps the adjective xatvév is used prolep-
tically. peraSd\Xev would then mean ‘to change,’ ‘to alter,’ not
‘to take in exchange.’ For év in this connexion cp. Laches 187 B
pr ovk év rp Kapt byiv 6 xivduvos xwduvetnrar, ddd’ év rois viéot, K.7.A.

oddapod . . . weiPopar] Compare Laws vii. 800 B mapa ra dnudota
BéAn Te kai iepa Kal Thy Tov véewv Etumacay yopeiav pnydeis padXov } rap’
évrwouv dAdov Trav vopnov pbeyyéabw, pnd? ev dpynoen Kweicbo. The

425
A

172 Plato: Republic.

same fanciful importance is attributed to music in the saying, ‘ Let
me make the ballads of a people, I care not who makes their laws.’
For Damon, cp. iii. 4008 and note. Modern Damons have been
equally ready to prognosticate the ruin that would follow from
trifling changes in education.

) youv mapavopia ... mapadsvopévy| ‘Certainly, said he, this
musical lawlessness easily creeps in unobserved.’ atry, sc. 4 €v
povowxj, referring tO xktvodvyrat povorxijs tpdwoc supra. trapd here
and supra 421E (mapadivra) means ‘sideways,’ i.e. ‘unawares.’
Compare rapeprimrew (Charm. 173 D).

oudé yap épydLerat, «.7.A.] ‘And it really does no harm, except
that,’ &c. The use of the negative is idiomatic, as in odd y ... ef pH
ayaa ye Protag. 310 B.—‘ The only harm it does is this: it gradually
ruins everything—that is all.’

Os... TaiSwv ToLovTwy| TovovTwy, sc. mapavsuwv. Cp. supra A
TovauTns matdecas and note.

Kah@s dpEduevor maidSes maiLey] The influence of the amuse-
ments of children upon their character is dwelt upon at length in
the Laws vii. 797, 798.

madw .. . ager] sc. povorxy. ‘Music does for them the opposite
of what she did in the former case. She follows them into every
part of life and makes them grow.’ 4 *ketvots, Sc. #) rois 7) mapavdu@

Hovotkh xpnoapevors emote.
éxetto] Like ‘ jacere’ in Latin.

katakNicers| Either (1) ‘when to sit down, and when to give
place’; or [rather L. C.] (2), as xaraxdivew the verb has an active
meaning, the substantive may be taken actively, of ‘ making
another sit down,’ or ‘ assisting elders to a seat.’ This appears to
be the right way of explaining the word in Arist. Eth. Nic. ix. 2, § 9
mavti b€ rH mpecButépp Tysjy Kab’ Hdtkiay [SC. drodoréov |, imavaordoe
kai katakhioe, when it is similarly combined with imavacracis. For
the sense compare Hdt. ii. 80 oupdépovrar dé Kai rdde GAO Aiyorrior
"EAAjver povvorot Aaxedapoviowst, of vearepor ai’rav Tole. mperBureporoe
ouvtuyxavovres eikovot THs 6d00 Kal éxrpdmovrat Kal emovor €€ edpns

bTavoréarat. NY

oute ydp tou yiyvera: or’ dy peiverey] ‘For express and written
enactments on such points are ineffectual and could never endure.’

Notes: Book IV. + 173

Cp. Polit. 294 B ai yap dvopodrntes tov te dvOpmmeav Kai tov mpdfewv ie tas

kal rd pndérore pndév, ds Eros elmeiv, Hovxiav dyew trav avOpwriver ovdéev
édow drdodv ev oddevt wept amavrev Kal ext mavta Tov xpdvov arodaiver Oat
réxvnv ovd jvrwodv. And for an attempt to meet the difficulty by
‘exhortation’ see Laws vii. 793, Soph. 230 a. For yiyverat = ‘ take
effect, cp. supra ili, 414 C.

-It is difficuit in legislation to attain a mean between too great
generality and too much detail. Particulars are endless and cannot
all be included; yet the attempt to limit legislation to general
principles gives rise to an undergrowth of precedents and legal
maxims, which has no plan and is apt to become a wilderness.
The good of one man is limited by the good of all; and the
greatest freedom of the greatest number is attained by rules which
fall very far short of universality. It might seem as if the legislator,
having power, could easily mould the Jaws of a nation according to
his will. But human nature is a stubborn thing—not a sheet of
blank paper on which we can inscribe anything at will. Neither in
England, nor in India, nor in any other country, can legislation be
much in advance of public opinion, ‘The laws of nations always
stand in a near relation to their customs and history. Considering
the influence of habit and idea and the growth of interests, the
danger even in democracies is not of good institutions being
too susceptible of change, but of bad ones becoming ineradicable.

In social and commercial matters the difficulty of modern times is-

not how to preserve laws, but how to alter them, because great
interests have grown up under their protection.

kal te\eut@v ... % Kal todvavtiov] ‘ And in the end it (i.e. the
start which education gives him) terminates in some one complete
and grand result either good or the reverse.’ ard, sc. rd rot ay Tus
éppnon ek ths madeias. veavixdv, ‘ youthful: in the prime or pride
of youth,’ and so ‘vehement.’ The word is used in this sense by
Hippocrates and the medical writers.

odk év ér.| ‘I would not go on and try to legislate in these
matters.’

[rd4Se] 1a dyopaia| tdSe is omitted in Par. A. Though not
necessary to the sense, it is idiomatic: ‘ Those familiar regulations.’
Cp. supra iii. 403 E tavBe Trav doxnrav.

Sixav Angews] ‘ obtaining by lot the turn for bringing on a suit :’
the last step in the dvadxpiois, i.e. the examination before the Archon
of the parties to a suit prior to its being sent into the public courts.

1
B

Republic
iv."

425
D

426

174 ' Plato: Republic.

The reading Anfews (mgxk) is clearly right, though Par. A and
Ven. IZ agree in Ayers. Throughout this and the following
passage Plato has Athenian legislation in his mind. In the Laws
the legislator makes minute provisions on many of the points here
left to his successors to determine.

TehGv . .. H mpdgers 7 Ocers| ‘Rules for collection or assessment.’
émd dxohacias| These words are added to explain odx é0édovras.
kat det édiLovtes| The participle is resumed from tatpeudpevor.

Ti Sé; Av 8 éyd, «.t.d.| ‘Well, said I, is not this charming in
them?’ &c. The irony in the word xapiev is seriously taken up in
the next sentence: ‘Not at all charming, he said: for there is no
charm in going into a rage with a man who gives you good advice.’
For the uses of the word xapiev first ironically and then seriously
cp. the similar use of @atAoy supra 423.c, D. For the change from
plural to singular (aér@v . . . peOdwv) cp. infra Cc doavovpévous bs av
and note.

The epigrammatic sentence of Tacitus, ‘ corruptissima civitate
plurimae leges,’ may be quoted as a Roman parallel of this passage
of the Republic. The thought of both goes rather beyond the
truth. For the complexity of law does not mainly arise from
depravity of morals, or the ingenuity of legislators, or the love of
novelty, but (1) from the complexity of the relations and dealings
of mankind: (2) from the remnants of old laws and usages surviv-
ing side by side with new ones. Law, which must appeal to
a written word, superseding the discretion of individuals, can never
be perfectly simple. A popular system of law is impossible in
a civilized country. Yet, on the other hand, the habit of mind
which has been acquired in making necessary distinctions may go
on to make unnecessary ones. ‘The subtlety of law should fall
short of the subtlety of the ordinary circumstances of mankind,
instead of exceeding them. Compare the Politicus, 294 foll., in
which the fixed character of law amid the variety of circumstances,
and the necessity for this owing to the imperfection of human
nature, are unfavourably contrasted with the living supervision of
the perfect ruler,

éro8avoupévous| agrees in number with woAfrats: in what follows,
és dv, x.t.X., is substituted for vf dy rodre Sp@ox. A few manuscripts

(Z © K) wel drobavovpevos, corrected in & to droBavoipevor, which is
the reading of ¢ 8’.

Notes: Book IV. 175

ds 8 av... Typhoerar bwd ody ;] Compare vi. 493 a, where the Regehtt
Sophist is compared to one who studies how to manage a great 426
brute. ¢
gods Ta peydda] ‘ Wise in great matters.’
bn’ adtav] sc. ray wokurav supplied from médes supra. D

mas déyets ; K.7.A.] Socrates aggravates the satire by an ironical
answer: ‘ What do you mean? Have you no mercy on the men?
Do you think that one who does not know how to measure, when
a number of others who are equally ignorant say that he is four
cubits high, can help believing about himself what they say?’
With a sort of half seriousness this impossibility is admitted in the
words which follow. |

od av, py, todrs ye] The manuscripts vary between ovk dy and E

odx ad. For the first we might compare supra 422 B otk dv isos,
én, Gua ye, where, however, there is a also in the preceding sen-
tence. In this passage ov« av might possibly mean otk dv oidv re «ty
pi) tovtro wyeioOa. But od« ad which has the support of AMM is
more in point (sc. ofowa). ‘Though I do not admire the men who
are so deceived, yet on the other hand I do not think that they
could help believing in such a case.’ The form of expression is
not uncommon: cp.Ion 541 A ovk ad por Soxet rotro: Soph. El. 1034
ov8’ ad rovoirov éxOos €xOaipw a” eyo.

ph toivuy xadémawe] ‘Don’t be angry, then.’ Look at them
not under a serious but under a comic aspect. Cp. Phaedr. 269 B
ov xpy xaderaive, adAa ovyyryvookey, ef Ties pu) emvorapuevor Siadreyer Oat
aduvara: éyévovto épicacba, ti mor’ €ote pyropixn. Yaptéotatot recalls
xapiey supra A.

vopoberoivtés te ... emavopBodvres ... oidpevor] (1) The first
two participles may be dependent on the third: ‘ believing that by
such legislation and reforms as we have just mentioned they will
put an end to frauds in contracts.’ Or (2) taken more simply the
words may mean ‘legislating and reforming as we have just described
in the belief that they will put an end,’ &c. Cp. supra 425 E.

7} Tovodrov €iSos vépwv mépt] vdpwv mépr is an explanation of 427
roodrov, which refers to legislation in matters of detail. Cp. 4
Vii. 539 C 70 ddov rogodias répi.

74 8€ Sr] Gre is repeated pleonastically.

Republic
IV.

427 B,C

427
B

427 D-
428 A

176 Plato: Republic.

Lt only now remains to legislate concerning Religion. Here again
we shall insist on a single principle, that religious worship shall be
national, All questions concerning it shall be referred to Apollo the
God at Delphi, who is the hereditary authority on this subject for
all Hellenes.

ti ouv, py, «.7.A.] Plato here, as in the Laws (vi. 759), is
unwilling to depart from the traditionary ceremonial of Greece.
For a discussion of religion in the higher sense cp. the tenth book
of the Laws.

teheuTnodvtwy a OfjKar... tews adrods éxew] ‘Likewise the
graves of the dead, and the ministrations which are necessary to
propitiate the inhabitants of the under-world.’

The manuscripts, with the exception of Ven. =, omit re after
redeurnoavroy. ‘The insertion is unnecessary, asyndeton being not
uncommon in enumerations. Cp. ili. 399 C Biaov, éxovotov, K.7.A.

tT twatpiw] sc. eénynrn: ‘our ancestral interpreter.’ There is
slight manuscript authority (Par. K, Ven. 0, mg) for the reading
matp#@, which would mean ‘the father of our race,’ Apollo being
reputed the father of Ion (cp. Euthyd. 302 np) and worshipped under
this title at Athens. The reading of the text, however, is favoured
by the sense as well as by the manuscripts. For Plato is not
speaking in the person of an Ionian, but of a Greek who will have
no other teacher of religion than the god of his ancestors. And
the Apollo of whom he is thinking is not ’Amé6AA@v rarpdgos, but ‘ the
God who sits in the centre of the earth, and is the interpreter of
religion to all mankind.’

Plato’s profession of reverence for the gods of Hellas is repeat-
edly expressed in a manner which makes it impossible to doubt his
seriousness. The only passage which appears ironical is Tim.
40D-41 A. He probably felt (1) that religion was indispensable,
and (2) that a new religion could not be established in a day.
(Cp. Laws x. g0gE iepa kat Geods od padiov idpierOa, peyddrys dé

diavotas tivds dpbas Spav rd rowdrov.)

The foundation of our state would seem to be complete, but we
still need a styong light to discern in it the nature and essential
value of Justice.

Assuming, however, that the new city has the four cardinal
virtues, tf we can find three of them—wisdom, courage, and tem-
perance—the remaining virtue will be the one which we seek.

Notes: Book LIV. 177

aités te kal tov ade\pdv wapaxdder| Cp. iii. 398 A adrds re Kai
ra roujpara Bovddpevos émideitar6a, and note: Phaedr. 253 B adroi re
kat ra maidixa meidovres: Xen, Anab. iii. 1, § 44: Thue. viii. 55 6
Tedaperos airés re xa rd mepi airov émxoupixdvy éxwv. This passage is
peculiar in that the verb is in the imperative mood and not
a participle.

kal mérepov ... kat dvO@pdmous] Compare the closing words of
Adeimantus’ speech, ii. 367 & édy re NavOavy, x.r.A., and note.

ts obx Sordv gor dv} Another allusion to the words of Socrates
in the passage just cited, ii. 368 B dédorKa yap ph 008 Sovov 4 mapa-
yevopevov Stxatorvvn Kaxnyopoupery amayopeve.

pi od] od is added in good manuscripts, and is in accordance
with the usual idiom after such negative expressions as ad:xov, doyor,
ovx dovov. Compare, both for the meaning and the form of the
sentence, Laws x. 891 A dia raira Adyov ovdapyy Exet ovdS€ Sorvov Eporye
elvae cpaiverat rd pr, 0b Bonbeiv rovras rois Aéyors mavta dvdpa Kata
divauv. In what follows the popular classification of the virtues
which, although first explicitly recognized by Plato, was latent in
the common consciousness of Hellas, is assumed as the basis
of inquiry.

obxody ... eipnpévov] The use of this half-logical half-mathe-
matical ‘ method of residues’ marks the infancy of philosophy. Cp.
Lys. 216. If we were sure that the subject of our inquiry was
one of four terms, and could eliminate the other three, then, as
Plato says, the remaining term would be the one for which we are
seeking. Another condition must be remembered, viz. that the four
terms have each a precise meaning. Otherwise the form will be
illusory, and the disjunctive syllogism in which the error is expressed
will only help the illusion. But no logical term has the precision
of a mathematical quantity. For example, in the discussion which
follows, the third term gwppoctm is not easily separated from the
fourth, which seems also to comprehend the two previous ones.
The formula of residues is true when applied to abstract quantity
or to the laws of nature. But the further application of this or of
any other abstract form to morals or metaphysics is interfered with
by the imperfection, or rather by the nature of language, and the
indefiniteness of the subject.

domep toivuy, x.7.A.] For the form of sentence (éomep with deferred
apodosis) cp. iii. 402 a, B, and note. Plato intended to make &\\wv
VOL. III. N

Republic
IV.

427
D

428
A

Republic
IV.

428
A

428 A-
432 A

178 Plato: Republic.

twav tettdpwy dependent as a partitive genitive on év tm: but the
insertion of the resumptive aétév throws the words out of construc-
tion and they become a ‘genitivus pendens.’ Cp. infra 4398
domep ye, ofa, rod rokdrov ov Kadas exer A€yew, Ste aitod Gua ai xeipes
Td Téfov dnwlovvrai te Kal mpooéAKovTa . . . ;

év érwodv| ‘In any subject-matter,’ as we are now looking for
justice in the state. éméte, ‘as soon as we had.’

odx GAXo Ere Fv] ‘It could mow be no other. fv =‘ was all
along,’ i.e. ‘ proves to be.’ Cp. vi. 497. dnAwoet drt roiTo pev TH
6vre Ociov Hv. €te = ‘after the other three were found.’

Wisdom ts obviously present, but is possessed by one class only, and
that the smallest, which gives this character to the whole. For
statecraft is supreme wisdom, and this is vested in the rulers alone.

Courage or fortitude also has her seat tn one class principally,
that ts to say, in those guardians who are not rulers but defenders

and preservers of the peace of the state. On their holding fast

the patriotic principle with which they have been imbued, and
thus having the courage of citizens, depends the security of the whole
commonwealth.

Temperance ts the mutual concord of the different classes rather
than the proper excellence of one. In individuals this is spoken of
as self-control, which means the obedience of the lower nature to the
higher. And in our community it is the willing obedience of the
industrial classes, which are lower and have a lower order of desires,
to the two higher classes, which gives to the whole state the character
of temperate.

év adto| not év airy, is the true reading; the neuter, as in other
places, referring to the masculine and feminine in abstract things,
and here following the gender of étwodv.

modAal 8 ye, x.7.A.] Political science is similarly distinguished
from the arts in the Euthydemus (291), and, with curious elabora-
tion, in the Politicus, 258-268 and elsewhere.

ds av éxor B&AAttota] sc. ra EvAwa oxetn, ‘how wooden imple-
ments may best be made.’ It has been doubted whether Bouevopévn,
which is the reading of all the manuscripts, should not be altered
into BovAevopevnv. But Bovdevonevn, SC. 7 modus Tavtn TH émoTHuy,
resumes 8a... émorhpyy. Cp. infra 7... Bovdevera and note.

Notes: Book IV. 179

ti 8€; thy éwép, x.7.A.] For the omission of dé compare Phaedo
64D, where, however, as in this passage, the preposition is easily
supplied: gaiveral vor girooddou dvdpis elvar éamov8axévar mepi tas
ndovas Kadoupéevas tas roudode; ... Ti dé; TAS Trav appodiwiwy ; see

Riddell’s Digest, § 190.

aq]... Boudederor] 7 is Hermann’s correction of #, which was

formerly read. It is confirmed by Ma/zv, and is supported by
éautis, immediately below, which, though it proves not to be the
reading of Par. A, is on the whole most probable. The accent
on 7 in Par. A is written over an erasure. It is the city, not the
science, that is eJBoudos, and ‘is therefore rightly said BovAeverOa :
cp. supra BovAevopérn, and note.

durkot] The MSS., with one exception (Flor. n) omit a.
The optative without ay in a relative clause expresses remote or
ideal possibility, in a case that is perfectly general: ‘ what might
be or may be conceived to be the best policy, internal or external.’
Compare Phaedrus 239B dmoBderav eis tov éepacrny, olos dv tH pév
ydiotos, €avt@ S€ BrAaBepwraros ein [ ap ein solus ©].

ols viv 82)... dvopdlopev] iii. 4148. The reading redéws was
erroneously attributed in Bekker’s collation to Par. A, which reads
tehéous with all the other MSS. except Ven. =. tedéous has therefore
been restored in the text.

métepov ody, jv 8 éyé| ody after mérepov is omitted in the best
MSS., perhaps rightly. Cp. Lys. 220 £ mérepov, fv 3 eye, «.7.d.

odkoivy . . . ylyvetat yévos| Cp. Polit. 292 z—293a, where
Plato remarks that in a city of a thousand men there would not be
100 or even fifty good draught-players. How much smaller then
would be the number of kings (i.e. scientific rulers)! The fewness
of the wise is an often-recurring thought in Plato: cp. Theaet.
186 c, Polit. 297 c dda wepi opixpdv te Kal ddiyov Kai rd ev eote CyTnTéov
Thy piav éxeivny modurelav thy dpOnv.

ob ydp ...% tolav adrhy etvar tolav| ‘For I do not imagine,
said I, that the courage or the cowardice of the other citizens will
have the power of giving such a city this or that character.’ Infra
437 E tov 8€ totou 4 Tolou ra mpooyryvdpeva.

kai dvBpeia dpa, .t.A.] Kai (‘too’) marks the correspondence
between the courage and wisdom, both of which are virtues of
a portion of the city and not of the whole.
N 2

Republic
IV.

428
Cc

429
B

180 Plato: Republi.

Republic 06 wavy... fuaBov] ‘I do not quite understand.’ The other
#V. meaning, ‘not at all,’ is unsuitable here. It would be absurd for
~ Glaucon to say that he does not at all understand the meaning of

Socrates about courage. ,

gwmpiav ... déyw twd] Socrates still answers enigmatically,
as in Gorg. 463 p, where he defines rhetoric to Polus as zodcrixijs

popiou €idwdov.

81d mavrds Sé EXeyov adthy owrypiar| ‘and in speaking of courage
as a never-failing preservation, I meant that a man preserves this
principle when he is tried,’ &c. SracdfLeoGar is in the middle voice
and has a general subject (ria, rdv dvOpwrov). adtyy, sc. thy dd€av.
Hermann would cancel the words aéthv owrnpiay. Another reading
is T@ €v re NUmats, k.7.A., “by reason of,’ &c. For the right opinion
concerning things terrible and not compare iii. 386 a, 387 B obs det
€AevOepous eivar, Sovdciav Oavdrov padrrov mepoBnuévovs. See also
Laches 190 ff., where the treatment of the subject is tentative, not
dogmatic.

D ék tooodtwy xpwpatwy| ‘Out of so many.’ The number of
existing colours out of which the choice is made helps to show the
amount of care that is required. The colour ddoupyév is described
by Plato, Tim. 68 c, as épuOpov d€ 5) pédanr Aevk@ Te xpadev.

E kal & pév dv... Bapév] ‘And whatever is dyed in this manner,
that which is dyed becomes of a fast colour.’

Sevoorordy] ‘ fast-dyed.’ Cp. some ludicrous lines of Diphilus
quoted by Harpocration,
Tavtt yap jpiv Sevoomod mavredas
Ta ondpyav’ arodcdetyer,
where as here Sevoorody is used not of the colour, but of the

coloured material.

&vOos| i.e. the perfect brightness of the colour, which is like
the bloom of a flower.

édv te Kal tadta| tadra, sc. ra Aevkd. The choice of the wool
answers to the selection of the guardians, the preparation of the
wool to their education and training, and the dyeing of the wool
to the imposition of the laws.

Tovoitov toivuv, x.t.h.] The words égedeydueba . . . éradedoner
recall ékdéyovra . . . mpomapackevafovow supra.

oN
yes eo

Notes: Book IV. 181

pydév otou ado pyxavao@ar, x.7.d.| isa restatement of towirov. ..
jpas. Hence the asyndeton.

éxmAdvat] the optative is the right reading, to be construed with
tva py. The form is less common than éxmdtvee, but occurs else-
where in Attic Greek. Par. A reads éxmAiva, the infinitive, an
obvious mistake, for Auppatra, as i8ov4 shows, is in the nominative
case,

xaheotpaiou] ‘pearl-ash’ is said by the Scholiast to be derived
from Chalastra, a town or lake in Macedonia (Hdt. vii. 123).

Thy 8 Toasty Sdvapw Kal owrpiav] Cp. supra 429 B divapw

TowavTny, dia mavros acer.

GAN’ od8ev .. . A€yw| sc. dAdo. ‘ But I do not say anything else,’
‘I agree.’ As here, so in Laches (196, £) Socrates refuses to
admit that the brutes possess courage.

kai ydp dmoSdxou . . . dodger] ‘ Why, yes, said I, accept it, but
as the courage of a citizen, and you will be right.’

Plato is speaking of courage only as the virtue of citizens, not as
based upon philosophical principle. Compare x. 619 c, where the
unfortunate choice is made by one éy reraypeévy moduteia év TH mporepo
Bim BeBiwxora, Oe avev irocodias dapetns pererknpdra: also Phaedo
68 p, where the courage of the philosopher is contrasted with the
courage of ordinary men, which is only a fear of greater evils.
There is nowhere in the Republic a discussion such as appears to
be intimated in the words at@is 8€ mepi adrod (sc. ris dvdpeias).. .
ért KdAALov Siipev, but cp. vi. 486 A, B ovKodv Kal Oavarov od Seivdy re
Hynoerat 6 rowiros; Compare Aristotle (Eth. Nic. iii. 7, 8), where
he distinguishes true courage, which is for the sake of 7rd xaddy,
from the spurious forms of courage, and speaks of political courage
as making the nearest approach to the true.

ms obv Gv... mepi awhpooivns| ‘ How then can we discover
justice, that we may trouble ourselves no more about temperance ?’
i.e. that we may be relieved from further discussion. was é&v
expresses a wish, which Socrates affects to believe to be that of his
hearers, eimwep expresses ‘I do not want justice to appear first, at
least, if that is to prevent us from proceeding to examine temper-
ance. For this mode of creating variety by playing with the
order of the subject, compare the correction of the order of the
sciences, vii. 528 a, B, and the similar artifice in Sympos. 185 c, p.

Republic
IV.

430
A

Republic
TV.

430
D

182 Plato: Republic.

In the Charmides 160 ff., where cappoctvy is treated tentatively,
as courage in the Laches, it is described (1) as jovxia—but energy
is excellence: (2) as aiias—but Homér says aides ov« dyabn: (3) as
To Ta éavrod mparreww—but if every one makes his own coat, this is
inconsistent with a division of labour: (4) as yeyv@oxew éavrd6v—but
that would make cadpoctim an émornun émornuns, and this is
contrary to the analogy of other sciences and arts.

In accepting the recognized four virtues (supra 427 £) Plato has
prepared for the threefold division of the soul into rational,
irascible, concupiscent. To the rational and irascible elements
correspond the first two virtues copia and avdpeta. capoovvn is not
the virtue of a single part of the soul, but consists in the subjection
of the lower elements to the higher. The remaining virtue dicao-
avvn, which is the condition of all the rest, is the fulfilment by each
part of its own proper function,

In Gorg. 507 4, B, Protag. 331, the virtue of dowrns is also
mentioned.

oUte of8a] sc. mas dy rhv Sixaoodivyy edpomer.

GANG pévror.. . et ph dx] ‘ But that, said I, I do desire, or
I am in the wrong.’ There seems to be a slight ellipse: the full
sense would be, ‘I do desire, as I must, unless, &c.’ The phrase
occurs elsewhere, e. g. x. 608 D od 8€ ror exers A€yerv; El ph aduxd
y, &pnv: and Charm, 156A kai rotvopd pov ov axpiBois ; Ei ph dina
ye &pn.

ds ye évredOev i8eiv] ‘Looking from where I stand,’ i.e. to
judge from our present point of view. This graphic touch recalls
the image of the search, supra 427 E, and prepares for the still more
lively one of the hunt for justice, infra 432B: cp. also 445 c Seipo

oa ,m”
. va kal ins, x.7.A.

&s pact, kpeitrw 8)... A€yerar] The reading is doubtful. That
in the text is confirmed by the margin of Par. A, and by Ma.
also, according to Schneider, by two chief MSS. of Stobaeus.
Schneider adopted this reading, but placed a full-stop at asi,
supposing in the latter part of the sentence the passive Aéyerat to
have taken the place of Aéyovow, and comparing, amongst other
passages, Apol. 21 dvacxomay oty rovrov .. . kai diadeydpevos air,
€do&é por odros 6 dup Soke pév eivae codds.., civae 8 ot, The
reading of AIL, &c., kpeirrw 89 abrov aivovtat ovk oid’ évriwa rpdmov
kal GAXa Grra touita Somep ixyn adrijs Méyerar, can Only be construed by

Notes: Book IV. 183

supplying A¢yovres from déyerau, cp. supra 421 B 6 8 ékeivo Aéyav,
cr. One MS., g, reads gaivovra . . . xadoivres, which Bekker
adopted.

odxodv ... (431 A) mpooayopedetar] In the Laws, i. 627, the
same figure is applied to a family or state : cp. also 626 & émeidi) yap
els Exaaros hav 6 pév Kpeltrwv abtod, 6 b¢ Frrov éori: and Gorg. 491 D

” ~ ’ > € ~
€va €kagTov Aéeyw avTov éavToU apyorTa,

kal drav pev... 7d Kpeittw abtod|] guce: is to be joined with
Bédrov, ‘that which is by nature better.’ 16 xpeittw abtod =-6 Adyos
supra, is the subject of Aé¢yew, which depends on datverat and not
on BotXeo8ar.

érowvet your] ‘it is certainly a term of praise.’ Cp. Crat. 419 A
érep 3) éwawvet, and the use of voei with a neuter subject: i. 335 £
tovro d€ 8) voei a’r@: also supra 423 D tovro & ¢€Bovdero dndodr.
The more general subject (sc. 6 Adyos) is continued with péyew,
kadetv infra.

kal yap €oxev] (That is evidently the meaning) ‘for it seems
a natural way of speaking.’

o6| ‘Seeing that a thing, the better part of which rules over the
worse.’ of is governed by 16 Gpewvov tod xeipovos.

*maoi] This correction of the manuscript reading maou “is
necessary here, and in vi. 494 B.

tav éheuvPépwv Aeyouévav| ‘Those who are called freemen.’ In
this expression, as in trav eddaipdvev duxovvror (iii. 406 c) and the like,
Plato implies that the philosopher alone is really free and happy.

tas 8€ ye dwhGs] The accusative is unusual after émredge, and
therefore these words are best regarded as an anacoluthon,
apparently occasioned by the parallel of the previous sentence, tds
ye Todds ... eUpor. It may be rendered in English, ‘ But as to the
simple and moderate pleasures, you will find them,’ &c. at 8%, «.1.X.,
‘which of course follow reason,’ i. e. as being émAai and peérpuau.

Stay obrws Exwow] sc. drav % airy défa f Trois re dpyovor Kai
apxopevots mepi Tov otatiwas bei dipxew.

Ste odx domep ... (A) dtwodv tdv torodrwy| ‘ Because courage
and wisdom reside each in a portion of the state, which the one
makes wise and the other valiant, but that is not the way with
temperance (odx oftw movet adry is a resumption of odx domep...

B

A ee
ay

184 Plato: Republic.

Republic wapetxero) which literally extends through all the notes of the scale,

aes” anf produces a supreme harmony of the weakest, the strongest and
the intermediate class, whether in wisdom or in force, or, if you
will, in number, wealth and the like.’ 8v 8Angs (Avpas) and 8:6 wacav
(xopSév) are musical terms, carrying out the notion of dppovia
supra. The application of the figure is pointed with drexvas, ‘ liter-
ally through the whole,’ i.e. the whole state as the whole lyre.
A somewhat similar notion of the harmony of the various elements
in a state occurs in Thuc. vi. 18 (the speech of Alcibiades) éyo00

dé rd re Gaddov Kal TO pécov Kal TO mavy axpiBes dv Evyxpabev padrior dv

431
E

> ’
uoryvelv,

; ss ; ;
432 taitév|] A cognate accusative emphasizing fuvaSovtas: ‘ agreeing
A in unison.’

ei pev Bovder, «.7.4.] This may be expressed in the following
tabular scheme :—
ppornaet, icyxvi, mane, &C.
iaxupdrarot rulers, soldiers, populace.
pécot soldiers, populace, _ soldiers.
dg@evéoraroe populace, rulers, rulers.

B ds ye obtwot Sdfar] ‘So far as for us to have formed the opinion
we have expressed.’ Each step in a Platonic argument is regarded
as provisional, depending on the present consent of the interlo-
cutors, who are free to modify their conclusions afterwards, should
they see cause.

432 B- We are on the track of Justice but have not yet found her. Ah!
we have been looking too far off. Here she lies, quite near to us,—
the ground of the other virtues, the very life of the machine! Why
is there harmony amongst the classes in the state? Why are the
soldiers brave, the rulers wise? Simply because each is doing his
own proper work, not interfering with his neighbour.

That each should have his own and keep within his sphere ts the
popular notion of Justice. And by adhering to our first principle of
the division of labour, we have secured that each of the three orders
or classes shall perform its function well, and that our whole state
shall be just, and escape from injustice which arises out of the
interference of the three classes with one another.

432 obkodv, & Phadkwv ... dynos yévytat] ‘So now then, Glaucon,
b like huntsmen we should encircle the cover, taking heed that

Notes: Book IV. | 185

justice do not slip away and vanish out of sight.’ For the metaphor
compare Laches 194 B Ovkodv, & ire, rov ayabdv kuvnyérny perabeiv xpy
kal pi) dviévac 3 Davraraat pév ov, Bovdet ody cal Nixiav révde mapakahopev
éri rd kuynyéovov . ..; Justice is more general and abstract and has
more of the nature of universal law, whereas temperance, courage
and wisdom are particular applications of this law: it is the general
idea underlying the other three; the virtue of the whole as con-
trasted with the virtues of the parts: it may also be viewed as the
result of all the rest. The simplicity of this is the real difficulty in
understanding the nature of Justice: we are looking -into the
distance for that which is tumbling out at our feet. Justice is
neither more nor less than ‘ our old friend’ the division of labour
applied not merely to the artisan class but to all the classes in the
state (cp. the anticipation of this, ii. 372 A év adr&y TovTwr xpeia Twi
Th mpos GdAndAous). Further, justice is the foundation or condition
of the three other virtues, the quality which makes them possible
(6 maow éxeivors thy Sivamw mapécxev dote eyyevécOa 4338). It is
obvious (1) that the relation between the three first and fourth is at
variance with the method of elimination or residues by which Plato
has proceeded: the fourth is not separable from the other three,
they are particularized forms of it: (2) that the four virtues,
especially justice, do not hold the same place in the state as in the
individual, because it is only in certain respects and to a very
limited degree that the state and individual admit of comparison.

The four ‘ cardinal virtues’ of Plato appear meagre when com-
pared with the greater fulness and minuteness of the psychology
of Aristotle. Aristotle seems to include other types of virtue, e. g.
that of magnificence, which belong to particular characters and
circumstances and are not parts of the common ideal of human
nature. Yet this virtue as well as the kindred ¢Aevéepidrys, although
not entering into Plato’s system, are mentioned by him along with
cwodpoctivy and dvdpeia, iii. 402 C.

The definition of justice in this passage is one of the definitions
of temperance in the Charmides (162). So far is Plato from
using language with the technical strictness of Aristotle. In general
an ethical conception appears to lie at the foundation of temperance,
a political one at the foundation of justice.

The ironical self-depreciation of Socrates and the humility of
Glaucon are worthy of observation.

édv mws ... iSys| For the form of expression cp. infra 434
and Theaet. 156 c aX’ dOpe, édv mws droredco G7.

Republic
LV.

432
B

Republic
LV.

432
C

D

433
A

186 Plato: Republic.

édv por éropévw xpy .- - xpyoet| The omission of as is singular.
Tavu por petpiws xpyoet, ‘ You will make a very fair use of me.’
Compare a similar turn in the Sophist, 239 B, c 6 Te padtora Sivaca
ouvreivas meipaOnte . .. TloAAy pevr’ dv pe Kai dromos éxou mpobupia ths
emixeipnoews, ei. . . €mtxetpoinv, and Cratyl. 398 F mddevr, & ‘yade, exo ;
ovd’ ef te vids 7° dv einv eipeiv, od ovvteivw bid Td HyeicOa oe paddov

eipnoew f euavrdy, Also infra v. 474 A, B.

ott your oxotewwés| Compare the hunt for the Sophist in the
‘dark cave’ of negation, Soph. 254 da 1d oxotewdv tov rtézrov

Katavonaa xaderos.

kal éy® kati8dav ... elmov| ‘Here I got view, and cried Hurrah !
hurrah ! ’

pev katayedaotérato.... dmecxonodpev| The words from domep
are added in explanation. Hence the asyndeton.

dkove, ei Tt dpa Aéyw|] ‘Listen and see whether there is any-
thing in what I say.’ Cp. infra 433 £ ef ora d6£e.

Touts éotw...% Sixacoodvy| ‘This, or rather some form of
this, is justice.’ For the use of jrot compare iii. 400 c tas dywyas
tod modds adrov ovx Frrov eyew ... 4 Tols pvduors adrovs, Aro Evvap-
porepsv 1. This (i.e. each doing his own proper work) as he says
below, when done in a certain way or manner, may be suspected
to be (kivduvever eivar) justice.

tovtou ti etd0s| It is the division of labour applied, not to the
several industries, but to the three classes in the state and the three
parts of the soul in the individual. The same thing is meant by
Tporov twa Supra 432 E and infra B. See 434A.

To UmédouTov.. . dv éoxeppeOa] ‘That which is the remainder of
those we have considered ;’ i.e. which remains now that we have
considered the other three. So 16 drodeupOev éxeivww infra. Cp.
note on 432 B.

mrapéxewv] depends immediately on Soxet.

GANG pévror .. (D) Kal odk éwodumpaypdver] The resumption
| Todro, x.7.X., helps to emphasize the alternative which is im-
mediately in question. ‘todro is explained by étt 76 adrod, x.7.X.

évduiddov . . . Sdvapis] ‘Then competing with wisdom, tem-
perance, and courage in the promotion of political virtue we find

Lee

Notes: Book IV. 187

this power, that each individual in the state is doing his own work.’
The genitive is descriptive or explanatory, ‘the power that consists
in this, that each individual in the state does his own work.’

4 GAdou . . . trav abtav orépwvrat}| The rule observed by courts
of law in the administration of justice, that each shall have his own,
is adduced in confirmation of the definition. Cp. infra 442k.

iS 84... BAdwar wédww;] ‘Look now: perhaps you will agree
with me. Suppose a carpenter to undertake the work of a cobbler,
or a cobbler of a carpenter—either exchanging implements or
duties, or the same person to be attempting to do both—any change
you please but one, do you imagine that such changes will be any
great harm to the state?’

mévra taéANa peraddatrépeva] are followed in g by ra ye roaira,
which gives a true explanation, but is unnecessary as a correction
of the passage. The words are in apposition with téktwv... 4
okuTOT6LO0S, TavTa summing up, and TaAda, as elsewhere in Plato,
referring to what follows :—‘anything but what I am about to
speak of.’ Compare Laws vii. 798 D Ta pév ody GAXa eAdrr@ pera-
BaddAdpeva kaxa Steepyatour’ av, doa repi oxnpata rdgxet TO ToLoOdTOY’ baa
&e rept ra trav nOav éraivov te kai Yoyou mépe TuKva peraminret, TavTov,
olowa, peyora te Kal mAcioTns evAaBeias Sedpeva dv cin, For the form
of expression in summing up compare Polit. 299 © wept aavra ravra
ore mparropeva ti tor’ av savein, K.7.A. A... peTadapBdvortes and F
kal... mpatrew are opposed, # tipds introducing a subordinate
distinction between implements and industries.

eis 73 TOG ToAEptKod el80s] e/S0s here = ‘ mode of life or action,’
i.e. ‘ function’ rather than ‘ class.’

odro.] The pronoun emphatically sums up the three classes in
opposition to the minor sub-divisions of the industrial class
enumerated in supra a. ;

tTpt@v dpa... (Cc) pddvora kakoupyia] tpidv yevay, sc. guardians,
soldiers, traders.

Tijs €aurod méhews] is added with the same solemn feeling as év
TH abvrov médeu, Supra ii. 380 B.

pndév... maylws aérd A€ywpev] ‘We will not as yet say this
quite positively.’ For mayiws compare v. 479 ¢ or’ elvat otre ju) elvar
ob8ev airév duvarév wayiws vonoa : and Theaet. 157 4 émel kal 7d ovooy
elvai rt kal rd mdoxov ad ri én évds vonoat, ds gacw, ovk eivar Tayiws.

434
A

Republic
LV.

434
D

- /’. eS

188 Plato: Republic.

GAN’ édv .. . Suyxwpnodpeba 78y| ‘But if we apply this notion
to the sphere of the individual, and it be admitted there also to be
justice, we will concede the point without more ado.’ Cp. infra
442p. And for the liveliness of the expression compare Phaedr.
249 B Sei yap dvOpwrov ~vévac Kar’ cidus Aeydpevor, éx ToANGY Lov alc On-
cewv eis Ev Koyo Evvatpovpevor,

éxet| sc. ev evi Exar.

ti ydp kal épodpey;| sc. dddo. ‘ For what else can we say?’

Hv onOnpev, x.t.d.] ‘In regard to which we thought that we
should more easily detect its nature in the case of the individual if,’
&c. The accusative is in apposition to the sentence, and the
difficulty of this construction is lessened by the attraction, which
makes it unnecessary to ask for an account of the construction of
jv. For similar accusatives cp. Hom. Il. xx. 83 mot rou dmedai, &s
Tpowv Baoiedow timioxeo ... AxiAqus évavrisiov todepifew ; Phaedr.
249D THs Terdptns pavias, Hv .. . airiay éyer ws pavixas Svakeipevos,
For the allusion see ii. 368 p ff.

éxetvo] sc. dixaroovyny.

Toto eivar médts] SC. TO peifov . . . Tov éxdvT@v Bixatoovvn».

év ye tH dya6y| This was not distinctly said, but has become
apparent since the development of the ideal state.

éxet| sc. év TH moet,

éravapépwpev| Compare the description of the argument from
. . a > = ’

example in Polit. 278 a—c *Ap’ odv otx &de pgoroy kai Kadd\orov

Lee 4 > ‘ tay | ‘ LA , é ~ es , ~ > 3 3 «#
emayew avtovs emt Ta pire yryvookdpeva ; Tla@s.; ’Avayew mpa@rov en’ exeiva

> 2 Lee.’ ~ > cal 07 > , ‘ / \ \ ,
ev ols tavta Taita dpOas edd£alov, avaydyovras de tiOévac mapa 7a pyro
, ‘ , > 4 ‘ > ‘ e , ‘ ,
ytyvookdpeva, kat mapaBaddovtas evderxvuvar THY adTHY Opoidtnta Kai Pvow
ev dudorepas ovcay Tais cuumokais, péxpuTep Gv maar Tois ayvooupevots Ta
do£atdpeva adnOas maparibeueva SetyOn, SetyOevra S€, mapadeiypad’ ovrw
ytyvopeva, Tunon Tav oToxeiwv MdvTwY ExaoTov év Tacats Tais gvAAaBais,
, ‘eer e a. o ” a ‘ ee | c > >. x >
TO pev €Tepoy as TOY GAwy ETepov bv, Td S€ TavTov ws TavTOv dei KaTa TavTa
e a , , ‘ > > a “ ‘ ec -
€avt@ tmpocayopeverOa, Tlavrdmact pev viv. Odxodv rovto pev ixavas
, ef I , 2 ‘ , rd > >
ouveirAnpaper, Ste mapadelypards y €ati tore yeveois, Ondrav by tavirdv, év
érépw Sueomacpeva So€atopevov opbas Kai cvvaxbev, mepi Exdtepoy @s our-
p4 peg evo dp xGEv, mep po

dupe piav adrnbn dd€av amorehy; Paiverat,

kav pev Spodoyhrat| sc. rvdro Kat ev évi éxdor@ Sixaroo wn eivat.

dv 8€ te GAN... eudaivntar| sc. dv rd dixavov. So also supra
épavy : Sc. dv. os

—~teel” ae 'v“—-
oe hp ° ~ - 4 =e

7

, - ’ -

Notes: Book LV. 189

BeBarwoaipel’ dv, x.7.d.] ‘ We will fix in our souls,’ i.e. we will Repudlic
not only form a clear conception of justice, but will adopt it as our a¥%
rule of life. There is here an anticipation of the tone assumed at
the end of Book ix.

435
A

xa@’ 686v] In this expression, as in mpos tpdmov, &c., the notion
of rightness is included in the noun. ‘ Your proposal is a right one.’

Let us turn now from the large letters to the small,—from the 435 A-D
state to the individual,—and see whether this account of justice and
of the other virtues is equally applicable in both cases.

The same words of praise and blame are applied to communities
and to individuals. Whence we conclude that the same moral
attributes belong equally to both.

But if this be so, and our account of the virtues is right, the soul
must have three parts corresponding to the three classes in the state.
(We must be content for the present with crude methods of psycho-
logical inquiry, only bearing tn mind that there is a longer and
more certain way.)

The imperfect apprehension of logical distinction in the Socratic
age of Greek philosophy is seen in the following discussion,
which may be summarized as follows: ‘Quantitative difference
leaves a quality unchanged. ‘The difference between the state
and the individual is only a difference of quantity: therefore
the quality of justice in the state and the individual is the
same.’ It is hardly necessary to point out in our own day that
the spheres of law or politics and of morality are only partially
co-extensive; or in the language of ancient philosophy, that
justice in the state is not the same with justice in the individual.
The criticism with which Aristotle commences the Politics, on the
erroneous conception of the state as a large family, appears trite to
us; in his own age such a criticism afforded a valuable landmark
against error. It seems to be directed against Plato.

dp’ ov... Suoov;] ‘Is a nature which is called by the same 435
name, whether it exists in a larger or smaller form, unlike or like
in that respect in which it is called by the same name?’ In other
words, does quantity make any difference to quality? The trans-
lation in the English version is not strictly accurate: not two
_ things, but two different forms of the same thing are spoken of.

mdOy te kal éfe1s] ‘ affections and qualities.’ B

Republic
LR.

435
*

190 Plato: Republic.

Kal tov &va dpa... (c) tH WdAer]| Exelvors, Sc. rois ev rH médet eiBeow,
&£.oG08a1 is passive.

eis aiddv ye... xaXewa Ta kakd| The irony of Socrates in the
use of the term gaéAov is taken up seriously in what follows. Cp.
supra 423.C haddov , . . pavddrepov: 426 a rdde avra@v ov xapiev... 5
which is seriously answered by the words od mavu yapiev. yudera ra
kad is a maxim which later on is put into Socrates’ mouth, infra
vi. 497 D. For éuwenrexapev, ‘ we have tumbled into,’ cp. the image
iN V. 453 D ay ré tis eis KoAVpBNOpar puxpay ewrréoyn dv re eis Td péeyeorov
médayos péaor, K,T.A,

ék tovovTwy peOdSwv, x.7.A.| Plato seems to intimate some ‘ dia-
lectic of the future,’ of which he has himself laid the foundation in
the Sixth and Seventh Books, where he distinguishes the kinds of
knowledge and the faculties corresponding to them: in the present
discussion, which does not aim at philosophical accuracy, he will
argue from the common use of language. The nature of such
a dialectic can only be conjectured: probably Plato would have
desired to proceed by some method of ideas in the investigation of
the soul: e.g. ‘what idea is that which contains or knows other
ideas?’ He might have gone on to speculate on the identity of
the ‘Ego’ and the universal. Cp. Theaet. 184 p dewdv yap mov...
ei moddai tives ev Hiv, Somep ev Sovpeias immas, aicOnoes eyxdOnvra,
GAAa pa eis pilav tua idéav, etre ux eire 6 te Set Kadeiv, wavta tadra
€uvreiver. In Book x. 611 B he hints that the soul is really one and
not many.

In similar enigmatical language he appears in the Charmides
(169 a) to describe dialectic: peyddou 69 twos, & pire, dvdpés dei, doris
Tovro Kata mdvtav ikavas Staipnoera, métrepoy ovdev tev SvT@Y THY avTOU
Sivapw abrd mpds éavtd wéppuev Exew .. . Ta pév, Ta 8 od. So Phae-
drus, 246 a mepi d€.rijs id€as airis (Sc. tris Wuxis) Sd Aexréov’ olov pév
éott, mavtn mavtas Ocias eivat kat paxpas Supynoews, @ Sé Corker, avOpwnivns
re kai éddrrovos, An application of the words @Ahé. . . éyouga, in
a sense of which Socrates would doubtless have recognized the
truth, may also be made to modern inductive philosophy.

oias viv... xpepe0a| So far as the expression is concerned,
Plato might be referring generally to the methods in use in his own
day: cp. vii. 516 A ray viv Aeyouevwr adndav: but that he is referring
rather to the methods which he has employed in the previous dis-
cussion, is shown by the words tév ye mpoerpnpévwr Te Kal mpoeckep—
pévev &fiws, and also by the reference to this place in vi. 504 B

Notes: Book LV. 19I

ehéyouev trou Sri ws pev Svvardv fv Kdddora aita karideiv GAAn paxporépa
ein mepiodos, x.r.4. Galen read addy for &d\dd here.

fins] sc. AdSomev dv, Tov ye Tpoeipnpevww Te Kal mpoeoKkeppevwr
refers not to the subjects of discussion but to the discussion itself:
‘in a manner worthy of our previous statements and speculations.’

kat mavu éfapxéoe.| Socrates characteristically doubts the success
even of their more modest attempt. Compare vi. 506 £ mA¢ov yap
por Paiverat }) kata Thy Tmapovoay dppiy édixéerOa tod ye Soxovvros €poi

Ta vor.

Lt ts clear that if a state has moral attributes, these can only come
Jrom the individuals of whom the state is composed. But what ts
not so clear ts whether the three activities which we have tdentified
with our three classes, are functions of three faculties or of one indt-
visible nature. In other words, is the distinction which we draw
between thought, passion and desire, a real distinction ?

The soul is one. Is it also many? Let us make sure. We see
a top revolve and yet stand still, But that implies that it has an
axts and a circumference. For nothing can have opposite activities
(or passivities) at the same time with the same part of itself and in
the same respect.

Now assent and dissent, desire and repugnance, are opposites.

And thirst is desire of drink,—of that simply, without qualif-
cation,—untless the thirst is qualified. One may be thirsty, however,
and yet not drink, because reason ts opposed to the desire. This
proves that reason excludes desire. It remains to distinguish anger
Jrom desire and reason. Some may be inclined to identify the two
impulsive principles. But the case of Leontius is a refutation of
them. For when he was led by a low craving to look at the dead
bodies of criminals in the place of execution, a higher impulse strug-
gled with his desire and he was angry with himself. Indeed anger
commonly takes part with reason (just as our soldiers support the
rulers), wherever injustice is perceived. Yet anger is clearly to be
distinguished from reason. For children are irrationally angry—so
are lions and wolves,—and when Odysseus rebuked his spirit, it was
the reason in him which checked his passion.

dp’ odv jyiv, x.r.A.] The courageous temper (1d Oupoedés) in the
state is said to be derived from the individuals who compose the
state. Cp. infra viii. 544 D, E olc@ obv ... mévre dv elev. But

435 E-
441 C

>

Republic
LV.

435
E

192 Plato: Republic.

Socrates again leaves out of sight the fact that the collective courage
of a state or an army is in some degree different from the courage
of individuals. And yet the conception of the state as an ideal
unity different from the individuals who compose it belongs rather
to ancient than to modern thought. See Thuc. ii. 60 méAw mreiw

Evpracav dpbovpevny aedeiv tovs idimras Ka’ exacroy tev modtTov

evmpayovaay, abpdav 5é adaddopévny.

yedotov yap... taurny thy aitiav] ‘ For example, in the case of
a people who have the character of being passionate, to imagine
that this quality does not originate in the individuals, who compose
the state, would be ridiculous.’ For the use of airia compare
Laws i. 624 eds... eiAnhe Thy aitlav ris tev vopov diabécews ; and
elsewhere airiav éyew. ot 84: the relative refers to a masculine
understood from wédeow, rather than immediately to i8twrav.

tov dvw témov| This can hardly mean ‘the Highland country,’
as L. and S. interpret : rather the parts of Europe which are remote
from Hellas and the Aegean Sea.

Goivikas ... Alyuntov| In Laws v. 747 c he passes a similar
censure on the Phoenicians and Egyptians, whose institutions are
charged with causing mavovpyia instead of copia, though he is un-
certain whether this is to be attributed to the hand of the legislator,
to adverse fortune, or to climate. For Thrace and Scythia cp.
Arist. Pol. vii. 7, § 2 ra pev yap ev trois Wuxpois témos €Ovn Kal ra mepi
Thy Evpomny Oupod pev eote wAnpn, Siavoias dé evdeearepa Kal Téxvns, K.T.A.,
which he goes on to contrast with the intellectual and indolent
character of the Asiatics, and the union of intellect and passion in
the Greek.

The fallacy about the sameness of the state and the individual
easily escapes notice. A question of psychology receives more
attention, and is imagined to involve a real difficulty :—Does the
soul act as a whole or in three parts ? Before this question can be
resolved, the meaning of sameness and difference has to be ascer-
tained. (1) Opposition in the same relation is to be distinguished
from opposition in different relations; in the first case the two
members of the opposition are necessarily exclusive or contra-
dictory—they cannot co-exist; but not so in the second, (2) If one
of the terms which are correlative (e.g. drink or thirst) is simple,
the other should be simple: if one is compound the other must be
compound. |

Notes: Book LV. 193

7é8e 82... GANo GAAw] ‘But this is a real difficulty. Is there
one principle here by which we perform our several actions, or
three whereby our actions are severally performed ?’

7 ado todtw| finds an imperfect antecedent in what precedes :

‘this faculty’ of which we spoke as Oupoeidés, pirouabes, prroxpiparov.
” podTww ékaora, the correction of g, would refer to the several actions
of the mind.

SAdov St... . odk ebehHoer &ya] ‘It is clear that the same thing
will not do or suffer opposites at the same time, in the same part
and in the same relation.’

Can two contradictories be true? Not in the statement of par-
ticular facts, when the terms are accurately used and the same
relation is preserved, A wheel or top which moves upon a fixed
axis or centre may be said to move and not to move, i.e. it may
move at its circumference, while its axis (conceived as a vertical
straight line) remains still. But the wheel or top cannot move
and not move around its axis at the same time: it is ridiculous to
maintain that ‘the earth goes round the sun in the same sense
and at the same time that the sun goes round the earth.’ Where
in any subject of theological or metaphysical speculation, such as
necessity and free-will, or the divisibility of matter, contradictories
are said to be equally true, the reason is that neither expression is

-more than half the truth, and both together are only approxima-
tions to the truth. Plato is perhaps arguing with the Heracliteans
in this passage. If so, he has got beyond their point of view and
reached the region of common sense. Cp. Symp. 187 a, B: Soph.
242 E duapepdpevoy yap dei Evuhepera, haclv ai cuvrovorepa ray povoar,

K.T.A,

od tadrév Hv] The imperfect of «iyi is nowhere used simply for
the present, but either (1) with some reference to the past as in
ix. 580 D Td pév, paper, Hv, referring to the discussion at iv. 439 D:
or (2), as in this passage, supra 428 a, and x. 6098, implying an
assertion of existence confirmed by inquiry and therefore prior
to it,—‘ was all along.’ Compare the expression 1d ri fy «iva, in
which the past tense refers to the essence as prior to our conception
of it.

obxody ... mepipépwvrar] ‘And suppose such an objector were
still further to display his wit by subtly arguing that tops at any
VOL. Il. oO

Republic
IV.

436
A

Republic
IV.

436
D

437
A

B

194 Plato: Republi.

rate, when they spin round with their pegs fixed on the same spot,
stand and are moved in their entirety at the same time.’

These are apparent exceptions to Plato’s law of contradiction
which have to be cleared away’ before we are in a condition to
determine whether the parts of the soul are really opposed. There
would be no distinction of @vyds and émOupia unless the actions
which flow from the one principle excluded those which flow from
the other.

&s of Kata tadTa... pepopdvev| Ta toradta is to be taken as
cognate accusative with the participles. ‘ Since things which act in
this way are not at such moments in motion and at rest with the
same parts of themselves,’

mdQor . . . woinoecev]| The words ein 4 Kat to which Stall-
baum objects as unmeaning, and which he supposes to have crept
in from the termination of mowmoerey, have the authority of the
best MSS. They are more likely to have been omitted than
inserted. Nor is there any objection to them on the ground of
want of sense. Because the categories of moeiv and mdoxew are
correlatives there is no reason why «iva should not be interposed
between them, the three together answering to active, intransitive,
passive.

iva ph dvayxaldpeba .. . pyxdvew] ‘that we may not be com-
pelled to be tedious by going right through all such objections,
and satisfying ourselves that they are untrue.’

bmodénevor . . . EveoQar] He means to say that he will not
guard every possible case: if any assumption on which the argu-
ment turns is found to be erroneous, the consequences which follow
shall be withdrawn. Cp. supra 434 D pydev, jv 8 eyo, me mavu
mayiws avtd héywper. .

mpoodyeoGat| ‘to draw to oneself,’ i. e. to accept.

dmwleicOar| ‘to reject.’

tav évavtiwy *av dddndows] The insertion of ay seems necessary,
and it may easily have dropped out between -ov and ad-.

elre ronpdtev ... waOnpdtev| ‘ Activities or passivities as the
case may be.’

obSev yap tavTy Stotcer| i.e. this relation of opposition is equally
possible between activities and passivities.

ee’. alee’ =

Notes: Book lV. | 195

émuvedew todTo ... THs yevéoews| (1) ‘ Nods assent to this within
herself,” or (2) ‘beckons this with a nod towards herself—as if
some one were putting a question to her, longing for the attainment
of it. For wpds airqy in the former case, cp. Phil. 38 & mpds atrév
diavoovpevos. But the contrast favours (2).

eis 7d drabeiv .. . Ogopev}| Compare Soph. 235 A els yénra .

Oeréov (sc. avrov) Twa.

_Gp’ obv, Kal? Scov, x.7.d.| He means to say that if one of two
relative terms is qualified the other must also be qualified: e. g.
simple thirst is relative to simple drink, but great thirst implies
much drink, hot thirst cold drink, and so on.

4 05] The false reading ov seems originally to have had a
place in Par. a (j o}: wou mg). Hermann’s inversion of puxpod
and @eppod for the sake of symmetry makes nonsense of the passage;

see infra 438 E kal ov Tt Aéyw, as, oiwy dv 7, ToLadra Kal ~orw.

tou $€ Toiou. . . Ta mpocytyvdpeva] ‘But the accessories of the
desire are relative to this or that quality in the object of desire.’

pyro. tis, k.7.A.] The objection ends with the words xpyortod
gitov. It is restated in a different and more géneral form by
Socrates in the following sentence (wdvtes yap... at GAdat obtw),.
Plato leaves the objection for a time (until 439 a), and proceeds to
show more clearly how the qualification of one term of a relation
inevitably involves the qualification of the other. Then returning
to the case of thirst in 439 a he states that thirst simple is neither
of much nor of little, neither of good nor of bad drink, but simply
of drink. He does not fully criticize the objection. Had he done
so, he would probably have gone on to contest the fact that ‘all
desire is of good.’ Obviously the desire of the drunkard is not of
drink that is good for him—or to explain that the statement could
only be accepted as true if ‘desire’ is used in an ideal sense and
therefore implying the qualification of it by the word ‘ good.’

tows yap dv, x.7.d.| ydp means, ‘ You are right to call attention
to this, for,’ &c.

to.aira ofa elvai rou] For the technical use of the genitive to
express relation, cp. Theaet. 160 a ’Avdyxn 8€ ye eué te tds yiy-
veo Oat, «.7.d.

odx Euabes, x.7..] The example of comparatives is next taken,
to which the same principle applies. ‘Greater’ is relative to
02

/

196 Plato: Republi.

Republic ‘smaller,’ ‘heavier’ to ‘lighter,’ ‘more’ to ‘fewer. But if one of
/V. ‘the terms in these several pairs is qualified, the other must also be
qualified. Thus ‘much greater’ is relative to ‘much smaller,’
‘much heavier’ to ‘ much lighter,’ ‘ many more’ to ‘ many fewer.’
A similar transition is made in the Charmides, from the relation
between sense and knowledge, and the objects of sense and know-
ledge, to comparative terms: 168 8B kal yap rd peifév qhapev rovadrny

438
B

. * , i \ > - ‘ > a . oo” , >
tia €xew Svvapiv, Sore Twos eivat peiCov ; C ovKody kal ef re dumAdowdy eote
-~ a” U vi ~ ¢ , , m” c cat A cal
tov Te GAXA@v SimAactwy Kai €avrod, nuiceos Sijrou Gyros €avTov Te Kal TY
Gov Suraavov dv ein: ibid. mreiov S€é airod by od Kai €Xartrov Earat, Kal
Bapirepov ov, koupdrepoy, kai mpeaBurepov bv vewrepoy, kal TadA\a mavra

€ , 7
@TAUT@S 5

c Ta Simrdova mpds TA Hioea] The same rule applies to these
terms as to ‘greater’ and ‘ smaller,’ ‘ more’ and ‘ fewer,’ a ‘ larger
double’ is relative to a ‘larger half’ The double of 6 (=12) is
a larger double than the double of 4 (=8): and the larger half (6)
is relative to the larger double (12): the smaller half (4) to the
smaller double (8).

ti 8é Ta wepl Tas émiotHpas ; K.t.4.] So with regard to sciences:
the object of science is knowledge, but the object of a particular
science is a particular kind of knowledge. With ri 8é, cot doxet may
be supplied.

6 autos Tpdrros | SC. ToUTwY é€oTi.

D oikias épyagias émuompyn| Cp. Theaet. 146 D drav Aéyys oKurexny,
py te GdXo ppafes i) emotnuny brodnpatwv épyacias ; k.T.d.

aita]| ‘themselves,’ i.e. without their accidents. The simple
correlatives are simply of each other, the qualified correlatives are
of the qualified.

auTav pdvew | sc. &v éoriv.

E kai oU tt dey, x.7.A.] The qualities of the two terms of
a relation, though correlative, are not necessarily identical, e.g. as
we have seen above, hot thirst is of cold drink ; or to take the case
of knowledge and its objects: there is a sub-division of things
which are objects of knowledge into healthy things; and there is
a subdivision of knowledge corresponding to these healthy things:
but because the objects are healthy it does not follow that the
knowledge which is concerned with them, although distinguished
from other kinds of knowledge, is healthy too. As these objects are

oi

Notes: Book IV. 197

distinguished from other objects by the possession of a particular
quality (i.e. health), so the knowledge which is relative to them
is distinguished from other kinds of knowledge by possessing
a peculiar quality (i. e. having to do with health).

7d Be 8} Sipos... (439 A) mHpards ye] ‘ Will you not say that thirst,
said I, is in this class, the class of relations, as far as its essence is
concerned. Thirst is, I imagine,— Yes, said he, thirst is of drink.’
Two questions are asked ; before the second is completed Glaucon
breaks in with a reply to the first (€ywye): and in wapatdés ye he
completes and answers the second. The order of words in the
first question is od Ojoes 7d Sipos elvar rovTwy ra&v Twds (sc. dvrwv) and
in adding rtodro Smep éoriv, sc. elvat, todUTwy is neglected. For
a brachyfogy similar to that in tév twds cp. Phil. 16 D rav é
exeivav,

The bearing of this passage on the argument appears to be as
follows. The object of Socrates is to establish a difference be-
tween Oupuds, é7iOupia and Adyos, and to show that these are primary
elements of the soul. In order to meet the possible objection—
that these are not distinct elements, as is shown by such phrases as
a ‘reasonable’ or a ‘ passionate desire,’ or ‘a reasonable anger,’ he
insists that ‘desire’ or ‘anger’ are in themselves simple, and that
they become qualified by the addition of something apart from
them and different from them.

_ ov yap 84... mpdrroc] ‘For surely as we maintain, the same
thing cannot do opposite things with the same part of itself in re-
ference to the same thing at the same time.’ dy is to be supplied
from the previous sentence : cp. for parallels i. 352 £, ii. 382, and
notes.

tod toférou| cp. supra 428 a and note.

métepov, «.t.A.] A man may be thirsty and not choose to drink :
but this is because there is present in him another principle (usually
reason) besides thirst, which masters his thirst.

7a To.aita| i.e. the indulgence of appetite generally.

Stav *éyyiyvntat| Plato never loses an opportunity of saying that
‘all men have not’ right reason. Cp. Theaet. 186 ra 8€ mepi rov-
tov dvadoyicpara mpds Te olciay kal apédeav pdyts Kai €v ypdv@ dia Tod-
Av mpaypdrwr Kal maideias mapayiyverat ols &v Kal mapaylyvyrat.

81a... voonydérwr] ‘through the incidence of morbid conditions.’

Republic
LV.

438
E

439
B

Republic
LV.

439
D

198 Plato: Republic.

Cp. especially Tim. 868, c 78ovds 8€ Kal Avmas imepBaddovoas tov
vow peyiotas Oeréov rH Wuxi meptxapys yap avOpwros dv 4 kai ravavria
ind Aims Tavyav, onevdwv Td pev Edeiv akaipws, rd be gvyeiv, ov dpav
ore dxovew dpbdv ovdev Svvara, AvtTa Sé Kal Aoyropod peracyeiv FRoTa

, ‘ ‘ >
tore 61) Suvards éott.

og 8}... ératpov| From the rule that the same principle when
rightly defined cannot have two contradictory effects is inferred that
the desire to drink and the power to abstain from drinking proceed
from different elements in the soul.

énténtat| The perfect signifies a perpetual or constantly re-
curring state, ‘is in a continual flutter.’ Cp. vii. 521 £ rerevrake.

ovx| in the answer refers back to ov 8) dddyas. ;

taita pev... TO émbupntixo| The opposition of desire and
reason is admitted. Are desire and anger equally opposed? At
first sight the impression is that they are nearly related.

toUtwy wotépw| ‘To one or other of these. The indefinite
mérepos (L. and S. s.v.) occurs several times in Plato. It is hardly
found in other Greek writers of the classical period.

GdN’, Fv & éys, «.7.4.] An anecdote is introduced to prove that
a similar opposition may exist between anger and desire as between
reason and desire. The interpretation of woté dkodcas Te motedw
toutw is difficult; the best explanation of the words as they stand
is as follows: ‘I once heard a story in which I put faith,’ and
which implies that anger is not akin to desire. [ Possibly, however,
a negative ov has been dropped before moredw. ‘I once heard a tale
which makes me doubt that suggestion of yours.’ L. C.]

73 Béperov tetxos| I.e. the outer wall on the north running from
Athens to the Peiraeus. The middle wall (rd da pécov reixos),
which was parallel to the north wall, is mentioned in the Gorgias
(455 £): it also extended from Athens to Peiraeus, and was so
called because it lay between the north wall and another wall which
ran to Phalerum. Thus a fortified open space communicating
between Athens and the Peiraeus, and not merely a wall, was still
preserved as a means of communication between Athens and the

_ Peiraeus, even if the north wall were captured.

mapa 7@ Syptw| The story is that Leontius, son of Aglaion,
going up from the Peiraeus underneath the north wall on the out-

Notes: Book IV. 199

side observing dead bodies lying by the executioner’ [or ‘at the Repudsic
executioner’s,’ L. C.], &c. There is no reason to read dnpeip for tv.
Sypiw. The spot is sufficiently described as outside the north wall yd
on the road from Peiraeus to Athens, being also the spot where the
executioner would naturally be found.

i80d Spiv ...& KaxoSaipoves] ‘ There’s for you, wretches !’ 44°

é
obtos pévror... 6 Adyos| ‘This tale, however.’ jévro contrasts

the inference suggested by Leontius’ words with Glaucon’s first
impression,

odKxodv Kai GAdob . . . (B) To TorodTou} The subject is at first the
man himself, but changes to rév Oupéy as the sentence proceeds.
Cp. supra 411 B.

adrév Kowwvyjcavta| sc. Tov Oupdr. B

aipodvtos Adyou ph Setv dvtempatrev| ‘ When reason decides that
she is not to be opposed.’_ The omission of éaur@ (sc. r@ Adyq) after
dvrimpdtrew is sufficiently supported by instances (L. and §., s.v.
avtumpasow 2). The reading of the principal MSS. has _there-
fore been retained, and may be construed as above. There is no
distinct subject of avrurparrew, with which either @uzdv or émOupiay or
tov avOpwrov, or all together may be supplied. The other reading,
iv te mparrew, accepted by Bekker, is obviously an emendation,
which gives a poor sense. Stallbaum places a comma after deiv,
and construes as follows :—‘ But that the spirit, making common
cause with the desires when reason insists that its making common
cause is wrong (1) deiv, sc. kowvwvijaat), Should oppose reason,’ &c.,—
a method of taking the words which is harsher than the other.

The sentence is an anacoluthon, the structure of kowwvicarra
being broken by tod rovodrou aiebéoGa:, which is substituted for idé<iv.

Stov AdixeioOai tus HyfTra: ...(D) mpaivOy|] The subject of fei, C
k.1.A., is 6 @upds from the previous sentence, as appears from éomep
kdwv bd vopéws. But the Oupds is closely identified with the person
in whom it forms the active principle. Hence wap’ airé, ‘with the
man’s self.’ ’

Sia * tod mewiy, «.7.A.] Cp. infra 442 dud re Aumov Kai Hdovar :
vi. 494D 8a rooovrav xaxay. The reading is conjectural. The
manuscript reading é4 ré can only be defended in one of two ways.
mane (8) connecting a 1d... mavyew directly with o8 Anye tov
ye = ‘he does not on that account desist from noble efforts,’

Republic
LV.

440
eC.

200 Plato: Republic.

the words kai ving kat being introduced 6:4 péoov: or (2) [B. J.] ‘and

because it (sc. passion) endures hunger and cold and other such
sufferings patiently,’ &c. (wewfv éropévwv being equivalent to tropé-
vew mewov), The words kal vkg@ kat od Ajyet, .t.d., present con-
siderable difficulty, and involve a contradiction if vuxg and od Ayyer
are supposed to refer to the same struggle, because they put
together conjunctively (kal... «ai) what should be joined disjunc-
tively ()... 7). The difficulty is somewhat obviated if vxa and od
Anyet, k.7.A., are taken to refer to different struggles,—the former to
the struggle between 6upds and émOvpia within the injured man him-
self, as exemplified in his endurance of hunger and cold in the
attempt to satisfy his anger, the latter to the struggle in which the
injured man strives to avenge himself on his injurer.

kairo. y| ‘And indeed’—a common use in Homer, rare in
Attic.

adn *H ... evOupet;| ‘But do you bear this also in mind,
I wonder?’ *, the conjecture of Ast, is more expressive than ¢i,
the manuscript reading. Ei in Hellenistic Greek (Matt. xii. 10), as
in Homer (Od. i. 158) is used with directly interrogative force.
But this only helps to account for the corruption.

*dne00] refers to the suggestion hesitatingly put forward by
Glaucon, supra 439 E"Iows, én, (rd rod Ovpod dv ein spores)... 7h
emOupntiko. Socrates, as in other passages, courteously assumes
a share of the responsibility of a suggestion which has proved
erroneous.

tiWeoOar Ta STAG mpds TOD AoyrottKod| ‘ Arrays itself on the side
of the rational part.’

pice, édv ph... S:apbapy] These words seem to imply an
admission that the statement in 440B goes beyond the actual fact,
and represents what Plato regards as the normal condition. It is
only in the uncorrupted soul that passion always obeys reason. It
may, in perverted natures, become subject to the many-headed
monster, ire. the desires, cp. ix. 590B, where the depravation of
Ovpds is described, especially in the words kodaxeia 5€ Kal dvedevepia
ovx Srav tis Td ard Todro, Td Oupoeds, imd TH dxyAwder Onpio morf Kat
évexa xpnudr@v kai ris éxeivou amAnotias mpomndaxCépevor €Oitn ex veov

dvti A€ovros wiOnkov yiyverOat ;

dvdynn, pn, tpitov] sc. rovro edvat,

ee mO

Notes: Book IV. 201

vai, qv 8° éyd, x.7.A.| That passion or spirit is the ally of reason Republic
against appetite has been already shown. But is there any differ- iV.
ence between passion and reason? Yes, for passion exists in wy &
children who have not attained to reason, and in irrational animals.
A further proof of their opposition is given by Homer, who makes
the reasoning principle rebuke senseless wrath.

Aoytopod 8 Evor .. . dpé wore] Cp. Theaet. 186c¢ ra d€ repi

ToUT@Y . . . Mapaylyvynrat.

Gvw mou éxei] ‘Somewhere above (you know where).’ The B
reference is to iii. 390 D.

Since, then, it ts proved that the state and the individual are 441 C-
alike resolvable into three elements, it may be assumed that wisdom, 444 A
courage, temperance, and justice are severally referable to correspond-
ing parts and relatioys in either. Justice in the individual as in the
state exists when reason, passion, and desire perform severally their
proper functions. And this end is secured by the united influence of

" music and gymnastic applied to the two higher elements, which
together will rule and keep guard over the third. Courage in the
individual as in the state ts the virtue of the spirited element, and
consists in tenacity of patriotic resolve ; temperance ts the harmony
between higher and lower ; wisdom ts the supremacy of the rational
element. The ‘small letters’ are now as legible as the large. And
our theory will stand the test of common instances. For the actions
of the just man, as we have defined him, are in accordance with
popular notions of justice. Our presentiment that justice would be
found in the interaction of the various classes of the community has
been more than confirmed. But the principle of the division of
labour which we then asserted was but a shadow of the deeper truth,
that there are these three elements in the soul of man, whose right
and consentaneous working constitutes him just. Such ts justice,
then, in states and individuals.

otaw' Compare Parmen. 137 A més xpy Tpduxdude & dvra 44
Siavedoat rowirdy re kal rocodrov mAHOos Néyov. c

émekds| like yerpiws, is an expression of moderation, which is
not, however, to be taken very strictly— we are fairly agreed.’

Socrates determines that we reason with one part of the soul,
and desire with another, and are angry with another. This is an
important beginning in the science of psychology. For though

Republic
LV.

441
Cc

202 Plato: Republic.

a thinker of the Megarian school may argue that the soul is without
parts (and Plato himself hints as much—Book x. p. 611), the thing
intended is nevertheless true, that there are different and opposite
effects which may be ascribed in a figure to parts of the soul. The
division does not interfere with the higher unity in which they
meet. A limb is dead when cut off from the source of life;
a faculty is unmeaning which is independent of the mind and of
other faculties. But the body or mind which had no limbs or
faculties would be incapable of being made the subject of inquiry
or of description.

Psychology seems to rest (1) on language, which expresses in
a crude and general manner, subject to the conditions of language,
the collective reflections of the human mind about itself; the com-
mon use of terms which has come down from former ages is par-
tially modified (a) by the efforts of great thinkers, who stamp words
anew, and (8) by the experience of mankind, which insensibly
changes their meaning: names which have originally referred to
material objects insensibly pass into the sphere of mind: (2) on
consciousness, which suggests rather than proves, and the facts or
results of which are generally lost in the attempt to define them:
(3) on external observation (a) of the physical antecedents of mental
states or habits, which, however, fall very far short of the whole
secret of the mind: (8) of outward acts either seen by the eye or
verified by the independent testimony of several observers,—and
admitting sometimes of being tabulated in the form of statistics:
these form the principal scientific ground of psychological inquiry :
(4) on history, which traces the continuity of the human mind in
all ages and countries, though with many breaks and chasms:
which shows the impossibility of explaining mental phenomena
within the limits of the individual: which helps to separate the

_ abstract from the concrete, the ideas of the understanding or reason

from the colours of mythology or imagination: which subjects the
mental world to our use by showing us our place in the whole,
There is no science in which we are more likely to be imposed
upon by words: in none is greater care required that the parts
should not be separated from the whole; in none is more left to
the subtlety of individual apprehension. The greatest use of such
a science is not to supply positive information about the mind or
the faculties of the mind, but to quicken the habit of observation of
ourselves and others.

% Pye eo

__ Soe § 8;
7

Notes : Book IV. 203

7a adrd pev. . . ta adra 8] For this idiomatic pleonasm cp. Soph.
Trach. 263, 264, Philoct. 1370, 1371 SemAjy per... Semdy 4é, «7d.

dyérepa| The individual and the state.

T@ TO €quTod .. . yevav | The order is r@ éxacrov rpiav bvtav év

abt) yevav mparrew Td éavtov,
7d pév] sc. 7d Aoyorindy, 7d BE, SC. Td Ovpoesdes.
pepotca dppovia te kai fuua| Cp. iii. gor D, 412 A.

kai todrw . .. *mpoorarycetov] The MSS. give mpoornceror,
which would mean,—‘And so music and gymnastic’ (the subject
is supplied from pouotkjs kal yupvaotixas Kpaors above), ‘ will
place these two’ (reason and anger), ‘ which have been thus nurtured
and have learned their parts and been educated, in authority over
the concupiscent element.’ There is a harshness in this change
from the singular to the dual with a dual object, and in the further
change of subject in tnpjgerov to which the subject appears to be
TO AoyioriKdy Kat 7d Ovpoedés. To avoid this Bekker has, without
manuscript authority, altered mpoornoeroy into mpootathaetov,—
‘these two’ (reason and anger) ‘will preside,’ &c. But the correction
is not absolutely necessary, and therefore; like all emendations
which are not absolutely necessary, should not be admitted into the
teat... [B:-J-}

8 tnpysetov . . . (B) dvatpépy] ‘Over this part of the soul they
(reason and passion) will keep guard, lest waxing great with fulness
of bodily pleasures, as they are termed, and no longer confined to
her own sphere, the concupiscent soul should attempt to enslave
and rule those who are not-her natural born subjects, and overturn
the common life of all.’ For the use of odx a, referring to ra abray
pabévre (supra), cp. iii. 393 D, and note: vi. 499 D rois 3€ roAXois, Hv 8
eyo, Gre obx ab Soxei, épeis; Bekker reads yevav for yéver with 78,
these MSS. also give mpoojxev for mpoojxoy with Stobaeus—
probably the right reading.

xooupévwrv | implies the unreality of the grosser bodily pleasures.
Cp. Phileb. 45, supra 420, &c.

mdvtwv] sc. rav pepov, which, in Plato’s figurative language, are
spoken of as a community: cp. infra ékaor@ te cal Siw TO Kowe
oper abrav tpir dvrer.

aopav 8 ye Exeivy TG opixpG péper, TH 6 Hpxé 7 év adt@ Kal TaiTa
maphyyeAdev] The reference in the first words, éxetv 7G opexpa....

Republic
IV.

« 441
D

ia

204 Plato: Republic.

Republic Hpxé TF év avra, is to supra 428 E Th optKpotatw dpa Over Kai péper
ie €autis kal Th év ToUT@ emoTHuN, TH MpoesTari Kai Gpxovtt, dAn cody dy
C ein kata pvow oikiabecioa TdXs,
taita wapyyyeAdey] referring to 1d bd rod Adyou mapayyedbev
supra, and both containing a reference to supra 429c, where the
instruction is given not by reason to the individual, but by the law-
giver to the state. The imperfect refers to the time of education.

é€xov ad Kdkeivo, x.7.4.] ‘that again too having in itself a know-
ledge, the knowledge of what is advantageous to each and to the
whole community which is composed of them, being three in
number.’ Reason has in itself a knowledge (i.e. of the expedient
for each and all), as it was implied in the previous sentence that
6upds had received a knowledge (i.e. of what is or is not fearful).

D 76 Te Gpxov kal tw &pxouévw} the one ruling principle of reason,
and the two subject ones of passion and desire.

a a = ‘ > 4 - w#
otacidLwow atte] sc. Td dpxouévw TH Apxovrt.

® todddxis Aéyouev] Cp. ii. 368 4 for a similar ‘pronominal’
phrase.

ti ov; . . . épdvn;] ‘Is justice in any way more dim to our
eyes, so as to appear other than she appeared in the state?’ Justice,
as now seen in the individual, has the same form under which she
appeared in the state, and the outlines are as sharp in every way.
In ii. 368 c the form of justice in the individual was said to require
a keen vision. And a visual image, if seen more dimly in one
position than in another, might be said dmayBdiveoOa, As else-
where, the attribute of perception is transferred to the thing
perceived,

E &Se yap ... mpoopepovtes] ‘Because if there be any doubt
lingering in our minds we may thoroughly convince ourselves in
this way ;—by applying to it (i.e. to justice as we define it) the test
of common-place notions.’ adt@ refers to dixacooivn, as elsewhere,
a neuter taking upa feminine. mpoodépew is used as in Phileb. 23 a
tiv axpiBeotatny atti mpoopépovta Bdcavov. Plato uses common
opinion, not without disdain, as a confirmation of his philosophical
definition. The common notions about justice, which when
adduced by Polus and Cephalus are rejected as superficial and
external, are now used ‘as witnesses’ to the soundness of the
deeper conception. Cp. supra 4338, where the definition of

. Ai > 2 :
» te ,
sed
Rear Bes

Notes: Book IV. 205

justice in the state is illustrated by the legal notion of justice, viz.
that every man should have his own.

téheov dpa... TO evimviov. . . & Ehapev bwonredoat| ‘ Our
dream, then, is fulfilled, I mean the suspicion which we expressed.’
The antecedent to 4 is in apposition to 76 évémmov, and 6 is a cog-
nate accusative, governed by éworreioat, In what follows, the
reference is to supra 432 D kwwSuvedopnév te exer ixvos, and 433 4 6
yap @& dpxijs eOcueba... dre tiv wiAw Katoxilopey, That again
refers back to ii. 370 B ff. And an anticipation of the dream occurs
at ib. 371 E, 372A mov ovv dy more ev air etn Ff Te Sixatoovwn Kal 7
ddtxia; ... €v adrav rovrwy xpeia wi. There is also some reference to
supra 432 D. It follows that dpxépevor in the present passage is in
the imperfect tense, and épBeByxévat pluperfect :—‘ how that in the
very commencement of our foundation of the state we had lighted
(it would seem) upon a certain beginning and impress of justice.’

dpxdpevor THs Wédews oikiLew| lit. ‘making a beginning of the
city to found it.” Sov. 450B pérpoy . . . rovwovtwy Adywy dKoverv.

xwSuvedonev|] In recalling the language of supra 432 D kwSuvedo-
pév re €xeuv ixvos, Plato retains the direct form, although xwduvevommev
would have been more regular.

7d 8ێ ye Hv dpa... 8d Kal dhedet, eBwrdy te Tis Sixarocdmys |
‘ And this (the division of labour) was really a sort of shadow of
justice. Hence the advantage of it,’ i.e. because it partakes of the
nature of justice. 716 refers to dpynv te Kai rimoy tid THs Sixaoovwns
and is further explained by 16 tév pév, x.7.A.

7 8€ ye GdnOés] ‘ Whereas in reality. The words oppose
what, after inquiry, has been found out to be the case, to what at
one time they suspected to be the case. The construction of this
sentence is as follows: rtovodro is first explained in the clause dA)’
ov mept thy em mpdgw .. . mept €avrov kal ra éavrod, and what follows
(un) edoavra .. , wepi ra ida EvpBddAaa) is again an explanation of the
second part of this explanatory clause (mepi ri évtds as dAnbas
mept éavtdv kai ra €avtod). otw 8} mpdtrew resumes the participial
clauses from pi) édoavra ... cdppova Kat jppoopévov. Plato passes
from explanation to a more general characterization of justice in
the words év mao rovros iyovpevoy, x.T.d.

rovodro pév 1] ‘Something of this kind’: i.e. a sort of doing
one’s own business.

Republic
IV.

443
B

.

a
= “ar

206 Plato: Republic.

Rapebiie GAN’ of rept thy fw mpagv] ‘but not concerned with the per-
} formance of any external action of his own, but with internal
actions which are in very truth concerned with himself and are
his own,’

443
Cc

D éxaotov év aitG| The omission of the article ray is supplemented
by the addition of ra év tH puxy yévn below.

T@ Svte TA oixeta eb Oéyevov] ‘ Having in very truth arranged his
proper home business well.’ For what is more oixeiov than a man’s
soul, and what arrangements more perfect than what is here
described ?

kal fuvappdcavta... Spous tpeis... kal péons| ‘and having
harmonized the three elements, just as if they were three notes of
a scale of a higher, middle and lower string.’ The scale contem-
plated: seems to be the octave: vedtns, barns, péons, sc. xopdijs.
The Greek ‘highest’ note (imdrn) corresponds to our ‘lowest,’
the ‘lowest’ (vedrn) to our ‘ highest.’

The words et Ga Gtra petagd (suggested by the intermediate
notes of the lyre) are observable, as seeming to imply that Plato
did not wish his threefold division of the soul to be taken as strictly
exhaustive.

gopiav Se... Sdfav] The distinction between émornun and dd6éa
is here assumed.

444 év adtois] sc. év dvdpi Kai médet.

444 A- Injustice is the strife of the three elements with one another, the
445 insurrection of a part against the whole, the rebellion of the lower
nature against that which has natural authority.

Having determined so much we have no difficulty in distinguishing
what actions are just and what are unjust. And we perceive that
virtue ts health and vice disease in the sout.

Let us ask once more, Is tt expedient to be just or unjust, apart
Jrom opinion, human or divine? It is no longer possible to ask the
question seriously. For tf incurable bodily disease makes life not
worth living, how utterly unprofitable must it be, if the soul which
is the principle of life is diseased ? However, we must complete our
survey, and describe the forms of unrighteousness. They are in-
numerable, but four may be selected as sufficiently distinct for our
examination. These four severally correspond to four forms of

Notes: Book LV. 207
political constitution. The just life, which is the fifth, answers to
Kingship or Aristocracy.

obxodvy otdow twd, x.7.A.] Evil, unrighteousness, injustice are
regarded by Plato here and in other passages (e. g. Soph, 228 a) as
a sort of distraction or dissolution. They can only exist to a cer-

tain degree, because they would be destructive to that in which they:

are contained. As he says in i. 352p, there is no such thing as
perfect injustice, for that would be suicidal: enough justice must
remain to keep injustice together.

No single aspect includes all the forms of evil, which varies
infinitely with the characters and circumstances of mankind. (i)
Evil may be represented as weakness: the higher nature, though
not absolutely extinct, habitually and without resistance giving way
to the lower: dxpagia, deiia, Or (ii) as mere negation or privation
of good: the diverse, transient, irrational principle, which has been
imagined to stand in the same relation to God that physical im-
purity does to ourselves. (iii) Evil may be conceived as strength ;
the merely animal passing into a diabolical nature, the reason
giving a malignant intensity to the passions, doing and suffering
without end in this world and another,—rov 8 €yovra kat pida Cwrixdy
mapéxovoay (X. 610 E: Cp. vi. 491 E). (iv) Evil may be summed up
under the two commonest forms of evil: (a) untruth—weddos : (8)
sensuality —dxodagia, (v) Evil, according to some theological
writers, is the preference of self to God or other .men. Lastly (vi)
evil is strife, or éravdorucis pepous twos TH So THS Wryijs, as in this
passage ; or, as in the Epistles of St. Paul, the consciousness of
sin. ‘To Plato evil appears more under the aspect of deformity and
untruth than to modern writers, and less under that of sensuality ;
also more as political and social, and less as spiritual and moral.
Yet in the picture of the tyrant and the tyrannical man in the
Republic (Book ix), and in the discussion of the Gorgias respecting
the chastisement of evil, the effect of evil in the individual is also
strongly felt and expressed.’

odkoiv...T@ Tod dpxiKod yévous dvre] ‘ Must not it (i. e. injustice)
on the other hand be a kind of quarrel between these three,
a meddlesomeness and interference and rising up of a part of the
soul against the whole in order that it may rule over her when it
has no right, but is of such a nature as to be properly the slave to
that which is of the royal race.’

The majority of MSS., including Par. A, read rowvrov . . . dov-

Kepublic
WY.

Republic
LV.

444
B

208 Plato: Republic.

Aevewv, rod 8 ad SovdAcvew apyxtxod yévous Syrt (dvros M: dvre q)- Vind.
E has 7@ 8° ad pi Sovdevew, dpytxod yévous dvr, This last is approved
by Madvig, but is much too feeble. The variation of the MSS. is
difficult to account for, and throws some doubt upon thé text.

&dAd Opposes TorodTou . . . dvTt to ob mpooyKoy (sc. airG apyew).

‘In t@ tod dpxtxod yévous dvr he describes a part of the soul in lan-

guage appropriate for describing a member of a class in the state
‘to that which is of the ruling class’ instead of ‘ to the ruling part.’
This use of language is rendered easier by the expression ra ¢&y
Th Wexh yérn supra. And again the highest class is figuratively
compared to a dynasty or royal family: Cp. Polit. 310 B paddov d¢
ye Sikatoy réy mrepi ra yévy ToLoupevwy enipéderav, TOUTwY TépL AEyeLY, Et TL

#4) Kata Tpdérov mpatrovow.

7d 8€ vécov mapa puow, k.7.A.]- Sc. 7d 8é vdcov moueiv eote Ta ev TO
oopate rapa vow Kkabtorava dpxew Te Kal GpxerOat dAdo bm” GAXov.

Justice is the health of the soul, is beauty, is harmony, is fitness,
is division of labour, is nature, is happiness: of all which injustice
is the contrary. Already at this stage of the argument our old
question about their comparative expediency ‘has become ridicu-
lous,’ and can no longer be seriously entertained.

édv te NavOdvy| Sc. tes.

pnde Bedtiov yiyyntar Kodaldpevos| Cp. supra ii. 3808 of de

@vivavto Koda Copevot.

Tis 8€ adtod todTou ... dperyy xtycetar}| ‘And when the very
principle of our life is thrown into confusion and is going to pieces,
shall we be told that it is worth a man’s while to live, whatever
course he choose to follow, unless he finds some means of escaping
from vice and injustice, and of acquiring justice and virtue?’ 8é
marks the transition from the trivial to the more important case.
The general drift of the sentence is, that nothing can make life
bearable to the unjust, except the prospect of escape from injustice.
For a similar mode of expressing an ‘a fortiori’ argument cp.
i. 336 E py yap d) otov... pavavac aird and note, od, not py, is
used because the clause depends on Soxet and not on the conditional
particle ei, which introduces the whole sentence. The negative
belonging to the direct form is retained in the indirect. The fresh
protasis, édvmep, x.t.A., is added in the development of the thought
independently of the preceding participial clause, so that the sen-

Va to ae ae

Notes: Book V. 209

tence has a twofold protasis, or in other words, éavmep, «.r.d., Republic
modifies the apodosis. lV.

*dmoxpntéov| This is Bekker’s conjecture for dmoxvyréov, the
MS. reading. The change is very slight, and is justified by the
general exactness of the replies in the Platonic dialogue. It is
obvious that Glaucon is intended to emphasize (with characteristic
ardour) what Socrates has just said. He is much less likely to have
used a different expression than the copyists are to have written the
commoner for the rarer word. And the form azoxpyréov, though
not occurring elsewhere, is perfectly legitimate.

wa

& ye 8} Kat dga Ogas| Plato will not assert that his division is C
exhaustive. Cp. viii. 544 D #f twa GAnv éyas iéav modireias, Hrs
Kal év cide Siapavet rwi xeira; Similarly in Theaet. 1568 it is
said that modes of sensation are infinite, though only a few of them
have distinct names.

donep awd axomas| The course of the argument which had
once kept Socrates and his companions watching a thicket, has
now taken them up to a mountain top, from which they have a wide
and clear survey of human things,—of the one form of virtue and
the countless forms of vice. ‘The graphic use of SeGpo has prepared
for this.

éyyevopévou . . . dpiotoxparia| Cp. Polit. 297 c mepi opixpdv te D
kal dXiyov Kal rd Ev éore (ntnTéov Thy piav éxeivny Trodtreiay Thy dpOnr.

ore yap av melous ote els éyyevdpevos| ‘For the accident of
there being one, or more than one of them will not lead them to
disturb any fundamental law of the state so long as they observe
the nurture and education which we have described.’

tav dgiwv AMéyou vépwv tis wéews] For the partitive genitive= E
‘any of them,’ cp. Gorgias 514 A Snpooig mpagavres tv TwokuTiKGy
mpayparov.

BOOK V.

At this point Socrates is interrupted by a whispered conversation Republic
between Adeimantus and Polemarchus, who has not failed to notice é
the application of the proverb.‘ Friends have all things in common’ ed i
to the question of marriage (iv. 423"). He and Adeimantus are
agreed that Socrates must be challenged to explain himself on
a matter of such paramount importance as the relation of the sexes.

VOL. Ill. P

Republic
y.

449 A-
451 B

449
A

> te

210 Plato: Republic.

Socrates admits that the subject is one on which it would be
calamitous to miss the truth, but for that very reason he ts reluctant
to speak. In the end, however, he yields to their request.

Trept iSvwrdv uxis tpdmwou Katackeuyy| epi KatacKeviy tpédrov
Wuyijs iiiwrdv is the order of the words. Each form of constitution
has a form of the individual life corresponding to it.

év téttapat, x.t.d.]| The subject of the four perverted forms of
the state is resumed again in Book viii.

opixpov yap dtrwtépw Tod ASerpdvtou Kkabqoro| That is, Polemar-
chus sat a little further away from Socrates than Adeimantus did.
He is supposed to draw the latter away from Socrates and to
whisper in his ear. This explains how a conversation could be
carried on of which Socrates heard only the last words.

haBdpevos ... mapa tov Gpov] ‘having taken hold of him (aérod)
by his garment, high up, close to the shoulder.’

tl padiota, pny... Hpiv Soxeis, py] ti pddcora is taken in two

senses: in the first case as meaning ‘ what in particular?’ and in

the second case ‘why in particular?’ This play of words cannot
be maintained in English.

er. éy& etmov] is the reading of all the MSS. but Ven. 3, in which
rt €. €. is found. (A trace of the same reading appears in M, which
reads én, according to Signor Rostagno. Schneider asserts that
ércis the reading of g, notwithstanding the silence of Bekker.) The
alteration to ére ... ri (‘because of what ?’) is no improvement in
the meaning: and where this combination occurs, as in i. 343 A
“Ore dy th padiota ; jv 8 eyo, “Ore ole, x.7.A.: Charm. 161c “Om 3
tl ye; &py. “Ore od Sirov, Hv & eyw, 7 Ta prypata epbéyéaro, ravrn ‘kal
évdec: dre is resumed in the reply and the words are not separated,
as they are here, by ¢y® efrov. For the use of ére with an aorist, cp.
Vi. 508 c Ils 3 en’ ere SieAOE por: Prot. 310 c ere pev évexeipnoa.

elSos Sdov] ‘a whole division’ or ‘subject.’ See Essay on
Diction, vol. ii. p. 295, and cp. iii. 392 A Té ody . . . re Nourdy elBSos
Adyov wépt, K.T.A., and iv, 427 A Td ToLodTov ElBos vdpor Tépt.

kal Ajoew oinPivar... Kowd Ta gidov éorat| ‘And you seem
to have thought (Soxets . . . oimOfvar) that you would escape

detection in throwing out the slight remark that forsooth in the

Notes: Book V. 211

matter of women and children everybody must know that friends will
have all things in common.’ The passage referred to is iv. 423 E
ravra padiws SiwWyovra, kai dda ye baa viv jpyeis mapadelroper, THY TE
Tay yuvakav Kriow Kat ydpov kal madomotias, dre Sei raira Kata Thy

mapoipiay mavra 6 Tt pddvora Kowa Ta ito roreio Gat.
8p0Gs] sc. eov to be supplied from elma supra.
\

Td dpOds Toro .. . Adyou Beira, tis 6 tpdmos Tis Kowwvias| ‘but
your word “rightly,” like the rest, requires explanation, as to the
manner of the community.’ t&Ada, the other particulars of legis-
lation which have not been lightly passed over but fully explained.

yevopévous| sc, rods waidus understood from tatSoroijoovrat.

SAnv tadtny fv Aéyers Kowwviay| ‘and [speak about] the whole
subject of the community of women and children which you mean.’
Some verb governing the accusative must be supplied with 6dnv in
place of pync6jcecOau, or the construction goes back to ph odv tapas.

péya ydp tu oidpeba pepe Kai Sdov, x.7.A.] ‘For we think that
whether it takes place rightly or not rightly will make a great, nay
all the difference to the state.’ Cp. Phaedo 79 £ 6\@ kai marti :
Laws xii. 944. diagéper 8€ GAov mov Kal TO Tay,

hépew .. . yryvdpevov] sc. rd ris wept ravra Kowvwvias.

éreid}} . . . wodttefas| ‘But now as you are taking in hand
- another form of government.’ For émAapSdveo@a in this sense cp.
Soph. 217 B Ady émeddBou twapamAnoior, k.r.d,

épéder] ‘Never mind!’—‘ without more ado,’ setting aside a
remark or question either as unimportant or not requiring further
discussion. Cp. iv. 422c and note “Apéhet, py, ovdéy dv yévorro
Oavpaordy: and vii. 539 E “Apédet, elrrov, mévre és.

émAaBdpevot pou] ‘In laying hands upon me.’ The word is
repeated in a different sense, for which cp. especially Prot. 329 a
paxpoy nei Kal droreiver, cay pi) EMAGByTai Tis, ‘unless someone lays
hold of it.’

dowep é§ dpyfs| ‘As if we were just beginning,’ cp. i. 348 B.
ds tére éppyOn]| iv. 423 E.

&... mapaxahodvres) Either (1) ‘and in now calling in this
fresh argument,’ or (2) ‘and in now urging me to this.’ In the
latter case the antecedent is to be gathered from the general sense

P 2 .

Republic
V.

449
Cc

Republic
V.

450
B

212 Plato: Republic.

of the preceding words (sc. raira madw d:edOciv) and & is cognate
accusative.

dcov éopdv M6ywv| For the image cp. Cratylus 401 £ évvevdnkd 1
opivos codias.

ti 8€; 9 8 bs... dxougopevous| xpvooyoeiv, literally, ‘to smelt
ore for gold.’ The word had also acquired the sense of ‘to go on
a fool’s errand,’ ‘to be imposed upon,’ the origin of which Suidas
and Harpocration explain in the following manner: A report was
once spread about at Athens that there was on Hymettus a great
quantity of gold dust guarded by warrior ants. The Athenians
went armed out to seize the treasure but were worsted and returned
home without accomplishing their purpose. Cp. the parallel ex-
pression in English—‘ to seek for the philosopher’s stone.’

péetpov 8€ y'] In book vi. (498 v) such discussions are not
merely limited to this life, but are supposed to be continued in
another, when the soul is reborn to the world: zeipas yap oddev avy-
copev, €ws dv i) meicwpev Kal TOUTOY Kal Tods GAXouvs, 7} Tpovpyou Tt TONTe-
pev eis exeivov Tov Biov, drav adbis yevdpuevor Trois TowovTors évT¥Xwo Adyurs :

Theaet. 173 c: Polit. 283. dxovew is an epexegetic infinitive.

é\AG... a] ‘but never mind us,’ i.e. never mind inflicting
on us a discourse of immoderate length, referring to petpiwv ye.

4 8h émumovwtdty Soxet etvar| ‘Which is generally thought to
be the most troublesome part of education.’ émtovwrdrn, sc. ris
tpopis. Plato dwells on the importance of the very earliest training
in Laws vii. 792 a. See especially the words gor: dé 6 xpdvos obros
Tpiay ovx éddtrwy ero (i.e. the three first years of life), wéprov od
apuxpoy Tov Biov duayayeiv xeipov ) pn XEtpov.

meipa* 84] The choice lies between this correction of meipé dv,
the reading of Par. A, and mewpa odv, the reading of IM. Cp.
iv. 431 B: Symp. 221 £.

od pddiov... dmorjcetat| Kal tatty refers to ds dpiot dv ein
taita. For eddaiuor in the sense of ‘ blissfully ignorant,’ cp. iv. 422 E
evdaipav ef, hv 8 eya, dre ote, x.7.A. and note.

Great preparations are made for the introduction of the new
social system. First, Socrates is disposed to pass over the entire
subject. After he has been detected in this little trick he will only
proceed at the earnest request of the company, who are willing to

take upon themselves the entire responsibility. He anticipates all —

Notes: Book V. 213

the ridicule which the common sense. of mankind has agreed to
heap on the attempt to overthrow the first and simplest of human
institutions. At each fall of the wave the sound of laughter is
resounding in our ears, until the greatest wave swallows up all, and
the Republic, which was originally a Dorian state, reappears as
a kingdom of philosophy.

pay edxh Boxy etvar 6 Adyos|] Cp. infra 456 c od« dpa ddivara ye
ode edxats Spora evowoberoiper.

époi] not ¢uavrd, because the object is to be distinguished from
the subject of belief. The repetition of the same word adds point.
Cp. Soph. O. T. 379 Kpéwv 8€ wot mi’ oddév, ddX airds od got.

Kah@s elxev| The omission of ay gives emphasis to the apodosis,
cp. Goodwin, W/, and T.,§ 431.

mept Tav peylotwy te kal dikwv| ‘About matters dear to us, and
of the highest importance’ (such as family life).

dopades kal Oappadéov] ‘A thing safe and giving confidence,’
i.e. a thing which may be done with safety and confidence. The
epithet @appadéos, commonly used of a person who possesses confi-
dence, is here applied to a thing which inspires confidence in the
doer. Cp. Prot. 359c: Soph. Philoct. 106: Pind. Nem. vii. 50.

od Tt yéAwra Spdeiv is an explanatory infinitive after oBepdv re Kat
opahepdv—‘ not at all as to incurring ridicule.’ The phrase yéAwra
opdeiv recurs in vi. 506 D GAN’ Gras pi) ody olds 7’ Ecopar, mpoOvpotpevos
dé doynnovav yédwta pdjow.

keigouor| ‘I shall be overthrown.’ Cp. Euthyd. 3034 éomep
mAnyeis bd Tod Adyou Exeipny apavos: Ar. Nub, 126 ddd’ otf eyo
perron tmecw@y ye keloopat, The future indicative follows pj by
a slight anacoluthon arising from the common tendency to revert
to the more direct form of expression.

Tpookuv® 8€...05 péAdw déyew] ‘And I bow to Adrasteia
touching what I am about to say.’ The involuntary homicide
prays Adrasteia to bear witness that he could not help his act,
and Socrates is in a like evil case. Cp. Aesch. Prom. 936 oi
mporkuvodyres tiv “ASpaoteav copoi. The slightly archaic form
dnaredy (cp, Avpedv) adds to the mock solemnity here and infra s.

eéhrrifw yap ... vopiwwv mép.| ‘For I do indeed believe that to
_ be an involuntary homicide is a less crime than to be a deceiver
about the beautiful, the good, and the just, in the matter of laws.’

Republic
V.

450
C

E

Republic
V~.

451
A

B

214 Plato: Republic.

Schneider joins the words kadév te kal dya0dv kal Sikaiwv with
vopipwv, but is inclined to cancel dxalov, Several MSS., with
Ven. =, read d:xaiwv Kai vopipwr répt.

dote eb pe wapapuber] (1) ‘So that you console me well.’ This
at first sight appears to be a contradiction of the words xadés efyev
#) wapapvbia, at 450 E. The apparent difficulty has led the scribe of
g to insert oix after Sore. Socrates had rejected the consolation
when first offered, and now, without much point, he is supposed to-
repeat his refusal. The reading of the text, in which the other
MSS. agree, gives also a better sense. Socrates ironically accepts
the consolation which he had previously rejected. The ironical
emphasis is more pointed than the simple negative would have
been. Cp. the ironical use of kaddv in iii. 406 B Kaddv dpa 70 yépas,
«tA. ‘You are indeed happy in your attempt to console me !’
This is better than (2) making the words equivalent to «d roveis dre
pe mapapvdei (‘You do well in endeavouring to console me’)
which loses the reference to the point of Glaucon’s remark, odre

» 2 , ree ,
amrLoTOl OUTE dvavor OL GKOVOOMEVOL,

GAN’, & Tdnpates, ey .. . elep exet, kavOdSe| The first adda is
adversative to the remark of Socrates about the risk which he is
running, the second aaa is a repetition of the first with the addition
of a request. Both are resumed in the third adda, which implies
that Socrates adopts Glaucon’s point of view in opposition, to
his own.

dpienev ... kaBapdy etvat| ‘ We acquit you both as guiltless of
our blood, so to say, and as not our deceiver.’

GANG pévtor, k.t.A.] ‘ Well, it is true that in that case, said I, the
man who is acquitted is clear as the law says, and if in that case’
(i.e. in the case of the homicide) ‘it is likely that he will be so in
this’ (i.e. the case of involuntaty deception).

Spapa] ‘ business,’ or ‘part.’ Cp. Theaet. 150 a rd. pév roivey ray

- ~ »* 4 -~ > col ,
pat@v togovtov, €datrov dé rod €uov Spdaparos.

Our guardians have been compared to watchdogs. Now in
training these, we make no difference between male and femate,
except that we do not expect the female to be quite equal to the male
in strength. '

In applying this general principle we, must be prepared for —
ridicule, especially when we insist that the women, like the men, —

Notes: Book V. 215

must strip for gymnastic exercises. But we may remember that
when this custom was first introduced among the men, the wits of
that day had their opportunity, and no doubt made use of tt. Yet
experience and common sense have proved too much for them.

iodow| sc. jpiv. For the idiomatic dative cp. infra 452 ¢ mopev-

téov . . . SenOeion, «.T.A.

dxodovdapev .. . dro8iSdvres] ‘Let us follow out that hint in the
matter of the birth and training which we assign to our women,
making it similar (to that of the watch-dogs) and then consider
whether we deem it suitable or not.’ The subject of mpéme: is 7d
Thy yéveow xai tpopiy rapamAynoiay drodi8dvac gathered from the
previous words.

ei piv mpémer] ‘If we find it suitable.’ Cp. especially infra
462 a dpa...ecis pév rd Tov ayabod txvos Hiv dppdrre.

&wep av... puddtrwot| dmep is cognate accusative: ‘In those
duties of guard:anship which are performed by the males.’

Kowy, pn, mavta| sc. oldueba deiv airas mparrew.

ds doevertépais| The subject, rais @nAcias trav puddKxwy kuvar, is
sufficiently indicated by the previous sentence.

mapa 73 €00s| sc. mparrdpeva, which is absorbed in heydpeva.

ei mpdgerar 4 Ad€yerar| Cp. iii. 389 D "Edy ye, 9 8’ Gs, emi ye Ady
épya teAjrat, where see note.

ob pdvov tas véas, AANA Kal $n Tas mpecBuTépas| Said with a
slight hyperbaton (which adds emphasis) for ras #3n mpeoBurépas.

puoot | SC. Ovres.

obxoov, Hv 8 éyd, x.7.A.| The uncompromising tone of this
passage may be contrasted with the greater respect for public
opinion which is shown in Laws viii. 834 D @ndeas 8€ mepi tovrwv
vépos péev kat emitageow ovk ava BudferOat ris Kowwvrias’ edv b€ €£ aitav

rav éumpoober madevpdrwy eis €Oos idvrav 7 vats évdéxnrat, K.T.A.
mept Thy Tov STAwy oxéow]| ‘as to their bearing of heavy arms.’

mopeutéoy, x.t.\.] Plato’s theory of female education, though at
variance with modern ideas, has points which are worthy of attention.
(1) He considers the subject independently of existing practice, and
with reference to the difference of sex only. He implies (2) that

Republic
ty.
451 C—
452 E
451
C

D

Republic
V.

452
5.

216 Plato: Republic.

bodily health and strength, and the training which gives them, are
equally necessary for both sexes. (3) Also that men and women
have the same interests and duties, and are capable of the same occu-
pations in a greater degree than the customs of society allow. (4)
That false delicacy is not a good foundation either for manners or
morals. ‘The error of Plato seems to arise from not considering
the other differences to which the difference of sex gives rise in
mind and feeling. He has forgotten that ‘women’s best education
is the training of their children.’ He has lost sight also of the fact
that education is relative to character, and the character of women
is necessarily formed by the universal opinion of mankind. The
merit of seeking to give them position in an age in which they
were comparatively degraded must certainly be conceded to him.
Modern philosophy would ascribe to them equal powers of
different qualities :

‘For woman is not undeveloped man,
But diverse.’

Plato has made a considerable step in advance of the ancient
world by assigning to them unequal powers of the same quality :
as the poet elsewhere sings :

‘Woman is the lesser man.’

76 tTpaxd Tod vépou] For an analogous phrase cp. viii. 568 c mpés

TO dvavTes TOY TOALTELOY,
SenOetot te TouTwy] sc. piv.
od modds xpdvos ef 06, x.7.A.] Cp. Hdt. i. 10: Thue. i. 6, § 5.

twdavtTa tadta and mdévta ta Toradta refer partly to the ludicrous
image called up supra érav puooi, k.t.A.

kat Td év trois SpOahpots .. . évedeifaro, x.7..] ‘Then the
ludicrous effect to the outward eye vanished before the arguments
which showed what was best, and this (i.e. the disappearance of
ridicule) showed that he is a fool who thinks anything else ridicu-
lous,’ &c. The first xai is intensive, marking the correspondence
between men’s experience and the change in their opinions. This
was an instance of the folly of ridicule not grounded in reason.

pdratos 8s yedoiov, x.t.A.] Ridicule is not ‘the test of truth’
or goodness, but the test of strength, the detector of some flaw
or inconsistency or pretension or deviation from custom in

Notes: Book V. | 217

character or action. ‘ Man is a laughing animal,’ and reason uses
this power no less than that of speech as the expression of herself,
finding in the pleasure of laughter a ready opening at which wisdom
or wit may enter in. But the alliance, though capable of a serious
purpose, is partly fanciful and humorous, and cannot always be
constrained, as Plato seems to imply, for the sake of some political
or moral end. Ridicule has more influence on manners than on
morals ;—is more concerned with the outward surface of life and
society than with the inner nature of man, having a free touch and
passing lightly from one topic to another. Ridicule is the enemy
of superstition and sentimental feeling; and the employment of
such an instrument on serious subjects is not always to be depre-
cated as hurtful; there is nothing of which hypocrisy is so much
afraid, nothing which better sifts the weaknesses of human nature.
Successful ridicule (1) depends on a certain force of character or
ready tact in the person who makes another ridiculous: (2) it
requires either an object of attack which is sensitive to ridicule, or
(3) public opinion which supports the assailant. A rude justice is
the result, in which perhaps a certain degree of injustice may be
concealed by the excellence of the jest. On the other hand, the
greatest minds, one of whose proper works is to help and free
others from scorn, are perhaps incapable of using the weapon of
ridicule as they are also incapable of being made ridiculous.
Compare Arist. Eth. Nic. iv. 8, 9.

kal Kadod ad onouSdter] is the reading of the majority of the
MSS., which yields a tolerable sense—‘and who again aims
seriously at any standard of nobility which he sets up for himself,
except the good.’ Schneider reads 4 omovddger, omitting Kai Kadod.
Others make mpds... oxomédv depend on otyodpevos, ‘having
set himself to some other aim.’ (Jebb on Soph. Ant. 299.)

But the first aorist middle of tornm, unlike toravda, requires an
object. This may be supplied in one of two ways, (1) supposing
the expression to be metaphorical, sc. ro rééov: cp. the absolute
use of émorjoa, sc. rd dpa; or (2) as above, orovddfer mpos...
oxondr, ornadyevos (adrdv), ‘ with any other aim which he proposes to
himself.’ The word iornu is used of setting up a mark, although
Oéuevos would be more usual. Cp. Hom. Od. xix. 573, 574:

Tos TeAéxeas, Tovs Keivos evi peydpaow éoicw
toracy” é£eins, dpudxous ds, Sadexa navras.
The conjectural omission of mpés (W. H. Thompson on Gorg. 474 D)

Republic
V.

452
D

Republic
V.

452 E-
457 B

452

453
A

218 Plato: Republic.

is plausible, but not necessary. For the epexegetic participle cp.
iii. 397 C Evyxepavvivtes.

The only question of any real moment is whether the female sex
in man ts capable of sharing in the duties which we assign to them.
For our first principle ts that our citizens, all and each, shall do the
work which is suited to their several natures. A controversialist
will say that men and women differ, and therefore that the pursuits
assigned to them must differ. But in the spirit of controversy such
a one omits to ask whether the difference of nature has anything to
do with the particular work in question. One cobbler may have a
shock of hair and yet another who is bald is not disqualified from
cobbling. Now the difference of sex ts limited to the function of
procreation, and this lies quite apart from government and war.
In point of fact women can do all that men do, though as a rule
they cannot do it so well, and men can do all that women do (even
to weaving and the baking of cakes), and as a rule, when they do tt,
they do it better. And there are the same differences amongst women
as amongst men. One has a taste for medicine, another for mustc.
And we may presume that some of them, though not all, have capa-
bilities for war and government. These ought to be selected as
companions and helpmates for the highest class of men, and to share
in the same occupations. In giving them also the same education in
music and gymnastic we have been legislating according to nature.

This ts contrary to present custom: but is tt possible? Ts it the
best course? We have shown that tt is possible. And if the men
whom we have chosen and educated are better than the other men,
will not the chosen women, similarly educated, be better than other
women? And ts tt not best to provide for the existence of the best .
possible men and women in a community? Our women, then, shall
not shrink from physical exercises nor from war, although we shall
assign to them the lighter duties in both pursutts, because of the com-
parative weakness of their natures. Our standard of excellence
and grace, in this and all respects, shall not be Custom, but the
highest Utility.

ducts i dvOpwmivn 4 Oydera| ‘Female human nature.’ ‘The —
words. 4 évOpwrivy, to which Cobet objected, keep up the analogy
between man and the other animals which runs through the passage.
Cp. supra 451 D, E.

kal rodro 8)... notépwv éoriv;| ‘And to which of the two

. “) oad

Notes: Book V. 219

classes (the class of things they can or cannot share with the men)
is this duty of warfare to be assigned?’

iva pi Epnpa ... wodvopxAtat| ‘That the other side may not be
besieged without having defenders.’ Cp. Soph. 246 p: Theaet.
164 E.

Tis Karoukivews| Sc. Tis méAews, for which wédw is substituted
by attraction. Cp. iv. 443 c and note. The reference is to
ii. 369 4 ff.

& Oaupdorte] ‘O rare, O admirable sir,’ as elsewhere, marks the
wondering eagerness of Socrates at the new turn in the argument.

god Serjoopat te kai Séopar}| ‘I shall have to ask you, as I now
do. For the future cp. Theaet. 164 E kevdurvedoopey . . . ait@
BonOeiv.

kal tov... épunvedcat| Socrates has explained the views of an
imaginary critic of the argument (supra a iva pi Epnya, «.7.d.). He
is now asked to explain ‘ our own’ meaning, which is not yet clear.
For the word compare Soph. 246 £ KéAeve 8: rods BeArious yeyovdras

aroxpivac@ai co, Kai Td hexOev map’ aitay aepphveve.

od pa tov Ala... Zoixev] ‘I don’t wonder at your hesitation,
for by Zeus it is no easy task,’ &c. The strong negation is put
forward as a reason for the fear which Socrates expresses in the
previous sentence :—‘ No indeed, that does not look easy’ (which
is a reason for hesitation), ‘Why,no; but the truth is that whether
a man tumbles into a swimming-bath or into a mighty ocean, he
swims all the same.’ The real order is, od yap edxddr@ otxev, od pit
tov Aia, But the eagerness of the speaker brings the oath to the
front. Cp. Parm. 131 E Ov pa rév Aia, pdvat, od por Soxei edKoXov elvat
Td rowovToy ovdapas diopivacba, otk edxdho= xarerg. Cp. i. 348 £.

av té Tis . . . vet o08ev Hrrov] is perhaps the first suggestion of the
image of the wave which is distinctly mentioned infra 4578 ff.
The word édcaveveixapey iv. 441, has prepared the way for it.
A similar figure occurs in the Laches, 194 c “I 8n, & Nixia, dvdpdce
pirors xetpafopevors év Ady@ Kal amopovar BonOyoov. Cp. Eurip. Hipp.
469, 470 és dé ri téyny | mecodo’ Sony od Tas dv éxvedoa Soxeis ;

&ropov] lit. ‘hard to come by’: cp. ii. 378 A dAAd te péya kai
dropov Biya, ‘some unprocurable victim.’ owrypiav is the subject of
some more general word than éwodaBeiv, e. g. pavijvat.

Republic
V.

453
A

Republic
V~.

453
E

B

220 — Plato: Republic.

épodoyodpev] The imperfect tense seems preferable, as the
reference to the former argument is so pointed here, although
dpodvyoiper, the reading of Par. A, is also possible. ‘The present
might convey a general statement. Cp. supra B @podoycire.. .
‘Qpodoynoapev.

Tas 8€ GAas pucets| ‘The aforesaid different natures,’ tas Bé
d\Xag is to be explained with reference to dddnv puvow in the pre-
ceding line. The verbal ambiguity is obviated by the clearness of
the context. So in Soph. O. T. 845 rots woAXois is not ‘the many’
or ‘the greater number,’ but ‘the plurality of persons which the
previous description implied.’

H yevvaia ... (454 A) mpds GAAHAous xpwpevo.| That is to say,
People make oppositions of words, because they do not understand
the differences of things. Our argument hinged upon the opposition
of ‘some’ and ‘other’; but we never considered in what sense
each of these terms applied to the difference of sex. There are
various species of difference —etSn rijs dh\Aowwoews (454 C) each apper-
taining to some particular quality or capacity (pds re reivovra), €. g.
height, strength, &c. ; and because people differ as participating in
some particular species of difference, we must not conclude that
they differ zz foto, depriving ‘ different’ as applied to them of all
real significance.

Compare Soph. 218 c dei 8€ det ravris mépe 7d mpaypa adto paddov dua
Adyov Hh rovvopa pdvoy avvoporoynoacba xwpis Adyou: Theaet. 164 c
dvTioyiKds €oikapev mpds Tas TaY dvouaT@v Sporoylas avopohoynadpuevot
kai ToLovT@ Twi meptyevdpevot TOD Adyou ayanGy, Kai od PdcKovTes aywvirral
GAA Piridaogor eivar AavOdvopev raira exeivors Tois Sewois avdpaor mot-
ovvtes: Polit. 285 a, B: Soph. 259 D 1d d€ radrév Erepov dmodaivew
apy yé wy Kai 70 Oatepov tavtov Kal TO péya opiKpody Kal TO Guotov dvdpotor,
kai yaipew obr@ rdvartia dei mpodéporra ev rois Aéyots, obre Tis EAeyxos

a “ ”
obtos dAnbwos dptt Te Tav dvT@Y Twos eparTopevou SHdros veoyerns av.

kat €iSn Stapodpevor] Cp. Phaedr. 2658 16 mddw kar’ €tdy

Sivacbat répvew, car’ apOpa i wéduxe, K.T.A.

kat adtd Td Svopa Sidkew] Either (1) as in the translation
‘pursuing a merely verbal opposition,’ or (2) (as suggested by
Mr. J. Solomon) ‘ assailing,’ or ‘holding in chase, what is a mere
verbal contradiction.’ For the latter cp. Theaet. 166 D rév d€ Adyor
abd pi) TO pryari pov Siwxe.

Td ph thy adthy dow] py is the reading of Ven. = and the old

Notes: Book V. 221

editions, and is probably right. ‘We might valiantly and conten- Republic

tiously insist upon the verbal truth that the nature which is not the
same (i.e. the female nature) ought not to have the same pursuits
(i.e. as the male nature), but we never considered at all what was
the nature of the sameness and difference which we were then
distinguishing and whereto it was related.’ The reading of the other
MSS, All M &c. 1d ri airhy, «.7.4., can only mean, ‘ the nature which
was in fact the same we argued in our contentious manner to be
incapable of the same pursuits.’ But the words 1d... tuyxdvew are
simply a restatement of the objection in 453 B, c that men and
women having different natures should have different pursuits, while
_the assertion that men and women share the same human nature
would be out of place. And the opposition of pi thy airny, ob
tav aitay, is more like Plato than the conjectural reading ryv GAAnv
(Baiter).

éreokepdpea S€.. . (Cc) ph tods Erépous] We spoke of the same
and other, but we did not define the meaning or object of the
difference. Bald and hairy men are different ; but no conclusion
can be drawn from this that because the bald man is a cobbler the
hairy man is not to be a cobbler. Plato is well aware of the
value of a ludicrous illustration. Cp. infra 474 £: vi. 495 £: Theaet.

149 A.
pr éGv Kopytas| sc. oxuroropeir,

Thy adrhy Kat thy érépav| 6 airdés and 6 érepos are here general-
ized. Cp. Theaet. rgoc.

iatpikdv pev kal latpixdv thy uxt dvta| This reading has weak
manuscript authority (¢ 8), but is probably right, the older MSS.
having been misled by the apparent ditfographia. Par. A has
larpix@v pév kai iarpixiy tiv oxy dvra: others (Vat. ©) give larpixdy
per Kat larpixiy tiv Wuxny éxorvra by a further corruption. K. F. Her-
mann approved of larpixdy peév Kal larpixny riv Wuxi dvras, ‘a man
and woman gifted with medical talent’ (cp. infra 455 £), but Plato
could not be guilty of the clumsiness of assuming at the very
beginning incidentally the general proposition which he has to
prove, viz. the aptitude of women for all pursuits. Others have
proposed iarpéy pev kai larpixdy rhv Wuxi dvra, which is adopted by
Bekker, and may be supported by comparing Xen. Mem. iii. 1, 4
6 paddy iaaOa Kav pr larpein pws iarpds éorw: Polit. 259 A ef rH Tes
tav Snnoorevdvrwv latpay ixavds EvpBovdevew idiwrevov airés, «7A. But

454
B

Republic
V.

454
D

on
Po

222 Plato: Republic.

the slight alteration tarpév is unnecessary, and it is better not to
depart further from the MSS. than is absolutely required. Schneider
obtained nearly the same meaning by reading as in the text and
joining tiv Wvxqv with the second iarpixdv exclusively. But the repe-
tition simply emphasizes identity in order to prepare for the con-
trast between identity and difference. ‘If two men have each the
soul of a physician, we meant to say for example that they have
the same nature’ (however different they may be in other respects) ;
‘if one have the soul of a physician, and the other have the soul of
a carpenter, we meant to say that they have different natures’
(however else they may resemble one another). The singular évra
is accounted for by attraction to the nearest word.

mpos téxvyv td] ‘in regard of fitness for some art.’ Riddell,
Digest, § 128.

ds mpds 5 Hpets éyouev, x.7.A.] ‘that a woman differs from a
man with reference to the point of which we are speaking,’ i.e.
common training and participation in the same duties. Cp.
Theaet. 177 D rovro dé mov cxdpp’ dv ein mpds 6 éyouer.

Srep od ddiyov mpdtepov eheyes] supra 453 C ‘Qs pev eLaidyys, én,

> 4 e. &.
ov mavu padzov.

kal To pev ... (Cc) TH 8€ evavrioiro ;] Strength of body is needed
for strength of mind. Cp. vi. 498 B ray Te copdror, év @ Bdacraver
re kai avdpoirat, ed pada emmpedeicbar, Smmpeciav priocodpia xrapévous :
Protag. 326 B re roivuy mpds rovras cis madotpifov méurovow, iva Ta

copata Bedtiw €xovtes SNpeTaor 7H Scavoia xpynori oven.

ots ... @pifov] For the dative cp. ii. 376 B ouvéces re kal dyvoig
OpiCopevov Té TE oikeiov kai Td GAAOTpiov, The imperfect tense alludes
to what was implied in the objection, ‘ you meant to define,’ supra

453 B.

év ots 84 Te Soner... etvac| Cp. Symp. 219C kxaimep éxeivd ye

a”
@pnv Te elvan.

kpateitat| «pareioOa is passive, and as in a few other instances
(with the meaning of jrravOa:) takes the genitive (wohhG@y dvBpav)
without the preposition (e. g. xpareio@ac 78ov@v Aeschin. de Fals.
Leg. § 152): ;

Compare Cratyl. 392 c mérepov obv ai yuvaixes év rais méheot ppom-
porepai cor Soxovow eivat } of dvdpes, Os Td Sov eimeiv yévos ;

Notes: Book V. 223

GAN’ Spolws ... dpdotv toiv {gow} ‘But natural aptitudes are
equally diffused in both.’ at doers are the qualities suited for the
different occupations of life. For the generic use of (gov cp.
Theaet. 157 ¢ @ 8) aOpoicpate dvOpwmdy re riPevrat Kai hidov Kul Exacrov
Ladv re Kal eldos.

emt mao 8é,«.7.4.] Cp. supra 451 E mAjy ws dobeverrépas xpmpeba,

- . a > ,
trois b€ ws ioxuporéepos.

aN’ gore ydp| It has been agreed that women must have some
occupation. ‘But then (dda ydp) as we shall say, women’s capa-
bilities differ, just as men’s do, and their occupations therefore
must be similarly distributed.’

kal yury| sc. 7 pe larpixn, 9 8 od.

yupvactixy 8 dpa ov... (456 A) €ywye] ‘But is not one woman
a lover of gymnastics and of war, another unwarlike and no lover
of gymnastics?” ‘I should think so,’

The reading yupvaotixy 8 dpa ot, od8€ is adopted by Schneider
and Hermann and the Zurich editors, and is supported by the
preponderance of MS. authority. The form of question is not the
ordinary use of od expecting an affirmative answer, but rather an
ironical negation with an interrogative tone. Cp. infra 468 B
(where however the humour is more apparent) : ’AAAG 768", ofuat, iv

, - - = ~
& eye, obkétt cor Soxei, TS roiov; Td pidjoai re kai pirnOnvat id éxdo-—°

°
rov. ‘The other readings, cai yupvaotixn, 7 8 dpa od and that of g,

which Bekker adopted, kat yupvaotixy dpa xat wodeuexn, look like
clumsy attempts at emendation. :

@upos| ‘ Passionless.’ For this use of the word cp. iii. 411 B,
Laws x. 888 a.

¥ of tovadryy| sc. Piddcodoy cai Ovpoedj. The instances from
povotxy Onwards have led the way to this.

éneimep eloty ixavat Kat guyyeveis] ‘Seeing that they are qualified
and of a kindred nature,’ i.e. one which is at once Adcogos and
Ovpoedys. In the Politicus and Laws, on the other hand, the aim
of the legislator is rather to unite in marriage opposite natures that
they may supplement each other.—Polit. 309, 310: Laws vi.
773 ff.

Hkopev dpa... dmoSiSdvar] ‘And so we are come round to
what we were before saying, and allow that there is nothing

Republic
V~.

455
D

456

Republic
V.

456
B

-B

224 Plato: | Republic.

unnatural in assigning the pursuit of music and gymnastic to the
wives of the guardians.’ Cp. Laws ii. 659 Aoxet pot rpirov j
réraprov 6 Adyos eis tuvrdv Twepipepdpevos Frew: Gorg. 521 E 6 abros
dé por HEL Adyos, Svep mpds Ladov €deyov : ibid. 517 C ovdev mavduceba

eis TO ard dei mepipepdpevor.
edxats Spora] Cp. supra 450 D pi) €bx} doxy eivar 6 Adyos.
émioxepis| supra 452 E.

Ste 8 8} BéAniota, «.7.4.] The fosszbcizty of our proposals has
received an elaborate proof. Men and women have been shown to
have a common nature and therefore it is natural to assign to them
a common education and common pursuits. Whether our proposals
are desirable remains to be considered.

Aristotle (Pol. i. 13, § 9), perhaps referring to Meno 71 &, will not
hear of the ascription of the same qualities to men and women:
ovy 1) ait aadpootyn yuvatkds kai dvdpds, ov8 avdpia kai Sixacoovwn,

kabdmep @ero Swxpdtns, GAN’ 7H pév apyixn avdpia, 7 dé imnperien.

odk GAy pev... (D) TapahaBodca;| ‘Then surely with a view to a
woman’s becoming fitted to be a guardian, there will not be one
education which will make men and another which will make
women guardians, especially when it has received the same nature
to work upon. ‘The whole sentence is negatived, and the para-
tactic expansion breaks from the construction with mpds. owjaer,
sc. pudakikovs.

év ody TH WéheL ... TH OKUTIKH TadeuBdvTas ;| This is the most
distinct allusion which is made in any part of the Republic to the
education or want of education of the lowest class in the state.
Cp. however viii. 547 c, where the condition of the ordinary citizens
is alluded to in general terms, and iv. 421 £, where apprenticeship
is incidentally referred to. The lower classes have no real place
in the Republic ; they fade away into the distance. '

Tav GAd\wv wokitav... dpiotror| i.e. (1) ‘better than the other
citizens,’ as they are better than the cobblers, or (2) ‘than the
citizens besides themselves.’ [B. J.]

kal ok GAAa mpaxtéov] Their devotion to public duty forbids
their absorption in the nursery. This remark contains a hint of
the next-coming ‘ wave.’

GteAf TOD yedolou copias Spérwv Kapwdév] codias is the genitive

eal F
rir, <

Notes: Book. V. 225

after xapév, which is governed by 8pémwv, ‘ the man who laughs at
naked women, plucks from his laughter an unripe fruit of wisdom,’
i.e. foolishness, ‘not knowing at what he is laughing.’ According
to Stobaeus (ed. Gaisford, Tit. 304), the quotation is from Pindar,
who applies the words dreAj codias xapriv dpémwv to the physio-
logists, the addition rod yedoiov is Plato’s own. See also Phaedr.
260 C, D moidy twa ole... THY pyTopiKiy Kaptov dv omerpe Oepiler ;
Jests about the gymnastics of the Spartan women such as Plato
describes are found in the Lysistrata of Aristophanes (80-83).

kdédd\ora yap 8} Todro kal Aéyerar Kal Aedéferar]| i.e. ‘ this which
is commonly said will ever be the noblest saying: “ That the useful
is noble and the hurtful is base.”’’ See especially Theaet. 172 a, B,
177 .D,E. The sentiment recurs infra 458 E «ev 8 av fepoi oi
peXipdtarot. The future-perfect expresses permanence and abso-
luteness in future time.

We have escaped one wave of the sea of ridicule which was ready
to swallow us up,alive. But the next ts still more formidable.
For on the community of education and employment there follows
the community of marriage. And here also the scepticism to be

i a i > Me
, oe .

Republic
V~.

457
B

457 B-
461 E

encountered is two-fold :—{1) Is the change possible, and (2) ts it —

Sor the best? Socrates ts confident upon the latter point, and pro-
poses to take it first, leaving what is more doubtful and difficult to
be disposed of afterwards. Let us build our ‘ Castle in the air, and
then consider whether we may hope one day to find a place fit for it
on the solid ground.
The women shall be first selected, then educated, and, lastly, have
. their duties assigned to them. Then—having their work, their
quarters, and their meals in common—the two sexes cannot but be
drawn together, by a moré than mathematical necessity. Now order
is inseparable from our first principle: licentiousness, in a city of the
blessed, is a thing not to be permitted: and so the question rises,
What order is to be observed about marriage-rites? Once more we
may appeal to the analogy of the lower animals. In breeding hawk
or hound, Glaucon is careful in the matter of selection, pairing
the best-bred individuals with the best, while both are in their
prime. And the same conditions ought to be applied to the breeding
of other animals and of men amongst them, if the quality of the
race ts to be preserved. Here, then, ts a point in which the wisdom
of our rulers will be put to the test. For they must have recourse
to the ‘ medicine’ of deception, so that, without apparent constraint,
VOL. Ul. Q

226 Plato: Republic.

Republic the highest privileges in the way of marriage may be reserved for the
V. noblest. +There must be Jestivals and hymeneal songs proclaiming
ae how ‘ the brave deserve the fair” And exceptional advantages in
affairs of this kind must be provided for those who distinguish
themselves in war. There will be lotteries cunningly devised, which,
unknown to the people, will effect our purpose. And there will
be magistrates, male and female, appointed to take care of the
children who are born of these marriages. The perfect offspring of
noble parents they will carry to the common nurseries and place
them under appropriate care. But the children of inferior parents,
and accidental misbirths, will be carried off by them none shall know
whither,—never to reappear. The mothers shall be allowed to
suckle their own and one another’s children (not knowing the differ-
ence’, as much as ts desirable for their health. But there will be
wet nurses who will relieve them of any duties that might break
their rest.

Lt remains to define the age for marriage. In women this lasts
Jrom twenty to forty, and in men from about twenty-five to fifty-five.
Beyond these limits either way none shall be permitted to bring forth
children for the state. Nor shall any one within the prescribed age
cohabit without permission of the magistrates. But a general
dispensation shall be given to those who are past the age, provided
that they abstain from incestuous intercourse and provided also that
tifa child ts born, it shall be understood that no one shall be respon-

sible for rearing it.
Now under these new laws what connexions are incestuous ?
Children are not to know their real parents. But all who are born
Jrom seven to nine months after each marriage festival will be
brothers and sisters to each other, and sons and daughters to all who
were married at that festival. These will be the prohibited degrees.

457. . GddAd wy... duodoyetoGar] ‘But that the argument somehow
Cc comes to an agreement with itself.’ For the reciprocal middle
voice, cp. Phaedr. 265 D 1d aird ait dpodoyotpevov: Tim. 29c:
Laws v. 746c. 3 i
The image of the wave, the way for which has been already
prepared (453 D), is one of those continuous images in Plato which
also form links in the arrangement of the subject.

D peiLov mpds dmotiay|] ‘more formidable, as more provocative of
incredulity.’

ae ee al Cai sala le te el ete) eee al
+
7

Notes: Book V. — 227

@dN’ olpar ... yevéo@ar] The aorist is sometimes used without
é in confident prediction. Cp. Protag. 316 c rovro 8€ oierai of
pddiora yevéoOar, ef cot cvyyévorro: Goodwin, WM. and 7.,§ 127. But
the similarity of a, du, may easily have led to the loss of the
particle here.

héyers]_ ‘Your words imply. Cp. iv. 425 E Aéyets, env eye,
BiooecOat rods Tovovrous, K.T.A.

Mywv odetacw] ‘A combination’ (or ‘ coalition ’) ‘ of arguments’:

i.e. Adyov Aéym ouvmnordpevov. Socrates had hoped to escape from
one of his enemies, he now finds that he has to meet both of
them. Cp. Eurip. Androm. 1088 «is 8é svotdcets | Kikdous 1 éxdper
ads oiknrwp beod: Dem. xara Sredvou A, 1122, |. 5 tas atray ovoTd-

”~ ”~ >
Gets KUpiwTepas TY vdpwv agody eivat.

ék ye tod érépou] The language is still coloured by the image
of the ‘sea of arguments.’

howdy S€ Sh... wept Tod Buvarod Kai py| sc. diadéyerOa, or
Adyov d:ddva, which is supplied in the next sentence (cp. infra).

€acdv pe éoptdcar| ‘suffer me to keep holiday,’

kal ydp of tovodroi mou, x.t.A.] «ai in kal ydp anticipates cai in
8n obv Kal aids, x.7.\., to which it is correlative.

yevonévou] sc. éxeivov 6 Botovra. Cp. ii. 369 A Ovxodv yevoudvou
adrod éAmis evmeréorepov ideiv & Cnrodper ;

kai Gotepov| Kai implies ‘there will be an opportunity of doing
so hereafter as well as now.’ Cp. iii. 400 B Kat pera Aduwvos and
note: Soph. 254 B mepl pev rovrov kat taxa éemoxeWopeba cahécrepov.
[kai simply=‘and.’ B. J.]

ytyvspeva] ‘When they do take place.’ Cp. supra yevopevov,

Ta Sé Kal prpoupévous| sc. rods vduovs, i.e. ‘ following their spirit.’
Cp. Polit. 300 ff., where the actual rulers are advised to ‘imitate,’
i.e. act in the spirit of, the ideal ruler.

od pev toivuy, «.7.A.] adrois depends on mapaddcets, sc. rois
dipxovet Kal Tois émexovpo.s.

Spod Se dvapeptypévow ...dovtar] The subject of dvapeyrypéver
is also the subject of dfovra:. aortas is passive in sense.

ob yewpetpixais ye . .. dvdykars| The dative drdyxas is 10 be
Q 2

Republic
V .

457
D

_

Republic
V.

458
D

459
A

228 Plato: Republic.

construed with dvaykaia, ‘necessary in virtue of’: cp. Soph. 252 D
rais peyloras dvdykas ddivarov. For the play on dvdykn, cp. Vii.
527 A, ix. 581 E.

@\AG pera Sh tadta, & PAatkwv, x.7.4.] Is Plato serious in his
scheme of communism? Modern readers would like to explain
this part of the ideal commonwealth in a figure only (év érovoig) ;
they might imagine themselves not far off a kingdom of heaven,
‘in which they neither marry, nor are given in marriage.’ But the
particularity of the details forbids this: we seem rather to be
entering on a ‘new moral world.’ It may be urged on behalf of
Plato: (1) that he himself acknowledges the community of women
and children to be ‘the second of the three great waves’ or para-
doxes: (2) that in the Laws the theory is not put into practice,
though regarded as affording the true and absolutely perfect rule
of the state, Laws v. 739 D 4 pév 8) rovaitn méddis, ire rrov Oeol 7}

maides Ocdv adriv oikotat mrelous évds, otrw Sialdvres edppawwdpevor —

karotkovot: (3) that the Greek sentiment about the relations of the
sexes is unlike that of modern times: (4) that the family is not
destroyed but merged in the state; public interests are supposed
to take the place of private ones: (5) the equalization of the sexes
was a great thought in that age and country, not entirely realized
by any modern nation: (6) the communism of Plato has other
aims than the indulgence of the passions; licentiousness is to be
deemed ‘an unholy thing’: (7) although the physical consider-
ations to which Plato draws our attention can hardly be dwelt
upon, neither can they be safely overlooked: (8) lastly, there is
a speculative interest in considering social institutions with
a reference to first principles which lie beyond the range of
custom and experience.

dp odk eiot twes Kal ylyvovtat dpioto.;] ‘Are there not some
who are and who prove themselves to be the best?’ The same
creatures form the subject of both verbs.

ek tev dpiotwy| sc. yevvar.
yevvatar] sc. (1) rd yevvapevor, or (2) rd yévos infra.

ti 8é tmwy oter| imrav may be taken as a genitive of reference

. (with wepi omitted), as in Hom. Od, xi. 174 eimé d¢€ pow marpés Te Kat

vidos, dv xaréherrov: Soph. O. C. 354, 355 parted” Gyovoa mavra,... &

1008’ expycbn odparos : this is eased by assimilation to the genitives in ©

Notes: Book V. | 229

the previous sentence (épviwv . .. xuvav). Cp. Phaedo 78 p Ti dé
Tav To\K@v Kadav...; dpa xara raira éxee...;

Os dpa... Set dxpwv elvar tay dpxdvrwv| is a fusion of two
constructions of Set: ws opddpa dei tixpwv dpydvrev and as opddpa dei
dxpovs eivat robs dpyxovras.

drt dvdéyky adrois, «.7..] For deception as a political medicine,
cp. ii. 382.c. The order is jyovpeba efapxeiv iarpov eivar kai havidd-

TEpov,

PH Seopévors prev... Ceddvrwv raxodew| eeddvrwv (1) sc.
tév cwpdrev (the genitive absolute is changed in one MS., r, to
the dative ¢édovow), ‘when the constitution is amenable to diet :’
cp. ii. 370 B and note; or (2) the subject of é6edévrwv is personal:
‘when the patients are willing to submit to regimen’ [B. J.].

dvSpecorépou| ‘more courageous’: the task of prescribing medi-
cine is more difficult than of prescribing a diet, and therefore
requires more courage in the physician.

7 dpOdv rodto] sc. 7d dpOdv civat TH Wevder xpjoba, ws ev pappdKov
«ide. Socrates echoes the expression of Glaucon. Cp. supra
449 C TO dpOds Toiro . . . Adyou Beira.

ei p&ddKe . . . dxpdratov elvar| ‘If the flock is to be of the
highest quality’: as above odddpa axpov.

Totpviov .. . dyAn] The words are meant to recall the analogy
of the lower animals (cp. Polit. 261).

Tots Hperépors montats| For the sort of poetry and poets to be
received in our state cp. iii. 398 A, B.

TOis ylyvouevois ydpors| ‘The unions which result’ from brides
and bridegrooms being brought together. The expression pre-
pares for the restriction following.

73 8€ wAOos, x.7.A.] ‘But the number of the marriages we
shall place under the control of the magistrates.’ For wh#@os of
a limited number or quantity, cp. Gorg. 451 Cc mas €xee mAyPous
(76 re dpriov kal rd meperrév): Phaedr. 279 c Td... xpvcod TABS cin
pot Soov, K.T.d.

_On the question of population, cp. viii. 546 a, B, p>. We may
observe that these two passages have an apparent likeness but

are not really similar in their drift. In the first, Plato supposes

Republic
V.

459
B

Republic
V~”

460
A

230 Plato: Republic.

a limitation to be placed upon population by the rulers to avoid
excess and defect of numbers: in the second, he fears the deterior-
ation and confusion of classes which may arise by ignorance in
the rulers of the so-called number of the state or cycle of human
births.

Aristotle and Plato are agreed, the latter both in the Laws and
the Republic, in limiting the state by unity, péxpis of av eOedy elvat
pia. No definite number is given in the Republic: in the Laws it
is said that the number is to be regulated by the size of neigh-
bouring states. The number finally fixed upon is 5040, which
Plato praises in respect of convenience, because it was capable of
such numerous subdivisions. At this number, in a passage which
it is hardly possible to explain, Aristotle carps. It would require,
he says, a territory as great as Babylonia to support such a vast
population in idleness, to say nothing of their attendants.

mpds Tohéwous . . . dmooKxomodvtes| Cp. ii. 372 C «vAaBovpevor
meviav i) médenov (but in the present passage the notion is rather
that of making allowance for losses sustained through war or
pestilence): and for pyre... ylyynrae cp. iv. 423 C Gras pire

opixpa 7) TAs EoTat pHte peyddrn Soxovca.

kjjpot 84 Ties ... Tods dpxovras| ‘Then, I suppose, we must
contrive some ingenious kind of lot, that the less worthy person,
on each occasion of uniting them, may lay the blame on chance,
and not on the ruler.’

For ovvepéts, cp. Tim. 18 p eis tyv rév ydpov obvep§iv, where
Plato, referring to this passage, repeats the expression, and infra
461 B py éuvépfavtos aipxovros. Cp. also the Homeric use of ovvépyo
in Od. ix. 425-427 “Apoeves dies fioav . . . | Tots dkéwy ouvéepyov
evatpepéecaot AVyoow. Plato thinks that the principles which are
observed in breeding animals should also be observed in breeding
human beings. Hence he applies the terminology of the former
to the latter. Xdvepés, properly used of the penning of animals, is
here applied to the union of men and women. Cp. the use of the
words ayéAn and roiumov supra 459 E, and of onxds infra c.

tov paidov éxetvov] The reference is to supra 459 D rods de

, ca , > Ld
gavAordrous Tais pavAoratats TovvayTiov.

iva kal... omeipwvrat| ‘That there may be moreover a colour-
able excuse for such fathers having as many children as possible.

Notes; Book V. 231

kai Gua] ‘and at the same time,’ i.e. while we honour bravery
we also reap an advantage.

eire duddrepa| For this adverbial accusative cp. Laches 187 a
4 Sdpos ) xdprow f dphdrepa.

Kowal, .. Kai dpxai, x.7.A.] ‘Offices also’ (as well as education
and the general duties of guardians, supra 456 ff.) ‘are I suppose
to be common to both women and men.’ The inference on p. 456
supra only extended to the duties of guardians generally. The
further consequence that the rulers will be taken from both sexes
is here assumed by the way. Plato seems, however, to betray
a certain consciousness that the office immediately in question
might be specially suitable for women. Cp. Laws vi. 784, vii.
794, where it is actually entrusted to women.

eis tov onkdv| Cp. Homer, Od. ix. 219, 220, where the lambs
and kids await their mothers in the pens: oretvovro 8€ ankot | "Apvav
78 épipar.

Ta 3€ Tay xeipdvuw ... KaTakpUipouow ws mpémer| Cp. infra 461 Cc
as ov« otons tpopis TO TrowtT@. Is Plato a maintainer of infanticide?
It must be admitted that the words in which he touches on this
subject are not perfectly clear. First let us consider the passage supra
459 D Sei... Tovs dpiotovs rais dapicras avyyiyvecOat ws mrerrdkis,
rovs S€ avdordrous rais havAordras Tovvavriov, kal Tay pev Ta éxyova
tpepev, Tov dé pH, ef wéAAee Td Toipnov 6 Te axpdraruv eivar, ‘The best
of either sex should be united with the best as often, and the
inferior with the inferior, as seldom as possible; and they should
rear the offspring of the one sort of union, but not of ‘the, other, if
the flock is to be maintained in first-rate condition.’ Here Plato
is speaking of keeping up the breed of the guardians in perfection :
but it does not necessarily follow that the weaklings or imperfect
individuals must be put out of the way to accomplish this: he
could have obtained his object by degradation of them to an
inferior class. Nevertheless the words rév 8 ph (sc. rpépewv) have
an ominous sound, unaccompanied as they are by any explanation
of what is to become of them. Still more ominous are the words
in the present passage ta 8€ tav xelpdvev, kal édv Te tav érépwv
dvdanpov ylyynrat, év droppyty te kal 84 w kataxpuipouow ds mpérer,
‘But the offspring of inferior parents, or of the better, when they
chance to be deformed, will be put away in some mysterious un-

Republic
V.

460
B

Republic
V.

460
G

232 Plato: Republic.

known place, as they should be.’ These words are meant to suggest
something different from rearing the children in a pen or asylum,
which Plato does not like or think it good taste more distinctly to
describe. It is further stated in 461 c that the children born of
irregular unions between parents who have passed the prescribed
limit of age, if abortion has not been already practised, shall not
be reared, padtora pev pnd cis pas expépew kina pndé y ev, day
yernta, av S€ Tt Bidonrar, ovrw TiWévar, Hs odx vans Tpopijs TH ToLwovTe.
It may be remarked that whatever doubt may be entertained
respecting the meaning of the word rpépew in the first of these
passages, there can be no doubt as to the sense which is to be
assigned to rpodijs in the last.

All three passages occur within two pages of each other: there
is therefore a strong presumption that they must be explained in
the same way. It may also be fairly argued that they must be
taken in the worst sense that they will bear, because Plato would
naturally wish to cast a veil over an unpleasant subject. Nor can
the milder view be defended by Timaeus 19 a ra 8€ trav Kakav eis

_ Thy GdAnv AdBpa diadoréov wedkw: for it is not necessary that Plato

should be perfectly consistent: he may have altered his mind or
may have forgotten.

The Greek feeling is sufficiently expressed in a well-known
passage of Aristotle (Pol. vii. 16, § 15): ‘As to the exposure and
rearing of children, let there be a law that no deformed child shall
live, but where there are too many (for in our state population has
a limit), when couples have children in excess, and the state of
feeling is averse to the exposure of offspring, let abortion be
procured before sense and life have begun; what may or may not
be lawfully done in these cases depends on the question of life
and sensation.” The occurrence of such a passage in Aristotle is
a strong reason for believing that similar passages have a similar
meaning in Plato. It shows that they are not in any degree at
variance with Greek feeling.

On the whole we must conclude that the only reason for
denying Plato to be a maintainer of infanticide is the wish to
acquit him of allowing a practice so repugnant to modern
Christian notions.

There are similar questions in antiquity; e.g. whether human
sacrifices were practised by the Greeks and Romans, about which
there is the same doubt, due to the same reticence or ambiguity,
and which should probably be answered in the same way.

Notes: Book V. 233

7a, eixoor rm] ‘a period of twenty years.’ The article, which
is added according to Greek idiom with the word of number,
defines the time in reference to the rest of life.

Ta moia adrav;| sc. rav érav, ‘Which years of life do you
mean?’ i.e. within what limits do you define the twenty or thirty
years?

yuvarkt pév .. . mevrexatmevtnKovtaérous| ‘For a woman, said
I, the proper time (yérpsos xpdvos) is to begin at twenty years of
age and to continue to bear children to the state until forty; for
a man the proper time is to begin when he has passed “the
swiftest prime of running,”’ i.e. when his powers of running are at
their highest, ‘and to beget children to the state until fifty-five.’
The words rhv é€utdtny Spduou dxpyv have also been referred to the
course of life. But it is difficult to make Spéuos refer to the race
of life where there is nothing in the context to suggest this meta-
phorical application of the phrase. In Laws (vi. 785) a man
must marry, if at all, between thirty and thirty-five, a woman
between sixteen and twenty.

Tav eis TS Kowdv yervy}cewy| This qualification is added to leave
room for the licence given infra c.

dv \dOy] sc. gis. Cp. infra c éav 8€ re Budonra. It is assumed
that, if such a birth came to the knowledge of the rulers, the child
would be at once destroyed.

émd oxdrou| Cp. the use of oxérws in Hom. Il. vi. 24, Eurip. Troad.
44, &c.

dvéyyuor | ‘unwarranted.’

kal taird y Syn . . . mpoOupeiobar| taird ye, sc. addnooper.
‘Before granting this permission, aadica ins. we must instruct them
to use all diligence,’ &e.

dav yévntar| sc. xinua, Not wacdéiov.

Bidonrar} sc. els rd as.

ofrw iOévar}] sc. 1d yryvdpevov, ‘to dispose of it on the clear
understanding that such an offspring is not to be reared.’

ms Siayvicovrar . . . ob8apds| sc. diayrdoovra. ‘ How will
they distinguish their fathers and daughters and the other relatives
of each other whom you mentioned?’ (1) ‘Not at all,’ ie. they

Republic
V.

460
‘E

461 -
A

Republic
V.

461
D

234 Plato: Republic.

will not know their own fathers and daughters, &c. in the literal
sense. Or (2), as sometimes elsewhere, the negation with éAha is
only a stronger way of saying ‘simply as follows.’ Cp. iv. 424 D
and note: also infra 472 B adda ti roiTd y 5 en. OdSEv GAN’ ea,
Kit A [L. C.]

Plato’s ‘table of prohibited degrees’ appears to be the following.
Brothers and sisters (except in the reserved case of a ‘dis-
pensation’ from the Oracle), parents and children, grandparents
and grandchildren. ‘These terms are all relative to the common
marriage of the hymeneal festival. Brothers and sisters are those
born from seven to ten months afterwards; they cannot marry
those who took part in the festival, who are all their parents,
any more than one another; nor any one who took part in the
festivals from seven to ten months before the birth of their parents.

There is no difficulty in this passage if we bear in mind that
Plato uses the words parents and children, brothers and sisters in
a new sense which he consistently observes. Some of the results
of his arrangements he hardly saw or does not care to notice.
The infrequency of the opportunity of nuptial intercourse is
singular: but this is not unreasonable if it is considered that the
nuptial scheme has absolutely no other object but the procreation
of children: also the circumstance is to be remarked that those
who were united in any hymeneal festival would rarely be born
in ‘the same year owing to the difference in the marriageable
age prescribed for men and women.

pet éxeivny Sexdrw pyvi kat éBSduo 84] ‘After an interval of
ten or indeed of seven months’: an inexact way of saying, ‘From
seven to ten months after. 8 draws attention to the more
exceptional case.

kal odtw 8} Ta TovTwy Exyova] ‘Their offspring defined in the
same way. Cp. Theaet. 156 c ta 8€ yevvdpeva obtw 8%.

dv 6 KAijpos Tadry fupmimry| It is not forgotten that the lottery
has been cunningly devised by the rulers: supra 460 a.

The great merit of the new arrangement is that it secures the
unity of feeling in the state: so that if one member suffer, the whole
body shall suffer with it, and the gladness of one shall be the
gladness of all.

In other states one family sorrows, another rejoices at the same

ie

—-

Notes: Book V. 235

event ; «the rulers, though fellow-citisens, are masters, the people
slaves, and even the ruling class are bound together by no tie but
that of office. Whereas in our community the people regard the
rulers as their protectors and are regarded by them in turn as
bread-winners, and the rulers will be all one family, not only in
name, but in reality,

This new institution ts in keeping with the community of pro-
perty which was previously ordained. And both together, by
securing unanimity, will render quarrels and crimes of violence
impossible in our state. Nor shall we have poor men flattering the

Republic
V.

461 E-
466 D

rich, nor fathers of families harassed by petty cares, but the life of .

our guardians will be more enviable than that of Olympian victors.
So little need we fear the objection that in forbidding them to have
property we have made them less happy than the other citizens.
Should any of them be moved by a low ambition and seek to
appropriate the state to himself, he will learn to his cost how truly
Hesiod said, ‘ Half is better than the whole.’

ds 8€... mapa tod Adyou| BeBardicacPar tapda tod Adyou is literally
‘to obtain confirmation from the argument,’ which, as elsewhere,
is personified. Cp. Gorg. 489 A py POdver poe amroxpivacba todTo,
Kadnikvers, iv’, dv por dporoynons, BeBardowpar H8y Tapa cod, dre ixavod
avdpbs Stayvavat @podoynkéros.

In what follows Plato appears to confuse the absolute unity of
the state with the harmony or balance of the various elements
which are contained in the state. He has no idea of a unity of
opposites or differences—rd avrifouv cuppéporv. May we not
imagine some Athenian statesman or man of the world saying:
‘O Socrates, did you ever see one individual who was by nature the
same as another? and is not a state made up of differences of
character as well as of different employments? And if you could
destroy these differences by education, would you not reduce men
to a powerless unity in which their best qualities are lost?’ Such
has certainly been the fate of religious orders, who, in a spirit not
unlike that of Plato’s Republic, have attempted to extinguish
individual character or genius in a common interest. Cp. Arist.
Pol. ii. 2, § 3 od pdvov 8 ex mrebvav dvOparav éoriv f nddus, GAG Kai ef
elder duapepdvrwv. Cp. also ibid. c. 2, § 2; c. 5, §§ 13-17. This
truth begins to find acknowledgement in Plato’s regulations con-
cerning marriage in the Politicus and Laws (Polit. 309, 310:
Laws vi. 773).

461
E

Republic
V,

462
A

>
PO

See

236 Plato: Republi.

Tis Spodoyias| ‘Of the mutual understanding or agrgement,’

-implied in the words as 5€ émopevn re rh GAAn modereia... dei...

BceBawoacba mapa tod Adyov,

dpa... iptv dppdrrer| ‘If we find that it fits the impress of
the good.’ For ‘piv cp. supra 451 D «i tpiv mpére and note.
& viv 8 SiunOopev: sc. the community of women and children.

8é ye tay ToLodTwy iBiwors ... Tav év TH WOdeL;| The clause
drav of pev... €v TH médev; is the explanation of iSiwors, as in the
next sentence the clause érav ... oi« éeudv; is the explanation of

€k Toude,

év qrive 8)... Stoxetrat;| This is that barren unity which
Aristotle condemns (Pol. ii. cc. 3, 4: also c. 5, § 14 domep xiv et
Tis THY auphwviay Tmonoeev Spopaviay i Tov pvdpov Baow pilav). TobTO

refers to rd re éuov Kal 7d ovk eudv in the previous sentence.

kal yrs Sh... exer | aitn apiora dsouxeirae is to be supplied
from the previous sentence. The illustration then proceeds until
Glaucon gives his assent and returns to the original question of
Socrates (rodro 6 ¢pwras). For the expression 4 kata 1d copa

. TeTapéevn cp. ix. 584 C ui ye dua rod ceparos emi thy Yuxny
teivovoa ... ndovai: Theaet. 186 c 60a dia rod owpartos mabnpara emi
Thy Wuxnv reiver: Phil. 34.c, D: Tim. 64. The redundancy of ody
after maoa is occasioned by the antithesis of pépous.

6 aidtds yap... médts oixet| For olxeiv as a neuter cp. iv. 421 A
kai ad Tod ed oiketv Kal evdatpoveiy pdvor Tov Katpov Exovow: Vill. 543 A

Th pedAovon akpws oikety moet.

Spa ay ein . . . éwavévat fpiv| For the familiar idiom cp.

Theaet. 145 C pa... coi per emderkviva, epoi d€ cxoneicba,

Ta Tod Adyou Spodoyypara] ‘The things agreed to.’ Cp. ii.
362 B Bovdevpara and note.

gore pév trou... Gpxovtés te kal SHpos| For the use of the
singular verb with a plural substantive, cp. ii. 363 A wa...
yiyyntar ... dpxai re kal ydyor, «.7.A, and note.

mpds TO Tohitas| SC. mpooayopeven.

tav épxévtwv] ‘with regard to the rulers.’ The genitive is at
first vague, as supra 459 B Ti 5¢ immer oie . ..; and is then brought
into government with ei tts.

Notes: Book V. 237

tov pev olketov . . . (c) odx éautod;| ‘The friend he thinks and
speaks of as belonging to him; the stranger as not belonging to
him.’

métepov airois... kara Ta dvéuara mpdrrew;| ‘ Will you merely
assign to them by law the name of friends?’ It is hardly neces-
sary to observe that vopoderety has two constructions in the
successive clauses: (1) with 7a évépata: (2) with mpdrrew.

mepi te tods matépas| The correlative phrase (xal rods dAdous
€vyyeveis) is deferred through the expansion of the sentence, and
the lost thread is resumed in the words xai wept marépov . . « Kai
mepi Tov GdAwv ~vyyevay, in construction with burncovow.

abrai cou 4 Gddat pihpar ... (E) 0¢yyowro] This resumption
only regards the latter part of the preceding sentence (ij pyre mpéds
GeGv ... i) raira), in which not the law itself, but the sanction of
_the law is spoken of.

ipvycouow] is used intransitively like oixeiv in the expression
i) Gpiora Twodrevopérn mods oixed (SUPA 462 D).

&papev| supra 462 B, Cc.
Kowy | Sc. yeyvouevas.

odkoiv pddiora . . . €Gouow;] As Aristotle truly remarks (Pol.
ii. 1), ‘mine and thine,’ as well as ‘father and mother,’ have
received a new meaning; Plato seems to forget that the legislator
cannot create by new use of names the feeling of family relation-
ship where no such relationship exists. The sweetness of the
‘wine,’ which is the affection of a family, has been dissolved in
water (Ar. Pol. ii. 4, 7, 8).

mpds TH GAAQ Kataotdce.| ‘besides the general arrangement of
the state,’ i.e. the other arrangements not including the community
of wives and children. Cp. supra 463 a, B.

odpatt... &s éxet] The slight harshness of adding mpés pépos
abtod to compare (cp. infra 466 D mapa ghiow ri rod Ondeos mpds rd
dapper) is softened by the further addition of ds éxee Avmys, «.7.A.

rois mpéadey ye] The reference is to iii. 415 & ff.
kowy tdvtas dvadicxew] This was implied in the institution of
ovaciria, which were a xow) dvddwors ris 8idopévns tpodijs (iii. 416 £).

Republic
V. *

464
A

ee
' rau Pie

ci?
- .

238 Plato: Republic.

Mheiiite kai yuvatkd Te Kai maidas érépous| sc. dvoud{ovras ‘euous.’ ‘ Calling
i a a different wife and different children his own.’
D iSiev Svrwv] sc. rév re maidwv Kai Tis yuvatkds.
E doa ye... otracidLouow ;| ‘They are blest with peace from all
those factious dispositions which,’ &c. é¢a is cognate accusative.
See Riddell’s Digesé, § 2.

kat phy o08€ Braiwy ye, x.7.4.] The mention of offences against
the person is suggested by the exception of wAjv 15 oGpa in the
preceding sentences. (Cp. the classification of criminal offences
in the Laws, Book ix, especially pp. 879, 880.)

BSixatws dv elev] ‘Can have any right to exist,’ i.e. may be
expected. This use is idiomatic :—cp. « pi ddixo (iv. 430 £, &c.).

mAs pev yap . . . Sixardy wou pycopev| ‘First, I believe we
shall declare it to be chivalrous and right for equals to defend,
themselves against equals.’ The order is pnoopev mov Kaddv xai
Sixacov Arigw apiverba duxas. The dative depends on xaddv kal
dixawv, Cp. Laws ix. 879 EF HAE Se AAtka .. . dpuvéoOw xara hiow
divev Bédous Widais tais xepoiv. The correlative to pév (‘in. the first
place’) is supplied by pay infra.

dvdyknvy . . . T0évtes] ‘In this way we shall oblige them to
keep themselves in condition’: literally, ‘setting compulsion on
the care of their persons.’ The reading dvdyxnv .. . émpedeia
has the greater manuscript authority. Several variations occur:
dvirykn (=), emmedeias (g supported by Stobaeus), éméAccav (II =):
the two last appear to be corrections.

kat yap Té8¢ dp0dv .. . 6 vdpos| dpOdv echoes and expands épéas
supra. Cp. 459 pD and note.

465 év TH ToLodTw| ev TH adrixa duiverOa, For mAnpdv tov Oupdy cp.
Soph. Phil. 324 @vpov yévorro xerpi mAnpdcai more.
mpeoButépw phy vewrépwv mdvtwv apxew| Cp. iii. 412 ¢.
kal piv... as Td elds] Ore ye, K.7.A., Sc. SpAov, Cp. iii. 407 E.

as 1d eixds = ‘as is likely,’ is added to supplement the defective
construction. For the sense cp. iv. 425 B.

B Séos 8€... Bonbetv] Although ré, the MS. reading, may be
construed—‘the fear, namely, that succour will be brought,’

Notes: Book V. 239

Madvig's simple change of 1ré to tod seems justifiable. Cp. iv.
440 C.

fupBaiver yap obrws| ‘That is clearly the result’ (viz. of our
institutions—éx ray vépev infra).

rodTwy phy... S8xooraryeyn| Plato, as Aristotle remarks (Pol.
ii. 5, 18 ff.), seems hardly to think of the lower orders of the state,
The question which is raised in the Politics has no answer: ‘ Did
he mean the communism of the higher orders to extend to the
lower?’ ‘There is certainly no proof that he did.

80 dmpémeav| Cp. iv. 425 B-E, 442 E Ta goptiKa aitd mpoo-
épovres, x. A,

kohakelas Te WAougiwy mévytes| (1) ‘ Flatteries of the rich, in the
case of the poor’: kodakeias, like &mopias and dAynSdvas, is the
accusative after Aéyew, while wéyntes is in apposition (part with
whole) with the nominative of d&m\dAaypévor Gv elev: the full
expression iS Kodaxeias te mAovoliay dy mévnres amnddaypéve dv elev,
Or (2) kodakelas gen. sing. in the same case with dv.

Topedew mapaddytes| Cp. iii. 416 D otknow Kai tapceiov pyderi
elvat: Vili. (50D TO ramteiov . . . éxeivo Exdot@ xpvotov mAnpovpevov
aroAdvot Thy TovavTny Today,

dmadhdgovrat] Cobet’s conjecture, dmn\ddgovra (future perfect),
though in strict accordance with dmn\Aaypévor dv fev supra, is quite
needless, and the form does not occur elsewhere.

yépa Séxovrar . . . petéxovoww| Plato seems at first to have
intended to end the sentence at tedeutqoavtes, but by an after-
thought expands the word into an independent clause. Cp. Phaedr.
258 c lodbcov Hyeira aitds te airov ere Cav, kai of Exerta yeyvopevor TaiTa

Tatra Tepi avrod vopifovar,
otk ol8a érou| viz. Adeimantus’ imaginary objector, iv. 419 ff.

mrovoipev . . . oxepoinea .. . woroipev] The optative has sufficient
manuscript authority, and is therefore preferred, although the
readings of A, nowtpev (bis), oxeydueba, are not impossible.

ei wou mapanimror| ‘If so be that the topic should fall in our way.’
Cp. viii. 561 B.

py my Kata... Tov Tov yewpyav;] ‘Can it from any point of
view be regarded as on a level with that of the husbandman,’ &c.
Cp. Gorg. 512 B py oot doxei kata Tov dtxanxdy elvar ;

Republic
V.

465
B

240 Plato: Republic.
i aed éxei| iv. 420 D.

466 pevei ... Biw| either (1) ‘ he will continue in, or remain true to,
. this life.’ Cp. vi. 496 B mdvopixpoy... kata iow petvay é adity: or
(2) taking pevet in a more general and absolute sense, ‘he will
remain where he is (i.e. he will be content) when such a life is
offered to him.’ (émi = on condition of.)

ouyxwpeis| here is followed by two constructions: first by the
accusative of the noun (kowwviav), then by the infinitive (Setv,
mpage). ‘You agree to the community ..., viz. that the women
should (8etv) .. . and that if they do so they will do (mpagew) what
is best....

D ) TepUKatoy ... Kowwvetv] These words are added in limitation
and further explanation of mapa gvuouw.

466 D- Here Glaucon would have reminded Socrates of the question

471 C which had been left to the last,—whether such a revolution of estab-
lished custom is possible. Socrates anticipates him by subtly
interposing a point of detail, which still detains them for some time.
What are to be the laws and usages of war? The women will go
campaigning with the men, and they will take their children with
them (except those of tender age), mounted on swift and well-trained
horses, under proper guidance and protection, to see the battle and to
perform such services as they are fitted for. Thus, while their
safety is provided for, they will learn their future occupation, and
their presence will heighten the valour of their parents.

As to military discipline, the appropriate punishment for cowardice
in action will be the degradation of the offender to the rank of an
artisan, and if he is taken prisoner, we may make a present of
him to the enemy. As rewards for eminent service in the field,
there will be crowns, ovations and favours from the young and
beautiful (as before said), not to mention feasts for which we have
the example in Homer. Those who die bravely for their country
shall be declared to be of the golden (or royal) race, and shall have
divine honours paid to them, as the God at Delphi shall direct.
And a similar tribute shall be assigned to those who die at home
after doing eminent service.

But how will our soldiers treat their enemies? They will dis-
tinguish between Hellenes and barbarians. No Hellenic city shall
be enslaved ; no Hellene held in bondage. And it shall be forbidden

Notes: Book V. 241

to despoil the dead, both on grounds of humanity and discipline.
Hellenic armour (unless by Divine command) shall not be hung as
a trophy in the temples of Greek Gods. Nor shall Hellenic terri-
tory be ravaged, or Hellenic villages burnt. For the quarrel of
Hellene with Hellene is not war, but sedition, an untoward variance
between kinsmen ; and it should be kept within strict bounds, not
suffered to degenerate into unnatural violence. Nor should men
act as if such contention were irreconcileable. In warring with
barbarians, which alone ts truly war, the usages heretofore practised

by the Hellenes in fighting amongst themselves are quite barbarous

enough.

obkody, hv 8 éyd, .. (Ek) wokepyoouow] ‘The only question that
remains, is as to the possibility of the scheme.’ ‘That is what
I was going to suggest.’ ‘We need not speak about war, for it is
obvious what will be the manner of their wars.’

EpOns . . . SwodHpecbar| ‘ You have forestalled an interruption
which I was meditating.’ tmodapBdverOae has the meaning of
interrupting, taking up a conversation, cp. Prot. 318 a tmodaBav

9
+ €LTTEV,

Trepi pev yap Tov év Te Tohgpw, K.7.A.] ydp introduces the reason
why the possibility of the scheme is the o#/y remaining topic (Ao:dév
supra). The real motive of the digression is an artistic one. The
great peripeteia, the on-rushing of the ‘third wave,’ is made more
impressive by being delayed.

Ste Kowy ... (467 4) Kal pytépas] The words S:axovely, x.t.X.,
follow the general notion of what is fitting. They may be construed
with G§ouor., but the change is occasioned by Seqoe intervening.
For &8poi cp. Hdt. iv. 180 éedy dé yuvari rd madiov adpoy yevnrat.

ola 8) ev modduw gidet] sc. yiyrecda. Cp. viii. 5658 ddixos
érarri@pevos, ola 5} drdodaw (sc. rroveiv),

évahaBeiv] here as often in later writers is intransitive in mean-
ing = ‘ to recover.’

kai odk Gov KivSdvou| (1) odx agov is co-ordinate with opexpdv.
‘Do you think the difference unimportant and not worth some
risk?’ Or (2) the words odk dgtov xwSdvou are parenthetical and are
to be joined with Oewpeiv, neglecting 4 ph. [B. J.]

VOL. 11. R

Republic
V.

466 D-
471 C

467
B

Republic
V.

467
Cc

468

242 Plato: Republic.

mraidas ... ésopévous| ‘ Boys who are to be men of war.’

ToiTo pev Gpa Swapxréov| ‘This then we must begin with.’
imdpxew, ‘to begin with,’ being used with the accusative as well as
the genitive, is legitimately formed into a passive verbal with todro
in the accusative.. mpoopnxavac8a depends on the general notion
of duty implied in imaperéov.

Soa avOpwro| sc. yrdvar mepixacr, Cp. Crit. 46 E bea ye

ravOpare:a,
eddaByoortar| sc. dye.

adda ydp| introduces an objection. ‘But this is not enough.
For many accidents defy calculation.’ This is said in the same
spirit as supra B odadeiow, ofa 81 &v rodeuo gure. He is careful to
enumerate all the risks with the view of providing against them.

kat SiS8agapévous twmedew| ‘And when we have had them taught
to ride.’ 8i8agapévous is a correction of g. Cp. Meno 93 D Gemioro-
Ans KAedhavroy tov vidv imméa pev €didaéato ayabdv, The construction of
the accusative with the gerundive (8:8agapévous . . . dxtéov = jyas
ddakapévous adrovs (sc. rods maidas) dei ayew) is quite legitimate ; al-
though édagayevors would be more unequivocal here. The reading
of AIIM, d:da£opévous, could only mean ‘ that they may teach them-
selves to ride.’ But it would surely be more reasonable for them
to learn to ride before they were taken on such expeditions. And
the rare reflexive use in Aristoph, Clouds 127: Soph. Ant. 356
will not justify such an interpretation either of the future or of the
aorist here. Another reading, 8:daxéévras, is probably conjectural.
The passage is referred to in Vil. 537 A.

73 aitav Epyov| sc. eadpevor.

m@s éxtéov go. Tos oTpaTidtas| Was ExTéov ;—=Tas Exew dei; Gor
is an ethic dative: ‘ How should you have your soldiers disposed
to one another and to their enemies ?’

mot dv] Sc. ety ra col katapawépeva. [H. Richards cj. moia 87 ;}
Tois Oouer| sc. exeuv.

SefwOivar| defotcda often means ‘to extend the right hand
towarcs a person in token of admiration,’ See especially Soe.
El. 975,976: Xen. Hellen. v. 1, 3 oddels éxeivov rev nian: ds odk
Befaoato, cai 6 pev coreavacer, «.7.d.

radian oul Keaton fone
147 Are, Oem Sel. ol

Notes: Book V. 243

kal pyderi égeivar} «al, which is omitted in some MSS,, including Republic
A, may indicate the addition of a further clause to the law. ‘ Be it 7 68
furthermore enacted,’ &c. Cp. iii. 417 a and note. fe
aipécers tév to.odrwy| Either (1) ‘there will be more frequent
selections of such men’ (rovodrwv referring to éya0@ dvr) ‘than of
others by the rulers to take part in the marriage festivals,’ cp. supra
460 A,B; or (2) ‘ success in winning such prizes.’
GAG phy Kal Kad” “Ounpov ... (Dd) thy loxdy adgjoer} Il. vii.
321, 322
vorourw 8 Alavra Sinvececot yépatpey
pws "Arpeidns, edpuxpeiov "Ayapepver,
As in iii. 408 B and elsewhere, Socrates takes a humorous delight
in supporting his opinions by the authority of Homer.
ds tadrny oikeiav odcay tysqv| ‘implying that this wasa proper D
way of honouring.’

taitdé ye] ‘in ¢his,’ although we refuse to follow him in other
things (ii. 383 a, &c.).

vév 84] supra B, c.

kal xpéacw ... Semdeoow| II. viii. 162: xii 311. This may f£
seem a curious form of training and hardly consistent with
ili. 390 A, B, &c.; but compare Laws i. 649. Plato cannot be held
up as an advocate of total abstinence, but rather of moderation
in the use of wine.

Tod xpucod yévous| iii. 415 A-C.

GAN’ of Tetodpe8a “Hoiddw] The lines which follow are altered
from Hesiod, Op. et Dies, 121 ff. :
roi pev Saipovés eior Aids peyddrou da Bovdds,
€cOroi, émtxOdnor, piraxes Ovntav avOporrav.
They occur also in Crat. 398 a, where it is inferred that Hesiod
meant by daiuoves the wise and good. Ib. c ds dv dyabds F Satpdnov
elva, kai (@vra kal redeutrnoavra Kai dpbds Saipova KadreioOa.
Tod Tovovrou| roi xpvoov. Cp. iv. 424A. _ ith .
mas xph ... Tuva] ‘ how to order the sepulture of heroic and 469
divine persons’: r@éva: used absolutely for és rapas riBévae (cp. ras
Onxas infra B).

ti 8€; mpds Tods wohepious, x.7..] Plato would make a distinction B
R 2

Republic
eared

469
B

244 Plato: Republic.

between Greek meeting Greek and the wars of Greeks with bar-
barians, not unlike that which has been observed in. modern times
between the wars of civilized nations with one another and with
Orientals or savages.

What are to be the usages of war is a question which has not
received a complete solution. This is due to the comparative
infrequency of wars and the variety of their circumstances. The
precedents are few and there are no courts to sanction or register
them. Still some shadow or reflection of law seems to watch
over a state of man which in one sense is the negation of law.
As in other cases in which the law of nations fails, the law
of nature tends to appear. 1. In ancient times there was
a faith that ‘God would defend the right’; and in our own
day justice has not so entirely vanished from the world, but that
some plea or appearance of right also gives might. 2. As
there must be a degree of justice in the commencement, there
must also be some regard to the common rights of humanity
in the conduct of a war: (a) so much truth and sincerity in the
dealings of the two adversaries as may enable them to fight col-
lectively ; an army would cease to be an army which had no word
of honour with their opponents; (4) so much humanity as is
consistent with the object of war; everyone would agree that
a destruction of life or property, say of an unfortified town or of
helpless persons, which had no military result, was barbarous and
inhuman ; (c) but the question when the destruction of life and
property is justified by the military result is always a matter of
opinion ; (Z) the first thoughts of mankind regard war as a great
evil, which is to be humanized as far as possible; their second
thoughts lead them to doubt the ‘ greatest humanity principle,’ as
likely to multiply and protract the evil: on the other hand, cruelty
or severity, which may perhaps tend to shorten wars, tends also to
deprive them of their chivalry, and to demoralize those who are
engaged in them; (e) neutral nations insist that the two belligerents
shall not be allowed so to injure one another, as permanently to
injure the world: also that they shall settle their quarrel within as
narrow limits and with as little injury to others as possible. 3. An
element of feeling and courtesy happily enters into the usages of
war; the friendly relation of individuals is not wholly absorbed in
the collective antagonism; the condition of prisoners is ameliorated,
and the eommunications between the two parties are couched in
friendly language, and are not interpreted by legal technicalities.

Notes: Book V. 245

4. No Christian or civilized nation would willingly overstep the
limits of custom. The soldier may be trained to give the most
fatal wound; the engineer may invent deadly machines: but the
suggestion of any new kind of death by poisoning and suffocation
is revolting to the military as well as to the common feeling. With
a like inconsistency, the Greek, who slew his prisoners, nevertheless
restored the bodies of the slain. 5. Speculative politicians have
sometimes imagined that war, which has been in some degree
regulated, might be further conventionalized into a duel between
armies and fleets. But the elements of war are never so com-
pletely under our control, or the situation so equal, as to admit of
such a convention. International law, whether about neutral ships
or goods, rights of blockade, privateering, can only be altered by
common consent ; and the alterations commonly affect the relative
positions of different nations in the event of war. 6. That one
usage of war should be maintained towards Greeks, one towards
barbarians—one towards Europeans, another towards Indians or
New Zealanders, may be palliated by necessity or previous wrong,
but cannot be defended in theory. ‘A great nation’s little wars’
are commonly the least creditable part of her history.

Soxel Sikatoy ... Todro Bifew] GAAy sc. wore (dAAw =). For the
form of sentence cp. Theaet. 154 A €xyets rovro inyupas, i) mod paddoy,
x.t.A. For the influence of this feeling on actual Greek usages of
war cp. Xen. Hellen. i. 6, § 14 KeAcevdvrav tov cuppdywr amodéaba
kai rods MnOupvaious ovk én (6 KadXexparidas) éavrod ye apxovtos ovdéva

“EAAnver eis 7d exeivov Suvardv avdparrodia Ojvat.

kai todto éBifew] sc. rods "EAAnvas. Our state is a Greek state
(cp. 470 £) and will therefore habitually spare their own kinsmen.

thy bd tOv BapBdpwv Soudeiav| ‘Their enslavement by the
barbarians,’

Sdw kal wavri] ‘altogether,’ ganz und gar. The expression is
varied in different places, r@ 6A@ kai mavri (Rep. vii. 527 c): ro
marti Kai dm (Laws v. 734 E).

pyde... EupBouhedew;] ‘Is it just that they should not even
possess a Greek as a slave and that they should advise the other
Hellenes not to do so either?’ The sentence is divided by pyre...
te, the latter particle introducing a variation of pyre rovs dAdouvs.
_The infinitives depend on the general notion of 8oxei dixasov, under-
stood from the previous question.

Republic
V.
469
B

Republic
V.

469
c

470
A

246 Plato: Republic.

oxudedew .. . AR StAwy, K.t.A.] Xenophon tells us (Hell. ii. 4,
§ 19) that Thrasybulus and his friends, after their victory over the
thirty tyrants, ra pev Stra €dafov, rods dé xir@vas oidevds Tav TOhiTaY
érkvdevoay,

4 03 mpdpaow . . . Tois Serdots Exe] For the use of yw cp.
Thue, ii. 41 otre 7G modepig emedOdvte ayavaxtnow EXEL.

tod Baddvros] ‘of him who hit them,’ is the reading of Par. A.
Other MSS. have Béddovros, ‘of the thrower’ in general, or ‘of
him who is throwing at them.’ This passage is quoted by Aris-
totle, Rhet. iii. 4, § 3, as a specimen of an eixa@y: Kai 6 év ry moduteia TH
TlAdtevos, dtt of tovs teOveras oxvdevovres eoikace Tois Kumdios, & Tods

AiOovs Saxver Tov BadrdAdvT@v ovx dntdpeva.

éatéov .. . Tas TOv dvaipécewv Siaxwhicers| ‘We must let alone
spoliation of the dead, or prevention of the removal of corpses.’
See Thuc. iv. 97-101 (the affair of Delium).

éatéov pévtor| pévtot here implies strong assent to a proposition
which alters what had previously been thought.

éav py te $y, «.7.A.] Plato thus avoids clashing directly with
religious tradition. He will not lay down the law too rigidly, but
allows an appeal against himself to the oracle of Delphi (iv.
4278, C). See Paus. x. 10, § 3.

yiis te tpyoews| For the omission of mepi cp. supra 459 B ti

S€ immov ote ...5 Vil. 515 B ti b€ trav mapadhepopevwy; ov TavTov

todro; and Gorg. 500 p. The correction tiyjocews, formerly

adopted by the Zurich editors (‘assessment of the territory’ ?), is
not in keeping with the corresponding clause, and is unsupported
by manuscript authority. What is expressed in yjv réuvew, which is
forbidden, is clearly more than the removal of the year’s produce,
which he allows (infra p), and would include the cutting down of
fruit-trees, the destruction of farm buildings and the like.

ti got Spdcouow| For oo cp. supra 468 A mas éxréov gor rods
oTpati@ras ;

8vo tadra, x.t.A.] The article rd, which is added after raira in
some MSS: (M&), throws a stronger emphasis on the verb, but
makes no real difference in the sense: ‘It appears to me that
wars and sedition, as they are two in name, are two in reality.’

vra émi Buoy... TH 706 @\Xotpiou médepos| ‘being applied to

Notes: Book V. 247

differences arising in two things. And the two things I speak of Aepudblic
are what is domestic or kindred and what is alien or foreign.
Accordingly sedition is the name for the enmity of what is
domestic: war, for the enmity of what is alien.’ The quarrel or
enmity of what is domestic and kindred = the quarrel of one state
with itself: the quarrel or enmity of what is alien and foreign = the
quarrel of two states with one another. For kadeiv dvopa emi rem
cp. Parmen. 147 p, Soph. 218c: and for the use of the passive,
Eurip. Hec. 1271 rip3o 8 bvopa oG Kexdyoetar. The particle ody
(émi pév odv), which is omitted in a few MSS., is probably genuine.
It is hardly worth while, therefore, to discuss whether the asyndeton
which is occasioned by the omission of od» is justified by examples.
The genitives are possessive or descriptive: ‘where the relation is
that of kindred,’ ‘ where it is that of aliens.’ For the definition of
otdows cp. Soph. 228 a ri rod pice ~vyyevois &k twos diapbopas
Stapopdy.

470
B

kai odS€v ye... do tpdmou Adyers| ‘That is a very just mode
of speaking.’ do in the sense of ‘away from’ is accented by the
grammarians as a paroxytone, a distinction however which is often
neglected in the MSS.

Spa 8% Kai ei T48€.. . A€yw] Kai belongs in sense to 7d8e. c

“EAAnvas pev dpa .. . thy €x@pav tadtmy Kdyréov] A slight
variation in the order of the text occurs here: instead of wodepeiv
paxopévous te... etvar, some MSS. (including A mg.) read payopevous
mohepeiv te in Order to give te its proper position after the main
verb. But re may follow modepeiy payopuevous as a single word.

fuyxwpo obtw vopifew| ‘I agree to hold this language.’ D

év tH viv Spodoyoupévy otdoer| ‘In what people now agree
in calling sedition,’ i.e. in sedition as ordinarily understood, as
opposed to the new meaning which Socrates has given to it, viz.
the war of Greeks with Greeks. For the use of viv in such
a connexion cp. ii. 372 E éwa dmep xat of viv €xovor: vii. 529 A os
pev viv avrny peraxetpiCovrat oi eis didocodiay avayorres,

ds Gdurnpidys te, «.7.A.] ds is substituted for ér at the begin-
ning of the sentence. It is to be taken with GAttnpiddys in the

sense of ‘how.’ ‘ How wicked does the strife appear! and neither
of the two parties seem lovers of their country. Cp. vi. 496 c.

Thy tpopédy te kai pytépa Keipew| See note on iii, 414 E.

Republic
V.

470
E

471 C-
473 €

‘oe

‘

248 Plato: Republic.

pérpiov etvar] The force of doxei is continued from above.

&s S:addaynoopévwv| For the construction of S:avoetoPat ds cp.
i. 327 C ys... py dkoucopévey . . . Siavoeiobe: vii. 523.c as

eyyvdev roivuy Spwpévous Aéyorrds pov Sravood.

airy 4 Sidvoa éxetvns| airy refers to the words immediately
preceding, rovs kaprodvs apaipeioOa . . . modeunodvrwv: éxeivns to éav

c ,
ExdTepot, K.T.A,

iv od wodw oixiLers| od is emphatic. The new city shares the
nationality of Glaucon, who is playfully called the founder of it.

GAN’ od... Gvep ot GAdou tepdv;| For o68€ in interrogations
cp. supra 455 E 008€ woAepn ;

swppovodow| For the significance of this term cp. Xen. Hell.
ili. 2, § 23 oke rois édpors Kai rH exkAnola awhpovicat avrovs (Sc.
tovs ’HXetous), and the context there.

émd tv dvattiwv ddyouvtwy| The innocent, who are in the
majority (cp. s pity rév woAdGv), compel the minority (cp. dAlyous
det €x@povs, «.7.d.), for whose guilt they are made to smart, to
submit.

mpds 8€ tols BapBdpous, ds . . . mpds GAAHAous] ‘And they
should deal with barbarians as the Greeks now deal with one
another. The irony is transparent.

In the previous clause the ingenuity of the transcriber of g has
unnecessarily altered évayriovs into “EAAnvas. That Greeks only are
intended is clear from the context. .

Oapev, pn... kal ta mpdoGev| The infinitive €xew is governed
by 6pev, which is used in two constructions: ‘ We will lay down
this law, and we will assume that this and the former enactments
are excellent.’ For the infinitive after riOnue cp. i. 331 A €ywye
TiOnpe Tiy TOY xpnudrov KThow mreiorou akiay eivat.

Glaucon grows impatient of the digression and Socrates can no
longer elude the advance of the ‘third and greatest wave. The
new institution involves innumerable benefits, but is it possible?
Can this ideal ever become real?

Socrates first pleads that such a demand goes beyond the aim

_ proposed (ii. 368), which is to find the nature of Justice in the

abstract. If we have made that discovery, our success will not be

Notes: Book V. 249

discredited, though we should be unable to show an actual embodi-
ment of Justice answering to the ideal conception of it. Jt ts
enough to have obtained a pattern by which to judge of approximate
resemblances, without seeking for absolute agreement. And tf asked
in what way the nearest approximation can be made, we must
premise that in the nature of things all practical realization must
fall short of the ideal as conceived in thought and expressed in
language.

What then is the simplest and least difficult change within the
range of human possibility, by which the present hindrances to the
attainment of perfection may be removed? One change there is
that would effect this object, and it ts not impossible, though neither
slight nor easy.

St ye, et yévorto ... 4 yévorto, x.7.A.] The point to be chiefly
dwelt on is put forward, leaving the construction in suspense,
and the words kal & od apadeiwers €yo Aé€yw supply the
apodosis: ‘For as to the advantages of this form of govern-
ment, if possible, to the state in which it might be possible, I add
particulars not mentioned by you.’ For a similar turn of ex-
pression cp. iv. 420A vai, qv 8 eyo, cal ratra ye émioirioe .. . Katn-
yopnuéva, and for mapwodpevos cp. Soph. Trach. 358 év viv wapdcas
ovros éumadu eyes.

Stu Kal Tois wohepiots, «.7.A.] As in vii. 528 £, 537 D, the lively
imagination of Glaucon seizes on the incidental results and circum-
stances of the institution which is in question. ytyvdéoxovtes is to
be taken closely with what follows, ‘acknowledging each other as
brothers,’ &c. Compare supra 461 c.

oTpayyevopevy | instead of the unmeaning orparevopéevy, is the
ingenious emendation of Orelli; and is also found as a correction
in the Viennese MS. F: ‘You have no mercy on my hesitation.’
The metaphor in the word otpayyedouat is taken from the falling
of drops of water extracted by pressure: cp. orpevyouat, and for
the use of the word Aristoph. Nubes 131 ti rair’ €yor orpayyevouat ;
Acharn. 126 kémrer’ eyo dir’ évOadi otpayyedopar; This reading is
confirmed by the resumption of the same idea in @xvouv re kai
édedoixn infra. orparevouévp may have been suggested to a scribe
by the association of kataSpophvy éroujow: or possibly by the
notion which Stallbaum seems to entertain that warfare is the
subject in hand.

Republic
V.

471 C-
473 ©

472
A

>) See os

250 Plato: Republic.

Republic THs Tpixuplas| The same metaphor occurs in the Euthydemus
V. 293 A caoa tas... ek THs TpiKUplas Tod Adyov. It is continued
_— infra 473 C ém aird 5)... eipe 6 1O peyiorm mporexafoper Kipart.

5 émeSav . . . émixerpetv SiacKxomeivy| dkxovoys still preserves the
metaphor of the wave, referring to its roar. The expression étt
eixétws dpa expands the idea of ovyyvépuny, ‘ you will make allow-
ance for me and feel that my hesitation was natural,’

Adyov éyeww te] This is the reading of MZ. The reading of
Par, A, Ven. I, Aéyetv Adyov re, might be preferred as the durzor
lectio, but on no other ground. It is probably an accidental mis-
writing. The reading of the text is also supported by g corr., the
first hand having written Aéyew A€yew according to Schneider, who
examined the MS. after Bekker.

2 , oa
FrTov | SC. TOTOUT® HITOV.

B odxoév, «.7.A.] As a preparation for the third and last wave,
which is still impending, Socrates returns to the main object of
the work, which, as he again reminds us, is the search after justice
and injustice, first in the state, and secondly in the individual.
The ideal of justice is not the less ideal because incapable of
realization, any more than the perfection of human beauty in
a picture is less perfect because there is no ideal man like the man
in the picture. Therefore Socrates regards the task required of
him, to prove the possibility of his state in fact, as a work of
supererogation, the failure of which in no way interferes with the
truth of his speculations, and in which only a contingent and
imperfect success is to be expected. The spirit of this passage
may be compared with vi. 501 ff., where the relation of the ideal
to the actual is again in question. In both these passages Plato
talks of painters as copyists of the Idea. In Book x he speaks of
them along with poets as mere copyists of the copy. The former
view comes nearer to the modern notion of art as the idealization
of nature than the ordinary Greek conception of pupyrexy.

GANG ti todTS y’ ;| sc. eiwes, ‘ why that?’

ouSév" dX’ édv] ‘Only that if’ Cp. supra 461 D oddapas and
note.

dpa kal dvSpa tov Sixatov... Siapépew]| Plato here implies that
it is the nature of the actual to fall short of the ideal, and of the
concrete to fall short of the abstract.

Notes: Book V. 251

odtws| ‘The latter,’ answering the last question.

ei yévotro] These words may be explained to mean ‘ whether
he could be produced’; but they are then inconsistent with od
rovrov évexa infra p. Madvig would obviate the difficulty by omitting
kai. But the tautology of ei yévouro .. . yevdpevos is then very weak,
and it is better to cancel « yévorro as a gloss on yevopevos. Another
expedient is to read. 7 (av?) yévorro with Bekker. tedéws is omitted
in Ven. 0. [There is no inconsistency between «i yévorro . ..
yevouevos and ddd’ ov rovrov évexa infra p: to inquire whether
perfect justice or a perfectly just man are possible is a different
thing from trying to demonstrate their possibility. B. J.]

Thy éxeivors poipay dporordrny Efew] Thy eékeivns, thé reading of
Par. A and most MSS., ‘ The lot that is most like justice,’ is not
ungrammatical, but extremely improbable, as answering to éxeivows
. . » 6poudtatos preceding. It is much more likely that éxeivys is
due to itacism or to an echo of the phrase pnev Seiv airis éxeivyns
dcapépev in what precedes. ‘

iv drodeifwper| is the explanation of todrou évexa: cp. infra
ToUTou Evexa, cv pr) Ex@per.

Ta adrd S:opoddynoar| Socrates in 472 p had extracted from
Glaucon the admission that an artist who cannot demonstrate the
possibility of the existence of a man so beautiful as he has painted
is not to be considered inferior for that reason. Here, before he
attempts to show the possibility of his communistic scheme, he
asks Glaucon to make the same admission, in a different, it is
true, and more universal form: ‘ That action can never come up
to description.’

H puow éxer, x.7.A.] ‘All experience is against this, but that is
no reason for doubting the truth of it,’ says Euler (quoted by
Coleridge) of the properties of the arch. He means that the
mathematical ideal of the arch is imperfectly realized in matter.
The relation of mathematics to physics is a good because a definite
type of the relation of the abstract to the concrete. The ideal of
the state is much farther removed from actual fact; or in Plato’s
words, ‘ action falls short of conception or expression, though some
may deem otherwise.’ What is true or perfect is one thing: what
is possible, another. And great evils may arise from an attempt
_ to enforce political ideals on a state of the world unsuited to them,—

Republic
V.

472

473
A

Republic
V~.

473
A

473 C-
474 D

473
Cc

252 Plato: Republic.

the ‘respublica Platonis’ or ‘the primitive church,’ ‘in faece
Romuli’ or ‘ the dregs of the Gothic empire.’ ;

For the expression $dow éxeu cp. vi. 489 B od yap exer iow
kuBepynrny vavtav Seicba dpyerOa,

kav ei py Tw Soxet;] i.e. though it may seem an inversion of
the recognized opposition between dAédyos and épyov. adda od is
an appeal from common opinion to the judgement of Glaucon.

kai To pyw Seiv] Seiv is pleonastic, expanding dvdyxate.

odvo.] is the common use of the infinitive for the second
person of the imperative (like g@doxew in poetry). Cp. vi. 508 B
TovTov Tow ... Pdvar pe Adyeev, and 509 B kal Tois yeyywoxopevos

Toivuy pu) pdvov TO yryvookea Oar pavat, K.7.A.

& od émrdrres| sc. efevpeiv ds Suvara dvra yiyverOa, ‘which
you bid us find to be capable of coming into existence.’

&s oie, treipdpea} metpoyeba is probably subjunctive: cp.
Theaet. 173 Cc Aéyaper 8, ds Core.”

The change required ts nothing short of this. Either kings and
rulers must be philosophers or philosophers kings. Until that is
effected, there can be no happiness for individual or state.

This is a hard saying, and to escape from the consequences of
having uttered it we must distinguish whom we mean by ‘ philo-
sophers.’

én aité 8)... Kataxddcew| For éw adré . . . etue cp. infra
476 B éw abrd rd xaddv ... tévat. The pronoun is used as in Soph.
O. T. 1169 mpéds adt@ y cipi r@ SexvG eye. The metaphor of the
laughing wave is perhaps the most audacious in Plato ; the wave
which has been following us throughout the book, since our first
plunge, supra 453 D, is at last turned into a roaring sea of ridicule.

eipynoetar 8 odv| ‘But the word shall be spoken, come what
py p

?

may.

dav ph)... (E) SrednAdOapev| (Cp. Laws iv. 710, 711, where
a wise and virtuous despotism is affirmed to be the best basis of
legislation: « rvpavvos yévotto . . . véos, cappav, edpabhs, pynpor,

dydpeios, peyadomperns).
In this celebrated sentence Plato expresses the real unity of

Notes: Book V. 253

practical and speculative life. Everywhere they seem to diverge—
in politics, in religion, in the characters of men; but the principle
which unites them lies deeper than the divergences. One is
subject to the idols of the tribe, the other, of the den; the one is
of this world, the other not of this world: the one is strong within

a limited range, the other has a feeble intelligence of all things. .

The philosopher, in the description of the Theaetetus (173 ff),
may hardly recognize the existence of his fellow-creatures: the
lawyer or politician in the companion picture (ib. 175) often
knows only a narrow and debased section of human nature, and
is as much out of his element in extraordinary circumstances as
the philosopher is in common life. And there are false ways in
which the two elements may be reconciled—in the doctrinaire
(Euthyd. 305), in the pseudo-philanthropist, in the political idealist,
or in any premature and superficial attempts to rest society on
a liberal and philosophical basis. There is a real reconcilement of
them when the king is also a seer, or the statesman in the highest
sense is a philosopher, equal to the immediate present, rising also
into the more distant future. The words of the text may also be
regarded as a sort of Greek prophecy of a millennium: ‘I heard
a voice crying, The kingdoms of the world are become the
kingdoms of wisdom and truth.’

The passage is the keystone of the Republic. In other writings
of Plato the speculative is divorced from the practical: in the
Republic there is an attempt to unite them. The philosopher is
no longer an isolated being who lives in contemplation; he
descends from his ‘mountain heights’ to dwell among his own
people, and in ‘his father’s house,’ ‘if there is such a home upon
the earth’ (ix. 592 B).

ot Baotdijs . . . Neydpevor| It is implied that the actual rulers of
the world are not true kings.

kal Toto eis tadrév cupméon| ‘And unless these two, political
power and philosophy, meet together in the same.’ Two things are
here spoken of which coalesce in one. ‘In the form of the sentence
their coalition is anticipated. Cp. iv. 435 a and note.

eis 16 Suvardv| ‘so far as is possible,’ in the nature of things.
Such touches of moderation (in accordance with supra 472 ff.)
occur in the most ideal passages of Plato. Cp. especially Symp.
212A kal cimep TG GAM avOpamav, aavdr kaxcivp: Phaedr. 253 a
xa’ dcov duvardv Oevt avOpon@ peracyeiv.

Republic
V.
473
Cc

Republic
V.

473
E

474
B

Se To eee

254 Plato: Republi.

It may be asked whether there has ever been a period in which
this dream of the Republic has received a fulfilment: in the
course of ages, as Plato pathetically asks, may there not have been
a king who was also a philosopher? Some would add a further
condition, not only that the king should be a philosopher, but that
he should rule over a people fitted to receive his institutions. The
names of the philosophical Roman emperors naturally occur to
us; as has been truly said, one of the greatest blessings to the

world would have been the adoption of Christianity by Marcus’

Antoninus instead of by Constantine. Still nearer approaches to
a philosopher-king may be found in the legislators and princes of
the East: Zoroaster, Sakya Muni, in the Mahometan emperor

Akbar Khan, in our own Alfred the Great or the Mexican Monte-

zuma.
‘Nor have there been wanting in our own day one or two who

have shown a remarkable union of philosophical genius with ~

military and political insight. Compare the ideal of the Puritans
and the French Protestants.

xaderdv yap iSetv] ‘It is given to few to perceive.’ Cp. Phaedo
62B6... Adyos ... péyas Té Tis po haiverar kai ob padros diideiv.
xademdv is used of an excellence rarely attained: cp. Theaet. 144 a
ws dhd@ Xahetdv.

kal 8s, °"Q XdKpartes, «.7.d.] We are reminded of the manner in
which the upholders of paradoxical or revolutionary ideas are
threatened with popular hostility in Aristophanes, e.g. Birds
310 ff., Wasps 400 ff., and Acharnians 280 ff.

The famous words are introduced with great circumstance and
preparation. The expectation has been raised by the image of
the wave; at last the time has arrived for the revelation of the
overwhelming truth, The real solemnity of the revelation is

instantly broken by the ludicrous outburst which follows. Socrates

admits all the consequences which are urged, and gravely charges
them upon his companion. The companion promises to help
with good wishes and encouragement, which are all that he has
to offer ; and Socrates, having such a champion to support him,
takes heart, and, still relieving the discourse by ludicrous imagery,
proceeds to the description of philosophy.

S.a8yAwv] ‘distinguished,’ i.e. from those whom we do not
mean.

Notes: Book V. 255

The philosopher loves wisdom in its entirety. His desires are
Jixed on universal truth: not as seen in the concrete, but as known
in the abstract. For between knowledge and ignorance there is an
intermediate faculty of sense or opinion (86§a), and between being
and nonentity there ts an intermediate region of ‘ contingent-matter.’
Now, as being corresponds to knowledge, and not-being to ignorance,
so the contingent, which now is and now its not, must be the object
of the blinking, twilight faculty of opinion. That its the sphere of
sense and ordinary thinking, and has no share in philosophy.

ob yap mdvu ye| ‘Not perfectly.’ Cp. iv. 429 c and note.

Sdxvouo.] Compare the image in the Symposium of those who
are ‘bitten’ with philosophy 218 A thy xapdiav. . . mAnyels Te Kai By Oets
ind trav ev dirtocopia Aéyov: Eurip. Hippol. 1301-1303 ras yap
€xOiorns Oedv | npiv doar maphevetos iSorv7 | SHxPetoa Kevtpors mardds
npacOn a€bev, So with comic exaggeration, dapdamree md60s in Aris-
toph. Ran. 66. «vigw is the common word.

4 00x otw toveite ;] ‘Is not this your way?’ Cp. ii. 365 4 ré
oldpeOa .. . Wuxas tovetv; and note.

5 pév, Stu oupds, «.t.A.] A parallel to the thought is furnished
by Hor. Sat. book I. iii. 38 ‘Illuc praevertamur amatorem quod
amicae | Turpia decipiunt caecum vitia .. . Strabonem | Appellat
Paetum pater:’ Lucret. iv. 1160-1164 ‘Nigra melichrus est,
immunda et fetida acosmos, | Caesia Palladium, nervosa et lignea
dorcas | Parvula pumilio, chariton mia, tota merum sal, | Magna
atque immanis cataplexis plenaque honoris.’ In Charmides 154 B
arexvas yap evky ordOun eipi mpds todvs Kadovs, Socrates ironically
represents himself as thus universally susceptible. Cp. Herrick,
‘What I fancy, I approve, | No dislike there is in love.’ For the
colour of pedtxAwpos cp. Theocritus x. 26

BopBixa (silkworm) xapicaoa, Sipav xadéovti tv mdvres,
iaxvav, ddtdxavotov’ eye b€ pdvos pedixAwpor :
and for the expression mdoas gwvds dpiere, Laws x. 890 D dAdad
Tacav, Td Aeydpevov, uri tévta . . . emixovpoy yiyverOar.

The meaning is that the lover, by the excuses he makes for
the defects of his favourites, proves that his love is not partial, but
universal : in this he is the figure of the lover of knowledge. The
idea of a ‘whole’ in this passage is less abstract than elsewhere in
Plato, e.g. Theaet. 173 r, where philosophy is again the love of

Republic
F

474 C-
480

474
D

Republic
V.

475
A

256 Plato: Republic.

the whole, racav ravtn hiow epevvepévn Tay vty éExaorov Sdov. This
is intentional, however, and prepares for the correction of Glaucon’s
view, infra 475 D, E.

el Bouder . .. Tod Adyou xdpw] ‘If you wish to say, taking me
as your example, that lovers act thus, I agree, for the argument’s
sake.’ For this use of éwt cp. x. 597 B éw atray rovray (yrnr@per Tov
piynriy tovrov, and Charm. 155 D os elev émt xadov déywv maidds,
RGN

kal piv gudoripous ye] ‘And further you see that lovers of
honour,’ &c., cp. rods @tAoivous supra. The article appears to be
omitted for the sake of variety; the difference of meaning is
hardly distinguishable in English.

tpitruapxode.| ‘If they cannot be otparnyoi, they are glad to
be in command of the third of a tribe.’ See Photius, p. 288:
Pollux viii. 109.

Tov... ebxepas e0édovta, x.7.A.] The real lover of knowledge
has a taste for every kind of knowledge.

GAN’ Spolous pev prdoadpots] Aristotle says more seriously that
the love of knowledge is apparent even in the delights of sensible
perception: Metaph. i. 1 Ldvres dvépwmo rod cidévar dpéyovra pice.
Sypeiov & 9 Tav aicOnoewy aydmnots’ Kal yap xwpis ths xpelas ayan@vrat
8° adbrds, Kat pddwota Tey GAdwv f Oia Tay ouparwv . . . Airiov & bre
padwora moet yvwpitew te nuas a’tn tav aic@noewv Kai moddads dydoi
duahopds. For the use of pév cp. Theaet. 201 B oddapas eywye oipa,

adda treioat pev.

odSapas . . . Td totdvSe] (1) Socrates appeals to Glaucon’s
confession of discipleship, supra 474 a, B. Cp. vi. 504 E, 505 A:
Phaedo 1008, c. This agrees better with the context and with
the tone of the passage than to suppose (2) that Socrates is con-
tinuing the raillery with which he attacked Glaucon, supra 474 D, E,
‘A man of pleasure like you will readily perceive that beauty and
ugliness are not the same.’

TH S¢ tov mpdgewy . .. Kal GAAnA@Y Kowwvia| Plato here sup-
poses, first of all, an admixture of the ideas with human actions,
and with sensible objects; secondly, with one another. For the
intercommunion of ideas, cp. Soph. 250 ff. It may also be
illustrated from infra 478 ©, where 1d defaerdv is shown to be
rd Guorépwy peréxov, Tod eivai te Kai pi elvae: there is therefore no

4
- <
V4 an
- 7 a

Notes: Book V. 257

‘reason for suspecting or emending the word aAdjAwv. Cp. also
Polit. 278 p perarBéueva 8 eis ras Tay mpaypdtwy paxpas Kal pr padious
ovAAaBas, x.7.A.

én’ adrd 15 Kaddv Suvarot idvat}| Cp. Sympos. 210 E mpés TéAos

#bn lav... eaichyns Karowerai te Oavpacrdv thy pvow Kaddv, K.T.A,

Hyoupevds té te adtd Kaddv] For wycioOa (= vopigew) with
a simple accusative and without efva cp. Laws x. 899 D dre peév Hyet
Geovs, x.7.A.: Soph. 222 B eire ... dvOpmmov .. . pndepiav tyyet Onpav.

kai Ta €xeivou petéxovta] The language of peééefs is here used,
although the ideal of justice has just before (472 c) been spoken
of as mapaderypa, The two notions, which are figures, are not here,
as in Arist. Met. i. 6, §§ 3 and 4, opposed.

emixpuTropevor St. obx bytaive.| ‘Drawing a veil over the fact
that he is not in his right mind.’ Cp. Phaedr. 268 E ov« dypios
eirot dv, "Q poxOnpé, pwerayxodas, GAN dre povarkos dv mpadrepor, Sr, "Q

dptore, x.t.d. for a similar humanity of feeling.

GAN’ Hpiv eiwé té8e] The sentence returns to the direct form,
addressing the imaginary respondent.

ixav@s ody... mdvtTy Gyvworov| Being, according to Plato in
this passage, is the absolute object of knowledge; not-being, of
ignorance; and the intermediate which partakes of both, matter
of opinion. This last, as here expressed, is probably the earliest
conception of contingent matter. That Plato should not have
perceived that degrees of certainty are in the subject only, and
have no corresponding object, considering the great difficulty
which the ancient world experienced in disengaging subject and
object, is not perhaps surprising: the wonder is rather that such
a figment as a ‘contingent or probable matter’ should have
survived in the traditions of modern logic. The other two con-
ceptions of being and not-being also present a different. aspect to
the ancient philosopher and to the student of modern metaphysics.
Being, according to Plato, is true existence, the essence of things
human and divine, the correlative of absolute knowledge, almost
the Supreme Being. To the modern metaphysician, on the other
hand, being, as Hegel says, is a word only, the poorest and most
void of all abstractions, which only by negation or combination
with not-being attains to positive or definite meaning. The neces-
sity of passing from being to the determinations of being or to

VOL. III. s

Republic
V.
476
A

B

Republic
V.

477 .
A

258 Plato: Republic.

actual phenomena was never seen distinctly in the Platonic philo-*
sophy (although approximately realized in the Sophist, Politicus,
and Philebus). Not-being has in Plato, at least in the present
passage, a positive or substantial existence, and is not perceived
to be abstract or negative only.

ixavds ... Kav ef mAeovaxy oKxowoipev| The supposition refers
to the negative notion implied in txkav@s. ‘We could not be more
assured of this, even if we were to look at it in several more points
of view.’ For the implied admission that an important truth may
be proved in more ways than one cp. x. 611 B: Theaet. 206 c

GAAa by TovTou pev ere kav Grae haveiev aodeikecs.

Tod eidtxpiv@s Gvtos| ‘the pure light of being’; cp. Phaedo
67 B yvwadpeba 5: judy aitav nav Td eidixptvés.

ovxooy *émel éml pév, «.7.d.] Most of the MSS. omit 8¢ after
petagd. Two of them (g 8’) complete the sentence by adding ¢
after odxodv. Hermann and Baiter further amend «i by émet, for the
omission of which the alliteration may afford a reason. This is
adopted in the text. The true reading is uncertain. A further

step is being taken in the argument: ‘Since knowledge corre-.

sponded (fv) to being, and ignorance to not-being, for this inter-
mediate must we not look for a corresponding intermediate between
ignorance and knowledge, if such there be?’

kata Thy Sivapiv éxatépa Thy abras| For airy in the reading of
Par. A, &c. (xara tv abriy diva), Hermann and the Zurich editors
conjecture GAny (cp. infra 478 B a@AAn 8€ éxarépa, ds papév). But
a safer correction is (with Schneider and the Viennese MS. F) to
omit airjy, which may be due to a repetition of the preceding
letters | a ray. The addition of 4 xara riy abriy divapw in Vind. E,
&c. indicates an early variation of reading. The words from xatd
to aitfjs are omitted in Ven. =. IM really agree with Par. A.

odKxoov émorpy pev... SteAéo8ar| The words yvavar ds €or 7d
dv are a resumption or epexegesis of the words which precede.
Socrates returns to the same question below (478 a), where he
repeats it in nearly the same words—éemornun peév yé mou emi TO dvrt,
«7A. But first he will explain and illustrate by examples the
meaning of the term ‘faculties’ or ‘ powers,’ which he is employing.
Compare the preliminary psychological discussion in iv. 435 ff.

Suvdpews 8 cis exeivo... dmepyalouevny GAAnv| He means that
faculties have no sensible qualities, but are known by their effects

Notes: Book V. . 259

only. This is a first principle of psychology. Cp. Ion 537 p Republic
drav i) pev érépov mpaypdter 7 émornun, ) 8 érépwv, olr@ Kaho Ti pev hs
@dAny, tiv 8€ GdAnv réxvnv. And for the words ore twa xpdav dpa ore a
oxnua, x... cp. Soph. 247 c, p and Theaet. 155 © (of the crude
materialists) mpage 5é cai yevéres kai mav rd déparov odk drodexdpevor

as év ovaias pépet, Whereas the disciples of Protagoras are said to
uphold the existence of things (or processes) not visible.

émi To abt teraypévny| Cp. i. 345 D ef’ @ réraxra: ib. 3464.
emorhipyy wétepov ... dys elvar abryy| The pronoun is unem-

phatic, being simply a resumption of the noun, which is placed at
the beginning for the sake of emphasis.

eis ToUTO... éppwyeveotdtny| For the two-fold answer to one
question in the same sentence cp. iv. 439 A éywye, 7 8 ds* ma-
patds ye.

eis Suvapiv] Cp. Soph. 235 «is ydnra .. . Oeréov. E

oigopev| Oncouev M corr. © Vind. D; and so Cobet. The use
in the text is certainly singular. But pépo is elsewhere used (with
eri) of referring a predicate to a subject (Soph. 237 c, Tim. 37 £),
or a thought to its object (infra 478 B).

Tas yap av... Wein] Ada is the faculty of opinion and is also
nearly allied to sensible perception or sense. But what has opinion
to do with perception? To us opinion is fallible and probable ;
sense is generally infallible. Opinion to us is for the most part
concerned with the same matter as knowledge ; sense with external
objects only. The truth seems to be that here and in some other
passages of Plato ddéa is a union or rather confusion of two opera-
tions of the mind which are really distinct. The origin of this
confusion is to be sought for in the history of early Greek philo-
sophy which opposed sense and opinion alike to the certainty of
pure intellect. Both are opposed to the universal and neither of
them affords a standard of measurement. Ato@nors and ddfa are
however distinguished in Theaet. 187 a, where it is suggested that
knowledge may be the same with true opinion.

emompy pév ye mou emt TO Svtt| sc. mepuxev. Cp. supra 477B. ° 478
A
Sofa Be, hapev, Sofdlew] sc. mépuxev,

9 tadrov Swep Emorhpyn yryvdoxer| 7H tadrdv sc. ddéa Sogdte; ‘Is
it the nature of opinion to opine the same which knowledge
knows ?’

Republic
V.

478
B

479
A

260 Plato: Republic.

Gp’ odv 7d ph bv SofdLe] sc. 6 dofdtav: cp. i. 345A forw péev
fiSixos, x.7.A. So infra c ode dpa... do€age. For the form of argu-
ment cp. Theaet. 188 p duvardy 8€ ér@odv 6 éyere, kai tis avOparav
70 pi) bv Sogdoan; ... 6 dpa & yé Tt dpav bv te 6pa: Soph. 237 D 7d ri
rovro pia em’ dvre Aéyouev Exdorore .. . dvaykn tév Te héyovTa & ye

Te Neyer.

pi) Sv ye] (1) sc. 7d wi) dv, which is resumed as the subject of
Mpooayopevoito from supra ro py) bv dofdte. To this py dv ye is
attached as a ground or reason. ‘Not-being, since non-existent,
would not rightly be called one-thing, but, strictly, no-thing’ (7
dv ye 1. q. ef wt ety ye, Stallbaum).

[(2) It is better to take yw) gy more simply for ‘what is not’
or (‘not-being’) the sense in which pa dv rm occurs just below.
B:.Ji)

Gp odv éxtds toUtwav ... doapeia| ‘Does opinion then lie in
a region beyond these, surpassing either knowledge in clearness,
or ignorance in dimness ?’—But if not ‘ without,’ the argument
proceeds to show that opinion is within these limits.

oxotwdéatepov . . . pavdtepov| Cp. Soph. 254 a 6 pev drod-
Spdokey eis tiv Tov pr dvros oKoTELWdTHTA ... KaTavonoat xademds...
6 O€... 77 Tov dvros. . . mpookeipevos idea, dua Th Aaptpdv ad THs xopas
ovdapas edreris OpOnvat,

obKxodv Epapev év Tois mpdo0ev] supra 477 A, B.

otov Gua ov te Kat pi dv] There is probably a confusion of
the two constructions ofov efvac and davein dv.

dmoxpivécOw 6 xpnotds ...(479 A) rdoPedpwv| cxeivos 6 pirobeduor
is aresumption of 6 ypyorés, referring to supra 475 D—476B,c. For
the vague reference cp. supra 460 A tov aidov éxetvov. Socrates
proceeds to show that sensible objects are and are not what they
are :—They have no fixed character of their own; they are different
in different relations.

tyeirar ... vowifer] supra 476 c, p.

kat tadka orw| Some of these ‘other things’ are enumerated
infra B.

ti 8€; a WOAAG SiMAdora ... paiverar;| That is to say, although,
in the abstract, a double and half differ, in the concrete they may

coincide ; e.g. two chairs are the half of four and the double
of one.

Notes: Book V. 261

The same view of the relativeness of sense occurs often else-
where: e.g. Theaet. 152 D éav ws péya mpocayopedns, kat opixpdv cbav-
eirat, kal édy Bapv, xodbov, Eiymavra te ovrws: Phil. 14 D Kat Bapdy

kal xovdbov tov airév: Phaedo 74 B ff., 102.

Tots év tas éotidceow, Epy, . , . aiviypare| (1) ‘ They are like
the double-entendres at feasts, and like the children’s riddle about
the eunuch throwing at the bat.” émaporepiLouow is thus explained
by Timaeus in his lexicon to Plato: cp. the active use of eEnupore-
pee in Euthyd. 300 pv. [ (2) But the verb occurs immediately
below, éwapoorepifew sc. goxev, in the ordinary intransitive sense,
and it is unlike Plato to repeat the same example in illustration
—(Riddles at feasts and the children’s riddle). The phrase rois
év tais €otidceow emaphorepi{ovew may contain an allusion to some
incident of Greek festivity familiar to Plato’s readers, but to us
unknown. L. C.]

Kal te Tov TaiSwv aiviypatt] The riddle referred to is given
by the Scholiast :—
Aivés tis €otw os avnp Te KOUK avijp
épu.Oa Koik dpud ideav re KovK Bev
émi Evdov te Kod EvrAov KaOnpyevny
Aidw re Kod AiBm Baroe re Kod Bddor:

i.e. a eunuch aimed at a bat which he saw imperfectly sitting
upon a reed with a pumice-stone and missed him.

6| ‘wherewith,’ viz. with a pumice-stone. This proves to be
the reading of Par. A, and is therefore to be adopted without
question in preference to as.

ép’ ob | sc. xaOnuerny.

Trayiws vojoat| Cp. Theaet. 157 A €met kal rd Towdy elvai te Kai
TO maoxov aditay émi évds voqoat, ds pacw, ovk eivar Taylws.

peragd mou kukwwSeirar| ‘range somewhere between.’ The word
xvdwéeicOa has often a depreciatory association, as of ‘ knocking
about, a prey to chance or circumstance,’ &c. Cp. Phaedr. 275 r,
Phaedo 81 ¢, 82 £.

Tpowpooyhoapey SE ye . . . mAavntdv dAtoxdpevov| ‘But we
agreed beforehand, that anything of this kind which might come

to light was to be described as the object of opinion, not of

Republic
V.

479
B

Republic
V.

480

Republic
VI.

484 A-
487A

484
A

262 . Plato: Republic.

knowledge, being the class which oscillates between and is appre-
hended by the intermediate faculty.

4 08 pynpovedopev| supra 476 B,C: 479 A.

éxaotov 16 6v| ‘ Each kind in its essential nature,’ —i. e. atré rd

kaddy, dikatoy, ayaOdv, . . . Kai Tia odTo.

BOOK VI.

If the philosopher can lay hold of universal and unchanging
truth, and those who cannot rise above opinion are not philosophers,
to which of the two shall we commit the government of the state?
In a word, ought the true guardian to be clear-sighted or blind?
There can be but one answer to this question, unless the philosopher |
ts deficient in some other way. But the philosophic nature contains
all the elements of virtue. He who ts to be trained in philosophy
must be quick-witted and have a good memory ; he must be a lover
of all truth, a hater of falsehood, courageous, temperate, just, gentle,
large-minded, gracious in his thoughts and ways. Not even Momus
can have any fault to find with such a character.

81d paxpod ...Adyou}] Adyos, as elsewhere, is personified: cp.
infra 503 A mapefidvtos Kai mapakadurtopévov Tod Adyou, mepoBnpyévov
kweiv Td viv mapdv. SefeMOdvtos may be explained (1) as intransitive
(cp. Soph. 237 B rév d€ Adyor, 7 BEATvota SiéEeroe: Sophocl. Oed. Col.
574 Xe Adyos Stépyerac: Dem. 541, 22 marta 8 dn SueEeAnrvoea
tak tév vopwv)—the participle being added afterwards to complete
the expression—‘In the course of a long discussion which has
come to its conclusion.’ Or (2) avrovs, sc. rods piroodpous, may
be supplied as the object of SvefeA@dvtos—‘ after a long argument
which has discussed their nature.’ Cp. Laws v. 743 E iv diekepxd-

peOa modtreiay.

paxpod|] a slight exaggeration, as the argument about the true
nature of philosophers does not extend to more than six pages,
474-480. But if such a matter-of-fact objection needs an answer,
it may be replied that six pages seem a considerable space to
devote to the definition of a single term: and the steps through
which Glaucon has been led to the conclusion were elaborate and

Notes: . Book VJ. 263

minute. The reading of =, da p. 7.8. rod Adyov, is due to a false
interpretation, i.e. rod Adyou dieLehOdvros Sia paxpovd tds. dueb_edr-
@svres (xv) is another manuscript conjecture. According to this
reading the philosophers are supposed to run the gauntlet of the
argument through which their nature is revealed.

ob padiov | SC. dvahavnvat avtous,

ot paiverar| is, ‘it appears to be not easy’: not ‘it does not
appear easy.’

gpory’ obv] ‘To me at least it appears that it might have been
set forth in a still better manner, if we had had only to speak of
this one point. The subject of @avvat is ro mpayua rather than
tovs pirogdhous, as appears from todrou pévou following.

péddovte| agreeing with rai understood, not with eyorye supra:
‘if one were not required’; not ‘if I were not required.’

c ‘4 Ul © ‘ ‘ Cone Jal Ly te. | e iA ” ‘
oL Se pH | Sc, ot b€ By Tov aét KaTa TUVTA WOAUTWS €XovTos Suvapevoe

éparreo Oat.

mravdpevor] ‘Wandering up and down’—referring to the un-
certainties of opinion: cp. v. 479 A ff., especially p 1d peragd
mravntév: also infra 485 8. For the word cp. especially Lysis 213

OUK Gv TrOTE OUTS eTavapeba.

petpiws| ‘fairly,’ ‘duly,’ ‘fittingly.’ Cp. x. 597 E rovro...

epnovye Soxei petpimrar av mpocayopever Oa, pupntns.
kaiordvat| sc. Aéyovres deiv,

Téde 8é... typetv Sriodv;] ‘But can there be any question
whether a blind or sharp-seeing watchman should guard a thing?’
—In Plato’s language, he who is ignorant of the universal is
blind, ‘not seeing the sun’: he has no mental image or ‘ pattern
in the mount’ (cp. ix. 592), no idea of true being or principle of
order, to which he may refer objects of sense or the particulars of
human action: he is still in the den, having his back turned
toward the light (cp. vii ad init.).

domep ypapas| Cp. infra 500 £ of ro Oeip mapadelypart xpmpevn
(wypapo, 501 A, B, Where Plato repeats and expands the image
suggested here.

kdkeioe] sc. eis 1d ddnOeorarov. But the opposition of éxetoe—
évOd8e implies that the truth is not here but yonder,—év otpar@ mov
dvaxeipevoy (iX. 592 B: cp. also x. 610 B).

Republic
Wie

484
A

Republic
VI.

484
D

485
A

264 Plato: Republic.

éav 8éy ti8eo8ar| ‘If there should be need of such enactments.’
The regulation of minutiae was to be left to each generation of
rulers, the great principles having been once for all laid down:
Cp. lil, 412 B, iv. 425, 426, 427 a: and Laws vi. 769, 770, 772,
779 D, Vii. 816, viii. 846 E, xii. 956 E.

tovtous| sc. ‘ the blind leaders of the blind,’ who have just been
described.

éxaorov 76 dv] i. e. who know the essential reality of each thing :
who are capable, in modern language, of abstraction and generali-
zation:—The power of abstraction seemed to Plato in his own
age to constitute the great difference between one man’s mental
condition and another’s (Phaedr. 265 £, Rep. vii. 534).

et ye Tah\a ph éddetmowro| ‘If they did not fall behind in
other ways.’

ToUTw yap alto... av mpoéxotev | ‘For this very thing in which
they will have the superiority is about the most important point of
all.’ oxeddv te TO peyiotw: the emphasis is on 1@ peyiore, ‘ the
greatest point of all’ is the knowledge of ideas and universals.
tt which follows oxe8év does not weaken its force but calls attention
to it: as ‘ pretty’ is employed in some uses of the phrase ‘ pretty
nearly’ in English.

kéxeiva, kat tadta] ‘The other qualities (= ra@\da supra E—i.e.
experience and general excellence) and these (the special attributes
of the philosopher). Both are comprised in taéta infra (raira
éxew of avrot). ,

The question how this combination of the practical and specu-
lative may be attained, is answered by an inquiry into the nature
of the philosopher. For the necessity of the philosopher’s knowing
also the particular, ‘if he is to find his way home,’ cp. Phileb.
62 B.

8 roivuv, k.t.d.] v. 474 B. If with the best MSS. we read dei, we
must supply rodro roveiv dei from mp@tov Seiv katapaletv to complete
the sentence. Or if this explanation is deemed unsatisfactory we
must adopt the reading ei of the inferior MSS.

& &v adrois Sndot.. . kal pOopas| The genitive odelas is
partitive and follows 8mAot: cp. iv. 445 E obre els eyyevdpevos Kujoeev
dv trav agiwy Adyou vipwv tis méAews. ekelvys refers to the discussion
in v. 475 foll.

ee aa

fig i a
ay

Ys Pa

Notes: Book V1. 265

The words are found in Themistius, Orat. xxi. 250, with some
verbal differences: rotro pév 81 dporoyeicbw rijs pitocdhov picews
mépt, Ore paOnuatos Séor obro mavrds GAN 6 dv exeivny Sndoi thy ovciay
tiv det odaay Kal pr) TAav@pérny ind POopas Kai yevéoews. The agree-
ment is not sufficiently exact to justify the substitution of oveiay for
oveias in the text; Themistius appears to have simplified the
construction.

mdons abtis| sc. ris oveias, governed by épaow.

oUre tipiwrépou ote driporépou pépous] Cp. Soph. 227 4,
Parmen. 130 E, for this favourite thought.

dotep év trois mpdobev ... SimOopev] v. 474 ¢ ff.

éxdvras elvar] ‘so far as their being willing is concerned.’
éxov elvae is a parenthetic phrase—generally used in negative
sentences—in which the word éxeyv gains force from the addition of

?
e.vat,

pySapy mpooddxerOar rd WeddSos| Cp. Theaet. 151 D dddd poe
Weidds re Evyywpjoat kai adybes apavioa ovdapas Oéus.

GAG phy... dmwxereupévov| For dmwxeteupévov in strict ac-
curacy dreyxerevpevaa might be expected. But the attraction which
confuses the simile and the thing compared is common in Greek
(e. g. Soph. Trach. 33), and occurs elsewhere in Plato: cp. iii. 401
C, D érdOev dy adrois ... mpds axony tt mpoaBadn, orep aipa hépovea
ard xpnotav térev byieav, eal... Gyoura, éketoe refers to eis év Tt.

Tas S€ 81d Tod owparos| tds is an accusative of reference—‘ in
respect of’: or mepi may be supplied from the previous clause.
The former is the more natural way of taking the words. The
image of the stream is continued in éppujKact and éxdetmorey.

It is common to draw a line between talent and character:
the powers of a man are distinguished from his interests and
affections. Such lines of demarcation are convenient, but they
are also partly misleading. For the love of knowledge is know-
ledge: moral qualities interpenetrate with mental: how much a
man feels is quite as important as how much he thinks, or rather
he must feel what he thinks. There is no surer criterion of
progress in education than an interest in study: nor anything
more fatal to intellectual excellence than envy and meanness.

8 ye rotodros| ‘such an one, at any rate —i. e. one who takes
no delight in the pleasures of the body—‘ must be temperate.’

Republic
Vi.

485
B

Republic
VI.

485
E

486
A

B

265 Plato: Republic.

pera ToAAs Samdvys orouddLera| ‘ For the reasons why wealth
is eagerly pursued with lavish expenditure.’ For the use of perd
cp. viii. 560 D perpidrnta... dmepopi{over pera moddOv kai dvadedav
émOupiav : iX. 575 C of Tov rupavvoy yervavres pera Sryyou avoias. And,
for the thought, cp, Ar. Eth. Nic. iv. 1, § 33 of woddol trav dodrov

. kat AapSavovow dev pr Sei.

tod Sdouv Kal mwavtés| Compare Theaet. 173 E, where the soul
of the philosopher is described as racav ravtyn giow épevvepérn tov

” eed o > = > ‘ > Qs €. 4 bad
évrev éxdoTou Gdov, eis Tav eyyds ovdev abTny ovykabteioa,

4 ody Gmdpxer Siavoia ... otdv Te olet ToUTw, K.7.A.]| The common
transition from the mind or soul to the person. Cp. x. 620 p.
Ast and Stallbaum, following a quotation of the passage in
Marcus Aurelius (vii. § 35), read @ . .. Stavoias for 7 . . . Seavoia, but
this is unnecessary.

py® ddaldv| This refers to the love of truth, supra 485 c.

00 diy av SuckdipBodos . . . yevoito|. For SuegdpBohos with
Suckowdvytos following, compare the juxtaposition of £upBddrew
and koweveiv in il. 362 B.

kai TodTo 8... Kat dypia| Cp. Theaet. 144. The qualities
here enumerated are nearly the same that are found to be actually
embodied in the ‘wise’ Theaetetus. The words ei... déypia are
the explanation of toéro, the whole question being suggested by
the words of the previous sentence, SucgdpBodos 7 Gdikos.

edpabis 4 Suopabys| sc. ef dpa. The construction is to be
supplied from the previous sentence.

AHOns Gv mhéws] Cp. Theaet. 144 B vwOpoi... mpds tas pabjaes
kal AnOns yeportes.

GANG pvnpovixhy ... Setv eivac| A seeming combination of two

constructions, prnpovixiy aitiy det eivac and prnpovkny adrny (yr@pev
eivar. Cp. infra 503 B hy yap SupOopev vow Seiv imdpxewv avrois.

&xew] Cp. viii. 568 c els rupavvidas . . . EAkouar ras modereias.
The word conveys an idea of distortion and perversion.

eis dpetpiav] Cp. Soph. 228 a rd ris duerpias mavraxod ducedés
bv yevos.

fy em... (E) eddywyov wapéger|] ‘which its own nature will
make easy to lead towards the idea of each form of being.’

Notes: Book V1. 267

py my Soxodpéy oor, K.7.A.] my = ‘at any point.’ The dative ry
. « » Wuxq depends chiefly on dvayKaia.

pidos Te Kal fuyyevyjs] The latter word implies a reference to
485 CF obv olkedrepov copia te dAnbeias dv evdpors ;

adn’, fv 8 eyd, ... thy wédw emtpérors] Compare the virtues
of the philosopher-tyrant in Laws iv. 709, where despotism is
thought to afford the most favourable opportunity for organizing
a State: «i ripavvos yévorro, hrs, véos, om@tppwv, evpabns, pynuwv, avdpcios,
peyadomperns.

TehewOeion . . . madeia te Kal HAtKia] is introductory to the
discussion about the education and age of the rulers, from 502
onwards. ;

The conclusion appears inevitable that the philosophic nature,
when matured by time and training, ought to be entrusted with
the supreme power. But Adeimantus meets all these theoretical
assumptions by an appeal to facts. Experience shows that those
who continue in the pursuit of philosophy after their first youth
turn out to be etther strange creatures, not to say rascals, or at all
events, even when they are thoroughly respectable, their philosophy
makes them useless. Socrates admits the force of the objection, yet
maintains his paradox. To explain his position he has recourse to
an allegory.

map €xactov 1d épdtnpa| ‘at every question. Cp. Laws iv.
7O5 A map’ éxdorny Hepa.

Tapaydpevor... péya TO opddpa ... dvapaiverBat | i.€. peyddws
apdrr\crba Kai Tois mp@rov wpodoynpévas evavtwoicba: Cp. Vii. 534 C
antatt tH Ady. The subject is changed from the persons to that
which they experience: ‘the overthrow which is revealed is great
and contradictory of their first impressions.’ At odes, «.7.d., the
original construction is resumed.

Compare the description of the Elenchus in the Sophist, 230 8
Stepwraow dy dy oinrai ris te mépe Néyew A€yov pndév «iO dre mravo-
pévoy ras ddéas padiws é€erdfovar, Kai avvdyovres di) Tois Aéyos els Tabrov
riOéact map’ addndas, ribévres 8é emidecxviovew adras abrais dua rept
Tav avrav mpds Ta ad’ra cata taita évavrias. And for the effect of
Socrates on his hearers see the image of the torpedo in Meno 80.

éwd trav werrevew Sewdv|] The game of draughts here spoken

Republic
VI.

487
A

487 B-E

487
B

Republic
VI.
487

B

D

_- > ™ a
oe e-' re

268 Plato: Republic.

of is plainly one in which the victory was won by hemming in the
adversary. The metaphor of werroi occurs again in Laws v. 739 A,
where legislation is compared to a game of draughts.

Tod wemaSedo0a. evexa] Cp. infra 497 E (where dmreoOa occurs
in the same idiomatic sense).

mdvu &AoKStous . . . Tapmovypous| ‘very strange beings, not to
say utter rogues.’

Tods 8 émeeotdrous . . . a&xphaotous Tals modeor yryvopévous |
See the description of the philosopher in the Theaetetus, who has
not a word to say for himself in the courts or the assembly
(173 Cc, D): or the view of Callicles in the Gorgias, 485 a qudo-
codias pev, doov mradeias xapwv, kaddv peréxetv, Kal ovK aioxpoy petpaki@
dure pirovodpeiv. The man of the world admires philosophy in
youth: such interests, at that time of life, are indications of a free
and generous spirit: but if a person has not ‘passed his meta-
physics’ when he is old, why, he should go to school again and be
beaten. The feeling which Plato here expresses is a feeling of
modern quite as much as of ancient times. The study of meta-
physics is regarded as at once dangerous and puerile. They have
been thought to belong only to a particular stage of life: ‘poetry
for boys,’ ‘metaphysics for young men,’ ‘facts for those who are
of full age.’ The true conception of metaphysics is the com-
bination of the parts of knowledge by an effort of the mind into
an ideal whole. They are always extending their domain, as the
prospect is opening of new fields of science and of the past history
of man. The narrower view is lost in a wider one: the previous
elements of knowledge, whether in the world or in the individual,
are taken up into the mind, and adjusted in new proportions.
Also the knowledge of facts would be narrow and partial unless
the imagination enabled us to allow for the unknown part of man
and nature, raising us above our own particular study or aspect of
things to the other elements of truth and knowledge. On the
other hand it may be argued that metaphysics may easily outrun
facts, and interfere with our capacity of observing and acquiring
them.

éxovors Gv... Neyer | The popular opinion of philosophy has
been seriously urged against Socrates. Instead of the expected
refutation, ‘ Quite true’ is the only reply.

épwrds . . . 8. eixdvwv déyew] ‘You ask a question, I said,

Notes: Book VJ. 269

requiring to be answered through a similitude.’ ‘And you,
methinks, are not accustomed to speak through similitudes.’

The last words are of course ironical: Socrates carries on the
irony in what follows (iv’ €rt p@ddov By, «.7.A.).

ért paddov] ‘that (having this contempt for my similitudes)
you may see still better what a poor hand I am at them.’ For
yNloxpws cp. Crat. 414 c, where Hermogenes, speaking of one
of the etymologies offered by Socrates, says: xai pada ye yAicxpas,
& Swxpates. He who would judge of Socrates’ powers in inventing
similitudes may, after reading this passage, compare ix. 588 c, D.

There ts a ship of which the captain ts a simple-minded giant,
short-sighted, dull of hearing, and but slightly skilled in navigation.
The crew are always contending among themselves for the possesston
of the helm, but have never learnt, and even deny the possibility of
learning, the art of steering. He only ts the skilled navigator who
ts a partisan of theirs. If they cannot succeed by persuasion, they
resort to force, throwing their rivals overboard and drugging the
captain. Thus beginning they proceed to make free with the stores,
and their voyage is such as might be expected of men like them.
What chance of a hearing has the skilled pilot among such as they
are? They only call him prater, star-gazer, and good-for-nothing.
This tmage sufficiently indicates the position of those philosophers whom
Adeimantus has acknowledged to be honest men. They are useless,
because their states, as at present governed, make no use of them.

At a later date Plato returns to the comparison of the ruler to
the steersman as a familiar image: Polit. 297 E Els 61 rds elxovas
eraviwper Tahu, ais avaykaiov amekatew det tovs Bagidixods apxovtas.

Ilotas ; Tov yevvaioy KuBepyytny Kal Tov érépwy Trodd@v avrag.ov latpdy,

xatidwpev yap dn Te oxHpa év TovToLs aitois TAagapeEvoL,
> ‘ , - > ,
aité| sc. ro mdOos tay éemekertdtov.

otov .. . ypddoucr| ofov may be taken either as an adverb, ‘ just
as’; or as an adjective governed by ypagdovo.—‘to form by
combining from many sources an idea of it like what’ &c. The
former is right.

véngov ...(B) érepa toraira| otourovi, i.e. the kind of thing
which I have now before my mind.

vauxdnpov| The asyndeton, as usual, in an explanatory clause.

Republic
VI.

48
E

488
A

487 E-
489 C

Republic
VI,
488

B

270 Plato: Republic.

Bpaxu tu] is cogn. accus, ‘ having but a narrow range of vision,’
—and érepa tovaira is in the same construction,—‘and whose
intelligence in nautical matters is much on the same level.’

Tept tis KuBepyycews| ‘quarrelling about the steering, each
thinking that he ought to steer.’

pare paQdvra, «.7.A.] This recalls Socrates’ well-known accusa-
tion against the statesmen of Greece, that there are among them
no teachers of political virtue. Cp. Protag. 319 D rovras ovdeis
TovTo éemimAntTe Gomep Tos mpdrepor, Gre ovdapdbev pabwr, ovde dvros
didackddrov ovdevds air@, emetta aupBovdevew encxetper’ Sydrov yap, Gre

ovx Hyovvrat Sidaxrdv eivat. Cp. also Xen. Mem. iii. 6.

mpds 8€ tovTos ... katraréyveww] Yet Plato himself seems to
maintain this paradox in the Protagoras and Meno. In those
dialogues the postulate that there must be a science of politics was
ironically held in reserve, while the hollowness of the actual
politicians was disclosed. But Plato is now ready to assert, not
only that there is such a science, but that he has the key of it.

TreptkexvoOat .. . THS veds Gpxetw... Their] These infinitives,
which follow véneov at the beginning of the sentence, avoid the
confusion which would otherwise be occasioned by the multiplica-
tion of participles. In mpés 8€ todrots, x.7.A., a return is made to
the participial construction.

fupmodicavtas is metaphorical: ‘having enchained the noble
captain,’ i.e. rendered him incapable, ‘ by some narcotic drug, or by
drink or some other means.’ Cp. Gorg. 482 E é« tavrns yap ad rips
6podoyias adtds td cod cuptmod.aGeis cv rois Adyois ereatopia Oy : Theaet.
165 E qreyxev dv... . odk dveis piv .. . uverrodiaOns bn’ avrod.

mheiv @s 7d €ikds Tods torodrous| ‘make just such a voyage as
might be expected of men like them.’ Cp. Polit. 302 a modAai pay

éviore xai xaObdrep moia xaradvdpevar SiddAvvTa Kai Siok@dact xal Ere

“~ col col “~ - ia
Siododvrat dia THY tev KvBepynTay Kai vavrdv poxOnpiay Trav epi Ta peyiota

peylorny ayvoay €iAnpédrav, x.t.A.: Laws x. 906 D.

Strws Sé kuBepyycer .. . (E) kal Thy kuBepyyntixyy| (1) ‘ But to get
the helm into one’s hand, with or without consent, is an art and study
which they imagine to be irreconcileable with the acquisition of the
science of navigation.’ The mutinous sailors think that the struggle
to get the helm into one’s power, which, in their opinion, is the all-
important thing, leaves no time for the study of navigation, and so

Notes: Book V1. 271

they neglect it. Transferring the image into the language of ewig

politics we have—émas dé aipge (res) K.T.A., pyre réxyny TouTov...
duvardv eivar AaBeiv Gua Kal tiv procopiayv, They are absorbed in
the struggle for power, and have no time to think how power should
be used. Therefore they reject philosophy and the philosopher.
Stws .. . kuBepyjoer .. . édv Te py is a resumption of érws dp£ovew F
meiOovres 7) Brafduevoe tov vavxAnpoy, and thy KuBepyytixny refers to the
science of the true pilot, rod... dAn@wov xvBepyyrov supra. todrou
takes up 6mws, x... Socrates reiterates his main point, that power,
not knowledge, is the object of the actual politicians. (2) According
to Ast- and others the true pilot is the subject of kuBepynoe, and
this part of the sentence gives the impression which the behaviour

_ of the true pilot makes on the world in general. The phrase édv

té tes BovAwvrat édv Te px) is Supposed to contrast the scientific pilot,
who keeps the ship in her course, without consulting the passengers,
with the conduct of the sailors in the allegory, whose one thought
is to cajole or intoxicate the captain (i.e. to flatter and humour the
people) so that they may get the helm into their power. The sense
then would be: ‘ imagining that to know how to steer, whether he
has the leave of those on board or no,’—as, in their opinion, the
true pilot does,—‘is an art and study quite incompatible with the
business of a steersman ’—as they conceive of it. They consider
that the arbitrary rule as it appears to them of the true pilot is
inconsistent with steering, as they understand it (i.e. as the art of
cajoling the captain). They think it is no part of pilotage to know
how to manage the helm (no part of politics to know how to govern).
This explanation appears plausible on comparing infra 489 B ov
yap éxer piow xuBepyntny vavrav Seicba .. . bp’ airod: and Polit. 293
A édv Te Exovtwy edv TE akovTwY Gpxwo., ... vopltoTréov ... KaTa TEXYNY

. dpxovras. But the exactness of the parallel in the immediate
context between 6ras dpfovow and érws xuBepynoe, and between
meiOovres f Biatdpevoe and edv ré tiwes BovAwvrar édv re py, iS decisive
in favour of the first (1) interpretation. And the true king in the
Republic is imagined as the ruler of a wedding people: infra 502 B

modu éxov TreBopuerny, 499 B kal TH médAee *xarnxd@ yeveo Gat.

oidpevot] The MSS. vary between éraiovres, olduevor, and éaiovras,
olouévovs. That the copyists should have changed the accusative
into the nominative is unlikely ; the analogy of éyovras was almost
certain to lead some of them to change the nominative into the
accusative. ‘I‘he transition to the nominative may be occasioned by

ie
D

Republic
VI.

489
A

272 Plato: Republic.

the neighbourhood of dpgovew, and in so long a sentence the original
construction is apt to be lost sight of.

tais médeot... Thy SidBeow Eoixev] ‘resembles cities in their
attitude towards true philosophers.’

The ‘parable’ hardly needs an interpretation. The ship is the
state: the star-gazing pilot is the philosopher: the noble captain,
‘not very quick in his perceptions,’ the people honest and stupid:
the mutineers, the sophists and adventurers by whom the noble
captain is ‘ drugged and disabled, —who make their last appearance
in the Politicus (291).

Aristotle refers to this passage in Rhet. iii. 43 as an example of
an eixav—y eis rov Sypov drt Spuowos vavkAnp@, loxup@ pév, Uroxapo de.
The passage should be compared with Politicus 298, 299, where
it is supposed that if certain rules were prescribed by the state about
navigation and the true xvSepynrns, who steered from knowledge of
the stars and winds, were to transgress them, he would be liable to
be called perewpodrdyos, ddor€axns tis coguoris.

éxeivov| supra 487 D.
St... . 08 tiwn@vtat| Socrates softens the language of Adeimantus.

Kal étt... Néyets, K.7.A.] S1t depends on 8iSacke and is parallel
with St: in the previous sentence. The MSS. are divided between
Aéyers and Aéyew (for Par. D, which reads Aéyet, has no independent
value) : the greater weight of authority is in favour of Aéyes. ‘And
that you are not wrong in saying that the best of the votaries of
philosophy are of no use to the world :—for their uselessness, how-
ever, bid him blame those who make no use of them and not the good
philosophers themselves.’

In using the second person (Aéyets), Socrates attributes to
Adeimantus what he had only represented to be the opinion of
others, though with an evident inclination to assent (cp. infra p obs
3) od ys . . . ddnOi oe Aéyew). The other reading, déyew, could only
be explained, if at all, as a harsh confusion of two constructions—
didacke Aéye and didacxe Ste Ayers.

ob yap exer guow] iow exe, ‘ it is natural,’ like Adyov Eyer, ‘ it
is reasonable. The phrase occurs in Herodotus, ii. 45.
GAN’ 6 TodTO Koppevoduevos ... wépuxev, K.t.A.]| The saying is

attributed by Aristotle to Simonides: Rhet. ii. 16 rods copovs yap
en Spay émi rais ray mrovoiwy Oipas diatpiBovras, Cp. for the general

>

Notes: Book VI. 273

sentiment, Theaet. 170 A,B kai éy ye rois peyioros Kwwdvvos, drav év
orpareias i) vocos i) év Oaddrry xetudtwvrat, Sonep mpds Geos exew rods
év éxdoros dpxovras, cwtipas opav mpogdoxarras, ovk GA Te diapépovtas
i t@ eideva, kal mdvra mov peota ravOpmnwa (nrovvtwy didacKddovus te

kal dpxovras éautév Te, K.T.A.

SeioGar| (1) is governed by some word (such as mpérew)
suggested by dvayxatov etvat preceding. Or (2) dévayKatov elvar is
neglected, and the infinitive continued directly with wépuxev.

petewpohécxas| ‘ Meteorologizers’ combines the perewpooxdmor re
kai adodeoxnv of supra 488 E.

ék te Toivuy .. . émitmSeudvrwy| ‘As a result of this and (r) in
these circumstances ’—or (2) ‘ among men like these ’—*‘ the noblest
pursuit can hardly be held in esteem by those who have opposite
pursuits.’

év touro.s may be either masculine or neuter (infra 494 Cc ev rois
rowtras : Symp. 2208: Phaedo ror c), but for the masculine cp.
supra td rovrwv. The words ot 8€ émerkéotatot adxpnotot are added
to recall both sides of the statement, although only one is in point.

Ta ToLadra] Sc. ra Tis Pidocopias.

Tov éykahodvra . .. ddnOf oe Aéyetv| Supra 487 D, E. As before
in supra B Socrates chooses to identify Adeimantus with the objectors
whose opinions he quotes.

obKodv Tis pev... dxpyotias, «.7.A.] The reason why one class
of philosophers are useless is that the world will not use them: the
reason why another class are corrupted is that the finest natures
are most susceptible of adverse influences.

tis 8é€ tav wodAdGv Tovynpias Thy dvdyxnv] ‘The cause which
inevitably produces the wickedness of the greater number.’

The philosophic nature combines qualities that are rarely found in
the same person. Tt is also exceptionally liable to corruption. Rare
plants are more than others sensitive to surrounding influences.
And the very graces which have been enumerated, above all when
combined with gifts of fortune, become, through their perversion,
sources of evil. The world is the great sophist that spoils the highly
endowed youth, and moulds him with popular applause and clamour
to mundane purposes. How can such an one, except through some
divine providence, give ear to the teachings of philosophy? The pro-
Sessional, fee-earning sophist is like the attendant of a great beast,

VOL. II. T

Republic
V1.

489
C

489 E-
496 E

Republic
V1.

489 E-
496 E

489
E

490
A

274 Plato: Republic.

whom he knows when to approach, and who indicates by grunts his
likes and dislikes. He never distinguishes between what is inevitable
and what ts best. Hence, of those who are at their birth endowed
with a philosophic nature, all save the few ‘ useless’ ones (whom
pride or sickness or some internal oracle have retained) desert philo-
sophy for ‘ politics’ and leave a vacant room, which ts filled by those
whom Adeimantus designatesas nondescriptsand rascals. The maiden
of high estate, left poor and desolate, is married toa tinker just let
out of prison. Meanwhile the child of light, who is faithful to his
trust, sees the hopelessness of effort, and stands in shelter until the
storm has passed, contented if he may preserve his own integrity.

éxovwper 8)... Kdyabdv éodpevov| SOev is put for od by attraction
with éxet@ev, which is to be construed with dvapvynobértes.

adéte | is not the usual dative after jyeioOa, but an ethical dative :
SC. Hyeiro Tov xopod a’r@—‘ was the leader of his band,’ infra c.

ei vo éxets| ‘if you remember.’ Cp. Euthyphro 2 Bd twa vo
Exes Tlit6ea MeAnrov.

4 ddafdve Sv, .7.A.] For the use of 4 in the sense of ‘or else’

cp. Vv. 463 Df pyre mpos Gedy pyre mpds avOporev aite Guewvov Ecea Oa.

ovxody . . . wept atrod;] ‘Is not this one point, to say no more
(odrw), very inconsistent with our present ideas about him?’ ovrw
is idiomatic, as in viv obrws, dr\as ovras,

Tapa Sd6fav tots viv Soxoupévors | i.e. mpos ta viv Soxovpeva, the
whole expression being an amplified equivalent of mapa ra viv
Soxovpeva = mapa tas trav viv ddfas. Tots viv Soxoupévors =‘ received
opinions,’ is a noticeable phrase.

dmohoynodueba . . . dpthdkGo@ar] ‘We shall defend ourselves’
(when accused of being paradoxical) ‘ by saying’ (as we have said)
‘that it was his nature to press onward towards true being.’
The optative after the future indicative in an indirect sentence may
be explained as implying a reference to some former expression of
the thought quoted. See Goodwin, WZ. and T., §§ 159, 676.

kat odx émpévor] Cp. Laches 194 A kal jyeis emi rH Cyrpoe
eripeivaper,

GAN ior . . . dBivos, mplv 8 od] In such glowing language
does Plato describe what are termed by us mere abstractions, to
which metaphysical enthusiasm has, nevertheless, given a permanent

Notes: Book V1. 275

place in the mind, and which in a secondary logical stage have
been the regulators and instruments of human knowledge. In one
point of view the language may be compared with that of Eastern
Pantheism (ptyels to Svte Svtws), in another (émi tots . . . woddots
éxdorots), with that of the Organon of Aristotle.

@ Tpoorjke: puxis epdmrecOar tod torodtou| i.e. rovr@ rijs Wuxijs
@. rtovr@, the suppressed antecedent, is a dative of the instrument,
@, the relative, a dative of reference with mpooyjxet : ‘ with that part
of the soul to which it belongs.’

”

fun Kal tpépoito| Cp. Phaedr. 248 B od 8 évex’ 4 modd} orovdn,
TO adnOeias, ideiv mediov ob eotiv, F te 5) mpoonkovoa Wuxns TO apiat@

Ncd a - - >
Voun €K TOU eke NEtu@vos TUyXavEL OVTA,

Anyou dBivos| Cp. Theaet. 148 E ddivers yap, & pire Ocairnre :
Symp. 206 E 7@ xuodvTe .. . TOAAH 1 TToinots yeyove Tept TO Kady bia

‘ ‘ >¢°* > Ud ‘ ”
TO peyadns @Stvog umoAvew Tov €xovta,

TouTw Te petéoToar... pioetv;| ‘ Will he have any part in loving
falsehood, or, on the contrary, will he not hate it?’

GAN’ byrés Te Kat Bixarov HOos| sc. Gainer dv airy (sc. ddnOeia)

adxodovlnoat.

kal 8) tov GAdov .. . dvayxdtovra tdrrew;| ‘Why should
I again set in array from the very beginning the rest of the band of
qualities which make up the philosophic nature, at each step com-
pelling your assent?’ dévayxdfLovta is taken up in guvéBy : ‘Why
force you again to admit what you have already admitted ?’

évaykdlovra is the reading of the best MSS.: ava\apBavovra
(= ‘recapitulating’), the reading of Stephanus and of Ven. &, is
probably a correction: cp. infra p tiv rév ddnOas prioodhar picw ...
€& dvdykys wpiodpeba.

For the favourite image of the chorus (continued from xopév
kak@v supra), cp. especially Euthydemus 279 c ry 6€ codiay mod
xopod tdgopev; ev trois dyabois, i} nas déeyers; Rep. villi. 560 E U8pw
kal dvapxiav .. . Aaumpas pera ToAAOD XoOpOU Katdyovow éeoTepar@peras :
ix. 580 Béywye Sorep xopods xpive, x.7.A.: also Theaet. 173 B—D rovs
d€ rod nuetepov XopoU . . . Tepl Tay Kopupatwy.

kal ood émAaBowévou| ‘And when you interposed and said.’
Cp. Symp. 214 E éav re pi ddynOes A€yo, peragd émdaPod.

Tis SvaBodijs] dia8ody is a malicious ‘ misrepresentation.’ Cp,
supra 489 D: infra 500 D diaBordy 8 év maar wodAy.

T 2

Republic
VI.

490
B

QO

Republic
VI.
490

E

491
A

276 Plato: Republic.

opixpdv 8é tr... kadodst| ‘A small number, whom, as you say,
they call,’ &c. The antecedent of ots is implied in the collective
neuter opexpdv te = ddLyou rues,

kal eis 7d émirySeupa Kabiotapevas airfs| ‘and settling down to
her pursuit.’

dvagiov . . . éautav| ‘of which they are themselves unworthy.’
For this use of dvagios = ‘too good for,’ cp. Soph. Phil. roog
dvd&wov pév cov, katdgiov 8 euod: i.e. ‘of which you are unworthy
and I am worthy,’

kai peitLov] For peifoy = ‘too great’ or ‘high,’ cp. Soph.

231 A py petlov adrois mpoodnrwpey yepas.

kat émt mdvras] sc. re(vovoay: ‘and extending to all who bear
the name.’ This phrase is added by an afterthought and is not
strictly in construction.

kat éAlyas] sc. roairas uceis.

5 pév mdvtwv... dmoomg pidocopias| ‘In the first place what
is strangest of all to hear, viz. that each of the qualities which we
praised as belonging to the philosophic nature destroys the soul
which possesses them and draws it away from philosophy.’ These
words are the answer to tives 84 ;—giving one of the ways in which
these rare natures are corrupted. Gv = ékeivwy 4.

Ta Aeyspeva dyaba| This is Plato’s way of quoting a common
opinion which is not acknowledged by philosophy. Cp. iv. 431 c

Tov edevOepwov heyouevwv €v Tois TmoAXois TE Kal Pavdots.

AaBod toivuy... wept adrav] adrod = ‘the subject in hand’:
attév = ‘the philosophic natures;’ last mentioned supra B in

tovtav 81 Tay ddiywr, K.T.A.
kedevets | sc. AaBéo Oat adtov,

través, jv 8 éyd,... topev] ‘ Of every seed or growing thing,
whether vegetable or animal, we know.’ uréyv is here taken in its
widest sense.

It is not, however, the stronger or better nature of which the
remark in the text is psychologically true. The poetical and
sensitive temperament is the one which suffers most from alien
conditions. Weakness, especially when accompanied by intellec-
tual gifts, may indeed, by the help of accidents, be matured into
strength. And strength, which was wanting in the original

Notes: Book VI, 277

character, has been sometimes developed in a life-long struggle
against the passions or against circumstances. But, in general,
the finer qualities of mind, which are capable also of coming to the
greatest good, are most injured by corrupting influences: the
gentler nature, which meets with no response at school or in the
world, is coated over with an impenetrable rind ; the soil is receptive,
and the imagination is frequently haunted by impressions of evil,
when they have ceased to affect the will. Genius. in the spring of
youth, is hardly ever aware of the deteriorating effects of the
surrounding atmosphere or soil. Stronger, rougher characters are
not in the same way the creatures of circumstances. But weakness
has no limit of evil, when the barriers of education and of public
opinion have been once passed. This is commonly the stuff out
of which great criminals are made.

kdxcoy draddatrewv| Stallbaum reads xakéov’, with a slight varia-
tion of writing and of meaning, but see L. and S. s.v. dwadXdooeww,
A. li,

veavixys| ‘vigorous,’ ‘high-spirited.’ Cp. infra 503 c veamxoi

TE Kat peyadompereis Tas Siavoias,

doevA 8€ puow, x.7.A.] This clause depends on the general
force of the words 4 ote... &dX’ odx, which emphasize the second
alternative mentioned :—‘ Surely you must think that great crimes
spring from a high-spirited (not from an inferior) nature, but that
a weak nature, &c. For # otet... AN’ odk cp. i. 344 Ef opixpor
ole. emtyetpety mpayua diopifer Oa, &AN ob Biov divaywyny; aitiav here
is the adjective.

ox, GANG... obrws] oUK, SC. ek PavAns: obTwS, SC. ex vearKis.
Hy toivuy EOenev| sc. eivar.

4 kal ob Hyet...(B) dvBpas wat yuvatkas;] ‘Or do you, like the
many, really think that there are, in any degree worth speaking of,
young men corrupted by Sophists, or Sophists in a private capacity
who corrupt them?’ &c. Plato exhibits the Sophist in different
lights,—here in a more favourable one. The point of this passage

is to show that whether the Sophists are good or bad, their ©

influence is unimportant compared with that of the great Sophist,
public opinion, which they merely echo.

iSwwrikods| ‘in a private capacity,’ is opposed to the sophistry

Republic
VI.

49

I

D

49
A

>

Republic
VI,

492
B

278 Plato: Republic.

of the assembly or of public opinion. Cp. infra c ma:8eiav idi@rceny :

E idtwtixods Adyous.

peylotous ... gopiatds| Cp. Polit. 303 c, where Plato says of
false statesmen —peyiorous 8€ dvras pupntas Kai yéntas peyloTous
yiyvecOa tev codioray copioTtds.

EvyxabeLsuevor dOpdor *ot woddoi| ‘sitting down together assembled
in great force.’ Hermann’s correction *ot wodXot adopted in the
text is not quite certain. dOpdéo. moddoi seems to have been a not
uncommon phrase: cp. Gorgias 490 B édv ev rair@ Gpev, Somep vir,
moddot dOpdou avOpwra: Xen. Anab. vii. 3, § 9 oid8a Kédpas moddas
aépéas. The subject of wéywou is to be supplied from abrods tots
taéta éyovtas supra,

imepBadddvtws éxdtepa] sc. mowivres—‘ doing either in excess’
(referring to émaw@ow and péywor).

4 “moiav atte... dvOégew| molav av MSS. (1) a with future
indicative and future infinitive is a well-authenticated construc-
tion, that is, in many cases it has the support of the best
MSS.: the omission of it is unjustifiable when it has sufficient
manuscript authority in its favour. Here it is read in all the MSS.
The particle, without weakening it, gives an ironical force to the
future : ‘will be likely to.” Cp. x. 615 D Ovx feet, ava, od8 dv
jéer Sedpo. Cp. Goodwin, WZ. and T., §§ 197, 208. [B. J.]

(2) The repetition of the same syliable in moiav dv makes it
easier to question the authority of the MSS. The ‘colloquial
style’ of which Goodwin speaks in referring to x. 615 D, is not
present here. [L. C.]

£

obtos| 6 rootros Wdyos # émawos, under the image of a torrent
suggested by kata podv and by xatraxduoGetoay supra.

oyjcew ... torodrov| pycew is dependent on otk oie to be
gathered from moiav air@ madeiav idiwrixyy dvOefev (sc. ote, supplied
from riva olet kapdiav toxew ;) Hv od .. . olynoecOa which is equiva-
lent to ovd« otet cal jvrwaodtv madeiay idiwrixyy ... oiynoerOa, Cp.

note on 491 E dodevn Se iow, k.7.r.

ro[v] ph meOdpevov| dv is the reading of Ven. M = and a
majority of the MSS. and seems more expressive here than ré
(collective neuter), the reading of A M, for which cp. infra E 6 ri
mep, K.T.A, ov yy meOdpevov is Bekker’s reading.

< 4
;
era *

Notes: Book VI. 279

od yap... ébatpdpev Adyou| For éfarpapev Adyou cp. Symp. 176 Republic

C Swxparn 8 éeEaipa Adyov.

‘That which is impossible with men is possible with God’ is
one way in which Plato expresses the Socratic feeling that the
ideal of philosophy is a divine reality, which is nowhere fully
manifested. Cp. the @eios Adyos of the Phaedo (85 p), and the
‘epiphany’ of the philosopher in the Sophist (216 c): ii. 368 a:
ix. 592 A eav pr) Oeia res EvwB Tvxn. See also the words which
have prepared for this, supra 492 A éav wy tis adr BonOnoas Oeav
TUX.

Gddoiov FOos . . . memaSeupevoy| (1) ‘A different type of
character, which has been trained to virtue in opposition to the
education which they (sc. of woAXo/) supply.’ It is better to adopt
this interpretation, giving to wapd its common signification, and
taking mpds dpetrhy with mwemardeupévoy (cp. Protag. 342 D Aaxeda-
pévioe mpds irogoiay kai Adyous dpora nemaidevvra: Gorg. 471 D),
than (2), with Stallbaum, to take wapd in the unparalleled sense of
‘in accordance with,’ translating the whole passage: ‘a type of
character differently disposed towards virtue, if it has been trained
in accordance with the education which they supply.’ The
participle, memaSeupévoy, according to the first interpretation, is
equivalent to a relative clause, 6 memaidevrae: according to the
second, to a conditional, 4v wemadevpevor 7.

éxaotos... pi) GAKa madedev] sc. dofdrw oo. For what
follows cp. Phaedrus 260 c, p, especially the words dd£as 8¢€ mAnOous
MepedeTnkas, K.T.A.

ots 8}... Hyodvrac] ‘whom they regard as their professional
rivals.’

oiro:| the people, who are themselves the Sophist: cp. rovrav,
supra 492 ©. The dislike of the Sophists on the part of men like
Anytus (Meno, sub fin.) is humorously attributed to professional
jealousy.

peyddou Kail ioxupod tpepoudvou] ‘a great and mighty beast
which is fed by him,’—‘ of which he is the keeper.’
eg’ ofs *éxdoras| The reading of nearly all the MSS. is éacros,

which cannot be explained satisfactorily. Corrections are éxdorore
(Vind, E), éxdoros, ds eo’ Exdoros (7), and éxdoras (cj. van Prinsterer).

éxdoras is preferred because it gives a slight increase of distinctness

Vi,
492
E

493
A

eer: ey t ° wr oe a “yo Si ne ae ™~

280 Plato: Republic.

Republic to the meaning: ‘upon what occasions he utters his different
VI. cries.’ Cp. Laws vii. 792 A of pév yap dv mpoodepopevov arya, Karas

olovrar mpoaepenv, ob & dy Kdain Kal Boa, od Kadds.

. 493
B

kat xpdvou tptBy| p18) is opposed to émorjyy, Phaedr. 260 E
&c.: Gorg. 463 B: Soph. 254 a.

kat émOupav| Opinion and desire are hardly distinguishable in
the great beast.

C dvopdtor 8é mdvra tata, K.1.d.] ‘should employ all these terms
(xaddv, aioxpdv, &c.) according to the opinions of the great beast.’

tavaykata Sikata Kahot| His only principle of justice would
be the physical necessities and exigencies of the great beast’s
nature.

ovK dtomos Gv... madeuTHs| av is to be joined with etvas.

D tuvidvrwv| marks the fact that the Sophist represents the col-
lective opinion of mankind in their assemblies : twavtodamdv, that
this opinion is a mixture of very incongruous elements, cp.
Protag. 319 D dpoiws pev réxrwr, duoiws dé xadkevs, K.T.A,

elt év ypagixy, «.7.A.| Cp. Polit. 297 £ ff., where the absurdities
of actual politics are ridiculed by imagining the result of similar
proceedings in other sciences.

dt pev ydp...émawdow| The construction is incomplete :
djAov or some such word has to be supplied with 6m. Cp. v. 471
C, D émel Oru ye, k.7.A., and note: Soph. 248 p 7d 8€ as 7d yeyvookew

clrep €orat Toteiy TL, TO yeyvaoKdpevoy avaykaiov ad EvpBaiver mac yxetv.
émderxvipevos| supra iii. 398 a.

mépa Tav dvayxaiwy| is to be joined with xuptous abtod moray
tods moAAoUs: ‘ The man who makes the many his arbiters of taste,
except in so far as is necessary, will experience the fatal necessity
of doing whatever they approve.’ The true artist will not fall
under the dominion of the many: but he must respect the opinion
of the world up to a certain point, if ‘he is to get leave to live in
it.

The aim of the Sophist, in Plato’s view, is not to undermine
public opinion or morals, but to reproduce them, His wisdom is to
think like other men: cp. Shaks, 2 Henry IV. zz. 2,62 ‘ Never a man’s
thought in the world keeps the roadway better than thine.’ _ He is

Notes: Book VT, . 281

the representative man, who utters the average mind,—in religion, Bs or

in politics, in arts, in society. He gathers up in his words the
power of the many, which he directs against the wisdom of the
few. He systematizes received opinions, which are thus rendered
capable of being taught (compare the Protagoras). And sometimes
philosophy may enable him to invest a popular belief with the
dignity of a great truth, or to embody in a general formula the
maxims of a party or sect.

4 Atopydeia Aeyouévy dvdyxn| The proverb is said by the
Scholiast to refer to the following story :—Acoundns kai ’Odvaceds rd
Taddddiov Keates €€ “INiov vuxrds emavnecav emi ras vats oednvns
bropawovons, piroriovpevos & ’Odvaceds abrov pdvov ddkar yevéeoOar thy
mpagiv, erexetpnoe Tov Atoundea peta tov Taddadiou mponyovpevov avedetv,
6 b€ Kata 7d THs GeAnYns has THY Ka’ avtod Oeacdpevos Tov emipepopevou
Eihous oxidv, ovANapBaver te Tov ’Odvacea, kal Tas xetpas Tovde ouvdei,
mpodyewv Te Keevel, Kal TUTT@Y ato TAaTEL TO Eicher Td peTapevov emt
tovs "EdAnvas rapayivera. The Scholiast on Aristoph. Eccles. 1029
has a different explanation :—ére Atoundns 6 Opaé, mépvas exov
Ovyatépas, Tods mapidvtas Eévous €Buaero adtais ovveiva. Whatever the
story may be to which the phrase refers, it is quite clear that the
general meaning of it is ‘ inevitable necessity.’

Taira toivuy...(494.A)6w adtév| The opposition of the few and
the many is almost as great in the reading age of the nineteenth
century as in the hearing age of Socrates and Plato. In politics,
in society, in the realms of thought and imagination, there are two
classes not marked in the vocabulary of party and found in all
parties—the inferior minds and the superior: those who are under
the influence of the hour, and those who have characters and
principles. The difference is exaggerated when a single mind is
at variance with the rest of the world. The great man who may
be borne on the deeper tide of ages has, nevertheless, to struggle
with the eddies and currents which react upon the surface. Yet
the opposition is not so entire and absolute as Plato seems to
assume. For different classes of minds, like different ranks in
society, fade into one another: and also the simple elements of
moral and religious truth afford a wide ground of common interest.
No link from the highest to the lowest can be spared in the order
of things. And through the progress of commerce and the arts, in
the movements of history, by the gradual spread of education, the
discoveries of great thinkers at length find a place in the world,

fe
D

Republic
VI.

493
E

494
A

Oe, ae Ae ee
* — baere.-¥ :
z

282 Plato: Republic.

and the speculative ideas of one generation become the received
opinions of the next.

Taira toivuy... dvapvyoOyr.| ‘Bearing all these things in
mind, remember further that point which we mentioned before ’—
i.e. in 491 A, where it is said that the truly philosophic nature is
rarely found among men.

adté tt €xagtov] Cp. v. 479 E: supra 484 D, 490 B.
dvégerat | SC. Aeydpueva,

piddcopov pev dpa... wAHOos d8uvatov elvar] Cp. especially
Polit. 292 E pov ovv Soxet mAjOds ye ev moder TavTny THY emoTHpnY
Suvardy eivae ktnoadba 3 Kai was ;

kal bd toUTwy 8} TOv istwrdv| supra 493 A.

ék 8} toUrwy| ‘As a consequence of this,’—i.e. the fact of
their being blamed by the people and by their flatterers. Cp.
supra 489 c.

Gpoddyytar] 485 A, 487 c.

obKodv eb0us év *matoly... év dmacw|] The MSS. have ei6is év
naow. But the conjecture év ravoty is clearly right. For (1) it makes
explicit the contrast to mpeoButepos infra: (2) the same correction
(raci for waox) is required in iv. 431 c, where there can be no
reasonable doubt: (3) it agrees better with ed@Us: cp. iii. 401 D

evOds ex raider.

imoxetgovrat dpa}| ‘ Then they will lie at his feet.’ tmoxeioOa is
here used like imonimrew (infra ix. 576 a) or iworpéxew (iv. 426 C).
Cp. Gorg. 510 ¢ taira Wéeyor kai erauay Ody &pxerOat Kai STroKeto ban
T@ Gpxovrt.

Ti obv ole... . mornoeww] ‘How then do you suppose that he
will behave?’ For woujoew cp. supra ii. 365 a and note: Thuc.

A , ~ s oe a
ve: Bs Ta otpatéreda TOLEL lev KaL GTavTa TOUTO.

év tots Totovrots] ‘under such circumstances’: cp. supra 489 c
ék Te... TOUT@Y Kal €v TovTos according to one interpretation.

fryoupevov]| The lives of Pausanias, Themistocles, Alcibiades
(the latter especially in the words kal ér ederShs Kal péyas), perhaps
of Lysander, may have been in the writer’s mind. Cp. I Alcibiades
105, where Socrates charges the young Alcibiades with an ambition
extending beyond Athens to Greece, beyond Greece to Asia and
the world. |

Notes: Book VI. 283

73 8€ ob Ktytév] sc. 6 voids, as elsewhere the neuter referring to
a masculine word. —

8a tocodrwy Kkaxdv| ‘through’ (i.e. notwithstanding) ‘such
manifold hindrance.’ For a somewhat similar use cp. Soph. Trach.
I13I répas roe id KaKdv Oéomas. Cp. also Keble, Christian Fear,
Whit-Sunday :
‘To other strains our Souls are set ;
A giddy whirl of sin
Fills ear and brain and will not let
Heaven’s harmonies come in.’

Sid 7d... Suyyeves tv Adywv} (1) ‘ Because such reasoning is
congenial to him’: or (2) ‘Because of that in him which is kindred
to dialectic.’ Cp. iii, 402 A ¢édOdvros 8€ Tod Adyou domd{ar’ dv

avrov yrwpifor S:’ olxedtnta padiota 6 oT tpaeis.
ets} ‘One person’: more than ‘ one’ cannot be expected.
Tovs tyoupévous dmoddvar| ‘who think that they are losing.’

od may peév Epyov .. . eis dy@vas Kabiordvras| With the participles
we must supply oldyeOa Kal driodv Spdcew adrovs from ti oidpeba
Spdcew...; immediately preceding. ‘ Do we not suppose that they
will do anything, performing any action and speaking any word...?’
The words kat (‘both’) i8ia . . . katordvras are added in explana-
tion of mpdtrovras .. . wept tov meiBovta.

éhéyopev] 491 B ff.
moira] The plural has the effect of scorn.

ob ydp| ‘ Yes, I see that all this is true: for it was not a bad,
but a ‘true observation.’ «axés has to be understood from the
beginning of the preceding sentence—od kakds édéyouev.

ddlyns Kal GAAws ytyvopévms] ‘which even otherwise’ (i.e.
setting aside the cause of destruction just mentioned) ‘is a rare
growth.’

ds peis papév] v. 476 B: supra 491 A,B.

kal ék todo 8) tov dvipdv ... obre iStirqy obre médw Spa]
Plato thinks that it is only great natures which do great evil. Yet
it is almost a condition of men’s greatness that they should also
in spite of themselves do some good.

The largeness and force and originality of a man’s character are

Republic
VI.

494
D

495
A

Republic
VI.

495
B

496
A

284 Plato: Republic.

the qualities which give him power over his fellows. The narrow
nature, which is incapable of attracting others and has no
intelligence either of things or persons, is necessarily unable to act
upon them.

kat of Ta péytota] Kat = ‘also,’ anticipating Kai ot réya0d. The
latter clause introduces the reverse statement, though not im-
mediately in point.

kal ot Taya0d, ot ay tadty TUxwor puévtes| ‘and’ [from these
men, i.e. the philosophers, come those who do] ‘the’ [greatest]
‘goods, being such of them as are drawn in this direction.’ The
element of chance is never wholly eliminated in Plato.

ots pddtora mpoojKer| sc. 1 droaodia—‘ to whom she is nearest
of kin. There is a reference to the Athenian law which compelled
the nearest kinsman to marry an orphan maiden. Cp. Laws
Xi. 924.

thy 8é, x.1.4.] The bad philosophers are not the philosophic
natures spoilt, but the unphilosophic pretenders to philosophy. 8é
answers both to pév (obtot pév) and te (abrot te).

Spws yap $}...(E) Tuyxdvoucw] The sentence is really unfinished,
the finite verb tuyxdvouvow, substituted for the participle by
attraction from AeAsByvtar, giving it a fallacious appearance of
completeness. The sense is completed figuratively in the words
tod Seomdtou tiv Ouyarépa péAdovtos yapety, x.t.X., of the next
sentence, and literally in 496 a érav airy mAnowd{ovtes bpiAaor k.T.A.

The personification which follows is suggested in the words
dotrep dphaviy cuyyevay (c), and continued by the help of ot Euvdvtes
adty (ibid.), until the idea is complete and philosophy is transformed
into a gentle maiden who is compelled by poverty to marry a tinker
and has offspring vé@a kat gadda. In the words ti Sat; ... ddnOuijs
éxépevov ; the simile is blended with that which it is intended to
illustrate.

Soxeis. . . Siadepery adrods iSeiv] iSetv is epexegetic := ‘ to look at.’

gadaxpod| is only added to make a more contemptible image,
while optxpod is in keeping with the diminutives évOpwmicxot, texvior,
and vewortt.. . Nehupévou continues the figure ot ék tév elpypav
... drodiSpdoxovtes, tod Seomdrou is in construction with Ouyarépa.

Tpoorjkovta aKkodcat copicopata] ‘fit to be called sophisms.’
Cp. Lysis 207 A od 7d KaXds eivat pdvor cgvos dxotoa, and see L. and S.,

Notes: Book VI. 285

S. V. dxovo, iii. 2. The use of this idiom here implies the familiar
personification of Adyos, in the shape of the 8:avonpard te kai Sdfas,
which are the offspring of the unworthy marriage. mpooyxovta =
ols mpoonxet,—a ‘ personal’ construction.

kal odSev . . . éxdpevov ;] ‘ And nothing genuine or worthy of true
wisdom or having to do with it’ There is no sufficient reason for
cancelling a&ov, which may be either taken absolutely, or as
governing the genitive as well as éxépevov, which in this case is
pleonastic, like qaveis, ¢xwv, potov, &c. But the reading of Ven.
II, afwv ws, suggests the possibility of *dgias.

‘mdvopixpov 84 tt] For the collective neuter cp. supra 490 E
opixpov S€ re exbevyer: 492 E 6 ri wep dv owO7.

katahyOer, ‘detained by exile,’ sc. from deserting philosophy.

Bpaxd 8€ mod Tr... ew atthy dv EM] eddués gives the reason
of Stkatws driyzdoay: its force may be rendered thus :—‘ rightly
scorning it by reason of its own natural excellence.’

katacxetv ... (Cc) katéxer| sc. mpos ry pidooodia.

76 Satpdviov onpetov| On this subject see Apology 31 p: Theaet.

-15t aA: Theages 128 £: Xen. Mem. i. 4. What we gather

respecting this ‘familiar’ of Socrates is (1) that he had experienced
these intimations from childhood (Apol. 31): (2) they prohibited
but never instigated a course of action; they would stop him
when going out of his house or forbid him to proceed in the middle
of a speech (ibid. p), or prevent his taking back truant pupils
(Theaet. 151), or hinder his departure till he had expiated some
trifling impiety (Phaedr. 242 B): (3) the daudov is always described
by him in the neuter gender,—once in a doubtful dialogue as
having a voice (Theages 128 £); also as a special monitor which
is peculiar to himself, as in the text and Xen. Mem. i. 4. Xenophon
is very anxious that we should believe his master’s account of this
strange experience ; the simplicity of Socrates’ own statement is
a strong reason for doing so. It is not to be confounded with the
general consciousness of a divine mission received by Socrates
from the Oracle, or with special intimations such as that given by
the dream in the Phaedo (60 £). There is nothing wonderful or
mysterious beyond the fact itself: no intimations are given by the
dayzinov of future events or divine truths. Nor can we easily set
bounds to the latent forms of instinct which reason may assume,

Republic
VI.
496

A

B

Republic
VI.
496

C

497
A

286 Plato: Republic.

or deny the possibility of mental phenomena, which are without
parallel in ordinary experience.

4... Twe GAdw 4 od8evi] A slight extension of a common
idiom, for which cp. Apology 17 B # te f) oddev.

Tovtwy 8} tav dXlywv ot yevopevor] Cp. Thuc. iii. 56, § 7 dv
Nets yevdopevor,

If a perfectly wise and just man were to appear, how would the
world receive him? Would he make his voice heard in opposition
to the opinions and practices of the day? Would any party range
themselves on his side? Or would he be an outcast and an exile,
‘wandering about in sheepskins and goatskins?’ Would he have
been burnt at the Reformation, or would he be tolerated in our
own day?

émt thy to Sixatw BonPerav] The manuscript authority is
nearly divided between to S:xaiw (Par. A: Vind. F) and rév dixaiov
(II M). The former was adopted by Schneider and is idiomatic:
but tay dixaiwy (the objective genitive) is not ungrammatical. Both
readings have the same meaning: ‘to the assistance of what is just.’

BAN’ dorrep cis Onpia ... Teds Te kai edperis dwaddagerar| Cp.
Gorg. 521, 522, where Socrates gives the reason why he takes no
part in politics, viz. because he would have been long ago put to
death.

els mao dypiots dvréxew| dypios is emphatic and a part of the
predicate :=dypious oboe or dypiatvovar, ‘ singly to oppose the fury of
them all.’ The collocation of efs maow aids the antithesis.

hoytopos AaBdv| The change from the plural to the singular
(iSévres THv paviav. .. radra wavra Aoyiopne AaPdv) is due to the singular
in the image (éozep eis Onpia avOpwros éparecsiv).

thy d&maddayyy, K.7.A.] ‘He will take his departure from it with
a fair hope, in peace and good-will.’ adroé, sc. rov Biov.

ofS ye... Ta Kowa odoer} Shall a man acquiesce in the state
of life, politics, education, which he finds around him, retiring
‘behind a wall’ in stormy times, or shall he ‘take arms against
a sea of troubles’ and strive to set men right? ‘That is a question
which admits of a general answer so far as this: That he who from
cowardice or self-interest or over-refinement or indolence or irresolu-
tion fails in resisting the prejudice or injustice or falsehood of his

Notes: Book V1. 287

age, is wanting in the fulfilment of the highest duty of a citizen and
aman. Yet, in the ordinary state of society, the antagonism
between the individual and the world, whether of politics or of
public opinion, is not so great as is implied in the Platonic contrast.
The spirit which replies to divine goodness with the words, ‘We
have a law and by our law he ought to die,’ is, in Plato’s language
(supra 496 c), hardly worth mentioning, having only occurred once
perhaps in the history of mankind. Most societies have better, as
well as worse impulses; if they are not so good as the best
individuals, of whom they are partly composed, neither are they so
bad as the worst. Of their nobler impulses the philosopher may
avail himself: he is the Master of those that think; his gentle
qualities may readily be appreciated by all. Nor does he really
stand alone: many intermediate minds are the conductors between
himself and the multitude, with whom he may sometimes also
make a direct alliance, like the King and the Commons in the
Roman State, against the prejudices or interests of the few. His
duty is to struggle rather than to win, in the faith, which is the
meeting-point of philosophy and religion, that truth will finally
prevail. His place is not in the congenial state which Plato offers
him—this would only limit him; but in the world at large, in
which he makes himself felt as a power.

Philosophy must continue thus degraded and defamed, until the
true philosopher obtain a state and constitution suited to him. Thus,
having a true environment, Philosophy will prove in action that she
ts alone divine. Such a perfect constitution has now been described
in outline. But the education of the philosophic rulers has yet to be
determined. And first, the method of their training in philosophy
must be the opposite of that now in vogue. Instead of getting
a smattering of dialectic in the brief interim between school and
business, after which, as things now are, the student hardly meddles
with philosophy again, they shall be content in youth with elementary
mental discipline and attend seriously to the strengthening of the
physical frame ; until the age arrives when the mind approaches
her maturity. Then they shall increase the gymnastics of the mind.
And when declining strength exempts them from public services, they
shall be permitted to devote themselves entirely to the pursutt which
they love, and so prepare themselves for blessedness to come.

Thy mpootjKoucay airy tiva... éyers] For the form of expres-
sion Cp. V. 475 E tovs b€ ddnOwors, &pn, tivas héyers ;

Republic
VI.

497
A

497 A-
498 C

497
A

Republic
VI.

497
B

288 Plato: Republic.

éwattiGpor| ras viv wodreias is easily supplied, but is unnecessary.

8d Kal otpépeobar ... Kparodpevoy i€var| ‘And so it (i.e. the
philosophic nature) is warped and changed, just as a foreign seed,
sown in an alien soil, fades away (éirmAov) and tends to be subdued
and pass (kpatodjevov igvar) into the native stock.’ For iéva «es cp.
Laws Vili. 834 D madevpdrwr els Bos idvrwr.

The words which follow, o§tw kai todto ... éxmimrew, are added
as if dowep evixdv oméppa, k.7.A., had been quite independent of
81d Kal orpépeobat ... adtyv. The construction would have been
more correct if the sentence had terminated at iévat, or if cai had
been inserted before domep fevixév oméppa. As the sentence stands
there is an asyndeton either before éomep or ottw.

SyAdoet| is impersonal : = dAdov gorae: cp. Gorg. 483 D dyroi de

taita modAaxod drt ovUTws Exel.
jv] ‘was always,’ even when rejected of men.

Ta°pev GAda, «.7.A.| ‘In other respects this one (sc. hy jpeis
dceAnAVOapev) is the best constitution’: but there was one defect in
it. We did indeed say at the time that the spirit of the legislator
was to be preserved, but we did not show sufficiently how this was
to be effected. toéro 8€ adré, ‘this very point’ (which is excluded
and excepted by t& G\\a) was mentioned, but not adequately
discussed,

éppyOy pev... (D) GAN’ odx ikavds ... €5nddOy| The construction is

broken by the answer, éppyOy ydp, €6y: and 4AX’ odx tkavds
. . nbn takes the place of ody ikavas & ednroOn.

Socrates had said (éppy6y : cp. iii. 412-414) that it was necessary
to have an authority in the state that should preserve the spirit of
the legislator. The question as to how this was to be effected had
only been partly answered in Book iii (odx ixavaés é8n\o6n), owing
to the objection of Adeimantus (6B Gv épeis, x.7.A.) at the begin-
ning of Book iv (419 ff.), and the more serious interruption at the
beginning of v (450 ff.), which led to the discussion of communism.
Socrates now proceeds to complete (1é Aourdv) his answer by
stating how the study of philosophy is to be pursued,

Adyov] ‘idea,’ ‘ conception,’ ‘ reasoned notion.
dv Gpets dvrtAapBavdpevor| dv, sc. éxeivoy & (cognate accus.).

adtod| ‘of it,’ i.e. of the question which we were discussing in
Book iii.

Notes: Book VI. 289

ob *mavrwv paorov | mdvras MSS.—‘ not by any means the easiest.’
Bekker’s correction, 0b *mdvray pacrov, is unnecessary [B. J.].
But the change is slight and the phrase more idiomatic [L. C.].

kat 7d Neyopevov ... xahema] tH Sve is an addition of Socrates’,
‘we may indeed say in the words of the proverb.’

GAN’ Spws ... Havepod yevouévou| ‘Still, he said, let us clear up
this point, and so complete the demonstration.’

viv pév.... (498A) tept tods Adyous| ‘At present those who do
engage in philosophy are mere striplings, just past their boyhood :
they approach—that is, those of them who are most thought of as
philosophers—the most difficult part of the subject; and I mean
by the most difficult part, dialectic ; in the interval before keeping
house and going into business, and then betake themselves off.’
That is to say, the study of philosophy, as at present pursued,
begins too early, at the wrong end, and ends too soon. The
opposite advice is given by Callicles in the Gorgias (485).

(1) Only the extreme limit (oixovopias kal xpnpatiopod) of the
interval (1d petagd) is mentioned; the other is to be gathered
from é« watSwv: ‘between boyhood and business.’ Or (2) we
may take 7d peragd ... xpnpatiopod, with Stallbaum, as meaning
‘in the spare moments of housekeeping and business.’

ot pidocopdtaror morodpevor] On comparing vii. 538 c rav dAdo
Tooupévey oikeiwy, it appears that movodpevor is a qualifying word like
doxodvyres, &c., and is to be understood passively: ‘who are thought
to be most accomplished in philosophy.’

mpds 8€ 1d yipas...adOis odk efdwrovrar] Cp. Aristot.
Meteor. ii. 2, § 9 mept d€ rév FAtory, dddvatov rodiro cupBaivew™ éret
atpepopévov ye Tov aitov tpdmov, Sumep exeivoi act, Sydrov Gre kai 6
WAwos ob pdvov xabarep 6 “Hpakdeiros yor, véos ep’ huépy €ativ, ad dei
véos TUVEXOS.

Set Se was 3] SC. mparrew,

mav tobvavtiov| sc. dei mparre:.

imnpeciav pidocopia ktwpévous| In the Protagoras Plato repre-
sents this principle as recognized in the ordinary education of the
Greek: Protag. 326 B iva ra ca@pata BeAtiw Exovtes imnpetaor TH diavoia
XpneT]) oven.

mpotovons Sé Tis HAuKias, év yj] ‘as the period of life advances in
which. Two notions are combined: ‘ As the time of life goes
forwards,’ and ‘as the particular age arrives.’

VOL. III. U

Republic
Vi.

497
D

498
A

Republic
VI.

498
c

498 C-
502 C

290 Plato: Republic.

Stray 8é Ajyn . . . potpay émoryicew mpérougay] ‘ But when the
strength fails, and a man is past political and military duties, they
should range at will and devote themselves to no other pursuit,
except as a secondary matter, those, that is, who are to live
happily and after death to crown the life they have lived with
a fitting destiny in the world below.’ The subject of ylyvyntat is
tts, for which the Indef. Plur. is substituted in d&érous, x.t.d.

For a similar use of the term aero, applied to the sons of
Pericles, who are left to get their political education where they
can, cp. Protag. 320 A avrot meptidvres vépovtat @omep aderot, €dv mou

, al a
avTopato. TEpiTvXwot TH apeTh.

Adeimantus thinks that the zeal of Socrates will be met with
equal zeal on the part of his opponents, beginning with Thrasymachus.
‘Do not try to cause illfeeling between Thrasymachus and me, who
are now friends, although we were never enemies. For I shall
never relax my efforts to do good to him and to all men, and my
work may bear fruit in another life, if not in this. He adds that
it 1s no blame to ordinary men that they do not believe, since they
have had sophistry palmed upon them for truth, and an artificial
combination of words for the spontaneous unity of nature. Nor
have they ever seen a perfect man ruling in a perfect state. Socrates
therefore once more reiterates his main postition, that there ts no hope
Sor mankind unless either the few who are now ‘useless’ should
have supreme power, or the actual potentates should be inspired with
a genuine love of true philosophy. Then, and not till then, the tdeal
state will come into being. And when the vulgar see the philosopher
as he really ts, they will be of another mind. The majority of men
cannot be angry with one who loves them, or be jealous of one who is
Sree from all jealousy and personality. For his mind dwells, not
among the contentions of earth, but in the divine order. He will
take the state in hand and make a‘ tabula rasa, whereon he will
plan out the ideal of human society, looking at the abstract principles
of virtue, and at the actual traces of it existing among men, framing
out of both together the image of a divine humanity. He—or they,
if there be more than one—is alone qualified for this work. Nor is
it inconceivable that in the whole course of time one such may arise,
and may legislate for a willing people, or that he may make his
laws according to the spirit of our doctrines. In that case our ideal
(‘though hard and rare’) will be actually realized.

=|

Notes: Book VI. 2Q91

ph SidBadde, x.7.A.] See note on i. 3368. The words 068€ mpd
rod, x.7.A., are in keeping with the good humour which, afier the
storm, Socrates has contrived to restore at the end of Book i, and
which remains unbroken at the beginning of Book v. For the
use of d:aSddAXew cp. Symp. 222 D dros eve Kai aé pndeis diaBddry.

Srav . . . évtdxwor Adyors] For this notion of discourses taking
place in another life cp. Apol. 41, Phaedo 68 a, B,in which Socrates
anticipates his meeting with great souls in Hades. In the present
passage, however, the reference is to a future life on earth after the
interval of a thousand years, It is curious after this allusion to
find Glaucon in x. 608 bp expressing surprise when Socrates
announces the immortality of the Soul.

eis od8ev pev ody . . . Tov dwavta|] Cp. x. 608 c ti 8 dy, i 8
> , »~ > , , 4 , i: a 4 bg a ‘ ,
eya, &v ye dAiym xpdvm péya yevoito ; mas yap obrds ye 6 ex madds péxpt
Ld , ‘ , > ’ ” $8 8 > ”
mpeoBvrov xpdvos mpos mavra dAlyos mov tis dv ein, ObSev pev odv, edn.
Ti ody; ole dOavaro mpa t Umép toaovtou Seiv xpd d daxé
t ouv, ole ava are paypHate umep @wou ty xpovov €aTrovoaKevat,

GN’ ody irep Tov mavrds ;

eterritnSes AAAHAOIS Gpowwpeva] ‘artificially made to agree with
one another.’

dnd 00 abroudrou, domep viv) This allusion to the ‘spontaneous
harmony’ of the dialogue is partly a mode of praising his own
work (cp. Shakespeare, /u/. Caes. iii. 1, 111 ‘How many ages
hence | Shall this our lofty scene be acted over | In states unborn
and accents yet unknown!’ and Laws vii. 811, where Plato
eulogizes his own compositions with the freedom and garrulity of
old age), and partly expresses his real conviction that the harmony
of his dialogues (as of a living creature—Phaedr. 264 c) was not
merely a work of art, but had a real correspondence with the truth
of the ideas. Cp. Theaet. 200 £, Phil. 20 c.

Adyw . . . éXevOépwv| ‘ discourses noble and free.’

otwy {yreiv] ‘whose nature is to seek.’ otwv = rowtrev dore.
The arguments are again personified.

mpds Sd6fav] ‘to producing an impression.’

méppwiev dowalopévwy] ‘giving a distant welcome.’ Cp.
Psalm cxxxviii. 6 ‘The proud he knoweth afar off.’ The phrase
occurs in Eurip. Hippol. 102 mpdcwbev airiy ayvos dy domdtopa.

tére| vV. 473D.

Republic
VI.

498
e

499
A

Republic
Vi.

499
B

292 Plato: Republic.

kai SeSidtes Suws| ‘although with trembling.’ kat as in Kaimep.

o08€ y’ dvijp épotws| ‘ No, nor can an individual become equally
perfect,’ sc. as he would in a kingdom of philosophers. See above

497 A ovd€ ye, elmov, ra péeyora, K.T.d.

meptBddy| which is found in the best MSS.,is probably correct:
‘until necessity (1) encompasses them’ (L. and S. s. v. mepiBaAXa, ii)
to take charge of the city and the city to obey them, or (2)
‘constrains them’ (lit. ‘invests them with it’), the infinitives
taking the place of an accusative. The inferior reading, wapaSaay,
must be taken intransitively, like mapaBdd\Aw in viii. 556 C drav

mrapaBd\Xwow adAndots of Te dipxovres Kai of dpxdpuevot.

kat TH wodet *katnkdw yevéoOar] The MSS. have xarjxoor
(carnxot 11), which is harsh in grammar and irrelevant in meaning.
katnkde, a correction of Schleiermacher’s, involves the least possible
change (from o to »), and makes the sentence smooth: ‘ Until
either philosophers are invested with power, or kings, who have
power, become philosophers.’ Cp. v. 473 D éav pp... # of
Prridcoper Bacievowow ev tais médeow 7} of Bacidijs re viv Aeydpevor Kab
duvacrac itocodnowor yynoiws te Kai ixavas for the same two
alternatives. xaryxoo has been explained as attracted to the
subject of BovAovrat from xarnxdors which Stallbaum conjectured :
but apart from the grammar, the notion of the city entreating the
philosophers to govern her, goes beyond anything which has been
suggested by Plato.

TouTwy S€ métepa . . . Exetw Adyov| ‘To suppose that either or
both of these alternatives is impossible, I maintain to be quite
unreasonable.’ mdérepos is the indefinite, ‘either of the two,’ as in
Theaet. 145 A ti &, ef motépou rhvy Wuyxnv emaivoi mpos dpernv, K.7.d.,
and elsewhere. This is one of Plato’s subtleties of language
which appear to be lost in later writers. The pronoun od8éva is
more emphatic than the simple negative ov« yew Adyor.

ei totvuy... (D) éykparhs yévntar| Erowor, sc. eoper, atty 7
Modoa, sc. 7 Pirrocopia, abty referring to Gkpots ets didocodiay at
the beginning of the sentence.

év To dteipw TH Tapednuddr. xpdvw] The fancy of ancient
writers led them to speculate on the boundless past more than on
the future. Herodotus has no difficulty in imagining that the
Delta might have been accumulated in 10,000 years. Socrates in
the Theaetetus (174 ©) imagines infinite time, in which every man’s

Notes: Book V1, 293

pedigree has contained princes, as well as peasants, many times
over. In the Laws infinite time, in which a series of destructions
is supposed to have occurred, is said to be the origin of states
(iii. 677). Similar speculations occur in the Politicus and Timaeus.
In this respect, as in several others, Greek thought seems to occupy
an intermediate space between the dreamy infinity of the Oriental
and the narrower notions of the West.

H Tkal édv otrw . . . dmoxpweto@a| (1) The difficulty of this
passage is removed by reading 4 for #, placing a full stop after
dmoxpwveto@at, and joining kal. . . o8rw: ‘ You will surely say that,
if they look at the philosophers in this light too’ (and not in the
former only), ‘they will change their mind and answer in another
strain.” Cp. Thuc. v. 45 tov AdKiBiadny epdBovv pi) Kal iv és tov
djpov ratra Néeywow, émaydywvra tO mAnOos, Where kai marks the
antithesis of és tov djuov to ev 7H BovAn. This avoids the harshness
of taking d\dolay 8d6gav in two opposite senses (i. e. (a) ‘ different
from their earlier opinion’: and (4) ‘the same with their earlier
opinion but different from yours ’) within a few lines. (2) But the
reading ¢ 7) ovx édy suggests a clearer sense which can be obtained
by Stallbaum’s simple expedient of changing ro to re: ‘or
supposing them to look at the question in this light, will you not
say that they will adopt a different opinion and make another
reply?’ The repetition of &ddoiavy has then a natural emphasis.
For the omission of a negative see note on iv. 439 £. Cp. for the
spirit of the passage Phaedr. 268 D aAX’ ovk dv dypoikws ye, olpat,
Aowdopnoecay, K.T.A.

apGovdy re kai mpdov Gvta| with this use of dpOovos cp. Gdupos in
ili. 411 B, Laws x. 888 A. It is remarkable that Plato should be
found asserting the goodness of ordinary human nature when
treated with gentleness and consideration.

Gpéder] See note on iv. 422.
éxetvous| Supra 495 ¢, D.

AoiBopoupevous ... adtois| adrois is better than adrois, being
more in keéping with the spirit of the passage: cp. supra 499 E p}
iroverk@v GAA mapapvOovpevos, and infra c paydpevov airois. It was
by no means an uncommon practice of the old philosophers to
abuse the people. For an illustration of émecxwpagerOac compare
the amusing description of Alcibiades in Symp. 213 ff. A still

Republic
VI.

499
Cc

*s 18
i

204 Plato: Republic.

si a more fanciful use of the metaphor occurs in Theaet. 184 a ind

500 Tov erevoxopaévrav Adyar.

B It may be often doubted whether the persecution of religious and
philosophical teachers is to be laid to the door of their virtues or of
their faults : in the nineteenth century and under ordinary circum-
stances, rather to the latter. No man is now persecuted for his
goodness: there is far more dangér that the rewards which he
receives may injure the bloom of his disinterestedness. He is more
likely to be persecuted for the love of truth, when the truth happens
to be opposed to the prevailing sentiments of his age and country.
Yet here, again, much will depend upon himself. The philosopher
who has no kindness for the many and is too fastidious to
sympathize with them, easily becomes the object of enmity to
those who are unacquainted with him. This does not show that
mankind deliberately prefer falsehood to truth, any more than evil
to good.

Hkvota . . . movodvras| Names and authorities in the place of
reasons and proofs, personalities instead of facts, in ancient as well
as modern times, mark a superficial and unphilosophic character.
So the peyaddwuyos in Aristotle is ovK dvOpwmroddyos (N. E. iv. 3, § 31).
Yet those who are guilty of these faults are almost always
unconscious of them.

TOU y'| SC. ifeeora.

c GAN’ eis TeTaypéva Grra, x.t.\.] In a similar spirit it is said in
the Timaeus (47 a-c) that men should in their lives imitate the
unchanging motions of the heavens. Compare also the philosopher
in the Theaetetus 174 ff., and, for the loftiness of kdtw Bdérew,
Sophist 216 kaopavres idéev rév ray Kdtw Bior.

Taira pipetobat te... doporodcOar| sc, dei, elicited from od8e
. . sxoA%, the positive from the negative.

Gpoporodabar] sc. rovrors.

D SiaBodh 8 ev waor wohdy]| év waow may mean either (1) ‘among
all men’: or (2) ‘in all things,’ i. e. attending every form of human
life. ‘The philosopher attains to divinity as far as man can;
but there is always detraction going on.’ The divine life is not
complete until its excellence is acknowledged by mankind,

Synpotikijs dperas] Cp. iv. 430 C moderexny ye and note; Phaedo
82 B of rhv Sypotixny re Kal woduriKiy dperiy émurerndevkdres.

Notes: Book V1. 295

od xahewavodow ... (501 A) 8 0d wavy pddiov| ‘They will not be sou

angry if they understand. But tell me, what is their manner of

500°
drawing it?’ ‘Imean,I replied, they will take for their tablet a state E
and human nature, and will begin by making a clean surface, which
is not at all an easy thing to do.’

The modern philosopher will rather say : érep ob wavy duvardv.
Neither individuals nor states can wholly break with their ante-
cedents. ‘The power of habit or tradition, in institutions as well
as characters brings back the former things.

GdN’ odv. .. 4 adtol morfoat|] ‘However, you know that this is 501

the point which will at once distinguish them from the others: they
will have nothing to do with individual or state, and will draft no
laws, until they have either (#) received or (#) themselves made
a clear surface.’ In other words they will begin with the abstrac-
tion of astate. A method of effecting such a ‘clean sweep’ is
suggested at the end of Book vii, where all persons of ten years
old and upwards are to be sent out of the city.

odxodvy... THS Wodtteias| ‘Do you not suppose that the next
step will be to make an outline of the form of the constitution?’
For the meaning of tixoypapew cp. the opposition of troypapy and
tehewrdtn amepyacia infra 504 pd. In Protag. 326 p the word is used
of the writing-master setting a copy.

dmepyaLépevor] ‘In filling up the outline.’ | B

7d pice Bixatov... 7d év tois dvOpdmos] i.e. to natural justice
and to that justice which exisis among men. Cp. Phaedo 103 B
obre TO ev pty ovre Td ev tH Suge: ibid. 102 p. ‘The absolute ideal
or the ideal in nature, is opposed to the actual in man. The
pronoun is resumed in dm’ ékeivou.

éptrovotey . . . Oeoeixehov]| ‘they would put into the picture what
is manlike, mingling and mixing it from the modes of human action,
forming their conception of it from that ideal, which Homer, when
existing among men, called divine and godlike.’ There is possibly
an allusion to the secondary meaning of dvSpeixehov = a pigment
of the colour of human flesh.

dm éxeivou texpatpdpevor, x.7.A.] Does an artist paint from an
ideal in the mind’s eye, or from observation of nature and life? Is
moral and political philosophy to be gathered deductively from
ideas, or inductively from experience? The same answer may be

Republic
VI.

* 501
B

502
A

B

ue» he Te ees ei a!
‘ 7

296 Plato: Republic.

given to both questions: (1) that different minds work in different
ways: one with eye and thought simultaneously, the other with
a conception that always seems to outrun the power of execution.
One fills up a previously existing outline, the other creates piece-
meal: the ideal is first in one mind, the real in another. And one
man is a philosopher from running about in life, another from
reading and study. (2) The opposition of fact and idea, though
often made and occasionally justified by the differences of human
character or genius, is not, speaking generally, a true one; ideas
and ideals are only more universal and distant facts, in which the
particularity and confusedness of sense is lost.

obs Siatetapévous ep" fpas Epnoba i€var] Viz. v. 474 A Ociv

Staterapevous, K.T.A.
Hv tpets SupAPopev| Referring once more to supra 485 ff.

ti 8€; thy tovadrny ... dpwpicapev| The change from pi to ob
shows that dudioBnrioa has been forgotten, some general notion
such as A¢yeww having taken its place ; and in what follows Aoew can
only be explained by a recurrence to otee or some similar word
implied in the preceding question, the infinitive being suggested by
éoeoOat preceding.

fv pudodoyoipey Adyw] Cp. once more iii. 389 D dv ye. . . emi
ye Ady Epya reAjra.

Ftrov| sc. dyptavotow,

Bovher ...(502 A) dpokoynowow| ‘ Do you wish that we should say,
not that they are less angry, but that they have become altogether
gentle’ So the unregenerate materialists in the Sophist are
imagined to be better than they are, for the sake of the argument —
(Soph. 246 p, 247 £). Cp. alsoi. 354 a imd aod ye,.. .& Opacipaye,

> ‘ a : gles ‘ , > °
emre.On Lot Tpaos eyevov Kal xaXeraivev eraica,
Ftrov pGpev| sc. aypraivew.

aicxuvOévtes| ‘from shame’ at our magnanimity in saying they
are quite gentle.

tis] ris; which proves to be the reading of Par. A, agrees

equally well with the answer 088° @y efs, but cp. xe tus ..., E08
Sorts ..., infra,

hs pev yap... §uyxwpodpev| Supra 4gr ff., 499 D.
yevopevos] = ei yevorro, ‘ were he to arise.’

Notes: Book VJ. 297

adda 84... ASdvatov| Plato is arguing about the probability of
his perfect state coming into being, and he assumes this to be possible
if only one philosophic nature in the course of ages remains
uncorrupted, and finds a city willing to obey him—that is the first
step. The ruler lays down his laws and the people execute them
—that is the second step. But why should not that which
approves itself to us approve itself to him? Or, in other words,
‘Why should not the laws which he lays down be the same
with ours?’

We may now return to the education of the ruling class, which,
as was said above, must be arranged with due regard to the age best
fitted for each branch of study. And first, the tests which we now
demand for them will be more severe than those previously required.
Their patriotism must indeed be proof against all assaults, but
they must also be unwearied in learning. Now this implies the com-
bination, rarely found, of quickness with steadiness, of eagerness with
persistence. If this higher nature ts to be tested, the course of studies
must not only include such provisional views of justice, temperance
and other virtues, as have been given above: but the pupil must be
taken round by what was then briefly indicated as the ‘longer way.’
In other words, he must not stop short of the highest of all studies,
that of the idea of good,—-a thing of which all men have a presentt-
ment, but which none have grasped, yet without which all pursutts
are vain. This the true guardian must not fail to know if our
state is to be perfectly ordered. Yet for the present this supreme
idea, transcending not pleasure only, but wisdom, knowledge, truth,
and even Being, cannot be defined, but only shadowed forth. As
the sun ts the source not only of light and vision, but also of the
generation and growth of visible things, so the Idea of Good ts the
supreme cause, not of truth and knowledge only, but of Betng. The
analogy may be carried further. As in the visible world there are
shadows and (so-called) substances, so in the intelligible there is
a lower sphere in which ideas are symbolized by sensible things, and
a higher one, where the ideas are contemplated absolutely in
subordination to the tdea of good. Thus :—

The visible world presided over The intellectual world presided

by the sun has over by the Idea of Good has
a. Shadows perceived by (a) c. Mathematical truth per-
Conjecture : cetved by (y)Scientificthought:

b. Realities perceived by (8) d. Ideal truth perceived by
Faith. (8) Reason.

Republic
VI.

502
B

yo2 C-
SIDE:

Republic
VI.

502

593
A

298 Plato: Republic.

od8év . . . 6 copdy por éyévero] ‘I gained nothing by the trick.’
Cp. Symp. 214 A mpos pev Saxpdrn, & dvdpes, rd cddiopa por obdév.
The allusion is to v. 449 c and the passage there referred to—iv.
423 E.

thy... Sucxépetav| ‘ the troublesomeness,’ i. e. both the inherent
difficulty of this, and the dislike which the statement of it was
sure to occasion.

i) Twavtehds GAnOys] The absolutely right arrangement being
that the rulers must be philosophers. He proceeds to take up the
subject at the point where in Book iii he had digressed. The
pvAaxes had been supposed to go through a novitiate, with a view
of testing their temperance and courage: 413 E kal rév dei & Te
mat Kat veavioxos Kat ev avdpdor Bacan(dpevov kai dknpatov éxBaivovra

katagtaréov dpxovta Ths Tédews . . . Tov 5€ pH) TOLODTOY amoKpLTéor,
éehéyonev] iii. 412 ¢ ff.

76 Séypa todto] as appears from iii. 412 x, is that which is
implied in gtAowdé\udas, viz. the determination 6 pev dv rH TE Hy7-
covra Evphepew, maon mpobvpia moeiv, d 8 dv py, pynderi tpdm@ mpaga
dy eOéheww.

4 tov aduvatotvta dioKpitéov| ‘else, he who failed was to be
rejected.’

tmapakahumropévou|] proves to be the reading of A, as well as of
11M. The reading mapaxadvrrecOa appears in no manuscript.

Hv yap SupdOoper vow Seiv Gmapxeww adtots| ‘ for the nature which
we described as needing to be present in them.’ éépyeorOar here
takes the construction of Aéyew : és déov would be more regular than
the infinitive Setv.

Sieomacpévyn| Suecmacpeva was wrongly read by Cobet (Var.
Lectt., ed. sec., p. 531, quoted by Baiter) in Par. A. It is really
found only in a’ v, and was adopted by Stephanus from the Latin
version of Ficinus. 8teomacpévn is now restored.

edpabeis kat pynpoves... ێdew Liv] There are two ways of
construing this passage :—(1) ‘ You know that people who have
a quick apprehension and memory, shrewdness and acuteness, and
such like qualities, are not wont to be at the same time of a generous
and noble spirit, so as to be such as to wish (Sore rotodrot eivat ofot)
to live an orderly life, quietly and steadily.’ (2) ‘ People who have

Notes: Book VJ, 299

a quick apprehension and memory, and shrewdness and acuteness,
and other such qualities, as you know (and we must add the
impetuous and noble), are not wont to be at the same time such
as to wish to live orderly.’

The former interpretation (1) gives the more obvious and natural
construction. But it is objected, not without a show of reason,
that the combination of high-spirit with quickness of intellect does
not necessarily produce quietness of conduct (pera fouxias ... Liv).
To which it may be replied that veavxoi, as well as peyadomperets,
is here used in a good sense, implying, not youthful impetuosity,
but a robust and high-toned character. For this use of veamxés cp.
supra 491 E # ote ra peydda adicnuara... éx davdns, ddd’ ovk ék
veavixys hioews tpopy Siodopéervns yiyverOu...; For the connexion
of peyadompéreca With cwppoovvn and xoopidrns Cp. Supra 500 C, D.

Ta BéBara ... HOn] The euSpudeorepor of Theaet. 144 B.
aita] sc. rh maidevopérg.

atts] sc. fv dindOopev piow (supra B).

ots tore éX€youev] iii. 413 c ff.

Suvary] is the reading of the majority of MSS. It may be
defended by supplying gvois (or ux cp. vii. 535 B) from the
general sense of the preceding passage.

ot év tots GAXors] ‘In other kinds of effort, i.e. other than
intellectual. Orelli’s conjecture, d@Avrs, is plausible but unnecessary.
It is also noticeable that the word 46dos is absent from most of
Plato’s dialogues, occurring only in the Timaeus and Laws.

Stactyodpevor fuveBiBdloper | It is better (1) to take GuveBiBdLopev
transitively—‘ we gathered concerning justice, temperance, courage
and wisdom, what their several natures were,’ than (2) intransitively,
as Timaeus does, ‘we came to an agreement. The meaning here
approaches that of proof or inference which is common in Aristotle.
L. and S. s. v. cvpSiBaga, iii.

ph yap... dkxodew}] ‘Why, if I did not remember, I should
deserve not to hear the rest.’ ph prnpovedwv = ef px) pynpovevdoune.

7 kat 1d mpoppybey adtay| sc. prynpovevers. adrav, sc. our dis-
cussion of the three parts of the soul.

ehéyouév mou... mpoodipor] Cp. iv. 435 D paxporepa kai meiwy d3ds
i) €mi rovro a@yovoa, That is to say, the account of the ideas of

Republic
V1.

503
Cc

504
A

Republic
VI.

504
B

300 Plato: Republic.

justice, temperance, courage, wisdom, which was given in Book iv,
was inexact and popular. Their true nature would only be revealed
by dialectical deduction in their relation with the good. For
éropevas With the genitive cp. Polit. 271 E£ dea ris rovavrns éoti Kara-
émopévas émdpeva.

és péev Suvardv fv] The use of the indicative here amongst so
many optatives belongs to the idiomatic use of jv in speaking of an
ultimate fact.

Grehés ydp odSév odSevds pérpov] ‘Nothing imperfect is the
measure of anything.’ The very notion of measure involves com-
pleteness or definite quantity. For another play on the word pérpov
Cp. V. 450 B peérpov , . . ToLo’Tay Adywy dxovew Sdos 6 Bios vodv €xovow.
A somewhat different test is proposed in Polit. 286 p, E otre yap
mpos thy nSoviy pnkovs dppdrrovtos, «.t.A., Where it is said that
discourses are not to be measured by the pleasure they give, nor
by the ease or quickness with which they dispose of a subject,
but as they tend to sharpen the dialectical powers.

Soxet 8 évioré tow] Cp. ii. 372 E, where teow conveys a similar
innuendo.

kai peiLov, x.7.A.] Not only is there a knowledge higher than
virtue, but the virtues themselves should be exhibited in their most
perfect form.

Kai pada, Epn, Ggvov 7d Siavdnya} ‘Your sentiment, said he, is
a right noble one’: i.e. that the highest perfection is required on
the highest subjects. kai pdda is to be connected with dgétov: cp.
i. 334 E kal pada, én, otro ~vpBaive. Cp. the adrd raxpiBés of the
Politicus (284 p), which will require a standard of measure.

Yet in modern, as well as in ancient times, the highest subjects
have been treated in the loosest manner. The reason is that they
are partly matters of faith and feeling, as well as of reason: all have
something to say upon them, and all are eager to hear about them.
Not only philosophy, but theology, has often fallen into ignoble

hands—ov mpoojjkov émevokexwpaxdras.
ob mdvu| ‘ Certainly not.’

mdvtws| as elsewhere, has the force of a connecting particle;
cp. Theaet. 143 A mavras éywye kai dvaraioacba Séona: Polit. 268 £
TavTws ov TOAAa exevyers matdias rn. The sentence is not therefore
to be regarded as an asyndeton.

Notes: Book VI. 301

# a8 Siavoel . . . dvrikapBavdpevos| ‘Or you again intend to
interrupt and give trouble,’ as Adeimantus had previously done by
recurring to the subject of women and children (v. 450 B dcoy
€opiv Adyav émeyeipere, K.T.d.).

ei 8€ ph topev . . . dveu tod dyaQod} The double ei in the former
part of the sentence helps to distinguish the indicative clause from
the optative,—the former mood being correctly used to repeat
a previous statement, the latter indicating the further supposition.
For the same reason Bekker rightly changed kexrnpeOa to kextypeOa.

# ote... .. dyabyv] Compare the passage (iv. 438 a) in which
drink or any desirable object is said to include the good. But
are all the meanings of ‘good’ the same?—would have been the
question of Aristotle (N. E. i. 6). Words seem to play the same
part with the id€a rod dyaOod as with the Eleatic év or with the abstract
6eds. Language readily provides an expression for the unity
which the human mind is vainly seeking.

Tois 8€ Kopporepors]| Cp. Aristotle’s of yapuvres (N. E. i. 4, § 2,
&c.): also Theaet. 156 a.

kal St ye, @ ide, «.7.4.] (a2) Those who maintain that
intelligence is the good, on being asked what they mean by
intelligence, reply—‘ Intelligence of the good ’—thus re-introducing
the word and still begging the question ‘ What is the nature of the
good?’ (4) Those who maintain that pleasure is the good have
to admit that there are bad as well as good pleasures, and therefore
that bad and good are identical. In the first sentence Plato
appears to be speaking of the Cynics, or perhaps of the Megarians:
in the second of the Cyrenaics and of people in general. Cp.
Phileb. 67 B of moAdoi Kpivovar tas Hdovas eis 7d hv Hiv ed Kparioras
eiva. For the contradiction éya@a cat kaka tadrd (infra), cp. Phil.
13 B, c: and, for as... gunéevrwy, Theaet. 147 A, B oidpevor
ouvidvat ek THs NueTepas droxpicews, k.7.d.

ti 8€; 1é8€ od havepdy, x.t.d.] However men may differ in their
idea of the good, they all alike insist on having what they think the
reality and will not put up with a sham.

The argument is in some degree like that of Anselm and
Descartes, that the highest perfection involves existence. The
reality of pleasure might be maintained on similar grounds. For
nobody desires ‘sham pleasure.’ Plato in this passage (but cp.

Republic
VI.

504
E

595
A

Republic
V.

595
D

B

302 Plato: Republic.

Parm. 132 B, where he has begun to suspect that abstractions may
be a creation of the mind) does not appear to be aware of the
answer to this sort of argument—that good, like being, may be an
abstraction only, though one of the three greatest or highest of our
abstractions: ‘verum, unum, bonum.’ Compare Theaet. 172 A,
where the real nature of the good or expedient is contrasted with
the conventionality of law and justice.

The tautology in Soxoévra . . . 8oxetv affords no valid objection
to the reading.

8 Bh Sidker pev Graca puxy, «.7.A.] Cp. Aristot. N. E. i. 1, § 1

81d Kad@s drepjvarto tayabdv, ob mavr’ epierat.
el Te Geos Hv] Sc. adrav,

éoxotaoGa| Cp. Theaet. 209 E 1d yap, 4 éxoper, radra mpoodaPeiv
Kehevew .. . TavU yevvaiws Eoikev ETKOTWMEVY.

mpdtepov| (1) sc. rod Pidaxos. The guardians are $vAaxes trav
Sixatwy kai Kad@v, SC. Tov vouivwr, Cp. supra 504 pvAake wodeds Te
kai vopov. Or (2) ‘before he sees how they (justice and beauty)
are good (Sry wore dyad éotw).’ [B. J.]

dvdykyn ... mapa taira| A slight discontent is betrayed in
these words. Adeimantus, here, as elsewhere, is not easily satisfied:
he wants to know Socrates’ own opinion. Socrates before giving
his answer, exclaims against the persistent vein of expostulation
adopted by Adeimantus already in several passages: ii. 367 p,
v. 449 Cc, vi. 487 B. The impatience of Glaucon (infra p: cp.
ii. 357 A) comes to the aid of his elder brother.

ottos .... dvip]| odros dynp expresses a sort of humorous indigna-
tion. The MSS. vary between kaddés and kad@s. If adds is read,
it must be taken ironically with o6tos dvyp: ‘ A fine gentleman like
you.’ For xadés (which is idiomatic) cp. Soph. Oed. Tyr. 1008
& mai, Kadds ef dSHAos ovk cidas ti Spas: Oed. Col. 269 rotr eye
Kah@s éfoda. The point is determined in favour of kad@s by
observing that the vernacular phrase Oéros dvjp (for which
cp. especially Gorg. 467 B, 489 B, 505 c) does not elsewhere
occur with the addition of an epithet. The text agrees with
the first hand of Par. A.

A similar trait of character is attributed to Cebes in the
Phaedo 63A dei rot, én, 6 KeBns Adyous twas dvepevvG, kat ob mavy
edéws Oder meiBerOar 6 Te dy tus eimy: and 77 A Kairot Kaptep@ratos
dvOparev éoti (sc. 6 Ké8ns) mpds rd dmoreiv trois Adyors.

Notes; Book V1. 303

H Soxodot ti co... SofdLovres] For the blindness of right
opinion without knowledge cp. Theaet. 201 c.

p) mpds Ards, «.7.A.] As in the search after justice (iv. 432 B, c),
the increasing dramatic life indicates the interest and importance of
the discovery.

dpxéoet yap hyiv| Glaucon seizes on the admission of Socrates
(504 D), that an approximate method might be sometimes employed.
Socrates replies that in the present case even the approximation
may be unattainable.

mhéov yap... % Katd thy mapodcav éppyv| ‘To reach what
is now in my mind is too much for our present attempt.’ We have
set out in search of Justice (v. 472 B), and in the attempt to
discover it we are called upon to define the Good. But that is
only to be attained by metaphysical disquisitions for which the
readers of the Republic are not yet expected to be sufficiently
prepared. Cp. Theaet. 177 c, where Theodorus prefers moral
discourses to dialectic. ‘The present remark throws some light on
the scope and aim of the Republic.

bs S€ Exyovds te Tod dyabod... Kat duordtatos exeivw| Cp.
Laws x. 897 D py toivuy &€ evavrias olov eis HAtov amoBNErovTes, vUKTA ev
peonpBpia emaydpevot, tromno@peba thy andKxpiow, ws vovy tore Ovntois
dppaow oydpevoi Te kal yrwodpevor ixavds’ mpds 8€ €ixdva Tod épwrwpeévov

Brérovras dodadeotepov opay.

tods téxous pdvov| The untranslateable pun (rédkos, ‘ offspring,’
and réxos, ‘interest’), for which the way has been prepared in the
word émorticets, is carried further in what follows: ‘Take care that
I do not unintentionally deceive you and render a false account of
the offspring or interest.’

For the same figure cp. Polit. 267A Kadas kai xaOamepet xpeos
drédaxds por Tov Adyov, mpoobels THY extpoTy olov TéKov Kai avarAnpooas
airév: and for a different simile viii. 555 E rod matpos éxydvous
téKous ToAXaTAagious KopiCdpevur.

Sropohoynodpevds y, Epyy éyd ... eipnuéva] For the use of the
aorist participle with ye = ‘not until,’ cp. Phaedr. 228 p ri pévron
Siavorcav . . . Sieur, ap&dpevos awd rod mpwrov, Aeigas ye mparov,
& irdrns, ti dpa év rH dpotepaG Exes bd tH ivatiw. The reference in
év rots Eumpooer is to v. 476 A: Cp. supra 493 E.

moda Kakd...7@ Aédyw| This passage has been thought

Republic
VI.
506

Gc

D

5°7
A

je
'
wt

Republic
VI.

507
B

304 Plato: Republic.

inconsistent with v. 478, 9, where it was shown that the ‘many
beautiful,’ &c. cannot be said either to be or not to be. But etvar
is not here used in the sense of ‘to have real existence,’ but
simply = ‘ to be.’

€xaota obtws| olltws, SC: moAAd, ‘ many individuals of each class.’

kat adté 8} Kahdv . . . mporayopedouey| ‘And we say that there is
a beauty in itself and a good in itself: and in the same way with
reference to all the classes which we previously regarded as
consisting of many individuals, reversing the process and placing
the individuals under one idea corresponding to each of these
classes, as forming a unity, we call each class by what it really is.’
Cp. Phil. 16 c, p deiv.. . det piay iddav mepi mavros Exaorore Oepévovs

Lal , -
(nreiv' ebpnoey yap evovcar.

dp’ odv... éSnprovpynoev| Cp. Heracleitus, fragm. 21 épOarpoi

A , > ,
@Twv paptupes axpiBEerrepot.

gorw 6 Tt...(D) dkovoOycerat| The ancient physical philosopher

did not observe that air was as necessary for the transmission of
.sound as light for the medium of vision.

, ” > A ” o , e
# ov Tia exets eitretv 3] sc. aioOnow Fri ToLovTou Tivos mpoodei,

mapovons 8€ xpdas év adtois| sc. ev rois dparois from tod Sépatod
supra. The analysis of vision here is less minute than in the Theae-
tetus and Timaeus. Colour is imagined as being present in the
objects, although neither colour nor vision can be realized without
light. Cp. infra 508 c &v dv ras ypdas . . . ewéxn . . . vuxrepwad heyyy.

tivos Si Aéyers| (1) Sc. yévous mapayevopévou thy Te dw Spay ra
Te xpwpara dparaciva, The genitive is used as if éav ux mapayévnra
had been o& pi) mapayevopévov. (2) For the genitive cp. V. 459 B rt
d¢ inmoy ote; [B. J.].

od opixpa dpa iSda...(508 a) 73 Gs| ‘Then the sense of sight
and the quality of visibility are joined together by a bond nobler by
the measure of no small nature than the bond which unites other
correlatives, if light be no ignoble thing. ‘ Nay, said he, it is
far from being ignoble.’ 08 opixpd i8éa is the dative of measure
or comparison, and is said in the same way as pei{ovos ris médews
dei oUTL opiKpe, GAN SA@ orparorédo (ii. 373 E). Cp. especially
Hdt. vi. 106, § 3 mde Aoyip@ 7 “EAAds yéyovey dabeverrépn. For the
use of ida in this sense, cp. Phileb. 64 © otkodv ef pi) ped Suvdpeba

Notes: Book V1. 305

idea 1d dyabdv Onpetoa, x.r.A. Light is necessary to the correlation Republic

between the eye and visible things, and the preciousness of light is
the measure of the superiority of that correlation to those existing
between the other organs of sense and their several objects.

tiva obv exets . . . TOUTOU ener For the use of airidpya in the
sense of ‘allege to oh the cause’ cp. X. 599 E aé 8€ ris aittatas médis
vopoberny ayabdy yeyovevat kai apas apeAnxevat ;

odxodv Kal thy Sdvayiw...Kéxtytat;| ‘Is not the power which
it (the eye) has, dispensed from the Sun and possessed by it as
something derived from without ?’

todroy toivuy...(c) ta dpwpeva| This may be appropriately
termed Plato’s ‘solar myth.’ Even at the present day, when the
power which the sun’s force exerts over all nature is so much more
truly recognized than formerly, the influence which the idea of the
sun continues to exercise over the mind and imagination is hardly
less remarkable. ‘The ordinary religious feeling about the sun was
shared by Socrates: Apol. 26 c, Symp. 220 p.

For dvat cp. v. 473A dvat yas eEevpynxévae ws dvvatd radra
yiyvecOar & ob emirdrress. 8 ti wep, x.t.d., is added in explanation of
dvdhoyov éauTa,

dv tayaQdv . . . (c) Ta dpdpeva] ‘whom the good begot to be its ©

own counterpart, to be in the visible world in relation to sight and
the things of sight what itself is in the intelligible world in relation
to mind and the things of mind.’ todrov, emphatically resuming
the preceding todtov, is in the same construction with év, while
todro is the emphatic antecedent to 6 ti wep. For the construction
of Xéyev with all that follows it cp. 511 A, B

. éwéxy| ‘upon the colours of which the light of day falls.’

GANA Gv vuxtepivd heyyy] Sc. GAN’ én’ éxeiva dv dv ras xpdas vuxrepwa
éeyyn érexn.

kataddpmn| The dv, which is not absolutely required in this and
similar expressions, may be supplied from what has preceded, éy
av... éwéxy, and would be felt as superfluous after drav.

évoica paiverar| sc. 7 xadapa dYns. ;

odrw roivuy. . . vodv éxew gaiverar} ‘In like manner (ottw)
conceive too of the soul in this. way (&8e): when she is fixed
steadily on that on which truth and being shine, she knows and

understands this and appears to have intelligence.’
VOL. Il. x

507
E

508

B

Republic
V.

Republic,

eis 13 TH oxdTw Kexpapévov| The expression recalls v. 479 c.

306 . Plato:

tovro toivw ... dp0ads yjoe] ‘ This, then, which imparts truth
to the things that are known and gives to the knower the power of
knowing, is what I would have you call the idea of good: and this
you will deem to be the cause of knowledge and of truth so far as
the latter is known: but fair as are both these, knowledge and
truth, you will be right in thinking that it is something fairer than
these.’ év strictly belongs to aitiay and is opposed to the following
8€: the idea of good ‘is indeed (pév) the cause of knowledge and
truth, but (8é) it is other and fairer than they.’ The reading Stavood
instead of the formerly received 8:4 vod (Ven. =, &c.) has superior
manuscript authority, including Par. A, and gives a clear sense.
The other is feeble and the expedient of cancelling the clause és
ytyvwokxopévns . . . Hyjoet indefensible.

The good is the sun, truth is light, the ideas are the objects of
sight, and knowledge is vision. The strain of ‘ heavenly beauty’
in which the mind is to be absorbed is in a region far away from
modern thoughts. The intense reality of all beauty and all truth
when seen according to the divine idea is perhaps as near an
approach as we can make to the meaning of Plato. The want of
personality in the dya@év prevents our minds from resting in that
which to Plato is the most real of thoughts, comprehending in one
the idea of order and design, of a cause in nature and ofintelligence
in man, not without an association of goodness in the sense of
benevolence and good-will. Cp. Tim. 29 rE.

Preparations for the dyaéév may be traced in the Syuifchiai
211 D,E ri dita, ey, oldpeba, ef r@ yéevorto adrd TO Kaddv ideiv eiduxpwes,
xabupév, Gpixtov, adda pi) Gvdwewv capKay Te avOperivey kai xpopatov
kai GdAns TwoAdjs pAvapias Ovytijs, GAN’ adrd 7d Ociov Kaddv Svvarto povo-
ewdés xarwdeiv ; where the idea of dya6év is not yet evolved out of the
cadév: in the Phaedrus 250 D dys yap jpiv dfvrary trav dua Tov
odpatos épxerat aicOncewy, 7 Ppdvnors ovx Sparar—dewors yap av mapeixev
pwras, el te Towdrov éavTis evapyés eldwAov mupeixero els Gyr iéy—xai
Tada doa épactd’ viv dé KiAdos pdvov ravrny éoxe poipav, Sor’ exhaveo-
rarov eivat xa épacyumrarov. And in the Philebus, which is probably
later than the Republic, we find an attempt to give a further
definition to the idea. The eternal nature or highest good is found
to consist in measure, above the ovmperpov and rédcov, which are
second, and vois and ¢pévyois, which are third in the scale
(Phil. 66 a, B).

Poe oat

Notes: Book V1. 307

#Avo.84] Neuter plural rather than feminine singular.

Thy Tod dyabod ef] = rd dyaddv as éxe, ‘the state or nature of
the good.’

épyxavov Kdddos| sc. rod dyadod.
$dvar] cp. supra 508 B.

odx odcias dvtos. . . bmepéxovtos| Referring to the history of
philosophy we may translate this:—‘'TThe idea of good reaches
a step beyond the Eleatic being.’

“Atohdov . . . Satpovias drepBodjs| ‘Good heavens, what a
marvellous superiority!’ The way for this exclamation has been
already prepared in the words dpyxavov kéddos, supra. Glaucon
speaks with a feeling of admiration and yet of incredulity. Cp.
Euthyd. 303 A & ‘Hpaxdes, pn, kadod Adyov ! and for the rejoinder of
Socrates cp. Phaedr. 238 D ovxére méppw SiOvpduBwv Pbéyyopua.. .

, ”
TOUT@Y pevTor ov aiTtos.

ei py te] sc. dAdo: ‘at all events complete the simile of the sun.’
Cp. 501 E wa, ef pn te dddo, alaxurOevres dpotoynrwow: Meno 86 FE
el pn Te odv, GAAA opuKpdy YE poe THS apxns xadaoor,

iva ph odpavév. . . wept rd dvoua] In allusion to the fanciful
derivation of otpavés from dpav, Cp. Crat. 396 B ovpuvia, dpaca
ta @vw, The v.r. otpavod, though of inferior manuscript authority,
may possibly be right.

Gowep toivuy ypapphy . .. To pev erepov tyApa eixdves| Cp.
Sophist 265 £ ff., where wourexy is first divided xara mAaros into Oeia
and av@perivn, and then sub-divided xara pixos into shadows and
realities. Gdvoa tujpata is the reading of Proclus, p. 431. 10; of
the Pseudo-Plutarch, roor; and of the great majority of MSS.,
including Par. A. The emendations iva, av’ ica, have been proposed:
the variations «is toa (v), perhaps equally an emendation, and @, iva
(Vind. £, &c.), are also found in MSS. The reading a’ iva is poor
Greek, as well as poor sense; -and the other correction, «is toa,
although not open to the first charge, equally enfeebles the meaning
of dva tév adrév Adyov :—‘ Divide the line equally and then sub-
divide in the same proportion.’ The text, as found in the best
authorities, is probably genuine: the difficulty is to discover
a reason for the inequality in the divisions. The whole line
may be regarded as representing a progress upwards from the

3

Republic
VI.

Republic
VI.

509
D

308 Plato: Republic.

infinite multiplicity of sense and the reflections of sense at the lower
end, to the unity of good at the higher ; the reflections of sense are
more numerous than the objects of sense, as the mathematical
figures and other phenomena of nature are more numerous than
the ideas ; and also downwards from the infinite value of the idea
of good to the insignificance of sensible objects and their shadows
(cp. infra 511). Still, although this explanation is in harmony
with Plato’s ideas and with the general context, as a matter of style
further explanation is needed. Cp. however Theaet. 197 p, where
in the same manner he describes the different kinds of knowledge
under the image of birds, some in larger and smaller groups, others
singly flying through all, without adding any explanation of the
reason of this.

Td pev Erepov tpApa| i.e. the lower segment.

doa muKvd Te Kal Neta Kal avd fuvéornxe] For guvéotyxe of
a compact solid, cp. Tim. 61 a, 83 a. And for an account of the
phenomena of reflection, ibid. 46 a, B.

H Kal ێdous Gv... 6 GpowwOyn| aid, sc. rd dpapevov, which has
now been divided.

7) TS pevadrod . .. thy p€éBoSov movounéry| ‘ As thus :—There are
two subdivisions of the intellectual sphere: a lower one, wherein
the mind uses the objects given by the former segments as symbols ;
the inquiry can only be hypothetical, and instead of going upwards
to a principle, works downward to a result. In the higher sub-
division, the soul passes out of hypotheses and ascends to a first
principle, which is above hypotheses, making no use of symbols,
as in the former case, but proceeding by ideas alone.’

tois téTe tpnOeiow| = rois Eumpoober cipnpévas Tunpaow, referring
to supra 509 D, E, 510 A. The reading of A and of the MSS. of
Proclus, pupneiow, though it may be due to the ingenuity of
some early corrector, has the advantage of giving clearness to the
logical connexion :—i.e. the visible realities, of which the eixdves
in the lower segment of the visible were imitations. These
now become eixéves in their turn. Cp. infra E dv wal oxiai, «.7.d.:
Vii. 515 D éxewa Sv tore ras oxuas éwpa. The testimony of Ven. 0
is not available here, two leaves of the MS. having been lost ;
but its congeners p K agree with other MSS. in giving tpyOetow.

738 ad érepov 74, x.7.4.] The genuineness of ré after érepov is open

Notes: Book V7. 309

to question. For no mention has occurred of the upper division
leading to an dpx} dvumdOeros. It may be answered that this is
sufficiently implied in the preceding words, which describe the soul
in the other division as é@§ bwoOécewy otk én’ dpxhy topevopérvy.
But the construction is also much simpler and more intelligible
without the article, the only word to be supplied being ¢yrei, which
governs both 1d érepov and éxetvo. The conjecture 6 for 16 is
ingenious but unnecessary.

Of the three manuscript readings, &vmep exeivo eixdvwy (A M), tov
rept éxeivo eixdvav (DK Vind. F corr.), ov mepi exeivo elxdvev (Vind.
¥ p. m.), the first, which is that of Par. A is probably the true one:

i.e. dvev tay eixdver alomep xpwpevn elnter exeivo.
GAN’ adbis| sc. Aeydpevoy padnoer.

todtwy] sc. what I am now about to say, as well as what has
been said.

kal dAda... Ka” éxdotny pébodov| This is added, like kat ra
TotauTa supra, Kal Tada oUtws infra, to show that ddvoa is not
confined to Arithmetic and Geometry, but prevails also in the
other sciences.

Toinodpevor SwoOgcers adtd| That is to say, they presuppose
mathematical quantities and figures without any inquiry into the
grounds of their suppositions, and end in the construction of their
problem épodoyoupévws,—i. e. consistently, without any contradic-
tion within the sphere of mathematics.

ovKouv Kal Ott, K.T.A. | SC. ovKoiv kal Téd¢€ oiaa Ort,
kal Tada obTws| SC. mpayparevovras.

& mddrrovo.| e.g. the sphere, pyramid, cube, and other solid
figures.

év kal oxcai, «.t.A.] These words allude to the fourth or lowest
section. Plato means to say that the mathematicians use as images
of abstract ideas those things of which shadows and reflections are
the natural images, that is, the forms of superficial and solid
geometry, such as the square, circle, sphere, pyramid, cube, &c.,
and the other objects of vision.

Cp. vii. 534 A, where further inquiry into the relation of the
subdivisions is declined. The lowest of the four segments consists
of shadows and reflections of objects: and each of the three

Republic
VI.

510
B

Republic
Vd.

510
E

511

LT ee ge eT

310 Plato: Republic.

lower is the reflection of the segment above it. The two main
divisions rest on the fundamental antithesis of Greek philosophy,
aia@nra and vonra: the first and third subdivisions appear to be
suggested by the Heraclitean and Pythagorean doctrines.

TodTo toivuy vontdy, x.t.A.] The mind, beginning with number
and figure, in the longest trains of reasoning always remains within
the sphere of mathematics—a truth which was not perceived by the
Pythagoreans when they identified numbers with moral ideas, and
is forgotten by Plato in the next book where he supposes the
higher astronomy to consist only of mathematical problems.

eixdor 8€ xpwpevny .. . TeTisnpévors| ‘using, however, as images
those very things of which there are reflections in the sphere below
them, and which, in relation to those reflections, are habitually
esteemed and honoured as real and clear.’

There are two respects in which é:dvora or scientific reasoning is
inferior to true dialectic (vots) :—

(1) In deducing its results from certain abstract assumptions.
Thus arithmetic assumes the notions of‘ odd’ and‘ even,’ geometry
those of the circle, square, &c., and of acute, right and obtuse
angles ; solid geometry, the notions of the sphere, pyramid, cube,
octahedron, &c.: astronomy, certain relations of matter in motion:
harmony, certain proportionate vibrations, and the like. None of
these sciences ask the reason of their primary definitions, or can
prove them to be otherwise than arbitrary.

(2) The other point in which these sciences are inferior is that
their processes are not pure from matter. For although both their
assumptions and their deductions have for their object certain pure
abstractions, ‘they are unable to study these apart from visible
things. Even the arithmetician has a difficulty in separating his
abstract unit from the units which he is engaged in counting, or
from the geometrical figures through which he studies the relations
of numbers. In the érimedov oxjya, which stands visibly for 9, each
side is of a certain length. The geometer cannot reason without
diagrams, much less can the astronomer without the outward
configuration of the heavens (ra év r@ ovpavg morxiduara vii. 529 C)
or some copy of this, or the harmonist without audible sounds.

The first of these defects is meant by éwo8écet 8 dvayxalopévny
Wuxy xpyo00: the second by eixdor 82 xpopemy, x... Cp. vii.
529 D TH mepi tov ovpavdy rokidia mapadelypaot ypnotéov ths mpos
éxeiva pabnoews Evexa (SC. Tav GhyOwav ev cxnpacr popar).

Notes: Book VI. 311

But in speaking of sensible objects as the symbols or images Republic
through which science works, Plato remembers that what are images
or shadows in relation to scientific conception, are the realities of He
common language and experience, and he recalls the distinction
which he made at first between the shadow and the substance
(supra 509 E), which were to one another as opinion or fancy to
knowledge (rd pév érepov ryijpa cixdves . . . TO... Erepov. .. @ TovTO eotke
. + « SeppjaOa adnOeig re kai py, @s 7d do€acrdv mpds Td yywotdy, ovTw Td
dpowbev mpds rd GB aporwbn).

The «ixéves of the present passage are taken from the same class,
which in the former place (and in common life) hold the higher and
more honourable position of Realities—rd @ % eixdv apowwbn, and
are so esteemed in relation to the eixdves of that place (509 kr), viz.
the shadows and reflections which occupy the fourth or lowest
grade. To avoid the confusion that might arise from this, he here
resumes what he had hinted just before, supra 510 £ dv Kal oxai kai
év Udaow eixdves eioi, and uses emphatic pronouns to make the
distinction felt, adrots, éxeivows, mpds éxetva. The things which science
uses as her symbols are sensible objects, ra imd rav car ametxacOévra,
—adbrois, the things themselves, as distinguished from their shadows, ~
&c.—of which the class below them are again the symbols or
likenesses : and in relation to those likenesses (their shadows and
reflections) those sensible objects (both are éketva because remote
from the true objects of knowledge) have had awarded to them an
honourable estimation for clearness and reality.

The words éxeivorg mpds éxetva (SC. Trois dpwpévors mpos Tas oKids)
are added in apposition to tots... dmetxacGetor, so as to show that
the ‘distinctness’ (évdpyea) here spoken of is entirely relative,
within the lower world of sense: and adrots is not used with the
specially Platonic meaning, but simply to distinguish objects from
their shadows. Cp. Soph, 266 c, and for dweixac@eio, Phaedr.
250B Orly eri ras cixdvas ldvres Oe@vra Td Tov elxaabévros -yévos.
The use of éxeivos here distinguishes the vzszd/e, which has been
dismissed, from the intellectual, which is the immediate subject
of thought.

For tetipnpévors several MSS., including the first hand of Par. A,
read rerpnuevors, which may be variously regarded either as
supported or suggested by rots tére tynBeiow above. The word
Tetpnpevors is not, however, in harmony with Se8ogacpévors. The
correction of Par. A is by the first or second hand, and both
Ven. 1 and M are defective here.

Republic
VI.

511
A

B

ont Set eee ae oe ee a

312 Plato: Republic.

In the highest of the four divisions we are concerned with ideas
only. The spheres of Mathematics and Metaphysics, as they may
be termed in modern phraseology, are alike limited, the one to
hypotheses, the other to ideas.

73 wd Tals yewpetpiats, «.t.d.| Mathematical studies are
regarded by Plato as affording the most distinct example of
scientific method. Indeed, from the position which they occupy in
the next book, it might appear that they are understood by him to
constitute the whole of the division intermediate between iors and
vénots, the field that is occupied by édidvora, But from an incidental
remark, vii. 517 D rev rod Sixalov ocKidv if) dyadpdtev dy ai orca, it is
evident that he does not clearly distinguish between those hypotheses
which are abstractions of sense and those which are abstractions of
mind, between the hypothetical conception of a circle or a square,
and that of Justice, so far as method is concerned. See also
Meno 86 £ ff. aomep of yewpeérpa, x.7.d., where ethical reasoning is
illustrated from mathematical. All science is imperfect so long as
assumptions are taken for first principles, and symbols for realities.
When the hypothesis is referred to a first principle, and the
symbol explained by the thing signified, the science is complete
(vonrav dvrwv pera apxijs infra D).

Of the attempt to rise upwards from so@écerg towards first
principles, we have many examples in Plato: for instance in the
Phaedo, where from the consideration of equality we rise to the
conception of aeperfect ideal, and in the Symposium, where
Diotima leads Socrates upwards from the definition réxos ev Kad to
the contemplation of absolute Beauty. We’may doubt if Plato
himself would have asserted that in any part of his works he had
realized the other aspect of his ideal method, that of descending by
due steps from the Idea of Good to particular things. There is
a sense in which his method is far more inductive than deductive.
But, in the early part of the Timaeus, where from the notion of the
Uncreated, the Eternal and the Good, he passes gradually to the
necessary constitution of the Universe, there is an approximation to
the intellectual movement which is here indicated.

It would be vain to formulate the precise relation in which
Plato’s view of Mathematics in the Republic stands to the statement

of Aristotle, Metaph. i. 6, § 4 ére 8€ mapa ra aicOnra Kal ra eidy ta ©

pabnpatixa Tov mpaypatev elvai pnot pera, diadepovra rev pev aicOnrav
T@ didia kal axivnta civa, rov 8 eidav TH Ta pev moa GrTa Spora
elvat, 1d dé eidos aird év Exacrov pdvov,

~

a a
tt fers .

¢

Notes: Book V1. 313

tas éno8éces] The assumptions here meant are clearly not those
of Mathematics only, but of every subject which can be brought
under definition.

otov émPdoers te Kal dpuds| For a similar ladder by which we
may ascend through the lower stages of beauty, d0mep énava-
Babpois xpopevor, to the contemplation of a divine perfection see
Symp. 21r1 B,C.

7d 63d Tav Texvav Kahoupévwv| Meaning geometry and the sister
arts, cp. supra B. That the term is not quite accurately used Plato
himself seems to intimate in kadoupévev, and also in vii. 533, D
especially the words ds émornpas peév rodddxs mpoceimopev dia 7d
€Oos, d€ovrac S€ dvdparos GAXov, évapyeotépou pev i) d6Ens, auvdporépov dé
i) €meornpns.

ais at GroPécers dpxai, x.7..| Cp. Meno 87 a, Aristot. Metaph.
lil. 2, § 24 8:4 rodro od Tod yewpérpouv Oewpnoat ti Td évavtiov i) TéAELov

i) bv} ev #) rabrov f) Erepov, GAN i €& brobdcews.
aitd| sc. ra br6 rovrer (r&v rexvav) Bewpotpeva.

as petagi tr... Thy Sidvorav odcay| ‘meaning to say that davora
is intermediate between opinion and reason.’ Cp. the phrases da
péoov, dia xpdvov, &c., for the meaning of &a. And for a reference
to this place cp. vii. 533 D.

kat tdgov adta . . . Hynodpevos peréxe] ‘And arrange the terms
in proportion, attributing to them such a degree of clearness as
their objects have of truth.’ For wiotw cp. the use of the words
morevew and miors applied to right impression as distinct from
knowledge in x. 601 £, and Tim. 29 6 ti mep mpds yeveow ovdcia,
tovro mpos miotw adndea. The word expresses the ‘natural realism’
of ordinary thought.

ayabéy WAtos.
ES al
( d. ra €idn 6 voids b, ra dpwpeva | riots
. (vénots) — dpardv,
a hae ee padnpuatixa, | Sudvora a. eixdves aia Onors)

K.T.A. elxacia

Republic
VI.

511
B

Republic

5t4 A-
516A

514
A

314 Plato: Republic.

BOOK VII.

Now tf the idea of good in relation to the other ideas be
represented by the sun, who gives light and warmth and growth to
the natural world, the condition of men without philosophy may be
compared to that of persons in a subterranean cave, bound fast in
a position where they can only see the shadows of manufactured
images cast by the light of an artificial fire. Education in the
higher sense might then be represented as the process of unbinding
such prisoners and turning them round and making them look
upwards and then dragging them from thetr cavernous habitation

into the light of day.

peta Taira, x.t.A.| The metaphor by which the sun represents
the idea of Good as supreme over the intellectual world is now
developed into an allegory, in which the shadows cast from images
by the light of an artificial fire are contrasted with the true objects
seen by the light of the sun. —

tovolTy mdQe] ‘To a condition which I may thus describe.’
For the use of ma6os cp. vi. 488 A otro yap xaderdv 1d mabos Tov
ETLELKEOTAT OV,

dvanentapévny mpds Td Gas... Tap dmav Td omyAatov] ‘The
entrance extending all along the den,’ i.e. the cave is shallow in
proportion to the width of its mouth. This helps verisimilitude,
because a multitude of human beings can be thus imagined as
similarly placed with respect to the ascent towards the opening.
The light of heaven does not penetrate into the cavern, which
is ‘open to the light’ only in the sense that it is possible to
clamber out of it into the light.

kikko 8€ . . . dSurdrous mepidyew] The construction with
i8é is continued. The illusion of the shadows could not have
been preserved if the prisoners had been able to turn their
heads and see the fire and the images from which the shadows
fell.

aT en a a ee Oe) ee eee
|; = > “ ° -

Notes: Book VII. 315

as 82 adrois mupds dvwOey... erdvw 686v] The way along _——
which the figures are moving is raised and the light at a distance :
is raised still higher: otherwise the shadows of the figures and
vessels could not have been visible to the prisoners in the den.

514
B

Gotep Tois auparotovois ... Sexvdacw| ‘ As exhibitors of puppets
have a screen before the persons who exhibit them, over which they
show the puppets.’ The image of puppets is a favourite one with
Plato. In the Laws i. 645 B, vii. 804 B, he compares human life to
a puppet-show. The difficulty in tév évOpdmwv, which seems at

‘first sight needless, is best met by supposing the Q@auparotroids to be
not the actual exhibitor or puller of the strings but the master of the
show. This agrees better with what follows— “Opa toivuy, x.7.X.,
than to suppose tév dv@pamwv to refer to the spectators.

oxedn, x.t.A.] Cp. vi. 510 a. These represent the natural and
artificial objects (rd re mepi nas (ga kat wav 1O utevtdv kai rd
oxevaoroy Sdov yévos Of vi. 510 a) which have their patterns in the
upper world and in relation to them are mere toy-work (cp.
x. 596, where Plato speaks of the ideal bed, the real bed, which
is the copy of it, and the picture of the bed: also Tim. 28, 29,
where the visible patterns are made in the likeness of the in-
visible and fashioned by the younger gods; ibid. 42 p, E): yet
even of these only the shadows are perceptible by sense. The
intention of this expression is best seen by comparing the
following passages :—

5I5 C tas TOV OKEVaCTaY oKids*

ib. D xaOopay éxeiva dy rére tas oKids éopa’
ib. mpos paddov dvra Terpappéevos*
ib. exagTov Tay rapiévrov .. . Ta viv Secxvipeva’
517 B 1O.. Tov mupds, .. Has Ti) Tod HAlov duvdpuer (dopo.odr)*
ib. DA dyaApdtwy dy ai oxi’
520C yvaceade Exagta Ta €ldwro drra éoti Kai dv’
532 B peracrpop?) amd tay oxav emi ra eidwha Kai TO pas’
ib. cra év Ddacr pavtdopata Oeia kai oKuis Tov dvTwy, GAN’ od«
eidedwv oxias O¢ érépov roovrov wrds . . . amookia-
Copuevas*
534C ei mp eiBddou rivds epamrerat, ddén, dk emornun épamrrer Oat.

Republic
VI.

514
B

515
A

316 Plato: Republic.

Without wishing to press the allegory, it is natural to assume
that a point of which so much is made has a distinct intention.
Now in page 532A it is stated that the man who in the allegory
begins to see the real objects in the daylight represents the soul
beginning dialectic, and that the scientific education preceding this
was represented by the turning round to the «ida, the ascent,
and the first glimpse of the reflections of the real objects in the
light of day.

The stages in this preliminary process represent not different
spheres but different degrees of scientific enlightenment. The
meaning of eiwAu receives further illustration from the following
passages :—

530 A vopmety pev, ws oldy te KaANOTA Ta ToLAa’TAa épya ovaTncaTba,
ovta ~vveotavat TH Tod ovpavod Snurovpy@ adrév re kat Ta ev adr@* Thy SE
vuktos mpos nuepav Evuperpiav, .. . ovK dromov ... Wynoerat Tov voui{oyra
ylyvec bai re Tatra del @oavTws . . . THpd Te ExovTa Kal 6papeva, Kal (nreiv
travtt tpér@ Thy adnOeav avtrav AaBeiv ;

533 D avvepiOors Kai oupmepiaywyois xypwpern ais dinAOopev réxvas*
dis émurtnpas pev troA\dKis mpoceimopev Sta TO €O0s, S€éovrat Se dvdparos
@dXou, evapyéorepov pev i) Sdéns, auvdporépov b€ emeotnpns. Stuavorav
d€ adrny &v ye TH mpdabev mov wpiodueba, See a ibid. B, c.

The «i8oda are (1) out of sight of the idea of good, (2) made and
shown by somebody, (3) lighted by the fire which represents the
sun. They are the figures of real outward objects: but as all
outward objects can be comprehended under number and figure,
Plato seems also to include in them the figures and numbers of
arithmetic and geometry. He passes from the world as we see it
to the world as conceived of by the mathematician, in which he
expects to find the way up to the idea of good.

The notion of the oxevacra eiSwda has been prepared for by the
mention of the solid figures of geometers a mAdrrovew (vi. 510 E)
and the use of the word cxevaord for inanimate objects (ib. 510 A).

Nida te . . . eipyaopéva] The oxevaora are wrought in
various materials, as the visible world is compounded of the four
elements.

otov eixds| To be joined with what follows: ‘naturally, some of
the carriers are speaking, others not.’ The first impression of these
words is that they have no point, but we see below (515 B «i xai
nx®, «.7.d.) the reason why they are introduced. Plato has hitherto
spoken of the sensible as the vzstd/e world. But he here also

Notes: Book VII. 317

includes the world of hearing. This prepares for the science of Xe —

harmonics infra 530 p ff.

ti 82 trav mapahepopdvwr] sc. oler dv Ewpaxévae airovs;

od taira Hye... dep dpwev;] ‘Do you not suppose that they
would believe that they were naming those things that they saw
actually before them?’ i.e. that the terms they used in their con-
versations applied to the shadows and not to the realities of which
they are ignorant? tadra the reading of = K, the simple antecedent,
is better than raird, the reading of A. I and M are wanting in this
place. Mapidrra the reading of Flor. x is rather confusing as it
might signify either the shadows or the realities. The pleonastic
expression ‘those present things which they actually saw’ is emphatic
and in the manner of Plato.

maytdtact...oKids| oxevaord are not ordinary artificial objects
(as in vi. 510 A kal rd oxevacrdy édov yévos) but diminutive zmages of
ordinary artificial objects, being the oxety which are carried along
the wall. For the purpose of the present allegory the ¢¢a and
guteuta also are oxevaora, ‘manufactured articles.’

7d ddnPés| adndeca, ‘reality,’ was the favourite term of Protagoras,
who denied all truth beyond momentary impressions, Theaet. 162 a;
Soph. 246 B; Crat. 391 c.

The stages of the educational process may be roughly sketched in
terms of the preceding allegory. The man ts first loosed from his
bonds and turned towards the light. Then by questions his attention
is fixed upon the realities of which he has hitherto seen the shadows,
and heard the echoes only :—then upon the central power which gives
light to these. After this he is dragged up the rough and steep
ascent into the daylight ; where again he first sees the shadows, then
real objects, then the heavenly luminaries, first the moon and stars
by night, and last of all the sun by day. And when he has seen the
sun, he will recognise the truth about him, that he is in a manner
the cause of all things. He who has so far attained will not wish
himself back in the den nor covet the honours there adjudged to
those who make the best guesses about the shadows. And tf he were
restored to his old place while his eyes were still unaccustomed to the
darkness, his fellow-prisoners would laugh him to scorn, and say
that Philosophy was the ruin of a man,

oxéme. 84, K.t.A.] join Mow tav Seopav, Lacw tis dppoodvys.
The latter phrase refers to the state of ignorance described as the

515
B

515 C=
517A

515
Cc

Republic
VI.

515
G

318 Plato: Republic.

consequence of their position. ’*Adpootvn here is unconsciousness
rather than folly.

et ducer tordde fupBaivor aitots] Supposing that the following
were the manner of it (their release and cure as it happened to
them) : ‘in the course of nature.’ For the conception of
philosophy as the freeing of the soul from sense cp. Phaedo 83.

ti dv ole... . BAéwor] This is the apodosis of the new sentence
which begins with émére and is grammatically in apposition to that
which precedes, although gradually developed into an independent
statement. Cp. supra ii. 359 B ef rowvde moumoamer, k.T.r.

pduapias] Cp. Phaedo 66 c cidédwv mavrodarév kab $duapias
eumimAnow jpas moddjs. Bderor is the reading of all the better MSS.
which grammarians are disposed to correct into Bdére in accordance
with the more common usage. The optative may be due to the
attraction of the preceding optative héyou.

kai 8%) ... Setxvipeva;] Plato here seems to be thinking of
the practice of Socrates, who by interrogation about the facts
of experience in the light of common sense reduced men to
perplexity.

Sid tpaxeias tis dvaBdoews Kat dvavtous] Cp. Theaet. 175 B

oa
otav O€ yé twa aités ... EAkvoN avo, K.TA.

dSuvao0a ... dyavaxtetv. .. (516 a) SuvacQar| These infinitives
depend like the preceding (dmopeiv, &c.) on odk otet (supra D).

tav viv heyopévwv| ‘Of the objects which.are now (by men in
general) called real.’ Plato reminds us that he is speaking in
a figure. Cp. infra 519 A, Vi. 490 A.

ta Te... €idwda| He will see an image of the truth in words

(Phaedo 100 4) before he rises to the contemplation of the highest
ideas. The gradations that follow are not to be pressed beyond
the general meaning ; but there are degrees of glory in the heaven
of ideas. Cp. note on vi. 511 a. One is tempted however to
suppose that ‘the moon and stars’ may symbolize the ideas of
Being, Truth, Sameness, Difference, &c., which although divine are
of a lower order than the Good and are studied apart from it.

tav dvOpénwv| The knowledge of man is the starting-point, as

in all Socratic philosophy. ;

teheutaiov 84... olds gor] The fulness of expression, the

Notes: Book VII. 319

antithesis and the thrice repeated pronoun give effect to the
climax.

Sr. adrés, x.7.A.] Cp. vi. 5098. ovros, the reading of 0, is
equally good Greek, but atrés has a solemn emphasis.

odeis| ‘ He and his fellow-prisoners.’

tpémov twd] Inasmuch as the oxevaord were images of real
objects, and the ‘ fire’ was borrowed from the sun.

to dtdtata ...(D) Héew] We may apply Plato’s words to the
vain shadow of a philosophy, whether ancient or modern, in which
facts are divorced from principles, and about which there arises a
mighty controversy having no basis or foundation of truth.

7 tod ‘Ounpouv] _ quoted in iii. 386 c.
oé8pa] emphasizes the quotation,—‘ would indeed wish.’

*dv]| before dvdrdews isnot found inany MS. In this and many
similar places it may be doubted whether a was omitted by the
author to avoid cacophony, or by the scribe as an apparent ditto-
graphia.

éx tod HAiou;] ‘out of the sun, i.e. the sunshine. dos =
‘sunlight’ occurs also in Phaedo 116 & ére Aor elvat ent rois dpecw :
infra 532 B: cp. also Soph. Phil. 17 jAiov dimAQ wdpectw evOdxnors.

Tas 8€ 8 oxids, x.7.A.] Plato is never weary of contrasting in
all the fanciful forms that his imagination suggests, the real and
seeming ; the life of the philosopher, martyr, king, ‘ who is not of
this world,’ and the life of the politician, lawyer, sophist (vi.
492 a), who is the impersonation of the world. ‘The contact of
philosophy with common opinions and life affords one of those
curious points of view in which appearance is opposed to true
knowledge: either the philosopher is conceived to be made
ridiculous by tumbling into wells, mocked at by Thracian
women, mazed and puzzled in the justice-room, blinking at
‘a world unrealized,’ laughed at by mankind, but also laughing
at them, or the ambitious Sophist is imagined, more truly ridiculous
in his impotent attempts after first principles, dressing himself up in
names and words, to be compared only to a bald little blacksmith’s
apprentice, who washes the dirt from his face, and marries his
master’s daughter, which is the Lady Philosophy. Cp. Theaet.
174 ff., Polit. 299.

Republic
Vil.

516
E

517 B-
518 B

517
B

320 Plato: Republic.

yroparedovta] A draft Neydpevoy in classical Greek, and therefore
of uncertain meaning : either ‘reasoning from signs’ (yvapa, ‘a sign’)
or ‘ measuring the shadows’ (yv@pa, ‘a measuring rod’). It is used
in the latter sense by Themistius, but the more general sense of
‘forming a judgement of’ is more in accordance with the context
here. It is perhaps used with some degree of contempt, as con-
trasted with contemplation of the idea. yvapovevovra is quoted by
Timaeus in his lexicon to Plato: cp. the yvopev of the sun-dial.

Tis guvnPeias| is added to correct the vagueness of odtos: sc.

Tov kaTaoThvat Ta dppara,

émoxtiwvivar dv; | as though otk ote: had preceded, which words
really occur a long way off in supra 516 c.

In the foregoing allegory the cave is the phenomenal world, the
Jire is the power of the sun: the way upwards and the vision of the
things above ts the elevation of the soul into the intellectual region,
whereof the idea of good is the crown or summit. This, once beheld,
is known to be the cause of all that ts admirable, both in the higher
and tn the lower sphere. And he who has risen to this contempla-
tion will not be eager to take part in human affairs. And if
compelled to do so he will stumble and be confused at first, like aye
who comes suddenly out of the daylight into a darkened room.

Tis y pis édmiSos| Amis, like eAmi¢w, is used in the sense of
‘surmise’ or ‘idea,’ cp. Vv. 451 A éAni{w yap obv (‘for I suspect’)
€Aatrov dudprnpa dkovoias twos povéa yevéerba, Laws vii. 817 B ds 7
map’ jpav €or Anis (‘as I suspect’).

éwedh . .. dkovew| See vi. 506 D pi mpds Auds . . . droorijs.

év 7 yvwots, x.t.A.] is an explanation of otrw: i$éa is in
apposition with the nominative to gatverat, which has to be supplied
with épac@a: and etvar: cuddoyroréa is singular feminine :—‘ My .
opinion is that in the world of knowledge the idea of good appears
last of all and is with difficulty seen.’

ot évrat@a éXOdvres| ‘Those who have attained to this.’ Cp.
Symp. 211 D évtai8a rod Biov .. . ef mép mov GAdobi, Biwrdv avépare,

Gewpéevp ard Td Kaddv,

eiwep ad... Todt éxet| ad is to be taken closely with toéro, the
most emphatic word :—‘ in this particular as well as the rest.’ The

—- .
ve
i

Notes: Book VII, 321

point in the allegory to which this corresponds is to be found in
516 p: ‘he would rather be a hireling than live and think like his
old companions in the den.’

év SixaorTypiots| Cp. the description of the philosopher in Theaet.
173 C ff. obror 3€ wou ék véwy mp@rov pév els dyopdv ov iaacr thy 6ddy,
ovde drov Sixaornpoy, «.7.A,: especially pp. 174, 175.

dyahpdtev| dydApara and oxcai refer back to the Allegory, and
if the meaning of them is asked may be represented as embodi-
ments more or less imperfect of the idea of Justice. The dydAyara
may be conceived to be the enactments of Athenian Law; and
axiai the sophistries of pleaders relating to them and the like.
Similarly in iv. 443 c the principle of the division of labour is called
eidwAdv Te THs Sikavoovwns.

gavérepov . . . Napmporépou] These words are neuter, not
masculine with Biov supplied. For the omission of the article cp.
Phaedo 89 B émt odd bWndorépov i) eyo. -

id Aapmpotépou pappapuyis éuwémAnotar| ‘is dazzled (pappa-
puyis éumémAnotat) by a more brilliant atmosphere.’ Cp. supra
516 A avyns ay €yovra ra Supara peora, K.7.A.

kat oUtw $y, k.7.A. Cp. supra 516 C dvapiprnokdpevov . . . Tar
tére Evvderparay ovk dy otes abrov pev eddamovitew tis petaBodjs, Tovs.
dé edeeiv ;

The returning captive is happy in having once seen the brighter
day : the newly liberated one, on the other hand, is an object of pity
to thé inhabitants of the upper world, or if of laughter, there is
more reason in this ‘ laughter of angels’ than in the sounds which
greet the other from the den. Cp. Soph. 254 6 peév drodidpackey
els Thy TOD ph Svros oKkorewvdryta, TpIB7 MpoounTdpevos adtis, Su Td
oxorewdy Tov Témov Katavonaa xadends...6 S€ ye pirdaodos, Ti Tod
Gvros det dia Aoytopav mpockeipevos ideqa, dua +d Aapmpov ad ths xXepas
ovdapas edrreris dpOnvat.

It follows that education consists not in putting knowledge into
the mind, but in fixing the organ of knowledge on its proper object
by turning the whole soul from darkness to light. The mind of
a clever rogue sees keenly,'but is forced into the service of evil. The
same power, when redeemed from degradation, and directed aright,
would see the truth as clearly as now it perceives the mean purposes
to which it ministers. It follows, too, that government should be

VOL. III. Y

Republic
Vil.

517
D

518
A

518 B-
521 B

Republic
VI7,
518 B-
521 B

518
c

D

322 Plato: Republic.

entrusted neither to men who are without training in philosophy
nor to those who have passed all their life in tt. The one sort
do not see the end of life, the others are unwilling to engage in
politics.

oeis] sc. of cofucrai. Plato, like other religious teachers, has
his doctrine of conversion—the change of nature as a whole, the
upward turning of the eye to the light, the vision of the idea of
good. This conversion of the soul he ironically compares (infra
521 C) to the spinning round of an oyster-shell.

Whether knowledge is more truly conceived as ‘brought to the
pupil’ or as ‘ drawn out of him’ is a controversy which has always
prevailed among philosophers and their disciples. On this turns
the opposition between Socrates, as represented by Plato, and the
Sophists. It is partly the same with the controversy respecting the
absoluteness or relativity of knowledge. It finds a solution in
a recognition both of the objective and subjective elements of
truth, of facts brought from without and a mind prepared in its own
nature and by the knowledge of previous facts ‘to receive them.
One of the many aspects of this relation is expressed in the
Theaetetus (149 ff.), where Socrates professes that he has nothing
to impart, but can only bring to light the thoughts of others.

TauTny Thy évodcay... Sdvapiv] The accusative is governed by
meptaxtéov infra. The eye of the mind cannot turn to the light
without the whole mind: it is as if the bodily eye could not turn
and look round unless the body turned with it.

rourou ... adTod .. . Sianxavyjgacbar| rtovrou adtod is explained
in tis Teptaywyfs. The indirect interrogation tiva tpémov depends
on some such notion as jris oxéera implied in téxvyn. The words
ob Tod eproijoo. . . . SiapnxavycacPa like tis mepraywyis are
dependent on téxv».

petactpapycetat| Sc. 7d dpyavoy 6 karapavOdver ExaoTos.
2 A n>? ,

aite| sc. Td dpydve.

aité|] sc. 7d dpav.

TodTo SiapnxavycacOar| sc. draws dpbas éorac rerpappévoy kal
Breet of Sei. ‘

ai pev towuv adda, k.7.A.| The theory of habit is transferred
from the body to the mind: they are the lower not-the higher gifts

a =

Notes: Book VII. 323

of the intellect (‘memory, allied to sense,’ attention, the link epudlic
between the moral and intellectual qualities) rather than genius or ;

18
originality, which are subject to the influence of habit. Yet these ;
latter, though not acquired by habit, require to be trained and
directed before any good use can be made of them.

kaodpevar] They are ‘virtues of soul’ only in a lower sense.
See note on supra 516 A.
mavtTds padAov| cp. infra 520 FE. E

Bevorépou tivds . . . oda] sc. dpydvov dperh: ‘is the virtue of
a more divine principle.’

Spiyzs] ‘Shrewdly.’ The same word is applied to the narrow = 519
legal soul in the Theaetetus 175 D rdv opixpov exeivoy thy yuxnv Kai A
Spusdv Kal Scxanxdy: ib. 173 A Evrovor kai Spipets yiyvorras.

dotre . . . épyafsuevov|] The infinitive épydfec@a, which would
naturally follow dere, is ‘attracted’ into the participial construction
(as . . . €xov . . . AvayKxacpévov),

Todto pévro, K.t.A.] Todo is to be taken with 13 tis Tovadtys
gucews, which is a periphrasis for 9 rowirn gious, the nature so
constituted. The hypothetical clause ei ék mouSds .. . pokuBdidas,
having been expanded with at 8)... dy, is resumed and con-
tinued in the words év ei . . . tédnOq, and the apodosis begins
with kal éxeiva.

ToradtTyns| SC. ora Spyseias dpa.

Tas Tis yevésews fuyyeveis| The reading of the older editions
ra . . . Evyyery, is not indefensible ; the gender of the relative (at)
being in that case assimilated to that with which the antecedent
is compared.

tmept xdtw| Madvig, followed by Cobet and Baiter, conjectures B
mepixdto. This could only mean ‘upside down.’ It is better to
read simply «dr with Hermann (cp. infra 529 B, ix. 586 a) or mept
ra xdtw with some of the inferior MSS.

pyre... pte] The use of py is occasioned by dvdyxy
preceding.

Republic
Vil.

519 C-

521 B

519
C

520

Pe he a 1
. : a ae

324 Plato: Republic.

Our duty then as founders of the state is first to educate the
chosen natures in ‘ the highest of studies, and then to compel them
to take part in the active conduct of affairs.

‘But will it not be a wrong to them, says Glaucon, ‘to drag
them down from the realms of light into the darkness of the den?’

The answer is that in legislating (cp. iv. 419) we must consult the
welfare not of a part but of the whole state. It is also to be observed
that our philosophers do not spring up of themselves as in other
cities, but are the product of our institutions. They owe a debt
therefore to the state and its founders, which they are bound to pay.
When their education has been completed, they must descend by
turns into the cave and accustom their eyes to the darkness. For
when once habituated, they will see and judge of the shadows
infinitely better than those who have always been captives. An
incidental advantage of the plan will be that our citizens, coming
Jrom a brighter life, and being rich inwardly (cp. iii sub fin.) zw7//
take office as a duty, and not for the sake of gain.

Tav oikiotav| is explanatory of hpérepor.

év TG mpdaGev|] vi. 504 E fi.

iSetv, «.7.A.| In apposition to dpixéoOar . . . péyroroy and in
construction with évaykdoat,

Td adtod . . . katapévew| A parallel to this description may be
traced in the unwillingness of Christian saints and hermits to leave
their cells and take part in the business of life, seeming SPCEEE
as Plato says, to be év paxapwr vncos already.

cite omroudaidtepat| Sc. «lair,

érett’, py, 4Sixyoopey adtods]| An expression of surprise. ‘ And
are we then to do them an injustice?’

dpewvov| sc. Civ.

éweddQou .. . wad] iv. 419 ff.

TodTo pyxavarar éyyevécOar| sc. 6 vduos Thy edmpakiar.

aités éumodv . . . THs médews| adtéds dz7s is emphatic: ‘the
law itself creating such men in the state, not in order to leave them
to their own devices, but that it might itself have the full use of
them for the binding together of the state,’ or taking gdvSecpov

in the more common sense of the word, ‘so as to be the bond of
the state.’

Notes: Book VII. 325

8re 088? A8ixyoopev] ‘that we shall not be wronging them after Rigs
all.’ 8€ in od8¢ = ‘in spite of what you say,’ referring to adiunooper 530
supra 519 D. A

Sikny 8 exer. . . tpopeta] ‘now it seems fair that the wild B
plant which owes culture to nobody should not be eager to pay the
price of its culture to anybody.’ The phrase 8ixyv €xes may be
compared with picow €xet, Adyov Exet,

ipas 8 ipeis] The sentence returns to the direct form.
exeivov] Sc. Trav év ruis GAdais réd€ae Hiroodpar yryvopéever,
éxdotw| sc. ipav, is

tuvebiotéov| Not ‘to be accustomed together with the prisoners
in the den,’ but simply ‘to be accustomed,’ as is seen by the use of
the word in the following sentence.

fuveOiLdpevor ydp, x.7.A.| The strength and weakness of the
politician in his limitation: he can see and act powerfully on the
immediate present or future, but on that only. In times of revolu-
tion he is apt to be at fault: he is neither capable of spanning the
movement, nor of confining himself to the necessities of the hour.
It is only the greatest genius that can use the legal, political, or
ecclesiastical maxims of an age and country, and yet be above
them, knowing their true value ;—who is at once ¢pdémpos and
copds: able to follow @ewpia and modzrixn.

14 €tSwdka| This word is not always strictly used for the images
from which the shadows are thrown, as in 532 B amo rév oxo emi
7a €idwda, but also more generally as in 516, of reflections in
water, and, as in this place, to include oxi. We have risen to
a point of view from which the oxevaord and the oxiai are included
under one notion as ¢«idda : cp. Vi. 5IT A.

From this part of the Republic Lord Bacon borrowed his figure
of ‘ idola spectis ’’ and of the ‘ idols’ generally.

oKiapaxouvTeav ... aTracialdvrwv mepi tod dpxew| These words
refer to the disputes and ambitions of the prisoners in the den, and
oragtafévrwv also reminds us of the quarrelling of the sailors about
the helm (vi. 488 c).

Svtos| SC. Tod dpxew. D

7d 8€ wou GdnOés, x.7.4.] Cp.i. 342 D, 345 8. Thereisa slight
change of construction from év médet to tadryy, K.T.A.

Republic
V/1.

520
D'

521
A

B

5ar C-
526 C

521

326 Plato: Republic.

dmeOyjcoucw ... év 7 Kabapo| For ot tpddipor cp. Laws vii.
804 a and Polit. 272 8, where the subjects of Cronos are so named.
tov 8€ moddv xpdvoy is added to avoid a one-sided statement: they
have to toil, but still the greater part of their time is to be passed in
the world above. For év t@ xaBap@ cp. Theaet. 177 A éxeivos ...

6 Tav Kakdv Kabapds Toros,

ei pev Biov ... (521 A) dpgew]| That is, if you provide your future
rulers with a life which is better than that of a ruler.

ot T@ OvTt movorot | Cp. Phaedr. sub fin. mAovowov 8€ vopigorpe
Tov copor,

Tepipaxntov ydp, «.7.A.| The subject, 6 tovodtos médepos, is
developed from teptpayntov ... 7d &pxew ytyvdpevov, which is left
out of construction. Cp. Phaedo 69 B xapifdpeva d€ ppovnaews . . .

€ te > Ul
TOLAUTN apeTn.

ppovipdrarot| sc. eiciv, absorbed in éxouar following.

By what methods then shall such rulers be created and brought
up out of darkness into the light of reason? ‘ Gymnastic’ ts clearly
incapable of doing this; and so ts even ‘music’ as hitherto defined,
seeing that the harmony and rhythm which tt imparts are not
evolved from within, but impressed by habit from without. And
the ‘arts’ we have already rejected (vi. 495 D) as mechanical. The
germ of something higher first appears in the perception of number.
Arithmetic may help to educate the reason. For, every perception
has this effect which brings with it the perception of an opposite.
And not until sensation reports contrary attributes of the same
object does the mind become aware of unity and diversity. This,
however rudimentary, ts an act of pure intelligence; and when
aroused in us by the study of number, it becomes an instrument of
essential value for the awakening of thought. Arithmetic therefore
ts the first step in the higher education. The incidental advantages
of the study, especially for soldiers, are easily seen.

ef “ABou .. . eis Qeods] e. g. Herakles, Polydeukes, &c. Cp. Phaedo
82 B, c, where the soul is said only by the love of knowledge to
find her way into the company of the gods.

Touro $4... pyoopev elvar| ‘this then would seem to be—not
the turning over of an oyster-shell, but the conversion of a soul

Notes: Book VII. 327

from a day which is as night to the true ascent, which leads
towards being.’ The text, as thus interpreted, is not free from
objection: the meaning of odcayv drags, and émavoSov gives a feeble
antithesis to hpépas. It may however be argued that the addition
of odeay is in harmony with the emphatic and pleonastic expressions
in which Plato describes being (cp. infra 529 p); and that émdvodov
arises out of the connexion of the passage. The sense is clear,
though the style is perhaps a little at fault. The first thing to be
done is to turn the soul round to philosophy, which is not the
light itself, but the real and true way up to the light. The
mepaywyn (supra 518D) or perarrpopy precedes the émdvodes (infra
532 8B). This is quite in the Socratic and Platonic spirit. For oécav
some late copies have iovens (g), which appears to be a feeble
correction. = omits oévav. Iamblichus has preserved a reading,
ovea éndvodos, which may possibly be right (‘being the way upward
to the “ true day ” of being’), and which may be supposed to have
been lost owing to the copyists not understanding that jpépay was
to be supplied with dAnOwyv. But according to this reading the
distinction between the ‘turning round’ and the ‘ascent’ is not
strictly maintained. With reference to Cobet’s conjecture, «is
anOunv Tov dvros ovciay éemadvodos, it mMay- be questioned whether
Plato would have used the expression ‘the existence of being,
although the phrase ovciay évros od8€ wi) dvtos occurs in Soph. 262 c
in a different connexion.

For éetpdxou cp. Phaedr. 241 B 6 mpiv épaorns, d0tpdKxou petrarevdrtos,
ierat buy peraBarov. dsotpaxou meptotpopy is an allusion to the
game déorpaxivéa, in which a potsherd white on one side and black
on the other was twirled upon a line, and accordingly as the black
or white turned up, one party fled and the other pursued. Such
at least is the explanation of the game which may be gathered from
these two passages, of which only that in the Phaedrus is referred
to by Pollux, ix. r1r.

768¢ 8 évvod. . . vous Svtas;] ‘ Now this occurs to me as I speak :
were we not saying that they must in the days of their youth be
trained warriors ?’ Cp. iii, 403 E GBANTAL pev yap of avdpes Tod peyiarou
dyavos: Vill. 543 B domep b€ GOAnTdS Te TOhEpoU Kai HiAakas.

Bet dpa... éxeivw] ‘The study which we are searching for
must have this in addition to the other ;’ i.e. military use as well
as a philosophical value. toéro refers to what precedes, and is
explained in what follows.

Republic
Il,

521
Cc

Republic
Vi.

521
D

522

328 Plato: Republic.

mpooéxew| The etymological use, for ¢yew mpds, ‘to have in
addition,’ is remarkable. Cp. Soph. O. T. 175 @Adov & dv ado
mpoaidos, x.7.A. The singularity has probably led to the various
readings TpowexX@s (r), TOs €xew (9), mapexewv (2).

Sonv 1d mpdtepov SinOoper| ii. 376 Eff. There is a sense in
which philosophy is also povorkn, cp. vi. 499 D arn 7 Movoa, Phaedo
61 A as pidrogohias . . . ovens peylotns povortkis.

GAN’ Fv éxelvy y', by, «.7.A.| For the repetition of én infra
(roUtwy adedpd, pn), cp. viii. 557 Cc, where jv & eye is similarly
repeated.

dvtiatpopos Tis yupvaotikys| This is said in the spirit of the
preceding remark (518 p) that all the virtues except wisdom are
not far removed from bodily habit.

dyadv] is to be taken with rovodroy and not with pdOnpa :—
pdOnpa Sé mpds TorodToy, k.7.d., refers to supra 521 D paOnua Wuxis
Ovkov .. . emt 7d dv, and ofoy od viv Lyntets probably to wdOnua: cp.
supra 521 E 6 {nrovpev pdOnpa, The v. r. dyov 11 mg, deserves to be
considered.

ai te yap téxvat] The corresponding «ai is superseded by the
speech of Glaucon, kat py, «.7.A,

eSofav| viz. supra vi. 495 D tmd dé ray rexvev Te Kat Snpwovpyav
donep Ta Topata eAwByvTa, ovT@ Kal Tas yuyxas EvykekAacpévor Te

4.3 , ‘ A ‘ ,
kal droreOpuppevor dia tas Bavavoias tvyxavovow.

tov émt mévta tewdvrwv, x.T.A.] ‘Let us take something of
universal application.’ Cp. Laws v. 747 A, B mpés te yap oikovopiav
kai mpds trodcreiav Kai mpds Tas Téxvas macas év ovder ovT@ Suvapw exer
mraidevov pdbnua peydAnr, os } mept Tors aprOpors diarpiBy* 7d dé pe poror,
éru rov vuordgovra kai duaby ioe, eyeiper Kal edvpaby Kal prnpova Kal
dyxivouy dmepydterat, mapa tiv abtrod giow émbdiddvra Ocig réxvy: and
for the use of arithmetic and geometry, and their relation to the
other sciences, cp. Philebus 56, 57.

kowdv| = emi marta reivov: cp. Theaet. 185 E abry 8 airs 7
Wuxi) Ta Kowd por gaiverar wept mavrav émoxoreiv, where among
ra xowd is mentioned number (ێv re xal rdv Gov dpiOydy).

Sidvorat| didvora is perhaps here used according to the definition
in vi. 511 c, D for mathematical reasoning.

eae Se eel ~ our” shi aoe
— le f. Ls .

Notes: Book VII. 329

73 gaidov toro} For this ironical use of avdos cp. iv. 423 ¢, se
435 C 52 os

mayyéouov yoov .. . dwopaiver] The three extant tragedians all Cc
wrote plays on the subject of Palamedes. Agamemnon is ad-
dressed in an extant fragment of the Palamedes of Euripides
(584 Nauck). Aeschylus also attributes the invention of number
to Prometheus (P. V. 459).

dvapiOurytwv Svrwv| sc. Trav Te vedv Kal Tay GAwv mdvrar.

kat NoyiLeo@ai re] «ai, which is supported by Par. A, and is E
certainly more likely to have been altered than retained, though
maintained by some editors to be a corruption of # (which gives
a poor sense), is the right reading. ‘Shall we hesitate to set down
as a study necessary to a warrior also an ability to reckon and
count?’ For &\do te ody cp. note on i. 337 ¢.

kat dvOpwmos EveoOar| cp. Tim. 39 B iva... peraoxor. . . apOpod
Ta (a, doos hv mpoonxor, paOdvra mapa Ths TavTov Kal dpoiov Tepiopas.
Also Phaedr. 249 8 for difference between the souls of men and
animals,

év {yrodpev] supra 521 D. 523

XpIoHa 8 od8eis abtw Spas] odSels, sc. kuwduvever. Plato means
that persons study arithmetic for convenience only, and not as
a training of the mind. In modern education, mathematics,
besides their more particular application as the expression of
physics, would generally be regarded as having four uses: (1) they
fix the attention; (2) they give accuracy; (3) they impart a per-
ception of symmetry and order, and a power of construction;
(4) they are also said to strengthen the rational powers generally.
The last use must be admitted with reservation, considering that
reasoning in general, whether in science or life, is for the most
part concrete and not abstract. The highest of human faculties,
the judgement, is little cultivated by mathematical studies. Plato
seems to have valued mathematics as a general training of the
mind (infra 526 c): not without an anticipation of the enormous
power gained by it in the interpretation of nature.

76 y° uot Soxodv SyAGoat| For a similar hesitating manner of
speaking cp. Theaet. 164 D wetpacopat dn\aoa mepi adray 6 ye 5} vod.

of Aéyopev] sc. mpds ovdviar,

Republic
VI.

523
A

330 Plato: Republic.

kat Todro| sc. tiv dpiOyntexny.

Ta pev...(B)od mapaxadodvta... 7a Be navrémat Siakeheudspeva |
The participial construction follows Seixvuys as a verb implying
perception.

Tapaxahodvra . . . eis émioxeyv| i.e. calling in reason to
examine the intimations of sense.

éxeivyy| sc. rHv vénow, emphatically opposed to tis aicPjcews
following.

ob8ev bytes movodons| ‘is behaving in an untrustworthy manner.’
Cp. Soph. 232 A érav émornpor tis moAdGy haivnra .. . rd pdvracpa
Toute @s obK EoO byrés, K.7.A.

Ta Wéppwbey ... Ta éokiaypadynpéva| Cp. x. 602 D @ by jay To
maOnpate ths piocews 7 oKLaypadhia embeuevn yonteias ovdev amodeiret,
Socrates proceeds to explain that he is referring not to the effect
of distance or of artificial illusion, but to the confusion caused by
contradictory impressions of natural objects close at hand.

ob mdvu . . . €tuxes oF Aéyw] (1) ‘you have not quite hit my
meaning,’ said ironically rather than (2) ‘you have altogether
missed it.’ 08 mwdvu varies in meaning according to the context.
It is sometimes ‘ not altogether’ and sometimes ‘not at all.’

Ta pev od Tapakahodvta, K.7.A.] Some sensations excite thought,
others do not. Take the case of a finger: a finger as a finger
does not give rise to contradictory impressions. But as possessed
of qualities it does, e.g. a finger as far as visibility is concerned is
at once both great and small; as far as the touch is concerned,
at once hard and soft, thick and thin. This contradiction in the
‘mere sensation’ excites thought to separate the two elements given
in sensation and to go on to consider what the elements are in
themselves—i.e. what is the great and what is the small, &c.

évavtiav aicPyow| e.g. ‘hard as well as soft,’ ‘rough as well as
smooth.’ aic@novs here and supra a (ta év tals aic@yceowv) is not the
faculty (either generally, or as one of the five), but the act of
sensation. In supra B (tis atoOjcews obSev byes Tovovons), infra
524 A (9 nt tH oKdnp@ teraypern atoOnors ... Ti wore onpaiver airy 7
aio@nors), the word has its more ordinary meaning.

év maou yap... émepéo8ar| ‘the ordinary mind is not driven to
ask any question.’ év maou . . . Todrots, SC. rois obrw hawopévors (edv Te

Notes: Book VII. 331

év péow, x.7.4.). He goes on to show that another faculty is called
in when contradictions arise which sense cannot explain.

7d péyebos adtay, x.t.4.] The interrogation dpa gives a strong
emphasis which is continued through the following clause.

&$e wovet] ‘ behaves in the following way.’
i emi td oxAnpa Tetaypévy aloOyors|, sc. 9 dey.

ad] ‘In contradistinction to the former case in which the soul
was not perplexed:’ 523 c ff.

4 Tod Koddou kat... Bapéos} What is here mentioned without
a name in Plato seems to be the same which modern philosophers
call the sense of resistance. For these antinomies of sense
cp. v. 479 B, Theaet. 152 p, Phil. 14.

mp@rtov peév, k.t..] The apodosis comes in with odkoév . . . ad (c)
which takes the. place of 8¢, because of the development of the first
clause which has intervened.

obkodv édv Sto gaivnrat, x.td.] The sense, while thought is
latent, perceives a sort of chaos only, of great and small, after-
wards the mind is awakened and distinguishes the great from the
small.

Sa 8€ Thy todrou capyveray... % “Keivn| ‘But with a view to
clearing up this chaos of sense’ (roUrou, sc. rod ovyxexupevov) ‘the
thinking mind is compelled to reverse the process, and look at
small and great as distinct and not confused.’ For 8a...
capyveray cp. Polit. 262 c cadpnveias évexa. todvavtioy is an adverbial
accusative, i.e€. rovvavriov, SC. moovca, “Kelvyn = 9 dYis.

The difficulty of this passage is to understand how the operation
of sense is separated from that of the mind. The theory of vision
may offer an illustration of Plato’s meaning. Our first impression,
as common language seems to imply, is that surrounding objects
are seen by us in their true forms and at their proper distances by
the sole use of the eye. Experiment shows that much which is
apparently part of the act of sight is really an unconscious
influence of the mind which habit has confused with the pure
sensation, arising from the observation of shadow, colour, or the
use of the two eyes in connexion with each other. The mere
eye without the mind may be said in Plato’s language to peneaive

od Sewpeopeva adda ovyKkexupeva,

Republic
VI.

523
E

524
A

Republic
VII.

524
cS

525
A

332 Plato: Republic.

The error of Plato is that he describes the act of vision as having
two successive stages, one in which the sense, another in which the
mind is active: we ourselves should regard these two processes as
one and simultaneous in the concrete, although in thought we can
analyze an act of vision into them. ‘The world opening on the
half-awakened eyes of a new-born child is perhaps the nearest
image of Plato’s conception of the material of sense.

taita totvuy, x.t.A.| When the same objects suggest the idea of
opposites, e.g. of great and smal], the mind is ‘irritated’ into the
consideration of the nature of great and small, of which the
impressions have hitherto been confused.

motépwv| This, although only an early correction in Par. A
seems on the whole more probable than aérepov. Cp. infra
525 A,B: Theaet. 186 a.

ei 8 dei, x.t.4.] The ‘one and many’ here spoken of seems
still to be the Zenonian puzzle which is said in the Philebus (14 p)
to have been superseded by the deeper oppositions amongst the
ideas themselves.

mept 76 adté6| There is a various reading mepi aird, sc. mepi 76 ev.
76 adté is retained, not as inherently more probable, but as the
reading of the best MSS.

obxodv eimep, «.t..] If this happens in the case of unity it must
happen to all number, since number proceeds from unity. Cp. Parm.

144 A.

Evpmas dpiOuds| ‘All number’ collectively. Cp. Theaet. 147
Tov apiOpov mavra dixa diehdBouev: Phaedo 104 A 6 juovs Tov dpibpod
dnas. For todr» some MSS. have rodro, others omit the word.

Taira 8€ ye... mpds ddyPerav]| This may be illustrated from
modern philosophy, which equally recognizes contradiction as
a motive of thought. The being which is also not-being, that is to
say, the privation or abstraction of individual or particular being:
the one which is many: the same which is diverse: the motion
which is and is not in the same place: the moment which is and
is not in the same time: the continuous which is also discrete: the
finite which is infinity: the beginning which begins not,—the
negation which is only relation, together with the higher contra-
dictions which arise in the sphere of theology or moral philosophy—

Notes: Book VII. 333

would have been regarded by Plato no less than by Kant and
Hegel as highly suggestive difficulties to the student of dialectic.
In the later stage of his philosophy, beginning with the Parmenides,
he is increasingly disposed to dwell on such modes of thought.

gidooddy 8€, k.7.4.] ‘while the philosopher must study arith-
metic because without emerging from the sea of generation and
laying hold of true being he can never become an arithmetician.’
The ‘ philosopher’ =the philosophic student, he that would be
a philosopher. Else there is some want of point in the termination
of the sentence, because the study of arithmetic is a preliminary to
philosophy and not the result of it. Davis and Vaughan render
hoytotiKa, ‘skilful reasoner,’ but this is pointless, and hardly possible
when the word is used in two other passages within ten lines in
the sense of calculation (515 4, c). For 4 pndémore . . . yevéoOar
Cp. ili, 401 B i) pe) map’ Hyiv rroveiv.

yevésews efavaddvr.] Cp. Phaedr. 247D where the soul has
risen to the inner heaven ‘in the revolution she beholds Justice and
Temperance and Knowledge absolute not in the form of genera-
tion’ (odx 7 yéveots mpdceorw),

mpoojKoy 8} 7d pdOnpa, x.7.A.| anya (or airs) is to be repeated
in the accusative after vopoOerjoat and meidew emi oytotiKhy i€vat,
Cp. supra 519 D ideiv re rd dyabdy, x.7.A.

évexa, wohéyou te... Kal odoiav|] By the insertion of re after
pactwvns from Par. A, the awkward agglomeration of three genitive
cases is avoided. The warlike use of arithmetic is admitted here;
but when Glaucon follows up this line of argument afterwards, he
is reproved by Socrates. This change of front is one of the
expedients which Plato employs to keep attention alive.

évvod pyévros] Socrates professes to have discovered what has
long been familiar to him: this also is one of the artifices by which
he quickens the interest of his hearers. Cp. a similar form of
expression in ii. 370 A évvo@ yap kai airos eimdvros coi,

GAA ph Tod KawHedev|] Cp. supra c ds eumdpous 4 KamHous :
i. 345 C, D Somep xpnuatioriy add’ ov moumeva,

otofa ydp mou... woddkatAacwiow] ‘If you go about to divide
the unit they multiply it.’ In teaching arithmetic, the unit was repre-
sented by a line}+—4. If the pupil by a natural mistake assumed
the magnitude of this line to be significant, and proposed to divide
it, the teacher would show him that for arithmetical purposes

’

Republic
VII.

525
B

334 Plato: Republic.

Republic it was a matter of indifference whether the line +—4 was divided

VII. into four parts 72,44 or multiplied by four 4,2 , * , 4),
since a magnitude, however great or small, might equally be taken
to represent the abstract unit. ‘One,’ so conceived, is without
parts: if it is imagined as divided, every part is equal to the whole.
The same distinction between the popular and scientific study of
arithmetic is clearly stated in Phil. 56 & of pév ydp mov... Ts

525
D

Onoe.

526 éxaorov| Apposition of a part to the whole.—Plato is endeavour-
ing to show the purely abstract and intellectual nature of the science
of number. The proof of this is, that while bodies or objects of
sense have parts, the unit is said by arithmetical theorists to be
incapable of division: which shows that, if questioned, they would
at once acknowledge that number of a purely intellectual or
abstract sort is the subject of their operations.

év| by attraction for 4.

dpas odv ...(B) Thy aAnderav;] ‘then do you see, my friend,
I said, that this science may be fairly thought necessary to us,
since we find that it necessitates the soul to use the pure intelligence
for the attainment of pure truth?’ A slight play of words seems
to be intended, as infra 527 a and elsewhere, on dvayxatov and
mpogavaykdtov. piv, ‘for our purpose’ (i.e. for us as lawgivers).

B ot te Bpadeis .. . émBi8daow] Compare again Laws v. 747.

kat pyy...as todro] ‘And, indeed, you will not easily find
anything that is more laborious to the student; nor will you find
many that are equally so.’ o&8€ moddd, sc. & mdvov otra péyav
mapéxera. Hence in continuing the sentence, # which should have
followed pet{w is changed to ds.

526 C- Geometry, no less than arithmetic, is indispensable to the profession

527 C of arms, and if followed far enough, it may also serve as a stage in
higher education. For, however this has been obscured by the
employment of terms implying a practical application, tts real
purpose is to obtain abstract, universal, and it may even be satd,
eternal results, Moreover, experience shows that as arithmetic
guickens so geometry clears the mind.

526 doa 8 GAda}] such as the hollow square (mAaiowv). For the
D form of the sentence cp. Lach. 182 ¢ mpoo@naopev 8 ait@ ob opexpav

' - p
: -

Notes: Book VII. 335

mpoo Onxny, dre mavra dv8pa év mod€um Kai Oappadewrepov Kat dvdpedrepov
dv moujoeev abrov abrod ok ddiy@ adrn 7 éniotnun. And for the phrase
yewpertpixds kal ph dy cp. infra 527 c jppevos re yewperpias Kal py.

75 edSaypovéotatoy tod Svros] The blessedness of the soul that
apprehends the good is attributed to the good itself. Phaedr. 250¢
evdainova hacpuata . . . émomrevortes,

may tobvavtiov| is adverbial.

héyouct pév mou... dvaykaiws| ‘They talk in a very ridiculous
and meagre fashion.’ dvayxaiws = with merely practical needs in
view. For this meaning cp. ii. 369 D dvayxaordrn més; Tim.
69p: Thuc. v. 8 drAwww dvayxaiav. There is however a facetious
allusion to geometrical necessity, for which cp. v. 458 Dod yewpe-
tpixais ye... GAN epwrikais dvdyxas: ‘they have only practical
necessities in view, not the necessities of geometry.’

Tetpaywrilery | = to construct a square equal to a given area.
The use of the same word in Theaet. 148 a is slightly different, viz.
‘to form when squared,’ said of the line which represents a square
root.

mapateivew| (1) ‘to produce a straight line’ [or, (2) as in Meno
87 a, to extend a plane figure, L. C.]

mpootévar| ‘to apply,’ viz. a plane figure to a line.

&s Tod det Svtos yrdoews, «.t.d.| The words Sopodoyntéov and
évexa are repeated from the previous sentences: tt is to be joined
with ytyvopévou, ‘ becoming this or that.’

>

ddkdv dpa... €xonev] & yewaie, like & Oavpaore, & jdiore
expresses the feeling of the speaker about the noble thought which
has just arisen in his mind.

mpds TO Gvw... €xonev| ‘with a view to (mpds) our directing
upwards what now wrongly we direct downwards.’

&] sc. ra ris Wuyis Supara. Perhaps é should be read.

év TH kaAAuTéAer go] ‘in your model state’: used as a term of
endearment; cp. ii. 370 D rod moArxviov, adtod, i.e. ‘geometry,’ for
the incidental advantages of the science are not small.

Astronomy ts approved by Glaucon as conveying information that
is of use for generalship. Socrates rallies him on his seal for useful
knowledge, which, as he insinuates, is due to the fear of popular

Republic
VII.
526
E

527
A

Cc

527 D-
528 E

Republic
Vil.

527 D-
528 E

527
D

336 Plato: Republic.

opinion. He reminds him that the main purpose of education is to
brighten the eye of reason. Now there ts a much-neglected science
which should on this account have been taken first. Geometry was
understood to mean plane geometry. But the geometry of solids
should come before astronomy which is the science of the motion of
solids. Although yet in its infancy, the intermediate science may yet
some day be developed. For, difficult as it ts, tf only encouraged, it
would work its way through the fascination which it infallibly
exercises on superior minds.

euory’ ody, by] Socrates seems to think that too much is being
made of the military uses of the sciences. He himself first drew
attention to the point in the case of arithmetic (521 p): but when
Glaucon, following, as he imagines, the lead of Socrates, praises
geometry for the same reason, he observes that even a little of it
suffices for the commander, and lays stress upon its higher use
in purifying the eye of the soul. Here where Glaucon again
makes the same point, he laughs at his utilitarianism and fear of
popular opinion. When astronomy again comes up for considera-
tion (528 £), Glaucon, mindful of the remonstrance of Socrates,
praises it for making the soul look upward: but Socrates objects to
having his metaphor understood so literally: and insists that the
truth to which the soul should look up is not visible to the eye but
to the mind only.

73 8 gor... dr] ‘ whereas it is a high truth although believed
by few, that, &c. 16 is the subject of €orw and is explained by
the clause introduced by ort,

éxdotou Spyavév te uxiis| ‘a faculty in the soul of every man,’

éxxadaiperar ... dvalwmupetrar | ‘is polished’ (like a soiled mirror)
‘and lighted up’ (like a fading torch) cp. infra 533 D év BopBdépo ...
TO THS WuxAs dupa Karopwpvypévor.

oxémet ody... (528 A) SvacBat| i.e. ‘ will you argue with the philo-
sophers or with the utilitarians, or will you carry on the argument
independently and chiefly for your own satisfaction?’ A similar
turn of thought occurs in Protag. 331 c ov8év yap Séouat rd et Bodder
Tovro kai €t gor SoKet eAéyxeoOat GAN’ cue re kat oé. ‘The argument is
sometimes conceived of in Plato as a disputation between two

persons, or again, as the mind talking to itself, or once more, as

Notes: Book VI. 337

independent of the mind and having a distinct power and reality of
its own.

Cobet’s conjecture (i ode mpds érépous) is neat and plausible, and
preferable to Madvig’s (i ei mpds ovderépous), but is not really
required. The double negative is merely emphatic.

Gvaye ... abrd xa’ aird AaBeiv|] ‘then take a step backward,’
I said: ‘ for the truth is that we mistook the science which should
follow next after geometry.’ ‘How was that?’ said he—(sc. mas
AaBdyres ov pOds éAdBouev ;)—‘ The error was in placing solids in
motion before solids at rest,’ According to Plato’s own statement
(528p) the mention of solid geometry in its natural place was
purposely omitted because of its backwardness: the omission may
also be a trick of style intended to give variety and dramatic effect.
If astronomy had not been mentioned twice, Socrates would not
have had the two opportunities for laughing at Glaucon, first for
his utilitarianism, secondly for his sentimentalism. Cp. iv. 430 D
where it is proposed to pass on to Justice without considering
Temperance: and Symp. 185 p where the order of the speakers
Aristophanes and Eryximachus is transposed.

viv 84] These words in the sense of ‘just now,’ ‘a little while ago,’
are not divided by ydp, but express a single notion: cp. kai 8y.

75m] is to be joined with év mwepipopa dv.
toito| sc. rpirn avén.

peyahoppovodpevor| ‘in their great conceit of themselves:’
a word not found elsewhere except in the active voice, but not
for that reason to be changed into peyadavyovpevor (Cobet). It is
not surprising that Plato should have introduced the middle voice
of a verb signifying a mental state. Compare the word ¢uo-
poveioOa, which occurs six times in the Laws and nowhere else in
the genuine writings of Plato.

émel kai viv. . .(D) davijvar] The plan of the sentence seems to
have changed in the process of construction, 61d 8é tév LntodvTev
may depend on some general idea of disadvantage, e. g. xwAvd-
peva understood from the previous clause. (Végelin cuts the knot
of the difficulty by cancelling $€: this suggests another interpretation,
taking é3é tav {ytovvrwy with adgdverat, ‘ still by the efforts of their
votaries they grow perforce,’ but this is also very improbable.)
Plato means to say that these mathematicians were ignorant of

VOL. III. Z

Republic
VII.

527
E

Republic
VIZ,

528
D

528 E-
530 C

529
A

338 Plato: Republic.

the educational value of their own study. His own love of the
regular solids may be remarked in the Timaeus (54, 55).

aita pavivar| = ef pavein.

oredSuv, x.t.A.| Plato elsewhere alludes to the backwardness of
such studies in Greece as compared with Egypt: a fact which the
Athenian interlocutor in the Laws (vii. 819 p) says had struck him
late in life (cal airds dxotoas éWé more 1d mepi raira jpav mdbos
¢@avpaca): when he found that among the Egyptians mathematical
problems were an amusement of childhood, the ignorance of the
Greeks seemed to him absolutely ‘swinish’ (ov« dvOpdmwov adda

c “ -~ ,
invav twov .. . Openparar).

yedoiws| ‘In a way that is ridiculous,’ and so ‘miserable,’ or
‘contemptible ’—a favourite application of the word in Plato: cp.
especially iv. 429 E ékmura kai yeNota,

Flaving corrected this omission, we proceed tn order to Astronomy.
Glaucon praises the contemplation of the starry heavens, not now as
a useful, but as an elevating pursuit. Socrates replies, that the eye
may look upwards, but that the mind looks down, tf tt is contented
with mere observation and does not rise to universal truths. The
sky ts only a great moving diagram, and Astronomy, like Geometry,
must. leave poring over phenomena, and proceed to determine the
general principles of solids in motion, if this science also ts to help us
onward and upward, as we advance from what ts visible towards
the intellectual and invisible. The astronomer must let the heavens
alone and make use of problems (i.e. study abstract theorems).

éav adrhy wédts petin| The expression is elliptical: sc. topev
yap tmapgovoar, édv, x.7.A. Cp. supra 522 D eimep . . . wy nmioraro,

3 ye viv 84 po... émémAngas| ‘acting on the principle of your
rebuke’: supra 527 D. There is great humour in the way in
which Glaucon is driven from the utilitarian to the sentimental
view of knowledge, only to receive a more severe rebuff from
Socrates.

The antecedent to 8 is an accusative éxeivo in apposition to the
following clause. :

ot eis gtdovodpiay dvdyovtes}| has been translated (1) ‘who

embark’ or ‘set sail on the sea of philosophy’: a metaphorical use
of dvdyew which, although it receives some colour from Phaedr.

Notes: Book VII. 339

272 D ov’ dvdyew divw paxpav repiBaddopévous, Seems tO require more
help from the surrounding imagery ; or (2) ‘who raise astronomy
to the rank of a science.’ For this use of dvdyew cp. Tim. 19 A rots
agiovs maw dvayew Seiv, ‘the worthy are to be raised from a lower
to a higher class.’ It is also possible (3) that avayewv simply means
‘to refer,’ ‘those who refer it’ (sc. astronomy) ‘to philosophy.’
girovopia is here used in the popular sense of any higher kind
of knowledge, as in Tim. 88 ¢ povorxy Kai mdéon $thogopia mpoo-
Xp@pevor,

odk dyevvas, «.7.4.] This and what follows is of course ironical,
as Glaucon very clearly sees (dixny, én, x infrac). Those who
have conceived thus ‘nobly’ of the things above, are said in the
Timaeus (91 p) to be destined hereafter to enter on another life in
the form of birds.

vopicat ... movodv| For the participle instead of the infinitive
after vozi~w, which here avoids a treble infinitive (vopioat sovetv
Bdérewv) cp. Xen. Anab. vi. 6, § 24 vdpice ... avdpa dyabdy droxrevar.

ore padeiv, x.t.A.] As often in an illustration, the construction
is resumed with an asyndeton.

véwy év yy H ev Oaddrry] For this piece of extravagance cp.
iii. 388 A mdwifovra and note. A similar, but more pointed,
metaphorical use of é§ arias vety occurs in Phaedr. 264 a ¢€ tmrias
dvdradw Siaveiv emtxetpet tov Adyov. véwv is absent from some MSS.
but is required by év @addrry.

Tav ToLodtwy| Sc. Tdv dpwpéevor,

tav Sé dAnPivav] sc. ¢opar, as the following clauses show. That
swiftness and slowness are themselves causes which move and
contain all moving objects, is a mode of speaking due to
a philosophy which attributes an excessive importance to abstract
ideas. As afterwards in the Timaeus, though in a somewhat
different manner, the world is doubled—the true swiftness and
slowness convey the real heavenly bodies which are invisible, as
the apparent velocities of the bodies that appear are the visible
copies of them.

Tao... . oxHpacr| Plato seems to mean that every mathe-
matical figure is, or ought to be, exemplified in the revolution of
the heavens.

obxoby, etwov, «.7.A.] The works of creation are imperfect, like
all other works of art. Let us imagine that some Daedalus had
z2

Republic
VII.

529
A

Republic
VII.

529
D

340 Plato: Republic.

drawn mathematical figures: no one would measure these figures
with the view of learning the true nature of proportion. Nor will
any one gather the true nature of astronomy from measuring the
proportions of days and weeks and months and years.

dotep Gv... (E) Staypdppacw| sc. xpyoatro airois.

vop.ety pév| is a resumption of tadrdv weiceo@ar, ‘ that is to say,
he will think.’

svotjcac0a| is of course active in meaning.
airév| sc. rdv otpavdy.

tiv S€ vuxtés .. . mpds GAAnAa] The sentence is slightly altered
in the process of construction, and the general meaning of these
words is resumed in taiéta infra. For mwapadddtrew cp. Tim. 22 c¢
To & adnbés ears trav mept yiv Kai Kar’ otpavdy idvrwy mapaddakis

(deviation).
{ytetv] depends on vopifovra with the common ellipse of dei.

mpoBAnpacw dpa... péryev] ‘Astronomy, then, like geometry,
we shall pursue by the help of problems.’ It is obvious that pure
mathematics do not give the slightest knowledge of physics. No
abstract study of Sa@ovs gopad would explain the motions of the
heavenly bodies. But when a ground of fact has been obtained,
mathematical science is the great lever of our knowledge of the
universe.

Though Plato was mistaken in identifying the science which
treats of solids in motion with astronomy, he was probably before
his age in the idea that a theory of matter in motion might form
a separate branch of mathematics.

The same desire to make physics a pure science resting on the
ayaééy appears in Phaedo 97 pv, £, where Socrates describes
himself as turning away dissatisfied from Anaxagoras, because he
was unable to demonstrate the rational necessity of physics.
A similar tendency is observable in the Timaeus, where Timaeus,
although professing that the knowledge of physics which is attain-
able by man is only probable, nevertheless seeks to construct the
elements out of triangles. In Laws vii. 821, 822, there is a com-
plaint of the empirical state of astronomy, which led men to
‘blasphemous’ notions of wandering stars and contrarious orbits.
Plato seems to imply, perhaps drawn to this by a sound instinct,

_

Notes: Book VII. 341

that if there were a true science of astronomy, we should find 5
nothing irregular in the motions of the stars.

mohhamhdovoy . . . H as viv dotpovopeirat] For # after an 530
implied comparison ‘cp. i. 335 A mpoocivac r@ dixaip i ds 7d mporov C
édéyoper.

The theory of music (a Pythagorean subject which is not at once 530 c-
obvious to Glaucon) must also be raised not only above the wrang- SIT C
ling disputes of practical musicians, but also above the limitations of
Pythagorean theory, which is still based upon the ‘harmonies which
are heard. Our pupils must rise to the universal contemplation of
harmonic ratios in themselves.

GAG ydp Tt, «.7.A.] ydp connects with radda,—‘ but (seeing that 530
there are other studies) have you any of the suitable studies to
suggest?’ For tév mpoonkévtwy cp. supra 521 D.

Ta pev obv mdvta, x.1.A.]| Such professions of ignorance or D
imperfect knowledge are characteristic of Plato: cp. supra iii.
400 C, D eis Adpova dvaBeBrAnobo. Plato is suggesting that many
phenomena besides those of astronomy and harmony may be
scientifically brought under gopd. All change might be described
as a kind of motion. Cp. Theaet. 152 p, 156 c, p, where vision
is described as the result of certain motions, and Laws x. 893, 894,
where ten kinds of motion are enumerated; among them ovyxpiors
and d&dxpiors, avén and Péicrs.

&s mpds dotpovopiav ... mayjvat| Cp. Tim. 47 B, c Gedy jpiv
dvevpeiv Swpnoacbai te Wu, iva ras év oipav@ xari8dvres Tov vod mepid8ous
xpnoaipeba emi ras mepupopas. tas rhs map’ Huiv diavonoews, Evyyeveis
éxeivats ovoas, drapaxrois rerapaypévas, expaOdvres 5€ Kal Auywrpay Kata
diow dpOdrnros peracxdvres, pipovpevor Tas Tov Oeod mavrws am)aveis
oveas, Tas ev Huy memdavnpevas katagtnoaiveba,—The whole passage
should be read.

ds of te MuOaydperot pact, x.7.A,] Cp. iv. 424 ¢ ds dot re Adyar
kai éy® meiOopac: Symp. 186 c, see also Tim, 808 for an analysis
of ‘ harmony.’

éxeivwy| viz. the Pythagoreans, who had given special attention E
to harmonics.

kal ef te GAXo mpds ToUTos| This seems to imply that other
applications of Bdéovs gopad are possible besides astronomy and
harmonics. Cp. supra D ra pév obv mavra, x.7.A,

Republic
VI/.

530
E

>o

-_

342 Plato: Republic.

mapa mévra taita| ‘throughout this course of education:’ cp.
iii. 412 D mapa ravra tov Bio,

aptt] supra 529.

4 odk oto Sr, x.7.A.] There were two parties in the musical
world of Athens: one the scientific, which rested on the old
Pythagorean doctrines and generally denied the appeal to sense
into which however they were sometimes betrayed (they were
headed in later times by Aristoxenus the pupil of Aristotle): the
other, the empirical, who are referred to in the words which follow.
Plato intimates in the words dA)’ éxeivous (531 B) that he appeals to
the scientific and not to the empirical party. But he adds that
even the former are not wholly right.

movodat] The subject is to be gathered from the context, viz.
oi mept tas dppovias. Socrates means the Pythagoreans, but Glaucon
understands him to speak of the empirics or ordinary musicians.
This is corrected in what follows (infra B, c).

vi Ttods Qeous, x.7.A.] Plato gives a comic description of the
empiric musicians experimenting either with voice, flute, or lyre.
A tone and a quarter-tone are sounded successively, while the men
lean forward to listen, whereupon some of them declare that they
perceive no difference, while others say they recognize a distinct
interval, and that this ought to be made the unit of harmony and
employed as the basis of the scale: év péow tid AxHv Is a slightly
inaccurate but idiomatic expression for péoov te trav nxay, ‘a
difference of tone.’

The introduction (in flute-playing) of a quarter-note (zvxvév)
between the middle notes of the enharmonic scale, is recognized
as a comparative novelty even by Plutarch (De Musica, c. xi),
and was treated as an obscure point by Aristoxenus, who says of

. - -” ”
it, reAevtaim ait@ Kai pddts pera moddod mévov ovvebiferar 7 aieOnors.

See Westphal’s Harmonitk, 2nd ed., p. 128. Aristoxenus (Elem.
Harm. i. 24) defines mixcvapa as 1d ék dv0 diacrnpdtav cuveotyKds, &
avvreGevra edatrov Siudornpa mepicker Tod evropévov SiagtHwaros ev Te
da recodpwv. For example a 6 4 (c) d when the two intervals a 8,
8 4, are together less than the interval 4 d (¢ being omitted).
p0eyyopevar (viz. rav xopdév), Ven. = Vat. m read POeyyspevov:
‘others contending that the note is now identical.’

otov ék yertévev pwviv Onpevdspevor] ‘as if catching a sound
from a neighbour’s house,’ The exact metaphor is obscure. —

Notes: Book VII. 343

od pév] The order of words as rendered in the translation is
(1) mept xarnyopias eEapyicews, x.r.d. The words mpdypata .. .
otpeBAodvras suggest other imagery derived from. the law-courts.
‘They have a controversy with the strings and torture them: they
accuse them of refusing to speak or of speaking too much.’
Socrates is contented with hinting at this grotesque conception.
According to another way of taking the words (2) xarnyopias, «.r.d.,
may be rendered ‘concerning accusation of the strings and their
denial of it and exaggeration,’ the latter words describing the
behaviour of the strings under trial. The musicien enragé is
imagined as scolding the strings: the strings as denying his
accusations and braving him.

For the weakness of empiricism in music cp. Phil. 56 a ré
pérpov éxdotns xopdis TO oToxdlecOa hepoperns Onpevovoa.

tairév yap movodo, «.7.A.| Plato as we may retort has fallen
into the same error about harmony as about astronomy. For
harmony no less than astronomy rests ultimately on a fact, which
is that certain successions or combinations of sound are agreeable
to the human ear. The simplicity of this fact, which is found to
agree with certain ratios of number, has naturally led in either
case to the substitution of numerical laws for the phenomena of
which they are the expression.

odk cis mpoBAjpara dviacw| ‘They do not rise to problems,’
i.e. to abstract questions which are independent of facts.

Xpyoipov . . . dxpyorov| xadod is here added because music
seems especially to suggest the identity of the beautiful and the
good. GAdus, i.e. pi) mpds tiv Kadod re Kai ayabod (yrnow. The
subject of &xpyotov is 1d mepi dppovias.

Furthermore, the sciences thus purged from empiricism must be
carried upwards to the stage where they are seen in mutual correla-
tion. Then they may really become the prelude (they can never be
more) of Dialectic, the study of pure abstractions by pure thought.
By this alone the mind gets beyond ‘hypotheses’ and dispenses with
them, although employing the arts or so-called sciences concerned
with them, in the preliminary stage, which for want of a better
word has been termed in the previous survey (vi. sub fin.) ddvoa,
Nor is the dialectician perfect until he has realized a complete
conception not only of Being but of the Good.

Republic
VII.

531
B

5gr C-
534 E

Republic
VIZ.

531
Cc

344 Plato: Republic.

oipar 8€ ye... (D) dvévnta] The affinity of astronomy and music
is not at first sight obvious. To the Pythagoreans and Plato
(see Tim. 47) the music of the spheres afforded a link of con-
nexion between them, which to us appears fanciful. :

But Plato sees also a real connexion, inasmuch as he supposes
them both to be based upon number and proportion, which he
regards as the common element of all the preparatory sciences.
When reduced to this mathematical form they are the prelude
to the science of the Good.

For the application of this remark cp. infra 537 c.

Tod mpoontou|] sc. 7d épyov. The genitive is continued in tives
by a sort of attraction.

mdvta Taita mpooiwid got] The figure of the mpooijoy and
vopos with a play on the word vopos, is one of the leading features
in the structure of the Laws. (Laws iii. 700 B, iv. 722 D.)

dv... évtetéxnka| Gv = ékeiver ois.

GANG 78... eiS€var;] ‘But do you imagine that persons who
are as yet unable to give and accept a reason will ever know
anything of the things which we say they ought to know?’ Bad-

a of A?
ham’s conjecture of 6)... twés is partly anticipated ( fn ) by

a corrector of Par. A, where of py is written, but with two dots
over of. But the text is sound. 78m is to be connected with
ph Suvarot twes dvtes. With eiceoOat, Soxodoe has to be supplied
from od ydp mou SoKxodot yé cou supra.

od8 ad ... todrd ye] sc. doxei. ‘Nor again is that my view,’
i.e. while I deny that mathematicians are dialecticians, I will not
affirm that any but dialecticians can have the knowledge required.

éhéyouev] supra 516 4 ff.

odrw kal Stay . . . Tod Sparod|] The reading of the MSS. is
followed in the text. Various alterations have been suggested:
(1) the insertion of a (or éav) before dveu; (2) émyxepav for
émxerpy; (3) dpyav for dppa; (4) xav wy for kat ph, with a comma
after é6pya (then supposed to be in the indicative mood). It is
better to follow the MSS. without attempting to get over the
asyndeton which is not without parallel in Plato—the clause dveu
... @moory being explanatory of orw .. . émyerpy. .

Notes: Book VII. 345

8 gotw éxacrov| Until he reach the Good, he will still find
himself among specific ein. Cp. vi. 484 D and note.

éxeivos Tore] Sc. 6 Ti THs GYews Suvdper xpoyevos supra A: TéTE
like é\éyopev refers to supra 516 4 ff.

4 8€ ye... (c) dmooxtaLopévas| ‘ But the release of the prisoners
from their chains and the turning of them from the shadows
towards the images and the light, and the ascent from the under-
ground den into the day (supra 516 &), and their vainly endeavour-
ing when there to look on the animals and plants, and the light
of the sun, whereas they can only look on the divinely made
reflections and the shadows of real things (not shadows of images
cast by the light of a fire, which is itself a shadow compared
with the sun).’ In what follows the construction is changed and
the nominatives are resumed in tadrmy... thy Sdvapw. For the
confusing double use of the demonstrative otros cp. iii. 405 B, Cc.

- The conjecture of Niagelsbach ér ddvvapia Pdémew (a reading
found also in Iamblichus) is plausible and in keeping with the
previous nominatives feminine. But on the other hand it may
be said that ddvvapia Bdérew (for rod Bdérew) is a questionable
construction without a verb preceding; and that the infinitive
Bdérew follows the preceding verbal nouns as if % émdvodos had
been 1d énavehOciv adrovs, while the preposition émi may be used
as in Sophocles (El. 108, Ant. 759, O. C. 1554), in which passages
the sense of condition appears to have passed into the manner.
So here, ‘to look powerlessly,’ i.e. to be without power to see.
In mpés 8¢, «.7.X., the negative notion in éw d8uvapia disappears.

Geta} This word has been needlessly suspected. In Soph.
266 B, c, D Plato speaks of a divine as well as a human pumnrexy.
The epithet here contrasts the reflections in water, &c., due to the
light of the sun, with the shadows of the oxevaora cast by the
fire-light. ‘The phantasmagoria in. the den and the oxtat of real
objects are distinct, as in the passage which this resumes, 516 a ff.
For the position of eta as a ‘dragging predicate’ cp. ix. 573 A
Tay év Tais ToavTats cuvevcias ndovay dvempevar.

tév Svrwv| is emphatic =the visible realities which in the
allegory correspond to the ideas.

80 érépou tovodrou| orodrou refers to eiSddwv.
domep tote] sc. iv éravaywyy: supra 516 B ff.

Republic
VII.

532
B

Republic
VI.
532

D

E

346 Plato: Republac.

xadend, x.7.A.| It is difficult to accept, being difficult to under-
stand: it is difficult not to accept it, because when understood,
it appears self-evident.

tives ab S800] sc. ris duadexrexijs elow. One MS. (r) has at 660%.

mpds aité| The pronoun is emphatic. Cp. v. 473 ¢ ém aédré

‘ a 4 a ’ ‘ s
8)... etue T@ peyloT@ Tpooekafouey Kupare.

otxer, qv 8 éys, x.7.A.] Cp. Symp. 209 BE ta dé réAea kal
eromtixa (wunOijvar) . . . ovK ol8 ei olds 7° dy eins. ép& pév ody, tpn, eyo

kai mpobupias ovdev adroreiw* metpa b€ ereaOa, dw olds re js.

3 ye 84 por patverar] For the moderation of statement cp.
Phaedo 114, D 16 pev odv taira dcioxvpioagbar ovtws éxew, ws ey@

dueANAvOa, od mpérer vodv Exovte avBpi, k.T.r.

Sr. pev *Set] This reading is supported by the version of
Ficinus and partially by the reading of ® (ért dei pev): ‘What
we must insist on is that our pupils ought to behold the vision
which we thus indicate. The reading of Par. A, &c., dre pév
dn, x.A., ‘That in appearance (i8etv) it is something like this,’—is
better authenticated but seems less in point.

768e yodv... as] follows dpotoBytice: (not A€youot).

680] ‘Systematically,’ ‘methodically’: cp. Phaedr. 263 B 68@
Sunpna Oa.

at pev GAAat waco. téxvat, «.7.A.]| The division of the arts into
kodakiky (mpds ddkas dvOporev kai éniOvpias), mourixn (mpds yevéoes Te
kat ovvOéoes) and émednrexy (mpos Oepameiav) may remind us of similar
divisions in the Gorgias (463 ff., 501, 502), Sophist (222 E, 265 ff.),
and Politicus (261-2755): yéveow, i.e. yewpyia: ovvéeors, e.g.
ipartixn, textomxn, &C. Tetpdpatar from tpérw = rerpaupeévat eici.

yewpetpias . . » éropévas| The accusative, by attraction to ds, is
also in construction with épépev. The plural, also partly due to
attraction, has a depreciatory effect. ;

Mathematics are not a science in Plato’s sense of the term,
because they do not inquire into the nature of their own conceptions.
They start with certain assumptions: they have a scientific basis
only when connected with the idea of good, which is at once the
beginning and end of them, the final cause to which they all tend
and the foundation on which they rest. Such a connexion is of
course an illusion, the nature of which was not understood in the

Notes: Book VII. 347

beginnings of philosophy. The acknowledgement that the ‘ reality’
of mathematics is not metaphysics but physics would have been an
entire inversion of the Platonic order of ideas.

@ yap dpxh pev 8 ph olde, «.7.4.] The nature of our ideas of
number and figure may be summed up under a few heads:
(1) Mathematical, like other abstractions, have been gradually
separated from the concrete: the process by which the abstract
idea of one is obtained is not different from that which gives the
abstract idea of man. (2) But in such abstractions the individual
being perfectly vacant of any separate content is identical with the
universal: hence they admit of endless construction, and every
construction has absolute necessity and certainty. (3) They are
affected like our other ideas by use and association: the incessant
recurrence of them, the power of constructing them; also the
verification of their truth in the concrete, as well as by algebra and
trigonometry and the various processes of arithmetic,—greatly
strengthen our conceptions of them. (4) The mode in which they
have been gradually attained and developed by a series of inquirers
from Pythagoras to Newton and Laplace, must be clearly separated
(as in the case of all our ideas) from the accidental way in which
they are acquired by the individual, (a) unconsciously through the
medium of language, (8).as the result of education and study. In

any other sense, the origin of our ideas of number and figure, as of

all our other ideas, is only their history.

odKody...(D) ats SindOopev téxvars] ‘ then dialectic and dialectic
alone pursues this method: doing away with hypotheses and going
to the very first principle so as to have certainty; and gently draw-

ing and leading upward the eye of the soul, which is actually.

buried in some barbarian bog’ (BapBapix@ is chosen partly for
the sound), ‘using as handmaids in the work of conversion the arts
which we have discussed.’

dvatpodea| has been compared to the Hegelian aufheben (‘the
hypotheses which in the sphere of mathematics were absolute
become relative to each other and to the Good’). But the analogy
is hardly so close. éw adrhv thy dpxyv is governed chiefly by
mopevetat, and dvaipodea means ‘taking out of the way.’ The
hypotheses are done away with; that is, whén seen in their relation
to the good they cease to be hypotheses, cp. vi. 511 B ras bnodécets
Towovpevos odk dpxds, GAAG TH dvte brobdoes, olov emiBdoes Te Kal Spyds,
k7A.; and Symp. 211 C éomep éravaBabpois xpopevov. A simpler

Republic
VII.

533
D

ie

534
A

348 Plato: Republic.

conception of diadexriey as the ‘science of sciences’ occurs in Phil.
58 A thy yap wept Td bv Kal rd dvtws Kal Td KaTa TadTov del mequKds.

1a 75 €B0s] Cp. Theaet. 157 B, Soph. 267 p, Cratyl. 434 E.
év ye TO mpda0ev mou] vi. 511 D.

GAN’ 8 Gv pdvov . . . 6 Néyer €v Yuxy] These words are omitted in
Ven. =, and their genuineness has been doubted, partly on the
ground, which is not very strong, that in Plato’s language assent in
the negative form (od yap ov) is not usually accompanied by any
further elucidation. ‘There is considerable variety in the readings :
the weight of manuscript authority being in favour of that which is
retained in the text. The various reading Aé&w for é&v g need not
be rejected on the ground of tautology. Cp. viii. 543 c rods Adyous
éroiov héyov. Another reading is @ Aéyes, ‘what you mean to
express ’—this appears as a correction of Par. A. The words in
the text are very possibly genuine and may be rendered—‘ we only
require’ (the verb is gathered from od wept évéparos dpproByryots)
‘an expression which may indicate with a clearness proportioned
to the mental condition, that of which it speaks as existing in the
mind.’ For example, d:dvora may not be a very clear or definite
expression, but the state of mind which it expresses is also far from
clear. Of many suggested emendations that of Professor Bywater
deserves most consideration, dAN’ 6 dv pdvov dydrot thy ew, mas exer
aapnvetas a déyers ev Yux7. For the whole expression cp. ix. 581 A
dare te yp avrois Sndody, dmdre rovTo THs Wuyx7s Td pépos héyoupev. It
deserves notice that the whole sentence @AX’ 6. . . puxy being
omitted in = is accordingly absent from the editions of Aldus and

. Stephanus.

thy 8 ép ots tadta,x.t.A.| ‘The exact proportion to each other
of the things to which these terms apply, and the division of the
spheres of opinion and reason severally.” The line (vi. 509 D, E)
was proportionately divided. Plato seems to hint that the pro-
portionate division of the line and of each of the subdivisions was
not a mere arbitrary fancy.

modkathacioy ... 4] Cp. supra 530C moddamAdowv...i as

viv dotpovopeirat. *

dowv] (1) sc. Scwv Adyar of mapednrvOdres Adyor Hpas évérdnoar [B. J.],
or (2) for rév 6001 by a somewhat unusual attraction as if 7 had not
preceded.

Notes; Book VII. 349

# Kal Siadexruxdy...odcias;| ‘Do you call by the name
“ dialectician”’ one who has a conception of the essence of each
thing?’—The words ws yap av... ainy; in the answer, refer only
to the latter part of the question.

Sia mdvtwv edéyxwv Srefidv] ‘running the gauntlet of all
questionings.’ Under the figure of a battle Plato describes a logical
pursuit.

dntat tH A6yw| ‘without the argument coming to a fall.’

ei mote Epyw tpépois| Cp. iii. 389 D edv ye... emi ye Adyw Epya
reAnrac: and for peta ye aob, ib. A ei ad... Rowdee eudv riOévar.

@ddyous Svtas Gowep ypappds| (1) ‘incapable of reason, like
irrational lines’ (i.e. surds in mathematics) [so Schneider]. It must
be admitted that such a punning allusion belongs rather to Plato’s
later manner. (Cp. Polit. 257 a, 2668.) But it gives the most
plausible meaning to this place, and may be illustrated from
Theaet. 146 a (addressed to Theodorus the mathematician)
mpobvpovpevos nas mojoar diadéyerOat kai pirovs re Kai mpoonydspous
GdAnAots yiyverba. Cp. also the number of the tyrant in ix. 58q9 ff.
which is little more than an elaborate jest. For the idiom in
which the qualifying epithet is omitted with the thing compared
cp. Soph. O. T. 922 and 923 éxmemAnypévov .. . ds KuBepynrny veds.
Another interpretation (2) is suggested by Theaet. 202 B, where the
elements of thought are said @Aoya kal dyvwora civat, aioOnra 8é—
being compared to letters, which have no significance until combined
in syllables. ‘Insignificant and meaningless, like mere lines.’
(3) The only other possible explanation is that of Ast, ‘incapable
of speech like mere lines or written characters.’ Cp. Phaedrus
274, where he dwells on the superiority of speech over writing.

Who are to be counted worthy of this training, and how shall tt
be ordered? Those who are to be gur rulers must be chosen young,
not as in our first selection (iii. 412). And besides the steadiness
and firmness which were then required, their intellectual quickness
and perseverance, and their love of truth, will have to be thoroughly
tested and approved. Philosophy will not then be disgraced, as she
is now. In early life intellectual training should be given through
amusements, but at twenty when compulsory gymnastic. comes to an
end, our selected pupils must begin a ten years course of mental
discipline, in which the scattered elements of knowledge previously

Republic
Vid.

534
Bb

535 A-
537 D

350 Plato: Republic.

Republic acquired must be combined in a whole according to their natural

VII.

535 A-
537 D

relationship to one another and to true being. Comprehenstveness
is the great test of dialectical talent. At thirty a:further selection
should be made, and those finally sifted out by the help of dialectic
Jor the select class may be promoted to still higher honours.

tous Te yap BeBatotdrous, K.7.A.] vi. 503.
Bdooupods 74 H6y| ‘Of a sturdy moral nature.’

GAG Kal... adrots} ‘but also they must have the natural gifts
which are suitable to /4’s education ’—i.e. the higher education of
which he is now treating.

nota... StaotédXet;| ‘ Which do you determine these to be?’
For the middle voice cp. Aristot. Pol. ii. 8, § 17 med) memoupeba

, a ,
pveiav, ére pikpa Trept advtov SvacteihacOat BeATiov.

Spipttnta ... pavOdver| pavOdve, which takes the place of
a subject of Gwdpxew answering to Spiydrnta, is attracted into
construction with 8et.

oixetdtepos ...6 mévos| ‘The toil more properly belongs to
the mind, being confined to it and not shared by the body.’ For
dmodewhuav cp. vi. 504 A.

kal pyypova... {yttéov| ‘Therefore the man whom we seek
must also be endowed with memory; he must be a solid man who
is a lover of all kinds of labour.’

Gppatov| from a and faiw, a word said to have existed as
a various reading for appyxrov in Il. xiv. 56 dppatov yay te Kal aitav
eikap éaeoba. The only other place where it is now found is Cratyl. -
407 D, where it is said to mean oxAnpér re kai duerdotpodoy : Compare
the French word znébranlable.

\
tive tpém@| sc. ag.

td te Tod odpatos, x.7.A.] As in iii. 403 D, bodily exercise is
subordinated to the training of the mind.

8 kal mpérepov elroy] vi. 495 E.

xwdds 82. . . grdoroviay| ‘And he too is lame, whose love

of labour, instead of this, has taken the opposite turn.’ See
Tim. 87 c, p for a similar train of reflection.

-

=" oe eet f

Notes: Book VII. 351

odxody Kal mpds ddnOerav, «.7.A.| For the voluntary and in- —
voluntary lie cp. ii. 382.

Minds that hate falsehood in practice are often very impatient 535
of scientific or historical truth. They may be unconscious of their
defect: this unconsciousness, however, is no measure of the
responsibility which attaches to them. Prejudice and _ stupidity
cannot be altogether exempted from the guilt of the consequences
which flow from them. The educated are apt to imagine that
they are no more bound to inquire than the uneducated ; and they
sometimes think that their duty is rather to conceal than to
express the result of their inquiries, when at variance with
common belief. The truth is that the less the uneducated in-
quire, the more the educated are bound to inquire; and the
stronger the impulse to concealment, the greater the duty to
speak plainly. The sense of such a duty is not easily aroused
when at variance with interest or custom, at the point where
science and religion, virtue and truth, temporarily seem to diverge,
or where the inquirer has to stand against the general opinion
of mankind. Intellectual cowardice or common-placeness, or
want of faith, are fatal to all true philosophy. He who has such
a ‘maimed soul’ may perhaps escape without injury to himself:
but, if a man of ability, he cannot fail to leave an evil mark on
others, in our day especially, when more than in ancient times the
world needs to be reminded that the love of truth is the first of
intellectual virtues.

dpaSaivouca| The termination is expressive—‘to indulge in E
ignorance’: cp. dxodagraive,

mpds 6 Tt dv téXwor ToUTwy| Todtwv refers to Ta Tis dperis pépyn, 536
which has been already resumed in ta tovatra, and the subject of
téxwor is the same with that of Aav@dvouor. ‘They fail to see
that they are making use of people who are lame and bastard
with respect to the qualities for which they happen to make use
of them.’

tocattmy| supra 535 Cc. B
&dXolous . . . katavtAyjoopev| mpdgoper is intransitive, kat... Kat
= ‘not only,’ ‘ but.’ xaravrAciy and xaraxeiv are favourite metaphors
in Plato. Cp. Laws vii. 800 D macav Praodnpuiay trav iepdy Kata-
xéouer, and Rep. i. 344 D éomep Badave’s jay katavtAyoas Kata Tov
Grav aOpdoy kal roddy tov Adyor.

Republic
Vi.

536
B

> ee ae

352 Plato: Republic.

yedoiov 8 éywye . . . waSeiv|] ‘My present error is, if not
disgraceful, yet ridiculous enough.’ It is observable that although
Plato maintains the verisimilitude of the fiction that he is an actual
legislator by all sorts of minute touches, he sometimes for the sake
of variety, as in the present passage, allows the illusion to be
broken through: cp. iii. 389 D édv ye, 7 & Gs, emi ye Ady@ Epya
TeAjrar: SUPTa 534 D obs To Ady rpépes . , . eb more Epy@ Tpéhas :
Vi. FIO E.

tois aitiois] For the strong feeling which these words convey
cp. Phaedo 116 c ovk eyol yareraives, yeyvookets yap Tods aitious,
add’ ékeivors.

od pa tov... pytopt| Briefly the meaning is, G. “You do not
in my judgement, who am the listener ;’ S. ‘But I do in my own,
who am the speaker.’

Xdrwn yap o8 weoréov| Alluding to the famous line of Solon
(Fragment 20, Bergk) ynpdoxw 8 alei wodda didacrxdpevos, quoted
also in Lach. 189 a. In the first ‘selection of rulers or officers,
older men were chosen, because no man is to enter on an Office,
till he has reached a certain age. But in providing for the future
the rulers designate must be chosen young, because they have
so much to learn.

otx as émdvayKes, «.t.A.] ‘Not making the plan of our in-
struction such that learning should be compulsory,’

xetpov ob8év| But see above vi. 495 D.

ux7 Sé.. . pdOnpa] ‘Knowledge which is acquired under com-
pulsion obtains no hold on the mind.—Why do we remember
some things and not others?—-memory is (1) most retentive and —
impressible in childhood; (2) most suggestive and associative in
later life; (3) generally strongest of words and events which are
seen by the light of emotion or interest, or under new circum-
stances. ‘The healthy memory is that of observation, which freely
receives from the external world. The memory of study, when
not merely verbal or mechanical, is proportioned to the degree of
attention or interest which the mind is capable of giving. Memory
seems also to flourish at the expense of the other faculties, and
may receive by an exclusive training a monstrous and dispro-
portioned growth. On the other hand, memory is greatly impaired
and disturbed by excess of imagination, which tends to confuse the

Notes: Book VII. 353

recollection of the past; or of reflection which draws away the
mind from the external world and is only willing to receive facts
connected with theories or principles. Probably even intensity of
feeling, while preserving some facts with a preternatural clearness
and light tends to impair the ordinary operation of memory about
facts in general: the concentration of the intellectual faculties is
generally inconsistent with their diffusion. Many persons have
observed that a growth of mind has compensated the loss of
memory: in such cases the change may be regarded as a sort of
adjustment of the intellectual faculties. The true art of re-
membering is also an art of forgetting: better to forget most
things than to remember all. Lastly, memory appears to be
allied to sense and to depend on health: the reason of the
common decay of the faculty in old age is partly physical, partly
due also to the fading interest in the surrounding world.

iva kai] «ai = besides making the knowledge permanent.
Epapev| v. 467 F.

év waot . . . éyxptréov] ‘And whoever appears to be always
most ready at all these things—labours, lessons, dangers, will have
to be enrolled in a select number.’

oitos yap ... mpagar| ‘This time of life,’ viz. that devoted
to compulsory gymnastic: cp. infra 539 £, where twice the time
is estimated at five years as the mean between 4 and 6. The time
meant is between 17 and 20.

G8uvatds Tt GAA mpagar| ‘is one in which it is impossible to do
anything else.’ The inability which is really inherent in the
persons is transferred to the age.

tis xaotos, K.7..| tis = moids Tis: CH. Vili. 558 C aOper 3y, Hv 8
éya, tis 6 rowdros idta: Thuc. iii. 12, § 1 ths ody avrn } pidia éeyiyvero 4}
ehevdepia morn: Soph. O. T. 151 tis more ras modvxpvioov, x.7.A.:
O. C. 775 tis adrn répis, dxovras dureiv ;

peta 8h todrov tov xpdvov, x.t.A.] Education in the higher sense
of the term is concerned not only with practical subjects of
knowledge, but with the method or connexion of knowledge in
general.

That science which adjusts other sciences in relation to each
other, which begins where they end, and examines the conceptions

VOL. Ill. Aa

—-

536
E

Republic
Pls.

537
B

537 D-
539 D

354 Plato: Republic.

which they receive and use; which separates the progress or
movement or history of human thought from the course of events ;
which regards the body in relation to the mind, and both in
relation to God and the world, perceiving amid abstractions and
imperfect points of view, the higher or united nature of all, is
called by Plato dialectic, and may be accepted by ourselves as
the description of metaphysic. But to Plato such a science is
almost imaginary, extending only to the connexion of the mathe-
matical sciences: among ourselves it is very imperfect; in idea
a ‘novum et antiquum organum’ of all knowledge; in fact,
scarcely advancing beyond discussions respecting the origin of
human ideas, and the correlation of the sciences.

td Te xUdSnv pabypata nes yevopeva|] The imperfect construction
of the article and noun with the adverb, for which cp. viii. 564 a
i)... dyav éedevbepia: Laws i. 630 D «is rods méppw vopodéras: Aesch.
Ag. 165 ro pdrav .. . &xOos, is supplemented by the participle.

Tourous| SC. Tois éx rev elkoorerav mpoxpiHeiow.

eis avo... ddcews| The genitives d&ddjdwv, Kai Tis...
gucews, both depend on oikedtytos . . . Tov pabnpdtwv.

év ots dv éyyévntar|] Cp. Theaet. 186 c 1a 8€ mepi rovrev dvadoyio-
para mpés Te ovciav Kal @Pedevav pdyis Kal ev xpdv@ dia TOAAGY TpaypaTov

kat naidelas mapayiyverat ots Gv Kal TapaytyvynTat.

5 péev yap cuvomtixds Siadextixds| Cp. especially Phaedr. 265 p,
Soph. 253 pv, Tim. 83 c tus dv duvards eis modda pév Kal dvdpoa
Brérew, dpav & ev adrois év yevos évdv aov eravupias Tract.

Great caution has to be exercised in admitting young men to the
study of dialectic. As things now are, dialectic is another word for
eristic, which may be described as a sort of revolutionary scepticism.
As a supposititious child, who after a time discovers that his
supposed parents are not his real parents, ceases to honour them:
so the young man ceases to honour the principles of justice and
virtue in which he has been brought up, when he hears them refuted
by the eristics. By postponing the study of dialectic to the age of
thirty we have provided one security. But there is still need of
caution.

odx évvoeis, «.7.A.] Compare the evil name of philosophy in
Vi. 495.

eal te | eee

Notes: Book VJI. 358

éunimdavtat] The first hand of Par. A agrees with Ven. 1 in
reading éumim\ara, a corrector has changed this to éumivmAavra, and
éumimhavras is the reading of M. If éumimAara were read, the subject
would be 1d dadéyeoOa, and atrovs in what follows would get its
antecedent from the general context. But the expression 1d
diaréyeoOa mapavopias é¢urimdkara has a sound unlike Plato, who
would speak of xaxovds mept rd diadéyeoOa, but hardly of rd diadréyerOau

aS €umurddpevoy Kakias,

éumimdavrat gets a subject, of d:adexrxoi, from the preceding
words, 76 S:ahéyeo@ar, and this subject is the antecedent to aédrods.

Ta peydda] ‘in important matters.’

dmapakadtntws| Cp. the democratic youth in viii. 560 c mddw re

eis exeivous Tovs Awtoddyous €\Oav havepds Kxarorkei.

Tav GAdwv Tovoupévwy oiketwy| ‘the rest of his reputed kindred.’
This meaning of moeio@a (passive) is supported by vi. 498 a of
procopararor rovovpevor—( where see note), ix. 573 B Odfas .. .
mowoupevas xpnotds, 574 D ddgas . . . ras Sixaias mowovpéevas. It is
therefore unnecessary to take the word in the middle sense of
‘adopting,’ i. e. ‘laying claim to him.’

got wou... aété] The contrast of knowledge and opinion, or
of speculative truth and popular belief, is the source of a real
difficulty in education. The maxims in which the young are
brought up, and which have a kind of parental influence on them
(Gomep bmd yovedor) are sometimes narrow or partially untrue or
perhaps represent the traditions of a former generation. False or
imperfect conceptions of the truth necessarily precede higher and
more perfect ones. There is a time at which the young man
grows out of them, and falls under the influence of other ideas
or meets the tide of the world. With active minds the element of
authority is always receding within narrower limits. But when
‘the human spirits on a day’ begin to ask what are the real
foundations, ri rd Kkaddv, dixaov, &c., there comes the danger that
the youth in his iconoclasm, or destruction of shams, may lose his
sense of reverence for the first principles of truth and right.

Emerson says, ‘when the Gods come, the half-gods go’: but
the half-gods sometimes go first, and leave an empty room. The
candles are out, and the sun has not yet risen.

Aa2

Republic
Vii.
537

E

Republic
Vid.
538
E

539
A

356 Plato: Republic.

jKovey| ‘he used to hear,’ viz. in the days before doubt came
to him. For the imperfect cp. supra 515 D éapa bis.

pi ebpioxn| te... py are substituted for a second pire for the
sake of emphasis or variety.

tév ko\akedovta| ‘the life that is flattering him:’ i.e. the life of

pleasure which has been described, supra 538 p.

Sdfeu yeyovévat| ‘He will have become.’ The expression is
idiomatic, and the force of Soxeiv is not to be pressed. «Cp. iii.
403 B and note.

76 wd8os| ‘their condition,’ that which happens to them. Cp. 16

wA00s T&v emetkeatatav Vi. 488 A.
8 dpti €Xeyov| supra 537 E ov gvyytyvooxets, .7.A.

dmtéov] sc. avrovs, i.e. edAaBoupevm cor bei adtods dmrecOa rav
Adyorv. ‘You must exercise every sort of care about the manner in
which they are to apply themselves to dialectic.’

pia... ouxvy| ‘Is not this one great precaution—that they
should not taste dialectic when young?’

adtav | SC. Tov Adyor.

Xalpovtes... ToUs mAnotov dei] For the manner in which
a young gentleman who has these propensities may inflict himself
not only on his neighbours, but on the domestic circle, see the
ludicrous description in the Philebus, 15 p, and cp. Apol. 23 c
airépato. xaipovow dkovovres e€eratopévav tav avOpamer, Kal avtoi

a >. a
Todas ewe pupovvrat, eira émtxetpodow GAdovs eLeracery,

€\xew te kal omapdtrev| an amusing parallel to the language
occurs in Boswell’s life of Johnson: ‘I found him extremely proud
of his conversational prowess. ‘“‘ Sir, we had good talk last night.”
“ Yes, Sir, you tossed and gored several people.” ’

76 ddov didogopias mép.| ‘the cause of philosophy altogether.’

5 8€ 8) mpeoButepos| It may be truly said that moderation is
the lesson which is latest learnt in speculative philosophy. The
intensity and isolation of mind which is necessary for the invention
of a metaphysical system, depending on the force with which
a single idea is seized rather than on the power of filling up details
or of using the system in relation to what is beyond and outside of

Notes: Book VII. > OY,

it; and also the susceptibility in the disciple which is required for Republic
the reception of such a system,—are unfavourable to counsels of Sep
moderation. Such moderation, which may be only the ‘via media’ 529
of expediency borrowing the language of philosophy, may also rest

on a just appreciation of the many aspects and hindrances of

human knowledge. The thought here is very similar to that put

into the mouth of Protagoras in Theaet. 167 & érav tis wi) xwpis pev

os dyon{spuevos tas diarpiBas moujrat, xwpis dé diareydpevos, Kai ev pev TO

maifn te Kai oadrdAn Kad? boov dv divnra, év b€ tH diaréyerOar orov-

datn.
Ta mpoeipnpéva| vi. 485, 490 ff., 503, resumed supra 535. D

toutou én eddaPeia| (1) i.e. emi rg ediAaBeioda roiro. This seems
better than (2) taking todrou with mpoecpnpéva (as in vi. 504 A TO
mpoppnOev airay) because there is nothing sufficiently definite between
Pp: 535 and 539 for rourou to refer to.

kal pi ds viv, «.7..] As often in comparisons, the illustration
takes the place of the thing illustrated, hence the construction
changes from épyeoOa to épxerat. Cp. x. 610 D.

The first course of dialectic, beginning at thirty, is to last five 5§39D-
years. And at thirty-five, the trained dialectician is to come doun to 54°
practical life and for fifteen years to exercise command in war, and
other subordinate offices of state. At fifty, if deemed worthy of
promotion, he ts to renew the study of dialectic, and at last proceed
to the contemplation of the Form of Good. Having seen the Good,
he ts to take his turn at intervals in the labour of government,
legislation and education, still spending the greater part of his time
in contemplation, until he pass to the islands of the blest.

Gpxet 8, x.t.A.| dvtiotpédws . .. yupvacios is explanatory of 539

pydéev GdAo mpdtrovt, and éry SimAdova # Tére refers to 537 B. Ss
iva pnd éprerpia botepdor| Cp. vi. 484 v. E

el éupevodow ... (540 A) {Te Kal mapaxivyjcouow| Great intellect

often exists without will, and is drawn hither and thither by the
influence of circumstarices ; and sometimes may be apparently even
increased by yielding to their influence. The power of mind which

cs is shown at a particular moment is not always consistent with the
self-command or patience which is necessary for continuous action.
The bravery of the orator’s words (e.g. Demosthenes’) is no test of
his ability as a commander, nor the speculative politics of the

>
}
=

Republic
VI.

539
E

540C-
541-B

540

a ee

358 Plato: Republic.

philosopher (e.g. Bentham’s) any evidence of capacity as a states-
man. There is a narrower as well as a wider circle, of action as
well as thought, which may be compared to the den, and which
must not be confounded with the world of ideas, nor yet wholly cut
off from them: ‘into this the philosopher has to descend and
apprentice himself to practical affairs. He who, is the ‘ spectator
of all time and of all existence’ has to reconcile immutable
principles with the jealousies, fears, passions, prejudices of the
hour: in his own character he must unite the utmost readiness and
power of adaptation with the greatest inflexibility.

H Tt Kal mapaxwyoouow| ‘or whether they will give way at all,’
mapaxweiv is here used intransitively: cp. the similar use of tzoxiveiv
and other compounds of «ivéo.

dvaxdivavtas ... wapéxov| ‘directing the light of the soul
upward to look at that which gives light to all. The eye in the
act of vision is here, as in Tim. 45, conceived of as emitting light.

c

tuvavaipq| ‘give her consent;’ cp. v. 461 E éav 6 KAqpos tavry
Evprintyn Kai 7 Tv6ia eporermet The MSS. vary between éuvaipy

and guvavarpy. Par. A gives tee ee perhaps by a later hand.
But the use of €vva:ph in the sense of ‘consenting’ is improbable.

dotep avSpravtoods| Cp. ii. 361 D as eppwpevas éxdrepov, dovep

> , > ‘ ’ > Lf - > .
avdpidyta, eis thy Kpicw éxxabaipers tov avdpoiv,

Such women as are found capable, are to take office with the men.
But these things will not come to pass until the philosopher-king, or
kings, arrive upon the scene, and have removed all the inhabitants
who are more than ten years old. He or they will then set to work
to educate the remainder in the manner which we have described.
Here ends the account of the perfect state. And the perfect individual
ts like unto it.

ds SundOopev] v. 451 fi.
edxas eipnkévar| Vv. 450D dxvos tis abtay dnreoOar, pi) €bx} Soxi

eivat 6 Adyos: ib. 456, vi. 499 C.

dvaykatétatov| i.e. they will hold justice to be the highest
necessity. In other words they will not allow any so-called
political necessity (‘the tyrant’s plea’) to stand in the way of what
they know to be right. _ Cp. vi. 493 c.

Notes: Book VITT. 359

Siackeuwpyowvrar| ‘when they shall have set to rights their own
city. The construction is continued from éray, «.7.\., supra.

Soot pév dv, «.7.4.| The philosopher-statesmen will save a genera-
tion by sending the grown-up inhabitants into the country and
taking possession of their children to educate them in the new
plan. With éxméppwouw . . . Opépwvrar érav must be again supplied.
The poet Gray was led by a curious misapprehension to suspect
Sexerav. ‘This is undoubtedly a false reading,’ he says, ‘for
€Enxovraerav Or €Bdopunxovraeray, so that till some MSS. inform us
better, we must remain in the dark as to the age when Plato would
permit his statesmen to retire wholly from the world.’ This is
extravagant enough, but Plato has hardly considered how the
provision, which he here abruptly introduces, is to be reconciled
with what precedes. For how are the children to be taught music
and gymnastic when all their elders have been sent away? From
what other state, réppw mov éxrds dvre ris nuerépas emdyrews (Vi. 499 C),
are the new teachers to be brought?

edSaipovncew ... dvicew] The dependent construction is con-
tinued from fvyyepeire . . . elpnxévae supra 540 Dp. ‘The similarity of
sound in edSatpovyvew dvqcew is probably intentional as in [laveaviou
d€ mavoauévov (Symp. 185 Cc).

BOOK VIII.

Having determined the great questions of state communism and
of the philosopher-king, we return to the point from which we
digressed (vi. 499 A) and proceed to describe the four principal false
Jorms of political society. These are (1) the Cretan or Laconian
(riwapxia), (2) oligarchy (a condition fraught with evils), (3)
democracy, the reaction from this, and (4) the consummation of

political evil, which is tyranny. Parallel to these are the corre-

sponding perversions of individual character. The tyrant represents
the ideal of evil, as the just man ie 541 B) embodies the ideal
of good.

TH peANOUoH Gxpus oixeiv wéher] ‘in the state which is to be
perfectly administered’—opposed to the imperfect states which
follow: oixetv, as elsewhere, is used intransitively : cp. iv. 421 A kai
ad rod ed olketv Kal eddamoveiy pdvor Tov Kaipdv Exovow.

Republic
Vi.

540
E

Republic
VII.
543 A-
545 C

Republic
VIII.
543
A

B

360 Plato: Republic.

kal wacav . .. eipyvy| The community referred to in these
latter words includes the education and employment of women
on the same lines with the men. The lowest class is here left out
of sight.

olas mpoetropnev| iii, 415 E orpatiwtixds ye, ddd’ od xpnua-
TLoTIkds, K.T.A.

&dAA pvynpovedw| ‘certainly I have not forgotten’ (referring to
ei pynpovevers), ‘that at all events we thought none of them ought
to possess anything which other people possess.’

dv viv of Go] iv. 419 olny ddXou, K.7A.
GOAnTds te toh€uou Kal pudakas] iii. 404 A KopWorepas . . .

daxnoews Sei Tots rodeptxois GPAnTats. In several other passages
he harps upon the same figure of speech, iv. 422, vii. 521 D.

Thy eis tadta tpopyy| SC. cis TO orpari@ras Kal pidakas evar,

dvapynoOGpev . . . Wwpev] ‘let us recall the point at which we
digressed, that we may return into the same pathway.’ The
accusative is cognate, sc. 6ddv.

od xahendy, x.7.A.] The words from kat tadra refer to v. 449 A

, lol
"Ayabny pev toivuy thy TovavtTny médw Te Kal TodwTeiav Kat dpOnv KadO, Kai

aySpa rév towdrov, Socrates, having completed the first sketch of
the state and of education at the end of Book iv, in order to supply
an omission of which he is supposed to be guilty in the first part
of Book v, begins the higher conception of both (xadAlw ért, «.7.A.),
which is given by the addition of the philosopher-king at the end of
Book v. The true idea of the philosopher-statesman is then
separated from the false, and a second or higher education Ben
for him in books vi, vii.

Socrates now passes from the ideal commonwealth to various
defective polities, which have a clear affinity to the ordinary Greek
states: he afterwards returns to another ideal, not of this world,
including a vision of a future life, which is faintly sketched in
Book x.

The following lines of Wordsworth’s Prelude describe a similar
descent from the ideal to the actual :—

Ere long, the lonely mountains left, I moved,
Begirt from day to day with temporal shapes
Of vice and folly thrust upon my view,
Objects of sport, and ridicule and scorn,

Notes: Book VIII. 361

Manners and characters discriminate,

And little bustling passions that eclipse,

As well they might, the impersonated thought,
The idea or abstraction of the kind.

4dX’ odv 84] adda supplies the opposition to pév (dyabhv pev thy
tovadtyy): odv 84 marks the emphatic resumption of the train of
thought preceding the digression kai taéra, x... : ‘but, however
this may be, you said.’

év kal wépt, x.7.A.] iv. 445 C.
, al ,
adtous| sc. rods rais mévre modureiats dpotous dvdpas.

kat é400 épowévou, «.7.4.] For the absolute use of bmédaBe cp.
Meno 74 ce... pera ratra bwédaBev 6 epwrav. A summary of the
previous discussion is ingeniously grafted upon the dialogue.
Compare for a similar recapitulation the opening of the Timaeus.

domep wahatotys, thy adrhvy AaBhy wdpexe] ‘like a wrestler, let
me have the same grip of you,’ i.e. let me resume my position.
For this favourite metaphor cp. Phil. 13 £ ray’ avidvres eis ras dpoias
(sc. AaBas) tows av mos adAAnos ovyxeopnoupev: Phaedr. 236 B,
Laws iii. 682 E.

od xadet@s . . . Aakwvixh ait} ‘there will be no difficulty in
answering your question: the forms of government of which
I speak are those which also have distinct names, that which meets
with general approbation, the well-known Cretan and Spartan
constitution :’ cp. infra D #ris Kat ev cider Stapavet rwi xeirac; For
the connexion of the Cretan and Lacedemonian forms of. govern-
ment see especially Arist. Pol. ii. ro.

émd tOv woAhGv| ‘by most people.’

H... Aakwnkh airy) i.e. the Spartan constitution with which
we are so familiar. Cp. iii. 403 E 9 TOVdE THY doKyTar Ekis.

kal Seurépa, x.7.4.] i) dAcyapxéa would naturally have followed
érra.voupévy, but the participle kadoupévy is added, and the expression
is then accommodated to the participial phrase.

In the words ouxvav yénouca kax@v wodtteia there is a trace of
the same personal bitterness which makes the picture of oligarchy,
infra 552, so full of scathing satire.

tatty Siddopos| ‘at variance with this last’'—being familiarly

Republic
VI,

543
C

362 Plato: Republic.

Republic known as the watchword of the opposite faction—not merely
VII. « different from this,’ which would be ratrns dudopos.-

544 kat yevvata i tupavvis, «.t.A.] yevvata is ironical as in v. 453 E
h yervaia .. . 7 Svvapus ris dvrioyuxns Téxrys.

The reading dsapevyouoa for S.apéepouea is found in Par. A and
all the best MSS. (d:apépovea Ven. %, Flor. x, Ang. v, Vind. E).
Such a degree of unanimity in a singular reading might possibly
justify a forced interpretation: ‘and escaping’ (or ‘ surviving’) ‘all
these comes tyranny, the fourth and last disorder of a state.’
This interpretation, however, clearly passes the limits of usage in
language and is almost unmeaning, even though we take into
account Plato’s tendency to resolve words compounded with
prepositions, and give them new senses (e. g. mpooéyew vii. 521 D).
It may be further remarked that dapedyer always governs the
accusative.

The reading Ssapevyouoa may-have arisen from the desire in
a copyist to avoid the tautology of diddopos which immediately
precedes and may have been thought to derive some confirmation
from ix. 587 C guyav voor te kai Adyov. It affords one of the few
instances in the text of Plato, in which the requirements of the
sense must prevail against the greater authority of the MSS.

D Hts kal. . . ketrat| Cp. supra a év kat mépi, «.7.A., and note.

Suvacteiat . . . eioiv] ‘for the family governments and
sovereignties which are bought and sold and other constitutions
like these are a sort of intermediates.’ This sentence makes it
clear that although Plato is idealizing he has an eye to historical
facts. Aristotle does not mention the évyrat Bacthetat.

# ove, x.7.A.| An allusion to Od. xix. 163 od yap awd BSpuds eoor
marauparov ovd ard TETPNS.

The same allusion occurs in Apol. 34 D eyol, & dpore, ciol pev
mov TwWes Kal OikEiol’ Kal yap TOUTO avTO TO Tod ‘Opunpov, odd eyd &wd Spuds
ovd’ dd wétpys mépuxa. For the relation of the state to the individual
cp. especially iv. 435 © Ta abra év éxdor@ eveotw jpav €idn Te Kal 7On

dep ev tT moder; ov yap mov GAdober exeioe adpixrat.

E ai trav i&wrav KatacKxevai] ‘the formations of the individual
character.’

545 Kata Thy... modureiav| ‘whose characters answer or correspond
to’ (lit. ‘are ranked with’) ‘ the Spartan constitution.’

Notes: Book VIII. 363

kal tov tupayvixdy] The article is omitted with édvyapxixdy and
Sypoxparexéy so as to reserve the emphasis for ‘the tyrannical man.’

tva . . . } oxéjus q] These words contain a reference to
Books i and ii.

mpopawopéevy| ‘which is coming into view.’ Cp. Charm. 173 a
dpws 7d ye Tpopatvdpevov dvayKaiov oKoreiv Kai pr) elk maprevat.

donep hpgdpeba, x.7.d.| ii, 368 E mpdroy ev rais médeor Cyrnow@per,
x.r.A. The allusion here, as in other places, to what has preceded,
is part of what may be called the composition of the work. The
drawing together of the various threads is the beginning of
the end.

kat viv orw . . . KAnréov| (1) ‘ first we have to consider the
“ ambitious ” constitution: I say “ ambitious,” because there is no
other name of it in common use. Or shall we call it timocracy or
timarchy ?’ or (2) ‘ first we have to consider the “ambitious ” con-
stitution: I say “ ambitious,” because there is no other name in
use. We must call it ez/her timocracy or timarchy.’ According
to the last way of taking the words, which appears to be the best,
the clause % Tipoxpatiav, «.7.A., is an asyndeton. Dr. W. H.
Thompson ingeniously suggested Aeyduevor, GAN’ 4, x.7.d.

The word “#mocracy, which in Plato and Xenophon means
a government of which honour is the ruling principle, is used by
Aristotle in the sense of amd tyznudtoy modureia (Eth. N. viii. 10,

‘Pol: iv. 14; cp. Isocr. Antid. 259 £): a government based -on

a property qualification, which existed in Athens even before the
twme of the Solonian constitution, as in Corinth after the fall of
the Cypselidae. In Plato the constitution amd tiynuarer is the
characteristic of oligarchy: infra 550 c.

The succession of states has but a slender resemblance to the
actual fact : and the succession of individuals is still more shadowy ;
for in the first place, admitting the Spartan and Cretan type as
a fair representative of timocracy, which is the first declension from
the perfect form, there is no example of this or any similar state
passing into an oligarchy of wealth, while the common form of
oligarchy, resting on distinctions of birth, is unnoticed in the
Republic. Again, the transition from democracy to tyranny is not
the order of history, except perhaps in the single instance of
Dionysius the elder and the Sicilian despots (the thirty tyrants are
imposed by a foreign power, and are not the natural outgrowth of

Republic
Vill.

545
A

B

Republic
Vill.

545
Bb

545 C-
547 C

364 Plato: Republi.

the Athenian democracy, which had an end of another kind):
tyranny, instead of being the end of democracy, is rather to be
regarded as a stage in early Greek history which preceded
democracy, and in which the vigour and ability of individuals
asserted themselves with the help of the Demos against the rule
of a class (the saying ék mpooratixijs pitns pvera is thus far justified);
or in later times as a phase of violence which is to be attributed
not to an excess of democracy (this was the last bulwark against
such a state), but to the general disorder and unsettlement of
Greece. In the case of Euphron of Sicyon, democracy preceded
tyranny, but was itself brought on by the influence of Euphron (cp.
Arist. Pol. v. 12, § 7, who makes similar criticisms).

None of the descriptions of Plato are to be verified by history :
the pictures of the oligarch, democrat, tyrant, are all caricatures. The
latter is such a portrait as the Greeks in later times loved to draw
of Phalaris or Dionysius the elder, being a great exaggeration
of the truth, in which quite as much as in the lives of medieval
saints or mythic heroes, the conduct and actions of one were
attributed to another in order to fill up the outline. There was
nothing that the Greek was not willing to believe of them (Clearchus
apud Athenaeum ix. 396). The tyrant was the negation of
government and law, whose assassination was glorious, for he ruled
only for the good of himself and not of his subjects. The ideal
image of Plato was therefore not far removed from the vulgar
thought of the ordinary Greek.

In the succession of individuals Plato is also following an order
of ideas, and not an order of facts. Here and there a trait may be
found of Alcibiades or Themistocles or perhaps of Critias. But
the transition of one type of character to another is wholly
imaginary. The error of identifying the individual and the state
is seen most strikingly in the further assumption that the succession
of states implies a corresponding succession of individuals.

mpds S€ tadtyy| ‘In comparison with this.’

All change in states begins with a factious spirit arising within
the governing class. But how should faction enter in amongst our
philosophic rulers? It can only spring from some degeneracy, which
must inevitably come sooner or later from some flaw in their
arithmetic—since being human, they are not infallible—leading them
to diverge, however slightly, from the true number which presides over

Notes: Book VIII. 365

human generation. Some inauspicious births, consequent on such an
error will gradually deteriorate the breed, until men come to power,
who know not the muse, and neglect the liberal element in education.
And those so educated, when they succeed in turn, will fail to
eliminate aright the iron and brass from the pure silver and gold,
whence disproportion following will lead to contention ; the brass and
iron pulling one way, towards acquisition, the gold and silver
towards wisdom and virtue ; until a compromise is reached, whereby
private property is established, the industrial class depressed, and the
guardians become an army.of occupation.

émdoév| ‘True without distinction’ of all governments.

Srav.. . éyyévntar] ‘ When division arises within the governing
power itself.’ Cp. Laws iii. 683 £ BaowAela S€ karadverat ... f Kai Tes

apxi) mamore Kate\vOn pov ind tier Grr }} oar aitar ;

Kay mdvu ddiyov 4] Cp. iv. 423 a éws dv } mddus oor oxy cwppdvas
ds dipts éraxOn, peyiotn fora... Kai cay pdvoy 7 Xiwv Trav mporode-

pourra.

4 Botha... (£) A€yeww;] ‘Shall we after the manner of Homer
pray to the Muses to tell us how faction first was fired? Shall we
imagine them in tragic vein talking in mock earnest and lofty style,
playing and jesting with us as with children.’

Stws 8} mpdtov otdots éymece| An allusion to Iliad xvi. 112
€onere ... pot, Moioa .. . Smmws 8} mparov mip Eutece vyvolv ’Axadr,

yevonévy travtt p80pdé gor] Plato says here that all created
things are liable to dissolution. In the Timaeus the same thought
is expressed, but with a difference. They exist only under the
form of time: and when time comes to an end, they will no longer
exist.

Stay . . . cuvdmtwor| ‘When their revolutions severally join
their circumferences:’ i.e. come round to the point where they
began.

yévous 8é Sperépov] i.e. the human race, opposed by the
Muses to their own or the divine.

hoyropG per aic@jcews] Cp. Phaed. 65 E pire rua AdAqv aloOnow
eperkav pndepiay pera ToD Aoyopod. To Plato philosophy is abstract:
when alloyed with sense, as in all human endeavours, it is doomed

Republic
VII.

545 C-
547 C

545
D

546
A

366 Plato: Republic.

— to error and failure. Cp. Polit. 269 c,p and Tim. 28 a rb 8 ad

86&y per aicOnoews, K.7.d.
546 The change now to be contemplated is the greatest possible—
from the perfect to the imperfect ; and the causes of the transition
are occult. It is precisely at such a critical moment that the reader
of Plato may expect the occurrence of a myth—in which, while the
style is adorned, verisimilitude is made to compensate for the
absence of exact knowledge (ii. 382 p). And as the irruption of
evil is supposed to spring from an error in the calculation of times
and seasons, the myth is a mathematical one.

The danger of over-population is not here in question, as in
iv. 423 B, Vv. 460A; deterioration comes in with an alteration in the
quality of the breed.

The list of interpreters who have tried to solve this famous
riddle, which even in Cicero’s time had become proverbial, is a very
long one. Even of those who have contributed important hints,
from Faber and Barocci in the fifteenth century to Gow and Adam
in the nineteenth, it must suffice to name here, besides those just
mentioned, K. F. Hermann, Schneider, Weber and Monro.

Tke last named critic, after a very full and clear discussion of the
chief interpretations (Journal of Philology) appears to think, not
that the key has been lost, but that there never was any one key,
the passage being really nothing else than a series of tentative
guesses disguised in intentionally vague language. Professor
Jowett, on the other hand, believed that Plato meant something
which contemporary Greeks would understand, but he thought
that the exact meaning was irrecoverable, and probably also
unimportant. He was by no means confident of the soundness of
the explanation which he finally adopted, and it need not be
repeated here. See Translation of Dialogues, ed. II. vol. iii.
pp. CXXX-CXXXvV.

' Mathematical definition in Plato’s time was tentative and uncertain,
and the significance of terms consequently unfixed. He himself
uses dvvayus in different senses, and it is by no means clear that his
use Of rapareivew is consistent with the terminology of the geo-
metrical writers. (See note on vii. 527.) All that will be
attempted here will be first to give approximately the most probable
force of each expression, and then with great diffidence, chiefly by
way of illustration, to put forth one amongst many partial solutions.

One or two general remarks may be prefixed. (1) That the
answer to the riddle is probably much simpler than the tragic

ERA cn LSet

Notes: Book VIII. 367

language of the Muses has led some commentators to expect. This
may be inferred from the words év @ mpéty, as well as from the
language of the opening sentence, in which it is indicated that the
elaborate terminology is not to be taken too seriously. This has
to be considered in the interpretation of such words as 8uvacreud-
pevar, adgdvrwv, O.wdvrwv, &c. (2) That as Plato intends to puzzle
his reader, it is quite possible that even if the mathematical methods
of his time were clearly known to us, their employment in the
solution of this riddle might be misapplied. (3) That the whole
tenour of the passage would lead one to expect the introduction of
some arbitrary assumption at some point or cther. The difficulty
turns on minimizing this, and finding where it comes in. Whether,
for example, in the phrase tpis ad&mets or in éxatdv tooauTdKis?

hoytopa pet aicOycews| ‘Through reasoning accompanied
with sensation.’ Notwithstanding their high training, they cannot
absolutely attain to pure reason. ‘The tincture of sense makes it
impossible wholly to eliminate error.

Oeiw . . . yerynt@] For example the World of the Timaeus.

tepioses| This is explained by the words 6rav... cuvdmtwor :
‘the time in which it comes round,’

Gprbuds . . . téXeros] The ‘ perfect number’ which comprises the
period in which a divine birth (i. e. the right moment for it) comes
round, may or may not correspond to the definition ‘a number
equal to the sum of its divisions.’ But Plato is probably thinking
of some higher and more complex expression than any of the
simpler terms of which this is true (6, 28, 496). This is implied
in the expression BpaxuBiots pev Bpaxutdpous, évavtiots Sé évavrias :
cp. Tim. 39 E£.

év & mpdtw| ‘In which first,’ i.e. in the series of numbers ;—
the simplest that is resolvable into elements of which the following
statement is true.

adgjoes ... dmépnvav| Almost every word in this sentence has
been disputed. It seems pretty clear that a series of four terms is
meant,—having of course three intervals between them, That
which has met with most favour is the continuous proportion 27 :
36: 48: 64, or the converse of this. The difficulty is to make
this harmonize with the remaining expressions.

adgjees| Is it necessary that this should mean anything more
than ‘increments’? Some would restrict the word to powers (adéy

Republic
Pit.
346

Republic
VII.

546
B

368 Plato: Republi.

Sevrépa, tpirn, &c.): others to multiples generally. Granting this
last, may it not extend to multiples of unity ?

Suvdpevatl te kal Suvacreuduevar| ‘The latter word does not occur
elsewhere, and the explanations of it given by Greek arithmeticians
are inconsistent. If 9 duvayévn (edOeia) is the side of a square, may
not 7d dvvacrevduevov (passive, sc. éwimedov) be the square itself?
Thus if 3 is 7 duvayevn, g would be 1d duvacrevdpevov, The series
will then consist of root-numbers and their squares.

dpoiodvtwy te kal dvopovodvtwy| ‘Consisting of numbers that
make similar and dissimilar figures:’ i.e. numbers odd and even.
For the genitive with Gpous cp. iv. 443 D dpous rpeis dppovias .. .
vedtns Te kal bndtns Kat peons—also the expression in what follows,
infra c ékatév pév dprOpayv, k.t.A. This designation of the odd and
even numbers turns upon a theorem to which Aristotle alludes in
Phys. iii. 4 and which is in fact the geometrical expression for the
formula (a+6)? = a?+2 ab4+8. .
Thus CG=a+4, and CF =CG’=(a+). CE is the square
ona. Then DE, EG, are each severally equal to ad,and LF=2?.
Hence the square CF'=(a+6)/=a’+2 ab+l. Take now the
D F case in which J=1. Then CF =(a+1)=
H a@+2a+1. Now2a+1=the gnomon DFG,
and is clearly an odd number, which varies
from 3 upwards according to the value of a,
so that any such number equals 2 @+1.
Cc ¢ 68Gb Hence every odd number has the peculiar
property that when added to the square of half-itself-minus-one
(i.e. to a’), it produces a square number :—

E

I+3=4
4+5=9
9+7 =16

16+9 + 25, and so forth.
The odd numbers are in this way époudvres, ‘producing similar
figures,’ viz. squares ; the even numbers (each = 2 a) are évopovodrtes,
because when added to the same squares they produce oblongs,
not squares, every such oblong being dissimilar from every othre :
a’+2a=CE4+DE+£G = CH.

I+2=>3
4+4=8
9+ 6=15
16+ 8 = 24 &c. :

=

Notes: Book VIII. 369

Otherwise the words have been explained more generally, épovotvres
= ‘expressing similar figures,’ e. g. 9 and 81 ; dvopovodrres, ‘ express-
ing dissimilar figures’: e.g. 3 and 9 or 27 and 81.

kat adgdvrwv kal Oi.vdvrwy| Either adgew here must be intransitive
or $0ivw transitive, and there is no authority for either in classical
Greek. As at€w is frequently intransitive in common Greek, such
a meaning may possibly be admitted here. The terms are borrowed
from the Pythagoreans, who may not have observed Attic purity.
And in speaking of the numbers, to which so much of active force
is attributed, the difference may have been hardly felt. Schneider
tried to identify this distinction with that between tmepredeis apiOpoi
(‘numbers exceeded by their factors’) and évdeeis (‘exceeding them’):
but there is no reason why it should not be understood more
simply of a series of numbers alternately increasing and
diminishing.

mdvra. . . dwépnvay| I.e. the process is completed without
having recourse to any irrational quantity, such as ‘ the diameter of
the square of five.’ This is implied in pytdé: mpoojyopa conveys
something more, viz. a common measure: in this case unity.
I.e. no use is made of fractions.

At this point we pause to consider ‘the number of the human
period’ which has been now described. The solution which has
found most favour is 216, a number which has more, integral
factors than any previous number. It is the cube of 6 and may be
divided into 27, 64, 125, the cubes of 3, 4, 5, which are the
sides of the Pythagorean triangle. Anatolius, Theolog. Arithm.
p- 40, ed. Ast (quoted by Schneider), asserts that the successive
births of Pythagoras were said by Androcydes, Eubulides,
Aristoxenus and others to have taken place at intervals of 216
years. But the very complexity of the number, which is its chief
recommendation, also makes it difficult to say which of the many
ways of forming it was selected by Plato’s fancy. He is not
satisfied with describing it simply as 6°. In the Timaeus (35 B ff.)
the soul of the world is formed by the interweaving of two numerical
series starting severally from 2 and 3. Can it be that the four
terms here intended are simply the combination of 2, 2? with 3, 37?
Taking these in the order 2, 4, 3, 9, they are both odd and even,
they increase and diminish, for 2<4>3<9; and when multiplied
together they make 216.

VOL. III. Bb

Republic
VIL.

546
B

Republic
Vill,

546
C

* ee
:

370 Plato: Republic.

Gv énitpitos muOuyy, k.7.A.] The wonderful properties of the
mysterious number are not yet exhausted. By skilful manipulation
there can be developed out of it a complex geometrical expression
which, taken in connexion with the number itself, contains the
secret of prosperous generation. The terms of this expression are
clearly indicated in the sequel, but the method of obtaining it is, as
in the former case, extremely obscure.

dv énitpitos tmuOpyv| ‘The base whereof, in the proportion of
four to three.’ tu@uyv is the word used for the lowest term of
any series: thus 3 is the dase of the series 3: 9 : 27 : 81.
The phrase étitpttos muOpnv, taken alone, could only mean
the proportion of 4 to 3, as the lowest term of the series of
ratios 4:3, 8:6, 12:9, 16:12, &c. See Nicomachus Gerasenus,
Introd. Arithm. i. 19, who gives these examples of the ézirpcrov
eidos Tov émpopiov (Schneider). But then what becomes of év?

The expression as a whole seems to suggest some process of

which the wvOunv of the series in question is the foundation. Suppos-
ing the first term of the series to be 2, as proposed in the pre-
ceding note, and still following the analogy of the passage in the
Timaeus, may not the words be understood to mean, ‘the base
of the series,—viz. 2,—being (1) quadrupled, and (2) tripled’
—so obtaining the two numbers 8 and 6, for the operation which
follows?

mepmdd. outuyeis| ‘In conjunction with the pentad,’ i.e. the
number 5 is also to be employed in the operation. The meaning
of ovgevyyume is quite general; for example, in the passage of
Nicomachus just referred to, of amd rerpados cuvexeis tetpamAdovot,
ouveLevypévor rois dd tpiddos tpimaciots, dporayeis Gporayéow, it Means
simply that the numbers are to be arranged in pairs. So far then
the manner in which 5 enters into the combination is left vague.
It is rendered more precise, however, by the addition of tpis adgn eis,
which is paraphrased by Aristotle, Pol. v. 12, § 8, in the words érav 6
rod diaypdpparos apiOpds rovrov yévnra orepeds. But when we ask what
is meant by 6 dprOpds tod Siaypdpparos todrou, the only answer is
6 tav (xpdcbev cipnnéevwr) enitpitos Tubphy weprdd. oubvyels. I. e.
if we are right so far, some combination of the numbers 8 and 6
with the number 5.

Suppose, for the sake of argument, that eiisind multiplied 8 and
6 severally by 5, producing 40 and 30, we multiply each of these

Notes: Book VI/1/. 371

products, first by 1o (=2x5) and then by 25 (=5%). The
result is

40 X IO X 25 = 10,000,

30 X 10 X 25 = 7500.

Each of these, as the product of three factors, is a ‘ solid’ number.
And if they are to be added together (but this is uncertain) 17500
is also orepeds (25 X 25 X 28).

By this, or some other process, the number produces ‘two
harmonies,’ 8do dppovias mapéxerat.

By dppovia here is meant a solid number, resolvable into
factors which have a certain recognized relation to each other,
€. g. 10,000 = 10 X 25 x 40, reducible to the simple arithmetical
progression, 2, 5, 8; and 7500= 15 x 20 x 25, reducible to
3, 4, 5, the sides of the Pythagorean triangle.

tony iodkis, éxatdv tooautdkis| ‘A square consisting of 100
multiplied into itself,’ i.e. 10,000 = 100%. This explanation agrees
best with the idiomatic use of rocotros.

icouynKn pev TH] ‘ Equal to the former in one dimension,’ i.e.
having a side = 100.

mpopyky S€] But oblong. Viz. 100 x 75 = 7500.

[ Otherwise, supposing the plural év supra to refer to the number
216 as including its factors—and so accounting for the plural—and
taking tuOpyv = 6, as the first term of the series 6, 36, 216, the
émitpitos or 4 of this is 8. Multiply this as before by 5, 10, and 25
the result is 10,000 which divides into the two harmonies 2500
and 7500. The former may be described as éxatdév tooautdxis,
“100 taken so many times.’ |

éxatov péev . . . tpid8os] ‘Consisting of a hundred numbers
formed (i.e. squared) upon rational diameters of the number 5,
each wanting one (or if irrational then wanting two), and a hundred
cubes of the number three.’ In other words {(7?7 = 49)—1}=
48 X 100 = 4800; or {(7.0204)* = 50) — 2} = 48 x 100= 4800.

[The words éxatdv pév dpiOpav . . . tpuddos have generally been
taken to be a more explicit account of the second harmony, as
in the rendering just given. lI.e. it is an oblong measuring 100
one way, and composed oftwo quantities, which are thus described.
The sentence, so explained, has a natural rhythm. Mr. Gow on
the other hand supposes this to be a repetition of the two previous

Bb2

Republic
VII.

546
c

Republic
VII,

546
C

= a. Pe aa fy

372 Plato: Republic.

clauses in the reverse order: 2700 being the regular sol/¢d figure
of which one side is 100: and the oblong being 1oo times the
square of the diameter of 5 minus 2. Mr. Adam follows up this
suggestion by multiplying these two quantities together

(4800 x 2700 = 12,960,000 = 60‘). |

The Stdpetpos pyth mepmddos is the diameter of the square of 5
(= 50) neglecting the fraction: i.e. since /50 = 7.0204, and
this is the Stdpetpos dppyrtos, the Sidpetpos fyty is 7.

Eupras 8€ obtos dpiWuds yewperpikds, TorovTou KUptos, dpervdver TE
kal xeipsvwv yevésewy| What is to be done with the two harmonies
when obtained? Plato leaves this quite uncertain: and it does not
appear as if he intended anything further. The fUpmas dpiOpds
yewpetptkds is the number 216 with all that is involved in it, viz.
the production of the two ‘harmonies’ in the way above described.
The knowledge of all this on the part of the rulers is essential to
the preservation of the breed in its perfection.

ee of ~& This diagram has been drawn upon the

je ae margin of Par. A by an early hand. _ It

; seems to represent the Pythagorean triangle

- oe es tpis adgnOeis, i.e. simply raised to terms of

. 3 and 9. The émitpitos muOphv mepmade

ee ovfuyeis is understood to mean simply a com-

bination of 3, 4,5. But how the scholiast found in this a solution

of the whole problem is not apparent. For the numbers 3, 4, 5;
9, 12, 15; 27, 36, 45, are as enigmatical as ever.

As to the symbolic significance of the number or numbers the
Muses make no sign, and it is vain to cross-examine them. The
following observations contain the more important amongst many
suggestions which have been made.

(1) The word wepioSos is vague, and may cover anything from
the minimum time of gestation (216 days—Adam) to such a cycle
as that described in the Politicus, or the ‘great year’ of Tim.
39 8. (2) The number 5 was sometimes regarded as the type of
justice, sometimes of marriage (= 3+2, the first male combined
with the first female number): (3) duality enters into human
generation as into all material things. (4) The proportion of 40
to 30 may be regarded as suitable for the marriageable ages of
men and women (Gow). (5) The successive births of Pythagoras

Notes: Book VITT. 373

are said to have taken place at intervals of 216 years (Schneider).
(6) A grand cycle for the state might be rounded off with a
century of human lives ranging between 100 and 75 years each
(=EEeS 8750). (7) The two harmonies have been supposed
by some to signify mental and bodily excellence, by others virtue
in the State and the individual, by others again perfection in man
and woman.

av xataotyoovra| ‘The men of the former age will appoint the
best of them /o be their successors. So the middle voice may be
rendered. The reading xaragrjaover, which has slight manuscript
authority, may, however, be the true one, as in the next sentence
kataoryovrat is used passively. Cp. note on iv. 442 A.

Spws Sé. . . duedeiv] ‘Nevertheless’ [although the best avail-
able] ‘when they in turn come into their fathers’ power, they will
in the first place begin to neglect us.’

oudaxes Svtes] ‘although guardians.’ This is an aggravation,
for music was to be the first care of the guardians: cp. iv. 424 c

7d 8) dudaxrnpiov . . . evradd tov olxodopnréoy trois pidakww, év povoty.
tap €\attov ... pouorkys| said in explanation of jpav dpedeiv.

Sedrepov S¢ Ta yupvacrixys| the ‘shadow’ of a difficulty is found
in these words. For the Spartan or Cretan constitution, which is
the first stage in Plato’s declining scale, was not negligent of
gymnastic: cp. infra 547 D yupvaorixjs .. . émpedcicba. Hence
the suspicion which gave rise to Madvig’s emendation 8etrepa re
yepvaotixns. Cp. infra 548 C mpeoBurépws ‘yupvactixny povorkis
reripnxeva, and for devrepa Xen. Hellen. vii. 1, § 35 ériparo Sevrepos
pera tov Tedonidav, But the sense of the reading in the text
although arrived at in a different way, is nearly the same. Socrates
means to say that in the first place they neglect music: and in the
second place, and therefore in a less degree, gymnastic. It is
further observable that the first declension in the state is not
from music to gymnastic, but from the philosophical to the military
government, which no doubt retained gymnastic, but did not care
for it in the spirit prescribed in Book iii. For the seeming want
of point cp. v. 451 A Gore ed pe mapapvéei, and infra 547 £ dmAovorépous.
Plato from a love of parallelism or for the sake of completeness,
often presents the other side of an antithesis, though not in point.
Cp. infra 559 c ap’ obv, . . dAcyapyexdr, and ii. 358 a ddixia 8 érauveirat.

Republic
Vil.

546
C

374 Plato: Republic.

Republic -wpds 7d BSoxipdtew .. .(E) yévm| ‘for the task of assaying the
VII, metal of your different races, which are the same as Hesiod’s’:
546 (Op. et D. 10g ff.). To keep the race pure was a main function

of the guardians. Socrates is alluding to the Phoenician tale at the
end of Book iii. pp. 415, 416.

547 ovdnpod dpyupw| sc. yevous yéve. This is the reading of Par. A.
A Other MSS. have odypou dpyip» (the metals). Cp. the similar
doubt as to the reading of iii. 415 c.

tautys Tou yeveds| Iliad vi. 211, xx. 241.

B ethkérny . . . Hyérnv| What has been described as a possibility
of the future is now assumed to be a ‘ fait accompli.’ Hence the
imperfect. tas puxds .. . HyéTny, in speaking of the gold and silver
race is substituted for the harsher ethxérny.

*7a 8 ab| The slight change from ré to 1d, suggested by
Schneider, is certainly an improvement, though, as he observes,
not absolutely necessary.

katTaveipapevous| SC. Tos wodiras. Madvig’s conjecture, xaraver-
papevor e&ididoacda, is extremely plausible, but the change to the
nominative Soukwodpevo. may be occasioned by the feeling that
this last is not merely an enactment but an act of the rulers.

c tods 8€.. . émpedetobar| The word pudaxy is used ironically in
the new sense of guarding against them instead of guarding them.
Cp. iii. 414 B pvAakas mavredeis trav Te eLwbev Todepiov Tay Te évrds
giriov, and for idous te kal tpopéas, v. 463 Bi 8 otro Tov dSipov
(mpocayopevovar) ; MicOoddras re kai tpodpéas.

Teptoikous te Kat oikéras] are distinguished as subjects and
household slaves, the former word conveying an obvious reference
to Sparta. .

547 C The timocratic state will resemble our ideal aristocracy in debarring
SD. 5 ruling and fighting class from other occupations in devotion to
military discipline and gymnastic, and in the practice of common
meals. Its characteristics will be a certain jealousy of philosophers,
a love of strategy, and a continual tendency to engage in war. On
the other hand tt will approach the oligarchic spirit in a fierce secret
longing after gold and silver, and the illegal habit of keeping large

private establishments.
Honour is the ruling passion, leading to ambitious quarrels which
are aggravated by the prevalence of extravagance among men whose

.

7 cae, ad

Notes: Book VITTI. 375

virlue has been compulsory and ts not inspired by rational conviction.
Such ts the general outline. ;

THs TOU Woddpou dywvias| ‘For military exercises’: cp. ii. 374 A
i) mept Tov mwédepov &ywvia,

TG 8€ ye poPeioPa, x.7.4.] The construction at the beginning
of the sentence is continued from T@ pév Tidy, «.7.A., but resumed
with ‘a change to the accusative in td woAAd Tdv ToLodTwy. .

Various attempts have been made to correct &wougrépous which
is the reading of the MSS. on the ground of inconsistency with
dmhois preceding. But (1) inconsistent tautology is not a strong
ground of objection to an expression in Plato: (2) the apparent
tautology is also an antithesis though feebly expressed; ‘the
state has no philosophers who are sincere and thorough-going, and
therefore falls back on the simpler nature of the soldier. (3) The
want of a word is often found in writing to lead to the inappropriate
repetition of a preceding word. For dmddrns meaning straight-
forwardness cp. Xen. Hellen. vi. 1, § 6 xdxeivos pévror éemawéoas TH
dmddétyTa THs méews ampdOe, said of Polydamas of Thessaly after his
conference with the authorities at Sparta.

émOupyntal 8€ ye, «.7.4.] The words ra d¢ riv ddcyapxiav (547 D)
are here taken up.

pépixrat ydp, x.t.A.] The description of Plato may be illustrated
by the real declension of the Spartan state. There were divisions
in Sparta between the partisans of the Ephors and Kings
(Ptdoverkiat). According to Aristotle, no other state was equally
corrupt (émOupntal xpnpdtev): her greatest citizens, Pausanias,
Astyochus, Lysander, were the reverse of simple and straight-
forward (odx dmhot Kal dteveis). The ‘wild’ love of money which
existed in the Spartan character is the more remarkable, because
unaccompanied by the enterprise which is necessary for the
acquisition of wealth. The cruelty to slaves is also touched
upon in the corresponding figure of the rioxparixds veavias
(infra 549 A).

odxodv . . . dmepydcac$a| It is observable that Plato implies
that his succession of commonwealths is only a rough outline of
a few of them, intended to show ‘in large letters ’ the true portraits
of the just and the unjust. Cp. supra 544 c, p and the similar
suggestion of intermediates in the division of the soul in iv. 443 E
kat ef GAA Grra perafd rvyyave: dvra, The attempt here declined by

Republic
Vi.

547
D

bk

Republic
VII.

548 E-
549 B

376 Plato: Republic.

Plato was made so far as the constitutions of states were concerned
by Aristotle or by his school in the Modereiat.

‘ The Timocratic individual, says Adeimantus, ‘ must be about as
guarrelsome as Glaucon. But he will be more obstinate and less
inclined to liberal pursuits : although he likes listening to a song or
speech. He is obedient to the rulers, but rough to slaves, while civil
to his equals, and above all things, he is ambitious of honour in
war, while athletics and hunting are his recreations. In youth
he despises money, but in age he covets it, having no resources
in himself.

avOaddorepov . . . odSapas| ‘He should be made of harder
stuff, I said, and somewhat less cultivated, yet a lover of the muses
and a good listener, though nothing of a speaker.’ In other words
the timocrat is an unimpressionable man, with no original power,
and yet poetry and oratory have a charm for him. The Spartan
will never extract a verse out of ‘his own pure brain,’ is not in
the habit of making long speeches, but will listen to the oratory of
Alcibiades when he visits Sparta, or to the recitations of Homer
and Tyrtaeus. For the hit at Glaucon, compare the description of
him in Xen. Mem, iii. 6, § 1 TAavcwva 8€ tov Apiorwvos 61’ érexeiper dnun-
yopev, enOupav mpoorarevew ths médews, OVSémw cikoow ern yeyoves, ov
Ta@v GAhov oikeiwy Te Kal Hirer ovdeis novvato Taiaat, éAxduevdy TE amd TOU

, ‘ »”
Bnuatos Kai karayéXacToy Gvra, K.T.A.

Stroapougstepov| The features of the Spartan character are
sufficiently apparent in this description. Compare the account at
the commencement of the greater Hippias, 285 £, which Hippias
gives of the willingness of the Spartans to hear him tell of the
genealogies of gods and heroes, and their unwillingness to receive
instruction in the sciences. Again, for what follows, compare the
statement of the Laws, Book i, that the Spartan and Cretan institu-
tions were exclusively designed for war; also Protag. 343, where
Plato adds another trait to the Lacedemonian character, their
making brevity the soul of their primitive philosophy.

kai Soddos peév tis, x.1.A.] This is still part of the character of
the Spartan. See the beautiful passage of the Laws (vi. 777 a) in
which the Athenian describes the behaviour of a just and noble
person towards his slaves: he is not to be too familiar with them,
he is to be more just to them than to his equals, herein showing
that he loves justice for its own sake.

a.) See ye eer
ers. pee ‘

Notes: Book VIII. 377

dy appears in only two MSS, of slight authority. But most MSS.
have reow which is probably a corruption of ray.

gon. . . . wodtteias] ‘this type of character belongs to that
form of government (timocracy).’ The genitive is the predicate.

odxodv . . . Kkatappovot dv} ‘and will not such an one while
young be a despiser of riches ?’

His origin may be thus conceived: a good man who avoids politics
in an ill-conditioned state has.a son who in boyhood hears his mother
complain of ‘the slights which she has to endure through the sub-
missiveness of her husband, and ts told by the servants of the house
that when grown up he must be a man indeed and reclaim what his
father has let go. By and by he comes to know a little of the
world as it ts. Distracted by these diverse influences, while he
admires his father’s virtues, he is tempted to covetousness and
ambition. And in the end the love of honour becomes his ruling
passion.

wy 84... (D) yuvargiv] The sentence éray, «.t.A., is not in any
exact construction: the most grammatical way of taking the words
is after wy By... ylyverar ; sc. yiyvera: drav (cp. ras followed by érav
infra 553 A). But the imperfect construction is supplemented by
the deferred apodosis at 550A rére 8} 6 véos.

The legend of the wife of Caius Licinius Stolo in Livy, vi. 34, is
a similar tale of feminine jealousy. Plato is perhaps thinking of
Laconizing youth at Athens.

émeita Spdons . . .(F) Spvetv| aicOdvntrar reverts to the con-
struction with érav, although having the same subject with the
participle épeens, which itself somewhat loosely follows dxody.
Mr. H. Richards proposes to cancel aio@dvntat.

iSia te év Sixacrnpiots Kal Snpooia| ‘privately in law courts,
and publicly’ (sc. in the assembly).

éaut@ pév tov voiv mpooéxovta| Cp. vi. 496 D dyana, «i my airis
kabapos . . . Buooerat.

Kat of oixérat, x.t.A.] The picture would not be complete without
the old servant who is zealous for the honour of the family.

kai é§iév, x.7.4.] ‘And when he goes abroad he hears and sees
more of the same sort.’ The reading of Par. A is dxovy, but this is
hardly defensible, even on the ground of a supposed construction

Republic

yr
A

549 B-
550 C

549
C

ONES
; = - ba ._- sie 1 ~~

378. Plato: Republic.

Republic with étav repeated from supra c. The words are too far off, with
VE . / otoa ov, x.7.d., intervening,
550
A ph 7a abtav| (sc. mpdrrovras) has the force of ra pi abrav. The
order of words gives emphasis to the negative.

mapa ta tay GNAwy| These words are to be taken with éyydOev,
‘having a nearer view of his father’s ways than of the ways of
others, —which may account for his father still retaining an influence
over him.

Edxdpevos. . .(B) HAVE] The first éXxdpevos is resumed after
the parentheses tod pev . . . kexpqobar.

B Sd 7d ph}... pdow] ‘being the inheritor of no mean nature.’
The father (supra 549 c) was a good man whose virtue was
rendered inoperative by outward circumstances. For the idiomatic
genitive cp. Soph. Trach. 1062 67A\us odaa Koix dvBpds pioww.

550 C= Oligarchy is a form of constitution based on the valuation of

551 B yateable property. It is a government in which the wealthy rule
and in which the poor have no share. The change to this from
timarchy ts occasioned by that secret hoard of which we spoke (supra
548 B), alluring them to spend on things forbidden. They vie with
one another in accumulation, and in expenditure, until wealth
becomes of more account than merit. The poor man is always
rejected and the rich preferred, and at last a law ts carried, either
by intimidation or by force of arms, making money the qualification
of citizenship.

550 héywpev . . . tetaypévov| The line is probably quoted from

Cc memory, and made up out of two lines in the Seven against Thebes,
451 Aey @dov MAdas ev wbdas ciAnydra and 570 ‘Oporwiow b€ mpos
mvdas teraypevos. The similarity of mvAy and wéder was nearer in
sound than in spelling.

kata thy bwdQeow] supra 545 B.

Thy amd tiunpdtev .. . wodttetav| ‘A government resting on
the valuation of property I term oligarchy,’

It is to be observed that Plato here absolutely opposes timocracy
to oligarchy. But as a fact in the history of Greece, so far as we
can judge from somewhat meagre indications, there were many
kinds of both, the element of wealth combining in various degrees

Notes: Book VITT. 379

with that of birth: the right of the strongest, that is, of the heavy
armed soldier or horseman, or of the well equipped pirate, or the
leader of pirates, largely entering into all of them.

éxeivo] supra 548 A.

Tods vdpous... dmeBodvres] ‘they wrest the laws to this end,
disobeying the law,’ i.e. they misinterpret the letter and violate
the spirit of the constitution.

H obx obtw. . . péwovre;| ‘Is not this the sort of difference
between riches and virtue? When they are placed in either scale
of the balance, the one rises, as the other falls.’ The text follows
Madvig’s correction ; the manuscript reading xeiyévov éxarépov may
however be explained by placing a comma after éxarépov, ‘the one
ever rising as the other falls, as if each were placed ina scale of
a balance.’

4 kat mpd Tovrou, x.t..] Asin the revolution of the Four Hundred
at Athens: Thuc. viii. 66 dvrédeyé te oddeis ére trav Gddwr, Sedtas Kal

épav modd 7d Evvertykds.

Suppose a property qualification to be required of a pilot, what
would become of navigation? To guide the helm of the state is more
difficult and also more important than to steer the ship; the failure
in the practice of it will therefore be more disastrous. The oligarchical
city, moreover, ts not one, but two at least, viz. the rich and the poor.
(Cp. iv. 422 £.) Zhe government cannot go to war, for fear that
the multitude may desert in battle and leave the few, who are also
covetous, to support both the danger and the expense. Again, under
this constitution the same person may have diverse callings ; he
may be warrior and trader in one. And, what ts worst of all, he
may reduce himself to beggary. He never was a real ruler, and
now he is only a spendthrift and a drone in the hive. And of
these wingless drones, unlike the winged ones, there are some with
stings. In other words, wherever there are paupers there are also
rogues.

€papev| supra 544 C.

mpGtov pév... olds éorw] The first error relates to the very
principle of the constitution (supra a Spov zodkreias ddcyapytxijs
ragdpevor mAOos xpnudrwv): mpOtov, Sc. dudprnud éorw: for the turn
of sentence cp. i. 331 C rovro 8 adrd, tiv Sixatocivny, nérepa Thy
dAnOerav aird jooperv eva; and for the use of Spos, Laws i. 626 c

Republic
VITT,

551
c

E

380 Plato: Republic.

bv yap pov ou ris eb wodcrevopevns méAews. The meaning of dpos in
Plato is more general and less abstract than the logical term
‘definition,’ which is its signification in later Greek. A similar
change takes place in the meaning of several words (ci8os, idea,
ovdd\oyiopds, indOears, vAn), which in Plato retain more or less their
popular senses,—but in Aristotle have already passed into the
technical language of the schools.

dpe. ydp, «.t.A.| | The interruption of Adeimantus prevents
Socrates from completing the sentence, and the apodosis, émoudy rt
dv Soxeis ovupBaivew Or some such words, is wanting. The reply of -
Adeimantus, tovnpdv . . . vautiANeo Pan, is dependent on the omitted
apodosis. The comparison of the ruler to the steersman was
always with Socrates a favourite topic: i. 341 c, vi. 488 B; Polit.
297 E; Xen. Mem.i. 1, § 9. [Ast and H. Richards cj. eixés for
7 8 Ss. |

ovxoty ... dpxqs;| ‘And is not this true about any government
of anything?’ Ast’s emendation fjetwos for # twos of the MSS.,
which is here adopted, gives the best meaning with the least
alteration. The construction is elliptical, and put by attraction
for dpxijs, 7 tus.dv 7. For the use of és ms, cp. Hipp. Maj. 282 p 4
diXos Snuovpyos ap’ Hotwos réxvys.

ti 8€; . . . &AAHAows| Cp. iv. 422 E, where Socrates strongly
insists that other states are not one but many. There is a lively
image of the change here described, which probably represents the
condition of many Greek cities in the seventh and eighth centuries
before Christ, in the poems of Theognis, who laments that the old
oligarchical privileges have been superseded by an invasion of rich
bad men. (Theogn. r1og ff. ed. Bergk.)

GANG pv, k.7.4.] Bekker was right in saying that od8€ is omitted
in Par. A. The MS, reads ’AAAa py | tdde but 7é is written over
an erasure and the word as at first written may have been ove (sic).
A later hand has replaced o@8¢€ in the right hand margin after &\Aa
pyv, which comes at the end of the line. If o68€ were omitted, the
sentence would receive an ironical turn (cp. iv. 426 a), but this is
scarcely suitable to the directness of the reply od Kaddv,

iows] ~‘ in all likelihood.’ [H. Richards cj. oxupéas.]

Sd 7d dvayxdleoOar, x.7.A.] As at Lesbos in the Feopnn
war :—Thuce. ili. 27 ; Arist. Pol. vi. 7.

ddtyapxiKods pavfvat] For this play of words cp. infra 555 4.

a a=

Notes: Book VIII. . 381

médar| ii. 374 B.
yewpyodvras| like the avroupyol of the Peloponnese ; Thuc. i. 141,
§§ 3-5.
xpnpariLopévous] Cp. Thue. vi. 31, § 5.
4 Soxet dp8s exe ;] The position of the interrogasive particle
i al strong emphasis.

eis & viv 8h edéyopev;] viz. the functions mentioned in the
words pajre xpnpatiorhy . . . pyre SwACryy (supra a).
aitijs] sc. rijs wéAews.

oftws| ‘The latter; he seemed to be a ruler but was only
a spendthrift.’

adrév] resumed in kal tév tovodrov to accentuate the parallelism.

éx pev tav dxévtpwv| é« points to the class from which they
come without saying whether all become paupers or only some.

MTwXol ... TeNeuT@owv] sc. eis 7d mrwxoi eivat, like rupavvidas . . .
els mrwyxeias TeXevrooas in x. 618 a. The words have also been
translated, though with less point and less meaning in the preposi-
tion: ‘who die in old age paupers’ (Schneider).

mdvtes, K.7.A.] SC. yiyvovra implied in tedeuTdow.

SHAov dpa, «.7.A.| In modern language, Where there is pauperism,
there is crime :—this is at least true of every oppressive and unequal
state of civilized society.

Baddavtiatépor] The form is doubtful (see L. and S. s. v.
Badddvriov), but is retained as given by the first hand of Par. A.

ph ody, «.7.A.] ‘May we suppose. pi odv in this passage is
equivalent to pay:—although the affirmative answer has already
been implied in the previous argument, Socrates ironically proposes
the question as one absolutely undetermined: so supra 552 A dpa
6)... el re. . . mapadéxerar: Theaet. 145 A 7 kai dorpovouixds ...}

émpedeia Bia| The insertion of cai between these words is
unnecessary : Bia has passed into an adverb and lost the idea of
a dative case. Cp. ii. 359 C vdp@ 8€ Bia mapayerat, x.7.d., infra 554 ¢ Cc
carexouevas Bia ind THs GAAns emmpedeias.

tows 8€ kai mheiw] These words betray the same feeling which
appeared in the first mention of oligarchy ig 544 C cuxvar
yépovea Kaka troduteia,

dneipydc0w| ‘Let this form of government too be deemed

D

a i Plato: Republi.

coy by us to be complete.’ For the not uncommon use of the impera-
553. tive cp. ix. 588 D memddobo,

yevspevos| i.e. emedy yevnrat.

553 Let us now imagine the transition from the timocratic to the

A-2 oligarchic man. The former has a son, who walks in his footsteps,
until the father meets with some reverse in his ambitious career, and
ts either put to death or banished and his goods confiscated. The son,
impoverished and disenchanted, flings away ambition, and by sparing
habits and hard work scrapes a fortune together. Desire of wealth
he elevates to the rank of king and lord, to whom the reasoning and
aspiring elements are to be subservient. This revolution is as complete
as tt ts swift.

553 €k Tod TywoKkpatikod éxeivou|] supra 548 D ff.
A

Stay, «.t.d.] This clause is partly the answer to mds, sc. pera-
Badd, partly the protasis of a sentence of which émi xepadjy a6ei,
x.t.\.,is the deferred apodosis. Cp.supra 549 c mdn. . . yiyverar;

Orav, K.T.A,

B épmeodvta ... 63d cuxopavtav| ‘then brought into court, being
damaged by informers.’ It has been proposed to omit BAamrépevoy,
the insertion of which is attributed to some transcriber’s ignorance
that ind after ¢umecciv was good Greek. But the word is very
expressive of the harm which informers might do to a man’s career
(Lys. pro Polystr. § 12 od dikaos da rovto éari BrdrrecOa): and
the imperfect tense, which is one ground of the objection, is
quite appropriate as describing a continuous state and not like
éutreodvta, &c., a momentary act, i.e. bd auxopavrav €Branrerd Te

‘ , ‘ » Ud > ,
KQL EMTETWY ELS dixaornpioy anéOavev,

kat ma0év] The son of course suffers in the exile of his father,
or in the confiscation of his property. A

Seicas| is to be taken closely with what follows: ‘He is
alarmed and straightway thrusts ambition and passion headforemost
from his bosom’s throne.’ ele

Cc 7d Oupoerdes exeivo] supra 5508.

tiudpas Te kal... dxwdKas] mepiriOévra or the like word which is
required for tudpas, k.t.X., is altered to mapaLwrvdvra to suit dkwdKas.
For the plural, which may be described as ‘ magnific,’ cp. vi. 495 A

ts el a

”
f ¥ .

Notes: Book VIII. 383

| mhodroi re Kal waa t rouadry mapacxevh, Symp. 218 A Sai8pows,’Aydbwvas,
"Epugiudxovs, |

7d 8¢ ye, «.7.A.] The change from od8év dAdo to prdev GAXo is to
be explained by the general notion of dvayxage: in the second clause
being understood from oé8ev . . . é@ in the first.

4) yoiv . . . Spovos av ety] ‘The change which produces him is
from an individual who is similar to the state which produced
oligarchy’ (viz. timocracy). ‘Let us consider then whether he be
like oligarchy.’ The assumed parallelism of states and individuals
is presumptive evidence of the likeness which is now to be verified.
&v ein, sc. ef odrw peraBador.

In this conversion from ambition to avarice the individual follows
the analogy of the state ; he is a lover and getter of money, indulging
only his necessary desires and keeping under restraint the extravagant
ones: he ts penurious, industrious, sordid, negligent of culture (he
has deserted the muses for the blind god of wealth). Yet some of his
passions are still strong within him because of his neglect of educa-
tion: and being hungry and unsatisfied they are like the paupers
and rogues in the city. In his ordinary dealings he represses them,
because he ts afraid of losing his character and his property: but
when he has a safer opportunity of taking advantage, as when he is
guardian of an orphan, he does not scruple to indulge them. The
oligarchical man is thus divided against himself ; and in the contest
of ambition he proves a contemptible adversary, being niggardly of
his means and distrusting his own nature, except that meagre
portion of it which is absorbed in money-getting.

ph) Tapexspevos| ‘not affording or allowing himself: ’ a special
use of the middle voice. The negative is py, not od, because
trapexdpevos is part of a ‘ causal expression’ (to . . . etvat, x.7.A.).

adxpnpds yé tig... dv, «.7.A.] This sentence is in effect
a participial clause attached to the preceding participles—‘ and this
because he is a shabby fellow,’ &c. The idiom is the same as in
ed ye od moray and the like expressions. Cp. Aristoph. Nub. 893
Abyos—rrav y oy.

obs 84, «.7.A.] sc. Oncavporoovs: for the plural referring to the
singular cp. Thuc. vi. 12, 13 vewrépm .. . obs eyo, K.7.A.

tuphéy Hyendva]| sc. Plutus. Cp. the Plutus of Aristophanes, the

553 E-
555 B

554
A

384 Plato: Republic.

Republic plot of which turns upon the restoration of the god of wealth
VIM. to sight,
554
B kai *éripa pddtota| ériwa is an ingenious and almost certain
emendation of Schneider’s, which is confirmed by the expressions
TLLa@VTES aypiws. . . xputdy 548 A, TYLGv pndey GAXo f) TAOUTOY 553 D, and
Xphpata...pddtora evripa... mapa to torodrw just above. The
principal MSS. vary between kai ért padiota ed, fv 8 ey, rode be
oxére, Which has the greater weight of authority, and «at ére pda
ed, qv & eyd, réde bé oxdra, either of which leaves the previous
thought without assent or approval, and also has an unmeaning
emphasis :—pdédAtora is at the end of a line in Par. A.

768 S€ oxdéme.] The quality in the individual which corre-
sponds to oligarchy in the state is the love of money. The
money-maker has a show of respectability, and his other passions
are generally kept under by the main one of avarice. The truth
is that he is one half beggar and the other half rogue ; this however
can only be discovered by watching him in secret places. If you
would know his real character, see how he manages a trust, and
whether he deals with other people’s money as he does with
his own.

c katexopevas ... émpedetas ;] ‘kept down perforce by his general
habit of carefulness.’ adds is ‘ adverbial’ contrasting émipedetas
with émtOuptas, k.7.A.

émetket Tit €auTod Bia Karéxer| (1) ‘By some virtuous element
in himself he forcibly restrains’: Bia as supra c, 552 E (where see
note on emmedeig Big), is to be taken separately as an adverb. For
émetket Tivi éautod cp. infra 555 A ddiyos tial éavrod. [(2) ‘ By
some virtuous restraint which he puts upon himself’ B. J.]

Gas] sc. the non-avaricious passions—here opposed to
‘respectable’ prudential motives. For a&\das opposing things
different in kind cp. iii. 396 E pupnoeds te Kai ths Ans Sepynoeas.

D edpyoes| Par. A gives conboine (sic)—év by the diorthotes.
Schneider observes that, as the text now stands, the dative is too
far from the preposition. Perhaps évevpjoes should be read.

Tod Kavos guyyevets] i.e. xnpnvoders :—‘ drone-like, ‘of the
nature of the drone.’

ob8€ efs GAAG Simdods tis] As the city was divided between

ae nw ,9

- ie

Notes: Book VIII. 385

rich and poor, so the man is divided between meanness and
respectability.

dpovontikis . . . THs Wuxis GAnOis dpery] ‘ the” true virtue
which arises when the soul is at unity and in harmony. The
expression is somewhat singular, but there is no sufficient reason
for omitting the article.

% twos vicns, «.7.A.] For the genitives after dvraywnorys cp. —

ii. 374 D, Laws viii. 834 B.

xpypatd te, «.7.X.] te connects the two parts of the sentence,
of which the second, ending with mdouret, is loaded with participles :
of these Se8u0s expresses the cause, and wodepwav the consequence,
of od« é0édwy, x.7.d.

dAtyapxtxds| ‘like the men in the oligarchy’: supra 551 E.

Democracy comes next, and is brought about by a natural reaction
against the ruling spirit of oligarchy, which is covetousness. The
extravagance of young men is not properly controlled, because tt ts
profitable to those in power, who lend them money at high interest
and when it ts spent setze their estates. Thus the class of stinging
drones ts multiplied, while the ruling class grow fat and soft,
neglecting all martial exercises. The hour for revolution ripens ;
and the oligarchical government ts easily overthrown. Some of its
members are proscribed, some banished ; the rest are admitted to
an equal share of the power, which is now in the hands of the

people.
moidv twa éxe.| sc. rpdrov, in a slightly different sense of the

word, which occurs again immediately below. rpdémos in tpéaov
tiva To.dvde is again used in the first sense.

obkodvy ... ylyverOar;] The words 8 amAnotiay are a partial
explanation of tpémov twa tovSe. The pleonastic Setv resumes
the notion of mpoxetpévou.

eipyew . . . ph efetvar| efeivar is pleonastic.
vépw] Cp. supra 552 A.

xdOnvrot $4, «.7.A.] ‘there they sit doing nothing in the city,’
xd@yvrat implies that they are biding their time.
08 Soxoivres . . . Spav| ‘Making as if they saw them not.’

See L. and S. s. v. Boxéw, i. 4.
VOL. Il. cic

555 B-
557 A

555
B

386 Plato: Republie.

Republic rob watpés| For the imagery cp. vi. 507 A.
VIU,. . : ° SS

556 moddv tov Knpiva, .t.A.] The singular is collective.

A odre y’ éxelvy, x.t.4.] Two ways are suggested of correcting the
evil: (1) a man may be prevented from doing what he likes with
his own: (2) the protection of the law may be withdrawn from the
creditor. The latter principle is laid down in Laws v. 742 c unde
daveife eri téx@, os e€dv pr drodiddva rd mapdrav TO Savecoapevo
pyre roxov pyre keddaov: viii. 849 E, xi. g15 D. It is also said to
have been a law of Charondas (Stobaeus, Serm. 44, 21).

How far the law should interfere to protect the creditor, and
whether no protection is not the best protection, is a question which
may be regarded as still undecided. Although commerce can
never be wholly without the pale of law, yet as time goes on, the
interference or protection of the law seems to be confined within
narrower limits, which may probably with advantage be still
further restricted. So much in trade has been settled by the
consent and common sense of traders. The law again is so
powerless to enter into the minutiae of private transactions, where
many interests combine against inquiry, as to suggest the thought
that except in cases of direct fraud or theft, trade, like morality, is
beyond the legal arm. Many contracts of the highest importance
are matters of honour only. If legal protection were withdrawn
from the creditor, the result would obviously be that no one but
a man of established character could borrow money, for the
borrower would be under no compulsion to pay except that of his
own interest. It is equally obvious, that this would limit the
operations of trade—whether advantageously or not, is a doubtful
question. ; pi a

éxeivy refers to the regulation which existed in the well constituted
state, but was relaxed in the oligarchy (supra 552 A, 555), Viz.
that young men shall not be allowed to waste their fortunes.

exxadpevov| like exardescere in Latin: ep. Eupol. Fragm.
Incert. lv parre: yap 73 Kal rd wip éxxdera..
ts| ‘any one,’ i. e. ‘the legislator,’ ‘ the state,’ ‘ we.’
B viv 8€ y’, pny ey, x.t..|] Tad Toradra refers to the whole descrip-
tion from dre, ojuac (555 Cc) onwards, odtw to the creation of the
dangerous class among the poor (supra 555 p ff.).

opas 8€ adtols kal tods abtay, x.7.A.] I.e. on the other hand
they leave their sons to grow up in idleness and luxury, while
they themselves are absorbed in making money. The sentence is

“ on’
pia
et i Se i

Notes: Book VIII. — 387

expanded and becomes two sentences, the condition of the youth
being first described ; then in adrods 8é, x.7.4., that of the older
generation: cp. the structure of supra 552 C rods bé meCods rovrous, K.7.A,

obrw $8} mapecxevacpeévor, x.t.A.] In this sentence the verb kata-
dpovavrar is dependent on Stay. (1) An appearance of confusion
is caused by the nominative edpevor which seems to be connected
with wapaBdddwow, but in reality is equivalent to érav beavra
preceding katappovGvrar. Either mapaBdddovtes . .. i)... Oempevor. ..
katappovavra Or mapaBdd\A\wow ... 7). . . Oedvrat Kai Katappovavtra
would be the regular construction. Or (2) the words Oedpevor . . .
KaTappovavrat ot mévntes may be regarded as an instance of the
common apposition of whole and part.

Stav twapaBdddkwow| ‘when they come along-side;’ probably
anautical metaphor: cp. Lysis 203 E od mapaBdddes ;_ For the sense
cp. Phaedr. 239 ¢, p.

@ddorpias] ‘which he has no right to’: ‘which does not
properly belong to him.’ He has grown great at other men’s
expense. Cp. Gorg. 518 p, Laws vii. 797 E.

eiot *nap’ o8€v;] This is Baiter’s correction of «ici yap oddév
which is the reading of the best MSS. «iol otéév, the reading
of the old editions, though giving a more forcible meaning (cp.
infra 562 p), is of inferior authority.

eG of8a pev ody] ev ody corrects ote. ‘ Do you ask if I think
they will do so? Nay, I know it for a fact that they do so,’

éxeivo| sc. TO vordder copari, Kata tadTa éxeivw = voowdas.
For the comparison of sedition to disease cp. Soph. 228 a véauv

” ‘ , > :
to@s Kal OTaCGW OV TaUTOY vevdoutKas, K.T.A,

kat @s Td Twohd... ylyvovra] This feature of democracy is
recalled in the companion picture of the individual infra 561 B,
éomep Naxovon. ylyvevra is the reading of the best MSS.: the
subjunctive is inexact, because any words dependent on étav should
describe a characteristic of the origin of democracy, not merely
a characteristic of democracy. yiywvrat may be an error of the
copyists caused by the preceding subjunctives.

i Katdotacis Sypoxparias] The article goes with both words
taken together as a single expression.

Sid éBov| Sa Pd8ov (Par. A p. m. Ven, M1) is a natural error
occasioned by the apparent parallelism of 8 éwhov.
cca

wn
w
=

Republic
VIII.
557 A-
558 C

ut
vw
ee |

D

388 Plato: Republic.

freedom ts now the word and every man arranges his life just as
he pleases. The city is like an embroidered robe, in which all modes
of life, all forms of government, are represented. There is no one
constitution, but samples of all. To take office, to obey authority, to
make war or peace when others do so, are matters left to individual
caprice. Men publicly condemned to death or banishment go out and
in with acclamation of their friends. No training or qualification
zs required for office as in our state, save only the profession of
popular sympathies. It is a city of delightful ease, ‘exempt from
awe, worship, degree’ where all however unlike are ‘equal’ and
‘unclassed, sceptreless, free, uncircumscribed, — Delightful for
the moment |

dHAov ydp, x.t.A.] This is a reason for deferring the considera-
tion of the democratic man, who appears infra 558 c.

av... Kataoxeudforro] ‘may be expected to arrange’ (not ‘is
able to’ as in the translation).

domep tydriov, x.7.d.] As elsewhere in comparisons there is an
asyndeton because the words are explanatory of the preceding
clause.

kat iows pév, Hv 8 éys] The words ri py; edn (following
gaivoiro), which Bekker retained from earlier editions, are almost, if
not entirely, without manuscript authority. The sentence which
takes their place in the Munich MS. g—¢aivorro yap 4 8 és, rovairn
tis—betrays the same uneasiness at the repetition of fv 8 éya,
But this, like the frequent insertion of épn Aéyv in reported narrative,
is a natural way of calling attention to a fresh point. Cp. vii. 522 a,
where fifteenth century scribes have tried to get rid of the second
épy by the clumsy expedient of reading ddepa €6n arta éxovea,

Sia thy efouciay] supra B éfoveia ev abrh moueiv 6 ri Tis Bovherar,
karoukiLew] sc. ri mddu,

pndé wodepetv wokepodvtwy| Aristophanes indulges in a similar
flight of fancy in the Acharnians 180 ff. where he makes
Dicaeopolis conclude a private treaty with the Lacedemonians.

pyde ad ... pydSev Arrov, «.7.4.] There is a slight confusion
arising out of the double negative, the words pydév Arto, «.7.A.,
presupposing ¢eéeiva, which is implied in pydepiavy dvdyxny supra.
This slight difficulty may have led to the reading dpxys, for which

Notes: Book VIII. . 389

388 pv i kal émlioe airg rowirov i) Néyew f woeiv: Phaedr. 264 B rd
émdv eippoda,

tows .. . &v ye tourw| ‘Perhaps so, for the moment’: i.e. not
permanently.

ti 8€; i mpadrys ... od Kopy]| (1) ‘ And is there not something
exquisite in her clemency towards some who have been condemned?’
This involves a possibly allowable extension of the ‘ objective’ use
of the genitive: éviwy = mpis evious cp. ii. 359 A EvvOnxas abtoy.
Laws iv. 717 A oxomds pév odv hiv obros ob dei croydferOar Bédn Se
aérod (the darts which reach the mark) kai ofov 7 rots Bekeow Eeors,
ra mot dy Neydueva dpOdrara cépur av; This was Bekker’s view.
(2) The genitive 8xacQévrwy may be taken as of the subject, ‘the
meekness of some of the condemned’: said ironically for their
indifference or contempt of the laws :—Both explanations give a
sufficiently good sense, but the latter is to be preferred. tepivooret
Gomep pws infra is in favour of this interpretation, and it is harsh
to make 4 mpadérns without any qualification or hint from the
context to mean ‘the gentleness of democracy’ or ‘her gentleness.’
Some propose to insert émi, epi or xard (Stephanus) before éviwv.

# oUmw elSes, x.t.A.] The sentence is somewhat irregular, the
genitive pevévrwy ...év péow being substituted for the accusative
after eiSes, through attraction to dv@pémev. The construction is
softened through an association from the ordinary construction of
the genitive with alcOdvopa,

The subject of wepwvoorei is to be gathered from pevdévtwy, x.7.2.,
‘The man marches about.’ Late MSS. insert 6 k«arapnpioeis.
There is perhaps an implied allusion to the vécra. ‘He is welcomed
wherever he goes like one of the heroes returning from the siege
of Troy.’ [Madv. cj. xataypnpiobévros : Schn. cj. abrov perdvrav. |

4 8 cvyyvdpn, «.7.d.] The sentence breaks off and is completed
by the answer of Adeimantus mdvu y’, &n, yevvata, in which yewvaia
may agree with wé\s (as in the translation) or rather with cvyyvopn,
the force of the interrogative having been continued from a preceding
sentence—‘ and what say you of her forgiving spirit, &c.? Yes,
said he, that is glorious.’ The relation of és peyadompends. . . AH Oe
to katappdvyois ... Ta ToLadta mévta may be expressed as follows :
‘her contempt for the things we spoke of . . . how grandly trampling
them under foot she cares not at all,’ &c.

_the first hand in Par. A and Ven. II wrote dpyijs. For émty cp. iii. Republic
VII,

558
A

oh oe PE Te ee

Republic
VII.

558
B

558 C-
559 D

559
A

390 Plato: Republic.

&v tpeis edéyopey cepvivovtes] cepvivovtes, sc. aird. The
reference is to iii. 401 A, 402 C, iv. 425 A.

dnavt adta| adrdé is preferred to raira as the reading of Par. A
and quite unobjectionable,

Before examining the democratical man it ts advisable to define
the necessary desires, which were above (554 a) distinguished from
the unnecessary ones. Necessary desires are those which (1) are
conducive to life, (2) impossible to extinguish. The desire of food,
for example, ts necessary, while that of savoury meats ts unnecessary.
And the drone of whom we spoke is the slave of unnecessary desires,
but the oligarch only of the necessary.

tis 6 rovodTos i8ia] tis, like ‘ what’ in English, has occasionally
the meaning ‘ what sort of’ = qoids tus. Cp. vii. 537 B.

Tod pevdwdod, «.7.A.] ‘Our penurious oligarchical man might have
(I suppose) a son,’ &c.

Bia 8h . . . KékAnvtat] This is said in continuation of the
preceding sentence, the participle dpxwv agreeing with the subject
of yévour’ av. Socrates is proceeding to develop the genesis of the
democratic man. A finite verb (e.g. éyedoaro knpnvev péduros, Cp.
infra 559 D) would have followed, had not the apodosis been
broken off or deferred in favour of the digression about the
necessary desires. This is better (as is shown by 84) than to suppose
the participle to be merely linked on to the preceding sentence as
iN 554 A aiypnpos ye tis... OY.

Bove ody, x.7.4.] Socrates here makes a psychological digres-
sion, for the first time introducing the distinction which afterwards
became the favourite one with Aristotle and the Epicureans, of
pleasures which are and are not natural and necessary. The
digression may be compared with the one in iv. 436-438 in which
Socrates treats of relation and opposition. He returns to the
distinction of natural and necessary pleasures in the next book
(ix. 572 ¢ ff.).

kat mpés| mpds is taken adverbially, as often with ye, e. g. i,
328 A kal mpos ye mavvvyida mouoovow, and sometimes without: as in
Euthyd. 298 pD kat mpds dpa oor marnp éort kai xiv: Laws iv. 709 Cc.

at eiow] Cp. vii. 529 A Thy mept ra dvw pdbnow dapBdvew mapa
aavt@, 7 €ort: where 7 = oia, as in this passage at = ofa.

Notes: Book VIT/, 391

Gp’ obv ody .. . (B) &v ety ;] ‘ will not the desire of eating within the Aepudlic

limits of health and strength, and of simple food and condiments be
necessary?’ abdroé ofrou te Kal Sipou is joined with 4, and completes
the notion of rod ayeiv, x.r.4, adrod is added to prepare for the
antithesis } mépa rodrwv, «.7.d., infra B. Cp. iv. 439 A dios...
avté . . . abtod maparos. ‘The modern distinction between food and
the pleasure of eating as the object of hunger, does not occur to
Plato.

H Te ph... Suvarq] ‘and because a man cannot suppress it
while he lives.’ This reading of the Munich MS. ¢g (not noticed
by Bekker) is preferred to those of the chief MSS. on two grounds:
(1) kar’ dupsétepa must refer to the twofold condition repeatedly
mentioned in 558 p, E, 559 A, and again implied in Suvarh Sé koda-
Copévn, «.t.A., infra. This meaning cannot be got out of the read-
ing 7 Te matoa (a@vra duvatn: (2) wadoat Lavra, ‘to make one cease
from living,’ would be a very strange expression for dzoxrwvivat,
Just as BdaBepd, in what follows, is opposed to dpéAypos here, so
Suvath . .. dwadddtreo8ar contains the opposite of the remaining
clause 4 Te ph... Suvarh.

For the idiomatic expression cp. vii. 537 B advvatés te dAdo
mpaga, where, if the subject of mpaga had been expressed, it would
have been in the accusative (rods véovs). So Lavra agrees with the
subject of waéoat here. Negation is expressed through py rather
than o’—which Coraes suggested—because the sentence states
a condition. The complete expression would be dvayxaia (ay in)
y pH (earl) Suvarn (rar) maioa (avra, Professor W. W. Goodwin,
who approves of this interpretation, quotes Xen. Anab. iv. 1, § 24
duvariy ... trofuvylos mopeverOau 6d6v. For the transition from the
dative to the accusative with an infinitive cp. iv. 422 B ov8’ «i éfein
. . » bwopedyovrs . . . dvactpépovta xpovew. For the corruption of
MSS. through dropping the negative, see Essay on Text,
pp. 106-109. [L. C.]

ri 8€ ... dwadddrrecOar| ‘and the desire which goes beyond
this, craving more elaborate dishes, of which, if controlled and
trained in youth, most people may get rid’: kat dddoiwv, «.7.).,
answers to kal adtod oitou in what precedes. émahAdtrecBar is
passive: cp. supra A ds... dmadddéevev fir,

Xpnpatiorixads 81d 74, «.7.A.] Plato seizes the word which comes

nearest to his meaning, and justifies it by a false etymology not
better than many in the Cratylus.

559

A

B

Republic
VIII.

392 Plato: Republic.

kat tov addwv | ‘and the rest’: sc. the other desires besides
the desire of food. :

éhéyouev] supra 552 ¢ ff.

Now suppose the oligarchical individual to have a son, who after
a miserly education, falls amongst the drones and tastes their honey.
Lis useless desires axe re-inforced, until in turn his prudential
inclinations are strengthened with admonition. There ts civil war
within him, till the democratic faction ts turned out, and he returns
to regular ways. But his father has no gift in education, and the
ill weeds grow apace; and there is again a faction within that
holds secret correspondence with strange pleasures, with whose aid
at last they rush up and seize the Acropolis of the Soul. It has
been swept clean of its true defenders (reason and virtue) and lies
open to the assaults of vicious sophistry. The youth returns to the
companionship of the drones, and when good counsel (accredited or
not) seeks audience, the gates are barred. Perverted reason discards
the old-fashioned virtues, and all vices of tnsolence and excess are.
openly installed under fair titles as manliness and liberality and
Jreedom. This downward course may be arrested as youth wears
off, and then the man gives way to every impulse in its turn, now
drinking, now abstaining ; now toiling at athletics, then again doing
nothing at all; first all for war, then all for business ; living not
one life but taking a turn at many—an existence truly delightful as
many persons think,

médw toivuv, k.t.A.] The analogy of the state and the individual,
which in the previous stages was helped by real points of resem-
blance as well as by language, begins to fail more and more. For
though the transition from the miserly father to the spendthrift son
is natural enough and true to human life, the parallel transition
from oligarchy to democracy is not substantiated by history and is
fanciful and untrue. méAw marks the resumption from 558 p after
the digression.

ds viv 8h éhéyowey| supra 558 Cc. aidwor Onpot, sc. the drones,

ai@wor| = ‘fiery,’ a poetical word, in keeping with the rhetorical
and grandiloquent character of this part of the Republic. —

petaBodis : . . Sypoxpatixyy] _ There is no difference of reading
in this passage, but the words are difficult: either (1) éAcyapxuxijs

Notes: Book VIII. 393

(supply wodreias or xaraordcews) is the genitive after peraBohjs, but
the ellipse is harsh; or (2) éAtyapxixfjs may be a corruption of
édvyapxias, which has led to the further corruption of 8ypoxpariay
into Sypoxpatixyy. For the double genitive cp. vii. 525 c paorayns
Te peraotpopis,«.r.A. The addition of e& after peraBods would cer-
tainly make the sentence clearer.

fuppaxias| used here, as in Thuc. vi. 73 dros guppaxia .
mapayévnra and elsewhere, in the concrete sense of ‘an allied force.’
So also guppaxia below.

€fw0ev| viz. from the xnpives with whom he associates. We
may note that the quarrel is not between reason and desire, but
between a thrifty parsimonious spirit and unsatisfied craving and
discontent. _ ©

1@ érép@ tav map’ éxeivw| the self-indulgent desires, as opposed
to the necessary ones.

t® év aut®| The reflexive pronoun can hardly be right with
éxeivw preceding. Perhaps the two words have changed places in

the MSS. from réy map’ €avT@ . . . TH ev Exeivg,

7} 7o0ev mapa Tod watpés| ‘it may be from his father’: méev
expresses the uncertainty from what quarter the alliance will come.

atOis 8€... éyévovro] For a time the democracy is partially
suppressed by assistance from without, and the house is again
swept and garnished. But new passions gather and grow to
a head, and possess themselves of the undefended citadel: ‘ seven
other devils’ in the shape of opinions and sophisms ‘ enter in and
dwell there’: and they hold the gates of the palace against all
comers, and suffer no other power to make an alliance, nor even

individuals to parley. The inter-penetration of metaphor and fact, —

and the subtle manner in which the particulars of the life of the
state are woven into the life of the individual, add greatly to the
beauty and expressiveness of the passage.

tav éxmecousav : . . guyyeveis] ‘Other desires, akin to those
which were banished, growing up within him,

Sv dvemotnpoodvny tpopijs watpds] (1) ‘ because he, their father,
does not know how to educate them.’ The man is regarded as the
parent of his desires (cp. infra 561 B ¢€ ivov tpépov). But the
imagery is forced, and not consistent. For his duty towards these

Republic
Vill,

559
E

Republic
VIII.
560
b

394 Plato: Republic.

desires was not to educate but to exterminate them. Rather (2)
‘ because his father had no skill in education.’ The reference is to
the ‘oligarchical’ father, who was said above (554 B, 559 D) to
have given no attention to education, and to have brought up his
son dmadevros. [L. C:j

AdOpa guyyryvopevar| sc. rais €£wbev emibvpias, implied in tas
adtas dpidtas which again refers to 559 E.

ppoupoi te kal pudakes| poupoi is added to sustain the image
of a garrison. Cp. infra 561 B rd ppovpior.

kal modu y’, €py] SC. aproror,
Tov abtév témov| SC. THY axpdmodu.

eis éxeivous Tods Awtopdyous] who make him gorget his home,
like the mariners of Odysseus, Od. ix. 81 ff. The reference is to
the knives mentioned supra 559 D.

gavepas| ‘openly, no longer Adépa supra B. Cp. vii. 533 ¢
dmapaxadvnros. Before, he had hesitated and listened to both sides ;
now he has made up his mind, and will listen only to this one.

oltre mpéoPets .. . eiodéxovrar] ‘Nor do they receive the words
of old men in a private capacity, which come as ambassadors.’
The \édyor, not the persons, form the embassy. ‘The image is
complicated and in some danger of being confused by the subor-
dinate contrast between the authority of the family and the influence
of friends. The former is described as the action of a league coming
publicly in aid; the latter as a commission or embassy. The word
mpéoBets, which is suggested by the association of mpecButépwy, is
not necessarily inconsistent with istwrév. See Dem. rra2t. 1,
quoted by L. and S, s. v. mpeofeuras, ii. The image, as not unfre-
quently happens in Greek, is crossed with the thing signified. The
advice of private friends is imagined as that of individual com-
missioners accompanying an army, much as in Xen. Hellen. ii. 4,
§ 36, the public embassy from the Peiraeus is accompanied by
individuals, i8:éra:, who are sent in a private capacity from a party
in the city.

The emendation of Badham adopted by Cobet, d? ¢rav, is
unnecessary and feeble, and the personification of the adagdves
Adyo. who have ora, extravagant.

i8twrav] may be explained as having the force of idig, opposed
to adrhy thy guppaxiav—‘ sage words, the ambassadors of elders,

Notes: Book VITI. 395

who advise him on their own account,—not as accredited on
behalf of his friends (wap’ oikeiwy ris BonPea supra).

kat Thy peév aldo, x.7.A.] For the inversion of ethical terms, cp.
Thue. iii. 83.

trelBovres (sc. as dypotkia Kai dvedevbepia éoriv) is added to complete
the expression.

kaOjpavtes| is of course ironical (cp. infra 567 c), and, like
tedoupévou, alludes to the mysteries.

katexopnévou] has a twofold association: (1) ‘who is occupied
like a conquered city,’ or (2) ‘possessed’ by them, cp. Ion 533 £

» ” ‘ .
évleot GvTes Kai KaTEXOpEVOL,

Aapmpds] ‘with great éc/at’: cp. Soph. El. 685 ciop\Oe Kapmpés,

a a > «= ,
mao Tots exel oeBas.

dp’ odx . . . dveow| The accusative édevPépwour, x.7.\., expresses
the effect of the change: cp. iv. 424 C elSos yap kuvdv povorkis pera-
Bddrev, ex TOO... Tpehowévou may be either neuter = ‘from a life
that is nourished, or masculine ‘from one who is nurtured,’ cp.

. . C8 - . , > - wane 3 oo
supra 558 D vids ind tO warpi reOpappevos ev Tois exeivov HOcoww,

éav edtuxis 4] Madvig conjectured éav edruynon, partly with
a view of harmonizing the tenses, and partly under the influence
of a parallel passage ix. 578 c where Bekker reads és dy .. . rupavvexds
dv... dvorvynoyn, «.t.A. But (1) there is no objection to the dis-
similarity of tenses, which constantly recurs: (2) the present tense
gives a better meaning, ‘if he be fortunate,’ referring to his whole
state and character: (3) there is no reason if Plato wrote dvoruxnon
in one place, that he should have written edrvyjoy in another: (4)
moreover dvorvyyon is itself an unnecessary emendation of dveruxis
#, which in turn is a confirmation of edruxis 7.

GANG te kal mpeoBurepos, x.t.A.] The words tt kai are opposed to
ph wépa éxBaxxev0y and modify what follows pépy te. . . evd@: ‘ but
as he grows older in some degree modifies his passions,’ a meaning
which is to be gathered from the remainder of the sentence.

Tod ToAdod GoptBou mapedOdvtos| ‘when the turmoil of passion
has mostly passed by.’
Tois éwetced Poder] supra 559 E.

els tov 84 Te KaTaoTiHoas, K.t.A.] The passions of the democratic
man rule by chance, as in a democracy the magistrates are elected

Republic
Firs
560
D

561
A

Republic
VI.

561
B

562 A-
503 E

396 Plato: Republi.

by lot. The freeman gives each of them their turn, and will not be
the slave of any: but unfortunately he is equally impartial between
good and evil. As he grows older, he learns to balance them with
one another. He is the Alcibiades or Mirabeau of history: the
rake who turns politician in common life—mpeoBurepos yevdpevos, k.7.A.

Tapamimrovon ... Aaxovon| ‘the chance passion, which as it
were obtains the lot.’

€ws dv mAnpwOh] sc. ) maparecoiaa 750rn. mAnpodrv HSovny is said
with a slight degree of inaccuracy for mAnpotv émbupiar.

opéd8pa ydp| This and other strong affirmations indicate that
what Socrates asserts is corroborated by Adeimantus’ own
experience, cp. supra 556 E ed oi8a, x.r.d,

as év piogopia| ‘asif he were spending his time in philosophy’ :
as here = guast.

tavtémacw .. . év8pés| ‘You have certainly described the life
of a man who is a lover of equality.’ The compound, meaning
‘ equality before the law,’ is made to suggest indifferences as to this,
that, or the other rule of life.

kal wavrodamdv Te kal . . . peotdv| sc. ior.

Tov Kaddv te kal touxidov| not the life but the man. The
article in the predicate (rév kadév Te Kal toukidov) implies ‘ the man
whom we are seeking.’ ‘And that the man of whom we are
speaking is the fair and spangled one whom we are seeking, just as
that city was.’

As wealth, the good of oligarchy, caused the reaction to democracy,
so liberty leads from democracy to tyranny. The first stage how-
ever in this progress is from democracy to anarchy. Unscrupulous
leaders, the evil cup-bearers, mix the draughts of liberty too strong,
until the city is drunken. Then fathers fear their sons, and sons
assume authority over their fathers. The citizen, the metic and the
foreigner are all as one. The young vie with the old ; and the old
condescend to the young, lest they should be thought severe and
morose. The difference between men and women disappears, and at
last even the slaves assume the airs of free-men. Nay the very cattle
in the public roads will jostle wayfarers, as having equal rights.
The public mind becomes so restive as to be intolerant of the very
shadow of authority.

.

’

Notes: Book VIII. 397

tis tpdmos . . . ylyverat;| i.e. ris rpdmos éori rijs yevéoews airod; Republic

‘ What is the nature of the process in the case of tyranny.’

oxedév S4Aov] This is assumed as a corollary from the succession
of states. That it comes from oligarchy is clear. The question is
how does it come?

[‘ What is the character of tyranny? For it is clear that it arises
out of democracy.” ‘It is clear.’ ‘And does not tyranny arise
from democracy in much the same sort of way as democracy from
oligarchy?’ Plato begins by speaking of the character of tyranny,
just hinting that its origin is too well known to need discussion.
But then, with a certain amount of inconsistency, he proceeds to
treat the question at some length. B. J. |

tpémov twa tov abtév] ‘In somewhat the same way.’ twd is
added because the process is only to a certain extent the same.

8 mpovWevto, x.t.A.] The construction of the sentence is
interrupted by 4% yép; and resumed in 4 wAodrou toivuy dmAnotia.
mAoutou being substituted for rovrov after the digression.

[Grep |wAodros| occurs elsewhere only as an adjective (supra 552 B,
Aesch. Prom. 466). Asa substantive it may be defended by the
analogy of such words as tmépbeos, trepooguiotns, tmepOeyoroKdjs,
inépSovros. [B. J.]

[But tmep is probably a corruption of wov, which occurs elsewhere
in similar references: vi. 490 C, Vii. 533 D, ix. 572 C, 582 D, 588 B.
Other conjectural emendations are imép mdovrov (Madvig), tmep-
mrovreiv, L. C.]

év Sypoxpatoupévy moder] sc. dv.

exer te KaANCTOV] Sc. 7) Sypoxparoupervn médAts,—(1) ‘is the fairest of
its fair attributes. Cp. Theaet. 171 A roir’ gyee xopydraroy. Or
(2) ‘it has this in the highest perfection,’ i.e. better than any

other state.

Aéyerat . . . pijpa] ‘Why, yes, said he, ‘that is continually
said.’ Cp. Gorg. 465 pD rd rod ’Avagaydpov dv modd jv: Soph.
O. C. 305 wodd yap... 7d ody dvopa Sujxer mavras.

Sep ya viv 8} épdv| These words resume the thread that has
been broken off by digressions. Socrates has reminded*Adeimantus
that wealth was the principle and excessive wealth the ruin of
oligarchy, and that liberty was the principle of democracy. He

VIII,
562

B

Republic
VIII.

B

eee ST a,

ee ws

398 Plato: Republie.

now returns to his main purpose, which was to prove that excessive
liberty is the ruin of democracy and prepares for tyranny.

tiv édvapxtav| No longer liberty, but anarchy,

*kal opixpa todde| opixpd is used ironically as in i. 339 B opixpa
ye iaws, &pn, mpooOnxn. Cp. iv. 423 C Kal paddy y’, pn, «.7.d.,
and note.

7d 8 ye... €oxarov, x.7.A.| is an exclamation, softened by the
epexegesis in daov ylyvera, k.t.4. See above, 558 B 7 8¢ cvyyvoun,
k.7.A., and note.

obxody Kat Aicxddov, «.7.A.] From an unknown play of
Aeschylus. Fr. 341 Nauck.

Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity are found to exist among men
and women, slaves and freemen. The animals catch the infection.

This and some of the previous passages are translated by Cic. de
Rep. i. chap. 43. He has not however been altogether able to
‘carry the jest, which is propounded by him seriously and without
the delicate preparation of Plato. ‘Ex quo fit ut etiam servi se
liberius gerant: uxores eodem iure sint quo viri. ’Quia tanta
libertate canes etiam et equi, aselli, denique liberi sint, sic incurrant,
ut eis de via decedendum sit. The most extravagant and comical
ideas (6 tt vv HAG’ éwi ordua ;) often occur in the works of Plato.
But the manner of saying them, which enhances the humour, does
away with the feeling of bad taste and impropriety.

drexvds ydp, x.t.A.] ‘The proverb is amply verified, “like lady,
like lap-dog.”’ The proverb of course refers to assimilation of
character ;—Master Shallow’s men ‘by observing of him, do bear
themselves like foolish justices ; he, by conversing with them, is
turned into a justice-like serving-man: their spirits are so married.
in conjunction with the participation of society, that they flock
together in consent, like so many wild-geese’ (Shakespeare,
2 Henry IV, v. 1). But Plato applies it in a new sense with
reference to assumed equality. The spaniel disputes the sofa with
her mistress.

yiyvovrat, «.7.A.| ‘and there are horses and asses accustomed,’
&e.. [B: J.) ;

[After y¢yvovrar some general notion such as éAedéepor has to be
supplied. Or (2) deleting the commas and construing ylyvovra
with what precedes, we may suppose some word of similar ending,
€. g. genvivovrat, to have dropped out before te 84, x.7.A. L. C.]

Notes: Book VIII, 399

Td éndv . . . méoxw| Cp. Charm. 173 A dkove 87, en, Td epdv
Svap, cire Sud Kepdrwy cite dC edésavros eAndrvber.

mévrwv todrwy ... moet] ‘You perceive how the accumulation
of all these things renders sensitive the mind of the citizens. The
subject of wovet is to be supplied from the genitive absolute. 16
. kepddatoy is in apposition with the sentence. ‘ As the upshot

of all this when it has accumulated, how sensitive the soul of the
citizens becomes’: cp. Theaet. 182 B add’ e& aucorépwr mpods adAnda
ovyyryrouévey tas alaOnoes Kai ra aiaOnra arorixrovra Ta péev Tour dirra

yiyves Oa, ra 8€ aicbavopueva.
mpoopépynrar| Dr. W. H. Thompson conjectured mpoadépp.

kal pad’, én, oi8a] ‘I know it only too well, he said.’ The
alacrity of the response to-the description of democracy here and
supra 558c implies personal experience.

veavixy] ‘sprightly.’ This epithet is specially applied to the
exaggerated form of democracy in which liberty becomes license—
supra 562 c ff.

The excess of liberty leads to the extreme of servitude, and the
state passes from democracy through anarchy to tyranny. The
immediate authors of the change are the class of tdle spendthrifts
whom we compared to drones. Of these there are two species, the
stinging and the stingless: the former lead the way, the latter
Jollow ; while between them they have almost a monopoly of
power. For the money-making class do but afford them pasturage,
and the poor who have to work for their subsistence will not attend
to politics unless they are paid. And the drones, taking money from
the rich, will give the others just so much as may conduce to their own
purposes. The rich, driven to self-defence, incur the suspicion of
oligarchy, and power is thus given to the Protector of the people.
For the populace have always some one favourite. Let the Protector
once taste blood, and his destiny is fixed. By the law of self-
preservation he must become a wolf, i.e. a tyrant. When the
combination of his enemies becomes formidable, he asks for a body-
guard which ts readily granted him. When this takes place, then
let the rich man fly. For the Protector will cast many down, and
stand erect in the chariot of the state, a full-blown Tyrant.

tairévy ... todro| I.e. excess. Socrates raises expectation by
drawing out the analogy in the disorders of the oligarchical and

Republic
VIL.

563
D

563 E-
566 D

563
E

Republic
Vill,

563
E

564
A

400 Plato: Republic.

democratical state. ‘To this the interlocutor, Adeimantus, gives
several passive and uncertain answers. He does not see whither
the generalities of Socrates are tending. Socrates refers to his half-
expressed dissatisfaction in the words dAX’ od rotr’, ola . . . hporas
infra 5648. ‘ But this was not the point of your question’: viz.

supra 562 E m@s .. . Td To.wvroy héyouer ;
kal T@ Ovtt.. . (564 A) Hxtora| 1 dvrt marks the fresh exemplifi-

cation of a familiar truth: cp. vi. 497 D ra Kada T@ Svte yaderd,
So as ddnOas, dreyvas.

kai 84] is omitted in Par. A and some other MSS. Though
not necessary, the words are Platonic and idiomatic.

eis dyav Soudelav|] Like ofddpa piria Laws iii. 698 c.

é& otpar, «.t.A.] otmat is inserted like a particle after the
preposition.

Souhodrat abryyv| sc. Hy Snuoxpariay, or rather tiv Snpoxparoupéerny

moduv,
&hnOA, Eby, Aéyers] i.e. that was what I meant.

éxeivo .. . dkévtpois]_ ‘The pronoun refers to supra 552 c where
the ‘drones’ are first mentioned.

— év mdon Tohiteig éyyryvonévw] sc. ev 7 dv éeyyiyynabor, ‘ wherever
found. After tapdrretov, rv modiretay must be supplied from év
mdéon Todtteia, ‘make confusion in every state where they arise.’

pdéypa te kat xohkyn] According to Aristotle, Prob. i. 29, xoAy is
hot and ¢déypa cold. The hot humour answers to the stinging,
the cold to the stingless drones.

pedtroupyév| ‘maker of honey,’ is the reading of the first hand
of Par. A. The other reading pedsrrovpydv, ‘ bee-master,’ is the
more common, if not the only form elsewhere, which may be
regarded as a reason either for adopting or rejecting it. It is also
more directly in point.

éxtetpyocecOov| The rare fut. perf. is very expressive,— that
they be extirpated once for all.’

&Se roivuy... kal éxer] The object of AéBwper, sc. rd mpaypa, is
easily supplied. There is a tendency in Plato to omit the case
after verbs which describe dialectical or mental processes, e. g.

dvadaBeiv, diopifer Oa, dvaykagerv.

Notes: Book VITT. 401

7 Tovodrov yévos| SC. Td THY Knpnver.
80 éfouolav] Cp. supra 557 B, D

éxrds Sdlywv| Public offices with few exceptions are filled by
this class of persons. What exceptions Plato had in his mind we
can only guess. He may be referring to institutions like the
Areopagus, or to individual statesmen like Pericles: cp. infra £
xopis Twav ddlyor, 4

mpootLov BouBet| ‘settles and keeps up a constant hum.’

BXirre.] There is no reason why this verb should not be used
intransitively, but it is rather confusing to have it so with BXicevev
following in the active meaning, and Ruhnken (Tim. p. 63) was
perhaps right in reading Bdérrerat.

kaodvrat] implies that the rich are now a separate class.

adroupyot}] ‘who work with their hands:’ not, as the word
elsewhere means, ‘tilling their own land.’ They are here opposed
to the employers of labour.

kal dmpdypoves| ‘and keep out of politics.’

gore ydp . peokaneara! §aud belongs to the whole sentence,
not to tovety ‘oa —‘are not often disposed to do so.’

One of the great problems of democracies has ever been how to
make the mass of the people use their infinitesimal share of the
government. The power which they have is so small that it is
very partially exercised except in times of revolution and excite-
ment. The Athenians solved the difficulty by giving the ecclesiasts
as well as the dicasts ‘a little honey.’ Cp. Aristoph. Wasps
655-679, and Dem. Olynth. iii. 37, §§ 35, 36.

The history of Athens in the century after the Persian War, and
especially of the oligarchical party,—hardly loyal in the time of
Pericles and Ephialtes, and in the later years of the Peloponnesian
War usurping the government, which they afterwards accepted
from a foreign power in the name of the Thirty Tyrants, and the
political reaction to which the remembrance of this tyranny as
well as of the older one of Pisistratus gave rise, is the best
commentary on this passage.

13 thetotov adtot éxew| Cp, especially Thuc. iii. 38 and 42.

petahopBdver ...odrws| ‘Why, yes, to that extent the people
VOL. III. pd

Republic
VII.

564
D

565
A

Republic
Vi.

565
Cc

C

402 Plato: Republic.
do share:’ i.e. they have what their leaders are willing to leave
them.

eicayyediat} ‘impeachments,’ viz. against the oligarchs for

arbitrary conduct, leading to reprisals on their part.

ds dpa... AdK@ yevéoOar| 46 yevodpevos, x.7.A., which is an
anacoluthon, is resumed in tote.

évés] SC. omAdyxvou avOpwrivov,

The legend is told in Pausanias viii. 2 Avkdwv 8€ émi rév Bapor rod
Avxaiov Awds Bpépos fveyxev avOpwrov kai €bvoe rd Bpépos, Kai Eomecev
émi rod Bapod rd alya, Kat adrdv adtixa ent tH Ovaia yeverOa Aixov hyo

> A > LU
avtt avOparov.

éuudtou aipatos|] His fellow-citizen is regarded as his kinsman.
For an account of the wide prevalence of similar beliefs and
various conjectures respecting their origin, see M¢Lennan’s article
‘Lycanthropy,’ in Lucycl. Brit., ed. ix.

yddtry . . . dvociw| The tongue and lips which make the
slanderous accusation are vividly imagined as actually tasting
blood.

droonpaivy | For troonpaivey = ‘to indicate or intimate a line
of action,’ cp. Thuc. i. 82, § 3 épavres qyaey f5n Thy Te TapacKevyy Kai
rovs Ndyous avrf duoia bToonpaivovtas. elpaptat adds solemnity. It is
a law of Destiny.

otros . . . ylyverat, K.7.X.] obtos is predicate. ‘The leader of
the faction against the rich becomes that person’—the man who is
destined to turn wolf.

SiaBdddovres tH Woder] ‘by setting the citizens against him,’
For the construction cp. Phaedo 67 £ d:aBéBrnvra peév ravraxy TO
o@part,

Td $} Tupavvexdy airnpa, «.7.A.] airetv infra is the explanation of
atTypa.

adrots] sc. ro Syup supplied from tév Sipov supra, marks
ironically the personal interest which the people take in their
Protector. The simplicity or stupidity of the people, who are
compared in vi. 488 a, B to the deaf and short-sighted ship-master,
is a favourite theme of Plato in the Republic.

tov Kpoiow yevonevov xpnopdv| Herod. i. 55.

Notes: Book VITI. 403

& 8é 8} mpoordrns, x.7.A.] adrés contrasts the position of the Aepudblic

tyrant with that of the adversaries whom he has overthrown. The
passage recalls the description of the triumphal return of Pisistratus
in Herod. i. 59, 60. The allusion to Homer, Iliad xvi. 776 ketro
péyas peyadwori Achacpévos inmoouvdwr, is evident.

What sort of happiness has the tyrant and the city which ts
under a tyranny? In his early days, the tyrant ts all smiles and
promises and humbleness, making gifts of lands to all and sundry,
but especially to those who serve him. But there comes a time when
he must stir up wars, that the people may require his leadership
and that he may drain the resources of the powerful and also expose
' his private enemies to danger. War brings unpopularity, and some
of those who helped him to his throne find fault with him. He
must put these out of the way, and gradually he is compelled to
‘ purge the commonweatth’ of all high-minded, brave, and able men,
leaving only the dregs of the populace. At the same time, to secure
his power, he must increase his body-guard with mercenaries and
emancipated slaves. These are ‘the wise companions whose inter-
course, as the tragic poet says, ‘makes the tyrant wise. —And tt ts
because they say such things that we refuse to admit the tragedians
into our state and bid them go elsewhere. They will breathe most
Jreely, where the form of government is worst !—But we wander
Jrom the subject. Thus installed, the tyrant will, as long as he can,
support his armies by robbery of temples and confiscation: and
when that source fails, he will tax the people. Lf they resist, he will
disarm and strike them, though he will be striking his own father.

Bporés| is a poetical word and is chosen to express abhor-
rence :—‘such a creature. The strain of irony mingles with
contempt in such expressions as xdAd\wros davnp, Kaddioty Tod«reia,
riv evdatpoviay tod avdpds, «.7.A., Cp. SUpTa 562 A, 563 E.

Tats pev Tpwrats tpépats, «.7.A.] cp. Hotspur on Bolingbroke
(‘this king of smiles’) in Shakespeare, 1 Henry JV, i. 3, 246.

Srav 8€ ye . . . kataddayy] ‘but when in his relations to
enemies without he is reconciled to some and destroys others,’ &c.
The irregularity of the language is softened by the possible con-
struction of mpds éx@pods with katadAayy, and the resumption of
€xOpous in éxeivwv. For fouxia éxeivwv cp. Herod. i. 45, § 4 émed re
Houxin tav dvOpdmwy eyevero mepi To cima,

pd2

Republic
VIII.

567
A

568
A

404 Plato: Republic.
otxody .. . émBouhedwow ;| cp. Arist. Pol. v. 11, § 8.
tara 8)... (B) wodirats;] roo, sc. coriv. Eromos is one

of a class of words, dios, djdos, &c., with which this ellipse is
common. In the following sentence mwappyoidleobar is governed
by éroumdv éeorw, or by a more general notion to be gathered from
évdykn and €rowpov.

odkodv Kal Tivas Tov guyKatacTyodvtwy| Cp. again Shakespeare,
1 Henry IV, Act iii. sc. 1, Act v. sc. 1 (Worcester’s speeches).

Smefaipetv] ‘to remove. Par. A reads tmegaipew by a frequent
confusion. For émegatpetvy in this sense = ‘to put out of the way,’

cp. especially Thuc. viii. 70, § 2 (of the Four Hundred) dvdpas ré

pe 6. > , a sy > U > © a
TLVAS ATEKTELVAY OV ToAovs, ol €Sd0Kouv emuTnOetot €lvat bmefarpeOjvar.

c

ds goxe ydp| sc. evar. dvdyxy is the subject of éouxe.
einep dpger|] ‘if he is to be master.’

peta pavdwv tov woAdGv| not ‘with the many bad’ (as in the
translation) but ‘ with companions most of whom are bad.’ Cp. ix.

579 B tro mavr@y Todepiov.

tov picOdv] ‘the necessary pay.’ It is assumed that he can get
no service voluntarily.

ti 8€;| The early editions read rods 8, which is not indefensible
though weakly supported by the MSS. ‘And when he has guards-
men on the spot, will he not prefer to employ them?’ Par. A and
nearly all the other MSS. give ris 8 (‘but who would not wish to
get them on the spot?’) This meaning is forced and inconsistent
with the dpa which is weak even if changed to dpa. The most
probable variant is that of the Munich MS. g which was preferred
by Stallbaum, and is adopted in the text :—‘ Well, but will he not
choose to take retainers (dopvpépovs moujoacGac) from the spot?’
According to any way of taking the passage some general notion
such as AaBeiv or roujoacda must be supplied with ébeAjcerey from
petaméperat in the previous sentence.

oi véou wohitat| viz. the foreign mercenaries. {dvevow, sc. air.

mukvis Stavolas éxdpevov| ‘characteristic of a shrewd wit.’ Cp.
vi. 496 A ppornaews . . . dAnOwwijs éxdpevor.

&s dpa... cuvougia] The line cool tépayvor tay copGy ouvoucia
is variously ascribed by the scholiasts to an unknown play of

Notes: Book VITT. 405

Euripides, and also to the Ajax Locrus of Sophocles. See Nauck,
Frag. Soph. 13.

rourous | (1) may refer to ofrot of éraipor supra: ‘these’ (i.e. the
associates Plato has mentioned) ‘are manifestly the wise men meant
by Euripides:’ or (2) with a comma before féveotw, ‘these are the
wise,’ viz. the people with whom the tyrant consorts.

kal ds iod@edv y’, pn ... morntat] The line to which allusion
is made is Eurip. Troad. 1169 ydpwv re kai tis ivobéou tupavvidos.
See also Phoenissae 503-506.

torydprot .. . (C) koppot] The poets, who are ironically supposed
to be of a gentle nature, as the law has been already passed,
‘do forgive us’ for expelling them. Hence the present (gvyytyvd-
oxovow) as well as the future wapadegdpeba.

Euripides is said to have visited the court of Archilaus king of
Macedonia; Pindar and Simonides, perhaps Aeschylus also, were
familiar at that of Hiero. Was Plato himself the friend and
intimate of Dionysius? The manner in which the relation is
here spoken of is at variance with such a supposition, for which
the spurious epistles are not a sufficient warrant; and which may,
perhaps, like the meeting of Solon and Croesus in Herodotus, be
a moral sentiment rather than an historical fact. Whether Plato
‘was or was not a good citizen,’ no one was ever more intensely
penetrated with the Greek feeling against tyrants.

Kahds duvds ... picOwodpevor| viz. of those who are called the

poets’ bmnpéra, supra ii. 373 B pay@dol, imoxpirai, xopevtai:

é€éBnuev| ‘In this we have been making a digression.’ The
reference to Tragedy beginning at supra A ov« érés was a digression.

74 tav dmo8opnévwv| This cannot be right. Par. A reads
A

dro8opévwv, the X above the line being possibly by the first hand.
The reading drodopévwr is also found in the Munich MS. g¢. Baiter
reads kal ra tév drodopevwv, which has the merit of giving regularity
to the syntax. But the deferred apodosis (for which cp. especially
ix. 575 A Tov éxyovra re and note) offers no real difficulty, and the
suspended construction, to be resumed again after ti 8 Stay, «.7...,
is more suitable here than a passing reference to the proscription,
which was a faz/ accompli at 567 c (cp. also supra A tobs mporépous
éxeivous dmodéous). Stephanus proposed ra rév drodiopévwr. But

Republic
VIL.

568
B

Republic
VITZ.

568
D

569
A

406 Plato: Republic.

even the present tense dmodidocba hardly occurs with passive

meaning. The reading amodopéroy is very possibly a corruption
of mwAoupévwv. ‘First he will make use of what sacred treasures
there are in the city,—so far as the proceeds of what is thus
exposed for sale suffice, reducing the contribution which he exacts
from the people.’ [L. C.]

édv 8€] av re, the reading of Par. A, &c., is difficult to explain,
and is not satisfactorily accounted for by Schneider, who supposes
it to answer to a suppressed édv re wn. It is better either to omit re
or to read édy 8é, as in the text, with two MSS.—m (the Cesena
MS.) and v (Angelicus). The latter alternative seems further to
involve the omission of 8€ in was [8] Aéyers ;—mds Ayers ; elrrov"
édv 8. The apodosis is supplied by the answer yvéoertat ye, x.7.d.
(infra).

katéorncey | ‘established,’ sc. @s mpoorarny rod Sypov.
dmé| ind is the reading of the MSS., but is clearly wrong.

kal viv... éehadvwv;| It may be doubted whether (1) kat viv
kedever is dependent on 6m, and the indirect form of kat viv
kedevw ; Or (2) the preceding construction has been forgotten and
kat vov kedever is an independent clause. The former is more lively
and every way more probable.

ydoetai ye... efeXaver| for ndge cp. supra 565 c abgew péyar.

kat, Td Neyduevoy, x.7.d.] ‘And as the saying is, the people who
would avoid enslavement to free-men, which is smoke, have fallen
under the tyranny of slaves, which is fire.’ For the proverbial
phrase cp. Shakespeare, As Vou Like It, i. 2, 270 ‘Thus must I from
the smoke into the smother; From tyrant Duke unto a tyrant
brother.’

SovAwy Soudeiay petapmoxdpevos| i.e. they are enslaved by
slaves (cp. supra 567 £), which is the most galling form of slavery.

Notes: Book IX. 407

BOOK IX.

The tyrannical individual alone remains. To know how he arises 9 ep

out of the democratical man, and whether he lives happily or not, we
must examine into the nature of the desires. There are some of them
which are active only in sleep, but in our dreams are capable of any
amount of lawlessness. Now the democratical man, as we found,

deliberately gave play to every impulse in its turn, and we imagine.

him in later life to have a son, whom he has brought up on the
same principle of indiscriminate indulgence. But the son is led
away by the temptations to which his father had yielded only in part,
and after various oscillations between counter-influences, at length
a master-passion ts planted in his breast.

Aowmds yap odv| odv adds emphasis which can hardly be
expressed in English: ‘why, yes, he said, he is indeed the only
one remaining.’

7 tov émBupidy, x.7.A.] The thread is taken up from viii.
558pD ff. where the distinction between the necessary and un-
necessary pleasures is first clearly drawn. The unchaining of the
lower nature, which had been arrested at a certain point (viii. 561 a)
is now to be followed to its consummation, and the working of the
desires must therefore be more minutely described.

obxody ... ér év xah@;] ‘Is not the inquiry still open to us?’—
év kah@ as in Soph. Elect. 384 viv yap év kao dpoveiv.

at KwSuvedoucr ... mayti] ‘which appear to be innate in every

man.’

éviov pev dvOpdémwv] ‘in some persons. ‘The genitive follows
7Sovat kai ém€vpiac resumed from the beginning of the sentence, and
is to be repeated with dwadAdtreoOar. The latter word is passive as
in Vill. 559 A, B

tév 8€] ‘but in the case of others,’ answering to éviww peév.

Aéyers 8€ Kai... radras;| ‘and further let me ask, which do
you mean by these?’ at is expressive of the surprise and interest

which arises about the new point. Cp. Soph. O. T. 1129 zoiov
dvBpa wal Aéyers ; Herod. ix. 25, § 2.

a ae
573 B

Republic
IX,

571
C

408 Plato: Republi.

éxeivou| Sc. tov émévyntixod, to be gathered from what precedes,
Viz. TO Tov émOvpeay supra A.

év 7@ tootTw| is the resumption of the previous sentence
dtav ... 40, which in turn is the explanation of the clause tas .. .
éyetpopévas.

pytpt te ydp, x.t.4.] Cp. Soph. O. T. 981:

ToAAol yap Hon Kav dveipagw Bporay

pntpt EvvevvacOnoar.

émxetpetv] From the irrational element of human nature we
here pass insensibly to the person in whom it is active.

ds olerat| ‘in imagination.’

Bpdpards te dréxeoOar pndSevds| ‘to indulge in any sort of food.’
Plato ‘is preparing for the mention of the tyrant, infra 574 8, who
in x. 619 c is supposed to eat his own children. In the latter part
of the sentence the negative form of expression odSév éxvet is lost
sight of, and the general sense of toApa supra is continued.

bytewas . .. adtds attoé| attod is a genitive of relation, like
Kaas éxew atrov. The passage which follows is translated by
Cicero, de Divin. i. 29.

eis auvvotav adtés ato] ‘having come to reflect upon himself.’
cvvvoa has the meaning of ‘reflexion,’ ‘deep thought’ (cp. Aesch,
Prom. 437 ouvvoia d€ ddrropa xéap),

évSeia Sous} Cp. infra 574. mAnyais te Sodvar: Phaedr. 254

ddvvats EdwkeE.

&AN éa, K.T.X. | sc. to BeAtiorov. Par. A p- m. has épéyerOar Kai
aigOaveoOar. Par. A corr. has épéyeo@ai tou kat aic@dvecOar: the
remaining MSS. have dépéyeo@a rot aicéavecOu, If the reading
dpéyeo@ai tou Kat aicPdvecOar is sound, the meaning is ‘it leaves the
soul free from pains and lusts to pure contemplation, and to aspire
further (kat) to perceive something which it knows not.’ But the
words kat aic@dveoOat should perhaps be struck out and the accent
restored to tov. The rational principle is imagined as feeling after
that in sleep which it may hope to comprehend in waking. Cp. x.
611 E olwy epierar duidcav.

kaSev8y| is a resumption of eis tov Smvov ty, which is again

Notes: Book 1X, 409

repeated in dvamavynrar: ‘and does not go to sleep in a state of
angry excitement because of a quarrel against some one.’

Tis T adnfeias ... Grreror] These words are not to be taken
generally, but with reference to the time of sleep. When he goes
to rest with his passions calmed and his reason awakened he
attains more truth than when he goes to rest in any other frame of
mind.

taita pev... éotiv| ‘In saying these things we have digressed
further than we intended: but the point on which we wish to
remark is this.’

Cp. Arist. Eth. Nic. i. 13, §§ 12, 13 ravrns pev obv own tis dperi Kal
ovk avOparim haivera’ Soxei yip ev trois Umvas evepyciv pddiata Td poptov
Tovro Kal 7 Sivas airy, 6 8 dyabds Kat Kaxds Fxiota diddnrou Kal? Urvov
(d6ev haciv ovdev dSiahépew rd Hycv Tod Biov rods edSaipovas Trav dOdiwv*
ovpBaiver 8€ rovto eixérws* apyia yap éatw 6 Unvos tis WuxAs éyerac
orovdaia kai havdn), mA ef pi KaTa puxpdv Stikvodvrai Twes TOY KUNTEwD,
kal ravtn BeAtio yiyvera ra havrdopara Tav émetkav h Tv TvydrTOV.

The truth seems to be, as Aristotle implies, that dreams have
little or nothing of a moral nature; théy are not the passions
let loose from the control of reason, but physical imaginations of
good and evil in which the will is almost, if not entirely, absent.
Dreams are ‘decaying sense’; they are the recollections of our
waking life fancifully combined by associations which have no law;
and sometimes the animal desires, but hardly ever the malignant
ones, find an expression in them.

kat mdvu...elvar] ‘Even in some of us who unquestionably
seem to be virtuous men. kat mdvu is to be joined with Soxodow.
petpious, ‘not in excess,’ and therefore, according to Greek notions,
‘ good and virtuous.’

jv] ‘He arose, did he not (mov), through being trained from
his youth upward under a miserly parent?’ (supra viii. 559 D).

mawdias te Kal kaddkwmopod gvexa] ‘Disregarding the un-
necessary, which have for their object only amusement or
ornament.’

els... 73 exeivev el80s] ‘To their fashions.’ ef8os is the plan
or mode of life adopted by the men. Cp. Thuc. viii. 56 rpémerac
ent rodvde elSos. Ficinus gives mores (jos?) : cp. vi. 497 B.

Republic
1X.

572
A

410 Plato: Republic.

Republic éxdotwv| sc. ndvrev dv dy éxdorore drodavy (cp. viii. 561 B).

aA.

572 oltre dvehedOepov ouTe Tapdvopor | i.e. in the mean between

OAtyapxia and dvapyia,—ovdév paddov eis avaykaiovs i) pi dvayKaious
ndovds dvadicxwy (viii, 561 A), Blov ivovoptxod tus avbpds (ib. £).

és roivuy...ti@e.] The present tense is appropriately sub-
stituted for the aorist, because in what follows attention is drawn
not merely to the fact of his education which is presupposed, but
to his way of life which is represented as continuing.

E dvopaLopevny 8] ‘which however is termed.’ Cp. Herod. vii.
155, § 2 bd... trav oferépwr Sovhwv, kaheopévwv Sé KvAdupior.

tais év péow] Supra D xaréorn eis péoor,
tods 8 ad] sc. rovs d:apOeipovras, supra Cc.

Ta Eroipa Siavepopevwv| ‘which divide his means among them.’
Cp. Vili. 552 B Trav éroipwv dvadoris.

573 tav tovodtwy| ‘of men like him,’ in whom the lower nature is
predominant.

573 A-C The master passion, a great and winged drone, leads the swarm
of other passions buzzing tn his train. They feed and pamper him
until his sting ts grown, when he is surrounded with a body-guard
of furious lusts, which kill or banish what remains in the man of
prudential and conventional virtue. Has not Passion long been
called the tyrant of the soul? Is not the drunken man a lord?
And do not madmen fancy that they can rule over th: Gods?

573 mept adtév...(B) év alt@... map attod| mept adrdy, i. e, They.

A monster winged drone. év adro, i.e. the man,—not év air@, ‘in
the drone,’ for good opinions and desires could hardly be supposed
to exist in him, and odros 6 mpootdrys tis Wuxs must be the
subject of AdBy: map’ adrod, i.e. the monster winged drone. The
subject of xa@jpy is the drone and the object is the man.

owwv| The rare plural may imply variety of wines (Xen. An. iv.
4, 9), but is rather simply ‘magnific,’ dévepévev is a ‘ dragging
predicate’ implying a relative clause (cp. vii. 532 c) ‘ the pleasures
found in such society, which are dissolute.’

ind pavias] A crowd of mad thoughts and fancies supply the
place of the tyrant’s body-guard—viii. 566 8B. The manner ‘in

Notes: Book 1X. 4ir
/

which the metaphor is harmonized and sustained by the ‘ buzzing
of the appetites, and the ‘sting of desire, which is implanted
in the monster drone, is very characteristic of Plato, in whom such
continuous metaphors are used not merely as images but as links
of connexion. In the same manner, by the use of the word
mpoorarny 572, continued in the mpoortdrys tis puxijs, the master
passion is gradually developed into the demagogue or leader of the
people.

movoupévas xpnords| ‘regarded as good.’ rotoupévas is one of
those disparaging additions which Plato often employs, and here
refers to the respectable ideas and motives which hold the desires
in check when philosophy is absent. See above in the description
of the oligarchical man (viii. 554 £) edoynpuoveorepos dv moAdav...
ei, and in the progress of his son {viii. 560 a) aidods twos eyyevopevns
€v tj Tov véov Wuxn. This use of the passive roeicba, although not
supported by parallels from other writers, appears to be sufficiently
established by the passages quoted on vi. 498 a. Another meaning
suggested here is ‘ good opinions in process of formation.’ But
this use is no better authenticated, and it is out of keeping with the
rest of the description to suppose any genuine tendencies to virtue
springing up afresh at this stage of the downward career.

kai pavias| «ai, although found in Par. A and several other MSS,
is probably spurious.

kal phy... dpxew] Cp. Soph. Aj. 116, where Ajax gives his
orders to Athena. troxveiv suggests mental dzsturbance or excitement,
mapakiveiv rather alienation or derangement. ‘There is no reason why
broxveiv Should not also be used intransitively.

Plato, in introducing a new sense of tupavvexds, illustrates his
meaning by metaphorical uses of the word in common parlance,—-
ra poprixa .. . mpooéporres (iv. 442 E).

dxpiBds | = rh axpiBei Adyp: ‘in the true sense of the word.’

*évnp| This word is probably the subject and should be dévmp,
although the MSS., as usual in such cases, read avyp. The presence

of the article is proved by the lengthening of the alpha in similar
places of tragic dialogue.

The life of riot which ensues awakens clamorous wants, which are
supplied through rapine, until he robs and beats his parents, whom

Republic
IX.

573
A

577 Ez
575 A

Republic
LX,

573 C-
575A

574
B

io er a :

412 Plato: Republic.

he makes subservient to the meanest object of his desires. Then he
breaks into houses, and robs temples, while the newly enfranchised
lusts, that were formerly chained down except in sleep, overpower his
respectable ‘democratic’ prepossessions. The master-passion ts now
tyrant to the height, and leads the soul that is under his dominion
into every excess of crime, being ministered to partly from without
and partly from within.

Td tov... pets] ‘As people say in jest, that is not my business
to tell you, but yours to tell me.’ kat is idiomatic, giving a sly
emphasis :—‘ That is just what you have to tell me.’

map adrois} ‘Amongst them,’ viz. the man and his com-
panions: cp. supra A trav towtrwr, also infra 575¢. Such
monstrosities ‘ never come single.’

Gv av "Epws| dy is governed by “Epws. ‘Whatever things are
objects of the tyrant Passion that lives within.’

trapaBhactdévoucw| ‘spring up beside’ the master-passion.
The image is that of young saplings shooting up at the side of
a tree.

Tis ovcias mapatpeoers| ‘encroachments on his capital’ :—he
parts with some of his estate.

Srav 8€... Bracdpevov;| The passage is imitated by Longinus,
de Sublim. xliv. 7, where a poetical image is converted into
a rhetorical figure.

tods 8€| Still referring to the tyrannical man and his comrades
who resemble him :—supra zap’ atrois and note. The alternative of
sing. and plur. prepares for infra 575 A kal dv pev.. . dAtyor. .. Sot, K.T.A.

opddpa y’, py} SC. dvayxn.

dvaykatov ... épew| ‘he must get money from each and every
source ’—carrying on the notion of violence contained in é&pehéo@ar.

od mdvu . .. rovodrou| ‘I do not feel at all comfortable about the
parents of such a gentleman as this.’

mpds Ards] here as elsewhere, like 6 @aupdore supra, indicates the
rising excitement of the speaker. There is a play on the word
dvayxaios in the two senses of mecessifas and necessttudo,—‘ who is
bound to him by the closest ties.’ Cp. vii. 527 A dvayxaiws and
note. ;

Notes: Book IX. 413

mAnyais te Sodvat, x.7.A.] In these words Plato is preparing for
the actual tyrant: cp. infra 575 D édv 8€ yi) emerpérmp, K.7.d.

émXiny| The reading is doubtful between émAiry, ‘fail,’ and
émadeinn, ‘begin to fail.’

vewxopyoet| ‘He will clean. out, i.e. plunder, ‘a temple’ :—
a playful litotes like ‘convey’ in Shakespeare. This point in the
individual answers to viii. 568 p, E in the account of tyranny :—édv
te fepa xpyuata 7}, K.T A.

Tas Sixaias moroupevas| The reading S:xalas was restored in
place of dikas by Bekker from Par. A; in which, however, it is
a correction, though apparently by the first hand. The phrase is
a repetition of supra 573 B édv twas év aire dd€as f émOupias AaBy
mowovpévas xpnotas, where see the note. The reading of the other
MSS., ras Sixas ovovpévas, meaning, according to Stallbaum
‘which gave judgement about things good and evil,’ is equally
doubtful in point of Greek and of sense. The ‘opinions’ are
those imparted to him by his democratical father, who still
respects, or fears, the law.

ai vewotit . . . NeAupévar] Cp. supra 571 B Kodafdpeva, xK.7d.,
infra 575 A tov S evdobev . . . edevOepw6evra. This point recalls viii.
567 E.

tupayveuBeis 8€ bd “Epwros| ‘But now that he is under the
dominion of the great Passion.—The subject is changed from
ai veworl éx Sovdeias AeAvpevae under the influence of the preceding
clause Ste fv attéds, x.7.X.

Bpdparos| supra 571 D and note.

tov Exovtd te adtév] The particle te after €xovra is probably
genuine; but the construction is broken off and resumed in 4v
pév, «7.4. which follows, the immediate consequences being thus
distinguished from the ulterior result. Plato readily passes from
the individual to the state, and plays with language in the transition
from one to the other.

adréy te kai tov wepl aitév| The reflexive pronouns refer to "Epws.

tov... @dpuBov|] The rabble-rout in attendance on the master-
passion. The racket and turmoil (viii. 561 B) are poetically
substituted for the crowd which makes them.

ims tav adtav tpémwv Kai éavtod| ‘By those same dispositions

Republic
IX.
574

Cc
D

-

Republic
IX;

575
A

575 A-
576 B

ia Oe 2 A” latin
. et

414 Plato: Republic.

and by himself’ (sc. rod "Epwros). The pronoun téy aétéy refers. to
the preceding words—rév peéev €fwOev, x.t.4. The master-passion,
with the help of the alien lusts which are his bodyguard (uavias

. €raxrod supra 573 B) sets free the servile lusts which have
hitherto been held in subjection. The whole description is parallel
to viii. 567 D, E. ;

Such is the tyrannical person in himself. What is he in relation
to his city? When there are a few such men, and they are kept
under, they go and serve some tyrant or become mercenaries, if there
is war; otherwise they stay at home and do petty mischiefs, such
as burglary and kidnapping, or find congenial occupation about the
courts of law. But when they have multiplied, and become aware
of their numerical strength, they pick out the man from among
them who has the most tyrannical disposition and make him
a tyrant. He ts the most lustful, the most violent of them all ;
who, before ‘his infant fortune comes to age, ts full of smiles and
‘courtesies, but when his end is gained, looks strangely on those
that helped him to power. He never has a friend, nor gets a taste
of freedom, but is ever faithless, ever unjust. We are now speaking
of him as ina dream. But when the dream becomes reality, then
ts attained the very acme of human evil.

GAdXov tad . . . TUpavvoy| dAdos refers to rupavykds avnp: they
who have the making of tyrants in them, or who are all but
tyrants, i.e. of rupayyxoit dydpes, go and find another tyrant, in
whose service they enlist.

éav... yévwvtat| ‘If such characters are bred when there is no
war. The antithesis is suggested by the casual phrase édv tou
TOELLOS 1.

opixpd .. . BéddXet] ‘A small catalogue of evils,—(even) if
there are only a few such men!’ ‘Why yes, said I, ‘for small is
small in comparison with great; and all these things in the misery
and mischief which they inflict upon a state don’t come within
a league of the tyrant, as the saying is.’ Socrates’ opexpé,—‘ small
in comparison with tyranny,’ is ironically echoed by Adeimantus.
The meaning, however, is taken up seriously in the next sentence.
A similar play on the same word between the ironical and serious
occurs elsewhere in Plato: cp. vi. 498 D Eis puxpdv y’, €pn, xpédvov
cipnxas. Eis ovdév pév odv, &pnv, ds ye mpds tov dwavra, For the
catalogue of ‘small evils’ cp. i. 344 B ff.

‘fw

Notes: Book IX. 415

mheiotov ... tépavvov] ‘Most of the tyrannical nature.’ Cp. ii.
382 D mounts . .. Wevdis ev Oe@ od« &n,—viii. 554 D Tas Tov KnpAvos
éuyyeveis .. . émiupias. The expression here keeps up the personifica-
tion of “Eps, tvpavvos €vdov olk@v, supra 573 D.

tupayvixdtaros}] ‘Most fit to be a tyrant.’ Cp. Saovduxds.

tay . . . bweixwow] For the suppressed apodosis cp. Protag.
325 D kal édy pev éxdv meiOnrar ei S€ py, K.7.d.

pytpida] like the English ‘mother-country’ for the German
‘ fatherland.’

Opéper| has a sarcastic force. ‘That is his way of supporting
her!’

rovoide | refers to what follows: ‘they are always associating with
their flatterers, cringing to those who have power to aid them, and
neglecting their old friends. —The plural again takes the place of
the singular (tod torodrou dvSpés).

mpa@tov pev... &dAdtprot;| ‘In the first place, in their intercourse
with others, they associate with their own flatterers or ready tools ;
or, if they want anything from anybody, they are equally ready to
fall down before them :—there is no attitude of friendship into
which they will not throw themselves:—and when they have
gained their end, they know them no more.’ This also is a point
in which tyrannical men resemble the tyrant (viii. 566 F).

kai opddpa ye] sc. rovovro: yiyvorra,

kepodatwodpeba . . . Torodros 4] ‘Let us, then, sum up in a
word the character of the worst. He is the man who in reality is
such as we imagined him in our dream.’

The thought of dwap and évap may have been suggested by
supra 571 Cc, D, but does not directly refer to the bad dreams there
spoken of: the word 84\Gopev is inconsistent with this explana-
tion :—not *who is in reality the monster let loose in a dream,’ but
‘who is in fact the man whom we have described in words,’
Plato’s love of climax leads to this further step. And here, as in
several other places, Socrates enlivens the thought by a transition
from the imaginary to the real. Cp. iii. 389 p éav ye... emi ye
Ady Epya reAjra, At this point the mock-heroic style passes into
seriousness. Socrates, as Chaerephon says of him in the Gorgias,
is profoundly in earnest :—'Epol pev Soxei, & Kaddixrers, ireppvas
orovdacery,

Republit
IX.

575
D

576

416 Plato: Republic.

Republic And ts the acme of evil the acme of wretchedness? Let us

f =a C compare them, Glaucon,—the five cities and the five men. The

78 4A. men will be as the cities.—For example, as the city under a tyranny

ts the most wretched of all, so is the life that is under the tyranny

of desire. Such at least is the judgement of those who are able to

look within. City and man are both seen to be enslaved under the

rule of the worst. Both are poor and hungry. Both are full of

lamentation and mourning and woe. But there is one being who

is yet more wretched than the tyrannical man, and that is the
tyrannical man who becomes a tyrant.

576 Tovodtos| aOAcos,—Sc. Pavycerat.

Tois S¢ moddois. . . Soxet] * But the many have likewise opinions
many. These words follow closely on tq éAnfeia. Truth is
one; error is manifold. He zs miserable, though opinions differ.
Plato thus signifies his contempt for common opinion. For the
turn of expression cp. vi. 500 D dtaBoAn 8 ev maou wodAn,

dvdyxy, «.7.4.] ‘that must certainly be as you say.’ yoév implies
‘whatever the many may think.’

GdXo Tt... o8rws;] ‘And must not the tyrannical man be like
the tyrannical city?’ épovérnt is an explanation or illustration of
kata&: Cp. Vill. 555 A amorotpey py Kard thy ddvyapxoupevny méAW
dpoudtyte . . . rerdyOac ;—‘ Must they not correspond in similitude ?’
The word in both places has been needlessly called in question.
The dative is like movnpia te kai dOddrnte SUpTa 575 C. GOAudrnre
would fit the context here. But Plato characteristically prepares
for what follows by using a general expression and so affecting to
keep the question open. Cp. infra 577 c rv épodrnta davapiprn-
oKOpEVos,

D tt obv dpety, k.7.A.] This reading, which is manifestly right, has
been corrupted in all the MSS. to ri ody dpa (or dpa) 4, and has
only been préserved as a various reading by the diorthotes on the
margin of Par, A.

edSatpovias| For the use of the genitive cp. v. 470 A ri 8€; yis
Te Tunoews THS “EAAnuKAs Kal olay eumpyrews. The same notion is
resumed with greater distinctness infra 577 B mas éxec edSatpovias ;

@dN’ ds xp] SC. Geardpevor &s xp, which is resumed in kataddvtes
. . kal iSdvres, ‘ having fairly looked at the whole city from within,
we will then give our opinion.’

Notes: Book 1X. 417

Gp’ ody... %topa;} ‘And shall I be right in making the same
challenge about the men, and in claiming to have as judge one
whose mind can enter into the character of a man and look through
him ; not like a child who sees from the outside and is dazzled at the
parade which the tyrannical nature assumes to those without ;—but
who has a clear insight ?’

mpdooraats, like rpooracia, rpéoxnua, here signifies ‘ outward show,’
the externals of majesty. This meaning of the word, though not
common, is defined by the clause which follows :—fyv mpds tods €§w
oxnpatiLovrar.

ei obv olotpny ... (B) Tadra mpoxadoio| The words ¢i ody, x.7.X.,
are a resumption of the previous sentence: the apodosis to them is
the answer ;—-‘ If I were to suppose, as I am saying’— ‘... That,
he replied, would like the former be a very right challenge.’

kai tadta| refers to 576 E épOas . . . mpoxadei,

Tav Suvatav ay, x.t.d.| ‘Of the number of those who would be
able to judge’: ay is to be taken with 8uvarév = duvapéver,

What follows is the answer to the question which was raised in
the first Book,—‘ Whether the life of the just or unjust man is the
happier?’ The inquiry, which had already become ‘ridiculous’
in Book iv (445 a), is once more resumed, and the answer to what
was at first an unanswerable paradox appears in the most complete
and triumphant form.

Ka’ éxactov| sc. mdOnya, anticipating Ta wa@jpata,
év péper GOpav] sc. éxdrepov,— thy re mow Kai rdv dvBpa.
és wédw eimeiv] ‘To speak of the city as a city’ [i.e. not

merely as a number of individuals]. Cp. infra & as mept éAns
eiveiy Wuxis.

dvnp| See above, note on 573 c.

optxpdv 8€ Kal 7d poxOnpératov] The ruling passion is here
spoken of as a smai/ part of the soul. The object of this, which is

hardly consistent with the foregoing description, is to render the
parallel between state and individual as complete as possible.

mod ye] SC. iuora.

kal 7 Tupavvoupévy dpa... peor) €orar] ‘Then the soul which
is under tyranny (I am speaking of the soul taken as a whole)
VOL. I, Ee

Republic
IX,

576
E

Republic
LX.

577
E

578 C-
580 A

418 Plato: Republic.

will do least of all what she wishes ;—ever violently carried away by
frenzy, she will be full of confusion and remorse.’ Cp. Gorg. 467 fi.

The harmony of affections and faculties is a far higher concep-
tion of the powers of human nature than the isolated strength of
any one of them under the name of will or passion ; which has the
appearance and perhaps the consciousness of strength, and is really
weakness.

THy Te ToLadTHY TOALY, K.t.A.] The confusion of re and yein MSS.
is so frequent, that there need be no hesitation in reading rv te
here, although it has less of manuscript support than ry ye.

d8uppods S€] 8 here rests on the authority of Ven. =:—Par. A
having re with the remaining MSS. Schneider, to account for the
variation, suggested d€ ye. [re should be adopted: there is no
objection to an asyndeton. B.J.] |

Thy te TSK Tov Wédewv] Here the variant rv ye might seem
preferable. But cp. viii. 568 p and note.

*’

ouTw...pddiora| ‘I do not think that our description has yet
arrived at the extreme form of misery.’ odtos = ‘the man before
us.’ Tovodtos = aOAwos, SC. or.

Plato is preparing a rhetorical surprise :—There is yet a worse
than the worst.

Suotuxis y| is better than dvervynon, an emendation unneces-
sarily proposed by Bekker and Cobet. There is no valid objection
to the variation of tense. ‘The present here is more pathetic,—
‘But is an unfortunate man’: cp. infra 580 a dvorvyet etvat.

Consider first the position of the tyrant. He may be compared to
the master of a household of slaves, who should be set down with
them in a desert place out of reach of aid from his fellows. Nay
more, we must suppose him to be surrounded by neighbours who are
determined to abolish slavery. He cannot go abroad, or see what
ts worth seeing anywhere, but, starved in spirit, must abide like
a woman in some inner chamber, cowering and unsatisfied.

Now suppose the man in this position to have the tyrannical
nature, such as we have described it. Must he not descend to be
the slave of the meanest, the flatterer of the vilest,—becoming daily
more avarice-bitten, more inquisitive, more envious, faithless and
unjust? Godless and friendless, he ts the entertainer and cherisher
of all manner of evil,—unhappy and causing unhappiness.

Notes: Book 1X. 419

Tekpaipopat .. . oxoweiv] ‘I should infer from what has
preceded that what you say is true. ‘Yes, said I; ‘ however,
these are not matters about which to have an opinion, but of which
one should endeavour to gain a clear conception (1) by the help
of such a process of reasoning as we now employ’: or possibly
(2) ‘Where the argument is of such a nature.’ For the latter
(2) cp. infra 579 Cc rois rowdros xaxois and note. The turn of
conversation here resembles vi. 504 D oty tmroypadiy dei Gamep viv
Oedoacbat, Adda THv Teewrdrny amepyaciay jul) Taptévat.

dcot movoror| sc. dvres, Which seems to be omitted in accordance
with the idiomatic ellipse after daos.

Siapéper . . . wAHO0s] ‘But the number of the persons over
whom he (the tyrant) rules is a point of difference.’ Cp, Xen. Mem,

iil. 4, § 12 9 yap ray iiev empédeca TAHOE povoy Siahéepe tis TaY Kowar,

oto@” ogy Sr, «.7.4.| Socrates, wanting to draw attention to
a familiar fact, treats it as a new and original observation.—‘ Did
you ever remark’ &c.? Cp. ii. 376 A ij) om rodro ebavpacas ;

ti ydp...; od8év, elwov| ‘Why should they fear them?’ ‘Oh,
for no reason.’ The negative in this and similar places merely
waives the point immediately in hand before calling attention to
something else, which remains to be said, cp. esp. iv. 424 D ovde
yap épyafera and note. The familiar phrase in Protag. 310 B—py tt
veorepov ayyeddes ; Oddev y’, ) 8 Gs, ei py ayaa ye,—is an example of
the same conversational idiom. [L. C.]

é& moiw...xal éréow] The indirect form following on the
direct is partly occasioned here by the neighbourhood of ote. Some
MSS. have z60@,—but cp. Gorg. 500 A ékdégacOa moia dyaba tov

Aa ¢ ’ 4 ‘ e Lad s
7déwv €0Tt Kal OTTOla kaka,

év wavti] sc. $68. ‘In absolute terror. Cp. Soph. 250 p
ndon avverxopueba aropia.

The single master who has many slaves is safe only because all
the masters unite for mutual protection. But suppose the family
and their slaves to be carried off into the wilderness: the case of
the individual owner is desperate. Or, again, surround the
unfortunate man with neighbours who make the possession of
slaves a crime,—and there is a worse than what seemed to be the
worst position. Both these misfortunes have befallen the tyrant :-—
he is in a solitude, and has nevertheless all mankind for his enemies.

Ee2

420 Plato: Republic.

odSév Seduevos] ‘When he has no need to do so’: i.e. being
actuated by no ordinary motive, but by fear. Cp. Plut. Tib.
Gracch. c. 21 (quoted by Schneider) deicava mepi rod dvdpis 4 Bovdr
Wypicera pydev Seopévyn méumre adrdy és ’Aciar.

év wavtt kaxod| Cp, Symp. 194 A eB pad? dv oBoto Kai év mavtt
ems: Euthyd. 301 a.

ind mévtwy wodeptwy] ‘By people who are all his enemies.’
Cp. vi. 496 D «is macw dypios avréxew : Vill. 567 D peta Pavdrwy tov
TodXGv oikeiv.

Resuming from 578 c Plato now returns to the tyrant and the
tyrannical man.

hixv Sé Gyr, «.7.d.] It is a characteristically Greek trait that the
tyrannical nature has not only the lower desires in excess, but also
unbounded curiosity, like Glaucon’s iAodeduoves in V. 475 D.

Tois TovouTots Kakois] (1) A dative of circumstance, referring to
the immediately preceding description of the tyrant’s condition.
Ast’s conjecture év rois r. x. is not necessary. The tyrant’s miseries
are increased a hundred-fold when he is of the tyrannical nature.
The extreme of wretchedness attending the combination of
character and position is greater than the evil involved in either

taken separately. Or (2) the dative may be explained as denoting

the measure of excess—The description of the tyrannical tyrant
began at 578 c: what followed was an illustration of his excess of
misery over the tyrannical individual assuch. The illustration is
now applied. ‘Do not such evils as these measure the excess of
misery accruing to him whom you just now judged to be most
wretched of all, when he is raised from a private station to despotical
power?’ wrelw kapmodrat, sc. Kaki,

és ph i&idrys| The opposition of the following clause logically
requires py @s, which recent editors have accordingly accepted from
Stobaeus and Vat. 6. But the order of words is idiomatic.

dpoidtatad te Kat ddnPdotara héyers| Cp. Soph. 252 c Kkopidy Aéyers
Gpordy Te Kal ddnbés, ’

Kay ei ph te Soxet] The conjunctive dox7—see v. rr.—has the
authority of all the MSS. but one. There are too many instances
of «i, éwei, &c., with the subjunctive to allow of confidence in
rejecting it: e.g. Laws xii. 958 pD «lire tis dppnv etre tus Ondvs 7.
[But? jv.] And xéy ei appears sometimes to be treated as = kai

Notes; Book IX. 421

édv. In Arist. Eth, Nic. vii. 7, § 1 the MSS. have kav «i péroot.
See also Pol. ii. 1, r with the note of Mr. W. L. Newman in his
Politics, vol. ii. p. 227.

kéhag tay movnpordrwy| cp. supra a Kddaf.. . Oepardvrar,

kai & Td mpdrepov elopev| supra 576 A, B, Vili. 507.

The case ts now ripe Jor judgement, and Glaucon formally assigns
to the five individuals their places in the order of virtue and
happiness and the contraries of these. The most royal nature ts the
best and happiest ; the most ‘tyrannical’ is the worst and wretchedest,
while (1) the oligarchical and (2) the democratical man come between.

iO. 8H... tupavuxdy] ‘Come now, said I, as the universal
arbiter sets forth his sentence,’ ‘ so do you also decide who in your
opinion is the first, and who the second, and the remainder, being
five in all, in order.’

The expression 6 8d mdvtwy kpirys is obscure, and cannot be
certainly explained. It has been compared to rév 8a mdvtwv
xopév or dyava, found in inscriptions :—Boeckh’s C. /. G. vol. i. 425,
1586, 1719, 1720. The words may mean (1) the judge who
decides the prizes of all the different kinds of contests; (2) or
all the prizes, e.g. first, second, third, in the same contest; (3)
the judge who gave the final decision in some musical pentathlon,
such as appears to be referred to in the inscriptions. Cp.
Herod. ii. 91, § 5 dyéva yuprixdy ribeior 81d TdONS dywvins €xovra, and
Laws ii. 658 a ti av, ef word tis odrws amas ayova Bein dvtwodv, pydéev
aopioas pyre yupuexdy pyre povarkdy pyO imixdv, dAAa mavtas Tuvayayov
rovs év TH modet mpoeimo Oels vexntnpia tov Bovdcuevoy Kew dywviov-
pevoy HdSovas mépe povov: ib. xii. 949 A kal kpiriy ad xopav Kal mdons
povouxjs. The separate contests may have had separate experts
to judge of them—évte Svtas seems to convey an allusion to the
pentathlon; and the words domep xopods xpivw in Glaucon’s
reply are in favour of this line of interpretation, for which see also
Xen. Mem. iii. 4, § 3 dadxes xexopyynxe, WAor Tots Xopois vevixnxe, The
image, however, is not consistent; for 8a mdvrwv must have
originally referred to all the kinds of performance, but is here
applied to all the competitors.

mévte Svtas| of course refers to all the individuals and not to
rods GAXous with which it is verbally combined.

Republic
LX,

579
D

580
B

Republic
Pi

580
.

580 D-
583 A

580
D

581
A

422 Plato: Republic.

kaOdwep ... elomAOov ... kpivw| ‘I assign them their places in
the order in which they came in.’

3rt 6 "Aptotwvos vids, x.7.4.] ‘That the son of Ariston’ (i.e. Best)
‘judged the best man to be the happiest’: an obvious play on
words. Cp. x. 614 B ’AXkivou . . . dAkipov,

édv te NavOdvwou, x.7.A.] ii. 366 Er. This is one of the threads
by which Plato connects the end of the Republic with the beginning.

The judgement of Glaucon,—or of the enlightened observer (supra
577 A) ts confirmed by that of the philosopher, who has the best right
to judge. For there are three pleasures, corresponding to the three
parts of the soul,—the pleasure of learning, the pleasure of honour
or victory, and the pleasure of gain. The philosopher knows them
all, but the lover of honour or of gain is acquainted only with one.
He has this threefold experience; and in him Reason which ts the
faculty of judging is far superior ; therefore he will be the most
competent to decide. And his decision ts that the pleasure of knowing
and learning ts by far the most worth having, while he assigns the
second place to the pleasures of ambition.

édv te 86g] ‘If it at all approve itself, —r adverbial.

Séferar . . . dwd8eriv] 7d Aoyorixdy, which is found before
Ségerat in Par. A and most MSS., seems to have arisen from a gloss
on tptxy, enumerating the three parts of the soul. This is con-
firmed by the reading of Par. K Aoyorixdy, émiBupntixdv, Ovpuxdv
déEerax. K although a derivative of M1 has some readings coming
from an independent source. 7é in Par. A is marked with two
dots as questionable. For the impersonal use of 8é§erat, sc. 76
mpaypa, cp. the use of deiéet, Phil. 45 D raxa .. . ody firrov dei€er, and
the like expressions.

75 pév, paper, Hv] The past tense refers to the previous dis-
cussion in iv. 439 ff.

TouTw érwvopdeapev] The dative is instrumental. ‘We employed
this to name it with.’ This better corresponds with évi . . . dvépare
supra than the various reading rovro, which has very slight
authority (Ang. v, Vat. m, Par. K corr.).

padtor &v...7G Adyw] ‘We should be most able to rest on
a single comprehensive notion in speaking (7¢ Aéy@).’

;
a a “yi , eeu

Notes: Book IX. 423

Gore... déyounev] ‘So as to convey a clear meaning to our- i a

selves, in speaking of this part of the soul.’

ob mpds Td Kpareiv, Krd.] The passionate element resolves
itself into the love of power and honour.

7 éppedds dv €xor;] 4 like 4pa sometimes anticipates an affirma-
live answer.

TouTwy| sc. ray rpiav eidav, I.e. it cares less for gain than éupds
does, and less for power than ém@vpia, The word, though pleonastic,
is in accordance with the fulness and precision of Plato’s style.
W. H. Thompson’s ravrwv, on the other hand, is over-emphatic.
The philosopher (infra 582 a) cares less for gain than for glory.
[If rejected, the word must be attributed to an accidental doubling
of TOUT@L. | C.]

kata tpédmov dv kadoipev] ‘We should give the proper name.’

™ ,
Cp. a6 tpdrov, mpds tporov,

dvOpdtrav . . . Ta mpdta] sc. yyy. ‘Three kinds in chief (or
primarily).’ For the limitation cp. iv. 443 E kal ef @dXa dita perakd
Tuyxaver dvta and note.

dmokeipevov €v Exdotw todtwy| ‘ Corresponding severally to each
of these ’—i.e. in the order of classification. Cp. Protag. 349 B
ExdoT@ TOY dvopateav TovTtev bwdKeital tts iSios ovaia Kal mpaypa. SToKet-
pevoy, not = subject-matter, but simply denoting correspondence
as in Protag. |. c.

Tpeis TovovTous| I. e. one of each kind.
tav Biwy| Cp. Arist. Eth. Nic. i. 2.

& te xpnpatiorids| ‘ First the money-maker.’ The second re
changes to 6é as the sentence becomes adversative.

Tov 8€ piddcodov, Fv 8 eyw, mowdpeOa, x.7.A.] ‘But may we
suppose that the philosopher regards the other pleasures in regard
to the pleasure of knowing the truth and in that pursuit abiding
always, not so very far from the Heaven of pleasure, and that he
calls the other pleasures necessary under the idea that if there were
no necessity for them he would rather not have them.’

In this way of taking the passage the words tis 4Sovis ob wavy
méppw have a slight irony, intended to express that the philosopher
has in knowledge the true pleasure. For woupe@a Graser and
Hermann read +i oimpe6a, which diminishes the harshness of the

pe
A

B

Republic
IX.
581

D

582
B

4ag*” Plato: Republic.

expression vopilew tas GAas HSovas mpds Thy Tod eiSdévar TaAnOes Sry
gxet, With xadetv, dp’ otk oldueda has to be supplied from ti
oidpe8a, in which there is also considerable harshness. In the
translation ti otépe8a has been read not without hesitation, as it is
difficult to account for the same error, however slight (# for r:)
creeping into all the MSS, [B. J.]

tov 82 diddcopor,Av 8 eyd, *ti oidpeOa ... (E) et ph avdyKn jv; |
‘And what, are we to suppose, is the philosopher’s estimate of other
pleasures in comparison with that of knowing the truth as it is and
being evermore engaged in such an intellectual pursuit? Must we
not think that he accounts them far removed from true pleasure,
and that he calls them necessary and nothing more, inasmuch as,
apart from knowledge of the truth, he has no wants but what are
absolutely necessary ?’ ti oiépeOa is Griiser’s correction of rowpeOa,
the manuscript reading, which may be strained to yield a possible
meaning (—‘ may we suppose ?’) but is ill-suited to the immediate
context, and to the reply—ed . . . Set eiSévar, which exactly fits
oidpeBa, cp. i. 341 A, B} Vill. 556 D, E. ’
In what follows, Madvig’s conjecture tiv... i5ovqv ; for which see
y. 1r., is occasioned by the apparent baldness of ris #Sovis in the
present connexion. But his reading, pds riyy rod eldévar radyOes dry Exe
. 9dovnv, is ill-balanced, and the last phrase too abrupt. The
word %Sovis, which is marked with dots in Par. A, is very possibly
corrupt, however, and may have grown out of &dnOiwijs through an
interlinear gloss, rjs annbie. It might, indeed, be said that in
the philosopher’s view other pleasures, as compared with that of
knowledge, were far from being pleasure at all. But the sudden
introduction of this thought in a passage of such gravity is on the
whole improbable. [L.C.]

ob mdvu méppw| sc. Sei oleoOa vopifew airdy. The force of od is
continued with kat kadetv, k.T.A. ;

modv, py, Sapeper}| The philosopher is at a higher stage of
experience than either of the two others: he has passed them, but
they can never compete with him. In the world of the money-
getter, where wealth is held in respect, something is known even of
the pleasure of honour: but neither he nor the ambitious man can

- conceive of the pleasure which the philosopher finds in knowledge.

Cp. ‘He that is spiritual judgeth all things; Yet he himself is
judged of none.’’

A heats Sls

Notes: Book 1X. 425
Tis Hovis ravrns] Sc. Tod rd dura, dan mépuxe, pavBdiver, Republic
tt Be rod prdoripou] sc, duaheper 6 pirdaogos 7 of ; =
ada tuys pév] The best MSS., including Par. A, have ddda ri

unY.

dote amd ye, K.t.A.] The order is ravres éumetpor (cial) ris ye ad
Tov rypaobat HSovijs, olov eat.

kat phy... prdoadpou| ‘And he is the only one of them whose D
experience is accompanied by wisdom.—Certainly—Further, the
very instrument by'which judgement is to be given is not the
instrument of the covetous or eapitious man, but only of the
philosopher.’

Sid Adywv trou Ehapev, x.7.A.] supra A eymeipig re Kui Hpovnoer Kai
Adyw.

tovtou| rod piroodqov.
émerd}) 8 eumerpia, K.7.A.| sc. kpiverar Ta Kpivopeva. E

kal évG... %8toTos] ‘And he amongst us, in whom this is the 583
ruling principle, has the pleasantest life.’
For a similar judgement of lives cp. Phil. 65 ff.

6 xptrjs] The argument which began at 582 ais now complete,
and the philosopher,—not Glaucon or one of ourselves,—is
admitted to be the judge.

adrod | SC, TOU Kptrov,

To add a third and crowning demonstration —The pleasure of 583 B-
the philosopher is alone real. ~ 587 B

The satisfaction of desire and that of anger only appear pleasant
through contrast with antecedent pain. Moreover the things of the |
body are less real than things of the mind ; and therefore bodily
pleasures, like the indulgence of appetite and anger, are more unreal
than the pleasures of intellect. _Most men are ignorant of this, and
looking ever downwards prefer the shadow of delight. Whereas if
the lower nature be subdued to the higher, even the lower pleasures
partake somewhat of reality, because the whole life is standing in
the light of truth.

Taira ... dxnxodvar] The two victories already achieved are 583
(1) the superior happiness of the just in Glaucon’s judgement, after

ke
ee

Republic
LX,

583
B

426 Plato: Republic.

comparing the individuals with the states: (2) the judgement of the
philosopher, accredited by his superior knowledge of true pleasure.
The third and last is the proved unreality of other pleasures in
comparison with those of philosophy. For the favourite allusion
to Zeus Soter cp. Charm. 167 a,B maw roivuy, hy 8 eyo, 7d tpirov
TO Swrppt, domep €& apyis émesxomopeOa: Phil. 66 pv th 8) 1d rpirov
T@ coTnpt, x.7.A. The association of the phrase with the Olympian
contests occurs only here.

eoxraypadypevyn | oxiaypadia is a painting in light and shade,
which owes its effect to contrast and is therefore a very appropriate
figure of pleasure,—here affirmed to be purely relative. In Phaedo
69 Bit is applied to courage and temperance, which are likewise
said to be unreal when separated from knowledge. Cp. x. 602 p
© 5) jpav ro TaOnpate THs picews oKLaypadia emBenevn yonteias oddév
arodeivet :—also Vil. 523 B, Uheaet. 208 E.

&s éy® 80x@| Compare the part of the Philebus in which the
relativeness of pleasure is discussed, especially 44 c, where the
opinion of those who deny the existence of pleasure is quoted.

Plato uses a similar anonymous formula in Lys. 215 c, probably
referring to the Heracliteans ; alsoin Phaedo 62 B, speaking of the
Pythagoreans; in Theaet. 201 p, of the Megarians (?); and of
certain anonymous physicists (friends of Democritus ?) in Phil. 20.
He is probably here alluding to these persons, whoever they may
have been,—-who maintained a doctrine not unlike that in the text,
viz. that pleasure is only an escape from pain. It is not likely,
as Stallbaum supposes, that Plato would have used this ironical
formula of a doctrine for which he had made himself responsible.
And the greater precision and fulness with which the subject of
pleasure is treated in the Philebusis one of the reasons for supposing
the date of that dialogue to be later than that of the Republic.
Both speak of a neutral condition between pleasure and pain; in
both the metaphor of health and sickness occurs; both describe
pleasure as an enchantment,—yonrefa. But in the Republic the
object of Plato is only to convict ordinary pleasure of unreality ;
in the Philebus there is an elaborate attempt to analyse pleasures,
and to distinguish true from false kinds :—the higher pleasures are
not only the intellectual, but extend also to those which are derived
from beauty of form, colour, sound, smell (here only incidentally
mentioned), and are unalloyed with pain. Here, again, it is simply
assumed that all pleasures are xujoes (583 £) and mAnpooes

Notes: Book IX, 427

(585 A,B);—in the Philebus, as in Aristotle’s Ethics, the circum-
stance of some pleasures being yevéwers and mAnpooes is adduced as
a ground for depreciating them. For the Platonic view of pleasure
see introduction to Philebus, Eng. Trans. vol. iv. pp. 530 ff.

68... dpa} ‘I will make the matter clear in the following
way, carrying on the inquiry while you answer me,’ 48 points
generally to what follows—the manner of which is further
particularized by ood... &pa. For {nrav dua cp. v. 450 £.

From the relativeness of pleasure and pain Plato deduces their
illusory and unsatisfying nature. There are two extremes, pleasure
and pain, and an intermediate state which may be described as
the absence of either. But it may also be conceived as pain or
pleasure. Health and rest are all the pleasures that a man desires
in sickness; and the cessation of enjoyment may be assumed in
like manner to be often a pain.

This is an argument characteristic of ancient philosophy, which
in modern times has no value. Pleasure is relative and contrasted,
admitting of degrees, and associated with certain bodily sensations ;
also of a fleeting and transient nature when compared with the
eternal idea, or the absoluteness of knowledge. But pleasure only
partakes in this of the condition of our bodily state ; that which is
relative or admits of degrees is not the less really existing. Even
the power of receiving intellectual pleasure is almost as transient as
the enjoyments of sense ; the permanence of objects of knowledge
must not be confounded with the continuance of our capacity to be
pleased by them. This is casually admitted in Symp. 207. But
it is more clearly seen by us than by Plato and Aristotle, who were
confused in their perception of the imperfectly abstract ideas of the
‘limit’ and the ‘ relative’; and to whom that which was incapable
of being defined seemed also to be incapable of any true existence.

és ...dpa] ‘as they find.’

to tovovtou] sc. rod Avmypoi—the absence of pain. Cp.
Vili, 566 & dray... novyia éxeivoy . . . yévnrat.

4 Hovxia] sc. paiverar, resuming todro,

obSev bytés| cp. vii. 523 B os Tis alcOjaews ovdév byes Tovovens,
Soph. 232 A Grav emotypwov tis modd@v aivyra... 7d pdvracpa
rouro . . . ovk éo8 tyes, And for yonteia, Phil. 44 c at’réd roiro
aitijs TO eraywyoy yonrevpa ovx pSoviy eivat,

584
A

Republic
LIX,

584
B

585
A

428 Plato: Republic. :

epyv éys| Between this and jw & eyo the reading is uncertain.
See v. rr.

modddxis] ‘Perchance’: cp. iv..424¢, &c.

moias| sc. rv 780v@v,—although pleasures and pains have both
been mentioned. Cp. infra 586 c éavrév and note.

ras mept Tas dopas HSovds] Cp. Phil. 51 £: Arist. Eth. Nic. x. 3, §7
ruvto & ov mepi maoas ovpBaiver tas iSovas’ dAvrou yap eiow at Te pabnpati-

kai kat Tov Kata Tas aidOnoes ai dia THs doppnocews: ib. vii. 13, § 2.

emt thy puxiy tetvoucar| Cp. Theaet. 186 c dca dia Tod odparos
mabrpara ext tiv uyxnv reive, and the account of sensation in
Phil. 38 p, Tim. 64.

kal Neydpevar| And are commonly called pleasures.’ For this
frequent formula, in contrasting common opinion with philosophic
truth, cp. iv. 431 C Trav eAevbépwr eyopévav,

odxody ... €xouow;] ‘Is this not also true of the anticipations
of pleasure and pain which precede them?’ mpd pedddvtwy instead
of wept peddcvrov, and mponoOycers instead of mpoacbnoes, are
required by the sense, and are the readings of Par. A and other MSS.
The form of the word pono Onors is singular, but is confirmed by the
use Of 7#06nua in the sense of pleasure in the fragments of Eupolis’
Anpot,

Td pév dvw, Td 8€ Kdtw] The Timaeus, p. 62 c ff., shows a clear
advance beyond the crudity of this distinction which is parallel to
the point of view in Phaedo rog. [L. C.]

kdétw T av otorto péperOat Kat &AnO% otorro] As the man who has
no true pleasure has, nevertheless, a true experience of pain.

opddpa pev... dmatavrar;| ‘they firmly believe that they have
reached the goal of satiety and pleasure, just as if they were looking
at grey when contrasted with black in inexperience of white, and
viewing pain in like manner contrasted with the absence of pain
in their inexperience of pleasure, they are deceived.’ So we may
translate, omitting 8¢ after éomep with all the best MSS. The
antithesis to pév is to be gathered from the clause kai...
ématavrat (= dratavra $é). This is a possible but not a probable
way of taking the passage. A much better sense is obtained by
the insertion of 8¢ after éomep, which is actually found in one MS,
(Munich ¢), ‘ they firmly believe that they have reached the goal of

Notes: Book LX. 429

satiety and pleasure, but as a matter of fact they are deceived
through viewing pain in contrast with the absence of pain in
inexperience of pleasure, just as they would be deceived (sc.
dnargvro dv) if they viewed (dmookomoivres = ei drockoroiev) grey
contrasted with black in inexperience of white.’

mpds 7d GAuTov odtw AUyv] W. H. Thompson’s conjectural
emendation, mpds Aviv vbr 7d Gdvrov, is certainly more logical, but
the ‘ chiasmus’ in the text is not impossible.

GANA TOAD paddoy, k.7.A.] Cp. Theaet. 142 B kai oddév y dromoy,
GANA TOAD Oaupactdtepoy, ei yi) ToLodTos jv.

odxody... texwv| ‘If this be so, he who takes food and he who
gets hold of understanding’ (icx@ a stronger form of éx@) ‘ will both
be filled.’

métepa ... (c) dperis;] ‘ Which classes of things are they which
in your judgement have a greater share in true being ?—those of
which food and drink and condiments and all kinds of sustenance
are examples, or the class which contains true opinion and know-
ledge and mind and in general all virtue?’ Observe the transition
from plural to singular in passing from sense to knowledge.

kal tadneias] The word is obelized because the abstract noun
is oddly correlated to the adjectives preceding, where xai ddneis
might equally have been said.

73 To pySémore dpoiou] The article here was added by Ast, as
below (*tod del dpoiov) by Madvig. Though not absolutely
required in either place, it might easily have been dropped by
a copyist.

ei S€ GAnPeias Arrov, od Kai odcias;] Plato wishes to show that
the unchangeable partakes of essence, knowledge and truth in
equal degrees: or rather that essence, knowledge and truth go
together. First he asks whether it has either of these qualities in
a greater degree than the others, and elicits the answer that it has
not. Then with the same object in view, he proceeds to inquire
whether, ‘if the unchangeable had less of truth, would it not also
have less of essence?’ For the sake of his argument it would
have been sufficient to obtain the admission that truth and essence
go together: that the pleasures of the body, being less true, are
also less real.

For somewhat similar inversions cp. infra 587 8, supra 582 B, c.

Republic
1X.

585
A

Republic
LX.

585
D

586
A

B

430 Plato: Republic.

It is therefore unnecessary with Madvig to suppose a lacuna
before ei.

cpa Sé adits... obrws:] sc. Hrrov ddnbeias Te Kai odoias perexerv.
Td Tv Hrrov Svtwy| Sc. mAnpovpevor,

tav pice. mpoonkévtwy| ‘with things naturally befitting ;’ i.e.
things perishable for the body, things eternal for the mind.

dmortotépas| corresponds to frrov . . . BeBaiws in the previous
clause,

péxpt madi... petags] ‘back again as far as the middle
point ’—but no farther upwards.

tauty| ‘hereabout,’ i.e. in the region below the middle. So
todto in the next clause.

76 dn Ods dvw| Cp. Phaedo 10g, Phaedrus 247 ¢ for the similar
idea of an upper heaven into which the mind is elevated.

kekupotes, k.t.A.] Cp. vii. 519 A Tas Tis yevecews Evyyeveis Somep
porrBdidas, x.7r.r. Note yxoptaLdpevor, a word usually applied to
animals (€xépra¢es ii. 372 D) and see Milton, Comzs, sub init.

‘Who knows not Circe,
The daughter of the Sun, whose charmed cup
Whoever tasted lost his upright shape
And downward fell into a grovelling swine?’

évexa . . . wheovegias] For the origin of war in luxury cp.
ii. 373 E and Phaedo 66 c kai yap modéepous kal oraves Kai payas

7Qr * , a \ ~ iY © , > ,
ovdév GAXO Trapéxet 7) TO TOpa Kal ai rovrou émOvpiat.

aSnpots képact| Cp. Aesch, Agam. 1127 pedayxépy . . . pnxavi-
pare | romret,

émhais] probably with a glance at émdaus.

7 otéyov éautav| Cp. Gorg. 493 A, B Tovro ris Wuyis od ai
> , > , > , > a ‘ > c ¢ ” ,
erOvpiat eici, rd dxdAacTov adrod Kai ob aTeyavdv, ws TeTpypevos ein Tribvs,

‘ ‘ > U > ,
dia tv amAnoTLav aTetkdcous.

TavTehas . . . xpnopwdeis Biov| ‘ Verily, Socrates, said Glaucon,
you describe the life of the many like an oracle.’

Euvetvar}] SC. rods rovovrous,

brd Tis... dwoxpaivopévats] ‘Whose colour is gained by

Notes: Book IX. 431

juxtaposition.’ dmoypaivew (Laws vi. 769 a) seems to mean ‘to
give the last touches,’ ‘ put in the high lights’ in painting.

éautav| refers to 4Sovais only, although éxarépas resumes both
HSovais and Adrats.

rovodréy te ard elvar] The life of the pleasure-seekers is like
that of men fighting for a shadow. Cp. vii. 520 c, where there is
a reference to the shadows on the wall of the den. For the form
of the legend of Helen here referred to see especially the Helena
of Euripides.

ti 8€;.. . obx érepa toradtra;| The satisfaction of anger also is
a relief from pain.

até todro | sc. 7d rot Oupoeidois mpaypa understood from 76 bupoerdés.
For the use of dampdrropa cp. Phaedr. 256 c ryv brs trav rodhov
paxapiotiy aipeow eidérny re cal duempagavro’ Kal Siampatapévw ro Aourdy
#0n, x.7.d., and for the dative, iii. 411 D Bia... mpds wavra Stampdrrerat:
Gorg. 451 D ray N6yw ra mavra Stampattopévwy.

Observe the use of @upo in the ordinary sense in the same
passage with the more technical Oupoedés.

tept Td pidoKepdés, k.7.A.] Cp. supra 580 E ff.

eimep Td BéATtoTOv . . . oiketdtatov;| Cp. Lys. 222 C mérepov
obv Kai Tayabdy oixeiov Onoopev marti, rd dé Kaxdv aAdérpiov ;

Ta €autod mpdtrew Kai Sixatw etvat| an allusion to the definition
of Justice in Book iv.

kal eis TO Suvardv tas dAnPeotdtas| ‘the truest of which they
are capable,’-—since the pleasures of @vyds and émOvyia are less true
than that of reason, cp. supra D as oldv re abrais dAnOeis NaBeiv.

6 8€ dAtyorov|] ‘but the other’ (viz. the philosopher-king) ‘is
least removed from it.

The conclusion just arrived at may now receive a mathematical
expression. The shadow, which is a surface, may be represented
arithmetically as 3X 3=9, the distance between king and oligarch
being simply multiplied into that between oligarch and tyrant. But
to fathom the depth of the declension, not 9 but the cube of 9 must
serve to express the enormous interval. The square of 9 is 81, the
cube ts 729, a number not unsuttable to human Life, for it is
a number connected with days and nights and months and years.
And if in pleasure the tyrant differs from the king so widely, how
great must be the king’s supertority in other ways !

Republic
1X,

586
os

587
B

587 B-
588 A

Republic
1X.

587
B

D

432 Plato: Republic.

tpiav Sovav, x.7.A.] Socrates, having discussed the different
kinds of pleasure and the different forms of government and
character in relation to pleasure and pain, proceeds to sum up these
differences in an arithmetical formula, or rather in two numbers,
g and 729. ‘These numbers are obtained in the following manner.
The oligarch is in the third remove from true pleasure ; the king
has the pleasure of wisdom, the timocrat that of honour, the oligarch
that of wealth, which is an unreal shadow. But the tyrant is in the
third remove from the oligarch, and his pleasure is the shadow of
the shadow of a shadow—and this a shadow thrice removed from
reality. According to the simplest computation, his life is thrice
three times less sweet or his pleasure less true than that of the
king. His shadow of enjoyment is therefore represented by the
superficial number g. (For the superficial nature of the eidwAov cp.
x. 598 a, B.) But in order to gauge the depth of the tyrant’s
misery, or conversely to estimate the so/zdity of the king’s happiness,
it is necessary to cube the simple number 9. The number so
obtained is 729.

c

5 tupavvos| not 6 rupavuxds, because we are thinking of the
extreme case of the tyrannical individual made tyrant—supra 573 c,
580c. By the force of antithesis we pass in what follows from the
Baowkds to the Bacweds, i.e. the philosophical individual who has
authority in an ideal community (vi. 497 B, C).

guyav vdpov te kal Aéyov] cp. supra A a mieiorov . . . Adyov

apéornke,

Sopupdpors| ‘armed’ viz. with stings: supra 573 E, 575 A.
They are the body-guard of the tyrant passion.

ob8€] is to be joined with eiwetv—‘ not even to express it.’

dnd tod ddryapxiKod tpitos ... Tpit eiSddw] Plato adopts the
inclusive mode of reckoning (Oligarch 1, Democrat 2, Tyrant 3),
and similarly from the oligarch to the king (Oligarch 1, Timarch 2,
King 3). Then to obtain a value for the shadow of pleasure
enjoyed by the tyrant, he multiplies together the numbers so
obtained, But when he turns to consider the solidity of the king’s
pleasure he is not contented with the square number, but taking
this as ‘linear, i, e. as a simple number, he squares and cubes it

(9, 81, 729).

edy eis tadrov... TGpev] In accordance with iv. 445 D, E.

Notes: Book IX. 433

énimedov ... av ein] ‘The shadow of tyrannical pleasure, then,
determined by the number of length will be a plain 3
figure:’ i,e. the number 9g, which is the ‘linear’ expres- CJ
sion of the interval, is also the expression of a surface, the
square of 3.

7d €iSwdov .. . iSovijs tupavvexfs| ‘The shadow, of which the
tyrant’s pleasure consists,’

kata Tov Tod pyKous dpiOydv| sc. Aoy:Copévors.

kata Sé Suvapiv kal tpitny atgfmy| (1) ‘ But if we square and cube.’
There is some doubt as to the exact process intended and even as
to the precise meaning of dvvauis. The divas of a number is
properly its square,—rd ézimedov 6 divara (Theaet. 148 a). Hence
either g : 81 : 729, as above; or 3 X 9 X 27 = 729. But in
the passage of the Theaetetus just cited, divauis is ‘the square-
root,’ and even ‘an irrational square-root’—showing that in Plato
the technical usage is not fixed. Here it may possibly mean (2)
‘any higher power,’ e. g. the cube: ‘if we raise the number,’ i. e.
g, ‘say to the third power.’

Sony, K.T.A.] SC. 6 rupawvos Tod BaciKod.

petaotpépas| sc. tov Adyov. ‘If you turn the argument the
other way about’: i.e. if you show not how far the tyrant is
removed from the king in the untruth of his pleasure, but how far
the king is removed from the tyrant in the truth of his pleasure.

; tehewPeion TH ToAAaTAaciWee| I.e. when g is raised to the
third power; [or when 3, 9, 27.are multiplied together]. It
should be remembered that Plato is only playing with numbers
and must not be taken too seriously. The number 729 besides
being convenient for the measurement of days and nights, also
included many numerical compounds, and was the expression
of many geometrical figures which gave a seeming authority
to it. If it is worth while to raise the question, we can hardly
say that Plato is in earnest: but we may perhaps say that
he was fascinated by finding a numerical expression of what he
conceived to be the truth. He did not trouble himself about
minor details, any more than in the number which he assigns in
the Laws for the population of his city.

épyxavov ... Tov dvBpoiv| (1) ‘ You have brought to bear upon
the two men’ (viz, the king and the tyrant, although the tyrant is
chiefly thought of) ‘an overwhelming calculation of the difference
VOL. III. Ff

Republic
7X.

587
D

Republic
LX,

587
E

588

588 B-
592 A

588

7 ee) oe
a

434 Plato: Republic.

between them;’ or (2) ‘you have brought down upon us
a wonderful calculation of the difference between the two men.
The image is that of a river coming down in flood and covering
everything with debris. Cp. xarayovvya in Gorg. 512 B, Theaet.
177 B. In the former case (1) the genitive totv dv8pow is governed
by xatd in composition. [If the other reading, xarameddpaxas (see
v. rr.), were adopted, the genitives would follow 8:aopérytos as in
(2). But Plato is not likely to have used such a word as xatrapwpav
without more point than can be found in it here. L. C.]

Tod Te Sixaiou Kal tod dSixou] In apposition to totv dvSpoiv.
The king is the ideal of justice, the tyrant of injustice.

édy64] ‘The calculation is a true one and we may remark
further,’ &c. The mathematical accuracy of the calculation is
made an argument for the truth of its application.

fpépat Kat vdxtes| The year is supposed to consist of about 3643
days and 3643 nights. For the approximate number cp. Laws vi.
771 C bs mdaoas Tas Siavopds ~xer péxpe Tov Sodexa amd pias ap§dpevos
mdi évdexddSos* adtn & Eyer opixpdrarov taya’ emi Odrepa yap byes yiyverat
Svoiv éortay droveynbeicaw—said of the number 5040.

kal pfves}] 12 months in a year: 30 + 4 days in a month :—
12 x (30 + 3) = 364: 2 x 364% = 7209.

To such a pass has the theory of the profitableness of injustice
come! Let us try to bring this home to our adversary’s tmagination.
‘ Three natures, we will say, ‘are enclosed within the single form
of man :—one human, one leonine, and one a many-headed beast.
And we are told that it is for the man’s interest to starve the human
nature, and enslave it to the bestial! But the praise of Justice
means that the man should set the human or divine element in
charge over the other two, to prune the desires, and train the
leonine element to help him in controlling them. That is the
purpose for which laws are made and children held under authority,
that licence may be kept in check, and the harmony of the soul
preserved. And on this purpose every wise man will concentrate
his efforts,

jw dé shel x.t.4.] Socrates, not without an air of triumph,
returns to the source ‘of the discussion, which is finally disposed
of,—the old argument of Thrasymachus, who, however, is no

Notes: Book 1X. 435

longer attacked by name, as peace was concluded between them at
the end of Book i, and Socrates would not allow this to be disturbed
in vi. 498 c pa) SudBadde, x.7.A4. He is mentioned once more infra
590 p. The question had become ridiculous at the end of
Book iv, but having proceeded so far, it was thought best to
complete the discussion by describing the forms of evil (iv. 445 C).

aito| sc. tO ékeiva déyovrx—supplied from below and from
heydpevov supra—rather than ro. . . dik supra.

ota édeyey| ‘ What a preposterous statement he was guilty of.’

ota pubohoyodvrat, x.7.A.] Cp, Phaedr. 230 a Onpiov. . . Tupavos
moAuTrAOK@TEpOV.

Milton’s description of Sin (P. Z. ii. 650, 651) has some degree
of similarity :-—

‘The one seemed woman to the waist, and fair:
But ended foul in many a scaly fold,’ &c.

See also the image of the charioteer and the two steeds in
Phaedr. 246.

hpépwv 8€| If 8€ is retained, against Madvig’s re, the fact that
the many heads are some wild and some tame, is a fresh point in
the description. 8€ is not correlative to pév,

Se.vod...(p) mewAdobw| ‘ The work implies marvellous power in
the modeller: still, inasmuch as language is more easily moulded
than wax or similar substances, let us suppose the model to have
been made.’

ToT»... 70 dvOpdmw| ‘This human creature whom we have
made,’ referring to dv@pwrov immediately above, as distinguished
from the man within.

Ste odSev . . . (589 A) GAAnAG] It is hardly necessary to observe
that (a) the multitudinous monster represents the desires: (4) the
lion, anger; (c) the man within, reason, For the first cp. supra
580 p, E 1d 8€ rpirov Sa wodverdiav evi ovk Coyopev dvdpate
mpovemreiv idio avrov.

ta wept tov déovta] This phrase prepares for the serpentine
element, which is afterwards (590 B) brought in to represent the
meaner forms of anger.

dOev .. . éykparéoraros| ‘The genitive rod dvOpdmou (1) may be
Ff2

Republic
ZX.

588
B

589
A

436 Plato: Republic.

governed by éyxpatéotatos, or (2) may be taken partitively with
& évrds dvOpwros.

EUppaxov... A€ovtos vow] Cp. iv. 440B domep dvow oraciagor-

’ ol ’ ‘ col ,
Tow Evppaxov TO Ady yeyvdpuevov Tov Ovpdv rod Tovovrov.

mpds te yap... Wéyer| ‘For whether you consider pleasure, or
reputation, or advantage, the eulogist of the righteous man speaks
the truth ; and he who attacks him has no sanity or knowledge in
all his attacks;’ dyvés is governed by Wéyov déyer, which is to be
gathered from the main drift of the sentence.

mreiQwpev, k.T.d.]| Cp. Laws x. 888 a Aéyoper mpdws oBéoarres Tov

a 7 - , 3
Oupov ws évi Stareydpevor Tv Toovrwv’ *Q mal, véos ei, K.T.A.

ot yap éxav dpaptdver] Plato falls back on the Socratic notion
of the involuntariness of error.

@ poxdpre... (D) ddcews| ‘ May we not say that things custom-
arily esteemed fair and foul have come into existence for some such
reason as this, that the fair are those which subdue to the man or
rather those which subdue to the divine the wild beast element
of the nature: that foul are those which enslave the gentle
element to the savage. The words ta pév kadd, k.7.A., are an
explanation of 8a 1d tovadra, the participle taking the place
of the prepositional phrase—rovodvta = dia 7d moveiv: ‘for this
reason, the good being those,’ &c. With ta pév kaha... aioxpa
8é we must supply daipev dv eva from av daipev yeyovevat.—vdpipa
nearly = vopifdpeva,

hapBdvev ... poxOpotdtw| This sentence is in apposition to
Todvoe.

eis dypiwv .. . dvBpav| sc. oixiar.
év TH TOLOUTY | SC. €v T@ akoacTaivery.

Td Seuvdv, TS péya, K.7.A.] 7d Sevdv is used substantively, and 76

péya éxeivo, x.t.d., added epexegetically ; ‘the dangerous thing, viz. .

that great beast.’ The reading of the old editions, without the
comma after Sewdv, is not so good.

75 ... dpe@Ses] The serpent element has not hitherto been
mentioned [but cp. supra 588 E ra mept rov déovra, where something
besides the lion is suggested. L.C.]. It is here added to account
for the meaner forms of anger. The image grows under the
artist’s hand. So in the next sentence the lion when rabid with
lust becomes a ‘ mad-headed ape.’ -

Notes: Book IX. 437

xardoe te Kal dvéce| dveors is here ‘relaxation,’ not ‘ letting

loose ’ as in dviera supra a. Since faculties are of opposites, dupds

is the seat of cowardice as well as of courage.
éxddSer] At once ‘multitudinous’ and ‘troublesome.’
éxeivou| rod dxAdSous Onpiov.

Oepamedew| follows dote: Suvyrar is governed by érav, the
construction of the earlier part of the sentence being resumed.
Cp. vi. 493 A, B, 495 D, E, and, for the imagery, vi. 493.

6 totodros} sc. 6 Bdvaveos Kal xecporéxyns.
domep Opacdpaxos weto} i. 343 B,C.
kat dp0ds y’, pn] sc. Papev supra c.

Botderar] Bovdeverar is the reading of most MSS.; but BovAerar
is the more idiomatic and probably the true one. See v. rr.

kat } tay... (591 A) dpiepev] Cp. supra iii. 4o2 a. This
mention of the inward modirefa prepares for the highly wrought
passage at the end of the book, infra 592 B. Cp. also v. 449A

,°? - bend , ,
mept idi@ta@v uxns tTpdrov KkatacKeuny.
TO... ToLOUTW] SC. BeATioTe,
my 8 G8ixodvta AavOdvew .. . AuorTeetv ;| sc. Pygoper.

«A odxi 6 pev... ylyverar] Cp. Gorg. 509, where the noble
paradox is maintained that the wicked are gainers by being
punished.

Tiptwtépay éftv KapBdver| ‘attains a nobler state.’

eis todro fuvreivas| viz. to assert the pre-eminence.of the soul
over the body. :

GAN’ det... paiyytar| ‘ But his aim will ever be that he may be
found to preserve the harmony of the body for the sake of the
symphony of the soul.’ GAN’ dei, sc. {ioet mpds rodro Bkérav. For
the change from the future to the subjunctive after drs cp. Timaeus
18 E dns. .. EvdAARorrat, Kal py tis... yeynra. [The addition of
gaivytat can only be accounted for by an attraction into the éres
clause occasioned by the occurrence of ovx érws. The preference
of the subjunctive to the future appears to be similarly caused by
the neighbourhood of neAAy. But the sentence would certainly be
more regular if paivpra were omitted. L.C.]

Republic
7X,

59°
B

Republic
1X.

591
D

592
A

592
A,B

592
A

B

438 Plato: Republic.

TH GAnPeiq povorkds| Cp. iv. 443 D. But we have now risen to
a still higher strain. |

odxoiv .. . fundaviay ;| sc. ris év rH Wuxp evexa Evppovias dpporrd-
pevos (noe.

Tod mANVous| sc. ray ypnudrwr, odk with adffoer.

py te... Tav éket] ‘That none of his elements therein (év 77
, H , lal . , **
moXreia) give way.’ For wapaxwety, ‘to give,’ cp. vil. 540,A.

kat tyds ye] The accusative looks forward to gedgerar, but as
the sentence is developed, the genitive trav pév is required by
pebdger Kat yedoeran.

ds 8 dv Adcew] sc. yyjra. Cp. Shakespeare, Macé. ii. 1, 25-29

‘M. If you shall cleave to my consent, when 'tis,
It shall make honour for you.

Vis So I lose none,
In seeking to augment it, but still keep
My bosom franchised and allegiance clear,
I shall be counselled.’

The wise man, then, will not devote himself to politics, unless by
some divine providence he has been born under the tdeal constitution.
But whether this be so or not, according to that ideal, and to no
other, he will frame his life.

vy) tov kdva| Socrates excited by the misunderstanding of
Glaucon, gives vent to his feelings in his favourite oath, ‘ By the
dog of Egypt, he certainly will in his own city, not however perhaps
in his native land.’

édv pi) Geia tis fupBq téxn| Cp. vi. 492 E 6 ri mep dv owOh Te Kai
yevnrat otov Set ev rovadty KatagTdce. TodTEa@y, Oeod poipay a’Td Tara

Aéywv ov kaxds epeis: ib. 499 C ff.
éaurov katouxiLew] Sc. ékei.

Ta yap TadTys ... odSeptas] ‘He will live after the manner of
that city, having naught to do with any other’: i.e. he will live
in the spirit of philosophy and take no part in politics, unless in
a perfect state.

Plato is not thinking of the constitution of the state on earth
corresponding to the movements of the heavenly bodies (as in vi.

Notes: Book X. 439

500 c, Tim. 47 c). The heaven which he describes is an ideal
one, answering to the individual rather than to the state. His
‘Kingdom of Heaven’ is within; and in this passage is exhibited
to us as a life rather than as a system of government. For
mapdderypa cp. especially Theaet. 176 E.

BOOK X.

The tenth book of the Republic has two parts, the first contain-
ing a final settlement of the question of poetry, the second treating
of the Immortality of the soul, which is proved and also revealed,
the myth being the crown and completion of the previous argu-
ment respecting Immortality, as the allegory of the cave in
Book vii is a figure of the stages of the mind in the processes of
knowledge as described in Book vi. A preparation was made for
the renewal of the first of the two subjects (which could be only
partially treated in iii. 391-398) by the casual allusion in viii.
568 a—p; and the way to the second of them has been indicated in
scattered hints such as are furnished by the concluding words of
the last book, and vi. 498 D «is éxeivoy rdv Biov, drav adOis yevrdpevor Tois
roovros éyrvywot Adyos: cp. also the words of Cephalus, i. 330 E.
Plato does not base this life upon another: the empire of virtue is
sufficient. But he believes another life to be the natural continuation
of this, as is sufficiently apparent from the language of the Phaedo,
Crito, Apology, Phaedrus, Gorgias, Politicus. And as in the
Gorgias the subject of Justice seems naturally to lead up to a final
judgement, so the end of Book x is also the fitting conclusion of
the whole dialogue.

The exclusion of poetry from our ideal state has been confirmed by
our subsequent analysts, which shows how dangerous imitative art
must be to those who have not fathomed its true nature. My love
of Homer makes me unwilling to say this, yet it must be said.

For what is imitation ?

There are many beds, but one tdeal bed which the craftsman seeks
to imitate. The painter represents a bed or anything in Heaven or
Earth with equal ease, because he makes not the ideal nor even the
actual bed, but only a superficial likeness of the latter. Thus he is
in the third remove from truth. As are in like manner the whole
tribe of imitators and the poet among them.

Republic
LX.

592
8

Republic
XxX.

595
A

595 A-
598 D

Republic
x

595
A

440 Plato: Republic.

kat pyy, «.7.A.] In the third book Tragedy and Comedy were
excluded from the state, but there was an intimation that possibly
something more than this was intended: 394 D tows, jv 8 éya tows
8€ kat meiw ert rovrwy: in other words, the fate of Homer was not
finally determined. A hint was also given (392 c) that the nature of
Justice must first be investigated, before the poets generally could be
brought up for judgement. The attack on poetry is now repeated
and receives a new direction. The poet is shown to be at a greater
distance from truth than was originally supposed ; he affects the
feelings only, and not the reason. These new points of view are
suggested by the divisions of the soul (iv. 435 ff.) and the doctrine
of ideas: not so much however, by the higher view of the idéa of
Good. which appears in Book vi, as the lower view, which makes
the ideas class-words, as at the end of Book v (cp. Meno, Phaedo,
Cratylus): also by the distinction of higher and lower pleasures
and desires in Book ix. ‘epi adrijs, Sc. wep ris év Adyous Kemperns
modews (iX. 592 A). ;

wkiLonev]| The imperfect tense refers to the Aorist in the pre-
ceding sentence ev 7 viv dupOopev oixiLovtes mode (at the end of
Book ix).

AGBn, K.t.A.] Cp. Meno gc obrot ye pavepd éore MGBy re Kai
Siapbopa rdv cvyyyvopever.

kairo... déyew] Cp. Soph. 217 E aidds ris pw’ exer... pay Kara
opixpoy ... moveioOar: Arist. Eth. N. i. 6, § 1 kaimep mpocdvrovs ris
roavTns (nTnoews ywopmerns dia 76 Pidous avdpas eioayayeiv Ta €tdn. SdEere
& dv isws BéeAtiov eivat kai Seiv-ént oarnpia ye tis adnOeias Kal Ta vikeia —
dvaipeiv, Gdos te Kat Hirtoaddous svras* duow yap dvrow pirow sorov
mpotimay tiv adnOecav.

dmoxwdter] ‘a feeling about Homer which has possessed me
from a child makes me reluctant to speak.’

gouxe pev ydp, k.7.A.]| So below, 598 p, Homer is called rpay@dias
Hyenov, 607 A mp@rov rev tpay@dioraey, and Theaet. 152 E kal tov mouray
of akpot ths momoews éxarépas’ Kop@dias pév, "Emixappos, tpaygdias 4¢,
“Opnpos. Cp. also Aristotle’s Poetics, chap. 4 6 yap Mapyirns avdhoyov
Zxet, Sorep "Iuds kal } Odvoceia mpos ras rpaypdias, ovr@ Kal obros mpos
Tas Kopodias. .

trav Kadav, «.1.d.] ‘who have such charms.’ The epithet is
ironical. Cp. iii. 398 A mpookvvoiper dv adrov as iepdv Kai Gavpacroy

, £ ,
kat dvr,

Notes: Book X. 441
8 hMéyw] ‘as I say,’ referring to ‘Pyréov, Hv 8 éyd, supra.

8dws] Imitation in general, as distinguished from poetry, which
is a species of imitation.

} mou...(596 a) mpdrepo elSov, x.7r.4.] ‘A likely thing then
that I shall understand! There is no reason why you should not,
for those who have the duller sight often see a thing quicker than

those who have a keener one.’ Cp. iv. 432c édv pot éropévp ©

Xp . «+ mavu poe petpios xpnoe.

Socrates, instead of modestly declining the implied compliment
of Glaucon, contrary to expectation adopts it with a kind of irony:
at the same time leaving on the mind the impression, which cannot
be effaced, of his own superiority. Soin vii. 532 E otkér’... & pire
TAavixwr, olds 7 Eee dxodovbeiv, Socrates, speaking as a master to the
pupil, plainly acknowledges that Glaucon will not be able to follow
him beyond a certain point.

od8 av mpodupnPAvar olds te eiyv] ‘I could not muster courage.”

Bother obv .. . éméepopev] ‘Shall we begin our inquiry at this
point—with our accustomed method? For, as you know, our custom
has been to assume some one single idea in the case of the many
individuals to which we apply the same name.’ So in vi. 504 E he
speaks of the ié€a of good as a common subject of speculation with
him, mdvras aitd odk ddtydkis axnxoas: Vv. 475 E ff.: Phaedo 100 B.
See also Phileb. 16 B.

elSos and idéa are used in many places indifferently. Both have
the meaning of form or ideal. But efSos more than idéa inclines to
the notion of a logical universal, éy émi moddav.

tav mwokhav] Here equivalent to rav moddOv dvtav éxdotor:
Cp. vi. 490 A, B Tots dogafouevors evar TodKots Exdorots,

GAN Spa... (Cc) taxa paddov pyjcers| * But consider what name
you give to the artificer whom I am about to mention. Who is
that? One who is the maker of all things which are made by any
and every craftsman. That must be a strange and marvellous man.
Wait a little; there will be more reason for your saying so.’ For
taxa paddov dyces cp. Cratyl. 410 E 3. méppw dn, olpar, haivopa
aotias édatvew, E, mavu péev ody, 3%, Taxa paddov pyoers:

mdvu Oaupacrdy, x.7.A.] Cp. Soph. 233, 234, where the ‘ wizard’

Republic
Xx.

595
C

D

597
A

oe ee ee Se eee ee
7 2 ee re
— c-% 4

442 Plato: Republic.

of a sophist is described as the maker of all things in play and not
in earnest, imposing on the young by imitations which deceive
them, like paintings seen at a distance. The ‘ wizard’ here is
the pimntns (597 B), of which genus the painter and the poet are
specific forms.

sogtotyv| The word is here used in the vernacular sense for
‘the master of an art or mystery.’

In this passage Plato seems to return from the higher and more
speculative theory of ideas which has been exhibited in the sixth
and seventh books, to the cruder conception of the earlier dialogues.
His aim, however, must be remembered: which is to represent the
poet as being in the third remove from the truth. This could only
be accomplished by separating the idea from the object, and the
object from the shadow or reflection: cp. vi. 509p. The same
imagery is applied to the tyrant in ix. 587 c¢ ff.

But is the poet or painter a mere imitator as Plato seems to
imply? That is a question which he has himself answered in
another passage, v. 472 D ote: dv ody frrdv te dyabdv (wypacov eivat bs
dv ypaas mapaderypa olov dy ein 6 Kdddotos avOpwros Kai mavra els Td
ypappa ixavas amodovs pi) éxn anodeifa as Kal Svvardy yevérOar rorodrov
év8pa; No theory can be more erroneous than that which degrades
art into mere imitation,—which seeks for beauty in the parts and
not in the whole, in colour and ornament rather than in proportion
and design, in outward objects and not in the inspiring or inform-
ing mind. The requirement of composition in a work of art is
alone an evidence that mere imitation is not art.

montys| ‘maker’: the word is used in the most general sense,
[though with a glance at the poet, L. C.].

od xadends ... Syptoupyoupevos| ‘not a difficult way, I said,
but one which is soon compassed and by various methods. For
Snpuoupyovpevos applied to the manner of the action and not to the
thing, cp. Soph. 221 a 16 ris... mAnyys . . . dvaomedpevov.

taxd pév, k.7.A.] There isan asyndeton here, as is not uncommon
in explanatory clauses,

eis Séov epxer TH A6yw] ‘ You bring welcome aid to the argument,’
i.e. you go to the point required: viz. to the distinction between
cbawvépeva and érra.

pévrot| recalls a previous statement which tends to modify what

Notes: Book X. 443

has just been said: the picture is unreal, but is not the bed itself ie ras

unreal too ?

Plato here uses the language of ‘crude realism. But the
beginnings of logical technicality are discernible in the expressions
5 éorw, Orep €or,

tedéws Sé.. . dANOH A€yew] The idiomatic use of the verb
xwSuvede. makes a change in the usual construction, which would
be «f ms gain... odK dv réyor. KiSuvede. = ‘he would seem,’
i.e. may be presumed to be according to this theory. Cp. Theaet.
152 C ola yap aiabdverat Exacros, Tovaira éxdor@ Kai Kwduveder eivar.

ds y av Sdkere, «.7.A.] Sc. rots Buadexrixis eumeipors.

kai TodTo] sc. rd Tod KAwoupyod épyov. Kai, the work of the maker
of the actual bed,—as well as the painter's imitation of it.

mpds adnevav|] ‘with respect to reality. Cp. infra 6008

yeAourepos ert Tpds Tmaideiar,

Bovhe. ody... tis mor éotiv;| ‘Suppose that we inquire into
the nature of this imitator, basing our remarks upon this example.’
For the use of éwi with reference to an example, cp. v. 475 4

, > a ~ -
ei Bovdet, ey, ew nod Aéyew epi Trav EpariKay,

Tov pipynthy todrov| ‘the imitator who is the subject of our
inquiry. Cp. supra 595E piynow dros... 6 Ti wor’ éoriv; infra
tov pév 87) pipnthy aporoynkaper. It is now sufficiently evident that
the wonderful artificer described on p. 596 is the pipnrns. The
accusative todrov is confirmed by Par. A and the majority of MSS.
Nor is the inexactness of the antecedent a sufficient reason for
reading rovrov, which has the greater fault of being weak. The
use of attra: immediately below is similar to the use of todrov in
this passage.

pia pev ...(c) &éor KAim] Plato in the Sophist separates
momtixn into two parts, one divine, the other human (Soph. 265 c).
In what follows ib. 266, 267, he further divides human art into
creative and imitative.

év tH vce] ‘in nature,’ i.e, in the true order of nature. Cp.
Phaedo 103 B avré 7d evavrior éaur@ évartiov ovk dy more yevorro, obre
7d év npiv, obre rd ev TH GUE. In this passage Plato distinguishes
the picture of the bed, the bed made by the carpenter, and the
real bed which is ideal, essential, in the nature of things, in the

597
A

B

Republic
Xx,

597
Cc

a - sae
- 4 a

444 Plato: Republic.

mind of God. It may be asked whether the third bed is the idea
of a bed. We may reply that it is not distinguished from it, neither
does Plato identify them. He uses many forms to express what in
the popular language of philosophy is termed by us his doctrine
of ideas. [The further relation of the ideal bed to the supra-
mundane idéa is beyond the scope of this passage. L. C.]

drt... odx at S840] Compare a somewhat similar argument in
the Sophist 243 p, £, in which the dualistic principles of some of
the previous philosophers are reduced to ‘ being,’ because existence
is predicated of cold and hot. See also Parmenides 133 a, Tim.
3I A.

Bovher ody... wemoinxev| ‘Shall we then speak of him as the
natural maker of this (i.e. the idea of the bed) or by some name
of a similar kind? Yes, he replied; inasmuch as by the natural
process of creation he has made this and all other things.’

gue] is the echo of gutoupyév = ‘ by a natural process.’

GAG ti... etvar;] ‘but what of the bed will you call him?’
khivys is governed by tt:—‘if not the maker or artificer, what is
his relation to the bed?’ Cp. Symp. 204 D ti ray caddy éorlv 6
"Epos ;

Tov TOG TpiToU...yevyypatos}] sc. dyyiovpydv. Cp. Dante, Inferno
xi. 105 Si che vostr’ arte a Dio quasi é nipote: ‘So that your art is
as it were the grandchild of God.’

Todt dpa gorat kat 6 tpaywdiomo1ds| ‘The tragic poet then since
he is an imitator will be like these (kat),’ i.e. the painter and
carpenter, ‘in the third remove from the king and the truth,

God (supra p) is here represented as a king. The word is
borrowed from the language of the ninth book in which the
imperfect shadow of the king is Sypoxpartxés, dAvyapyxixds, as here of
God the shadows are (wypaqos, xdwomotds, &c.

airs 7d év tH pice: Exactov| i.e. the several patterns of things
as they exist in nature. Cp. again Phaedo 103 B.

meointat] Perfect middle = ‘is wont to create her produc- —
tions,—the perfect being used like reretraxe of an habitual state.
Cp. viii. 556 Cc tev addrwv jyedynkdras, kal ovdéy mrcio émpédccav
Tetrounpevous dperijs, K.T.A. pds Td ov follows memointat, ‘with a view
to being.’

Notes: Book X. 445

pipyjoao@ar| sc, rd dv.

pavtdopartos ... piznois;] a resumption of the previous question

morepa ... Os paiverat ; iy

méppw... €idwdov|~ méppw is a favourite Platonic expression :
cp. ix. 581 8, Theaet. 151 wéppw dvres rod eidévac: Soph. 234 ¢
ért Wéppw trav mpayuirwy rhs ddnbeias apecraras. €iSwdov refers to
supra davtdspatos pipnots. mou is the indefinite adverb of place,
‘somewhere far off, not = ‘as I conceive’; cp. vi. 499 Cc, D méppw
Tou exros Ovte THS Nuerepas emdpews,

Tods GAAous Syptoupyous| ‘ or any other artist.’ For the asyndeton
Cp. iv. 434 A mdvra ra@AXa peraddarropeva.

a) Soxeiv | Sc. 7d é{wypapnuevor,

drrohapBdvew Set ro Torodrw| ‘We must understand by such
a statement,’ cp. ix. 578 c t@ TovodTw Aédyw oxomeiv and note. The
description of gavravrixy in Soph. 238 p ff. recalls the present
passage.

dvOpwros| Possibly dvépwros: see note on dynp ix. 573 C.

Homer, who is deemed to be an authority on the arts and virtues,
is in the third remove from truth. Else he would have left laws
and institutions and distinguished pupils behind him, and in his
life-time would not have had to beg his bread.

odkodv, k.t.A.] In the Ion of Plato, the same argument!is drawn
out at length in answer to the Rhapsodist’s assertion of Homer’s
omniscience (Ion 538 ff,—Homer is not a physician or a charioteer,
or a general or a pilot, and yet he writes of all these subjects).

Republic
xX,

598
B

598 D-
601 B

598
D

Why shou!d Plato who is himself ‘the last of the poets,’ and the —

most poetical of prose writers, be also the enemy of poetry? For
reasons partly fanciful and partly real :—

1. He is conscious of a deeply-seated opposition between poetry
and philosophy, between the imagination and. understanding,
between the feelings and reason, between opinion or fiction
and truth, between mythology and morality. Poetry is concerned
with sense and not with abstractions or ideas, which are to Plato
the food of a higher imagination. 2. The poet is from his point
of view a mere imitator, who can do everything because he does
nothing well; and he encourages the weaker or sentimental side of

Republic
az.

598
D

599
A

446 Plato: Republic.

the human character. 3. He has not forgotten the old quarrel
between philosophy and poetry, which is of longer standing and
perhaps even deeper than that between the philosopher and the
Sophist, just as the difference between Socrates and Aristophanes
might be said to strike deeper than that between Socrates and
Protagoras or Gorgias. 4. The ironical distinctions which the
poet is to receive indicate the sense of his genius and of the
beauty of his works; this, however, is not to supersede the sense
of truth. 5. Plato’s mission is to realize the abstract, and poetry is
a picture, not an abstraction. Modern philosophy, in seeking to
realize the abstract in the concrete, adopts a different attitude
towards poetry and art. 6. He is probably influenced by the
decline of poetry in his own age; what he calls in Laws iii. 7o1 a
a ‘ theatrocracy’ was taking possession of the field.

Yet after every allowance has been made, there remains some
reason for surprise, (1) that he should not have acknowledged the
moral greatness of Sophocles and Aeschylus, or (2) have noticed
that he himself like the tragedians is an imitator, for that both have
based the form of their writings on conversation.

tpitta a&méxovta| tpittdé is adverbial, sc. Suaorqpara, nearly
equivalent to rpis, ‘three times.’

| Te Kal A€youo.| ‘or whether there is after all some meaning
in what they say.’ kat has a deliberative force.

ole. odv...(B) €xovra;|] For the use of &petvor to express self-
abandonment to a pursuit, cp. ii. 373 D éav Kat exeivor &Oow abtods
emi xpnudrav krijow dreipov (émt tH, K.T.A., is here to be construed
with omouddLeuv).

mpooricacba. . . . Biou] ‘To set in the forefront of his life.’

Cp. viii. 565 c eva ria det Sjpyos ciwbe . . . mpoioracOa éavroi,
Kaha... pynpeta} éaurod is to be joined with prnpeta.
4 Spedla] ‘The benefit or usefulness’ rather than ‘the profit.’

Tov péev Tolvuy. ..(D) muvOavopévous| i.e. we will not ask whether
Homer as a physician has effected any cures; a fairer question
will be (8ixatéy mov) whether he is a general or a legislator, or an
educator of mankind:—épwravres is connected with tivas dytets,
k.t.A., not with ei tatpuxds, «.7.A., which merely expresses the
supposition on which the question rests. Cp. the construction
of infra p & othe “Opunpe, «.7.d.

Notes: Book X. 447

& dire . . . Sedrepos] dperijs mépc resumes what is implied in
modduwv . . . dvOpdrov. €iSddou Syproupyds is an explanation of
tpitos dd tis ddnfeias.

dv 8)... dptodpeba] Sy is the predicate: ‘which we defined
the imitator to be.’ Cp. vi. 499 E obs A€yes rods irogddous,
ix. 576 B and note. The reference here is to supra 597 E,
598 B, c.

oé 8 tis, «.t.A.] Cp. Lach. 186 B i ef ms tadv airay eave
didoxadrov pév ot dnote yeyovévai, adr’ obv Epya aitos abrod exer eireiv,
kai enideiga tives "AOnvaiwy i) rev gévwv, i) Soda H EAEvOepar, SC exeivov
dpodroyoupevws dyabol yeydvacw ;

The words which follow after 2é\wva, viz. oé . . . eimetv, are read
in the MSS. and earlier editions without interpunctuation. This
great improvement in the text was introduced by Bekker.

GAN ofa Bh... A€yovrar| eis before ta Epya was omitted by the
first hand in Par. A. Whether the preposition is retained or rejected,
the words ta €pya or eis ta Epya are to be connected with coo.

émt cuvoucia| ‘For companionship,’ i.e. as a companion. émi
tottw (B) refers to émt ouvougia, ‘on this ground,’

kal oi dotepor... év tois GAAois;| The form of sentence is
an expansion of the common idiom airdés re kai, for which see
iV. 427 C.

In the confusion of early and later Pythagoreanism, the testimony
of Plato to a Pythagorean way of life is not without importance.

008" ad, én, «.7.A,] The meaning is that Homer could not have
educated Creophylus, or judging by the examples of Pythagoras,
Protagoras and others, that ‘child of flesh’ would never have left
him to starve. There is no need of emendation, nor any difficulty
in the text.

Kpeddudos| is mentioned in Strabo xiv. cc. 638, 639 as a Samian
who entertained Homer and received from him the poem called
Oixadias dAwors, which, according to an epigram of Callimachus,
was really the writing of Creophylus himself. He is mentioned by
’ Pausanias iv. 2, 2 as the author of the Heraclea in which he spoke
of Oechalia, probably the same work. Socrates similarly argues in
Gorg. 516 against the statesmanship of Pericles and others from
the ingratitude of the people towards them.

Republic
Ys:

599
D

>8

Republic
XxX.

600
Cc

448 Plato: Republic.

éw adrod éxeivou| as infrap. én’ éxetvou, ‘in his own day. Of
this the words 6re é£n, ‘when he was alive,’ are a further colloquial
amplification. Plato seems to have supposed that the name Kped-
qudos was derived from xpéas and pvAq: ‘of the stock of flesh.’

GAN oiler... ok Gp’ av... GAA Mpwraydpas pev .. . (D) “Opnpov
8 dpa... kal odxi, x.t.A.] The first part of this sentence has
a regular protasis (ei t@ dvr... Suvdpevos) and apodosis (odK ap’
dv moddods . . . bw adrav): the second part has two subdivisions
(1) Mpwraydpas pev dpa... ot éraipor: (2) “Opnpov 8 dpa...
petahdBovev. The connexion of the first and second part may be
traced as follows: If Homer had been able to make men better,
he would have been honoured: but as a matter of fact, while
Protagoras was honoured (and therefore may be supposed to have
done men good) Homer was not honoured (and therefore cannot
be supposed to have done men good). For the interposition of
ole. near the beginning of the sentence cp. especially Meno 93 c
G\X’, olet, odk dv €BovdnOn ;

dpa... dpa. re dpa] ‘As we are expected to suppose.’
édv ph odets, «.7.A.] Cp. Protag. 318 B.

émt tavtn TH gopia| has an ironical reference to é6v ph. . .
émortatiowow : i,e. a wisdom which has so high a claim.

*évuvdvor| The reading of a majority of MSS, is éveiva: (AI &c.)
or dviva (A?), As such forms are anomalous, several emendations
have been suggested,—évjva which rests on slight manuscript
authority (Flor. x &c.), and évjca which is also found in a single
MS. évvdvat, however, which is not found in any MS. is more
likely to have been the original of éviva, and the tense agrees better
with the other verbs in the sentence.

kai odxt, «.7.A.] The force of the negative odxt, demanding an
affirmative answer, is continued to the end of the sentence.

adtot av ératSaydyouv| ‘They would have chosen to attend or
foliow him.’ From the more precise sense of watching or following
about like a tutor, the word seems to acquire here and in I Ale.
135 D ov yap éorw draws ov Tmatdaywyjow oe, the more general ~
meaning of following another, never leaving him out of sight.
For the whole passage cp. Theag. 128 rE.

ptpnTas ciSdhuv] (1) ‘forgers of semblances,’ ‘imitative makers

Notes: Book X. 449

of shadows ’—from pupeioba ¢iddov, ‘to make a shadowy imitation’

(ciSwdov cognate accusative, cp. infra 602 B rodro pupjoera) | L. C.|;.

(2) ‘they copy images of virtue’ [B. J. Trans.].

Xpdpar dtra éxdotww tv texvav| ‘colours belonging to’
(‘taken from’) ‘the several arts.’

Tois dvépacr Kat pjpacw] The dative is either (1) governed by
emi in émyxpwpatiferv, ‘he dips his language in the colours of the
arts’: or (2) instrumental, ‘he gives his work a superficial colouring
of the arts by the language he employs.’ The latter is the more
natural mode of expression.

érel yupvwOdvta ye, K.7.A.] Poetry, it is argued, becomes bare
and meagre if stripped of poetical diction and colouring. More
than half the grace and bloom of a poem necessarily flies off in
translation; the same ideas, when expressed in prose, are no
longer the same. But the poet might reply that philosophy also
would become unmeaning if deprived of a suitable vehicle of
expression, nor can language ever wholly lose a musical and
poetical element.

aita ep aitav Neydpeva] I.e. when the matter or Adyos is
stripped of the form of poetry (Aéés, dppovia, pududs) and merely
spoken. Cp. iii. 392 p ff.

tebéacar ydp wou] ‘For you have seen I suppose, what they
look like?’” We may paraphrase ‘ you have seen the Logographer
turning poetry into prose.’

NVot the imitator, nor even the maker of things ts the true
authority, but he who uses them and directs them to their end. The
imitator consults neither use nor reality (of which he is ignorant)
but appearance only.

ph totvuy . . . wpev] ‘Do not let us leave the subject half
explained, but let us have a thorough understanding of it’ Cp.
ii, 376 D ta ph edpev ixavdv Aéyov, Phaedo 77 c qaiveras yap Sonep
jou arodedeixOac od Sei. tpioews, the genitive used adverbially
(corrected to jiceos in Par. A), is the reading of most MSS.:
‘ éf? tpioews (g) seems to be a conjectural reading: jpcéws, the
conjecture of Stephanus, is an adverb formed on the analogy
of raxéws, maxéws, &c,

Gp’ obv éwate,, «.7.4.] A favourite idea in Plato :—Cratyl. 390 D
VOL. Il. | Gg

Republic
Xx.
600

E

601
A

<,)*

Republic
601 |
¢

450 Plato: Republic.

’ as - , »” > ’ el , > ,
tis 8€ TH Tov vopobérov Epyw emorarnoeé tT dv Kdddora kat cipyarpevor

kpivete kai évOade kai év trois BapBapos ; dp’ ody danep xpyoerat ;

5 ypadeds| sc. rav jviav. Lwypddos is changed to ypadeds for
the sake of the paronomasia with xadxeds and oxuteds.

ota... xpirat] ‘What specimens of that which he (the user)
employs, the maker makes that are good or bad in actual use.’
The correlation of singular and plural here arises from the colloca-
tion of particular aud universal. The instrument (sing.) is good in
some cases bad tn others (plur.). [L. C.]

éfayyéddex (47s)| Some would read éfayyedci. But see note on
infra 604 A avriteivew.

ot dv Swypetdow] sc. addoi. ‘Which he finds serviceable :’—
not merely ‘which he makes use of.’ Cp. Protag. 326 B ta ra
capara BeAtio éxovres Sypetaor 77 Savoia xpnotH oven. ‘The occur-
rence of Gaypetdow and srypetnoer in successive lines, but in
a different connexion, is worthy of remark.

riotw dpOyv| iors is here used in the sense of an opinion
received from others :—not with the technical meaning which was
given to it in vi. 511. The genitive, governed by tonris, is
resumed with xédAdous Te kal trovypias.

- Sd 73... émrdttecbor] ‘because of having orders given him.’
For the passive cp. i. 337 A xaAeraiveoOa.

xapies av ein... mouq| ‘The imitator will be in a charming
state of intelligence about his own inventions.’ The asyndeton is
used as elsewhere to express the persistent feeling with which Socrates
(eméxov kat ovk dveis) sends the argument home: cp. v. 462 E
&pa dv ein . . . €mavevat, For the ironical use of xaptets and the reply
cp. iv. 426 A rdde airy od xapiev and the answer (B) ov mdvu xapiev.

GAN’ ody 8H Spws ye, «.7.A.] The particles emphasize the
absurdity of such a proceeding, considering the nature of imitation:
‘nevertheless he will do it.’

TodTO pipnoetar| Todro is a cognate accusative: not ‘/hat he
will imitate’ but ‘such will be the mode of his imitation.’

kai év €meo.| Homer is still included among tragic poets: supra
595 ¢, infra 607 a, Theaet. 153 A.

Notes: Book X. 451

Thus shallow and unreal itself, imitation works upon what ts
shallow and unreal in human nature, appealing as it does to the
crude experience of sensation and not to the arts of measuring and
weighing by which the illusions of sense are corrected. So painting
deceives the eye, and poetry introduces similar confusion by her
representation of complex and inconsistent emotions, appealing to the
passions and not to reason.

mpds Avéds] The exclamation (cp. i. 332 c, ix. 574) is uttered in
glad anticipation of a new argument, in which Plato having shown
the unreality of dramatic performances, proceeds to consider them
as injurious to the moral character: first, as illusive ; secondly, as
tending to imitate the feelings when excited and variable rather
than when equable; thirdly, and more than all, as promoting the
indulgence and expression of feelings which would otherwise be
restrained. Before taking the new step he resumes what has
preceded with pév (wept tpirov pév ti, x.7.A.). In the next sentence
éoriv is to be supplied with éxov.

To tmoiou twos mépt Aéyers;] ‘what is the subject of your
remark?’ The interrogative pronoun is not a repetition of motéy te
supra, but refers generally to the whole point in question, asking
for an example or illustration of it.

maod tis tapaxy| ‘a kind of utter confusion’ = mdvras tis
tapaxy: mas is used intensively and not extensively: cp. Soph. 250°D
mdon cvverxdpeba anopia,—and for the use of tis, Gorg. 522 D arn
yap tts BonOeva Eavrs modddKis Huiv Gordynrat Kpatiotn elvat.

yountetas odSev dodeimer| (1) ‘fails in no resource of magic art ;’
(2) ‘has all the effect of magic’ [B, J.|. Cp. vii. 533 a.

dp’ odv ob rd petpetv, «.7.4.] The apparent variations of the
senses are corrected by measure and number. This is the answer
to the doctrine of the fallibility of our knowledge of sensible objects,
whether suggested by Plato or by Berkeley. The variations are
ascertainable or assignable to disturbing causes and afford no
reason for doubting the general truthfulness of sense. For Plato’s

conception of the art of measuring, cp. Protag. 356p, Philebus

55 E.

todtw $é modddxis, x.7.A.] The dative would naturally have been

followed by some such word as cupBaive:, ‘it turns out,’ &c. For

this the expression tévavtia aiverat is substituted. Or in other
Gg2

Republic .
Xx.

602 B-
605C

. Republic
as

602
E

603
A

452 Plato: Republic.

words, the dative is in a loose construction with the whole sentence,
like a genitive absolute, and is not to be taken with gatvera. It
would not be in accordance with Plato’s use of language, or with
the context in what follows, to speak of the contradictions of sense
as having anything to do with the rational element in the soul.
For a similar change of construction, cp. viii. 566 & mpds rods é€o
€xOpous, x.7.A., Theaet. 182 B add’ e& dudorepwry . . . ta 8€ aicOavopeva,

obkodv epapev ... elvat;] He refers to iv. 436 a-c. The dative
here as there is instrumental :—‘with the same faculty to form
opposite opinions at the same time.’

GANG pry, KA. | “Measure and number are among the leading
ideas of the Platonic philosophy. There is a measure in words as
in all other things (Polit. 285 a) and the pérpoy and peérpioy in the
Philebus are in the highest region of good.

deyov| supra 597 Eff., 602 D.

ypaguxh ... (B) ddnOet] The chief stress is on wéppw, which
has the first place in each clause and is repeated for the sake, of
emphasis.

éw ovSevi, x.t.A.]| The purpose for which their friendship is
cemented is utterly unsound and untrue.

paddy... piunticy| Cp. vi. 496. mot’ drra ody cixds yervav rovs
’ > /, x *
TowvrTous ; ov vdOa kai dadda ;

py Te GAXo Ff mapa tadta;] jy re AX Hy, the conjecture of Ast,
is certainly probable. The past tense would refer to iii. 399 a, B,
where the true scope of pipyntixy was described. But the interroga-
tive use of the subjunctive with »y expecting a negative answer, is
a sufficiently well-ascertained Platonic construction—see Goodwin,
M. and T., § 268. Cp. especially Parm. 163 D 1d 8¢ yiyverOat kat rd

aréddvobat pn Te Gddo 7, k.7.A., Where, however, Bekker reads fv with
Heindorf. ;

Kata Thy dw éotaciafe] sc. 6 dvOpwmos: supra 602 ¢ fi.

évapipvioKkopat Sé... Adv] Socrates apparently refers to two
discussions, one in iii. 387, where the brave man is described as
bearing sorrow with fortitude,—the other in iv. 439, where opposite
tendencies are spoken of as working together in the soul.

ee ae

Notes: Book X. 453

dvip ... dmodéoas] The words vidv dwodéoas . . . movetrot are an
explanation of rovdode téxns petacxdy,

rére] iii, 387 D, z.

oUrw ... GdnOés] ‘ Rather the latter, said he, if we are to speak
truly.’ 16 ye ddnés is an adverbial phrase = re vera. The reason-
ableness of this is noticeable. Plato sees that even the good man,
who has his feelings most under control, cannot altogether over-
come them.

76 8€...eimé] ‘But now tell me this about him.’ There is no
need of altering 174 8€ to ré8e with Schneider and the inferior MSS.
The neuter of the article is often used thus demonstratively in
beginning a new sentence.

Socrates recalls the heads of the former discussion, to which he
adds a new one, viz. the tendency of dramatic performances to
relax the self-control which is natural in the presence of others.

paxetoOal te kat dvriteiverw] Cp. i. 342 A oxewopems re Kai éxmopi-
(ovens, supra 601 D e€ayyéANer . . . Kal emerd£er :—évtitetvev, which is
supported by the great majority of MSS., is probably genuine,
notwithstanding the change of tense.

& otk dv 8éfa17d twa iSeiv Spvra] ‘ Which he would not choose
to see another doing.’ Cp. Soph. El. 1278 4 xdpra kav @door
Ovpoipny isév. (Unless é has dropped out—é ov dv défard turd €
ideiv Spavra.)

évavtias ... etvar] ‘But when a man is drawn in two opposite
directions in reference to the same object, we say that he has
necessarily two distinct principles.’

gapuév may be understood parenthetically, and dvayxatov as =
dvayxaidy éotw. But dvayxatoy is equally well explained by supply-
ing elvae:—sc. hapev eivar dvaykaioy dio eiva év a’r@. Compare again
the discussion in Book iv (436 ff.) in which the principle of contra-
diction is first stated.

The change of construction from 8yAou dvtos to mpoBatvor is
caused by the transition to the impersonal verb. Cp. Euthyphr.
4D as dvdpodpdvov kai ovdév bv mpaypa. The accusative, when. once
adopted, is continued.

oure TL... oroudis | The spirit of these words resembles that
of many passages in the Laws; e.g. vii. 803 B, C gore 8) roivey ra

Republic
Xx,

603
E

Republic
XxX.

604
€

_ = he Ty ree Pee .
fi = =,

454 _ Plato: Republic.

tov avOporev mpdypata peydAns pev orovdns ovk aka, dvayKaidy ye phy

orovddgew" rovto S€ ovk edruxés.
év adtois| ‘In the circumstances ’:—i. e. év rats §uydopats (supra).
tiv, 7 & bs, A€yers;| Cp. vii. 531 D, EF.

G\AG pt Mpootraicavtas, x.t.A.] For the image cp. Dem.
Philipp. i. § 40 Gomep of BdpBapor muxrevovow, otr@ modepeiv
Pirin’ Kat yap ékeivov 6 mAnyeis det THs mAnyHs Exerat, ki érépare
matagns, ekeio’ eioiv ai yxeipes’ mpoBdddcoba 8 f Brémew évavriov odt

oidev ovr’ eOédet.

ylyvesOar mpds to idobar] The dative appears elsewhere in
similar expressions (ix. 585 A, Polit. 264 a, Laws vii. 799 c) and
therefore r@ (g) is to be preferred to 16, the reading of the older
MSS., which, however, is not impossible after yiyveo@at (‘to arrive
at’).

gapév] ‘As we are saying ’—supra B.

Serdias pidov] Cp. iv. 439 D mAnpdceay tier Kai iSovav éraipov
(neuter): supra 603 B.

éxet] ‘admits of.’ Cp. Thuc. ii. 41, § 3 dyavdernow exer,

prpoupevov] pipoupévov (sc. tevds avré), the reading of Ig and
a few other MSS., has been preferred by some editors on the
supposition that pryodua is not used passively. As other tenses of
the verb are taken in a passive sense (Laws ii. 668 B rd pupnOev:
Cratyl. 425 D ypdppace kai oudAaBais ra wpdypata peutunpéva: Supra
599 A ptunOnodpevor) there is no sufficient reason for refusing such
a sense to the present. But, as Schneider observes, ptpodpevov
here may quite well be an accusative masculine,—‘ nor is it easy to
understand one who tries to imitate this.’ Ficinus (‘si imitemur’)
perhaps read pepoupeéver.

mavnyvper Kal... fuddeyouévors| mavnydper is dative of the
occasion, while dv@pdmors depends on edmerés katapabetv. ‘At
a public gathering, and for men assembling,’ &c.

od >. . wémnyev| od negatives the whole sentence ; hence kat, not
ovdé. It follows that te, not ye, is right, and re was probably at
first written in Par. A, in which ysis a correction. (The mark +
written over y by the diorthotes, has been mistaken for r.) For

Notes: Book X. 455

mémnye Cp. Vii. 530 D as mpds torpovopiay supatra wémnyev, ds mpds
evappdviov hopay dra maynvat.

gaiha ... mpds ddyPerav| Cp. supra 597 A duvdpdv re. . . mpds
é&AnPerav.

érepov tovodrov| sc. davdov, to which todro before éyeiper also
refers.

donep év moder] ‘As in the case of a city;’ sc. the rational
part is destroyed. The subject of comparison is resumed in radrév

kat rév, x.7.d., infra.
mrapadi8e| sc. abrois.

tairév| Accusative in apposition to kaxhy . . . éumoetv, bringing
out the antecedent to deep.

todtteiav] The thought is similar to that in ix. 592 B: cp. infra
608 B mepi tis €v abra qoAutrelas dedidre.

oure Ta peilw otre Ta eAdtrw}] Cp. i. 343 A ovd€ mpd8ara ode
mouseva and note.

GANA TA adTa... dpeotGra] There is great uncertainty about
the text and construction of this passage. The reading eidwdo-
mooivra, Which refers to the poet, rests on insufficient manuscript
authority (g corr.). Nor is the change from the dative to the
accusative necessary, as the ‘foolish part of the soul’ may very
well be called ‘a maker of images.’ There is, however, good
authority for dpeordta; and it may be argued that if either the
dative or the accusative is read in one clause, it should be read in
both. But d&eordra,—‘ things remote from the truth,’ may quite
well be in agreement with ei$wAa, On the other hand, apeoror,
the reading of =Dcorr., is also possible—It may be argued
further, on the one hand that «iS@Aomooivra agreeing with the
subject of éumovety preserves better the balance of the sentence,
on the other hand that it is too far removed from its context.

The crowning offence of poetry ts her corrupting not only bad or
indifferent persons, but even the good. Our feelings are stirred
when Homer or one of the tragedians represents some pitiful hero
weeping or smiting his breast. But in our own sorrows we are
expected to play the manly part. And we cannot be right in
praising others for a weakness which would disgrace ourselves.
The same rule applies to the excess of laughter excited by comedy,

Republic
¥.

605 C-
607A

Republic
XxX.

605 ©
D

456 Plato: Republic.

and still more to the awakening of lower feelings. Hymns in praise
of God and god-like men are the only poems which we admit in our
state,

adovrds te kal komropévous] ‘Chanting and beating their breasts.’
The change from singular to plural marks the transition from the _
single speeches (joes) of the characters in Epic poetry and
tragedy to the combined song or plaint (xoyyds) of the chorus and
the persons on the stage. The conjectural reading # «Aaiovras
for } Kai g@Sovras is unnecessary.

ph dgvot etvar| yy, not ov, is used in putting the case.

od pa . . . oxomoins| vat here expresses dissent from the
negative preceding. ‘That does not appear reasonable.’ ‘Yes,
but it will, if you look at it in this way.’ etoyoy is used in slightly
different senses in the two clauses. ‘It looks very inconsistent,’
said Glaucon, ‘thus to praise the tragic poet.—Rather, it is easily
explained, if you look at it in this way.’

mretrewwnkds Tod Saxpicar| ‘compelled to fast from tears:’ i.e.
which has been denied the satisfaction of weeping.

dvinot ... Tourou] ‘relaxes its watch over this tearful part of
our nature.’ Cp. viii. 547 c pudaxjs ad’rév and note.

éauto| Plato passes from the rational part of the soul to the
man himself. dre like és is construed with the accusative neuter
participle of an impersonal verb.

hoyiLeoOar . .. eis Ta oiketa| Cp. iii. 395 C va pi) ek Tis pipjoews

a“ 3 > ,
Tov €lvat aTo\avowoL,

Gp obx 6 attds Adyos, x.t.A.] mept tod yehoiou depends on
6 attés Aéyos, and is to be continued with tadrév qovets, x.7.X.,
which is added in apposition to 6 abtés Adyos.

drt, *&v adrés, x.t.A.] The text has been variously emended.
Schneider’s reading (&v for dv) has been adopted as involving the
least change. Hermann’s correction of 8€ to 67 is to some extent
confirmed by the absence of pev after adrés. Supposing this ac-
cepted, the simplest change is to add 4 before aérés and av after
aicxdvoro:—6ér, dv & airis aicxivowo Gv, «.r.A., ‘that, if jests, which
you would be ashamed to make, sound delightful to your ear.’
It is possible, however, that we have here a carelessly written

>

Notes: Book X. 457

sentence, in which the differing moods 4 dy aloxtvoiw and 4 dy
xapjs (= dv radra xapps) are connected with dé.

ad] ‘again,’ as in the former case, supra a.
éxei] ‘On those occasions,’ i.e. in hearing poetry, cp. v. 451 B.
év tots oixefors] In your private life and conversation (supra B).

kat mepi dppodioiwy| 4 adrds Adyos is to be supplied before dts.

Plato is an enemy to sentimentalism ; all those influences which ©

are represented to us by novels, plays, poems, are to be sternly
repressed. He will not have the feelings excited by unreal
sorrows, lest they should be unequal to the support of real ones.
That the indulgence of the feelings even in virtuous or religious
emotions may be carried to excess, is certainly true. Also, as
Butler has remarked, passive impression is (or rather may be) in
an inverse ratio to active habit. Still, one who cannot feel is
almost as far removed from a rational being as one who cannot
think: the sources of imagination and sympathy are dried up in
him; and to quicken the feelings and imagination where they are
deficient is quite as important a part of education as to moderate
them where they are in excess.

Plato does not recognize that the indulgence. of the feelings may
also be a cultivation of them (yipnots . . . mepaivovaa 80 édéov kai
@éBov trav towitwy mabnudrwv xdbapow). What would he have
thought of a system which resolves the moral sentiments into
sympathy? Much of the obscurity of this subject arises out of
the strongly marked line of distinction which is drawn between
reason and feeling, and from the neglect to observe that reason
is often manifested in the form of feeling.

détos dvahaBdvre pavOdve] ‘It is well worth while to take him
up and learn him.’ The reading dgtos has the authority of Par. A
as well as of I M, and is also more idiomatic than do», which
has been adopted by editors on the supposed authority of Par. A.

8cov| owing to the omission of its antecedent rogotroy, is in
the accusative case; hence duvor by attraction to it becomes Gpvous.

éykdpua tots dyafois| ‘praises of the brave,’ like Symp. 194 p
éyxopiov te "Epwrt. The construction here follows that of the
preceding words.

Tod kowy ..- Adyou} Either (1) ‘the reason which by common

Republic
606
Cc

Republic
xX.

607 B-
608 B

458 Plato: Republic.

consent has always been held to be the highest,’ or (2) ‘that
reason which from time to time appears best to the majority.’
Cp. supra 604 B, c.

Such then ts our defence for what may seem hard measure
towards the poets who have charmed us. The truth is that there ts
an old quarrel between philosophy and poetry. But if the Muse,
making her defence in turn, can prove that we are wrong, we are
only too ready to listen to her. Yet until she or her friends can
show that she ts not only pleasant but useful to the state, we shall
hear her under protest, using the foregoing argument as a counter-
charm. For great is the issue at stake. And of the highest
rewards of virtue we have not yet spoken.

taita 84, yy, x.7.A.] The reasons for drodedoyjoba, ‘let this
be our defence,’ and dmodedoyioda, ‘let this be our final reckoning’
or ‘summing up,’ are very nearly balanced. In favour of the
latter may be urged (1) the agreement of the two best MSS.
Par. A and Ven. W, (2) the old argument of the ‘more difficult
reading,’ (3) the apparent anticipation of the defence of poetry in
the word &modekoyyo8w, which may also have suggested the altera-
tion to the mind of the copyist, (4) the tone of the preceding pages,
which has not been that of apology but of accusation or judgement
(supra 595 A, B, 604 D,£). On the other hand, drodedoyjobw
(1) has the consent of the remaining MSS., (2) is a more natural
and appropriate expression; (3) towards Homer at least the
attitude Aas been one of apology; (4) in the immediate context,
the epexegesis Sti eixétws dpa, k.t.A., is more suitable to this idea,
for which cp. also iv. 420 B, vi. 490 A; Phaedo 63, 69; (5) ‘ this
is our defence ; let poetry make hers if she can,’—is not by any
means an illogical sequence.

6 yap Adyos pas yper] The expression 6 Adyos aipet is not
infrequent in the sense, ‘reason constrains us.’ In the present
passage 6 \éyos may mean either (1) ‘the argument,’ as in Laws
ii. 663 D as kai viv ard jpny 6 Adyos gxev, or (2) ‘reason’
generally. The addition of jpas which gives a touch of liveliness,
is rather in favour of the former.

mpogeinwpev] ‘let us say in addition,’ cp. Soph. 250 B. The
scribe of r, not understanding this, wrote airyy instead of aéry.

Notes: Book X. 459

kal ydp # Aaxépufa, x.7.4.] for the saying of ‘the yelping hound
barking at her lord’ and ‘ one mighty in the vain talk of fools,’ &c.
The first of these two quotations is said by Plato (Laws xii. 967 c, )
to be applied by certain poets to the disciples of Anaxagoras, who
though nameless, are sufficiently indicated by their doctrine és vois
ein 6 Staxexoopnkos rav0 doa ‘kar’ ovpavdv,—which doctrine of theirs
however they ruined, and themselves with it, by also making earth
and stones the universal causes.

6 tav Ala copay Sxhos Kpatav] The best mode of construing
this clause is to take Ata with xpatév, ‘the crowd of philosophers
overmastering Zeus.’ Cp. Shakespeare, Hamlet, v. 1, 86-88
‘ A politician, . . . one that would circumvent God.’

The order of the words may be possibly explained by the
circumstance of their being a quotation from some lyric poet. In
Plato himself, however, there occur examples of somewhat violent
or affected transpositions, as in Laws vii. 824 a Onpevors ... ) TOV
dtaravpata mévev exovoa. The Vulgate text before Bekker (still
followed by some editors) had dacépwv in one word on the
authority of some inferior manuscripts (which read dacofpar)
according to the supposed analogy of ddceuvos,—itself a word of
doubtful authority.

onpeta| sc. eoriv, which gives the required verb.

) mpds HSovhv morntixh] is opposed to the ‘austere’ poetry
which is to be admitted: iii. 398 a a’rot 8 dy rd avornporép@ Kal
andeorép@ roth xpopeba,

drohoynoopévn| The reading dmodoyncayévn, which seems to
have been that of A’, is probably right. orw, ‘ on this condition,
is explained by drohoyynoopéry . . . péeTpw.

tav Kahdv woktterav| said ironically, like kadXiory . . . wodereia
in viii. 562 a.

taicOépe8a| is a word of doubtful genuineness. And even if it
be changed to aic@avépeda, the expression is feeble. *Hio@dye6a and
noOnueba are not much better. Elodueda, the reading of g, is
probably conjectural. Madvig very ingeniously conjectured dodpeba,
continuing the idea of érddovres, But (1) the participial clause
eddaBovpevor ... Epwra is hardly enough of a digression to justify
the resumptive 8 ody: (2) the expression dodpeda ds, x.7.d., is not
quite natural or idiomatic : (3) there is nothing in the words ds od

Republic
Xx.

>%

Republic
pA

608 D-
611 A

08

460° Plato: Republic.

oTroudactéov .. . Tept moincews to suggest the style of a chant or
érgdn. Some verb with the meaning of ddefdpueba seems to be
required. [L.C.]

One life is far too little to reward virtue, or to deserve the serious
care of an immortal soul.—That the human soul ts immortal ts
a strange thought to Glaucon. But Socrates undertakes to prove it.

ot8€ ye montixy | Poetry is emphasized as being the immediate
subject of the previous discussion.

ti ody... (D) mavtdés ;] ‘and should a thing immortal be seriously
interested about a period of time which is no more than this, rather
than with eternity?’ Cp. Phaedo 107 c¢ ctrep 9 yuxn dédvaros,
emmedetas d1) Seirar ovx bmép Tov xpdvov TovTov povov, ev @ Kadodpev Td Hy,

GN trép rod mavrds: also supra vi. 486 A, 498 D.

otpar éywy’, pn] sc. deiv oxovdafew imép tod mavrds, referring not
to the word ote. in what precedes, but to the main drift of the
question, and emphatically affirming the latter part of it. Cp.
i. 336 E py yap 61 otov... tmeixew aAANAoS Kai ov omovddfey, K.T.A,

. Olou ye o¥, & ite: where see note. Glaucon can only answer
Socrates’ question in one way, but he does not see the aim of it.

otk yoOnoat, k.t.4.] That the doctrine of the immortality of the
soul, which is asserted in. the Crito, Phaedo, Phaedrus, and
referred to in the Apology, Timaeus, Politicus, Laws,—and also in
Rep. vi. 498 D, should be here spoken of as a new revelation of
which Glaucon hears for the first time, is remarkable.

ei pi &8iKd y’, pny] ‘I should think I ought, said I:’ i.e. dixads
eiye éxew Tovro Aéyew. So infra 612 Di ov prnpovevers; GdiKoiny per
dy, én, et py.

That which perishes can be destroyed only by its own proper evil.
Now the soul has an evil proper to it, namely vice. But vice does
not destroy the soul. It would lose all it terrors if it did. For it
would release the wicked man from evil. Instead of which it keeps
him alive and wide awake. It follows that as the soul is capable mea

. of being destroyed by its own evil, the soul therefore must be

imperishable and immortal. :

dyabdy tr... Kal Kakdv Kadeis;| The argument is as follows :—
The soul has a proper evil, which is vice. Now if vice has no

eh tl gl

Notes: Book X. 461

destroying power over the soul, no merely external evil can
have any.

xaxdv 11] The best MSS. read xaxév re, which is possibly right.

tTodro pévrot... dwodAdov| ‘An evil however whose destructive
agency cannot cause its dissolution.’

odx fv;] cp. iv. 436 B,C eladueda dre od radrdv Fv GAda rela:
and the note.

GAN G8e woie.] ‘But put the matter in this way.’

domep.. . (D) duxvetrat| The apodosis is deferred to make room
for the question 08x oftws ; It is resumed in a new form in i: 8%,
«.7.A., infra.

kat & viv 84, «.1.A.] Kai must here mean ‘and’—not ‘also,’ as in
Kat \ux7v infra p, because the comparison is not between the body
and corn, iron (supra a), &c., but between all these and the soul.

éxeivé ye] ‘The other (and more remote) alternative,’ referring
to supra A.

ind tis... wovnpias... ékeivwv| ‘by the evil which is proper
to them alone,’ i.e. in so far as it is an evil of food considered
in itself. For example, mildew, the disease of corn, can destroy
the ear of corn, but the mildewed ear of corn will not destroy the
human body of itself, but only by introducing into it some disease
of the body.

*$p0drata] dpOdrar’ dv is the reading of all the MSS. with two
unimportant exceptions (ép@orar’ dy Vind. F, épéérar’ dp’ Vind. E),
but is probably corrupt. Either ép@érara as in the text, or épé@érara
y, should be read.

4 toivuy .. . (B) dvodwrépa yiyverat] Compare the first chapter of
Butler’s Analogy, Part i:—especially the curious observation, ‘ we
have no way of determining by experience what is the certain bulk
of the living being each man calls himself; and yet till it be determined
that it is larger in bulk than the solid elementary particles of matter
which there is no ground to think any natural power can dissolve,
there is no sort of reason to think death to be the dissolution of it,
of the living being, even though it should not be absolutely indis-
cerptible.’ Here however Butler seems to imply that the soul may
be a primary atom, and so indivisible. Plato argues that no disease

610

Republic
z.

610
B

611 A-
612 A

.

462 Plato: Republic.

of the body nor division of the particles however minute can affect
the soul.

For et tus 6 te opixpdtata we should perhaps read «fms ets 6 re
opixpérata; but cp. vi. 509 D ypaupny diya rerpnperny .. . dvica
TY PATA,

dudce TO Adyw Torpa iévar] ‘boldly closes’ (1) ‘with our
argument,’ or (2) ‘with us in argument.’ The latter may be
supported by the absolute use of éuéce ... xopnoerat in Theaet. 165 k,
and for tw Ady thus used cp. ii. 361 B rév Sixaoy map’ abrov tor@pev
7® Aéyw. But the first explanation is perhaps simpler and more
natural.

padwota ... Frrov | SC. AauBavoyras avo.

GAG py, domep viv... ot dSiKor] Cp. vii. 539 D cai ph ds viv
6 Tuxov Kal ovdev mpoonkav Epyera en’ avrd—and the note there.

mpds... 79 Loto] Cp. Theaet. 185 Kadds yap «f, & Ocuirnre

. Tpds S€ TO KANG €d erroinods pe.

oltw méppw ... etvat] ‘So far is she removed from being
deadly.’ I.e. Injustice is far enough from being one of the things
which cause death. Cp. Phaedo 107 ¢ «i pev yap fv 6 Odvaros rod
mavTos amaddayn, €ppatov dv hv trois Kakois dmobavovet Tod Te Tapatos dpa
dmndAdxOa kal rs abrav Kakias pera THs Wuyjs. Yet at the end of
Book i (351 ff.) Socrates uses an argument apparently inconsistent
with this, which he applies both to the state and to the individual,
viz. that evil is a principle of dissolution or annihilation, which
subsists only through the latent presence of good.

For the figurative language cp. Polit. 284 E mav@ énéca els 1d

pécor am@Kicbn Tay €aoxaTov.

Low the number of souls, since they are immortal, must always
be the same, neither less nor more; they cannot become less, because
none of them can die: and they cannot increase, because they could
only be increased tf what ts mortal became immortal, of which the
result would be that all things would become immortal. Nor can
their nature really be so complex as appears to us. The fact of
immortality is proved. But the nature of the soul is beyond the
limits of our knowledge. For she ts plunged in the sea of mortality
and encrusted with earth. Only the divine spark of philosophy
within her gives an inkling of her pristine and true being:

Notes: Book X. 463

ei 8° gxer,«.7.4.] Plato teaches that souls are eternal, and have
a certain fixed number whichis incapable of increase or diminution.
Any process of change by which the mortal passes into the
immortal must end after infinite ages in the immortality of all the
mortal. That this is Plato’s meaning, which is, however, obscurely
expressed, appears from Phaedo 72 B,c «i ydp pi) det dvramodidoin ra
érepa trois érépos yryvdpeva, @omepel KiKA@ mepudvra, GAN’ edOeid Tis ein
i) yeveois éx Tod érépou povoy eis Td Karavtikpd, Kal pt) dvaxdprroe maw ert
70 Erepov pndé Kapmiy movwiro, olc@ ri mavra TeXevT@vra 7d aiTd oxApa dv
oxoin: where an opposite turn is given to the same argument and
it is urged that life must follow death as death follows life. One
of the reasons given by Anselm in Cur Deus Homo, for the
redemption of mankind, is ‘the appointed number of the souls of
the blessed.’

TH GAnPeotdty pdcer] ‘in her truest nature,’ as distinguished
from that phenomenal nature of the soul which is known to us in
experience, and has parts and opposing desires as in Book iv.

ob pddiov, x.7..] (1) ‘that can hardly be eternal, as we have
now discovered the soul to be, which is compounded of many
elements, and is not perfectly compounded.’ The words ovvOerdv
te, k.t.X., may be illustrated by ix. 588 ff. where the soul is said in
a figure to be composed of a many-headed beast, a lion, and a man.
Otherwise (2) the words &s viv... ux may be taken closely
with the clause immediately preceding and referred to the
psychology of Books iv and ix. The position of the words in
question is in favour of the latter explanation—‘ that can hardly
be eternal which is imperfectly compounded of various elements,
as in our present conversation the soul has appeared to be.’
[L. C.] Cp. infra c viv 8€ ctwopev, xr. 612 A viv b€...
SveAnAVOaper.

kat ot G\Aou| suchas the reasonings in the Phaedo and Phaedrus.
dvayxdoeavy Gv| ‘ would prove beyond doubt.’

eipyoe... Sidperar] The subject of these verbs is to be
gathered from the preceding sentence: viz. 6 olrw diabecpevos.

Sixarootvas te kai d&ixias] The plural signifies the concrete
realization of the abstract notion :—Justice and Injustice in their
various forms,

teedueba pévror... thy dpxatay gdéow|] The construction is

Republic
»
651

A

Republic
Xx, .

611
Cc

612

612 A-
613 E

612

464 Plato: Republi.

altered to suit the expansion of the simile: and there is a resump-
tion of rebedpeda ... adrd in infra D obtw Kal Thy puxyy, k.7.A.

With the following image cp. Phaedrus 250c xaOapot dvres Kat
dojpavro. rovrov 6 viv caya mepipéepovres dvopatoper, datpéov tpdmrov
dedeopevpevor,

ind tadtys THs Sppiis| sc. ris rod rH Ocig epemerOau.

yenpa kat mwerpé8y| These words in the relative clause resume
métpas TE Kal GoTpea Supra.

ind... €otidcewv| ‘as the effects of what are called blissful
banquets.’ Cp. supra yf éorwwpévy.

We have found, as Glaucon and Adeimantus required, that apart
Jrom reputation and rewards, justice in her own nature ts best for
the soul in her own nature, even though a man could make himself
invisible, Having answered this requirement, we may now, without
offence, state the truth about the just man’s reward. He does not
escape the notice of the gods, and they love him and make him
blessed. And though his justice may not soon appear to men, yet at
the end of the race he wins the prize against those who started
brilliantly with a splendid show. The unjust may elude detection
for a while; but in their age they are exploded and despised ; and
suffer all those horrors which were formerly recounted as falling on
the head of the just man who was misconstrued by mankind.

odxouv, k.t..]} The passage which follows is one of the many
reminiscences of earlier portions of the work which occur in later
ones, and which form an exquisite thread of connexion amid
apparent disorder. The old allusion to the ring of Gyges is
heightened and enriched by the reference to Iliad v. 844, 845

abrap ’A@nvn
div “Aidos Kuvenv, py pw ioe Bpimos “Apne.

This very early piece of folk-lore is alluded to also in Hesiod.
Scut. 227, Aristoph. Ach. 390, and in the legend of Perseus in
Pherecydes. See Leaf’s note on Iliad. l.c. He compares the
Tarn-Kappe or Nebelkappe of northern mythology.

For the bearing of the words tév Féyou Saxtddov on the reading
of ii. 359 c, see note in loco.

dmehucdpeba] ‘we have cleared away in the argument the
difficulties raised by Glaucon and Adeimantus. To answer

ar

Notes: Book X. 465

accusations or clear away objections is a meaning constantly
assigned to dmodverOau. On the other hand there is no certain
instance of the use of the middle voice of this verb in the sense
of ‘paying a debt.’ A various reading dredvodueba is found in the
Cesena MS. (M), in Ven. Z, and in Stobaeus: this may be connected

with the passage (ii. 361 C yupverdos 81) mavrwv mAiy Sixaoovrns, k.7.d.)-
in which Glaucon and Adeimantus desire Socrates to ‘strip’

justice. The allusion, however, is too remote ; the form is unusual
in Attic prose, and the reading is not assisted by the immediate
context.

énnvéxapey| Par. A reads émnwéyxaper (sic) with a dot over the y,
suggesting émnvéxapev, and Par. K reads éryvécauer, ‘This recalls
the words of Adeimantus (which may however have suggested
this reading to the scribe) ii. 363 A od« adrd dixatoodyny émawvodvtes,
GAA Tas am airs evdorimnoes, ib. 367 D perOodrs dé Kai digas mapes
@rus éwatvetv. But for émépew, ‘to bring to bear,’ ‘apply’
(reading émnvéyxapev), cp. Soph. 251 A A€yopev avOpwmov 8n mov wAN’
arta érovoudtovtes, Ta Te xpmpara emiepovTes aiT@ kai... Kakias Kal
dperds.—The word émyvéxapey with the same variant éryvécapev
occurs in Polit. 307 a. °

pets yap yetobe| ii. 361 A ff., 367 £.

iteiobe, the reading of Par. A, which is supported by M (hreioée)
is perhaps to be preferred to hyetoGe: it agrees better with éSwxa
and 8oréov, and with dmatt@ in the following sentence. Cp.
infra p,£, There is a slight pleonasm or anacoluthon in Soréov
following yjreio@e, which however is not unplatonic.

taita avOdvew| ‘That one should escape notice in this.’

Taita, cognate accusative.

SoxeioGar| For the passive cp. vi. 490A Trois . . . doxoupevors.

ei py te dvayxaiov, x.r.h.] Cp. Butler, Analogy, Part. i. chap. 2
‘ Why the author of nature does not make his creatures happy with-
out the instrumentality of their own actions, and prevent their
bringing any sufferings upon themselves, is another matter. Perhaps

there may be some impossibilities in the nature of things which

we are unacquainted with.’

éx mpotépas duaprias] The effect of one life on another is again
referred to infra 620A xara ovvibevay yap tod mporépov Biov Ta moda

aipeio Oa.

of yap 84, «.7.A.] cp. vi. 500C, D Geig 5: Kai Koopip 6 ye piddoodos
VOL. II. Hh

613

Republic
$4

613°
A

466 Plato: Republic.

duitav kdopuds te Kai Oeios els rd Suvardv avOpar@ ylyverat : Apol. 41
kal €v tu rovTo SiavocioOar dAnOés, Gre oik Eatw avdpi dyab@ Kakdy oddev
ore (avre obre TeAevTHGavtt, oVbE dpedeirat bd Oey Ta TovTOV mpaypaTa.
Cp. also, fer the épotwors 6e6 Theaet. 176 B—z, Laws iv. 716 B, c.
Socrates is about to show that righteousness has the rewards

both of this life and of another. He may be said to have partly

begged the question of this life by imagining the existence of true
happiness in a perfect state. Yet, as he has himself implied at the
end of Book ix, the good man has also the power of constructing
a ‘Kingdom of God’ within him, even when the world is against
him. Nor is he so antagonistic to his fellow-creatures in fact
as he is supposed to be in idea. The world comes round to him
at last: appearances as well as realities must be at length restored
to him: virtue in the long run is also happiness and good
repute.

Gp’ obx GBe exer . . . (c) dwotpéxovtes] ‘Is not the actual truth as
follows? Are not those clever unjust men in the position of runners
who run well from the lower end of the course to the upper, but
not from the upper to the lower? They lead off at a great pace,
but in the end come to look foolish, slinking away with their ears
down on their shoulders, and without a crown.’ The words é&wé
Tov kdtw...dvw have been taken to mean ‘from the lower and
upper parts of their body,’ i.e. their hips and shoulders; and
Socrates is supposed to be describing those who have good legs
and no chest. See Riddell’s Digest of Idioms, § 111: also Madvig
quoted by Baiter in his preface. But it seems more natural to
apply the ambiguous words évw and xdtw to the upper and lower
end of the race-course than to the parts of the human body. The
‘upper end’ of the course is that farthest from the starting-place,
and only a course up and down the stadium is contemplated. The
second statement (13 pév mp@rov, x.7.A.) as in many similar passages
is an expansion of the first. The race alluded to is of course the
diavdos: cp. Aesch. Agam. 343, 344 Sei yop mpis oikous vooripoy
aatnpias | Kapa Siaddov Oatepov kddov radw. The new interpretation
in which Riddell and Madvig concur rather takes from the point of
the comparison, but the use of dé which it implies is idiomatic :
cp. Xen. Rep. Lac. v. g dpoiws yap dé re rv oxehov Kai Amd xetpov
kal Gard tpaxnAov yupvagovrat,

amep adtds éXeyes| ii. 361 p, r—Another of the numerous links
by which Plato connects the beginning with the end of his work. —

Notes: Book X. 467

yépovres .. . mpommAaxiLovrar| (1) ‘As they grow old they are
miserably insulted’ (&@Avot predicative), rather than (2) ‘ becoming
wretched old men they are insulted.’

The words etra orpeBAdoovra kai éxxavOqcovrat, though found
in all MSS., are omitted by some editors and bracketed by others.
There is no necessity for this. The addition of the word éfra,
which improves the effect of them, sufficiently shows that they are
not a gloss arising out of a reference to the words of Glaucon,
ii. 361 x. They suggest the antecedent to &, and may be sufficiently
defended as a humorous epitome of the original to which Socrates
briefly refers.

8 A€yw| supra c.

kal pad’, épy, «.7.A.] Kat pada (kal intensive) is to be taken
closely with kad te kat BéBara, ‘They are indeed most fair and
well assured.’

Yet greater far are the rewards of the just and the punishments
of the unjust in another life. This is shown by the report which
Er the Pamphylian brought from the other world. He was left for
dead amongst the slain, and twelve days afterwards came to life
upon the funeral pyre. His tale was as follows :—‘When his soul
left the body, he proceeded with a great company to a place where
there were two chasms in the earth, near together ; and directly
above them two chasms in the sky. Judges sat there in the midst,
and after judgement, some souls ascended through the chasm on the
right, while others descended into the chasm on the left. He him-
self on approaching the judgement seat, was told that he was to
observe what took place, and-carry the report of it back to living
men. Then he beheld how from the chasm on the right hand were
coming up souls parched and dusty, while from the chasm upon the
left came down another troop clean and bright. All gladly rested
in the meadow after their long journey of a thousand years.’

Plato ends the Republic with a myth: partly (1) because he is
on the limits of human knowledge: imagination necessarily enters
into any representation of another life: (2) also because he has the
old garment of mythology still clinging to him: (3) that he may
popularize moral truths by investing them with the charm of
a religious tale: (4) since he is embodying in literature the
Pythagorean and Orphic feelings of the age. Like religious

Hh 2

614
A

614°
A-E

468 Plato: Republic.

Republic paintings, the myths of Plato have also some traditional elements
*- which lend them verisimilitude and help to bring them into
harmony with contemporary ideas. Plato is accepting the old
forms and trying to breathe a moral and intellectual life into them.
His myth consequently, instead of being a mere fiction or fairy
tale, is supported by the strength of traditional belief. The
attempts of Numenius, Proclus and others to connect this myth
with those in Gorg., Phaed., Phaedr., Tim. so as to get a complete
and consistent view of Plato’s supra-mundane theories, only show
the futility of such a method.

614
A

Td ind tod Adyou dherddpeva dxovoat| ‘The debt of description
which the argument owes to them.’ Supra 612 c 4 édaveicacde ev 7
Ady». The repetition of dxoéoat has been suspected by Stephanus and
Stallbaum, but the word is not without meaning if it be taken in
the sense of ‘to have related concerning them.’ Cp. supra vi.
496 A, Lys. 207 A ov TO Kadds elvat pdvoy agios dxotoat. The debt
which has been incurred in words has to be paid in words.

héyous Gv, k.7.A.] ‘As one who delights in listening to few things
more.’

B GXN’ GAkipou pev dv8pds| Socrates makes a pun on the name of
Alcinous ; as we might say, parodying the words: ‘I will introduce
you toa hero: not the well-known one of the Pilgrim’s Progress :—-
yet this too is a Great-heart.’ Cp. Symp. 185 c MHavoaviou 8¢
mavoapevov, There is perhaps an allusion to the descent among
the shades (Odyssey xi) which forms a part of the tale of Ulysses
to Alcinous. The epithet is appropriate to one who fell in battle.

Tod “Appeviou|] not ‘the Aimenian’ but ‘the son of Armenius’
as in the quotation of Clement infra: his country is mentioned
afterwards. Pamphylia is again referred to, infra 615 c.

Er, the son of Armenius, is declared by Clement of Alexandria
(Stromat. v. 710, § 24) to be Zoroaster: 6 8’ abrds (sc. WAdrav) év ro
dexdt@ tis Todireius “Hpds rod ’Appeviov ro yévos TlappvAou péuvyrat,
ds é€ott Zopodatpys* aitos yotv 6 Zopodotpns ypape Tade Evvéypae

Zopodorpns Appeviod Td yévos Tlaududos ev modeu@ tedevtycas doa €v
"Awdn yevopevos eddnv mapa bear.
Sexatatwv ... SwSexatatos| This gives two days for the home-

bringing and funeral preparations. The twelve days are not
forgotten in the narrative. The sojourn of seven days issucceeded

—-

Notes: Book X =~ 469

by a journey of four days, and this by another journey of one day
(616 B).

’ éwev8y 06] The first hand in Par, A wrote émeid} of with Ven. z:

an early corrector changed this to éred) odv. The genitive goes
with the noun: not ‘when the soul left him, but ‘ when his spirit
went forth.’ In what follows, the soul or spirit is spoken of as the
man.

cig Térov Tivd Saysdvov| ‘to a wonderful place.’

Sixaotds S€.. . Empagav| Cp. Phaedo 107 x Aéyerar 8€ otras,
« ” ‘ o eee , o ~ Ld =
@s dpa TeXeuTHoarra Exactov 6 éxdotou Saipwv, donep Cavra cidnxet, oUTOS
yew émtxeipe’ eis bn twa rérov, ot Sei rovs Evddreyevtas diadicacapevous
els "AvSov mopever Oar pera iyyepdvos exeivou @ 61) mpooréraxtat Tovs évbevde
‘

éxeioe mopetoat : and Gorg. 524 ff.
Tav Sedixacpévwv| is neuter: cp. infra onpeta wdvtwv dv Empagay.

Siaxehedowto| Oblique for diaxehevdpeba: ‘The judges or their
apparitors said, “ You must be the messenger, and we exhort you
to look and listen.”’

‘ The souls that came from heaven, pure and bright, and those
that rose out of the ground, dusty and soiled, met and rested in the
meadow, friends greeting friends and telling of what they had seen
in their respective journeys. The one told of delights beyond compare ;
the other with lamentation and weeping recounted all that they had
suffered and seen others suffer. Each sin was punished ten times
over, once in every hundred years; and the rewarding of good
deeds was in the same proportion. Newly born infants, too, were
there, but of them there is not much to be said. The punishments of
impiety and parricide were greater than of other sins. I heard
a Pamphylian ask, “‘ Where ts Ardiaeus the Great?” “ Not here,”
was the reply,—“ nor will he ever come. The mouth of the chasm
refused him with a terrific roar, and he was thrown down and
flayed and dragged away over spikes of flint to be cast into the
abyss.” The same happened to other tyrants,

boa te kal ofa mdQorev] ‘Of all the dreadful things they had
experienced.’

xeréry | The form xAcerh is supported by the Cesena MS,, and
by Par. DK which may be taken as representing Ven. 0, of which
the concluding pages are wanting.

Republic
XxX.

614
B

615
.A

Republic
Xx.

615
B

470 Plato: Republic.

toiTo 8 elvar... dvOpwiivou|] ‘that is to say, once in every
hundred years, this being reckoned as the measure of the life of
man. Plato often deals in round numbers. See ix. 588 a mpoo-
ykovra .. . Bios apOudv, todro refers to Sixny SeSwxévar . . . Sexdxis.

kai ofov, k.t.A.] The sentence breaks off with an illustration and
is continued as if ére had preceded: xat, which is found in all the
MSS. is genuine, and the phrase may be explained as a colloquia-
lism :—‘ And, for example, if there were any,’ &c. *

mohhdv| This is the reading of Ven. =, and may be a conjectural
emendation of woAdoi, the reading of most MSS., which cannot be
right. A corrector of Par. p has changed zoddoi to mohdots,—
certainly an idiomatic reading. Schneider is hardly justified in saying
of it ‘propter pluralem @avdrey ferri nequit. Cp. Laws rx. 870 p.
The words 4 médeus . . . €uBeBAnkdtes explain Oavdrwv .. . aitvor.

kopicawro ... KopiLowro] The aorist refers to the fact, the
present to the general rule.

Tov 8é edOds yevopdvwy... mépr] ‘And of those (who died) as
soon as they were born, or after living only a little while.’ Since
the dead alone are in question, the ellipse of dmo@avévrwy or
drroyevonevav (conjectured by Cobet) can be endured, especially
since it avoids the collision of two participles.—Plato also has
a ‘limbus infantum, at which he hints.

eis 8€ Beods . . . Sinyetro|] ‘and of piety and impiety to Gods and
parents and of the murder of kindred (reading avréyxepos dévov), the
retributions which he narrated were yet greater.’

The reading of all the MSS. is adéréxetpas, as in the text, of
which, however, no grammatical account can be given. The con-
jecture of Ast, adréyepos dédvov, is extremely probable. Adréyetp is
used, as often in tragedy, to imply violence to kindred: cp. Laws ix.
872 évyyevav airdyepas pdvovs. The sentence thus includes all
acts of impiety, as involving a higher degree of crime.

*Apdtatos 6 péyas| The tyrant of Books viii, ix, is still alive, and
is having the reward of his crimes. The spirits amongst whom Er
finds himself are his own countrymen. The questioner is obviously
a Pamphylian, who, having passed his thousand years in Heaven, is
still interested in the concerns of his native country. He asks

of his friend who has come from Hell (cp. supra 614 E é6oa yropysat)

not without a certain degree of dread, how it has fared with the

Notes: Book X, 471

contemporary tyrant, of whose greatness he still retains the
impression. |

X'voordv Eros} Cp. supra a elvae 8¢ rij wopeiav yitérn. Plato
would not have us forget that a thousand years have passed since
these spirits were in the body.

Gmoxteivas| = ds dméxrewer, ‘who in the course of his tyranny
had slain.’

088 ay Her] av combined with the future indicative throws
a shade of irony into the meaning: ‘nor is he likely to be coming
here.’ See Goodwin, AZ."and T., § 197.

€eaodyeba, x.r.A.] These are not the words of Er, but of the
spirit whom he overhears. ‘The narrative which follows is a con-
firmation of the words ‘ he is not likely to come.’ Er begins again
to speak in his own person at infra 616 B kai ras pév 57.

totro| refers both to what precedes and follows: ‘for this’ viz. the
fate of Ardiaeus ‘was one of the terrible sights which we’ i.e. the
spirits in the world below ‘ witnessed.’ The partitive genitive here
forms part of the predication.

kal TaAAa tava memovOdres| ‘and had suffered all that we told
you.’ These words, like tév. Se.vav Oeapdrwy supra, refer to the con-
versation which the pilgrims from the lower world had held with
the pilgrims from the upper respecting their experiences in the
thousand years,—supra 614. T&Ada, ‘the rest,’ i.e. ail except
the spectacle now to be described.

jjoav Sé Kai... ipapryxétwv| It was not the position of the
tyrant that had merited judgement, but the character of his life.
Cp. Gorg. 524 F 6 ‘PaddpavOus . . . OeGrar Exdorov thy Wuxqy, ovk cidas

Grou €ativ, dda wodAdkts TOD peyddouv Bacéws emAaBdpevos, K.T.X.

4% ph ixavds, «.7.4.] Ardiaeus was incurable, but the attempt
might be made prematurely by others whose term of punishment
was only to be temporarily prolonged.

évrai0a 8H, «.7.A.] The ministers of vengeance are represented
as they might be in Dante or by one of the early Italian painters.
They are waiting (wapeor@res) for the well-known signal.

Tov 8é “Apdiaiov... (616 A) dyowro| Thetransposition of dt eis to
eis 6 re in Par, A led Hermann to conjecture that rév Tdprapov as well

Republic
XxX.

615
Cc

Republic
XxX,

615
E

616 B-
617 D

Ta) oper |
. a2 ° -

472 Plato: Republic.

as tavra trouevorey Was an accretion. The latter words are probably
a gloss: they are not found in AM. It is not possible, nor is it
very important to determine accurately the reading of this passage :
the general meaning is clear enough.

aio} ‘to him and to his fellows’ viz. the souls just ascended
from beneath.

todrov... dvaBaivor] There is some confusion in the MSS.
here.. Par. K appears to read as in the text. Par. A omits tév
$é6Bov: other MSS. retaining rév pdBov read «7 pu«noaro 7d ordptov
instead of ph yévouto .. . dvaBaivor. There can be little doubt that
in these MSS. a gloss has taken the place of the true reading.
But tov pdBov-is probably genuine, although in the reading of
Par. A it has been rejected as superfluous.

o.yjeavtos| SC. Tod cropiov supra 615 £. ~The aorist points to
the moment of passing the aperture. Observe too, the difference
between évaBaivor, ‘tried to ascend,’ and dvaBivar, ‘ascended.’

kat ad tds evepyecias| etepyeoia seems to be used here for the
rewards of merit, much as dpery is used for ‘ reputation of virtue.’

‘Now after seven days of rest in the meadow we set out upon our
journey. And during the fourth day’s journeying we saw far off
a light, straight like a pillar, in colour like unto a rainbow.
Another day of travel brought us to the light, and tn the midst of tt
we saw the spindle of necessity depending from the fastenings of the
sky. This spindle is the cause of all the celestial revolutions, and
the ball or whorl of it is eightfold, as there are eight concentric

I 2 3 4 5 6
circles or orbits ( fixed stars, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Mercury,
8
Sei and Moon), endued with appropriate motions, and each having

its peculiar Siren tone. The three Fates sit round and set their

hands to the revolutions of the spindle as it turns on the knees of —

their mother Necessity, where she sits enthroned. And they sing, to
the music of the spheres, Lachesis of the past, Clotho of the present,

A tropos of the future.

616
B

éxdotos] ‘each company,’ i.e. all those who had arrived on the
same day.

Seiv| is general, referring to all the souls: dguxvetoOar refers to

Er and his company in particular.

Notes: Book X. 473

dbev... pds e005] dvwley is to be taken with Terapévov.
‘Whence they descried a line of light reaching from above.’ It is
worth observing as illustrating the difference between Greek and
English on the subject of Tautology, that in this most finished
passage Plato three times over uses the same word (tetapévov)
within ten lines. The phrase 8c mavrds rerayévoy is applied in the
Timaeus, p. 40, to the axis of the universe (7édos).

padtora tH (pid. mpoopeph | That is, not in shape, but in colour.
It has been remarked by Boeckh, following Numenius and others,
that the idea of the luminous column was suggested by the Milky
Way. But this is hardly consistent with the distinct statement that
the light was straight and vertical, or with the rainbow colonrs.

Ta Gxpa adtod tay Seopav| ‘the extremities of the chains of
Heaven’ or ‘of the Light.’ aéroé is ambiguous, and may refer
either to odpavod or $@s,—more naturally to the former.

The Earth is imagined as an inner sphere, concentric with the
outer sphere of the heaven, and connected with it by the column of
light, in the midst of which are fastened the ends of the chains of
Heaven. In the centre of the column and attached to the ends of
these chains is the spindle which the Fates are turning upon the
knees of Necessity. This together with the whorl which ‘ governs’
it gives law to the movements of the heavenly bodies.

The Light is compared to the imdéf{wpua of a trireme, which is
variously explained as the undergirding rope (Acts xxvii. 17), or as
a rope passing from stem to stern. See especially E. Warre in
Journal of Hellenic Studies, v. 216 (On the raft of Ulysses’):
‘The hawser, called timdfwpa, stretched from stem to stern, over
crutches, kept up bow and stern and prevented “hogging.” This
is seen very clearly in the representation of an Egyptian ship given
in Duemichen’s Feet of an Egyptian Queen. Possibly the difficulty
about the imdfopa, Plat. Rep. Bk. x, finds its solution in this
straight truss amidships. But the trofmpara in the case of triremes
seem generally to have been applied outside, stretching from stem
to stern on both sides of the vessel. These hawsers, put on dry,
would shrink when wet, and $o tighten up the timbers of the lightly
built vessel.’ The thought of Plato seems to be that the whole
circle of the Universe was held fast by the column, which, like the
rope that. fastened a trireme from stem to stern, passed through
the midst of it. The words, ofov xiova, show that the position of

Republic
Xx.
616
B

Republic
XxX,
616

Cc

474 Plato: Republic.

the column was vertical from Er’s point of view. The lower
hemisphere is not considered, because everything is viewed from
the upper surface of the Earth. The form of expression, etvat ydp,
k.t.., shows that the figure of the imé¢wpua illustrates rather the
function than the appearance of the pillar of light.

tiv mepipopdvy| ‘the revolving sphere,—not merely ‘the
revolution.’

*Avéykns Gtpaxtov| The spindle of necessity is the pole or axis
of the heaven and earth, which passes through the midst of the
column of light.

Thy ...HAakdrny|] Not here the distaff, but ‘the shaft’ of the
spindle.

x Te TouTou Kal G&ANwv yevav| Cp. the difference, in Tim. 41 p,
between the Divine and Mundane elements of the Creation.

76 pev.. . €vOdSe| ‘In shape it (4 rod opovdvAou iors) resembled
that (7 sc. @vors) of a common whorl.’

voyjoa. Sé Set, x.t.4.] The whorl is fastened round the spindle
like the body of a teetotum on its shaft, and is formed of eight
whorls fitting one into the other like a number of boxes, and
showing on the upper side a continuous surface. It is doubtful
whether this whorl is in the form of a cylinder or of part of

NS

a sphere. The circumstance that the upper surface only is said to
be smooth is in favour of the latter supposition, which also agrees
better with the image of the boxes fitting into one another. But on
the other hand the shaft is driven home (8capzepés €Andarac) through
the eighth or innermost, and each whorl appears to be driven
through and through the one immadliately outside it,—although
Stapmepés . .. dpydtrwy may be understood to mean merely that
they fitted each other in every part.

Tov pev obv mparov te, K.7.A.] The passage which follows is to
be explained (1) from the phenomena of the Heavens, as they

Notes: Book X. 475

present themselves to the eye, or as they were accounted for by the
crude astronomy of Plato’s age: (2) from certain Pythagorean
ratios or harmonies of number. The description of the heavenly
bodies is still partly a work of fancy. This part of the Republic
agrees with the Timaeus in general outline. (a) The order of the
planets is the same in both: (4) there is an axis of the universe in
both, which passes through the centre of the earth: (c) in both
there is one motion of the whole, and a different motion of the
seven inner circles. (d) In neither is there any distinct mention of
a motion of the earth. The whole and the outermost circle are
moving in one direction, the seven inner circles while partaking of
this motion, év td dd mepipepopévw, move also gently, jpépa, in
an opposite direction. This conception of a double movement
seems intended to explain the difficulties of astronomy arising out
of the apparent diurnal motion of the Heavens round the Earth
and the distinct and apparently inconsistent movements of the Sun,
Moon and Planets: cp. Tim. 38 £ ff. The outer whorl, which is
spotted, represents the fixed stars (which, as in the Timaeus, have
only the ‘motion of the same’); the seventh which is described as
the brightest is the sun; the eighth shining with borrowed light,
and having more of retrograde motion, is the moon; the second
and fifth, which are of a yellower colour than the sun and moon,
are Saturn and Mercury; the third and whitest of all is Jupiter;
the next whitest or sixth is Venus; the fourth, which is reddish, is
Mars. The whorl of the fixed stars is the widest; the others are
enumerated according to their width; the breadth of the rims
may be intended to signify the supposed distances of the orbits
from each other; it may also rest merely on some notion of
harmonical arrangement.

[It is difficult to reason about a description of the universe which
is mythical and fanciful, and only has a faint basis in the astro-
nomical notions of the ancients themselves. The following note
on this subject has been contributed by Mr. W. A. Craigie, and
deserves insertion here.

The order of Plato's enumeration of the planets in
Rep. x. 616 &, ff.

Although the relative distance, brightness, &c. of the opévdvdor, in
this theory of the universe, correspond in the first instance to the
real or supposed distance &c. of the planets denoted by these, there
is a curious fact connected with Plato’s order of arranging them

Republic
¥.

616
E

Republic
XxX,

616
E

ee eR ae eee eee
y . 7 wy

476 Plato: Republic.

that can hardly be accidental, and may account for his views
regarding some of their properties. This is that each enumeration
seems to be based on combinations which rest on the number 9.
Thus to take first the ‘ breadth of the lips’ of the opdvdvAcx, which
gives Plato's view of the distance of each planet from the other, we
have the following series, the 1st epdvdvdos being the outermost and
the 8th the innermost of the set.

A. No. of oddvdvdos 18¢ and 3rd yth pth 6th 7th gth

Order of ‘width’: 8 9 3 6- a g0%%
bee” Nina “n“”

By thus joining those oévdvdcc whose united numbers produce
a sum of 9, we have a symmetrical figure with its centre between
the 4th and 5th.

This appears even more clearly in the next enumeration, that of
the respective colours, for here it comes out in the otherwise
arbitrary way in which Plato springs from one to another instead
of taking them in the order of some scheme of colour. Thus the
4th, which is reddish, is inserted between the 3rd and 6th, which
are both white. Writing down the numbers then in Plato’s order,
we get

B. ro 33> gag eek
pence ta Manag ge

which gives another set divided in the centre of the 8 rings, where
it is indeed coupled by the remark that the 2nd and 5th nearly
resemble each other.

The respective speed of the rings gives them in their natural
order from 8 to 1 which of course produces a similar result

c, 12.3 4 §. 6 9 .8| centre.| 8; ja ee:
a Pade

It may also be significant here that the three which move at the
same rate (5, 6, 7) produce the sum of 18, or half that of the whole
series.
Note.—Series A gives a still more elaborate figure if we invert
the lines; thus
Order of width 1 2 3 4 § 6 7
No. of opdvivdos 1 6 4 8 7 § 3 2]

= |

Notes: Book X. 477

Thy évavriav Td Sw Apeua weprpdpecOar| I. e. while they partake
of the diurnal revolution, the sun, moon and planets alter their
position in the sky from day to day,—the moon most rapidly, then
the sun with Venus and Mercury, and so on. The peculiar
apparent motions of Mercury and Venus are noticed in the
Timaeus (p. 38D); but this point is too minute for Plato’s
purpose here.

tpitovy 8€] dv rpirov which is in all the MSS, except g, may
possibly be defended: ‘the third in order of reverse motion was
the fourth’:—but the ambiguity of this expression and_ the
probability that rév may have arisen out of méynrov, justify the
rejection of the article.

odio} To Er and the other souls, who are thus kept in mind.

éwavaxukhodpevov] ‘in the reverse or retrograde revolution,’
which it shares with the other six inner circles. This word is to
be closely joined with gopd@ iévas.

abrév] sc. Tév arpaktor.

éva tévov] is the reading of the best MSS. and of Proclus:
‘one sound and one note.’ Another reading, of inferior authority,
iS ava révor.

Motpas, k.1.A.] The touches of the Fates regulating the motions
of the inner and outer Heaven are obscurely symbolical. ‘ Lachesis,
wise in past events, allots to each his life (she touches both
motions); Clotho spins this in the present (touching the larger
motion), Atropos (touching the inner circles) makes the destiny
irreversible. Why does Clotho touch the outer circle? Is it
because the present, as the moment of choice, alone from time to
time lays hold upon eternity? Lachesis touches both alternately :—
the past is unalterable but influences what is to come. Atropos,
the future, not to be averted, is alone contingent, évd_exspevov dros
éxew.’ So we may attempt to interpret Plato’s symbolism.

écattws| ‘In like manner,’ i.e. at intervals, referring to Sta-
heitroucay xpdvor.

‘As soon as we came thither we were taken before Lachesis, from
whose lap an Interpreter took lots, and samples of lives. After
some warning words he threw the lots to each of us, but I was
forbidden to take up mine. Then he laid out the samples and bade

Republic
Xx,

617
A

617 D-
619 B

Republic
2

617 D-
619 B

617
D

478 Plato: Republic.

the souls in order of their lots make choice of the lives which they
desired to lead on earth’— Socrates observes by the way that of the
whole of human existence this is the most critical moment. And in
order to make the choice aright, not merely the life of good habits,
but philosophy is required.

mpds thy Adxeow| The allotment of lives is assigned to Lachesis,

> ‘ a ,
aro Tov Aayxadvew.

GdAns tepddou Ovytod yévous| ‘Another period of belonging to
the race of mortals.’ Oavatnpdpou agrees with mepiddou,— leading
to death.’

mpatos 8 6 Aaxdv... Biov] ‘Let him who draws the foremost
lot, first choose a life’ The order of words seems intended to
produce the effect of tragedy.

dperh 8€ ddéomorov] ‘Virtue is free to all’ or ‘is not the
exclusive property of any.’ In such allegorical fashion does Plato
assert the freedom of the human will in a previous existence, as
determining the condition of this. Cp. Tim. 42 D d:adeopodernoas
8€ mdvra adbtois raira, iva Tis émeita ein Kakias ExdoT@y dvairios :—also
Laws x. 904, in which God is described as, after consideration
of their nature, placing living beings, in whom the connexion of
soul and body, though not eternal, is morally speaking indissoluble,
in a state of probation, and making their future character and
dwelling-place depend upon virtue and vice, of which one or other
is to be chosen in an instant.

The allegory is not to be too closely pressed: for while it is
said below that the life chosen determines the character of the soul
during that life, this is followed by the exhortation that a man
should study philosophy, so that everywhere,.as far as possible,
both here and hereafter, he may choose the best life with reference
to his individual character. Compare the parallel passage of the
Phaedrus, pp. 248, 249, where in the first instance the law of
transmigration is called @éexpds *Adpacreias, and then in what follows
the individual choice is mentioned incidentally :—Phaedr. 249 B 7
de xtAuoorG (rec) duddrepar adixvodpevac emi KAjpwoiv te Kal alpeow Tov
deurépou Biov, atpodvrar dy dv eOédy éxdorn,

pipou ént mévtas Tods KAyjpous} ‘ Threw the lots so as to reach
them all.’ mavTas, sc. opas.

@ 82 ox gv] ‘But him’ (viz. Er) ‘the minister did not
permit to do so.’ odk éav, sc. rov mpopyrn».

Notes: Book X. ~ 479

Wuxiis 8€ tdégw, «7.A.] ‘There was no definite character
in the samples of their lives: because the character was given to
the individual by the life which the soul had chosen.’ rdw = mas
yor rdgews. Cp. supra 617 £ ipeis daivova aipnoeobe: infra 621 D.

Ta $€ Kal pecodvy todrwy| I.e. ‘some were in a mean state
between health and sickness, riches and poverty.’ So infra 619 a

rov pégov ... TaY TowovTwr Bior.

tis adtév, x.t.d.| depends immediately on éfeupeiv. The idea of
seeking out the truth is developed into that of finding the true
teacher, which has been suggested by the word pa@yris.

7a viv 8} pnGévra| All the various circumstances of life included
in the previous description (supra a) of the Biay mapadeiypara,

pera troias Twos Puxis €fews] The whole of a man’s present life
is to be a preparation for his choice in the life to come. To this
choice he is to bring with him a knowledge of the influence
which circumstances exercise on character,—whether the circum-
stances in which nature places him, or in which he places himself.
He must also know the nature of the soul, and how she may be
made better or worse.

édvet| A return from the participle to the finite verb. Ven. =
reads éeav, Vat. r eave.

éSapavtivws| is a stronger word for BeBaias.

mdodtwy| The plural is used with a certain grandiloquence to
express the various degrees and kinds of wealth, cp. vi. 495 A.
For dvéxm\ynktos cp. ix. 577 A Kal py xKabdnep mais éEwbev dpav

€xmAntretat id THs Toy TUpayyLKaY TpooTdcews.

kal év mavtt t@ €wecta| This truth is anticipated in the remark
(vi. 498 p) half understood by Glaucon zeipas yap oidév avncoper,
K.T.A,

*

Er proceeds with his narrative.—‘ In bidding us choose, the
Interpreter told us to use judgement ; and if we did so, even the last
comer need not despair. No sooner had he spoken than one of the
souls came forward and chose the greatest tyranny; he was one
of those who came from heaven, and had dwelt in a well-ordered
city: but like others who were similarly overtaken, he had no
philosophy. He. lamented his choice when it was too late, but
disregarding the word of the Interpreter, blamed everybody but

Republic
X,
618
B

@)

619

619B-
620 D

Republic
p

619 B-
620 D

619
B

480 Plato: Republic.

himself. This was a typical instance of sudden reversal of destiny,
due to chance and inexperience. The spectacle of the election was at
once pathetic, ludicrous, and wonderful. Most of the souls chose s
the opposite of their former lives. The soul of Orpheus took the
nature of a swan, disdaining to be born of a woman, because women

had been his murderers. Those of Ajax and Agamemnon, in
resentment of their wrongs, preferred the lives of a lion and an
eagle severally to the life of man. Atalanta chose the life of an
athlete, Epeius that of a woman cunning in the arts. Thersites

who came late, put on the likeness of an ape; and the soul of
Odysseus which came last of all, weary of travel and ambition,
rejecting every other, chose the quiet life of a private man,

kat Sh ody, «.7.4.| ‘and according to the report of the messenger
from the other world,’—viz. Er, supra 614 p,—‘ these were the very
words of the prophet: “Even the last comer, if he chooses with
understanding and lives earnestly, is destined to have an eligible
life and one which is anything but bad. Let not him who chooses
first be careless, nor let the last despair.” ’

We note the rhetorical art with which Plato first enunciates his
‘whole duty of man,’ and then confirms his precepts by recurring
to the myth of Er.

eindvtos 8€] sc. rod mpopyrov raira,
&py| sc. 6 “Hp.

cipappévyy . . . Bpdoers, «.7.4.] An apposition which may be
compared with supra 616 D Kvkdous . . . Ta xeihn haivortas.

Tots mpoppyPetow] ‘to the former speech’; supra’ 617 E airia

€Xopevou,

év tetaypéevy woditeia ... (D) dperis peterhnpdta| Plato means
to intimate that the life of mere habit is no safeguard of truth or
virtue, under altered circumstances. Cp. Phaedo 81, 82, where ~
those who have lived virtuously in a well-ordered community,
though their condition is said to be comparatively blessed, are
only permitted to attain some tolerable social state, whether of
men or other political animals, such as ants or bees: their life is
contrasted with that of the votaries of philosophy, who are meet to _
be the companions of Gods. See also vi. 506 c where he compares —
those who have right opinion without knowledge to blind men who
manage to keep the straight path ; also Meno 97. ie

Notes: Book X. 481

ds 82 kal eimety] ‘and as indeed one might say,’ a qualification
of the seeming paradox that quite as many of the souls who made
a bad choice came from Heaven as from underground. For kat,
which marks the bearing of the new remark on what precedes,
cp. Gorg. 520 B pdvos 8 éywye Kal Suny rois Snpnydpus re kal copuorais
ovK eyxwpeiv, K.T.A,

ovx é§ émBpouis| Cp. Herod. iii. 135, § 5 ore émBpapdv mavra

Ta Siddpeva ed€xero.

8d Si... téxnv] ‘and because of this’ (i.e. because of the
experience of some and the inexperience of others) ‘and also
because of the chances of the lot, many of the souls exchanged
a good destiny for an evil, or an evil for a good.’ Innocence and
happiness in his previous life are not sufficient to sustain a man in
the choice for the future: a severer probation or discipline is
required, which is that of philosophy. And, suppose a man to
have had the discipline, even the journey from one life to the other
is a heavenly pilgrimage: and the return hither, if he have only
moderate fortune in his opportunity of choice, is not unblessed.
But most men are under the dominion of habit, and few know
how to profit by experience.

pice. Tod yuvarkelou yévous, x.t.\.] The dative is to be taken
closely with oék éé\oucav :—‘ because of hatred of the sex who
destroyed him, not choosing to be born of a woman.’

doadtws. eikoothy 8€] This reading is confirmed by the quota-
tion of Plutarch. The reader naturally asks what some of the
copyists (who read eixéds* tay, or who changed the reading into
acavtws, ws 7d eixds* thv) perhaps asked themselves: ‘ Why should
the soul of Ajax have been the twentieth?’ Plutarch, who also
raises this question (Symp. Quaest. lix. 5), says that Ajax is the
twentieth soul who appears in Homer (Od. xi) to Ulysses,—that
is to say after excepting Elpenor, who is not worth counting.
The real answer is that no answer is needed. Ajax is twentieth
and Agamemnon twenty-first for the same reason that Atalanta is
in the middle and Ulysses at the end of the series: that is to say,
in order to heighten the effect of the narrative by the appearance
of exactness, and to illustrate the working of the element of chance.
The copyists may have been merely misled by the letters ws at the
end of décattws suggesting the familiar phrase as eixds.

tiv 8 én todrw] sc. Aaxodoar elvae Wuxi.

VOL. Il. ri

Republic
ae

619
D

620

Republic
xX

620

620

482 Plato: Republic.

méppw 8 év bordros idsetv] ‘and that he saw far away among
the last.’ aéppw refers to the place assigned to Thersites by the
number of his lot. He is luckless as well as despicable. Odysseus,
on the other hand, is unfortunate but superior to misfortune. —

kat dopévny éhéo8ar| ‘and took up the lot with joy.’ édéoba
is co-ordinate with ebpetv . . . eimeiv.

Ta pev Sika, K.t.d.] Cp. Phaedo 82 rods 8¢ ye ddikias te Kal
tupavvidas Kal dprayas mporerinkdtas els Ta Tov AUK@Y Te Kal lepdxov
kat ixrivey yévn, «.7.A. For Sikora as an attribute of Onpia cp. vi.
496 D.

‘When all had chosen, they went each in order to Lachesis, and
received from her the Genius who was to be the guardian of their
lives. This Genius led them for confirmation beneath the hands of
Clotho and of Atropos successively. Then all passed under the
throne of Necessity ; and when we had passed through the midst of
it we came into the arid plain of Oblivion, and encamped beside the
waters of Forgetfulness, whereof each soul was compelled to drink
a certain measure, but some drank to excess. J, however, was not
permitted to drink of it. But when, at midnight, it had thundered,
and the Earth had quaked, and the souls had shot upwards like
stars to their places of birth, 1, without knowing how I returned to
the body, opened my eyes at dawn, and found myself lying on the
pyre.

‘And so, adds Socrates, ‘this Vision of Judgement vanished not,
but was preserved for our instruction. By taking to heart its
lessons, we may secure true happiness here and hereafter,

dv eideto Saipnova] Supra 617 E. Saipwv here = ‘the genius,’
or ‘guardian angel,’ or ‘the double’ of a man, as in Phaedo 107 ¢
6 éxdarov Saipwr, domep (Gvra ciAnyer: elsewhere one of the race of
demi-gods or sons of God who are supposed to have governed
and to govern mankind: cp. Polit. 271 D kai 8) Kai ra (6a Kara yévn
kai dy€Aas oiov vopeis Ocion SuecAnecav Saipoves: Laws iv. 713 D Tavrov
317) Kai 6 Beds dpa Kai diravOpwros dv rd yevos dpewov ipa epiorn rd TeV
Saiudvwv. In the Timaeus, go a, the daiywr of each one is spoken
of as the rational principle, cupsoraroy ris Wuyis eidos, which God
had given them.

kupodvta| ‘ Ratifying’ (participle of xvpé), agreeing with
Saipova,

¥

Notes: Book X. 483

haxdv] is masculine instead of feminine: the person for the
soul, The same gender is continued in épapdpevoy and Srefed-
Oévra, which are more naturally referred to the person than to the
Genius, who, however, is the subject of kupodévra, &yewv, movodvra.

dpetactperti| follows up dperdorpopa, and helps to mark the
solemn moment when, their destiny having been made irreversible,
they pass singly beneath the throne of Necessity. The words
érrecd}) . . . SeAOov imply that they pass one by one. Each, when
he has passed through, has to wait for the rest.

SefeAOdvta] The subject has changed insensibly from Satpova
with which the previous participles agree, to the spirit, or the man
himself. Cp. ot dddot,

Sd kadpatos ... Sevod] They are passing through the midst of
the pillar of light.

kat yap... gvec] The plain of Oblivion is appropriately
described as a barren wilderness, having nothing to remind us
of this world.

opas| Er, in continuing his narrative, now includes himself in
the company of souls. From 617 £, é 8€ ov« éav, he has been only
a spectator.

ob 76 U8wp ...otéyew| Another suggestive image of forgetful-
ness. ‘These words metaphorically describe the failure-of memory
to retain the things which have happened to men in a former state
of existence. No vessel, such as the human soul, can hold the
stream of recollection after it has drunk of the water.

tods S€ ppovycer . . . pérpou] The eagerness of the soul to
forget past cares is the-source of temptation here. The soul that
drinks too deeply of forgetfulness is ‘ defiled,’ infra c: cp. vii. 535 E
) av . . . dpadia podtwwnra. The wise seek to retain, if possible,
some recollection of a former state of existence. For the forget-
fulness of a former state cp. Phaedrus 250. This is the only
allusion which occurs in the Republic to the doctrine of dvapynots,
which, moreover, is rarely spoken of elsewhere—and chiefly in the
earlier writings of Plato (Meno 81 ff., Phaedo 73-76, Phaedrus
250, 275). .

mévra ... émdavOdveoGar| The aorist denotes each several act
of drinking: the continuous, or general tense, answering to det,
describes the uniform result.
1i2

Republic
Xx,

620
E

Republic
Xx,

621
B

484 Plato: Republic. Notes: Book X.

adrés ... iSetv... abtév] The grammar reflects the strangeness
of the situation, in which the disembodied spirit returns, and the
man suddenly finds himself lying on the funeral pyre.

75m Keipevov] The MSS. are a good deal divided between the
omission and insertion of 789. It may be explained as referring
back to the beginning of the narrative (supra 614 B) where the
dead are desciibed as being taken up for burial on the tenth day,
two days before Er’s coming to life upon the pyre.

kai oUtws, «.7.4.] ‘And so’ (by Er’s coming back to Earth)
‘the tale, Glaucon, was saved and has not perished, and may be
our salvation, if we are obedient to it.’ ottws is the reading of
Par. A, the Cesena MS. (M), Ven. = and several other MSS.,
odros Of Par. p kK (the representatives of Ven. 1), the Munich
MS. g, &c. Both readings seem to require the article before piéos,
which appears only in Par. K. The reason of its omission may be
the familiarity of the proverbial phrase pifos dwodero. (Theaet.
164 D, Phil. 14 a, Laws i. 645 B.)

mdvta... dvéxeoOar| Supra 610 B.

mdvta 8é dyad] After déyald some more general word like
déxeoOa has to be understood from dvéxeo@an.

TAS Gvw S800 . . . émetndedcopev| Cp. Theaet. 176 B mepacda

xpy evOevde exeioe hevyewv . . . Sixacov kal dato peta povncews yeveo Oa.

iva Kal hpiv adtots, K.t.A.] Cp. i. 351 E-352 B.

dotep ... weptayerpdpevor| ‘Like the victors at the games, who
go round to collect gifts.’
The words kat év0d8e . . . wopeia, which are pleonastic, resume

what has been said of the rewards of virtue both in this life and in
the life to come (614 £ ff.); and the continuous tense in kopifdpeba
corresponds to the long period over which the recompense is
spread.

fv SveknAdOapev] ‘ Which we have gone through,’ i.e. described ;
but with a playful suggestion of our having made the pilgrimage
ourselves.

INDEX TO VOL. III.

I. ENGLISH.

Accusative, cognate, 63, 101, 184, 194,
205, 212, 215, 238, 270, 288, 360,
449, 450, 495;

in apposition to the sentence, 66,
188, 455;

accusativus pendens, 72, 147;

out of construction, 80;

of reference, 147, 265;

used adverbially, 159, 231.

Achilles, the character of, 117.

Actual, the, and the ideal, 250, 251,
295.

Adam, Mr., on the Platonic Number,
366, 372.

Adeimantus, I, 302.

Adrasteia, the Goddess, 213.

Adverb, the, referring to the condition
of the agent, 17;

used in place of the adjective, 354.

Aeschines, quoted, (c. Ctesiphont. 85,
35)» 146;

(de Fals. Leg. § 152), 222.

Aeschylus, the Palamedes of, 329 :—

quoted, Agam. (165), 3543; (312), 6;
(343, 344), 466; (1127), 430;
(1633), 27:—

Prom (437), 408; (936), 213; (1008),

S. c. T. (16-20), 157; (4r 2-416),
tbid.; (592), 64.

Ajax Shy the ‘twentieth’ to choose
a new life? 481.

Akbar Khan, 254.

Alcibiades, 282, 364.

Alcibiades I., quoted, (127 D), 21; (135

), 448.

Alcinous, 468.

Alfred the Great, 254.

Anachronisms, in the Platonic writings,
ss

Anacreon, quoted, (fr. 63), 87.

Anacolutha, 11, 72, 138, 183, 199, 213,
405.

Analogy of the Arts, see Arts.

Anatolius, (Theolog. Arithm.) quoted,
369.

Anaxagoras, the disciples of, 459.

Androcydes, 369.

Anselm, 301, 463.

Antecedent, vague, 85, 90, 92, 95, 98,
100, IOI, 102, 105, 142, 158, 164,
171, 172, 173, 193, 197, 211, 243,
265, 273, 276, 298, 322, 355, 43°,
440, 454-

Aorist, the gnomic, 29, 145;

of the immediate past, 47 ;

use of the Aorist, 470, 472, 483 ;—
Aorist participlé with ye,= ‘not
until,’ 303.

Apollo marp@os, 176.

Apology, quoted, (17 B), 286; (21),
182; (23B), 28; (2.C), 356;
(26c), 383 (27C), 513 (34D),
362; (358), 168; (39E), 76;
(40B), 243 (41 C), 466.

Archelaus, King of Macedonia, 405.

Aristides, on the meaning of dywy? in
rhythm, 134.

Ariston, father of Plato, Glaucon, and
Adeimantus, 1.

Aristophanes, quoted, Acharn. (126),
249 -—

Ecel. (495), 122 :—

Nub. (126), 213; (131), 2495 (449)»
143; (783), 166; (893), 3833
(1174), 31 :—

486 Index to

Aristophanes, quoted, Ran. (23), 150;
(66), 2553 (82), 10; (96), 773
(100), 116.

Aristotle, his discussion of casuistical
questions, 13 ;

his use of the rpiros dv@pwmos argu-
ment, 36, 37 ;

his distinction of goods, 58 ;

his criticism of Plato’s manner of
constructing the state (Pol. iv. 4,
§ 32), 83; ,

his account of @upds, 93 ;

his conception of dyvo.a xaOddou,
107 5

on the three elements of utterance,
127;

his criticism of Plato for retaining
the Phrygian mode, 131;

on the disuse of the more elaborate
musical instruments, 132;

misunderstood Plato’s meaning in
regard to the familiarities allowed
to lovers, 139;

criticizes Plato for confining office to
a single class, 160;

wrongly attacks Plato for ‘ depriving
the guardians of happiness,’ 162 ;

on the size of the state, 169, 230;

on the virtue of courage, 181;

his psychology compared with that
of Plato, 185 ;

his criticism of [Plato’s] error in
conceiving the state as a large
family, 189 ;

denies that the same qualities are to
be ascribed to men and women,
324;

on the exposure of children, 232;

thinks that the tie of relationship
will be wanting in Plato’s state,
2373

does not mention the avnral BactAcia,
362 ;

his use of the word tipoxparia, 363 ;

on the corruption of Sparta, 375 ;

on the nature of dreams, 409.

Aristotle, quoted, Ath. Pol. (c. 55),
10 :—

Met. (i. 1, § 1), 256; (2, § 13), 97;
(6, § 4)s 312 i—(ili. 2, § 24), 313:—
Meteor. (ii. 2, § 9), 289 :—

Vol. LLd.

Nic. Eth, (i. 1, § 1), 302; (6, § 1),
440; (7, §17), 965 (13, §§ 12, 13),
409 :—(ii. 7, § 12), 26; (3, § 2),
138 :—(iv. 1, § 33), 266:—(v. 9,
§ 9) 63 :—(vii. 13, § 3), 64 :—
(ix. 2, § 9), 172:—(x. 3, § 7),
428 :—

Poet. (c. 3, § 2), 120; (c. 4, § 12),
440 -—

Pol. (i. 3, § 4), 303 (13, § 9), 224:—
(ii. 2, § 3), 2353 (4 § 3), 1393
(5, § 14), 236; (§ 26), 160; (§ 27),
162; (8, § 17), 350:—(v. 12, § 8),
37° :—(vii.7, § 2), 192; (16, § 15);
232 :—(vili. 5, § 22), 130 (7, §§ 9-
11), 131:—

Probl. (xix. 48, § 1), 132 :—

Rhet. (i. 5, § 10), 1443 (ii. 16, § 2),
2723 (23, § 29), 73 (ill. 4, § 3)

246, 272.

Aristoxenus, 127, 130, 134, 135, 342,
369.

Art, the relation of, to morality,
136;

the power of the whole, the highest
excellence of, 163 :—

art of government, 37 ;

of pay, 43;

of measuring, 451 :—

art and imitation, 442 :—

Arts, analogy of the, 15, 19, 35,475

545
‘excellence’ (dperq) in, 36, 54;
measure in, 48.
Article, the definite, pronominal use of,
117.
Ast, 60, 112, 126, 200, 266, 271, 349,
380, 420, 429, 452, 470.
Astronomy, 349, 343 3
connexion of, with music, 344;
the astronomy of Plato, [Book X],
475-
Astyochus, 375.
Athens, music at, 342;
the Solonian constitution, 363 ;
the oligarchical party, 401 : —
Athenian law, compelling the nearest
kinsman to marry an orphan maiden,
284.
Attraction (in Greek) of the simile and
the thing compared, 265.

SL. English.

Bacon, Lord, 325.

Padham, 39, 162, 344, 394-

Baiter, 51, 74, 154, 221, 258, 298, 323,
387, 466.

Barocci, 366.

Beauty, absolute, 104,

Being and not-being, 257.

Bekker, 126, 183, 199, 203, 209, 221,
278, 289, 301, 380, 388, 389, 395,
413, 418, 447, 452, 459-

Bendis, the Goddess, 3, 4.

Bentham, 358.

Bergk, 72, 73.

Berkeley, 451.

Body, the, in relation to the mind, 140,

Boeckh, 8, 79, 473;

on the date which Plato assumed for
the Republic, 2.

Boswell, ‘Life of Johnson,’ quoted,
356.

Butler, on the permission of evil in the
world, 102;

his doctrine that passive impression
is in an inverse ratio to active habit,
457 *—
quoted, (Analogy, Part i), 461; (Part
i. c. 2), 465.
Bywater, Professor, conjecture of, 348.

Cadmus, 156.

Callimachus, 447.

Casuistry, ancient and modern, 12, 13.

Cephalus, 1, 2, 6, 15.

Character and talent, 265 ;

effect of circumstances upon character,
276, 277 ;
greatness of character, 283.

Charmantides, 2.

Charmides, quoted, (154 B), 2553 (155
D), 256; (156 A), 182; (2. F),
141; (161 C), 38, 210; (2. E),
83; (162 A), 173 (164 A), 27;
(166 A), 29 ; (167 A, B), 426; (168
B), 196; (169 A), 190; (173 A),
363, 3993 (176 B), 151.

Charondas, 386.

Chorus, the, a favourite image of Plato’s,
275.

Cicero, defective in his imitation of
Plato’s writings, 10 ;

487

borrowed much from Panaetius, 13 ;
his remark on the withdrawal of
Cephalus from the argument, 15 :—
quoted, (Ep. ad Att. iv. 16), 15 :—
(de Off. iii. 9), 62 :—(de Orat. iii.
32), 7:—(de Rep. i. c. 43), 398 :—
(de Senect. c. 14), Io.
‘ Cities,’ the game of, 168.
Class-differences, the evil of, 160:—
references to the lowest class of
citizens, 164 (cp. p. 239).

Cleitophon, 2, 7, 30, 31, 32.

Cleitophon, the dialogue, spurious, 7.

Clement of Alexandria, quoted,(Stromat,
v. 710, § 24), 468.

Cobet, 10, 24, 25, 28, 39, 70, 142, 166,
218, 239, 298, 323, 327, 337) 394
418, 470.

Communism, Plato’s scheme of, 228 ;

not extended(?) by him to the
lower classes, 239.

Comparative, the redundant, 66.

Constantine, 254.

Contradiction, a motive of thought,

332.
Contradictories, the truth of, 193.
Coraes, 391.
Corinth, 363.
Courage, the virtue of, 181 ;
in the state and in the individual, not
the same, 191.
Craigie, W. A., note by, on the order
of the planets, (Book X), 475.
Cratylus, quoted, (390 D), 449; (391
C), 1423 (392 C), 222; (396 B),
307; (398 C), 243; (2. E), 186;
(401 E), 212; (405 B), 40; (407
D), 350; (410 C), 543 (2%. E),
441; (414 C), 269; (419 A), 183;
(425 D), 4543 (437 D), 45-

Creditor, the, should he be protected by
law? 386.

Creophylus, 447.

Cretic (foot), the, in metre, 134.

Critias, 364.

Critias, relation of, to the Republic,
1 :—quoted, (46 E), 242.

Crito, quoted, (44D),148; (49 B), 22;
(53 D), 26; (54 C), 165.

Croesus, story of his meeting with
Solon, 405.

488 Index to

Cynics, the, 301.

Cypria, the, 102.

Cypselidae, the, at Corinth, 363.
Cyrenaics, the, 301.

Damon, 133, 134, 172.
Dante, quoted, (Inferno xi. 105), 444.
Dative, the, after 5yy:0upyeiv, 37 ;
of measure or excess, 91, 420;
of the person interested, 99, 145 ;
ethic, 242, 274;
of the instrument, 275, 422, 449;
of reference, 275;
of measure or comparison, 304;
of circumstance, 420;
of the occasion, 454.
Davies and Vaughan, 333.
Democracy, political indifference of the
people in, 401.
Democritus, 426; quoted,
Moral. 128), 141.
Demosthenes, 357:—quoted, de Cor.
(241 Bekk., § 46), 52 :—c. Meid.
(541, § 84), 262:—Philipp. (1,
51, § 40), 454:—c. Tim. (730,
§ 95), 75-
Descartes, 301.
Desire, not always ‘ of good,’ 195.
Dialectic, unnecessary multiplication of
the steps in, characteristic of Plato,
100 ;
‘the longer method’ (iv. 435 D),
190;
the nature of, 354.
Difference and sameness, 192.
Diogenes Laertius, quoted, 4.
Diomede, the ‘ necessity of,’ 281.
Dionysius, the Elder, 363, 364, 405.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, quoted,

(Fragm.

4.

Diphilus, a fragment of, quoted, 108,
180.

Dittography, 83, 221.

Division of labour, 185, 186.

Dorian Mood, the, 132.

Drama, Plato’s enmity to the, 123.

Draughts, game of, metaphors from,
267.

Dreams, 409.

Vol. 117.

Earth-born race, the fable of the, 157.
Education, study of the poets in an-
cient, 95;
truth and falsehood in, 96 ;
morality in, 137;
should not be made to serve political
ends, 170;
the education of women, 216;
difficulty in, arising from loss of
reverence, 355.
Emerson, quoted, 355.
Ephialtes, 401.
Er, son of Armenius, identified by Cle-
ment with Zoroaster, 468.
Ethics, difference between ancient and
modern, 54.
Eubulides, 369.
Euler, quoted, 251.
Euphorion, 4.
Euphron, tyrant of Sicyon, 364.
Eupolis used #oO@mpya in the sense of
‘pleasure,’ 428 :—quoted, (Fragm.
Incert. lv), 386.
Euripides, the Palamedes of, 329 ;
said to have visited the Macedonian
court, 405 :—
quoted, Alc. (967), 71 :—
Androm. (1088), 227 :—
Hee. (1271), 247 :—
Heracl. (176), 159 :—
H. F. (871), 151 :—
Hippol. (102), 291; (469), 219;
(953), 71; (1301-1303), 255 :—
Med. (1051, 1052), 113 :—
Phoen. (549), 39 :—
Troad. (1169), 405 :-—
Fragm. 364, (11-17), 76.
Eurypylus, 144.
Eustathius, 122.
Euthydemus, son of Cephalus, 2, 6.
LEuthydemus, quoted, (271 B), 45;
(279 C), 275; (287 D), 22; (ago
B), 89; (293 A), 250; (298 D),
390; (302 C), 67; (303 A), 213,
307.
Euthyphro, quoted, (2 B), 274; (4D),
453; (6 B,C), 99; (7 D), 913
(15 D), 122.
Evil, the permission of, in the world,
102;
the nature of, 207.

¢

—— =

Faber, 366.

Fact and idea, the opposition of, 250,
251, 295.

Faesi, 39.

Falsehood, Plato’s views on the use of,
114.

Fates, their manner of regulating the
motions of the Heavens, 477.
Feelings, the, opposition of, to reason,

457-
Few, the, and the many, 281.
Ficinus, 41, 78, 119, 126, 346, 409,

Flute, the, character of, as a musical
instrument, 132.

Flute-playing, introduction of a quarter-
note (mu«vév) into, 342.

Forgetfulness, the River of, 483.

Foucart, Associations religieuses, 3, 4.

Freedom of the will, Plato’s doctrine
of, 478.

Future, the, used as a stronger present,
29 :—

the Future Indicative, after a verb of

fearing, 121.

Genitive, objective, 61, 155, 286, 389;
absolute, 5, 83, 229, 3993
partitive, 9, 178, 264, 436, 471;
poetical, 93 ;
suspended, 107, 178 ;
subjective, 112 ;
after iepés, 117 ;
dependent on a general word to be
supplied from the context, 170;
descriptive or explanatory, 187,
247;
of relation, 195, 408;
of reference, 228 ;
after piow, 378;
after xpivw, 416;
used advyerbially, 449.
Glaucon, I, 57, 302, 376.
God, growth of the idea of one, 102.
Good, the idea of, see Idea of Good.
Goods, division of, in Plato and Aris-
totle, 58.
Goodwin, Professor W. W., 391.
Gorgias, quoted, (448 D), 167; (450 D),
343 (451 C), 229; (7. D), 4313

I. English. 489

(463 D), 180; (465 D), 3975
(%. E), 793 (473 ©) 59, 653
(480 B), 17; (#6. C), 153; (481 C),
22, 415; (482 B), 132; (7. E),
270; (483 B), 60; (2. D), 288;
(485 A), 268 ; (487 A, B), 53 5 (488
A), 25; (489 A), 2353 (490 B),
278; (2b. C), 11; (491 D), 183; (2.
E), 46; (492 B), 161; (493 A, B),
430; (20. B), 68; (495 C), 275
(#6. E), 121, 163; (497 B), 21;
(500 A), 419; (5. B), 50; (502 A),
18; (2b. B), 123; (#6.C), 120; (7.
D), 128; (506 A), 24; (508 A), 48 ;
(7. D), 116; (510 C), 282; (512 B),
239; (2. C), 953 (514 A), 209;
(516 B), 52; (§17C), 224; (518 E),
152; (520 B), 481; (521 E), 224;
(522 D), 4515 (524 E), 471.

Gow, Mr., on the Platonic Number,
366, 371, 372.

Griaser, 423.

Gray, the poet, misunderstood a passage
in Plato, 359.

Guardians, the distinction between the,
and the lower classes, not always
observed, 159;

their happiness, 162.
Gyges, the story of, 61, 62, 464.

Habit, the power of, 295 ;
dangers of the life of, 480.

Hardie, W. R. (Class. Review, iv. 182),
102.

Harmony, the nature of, 343.

Harpocration, 212.

Hegel, on Being, 257.

Heindorf, 55, 123, 452.

Hellespont, the, (i.e. the country adja-
cent), 142.

Hephaestus and Heré, legend of, 99.

Heracleitus, quoted, (fr. xxi), 304; (fr.
cv), 933 (fr. cxv), 22d. :—

the followers of Heracleitus, 193, 310,
426.

Hermann, K. F., 28, 74, 75, 99, 179,
195, 221, 223, 258, 278, 323, 423,
456, 471.

Hermocrates, in the Timaeus, probably
the Syracusan general, 2.

490 Index to

Hermocrates, the dialogue which Plato
intended to write, TI.

Herodicus, of Selymbria, 144.

Herodotus, 292 :—quoted, (i. 45), 403 ;
(74)» 83; (114), 31 :—(ii. 80),
172; (91, § 5), 421:—(ili. 14,
§ 12), 9; (36, § 5), 635 (57),
1373 (135, § 5), 481:—(iv. 180),
241 i—(vi. 86, § 16), 76; (106, § 3),
304; (130), 25 :—(vii. 36), 1585
(155, § 2), 410:+(ix. 49, § 2), 25.

Herrick, quoted, 255.

Hesiod, quoted, (Theog. 27), 96.

Heyne, 102, 113.

Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse, 405.

Hippias Major, quoted, (282 D), 380;
(290 B), 163 ; (290 C), 38.

Hirschig, 10.

Hobbes says that power is the source of
right, 30.

Homer, inaccurate citations of, by Plato,
IOI, III, 113, 115, 116, 144, 171:
—quoted, Il. (v. 394), 505 (844,
845), 464 :—(xvi. 112), 3655 (355),
253 (776), 403 :— (xviii. 385), 7 :—
(xix. 147), 117:~(xx. 83), 188;
(168), 25 :—(xxi. 308), 66 :—(xxiv.
486), 9.

Od. (ix. 219), 231; (425), 230:—
(xi. 174), 228 :—(xv. 246), 9 :—
(xvi. 97), 66 :—(xviii. 340), 25 :-—
(xix. 163), 362 ; (573), 217 :—(xxi.
141), 164.

Hymn to Demeter, (480-482), 71.
Horace, quoted, (Sat. I. iii. 38), 255.
Hypotheses, the ascent from, to first

principles, 312.

Iamblichus, 345.
Idea of Good, the, 104, 306;
the descent from, to particular things,
312 5
the foundation of the sciences, 340,
344, 346 :—
Ideas, intercommunion of, 256 ;
abstract ideas, importance of, in an-
cient philosophy, 339;
ideas of number and figure, 347 ;
the Doctrine of Ideas in Book X,
442, 444-

Vol. LL.

Ideal, the relation of, to the actual,
250, 251, 295 :—TIdeals, the value
of political, 251, 253.

‘Idols,’ the, of Lord Bacon, 325.

‘Images,’ the, 311, 315 ;

the ‘images’ of justice, and their
‘ shadows,’ 321.

Imitation, the place of, in art, 442.

Imperative, implied, (undév xauvdr, iii.
414 C), 156.

Imperfect, the iterative, 24.

Inachus, the ‘children’ of, 105.

Infanticide, not at variance with Greek
feeling, 232.

Infinite time, a familiar thought to the
Greeks, 292.

Infinitive, the epexegetic, 159, 212,
213;

after paivopa, 162.

Jon, quoted, (533 E), 395; (534 B),
72, 128; (537 D), 2593 (541 A),
175.

‘Tonic’ dative plural form, 11, 43.

Ismenias, the Theban, 2, 23.

Judge, the, how far to have knowledge
of evil, 149.
Justice, to be sought in the relations of
men to one another, 64;
as one of the virtues, 185 ;
in the individual and in the state, not
the same, 189 ;
the ideal of, 250.

Kant, his conception of freedom as
obedience to law, 48.

Keble, quoted, 283.

Knowledge, is it ‘brought to us,’ or
‘drawn out of us’? 322.

Labour, the division of, 85.

Laches, quoted, (181 C), 8; (182 Cc),
3343 (185 A), 40; (1868), 4473
(187 A), 231; (2. B), 171; (188
D), 1533 (190 A), 565 (194 B),
185; (2. C), 2193 (195 C), 1473
(200 A), 133.

I. English.

Lang, Mr. A., on the ring of Gyges,
61.

Language, fallacious nature of, 301,

Law, the complexity of, 174.

Laws, difficulty in the alteration of,

173.

Laws, quoted, (I. 624 A), 192; (626),
3793 (#. D), 39, §25 (%. E),
183; (628 d), 39; (630 D), 34,
3543 (633 D), 135 (639 D), 553
(642 B), 97; (644), 123; (646
D), 93:

(II. 653 B), 61; (658 A), 421;
(659 C), 224; (660 £), 148; (663
D), 458; (7. E), 156; (664 C),
25; (#6. E), 127; (666 B), 112;
(668 B), 454; (671 B), 1125 (672 B),
106.

(III. 677 C), 164; (683 E), 365;
(691 A), 48; (2d. E), 88; (698 Cc),
400; (700 C),128; (2. D), 132;
(702 C), 35.

(IV. 709 E), 252, 267; (712 E), 54;
(713 D), 482 ; (714 C), 28; (715 E),
121; (717 A), 389; (722 D), 57-

(V. 731 C), 107; (734 E), 2453
(739 D), 228; (742), 386; (743
E), 262; (747 A), 328.

(VI. 753 E), 973 (771 C), 4343
(776 B), 6; (781 A), 66.

(VIL. 790 E), 151; (792 A), 96, 212,
280; (798 D), 187 ; (800 B), 171;
(2. D), 351; (803 B), 4535 (814
E), 131; (817 B), 320; (819 D),
338 ; (824 A), 459.

(VIII. 829 E), 141; (834 D), 215;
(840 A), 142,

(IX. 872 c), 470; (879 E), 238.

(X. 888 A), 436; (890 D), 255;
(891 A), 1773 (897 D) 303; (899
D), 257; (908 D), 72; (909 B),
tbid.; (ib. E), 176.

(XL. 926 B), 131.

(XII. 944 C), 211; (949 A), 421;
(958 D), 420; (967 C), 459.

Leaf, Dr. W., 464; quoted on IL, i. 39,
122,

Legislation, minute particulars in, 173.

Letters, the elements (ora x¢ia) of things
compared to, 138.

Lie, the, in the soul, 107.

491

Logic, imperfect state of, in the Socratic
age of Greek philosophy, 189.
Lucian, quoted, (Encom, Dem. § 16),

40; (De Salt. c, 80), 127.
Lucretius, quoted, (ii. 79), 6; (iv.1160-
1164), 255+
Luxury, modern declamations against,
167.
Lysander, 282, 375.
Lysias, (the orator), son of Cephalus,
2,6:—
quoted, (pro Polystr. § 12), 382.
Lysis, quoted, (203 ), 387 ; (204), 48;
(207 4), 284, 468; (7. C), 170;
(208 pb), 38; (211 C, D), 56;
(212 A), 395 (213 E), 263; (220
E), 1793 (222), 4313 (223 A)s
10,

Machaon, 144, 148.

McLennan, on ‘ Lycanthropy,’ 402.

Madvig, 32, 68, 126, 208, 239, 251,
323, 337) 373) 374 379, 389, 395,
397» 4245 4295 439% 435s 459 406.

Manuscripts of the Xepudlic, cited, 11,
17, 19, 20, 25, 28, 29, 31, 35, 36,
42, 45) 47> 49) 51, 54 58, 59, 60,
61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 70, 73,
74, 75» 76, 78, 83, 84, 88, 91, 94,
96, 98, 99, 100, 105, 108, 110, 111,
112, 113, 115, 116, 118, 119, 123,
126, 137, 142, 143, 145, 146, 148,
153, 154, 158, 163, 164, 173, 174,
175, 176, 177, 179, 181, 182, 183,
187, 194, 199, 200, 203, 207, 208,
209, 210, 212, 214, 217, 220, 221,
223, 229, 238, 239, 242, 245, 246,
247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 258, 259,
261, 263, 264, 271, 272, 275, 273,
279, 282, 286, 292, 293, 298, 299,
302, 306, 307, 308, 309, 311, 319,
323, 327, 328, 332, 333, 342) 344,
346, 348, 358, 362, 374, 375: 380,
381, 384, 387, 388, 389, 391, 400,
404, 405, 406, 408, 411, 413, 416,
418, 419, 420, 422, 424, 428, 443,
447) 448, 449) 453) 454 455, 457,
458, 459, 461, 465, 499, 470, 471,
472, 479, 484.

Many, the, and the few, 281.

492 Index to

Marcus Antoninus, 254.
Mathematics, Plato’s view of, 312;
their use in education, 329;
their relation to physics, 340;
the common element of the sciences,
3445
not a science in Plato’s sense, 346.

Matter, ‘contingent’ or ‘ probable,’
257.

Measure in the arts, 48.

Megara, the battle of, 79.

Megarians, the, 301, 426.

Memory, 352.

Meno, quoted, (71 B), 22, 56; (80 A),
21; (86 E), 307; (87 E), 77;
(91 C), 440; (93 D), 2423 (7. C),
448; (94 E), 83.

Metaphysics, the true conception of,
268.

Metre, the elements of, 133.

Middle Voice, the reciprocal, 226 ;

used for verbs signifying a mental
process, 337 5
special use of, 383.

Milky Way, supposed to have suggested
the ‘Column of Light,’ 473.

Milton, quoted, (Comus), 430; (P. L.
ii, 650), 435.

Mind, the, in relation to the body,
140.

Moderation, necessity of, in speculative
philosophy, 356.

Monro, Mr., on the meaning of ra &
Tois pOdyyous TéTTapa, (iii. 400 A),
1333

on the Platonic Number, 366.

Montezuma, 254.

Morality, relation of, to religion,
103;—to art, 136; in education,
13%.

Morals and casuistry, 12, 13.

Motion, in the philosophy of Plato,
341-

Muretus, 20, 70, 74.

Music, modern, as compared to ancient,
1353

exaggerated importance sometimes
attributed to, 172;

music at Athens, 342 ;

connexion of music and astronomy,
344-

ae 2x % a ee

Vol. II.

Nagelsbach, 345.
National character, differences of, 192.
Necessity, the Spindle of, 474.
Neuter plural, referring to two words
not in the same gender, 137.
Niceratus, son of Nicias, 2.
Nicomachus Gerasenus, 370.
Nominative, in apposition, 239.
Not-being, 257.
Number, the Platonic, 366 foll. :—
the number which expresses the dif-
ference in happiness between the
king and the tyrant, 432, 433.
Numenius, 468, 473.

Obedience, duty of, 29, 30.

Oblivion, the Plain of, 483.

Oechalia, 447.

Oligarchy, relation of, to timocracy,
378:—the oligarchical party at
Athens, 401.

Onomacritus, 71.

Opinion, 259.

Opposition, nature of, 192.

Optative Mood, 17, 32, 63, 64, 66, 139,
150, 154, 181, 301, 318;

without day in a relative clause, 179 ;
after Future Indicative in an indirect
sentence, 274.

Orelli, 249, 299.

Orpheus, the writings attributed to,72:—
Orphic teaching in the myth of the
Republic, 467.

Pain, the nature of, 427.

Palamedes, plays on the subject of,
329.

Panaetius, 4; indebtedness of Cicero to,
13.

Panharmonic instruments, the, 131.

Parmenides, quoted, (130 E), 24, 138;
(131 E), 2195 (137 A), 201; (144
E), 1715 (163 D), 452.

Passives, of verbs governing the dative,
26.

Paul, St., quoted, (1 Cor. vi. 4), 44;
(1 Tim. iv. 8), 153 ;—

his conception of evil, 207.

’ c ma ’ v my SAM r = cma yi

I. English. 493

Pausanias, quoted, (i. 30, § 2), 5; (viii. 2,
§ 4), 402.

Pausanias, king of Sparta, 282, 375.

Pay, the art of, 43.

Peloponnesian War, 401.

Pericles, 401.

Perictioné, mother of Plato, 1.

Permanence in the state, the great object
of ancient philosophers, 170.

Persius, quoted, (vi. 61), 6.

Personification of the argument, 263,
291;

of philosophy as a maiden compelled
to marry a tinker, 284, 285.

Pessimism, traces of, in the Republic,
101.

Phaedo, quoted, (61 A), 328; (62 B), 254;
(63 A), 302; (2d. B), 161; (64 D),
179; (65 E), 365; (66 B), 146;
(2b. C), 146, 318, 430; (67 B), 258;
(2. E), 402; (68 B), 26; (69 A),
100; (2b. B), 326; (2. C), 68;
(70 C), 275 (72 B,C), 463; (2d. D),
753 (73D), 173 (77 A), 302; (¢0.C),
449; (2. E), 107; (78 D), 229;
(79 E), 211; (82 A), 482; (2d. B),
294; (84 C), 523 (89 B), 321;
(103 B), 295, 4433 (104 A), 3325
(107 C), 460, 462, 482; (2d. E),

469; (114 C, D), 346; (116 C), .

352; (2d. E), 319.

Phaedrus, quoted, (228 D), 22, 303;
(230A), 4353 (2. C), 94 3 (2354),
116; (2b. EF), 168; (236 C), 53 (2d.
EK), 1323 (237 A), 122; (238 D),
307 ; (239 B), 1793 (241 B), 3275
(246 A), 190; (247 D), 3335 (248
B), 275 ; (249 B), 188, 478; (zd. D),
188; (250 B), 311; (2. C), 335,
464; (7b. D), 306; (253 A), 253;
(tb. B), 128, 177; (254 E), 408;
(256 C), 431 5 (258 C), 239 ; (#. D),
69; (260 Cc, D), 225, 279; (263 8B),
346; (264 A), 339; (#. B), 113,
389; (265 D), 226; (¢. E), 110,
220; (267 C), 7; (268 D), 293;
(2b. E), 257 ; (269 B), 175; (#. D),
73 (272 D), 3395 (275 B), 11, 69;

(279 C), 229, 326.
Phalaris, 364.
Philebus, the, Idea of Good in, 306;

treatment of the subject of pleasure
in, 426:—quoted, (11 C), 573 (13
C), 31; (2. E), 361; (14 B), 28;
(26. D), 261; (16 A), 5; (2d. C, D),
304; (76. D), 197; (18 D), 5; (20
D), 443 (20. BE), 64; (23 A), 204;
(tb. B), 95, 106; (26 C), 59; (27D),
ibid. ; (1b. E), 493 (38 E), 195;
(39 A, B), 107 5 (44 C), 4273 (508),
129; (#6. C), 119; (51 C), 1233
(56 A), 135, 3433 (#0. E), 3343
(58 A), 348; (61 C), 158; (648),
304; (66 D), 426; (67 B), 301.

Philosopher-king, the, 37, 254.

Philosopher, the, attitude of, to the
world, 287 ;

reasons why he incurs the hostility of
mankind, 294 ;

his ludicrous appearance in common
life, 319;

must have acquaintance with practical
affairs, 357 :—

Philosophers, the ancient, aimed at
securing permanence in the state,
170.

Philosophy, Greek, place of casuistry in,
12, 13 ;

puzzles about the use of language, 33 ;

ideal conception of art, 36;

the argument from infinity, ¢dzd. ;

the notion of a réya0dv, 54 :—

differences between ancient and mo-
dern, zd2d. ;

necessity of moderation in, 356.

Phrygian mode, the, why retained by
Plato, 131.

Physician, the good, should have per-
sonal knowledge of disease, 149.

Physics, relation of, to mathematics,
34°, 347-

Pindar, 225 ; visited the court of Hiero,

05 :—
quoted, (Isthm. iv. 35), 132:—
(Olymp. i. 28 foll.), 96; (vii. 21),
132 :—(Pyth. iii. 55), 148.

Pirithous, 118.

Pisistratus, 401.

Plato, often introduces members of his
family into his Dialogues, 1 ;

careless of accuracy in minute details,
2;

494 Index to

Plato, less precise than Aristotle in

his use of logical terms, 14, 380 ;

etymological fancies of, 28;

his use of the argument from infinity,
36;

his notion of the ‘ philosopher-King,’
37, 2543

the humorous element in his Dia-
logues, 49, 398;

imitations of, in later writers, 55 ;

his division of goods, 58 ;

connects the argument by allusions to
previous passages, 77, 464, 466;

as a political economist, 85 ;

prefers to seek for justice in the more
complex form of the state, 88 ;

on the permission of evil in the world,
102;

on the ‘ lie in thesoul,’ 107 ;

on the use of falsehood, 114 ;

his relation to the poets, 121, 128,

453

his enmity to the drama, 123 ;

his ideal in music, 135;

on the relation of morality to art,
136;

on the relation of the mind to the
body, 140;

on simplicity in the art of medicine,
147;

on the good judge and the good
physician, 149;

allows merit to rise in the social scale,
160 ;

does not, (as Aristotle supposes), de-
prive the guardians of happiness,
163;

his feeling towards the Gods of Hellas,
176;

his psychology compared with that
of Aristotle, 185 ;

his theory of female education, 216;

his scheme of communism, 228 ;

on the size of the state, 230 (cp. 169) ;

does he allow infanticide ? 231 ;

carries the idea of unity to excess,
2353

attempts in the Republic to unite the
speculative and the practical, 253 ;

value set by him on the power of
abstraction, 264 ;

Vol. ILd,

Plato, his metaphysical enthusiasm, 274 ;
exaggerates the difference between the
many and the few, 281 ;
much under the influence of mere
abstractions, 302;
his meaning in the Idea of Good,
306 ;
does not distinguish between abstrac-
tions of sense and abstractions of
mind, 312;
his doctrine of conversion, 322 ;
his theory of vision, 331;
his treatment of physics, 340;
does not regard mathematics as a
science, 3.46 ;
his conception of dialectic, 354;
his succession of states, 363 ;
abstract nature of his philosophy,
365 ;
his use of technical language, 380 ;
the legend of his friendship with
Dionysius, 405 ;
his use of metaphors, 411 ;
seems to regard artists as mere imi-
tators, 442;
on the fallibility of our knowledge of
sensible objects, 451 ;
an enemy to sentimentalism, 457 ;
teaches that souls are eternal, and
limited in number, 463 ;
reasons why he ended the Republic
with a myth, 467;
on the fate of children dying soon
after they are born, 470;
his doctrine of the freedom of the will,
78.
Pleasure, Plato’s doctrine of, 426;
the nature of, 427.
Plural, the neuter, with a plural verb,

553

masculine and feminine, with a sing-
ular verb, 67, 236;

‘magnific,’ 382, 410, 479;

referring to the singular, 383.

Plutarch, on the question, ‘Why the

soul of Ajax was the twentieth to
choose ?’ 481 :—quoted, :

(De Aud. Poet. ii. 19 E), 100 :—

(De Educ. Puer. 3. 26), 98 :—

(De Mus. c. 16), 130, 133 :—

(77%). Gracch, c. 21), 420.

I. English.

Podaleirius, 148.

Poetry, the language of, 449.

Poets, the expulsion of the, 89, 128 ;
study of, in ancient education, 95 ;
Plato’s treatment of, 121, 128, 445.

Polemarchus, son of Cephalus, 2, 6.

Politician, the, 325.

Politicus, quoted, (259 A), 221 ; (263 B),

32; (2%. D), 573; (262 C), 3315

_ (267 A), 303; (268 E), 300; (271
D), 482; (#0. E), 300; (278 A-C),
188 ; (#6, D), 138, 2573 (281 D),
51; (284 E), 462 3 (286 D, E), 390;
(292 E), 282; (293 A), 2713 (294
B), 1733 (295 D), 723 (297 A),
170; (#0. C), 179, 209; (26. E),
269; (299 B), 272; (74. D), 89;
(2. E), 187; (302 A), 270; (303
C), 278; (308 C), 168; (310 B),
208,

Polybius, quoted, (B. P. iii. 57, 7),

55+

Polydamas, 29.

Polydeukes, 326.

Population, limit of, 229.

Poverty and wealth, 166.

Practical life, the, and the speculative,

253.

Proclus, 132, 468.

Prometheus, invention of number attri-
buted to, by Aeschylus, 329.

Protagoras, his use of the word dAn@ea,
317.

Protagoras, quoted, (310 B), 172, 419;
(2b. C), 210; (312 E), 345 (3148),
123; (315 B), 393 (#2. D), 50; (316
C), 227; (20.E),1443; (318 A), 241;
(319 €), 1523 (#. D), 270, 280;
(320 A), 290; (7. D), 1573 (321
C), 793; (323 A), 78; (325 D), 171,
415; (326 B), 135, 222, 289, 450;
(329 A), 45, 2115 (331 C), 336;
(335 E), 78; (337 D), 61; (3384),
1135 (349 B), 423; (0. E), 112;
oe D), 293 (359 E), 343 (360 E),
2

Psychology, 201. Cp. Soul.

Puppets, the image of the, (vii. 514),
315-

Purves, translation of the Iliad quoted,
(Il. iv. 218), 148.

495

Pythagoras, the successive births of,
369, 372 :—
Pythagoreans, the, 310, 342, 344,
369, 426;
the ‘ Pythagorean way of life,’ 447 :—
Pythagorean elements in the myth of
the Republic, 467, 475.

Reason, and the feelings, 457.
Relationship, degrees of, in Plato’s Re-
public, 234.
Relatives and correlatives, qualifications
of, 196.
Religion, relation of, to morality, 103.
Reminiscence, the Doctrine of, 483.
Republic, the, second title of, 1 ;
scene of, zbzd. ;
relation of,to the Timaeus and Critias,
bid. ;
characters of, I, 2;
the story that Plato made many alter-
ations in the opening sentence, 4 ;
the First Book and the first half of
the Second, chiefly destructive, 56 5
traces of pessimism in, Io1 ;
no real place for the lower classes in,
224 (cp. p. 239) ;
an attempt to unite the speculative
and the practical, 253 ;
indications in the work itself of its
scope and aim, 303;
why closed by Plato with a myth,
497 5
description of the heavenly bodies
in, [Book X], compared with that
in the Timaeus, 475.
Residues, the method of, 177, 185.
Richards, Mr. H., 377, 380.
Riddle, the, of the eunuch and the bat,
261.
Ridicule, the nature of, 216.
Ruhnken, 401.

Sacrifices, human, were they permitted
in antiquity? 232.

Sakya Muni, 254.

Sameness and difference, 192.

Sauppe, 148.

Schleiermacher, 292.

496

Schneider, 19, 29, 31, 41, 54, 74, 182,
214, 217, 222, 223, 250, 286, 349,
359, 379, 373, 374, 381, 384, 389,
406, 418, 420, 453, 454, 450, 470.

Scholiast on Arist. (Vebes 651), quoted,
134.

Science, the reasonings of, (S:dvo.a),
why inferior to dialectic, (voids),
310 :—

the sciences all based upon the Idea
of Good, 340, 344, 346.

Sentences, unfinished, in the Republic,
165.

‘Shadows,’ the, 311, 315;

‘ the shadows of the images of justice,’
aan.

Shakespeare, quoted, 4s You Like It,
(i. 2. 270), 406 :—Hamlet, (v. 1.
86-88), 459 :—1 Henry IV, (i. 3.
246), 403:—2 Henry IV, (ii. 2.
62), 280; (v. 1), 398 :—/ed. Caesar,
(iii. I. I11), 291 :—X. John, (iv.
2. 28), 48:—Lear, (i. 4. 369), 48 :—
Macb, (ii. 1.25-29), 438 :—Sonnets,
(103.9, 10), 48.

Sicily, the tyrants of, 363.

Sign, the, of Socrates, 285.

Simonides, 272, 405.

Society, the growth of, er,

Socrates, the dialectic of, 16;

his pretended awe for the poets, 22d. ;

his enthusiasm for an argument, 18 ;

frequently employs the analogy of the
arts, 19 ;

irony of, 26, 44, 269;

his ridicule of the Sophists, 28 ;

his skilful treatment of opponents,

493
his oath ‘ by the Dog,’ 132;
his sign, 285.
Solomon, Mr. J., 220.
Solon, the constitution of, 363 ; story of
his meeting with Croesus, 405 :—
quoted, (Fr. 10. 7), 73; (Fr. 20), 352.
_ Sophist, quoted, (216C), 105, 294;
(217 B), 211; (#6. D), 953 (#.
E), 440; (218 C), 220; (219 A),
105; (221 A), 442; (a24 B), 165 ;
(228 A), 247, 266, 387; (229 E),
38; (230 8), 267; (231 A), 276;
(2. B), 46; (2d. D), 89; (232 A),

Index to Vol. IIT.

330, 427; (233 C), 20; (2. E),
1305; (234 C), 4453 (235 A), 195,
259; (237 B), 262; (2%. D), 260;
(239 B), 60, 186; (2b. D), 24;
(246 B), 655 (26. E), 219; (248D),
280; (250 D), 419, 451; (251 A),
465; (cb. B), 56; (252 C), 420;
(2b. D), 228; (254 A), 186, 260,
321; (id. B), 227; (259 D), 220;
(262 C), 327; (263C), 54; (¢.D),
44; (264 E), 125; (267 A), 126.

Sophists, the, in the Dialogues of Plato,
24, 50, 2773

ridiculed by Socrates for taking pay,
28, 41;

their habit of making long speeches,
33 5

their use of the word dA7Oe1a, 65 ;

according to Plato, only reproduced
the opinions of the world, 277, 280.

Sophocles, description of, in Aristo-
phanes, (Ran. 82), 10;

the Palamedes of, 329 :—

quoted, Ant. (192), 165 :—

Elec. (384), 407 ; (685), 395 5 (1034),
1753 (1278), 453 —

O. C. (269), 302; (305), 3975 (3545
355), 228; (574), 262; (809),
27; (1518), 41; (1636), 112 :—

O. T. (151), 353 3 (175), 3283 (336),
64; (379), 213; (402), 139; (612),
1543 (922, 923), 349; (981), 408;
(1008), 302; (1129), 407; (1169),
252 :—

Phil. (17), 3193 (324), 2383 (1009),
276; (1031), 523; (1370, 1371),
203 :—

Trach. (358), 249; (1062), 378;
(1131), 283 :-—

Fragm. (719), 71.

Soul, the parts of the, and the corre-
sponding virtues, 182 ;

the whole and the parts in, 192;

how far can the soul be said to have
parts ? 202 :—

souls not infinite in number, accord-
ing to Plato, 463.

Sparta, the decline of, 375 ;
Spartan character, 375, 376.
Speculative life, the, and the practical
253.

|
1

Stallbaum, 62, 74, 78, 82, 194, 199,
249, 260, 266, 277, 279, 289, 292,
404, 413, 426, 468.

Standing armies, evils of, 91.

State, the, final cause of, not distin-
guished by Aristotle from the
cause of its origin, (Pol. iv. 4,
§ 12), 82;

Greek idea of the necessity that it
should be limited in size, 169,
230;

the harmony of the state, 184;

the unity of, carried to excess by
Plato, 235.

States, Plato’s succession of, how far
true to history, 363.

Statues, the colouring of, in Greek art,
163. .

Stephanus, 31, 58, 105, 146, 275, 389,
495, 449, 468,

Stobaeus, 225.

Stolo, Caius Licinius, 377.

Subjunctive, the, in some phrases origin-
ally interrogative, 88 ;

interrogative use of, with uA, expect-
ing a negative answer, 452.

Suidas, 71, 148, 212.

‘ Summum bonum,’ the, 54.

Superlative, the redundant, 66.

Symposium, quoted, (178 D), 16; (185
C), 68, 359, 468; (187 £), 92;
(189 A), 114; (191 C), 253 (192),
118; (2). E), 753; (194 A), 420;
(#0. D), 457 5 (195 C), 152 ; (204 D),
4445 (206 E), 46, 275; (209 B’,
139; (2. E), 346; (210 B,C), 139;
(%. E), 257; (211), 104; (2. c),
141, 347; (2b. D), 320; (#6. n, E),
306; (212 A), 253; (214 A), 298;
(tb. E), 275; (216), 26; (218 A),
255, 383; (219 C), 222; (222 D),
291; (223 D), 123.

Tacitus, quoted, 174.

Talent and character, 265.

Tautology, in Greek and English, 473.

Temperance, the virtue of, 182.

Theaetetus, quoted, (142 B), 429; (143
A), 300; (144 A), 254; (2. B),
266; (2%. D), 1175 (145 A), 9, 292,

VOL. III.

1, English. 497

381; (70. C), 236; (146 A), 349;
(tb. D), 196; (2b. E), 61; (147 A),
27; (db. A, B), 301; (20. E), 332;
(148 A), 4333 (0. E), 275; (1504),
214; (#6. C), 26; (2%. D), 92;
(151 B), 17; (26. C), 39, 4453 (20.
D), 2655 (152), 17, 4433 (70.D),
261; (tb. E)y 440; (154 A), 245;
(2%. D), 79; (2. E), 275 (155 E),
259; (156 B), 773 (20. C), 59, 185,
2343 (157 A), 187, 261; (#0. C),
223 3 (159 C), 152; (160 A), 195;
(#6. D), 20; (161 A), 1213 (164C),
220; (%. D), 329; (26. E), 2193
(165 D), 152; (2b. E), 270, 462;
(166 c), 175 (4. D), 34,2205 (167
E), 3575 (168 B), 85; (169 B), 97;
(170A), 2733 (171 A), 3973 (28.
B)) 31; (172 D), 94; (173 A), 266,
323; (2. C), 252, 321; (¢b. D),
113; (86. EB), 255; (175 B), 318;
(2b. D), 323; (26. E), 88; (176),
484; (26. D), 693 (177 A), 326;
(2b. D), 222; (178A), 21; (179 E),
46$: (181°C), 1743 (184A), Yat:
(2. B), 399, 4525 (20.C), 42; (183
A), 145 5 (#.E), 77; (1844), 294;
(2b. D), 190; (185 E), 95, 152, 328,
462; (186 C), 197, 236, 354, 428;
(188 D), 260; (189 C), 93, 106;
(194 A), 146; (2b. C),973 (197),
80, 138; (#. D), 138; (200 £), 65;
(201 B), 256; (202 B), 349; (203
D), 93; (26. E), 51; (204 E), 57;
(206 A), 133; (26. C), 258; (209
E), 302; (210 B), 50.

Themistius, 320; quoted, (Orat. xxi,
250), 265 :—

(Orat. xxii. 279 A), 73.

Themistocles, 282, 364; story of, and
the Seriphian, 10, 11.

Theocritus, quoted, (x. 26), 255; (xiv.
22), 25.

Theognis, 380.

Theophrastus, quoted, 26.

Theseus, 118.

Thetis, 102, 105.

Thirty Tyrants, the, 2, 6, 401.

Thompson, Dr. W. H., 166, 217, 363,
399» 423, 429.

Thrasymachus, 2, 7.

Kk

498 Index to

Thucydides, quoted, (i. 21, § 1), 145;
(40, § 2), 108; (82, § 3), 402;
(140), 61, 125:—(ii. 37), 164;
(41), 246 ; (2. § 3), 4545 (51, § 6),
165 ; (60), 192 :—(iii. 10, § 1), 139;
(12, § 1), 3533 (56, § 7), 286; (82,
§ 4), 117:—(iv. 88), 55:—(v. 8),
3353 (45), 293; (71), 282:—(vi. 12,
§ 13), 383 5 (18), 1843 (73), 393 —
(viii. 55), 1773 (56) 409; (66)
3793 (70 § 2), 4043 (96, § 5), 18.

Timaeus, the, relation of, to the Repud-
(bra ee

description of the heavenly bodies in,
compared with that in the Repudiic,
[Book X], 475 —

quoted, (18 D), 230; (2. E), 4373
(19 A), 232, 3393; (22 C), 3403
(26 B), 973 (27 A), 64; (28 D),
IIT; (29 C), 313; (39 B), 3293
(49 B), 473; (#. D), 1073 (42 D),
100, 478; (2. E), 105; (47 B,
C), 3413 (50 D), 125; (59 DP),
113; (68 C), 180; (75 B), 1453 (83
C), 354; (86 B, ¢), 198; (87 E),
147; (88 C), 339; (89 D), 144;
(go A), 482.

Timocracy, meaning of the word, 363;

relation of, to oligarchy, 378.

Timodemus, of Belbina, 11.

Torch-races, 5.

Triangle, the Pythagorean, 369, 371,
372.

Truth, the love of, a powerful instru-
ment of education, 96 ;

the first of intellectual virtues, 351.

Tyranny, history of, in Greece, 364.

Tyrant, the, picture of, anticipated in
Bock I, 39.

Tyrants, the, Greek feeling respecting,
364.

Tyrtaeus, quoted, (Eleg. iii. 5, 6), 148.

Unit, the abstract, 333.

Unity of the state, carried to excess by

Plato, 235.

Valckenaer, 122.
Van Heusde, 115.
Vermehren, M., 138.

Vol. I1Z,

Virgil, genius and skill of, 10 :—quoted,
(Ecl. ix. 53), 25.

Virtues, the, and the parts of the soul,
182; :

the four cardinal virtues, 185.

Visible world, subdivisions of the, 309.

Vision, the theory of, 331.

Vogelin, 337.

Wall, the north, at Athens, 198.

War, the usages of, 243-245.

Warre, E., on the meaning of the word
iméfwpa, 473-

Wave, the image of the, 219, 226, 241,
250, 252.

Wealth, ancient and modern ideas con-
cerning the effects of, 166.

Westphal, 130, 133, 135, 342.

‘Whole,’ the idea of the, 255.

Wise, the, fewness of, 179.

Wolf, theories of, respecting the unset-
tled state of the Homeric text be-
fore the Alexandrian grammarians,
101.

Words, use of, in early philosophy, 33.

Wordsworth, quoted, (Prelude), 360.

World, the, and the philosopher, 287.

Xenophon, his use of the word tipoxpa-

Tia, 363 ;—

quoted, Anab. (iv. 1, § 24), 391 :—
(vii. 3) § 9), 278 Cas

Cyr. (i. 2, § 16), 143 :—(ii. 4, § 16),
a

Hellen. (i. 6, § 14), 245:—(ii. 4, ©
§ 19), 246 :—(iii. 2, § 23), 248 :—
(v. 1, § 3), 242:—(vi. 1, § 6),
375 (vii. I, § 35), 373 2—

Mem, (i. 2, § 4), 146 :—(iii. 1, § 4),
221; (4, § 3), 4215; (2. § 12),
419; (6, § 1), 376:—(iv. 2, § 2),
II :— .

Oecon. (¢. xvii. 8), 47 :—

Rep. Lac. (v. 9), 466.

Zeus Soter, 426.
Zoroaster, 254.

eres ery

II]. GREEK.

dyaApa (dvayxaCdpevos ... ayoviferOa
mept Tav Tod Sikatov oKdyv 7 ayad-
patov dv ai oxi vii. 517 D),
321.

Gyeipw (und... eloayérw “Hpay .. .
ds igpeav dyeipovoay ii. 381 D),
105.

aywyy (Tas dywyds Tod Todds iii. 400 C),

134.

aSeApés, metaphorical use of, 165.

adéomotos (dpe? 5¢ ddéomorov x. 617 E),
478.

Gdikéw (ef yr) AbiK@ y’, pny x. 608 D),
400.

GSpés, 241.

GSuvapia («al 7d Tov HAlov pas én’ dbv-
vapig Brétwev vii. 532 B), 345.

del (6 yap TAatxowy dei re dvipedratos
dy ii. 357 A), 57-

GOAnTHS (Gv5pes a@Anral mod€pov iii.
416D), 160 (cp. p. 360).

GOAos, 299.

aPpoos (fuyxabe(spnevor GOpdot *oi modAol
eis €xxAnotas vi. 492 B), 278.

GOupos, 223.

aibwv (nal Evyyévynrat aidwor Onpot viii.
559 D), 392.

atpéw (6 povords yupvaotiKiy Siew
...alpnoa, Gore pndey iarpicts
deicOa iii. 410 B), 150;

(6 yap Adyos Hyads pe x. 607 B),

458.

aic@nots, as a hunting term, 93 :—

(Ta pev od mapaxadodvTa. .. Soa ph}

éxBaive eis évavtiav aic@now apa
vii. 523 C), 330.

aicbopar (taicbdpueba 8 ody, K.7.A. x.
608 A), 459.

aitta (of 5%) nai €xovar ravrny Thy aitiav
iv. 435 E), 192.
aitidopat (Tiva oby exes airidoacOa THY
év ovpav@ Oedv rovrov Kipiov; Vi.
508 A), 305.
dkpoodadys (dxpoopadrcis . . . mpds
byieay iii. 404B), 141.
GA7Gea, meaning of, in the teaching of
the Sophists, 65.
GAnOHs (74 ye dAnOés x. 603 E), 453.
GANG, expostulatory and deprecatory
uses of, 4, 43 :—
(GAAG pévrot... TODTO pévTOL i. 331 E),
16;
(GAAa Ti phy ; 2b. 348), 46;
GAG Yap, 242;
GA’ od, 277.
GAAotos (dAAolay Ta Pjoes abrors Sdfav
AnwerOa vi. 500 A), 293.
GdXos (idrpevois te Kal 6 GAAOS xpynya-
Tiopés ii. 357 C), 593
(rexpatpopa 5é é Tod GAXov Tod tpe-
Tépob Tpdtov 7b, 368 B), 79;
(6nd THs GAAns éempedretas viii. 554 c),
384;
(ei 5€ twa GAAnY Hdorpy iii. 390 A),
116;
(dAdo 71 ody .. . ToLNTELS ; i. 337 C), 27;
(mavra Tad\Aa peraddAarropeva iv.
434 A), 187;
(kal trav GAdAwv ciray iii. 404 B), 141;
(rev Grav modtTOv ...dpioTa Vv.
450 D), 224;
(rovs dAAous ad Snurovpyods oxdret,.
«.T.A. iv. 421 D), 165;
(rds 5é GAAas pices V. 453 E), 220;
(... waréxer GAAas Kakds émOupias
viii. 554C), 384.

Kk2

500 Index to

GAAStpros (moAAds éxovTs dpKas GAdo-
plas viii. 556 D), 387.

GdAws (drlyns wal ddAAws ywyvopérns vi.
495 B), 283.

&Aoupyév, the colour, 180.

Gpabaive, 351.

GpéAe, as adverb, 167, 211.

G&pdAa (odody ... wal rpirov eldous rov-
Tos yonteias &uikAav Tonréor iii.
413D), 155.

dv, sometimes omitted before the aorist
in confident prediction, 227 ;

with the future indicative and the
future infinitive, 278 (cp. note on
x. 615 D, p. 471) ;

omission of, 305, 319 :—

(ovdev dy oe ee i. 328 C), 8.

dvayKkdlw («ai 57) Tov dAAov ... xopdv

vi Sel madw ... dvayxdovra tar-
TeV ; Vi. 490C), 275 3

(... «al 6 dpri Adyos Kal of GAAn
dvayxaceay dv x. 611 B), 463.

Gvaykatos (f ye dvayxaordrn méAus ii.
369 D), 82:—

dvaykaiws, 335 (cp. note on ix. 574 B,
p. 412).

GvayKn (dvayenvy owpdrov émpedela
TiOévres v. 464 E), 238;

(ob yewperpimais ye... GX’ Epwrikais
dvdynas 7b, 458D), 227.

dvayw (of eis qudtocopiay dvayovtes Vii.
529 A), 338.

dvalwrupéw (571... dpyavdy re Wuxijs
. . .dva(wmupeirai, x.7.0. Vii. 527 D),
336.

Gvaipéw (tds inobéces dvaipodca vii.
533C), 347.

avaAaBeiv, intrans. =‘ to recover,’ 241.

Gvapipvyjckopat, followed by mepé (i.
329 A), 9.

dvdfios (... eis dvdgiov wai peitor éav-
Tov ddixvotpevac émrjdevpa vi.
491A), 276.

Gvateravvupt (dvamenrapévny mpds 70
pas rh elcodov éxovon paxpdy vii.
5144), 314.

dvBpeikeAos, 295.

dvéxmAnkros, 479.

averioTnpooivyn (5° dvemarnpuootyny
Tpophs matpds viii. 560 B), 393.

dveous, 437.

Vol. L171.

évéxopar (ds éyd Tay pev ddAAwv dvacxol-
pnv ay ii, 367 D), 78.

dvip (dvdpi Aodopovpévny iii. 3950),
125.

dvOpwros (Worep Tois Oavparoraois mpd
tav avOpwnwy mpdxeTra Ta mapa-
ppaypara vii. 514 B), 315.

dvinp. (Stay 8 éméxov pi) dvip GAdAd
Knap iii. 411 B), 152 ;

(} yi abrovs pnrnp otoa dvixe 7b.
414 E), 1575

(«at padAov piv dveBévTos adrov pada-
kwrepov ein Tod SéovTos 2b. 410E),
151.

dvucos (... dvica Tyhpata, madw Téuve
vi. 509 D), 307.

dvopotdw (duoovvrwv Te Kal dvopo.ovy-
Tow viii. 546 B), 368.

avtayonornys, followed by genitive,
385.

avticatatelvw (dyrixatareivavres A€yo~
pev abT@ i. 348 A), 45.

dvrAapBave («al 6 @pacipaxos moAAG-
Kis... @ppa davtiAapBavecda i.
336B), 24;

(kat ad pices xpnoral rovavTns mat-
deias dvriAapBavdpeva, #.T.A. iv.
424A), 171.

avrumpacaow (aipodyros Adyou pi) deiv
dvtimparrey iv. 440 B), 199.
dvw (Tov dvw rémov iv. 435 E), 1923

(dvw trov éxet 2b. 441 B), 201.

Gévos (kal ove dgiov Kvdvvov v. 467 C),
240s

(kal oddey . . . Ppovycews +ag.ov dAn-
Owjs éxdpevor vi. 496 A), 285.

atraredv, 213.

GmAots (ém 58... dtAovorépous amo-
wdivev viii. 547 E), 375.

GmA@s ottws (i. 331 C), 13.

a6 and td, confused in MSS., 65 ;

(6c dv Oéwow eb amd Tdv KaTw, and
8 ray dvw ph x. 613 B), 466 :—

dro, paroxytone = ‘ away from,’ 247.

atroxpytéov, to be read, with Bekker,
for dmoxvntéov (iv. 445 B), 209.

GtrokapBdvw (dmodaBavy pépos Tt iii.
392 E), 121 (cp. note on iv. 420¢,
p- 163).

Gtrokeinw (4 oxarypadia ... yonrelas
ovdty drodcime x. 602 D), 451.

Il. Greek.

dtoAoyéopat (ri ob, En. . . dmodAoyh-
oe; iv. 419), 161, 162;
(ratra 5) .. . dmodredoyjobw [v. J.
drodedoyia0a] x. 607 B), 458.
atodktw (obxotv ... 7a TE dAAa daedv-
odpeda [v./. dwedvodpeba] x.612A),
464.

dmopos, 98, 219.

dréppyots, 57.

dmoxpalvw, 430.

aGmras (drrars TO Ady vii. 534 C),

dpa (wecadels ws dpa roadra mparrovaer
iii, 391 E), 118;
(Or: olpar Hyads épety ds dpa. . . rown-
Tal... KaK@s A€youot, #.7.A. 70.
392 A), II9.
epdnv, 164.
Gpidpds (cal fdumas dpiOuds tabrov
mémovOe ToUTp Vii. 525 A), 332.
"Appévos (rod “Appeviou x. 614 8B),
468.

dppovia, various meanings of, 127, 371.

dppatos, 350.

dppyros, 372.

dppworia, (ii. 359 B), 61.

apxq :—éf dpxijs=‘beginning at the
beginning,’ 46, 211.

Gpxw (ds edOds dpydpeva Tis méAEws
oixitew iv. 443 B), 205.

doreios, 48.

av (8 rypqceror pr. . . ToAd Kal loxupov
yevopevov otk ad Ta aiTod mpatTy
iv. 442 A), 203.

avgéyots, 367.

atéw (xal aifévrov Kal pOiwdvrow viii.
546 B), 369 ;

(rpls abfndeis 2b. C), 370, 372.

avtika=‘for example’ (ére’ adrixa
larpoy Kadeis, «.7.A. i. 340 D), 34.

avrés, referring to an indefinite word,

443

=‘ the well-known,’ 361 :—

(airés re kal Ta worppara Bovddpevos
émbeigacOar iii. 398 A), 128 ;

(abrés Te wal Tov dbdeApdv mapaxdre
iv. 427 D), 177;

(dAbyou mpds ri adrhy iii. 397 B),
126;

(abrd Sieaootyny ii. 363 A), 67;

(abrot dmoxrevotaw iii, 410 A), 150;

501

(fwOjnas abrdv [v. 1. abrayv] ii. 359 A),

61.

avroupyés, 401.

avréxeap («al airéxerpas [?] pdvov x.
615 C), 470.

atrav ({vvOjKnas abrav ii. 359 A), 61.

a&deros, 290.

Gdinpt (... éavrdvy ddeivar x. 599 A),
446.

adplornpe (rod 52 dAnOots méppw mavu
dpeora@ra x. 605 C), 455.

&ppoowvy = unconsciousness, 318.

BadAavriarépos, 381.
Baors, 128.
Bla (vépm 5% Big mapayera ii. 359C),
:;
(ods émpedcia Bia karéxovow ai dpxai
viii. 552 E), 381;
(émee? tw éavtod Big watéxe 7b.
554C), 384.
BAdtrrw (... dpolws Sixaov ddixw BAdwe
li. 364 C), 70 5
(BAanrrépevov tind oveopayray viii.
553 B), 382.
BAitrw (wAciorov 5)... HEAL. . . evTEd-
dev BrLrre viii. 564 E), 401.
BAocvupés, 350.

yeAolws (3 Hyeis yedoiws ent... Trav
Snmovpyav aicbavdpeba iii. 406),
1455
(dre TH CnTHTEs yedoiws Exe vii. 528 D),
338.
yevwvaios, 46, 86, 362;
(@ yevvaie vii. 527 B), 335.
yépwv (kal yépovres yryvdpevor GOALn
mpomnAakifovra x. 613 E), 467.
yiyvopar (otre yap mov yiyvera otr’
dy peivaey ... vopobernOévta iv.
4258), 1725
(ray yiyvnra ii. 373 E), OI ;
(el yévorro, ai olos dy ein yevdpevos
V. 472), 251;
(ddAa piv... . els txavds yevdpevos vi.
502 B), 296.
yAloxpws, 269.
yopartetw (rds 52 57) oxids exeivas...
ywoparedovra vii. 516 E), 320.

502 Index to

yovipos, 77.

Yeoppy (drAdyous dvras domwep ypappds
vii. 534 D), 349.
Tuyyns (7@ [Lvyou] . .

359 D), 61.

. Tpoyovm ii,

Satpovios (7d Saipdviov onpeiov vi. 496C),
285.

Saipev, 482.

Sef (woAAOD Sel .
378 C), 99.

Savés, 26 :—

70 devdv as a substantive (ix. 590 A),
439.

SeErdopar (ri 5€ ; SefiwOFva; v. 468 B),
242.

Sdopar (ob ydp exer piow KvBepyvfirny
vauTav Seicba apxecbar bp’ aiTod
vi. 489 B), 273 ;

(oder Sedpevos ix. 579 A), 420. _

Sevoototds, 108, 180.

Séxopat :—impersonal use of déferar,
422.

Sydow (ré7€ Shwe Sr1, K.7.A.Vi. 497 C),
288.

Syproupyéw, with dative, 37 ;

(ob xaderds . . . Snproupyovmevos x.
596 D), 442.

54, omission of, 179.

SraBdrAAw (yur) SuaBarrAgc . . . eve Kal
@Opactpaxor vi. 498 C), 291 ;

(S:aBadAvvres 7H dA viii. 566 B),
402.

SiaBody, 275.

Staypadw (7atra . . . mapartnodpeda
“Ounpov ... pi xaAetaivew dy dia-
ypapwpev iii. 387 B) III.

Siaptrepés, 474.

Stavogopar (dAAws mows Hyel Siavocicba
mpos Tods dpxopévous i. 343 B), 39;

(nat Siavoeic@a ws SiadAaynoouévav
kal ob« del moAcunodvTaw V. 470 E),
248.

Sidvora, 310 :—didvoat, 328.

Starmravw (ds 5¢ deravodpeda i. 336 B),
24.

Stampatrropar, as a neuter verb, 152, 431.

Siamroéw (i. 336 B), 25.

Sidoracis (Kepadfjs.. . duacrdceis, read-
ing of Par, A, iii. 407 C), 146.

. kal mowuAréov ii.

Vol. ITT.

S:acréAAw (rota 87) SuacréAAer; vii.
535 B), 350.

Siacalw (7d & TE Avmas OyTAa Kacw-
(eoOa airhy, x.7.A. iv. 429 C),
180.

Sidtacis (Keparfs tivds del Siardoes iii.
407 C), 146.

Stadevyouca (reading of best MSS. for
duapépovoa viii. 544 C), 362.

Siddopos (i Te rad Sidpopos . .. Sypo-
xparia viii. 544 C), 361. *

SiddoKw (obs dv Kddonp xelpous Snpuorp-
yous Sibdgera iv. 421 E), 166.

SiSop. (of pev xKaxias née edmerelas
dSdvres ii. 364 C), 70;

(7d émOupnrindy 5& pre evdeiqa Sods
Hnre TAno povy ix. 571 E), 408.
Sréerpe (Sid mavrow er€yywv beg vii.

534 C), 349.

SrefEpxopar (did paxpod tiwds SrefeAPdvTos
Adyou vi. 484 A), 262.

Sixatos, of animals, 482 :—8iKalws (d:-
kalws dy elev v. 464 E), 238.

Bixy (Sienv 8 exe vii. 520 B), 325.

Simdq (Simdy 7) of dAAo dondCovra abra
15 330 ©); 2%.

Siokw (xar’ aitd 7d dvopa Sidnew v.
454 A), 220,

Sokéw (0t5e Soxodyres TovTOous dpay viii.
555 EB), 385;

(... mapd ddéfay rots viv Soxovpévors
vi. 490 A), 274.

Sd6fa (7a 52... undaydoe ddAdAoaE Teivovta
i} mpos dégav vi. 499 A), 291.

Spapa, 214.

Spipvs (ds Spud yey Brewer 7d Yuxapiov
vii. 519 A), 323.

Spopos (éreddv tiv dfvrarnv Spdpou
dxpiv mapy v. 460 E), 233.

Sivapar (Suvapevai Te Kal Svvacrevdpevan
viii. 546 B), 368.

Sivapis, 366, 433.

Suvacrevw (Suvdyevai te Kal dvvacrevd-

pevat viii. 546 B), 368.

Bapatiov (und els TO Swydriov eOédr\av

éAGetv iii. 390 C), 116.

édv (édv oor Taira Sox7 ii. 358 B), 59.
édvaep, emphatic (i. 332 B), 17.
éavtod (5: Eavrovs iv. 419), 161.

Il. Greek.

éykdpia (eyxmpuia Trois dyabois x. 607 A),

457:
€0éAw, applied to things without life, 83 ;
(GAAA Kiairy @edrAdvrav bnaxovew v.
459 C), 229.
ei, used with directly interrogative force
in Homer and in Hellenistic Greek,
200 ;
with the subjunctive, 420:—
(el pr ei mapepyov, to be read, iii.
411 E), 153;
(GAAQ pévTa . . . ci w7) G5iKD iv. 430 E),
182.
elSov (Soxeis. . . Suapépery adbrovs ldety vi.
495 E), 284.
elSos, 187, 409, 441.
e(SwAov (xal pera TovTo év Tots daar
Ta... eldwda vii. 516 A), 316, 318
(cp. note on 520 C, p. 325).
elSwAotroréw (efEwda eidwromo.obyTt Xx.
605 C), 455-
elev, various uses of, 34.
ei\Aukpivas (Tod eiAucpivds OvTos V. 477 A),
258.
etpr (én ard 52... ely v. 473 C), 252.
eipt (Seaomoray mavu modAdA@vy EoTt .
dmndAdaxOat i. 329 D), 10;
(obs GAAo ert HY iv. 428 A), 178;
(ob rabtov Fv 7b. 430 C), 193.
cipwveta, 26.
eis (Sdfay eis Sivapy...
477 E) 259.
eigayyeAla, 402.
éxaoros (map exaorov 7d épwrnpa vi.
487 B), 267 ;
(ép’ ois *éxaoras 7b. 493 B), 279.
éxetvos (éxeivou Tod dvbpés ii. 368 A),
78;
(éxelvots mpos éxetva vii. 511 A), 311.
éxkaSaipw (S71. . . dpyavdv te puxijs
éxxabaiperat, #.7.r. vii. 527 D), 336.
éxkalw :-—
éxnavénoetat, reading of best MSS.
(ii. 361 E), 65;
(7d Towodrov Kakdy éxxadpevor viii.
556 A), 386.
ékpufdw, meaning of, in II. iv. 218, 148.
éxtrAvve (iva... pr) adrav éxmdr var Ti
Bagny iv. 430 A), 181.
éxdv elvat, 265.
€Axw (TU ye THs dpovoou . ., picews. . .

OlGOpMeEV 5 V.

593

ay patpev éAwev... els dperplay vi.
486 D), 266.
€dtris (ody dpaprioc THs y eps éAnidos
vii. 517 B), 320.
eurinta (els padddy ye ad... oxéppa
éumentw@naper iv. 435 C), 190.
éprodifo with the accusative, 146.
éwrroujoas, conj. Schneider for éumorjoa
(i. 333 E), 20.
évdeys, 309.
évSuw (udAtora yap &} réTe. .
tumos ii. 377 B), 97-
éviornp (abtov éxpdrrey Te Kal énotd-
va iii. 395 D), 125.
évétrALos (movs), 134.
éevredOev (dis ye évredOer ideiv iv. 430 E),
182.
éEayytAdw (iv’ egayyeddAoey ii. 359 E),
62.
éEarpéw (Ocfov pévror... efarppev Aé-you
vi. 492 E), 279.
entrndes (pyuata eferirndes ddAHAos
dpowpeva vi. 498 E), 291.
eEus (GAA’ Err per(dves Tipntéov Thy TOD
ayadod Ef vi. 509 A), 3073
(Gan 8 dv povov SnArot mpds tiv Ew
capnveia, #.7.A. vii. 533 E), 348.
ématvéw (... ove Tas Sdfas Suxaroodvys
émpvéxapev [al. énnvéyeapev] x.
612 B), 465.
érrapdorepife (roid év Taiséoriaceov ...
érapporepiCovaw ore v. 479 B),
261.
émavakukAéw (énavaxvxdovpevoy Tov TE-
Taptov x. 617 B), 477.
irdvodos (GAAA Wuxfs mepiaywy?) . . . eis
GAnOiviv rod dvtos ovcay éndvodov
Vil. ‘521. C);.327-
énéxw (4 Todvavriov GAAw... éavTdv
éxéxovta iii. 399 B), 131.
émi = on condition of, 240 :—
(ei BovAe .. . ém” épod A€yew V. 4754),
256 (cp. note on x. 597 B, p. 443) 3
(ém’ adrod éxeivov x. 600 C), 448 ;
(ém’ ddvvapia BAéwe vii. 532 B), 345+
émdétvos («al rods xepapéas .. . émdéfia
mpos 70 wip dSiamivovras iv. 420 E),
164.
émetk@s, 201.
émixovpot, distinction between the, and
the dpxovres, 157.

. évdverat

504 Index to

émAapBdvw (viv obv émerdt) GAAS Em-
AapBaver woditelas, K.T.A. V. 449 D)

211;
(roavrns éfovalas émAaBdpevos ii.
360 D), 635

(nat god émAaBopévov vi. 490C),
2755
(émAaBdpevoi pou vy. 450 A), 211.
émivevw (émivevery TovTO mpds abrHy iv.
437 C), 195.
émuméropar (én mavra Ta Ac yopeva WoTeEp
émmropevor ii. 365 A), 72-
émeTySeupa, 92.
émtvyxdve (tds dé ye awAds Te Kal
perpias . .. év dAtyous Te emerevger iv.
431 C), 183.
émixetpew (Tos emxerpodor A€yew iii.
386 B), IIo.
émxpwopatife (rois dvépuact kal phuaciv
émyxpwparicew x. 601 A), 449.
éropar (Trav pévTo eumpoobev mpoepy-
pévov éropévas amodeiges vi. 504 B),

300.

émos (and Tovde Tov Emous iii. 3860),
110.

épea, meaning of, in Homer (Il. i. 39),
Fa2,

prov (cal épiw oréparTes iii. 398 A), 129.
ért (obxodv ... Ete ev Aeiwerae [MSS.
éAAcirerat] i. 327 C), 53
(én [stc MSS.] éy@ elroy v. 4498),
210.
ErOuLos, 404 ;
(Trav... 7a Eroipa Siavepopévev ém-
Oujudy ix. 572 E), 410.
eVSaipwov (evdainov @..
K.T.A. iv. 422 E),
212);
(ind Tov ebdaipdver AEyopevan EaTid-
ceov X, 612 A), 464.
evepyecia, 472.
ev Pera (wdavu yevvaiay einGevar i. 348 C),
46.
edAoyos, 455.
edxEps, 70.
edwx ew (Kal ebwy Frat ed pada iii. 411 C),
152.
éx@ (7) od mpdpaciw pev Tots Secdois Exe: ;
v. 469 C), 246;
(ws éxe Te KaAAOTOV viii. 562C),
397 5

Sig ”
. OTL Otel,

167 (cp. p.

Vol. L171.

(iva of re yewpyoi éni rd dpody éxorev
Bots ii. 370E), 84;

(} xalpew éxovra 2b. 357 B), 583

(m@s Extéov gor Tods OTpaTiMTas, K.T.A.;
v. 468 A), 242;

(dAnOeias éxdpevor ii, 362 A), 65 ;

(munvijs diavolas éxdpevov viii. 568 A),
404.

Lnréw (ioxupdv Kal peraBodjry (nret 7d
To.ovrov iii. 388 E), 114;
(ind 88 Trav Cnrodvray vii. 528C),

337-

La (Ff Te wh madoa (Gvta buvary viii.
559 B), 391.

{gov, 223.

4, to mark surprise, 46 ;
indicative of indignation, 125;
to anticipate an affirmative, 423 :—
(GAN *H . . . evOupe? iv. 440 D),
200 :—
7 yap; expecting an affirmative, 52.
4 (Wore advvaros elvac moAAA Kadéis
pupetoOa 7) adra éxeiva mparrew iii.
395 B), 1245
(} ddatéve dvT1, .7.A. vi. 490 A),
274.
fyetoOar, with simple accusative and
without «iva, 257.
45us (@ pdioTe i. 348), 46.
FKev, aor. of inue (i. 336B), 25.
HAakdry, 474.
HAvos =‘ sunlight,’ 319.
jpe :—7 8° bs after épy (i. 348D), 47-
Hprovs (ui) Toivuy tulcews abTd Kara-
Alimwpev pnOev x. GOI C), 449.
Apgos (mous), 134.
40 Onpa =‘ pleasure’ (in Eupolis’ Ajpor),
428.
fouxta (nal jouxia éxeivew yévnrat viii.
566 E), 403.
qrou, 186.

Oavarnpépos (dpx7) GAAns mepiddov ...

Oavarnpédpov x. 617 D), 478.
Oappadéos, 213.
Oavpdcros (& Oavpdore ii. 366D), 76
(cp. p. 219).

se eee St a eee eee, ee er
ate fale al: at ve i A |
eons 7 is
J ?

Il. Greek.

‘Geios, 345

Beois éxOpds, 52.

Oeppds (ur) ex rhs roa’rns ppixns Oep-
porepoe ... TOU déovros yévavTa hyiv
iii. 387 C), 112.

Oéw (Oéovres Hin TéTE eyyUTaTa dAEOpouv
iii. 417 B), 160.

Onpevrys (olov of re Onpevral mavres ii.
373 B), 89.

Oupés, Aristotle’s account of, 93.

iSéa (od opixpG dpa idéq, «.7.A. vi. 507 E),

304 :—
idéa and efdos, 441.

iB.os (év idiows Adyos ii. 366 E), 76.

ibtarns (otre mpécBes mpecBurépww dd-
yous idimrav eicdéxovra viii. 560 D),
394-

iSwwtiKkds, 277.

tepds (rds Tov... Swepyeiod iepds rpi-
xas iii. 391 B), 117.

type (heey ep’ Huds ds d:apmacdpevos
i, 3368), 25.

ixavés (iva pr e@pev ixavdy Adyov t
ovxvov defiwper ii. 376 D), 95.

igopyKyns (loopnen pev TH viii. 546),
371.

tormpe (ad omovddte mpds dAAov Tid
okondv oTnodpevos, K.T.A. V. 452 E),

217.

KaBapds (yer GAAnAo oixeiy ey TE
xaOap@ vii. 520 D), 326.
Kabiornpe (of xafiordyres .. . madevew
iii. 410 B), 150;
(Gv KkaraoTnoovra pev Tovs dpicrous
viii. 546 D), 373.
kai, emphatic, 7 ;
indicating surprise, 29 ;
= ‘also,’ 284 ;—
as in kalmep, 292 ;—
wat... wai=‘not only’... ‘but,’
351 s—
wat 5) «al, to introduce a special in-
stance, 8 ;—
wai pévro .. . Kal, 14 ;—
walro. ye, 200 ;—
way el, 420 ;—
(wat pera Adpovos iii. 400 B), 133;

595

(Gore kat xaxods yizyveoOu iv. 421 D),
165 ;
(xdv drioby 7 #6. 422 BE), 168;
(xal borepoy v. 458 B), 227;
(} teal dv otrw Oedvra vi. 500 A),
2933
(nat para, épn, Gfvov 7d di:avdnua 7d,
504 E), 300 (cp. note on x. 6144,
P. 467) ;
(wal AoyiferOai re vii. 522 E), 329;
(rodro ab wat épol épeis ix. 573 D),
412;
(% Te Kat Aé-youar x. 599 A), 446;
(wat & viv 5% édrAéyouey 2b. 609 C),
461.
kaKkoupyéw (Wore... avrods rods Kivas
émxetpjoa Tois mpoBdros Kaxovp-
yeiv iii. 416 A), 159.
kahéw (émi pev ody TH Tod olxelov éxOpa
ordots KéKAnTat V. 470 B), 247;
(ai... dAAat dperal kadrovpeva Yuyijs
vii. 518 D), 323;
(7d bmd Trav Texvav Kadovpévoy vi.
511C), 313.
KadAitrodts (év 79 KadAiéAE co vii.
527 C), 335-
Kad6s (otxoty . . . ér
571 B), 407.
kaTdkAvots, 172.
KatadapBdvw (7 mov ind gvyis Karta-
Anpeéy, «.7.r. vi. 496 B), 285.
katacKkeuvy (kal al trav iiiwrdv Kara-
oxeval tis Yuxfs viii. 544 E),
362.
katatelvw (5:0 xarareivas ép® .. . éma-
vow ii. 358 D), 59.
katadopéw (dunxavoy. . .Aoyo pov KaTa-
mepdpnkas, k.7.A. ix. 587 E), 433.
KateAcéw (pundevi tpdmwy Karedehocovow
iii. 415 C), 158.
Katéxw (72 To Karexouévov re tn’
abrav . .. puxny viii. 560 D), 395.
Katnyopia (Kal xarnyopias mép Kai égap-
vngews kat ddraovelas yopday vii.
531 B), 343.
KaryKoos (alr méAe *xarnedw yeréaba
vi. 499 B), 292.
keipar (obra: xaxws oo keicera i. 344 EB),
415
(éwavopPovca «i Tt Kal mpérepoy ris
modews Exerto iv, 425A), 172.

év Kard@; ix.

.

506 Index to

KeAevw (xeAevovras Tovros iii. 396 A),
125.

KivBuvevwo (xivduvever odx dy dAnOn A€yev
X. 597 A), 443.

KAémtw (xAamévras pev yap Tods pera-
reabévras A€yw iii. 413 B), 154.

Kos] («al tod xowp del Sdgavros eivar
BeAriorov Adyou x. 607 A), 457-

Kkopipos, 94.

Kpatéw (6 Tay Ala copay bxAos KpaTav
x. 607 C), 459;

(... moAd Kpareira: év dmacw...
“yévos Tod yévous Vv. 455 D), 222;

(Gomep fevixdv onéppa .. . eis 7d
émxwpiov pret xparovpevov lévat
vi. 497 B), 288.

Kplois (ov5 Gedy epw Te Kal xpiow ii.
379 E), 101.

KuBepvaw (Stas 52 KuBepynoer édy Té
tives BovAwvTa édy Te pH Vi. 488 D),
270.

kuXivbew, sof xvdwéety, the Homeric
form, 113 :—

(7a THY ToAAGY TOAAA vopipa.. .
peragy mov nvdwbeira TOU TE pI?)
évros Kat Tov GyTos eiAtKpwas v.
479 D), 261.

Kupdw (xupodyTa tv Aaxayv eiAeTO poipiv
x. 620 E), 482.
ktwv :—Socrates’ oath, v7) rov xvva, 132.

TO

AaBH (Gorep radraarhs, tiv adrhv AaBry
mapexe viii. 544 B), 361.

AapBavo (nal édy ... & dpxfs dice
GOupov AdBy, «K.T.A. iii. 411 B),
152.

AavOdve (dp’ obv kal vécoy Saris Sewds
gudAdgacba, nai Aadety i. 333 E), 19.

éyw (Aéyers . . . Adyow otaTaow v.

’ 457 E), 2273

(ai ye . . . Aeydpevat H5ovai ix. 584 C),
428;

(r&v edevOipoy Acyouévwy iv. 431),
183;

(Trav viv Ae yopévaw GAnOay vii. 516 A),
318.

Aetos (Acin pév b8¢s ii. 364 D), 70.

Aééis =the style (of a written composi-
tion), 120, 127.

Ags Sucav, 173.

Vol. LIT.

Atorés (Aroroi read in some MSS. for
orpenrci ii, 364 D), 71.

Aoylfopar (ds dewds dv... AoyCopevos,
reading of most MSS, iii. 405),
143.

Aoytoticés, use of, in Plato, 34 :—

( prdémore AopioTinG yevéoOa vii.
525 B), 333.

Aéyos =‘ description’ (ii. 361 8B), 64;

=‘the subject” (of a written com-
position), 127 ;

=‘ idea,’ ‘ notion,’ 288 :—

(6 yap Adyos Huds ype x. 607 B),
458;

(av ye... emt... Adym Epya TeARra
iii. 389 D), 115;

(édy 5€ yé tis... dudce TH AdyH
ToApG lévar x. 610 C), 462.

Avyife (ds Sewvds dy .. . AvyCdpevos
iii. 405 C), 143.

pakpds (uaxporépous droreivover puadovs
ii. 363 D), 68.

padGakés, in the Homeric sense (paA-
Oaxdv aixunrhy iii. 411 B), 152.

pavOdvw (ef po pavOdves iii. 394),
123.

Pappapuyy (i7d Aapmporépov pappapvu-
vis ¢unémAnora vii. 518 B), 321.

peyadodpovew (.. . of mepl Tatra (nTn-
Tikol peyadoppovovpevor vii. 528 B),
337-

peyiotos (ri peylorny Tis evAaBeias
iii. 416 B), 159;

(76 82 57 péyorov 7b. 407 B), 146.
petlov=‘too great’ or ‘high,’ 276.
peAtToupyos, 400.
pev ovv, 387.
pévror, use and meaning of, 30, 199,

246, 442 :—

(AAO pévrot... pn i. 332 A), 17.

pévw (uevel ert roiTw TH iw v. 466C),
240.

Hépos (dmoAaBav pépos tt iii. 392 E),
121. ;

pécos (els 7d péaov Pbeyéduevos i. 336 B),
253

(& péow tid AxHv vii. 531 A), 342.
peta (nerd woddAtjs Samrdvns onovdaterac

vi. 485 E), 266.

LIT. Greek.

petaBadAw (eZ50s yap Kxawdv povorris
peraBdddraw ebAaBnréoy, K.7.A. iv.
424 C), 1713
(«at els Hdovds ad peraBAnréor iii.
413E), 155.
peratv, joined with a participle (i.
336 B), 24;
(70 peragd olxovoplas cal xpnyuatiopod
vi. 498 A), 289.
petrewportoyys, 273.
pétpios (uérpioe dvdpes iv. 423), 170
(cp. p- 409) :—
Her piws, 263.
ph, after an interrogative, 48 ;
in oratio obliqua, 162 ;
followed by the future indicative,
213 :—
BI) ob, 177 ;
pe) ody = pay, 381.
pndapas, with ellipse (i. 334 D), 21.
pydels (nal pndey els rov erecta xpdvor
ii. 357 B), 58.
pytpls, 415.
PHXavy (Tis unxav7 ; ii. 366 B), 75.
Pipéopat, passive use of, 454.
Pipytys (ovKodvy TiOdyev . . .
Tovs TonTiKovs pupnTdas
dperijs eivas x. 600 £), 448.
piEoAviiorri, 130.
potps (rv éxeivors [éxeivns, MSS.) poi-
pav duoorarny éfev v. 472C), 251.
pov pH, 52.

mavtas
eldwAwY

vai, with a negative preceding, 456.

veavias (roivdé re Tois veaviaus i. 328 D),
8.

veavievpata (vearicevpara, Paris A, iii.
390 A), 116.

veavik6s, 173. 277, 399 5

(«al veavixol re kal peyadompemeis tas

diavoias vi. 503 C), 299.

vedty, 7%, in the Greek musical scale,
206.

veupoppados, 164.

véw (véwy ey yf i) év Oaddrry vii. 529 C),
339-

vewkopéw (lepdy ri vewxophoe ix. 574 D),
413.

vépos, opposed to picts, 60.

vods (ei v@ Exes vi. 490 A), 274.

597

viv (éy ri viv duodoyoupévy orace v.
Bs ing D), 247 5
viv 5, 337.

Evyyevis (... did rd... furyyevis rev
Adyov vi. 494 D), 283.

EvpBdrAw (fvuBaddrAav . .. ols dv 20éAn
ii. 362 B), 66.

EvpPiBdlw (S71 terra eldn Yryijs dia-
ornodpevor fuveBiBdCopev Sixacocd-
ns Te mépt, .7.d. Vi. 504A), 299.

Evppaxta, 393.

Euprodife (rdv 5 yevvaioy vadxAnpov
... fupmodicaytas vi. 488 C), 270.

Euvavaipéw (édy wal 4 MvOia fuvavaipy
vii. 540 C), 358.

EvvSeopos (én tov fvvdeopor THs TéAEwS
vii. 520A), 324.

EvveBilw («al fuvehioréov Ta oxoTewd
GedoacOa Vii. 520C), 325.

Euviornpe (Kal vy roils boa nueva...
fuvéarnke vi. 510 A), 308.

Evoraots, 227.

& (7a eixoat Ern Vv. 460 E), 233.
& (70 8, ofa i, 340 D), 34.
85¢€ (4) rav5e Tay doxnray eis iii. 403 E),

I4I.
686s (xaé’ dddv iv. 435 A), 189;
(68@ wept mavrds AapBavew vii.
533 B), 346.

oixetv, in a neuter sense, 164, 236, 359.
otwos (Tov abroy olpov .. . mopevdpevor
eiphoopev iv. 420B), 162.
olopar (57A0v olpai co Hv i. 337 8B), 27;
(rov 5& giddcopov ... Ti oldpeda;
{conj. Graser] ix. 581 D), 424;

(otov ye ov i. 336 E), 26.

otov (ofoy of ypapis... ypdpover vi.
488 A), 269 :—

(oidy re [a/. ri dv Te] ii. 358 E), 60.
Spados (BiBAwv 52 Guadoy mapéyovrar ii.
. 3648), 71.

SpovomraOys (mapadeiypata époonabh
Tots movnpois iii, 409 B), 149.

dpordtys, 416.

bpordw (dpoodvray te wal dvopoolvrav
viii. 546 B), 368.

dpodoyoupévws, 309.

508 Index to

dvivnpe (elmep olds rt’ iv mpds dperiy
*bvivava dvOpmmous x. 600 D), 448.
6vopa=‘a word,’ opposed to pjya=
‘an expression,’ 34.
émws, with subjunctive, 437.
6p0ds (7d dpOds Aێ-yorTe iii. 397 B), 127.
Sppaw (Sevwep das 6 Adyos obros Hpunoe
ii. 366 D), 76.
Spos (Spos earl dixacocvyns i. 331 D), 14;
(pos adrijs olds éorw viii. 551 C),
6s (5 maca pda Simeev mépuxer ii.
359C), 61 ;
(ep? @ EpedrAe .
374 B), 91 :—
=olos, 390 :—
és Tis, 380.
és, archaic form of the Possessive Pro-
noun, used by Plato (7rd & daxpva
ili. 394 A), 122.
Sotpakov (daTpaxouv
521 C), 327.
érav, probably never followed by the
optative, 154.
ovSapas, followed by dAAd, 233, 234
(cp. 250).
ovdé (S71 088 Adixnoopey Tods map’ jyiv
dtdoadpous vii. 520 A), 325.
ovSés (3 57) emi ynpaos ob5@ gacly civa
of montal i. 328 E), 9.
ovv, 407.
ovmm (GAX’ ode dv Tw TavU ye Heya TL
ein ii. 370 D), 84.
otros, ‘ deictic’ use of, 4 ;—
otros dvnp, 302 ;—
(rovrov én’ evdAaBeiqg vii.
357 -—
ovTw[s], employed to add emphasis, 5 ;—
(amA@s obTws i. 331 C), 133
(ds Onoeds .. . TletpiOous te... Wpyn-
cay ovrws én Sevds dpmayés iii.
391 C), 118.
épeiAw (7a ind Tod Adyou dpedAdpeva
* — dxodoa x. 614 A), 468.
égAtcKdvw (o} Te yéAwra ddciv v.
450 E), 213.
dxAGEqs, 437.
Ors (6rd0ev dv airois... mpds dpw...
Tt mpooBaAg iii. 401 C), 137.
Gov (dvev Spou... moeis Tods dvdpas
éoriwpévous ii, 372 C), 87.

. « epyatdpevos 2d,

mepioTtpopn vii.

539 D),

Vol. Ll.

mayiws, 187, 261.

md00s (7d mab0s Tov otrw Adyov dmTo-
pévow vii, 539 A), 356;

(mera Tatra bi)... dmweixacoy toxL0vT@
mabe Ti hperépay puow tb. 514 A),
3145

(ra Tis NidBys wa6n ii. 380 A), 102.

Trasaywyéw (. .. abrol dy émaidayayouv
x. 600 E), 448.

Trabaywyikds (77 madaywyiKeh TeV voon-
patow ... larpuch iii. 406 A), 144.

masaywyds (maci re nal maidayaryois
iii. 397 D), 128.

mraSevw (ote yap yiyverat . . . dAAotov
700s mpds aperiy mapa tiv rovTov
madciay menadevpévov vi. 492 E),
279.

maile (7d rav mauldvrow iv, 422 E), 167.

mais (kal of Oeiv maides moinral ii,
366 B), 75;

(obwotv edOis év maoly [MSS. raow],
K.T.X. Vi. 494B), 282;

(@ aides éxeivov Tod dvdpds ii. 368 A),
78.

Tavappoviov (cal @dn TH ev TO wavap-
poviy . . . wemompéry iii. 404 D),
142.

mavtTws (ov mavrws [MSS.] pdoror vi.
497 D), 289 ;

(wavrws abTd ove dAvyaxKis axhkoas 2b,
504E), 300.

mavu (od mdvu... mpooésxov tov voov
ii. 376 A), 943

(od mavu .. . €uadov iv. 429C), 180;

(od yap mavu ye v. 474.D), 2553

(ob mavu .. . ruxes oD A€yw Vii.
523 B), 330.

tmapé, in composition = ‘ unawares,’
172 :—

(BeBarwoac@a mapd rod dAdyou v.
461 E), 235 :—

(mapa 7G dypiy iv. 439 E), 198 :-—

(émd Tod Adyou Tod wap’ ait@ dvaxAn-
Geis 7b. 440 D), 199 :-—

(mapa wavra 2b. 424 B), 171.

mapaBddAw (dvdyen tis... mapaBadrn
[inferior reading] vi. 499 B), 292;

(8rav mapaBaddAwow dAAHAas viii.
556 C), 387.

mapadvopat (i) yodv mapayopla ... Aav-
Gave: mapadvopévn iv. 424 D), 172.

IT, Greek.

mapalpeots («al rijs obolas mapapioes
ix. 573 E), 412.
tmapakahéw (& viv iyets mapaxadodrres,
K.T.A. V. 450 A), 211.
mapaxtvetv, intransitive use of, 358,
438;
distinguished from bmoxveiy, 411.
mapadddtTw («al odapp oddiy mapad-
Adtrrew vii. 530 B), 340.
Tapapv0éopar (Wore eb pe mapapvdet
V. 451 A), 214.
mapackevatw (els mixrns ws oldv Te
«adda tm TovTO mapeckevacpévos,
«.7.A. iv. 422 B), 167.
mapareivev, 335, 306.
mrapéxw, with the infinitive, 151 ;
(nai pi Kat dpyava ye ph éxav map-
€x€o0a #70 mevias iv. 421 D), 166.
mas (aod Tis Tapaxh x. 602 C), 4513
(é& mayri [sc. péBq] ix. 578 E), 419;
(év may7i kaxod 7b. 579 B), 420;
(dy@ .. . wevduvedw éxrds Tov TavToV
elva: iii. 398 C), 129;
(ind mavTow Twodepiov ix. 579 B), 420;
(6 da wavrow Kprns tb. 580 B), 421 ;
(S:aBodrr 8 év waco wordy vi. 500 D),
2945
(pi~a: éni mavras rods KAnpous x.
617 E), 478.
mevaw (dia *rod meviv, x.7.A. iv.
44°C), 199;
(cai merewnkds
606 A), 456.
mévys (odaxeias Te TAovolow mévyTes V.
495 C), 239.
mepalvw (dp’ ody odxi Hro dnAp dinyjoe
} id paphnoews yeyvopery . . . wepai-
vovow ; iii, 392 D), 121.
mepi after dvaypvjocwopa (i. 329 A),

Tov Saxpdoa x.

(6 wept rod rovovrov Adyou A€ywr ii.
360 D), 63;
(... fmepl warw orpépover ri Tijs
Yuxijs Oxuy vii. 519 B), 323.
meptayeipw (Worep of vixnpdpo mepraryet-
popevar x. 621 D), 484.
mepiBadrAw (mply dy... dvdynn mis bx
Tuxns TepBadrn Vi. 499 B), 292.
mepiwooréw (mepvoorel WamEp Tpws viii.
558 4), 389.
372.

599

meptoptfopévors, the old reading (iii.
392 A), 119.
tmepropa, 474.
wr), followed by 7, 94;
=‘at any point,’ 267.
mhyvupe (... «al 4 copia abrod rovry
dpéoxew némnyev x. 605 A), 454.
artis, 132.
morevw (wore dxovoas 7 moredw TovTH
iv. 439 E), 198.
mors, 312, 450.
tmAavdw (of 5... év woAAois Kal mavrws
isxovor tAavm@pevor vi. 484 B), 263.
mAdTTw (Kal rAaTTEWY Tas Yuxds abray
rois pvOus ii. 377 C) 98;
(udrtora yap 5) rére mAdrreTa 7b.
3778), 97.
tAciotos (xal mAciorov ev TH Yuxt
tupavvoy éxn ix. 575 D), 415.
TAOS (ws emi 7d AHGOs ii. 364 A), 69;
(70 5 wAHOos TeV yapow emi Tois dp-
xXovat womoopev v. 460 A), 229.
twAwilo, introduced by Plato into a
citation from Homer (Il. xxiv. 12
tral{ovr’ ddvovr’ én Oty’ dadds
drpuyérowo), 113.
movéw (Ti oldpeOa... Yuxds moieiv; ii.
365 A), 72;
(fh obx obrw moetre ; V. 474D), 2553
(rov 5& qiddcogor, hy 5 éyw, mowwpeba
[ste MSS.], ix. 581 D), 424 ;
(of gtAocopwraroe moiodpevar Vi.
498 A), 289 (cp. notes on vii. 538 Cc,
P- 3553 ix. 573 B, p- 411; 2b. 574 D,
P- 413) i—
use of the perfect middle, 444.
mwoinpa (ards te Kal Ta woimpara iii,
398 A), 128.
mouths =‘ maker,’ 442.
mouciAAw (roAAod Sef. . . wal moumiATéor
ii. 378 C), 99.
motos (roi éwextnoduny ; i. 330 B), 11.
troAvopkéw (iva pi) Epnua Ta Tod érépov
Adyou moAcopeAra V. 453 A), 219.
moAAdkis (Kal Todro moot moAAdms ev
Hriw re cal mviryer iv. 422 C), 167;
(uh wodrdAdeis Tov ToNnTHY TS oinTa
Aéyeww, «.7.A, tb. 4248), 171 (cp.
note on ix. 584 B, p. 428).
moAAatAaciwots (reAciw0eion Ti) TOAAG-
mAagiwwoe ix. 587 E), 433-

OD lee ti) Bi
; >

a5 and ies

4%

510 Index to

modus (Kal modAd rodro 7d pnya viii.
562), 397;
(ueTa patidwy Tav moAA@Y tb. 567 D),
404 5
. (wat oitiwes mod\A@v [Par. A modAoi]
Oavarev HRoay airio x. 615 B), 470.
méppw, Platonic use of, 445 :—
(wéppw 8 év bordros eiv riv [Yuxjv |
. » » Oepairov x.620C), 482.
moppwlev (ra 52 Koma ... mippwHev
donafopéve vi. 499 A), 291.
mOTEpos, 198, 292.
tov, an indefinite adverb of place, 445.
mpdeapr (mpotovans 52 rijs HAucias, ev 7,
#.T.A, Vi. 498 B), 289.
mpojoOyots, 428.
Tpotarype (Kal TovTW.. . MpooTiceETOV
[sze MSS.] iv. 442 A), 203.
TpopyKys (mpopyen d€ viii. 546 C), 371.
apés =‘in comparison with,’ 364 ;
adverbial use of, 390 :—
(6 Te KéAMoTA pepvOoroynpuéva mpds
dperiv dove ii. 378 E), 100;
(émwevew TodTo mpds abrHy iv. 437 C),
1953
(mpos GAnBeav x. 597 A), 443 (cp. note
on 26. 605 A, p. 455);
(nal mpds...7@ (wrik@ dypurvor 2b.
610 E), 462.
mpocdyw («ai 7d mpocdyecOar TH arw-
OetcOa iv. 437 B), 194.
Tmpoceitov (mpoceinwmpey 5& aiTH x.
607 B), 458.
mpooexw (Sef dpa xal TovTo mpogéxetv 70
paOnpua vii. 521 D), 328.
mpoonyopos, 369.
mpoonkw (dp obx ws dAnO@s mpoofKovra
axodoa copicpara vi. 496 A), 284.
mpocTacts, 417.
mpootatycetov, conj. Bekker for mpo-
oTroerov (iv. 442 A), 203.
mpoodhépw (7a poprind abT@ mpoapépov-
Tes iv. 442 E), 204.
mpotepov: (uavTevopar 5% pydéva ara
mpérepov yvacecOa ixavais vi.
506 A), 302.
mpopaive (Te viv mpopawvopévy dAdyy
viii. 545 B), 363.
mp&tos (év & mpwryw viii. 546 B), 367.
mroéw (al wept tds dddas émOvpias
énrinra iv. 439 D), 198.

a ak
Ss :

Vol. S17.

mruOphy (dv éxirperos nvOphy viii. 546 C),
_ 37% 371, 372.
TUKVOPG, 342.
mwAoupévwv, suggested for drodopévwr
(viii. 568 D), 406.

pfpa = ‘an expression,’ opposed to
évopa = ‘a word,’ 34.

pyres, 372.

pv0pés, various uses and meanings of,
127.

captyvera (did 52 rv rovTov caphveaay
vii. 524 C), 331.

oKxevaorés (rds Tay oKevacTav oxids Vii.
515 C), 317.

oxedos (eal... 7a ye fvvOera mavTa
oxevn ii, 381 A), 105.

ond (rept Trav Tod Sieaiov omay vii.
517 D), 3215

(rds Tov oxevacTtav ods ib. 515 C),

355.

oK.aypadia, 73, 426.

okuToTépos, 82.

opiKpds, 414.

godiotis = ‘the master of an art,’ 442.

omovdalw (Kal xarod ad amovdace v.
452 E), 217.

oréyw (ov52 7d oréyor éavray myymdrdy-
Tes ix. 586 B), 430.

orepeds (ro0T0. . . Hdn oTEpewrepor i.
348 E), 47.

oTouxeiov (Ste Ta oTorxeia pr) AavOdvor
Hpas dAtya ova iii, 402 A), 138.

oTpayyevopéve, to be read for orparevo-
pévy (Vv. 472 A), 249.

ovyxepéw, with a double construction,
240.

ovlevyvupt (repnad oulvyeis viii. 546 C),
370, 372.

owveptis, 230.

ovvvo.a, 408.

avotpépw (cvorpéyas éavtdv wonep
Onpiov i. 336 B), 25.

ouxvos (iva ph é@pev ixavdy Adyov A
ouxvor dregiwper ii, 376 D), 95.

opddpa, 319.

oxéots (wept tiv tav Stray oxéow Vv.
452 C), 215.

IL. Greek.

oxfpa (pavais re kal oxhpaow iii.
397 B), 126;
(of mept rd oxhpard Te Kal xpwpara ii.
373 B), 89.
onenh (axorjs Te Tv dAdo mreioTNs

. bedpevor ii. 374 E), 92.

rakis (Yuxis Be ragw ob« eveivar x.
618 B), 479.
TavTy (raity iréov, ds...
365 D), 73-
reyyw (78 pi) réyyeoOa id Kaxodofgias
ii. 361 C), 64.
velvw (Trav ém mavra Tevivrov Tt A4Bo-
pey vii. 522 B), 328;
(naca } xowwvia } kata Td cpa mpds
Thy yuxiv Terapévyn v. 462 C), 236
(cp. note on ix. 584 C, p. 428).
Tepe (rois Tore TunOeiow (ad. prpnDeiory]
ds eixdor xpmpévn vi. 510 B), 308.
Tetpaywvilev, 335.
TiOnpe (OGpev . . . wal Exew ye Kadas,
«.7.A. V. 471 C), 248;
(mas xpi) Tods Sarpovious Te Kai Oelous
ribévan 2b, 469 A), 2433
(ridecOa Ta SrAa Mpds TOD AoyoriKOd
iv. 440 E), 200.
tysdw («al *ériva (conj. Schneider)
padcora viii. 554 B), 384;
(SeSofacpévos Te Kal Teriwnpévois Vi.
511 A), 311.
Typh, active verbal use of, 61, 72 :—

péper ii.

(GAA Tv TH pice mpoohkovaeay Tipiy

dmoddvtes iii. 415 C), 158.
als = moids Tis, 353 -—
(GAAa i otet ; i. 332 C), 173 '
(Gre BH ri pddcora 7b. 343 A), 33;
(ri pddrora ; Epny Vv. 449 B), 210.
wis (waod ris Tapaxy x. 602 C), 451;
(rods 5€ Twas i. 339 C), 31 :-—
adverbial use of 7, 422.

/ T6KOS, 303.

wore (rére wat eldov éyw i. 350 D), §0.

TpayiKds (rpayucds . . . mvduvedw A€yew
iii. 413 B), 154.

tpLBh (nal xpdvov Tp AH vi. 493 B), 280.

tpife, use of, in Homer, 111.

tpiros dvOpwros, the argument of the,
36, 37-

tpirta, 446.

Tpirruapxéw, 256.
Tpomos: navri Tpdmy, 57 ;
aaa Tpémov, 423.
rixn (Beoqudrcis éuds rixas | macy’

éwevphpnoer (ap. Aesch.) ii. 383 8),
108.

dyhs (ds ris aloOjoews obdtv iypis
moovons Vii. 523 B), 320.

tpveiv, intransitive, 237.

imdpxw (rodro piv dpa bmapkréoy v.
467 C), 242.

imdrn, 4, in the Greek musical scale,
206.

imetatpéw, 404.

[bmep \trA0bT0s, 397.

imepreAys, 369.

iméxovra, not to be read for éwéxovra
(iii. 399 B), 131.

Srpetéw (of dv imnperGow x. 601 D),

450.

$6, confused with dé, in MSS., 65.-

Sroypidw (odnody perd radra ole bo-
ypipacdat dy 75 ox Fpa Tis woALT elas ;
vi. 501 A), 295.

Sméfopa, 473.

troxatakAive (imoxataxduvdpevor bpiv
avrois i. 336 C), 25.

bréxepar (imoxeicovra dpa Sedpevor al
Tipavres Vi. 494 C), 282;

(bmoxeipevov tv éxdorw TovTev ix.

581 C); 423.

broxwvéw, distinguished from maprxwéw,
41l.

irokapPavw (év rodry iwédAaBe TModé-
papxos viii. 544 A), 3615 ;

(épOns . . . elmdv Epeddov bro-

AnverOu v. 466 D), 241.

irévoia (év trovolas memounuévas ii.
378 D), 100.

tromive (nerpiws ironivovtes ii. 372 D),
87.

trooypalve, 402.

timéxadkos, 158.

gatvw: various uses of ob daiverat, 43,
263.
gaddos, ironical use of, 169, 329.

512 Lnudex to

hépw (ddfav els S’vamy .. . otcoperv; V.
477 E), 259.
gypt (Taxa paGdrdrAov ghoes x. 596 B),
441 :—
use of the infinitive for the second
person imperative, 252.
P0ivw (nal adfdvrav rat POivdvrwy viii.
546 B), 369.
P0dyyos (Womep év Trois POdyyous TérTapa
[sc. et6n] iii. 400 A), 133.
oiAvos, 155.
diroverketv, piAdveikos, 28.
groco0pia = ‘the higher kinds of
knowledge,’ 339.
iAodpovetobar, 337.
doptikds, 76.
pvdanh, 374, 456.
guvdAdtra (édv 7d Acydpevoy ev péya
gudarrwot iv. 423 E), 170;
(Srav airiy 6 aSnpovs piAag 7 6 xad-
Kovs puddgn iii. 415 C), 158;
(rov ws dAnO@s Toimeva . .. axpiBas
puadga i. 345 C), 42.
dioa (picas Te kal KaTdppous iii, 405 C),
143:
vars (ei pioe Todd. fvpBaivor adbrois
vii. 515 C), 318;
(ev TH pioe x. 597 C, 598 A), 443,
4443
(ri 5& rod opovbvrAov giaw ecivar
Toavbe 2b. 616 D), 474 :—
opposed to vdpos, 60.
utov (cGpya .. . Kal nay puTév ii. 380 E),
104.

THE

a

a eS on

%

Vol, LL, on

xalpw (Kal dpOds 5? *xaipwr [con7. Ver-
mehren] . , . saradexdpevos iii,
401 E), 137.

xaAdapés (aitwes xadapal kadodvrat [sc.
dppoviat] iii. 398 E), 130.

xaAerrés, with infinitive, 11.

XaAeorpatov, 181.

xaples (7i5é; .. . ré5e addy ob yapier,
k.7.r. iv. 426 A), 174, 175 (cp.
note on x. 602 A, p. 450).

Xpdopar (mdvy por perpios ypyoe iv.
432 C), 186;

(6 m7 Xppoopar ii. 368 B), 79.

xpela (év... xpela til 7H mpds dAANAOUS
ii, 372 A), 86.

XPnTpwbéw (Tov THY TOAAGY . . . Xpyo-
pdeis Biov ix. 586 B), 430.

XpuToxoew, 212.

&s, before genitive absolute, 5;
= ‘how,’ 247 ;
= ‘ guast, 396 :—
(ds 57) Sporov rovTo éxeivy i.337C),27;
(ds 5€, d7Aov ii. 366 D), 75;
(008 ds rapias hyiv Zeds 7b. 379 E),
TOT;
(ws oldv re, lect. prob., iii. 387 C),
Fit}
(as wANOe 2b. 389 D), 115.
Sore (Sor elvai mov eédAdAdypos iii.
394 E), 123;
(Gore Kai kakors yiyvecOu iv. 421 D),
165.
apeAla, 446.

END.

a
Als.
4
ee : :
—_ -

7 | .
:
& ni

’ “a,
7
7 |
7
- -
7 1 n 2 7 7 7
_ 7 7 7 : 7
a : :
- 7 ;
7 -
-
i 7 ¢ .
: -
. 7
7
: 7 ;
- - 7 :
Hem 7 :
—
io
a
: "
-
-
oo
-
; : : a
7 - 7 -_
ne
— : _
.
- ; :
nn :
7 P
7 -
- ; ;
- a
oo : 7
| ; 5 _
a . :
a 7 | -
: - a
; 7
ce
:
: 7 : :
_ .
7 e ;
7 aGY
:
’ -

: ; cu, py aR La i 4 — Ne by fis ete 4 po”

, 7 i i b a . 4
ae iv: ) : my ‘ a “ ‘ = or “4 4 A
¥ > a. Me Tr = hr Ate: bil Sah 4 Nat ve ha 5 Satie 4a Bs
° be Sp f « ¥ £ 7

| Qe
i. 7 Ys ,
ie 4
ras 1 ae
Me bs

ih

a ars

de ‘AY & € 10S

PA Plato
4279 Republic

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
LIBRARY

- ante" sateen

ee we
ietndt-d-aaboe