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INTO
CHINESE SUPERSTITIONS
By Henry Dope, S.J.
TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH
WITH NOTES. HISTORICAL, AND EXPLANATORY
By M. Kennelly, S.J.
Second Part
THE CHINESE PANTHEON
Profusely illustrated
Vol. VI
T'USEWEI PRINTING PRESS
Shanghai
1920
.
EISS4EC:
INTO
CHINESE SUPERSTITIONS
By Henry Dor6, S.J.
i^yvw<«.
TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH
WITH NOTES, HISTORICAL AND EXPLANATORY
By M. Kennelly, S.J.
Second Part
THE CHINESE PAATIIEOiX
Profusely illustrated
Vol. VI
T'USEWEI PRINTING PRESS
Shanghai
1920
2
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PREFACE.
The present volume opens the second series of the Author, and
deals with the gods and goddesses, culture-heroes, Immortals, genii,
mythical and fabulous beings worshipped in China, in other words
with the "Chinese Pantheon" (1). So far, few writers have dealt
scientifically and adequately with such a subject, deterred it would
seem by its vastness, and also because it bristled with difficulties,
required immense research work, and a thorough knowledge of the
"Three Religions" — Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism — which
prevail among the people. None of these claim a divine origin or
character (2), but represent man's natural endeavours to solve the
great problems of life, on God, the soul, its relations to the Eternal;
man's craving for help in his stuggle with evil, his emancipation
from the world, his constant pursuit of immortality, and imperish-
able happiness in a life to come. To many readers, China's religions
are largely unknown, hence it has been deemed necessary to set
forth briefly their general characteristics.
Generalities on llie Three Religions. — Confucianism is
more a politico-ethical system than a religion. On the great problems
of God and the immortality of the human soul, Confucius gave no
distinct utterance (3). Later exponents of the doctrine, and especially
Chu-hsi ^ ^, identified God with Reason or Law, thus making
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. I. p. V (General plan of the work.
Second Part. "Biography of Gods and Goddesses").
(2) The Chinese regard Confucius as nothing more than the wisest of
men. They do not claim inspiration for his words. Edkins. Religion in
Chinese p. 74. — Buddhism does not profess a divine origin. Edkins. loc.
cit. p. 84.
(3) On the subject of the unseen world and the immortality of the soul,
Confucius gave no distinct utterance to his disciples. He laid stress on duty
and virtue, but said nothing of rewards or penalties in a future life. Edkins.
Religion in China, p. 142.
hi,,, nothing more than an abstract principle, or the moral sense of
humanity (1). .Modern literati are utter atheists and materialists.
They worship, however, culture heroes: the God of Literature,
Wen-ch'ang £ ,", ; Kw'ei-sing ft M> a stellar-god borrowed from
Taoism ; the Red Coat, Chu-i ^ t< I the Golden Armour Worthy,
Kin-hinh ^ tp, and extend their veneration even to the God of
War, Kwan-ti |^j ','i'j (2). Confucius discountenanced all worship of
Cud by the people, hence they are not accustomed to the conception
of a purely immaterial Being (3). Their notions on God are mat-
erialized, and he is confounded with the place where he resides, or
with the material world which he has created. Confucianism, with
its ethical code, has made the cultured man, the citizen, but has
developed little the spiritual element in the minds of the people.
Discarding all relations of man with God, it left the door open for
polytheism and superstition (4).
Taoism and Buddhism then stepped in, and endeavoured to fill
the religious wants which Confucianism failed to supply. Taoism
embodies ancient Nature and Spirit-worship, and honours Immortals,
genii, deified hermits and magicians. It inculcates quiet and rest,
and places contemplation above action (5). Its heaven is situated
amidst the stars, or in the Isles of the Genii, where all enjoy perfect
youth (()). In its later phase, it degenerated into a search for the
herb of immortality, and became a religion of dreamers. On the
other hand, Buddhism offered to the Chinese people its smiling and
merciful divinities (7), who meet their wants both in the present life
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. I. Preface, p. IV.
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 39-88.
(3) No worship of God by the people is permitted. Edkins. Religion in
China, p. 61.
(4) Edkins. Religion in China, p. 93 (Materialistic views of God).
(5) Both in Taoism and Buddhism, contemplation is above action.
Edkins. Religion in China, p. 113.
(0) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. Preface, p. IX.
(7) Buddhist idols have a general expression of thoughtfulness and
benevolence. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 7 and 42.
— Ill —
and the next : the Goddess of Mercy, Kwan-yin f|| ^f ; Amitabha,
who leads to the Western Paradise, the land of supreme bliss for
all Buddhists in China and Japan (1). The generality of the people
thus took refuge in Buddhism and Taoism, which gradually became
the two popular religions of the country.
The Three Religions are based on three different systems of
philosophy (2). At times, the Government patronized all, because
it was thought they agreed. Emperors wrote prefaces to Buddhist
works, helped to edit the Buddhist Canon, and even entered Buddhist
monasteries. K'ang-ksi J|| ]5£ gave a statue of Kwan-yin |f| ^ to
the Buddhist monastery of P'u-t'o Island, P'u-t'o-shan ^ |?g \\] (3),
situated off the coast of Chekiang $f yx ; K'ien-lung jji£ ||| ceded
his ancestral palace at Hangchow ^ ;I'H to Buddhist monks (4) ;
State officials, though professedly Confucian, visit Taoist and Bud-
dhist temples to pray for rain ; Confucianists worship Kwan-yin ||l
-gf, the Buddhist Goddess of Mercy, and though despising Buddhism,
contribute to the building of Buddhist temples (5).
The philosophy of the Three Religions has influenced China's
great writers, and the characteristic national tone of its legends (6).
Between the Three Beligions, bitter hostility reigned at times, but
toleration gradually set in, and nowadays the three exist side by
side, and strange to say, even in the belief of the same individuals (7).
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 89 (Buddhas, Deities and
Worthies of the Buddhist Pantheon).
(2) Three systems of philosophy underlie the three great national
religions of China. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 51.
(3) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 2G1 (Gifts by K'ang-hsi). — Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 202.
(4) Edkins. Religion in China, p. 65 (Idolatry upheld by Authority).
(5) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 2. note 1. — Edkins. Religion
in China, p. 52.
(6) Edkins. Religion in China, p. 65-66.
(7) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 1-2 ; p. 5. note 4. — Edkins.
Religion in China, p. 50. It is quite a common thing in China for the same
person to conform to all the three modes of worship.
— IV —
Confucianism is theoretically the State Religion and controls the
national conscience, but officials worship also in Buddhist and
Taoist temples according to the form of each religion. The mass of
the people believe in all Three Religions, and conform to them,
without caring for the contradiction or inconsistency such a course
involves (1). The Three Religions are thus amalgamated, blended,
dovetailed into each other, and as the Chinese say, practically make
but one religion, San-kiao wei-yih H f ^ -■
/. Principal Triads of the Three Religions.
1°. The Three Sages or Founders of the Three Religions,
San-sheng ^ | (2). The amalgamation of the Three Religions
has existed from the 17"' century down to the present day. A
picture, representing the Three Founders of these religions: Buddha,
Lao-tze and Confucius, constitutes one of the well known Triads of
the country. The central figure in this artistic group is Buddha,
while Lao-tze is on the left, the most honourable place in China,
and Confucius on the right (3). This acknowledges the obvious fact
that of all Three Religions, Buddhism is the most popular, and
reckons the largest number of adherents (4).
A picture, selected by the Author, exhibits in brief a compen-
dium of China's present-day Pantheon. It contains gods, culture
heroes, genii and fabulous beings drawn from each of the Three
Religions, The central figure in the uppermost group is Buddha
seated on a lotus-throne; in the second group, Kwan-yin ||l •gf, the
(1) The Chinaman lacks the critical sense, and neglects to inquire into
evidence of truth ; he is also largely guided by self-interest, and seeks in all
three religions divinities that meet his wants, help him to become rich, or
over from disease. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 59-60. — Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. VI. p. 10. note 1.
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 1-3 (The Three Sages).
(3) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 2. Illustration 1.
(4) According to Whitaker, the number of Buddhists in Asia is reckoned
to be at the present day 138,000,000, of whom the greater part are in China.
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 3. note 2.
— V —
Buddhist Goddess of Mercy, holds the highest place, attended on
both sides by Confucian deities ; the third group is almost exclusively
Taoist, and places in the centre the Ruler of Heaven, T'ien-kwan
3^ f^ ; in the fourth group, the God of War, Kwan-kung || ^,
occupies the centre, while in the fifth or lowest group, the place of
honour is assigned to the God of Wealth, Ts'ai-shen J3J jji^ (1).
This popular picture illustrates vividly the state of religion in
China at the present day. The Three Religions are thoroughly
amalgamated (2), the worshipper seeks what suits his fancy or his
needs in each of them (3), offers incense to the god or goddess of
his choice, and prays to them without inquiring whether they belong
to Buddhism or Taoism.
2°. The Three Pure Ones, San-ts'ing =1 fpf.
This Taoist Triad, imitated from Buddhism, is altogether of
modern invention (4). The Three Pure Ones are not the outcome
of the thinking faculty, nor a truth at which the human mind has
arrived through its natural endeavours. They are merely the mani-
festation of one historical personage, Lao-tze ^ ^, the Founder of
Taoism, and subsequently deified for his intellectual and moral
qualities. The whole Triad is of a misty and extravagant character.
The heavens in which they reside is beyond the North Pole, and
is shared with the hosts of Immortals, genii, mystics, recluses and
magicians, who form the Taoist Pantheon. Confucianists have
frequently attacked this Triad, and begged the rulers to forbid
divine honours being offered to its fictitious personages (5).
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. G. Illustration 2.
(2) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 10. note 1.
(3) The Chinaman's religion is largely guided by self-interest. See
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. Preface, p. IX. Vol. VI. Preface, p. IV. note 1.
(4) Edkins. Religion in China, p. 113 (The Taoist Trinity). — Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 11. note 1.
(5) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 13-14.
— VF
The Three Precious Ones, San-pao ^ Jf.
This is an early Buddhist 'J'riad, admitted by both vehicles,
the Hinayana and the Uahayana, and seems to have been borrowed
from Brahmanism and its Trimurti : Brahma, Vishnu and Siva (1).
Buddhist Triads are numerous, and vary according to countries,
and the endless divisions and schools, which grew up in the midst
of this ever changing religion, from the time of its first appearance
in the valley of the Indus down to the present day. This first
Triad, called the "Three Precious Ones", San-pao = ^, or the
"Three Holies", consists of Guatama Buddha, his Law or Dharma,
and the Monkhood or Sangha. After the death of Buddha, these
three objects were held in honour, but were subsequently personified
and worshipped (2). Later on, the philosophical atheistic Schools
upset the above order, and placed Dharma in the first rank, Buddha
in the second, and derived the Sangha from both (3).
A second Triad, introduced by the Mahay ana Scliool is composed
of Manjusri, Avalokitesvara and Vajrapani (4). Buddhists have
also Triads consisting of a Dhyani-Buddha, a Dhyani-Bodhisattva,
and an earthly Buddha (5). Of all these Triads, the most important
and most generally known is that composed of Amitabha, Avaloki-
tesvara, and the human Buddha Sahyamuni (6).
(1) The idea of the first Buddhist Triad — Buddha, the Law and the
Monastic Order — accepted by the adherents of both vehicles, was probably
derived from the earliest Brahmanical Triad. Monier Williams. Buddhism.
p. 175 and 107. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 17. note 1.
(2) Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 175-176 (Triad of Buddha, the Law
and the ' >rder). — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 16.
(3) Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 151 (Triratna or Ratnatraya).—
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 17.
(4) See on Manjusri. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 19. note 3;
p. 126-128.— Avaldhitesvara. p. 17. note 3; p. 196-200— Vajrapani. p. 130-131.
(5) See on Dhyani-Buddhas and Dhyani-Bodhisattvas. Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. VI. p. 20-21 ; p. 119.
(6) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 21 (The most important
Triad).
— VII —
Towards the close of the sixth century of our era, the Tantra
School of Buddhism, founded by Asangha, a Buddhist monk of
Gandhara, invented other Triads, composed of Nirvana Buddha,
Lochana Buddha, and a Manuchi or human Buddha (1). These
three form the Trikaya, or threefold embodiment of Buddha, a
most abstruse and metaphysical concept quite beyond the grasp of
the common people.
Others, ignoring the philosophical evolution of Buddhism, will
simply tell you that all modern Triads represent the Buddha of the
Past, the Buddha of the Present, and the Buddha of the Future.
The whole system bewilders the reader through its fanciful and
endless complications.
4°. The Three Bulers, San-kwan j= 'g' (2).
This group is chiefly Taoist, though Buddhists refer it to the
three legendary rulers, Yao, Shun and Yu ^§ ^ jj|j. As a Taoist
Triad, its three personages represent the three transcendent Powers:
Heaven, Earth and Water; also three periods of time, and worship-
ped as such on the fifteenth of the 1st, 7th and 10th months respec-
tively (3); in a subsequent phase, they represent three mythical
mortals deified by the Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hvtang 3£ Je- These
grant favours, hear prayers, and are deemed to be all-powerful.
The prayer addressed to the Ruler of Heaven, T'ien-hwan 3R *jjf,
and given here by the Author, will amply bear out the power
attributed to this fanciful Being (4). Buddhist monks have also
elaborated their own system, and set up the three legendary rulers
of China's primitive times, Yao, Shun and Yu jfe ^ ^ (5). As
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 122. — Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese
Dictionary (Trikaya, or Threefold Embodiment of Buddha).
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 22-37.
(3) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 567. note 1 ; p. 595. note 1 ; p. G07.
note 1 .
(4) See prayer addressed to the Ruler of Heaven. Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 30. His palace is in the Polar Star, in the highest heavens.
(5) See the story of these legendary rulers. Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 31-34.
— VIII —
these ancient monarchs are held in high esteem by the Chinese, the
literati approved of the step, and flocked to worship in Buddhist
temples, which thus became renowned in the eyes of all.
//. Gods principally worshipped by the Literati.
In this chapter, the Author describes the gods worshipped by
the Literati. Foremost among these is the God of Literature,
Wen-ch'ang ^C l\ (!)• Summing up the Chinese accounts of this
deilied personage, we find he was originally named Chang-ya ij|| ]£,
lived under the T'ang jjj- dynasty A.U. 620-907, and was probably
a native of Szech'wan Pj )\\. He was a brilliant writer, and this
seems to have determined the literati to choose him for their patron.
In his latter days, he suddenly disappeared, or was killed in
battle (2). The rulers of the T'ang jjj dynasty canonized him,
while those of the Sung ^ and Yuen j£ dynasties bestowed on him
other honorary titles. Taoists have endeavoured to make him a
stellar god (3), placing his palace in the star Dubhe, one of the
pointers indicating Polaris. As a stellar god, he descends to earth,
and becomes incarnate in virtuous and highly gifted men. The
Author describes 13 of these descents, all of which are highly
fanciful, legendary and extravagant (4). The idea seems to have
been borrowed from Buddhism, and advanced in order to give a
divine origin to men famous for their literary ability. Temples to
the God of Literature are found in every prefectural and district city
of China. Official sacrifices are offered to him, and the literati
invoke him begging him grant them the much coveted favour of a
B.A. or M.A. degree (5).
(1) See on the God of Literature, Wen-ch'ang % g|. Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. VI. p. 39-58.
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 41-42. note 3 (Historical
Summary).
(3) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 43. note 1.
(4) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 44-55 (Various descents of Wen-
ch 'an g).
(5) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 57 (Worship of Wen-ch'ang).
— IX —
Beside the God of Literature, we find also Kw'ei-sing ^ Jl,
in the capacity of a deity, who helps and protects literati (1).
According- to a legend, he was a gifted student, but of such repulsive
features that the emperor refused to hand him the golden rose,
reward conferred on successful candidates. Taoists have made him
a stellar god, placing him at first in Andromeda, and later on in
Ursa Major (2). He is generally represented as a person of demon-
like aspect, holding in his right hand an immense pencil, and having
one foot raised, while the other kicks the Dipper (3). When a
youthful student succeeds at an examination, his friends offer him a
picture of Kw'ei-sing ^ ^. The generality of the literati erect
in their homes a similar picture, and beg the god help in raising
the literary standard of the locality.
Amongst the other patrons of the learned class, suffice it to
mention the Red Coat, Cku-i 7^ <fc, a fabulous being of Taoist
origin (4). He is especially the protector of backward students, a
god of good luck, who befriends those poorly equipped for undergoing
the ordeal of the Examination Hall. With the Red Coat is associ-
ated the Golden Armour Worthy, Kin-kiah ^ ^ , a deity that
watches over the interests and honour of the literati. The Taoist
Immortal Lii Tung-pin g -]|p| ^ is likewise a favourite patron
among the literary class (5).
Strange to say, one of the gods most honoured by the literati
is the Chinese God of War, K\van-ti || 'jfi (6), a noted hero of the
period of the Three Kingdoms, San-hwoh = || (A.D. 221-265).
(1) See on Kw'ei-sing $$_ Jl, the Associate God of Literature. Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 59-65.
(2) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 64. note 2.
(3) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. I. Illustration 3 (Inset at the top).—
Vol. 111. Preface, p. I. -Vol. VI. Illustration 10 and 11.
(4) See on the Red Coat, Chu-i ^ 5^. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 66-68.
(5) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. Illustration 231. — Vol. VI. p. 69-70.
(6) See on the God of War, Kwan-ti M\ *&■ Chinese Superstitions. Vol.
VI. p. 71-88.
II
— X —
In early years he joined Liu-pei flj f/,j' and Chang-fei jjf fj§, and
forming with them a trio of brothers-in-arms, fought against the
Yellow Turban Insurgents, Ihvang-hin-tseh H \\] $#, and the
usurper Ts'ao-ts'ao || ^. After performing various heroic deeds,
he fell at last into the hands of Suen-h'uen jfe if% A.D. 220, and
was put to death by this traitrous General (1). The process of his
deification is of singular interest for the student of Comparative
Religion. Renowned during his life as a man of daring, courage
and fidelity, honorary titles were lavished upon him after death,
while his glorious deeds were extolled in romance, legend and
popular tales. Hero-worship was thus developed, and led by slow
but unfailing steps to finally raising him to the rank of a god.
This took place under Wan-lih ^ Iff , A.D. 1594, of the Ming 0J§
dynasty (2). Since that date, he has received regular official
worship as the military god of China, Wu-ti jj^ fr?- The late
Manchus were devout worshippers of this god, and bestowed on him
the title of Great Teacher, Kwan Fu-tze §§ -^ ^, thus making him
the equal of Confucius (3). The reason why he is honoured by the
literati is founded on the legend that he could repeat Tso's Com-
mentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals, Ch'un-ts'iu tso-chwen
^f %'K £. rV» from beginning to end (4). In the picture here
annexed (Illustration n° 14), he is represented holding in his right
hand the "Spring and Autumn Classic", while his adopted son
Kwan-p'ing || 2p. attends beside him, and offers an academic
head-dress to would-be-candidates. The literati have published
various works for the purpose of extolling this god, and exhorting
(1) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 76. note 2; p. 77. note 1.
(2) See Process of Deification of this god fully described. Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 78-80.
(3) Kwan Fu-tze M £; -?•, Kwan, the (military) Sage. This title was
given to him in 1856, because of his assistance in subduing the T'ai-p'ing
rebellion. Chinese Recorder. 1913. p. 483 (The God of War). — Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 83.
(4) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 81 (Why honoured by the liter-
ati).
— XI —
folks to seek his powerful protection in the practice of filial piety,
and the five civic relations, Wu-lun 3£ jfc (1).
The God of War is also popular among merchants, especially
in Southern China (2). This peculiarity has tended to metamorphose
him into the God of Riches (See Illustration n° 15).
At the present day, Kwan-ti f|| ^ has his temple in every
prefectural and district city of the country, and official sacrifices are
offered to him on the 15th of the second month, and the 13th of the
fifth. For the attendants of the god, the reader is referred to the
body of the volume p. 85-88.
77/. Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Deities and Worthies
of the Buddhist Pantheon.
To appreciate Buddhism, a full grasp of origins and evolution
is absolutely necessary (3). Buddha means the "Enlightened", the
"Wise''. He was the self-elevated man, perfect in knowledge,
exerting self-restraint and mortification of the body, and thereby
reaching holiness. Buddhism, being an offshoot of Brahmanism,
embodied from the parent stock various forms of Hindu thought,
mythology, folklore and legends. It admitted also into its Pantheon
(1) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 84 (Exhortations of Kwan-ti;
favours obtained through his protection).
(2) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 85. note 1. — Chinese Recorder,
1913. p. 484 (The God of War).
(3) Buddhism is a subject which presents to the student a boundless field
of investigation. No one can bring a proper capacity of mind to such a study,
much less write about it clearly, who has not studied the original documents
in Pali, Sanscrit and Tibetan, and pondered long on the philosophy of
Brahmanism and Hinduism. Many lecturers, essayists, and authors of
magazine articles too often propagate crude and erroneous conceptions on a
subject, the depths of which they have never thoroughly fathomed. Monier
Williams. Buddhism, p. 12-13. — Geden. Studies in the Beligions of the East.
p. 498, 510 (Buddhism. History and Developments).
— XII —
Hindu gods and goddesses, demons and fabulous beings (1). All
the gods described by the Author in this special chapter are of
Hindu origin, but have been adapted to the national and social
requirements of the Chinese people.
Buddhism officially entered China A.D. 67, direct from India.
During several centuries it struggled for existence and influence,
emperors and oflicials treating it with alternate patronage and
persecution (2). Chinese Buddhism has been principally determined
by the Mahayana School (3). The Hinayana, or earlier phase of
Buddhism, discarding every idea of a Supreme and Primary Cause,
endeavoured to reach salvation through one's own efforts, without
external or supernatural assistance ; in other words through good
works and the performance of moral duties. This salvation it
confined to the few, the elect only, hence it was called the '■ 'Small
Vehicle" (4). The Maliayana, on the other hand, exhibited a marked
tendency to metaphysical speculations and abstractions. It deified
Buddha and his attributes, introduced the worship of numerous
Bodhisattvas (5), and through the efficacy of faith in these fictitious
beings extended salvation to the entire universe. Hence it was
(4) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 89.— Monier "Williams. Buddhism,
p. 221 (How Buddhism grew out of Brahmanism).
(2) Edkins. Religion in China, p. 7. — Geden. Studies in the Religions
of the East. p. 501 and 567 (Buddhism).— Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 100.
(3) Geden. Studies in the Religions of the East. p. 508 (Buddhism in
China).
(4) Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 10. — Monier "Williams. Bud-
dhism, p. 159, 188. — Geden. Studies in the Religions of the East. p. 538, 541
(Doctrines of the Schools). — Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 40-81 (Early Bud-
dhism and its philosophy).
(5) Bodhisattvas. Manifestations, emanations of the universal essence of
Buddha; personifications of certain attributes: light, wisdom, power, mercy.
They forego Buddhaship in order to help and save mortals, and are relied
on for practical salvation. P'u-sah # j$? is the short form of the word in
Chinese. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 195. — Edkins. Religion in China,
p. 98.
— XIII —
called the "Great Vehicle" (1). The saving and redeeming power
of the Bodhisattvas is the great keynote of the School (2). Through
these it made the way of salvation easier for all. The conception of
Nirvana, too abstract to commend itself to popular belief, fell
gradually into the background (3\ and was replaced by the Western
Paradise, Si-t'ien ]ft[ ^, the blissful land to which all Buddhists in
China and Japan aspire nowadays.
At the close of the 5th century, the Mahayana School became
mystic through the introduction of the Yoga system. Yoga was a
method of obtaining mystic union with a universal, impersonal
Spirit in imitation of Brahmanism (4). In the 10th century, this
pantheistic essence became a kind of Primordial Buddha, Adi-Buddha,
and was held to be the source and origin of all things (5), and the
evolver of the Dhyani-Buddh as, or Buddhas of Contemplation, while
these again were deemed to evolve their corresponding Dhyani-
Bodhisattvas. The Mahayana is thus a medley of philosophical
abstractions; of theistic, polytheistic, pantheistic notions, and extrav-
agant mysticism. Its gods are thoroughly fictitious, and have no
reality beyond the riotous fancy of the Buddhist brain (6).
Among the gods worshipped by Chinese Buddhism, the Author
(1) Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 12 and 137. - Geden. Studies
in the Religions of the East. p. 539. — Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 160. —
Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 5G-G5 (Ideals of Hinaj'ana and Mahayana).
(2) Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 138— Johnston. Buddhist China,
p. G7 (Bodhisattship).
(3) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 38. — Geden. Studies in
the Religions of the East. p. 535 (Nirvana). — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. ill.
(4) See the Yoga School described. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 131-132.
(5) Not in the Christian sense of Creator, for Northern and Southern
Buddhism hold that the world is eternal, and that its only Creator is the force
of its own acts (Karma). Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 205.
(6) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 107. — Edkins. Religion in
China, p. 59. — Monier Williams. Buddhism .p. 221.
— XIV —
mentions Dipamkara or the Light-bearer (1); the 24 Mythical Buddhas
who preceded Guatama ; Maitreya, the Future Buddha ; Amitabha,
Buddha of Boundless Light ; Baishagyaguru, the Healing Buddha ;
Mahastama Buddha ; Vairocana, Buddha Supreme and Eternal ;
M&njusri, Buddha of Transcendent Wisdom ; Samantabhadra, Bud-
dha of Religious Ecstasy ; Vajrapani, the Thunderbolt-handed ; and
Aialokitesvara, or the Chinese Goddess of Mercy, Kwan-yin || -^f\
In a preface, we can deal only with the most important of these
numerous gods, referring the reader to the present work for full
details on the others.
1°. The 24 Mythical Buddhas, who appeared before Guatama (2).
The names of these, both in Sanscrit and Chinese, may be
found on p. 99-100. All belonged to the caste of warriors and
kings, with the exception of the three last, who were Brahmans.
Among them, Dipamkara or the Light-bearer, Jan-teng-fuh %fc j)g ff,
is described in full (p. 89-98). Taoists have endeavoured to make
him one of their hermits, and even suggested that Buddhism was
an offshoot of Taoism.
2°. Maitreya, the Future Buddha, or Buddha Elect, Mi-leh-
m m m #> (3).
Sakyamuni is said to have met this Buddha in the Tuchita
heavens, and appointed him his successor, to appear after the lapse
of 5000 years. The world shall then have become so corrupt that
the Buddhist law will be no longer obeyed, nor even remembered.
Maitreya is, therefore, the expected Messiah of Buddhists. Residing
(1) Dipamkara. See this god described; various opinions on his origin.
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 89-98.
Hardy. Manual of Buddhism. P. 94 (The Buddhas, who preceded
Guatama). - Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 345. - Monier Williams.
Buddhism, p. 136. Guatama is said to have met several of them during his
previous births.
(3) Maitrexja. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 103-105. - Getty. The
Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 20. - Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 240. -
Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 355.
— XV —
in the Tuchita heavens, he already watches over and controls the
interests of Buddhism (1).
In pictures, he is represented as a fat, laughing figure, cowering
on the ground, with feet pendent, long-flowing locks, and a smiling
face. The lobes of the ears reach the shoulders, and the upper
abdomen is well exposed to view, all of which characteristics impart
to him a special aspect among the Buddhas (2).
3°. Amitabha, Buddha of Boundless Light ; also the Buddha
of Endless Life and Unbounded Compassion, O-mi-t'o-fuh |5pT "Iff! $fc
ft (3).
This god is known only in Northern Buddhism. His name
does not appear in the canons of the Hinayana School, and his
worship is unknown in Ceylon, Burma and Siam. Originally
conceived of as impersonal, he lost early his ideal character, and was
worshipped as a personal god. He is to-day held to be the ruler of
the Western Paradise, a substitute for Nirvana, which never appealed
to the Chinese people. The Amidist School teaches that this blissful
land may be reached through the mere invocation of Amitabha's
name. It is to this place of splendour, beauty and pleasure, that
the greater part of modern Buddhists aspire. Amitabha is attended
in the Western Paradise by the two Bodhisattvas Avalokitesvara,
the Chinese Goddess of Mercy, Kwan-yin f| ^, and Mahastama,
the emblem of might and power. Both act as guides and protectors
(1) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 103.— Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 20-22 (Maitreya, the Future Buddha).
(2) See description of him made by one of the Immortals to another,
while both assisted at a banquet given in honour of all the Gods. Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 104. — Hackmann. Buddhism as a Religion, p. 210.
(3) Amitabha, Buddha of Boundless Light. At first ideal, he became
later on a personal god, and is to-day highly popular among the Chinese. See
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 106-114. — Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Diction-
ary, p. 6. — Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 204 — Waddell. The Buddhism
of Tibet, p. 127.
— XVI —
of men in their perilous journey over the ocean of life and death (1).
V. Vairocana, Buddha Supreme and Eternal, the Primordial
Buddha, P'i-lu-fuh It )M ff, (2).
This fictitious Buddha is the outcome of Buddhist mysticism
and contemplation (3). Originally worshipped as the first of the
Dhyani-Buddhas, with Samantabhadr'a as his Dhyani-Bodhisaitva,
he was later on confounded with Adi-Buddha, the Primordial Bud-
dha, a kind of pantheistic essence, source and origin of all things,
omnipresent, and manifesting itself in various forms of existence.
He also symbolises Guatama considered as having entered Nirvana ;
in other words, he is the "Nirvana Buddha". In pictures of him
he is represented sitting on a lotus-throne, the hands joined in
mystic pose of deepest meditation. He has the Urna, or sign of
foreknowledge on the forehead, and the lobes of the ears are
enormously long, denoting thereby his Indian origin.
5°. Manjusri, Buddha of Transcendent Wisdom, Wen-shu
£ % (4).
This Buddhist Apollo symbolises deified Wisdom. Born of a
ray that issued from Guatama's forehead, he is thus without father
or mother, free from the pollution of the common world. As God
of Wisdom, his duty is to preside over the Law, and solve all knotty
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 113. — Johnston. Buddhist
China, p. 100.
(2) Vairocana, P'i-lu-fuh Wc fit $». Originally worshipped as the first
of the five Dhyani-Buddhas, with Samantabhadra as his Dhyani-Bodhisattva,
and later on as Adi-Buddha (the Primordial Buddha), and "Nirvana Buddha".
Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 29. - Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese
Dictionary, p. IGO.-Beal. A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese,
p. 124. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 119-123.
(3) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 120 and 129. — Waddell. The
Buddhism of Tibet, p. 347.
(4) Manjusri. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 19. note 3 ; p. 126-
128. — Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 97. - Monier Williams.
Buddhism, p. 201. -Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 355.
— XVII —
questions thereon. In pictures of him, he is represented with a
sword and book, the Praja-paramita, or Book of Transcendent
Wisdom, and seated on a lion. He is chiefly worshipped at Wu-
t'ai-shan Jl -jf |!j, in Shansi [1| ^f, but other places have also
their own special Manjusri (1).
#
6°. Samantabhadra, Buddha of Religious Ecstasy, P'u-hsien
if (2).
This fabulous Bodhisattva was invented by the Tantra School,
which claims him as the founder of the system, and hence he is
generally considered as the God of Religious Ecstasy. He is
represented seated on an elephant, and holding in his hand a scroll.
He is found in Triads with Guatama and Manjusri, and also with
Avalokitesvara and the same God of Wisdom. The principal seat
of his worship is at O-mei-sluin ||g| J| |Jj, in Szech'wan |Jt| Jl|-
Many Dharanis (charms and mystic formulas possessing magic
power) are ascribed to him (3).
As a sequel to these mystic deities of Buddhism, an Appendix
is added on the Yoga and Tantra Schools, which arose in the 5th and
6th centuries of the Christian era. Yoga is a pantheistic phase of
Buddhism, and aims at mystic union of the individual with the
universal, impersonal Spirit, the Great Soul of the Universe (4).
The Tantra School, influenced by Sivaism, developed demoniacal
Buddhas, and gave wild and monstrous forms to the gods. Tantra
divinities often have several heads, and always more that two
(1) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 127-128.— Waddell. The Buddhism
of Tibet, p. 356. -Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 97.
(2) Samnntdbhadra, -P'u-hsien ^ §£. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 128-130. — Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 139. — Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese
Dictionary, p. 116. — Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 358.
(3) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 129. — Edkins. Chinese Buddhism,
p. 139.
(4) The Yoga School. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 131-132.—
Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 174. — Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 29. -Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 13 and 138.
Ill
— XVIII —
arms (I). It is to this phase of Buddhism that we owe the present-
day organized worship, litanies, processions, and pompous ritual,
which may be observed in large temples on special occasions.
Without doubt, much has been borrowed from Christianity (2). In
Central Asia, and probably in Northern India, in Tibet and China,
Buddhism in its Mahayana form was in close contact with forms of
Christian teaching and practice, chiefly Nestorian, during the early
centuries of our era, hence the Christian religion must have exerted
marked influence on the evolution of the new school.
7°. Avalokitesvara, or the Chinese Goddess of Mercy, Kwan-
The story of this wonderful goddess, the most popular deity of
Northern Buddhism, occupies 100 pages of the present volume (p.
134-234). Europeans, as well as most Chinese scholars, look upon
Kwan-yin m ^ as a manifestation of Avalokitesvara (3). Originally
an Indo-Tibetan divinity, introduced into China about the 5th century
of our era, she was represented at first with male attributes, but
later on in female form. The change of sex has given rise to endless
controversy, and various solutions of the problem have been proposed.
One of the causes, which contributed much to establish the belief
that Kwan-yin ||J| -^ was a female, is the romantic legend of the
Chinese princess Miao-shen ££ 3|. The story is given in full by
(1) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 132-133.— Waddell. The Buddhism
of Tibet, p. 14 and 129 (Tantric Buddhism). — Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 176.
(2) Geden. Studies in the Religions of the East. Buddhism, p. 545
(Christian influence and the Mahayana School). — Later Buddhist literature
seems to have been affected by intercourse with Syria, and perhaps Samaria.
Beal. Four Lectures on Buddhist Literature in China, p. XIV-XV (Introduc-
tion).
(3) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 200. note 4. -Getty. The Gods of
Northern Buddhism, p. 78. — Hackmann Buddhism as a Religion, p. 76 and
210. — Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 489. - Johnston. Buddhist China,
p. 190 and 267,
— XIX —
the Author (p. 134-196), and deserves to be read, as it contains the
fundamental doctrines and practices of Buddhism : metempsychosis,
the doctrine of merit and demerit, fatalism, abstinence from animal
food, filial piety and the extremes to which it is carried, Hades, the
Western Paradise, Nirvana, and finally the apotheosis of Buddha,
who is called the "Great Buler of the Universe". Written in A.D.
1102, by the monk Peu~ming (1), the legend is a religious fairy
tale, based on Buddhist ideas and Taoist lore. The princess is said
to have lived B.C. 2587, or according to others B.C. 696. Her
father was an unbeliever. She refused to marry, and preferred to
lead a life of seclusion, and thus reach Buddhahood. At the age of
nineteen, she enters a monastery, and performs there the most
menial services, helped in her work by heavenly spirits (2). Her
father, excited with anger, orders to burn down the convent, but a
miraculous rainfall extinguishes the fire. Hereupon he has her
arrested, and orders her to be beheaded, but the blade breaks to pieces
and she is at last strangled (3). A tiger bears her body to the dark
forest, while her soul goes to Hades (4). Yama orders her to be
sent back to life. Amitablia appears to her, and bids her retire to
P'u-t'o Island, P'u-t'o-shan *£. [?g jjj , off the coast of Chekiang $f
£t- Here, she lives for nine years, but hearing that her father was
ill, she cuts off her two arms, and making them into a medicine,
(1) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 134. note 2. — Johnston. Buddhist
China, p. 280-281. This monk was a mystic. When he had completed the
legend and laid down his pen, he was rewarded by a glorious vision of Kwan-
yin. She appeared like a floating cloud, her figure clad in rainbow-tinted
vesture, and in her hands she bore her well-known emblems — the drooping
willow and the vase of heavenly dew.
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 153 and 155. Some bring her
firewood, others fruit. The monastery bell tolls of itself, as if struck by some
invisible hand.
(3) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 160. Another legend states she
was beheaded.
(4) See description of the Buddhist Hades (A dreary, dismal realm).
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 160.
— XX —
restores him to health (1). This converts him to Buddhism. To
show his gratitude, he had a statue erected in her honour "with
arms and eyes complete", but the sculptor mistook the order for
"with one thousand arms and eyes". Finally, the whole family
was converted to Buddhism, and canonized by the Pearly Emperor,
Yuh'hwang 3£ jf|, the supreme Taoist god (2). The writer of the
legend borrows unscrupulously from the two religions. The purpose
of the story was to give to Kwan-yin ||l ^ a Chinese origin, but
in this it failed, and it is not proved that the Goddess of Mercy is a
development of Miao-shen typ ^j| , though some features of the legend
have been later on applied to her (3).
Having exposed briefly the legend of Miao-shen $p ^|, and its
purpose, it remains to show how the present-day Kwan-yin $j| -g-
has been historically evolved from the Hindu god Avalokitesvara (4).
This deity personifies "Mercy", and means the "Lord that looks
down from on high, he who has pity on all beings, the All-pitying,
the Lord of Mercy and Compassion". Edkins holds he is a form of
Buddha (Guatama), coming into this world in a lower position, that
is as a Bodhisattva, in order more effectively to instruct and save
the ignorant (5). According to the Maliayana School, he is the
spiritual son of Amitabha (6), and the 4th Dhyani-Bodhisattva in
the well-known group of five, while he is the first in the group of
eight. His name is found for the first time in a Sutra contemporary
with the Christian era. As the "Lord of Mercy", he hears the
prayers of mortals, delivers from all kinds of suffering and distress,
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 170-181.
(2) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 195. We have here a Buddhist
saint canonized by the supreme Taoist god.
(3) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 134. note 2; p. 204 and 216. —
Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. G9.
(4) See on Avalokitesvara. the Looking-down Lord. Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. VI. p. 196-200.
(5) Kdkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 384. -Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 197. note 4.
(6-) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 196. - Monier Williams. Bud-
dhism, p. 487.— Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 54.
— XXI —
and leads souls to the blissful regions of Amitabha's paradise.
Introduced into Tibet about A.D. 640, he is there known under the
name of Padmapani, or the Lotus- bearer (1). The Tanlva School
gave as Sakti or consort to Padmapani the Green Tara.
The Mahayana School entered China about the Vth century of
the Christian era, and probably introduced Avalokitesvara into the
country about the same time. Kumerajiva, translating the above
Hindu name, rendered it into Chinese by the expression Kwan-shi-
yin H| ^th -pf, meaning "One who hears the sounds or prayers of
the world1", which down to the present day has been applied to the
Goddess of Mercy (2). Represented at first with male attributes,
the female form appeared about the 7th or 8th century (3), and
became almost general from the 12th. The transformation seems to
have been chiefly brought about through the legend of Miao-shen
typ ^!|, and popular lore and taste conceiving the quality of Mercy as
feminine rather than masculine. For other influences," the reader
is referred to the present volume p. 202-203.
In Northern Buddhism, no divinity holds so large a place in
popular worship as Kwari-yin ||| ^ (4). It may even be said that
she has eclipsed Buddha himself, and the other great Bodhisattvas.
This is principally due to the mysterious and merciful functions
which she fulfils in the Buddhist world. Associated with Amitabha
and the Western Paradise, Saviour and Deliverer, a sea-goddess, a
bestower of children male and female, she is also the idealization of
(1) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 199. -Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 58 (Padmapani, the Lotus-bearer).
(2) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 201.— Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 68. Despite all efforts, the Indian Buddhist monks were unable
to impose the Sanscrit name of the god on the Chinese.
(3) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 201-202. — Fenellosa. Epochs of
Chinese and Japanese Art. p. 96
(4) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 205 and 231. — Eitel. Three
Lectures on Buddhism, p. 125 (Kwan-yin). — Hackmann. Buddhism as a
Religion, p, 76.— Getty. The Gods of Northern Bnddhism. p. 54— Johnston.
Buddhist China, p. 101, 104.
— XXII —
all that is graceful, gentle and compassionate in woman in China
and Japan (1).
Chinese pictorial art has lavished upon Kwan-yin $| ^ its
best inspiration, and depicted her in her various functions, especially
as "Captain of the Bark of Salvation", sea-goddess and a giver of
children. The present volume mentions numerous representations
of the goddess from the earliest times down to the present day, and
the reader is referred thereto, p. 217-228. The "thousand-armed
Kwan-yin" is described p. 226, while the various explanations of
this monstrous symbolism are set forth p. 226-227. In all early
forms of Kwan-yin, the features are Indian, with long-lobed ears,
and the feet either pendent or crossed in Hindu fashion. Later on,
the features became more and more Chinese, influenced by the
Legend of Miao-shen ty 3|, and the tendency to give her a native
origin and form. Kwan-yin with a child in her arm or on the knee
seems to be a form of Hariti (2), a Hindu goddess, protectress of
children. The group does not represent in the least maternal
affection. The child is stiffly held by the goddess, and is purely
symbolical (3). A new illustration has been added to this English
edition. It is taken from "Kircher's China Illustrata", published
at Amsterdam, A.D. 1667, and represents the goddess with
18 arms. She is seated on a lotus-throne, and seems to rise out
of the sea.
The volume winds up with a full description of the emblems
and symbols connected with the legendary life, power and worship
of Kwan-yin (4). The chief seat of Kwan-yin's worship in China is
(1) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 207. -Johnston. Buddhist China,
p. 274. — Hackmann. Buddhism as a Religion, p. 211.
(2) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 203. note 4. - Bulletin de l'Ecole
Francaise d'Extreme-Orient. Vol. XVII. n° 3, par Noel Pen. Hanoi, 1917. -
Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 75 (Hariti).
(3) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 222. note 1. -Getty. The Gods of
Northern Buddhism, p. 71.
(4) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 228-231 (Emblems and Symbols
of Kwan-yin).
— XXIII —
found in P'u-t'o Island, P'u-t'o-shan $k pg Jj. Here, her image
occupies the place of honour in all the temples of the island. The
principal pilgrimage takes place on the 19th of the second month,
birthday of the goddess. It is celebrated with stately services, and
attended by thousands, some of whom come from the remotest
provinces of China (1).
Buddhism has had its glories in the past, but at the present
day it is decadent. No propaganda of importance is carried on,
nor does it appear likely to spread, or exert any beyond a local or
transient influence over the future of the Chinese people. A revived
interest has been apparent of late, but this is largely literary, and
suggested by European activity in the Far East. Buddhism has
been labouring in China for well nigh 1900 years, but human in its
origin and efficacy, it has not saved the country from ignorance,
misery or sin, despite the compassion of its numerous Bodhisattvas.
It has thus proved a failure, and the people still stand in need of a
Divine Redemption by a Divine Redeemer.
M. Kennelly, S.J.
Sicawei College, Shanghai.
July 31, 1920.
(1) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 232. — Johnston. Buddhist China.
Ch. XI. p. 259-311 (Puto-shan and Kwan-yin Pusa).
— XXIV —
LIST OF FOREIGN WORKS
CONSULTED FOR THIS SIXTH VOLUME.
Rudiments du Parler Chinois. L. Wieger, S.J.
Textes Historiques. Id.
Folk-Lore Chinois Moderne. . Id.
llistoire des Croyances Religieuses en Chine (1917). Id.
Bouddhisme Chinois (2 Vol.). Id.
Synchronismes Chinois. M. Chang, S.J.
The Folk-Lore of China. N. B. Dennys.
Chinese Folk-Lore. J. Mc Gowan.
China and Religion. E H. Parker.
Studies in Chinese Religion. Id.
Chinese Buddhism. J. Edkins.
Religion in China. Id.
Buddhism in China. S. Beat.
A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese. Id.
Four Lectures on Buddhist Literature in China. Id.
Hand-Book of Chinese Buddhism. E. J. Eitel.
Buddhism: Its Historical and Popular Aspects, in
Three Lectures. I'1-
Buddhism. Monier Williams.
Buddhism as a Religion. H. Hackmann.
Buddhist China. R.F. Johnston.
The Gods ol Northern Buddhism. A. Getty.
Buddhism. Rhys Davids.
Manual of Buddhism. Hardy.
Life of the Buddha (from the Tibetan). Rockhill.
The Buddhism of Tibet. Waddell.
Fa-hsien's Records of Buddhistic Kingdoms. Legge.
I-tsing's Records of Buddhist Kingdoms. Tahakusa.
Studies in the Religions of the East (Buddhism). Geden.
Saddharma-pundarika, or Lotus of the True Law. Kern.
Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art. Fenellosa.
Buddhist Art in India. Griinwedel and Burgess.
— XXV —
Bulletin de l'Ecole Franchise d'Extreme-Orient.
Noel Peri.
Timothy. Richard.
J. Dooliltle.
Vol. XVII. Q° 3 (Hariti). Hanoi, 1917.
Calendar of the Gods in China.
Social Life of the Chinese (2 Vol.).
Chinese Repository (Canton. XX Vol.).
The Chinese Recorder (Shanghai).
The China Review (Hongkong).
The Religious System of China (VI Vol.).
The Li Ki or Book of Rites.
The Shu King or Book of Records.
Annals of the Bamboo Books.
The Shi King or Book of Poetry.
The Yih King or Book of Changes.
Memoires concernant les Chinois (XVI Vol.). Jesuit Missionaries in
Peking.
Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses (Vol. IX-XII on China). Jesuit
Missionaries in China.
Lettres de Jersey (1880-1920). Shanghai Jesuit Mission.
J. de Groot.
J. Legge.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Le T'ai-chan.
Chinese Reader's Manual.
Notes on Chinese Literature (New Edition).
Syllabic Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
Chinese-English Dictionary.
Chinese Biographical Dictionary.
Encyclopaedia Sinica (Shanghai, 1917).
La Cite Antique.
The Religions of the Ancient World.
Magie et Magisme (Bruxelles, 1913).
La Religion des Primitifs (Paris, 1909).
The Golden Bough (2 Vol. London, 1914).
Magic and Religion (London, 1901).
Myth, Ritual and Religion (2 Vol. 1906).
The Making of Religion (1909).
Custom and Myth (1910).
From Spell to Prayer (London, 1904).
De Civitate Dei (Book XIX).
E. Chavannes.
W. F. Mayers.
A. Wylie.
Williams.
II. A. Giles.
Id.
S. Couling.
Fustel de Coulanges.
G. Rawlinson.
Fred. Bouvier, S.J.
Le Roy.
J. G. Frazer.
A. Lang.
LI.
Id.
Id.
A. R. Mmelt.
Sl Augustine.
IV
__XXVI —
Chinese Philosophy and Magic (London, 1911). //. Challey.
The Coming Science. //. Carrington.
Introduction to the Study of Comparative Religion. F . 13. Jevons.
Jade (A study in Chinese archaeology and religion). B. Laufer.
Classical Dictionary. J. Lempriere.
Smaller Classical Dictionary of Biography and
.Mythology. w. Smith.
«§«--
— XXVII —
CONTENTS.
SECOND PART — VOLUME VI.
Page.
Preface I-XXI1I
List of Foreign Works consulted for this Sixth Volume XXIV- XXVI
Contents XXVII-XXXI
List of Illustrations XXXII-XXXIV
CHAPTER I.
The Principal Triads.
Article I. The Three Sages, or Holy Ones
Sa7i-sl>eng jj£ ]|i 1-10
Article II. The Three Pure Ones
San-ts'ing j£ ^ 11-14
Article III. Buddhist Triads
The Three Great Buddhas, or Precious Ones
San-tsun ta-fuh £ ^ ^ f| 15-21
Article IV. The Three Rulers
San-kwan = *f? 22-34
Appendix. The Three Genii of the Wu State
Wu-k'oh San-chen-hun ^|^||- 3^-37
CHAPTER II.
Gods Principally Worshipped by the Literati.
Article I. The ft oil of Literature
Wen-ch'ang ;£ || 39-57
Appendix. Wen-ch'ang's attendants 57-58
Article II. The Associate God of Literature
Kw'ei-sing J|£ Jl 59-G5
XXVIII —
Article III. The lied Coat and the Golden Armour Worthy
1". The Red Coat, Chu-i %z ^
2°. The Golden Armour Worthy, Kin-kiah ^ ^ ...
The Patriarch Lii, LiX-tsu g jjjj., another favourite
patron of the Literati
Article IV. The God of War
Kwan-ti ff|] ^
Process of deification
Present-day worship
Honoured by the Literati
Various names given to Kwan-yiX §|j ffl
Attendants of the God of War
1°. Liao-hwa J|| f£
2°. Chow-ts'ang )% fe
3°. Kwan-p'ing || 2JS.
4°. Chao-lei £g ^
5°. Wang-/u 3E it
6°. Kwan-hsing
Hi
Page.
66-68
69-70
70
71-78
78-80
80-81
81-82
82-85
85-86
86
87
87
87
88 ■
CHAPTER III.
Ruddhas, Iiodhisaltvas," Deities
and Worthies of* the Dtiddhist Pantheon.
Article I. Dipamkara, or the Light-bearer
Jan-teng-fuh jjg jg {ft " ...
1°. First opinion on his origin — A mendicant woman
2°. Second opinion — Dipamkara, teacher of Sakyamuni
in a previous kalpa
3°. Third opinion — A Taoist hermit, called Kin She7i-
t™ & tjf ^
Ti-tsang-wang jfc ^ 3£, an avatar of Kin Shen-
tze 4* digs ^
•Various names of Kin Shen-tze <§> dj|| ^f-
Origin of monasteries dedicated to the "Thousand
Buddhas", Ts'ien-fuh-sze =f- {ft =^
89-90
90-91
91-92
93-94
94-97
97-98
98-99
— XXIX —
Page.
Appendix. The 24 Mythical Buddhas, who appeared
before Sakyamuni ... 99-100
The "Seven Tathagatas'', Ts'ih Jii-lai
-fc in * 101
24 other ancient Buddhas, honoured by
Chinese Buddhists 101-102
Article II. Maitreya, the Future Buddha
Mi-leh-fuh iH 103-105
Article III. Amitabha, Buddha of Boundless Light
O-mi-t'o-fuh JSpJ % |?£ fj
1°. Amitabha 106-109
2°. Introduction of Amidism into China 109
3°. Divers names given to Amitabha ... 110
4°. Images of Amitabha 110-111
5°. The Sukhavati, or Western Paradise, Si-l'ien
|**J ,7> *•• ••• ••• ••• ••■ ••• •*• •■• i i 1 ■ i J o
6°. Efficacy of the name of Amitabha 113-114
Article IV. The Healing Buddha
Baishajyaguru, 'Yoh-shi-fuh ||| gjjj {$ 115-116
Article V. Mahastama Buddha
Ta-shi-chi ^ ^ M 117-118
Article VI. Vairocaiia, Buddha Supreme and Eternal
P'i-lu-fuh Kit M. H 119-123
Article VII. The Twelve Divine Buddhist Teachers
Shih-eul ta-t'ien-shi -f- ~ ^ ~H UljJ 124-125
Manjusri, Buddha of Transcendent Wisdom
Wen-shu ■% % 126-128
Samantabhadra, Buddha of Universal Kindness
P'u-hsien &■ |f 128-130
Vajrapani, the Thunderbolt-handed
Sze-kin-kang B & W\ 130-131
Appendix. Yoga and Tantra Schools.
1°. The Yoga School 131-132
2°. The Tantra School 132-133
Article VIII. Avalokitesvara, the Goddess of Mercy
Kwan-shi-yin |j| ^U; ^.
— XXX —
Page.
Part I. The Legend of Miuo-shen ty; ||, the fabul-
ous Chinese princess 134-196
Part II. Avalokitesvara, the Looking-down Lord 196-200
Part III. The Goddess of Mercy
Kwan-shi-yin J& -JU: ^ 200-209
1°. Opinions of Chinese Writers on the origin
and sex of Kwan-yin
A). Arguments attributing to her the mas-
culine sex ; 209-212
B). Arguments attributing to her the femi-
nine sex 212
2°. When was Kwan-yin first represented in
female form? 212-215
3°. Was there a Goddess of Mercy worshipped in
China before the introduction of Kwan-yin? 215-217
4°. Various representations of Kwan-yin in female
form
A). From the 5th down to the 10,h century 217
1°. Kwan-yin with 36 arms 218
2°. Kwan-yin with floating hair ... 218
3°. The long-girdled Kwan-yin ... 218-219
4°. Kwan-yin recumbent 219
B). From the 10,h century to the present day
1°. Kwan-yin in non-Tantra form ... 220-221
2°. Kwan-yin seated on a Lion ... 221
3°. Kwan-yin giver of children ... 221-222
4°. Kwan-yin with the fly-flap .. 222
5°. Kwan-yin crossing the sea ... 222
6°. Kwan-yin of the eight sufferings 223
7°. Kwan-yin with the fish-basket ... 223
8°. Kwan-yin saving wandering souls 223
9°. Kwan-yin in the bamboo grove 223
10°. The P'u-t'o Kwan-yin 224
11°. The White-robed Kwan-yin ... 225
.12°. The Thousand-armed Kwan-yin 226-227
5°. Emblems and symbols of Kwan-yin
1°
2°
3°
4°
5°
6°
7°
8°
— XXXI —
The two acolytes
The willow-branch
The ambrosia vase
The roll of prayers ill the hand
The luminous pearl
The parrot or white cockatoo
The necklace or rosary
The golden-fur tiger
6°. Worship and festivals of Kwan-yin
Page.
228
228
229
229
230
230
230
231
231-233
-*«•
— XXXII —
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11
12
15
16
Page.
(literally Holy Ones) 2
Buddha, Lao-tze and Confucius
The Three Sages, San-sheng = j
The Olympus of Modern China
Or 5 groups, exhibiting the most popular gods worship-
ped by the Chinese people at the present day
The Taoist Triad, or Three Pure Ones, San-is'ing = ffi
The Buddhist Triad (In temple at Golden Island)
Manjusri (to left), Avalokitesvara (Centre), and Saman-
tabhadra (to right)
The Three Rulers, or Transcendent Powers (Taoist)
The Three Principles, or Epochs (Taoist)
Tablet of Wen-ch'ang % f§, the God of Literature
Chu-i Jfc #, Wen-ch'ang % H', and Kw'ei-sing fjfc j|
Artistic character representing Kw'ei-sing ^ j§.
The Four Gods of Literature : Wen-ch'ang ^r ||, Kwan-
kung g|j £ (at foot); Kw'ei-sing flg; j| and Chu-i
fa ^ (inset at top)
Kvv'ei-sing on the Ngao, or "Kraken" (A fabulous sea-
monster)
The Red Coat, Chu-i fa ^, and the Golden Armour
Worthy, Kin-kiah ^ ^
13. The God of War, Kwan-kung §| ^, and Chow-ts'ang jH\
^ (his faithful standard-bearer)
14. Kwan-kung f||] ^, his son Kwan-p'ing || ^p, and Chow-
ts'ang Jfj ^. Kwan-kung holds in his right hand
the "Spring and Autumn Classic", badge of his title
of "God of the Literati"
Evolution of dogma. The God of War metamorphosed
into the God of Riches. The treasure-casket is seen
lying at his feet
Jan-teng (Dipamkara Buddha) offers to Li-tsing a mys-
terious tower
6
12
18
22
30
42
56
60
62
64
66
72
80
84
96
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
37bis
38.
— XXXIII —
Maitreya, Mi-leh-fuh «jj§ j|Jj f$, the Future Buddha
Amitabha, O-mi-t'o-fuh fpj jjg} |?£ f$, the Buddha who
leads mortals to the Western Paradise
Vairocana, P'i-lu-fuh ffljfc j|[ f^j, Buddha Supreme and
Eternal
Lochana Buddha, the reflex or ideal representation of
the universal essence of Buddha
Manjusri, Wen-shu ^ $£, Buddha of Transcendent
Wisdom
Samantabhadra, P'u-hsien ^ Jf, Buddha of Universal
Kindness
P'u-yen-fah-kiai -^ BJ! £fe ^
Kin-kang-tsang-k'i-sze £ ^|J |^ ^ Ji,
Maitreya, the Future Buddha
Tscing-tsing-hwei shwoh-fah ^n p|? s§ g& i£
Wei-te/i san-fcwan |^^|
Pien-yin wu-kwan ^ ^jtf 3£ f^
Tsing-yeh ch'u-ngo £j£ fjj| |^ ^
P'u-kioh tseh-fah ^ % % ^
Yuen-kioh h'oh-hi gj ^ $£ $j
Shen-show kien-sheh ^| "ft* ^ |{§
Miao-chwang-wang ^? |j£ 3E» father of the Goddess of
Mercy, Kwan-yin H "^
Kwan-yin (M*'ao-s/ie?i ^? ^) refuses to marry, and sets
out for the "Monastery of the White Sparrows"
Sun Hu-tze comes to help Kwan-yin || ^ (Miao-shen
^? 3|), and brings her the peach of Immortality
The God Wei-t(o ^ |}g, and other deities protect the
"Monastery of the White Sparrows"
Famous painting, representing Kwan-yin in a bamboo
grove (P'u-t'u Island)
The eighteen-armed Kwan-yin, rising from the sea, and
attended by two Dalai-Lamas, re-incarnated reflexes
of the goddess (From Kircher's China Illustrata)
Print of the 8lh century, representing Kwan-yin in female
form (Attributed to Wu Tao-tze Jg. ^ ^)
Page.
104
112
120
122
124
124
126
126
128
128
130
130
130
132
132
132
134
150
152
156
224
226
228
— XXXIV —
Page.
230
39. Inscriptions in honour of Kwan-yin
40. Kwan-yin wearing the five-leaved crown of a Bodhisattva.
Wei-t'o and the cockatoo may be seen in the upper
part of the picture 232
N.B. — With a view to hastening the publication of this
second series, the illustrations of the present and four subsequent
volumes were done into English before the work had been translated,
hence some slight discrepancies in the transliteration of a few titles,
which the reader will find corrected in the list here given.
<g
HI
^
CHAPTER I.
THE PRINCIPAL TRIADS.
•3f
ARTICLE I.
THE THREE SAGES.
San sheng ^ §1 (1).
Confucianists, Buddhists and Taoists have frequently engaged
in bitter and hostile conflicts (2). The literati vehemently attacked
the unorthodox doctrine of their opponents, but as they could offer
to the people only their veneer of virtues, their cold and cheerless
abstractions on benevolence, Jen £, and righteousness, / j§|, without
(1) Sheng !g, the highest degree of moral and intellectual powers,
intuitively wise and good, perfect, the sage, hence San-sheng H IE, the
"Three Sages" (literally holy ones). Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese
Language.
(2) The existence of three religions in China has occasioned a perpetual
conflict among the people. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 50.
anything to console afflicted hearts here below, or reward them in a
future life, the generality took refuge in Buddhism and Taoism,
which gradually became the two popular religions of China. Nay
more, Confucianists themselves honoured publicly and privately the
gods of Buddhism and Taoism (1).
In the course of time, Buddhists and Taoists, Tao-shi jjjf i,
seeing their religion sufficiently implanted in the land, and their
maintenance assured, ceased from attacking each other, and as their
tenets, all of human invention, are extremely broad and tolerant,
mutual borrowings took place (2). Buddhist gods were accomodated
in Taoist temples, while Taoist Immortals and genii occupied a
prominent place on Buddhist altars, and enjoyed there the sweet
fragrance of incense offered by devotees. Each one worshipped the
god of his choice, or the one that seemed to him to be the most
popular, and thus religious groups originated. The craze even went
to the extent of placing in the same temple, and worshipping" on
the same altar the founders of the "three religions", Buddha,
Lao-tze (3) and Confucius.
The celebrated Taoist treatise on the government of the inner
man, entitled Sing-ming kwei-chi >\t£ lijr ^ ^ (^)i due to trie pen
of the Taoist writer Wu Chi-hoh ^ £. $=|, and illustrated with
numerous and curious plates, attests emphatically the amalgamation
(1) Edkins quotes the case of a Confucianist, who heartily rejected
Buddhism, but this did not prevent him from giving his donation, when
asked, towards the expense of maintaining Buddhist worship in a Buddhist
monastery. Edkins Religion in China, p. 52.
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Volume 111. Preface, p. I. (Mutual bor-
rowings of the three religions).
(3) Lao-tze % ^, or Lao-kiln % %t, the old or venerable philosopher.
Born B.C. 604, time and place of death unknown. He founded the Taoist
system of philosophy and mysticism, improved upon by his disciples.
Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 1 10. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. 1.
p. 70. note l.-Vol. III. p. 306. — Vol. V. p. 015. Twelfth month, 25tH day.
(4) It was first printed in 1615, and another edition was issued about
KJ70, in a large and handsome style. Wylie. Notes on Chinese Literature.
p. 222.
Fig. 1
Bouddha, Lao-tse, Confucius. (La triade eclectique) Les trois saints.
Bouddha, Lao-tse, Confucius. (The eclectic triad) The three holy ones
of the "three religions". An artistic group represents the founders
of the "three religions", with Buddha in the centre, Lao-tze on the
left (this being the most honourable place in China), and Confucius
occupying the right-hand side.
Written over the group may be seen the inscription : picture
representing the Three Sages, San-sheng t'u j£ f|| fU- The writer
then explains this amalgamation and says : Confucianism, Buddhism
and Taoism, though established by three different founders, make
in reality but one religion, Jix-shih-tao eul-san-wei-yih |f| fip ^
man- (i)-
This picture is highly important, as the author, a Taoist
painter and writer, acknowledges an obvious fact, and gives the first
place to the founder of Buddhism, this religion being indeed the
most popular and that comprising the greatest number of adherents
in China (2).
The above picture, amalgamating the three founders, is exten-
sively found among the people. Another well-known picture (here
annexed) is likewise generally used by pagans, whether they be
Buddhists, Taoists or Confucianists. It comprises the most popular
gods, and exhibits in brief a compendium of China's present-day
pantheon. The painters, thoroughly conversant with the ideas of
their times, have here represented groups of gods, culture heroes
and genii, drawn from each of the "three religions". The reader,
upon considering it, can see how the principle of mutual borrowing-
has been carried out, and how all have been amalgamated into the
most curious medley that the student of religions has ever encoun-
tered.
(1) Jil $f, philosophers, literati, scholars, more especially those who
pretend to follow the teachings of Confucius, as distinct from Buddhists and
Taoists.— Shih %$ (derived from Sakytxmuni), Buddhism, the Buddhist doctrine
or religion. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
(2) The number of Buddhists in Asia is reckoned to be at the present
day 138,000,000, of whom the greater part are in China. Whitaker's Alman-
ack, 1918. p. 100 (Beligions of the World).
The first group (in the upper part of the picture) assigns to
Buddha the central place, with Confucius on the left, and Lao-tze
on the right. In the left-hand side of the picture are the seven
stellar gods of the North Pole, while to the right are the six stellar
gods, who preside over the South Pole. The second group exhibits
a no less curious medley. Kwan-yin $| -g- (1), the Buddhist Goddess
of Mercy, holds the place of honour, and is attended on the left by
the God of Literature, Wen-ch'ang ^r H, and Chu-i ^ ^ (the
Red Coat), both Confucian deities; while on the right are Chun-tfi
ip. $| (the Bodhissatva Maritchi, goddess of light), and Yoh-wang
HI 3L (the medical king and healing Bodhissatva, Baishajyaguru
Buddha), both of Buddhist origin. On the extreme right are the God
of Thunder, Lei-hung fjf fe, and his father, divinities borrowed from
Taoism. The third group is almost exclusively Taoist, and comprises
the Ruler of Heaven, T'ien-kwan % 'gf (2), who occupies the centre,
attended on the left by the Goddess of Rain, Shui-mu niang-niang
7R "B£ M ^S» and the Immortal LiX Shun-yang g £jjj (^ (otherwise
known as Lu Tung-pin g "j|pj ^t[); while on the right are the Ruler
of Water, Shui-hwan 7K 'flf, and the God of Longevity. Show-sing
AP M (3). I" the fourth group, the God of War, Kwan-hung |f]
Q (4), occupies the centre, with the God of Wealth, IlsiXen-t'an l£
Jtfi (5), and the God of Fire, Hwo-shen ^ jjj^, on the left ; while on
the light are the magician Kiang Tze-ya H ^ ^f (6), and the Dragon
or Naga king, Lung-wang f| 3£.
(1) See on Kioctn-yin JtSJ -^j-. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. IV. p. 418. note
3. -Vol. V. p. 566. First month, 5th day; p. 573. Second month, 19th day.
(2) One of the three primordial powers recognized by Taoists. Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. III. Preface, p. XIII. p. 236. note 2. - Vol. V. p. 567.
First month, 15th day. note 1.
(3) See on the God of Longevity, Show-siyig jf ||. Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. II. p. 218. note 2. —Vol. IV. p. 436. - Vol. V. p. 584. Fifth month,
1st day. note 1.
(4) See on the God of War, Kioan-ti HI ifr. Chinese Superstitions. Vol.
V. p. 572, 586. Fifth month, 13th day.
(5) See on the God of Wealth, Hsilen-Van jfe %L. Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. V. p. 637. note 1.
(6) See on KiangTze-ya ^ -f-^. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. IV. p. 428.
— 5 —
In the fifth group, the centre is assigned to the God of Wealth,
Ts'ai-shen \$ jflfy, with the Kitchen God, Tsao-kun >)^ ~$ (1), and
the local God of the Soil, Pen-t'u-ti ;$ J; Jjj, on the left; while
on the right are the District City God, Hsien-ch'eng-hwang ]$£ ifa
|y|, Chang the Immortal, who grants children, Chang-sien sung-lze
!*Ii i llj M "? (2)i ar|d the God, who protects buffaloes, Niu-wang 4^3E-
The God of Wealth is the most popular god of China. Every
heathen shopkeeper, banker and merchant has a place in his
establishment devoted to the worshipping of this god. Morning and
evening, three sticks of incense and two small red candles are
regularly lighted before him, in the hope of engaging his protection
in the management of business and the increase of riches (3).
This popular picture illustrates vividly the state of religion in
China at the present day. The worshipper selects what suits his
fancy, or his needs, in each of the "three religions", offers incense
to the god or goddess of his choice, and prays to them, without
inquiring whether they belong to Buddhism or Taoism (4).
For the better understanding of this picture, it has been deemed
advisable to set forth the names of the gods and goddesses comprised
in each group. Proceeding from left to right, these are as follows: —
7 s' Group.
The seven stellar gods of the North Pole, Peh-teu ts'ih-sing 4t
(1) See on the Kitchen God. Tscto-kiin fi: ^. Chinese Superstitions. Vol.
V. p. 022.
(2) See on this Immortal. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 009. note 2.
(3) Doolittle. Social Life of the Chinese. Vol. II. p. 155-150. -Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 483, and 037.
(4) There are in China three systems of philosophy underlying the three
religions, three kinds of gods, three modes of worship, still all three new
adays live side by side not only in the same locality, but what is more extra-
ordinary, in the belief of the same individual. It is quite a common thing
in China for the same individual to conform to ;ill the three modes of worship.
Edkins. Religion in China, p. 50.
— 6 —
Lao-feiin % U, or Lao-tze % ^.
The Jii-lai, or "thus come Buddha", JiX-lai-fuh %\\ ?fc {#,.
Confucius, Kung-tze iJL -?■
The six stellar gods of the South Pole, Nan-tew luh-sing $ 4
• N
IInd Group.
The God of Literature, Wen-ch'ang ^ ||.
The lied Coat, Chu-i ^ ^ (an attendant of the God of Liter-
ature).
The God of the Eastern Mountain, Tung-yoh jfc %jfc.
The Goddess of Lightning, Tien-mu if -BJ:.
The Youth Shen-ts'ai H ^ (who attends on the Goddess of
Mercy, Kwan-yin || i§).
The Goddess of Mercy, Kwan-yin f|J ^.
The Naga's daughter, Lung-niX fl ^C (a female attendant, who
holds a willow-branch beside Kwan-yin).
Chun-t'i ifl H§ (the Hindu Bodhissatva Maritchi, goddess of
light).
Yoh-wang |jt 3E (the medical king and healing Bodhissatva,
Baishajyaguru Buddha).
The God of Thunder, Lei-hung ff •&.
The Father of Thunder, Lei-tsu f}f f§.
IIIrd Group.
The Willow-tree Sprite, Liu-shu-tsing $|| Iff ^.
The Goddess of Rain, Shui-mu niang-niang 7k. -^ j$ ^.
The Capital City God, 7u-c/i'eng-/twang ffl j$ f^ (1).
The Immortal Lii Shun-yang g |j| |^ (also known as Ln
Tung-pin g -)|p| 4f).
(1) Every walled city in China has its municipal temple and citjr god,
to whom worship is offered by the officials and people. Chinese Supersti-
tions. Vol. V. p. 494. note 2.
Fig. 2
t t #tf? ^fiA flfr #% ## #■*'* At* *K a-y^tf'
L'olympe de ia Chine modernc.
The olympus of modern China.
The Ruler of Earth, Ti-kwan % *g.
The Decider of Literary Merit, Wen-p'an ^ £|J.
The Ruler of Heaven, T'ien-kwan % ^ (1).
The Decider of Military Merit, Wu-p'an jfc fij.
The Ruler of Water, Shui-kwan 7J<. 'g.
The God of Longevity, Show-sing ^ Jl.
The Taoist General and Immortal Chen-wu u| ]j£.
The Taoist General and Immortal Kwei-kun ^ 1|l.
Chang the Great Ruler, who lived on the Tz'e mountain, Tz'e-
shan Chang Ta-ti p |Xl !*Jt ^C #•
7V'A Group.
The God of Riches of the Five Roads, Wu-lu ts'ai-shen 2l $$
M ft1-
The God of Fire, Hwo-shen ^ jffi.
The Taoist Generalissimo Liu-meng, Liu-meng Txiang-kiln |PJ
^ 7$ i|l (a god, who protects from locusts).
The Taoist God of Wealth, Hsilen-t'an £ Jg (2).
Chow-ts'ang j^J ^ (faithful defender of the God of War).
The God of War, Kwan-kung §| ^ (3).
Kwan-p'ing §| 2£ (son of the God of War).
The Thousand-mile Eye, Ts'ien-li-yen =f Bj| jg. (one of the
assistants of the sailor goddess, or Queen of Heaven, T'ien-heu^i fa).
The Immortal Eul-lang, Eul-lang-shen ZL J<5 ^ (nephew of
the Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hwang 3£ J|).
The Magician Kiang Tze-ya Jj| ^ 5f.
The Naga King, Lung-wang fH 3E-
(1) The rulers of heaven, earth and water, Sctn-kwan H H\ represent a
Taoist triad of subordinate divinities, who preside over these elements. They
are said to send down good or ill fortune on men, and save the lost. Edkins.
Religion in China, p. 115. —Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 5G7. note 1.
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 037. note 1. Also Illustration.
n° 201.
(3) See on the God of War. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 497.
note 3; p. 572. Second month, 15th day; p. 580. Fifth month, 13th day.
Vth Group.
The God of Horses, Ma-shen J§ %$ (1).
The local God of the Soil, Pen-t'u-ti fa ± j|.
The Kitchen God, Tsao-kun j± ;g (2).
The God of Mechanics, Yeh-kung H ^.
The God of Swine, Chu-shen $% #.
The Capital God of the Soil, Tu-L'u-ti qgfl ± }&•
The God of Prosperous Trade, Li-shi ^lj Tfj (attendant on the
God of Riches).
The God of Riches, Ts'ai-shen f^ #•
The God of Good Fortune, Chao-ts'ai ffl &j- (attendant on the
God of Riches).
The District City God, Hsien-ch'eng-hwang % 3$ |5!|.
The God of Small-pox, Teu-shen ^g jjj$.
The God who cures eye-diseases, Yen-kwang ty| %.
Chang the Immortal, who grants children, Chang-sien sung-tze
m Hll g * (3).
The Goddess, who bestows children, Sung-tze niang-niang ^|
* tt tft (*)•
The God, who protects buffaloes, Niu-wang 41 ]E.
Throughout the whole region, which extends from the Grand
Canal to the sea, and from Hwai-ngan-fu jf£ ^ )ft to the borders of
Hai-men $£ p*j, the inhabitants are most superstitious. Several
temples comprise various shrines, each of which is allotted to the
worship of a special god. Thus, one is dedicated to the Gods of
Literature, Wen-ch'ang -£ g, and Kw'ei-sing $| J|; in another,
(1) See on this god. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 573. Second
month, 22nd day; p. 601. Eighth month, 28th day.
(2) See on the Kitchen God. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 622.
(3) See on Chang the Immortal, Chang-sien 5S fl'l- Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. V p. 609. note 2. Eleventh month, 4th day.
(4) See on this goddess. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. I. p. 2. — Vol. V.
p. 578. note 3. Third month, 26th day.
— 9 —
Wang-ling- kwan 3£ St la CO > or the Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hwang
3i Mi supreme god of the Taoists, is worshipped ; while a third
contains images of Ti-tsang-wang Jjjj ^ 3i (2), or other Bodhisattvas
honoured by Buddhists. Thanks to this arrangement, each one
may worship within the same temple the god of his choice, the
"three religions thus blending into one", San-hiao wei-yih j£ ^ ^
Frequently also gods whose origin is different, and who belong
to different sects, are set up side by side on the same altar, and
worshipped by all. To quote but a single instance, one may see in
the T'ai-shan temple, T'ai-sfian-miao ^c |i| |fj, erected in the
district city of Jii-kao, Jii-hao-lisien -ftp jjl. ]§|, in North Kiangsu
fX jift> the gods of Buddhism and Taoism mutually associated. This
temple, though decidedly Taoist, is entrusted to the care of Buddhist
monks (3). As to the gods worshipped, the following are the
principal. 1°. The Goddess of the Crimson Clouds, Pih-hsia yuen-
kiXn *| H ^ 3* (4); the father of Thunder, Lei-tsu ff jjj|, the God
of Thunder, Lei-shen ||f ffi (5), the Goddess of Lightning, Shen-mu
f% #, all Taoist divinities. 2°. The Buddhist Triad, or Triratna:
Sakyamuni, Amitabha and Maitreya (the future Buddha); Ti-tsang-
wang j^ ^ 3E (the Hindu Yama, or ruler of Hades), the Four
Guardians of the gates in Buddhist temples, Kin-hang ^ |jjjj|J , Chun-
t'i iijk $| (the Hindu Maritchij Goddess of Light), all of whom belong
to the Buddhist Pantheon. 3°. The God of War, Kwan-ti §g ^,
(1) See on this Taoist god. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. 111. Preface,
p. I. p. 269. note 3. — Vol. V. p. 592. Sixth month, 24* day.
(2) See on Ti-tsang-ivcingjfa %£ 3E- Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 525.
note 1; p. 530. note 1; p. 596. Seventh month, 30th day.
(3) As no city can be without its temples, these must be taken care of
by Buddhist or Taoist priests. There are no other persons so well adapted
to undertake this dut}*. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 66.
(4) See on this Taoist goddess. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 582.
note 3. — Chavannes. Le T'ai-chan. p. 29.
(5) See on the God of Thunder. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. 111. p. 23".
note 3; p. 246. note 2.
2
— 10 —
whom all military men must worship with incense and sacrifice, as
appointed by Imperial decree. This celebrated temple offers in brief
a perfect image of the state of religion in China at the present day.
If one took three tapers made of wax, but varying in size and
colour, and melted them over a fire, they would combine into one
solid mass of the same material. The original colours would not
totally disappear, but would be slightly blurred, thus maintaining
a link between the three tapers. The above illustration should
convey to the reader a faint image of the amalgamation of the
"three religions", as practised at the present day by the Chinese
people (1).
(1) Confucianism is theoretically the State religion, but officials worship
also in Buddhist and Taoist temples, according to the form of each religion.
The mass of the people believe in all three religions. The Chinaman judges
religion from a moral standpoint. If it has a good moral code, and encourages
to do good, it is accepted. He never cares whether it is divine or not. He is
also largely influenced by self-interest* and seeks divinities which meet his
wants, help him to become rich, or recover from disease. Several gods are
physicians, and prescribe remedies. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 59-60.
— 11 —
ARTICLE II.
I III: THRU. I»URF. ONES.
San-ts'ing j"£ \fj (1).
In the beginning, the primordial cosmic ether separated into
three divisions, called Ts'ing-wei-t'ien, Yuh-yuh-t'ien and Ta-shi-
t'ien: or also the Pearly Azure, Yuh-ts'ing 3E |pf; the Upper Azure,
Shang-ts'ing J^ ^; and the Supreme Azure, T'ai-ts'ing jfc ffi.
These divisions form three abodes or heavens, in which reside the
three high gods of Taoism (2).
These three high gods are generally known by the name of the
"Three Pure Ones", San-t*'iug J£ <pj:.
In the heavens of the Pearly Azure, Yuh-ts'ing 3£ "jpft dwells
the first god of the Triad. His throne reposes on the Jade Mountain,
and his palace is entered through the Golden Gate. From him
proceeds all truth, as light from the fiery orb which lights up our
world.
There is much discrepancy among Taoists as to the real name
of this high and supreme lord.
According to the Work entitled Tuh-shu-ki shu-lioh ||| ^ ^
|j£ ff:, he is called the "Beginning, honoured of Heaven*', Yuen-shi
tcien-tsun jit jkn Ji 1^., and is also known by the name of Loli
Tsing-sin |j| j|j£ -jg.
Moreover, he is sometimes given the honorary title of "Heavenly
Jewel", T'ien-pao ^ ^.
(1) The "Three Pure Ones", San-ts'ing H iW, are the manifestation of
one historical personage, Lao-tze % "f-, deified for his intellectual and moral
qualities. The whole Triad is imitated from that of the Buddhists, and is
altogether of modern invention. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 112, and 113.
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. II. p. 206. note 1. — Vol. III. p. 275.
note 2. -Vol. A*, p. 615. Twelfth month, 24th day.
— 12 —
Other Works, as the Chung-tseng show shen-ki Ifl j$ $| ffi
|E, and Chen-ling-wei yeh-t'u jg H $: H EH, assign the highest
heavens to the Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hwang 3£ Jl (1).
Practically, the greater number of pagans nowadays consider
the Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hwang 3£ £, as the supreme Taoist god,
and this belief is spreading more and more among the people.
The second heavens, or Upper Azure, Shang-ts'ing _t ^, is
the abode of the second god of the Triad, known by the name of the
"Mystic Jewel, honoured of Heaven", Ling-pao t'ien-tsun ft 'jt 5^
jf:, or the "Honourable Tao", Tao-kiXn j|f jg (2). Nothing is known
of this fanciful god, whose origin, name and functions are of the
most misty character. He is deemed to exist from the origin of
chaos, to calculate time, and divide it into various periods. He
dwells beyond the North Pole of the Universe, and controls the
interaction of the Yin [^ and Yang ^ principles of Nature. He is
also said to collect the sacred books of Taoism.
The third heavens, or Supreme Azure, T'ai-ts'ing ^c f^f, is
assigned to the third god of the Triad, commonly known as Lao-tze
%?■
Lao-tze ■%■ -^ is the expounder of the true doctrine emanating
from the second god of the Triad, the "Mystic Jewel, honoured of
Heaven", Ling-pao t'ien-tsun |ft |jj ^ j^. He is also called the
"Spiritual Jewel", Shen-pao pp ;ff (3)-
(1) Yuh-hwang 35 Ji is deemed to be the Supreme Lord of the physical
world, and the saviour of men. In the Taoist pantheon, he corresponds to
the Confucian Shang-ti _fc ^, though he is much more humanised; and to
the Buddhist Fuh $,, or Sakyamuni. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 1 J 2. —
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. p. 315. note 2.— Vol. V. p. 515. note 3; p. 542.
note 1; p. 552. note 3: p. 009. note 3.
(2) Kiln ;§*, added to the name, is a term of respect, and answers to our
Sir, gentleman. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
(3) The connexion of this Taoist Trinity with the world is much like
that of Buddhism, one of instruction and benevolent interference for the good
of humanity. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 113.
Fig. 3
La triade taoiste.
The taoist triad.
— 13 —
The Taoist Work, T'ai-chen-k'o -Jz M ^h informs us how
these three heavens, or Taoist worlds are governed and administered.
The List of the Elect kept by the Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hwang
3l Jit or supreme Taoist god, comprises eight hundred deified
Taoists, and a host of Immortals. All are divided into three classes :
1° the Saints, Sheng-jen Hi A (1); 2" the Perfect or Elevated, Chen-
jen if| J{; arjd 3° the Immortals or Genii, Sien-jen f[[j \.
The Saints inhabit the highest region, or Pearly Azure, Yuh-
ts'ing 3l fpf> tne heavens of the "Beginning, honoured of Heaven",
Yuen-shi t'ien-tsun % jfe ^ 1|L.
In the second heavens are the "Perfect or Elevated", Chen-jen
jH \. The word Chen iflL literally means true, real, genuine, but
in Taoist terminology it signifies the "ideal man", all those who
have disciplined themselves in Taoist mysticism, and attained perfect
rule over themselves and over Nature (2).
The third, or lowest heavens, is assigned to the Immortals or
Genii, Sien-jen f[|j \ (3). These are human souls endowed with
divine powers. They form the most numerous class. Among them
are philosophers, alchemists, mystics, old recluses and countless
magicians.
HsiX-p'u %fe $j|, President of the Board of Rites, and a native
of I-lising ^ $1., in Kiangsu yx Mi presented a memorandum to
the emperor Ch'eng-hwa ffc ft; (A.D. 1465-1488), of the Ming IJ1J
dynasty, protesting against an Imperial edict, whereby it was ordered
to compose an ode in honour of the "Three Pure Ones", San-ts'ing
(1) Sheng §J, the highest degree of intellectual and moral powers,
intuitively wise and good, perfect, holy. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese
Language.
(2) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 388 — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III.
p. 316. note 2. -Vol. V. p. 574. note 2.
(3) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 546. note 4; p. 549. note 2;
p. 553. note 3.— They form the mass of the inhabitants of the Taoisl heavens.
Edkins. Religion in China, p. 112.
— 14 —
_= ?p? (!)• The following arc the words of the memorialist : "Nothing
is so high as heaven. When Kao-tsu ~0) jffl (B.C. 206-194), of the
Former Han, Ts'ien-Han 'm 'M, dynasty, established sacrifices in
honour of the Five Supreme Rulers, Wu-ti 7/. $?, the whole body
of the literati expressed their indignation at such a novel ritual
change. How much more rightly, therefore, must we oppose Taoists,
who place in heaven three gods of their invention, and among them
Li-eul ^ %, keeper of the records at the Court of Chow |§J. Is
not this placing a demon among the glorious spirits of heaven?"
The emperor approved the memorandum, and congratulated the
author on his attachment to orthodox principles.
(1) In tin- Taoist temple of the ''Pearly Emperor", at Ju-kao f]\ Jj|, the
idols are arranged as follows: to the rear the Three Pure Ones, while a little
to the front are Chun-t'i (Maritchi), Chang the Heavenly Master, and the
God of Lightning. On the left-hand side are Chang the Immortal (accompan-
ied by 2 youths), the God and Goddess of small-pox : on the right are the
Master of Rain, the Goddess of Lightning, the God of Thunder, and the
Master of the Wind.
•^
— 15 —
ARTICLE III.
buddhist triads,
the three great buddhas.
San-tsun ta-fuh ^ jj|t. ^ f^f;.
Buddhist Triads are numerous, and vary according to countries
and the endless divisions and schools, which grew up in the midst
of this perpetually changing religion, from the time of its first
appearance in the valley of the Indus down to the present day. It
may well be said that in no two countries did Buddhism preserve the
same form (1). It was chiefly in the North that its original features
underwent the greatest change. Here the Mahayana system arose,
and introduced the worship of Bodhisattvas, deified saints and
personal gods, hence in Tibet, Mongolia and China, the groupings
of gods are different.
The purpose of this article is to deal with Buddhist Triads, as
found at the present day in the principal temples of Kiangsu yX IJJc
and Nganhwei ^ $fr, and there worshipped by the people.
The first group, or triple arrangement of venerated objects, is
known by the name of the "Three Precious Ones", or the "Three
Jewels", San-pao = 'j| (2). They are thus designated in all Buddhist
rituals and prayer-formularies, employed both by monks and the
laity.
(1) Even in India, the land of its birth, Buddhism had greatly changed
during the first ten centuries of its existence. So much so that had it been
possible for its founder to reappear upon earth in the fifth century after Christ,
he would be unable to recognize his own work. Monier Williams. Buddhism,
p. 16.
(2) San-pao H M^ tne three precious things, also known as the "Three
Holies" (Triratna in Sanscrit). These were first held in honour, but subse-
quently worshipped, a kind of personality being accorded to all three, similar
to that which belonged to the three chief gods of the Hindu Pantheon.
Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 175.
— 16 —
This group is also frequently culled the "Three Great Venerable
Buddhas", San-tsun ta-fuh H U-- ^C ff>-
The following are the names given to the personages that
compose this first Triad.
1". The First Triad.
Sakyamuni Shih-kiah-fuh ^ $N $jj.
Amitabha (1) O-mi-t'o-fuh |5pT f| pg fjj.
Ju-lai-fuh (2) Jil-lai-fuh %$ %. $,.
The Work entitled " Records of Western Travels", Si-yiu-ki '$
$1 ill!, gives also to the Triad the following names : —
The Precious Buddha Fuh-pao j$, 'j|f.
The Precious Law Fah-pao jgj 'j|.
The Precious Monkhood Seng-pao j$ ^.
This means that the Triad consists of Guatama Buddha, his
Law or Dharma, that is the words and doctrine of the Buddha
personified, or so to speak incarnated and manifested in written
books after his Pari-nirvana, and finally the Order of Monks, or
Sanglm personified, that is embodied in a kind of ideal personifica-
tion, or collective unity of his true disciples.
These three, then, the Buddha, his Law, and his Fraternity of
Monks, were the first personification of early Buddhism, commonly
known as the "Buddhist Triad".
(1) Amitabha. A Dhyani Buddha, invented by the Mahayana School
about A.I). 300. Originally conceived of as impersonal, he acquired promi-
nence especially in the 5th century. It was at this period of Buddhist evolution
that the Western Paradise (a substitution for Nirvana, too abstruse for the
common people to grasp) was invented. Amitabha is to-day the ruler of this
so-called blissful land, and hence highly popular among the Chinese. Eitel.
Handbook of Chinese Buddhism, p. 6. —Getty. The Gods of Northern Bud-
dhism, p. 38 (Dhyani-Buddhas. Amitabha).
(2) Jil-lai-fuh i\\ $* $',, the "thus come Buddha" (from the Sanscrit
Tathagata), that is one whose coming and going accords with that of his
predecessor. It is the highest appellation given to every Buddha. Williams.
Dictionary of the Chinese Language. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p.
141. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 516. note 1.
— 17 —
The idea of this early Buddhist Triad seems to have been
borrowed from Brahmanism and its Trimurli, Brahma, Vishnu and
Siva (1). The Mahayana school, at the beginning' of the christian
era, united the above three heads of doctrine, Buddha, the Law and
the Monkhood, and considered Sahyamuni as personified intelligence;
Dharma the Law, as the reflex of this same intelligence ; and
Sangha the Church, as the practical issue of both.
Later on, the philosophical atheistic schools placed Dharma in
the first rank, and explained it as the absolute underived entity,
combining in itself the spiritual and material principle of the
universe. From Dharma proceeded Buddha by emanation, as the
creative energy, and also the Sanghat as the organized universe in
its final and perfect state.
The common people know little or nothing of these metaphysical
abstractions, and worship them as three different divinities, totally
ignoring the fact that they are but a mere philosophical myth (2).
2°. A Dhyani Triad.
Amitabha O-mi-t'o-fuh j5pj ijgf |?£ (#,.
Avalokitesvara (3) Kwan-yin ||l Jff.
Mahastama (4) Ta-shi-chi ^C ^ M-
(1) The idea of the first Buddhist Triad— the Buddha, the Law, and the
Monastic Order— accepted by the adherents of both Vehicles, was probably
derived from the earliest Brahmanical Triad. Monier Williams. Buddhism,
p. 175, and 197.
(2) Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 151 (Triratna or Batnatraya).
(3) Avalokitesvara, i.e., "the looking down lord, or he who contemplates
the sounds of the world". A Bodhisattva, whose female counterpart was
introduced into China and Japan under the name of Kwan-yin jgj -^, or
Goddess of Mercy. She is principally worshipped by Northern Buddhists.
Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 200. — Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 171.—
Hackmann. Buddhism as a Beligion. p. 210. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. IV.
p. 418. -Vol. V. p. 514, 573. note 1.
(4) Mahastama, a Dhyani Bodhisattva, identified by some with Maud-
galgana, the right-hand disciple of Buddha. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p.
209. -Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 67. -Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 100. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 594. note 2.
3
— 18 —
3°. A Tantra Triad (1).
Sakyamuni Shih-kiah-fuh p M {<%■
Amitabha O-mi-t'o-fuh |5pJ ft PS #»•
Vairocana (2) P'i-lu-fuh HlJt jS #>■
4°. Triad in a temple at Jii-kao f\l JfL.
Sariputra (3) Ilwa-kwang-fuh |p ^£ {■$.
Maitreya (4) Mi-leh-fuh ffi fj) fi-
Jii-lai-fuh Jii-lai-fuh j^ ^ #i-
Another found in the same temple.
5°. Amitabha O-mi-t'o-fuh JSpf % pg #}.
Sakyamuni Shih-kiah-fuh fp ^g f^.
Mahastama Ta-shi-chi ^C ^ M-
(1) The Tantra or Yoga School was founded by Asangha (about 400
A.D.), a Buddhist monk of Gandhara (Peshawar). It introduced consorts to
the Celestial Bodhisattvas, gave wild and terrible forms to gods, and setup an
endless number of magic formulas for all sorts of purposes. These are generally
couched either in Sanscrit or Tibetan. Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet,
p. 14. — Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 175 (Yogatchara or Tantra).
(2) Vairocana, one of the five Dhyani-Buddhas, with Samantabhadra
for his Bodhisattva. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 161. — Monier
Williams. Buddhism, p. 203.
(3) Sariputra, one of the principal disciples of Sakyamuni, and his
right-hand attendant. He will appear subsequently as Buddha Padmaprabha.
Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 123.
(4) See on Maitreya. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. p. 252. — Vol. V.
p. 565. note 2. First month, 1st day.
Fig. 4
IA triade bouddhique.
The buddhistic triad.
Sctmantabhadra, Avalokitesvara, Manjusri.
— 19 —
6°. Triad in a large temple at Golden Island, opposite Chen-
kiang $g ft.
Sakyamuni Shih-kiah-fuh f|| j$n fijfc.
Baishajyaguru (1) Yoh-shi-fuh ||| gjjf fijf}.
Meitreya (2) Mi-leh-fuh % ^ f$.
7°. Triad found to the rear of the altar, already described in n°6.
Avalokitesvara Kwan-yin ^ ^.
Manjusri (3) Wen-shu t£ ~%fc.
Samantabhadra (4) P'u-hsien
8°. Triad found at Lnng-shan $ fjj , near T'ung Chow }§ )<\}.
Sakyamuni Shih-kiah-fuh fp j||J jfc.
Manjusri Wen-shu ^ %.
Samantabhadra P'u-hsien $£ U.
The above Triad is generally found in Buddhist temples
throughout the provinces of Kiangsu ft ]$fc, and Nganhwei ^ $fa.
(J) See on this medical Bodhisattva. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V.
p. 583. note 3.
(2) Maitreya. the "Merciful One", who will succeed Buddha in the
government of the world. He now resides in the Tuchita heavens, from which
after a lapse of 5000 years, he will descend to the earth and open a new era.
Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 7. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p.
565. note 2. First month, 1st day.
(3) Manjusri, a Bodhisattva of the Mahayana School. He was born
from a ray that burst from Guatama's forehead. His duty is to turn the
"Wheel of the Law" for the salvation of the Chinese. He is worshipped at
Wu-t'ai-shan % U ill, in Shansi ill Bf. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary,
p. 71. — Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 208. — Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 95. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 580. note 1.
(4) Samantabhadra, a Dhyani-Bodhisattva of the Tantra School. Many
Dharanis are ascribed to him. He is worshipped at Oj-mishan V<$ )m ill, in
Szech'wan 0) Jl|. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 573. note 3.
— 20 —
9°. Triad found in the Pao-ngen monastery, Pao-ngen shen-sze
$1 & # 4~r> at T'ai-hsing ^ J|, province of Kiangsu ft. M-
Sakyamuni (centre) Shih-kiah-fuh %$ M i%>-
Jii-lai-fuh (to left) Ju-lai-fuh %\\ jfe f,.
Amitabha (to right) O-mi-t'o-fuh PPf H |?S #■
10°. Triad found to the rear of the central altar, in the large
hall of the Ku-kwang monastery, Ku-kwang fuh-sze -£ ^ fg ^f,
at T'ai-hsing ^ f&, in Kiangsu fj. M-
Avalokitesvara (centre) Kwan-yin fj ^.
Manjusri (to left) Wen-s/iu # $fc-
Samantabhadra (to right) P'u-hsien ^ ff .
Scholarly Buddhist monks avail themselves of every occasion to
speak of Dhyani Triads. Dhyani-Buddhas (1) are the outcome of
Buddhist mysticism and contemplation. They are pure abstractions,
the ethereal representations of the transitory earthly Buddhas. Every
Buddha, who appears on earth in a human form, exists also in an
ideal state, or etherial representation of himself in the formless
worlds of abstract thought. As there are five chief human Buddhas
in the present age, so there are also five corresponding Dhyani-
Buddhas, namely Vairocana, Akohobya, Ratnasambava, Amitabha,
and Amogasiddha. Each of these Dhyani Buddhas produces by a
process of evolution a kind of emanation from himself, called a
Dhyani-Bodhisattva, who acts as the practical head and guardian of
the Buddhist community, between the interval of death of each
human Buddha, and the advent of his successor. Hence there are
(1) Dhyctnct (Jciinci, now a special Hindu sect) is a general expression
for the abstract meditation of Buddhist mystics, intended to destroy all
attachment to existence in thought or wish. It originated in Nepal, and
Was subsequently introduced into Tibet and China. Dhyani-Buddhas are all
fictitious beings invented by the Yoga schools of later Buddhism. Eitel.
Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 34. — Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 209.
— 21 —
five Dhyani-Bodhisatlvas : Samantabhadra, Vajrapani, Ratnapani,
Padmapani (Avalokitesvara) or the lotus-handed, and Visvapani (1).
In fact, the schools of Northern Buddhism were not satisfied
with the original Triad of Buddha, the Law, and the Monkhood.
They, therefore, invented in addition five Triads, each consisting
of a Dhyani-Buddha, a Dhyani-Bodhisattva, and an earthly Buddha.
Of all these Triads, the most important and most generally known
is that consisting of Amitabha, Avalokitesvara, and the human
Buddha, Sakyamuni.
Others, ignoring the historical evolution of Buddhism, will
simply tell }rou that all modern Triads represent the Buddha of the
Past, the Buddha of the Present, and the Buddha of the Future, or
Thatagata, Sakyamuni and Maitreya. The whole system bewilders
the reader through its fanciful and endless complications.
(1) Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 203 (Dhyani-Buddhas and Dhyani-
Bodhisattvas).
— 22 —
ARTICLE IV.
THE THREE RULERS.
San-kwan j£ T=j CO-
Taoism in its evolution has borrowed from other religions
much in the same manner as Buddhism (2). This we may well see
applied in the present instance, the doctrine concerning- the "Three
Rulers", San-kwan = !=?> or "Three Epochs", San-yuen ^ %,
having passed successively through four phases, which will be
described in the present article. The names generally given to
these personages are the following :
The Three Rulers San-kwan =1 la-
The Three Epochs (3) San-yuen H 7C-
The Three Great Rulers San-kwan ta-ti £f ^f.
The Venerable Three Rulers T'ai-shang san-kwan ^C _tl H la-
Ist Phase.
The Three Rulers: Heaven, Earth and Water, T'ien-ti-shui Ji
m *.
Early Taoists, Tao-shi ^ J^, who invented the above Triad,
taught that "Heaven, Earth and Water" were three transcendent
powers. Heaven bestowed happiness, Earth remitted sins, and
Water protected from all evil. Each of these powers received the
honorary title of Great Ruler, Ta-ti -j^ -$?.
(1) The Three Rulers, San-kwan 3 f?\ See Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. III. Preface, p. XIII. p. 236. note 2. — Vol. IV. p. 451. note 3. — Vol. V.
p. 567. note 1.
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. Preface, p. I. (Buddhist and
Taoist borrowings).
(3) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. p. 254. note 2; p. 314. note 2.—
Vol. V. p. 567. note 1; p. 595. note 1; p. 607. note 1.
Fig. 5
Les trois agents (San k'oau).
The three agents.
Also known as the Three Rulers or Transcendent Powers.
'
— 23 —
These ideas originated during the reign of Ling-ti g 'rff (A.D.
168-190), of the Later Han, lieu-Han fjj ^, dynasty. Chang-heng
(jj| $f, son of Chang Tao-ling ijjt M, lUt (0> composed a book of
charms, purporting' to cure all kinds of disease. Each patient was
requested to write out his name and surname, and promise that he
would confess all his sins. Of the three scrolls forwarded, one was
offered to Heaven, and deposited on the summit of a high mountain;
another, offered to Earth, was buried in the ground, while a third
was entrusted to the Watery Element. Happiness, remission of
sin, and protection from all evil were thus secured. When these
favours, as tested by experience, proved to be of a permanent
character, the protegee was also expected to give to the magician
five bushels of rice (2).
IInd Phase.
The Three Epochs, San-yuen J£ 7C (3)-
Chang-heng ^ Hf invented the "Three Rulers", San-kwan ^
1^, but later on the idea assumed another phase. In the time of
the Eastern Tsin, Tung-Tsin jf| ^ (A.D. 317-420), the "Three
Rulers'1 became "Three Periods" of time, San-yuen j£ %, and
were honoured under this title. This new phase is due to the
Taoist K'eu K'ien-chi ^g f^ ;£ .
He divided the year into three unequal parts, the first extending
from the first month to the close of the sixth month ; the second,
(1) See on Chang Tao-ling 5g ii |5$. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. II.
p. 158. note 2. — Vol. V. p. 587. note 4 (Birthday of Chang, the Heavenly
Master).
(2) Those who invited him had to give him five bushels of rice, hence
his nickname of "rice-grabber", Mi-tseh yfc M- Chinese Superstitions. Vol.
II. p. 158.
(3) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. p. 254. note 2; p. 314. note 2 —
Vol. V. p. 5G7. note 1; p. 595. note 1; p. GOT. note 1.
— 24 —
comprising the seventh, eighth and ninth months ; and the third
extending from the beginning of the tenth month to the close of the
year. In this arrangement, the fifteenth of the first, seventh and
tenth months became sacred to each of the "Three Principles or
Epochs", San-yuen J£ 7C-
Accordingly, the "Ruler of Heaven" became the principal patron
of the first period of the year, and was honoured on the fifteenth of
the first month (1); the "Ruler of Earth" controlled the second
period, and was honoured on the fifteenth of the seventh month (2);
while the "Ruler of Water" presided over the last period, and was
worshipped on the fifteenth of the tenth month (3).
The First Principle was, therefore, called the "Heavenly Ruler,
presiding over the First Period", Shang-yuen t'ien-kwan J^ 7C H
The Second Principle was styled the "Earthly Ruler, who
controlled the Middle Period", Chung-yuen ti-kwan *f 7C j$J *i=f.
The Third Principle was called the "Ruler of Water, who
presided over the Last Period", Hsia-yuen shui-kwan ~f % y\t, ^.
Later on, the same designations are found in the Annals of the
Sung $fc dynasty, Sung-shi $* j£, and the writings of Miao Show-
sin 'jg ^p >jg. This latter adds that all three send down good or
evil fortune on men, and punish the wicked (4).
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 567. First month, 15lh day
(First of the three festivals in honour of the "Three Principles").
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 595. Seventh month, 15th day
(Festival in honour of the second of the "Three Taoist Principles").
(3) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 607. Tenth month, 15»h day
(Third of the three festivals in honour of the "Three Principles").
(4) They are said to send down good or evil fortune on men, and save
the lost. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 115.— Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V.
p. 567. note 1.
25 —
IIIrd Phase.
Three deified mortals (1).
The first two systems were open to the objection of being too
abstruse. Now the mass of the people reflect little, and prefer
things easy of comprehension, no matter how absurd they appear.
Ingenious Taoists soon devised a better solution, and one more
appropriate to the needs of ordinary folks. This is sketched in the
Work entitled "Records of Gods, new and enlarged edition", Chung-
tseng-chow shen-ki Jl j|| ^ ftp fg, and fully exposed in the "Prayer
addressed to the Three Venerable Rulers1', T'ai-shang san-kwan-king
:& _h H la $a?- This is a complete treatise on the subject, and
comprises three parts. The first gives the origin of the "Three
Rulers", and the advantages derived from worshipping them. The
second quotes various instances of favours obtained through their
intercession, while the third contains a collection of formularies
employed in worshipping them. A few extracts from this curious
treatise will interest the general reader.
§ I-
Origin and apotheosis of the "Three Rulers".
The "Three Rulers", San-kwan j£ ^, were three mortals,
whose father bore the name of Ch'en Tze-ch'un (^ ^ ||ji, or Ch'en-
lang |5jj| J||'$. He was wonderfully intelligent and handsome, so much
so that the three daughters of the Naga king, Lung-wang f| 3E (2),
became enamoured of him, and chose to abide in his home. Here,
(1) According to Edkins, the "Three Rulers" were originallj' vast periods
of time, like a geological epoch, but were subsequently personified and
deified. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 115. — The third phase described here
by the Author shows they were also embodied in living persons, who were
subsequently deified.
(2) The Dragon-king, Lung-wang fjg 3E- the Neptune of the Chinese.
His palace is at the bottom of the ocean, North of Mount Meru. Williams.
Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
4
— 26 —
they brought forth each a son, the eldest known as the "Highest
Principle", the second called the "Mediate Principle", and the third
the "Inferior Principle".
They were exceedingly handsome and well-built, of unbounded
kindness and compassion towards all those that suffered, and endowed
with superhuman powers, whereby they performed the most wondrous
feats. Their keen intelligence penetrated the secrets of "Heaven
and Earth"; no sooner did they point out their finger than mountains
vanished, pools of water dried up, and mortals scaled the heavenly
mansions. They had but to spit out, and the waters rose one
hundred thousand feet ; they commanded the winds and clouds,
healed all diseases, and made ferocious tigers serve them as a
mount (1). The genii of rivers, lakes, seas, mountains, and the
hidden treasures of the earth, the gods of husbandry and grain, the
rulers of the waters and of Hades, all treated them with the utmost
deference and honour.
The "Beginning, honoured of Heaven", Yuen-shi t'ien-tsun 7^
jtfj ^R. ^ (2), considering their sublime virtues, and the general
esteem in which they were held, canonized them under the title of
the "Three Great Rulers of Heaven, Earth and Water", rewarding
the good and punishing the wicked, ruling over all beings, gods
and demons, in the three regions of the universe (3).
Their kindness towards all classes of persons, and their
compassion for relieving those who suffer are really unbounded.
You, poor miserable folks, ill clad and destitute of worldly
comfort, weighed down beneath the burden of labour and affliction,
(1) Several Chinese gods, Immortals, exorcists and demon-expellers are
represented riding on tigers. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 702-703.
(2) See on this fanciful god, the first of the Taoist Triad. Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. III. p. 232, 234. -Vol. VI. p. 11.
(3) The three regions of existence are, according to the Taoists, heaven,
earth and the waters: according to the Buddhists, the regions of earthly
longings, of form and formlessness (this latter place is the ante-chamber to
Nirvana). Chinese Superstitions. Vol. I. p. 37. note 1. — Vol. A*, p. 581.
note 1.
— 27 —
keep abstinence, and having taken a purifying bath, recite a thousand
times the prayer in honour of the "Ruler of Heaven".
This all-powerful deity will then grant you happiness, T'ion-
kwan sze-fuh ^ ^ ^ fg; you will enjoy meat and drink in abun-
dance ; you shall no further endure hunger, cold or fatigue, but will
spend the remainder of your life in joy and prosperit}\
As to you, living beings, wandering shades or disembodied
spirits undergoing the torments of Hades ; you who are victims of
calumny or harassed by malignant demons (1), imprisoned in the
abodes of darkness, without hope of release, if you recite a thousand
times the prayer in honour of the "Ruler of Earth", your offences
will be effaced, Ti-kwa.il slieh-tsui ffe ^ t$C IP-
This merciful god remits the punishment of the living and the
dead; all wandering spirits, and those shut up in Hades will be
released. The living will then enjoy untold happiness, and the
dead will ascend to the higher regions (2).
If owing to an unhappy destiny, a home is deprived of a parent;
if the mother and children are ill ; if newly married folks displease
their elders ; if members of a household suffer from long illness and
misfortune ; in fine if all the malignant stars of the firmament are
arrayed against them (3), and overwhelm them with adversity ; nay
more were all the elements conjured up against them, and heaven
itself headless to their cries, let them recite a thousand times the
prayer in honour of the "Ruler of Water", and they shall be
delivered, Shui-kwan kiai-ngoh 7fc la $? /jl
!/,
V-
This powerful god will rescue them from all evil. Lucky stars
will beam on the horizon, and malignant ones will retrograde in the
(1) See charm delivering from these malignant demons. Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. I. p. 90.
(2) Taoists place souls after death amidst the stars, ordinarily around
the Polar Star. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. I. Preface, p. III.
(3) See on these malignant stars. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. IV. p. 398
(The stars Ku and Hsu).
(4) Ngoh Jfl, harm, distress, that which is fated to happen one. Williams.
Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
— 28 —
heavens ; all illness will be banished from the family, its members
will enjoy good health and live to a fine old age.
The above is an exquisite specimen of Taoist charlatanry.
Nothing is omitted therein, neither the origin of the three mythical
personages, nor their transcendent powers, nor the advantages to be
derived from worshipping them. Moreover, the special favours
which they bestow upon mortals are graphically set forth.
The Ruler of Heaven grants happiness (1) 5^ *g" % |g.
The Ruler of Earth remits sin % ^ #C P-
The Ruler of Water delivers from evil 7K ll" $? /&•
§ II.
Favours obtained through their intercession.
The following one, selected from among many, will be quite
sufficient for our purpose.
In the prefecture of Chung Chow fc >)]], in Szech'wan \m J||,
lived two men, named respectively Chow Heng-hsing |§J jg %f, and
Chow Heng-chang j^J fs ^", both heads of families, comprising in
all thirty-five members. In the fifteenth year of Hung-wus -^t |^
reign (A.D. 1383), the whole family suffered from a contagious
disease, due, it was deemed to the Ruler of the Taoist Hades,
Fung-tu J|f %$ (2), wandering ghosts and other malignant demons.
One of the sons, named Lung-sun [^ ^, had so far escaped,
but his hair was unkempt and he had no shoes to wear. On the
first day of the seventh month, three Taoist hermits offered him the
prayer in honour of the "Three Venerable Rulers", T'ai-shang san-
Itwan-hing -fa JL H la H?> and taught him how to recite it. Scarcely
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. IV. p. 435 (Slips of paper, bearing
the image of this god, are pasted over the door on New Year's day).
(2) Fung-tu j| #p, in Taoist lore means the underworld, where the souls
of the dead are assembled. All this doctrine is largely borrowed from Bud-
dhism. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 603. note 2. — Chavannes. Le
T'ai-chan. p. 95.
— 29 —
had he repeated it for the tenth time than the patients felt much
improved, and when he had reached the one hundredth mark, all
had completely recovered. The three Taoist hermits were none
others than the "Three Great Rulers", San-kwan ta-ti H la ;fc 'Fff,
who visited the' earth, for the purpose of instructing mortals and
delivering from evil (1).
§ III.
Prayer in honour of the "Three Rulers", San-kwan j"£ flf.
Our Taoist writer lays down at first the proper dispositions
preparatory to reciting the prayer, and then gives the full text of
this famous formulary.
a) With regard to the dispositions required, abstinence should
be previously kept (2). The devotee should also well rehearse the
prayer, be decently attired, and entertain great singleness of purpose.
While in the act of reciting it, all the words should be well articu-
lated, talking with others avoided, due respect interior and exterior
maintained, and thus the request will be infallibly secured.
b) Preparatory prayers.
1°. Prayer for cleansing the heart.
2°. Prayer for purifying the mouth.
3". Prayer for purifying the body.
4°. Prayer for appeasing the local God of the Soil, T'u-ti
(1) The function of all the higher divinities is one of instruction, and
benevolent interference for the good of humanity. Edkins. Religion in China,
p. 113.
(2) See on abstinence in honour of the "Three Principles*'. Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. IVr. p. 451. note 3.
(3) T'u-ti-shen ±. it #, or T'li-ti lao-yeh j± ifc % jjt, an agricultural
divinity, the local God of the Soil. He is worshipped on the second day of
the second month. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language. —Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 570.
ness.
— 30 —
5°. Prayer for purifying "Heaven and Earth" of all unclean-
6°. Prayer to be used when offering incense.
7°. Prayer for invoking the holy name of the "Pearly
Emperor", Yuh-hwang ^ Jl (1).
c) Efficacious prayer in honour of the "Three Rulers", San-
ftwan 5i fa-
For the sake of brevity, it is deemed advisable to give here only
the part addressed to the "Ruler of Heaven", the highest personage
of this Taoist Triad. The specimen selected will convey to the
general reader an adequate idea of these prayers.
"To thee 1 offer my whole life, thee do I worship in thy palace
of the Polar Star, T:e-wei ^ ^ (2), the heavenly capital of the world
above. Ruler of the thirty-six kinds of beings, sovereign of ninety
million subjects, supreme lord of the thousand regions of the
universe; thou that bearest in thy hands the list of the rulers of
the earth, and blessest all living beings; thou that keepest the records
of all good and evil deeds, and fillest the world with thy benefits.
At thy bidding, Immortals are raised or humbled in the dust. To the
just afflicted, thou bringest deliverance, and to the sinner forgiveness;
thou art the saviour of the living and the dead, and the rescuer of
souls out of Hades (3). Strength of the living, providing for the
needs of insects and animals, thou art most merciful, kind and
holy. 0 Supreme Ruler! we beg thee to bestow happiness upon
us from thy palace of the Polar Star, T:e-wei ^ |^, in the highest
heavens".
(1) See on the "Pearly Emperor". Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. p.
315. note 2.— Vol. V. p. 515. note 3; p. GOO. Eleventh month, 6* day.
(2) Tze-wei % $£, royal stars in the Dipper, and other circumpolar stars.
Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
(3) All the sentiments here ascribed to this fabulous "Ruler of Heaven"
are borrowed from Buddhism. The placing of his palace in the Polar Ste
peculiarly Taoist. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. I. Preface, p. III.
tar is
— 31 —
IVth Phase.
The Three Legendary Rulers : Yao, Slum and YiX jig ^ ^ (1).
Buddhist monks have also worked on their side, and elaborated
their own special system. Instead of abstract Principles or Periods,
they have set up the three legendary rulers of China's primitive
times: Yao ffe, Shun |$, and YiX fjj. Audaces Fortunn jurat, says
the Poet, "Fortune smiles on those who dare".
As these ancient rulers are held in high esteem by the Chinese, A
the literati fully approved of the above step, and ilocked to worship
and offer incense in Buddhist temples, which thus became renowned
in the eyes of all.
These three rulers being so well known in China, we shall here
deal only with the leading features of their lives.
1°. Yao % (B.C. 2357-2255)— This legendary ruler stands at
the dawn of Chinese history as the model of all wisdom and virtue.
His surname was Ki j}|5, and his name Fang-hsiln jjfc jfjj. He
ascended the throne on B.C. 2357, being then only sixteen years of
age. He fixed his Court at P'ing-yang 2ji |^, in Shansi [Jj |7f •
His reign was peaceful throughout, and only disturbed by a great
flood, probably an overflow of the Fen-ho -ft -jpj, or the Yellow river,
still unsettled in its channel (2).
Under his direction, two astronomers, II si ||| and //wo 7ft],
observed the rising and setting of the sun, the phases of the moon,
(1) Yao, Shun and Yil form a legendary monarchical triad, representing
sdom, benevolence, and devotion to duty. They were idealized and offered
to all sovereigns as models, in order to win them from indolence and self-
indulgence, and stimulate them to a faithful discharge of their duties. Legge.
Preface to the Shu-Icing ^ £«, or Book of Records, p. 65.
(2) Gutzlaff, Morrison, and other English and Scotch missionaries
confused this inundation with the Hood of Noah. Legge scourges them
mercilessly in his preface to the Shu-king U? £1, or Bool? of Records. The
Chinese Classics. Vol. 111. Preface, p. 74.
wi
— 32 —
and the planetary revolutions (I). He thus compiled a general
calendar, with a year of about three hundred and sixty six days,
and the four seasons adapted for the guidance of the people in
the cultivation of the land.
Hearing of the great filial piety of Shun f|, then a youth of
twenty, he summoned him from the fields, and made him his
associate in the government of the country. Before dying, he estab-
lished him his successor, and gave him his two daughters in mar-
riage (2). Yao ^§ reigned 99 years, and died at the venerable age
of 1 15 .
2°. Shun ^ (B.C. 2255-2205) — Shun, after mourning for
Yao during three years, succeeded him on the throne, and rivalled
him through his brilliant virtues. His personal name was Ch'ung-
hwa Jl Ijjl, and he was also designated Yix Jf| (3). His father, a
blind old man, took a second wife, and preferred the offspring of
this second union to his eldest son. Shun, however, lessened in
nowise his dutiful conduct towards his father, step-mother and
half-brother (4). Still, they sought to bring about his death, by
setting fire to his house and closing up a well into which he
descended (5), but he was always miraculously preserved.
(1) The Canon of Yao, Yao-tien HI $.-■ A chapter of the Book of Records.
Legge's Chinese Classics. Vol. III. p. 18-19.
(2) The Canon of Yao, Yao-tien HI Jflf.. Legge's Chinese Classics. Vol.
111. p. 26-27.— See their names. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 589. Sixth
month, 6t]l day.
(3) Canon of Shun, Shun-tien ffc *. Legge's Chinese Classics. Vol. III.
p. 29. — Yil jUg, a region in modern Honan vnTl^j, but by others referred to the
territory of Yii-yao f£ #|s, in modern Chekiang $f *#• Mayers. Chinese
Reader's Manual, p. 189.
\ His father was obstinately unprincipled, his step-mother was insin-
cere, his half-brother, named Siang ^, was arrogant. Canon of Yao, Yao-
tien ^ J&. Legge's Chinese Classics. Vol. III. p. 26.
(5) Shun's parents hated him. They made him plaster a granary, and
set fire to it from beneath. They also made him deepen a well, and filled it with
stones from above. He escaped by the side. Note in Annals of the Bamboo
Books. Chuh-shu-ki % 11 $6- Legge's Chinese Classics. Vol. III. p. 114.
— 33 —
In his twentieth year, Yao, struck by his filial piety, made him
his associate on the throne. Daring his reign, several aboriginal
tribes submitted of their own accord to his sway. He appointed
YiL ^ as his Superintendent of Works, entrusted him with draining
off the waters and canalising the rivers, and subsequently made
him his successor on the throne.
Shun ^ reigned 48 years, and died at the age of 110, whilst he
was making a visit of the empire. He was buried at Ts'ang-wu^
Ijk, on the Kiu-i hills, Kiu-i-shan Ji ^ [\] (1), in South-West
Shansi \\] "jJf.
3°. Yu $j (B.C. 2205-2197) — YiL ^ was the son of Earl
Kwen, Kwen-peh $}% f£, lord of Ts'ung ^, by his wife Siu-ki f|j£
Q. He received at birth the name of Wen-ming ~$£ ^ (2). When
Kwen f§£ failed to drain off the waters, Yu ff| was chosen to complete
the work. So devoted was he to his task, that he took heed neither
of food nor clothing, and thrice passed by his home without entering,
or visiting his infant son whose wailing he heard (3). In the space
of nine years he brought the waters under control (4), and divided
the country into nine provinces, defining their boundaries, their
productions, and the amount of revenue they had to pay to the
government.
In B.C. 2224, Shun •$. made him co-regent of the empire, and
recognized him as his successor to the exclusion of his own sons.
When Shun ^ died, Yu f|| mourned for him during three years.
(1) Kiu-i-shan Jl £fe iJj . The hill of nine summits. It forms part of the
range between the Yellow River and Fen River, and is noted as the burial
place of Shun. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
(2) Counsels of the Great Yu, Ta-yu-mu ^ ^ fj|. Legge's Chinese-
Classics. Vol. III. p. 52.
(3) Yih and Tsih ^ $1, chapters of the Book of Records, Shu-king j| &«".
Legge's Chinese Classics. Vol. III. p. 85.— Mencius. Book III. P.I. Ch. 4. n° 7.
Legge. The Works of Mencius. p. 208.
(4) The labours of Yu ^ are not historical, but mythical. They were
continued for hundreds of years afterwards. Legge. Preface to the Shu-king
m M- P- 76.
5
— 34 —
In the eighth year of his reign, he toured the empire, and held a
-rand assembly of nobles at Ilwei-h'i -§" ^, in modern Chekiang
fflj }[-, where he put to death the chief of Fang-fung, Fang-fung-shi
pj JU, J£, who arrived after the appointed time (1).
When passing near the T'ai-hu ^c -$j, or Great Lake, in North
Chekiang -jjfj- yX, a man named l-lih f|g |^ (the fabled inventor of
wine) offered him some native wine, which he tasted, found agreeable
to the palate, and then added : days will come, when some of my
successors through drinking this, will cause untold sorrow to the
nation. He then sent I-tih jjjfe fyfc into exile, and forbade the use of
wine (2).
Fit -ff| died at the age of 100, and was buried at the foot of the
Shang-mao hills, near Shao-hsing-fu $g M ffi, in Chekiang $ft ^Q.
YiX ^ is deemed to be the founder of the Hsia JJ dynasty.
During the reign of the above three rulers, the succession to
the throne was not hereditary, but the fittest and most capable
minister was chosen to govern the State. Under the Hsia J|
dynasty, the succession became hereditary.
APPENDIX.
The Three Genii of the Wu State.
Wu-h'oh san-chen-kun ^ ^ £ | g (3).
The three genii of the Wu State, Wu-k'oh san-chen-kiln J%.
^£|S, have also been canonized under the title of the "Three
(1) Annals of the Bamboo Books, Chuh-shu-lti ft #£E. Legge's Chinese
Classics. Vol. III. p. 118.
(2) Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 74 (I-tih f| 3J&). — Mr Gowan.
Imperial History of China, p. 20 (Reign of Yu). *
(3) The Wu State, Wu-kwoh J& g (B.C. 1122-473). The Eastern of the
three ancient States of China. It comprised Kictngsu ft S£, Chekiang $f ft,
parts of Nganhwei £ $fc, and Kiangsi ft H, as far as the P'o-yang lake $f
Wj Wi- Soochow H jH-| was its capital. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese
Language.
— 35 —
Principles", and hence a brief account of them may be included in
this article.
The first was called T'ang-hung ^ £. He was surnamed
Wen-ming ~t£ B£j, and was born on the 21st day of the 7th month.
The second bore the name of Koh-yung ^ |g. His surname
was Wen-tu ~$£ /|r, and he was born on the 13th of the 2nd month.
The third was called Chow-wu JrJ 1f^- His surname was Wen-
hang -$£ pi), and he was born on the 3rd of the 10th month.
These three personages held the office of censor under king Li,
Li-wang ^ ]£ (B.C. 878-827), of the Chow ffl dynasty. This ruler
neglected State affairs, and spent his time indulging in the pleasures
of the chase. Remonstrances were made by the censors, but proved
of no avail, hence they resolved to quit their country, and seek
refuge in the Wu ^L State, where the reigning prince received them
with the greatest courtesy. Meanwhile, the ruler of Ck'u 5q| (1),
declared war against the Wu J% State. On this occasion, the three
censors gallantly fought for their new country, and won the day
against the invaders. Hereupon, the ruler of Wu ^, wishing to
reward them, offered them the highest dignities in the State, but
they constantly refused, on the plea that they were strangers to the
country and ignorant of its customs.
Soon afterwards, on learning that king Siien, Silen-wang W
3E. na(i succeeded Li |§j on the throne, they returned to their native
country, where they were restored to their former rank of censor.
They subsequently became the mainstay of the realm, and together
with the Gods of the Five Directions, Wu-fang-shen 3£ ft f$,
whom they won over to their side, they delivered the people from
all evil and misfortune. The ruler bestowed on them the feudal
estate of Tung-yuen iff ig:, and the honorary title of Marquis, Heu
(1) Ch'u ^. This State existed from B.C. 740-330, under the rule of 20
princes. It occupied Hukioang, and parts of Honan and Kiangsu. Its capital
was Kingchow-fu $1) ffl Iff, in Western Hupeh. Williams. Dictionary of the
Chinese Language.
— 36 —
fi|. People, who lived on their lands, enjoyed unwonted prosperity
and happiness.
When the emperor Chen-tsung jg 9*, of the Northern Sung,
Peh-Sung 4fc %, dynasty, went in state to T'ai-shan ^ iJj (1), for
the purpose of sacrificing to heaven, Fung-shen $% jpf (2), on this
sacred mountain (A.D. 1008), these three mysterious beings appeared
to him at the "heavenly gate", T'ien-men ^ ["j (3), and assured
him they were sent from on high to afford him protection. On the
occasion of this apparition, he canonized them, and bestowed on
them the following honorary titles.
T'ang-hung H ^ Venerable Supreme Principle.
Koh-yung J| |f£ Venerable Mediate Principle.
Chow-wu j^J ^ Venerable Inferior Principle.
The emperor composed a eulogy of them, and had it inscribed
on a stone-slab. He also erected a temple in order to honour
them (4). The Imperial favour conferred on all three the power of
ruling "heaven, earth and water*'; in fact, they were assimilated
to the "Three Rulers", San-kwan j£ ^, described above.
(1) T'ai-shan ^ Jjj, literally the "Great Mountain". A sacred mountain
in Shantung, anciently regarded as a divinity, and raised by a Sung 5j5 emperor
to the rank of "Equal of Heaven". A temple dedicated to the "Pearly
Kmperor", Yuh-hivang 3E JL the supreme god of the Taoists, is on the
summit, as well as a Confucian temple, erected in 1714. Chavannes. Le T'ai-
chan.— Encyclopaedia Sinica. p. 540.— Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 511.
note 2.
(2) Fung $$. This sacrifice was that anciently offered by Shun $j> to
Shangti _h iff, the genii of hills and rivers, and to all the Spirits. Its purpose
was to announce to heaven the glorious deeds of the reigning prince, and beg
protection on the State. After 1008, such sacrifices were discontinued, as
being highly expensive, connected with many abuses, and a burden to the
people. Chavannes. Le T'ai-chan. p. 22, and 26.
(3) This was the "Southern heavenly gate", Nan-t'ien-men $| ^ P"j.
Chavannes. Le T'ai-chan. p. 45, and 131.
(4) This temple is called the "hall of the three deified marquises", San-
Ung-heu-tien = H ^ $£. Chavannes. Le T'ai-chan. p. 131.
— 37 —
The "General Mirror of the Immortals", Shen-sien t'ung-hien
S$ fllj ;§, fj£, describes them in almost the same terms, adding only
a few details of minor importance. Thus for instance, the ruler of
the Wu .^. State, refusing- at first to receive them, they betook
themselves to the grotto of T'ao-hwa, T'ao-liwa-tung $fc ;j£ -}|jij,
excavated in the sides of the Yuh-yen hills, Yuh-yen-shan 3£ j^ [I],
and were summoned thence when war broke out with the State of
Ch'u ^. At last, when they had vanquished the enemy, they
begged the ruler of Wu ^. to grant them the Ku-k'ii mountain,
Kii-k'u-shan ^J ^ \U (1). There, they lived as hermits provided
for by the ruler, who also frequently visited them personally.
The presence of these transcendent personages overshadowed the
influence of the neighbouring princes. Later on, they repaired to
the Li-li hills, L.i-li-shan |}f| JI [1], also known as the National
hills, Kwoh-shan gj \\], near Ch'angchow-fu ^ >}\] jjrf. As they
arrived, the rock split open and disclosed a spacious grotto large
enough to accomodate a thousand persons. In the centre of this
grotto, a personage lay reclining on a long stone slab. He ordered
them to sit down at his feet, and assured them that when the slab
would ascend in the air, they would be metamorphosed. Hereupon,
they fell into a trance, and became Immortals (2).
(1) Kii-k'u-shan >fe] $J UJ. A hill 30 miles south of Nanking, and sacred
to the genii. In Taoist lore, it is reckoned as the first of the sacred mountains
of the Immortals. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 612. note 4.
(2) General Mirror of the Immortals, Shen-sien t'ung-hien jjj$ f|I| M j|*.
Book V. Art. 4. p. 5.
4->
— 38 —
-@X'K®^
dr
"or
^
CHAPTER II.
GODS PRINCIPALLY WORSHIPPED
BY THE LITERATI (i;
•K-
AETICLE I.
THE GOD OF LITERATURE.
Wen-Ch'ang # || (2).
Wen-ch'ang t£ || is frequently styled the "Prince of Tze-t'ung"
Tze-t'ung-kun ffi ^ ~$, or the God of Tze-t'ung, Tze-t'ung-shen
\!(- \B. $?■ His family name was Chang j;j|.
(1) Confucius will be specially dealt with in Part. HI.
(2) Wen-ch'ang % H. The God of Literature, to whose worship three
storeyed literary pagodas, Wen-pih-t'ah j&! ^ ^i are erected in Southern
China. The star Dubhe (one of the pointers indicating Polaris), in Ursa
Major, is consecrated to him. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
— 40 —
According to a stone slab erected in the Tsing-hsil temple, in
the province of Szech'wan )\\ \m, Wen-ch'ang t£ || was born in
the time of the T'ang j^ dynasty (A.D. 620-907). He was a native
of the State of Yueh ^g, in Chehiang ffi ££, and was called Chang-
J/a UH 5£- He proceeded to Szech'wan [51 J||, and took up his
abode at Tze-t'ung ffi ^jg, where he became famous for his great
learning and intellectual ability. Throughout the province, the
literati considered him as their master. His merit caused him to
be promoted to the dignity of President of Rites, but he did not
fulfil long the duties of his office, and withdrew into private life.
The inhabitants of Szech'wan (/y J|j, filled with admiration for his
talent and virtue, erected the temple of Tsing-hsii in order to honour
him, and placed over the portal the inscription, "temple of the
Prince of Tze-t'ung".
According to a notice found in the Work, "Researches in
General History", Wen-hsien t'ung-hao vj£ j^ 3J{| ^ (1), and the
Annals of the Sung dynasty, Sung-shi ^ j£, the God of Tze-t'ung,
Tze-t'ung-shen ££ }|| 7$$, whose surname is Chang Ya-tze jjj| ]}£ ^,
was an official in the time of the Tsin ^ dynasty (A.D. 265-420),
and fell in battle. Later on, a temple was erected in order to
honour him. HsiXen-tsung ;£ ^ (A.D. 713-756), of the T'ang j^
dynasty, conferred on him the posthumous title of President of the
Board of Rites, while Hsi-tsung || ^ (A.D. 874-889), of the same
dynasty, canonized him as a special god, Ti tffr (2).
(1) Wen-hsien t'ung-kao % |ff jj§ ^. An extensive work, compiled by
Ma Tuan-lin \T:} $$} £,&. It comprises 348 volumes, and extends from the origin
of the Chinese nation to the early part of the 13lh century. A supplement
was added in 158G, and a new and revised edition published in 1772. Wylie.
Notes on Chinese Literature, p. 69.
(2) Ti *$-. A god, a divine being, a deity supreme in one department or
endowed with a peculiar attribute, as Kwan-ti |i$ iff, the god of War ; Wen-
ch'ang-ti ^C H iff, the god of Literature. Shang-ti _h iff, the Supreme
Ruler. Taoists have degraded the term by making many Shangtis, among
whom the "Pearly Emperor", Yuh-hwang Shang-ti 3E M. _h iff> and also
applying it to heroes and genii. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Lan-
guage.
— 41 —
Chen-tsung jg ^ (A.D. 998-1023), of the Northern Sung-,
Peh-Sung 4b $~, dynasty, had to repress the revolt of Wang-kiln
3: i£j, who seized the city of Ch'eng-tu ^ %$, in Szech'wan [JO, J||.
General Lei Yiu-tsung fjf ^f $£• ordered to shoot arrows into the
place, with a message requesting the inhabitants to surrender.
Suddenly a man appeared on the top of a wall, and pointing out
the rebels, exclaimed: "the God of Tze-t'ung, Tze-t'ung-shen ^ jg
^, begs me inform you that the city will fall into the hands of the
invaders on the twentieth day of the ninth month, and all the
inhabitants will be put to the sword".
Endeavours were made to discover this prophet of evil, but in
vain. In fact, the city was taken on the very dav announced.
The General, in thanksgiving, had the temple of Tze-t'ung j^ |g
restored, and the official dress and ritual utensils prepared for
sacrificing to the god.
From an extract in the "Ritual Records of the Ming Annals",
Ming-shi li-chi 0£j cb_ jjf| j±^, the God of Tze-t'ung ffi $g was
surnamed Chang Ya-tze jjj| 55. -?, and lived in the Ts'ih-k'ii hills,
Ts'ih-k'u-shan Jfc f}tj (Jj , in Szech'wan 0 )\\. Amidst these hills,
some eight miles North of the district town of Tze-t'ung, Tze-t'ung-
hsien ^ ^t j§£, is found the temple of "Efficacious Help", Ling-
ying-miao WL M M (*)i dedicated to Chang Ya-tze (Jft JuL *?, the
God of Tze-t'ung ^ -^. Other writers state that he lived in the
Yueh-hsi hills, in the prefecture of Ning-yuen-fu ^ ^ ffi, in
Szech'wan [Jt| J||, whither he proceeded in order to avenge the
death of his mother.
He held an official position in the time of the Tsin ^J dynasty
(A.D. 265-/>20), and was killed in battle. The inhabitants of
Szech'wan [53 )\\ erected a temple in his honour. Emperors of the
T'ang J^ and Sung $z dynasties bestowed on him various titles,
among others that of "Magnificent and Unrivalled Prince". Taoists
(1) Ling H, effective, powerful, supernatural. Ying jg, an answer, a
response, that which comes as expected. Miao /#f, a temple containing
ancestors or gods, a fane. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
6
— 42 —
have made him the ruler of man's destiny, the sovereign who dwells
in the constellation of the Great Bear (1), and the dispenser of official
dignities, especially among the literati. The emperors of the Yuen
7C, or Mongol dynasty (A.D. 1280-1368), conferred on him the title of
"Wise Prince", and sacrifices were offered to him in all educational
establishments. This god was specially worshipped in Szech'wan 03
J||. However, we find he is in nowise connected with the constellation
of the Great Bear, hence, he should not be worshipped as a stellar
god, and scholars should cease offering sacrifice in his honour. The
Works quoted above, all agree in saying that Wen-ch'ang ^ || was
surnamed Chang Ya-tze 5i 55 -i1, and lived in the time of the Tsin
H dynasty, or in the fourth century of the Christian era.
A third opinion, based on the Work entitled "Records of
Geographical Changes'1, Tuh-shi fang-yu ki-yao^ ^ tUSI (2)<
states that he was worshipped in Szech'wan H J||, after that
province had been subdued by king Chao-siang HS H (B.C. 255-206),
of the short-lived Ts'in |jf dynasty. Such a statement would place the
date of his birth 900 years earlier than that indicated in the Szecli'wan
slab. Who can tell us which of the dates is the genuine one?
The above is all that it has been possible to glean, with some
approximation to historical truth, in the numerous biographies
written by Chinese authors on this god of the literati (3).
(1) The star Dubhe (one of the pointers indicating Polaris), in Ursa
Major, is consecrated to him, hence he is deemed to have his palace in the
Great Bear. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
(2) Records of Geographical Changes, Tuh-shi fang-yu hi-yao ff jfe ~Jf $1
£11 !<• A collection in 9 books of all geographical changes, which have taken
place in China from the earliest times down to the 17th century, intended as a
guide to the perusal of native histories. Wylie. Notes on Chinese Literature, p. 63.
(3) Summing up what seems to be fairly historical, we have the following
facts with reference to this god. He was originally named Chang-ya Jg 55,
lived under the T'ang Jjtf dynasty (8^ century), and took up his abode at Tze-
t'ung %$ :jf$, in Szech'wan [70, Jl|, where he was subsequently worshipped as a
god. He was a brilliant writer, and held an appointment in the Board of
Rites. In his latter days he suddenly disappeared, or was killed in battle.
Rulers of the T'ang JJ dynasty canonized him, while those of the Sung 5fc
and Yuen 7c dynasties bestowed on him various other honorary titles.
Fig;. 7
Tablette de Wen tchang.
Tablet of Wen Chang (Ike God of Literature).
— 43 —
We shall now set forth the fabulous and legendary tales
connected with the life of this curious god. Wen-ch'ang t£ || is
the name of a constellation in or near the Great Bear (1). This
stellar group comprises 6 stars, which Taoists have deified and
made stellar-gods.
1st star — Generalissimo and President of the Board of War.
2nd star — Generalissimo and President of the East and West
quadrants.
3rd star — Prime Minister, Intendant of Literature.
4lh star — Lord Treasurer, bestowing rewards and official
promotion.
5th star — Controller of life, and remitter of sins.
6th star — Lord Chief Justice, conferring blessings and favours.
According to the fanciful tenets of Taoism, literature prospers
when the star Wen-ch'ang "^ ^ shines brightly in the heavens.
The Supreme Ruler, Shang-ti J^ 'rfn entrusted the care of Wen-
ch'ang's palace, and the distribution of literary honours to the son
of Chang ijj|. The title of special god, Ti ^ (2), was conferred on
Wen-ch'ang t{j; || by the Yuen j£, or Mongol emperors. He is
called the "god of Tze-t'ung", Tze-t'ung-shen ffi jj| f$, because he
lived formerly in the district of Tze-t'ung ffi ^, and was there
worshipped by the literati and people, who erected temples in his
honour.
The Wen-ti Annals, Wen-ti pen-chwan ^C ^ 7J5i %, and the
Book of Transformation, Hwa-shu ffc ^ (3), describe 17 descents of
this stellar god. For the sake of brevity, we shall set forth only
the principal ones, so as to give the reader an idea of these fanciful
extravagances.
(1) According to Williams, the star Dubhe (one of the pointers indicating
Polaris), in Lrsa Major, is consecrated to him. Williams. Dictionary of
the Chinese Language.
(2) See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 40. note 2.
(3) The Book of Transformation, Hwa-shu ft §. Written by T'an-ts'iao
|f pit, in the early part of the 10'h century. It is an ethical treatise, strongly
impregnated with Taoist fancies. Wylie. Notes on Chinese Literature, p. 158.
— 44 —
1st Descent. — In the time of King Wu, Wu-wang j£ 3£,
founder of the Chow ffl dynasty (B.C. 1122), the stellar-god Wen-
ch'ang % || descended, and took the name of Chang Shen-hsiln
ijj| H j||j. At Wu-wei j^ j^, there lived a man called Chang the
Elder, Chang-lno <Jft $Z- He was fifty years old, and so far had no
male children. One night, as the stars shone out brightly in the
heavens, a meteoric glare appeared in the air, and the star Chang-siu
3JI ^f, controller of the heavenly kitchens and pantry, attracted by
the similarity of family names, descended into the womb of Chang's
wife. The old lady dreamt that she swallowed a pearl (1), and
finding herself with child, brought him forth in due time, and had
him called Shen-hsiln ^f ]f{f. He lived in great poverty, and
cultivated a little patch of land in order to eke out a scanty livelihood.
One day, he unearthed a golden image of the "Beginning honoured
of Heaven", Yuen-shi t'ien-tsun j£ jfe % 1§: (2). The image weighed
about thirty catties (3), and was cast by the Great Yii, Ta-yu ^ ^§|.
Perceiving a strong tidal wave approach, Shen-hsiln || iijj threw
the image into the sea, whereupon the wind suddenly changed, and
prevented the waves from injuring the inhabitants of the coast. The
prodigy was attributed to the transcendent power of Shen-hsiln ^j|
H)j, and henceforth gifts flowed in abundantly. Vegetables and
pieces of fine cloth were received daily, and thus the family soon
emerged from its poverty. Shen-hsiln ^ f|jj fished up the image
from the sand, and placed it in a shrine, where it became the object
of general veneration.
The daughter of a neighbouring farmer, named Chung, had
been promised to Chang <jj| by an uncle, but the father strenuously
(1) The Annals of the Bamboo Books, Chuh-shu-ki sft ^ $£, record that
the mother of Yii the Great, Ta-yu -fc :jg, also saw a falling star, dreamt she
swallowed a spiritual pearl, and thereupon became pregnant. Legge. The
Chinese Classics. Vol. III. P.I. p. 117.
(2) The highest personage of the Taoist Triad. See above. Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 11.
(3) Catty, a Chinese weight called Kin )f, equal to li lbs avoirdupois.
Encyclopaedia Sinica. p. 85.
— 45 —
opposed such a union. Soon afterwards, the girl began to pine
away, and finally died of grief. Shen-hsiXn ^j| §jj determined to
visit her grave, and lo ! on hearing his voice, she came forth from the
coffin, whereupon he took her home, and made her his lawful wife.
In due time, they were blessed with a son, who received the name
of Yuen-shih |^j ^g".
The golden image rewarded him also with the work Ta-tung
fah-luh ^ |pj iSc H£> a valuable collection of medical nostrums,
written charms, and remedies for curing all kinds of disease (1).
Thanks to this guide, he became in six years a renowned doctor,
and king Ch'eng, Ch'eng-wang ^ ^£ (B.C. 1115-1078), summoned
him to the Court as Imperial physician.
He fulfilled the office of Imperial censor during ten years, after
which he resigned, and returning to his native home, died there in
peace. In the latter years of his life, he visited the Kiin hills,
Kun-shan, near the Tung-t'ing lake, Tung-t'ing-hu -j[jij JH $Jj (2).
The Supreme Ruler, Shang-ti J^ ^, conferred on him the two
honorary titles, "Lord of the Kiin hills", and "Celestial Patron of
the Tung-t'ing Lake".
2nd Descent. — During the reign of king Hsiien, HsiXen-wang
M. 3E (B.C. 827-781), Wen-ch'ang ^ || descended under the name
of Chang Chung-sze ijj| ,§, fjji), or Chang-chung ;jj| ftji. This mira-
culous event happened in the following manner. While he abode
in the Kiin hills, Kiln-shan, near the Tung-t'ing lake, Tung-t'ing-
hu -j[^ JH $Jj, a widow named Chang ^, whose maiden name was
Hwang ^, with child by her late husband, came to offer sacrifice
on these hills, begging at the same time to be blessed with a male
child. Upon hearing this prayer, Wen-ch'ang ~$£ || felt moved,
and imperceptibly his corporeal form entered the womb of this
(1) See on written charms and nostrums for curing all kinds of disease.
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. II. and 111.
(2) The Tung-t'ing lake, Tung-t'ing-hu P 0 $j. The largest fresh-water
expanse in China, and the last remnant of an immense inland sea. It is 75
miles long by 60 broad in summer, while in winter, it is but a marsh through
which flow several streams. It lies in Xorth-East Hunan.
— 46 —
woman. Some time afterwards, he heard the following words
uttered: "it is a male child-1. The next time he opened his eyes, he
found himself born into the world, and enjoying- the first bath which
Chinese children undergo after birth.
His father, whose surname was Wu-ki 4ffi &, happened to be
Imperial tutor, but was disgraced owing to his having advised to
abolish the law punishing those who censured the ruler. For this
he was banished to the South, in a place near Canton. Soon
afterwards, an Imperial decree appointed Chang Chung-sze ^ *& jjgji]
to the charge vacated by his father. Having fulfilled it to the best of
his ability, he was promoted finally to the dignity of Prime Minister.
Chung ftb had two sons, the eldest named Jan-nxing, and the
second Meu-yang . Chung ftb was really a man of transcendent virtue.
When young, he was on intimate terms with the heir-apparent,
subsequently known as king Yiu, Yiu-wang |^| 3E (B.C. 781).
When the new ruler ascended the throne, he invited Chung fth to
the Imperial table, and poisoned the meats served up to him (1).
The disembodied shade of the victim wandered on all sides, and was
heard wailing for three days at the Eastern gate of the palace. The
king, taking him for a revengeful spirit, shot arrows at the place
where the wailing was heard, whereupon Chung's ghost fled to
Western Szech'wan |7Lj J||, and took up its abode amidst the snow-
clad peaks of the country. The Supreme Ruler, Shang-ti J^ >$?,
conferred on him the twofold title of "Genius of the Snowy Peaks",
and "Prince of the mountains of Northern Szech'wan. Hence, he
is generally known as Chang Chung-sze 3j| fe pj, or the "Genius
of the Northern Frontier".
(1) This king Yiu, Yiu-xoang $| 35, was a thoroughly bad and unprin-
cipled ruler. According to Chinese Annals, Nature itself even showed its
abhorrence of his wicked conduct. The influence of a famous concubine,
Pao-sze 3§ $f,, raised to the rank of consort, incited him also to the wildest
acts of folly. At the end of his reign, most of the feudal princes refused to
acknowledge him as their suzerain. Henceforth, the Chow Jg| dynasty advan-
ced fast towards its final ruin. iVF Gowan. Imperial History of China,
p. 55. -Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 108.
— 47 —
3rd Descent. — - Under the reign of king King-, King-wang ^ ^
(B.C. 519-475), of the Chow jf dynasty, Wen-ch'ang £ || descended
for the third time from the Polar regions, and appeared to mortals
under the name of Chung-kung-tze ch'ang ftfa ^ -^ -J|. The feudal
prince of Ts'in ||f (1) contemplated invading Szech'wan pt| )\\, but
as no roads existed, he could not take thither his troops. He,
therefore, had recourse to a stratagem suggested to him by Sze-rna
Ts'o ff] @| f^p. Five oxen were carved in stone, and after placing
pieces of gold beneath their tails, they were set up near the frontier.
Special scouts were posted in the vicinity to watch the proceedings.
Before a month had elapsed, all the lumps of gold had disappeared,
and were carefully replaced by others. The ruler of Szech'wan pg
)\\ had thus secured in a short time a fine supply of the precious
metal, and finally ordered his Generals to open roads towards the
East, and have the wondrous animals brought to the Court.
Chung-kung-tze ch'ang fth p^ ^f- -^, disguised as a scholar,
presented a memorandum to the ruler, begging him to take heed,
and warning him that the wondrous oxen were a scheme resorted to
by the prince of Ts'in |jj|, his rival, in order to enter the country.
No roads should, therefore, be made, as this would favour the
advance of an invading army. The ruler gave no heed to the good
advice proffered, whereupon Chung-kung-tze ch'ang fth p? ^ -J| left
the country, and the oxen were brought to the Court. The prince
of Ts'in ||| also resolved to make a present of five royal princesses
to the ruler of Szech'wan |7£] J||, and begged him send five high
officials to meet them at the frontier. On this occasion, Chung-
kung-tze ch'ang (th p? ^ -J| presented a second memorandum to
the ruler, stating that such a present would prove fatal to the State.
The ruler, having read it, exclaimed in an angry tone: "this is
(1) Ts'in §f§. A feudal state, which arose with Fci-tze }\- -^ B.C. 897,
and gradually extended over the whole of Shensi and Kctnsu, till in B.C. 221,
under the emperor Shi Hwang-ti i&jt^ifr. it subdued all China, and was called
the Ts'in dynasty, Ts'in-ch'ao j& '$}]. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese
Language.
— 48 —
again Chang Chung-tze j/jf ftb -^ , who presides over the Northern
frontier" (1). So saying, he ordered his soldiers to arrest him, but
Chang i;j| assumed such a threatening aspect that they durst not
lay their hands on him, and withdrew. When the five high officials,
entrusted with receiving the royal princesses, reached the Kien-ling
$|j ffi pass, near Pao-ning-fu ffi ^ ffi, they encountered Chung-
kung-tze ch'ang ftb ^ -^ J|, a short way to the South. He was
of powerful build and lofty stature, and stood astride on the road so
as to frighten the princesses, and compel them to return to their
native country. The five officials, recognizing Chung Kung-tze
ch'ang fib p^ -^ -Jf;, rushed on him with their swords, and pursued
him to the foot of the mountain. They were almost on the point
of seizing him, when all of a sudden striking the mountain with
his head, he caused it to crumble to pieces, crushing beneath its
weight both the officials and the royal princesses. After this won-
drous feat, he disappeared in the direction of Kung-tung.
The above is a legendary and extravagant tale, invented by a
fanciful Taoist, Tao-shi j|| -j^, who lived in feudal days, and
witnessed the sanguinary battles w7aged between rival princes in
those primitive times.
4th Descent. — In the early part of the Former Han dynasty,
Tscien-Han "jf g| (B.C. 206— A. D. 25), Wrn-ch'ang # || appeared
among mortals under the name of Chao-wang jiX-i |f 3£ ^p ^ft (2).
While he abode in the snow-clad mountains of Szech'wan J7D J||,
the Ts'in dynasty, Ts'in-ch'ao ^ 1§\, had passed away (B.C. 206),
rebellions broke out on all sides, and the people were in a state of
(1) See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 46.
(2) Jil-i #p ^, literally, "as you wish". In reality, one of the Saptct-
ratna, or Seven Precious Things, Ts'ih-pao -t ^, a fabulous pearl, a sceptre
or mark of royalty in India. In China, it is a symbol of Buddhism, and gods
bear it in their hand (See Illustration n° 8). It is likewise given at marriages
and to friends for good luck. The Jii-i occurs also in the hands of Taoist
deities, and seems to have been borrowed from Buddhism. Williams. Diction-
ary of the Chinese Language. — Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary (Sapta-
ratna).— Laufer. Jade (A study in Chinese archaeology and religion) p. 339.
;
— 49 —
general consternation. He, therefore, begged the Supreme Ruler,
Shang-ti J^ ^> to allow him to be reborn in order to save the
country. He entered the womb of the Lady Ts'i, whose family
name was Ki, Ts'i-ki ^ ^gf, consort to the emperor Kao-tsu "ffi jj|£
(B.C. 206-194), of the Former Han dynasty, Ts'ien-Han ~ffi ||E.
When he was born, he received the surname of JiX-i ■{$ ^ (1), and
was highly cherished by the emperor, who appointed him prince of
Chao |g (2). Later on, the Dowager Lii, Lit- lieu g Jjjf, put to
death the mother and son (3). Such barbarity, as we shall see later
on, will meet with its condign punishment.
5th Descent. — Under the reign of Hsuen-ti If $? (B.C. 73-48),
of the Former Han dynasty, Ts'ien-Han flif |J|, Wen-ch'ang ~$£ ||
descended for the fifth time to the earth, disguised as a golden
dragon, Kin-seh-sheh -^ ^ jj'g (4). When he recently fell a victim
at the hands of the Dowager Lii, Lu-heu g ,Jjjj, his soul wandered
all over Hades, and filled with hatred towards the woman who cut
short his existence, he awaited the opportunity of avenging himself
on her. Meanwhile, he started on a journey to the West, and on
reaching K'iung Chow J[5 *)]], in Szech'wan P3 )\\, he found there
all the accomplices of the Dowager Lii, Lu-heu § jg", metamor-
phosed into animals and men. His own mother Ts'i-ki jpf^ ffi was
reborn in the same country, and had wedded a poor farmer named
Chang the Elder, Chang-lao ;Jf| ^ (5). Though advanced in years,
(1) See on this name and its symbolism. Chinese Superstitions. Vol.
VI. p. 48. note 2.
(2) Chao 0. An ancient feudal State in the South of Chihli if ^ and
Shansi Ui ]2j. Its capital was the present-day Chao-ch'eng-hsien itft i$ !?£, a
town on the Fen River. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
(3) Before Kaotsu's death, the son of Lady Ts'i was appointed successor
to the throne. No sooner, however, was the emperor dead than the Dowager
Lii had the Lady Ts'i seized, and chopped into a thousand pieces, while her
son was despatched with poison. Mc Gowan. Imperial History of China, p. 92.
(4) Sheh $£, a serpent, a snake. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese
Language.
(5) This Chang the Elder, Chang-lao 5g % ;, is already mentioned in the
first descent of Wen-ch'ang % g. See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol.
VI. p. 44.
7
— 50 —
she had still no son born to her. One day, as she pondered over
this sad condition, she drew from her arm a few drops of blood.
Depositing them in a hollow stone, and covering them with another,
she declared that she would recognize as her offspring whatsoever
living being would be born from these drops of her blood. Wen-
ch'ang "J$£ ||, on hearing such words, was moved with compassion,
and taking up his abode in the blood drops, emerged therefrom the
next day under the shape of a dragon. The animal, on being found
by dame Ts'i jg^, was taken home and fed with her own hands.
When it was about a year old, a horn grew on its forehead (1), and
feet appeared beneath the body (2). Whenever it perceived the
accomplices of the Dowager Lii, Lii-heu g jgf, metamorphosed into
goats, pigs, dogs, cattle or horses (3), they were immediately
devoured. The inhabitants of the country, worried by such
vexations, endeavoured to seize the mischievous dragon, but in
vain ; whereupon they vented their fury upon Chang-lao ^ ^ and
his wife Ts'i Jtj|, and had them both cast into prison. The golden
dragon condensed vapours and clouds, transformed the waters of the
ocean into rain, and deluged therewith the inhabitants of K'iung
Chow Xf$ j'\\- During the downpour, Chang-lao <j)f ^ and his wife
escaped from prison, and were borne to a place of safety on the back
of the dragon. More than five hundred families, comprising in all
a membership of over two thousand, perished in the flood. Among
them, eighty were the personal enemies of Wen-ch'ang tJt ||. The
Supreme Ruler, Shang-ti J^ %?, hearing of the disaster, rebuked
Wen-ch'ang % || for having used the waters of the ocean to take
vengeance on his enemies ; he deprived him also of his honorary
(1) Though the original Chinese character, Cheh j$, means serpent or
snake, the fact of having a horn on the forehead, and the subsequent des-
cription of the animal make it quite resemble a dragon.
(2) The dragon is a legendary four-footed monster. Mayers. Chinese
Reader's Manual.
(3) This metamorphosis of men into animals is a peculiar Buddhist
tenet, which the Taoist writer adopts here.
— 51 —
dignity of "Dragon of K'iung Chow J$ j>\] (1), and degrading him
as a god, banished him to a dried up moat. As the year was
exceptionally dry, the wretched monster could not find a corner
wherein to hide himself from the scorching rays of the sun, so much
so that maggots developed beneath the 84,000 scales that covered
his back. The pen fails to describe what the monster suffered.
6th Descent. — During the reign of Chang-Li ^ ^ (A.D. 76-89),
of the Later Han dynasty, Heu-Han ^ -J|, Wen-clCang t£ ||
appeared once more here below under the name of Chang-hsiin ijjt
j|jj. As described in the previous metamorphosis of the god, he
was deprived of his high dignity of dragon, and banished to a dried
up moat, where he suffered most excruciating tortures. Sakyamuni,
Shili-kiah-fuh ^ fjfjj fjjj} (2), who came to preach his religion to the
Chinese, happened to pass through K'iung Chow J[5 j'\] (3). The
wretched dragon became aware of his arrival, and besought amidst
moans and cries to be delivered. At the same time, he acknowledged
his misdeed, and promised never again to avenge himself. Sakya-
muni, Shih-kiah-fuh |p fff[] fijjj, considering that he repented, forgave
him his fault, but did not restore him to his dignity of a god. He
was enabled, however, to be reborn in human form, and was known
as the son of Chang-yu ^jt 3$|, in the State of Chao ^g (4). Here,
he became district magistrate of Ts'ing-ho |pf -/pj, and later on
prefect of Kwang-p'ing-fu Jpr ^p }ft, in the province of Chihli j|[
(1) See on the "Dragon" as a rain-god, and the fabulous power ascribed
to him by the Chinese. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 685-690.
(2) Sakya»)uni. The historic Buddha, born at Kapilavastu, on the banks
of the modern Kohana. The date of his birth is generally given as B.C. (>22,
though some put it as late as 412. Eitel. Handbook of Chinese Buddhism.
p. 110. — Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 21.
(3) Buddha was born in India 600 years ago, but the fantastic writer
has no regard for historical truth.
(4) Chao jftt. An ancient feudal State in the South of Chihli jg £fc and
Shansi I_L| Bf. Its capital was the present Chao-ch'eng-hsien ift M ilk, a town
on the Fen Biver. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
— 52 —
7th Descent. — Under the reign of Shun- ti jfj ^ (A.D. 126-
145), of the Later Han dynasty, Heu-Han ^ fj|, Wen-ch'ang %.
H descended to our earth, and appeared under the name of Chang
Hsiao-chung ijj| ^ frh. He spent his life in his native place, but
held no official appointment. Shang-ti J^ $, the Supreme Ruler,
promised to restore him to his former dignity of a god. Meanwhile,
he entrusted him with the care of the visible world during the day,
and with that of Hades during night-time (1).
8th Descent. — During the period known as that of the "Three
Kingdoms11, San-kwoh = g} (A.D. 221-265), Wen-ch'ang £ ||
descended for the eighth time, and was reborn at Ho-sholi jpT pj\, in
the prefecture of Hohien-fu */pJ ja] jft, in Chihli jjf[ ^. The time
had arrived at last when he could recover his former dignities.
Teng-ngai %£ 3£, of the Wei State, Wei-hwoh f| g} (A.D. 221-265),
getting to know him, promoted him to a high official position, and
later on appointed him Minister of War. He led the troops in the
expedition against the Kingdom of Shuh, Shuh-kwoh %gj |fj (2), in
Szech'wan 0 J||, and fell there in the battlefield wounded by
several arrow shots.
9th Descent. — Under the reign of Wu-ti jj£ ^ (A.D. 265-290)
of the Western Tsin dynasty, Si-Tsin "j^f §, on the third day of
the second month, Wen-ch'ang ■$£ || descended from on high, and
was born amidst the Kin-ma hills, in the prefecture of Yun-nan-fu
H T^ )rT\ in the province of the same name. His father's name was
Chang ijj|, and his own Fa j}g, or Hu g|, while he bore the surname
(1) The physical superintendence of the world is left by the higher gods
to those of inferior rank. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 113.
(2) Wei §|, Shuh !gj and Wu ^ formed the three petty States known
as the -'Three Kingdoms", .San Kwoh = H- Wei comprised the Central and
Northern provinces, and had for its capital Lohyang % g§. It lasted 59 years.—
Shuh extended to the West, and comprised most of Szech'wan 0 Jl|. Its
capital was Ch'eng-tu Jfc %$.
(3) Wu-ti g£ ifr established his capital at Lohyang J§ ||§, in Honan JuT
1^. His main object was to conquer the Wu kingdom, Wu-kwoh J& |H, and
thus consolidate the empire.
— 53 —
of Hsii-mei ||j H, or P'ang-fu ||| ^. He travelled riding on a
white mule, and abode in a large cavern. Shang-ti J^ 'rfj*, the
Supreme Ruler, entrusted him with the care of the Book of Life, in
which are inscribed the names and dignities of mortals. He
established him also the judge of all literary merit, and empowered
him to grant favours and honours to successful candidates, but
refuse them to those who proved incompetent. In fine, he placed
in his hands even the very lives of the literati.
10th Descent. — In the time of the emperor Min-ti $& <Sf
(A.D. 313-317), of the Western Tsin dynasty, Si-Tsin "g f|, Wen-
ch'ang ~$£ J| descended to our earth, and was reborn in the womb
of a woman named Sieh Hf (1). His two sons, Yuen-sliih jj^j jfi
and Meu-yang *g |^, were later on reborn of the same dame Sieh
f|j\ and all three, father and two sons, held official rank during the
reign of the Tsin ^ rulers.
11th Descent. — Again in the time of Min-ti J|fc ^*, mentioned
above, Wen-ch'ang "^ || appeared here below under the name of
Sieh-ngai fD- 5£. He travelled riding on a white donkey, and abode
at Ho-si. His rare virtues made him conspicuous, and he was
invited to the Court of Cliang-kwei, ruler of the House of Liang |f£,
who bestowed on him an official appointment. Later on, he proceeded
to Kwan-cliung, and became intimate with Ngan-ti ^ ^f (A.D.
397-419), of the Eastern Tsin, Tung-Tsin ^ ^ (2). Finding his
long stay in this country uncongenial, he proceeded to Szech'wan
[ft] J||, and took up his abode on the summit of a high mountain.
The literati and people, on learning of his great merit, erected a
temple in his honour in the district of Tze-t'ung ^ }gf. Hence,
the title of Prince of Tze-t'ung, Tze-t'ung-kun )$. |jf jg, or god of
(1) In other legends, he was reborn in the womb of a woman named
Chang Jg. In fact, the general name assumed by him is Chang ffi. or Chang
ya Wc 55 Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI p. 42. note 3; p. 14.
(2) The Eastern Tsin, Tung-tsin ~$i -fr, removed the capital from Lohyang
V?t ^ to Nanking f^[ ^ (A.D. 317). All the emperors of this latter period
were weak and incompetent.
— 54 —
Tze-t'ung, Tze-t'ung-shen j$ -Jf ijilfJ, which is generally given to
him.
12th Descent. — In the latter days of the Sui pf dynasty (A.D.
590-020), Wen-ch'ang % || descended from the stellar regions, and
appeared in Szech'wan pt] J||. Foreseeing the impending ruin of the
dynasty, he took up his abode near the Fen River, Fen-ho ffl -/pj,
in Shansi [Jj ]M- He adopted the ethical principles of Chow-hung
JU £ (I), Meng-tze ^ ^ (2), and Yang-hsiung j§j $£ (3), but
obtained no official appointment under T'ai-tsung ^ ^ (A.D. 650-
684), of the T'ang Jf dynasty.
During the reign of HsiXen-tsung 7/ ^ (A.D. 713-756), another
of the rulers of the T'ang j|| dynasty, the eldest son of Wen-ch'ang
^ H, known as Yuen-shih ^jj ^J, was reborn in the Chang fjj|
family, and received the surname of Kiu-ling ji |§fr. He held an
official appointment in the time of the above ruler.
In the time of the Northern Sung dynasty, Peh-Sung 4b ^?
(A.D. 960-1127), Wen-ch'ang tJ£ || ordered his second son Meu-
yang ^ ^, to be also reborn in the Chang ^ family, where he
received the surname of Ts'i-hsien 5*f ^. T'ai-tsung -j^ ^ (A.D.
976-998) bestowed on him an official appointment.
(1) Chow-kung ffi -£-, or the Duke of Chow (d. B.C. 1105). Younger
hrother of Wu-wang ^ 3£, first sovereign of the Chow dynasty. He contribu-
ted observations on the strokes of the eight diagrams, and explained their
meaning. His maxims were but common-sense observations, such as the
good man prospers, the mean man comes to grief etc... Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. IV. Preface, p. XIII. note 2.
(2) Meng-tze %. ^-, or Mencius (B.C. 372-289). Moralist and philoso-
pher, considered as second to Confucius. Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual,
p. 153.
(3) Yang-hsiung ffi £f (B.C. 53— A.D. 18). A philosopher and founder
of an ethical school, which is a compromise, or via media, between the
principles of Mencius and Siln-tze '%j ^-. In fine, he holds that human nature
is composed originally of both good and evil. Character is not predetermined,
but depends much on education and the external circumstances of life.
Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 206.
— 55 —
Wen-ch'ang's eldest son, Jan-ming $c B^, born in the days
of his father's second descent, was later on reborn in the family of
Sze-rna if] 5|, and received the surname Brilliant, Kwang ^. This
Sze-ma Kwang p\ S| ^fc is the celebrated statesman and historian
so well known in China (1).
13th Descent. — Under the reign of the emperor Clieh-tsung =£§•
^ (A.D. 1086-1101), of the Northern Sung dynasty, Peh-Sung 4fc
5J^, Wen-ch'ang ^ || descended from on high, and assumed the
name of Chang- hsiln ~$| y|t- The Supreme Ruler, Shang-ti J^ 'n¥,
entrusted him with the task of suppressing the troubles that broke
out during the Sung $fc dynasty. He fulfilled official appointments
under the emperors Cheh-lsung ^f ^ (A.D. 1086-1101), K'in-tsung
fC 9^ (A.D. 1126-1127), of the Northern Sung dynasty, Peh-Sung
4fc %; and Kao tsung ^ ^ (A.D. 1127-1163), of the Southern
Sung dynasty, Nan-Sung ^5^. He died at last during the reign
of Hsiao-tsung ^t ^, about A.D. 1164, and was buried at Ileng-
yang-hsien |gj pj| ]$£, in Hunan $j ]ff. Shang-ti J^ ij^, the Supreme
Ruler, canonized him under the titles of "God of Literature, Supreme
Lord, Origin of the Nine Heavens, Sovereign of the Immortals,
Intendant of dignities and honours bestowed on Immortals and Gods,
as well as upon the living and the dead".
His abode is in the "Cinnamon Palace", where he enjoys life
in company with lady Immortals, and select beauties (2).
After various descents from the stellar regions, I enjoy at last, said
he, the high dignity of "Lord of the Heavens and God of the Literati".
Hsixen-tsung ;£ ^ (A.D. 713-756), of the T'ang |* dynasty,
bestowed on Wen-ch'ang ^ || the posthumous title of "Prime
Minister".
(1) Virtuous and highly gifted men were chosen by Taoists, and said
to have been incarnations of certain stars. They are thus deemed the offspring
of divine beings, and legends were invented to uphold this fanciful theory.
Kdkins. Religion in China, p. 107.
(2) The Chinaman has a poor idea of perfect happiness, and seems not
to conceive it without a well- stocked harem. See Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. V. p. 635. note 1.
— 56 —
Hsi-tsung f£ ^ (A.D. 874-889), also of the T'ang /=| dynasty,
conferred on him the title of "King" (1).
T'ai-tsu ± fi| (A.D. 960-976), founder of the Sung % dynasty,
canonized the father and mother of Wen-ch'ang ^C g , his wife
and sons, his grandsons and their wives.
Jen-tsung fc ^ (A.D. 1312-1321), of the Yuen yc, or Mongol
dynasty, bestowed on him the title of "Beneficent God, and Intendant
of all literary honours", Wen-ch'ang sze-luh-hung jen-ti-kiin -% ||
n m % t % m.
The Tsing-hsu slab describes Wen-ch'ang J | asa scholar,
who lived in the time of the T'ang Jf dynasty. He was a native
of Chekiang $f jf£, but in early life proceeded to Szech'wan 0 )\\.
The literati of the latter province considered him as their master,
and to prove their esteem for his eminent merit, erected a temple
in his honour (2). In so doing, they did not wish to make of him
the God of Literature, but simply to show that they held him in
high esteem, and were proud of his brilliant acquirements.
At a later period, scholars from the ranks of the people, having
secured high literary honours, attributed them through a sense of
modesty to the god of Tze-t'ung, Tze-t'ung-shen )f+f -^ f$, and
proclaimed that he descended from the skies for the purpose of
protecting them. Such seems to have been the origin of making
Wen-ch'ang 3^" ^ the God of Literature, and falsely placing his
abode in the Polar regions (3).
(1) According to Chavannes, the T'ang J* emperors (8th to the 10lh cen-
tury) were the first whogave princely titles to the gods. It was under these
rulers that the T'ai-shan ;fc LU, or Great Mountain, in Shantung Uj }§(, was
made the "Equal of Heaven" (A.D. 725). Emperors of subsequent dynasties
continued the same practice, especially with regard to State Gods. Chavannes.
Le T'ai-chan. p. 385. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 42.
(2) See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 40.
(3) This must be also ascribed to Taoist mythology and teaching. In
the legendary biographies of Wen-ch'ang % H, he is said to be a stellar god,
whose palace is near the Great Bear. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 107. —
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 43.
Fig. 8
Tchou-i, Wen-tchang, Koei-sing.
Tchou-i, Wen-tchang; Koei-sing.
— 57 —
Temples of Wen-ch'ang ■% || are found in every prefectural
and district city of China (1). Even villages and hamlets have
sometimes their literary shrine. Would-be-graduates proceed to
these temples, and beg the god to grant them the much coveted
acquisition of their national literature.
When official sacrifices are offered to Wen-ch'ang ^ ^ in
district cities, the Deputy Sub-prefect conducts the ceremony. On
these occasions, an ox is slain and offered to the god.
On the ceremonies which take place on more solemn occasions,
especially in the Capital, the reader is referred to de Harlez.
"Religious and Imperial Ceremonies of modern China", p. 423.
APPENDIX.
Wen-ch'ang' s attendants.
When Wen-ch'ang ~% ^ starts on a journey, he is attended
by a groom, who leads to him a white horse, saddled and capari-
soned, and begs him mount the animal. This explains how we see
in his temples a horse and groom holding the animal by the bridle.
A male and female servant follow in the rear. The former is called
in literary style "the Sombre lad", FIsuen-t'ung-tze j£ j§| ^ , and
the latter "Mother Earth", Ti-mu jfe -££. Both, however, are more
commonly known as the "heavenly deaf-eared", T'ien-lung ^ i||,
and the "earthly dummy", Ti-ya j{| PjJJi. The selection of these
names is due to high administrative reasons. Wen-ch'ang ^ || is
the bestower of all intellectual gifts and literary ability, and confers
such favours on whom he wills. His attendants, cognizant of
all demands addressed to him, may not disclose the secrets of
(1) In Chinese cities, a temple is erected to Wen-ch'ang % H, apart
from that dedicated to Confucius. It is generally built on an elevated earthrn
terrace, and is hexagonal, in imitation of the constellation which has that
form. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 107.
8
— 58 —
their lord ; for one is deaf, and hence perceives nothing of such
demands; while the other is dumb, and thus has her lips sealed (1).
These two names bespeak also a crude attempt to explain the
origin of the universe, much in the same way as that set forth by
P'an-ku f£ if, China's first mythical man. From the union of
these two cosmogonic beings originated heaven, earth, men, and all
living creatures (2).
In 1910, the inhabitants of Jii-kao f\\ JpM in North Kiangsu
fX. H, erected a temple to "Mother Earth", Ti-mu jfc -0J:, female
attendant on the God of Literature, Wen-ch'ang -% ||. It is situated
a little outside the South gate of the city (3).
(1) General Mirror of Gods and Immortals, Shen-sien t'ung-kien jjiiji f|l|
;g||. A Taoist work first published in 1640. It comprises a series of
biographical sketches, for the most part fabulous and legendary, of upwards
of 800 saints, sages and divinities, selected chiefly from the ranks of Taoists,
with a few Buddhist characters admitted into the number. A 2nd edition
was published in 1700, in 22 books, and a 3rd and revised one in 1787, in 39
books. Wylie. Notes on Chinese Literature, p. 223.
(2) Classic of the Earthly Mother, Ti-mu-king it flj M-
(3) In the temple of Wen-ch'ang ?C H, at Jii-kao f\l Jfk, in North Kiangsu
& Mi the idols are arranged as follows : 'on the ground-floor, to the rear,
Wen-ch'ang % H (centre); to right, the God of Wealth, Ts'ai-shen j|f 1$; to
left, the Patriarch Lvi, Lii-tsu g jfifl.. Along the wall, the god who cures eye-
diseases, Yen-kwang gg % (to right); Kw'ei-sing ^ j| (to left).— Beside the
door, Wen-ch'ang's horse and groom.— At the front entrance, Wang-ling-
kwan 3E H If.
On the upper story: Wen-ch'ang 3c §| (centre); Kw'ei-sing ^ g (to
right); the Bed Coat, Chu-i Jfc ^, and the Golden Armour Worthy, Kin-kiah
# Efl (to left).
— 59 —
ARTICLE II.
THE ASSOCIATE GOD 01 LITERATURE.
Kw'ei-sing $£ j| (1).
According to a legend, a scholar as conspicuous for his literary
attainments as for his ugly appearance, happened to come out first
tripos in the metropolitan examination. It was customary for the
emperor to present personally a golden rose to the successful can-
didate. A man named Kw'ei ^ advanced to receive the coveted
gift, but as his features were so repulsive, the emperor refused to
hand him the golden rose, whereupon he withdrew in prey to intense
sadness, and sought to commit suicide by leaping into a river. As
he was on the point of being drowned, a mysterious monster known
as a "Kraken", or Ngao f|£, took him on its back, and soon brought
him to the surface. Kw'ei ^ was thus rescued from an untimely
death, and ascending to the Polar regions, became the superintendant
of the literati.
Taoists invented the above legend, and have made of Kw'ei-
sing H g a stellar god.
At first, a certain star in Andromeda was worshipped as the
God of Literature, and a pictorial representation of it was set up
in temples. The star Kw'ei, says the "Records of Daily Jottings",
Jeh-chi-luh 0 ^ f§£, is the palace of Wen-ch'ang $£ ||, the God
(1) Kw'ei M (composed of demon and the character for bushel; hence
"the demon who dwells in the Dipper, or Charles' Wain"). Sing j§, a star,
a constellation. The expression Kw'ei-sing ^ M. literally taken means the
"Stellar-god Kw'ei". Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
(2) Ngao |£. The Kraken. A huge sea-monster, allied to the turtle, and
said to have rescued Kio'ei-sing M. ML from the watery depths. Taoist lore
ascribes to it the function of bearing up the earth, and also states that it
carried away the mountains of the genii into the Eastern sea. Williams.
Dictionary of the Chinese Language. -Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. Sym-
bolical and fabulous animals, p. XIX : p. 253. note 1.
— 60 —
of Literature. But how the worship of Wen-ch'ang ~$£ || was
transferred to his palace has never been sufficiently elucidated, and
remains a mystery down to the present day.
Later on, the problem of representing this stellar god was
raised. A simple character was deemed inadequate to satisfy the
cravings of popular fancy, to which sensible forms more generally
appeal. Struck, it would seem, by the similarity of pronunciation
between the star Kw'ei ^ (1), and another Kw'ei j||, one of the
four stars in the trapezium of the Great Bear, the latter was con-
founded with the former. The above trapezium is known to the
Chinese as the Bushel, Peh-teu-sing 4b -4" M. (2), because it resembles
the shape of this measuring vessel.
On considering the component parts of the character Kw'ei j|£,
painters and artists ingeniously arranged the strokes in imitation of
a person of demon-like aspect, holding in his right hand an im-
mense pencil, and having one foot raised, while the other kicks the
Dipper (3). Henceforth, it was under this form that the worship
of Kw'ei-sing j|| j§;, or the star Kw'ei J||, spread throughout the
country.
When a youthful student succeeds at an examination, his
friends and well-wishers frequently offer him a picture of Kw'ei- sing
M M> represented as above described. The generality of the literati
set up in their homes a picture of this stellar god (4). Even at
(1) Kiv'ei or Kw'ei-siu 3? ^ is, according to the Chinese, a constellation
forming part of Andromeda and Pisces. It has 16 stars imagined to represent
a person striding. It is regarded as auspicious to students. Williams. Dic-
tionary of the Chinese Language.
(2) Peh-teu ft S\-, literally the Northern Bushel. That part of Ursa
Major containing the 4 stars of the Dipper, or Charles' Wain.
(3) See pictures of Kw'ei-sing ^ g. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. I. p. 2.
Illustration 3.— Vol. VI. p. 60. Illustration 10.
(4) The regard, paid to this stellar god by the literati, proves that the
Taoist religion has had no little influence upon them, although they are
professedly Confucianists, and should not, as such, give their adhesion to the
tales of the Taoists. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 108.
Fig. 9
Caractirc representant Koei-sing.
Character representing Kwei Sing.
— 61 —
times the officials issue decrees exhorting the literati to have
recourse to the god, and beg him help in raising the literary standard
of the locality. In the district of Mengch'eng, Meng-ch'eng-hsien
W- Wi H) in Nganftwei # Jjj$a, as there were no provincial graduates
for over 60 years, the magistrate exhorted the literati to fervently
worship Kw'ei-sing ^ Ji, but so far success failed to crown their
efforts. Kw'ei-sing ^ ^ is considered as the heavenly bestower
of literary honours, and is invoked in order to pass a successful
examination. A small temple is erected to him on the Eastern side
of the entrance to all Confucian temples (1).
The following extract from the work Lang-yeh tai-tsui-pien Jj|
3$ Tv 1? $il> ana" others, shows how the worship of this stellar god
originated, and was subsequently spread among the literati and
people. Tn the time of the Sung ^ dynasty (11th and 12th century),
a fierce conflict arose between the innovator Wang Ngan-shih 3i $C
^ (2) and his opponents, and many worthy officials of the latter
party were banished to the remotest parts of the empire. The
famous poet and essayist Su Wen-chung i$| ^ ^ (3), and the
historian Sze-ma Kwang p] ^ -jt, were at first in great favour w7ith
the emperor Cheh-tsung j§ ^ (A.D. 1086-1101). Hwei-tsung $fc
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. Preface, p. I.
(2) Wang Ngan-shih 3c. & ft (A.D. 1021-1086). A celebrated scholar,
statesman and social reformer, who influenced the fortunes of China under the
Sung 5(5 dynasty. When Shen-tsung fiij) ^ ascended the throne, A.D. 1068,
he made him his intimate counsellor, and placed him at the head of affairs.
His pet theory was "no taxation, no army". According to him the Govern-
ment should take all commerce, industry and agriculture into its hands, and
thus protect the poor against the rich. The emperor favoured the scheme,
but it met with violent opposition, and finally impoverished and ruined the
State. Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 243.
(3) Su Wen-chung £& % £ (A.D. 1036-1101). Statesman, poet and
commentator. Prominent among the opponents of Wang Ngan-shih Ji^ ft.
Dismissed in 1077, he was restored in 1086, but in 1094 incurred again the
Imperial displeasure. Governor of Hangchow \-ji j\\ at the end of his career,
he beautified the city and surroundings. Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual.
p. 191.
— 62 —
9^ (A.D. 1101-1126), his successor, at the instigation of Ts'ai-king
H ;•;■; (1), an abettor of Wang Ngan-shih 3L $c ft, favoured the
reformers, and in order to show his appreciation of them, he caused
a stone tablet to be erected at the door of the palace, on which had
been cut a decree assailing the memory of Sze-ma Kwang fi\ J^ it,
and condemning his administration. The statue of the great histo-
rian was also broken and his books burned, while the foremost men
of the day, many of them his disciples, were banished to distant
parts of the empire.
Hwei-tsung % if, (A.D. 1101-1126), as is well known, was a
most superstitious ruler, entirely in the hands of Taoist mystics,
who made him believe the most extravagant fancies. One day, as
the emperor, accompanied by his whole Court, proceeded to the
"Hall of Precious Records", Pao-luh-kung ^ff |^ ^, and worshipped
there according to Taoist rites, the officiating ministers remained
prostrate in prayer for an exceeding long time, whereupon the
assistants grew rather impatient. At last, the emperor questioned
them on the reason of such a prolonged ceremony. — "During the
office, replied they, we approached the throne of Shang-ti J^ ^, the
Supreme Ruler, and begged the honour of an interview ; but the
stellar god Kw'ei-sing ^ Jl had preceded us, and so we had to
wait until he had presented his petition, and obtained an answer". —
"And what kind of petition did Kw'ei-sing ^ Ji present to the
Supreme Ruler, added the emperor"? — "Impossible to say what it
precisely contained, replied the Taoists". — "At least, you can tell
me, said the emperor, who this stellar god is"? — "Yes, we can,
replied the Taoists. He is the famous scholar Su Wen-chung j§ft
-£ Jg. (2), a native of Mei Chow jg jj|], in Szech'wan 0 Jl|, a man
(1) Ts'ai-king M % (d. 1126). Minister of Hwei-tsung ® ^, whose
vagaries and superstitions he encouraged. After the destruction of the power
of the Sung, he was banished, but died on the road to his place of exile.
Mayers Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 226.
(2) See on Su Wen-chung <t| % ,"£,. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 61. — Virtuous and highly gifted men were chosen by Taoists, and said to
have been incarnations of certain stars. They are thus deemed the offspring
of divine beings. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 107.
Fig. 10
En haut Koei-sing et Tchou-i. Eu bas Koan-kong et Wen-tchang. Les
quatre dieux de la litterature.
On top, Koei-sing and Tchou-i, at the bottom, Koan-kong and Wen-
tchang. The four gods of literature.
— 63 —
who displayed rare ability in the time of the emperor Cheh-tsung
^ 9* (A.D. 1086-1101). Terrified at this startling revelation,
Hwei-tsung %fc ^ (1) withdrew the decrees issued formerly against
Sze-ma Kwang % ^ ft, Su Wen-chung $| ^ fe and others of
their party, and allowed their works to be read by all his subjects.
Another Taoist, the famous Lin Ling-su $\ ft ^ (2), ingratia-
ted himself with the emperor, and so succeeded in perverting his
good sense, that he led him to adopt all kinds of imaginary deities,
and believe in the most extravagant tales. The emperor and his
Court assisted at lectures given before them by this cunning imposter.
Lin Ling-su /fcfc g ^ became so arrogant, that one day, he refused
to yield the road to the cortege of the Heir Apparent. This sealed
his doom, and compelled the emperor to finally dismiss him from
Court. Before departing, however, he was honoured with an Impe-
rial banquet given to him in the Great Pure Hall, T'ni-ts'ing-leu -fc
|pj ;§|. On leaving the palace, he noticed the stone tablet erected
near the door, inscribed with the names of 120 famous statesmen and
scholars, who opposed the schemes of the innovator Wang Ngan-shih
3E t£ -5" (3), and were on that account banished to the extremities
of the empire. Bowing before the monument, he wished these men
a last farewell. The emperor was much perplexed over this strange
(1) Hwei-tsung #£ ^ (A.D. 1101-1126). Was a weak and superstitious
emperor, and an ardent Taoist. It was under him that the worship of the
Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hivctng 3? Ji, began A.D. 1116. His vagaries and vacil-
lating administration brought the Northern Sung, Peh-Sung 4b 5fc- to its ruin.
Mc Govvan. Imperial History of China, p. 390. — Mayers. Chinese Reader's
Manual, p. 128.
(2) Lin Ling-su %fc. ™| 5J|. A renegade Buddhist, but later on a Taoist
pretender to magical powers in the time of Hwei-tsung |j& ^. Under his
guidance, the emperor embarked in extravagant follies, and accepted imaginary
deities, among whom the Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hwang 3? s=\. tailing in
A.D. 1120, to stem an inundation of the Yellow River, he fell into disfavour,
and was banished from Court. Taoists place him in the ranks of the genii.
Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 127.
(3) See on Wang Ngan-shih 3E 5c 5- Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 61.
— 64 —
proceeding, and asked him why he so acted. Your Majesty, replied
he, should not be surprised in seeing me honour the names of these
men, as they are all as many stellar gods, who dwell in the highest
heavens. This incident alone, says the author of the "Development
of Historic Annals", Kang-muh hwang-i $$ @ Jf H (1), exhibits
the extreme credulity of Hwei-tsung ^ ^, and the extent to which
he was infatuated with Taoist superstitions.
From what has been stated above, the reader may see that the
dignity of God of Literature has been transferred from Wen-ch'ang
^ ||, to his palace in the constellation Kw'ei ^|, or Andromeda;
then from this constellation to that of the Great Bear, also called
Kw'ei JH; (2), because the conformation of the latter allowed artists
to draw this stellar god in human form, with one foot raised, and
holding a pencil in his right hand. It is for this quaint reason that
the first constellation was abandoned, while the second has been
worshipped as a god. Such is the silly basis upon which is founded
the worship of China's God of Literature.
Among the illustrations here annexed, representing Kw'ei-sing
5U; j|r, n° 9 is an ingenious disposition of the eight characters
written at the foot of the image : K'oh-ki fuh-li cheng-sin siu-shen
3tL S tH $1 IE >fr fjF $(, that is "subdue oneself and return to
propriety; rectify the mind and cultivate the person".
The first four characters are from the Analects, Lun-yiX f$J |§ (3),
(1) Kang-muh kwang-i $j g ^ |g. A supplement to Chu-hsi's history,
written at the close of the 15th century by Chang Shi-t'ai §g tf£ §£. Wylie.
Notes on Chinese Literature, p. 26.
(2) According to Chinese texts, the constellation Kw'ei ^, in Andromeda,
was originally worshipped as God of Literature; later, another Kw'ei S|k in
the constellation Ursa Major, was substituted. Wen-ch'ang % g and Kw'ei-
sing fl$ M. are thus identical, or at least associated as Gods of Literature.
Hence we may call the former the chief God; and the latter, the secondary or
associate God of Literature. Different temples are erected to each, and though
of Taoist origin, both are worshipped by Confucianists. See Edkins. Religion
in China, p. 107-108.— Encyclopaedia Sinica. p. 281.
(3) Legge's Chinese Classics. Vol. I. p. 114 (Book XII. Yen-yuen).
Koei-sing sur lc Xgao.
Kwei Sing on the S'goo (a scamonsta
— 65 —
while the four last are taken from the "Great Learning", Ta-hsioh
* £ (1).
Illustration n° 10 represents Kw'ei-sing ^ Jjl and the Red
Coat, Chu-i ^ sfo, both in the inset at the top ; while Wen-ch'ang
yt ^, the God of Literature, and Kwan-ti §fj 0, the God of War,
may be seen riding down at the foot of the picture. This latter
god is also much honoured by the literati.
Illustration n° 11 represents the "Kraken", or Ngao ^, a
fabulous sea-monster, which rescued Kw'ei-sing ^ Jl from the
watery depths (2).
(1) Legge's Chinese Classics. Vol. I. p. 232 (The Great Learning. Ch.
VII. 1. Personal cultivation depends on the rectification of the mind).
(2) See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 59. — Vol. III. Preface,
p. XIX; p. 253. note 1.
— 66 —
ARTICLE III.
THE RED COAT AND THE GOLDEN ARMOUR WORTHY.
Chu-i ^c ^ — Kin-kiah ^ ^.
1°. The Red Coat, Chu-i Jfc ^ (1).
Visitors to the temple of Wen-ch'ang -*£ || will generally find
there two small shrines, one dedicated to Kw'ei-sing ^ J*, the
associate God of Literature, and the other to the Red Coat, Chu-i
^ ?fc. These two may be called the constant companions of the
God of Literature, Wen-ch'ang ■£ ||. In paintings, they are
likewise generally represented standing on each side of Wen-ch'ang
% ||. Both are worshipped by the literati as powerful protectors,
and invoked in order to obtain literary honours and official appoint-
ments.
In the early part of the reign of Teh-tsung ^ ^ (A.D. 780-
805), of the T'ang j|f dynasty, the princess T'ai-yin % |$| (2), a
lady hailing from the palace of the Naga king, Lung-wang f| 3[ (3),
noticed that Lu-k'i jj ^fj, bore a striking resemblance to one of
the Immortals, and wished to take him for her husband.
Old Granny Hemp, Ma-p'o ^ igf, her neighbour, introduced
him into Neptune's palace, Shui-tsing-kung y[ ^ ^ (4), in order
to allow both to see each other. The princess proposed to him the
(1) Chu ^, red, especially a vermilion colour. / ^J, dress, garments.
Hence the "Red-dressed or Red Coat". Denotes the attendant of the God of
Literature, or his star. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
(2) T'ai-yin ^ p£, means the great dark principle of Nature, and is also
applied to the moon. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
(3) Lung-ivang §j 3£. The dragon or Naga king; a sea-monster, whose
palace is at the bottom of the ocean, North of Mount Meru.
(4) Shui-tsing 7j< H, quartz-crystal. Kung "g, a mansion, a palace.
Hence "Neptune's palace". Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
Fig. 12
Hong-i, Thabit rouge et King-k'ia, la cuirasse d'or.
Hong-i, the red coat and King-k'ia, the golden cuirass.
— 67 —
choice of one of the three following- conditions of life. Either to live
for ever in the Naga's palace, or enjoy the gift of immortality while
abiding in the world above, or if he choose to become Prime Minister
of State. Lu-k'i jj[ ^E replied he would be only too happy to take
up his abode in the palace of Neptune, Shui-tsing-kung 7k. ^ ^.
The young lady, quite elated, then said : I am the princess of T'ai-
yin ~M rlh and will immediately inform the Supreme Ruler, Shang-ti
J^ ^, of the matter (1). A short time afterwards, the arrival of a
heavenly messenger was announced. Two attendants bearing ban-
ners preceded the Red Coat, Chu-i ^ ^<, and led him to the foot
of the steps. He stated he was sent by Shang-ti J^ "&, the Supreme
Ruler.
"Do you wish to take up your abode in the palace of Neptune,
Shui-tsing-kung ?[ ho ^ (2). said he to Lu-k'i Jft /ft}? The latter
made no reply. The damsel urged him to answer, but he persisted
in keeping silence. The princess, in prey to extreme anguish of
soul, rushed into her departments, and taking five pieces of precious
cloths, offered them to the heavenly messenger, begging him to
have patience, and that a reply would be soon forthcoming. After
waiting a short time, the Red Coat, Chu-i ■%: ^, addressed again
the same question to Lu-k'i jS /ft},, ^'hereupon the latter replied in
a decided tone, saying : 1 have so far laboured hard in pouring over
books and studying literature, I prefer becoming a Prime Minister
of State".
"On hearing these words, the Red Coat, Chu-i -fa ^, departed
for the heavenly mansions. The princess T'ai-yin •%. E§j summoned
Old Granny Hemp, Ma-p'o $£ i§£, and bade her show Lu-k'i ^ ;ft}
out of the watery world. Henceforth he appeared quite transformed.
His lips were like those of a dragon, his head resembled that of a
panther, while his cheeks assumed the green hue of those of the
(1) The reader will observe here the medley of Confucian, Taoist and
Buddhist doctrine, and how the "three religions" mutually borrow from each
other. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. Preface, p. I.— Vol. VI. p. 5.
(2) See on this expression. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. GG.
— 68 —
genii... He succeeded at the metropolitan examination, became a
Hanlin doctor, and was soon after appointed censor. The emperor
appreciated much his advice, ever marked with sound common-sense,
and appointed him his Prime Minister" (1).
The Red Coat, Chu-i ^ ^, as the reader may see from the
above legend, is a stellar god, who bestows official appointments on
the literati. Practically, however, he is more generally considered
as the protector of backward scholars, or as a god of good fortune,
who befriends those poorly equipped for undergoing the ordeal of
the examination hall. The following legend helps to foster this
opinion.
An examiner, after casting a cursory glance over a composition,
rejected it as below standard, and firmly resolved not to admit the
candidate who wrote it. All of a sudden, the rejected copy, as if
animated by some mysterious power, began to move about, and
finally stopped before the examiner, as if to invite him to peruse
it more attentively. Meanwhile, a venerable old man, wearing a
red mantle, appeared to him, and with a nod of the head intimated
that the composition could be accepted. The examiner surprised at
this novel phenomenon, and feeling he had the approval of the
heavenly visitor, passed the paper and gratified the author with a
B.A. degree.
When a backward scholar comes up for an examination,
and has little hopes of succeeding, his friends encourage him,
saying: "perhaps the Red Coat, Chu-i ^ ^, will nod to the
examiner".
(1) General Mirror of Gods and Immortals, Shen-sien t'ung-kien %fy f|I|
M 8£- A Taoist work published in 1G40. It comprises a series of biogra-
phical sketches, for the most part fabulous and legendary, of upwards of 800
saints, sages and divinities, selected chiefly from the ranks of Taoists, with a
few Buddhist characters admitted into the number. A 2nd edition was
published in 1700, in 22 books% and a 3rd and revised one in 1787, in 39 books.
Wylie. Notes on Chinese Literature, p. 223.
— 69
9o
The Golden Armour Worthy, Kin-kiah -^ ^ (1).
In the hall known as Wen-fung-koh # M HfJ, at JiX-kao %$ JjL,
in North Kiangsu ££ II, dedicated to the God of Literature, Wen-
ch'ang ^ ||, honorary places are assigned, as usual, to Ku'ei-
sing %& J|, and the Red Coat, Chu-i ^ ^ (2), the latter, however,
being- accompanied by the Golden Armour Worthy, Kin-kiah ^
^. This personage watches over the interests of the literati,
almost in the same manner as the other two Gods of Literature (3).
He bears in his hand a small banner, and should he happen to
waive it before a household, its members are assured they will soon
become literary graduates, and be promoted to the highest dignities
of the State.
If the Golden Armour Worthy, Kin-kiah -^ Ej3 , is the protector
of scholars, he is also held to be the avenger of all acts calculated
to bring discredit on the literary class. His banner is deemed to be
ever of happy omen, but his sword is also the terror of evil-doers.
The following incident will amply illustrate the above belief.
A scholar named Li T'ang-h'iny ^ Jj J|p, possessed of high
literary rank, sent Yang Yun-sung j§j |g ^ to select a grotto in
the Wu-kang hills, Wu-kang-shan f£ [gj lij , near K'ien Chow jg
'}\\, for the purpose of leading there a contemplative life. During
the night, Yang j^ saw in a dream two Golden Armour Worthies,
Kin-kiah ^ ^, who waived their swords, and with threatening
aspect, said: "Immortal from the earthly regions, be not deceived;
T'ang-k'ing J|| ||] is a perverse and cruel man, abhorred of gods
and men. He cannot take up his abode here, for such is the will
of heaven".
(1) Kin ^, gold, golden. Kiah tp , armour, a cuirass, a corselet, a
soldier. Hence the "Golden Cuirass, the Golden Armoured, or Golden
Armour Worthy". Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language. — Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 597. First day, 8'"' month. —Vol. VI. p. 58. note 3.
(2) See on this fabulous personage. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 66.
(3) Wen-ch'ctng % |j§, and Kw'ei-sing ^ g. See Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 39-65.
— 70 —
"Should you disbelieve my words, know that before ten days are
over, he will perish miserably. As to thyself, if thou dost persist
in thy pursuit, misfortune will befall thee". On awaking, the dream
remained vividly impressed in his memory, and ten days afterwards
a mysterious shaft sped through the air, and severed the head of
Li T'ang-k'ing ^ H Jj(ip from the body.
Y unsung $£j fy pondering- over the incident, said to himself:
auspicious places are protected by the genii, and evil-doers may not
abide therein (1).
* *
Another favourite patron of the literati is the Patriarch Lii,
Lu-lsu g }jjj[, also known as Lit Tung-pin § j|jfj ^t[, one of the
Eight Immortals, Pah-sien A fjlj- Already in the twelfth century,
temples were dedicated to his worship, under the designation of
Shun-yang £jjj |||, the Pure Supreme Essence of the Universe (2)
(1) General Mirror of Gods and Immortals, Shen-sien t'ung-kien jjuji fill M
Jig. A Taoist work published in 1640. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. G8.
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 581. note 4. Fourth month,
14th day ; p. 733. Illustration n° 231 (Lii Tung-pin admiring a peony).
«*«*
— 71 —
AKTICLE IV.
THE GOD OF WAR.
Kwan-ti || $• (1).
Kwan-yix §| j$, the Chinese God of War, was a native of
Kiai-liang $p U£, the present-day Kiai Chow fft. >)]], in the province
of Shansi |Jj '$.
His personal name was originally Chang-sheng Jf; ^, but later
on, he assumed that of Show-chang |ip -JJ, and Yun-chang ||| J|.
Kwan || is not his family name, as will be shown further on
in this article. Intelligent and daring, he displayed in early years
an exuberance of strength and activity, which caused him to be
feared by all. One day, his parents to punish him, had him shut
up in a back-room, but he broke open the window, and escaped at
nightfall. To the East of his father's house, a young girl wept
and moaned, and an old man joined in her lamentations. Kwan-yiX
§1 ^ proceeded to the place, and inquired what was the cause of
their grief. "My daughter, replied the old man, was engaged, but
the uncle of the local magistrate, captivated by her beauty, wants
to take her as secondary wife. I have appealed to the official, but
received only curses. Such is the reason of our weeping".
Moved with indignation on hearing this story, Kwan-yil || ^
seized his sword, and proceeding to the official's mansion, slew both
the magistrate and his uncle. He then fled Westwards to the
(1) Ti $?. A god, a divine being, a deity supreme in one department,
or endowed with a peculiar attribute. Kwan-ti M ^, the Ruler Kwan, the
God Kwan, the Chinese God of War. Historically, a noted hero of the period
of the Three Kingdoms, San-kwoh H US (A.D. 221-2G5). Ennobled in the
12th century as Duke; in 1128 raised to the rank of Prince, and in 1594 made
a Ti if, or God, by Wan-lih $£ )ff, of the Ming HJfj dynasty. The late Manchus
were devout worshippers of this god. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese
Language. —Giles. Chinese Biographical Dictionary, p. 384. — Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. V. p. 497. note 3; p. 572. Second month, 15th day; p. 586.
Fifth month, 13th day.
— 72 —
T'ung-kwan $g §| Pass, in Shensi ^ "(fig (1). A full description of
his person had been forwarded to the custom officers, and he had
little chance of escaping. Before reaching the Pass, he bent down
over a brook to wash his face, and remarking his features mirrored
in the water, he was quite surprised to see he was totally changed.
His countenance bad assumed a dark ruddy colour, and thus made
it hard to recognize him. He advanced, therefore, to the Pass,
and was asked his name by the custom officers. My name is Kwan
H|, said be. The officers allowed him to proceed, and henceforth
he retained this felicitous name.
One day, on reaching Choli Chow ^ j>\], in the province of
Chihli jit f$, he met there a butcher called Chang Yih-teh j/jf H
|*i? or Chang-fei ^ f||. This man had been selling his meat the
whole morning; when noon arrived, he lowered into a well all that
was unsold, and placing a stone of five hundred catties (2) over the
opening, exclaimed with a sneer; "let him who can remove this
stone take all my meat, I'll give it wholly to him !" Kwan-yiX || ^
approached the brink of the well, and removed the stone as easily
as if it were a tile. He then hauled up the meat, and began to
walk away. Chang-fei fjj| fH ran after him ; both came to blows,
and nobody ventured to separate them. At last, Liu Yuen-teh |flj
7C ^, or Liu-pei IflJ fff (3), a seller of straw-shoes arrived, and
(1) He was obliged to leave home on account of a murder he had commit-
ted, and found his way to Choh-hiln ffi. f{ft, where in A.D. 184, he fell in with
Lui-pei f?i] fig, and Chang-fei $| M- Giles. Chinese Biographical Dictionary,
p. 383.
(2) Catty, a Chinese weight called Kin /f, equal to li lbs avoirdupois.
Encyclopaedia Sinica. p. 85.
(3) Liu-pei fi] if (A.D. 162-223). A native of Choh Chow fR <W, and
descendant of the emperor King-ti jjr i^. Rising from the humble occupation
of a seller of straw-shoes, he took command of a body of volunteers, and fought
against the usurper Tung-choh :§¥ 4t. Later on he declared against the ambitious
Statesman Ts'ao-ts'ao |f ^, and in A.D. 220, proclaimed himself emperor of
the Minor Han dynasty, Shuh-Han Sg §§, considered to be the legitimate
successor of the Great Han. He is canonized under the title of Chao Lieh-ti
83 ^\ iff. Giles. Chinese Biographical Dictionary, p. 516.
Fig". 13
Koan-hong and Tcheou-tsang.
— 73 —
put an end to the struggle. Common interests and aims soon linked
these three adventurers in a bond of unbroken friendship.
The romantic history of the "Three Kingdoms", San-kwoh _j£
HJ (A.D. 221-265), gives us another version of the first meeting of
these three famous heroes. Liu-pei §pj jffi and Chang-fei 3J| 3%
entered a village tavern, and wished to have a drink. Meanwhile,
a man of giant-like stature, conducting a wheel-barrow, halted at
the door, and addressing the waiter said in a gruff voice : "let me
have quickly a glass of spirits, for I am in a hurry to reach the
town, and enlist in the army".
Liu-pei |f|J f§ considered the giant from head to foot. He
stood full nine feet high, and wore a beard two feet in length. His
features were of a swarthy colour, and his lips of a bright rosy hue.
His eyebrows resembled sleeping silkworms, and overhung a pair
of fine ruddy eyes resembling those of the phoenix. His whole
appearance inspired a feeling of terror. "What is your name, Sir",
inquired Liu-pei f|lj $|. — "My family name is /nv;»i |f, replied
he ; my personal name is Yit ^5j, and my surname Show-ch'ang ||
•Jl, or Yun-ch'ang f| -|| (1). I am a native of Ho-tung jpT ^, in
the department of Kiai Chow j$ >}\\. For the last five years, 1
wander over the country to escape from justice, for I have killed a
prominent man, who oppressed the people of my native place. I
have heard that men are being recruited to repress brigandage, and
I wish to join the expedition".
It will not be deemed amiss to give here a few details on
Chang-fei ijj| ff| (2), the inseparable companion of Kwan-yu §| ?$.
He was a man of eight feet in height, with a head like that of a
panther, round eyes, a swallow-like chin, and a beard like a tiger.
(1) His personal name was originally Ch'ctng-sheng H '^. Giles. Chinese
Biographical Dictionary, p. 383.— Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 71.
(2) Chang-fei ?g fk (d. A.D. 220). Bosom friend of A'i™»-i/ii.i 'ft, and
with him celebrated as a leader in the wars of the Three Kingdoms. He
perished at length, after performing many heroic exploits, by the hand of an
assassin named Fan-hiang fg ip|. Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual p. 3.
10
— 74 —
His voice resembled the roar of distant thunder, and his impetuosity
that of a runaway horse. His personal name was Yih-teh || ^.
He was a native of Choh Chow ^ ')]], and possessed there some
productive farm-lands. He pursued the trade of a butcher and
wine-seller until A.D. 184, when he emerged from obscurity, and
cast in his lot with the fortunes of Liu-pei |flj f$j, and Kwan-yiX §|
m-
Liu-pei |flj f|f , surnamed HsiXen-teJi i£ ^, and canonized as
Sien-chu $q ^ (1), formed the third associate of these famous
brothers-in-arms.
The three heroes met one night at Liu-peCs home. The next
day, they assembled in a peach-garden, amidst the fresh-blossomed
flowers, and swore everlasting friendship, sealing their promise with
an oath (2). A black bullock and a white horse were immolated on
the occasion, incense was burnt, and Heaven and Earth taken as
witnesses of their engagement. The words of the oath sworn are
as follows :
"We three, Liu-pei fllj ff|, Kwan-yil §f ~ffl, and Chang-fei 3J|
^, though not fellow-citizens, but already united in bonds of
everlasting friendship, do hereby swear that we shall henceforth
fight side by side, and bear assistance to each other in all mutual
dangers1'
"We wish to fulfil towards the State our duty of patriotic
citizens, and establish peace among our black-haired brethern, now
involved in strife and warfare (3). No matter whether we have been
born the same year, the same month, and the same day, we wish,
(1) Giles. Chinese Biographical Dictionary, p. 518 (Liu-pei gi] $#).
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 497 (Sworn Brotherhood).
Also Illustrations nos 187 and 188.
(3) At the close of the Han if dynasty (A D. 221), rival Generals, am-
bitious Statesmen and adventurers stuggled for supremacy. The period is
known as that of the Three Kingdoms, all of which were short-lived. With
the establishment of the Tsin ^ dynasty (A.D. 265), the empire was again
united under one ruler. Mc Gowan. Imperial History of China, p. 134.
— 75 —
however, to live and die together. We call Lord Heaven and
Queen Earth (1) to witness this promise. Should any one of us
prove unfaithful thereto, let Heaven and men wreak vengeance upon
us".
This historic scene gave rise to the well-known play entitled
the "peach-garden oath of the three confederates", T'ao-yuen san-
kieh-i #fe HI H $i t£-
The formula of the oath having been read, Liu-pei ||lj $jj was
greeted as eldest brother, Kwan-yii fffj ^ as second-born, and Chang-
fei llli ^ as junior. When the sacrifice to Heaven and Earth,
T'ien-ti ^ jfe, was accomplished, an ox was killed, and the meat
served up in a banquet, to which all the villagers were invited.
Those present numbered over three hundred. They drank freely,
many even to a state of complete intoxication. Liu-pei ||lj fff
enlisted numerous stalwart men from the ranks of the peasants ;
Chang-fei jjj| ffl|, more well-off, furnished them with horses and
arms ; and when every preparation was made, the new band of
volunteers started off to combat the rebellion of the "Yellow Turban
Insurgents", Hwang-kin-tseh jif \\] ftfc (2). Kwan-yiX ||] ^ proved
himself worthy of the attachment of Liu-pei |flj fjf ; brave and
generous, he never recoiled in a moment of peril. Liu-pei ||lj f§
ordered him to overthrow the Governor of Hsu Chow ^ j]\. He
obeyed, defeated him, and then supplanted him in the administration
of the country. He did not, however, enjoy long his well-earned
(1) Heaven and Earth designate Nature, Providence, the Power above,
whatever it may be. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol V. p. 512. note 3; p. 515.
note 1; p. 533. note 4; p. 551 note 3; p. 556. note 1; p. 627. note 1.
(2) The "Yellow Turban Insurgents", Hwang-kiii-tseh it'r r|i M- A fana-
tical sect recruited by the Taoist magician Chang-hioh ?g ;$, and his brother
Chang-pao 3§ %. In a short time, they gained possession of all the Northern
provinces, and carried everything before them. After some months of san-
guinary warfare the insurrection was suppressed, and its leaders were slain.
With this rebellion the downfall of the Han dynasty was virtually ushered
in. Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 5.
— 76 —
honours, for Ts'ao-ts'ao Tjjf ^ (1), Prime Minister to Hsien-ti jf$ ^
(A.D. 189-220), of the Later Han dynasty, Heu-Han ^ fj|, soon
reached the place, and attacking the forces of Liu-pei §pj $§, defeated
them, and made Kwan-yiX |f jfy prisoner at P'i Chow 5JS j]\.
Ts'ao-ts'ao "|jf ^ did all in his power to detach the hero from his
fealty to Liu-pei ||lj f$j, and appointed him Governor of Han Chow,
twenty miles North-East of the present district city of Wu-ling-hsien
US W M, in Hunan $j $.
It was at this time that Kwan-yiX §| ^ suggested to Ts'ao-
ts'ao "^gf ^ to seize the wife of Ting I-lu, but later on, he himself
made her his consort, and abandoning the cause of Ts'ao-ts'ao "H
^, he joined the forces of Liu-pei |flj fgf .
When Liu-pei ||lj f/§ had conquered Kiang-nan jj£ ]fi, he
appointed Kwan-yiX || ^ Governor of Siang-yang || pj|, in Hupeh
ffl\ 4b » and added thereto the title of Generalissimo. Later on, when
he established his capital at / Chow, in Szech'wan |7U| J||, he
appointed Kwan-yiX §| jfy Governor of Kingi C/iow ^lj ')]], in Hupeh
ifj] 4b (A.D. 215). Hostilities were suspended for some time between
Liu-pei |[lj $f and Sun-k'ilen ^ jj|| (2), but in A.D. 220, Kwan-yiX
(1) Ts'ao-ts'ao ||f ^ (A.D. 155-220). Prominent Generalissimo and
Statesman during the period of the Three Kingdoms. In A.D. 184, he defeated
the "Yellow Turbans", and proclaimed himself governor of the province
(Shantung) hitherto occupied by the rebels. In A.D. 192, he aimed at supreme
power, seized the emperor Hsien-ti JgJ *$■, and put to death the queen and her
two sons. Hereupon, he proclaimed his own daughter empress. He died A.D.
220, and left four sons, the eldest of whom founded the Wei Kingdom, Wei-
kwoh f$ ig. Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 231.
(2) Sun-k'iien & $g (A.D. 181-252). A General who rebelled against
Ts'ao-ts'ao ~$g $|, and asserted an independent position. He soon established
his authority along the whole course of the Yangtze. In 208, his lieutenant
Chow-yii defeated Liu-pei jgij $f, but in 212 he cemented an alliance with him.
In 220, he captured and executed Kivaii-yii || ^, and in 221 tendered his
allegiance to the Wei |$ dynasty, founded by the son of Ts'ao-ts'ao. In 229,
he assumed the title of emperor, and was the first ruler of the Wu ^ dynasty.
He is known as Wu-ta-ti J& iz ifr. Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 194.
— Giles. Chinese Biographical Dictionary, p. 689.
— 77 —
|H j^J seized the fortified town of Fan, Fan-ch'eng ^ ^, a place
on the Han river, North of Siang-yang-fu || $§ Jffi, in Hupeh $Jj 4b >
and put to death P'ang-leli ^| ^*, one of the Generals of Ts'ao-ts'ao
"|| |{«|, who refused to side with the conquerors.
War broke out anew between the two rival parties, and
Ts'ao-ts'ao ^ ^ at the head of a powerful army set out to retake
Fan ^|.
Moreover, Sun-k'uen ^ ^||, distrustful of the fidelity of Kwan-
yu || jffl, ordered Lu-sun, one of his Generals, to engage him in
battle. Lu-sun despatched Lii-meng to take the fortified city of
King Chow ^|J ')]], which Kwan-yiX §§ M held. This latter displayed
prodigies of valour, but seeing he would be unable to hold the place,
withdrew secretly, and started to take refuge in the stronghold of
Meh-ch'eng |f£ jjfc, the present-day Tang-yang-hsien 'gr j^ J§|, in
Hupeh -$j 4t- General Pan-chang intercepted him on the way, and
made him prisoner, together with his son Kwan-p'ing §| 2p. Both
were offered their lives on condition of their passing over to the
side of Ts'ao-ts'ao "Hf ^, but they refused, and were put to death
by the victorious General (1). Kwan-yu's head was placed in a box,
and sent to Ts'ao-ts'ao "^ ."j^, who then resided at Lohyang y^ J^-.
Ts'ao-ts'ao T|f |jj|, on receiving it, had a wooden body adapted to the
head of the hero, and ordered that he be buried with military
honours. He was 58 years of age.
Liu-pei ||lj f|f (2), who finally established the kingdom of the
Minor Han, Shuh-Han §§ f| (A.D. 221), in Szech'wan ]$ )\\,
resolved to avenge the death of Kwan-yu §| ^, and declare war
(1) The Imperial History of China records the death of Kwan-yu $$\ i$
as follows: In the year A.D. 217, Ts'ao-ts'ao led an expedition against King
Chow jf]\ >}]]. He was defeated by Kivan-yii, but on the latter's return, he met the
forces of Sun-k'uen, who was determined to retake this territory for himself.
Kwan-yu advanced to meet the new foe, but he was overthrown and slain.
(A.D. 220). Mc Gowan. Imperial History of China, p. 133.
(2) See on Liu-pei jgi] tfft. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 72. note
3.
— 78 —
against Sun-h'uen |£ H, ruler of the Wu ^L Kingdom (1). He
had already advanced as far as Hu-ting, the present-day I-lu-Iisien
S M JS&> m Hupeh M 4b- Here he encountered the army of Lu-
sun, who burned his encampment and all his provisions. Compelled
to retreat, he withdrew during the night, and took refuge in the
stronghold of Ti-ch'eng, in Szech'wan "2 J||, where he died A.D.
223, at the age of 63 years (2).
Heu-ti |g $f (A.D. 223-263), son and successor to Liu-pei flj
f§", bestowed on Kwan-yit §f ^J the title of "Brave and Faithful
Marquis", Chwang-liao-heu ^ $p \fK. In A.D. 263, Teng-ngai,
General of Yuen-ti % ^ of tne W7^ 1^ dynasty, invaded suddenly
Szech'wan |^ J||, and defeated Heu-ti $£ ffi, who was borne off
captive to Lohyang yg. |JJ|, accompanied on the way, it is said, by
his sedan-chair and his coffin (3). Another General, named P'ang-
hui, son of P'ang-teh, put to death by Kwan-yii §| ^, also entered
Szech'wan 0 Jlj, completed the conquest of the country, and exter-
minated the whole family of Kwan-yiX || jfy.
Process of Deification.
We have in this military hero an example of the process of
deification common in China. Renowned during life as a man of
daring, courage and fidelity, honorary titles were lavished upon
him after death. His glorious deeds were extolled in romance,
(1) Liu-pei gathered for this expedition an army of over 700,000 men,
an immense number in those days. Mc Gowan. Imperial History of China,
p. 135.
(2) Turning to his son before dying, he said to him : "never do wrong,
even in small things. A small wrong is still an evil, and can be called by no
other name". Mc Gowan. Imperial History of China, p. 137.
(3) The Imperial History of China says that Heu-ti |g ifr and his officials
proceeded to the camp of Teng-ngai, with their hands tied behind their backs,
and with their coffins accompanying them. It was in this humiliating atti-
tude that they made an unconditional surrender to the victorious General.
Heu-ti was carried to Lohyang, where in contempt for his past dissolute life
he received the title of "Duke of Pleasure". Mc Gowan. Imperial History of
China, p. 148, and 150.
— 79 —
legend and popular tales (1). Hero-worship was thus developed, and
led by slow but sure degrees to finally placing him among the gods.
The phases of this apotheosis are the following :
In A.D. 260, the son of Liu- pei flj p%, Heu-Chu |g £, bestowed
on him the title of "Brave and Faithful Marquis", Chwang-liao-heu
In 583, he was given the title of "Sincere and Merciful Duke".
In 676, Buddhists made him tutelary guardian of their monas-
teries at Yuh-ch'wan 3i Jl| (Jade Stream), thus ceding to him the
place so far occupied by Indra — Taoists also recognized his power
against all kinds of demons (2).
In 1008 and 1017, his temple at Kiai Chow f$ ^ (his native
place), was repaired by Imperial order (3).
In 1096, a tablet was presented to his temple, bearing the
inscription "Prayer-answering Illustrious Prince'1.
In 1102, the superstitious Hwei-tsung ^ ^ bestowed on him
the title of "Faithful and Loyal Duke", Chung-hwui-kung Jjjj Jj|[ ^ (4).
In 1110, the same emperor added to the above title that of
"Brave, Peace-bringing Prince".
In 1128, Kao-tsung "jfj ^, of the Southern Sung dynasty,
Nan-Sung ^ ^, granted him the title of "Brave, Faithful, War-
like, Peaceful Prince", Chwang-liao wu-ngan-wang /jt ^ ^ -^ 3E-
Regular official sacrifices were offered to him, consisting of an ox, a
(1) Especially in the novel known as "The Romantic Story of the Three
Kingdoms", Sctn-kiooh-shi yen-i = H^ U. Written by Lo Kwan-chung
JH U l|', in the time of the Yuen ft, or Mongol dynasty. It comprises 120
chapters, and though based on historical facts, contains much that is fanciful
and legendary. Wylie. Notes on Chinese Literature, p. 202.
(2) See The Chinese Recorder, 1913. p. 482 (The God of War).
(3) Chen-tsung H; g? (A.D. 998-1023), of the Northern Sung dynasty,
Peh-Sung ;|fc 5fc, reigned during this period. He was a devout Buddhist.
Chavannes. Le T'ai-chan. p. 249-251.
(4) See on Hwei-tsung. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 0.3. note 1.
His vagaries and vacillating administration brought the Northern Sung, Peh-
Sung 4t 5fc, to its ruin. Mc Gowan. Imperial History of China, p. 390.
— 80 —
goat, a pig, five kinds of fruit, and one roll of white paper, repre-
senting silk (1).
The emperor Wen-li # $r (A.D. 1330-1332), of the Yuen %,
or Mongol dynasty, conferred on him the title of "Warlike and
Illustrious Prince".
During the reign of Shi-tsung -J£ ^ (A.D. 1522-1567), of the
Ming B^ dynasty, the 13"1 of the 5th month was fixed as his birth-
day (2). Whenever anything important happened, he was informed
about the event.
In 1594, under the reign of Wan-lih || /ff , also of the Ming
Bp] dynasty, he was finally granted the title of Ti ^, or "God,
assisting Heaven, faithful, upright, and protecting the Empire",
Hsieh-t'ien hu-kwoh-chung-i ta-li f^ ^ f(|' |i /£, H ^ $f (3).
In 1856, during the Ts'ing ^pf, or Manchu dynasty, because of
his assistance in suppressing the T'ai-p'ing ^ Zp rebellion, he
received the title of "Sage or Great Teacher", Kwan-fu-tze §| ^ ^ ,
and was thus made the equal of Confucius (4).
Present-day worship.
At the present day, Kwan-ti |fj ffi has his temple in the
Capital, and in every prefectural and district city of the country.
(1) The Chinese Recorder, 1913. p. 482 (The God of War). — Mayers.
Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 93.
(2) The real birthday of Kwctn-ti |g rfr is on the 24»h day of the sixth
month (Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p 592). The 13th day of the fifth
month is the birthday of his son Kivan-p'ing || 2p, but the Chinese regard
for the father does not permit them to have his birthday after that of the
son. The Chinese Recorder, 1913. p. 483 (The God of War).
(3) In 1594, he was made a Ti ^-, or God. Since that date, he has
received regular official worship as Kwan-ti fH iff, the Ruler Kwan, the God
Kwan, the God of War; or Wu-t i ifc iff, the Military God. He has also been
highly honoured in Korea ever since the 16lh century, when he is supposed
to have frightened away the Japanese invaders. Giles. Chinese Biographical
Dictionary, p. 384.
(4) The Chinese Recorder, 1913. p. 483 (The God of War).
Fig. 14
Koan-kong. son fils Koan-ping et son fidele deTenseur Tcheou-tsang.
II tient en main un livre, insigne de son titre de dieu des lettres.
Koan-kong, his son Koan-ping and his faithful defender Tcheou-tsang .
In his hand he holds a book the badge of his title of god of the literati.
— 81 —
In all, there are about 1,600 official temples. By Imperial orders,
official sacrifices are offered to him on the 15th of the 2n<1 month, and
the 13th of the 5th month (1). These sacrifices are generally offered
before daylight. Incense is burnt in his honour on the 15th of each
month (2).
Shrines dedicated to the God of War are called "Temples of
the Military God", Wu-shen-miao ^ fjl Jfj, in the same manner
as Confucian temples are styled "Temples of the God of Literature",
Wen-shen-miao ^ jfrjj j|j. In fine, he is in the eyes of the military
class what Confucius is for the literati.
Honoured by the literati.
Kwan-ti §f§ ^ is also one of the gods honoured by the literati.
This worship is founded on the legend that he could repeat "Tso's
Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Classic", Ch'un-ts'iu tso-
chwen ^$ %fc £ fj£ (3), from beginning to end. As a god worship-
ped by the literati, he is represented holding in his right hand the
"Spring and Autumn Classic", while his adopted son Kwan-p'ing
|fj Zp- attends on the right, and offers an academic head-dress to
would-be candidates.
The story of Kwan-ti §fj ^ is popular among the Chinese. He
fought many battles, was brave, generous, loyal to the Han ^|
dynasty, and ever resisted the advances of Ts'ao-ts'ao "^ |jja. These
qualities have made him a prominent figure in the eyes of his
countrymen.
The following are a few extracts from the romantic account of
his life, when he fought in the ranks of Ts'ao-ts'ao's army.
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 572. Second month, 15th day.
p. 586. Fifth month, 13th day (Birthday of Kwan-yu, the God of War).
(2) The Chinese Recorder, 1913. p. 483 (The God of War .
(3) Tso's Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Classic, Ch'un-ts'iu
tso-chwen ^f %k %L (?/• An amplification of the original work, written by one
of the pupils of Confucius, named Tso K'iu-ming ^ irp> Bfl, and hence known
as Tso's Commentary, Tso-chwen J£ %. Wylie. Notes on Chinese Literature
p. 6.
11
— 82 —
"From a knoll commanding the battle-field, Ts'ao-ts'ao "^ ^
pointed out to Kwan-yii §fj jfj the rival General Yen-liang fjj j^.,
who had killed in quick succession the two most valiant commanders
of his troops. Yen-liang rode proudly on his charger, and clad
in a golden coat-of-mail, brandished his sword in the air. This
man, exclaimed Kwan-yu §fj ^, seems to be a person who has
pasted on his body a notice offering his head for sale. Though I
am not clever, I propose to unsaddle him, and offer his head to your
Lordship. So saying, he whipped his steed, the "Red Rabbit",
and sword in hand rushed down the side of the hillock (1). Opening
wide his phoenix-like eyes and knitting his caterpillar eyebrows (2),
he rushed headlong into the midst of the enemy's ranks, which
opened before his sword, as the waves of the mighty ocean when
ploughed by a powerful ship. Yen-liang Jfji H. perceived Kwan-yu's
onrush, and asked what it meant. Refore he had time to get a
reply, the "Red Rabbit" was beside him, and Kwan-yu §f ^ dealt
him a blow which knocked him off his saddle. Rushing on him
with his sword, Kwan-yii §| J$ severed the head from the body,
and attaching it to the girth of his saddle, returned in triumph,
and cast it at the feet of Ts'ao-ts'ao TjljJ ^. On beholding such a
feat of martial prowess, Ts'ao-ts'ao exclaimed: Kwan-yu §|j ^ is
really a divine hero" (3).
Various names given to Kwan-yiX §g jpj.
Kwan of the Yii family Kwan-yiX §| j^J.
Duke Kwan Kwan-hung || ^.
The Venerable Kwan (4) Kwan Lao-yeh |f j£ |^.
The God Kwan Kwan-ti §| ^.
(1) The Chinese Recorder, 1913. p. 481 (The God of War).
(2) See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 73 (Liu-pei meets
Kwan-yu for the first time).
(3) Romantic History of the Three Kingdoms, Sctn-kwoh-chi yen-i H M
± .to m
(4) Kwan Lao-yeh g| $k ff and Kwan-kung $$ £•, are popular names for
this god. Giles. Chinese Biographical Dictionary, p. 384.
— 83 —
The Military God Wu-ti f£ %?.
Kwan the (Martial) Sage (1) Kwan-fu-tze fpj 5& ~f-
Kwan of Increasing Life KwanCh'ang-sheng || -|| £J£.
Kwan the Increasing- Cloud Kwan Yun-ch'ang || |j| -||.
Kwan of Growing Longevity (2) Kwan Show-ch'ang |||j H -|j|.
The God who assists Heaven Hsieh-t'ien ta-ti 1$ ^ ;fc *$?•
Kwan the Holy Ruler (3) Kwan-sheng-U-kun §f §H ^ ;§".
It is said that Kwan-yii || ?]5), in order to avenge himself on
General Lu-meng g jfj|, who vanquished him at King Chow $|J ^tj,
subsequently killed him. The above assertion is contrary to the
"Historical Annals", T'ung-kien kang-muh jig Us Hif @ , and the
history of Lu-meng, both of which state that Lu-meng quietly
breathed his last, just at the time that Sun-k'uen ^ ^|| was con-
templating to reward him for his valorous deeds.
It is also said that Kwan-yii |f j$, evoked by the Head of the
Taoist sect, at the request of the emperor Chen-tsung jj| ^ (A.D.
998-1023), of the Northern Sung dynasty, Peh-Sung # %, led the
heavenly hosts who preside over the Five Sacred Mountains, Wu-yoh
3l #c (4), and the Four Rivers, and slew the rebel Ch'ih-yiu jg; ^ (5).
The latter, appointed after his death superintendant of all the salt-beds
of China by the Supreme Ruler, Shang-ti J^ ^?> dried up those of
(1) This title was given to him in 1856, because of his assistance in sub-
duing the T'ai-p'ing rebellion. It makes him the equal of Confucius. Chinese
Recorder, p. 483 (The God of War).
(2) This title and the two preceding ones, are the personal names of
Kwan-yii g§ ^.
(3) This is his official title at the present day. Giles. Chinese Biogra-
phical Dictionary, p. 384.
(4) The Five Sacred Mountains, Wu-yoh jE, #. These are the T'ai-shan
^ Ul, in Shantung; Hang-shan 'Jg jll, in Shansi ; Sung-shan j^f Ui, in Honan ;
Hwa-shan 3£ ill , in Shensi ; and Heng-shan $i JN, in Hunan. Mayers. Chinese
Reader's Manual, p. 321.
(5) Ch'ih-yiu ^ it- A legendary being, said to have rebelled against
Hwang-ti (B.C. 2697), but was finally defeated. His spirit is deemed to reside
in the planet Mars, and thus influence the conduct of warfare. Mayers. Chinese
Reader's Manual, p. 36.
— 84 —
Shansi \[\ ~$i, because the emperor Chen-tsung jfil ^ erected in that
province a temple to Hwang-ti ]|=r ^, the mortal enemy of the rebel.
All these assertions are thoroughly groundless, and invented by
Wang K'in-joh 3* ifc ^ 0) to deceive the too credulous and super-
stitious emperor Chen-tsung J
The literati have published various works for the purpose of
extolling Kwan-ti || *$?, and exhorting to the practice of virtue.
Principal among these are the two works entitled "Exhortations of
Kwan-ti", and "Favours obtained through the protection of Kwan-ti".
Beneath the name of their favourite god, they expose therein their
theory of civic virtues, filial piety, and the five relations, Wu-lun Ji
fjif (2). Pictures illustrate the rewards granted to those who practise
these virtues, as well as the punishments meted out to those who
have transgressed against them.
With regard to the official sacrifices offered to Kwan-yi'i (|| ^,
the reader is referred to de Harlez. "Religious and Imperial Cere-
monies of modern China", p. 417. Also to the "Chinese Recorder1',
1913. p. 482-483 (The God of War).
Among the illustrations here annexed, n° 13 represents the
Duke Kwan, Kwan-kung §| Q, attended by his standard-bearer
Chow-ts'ang J?{J ^ . The flag bears the inscription : "Baron of
Show-t'ing, title conferred in the time of the Han dynasty", Han
Show-tfing-heu ^ || "^ $| (3). The character Kwan §fj, tne felici-
(1) Wang K'in-joh 3£ |& ^f. A courtier and high official, during the
reign of Chen-tsung, whose superstitious vagaries he encouraged, enjoying in
return the highest Imperial favour and bounty. Mayers. Chinese Reader's
Manual, p. 241.
(2) Wu-lun 3l f^- The five constant relations among mankind, that of
sovereign and subject, father and son, elder brother and younger, husband and
wife, friend and friend. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
(3) According to the Annals of the Kingdom of Shuh, Shuh-shi Sg} ■&,
Ts'ao-ts'ao If % conferred this title on Kioan-hung ]?$ £•, after the heroic
exploit in which he slew Yen-liang M &• See "VarieHe's Sinologiques".
n9 23. p. 41. note (Nankin. Apercu historique et gdographique). — Mayers.
Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 93. —The Recorder translates "Baron of Han-
show", but this is erroneous. The Chinese Recorder, 1913. p. 481.
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— 85 —
tous name assumed by the hero, may be seen in the centre. The
god rides on horseback, and instead of holding the bridle, clutches
a lance with his two hands.
Illustration n° H represents Kwan-kung §| fe, as a god of the
literati. He holds in his right hand the "Spring and Autumn
Classic", Ch'un-fs'iu ^ ^, written by Confucius, being a history
of his native State of Lu |§. from B.C. 722 to 4 84. He is attended
on the right by his son Kwan-p'ing §| 2p, and on the left by his
standard-bearer Cho\v-tscang )j§] j^ .
Illustration n° 15 represents the God of War metamorphosed
into the God of Riches. The treasure-casket of the latter may be
seen at the feet of the god (1).
Attendants of the God of War.
In shrines dedicated to Kwan-kung H| ^, the god is constantly
attended by his adopted son Kwan-p'ing || ^p, and his faithful
standard-bearer Chow-ts'ang JgJ £$ . Sometimes the latter is assigned
the function of gate-keeper of the temple, but the custom is not
general. In all large temples, Kwan-kung §| ^ is accompanied by
the faithful officers, who fought under him during the period of the
Three Kingdoms, San-kwoh j£ pU. Among them the six following
may be chiefly mentioned.
1°. Liao-hwa JJL fc.
Liao-hwa J|l ffc, surnamed Yuen-kien j£ f(#, together with his
companion Tu-yuen ^£ j|§, was at the head of a gang of five hundred
(1) The God of War is very popular among merchants. In South China,
the inhabitants of Foochow celebrate his birthday on the 24th day of the sixth
month, as in the Imperial Calendar (Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. ">'.i2),
and on this occasion offer him meats of various kinds. Candles and incense
are also lighted, and bowings made before his image. When the sacrifice is
over, the clerks of the shop enjoy a bountiful feast upon the food presented
to the god. Chinese Recorder, 1913. p. 484 (The God of War).
— 86 —
brigands, and despoiled all travellers that ventured into the mountain
passes. It was along one of these roads that the two consorts of
Liu-pei flj fjt, the ladies Kan and Mei, Kan-Mei eul-fu-jen ^ Jjg
ZL 5fe A* travelled one day. While Kwan-yii §| ^J was far to the
rear, Tu-yuen jfi. ?H attacked the escort, and seizing the two ladies,
bore them off into the mountain recesses.
He then offered one of them to Liao-hwa j|t {£, reserving the
other for himself. Liao-hwa J|l \)q inquired of him who were the
two ladies, and upon learning they were the consorts of Liu-pei ^l]
f/f (1), he refused to accept any of them. Being unable to make
Tu-yuen 7^ ;j|f desist from his evil purpose, he transpersed him
with his lance, and mounting on horseback informed Kwan-yii || jfy
of the deed. He even begged him to receive him henceforth among
his chosen warriors. He then handed over to him the two consorts
of Liu-pei |!lj fff , and became one of the most distinguished officers
in the service of his new leader.
2°. Chow-ts'ang Jg] ^.
Chow-ts'ang f^\ ^ was a native of the country West of the
Pass, Kwan-si §| H • He was of giant-like stature, of a swarthy
complexion, with curled up beard, and could lift a weight of one
thousand catties (2). After the death of Chang-pao »jj| ^, a rebel
chief, under whom he served as petty officer, Chow-ts'ang j^J ^
became himself leader of the brigands that infested the Wo-niu hills,
Wo-niu-shan (^ 41 |X| - When Kwan-hung |pj Q happened to pass
in the vicinity, Chow-ts'ang j^J ^ joined his ranks, and served
henceforth under the banner of the great hero.
On learning of the death of Kwan-kung §fj fe, he cut his throat
with his own sword, being unwilling to survive his leader, whom
he served faithfully to the last.
(1) See on Liu-pei fi] If. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 497. note 2.
Vol. VI. p. 72. note 3.
(2) Catty, a Chinese weight called Kin }f, equal to li lbs avoirdupois.
Encyclopaedia Sinica. p. 85.
— 87 —
3°. Kwan-p'ing || zp. (l).
Kwan-p'ing fff 2p. was the son of Kwan-ting || 5t, a relative
of the great hero Kwan-kung §| ^. His eldest brother was called
Kwan-ning §| ^, and applied himself to the study of literature,
while the younger man preferred to follow a military career.
Kwan-ting §fj % offered his two sons to Kwan-kung §| ^,
when the latter visited his home. It was on this occasion that
Kwan-hung || fe adopted Kwan-p'ing |||] 2p. as his son. He was
then eighteen years of age, and followed henceforth his adopted
father. Made prisoner at KiXeh-shih ^ ^ together with Kwan-
hung |f ^, he shared his unfortunate fate, and was put to death
A.D. 220.
4°. Chao-lei $g ^.
Chao-lei ^ fp» was an officer attached to the army of Kwan-
kung §| ^, and had the charge of supplying provisions to the
troops. He was at KiXeh-shih $£ ^ when Kwan-kung ||j ^ was
made prisoner, but escaped being seized and put to death. He died,
however, that same year, being killed in an encounter w7ith the
enemy.
5°. Wang-fu 3E it-
Wang-fu J ~^ was one of the high officers in the army of
Kwan-hung ||| ^. He was stationed at Meh-ch'eng ^ jjfc when
he heard that Sun-k'iien ~% ||[ (2) had put to death his renowned
leader. Filled with sorrow on learning the sad news, he threw
himself from the battlements, and perished in the fall.
(1) Kwan-p-ing Pfj ^-. Adopted son of the God of War, and renowned
as a military leader in the time of the "Three Kingdoms". His birthday is
celebrated on the 13'h day of the fifth month. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V.
p. 586.
(2) See on Sun-k'iien |g $g. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 76. note 2.
— 88 —
6°. Kwan-hsing || WL.
Kwan-hsinq III III was the rightful son of Kwan-kunq H rfs,
and fought in the ranks of his father's army. He displayed much
valour in various battles waged against the troops of Sun-k'uen ^
;j|f , and at I-tu ^ ^'ft killed with the sword the two leaders Lih-yih
^ ffi and T'an-hsiung fff $£ (1).
(1) In the temple of Kwan-ti $§ iff", at Jil-hao f\\ Jjk, in North Kiangsu
'/X Wfi, the idols are arranged as follows: In the centre Kwan-ti || 'rjr, attended
by the gods of Harmony and Concord. Along the wall (to right) are Chao-Iei
© %.i Liao-hwa )% ffc, and Chow-ts'ang JS] Jf. — Wang-fu IE ~}\'{, Kwan-hsing
|| fit, and Kwan-p'ing |j| 2p (to left). This temple is entrusted to the care of
Taoists.
In another shrine of Kwan-ti || iff, at Haimen-t'ing '$$ fuJ Jjg>, the arran-
gement is as follows: In the centre Kwan-ti || ^f", attended on the right by
Generalissimo Liu-meng, Liu-meng tsiang-kun <gi] ® ?$■ jp!, and on the left by
Wen-ch'ang 5C Hi, the God of Literature. In front of Kwan-ti |J1 iff- are four
Gods of Wealth and Riches. — Along the wall (to right) are Chow-ts'ang j^
^■; a youth, T'ung-tze 1j£ ^f- (bearing Kwan-ti's seal); and the Red Rabbit
(Kwan-ti's charger).— Kwan-p'ing || 2p, Chow-ts'ang fH\ ^, and Kw'ei-sing %b
H (to left). This shrine is in care of Buddhists.
-<r->-<Sfteni-o
<u m \j)
CHAPTER III.
BUDDHAS, BODHISATTVAS, DEITIES
AND WORTHIES OF THE BUDDHIST PANTHEON (1).
■Xr-
AKTICLE I.
DIPAMKARA, OR THE LIGHT-BEARER.
Jan-teng-fuh %fe jf $}.
Dipamkam has been rendered into Chinese by the expression
Jan-teng-fuh %$ >fj£ f^fj, that is the "Light-bearer, or the Buddha
(1) Buddhism, being an offshoot of Brahmanism, embodied from the
parent stock various forms of Hindu thought, folklore, legends, demons and
fabulous beings. It admitted also into its pantheon Hindu gods and goddesses.
The Mdhayana School introduced the worship of Bodhisattvas, deified saints
and personal gods. Most of these are pure abstractions, the outcome of
mysticism, fancy and extravagance. The Tantra School gave wild and terrible
forms to many gods, and added an endless number of magical formulas for
all sorts of purposes. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 221 (How Buddhism
grew out of Brahmanism).
12
— 90 —
who illuminates brightly". He is also known as the "Buddha of
Fixed Light", Ting-kwang-fuh % % {% (1).
1°. First opinion on his origin — A mendicant woman.
There lived in the city of Sravasti, Shell- wei ^ % (2), a
mendicant woman called Nanda, Nan-t'o H pg (3), who begged from
door to door her daily bread. Seeing the rich offerings which wealthy
devotees placed on Buddha's altar, she said to herself : it is through
my own misdeeds that I am condemned to beg for a living. Hereupon,
she resolved to lay aside every day out of the alms received a few
small coins in order to purchase some oil, and replenish the lamps
which burnt before Buddha's image.
All lamps were to be extinguished during the night ; one,
however, emitted a strong bright light, as if it had been recently
trimmed. Maudgalyayana, Muh-lien g j|i (4), who wras then en-
trusted with the care of the temple, noticed this lamp, which beamed
with extraordinary brightness, and endeavoured to extinguish it, but
failed. He then raised the skirt of his robe, and waved it like
a fan, but despite all his efforts, it continued to burn on brightly.
Hereupon, Buddha addressed Maudgalyayana, and said: "no
power of yours can extinguish that lamp ; it has been prepared by
a generous-hearted person".
Soon afterwards, the mendicant returned to honour Sakyamuni,
Shih-kiah-fuh |p |Ju fjjfj, who foretold she would become a Buddha
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 566. First month, 6*h day.
(2) Sravasti. An ancient kingdom and city of the same name, once a
favourite resort of Sakyamuni. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 131.
(3) Nanda. According to Eitel, Nanda was one of the two girls who
supplied Sakyamuni with milk. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 8J.
(4) Maudgalyayana. One of the disciples of Sakyamuni, especially
noted for his magic powers, through which he transported an artist to the
Tuchita heavens, to get a view of Buddha and make a statue of him. He
also went to hell, and released therefrom his mother. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese
Dictionary, p. 65.
— 91 —
in a future kalpa. Subsequently, she became a Buddhist nun, and
was finally born as a Buddha (1).
2°. Second opinion — Di-pa.mh.ara, teacher of Sahyamuni in a
previous kalpa.
The most popular opinion among' Buddhists, especially those of
the Hinayana School, holds that Dipamkara is the 24th in a series
of Buddhas, who preceded Sakyamuni (2). The latter, having met
him in the Tuchita heavens, received from him the true doctrine,
and the assurance that he was destined for Buddhahood (3). A
favourite Jataka tale, represented in the Gandhara sculptures, shows
the self-sacrifice then made by the embryo Sakyamuni, in throwing
himself over a puddle to form a stepping-stone for Dipamkara to
pass onwards (4).
In modern Chinese temples, the image of Dipamkara is placed
behind that of Jii-lai jfl] $$. He is generally covered with a number
of little oil-lamps, which burn in his honour. They usually number
108, the number of divisions of Buddha's sacred foot (5).
Taoists, Tao-shi j|| -j^, ever eager to borrow from their Buddhist
brethern, have pretended that Dipamkara was formerly a hermit,
who had taken up his abode in the Sacred Mountain of the Centre,
Sung-shan ^ j]j, and belonged to their sect. When Sakyamuni
(1) This fantastic legend is quite opposed to the general opinion held
by Southern and Northern Buddhists. Dipamkara appeared in remote kalpas
long before the time of Sakyamuni, to whom he assured he was destined for
Buddhahood.— Beal. Buddhist Literature in China, p. 173.
(2) Dipamkara. The first of the 24 mythical Buddhas, who appeared
before Guatama. He was born in an island, and around his cradle a large
number of bright lamps appeared, hence his name Dipamkara. Getty. The
Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 11. — Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 136.—
Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 345 (Mythic human Buddhas).
(3) See Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 12, 210, 243. —Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. V. p. 566, 600, 639.
(4) Waddel. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 346 (Mythic human Buddhas).
(5) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 12. -- Hackmann. Buddhism as a
Religion, p. 210.— Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 566. 609, 639. note 2.
— 92 —
came to China, he visited the above hermit, and begged him instruct
him in the doctrine of salvation. Having thoroughly mastered the new
doctrine, and attained the summit of perfection, he returned to India,
and established there the Buddhist religion (1). According to this le-
gend, Sakyamuni was but a disciple of the Taoist hermit, known as Kin
Shen-tze £$$.^., and called also the "Light-bearer", Jan-teng >$&]$£.
Buddhists, highly incensed at this unscrupulous policy, retorted
angrily that Dipamkara, Jan-teng j$i jjf£, was a Bodhisattva, who
lived in a previous kalpa, and hence had no connexion with Taoists.
He was, in fact, the teacher of Sakyamuni in one of his previous
births, and foretold he would one day be born as a Buddha (2).
The Taoists, Tao-shi j|| ^, were not, however, outdone. They
pretended that Ti-tsang-\vang jfa ^3E> the well-known Bodhisattva,
who presides over Hades, was in a previous birth known as Kin
Shen-tze ^ ifelfl *?, so that the same Taoist hermit was the teacher
of Sakyamuni, Dipamkara or the Light-bearer, Jan-teng j$ ;):jg, and
subsequently the Bodhisattva Ti-tsang-wang | |J (3).
The following is a brief sketch of this curious legend, as found
in the "General Mirror of Gods and Immortals", Shen-sien t'ung-
kien jjit|J filj at m (4).
(1) The visit of Sakyamuni to China is purely legendary, and shows the
fanciful and extravagant trend of Taoism, as well as its utter disregard of
history.
(2) See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 91.
(3) Ti-tsctng-wang #& ^ 3:. One of the five well-known Bodhisattvas
(merciful beings representing the saving principle of Buddhism), who presides
over Hades, and saves therefrom those who worship him. According to
Edkins, he does not judge the souls, but opens a path for reformation and
pardon of sins. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 218. — Getty. The Gods of
Northern Buddhism, p. 92.— Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 170.
(4) General Mirror of Gods and Immortals, Shen-sien t'ung-kien jjpj> { |Xf il
f|£. A Taoist work first published in 1640. It comprises a series of biogra-
phical sketches, for the most part fabulous and legendary, of upwards of 800
saints, sages and divinities, selected chiefly from the ranks of Taoists, with
a few Buddhist characters admitted into the number. Wylie. Notes on
Chinese Literature, p. 223.
93 —
3°. Third opinion — A Taoist hermit called Kin Shen-tze ^
When Sakyamuni was born, the Taoist hermit Kin Shen-tze
& $$■ "?> ruled the Sacred Mountain of the Centre, Sung-shan ^
[jj, together with his fourth son, Yun-shen '[1|C ^|. Having attained
the age of 19 years, Sakyamuni withdrew to the Danta mountain,
T'an-t'eh-shan U ^ ill l1)* and became the disciple of the Rishi
Arada Kalama, O-lan Kiah-lan |5pJ j* jjg jg (2). He remained at
the school of this great teacher during three full years, but failed
to become enlightened. During another year, he studied under the
Rishi Udaka, Yun-t'eu-lan U jjjj gg (3), but again without success.
He then learned that a hermit called Kin Shen-tze ■<§? $$. ^-, and
whose honorary name was Jan-teng •$$ ^, lived to the East, and
was endowed with marvellous powers. Sakyamuni immediately set
out for China, and after a perilous journey of three years, arrived
at the foot of the Sacred Mountain of the Centre, Sung-shan ^ \[},
in Honan -jpT ]|j. This happened in the 21st year of Mu-wang ^ 3£,
R.C. 980 (4).
When he arrived, Jan-teng 'J$£ ^ was away from the mountain,
and lived for the time being at the Liang hills, Liang-shan |^ \\j,
to the East of the T'ai-tai mountains, T'ai-tai-shan 7§? frj1 ill • Here,
Sakyamuni found him at last. During thirteen days he became his
disciple, listened to his instructions, and had the good fortune of
(1) T'an-t'eh-shan |g ^F til- In Sanscrit Danta Lokagiri, a mountain
near Varucha, a town in Gandhara, to the East of Peshawar. Eitel. Sanscrit-
Chinese Dictionary, p. 30.
(2) Arada-Kalama. One of the first teachers of Sakyamuni. Mitel .
Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 12.
(3) Yun-t'eu-lan jl^ gjf ff. In Sanscrit Udaka Ramaputra, a Rishi whose
instruction Buddha first listend to. Heal. A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures,
p. 134.
(4) Mu-ivang $ 3E (B.C. 1001-946). Buddha was born B.C. 622, or 358
years later than the event here recorded. Taoists have no regard for history.
— 94 —
thoroughly seizing the whole doctrine of Taoist perfection (1). He
then bade farewell to his teacher Jan-teng •)$ $(|, returned through
the T'eng JJ|| and Sze :jfAj valleys, and spent a night amidst the
snow-capped mountains, Hsueh-sfian @ \\\, of Western China,
where he admired the beauty of the landscapes, and imbibed a high
idea of Chinese civilisation.
On returning to India, he preached there his religion, and was
known under the name of Sakyamuni (2).
We glean from the above legendary story that Kin Shen-tze ^
^ ^f , or Jan-teng ^| $§, the Taoist hermit of the Sacred Mountain
of the Centre, Sung-shan ^ \\}, was the teacher of Sakyamuni.
The fanciful writer describes in another part of the work how he
became Ti-tsang-wang jfc H 3E (3)» in a subsequent phase of
existence.
Ti-tsang-wang an avatar of Kin Shen-tze, Kin Shen-tze ^ ^ ~P-
The Fairy Queen of the West, Si-wang-mu "g 3: # (4), £ave
a splendid banquet to all the gods of the Chinese Pantheon. Her
husband and patriarch of the genii, Muh-kung yfc ^ (5), assigned
to Ti-tsang-wang J-jjj ^ 3i, a place at table between the God of
Longevity, Show-sing H Jfl, and the Fire God, Chuh-yung jjjft fjfc.
(1) The inference intended by the writer is that Buddhism is an offshoot
of Taoism, nay more that the two religions are one and the same doctrine.
(2) General Mirror of Gods and Immortals, Shen-sien t'ung-hien jjjijj f|I| jjg
i*. Book V. Ch. I. p. 8.
(3) See on Ti-tsang-wang Jflt %% 3£. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 92. note 3.
(4) Si-wang-mu Bl 31 #. A legendary being supposed to dwell upon the
K'uen-lun %_ $| mountains at the head of troops of genii, and hold from time
to time intercourse with China's rulers. In her garden grow peaches, which
ripen but once in 3000 years, and confer immortality upon those who eat
them. Giles. Chinese Biographical Dictionary, p. 272. — Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. III. p. 258.— Vol. V. p. 587. note 5.
(5) Muh-kung ^ £•. The male patriarch of the genii, and husband of
Si-wang-mu H I "9*- The original conception of such a personage arose
from the desire to find a mate for the above Fairy Queen. Mayers. Chinese
Reader's Manual, p. 158.— Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. p. 256.
— 95 —
Yin-hsi ^ Ja, a disciple of Lao-tze % ^, failing to notice
Ti-tsang-wang jfe ^ ^E> because of the jumble made by Muh-kung
TjC ^, begged Lao-kiln % ^, his master, to tell him why Ti-tsang-
wang jfc ^ 5E was excluded from the banquet.
Lao-tze ^ ^p replied and said: "men become daily more and
more perverse, and hell is filled with countless sinners. The Prince
of Si-ch'eng, Si-ch'eng wang-kiin |f |(^ }£ ;fj, whom you see here
has been reborn in the Yeh ^ family, in the State of Sin-lo j|ff j|i.
In early youth, he became a Buddhist monk, acquired great merit
for the salvation of mankind, and was known under the name of
Show-yih tJ1 — . Then pointing out with his finger the Prince,
Wang-kiin 3* M, Lao-tze ^ ^ said to those around him : know
ye that this prince, Wang-kiln ^£ ;§", is Ti-tsang-wang J-jjj ^ 3£ (1).
Ti-tsang-wang jfe. ^ 3E» having overheard these words, joined his
hands, and acknowledged with a bow of the head the truth of the
words spoken. You should, continued Lao-tze ^ --p, in all justice,
be appointed Ruler of Hades, and Intendant of all beings who dwell
in the Eastern world. Accept this dignity, and set aside all false
humility. Ti-tsang-wang J-jfj ^ 3E thanked Lao-kiln %■ ;§" (2).
Hereupon the host of Immortals understood that Ti-tsang-wang ffc
$§4 3E was incarnated in the person of the Prince, Wang-kiin 3: ?a >
or Kin Shen-tze ^ ^ ^p".
The honory title Prince of Si-ch'eng, Si-ch'eng wang-kiin "jrtj jfy
3E ^3, is one of the ordinary names given to Kin Shen-tze ^ ^fl *-p, as
stated in the General Mirror of Gods and Immortals, Shen-sien t'ung-
kien jji^ \ [Jj j|| gg£. A former official, called Han-ch'ung fjji ^, heard
(1) Ti-tsang-wang ■j^L'^'BE- One of the five well-known Bodhisattvas, who
presides over Hades, and saves therefrom those who worship him. Edkins.
Chinese Buddhism, p. 218.— Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 92.—
Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 170.— Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 92.
note 3.
(2) Lao-tze % •=?•, or Lao-kiln % %?, the old or venerable philosopher.
Born B.C. 004 ; time and place of death unknown. He founded the Taoist
system of philosophy and mysticism, improved upon by his disciples. Mayers.
Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 110. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 615. —
Vol. VI. p. 2. note 3; p. 12.
— 96 —
it said that in the Wu ^ kingdom, a man was wanted to explore
the Lin-wu grotto, Lin-wu-tung fa i|aj M- Han-ch'ung H gf=
accepted the adventurous enterprise, and providing himself with food
for the journey, travelled 17 days through the grotto. At last, he
reached a large and beautiful square opening on a palace, Avhere
dwelt a king surrounded by his courtiers. The ruler said to him :
••the King of Wu J% (1), named Hoh-lu Hf] fg B.C. 514-495), will
soon perish, and together with him thousands of his subjects will
be swept off the face of the earth. Isn't there any means of rescuing
these folks from their unhappy doom?'* — The only means of saving
them would be for the king to visit personally the Deva T'ai-yih,
T'ai-yih yuen-kun ^c — jt In (2)> wno affords relief in suffering,
and follow his advice. The ruler then handed over to Han-ch'ung
|j| ^, the jade tablets, which belonged formerly to the Great Yu,
Ta-yu -fc H (3), and were found on the Pao-shan mountain, Pao-
shan |jJ [ij. Take them to the King of Wu ^, as proof of your
having fulfilled your mission, said he. The genius of the grotto
invited Han-ch'ung If ^ to sit down at his table, and ordered two
of his attendants to accompany him on the way out.
While retracing his steps, Han-ch'ung |j| ^ highly perplexed
with the adventure that befell him, asked his guides to kindly tell
him the name of the strange ruler whom he encountered.
He is called, replied they, the God of the Central Mountain,
Chung-hwa ti-kun tfr lj| ^ ;§", or Kin Shen-tze ^ £ip ^ Having
fulfilled a high official position in the kingdoms of Ch'u <§§ (4) and
(1) Wu Q. The "Wu State, or Eastern of the three ancient kingdoms
of China. It comprised Eicingsu iL «£, Chehiang #f H, and parts of Xganhicei
§£ li: and Kiangsi H H- Soochow M M was its capital. Williams. Diction-
ary of the Chinese Language.
(2) See on the worship of this Deva. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V.
p. 610. Eleventh month, 11th dav.
(3) Ta-yu -fc qg. See on the Great Yu. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 33-34.
(4) Ch'u |g. A large feudal principality, comprising Hu-kwang #1 .H*
parts of Honan jnr ^ and Kiangsu K H|. Its capital was Kingchow-fu ffl W
fif. on the Yangtze, ^'illiams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
Jang teng fait present a Li tsing dune tour mysteneuse.
Jang Teng offers to Li Tsing a mysterious tower.
I
— 97 —
King $|J, he proceeded to the country West of China, became a
Buddhist monk, and on returning, added to his name that of Prince,
Wang ^. He is nowadays called the Ruler of Si-ch'eng, Si-chfeng
wang-kun f i J S, or Wang-wei Hsuen-fu 3E Jf ^ ft- The
grotto, which you have visited, is the innermost recess of the Sacred
Mountain of the Centre, Sung-shan ^ \\].
In the classification of Genii and Immortals after the mountains
on which they lived, the Genius Kin Shen-tze ^ ^ ^ is known
under the following names :
Kin Shen-tze ^ ^ ^.
Jan-teng-fuh j& jg fj.
Wang-tan ^ -£]-.
Si-ch'eng wang-kun (1) 15 M 3: IS-
Jan-teng '$$ |f is popularly believed to have offered to Li-tsing
^ ^ (2), the mysterious tower or pagoda, which he bears in his
hands, hence the name given him of "Li, the Tower-bearer". Statues
and popular images of Jan-teng $k @ represent him bearing in his
hand the mysterious tower, which he offered to the Pearly Emperor,
Supreme Ruler, Yuh-hwang Shang-ti 31 M Jl ^ (3). The hermit
is rather shabbily dressed, and wears a much patched robe (4),
doubtless to represent the Buddhist legend of the mendicant woman,
(1) Si-ch'eng wang-kun Bf j$ 3£ ;g\ The Ruler of Si-ch'eng, a mountain
where he spent his life in meditation and asceticism, and thereby attained
immortality. Mirror of Gods and Immortals, Shen-sien t'ung-kien f|I| /jiiji ;[(] g** .
Book XV. Ch. I. p. 4.
(2) Li-tsing ^ if. A warrior, who lived at the beginning of the Chow
ffl dynasty (12'h century B.C.). His wife gave birth to the third son of
Vajrapani, the Hindu God of Thunder. The jagged thunderbolt held in the
hand of the youthful god was mistaken by Chinese painters for a pagoda.
Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 101. — Giles. Chinese Biographical Dic-
tionary, p. 600.
(3) The Taoist legend is a travesty of the Buddhist version of the history,
which represents Li-tsing's son as the offspring of the God of the Thunderbolt.
See Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 161.
(4) See Illustration n° 16. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 90.
13
— 98 —
and other fabulous inventions, which have made him also one of
the Taoist genii. Beneath this garb, each of the two religions may
claim him as its own, for he was at various times both a Buddhist
monk and a Taoist hermit.
Origin of monasteries dedicated to the "Thousand Buddhas".
Ts'ien-fuh-sze ^f {$ =*f.
The following legend describes the manner in which Jan-teng
'J$R $g became a Buddha. He was at first a Rishi (1), and lived in
the Himalaya Mountains, under the name of the Brahman Lao-tu-
poh-t'i ^ JRg; j$ H§. Here he succeeded in converting one thousand
kings (2), who accompanied him into the mountain recesses, where
they lived as hermits, each one in his own little hut. One day, a
Yaksha (3), Yeh-ch'a ^ %, requested to eat their hearts and drink
their blood. The kings refused, but at last Lao-tu-poh-t'i ^/^M^
consented, and piercing his own throat, he gave his blood ; then
opening his chest, he offered also his heart.
Lao-tu-jjoh-t' 'i ^ /f£ j$£ ^ became subsequently the Buddha
known as Jan-teng '$$ ]$£. As to the one thousand kings, who
refused the sacrifice requested of them, they had to expiate their
fault during a whole kalpa, and became subsequently the "Thousand
Buddhas", Ts'ien-fuli ^ fijj}, of the present age (4).
(1) Rishis. Ancient Hindu hermits, transformed after their death into
genii. They correspond to the Sien-jen f|Il A, or Immortals of the Taoists.
Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 173.
(2) Eitel calls them "Sages". Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 22.—
Wealthy Tibetans delight to keep the images of these 1000 Buddhas, made
in silver or other metal, and to pay respect to them. Hardy. Manual of
Buddhism, p. 96.
(3) Yctkshas. A class of good genii, ruled over by Kuvera, the Hindu
God of Riches. They are held to be harmless, though some Buddhist legends
describe them as cruel. Monier "Williams. Buddhism, p. 220 (Hindu demons
adopted by Buddhism).
(4) This is called the kalpa of stability, Badhrahalpa. It is to last
236,000,000 of years, an insignificant lapse of time for the extravagant fancy
of Buddhists. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 22.
— 99 —
Monasteries known as those of the "Thousand Buddhas",
Ts'ien-fuh-sze =f- {.jj} ^jr", are dedicated to those kings. They are
represented in various forms, postures and garbs.
From the above legend, found in Buddhist books, the custom
originated of erecting monasteries in honour of the "Thousand
Buddhas".
Having so far described the first of the 24 mythical Buddhas,
who appeared before Sakyamuni, it may be of interest to give here
the full list of their names, both in Sanscrit and Chinese. Many
particulars are given about them, including their birth-places, period
of asceticism, the trees under which they acquired wisdom, the
length of their lives, their stature (Dipamkara was 80 cubits high),
retinue etc (1). Guatama himself is said to have met some of them
during his previous births.
Appendix.
The 24 mythical Buddhas, who appeared before Sakyamuni (2).
1°.
Dipamkara
Jan-teng-fuh
m m $
2°.
Kaundinya
Ko-li-wang
mm^
3°.
Mangala
4°.
Sumanas
5°.
Raivata
Li-po-to
m \&%
6°.
Sobhita
7°.
Anavama-darsin
8°.
Padma
Po-t'eu-mo
:®lMM
9°.
Narada
10°.
Padmottara
Shu-miao-shen
%y»%
11°.
Sumedhas
(1) In keeping with their imaginary character, all are given the most
extravagant size, and duration of earthly life. Waddell. Buddhism of Tibet,
p. 345.
(2) See Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 136. note 1. —Waddell. Buddhism
of Tibet, p. 345. note 5.— Hardy. Manual of Buddhism, p. 94 (The Buddhas,
who preceded Gautama).
— 100
12°.
Sujata
13°.
Priya-darsin
14°.
Artha-darsin
15°.
Dharma-darsin
16°.
Siddharta
17°.
Tishya
18°.
Pushya
19°.
Yipasyin
20°.
Sikhin
21°.
Visva-bhu
22°.
Krakucanda
23°.
Kanaka-muni
24°.
Kasyapa (1)
25°.
Sakyamuni
Sah-p'o-sih-to
Shih-sha
P'i-p'o-shi
Shi-k'i
P'i-sheh-feu
KiX-liu-sun
KiX-na-sheh-meu-ni
Kiah-yeh
Shih-kiah-fuh
XJ'Jj -*?ll? -3P- ^^
m *%k & ^
MM
mm®
Sometimes, the last six of the 24 are reckoned together with
Sakyamuni, all constituting a group of 7 principal Buddhas, Ts'ih-
fuh J£ \% (2), corresponding with the Brahmanical Seven Manus of
the present kalpa. Usually, however, Sakyamuni is held to be the
last of 25 Buddhas (3).
The coming Buddha, Maitreya, Mi-leh-fuh >jg fjj {$, is not
reckoned in the above list. Sakyamuni met him in the Tuchita
heavens, and appointed him his successor, to appear as Buddha
after the lapse of 5000 years. The world will then have become so
corrupt, that the Buddhist law will be no longer obeyed, nor even
(1) All 24 Buddhas were Kshcttriyas (belonging to the caste of warriors
and kings), with the exception of the three last, who were Brahmans. Eitel.
Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 55.
(2) Ts'ih-fuh -fc #• Sapta Buddha in Sanscrit. Seven ancient Buddhas,
6 of whom were forerunners of Sakyamuni. If not historical personages,
they express the idea that Buddhism, or something like it, existed long before
Guatama, who merely popularized ideas and doctrines, which had been
promulgated centuries before him. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p.
122. ■— Guatama is only the reviver of a system, that had been previously
taught by more ancient Sages. Hardy. Manual of Buddhism, p. 86.
(3) See Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 136.
101 —
remembered. Maitreya is, therefore, the expected Messiah of Bud-
dhists. Residing at present in the Tuchita heavens, he already
watches over, and controls the interests of the Buddhist religion (1).
The last seven Buddhas mentioned above must not be confounded
with the "Seven Tathagatas1', Ts'ih-ju-lai -fc ^P 2fc> whose names are
found inscribed in a heptagonal stone-pillar, found in certain large
temples. The pillar is generally about five feet high, and the names
are inscribed, one on each side of the pillar, as follows : —
The "Seven Tathagatas", Ts'ih-ju-lai J£ J0J Jfc (2).
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
Amitabha
2
Amritodanaraja
3
Abhayamdada
4
Vyasa
5
Ghocha rupakaya
6
Ratna djina
7
Prabhuta ratna
O-mi-t'o-fuh
Kan-lu-wang
Li-pu-wei
Poh-shen
Miao-sheh-shen
Pao-sheng
To-pao-jii-lai
m m pe ft
rtH3£
M ffi Jl
iw *
24 Other ancient Buddhas honoured by Chinese Buddhists.
Yih-hwa-ku-fuh
Wu-t'ung-ku-fuh
Ts'ing-fung-ku-fuh
Kin-kwang-hu-fuli
San-wang-ku-fuh
O-mi-t'o-fuh (3)
- it ii ft
mmii ft
&# #ft
m m pb ft
(1) Maitreya has thus become a favourite object of personal worship
after Guatama's death. He is, besides, the only Bodhisattva worshipped by
all Buddhists, whether in the South or in the North. Monier Williams.
Buddhism, p. 182.
(2) Ts'ih-ju-lai -fc #P ^. In Sanscrit Sapta Tathagata. These 7 per-
sonages seem to have been arbitrarily chosen as a Buddhistic substitute for
the 7 Bishis of the Brahmans. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. \2'A.
(3) Transliteration of Amitabha, a Dhyani-Buddha, invented by the
Mahay ana School about A.D. 300. Southern Buddhism knows no Amita, or
Amitya. .Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. G. — Getty. The Gods of
Northern Buddhism, p. 38.
— 102 —
7 Jan-teng-ku-fuh
S Ch'ang-show-ku-fuh
9 T.s- 'ing-yang-ku-fuh
10 T'o-ni-ku-fuh
11 Sha-lo-ku-fuh
12 Sha-shu-ku-fuh
13 Ngan-loh-ku-fuh
14 Shui-tsing-ku-fuli
15 Kwang-wang-ku-fuh
16 Sha-p'o-ku-fuh
17 Siao-yao kin-sien
18 K'i-kiao-wu-kih-ku-fuh
19 Liu-li-tze-tsai-ku-fuh
20 Ft/en-shi-i'ten-wangi (1)
21 Ming-sin-wu-yuh-ku-fuh
22 Wu-jeh'tze-tsai-ku-fuh
23 P'o-shi-t'o-ni-ku-fuh
24 T'ai-yih-hung-hwang tao-kiin
The above list is taken from
monks recite frequently in honour of
of whom are stellar gods borrowed fr
ft JP
S
# ft
* * * ft
II* ft
P6 £ * ft
S « * ft
^tr^ft
^^ *ft
7K & * ft
#S if ft
SI & * ft
£ £ & fill
* ft i! ft tf ft
5E 9 S € "£ ft
tc *& * £
03 «fr & #; -£ ft
is h i & -£ft
S P PS ^ tf ft
* & #t $g g ^ (2)
a Buddhist litany, which the
these fabulous worthies, several
om Taoism (3).
(1) Yuen-shi t'ien-wang 7C i& :7c 5, literally the "Beginning, heavenly
Prince". This Buddha seems to be the same as the 1st personage of the Taoist
Triad, Yuen-shi t'ien-tsun 7Ci&:7$#, the "Beginning, honoured of Heaven".
See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 11.
(2) T'ai-yih ZL ?k, a star in Draco, probably Thuban, the Polar Star of
4000 years ago ; the God of the North Pole, principally worshipped by Taoists.
See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 614.
(3) In the temple of the "Wheel of the Law", Fah-lun-sze j£ f|j #, at
T'ung Choio M £H, in North Kiangsu jl $%, the arrangement of the idols is as
follows: To the rear, Sahyamuni, having to the front Ananda and Kasyapa,
and further on Indra and Brahma. Along the wall 9 Lohans (to right), and
9 others (to left).— In the outer hall, Veda and Maitreya, attended by the 4
Deva-rajas, or demon-kings (who guard the 4 quarters of the Buddhist world),
2 on each side. Along the wall (to right) the "Three Rulers", and a deified
official, Wang-tsao 3E M (to left). Guarding the entrance to the temple, the
2 ferocious monsters Heng pf and Hah P&.
— 103 —
AETICLE II.
MAITREYA, THE COMING BUDDHA.
Mi-leh-fuh ffi fj fft (1).
Buddhist tradition divides the period between the death of
Sakyamuni, and the manifestation of Maitreya, Mi-leh-fuh *jf$ <§) fijjl ,
in the present kalpa, into three divisions of time. 1° a period of
500 years during which the "Wheel of the Law", will be actively
turned. 2° a second period of 1000 years, during which various
writings and images will explain fully, and supplement the teaching
of the Law. 3° a period of 3000 years, during which the world
will become so corrupt, that the teaching of the Buddhist Law will
be no longer obeyed, nor even remembered. We have thus in
Buddhism a period of foundation, expansion and decline (2).
Maitreya, Mi-leh-fuh |$j j|!j $}',, is the coming Buddha, who is
to succeed Sakyamuni, and establish on earth the lost truths of
Buddhism. Sakyamuni met him in the Tuchila heavens, and
appointed him as his successor, to appear as Buddha, after the lapse
of 5000 years. He is, therefore, the "Buddha Elect" (3). Already,
letters fallen from heaven have frequently announced his coming.
These fictitious letters are generally circulated by members of the
"Secret Societies", Mi-mi-hiao $? $? ft (4).
Chinese works inform us little about Maitreya, Mi-leh-fuh >jf^
H§\ ${■,. His image is exposed in temples, but nothing is explained
(1) Maitreya, Mi-leh-fuh $g ?##• This name implies "love and tender-
ness", "full of love towards all beings", hence the "Loving One", the "Merciful
One". Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 240.— Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet.
p. 355. -Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 20.
(2) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 20 (Maitreya, the future
Buddha). — Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 181.
(3) Eitel. Handbook of Chinese Buddhism, p. 70. — Getty. The Gods of
Northern Buddhism, p. 20.
(4) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 512 (Letters fallen from heaven,
and containing words of Maitreya).
— 104 —
to the people beyond the general idea that he will one day succeed
Sakyamuni.
The image of this Buddha, once seen, remains easily impressed
on the memory. The following description of him has been made
by one of the Immortals to another, while both assisted at a banquet
given in honour of all the gods. "In the Tuchita heavens (1),
Maitreya, Mi-leh-fuh </$} s$l {<!{}, sits on the right hand of Sakyamuni.
He may be well recognized by the laughing expression of his face,
his smiling countenance, and general contented appearance (2). His
flowing hair falls gracefully down on his long-lobed ears. To these
characteristics may be added his fat, chubby cheeks, large mouth,
breast and upper abdomen exposed to view, all of which impart to
him a peculiar aspect among the Buddhas. He holds in his left
hand a mystic bag, containing "primitive ether", K'i-mu ^ -£;£,
the germ of all past worlds (3). This Buddha is a royal prince,
and son of a Cakravarti, Sheh-wei ti-t'o ^ % }j£ [?g" (4).
Maitreya, Mi-leh-fuh ijff ^jlj |)|',, bears in his right hand a
rosary, each bead of which represents a period of 1000 years, spent
by him in doing merciful deeds during preceding existences. In
Buddhist temples, he is generally represented sitting, in Hindu
fashion, with feet pendent, long flowing locks and smiling face, as
(1) The Tuchita heavens, or 4th Devaloha, where all Bodhisattvas are
reborn, before finally appearing on earth as Buddhas. Maitreya is residing
there at present. Life lasts in Tuchita 4000 years, but 24 hours there are
equal to 400 years on earth. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 152.
(2) He is always represented in a quite peculiar way, a fat, laughing
figure, cowering on the ground, so that the left leg lies crosswise in front of
the body. The lobes of the ears reach the shoulders. Hackmann. Buddhism
as a Religion, p. 210.
(3) The right hand holds either a rosary or a lotus-bud ; the left encir-
cles the mouth of a bag, the so-called bag of the five lucky gifts. Hackmann.
Buddhism as a Religion, p. 210.
(4) Cakravarti. Literally, a holy king, who turns the wheel. A military
monarch and conqueror, who governs part or the whole of a universe. A
universel ruler. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 142.— Monier Wil-
liams. Buddhism, p. 15.
Vig. 17
Mikifou, Maitreya.
Milehfuh Maitreya (the future Buddha).
— 105 —
befits an inhabitant of the Tuchita heavens, or Buddhist paradise of
contented beings.
In large temples, Maitreya's image is erected in the outer
hall (1), near the place generally assigned to the "Gods Protectors"
of the monastery", Kia-lan $0 |£. Maitreya, Mi-leh-fuh *j$j ^|j $(',,
must not be confounded with the Buddhist God of Wealth, Kuvern,
who is also represented as a fine, stout personage. The "Gods
Protectors" of the monastery carry also a rosary, and a magic bag,
while the characteristics of the God of Wealth are an ingot borne in
the hand, and the treasure-box placed at his feet.
Maitreya, Mi-leh-fuh |jj| jP $}*,, being the expected Messiah, or
Saviour, is an object of universal reverence among latter-day Bud-
dhists, and actual prayers are addressed to him, as to a living and
merciful being (2).
Maitreya is credited with gigantic size, and colossal statues
representing him are found in various parts of China. According
to Edkins, in the province of Chekiang $j- ££., there is a stone image
of Maitreya 40 feet high, while at Peking 4fc 7£, there is a wooden
image of him still higher (3).
Maitreya, Mi-leh-fuh <]($ j|(| fi}|j, is generally found in a Triad
with Guatama and Avalokitesvara, and sometimes with Sariputra
and Baishajyaguru (4).
(1) Some state he has the special function of tutelary deity. Hackmann.
Buddhism in China, p. 210.
(2) See Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 182.
(3) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 250. — Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 22.
(4) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 22. —Chinese Supersti-
tions. Vol. VI p. 18-19 (Buddhist Triads).
>¥&
14
— 106 —
ARTICLE III.
AMITABHA, BUDDHA OF BOUNDLESS LIGHT.
O-mi-t'o-fuh ffl %$ pg $& (1).
1°. Amitabha.
The name of Amitabha, O-mi-l'o-fuh |JjiJ i$jg |?£ fjjj, appears for
the first time in the list of the 1000 fictitious Buddhas (2), introduced
by the Nepalese Mahayana School about A.D. 300. Amitabha is
known only in Northern Buddhism (3). The Chinese Buddhist
travellers Fah-hsien f£ ijf and Hsuen-tsang ]£ |g? (4) make no mention
of him. The Sutra called the "Lotus of the Good Law'1, Cheng-
fah lien-hwa-king j£ j£ ||| $• |g, translated into Chinese about
A.D. 300, is the first that alludes to him. It is only since the
beginning of the Vth century that he acquired prominence, through
Kumerajiva, who entered China by way of Tibet A.D. 405. It was
at this period of Buddhist evolution that the Western Paradise,
Si-t'ien ^ ^, a substitute for Nirvana, too abstruse for the common
people to grasp, was invented. Amitabha is held to be the ruler of
(1) Amitabha Other forms are Amitayus, Amitaya and Amita. Explain-
ed by "Boundless Light". Originally conceived of as impersonal, he lost
early his ideal character, and was worshipped by Northern Buddhists as a
personal god. He is to-day held to be the ruler of the Western Paradise,
and hence highly popular among the Chinese. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dic-
tionary, p. 6.— Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 204.— Waddell. Buddhism
of Tibet, p. 127.
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 98 (Monasteries dedicated to
the Thousand Buddhas).
(3) Southern Buddhism knows no Amitabha. His name does not appear
in the canons of the Hinayana School, and his worship is unknown in
Ceylon, Burma and Siam Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 36
(Amitabha).
(4) Fah-hsien travelled to India A.D. 399-414, and Hsiien-tsang A.D.
G29-645. Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 36.
— 107 —
this so-called blissful land, and hence highly popular among the
Chinese (1).
According to the teaching of the Mahayana theistic school (2),
Amitabha is looked upon at the present day, as the ideal representa-
tion, or celestial reflex of Sakyamuni. Every Buddha, who appears
on earth in a human form, exists also in an ideal state, or ethereal
representation of himself, in the formless worlds of abstract thought.
As there are five chief human Buddhas in the present age, so there
are also five corresponding Dhyani-Buddhas, namely Vairocana,
Akohobya, Ratnasambava, Amitabha, and Amogasiddha (3). Ami-
tabha is, thus, the fourth Dhyani-Buddha (4), a thoroughly fictitious
being, having no reality beyond the extravagant fancy of Buddhist
mysticism. In early times, he lost his purely ideal character, and
was worshipped by Northern Buddhists as a personal god. He is
even at the present day held by them to be an Eternal being (5),
the acme of all that is beautiful and good, and who receives his
worshippers into a heaven, where exempt from suffering, death,
and sexual distinctions (6), and surrounded by the most beautiful
(1) Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 6. —Getty. The Gods of Nor-
thern Buddhism, p. 38 (Amitabha).
(2) The Mahayana School. This school was formed by Nagarjuna, and
influenced more or less the whole Buddhist church. The characteristics of
the system are an excess of transcendental speculation tending to abstract
nihilism, and the substitution of fanciful mysticism, in place of the practical
asceticism of the Hinayana School. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p.
68 (Mahayana).
(3) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 20 (Dhyani-Buddhas).
(4) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 36. — Monier Williams.
Buddhism, p. 183.
(5) Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 204 (Amitabha). — Beal. A Catena
of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, p. 373. — Getty. The Gods of Nor-
thern Buddhism, p. 39.
(6) According to the "Lotus of the Good Law" (Saddhartna-pundarika
in Sanscrit), women are debarred from Amitabha's paradise, but other Bud-
dhist writers refer to its inmates as sexless. Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 36. — Beal. A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese,
p. 381.
— 108 —
scenery, they live for endless kalpas in a state of absolute bliss.
As to the origin of the name Amitabha, "Buddha of Boundless
or Infinite Light", some hold he is a sun-god, evolved from Persian
influences and sun-worship (1). His "Western Paradise" would
thus be the place to which the sun hastens, disappearing from
mortal gaze in a halo of glory.
Besides being "Buddha of Boundless Light", Amitabha is also
"Buddha of Boundless Life" in his form of Amitayus (2) ; and of
"Boundless Compassion" in his Bodhisattva form of Avalokitesvara,
or the Chinese Kwan-yin || ^.
According to another legendary account, recorded in the Sutra
of Boundless Years, Wu- Hang -show -king |te j| |tp £jg, he is asserted
to have been a king in one of the previous kalpas. Having aban-
doned his palace, he became a Bishi under the assumed name of
Fah-tsang $• ^, or "Treasure of the Law". Another legend relates
that he was the second son of an Indian Cakravarti (3), President
of the 10th Court of Hades. This personage turns the "wheel of
metempsychosis", and regulates the transmigration of all beings (4).
Converted by the Buddha Lohesvara-raja, or independent sovereign
of the world, Shi-tze-tsai-wang -}H; § ^£ 3i, he embraced the religious
life, and in a subsequent rebirth became the ruler of Sukhavati,
or the Western Paradise, Si-fang-hih-loh shi-kiai Jflf if |1| |j| -jH;
ffi. Two famous Bodhisattvas, Avalokitesvara and Mahastama (5)
(1) See Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 127, 347. -Getty. The Gods
of Northern Buddhism, p. 36.
(2) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 37.— The Chinese and
Japanese have confounded Amitabha and Amitayus, whereas in Tibet they
are always distinct. Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 445.
(3) Cakravarti. A holy king who turns the wheel. A military monarch
and conqueror, who governs part or the whole of a universe. A universal
ruler. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 142.— Monier Williams. Bud-
dhism, p. 15.
(4) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 582. Fourth month, 17th day.
(5) See on these two Buddhist divinities. Chinese Superstitions. Vol.
VI. p. 17. notes 3 and 4.
— 109 —
left our universe, and resided with him in that happy land. This
well-known Buddhist Triad is found in P'u-t'o-shan ^ |>£ \\] (1),
one of the sacred places of Buddhism in the Chusan Islands, olT the
coast of Chekiang $Jf £jQ.
2°. Introduction of Amidism into China.
The Shaman (2) Shirgatchin, Chi-lo-kia-chen, who came to
China in A D. 147, and worked at translations till A.D. 187, at the
"Monastery of the White Horse", Peh-tna-sze f£) J^ ^, in Lohyang
yig. H|, seems to have been the first, who introduced the name of
Amitabha, O-mi-t'o-fuh J$pT % pg f$, among Chinese Buddhists (3).
The translation of three other works, one the "Sutra of Bound-
less Years", Wu-liang-show-king M jj || |g, by the Shaman
Samghavarma, Kung Seng-k'ai, about A.D. 253; another, the
"Amitabha Sutra", O-mi-t'o-king |JpT jfg pg $£ , translated by Ku-
marajiva, about A.D. 402 (4); a third called the "Sutra of Boundless
Life", Kwan-wu-liang-show-king |^ 4te jj; ^ |?g, translated by the
Shaman Ratnamegha, Kiang-liang yeh-shi, about A.D. 440, spread
the knowledge of the "Merciful Amitabha", far and wide, and
introduced his worship among the Chinese (5).
(1) P'u-t'o-shan f£ Pt Ul (A contraction from Potala). An island in
the Chusan Archipelago, where Kwan-yin ?0J ^ is said to have lived nine
years. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
(2) Shaman (In Pali, Samana). General designation of Buddhist priests,
who have left their families, and conquered all their passions. Eitel. Sanscrit-
Chinese Dictionary, p. 130.
(3) Beal. Four Lectures on Buddhist Literature in China, p. 7 (Trans-
lators from Parthia).
(4) From this date, Amidism began to spread so rapidly that the Con
fucianists took alarm, the result of which was a heated controversy betw
the literati of both sides, as to the relative merits of the two religions. Getty
The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 38.
(5) This last Sutra was brought by Fah-hsien from India. Ratnamegha
was one of his companions. Beal. Four Lectures on Buddhist Literature.
p. 22.
— no —
3°. Divers names given to Amitabha.
Among the various names given to Amitabha, the following are
the principal : — Embodiment of the sphere of the Law, Fah-kiai-
tsang-shen fe ^ $fc J^ — Original teacher Upadhyaya, Pen-shi hwo-
shang 7£ 0jjj ^D 1p? — Sovereign teacher of the Western Paradise,
Si-t'ien hiao-chu |f ^ ffc £ — Guide to the West, Si-fang tsieh-
yin "gy jf %j£ »jj| — Boundless Light, Wit-Hang kwang-ming M jj-
% 0Fj — Boundless Age, Wu-liang-show $f£ || H — Great Mercy
and Sympathy, Ta-tze ta-pei ^ ^ ^ ?£ (1).
Of all these, however, the most popular name is Amitabha,
O-mi-t'o-fuh ^ $f |?6 {$•
Devout Buddhists repeat constantly this name, and believe they
acquire thereby great merit, especially if uttered with unflinching
faith in this most revered divinity. If a man has no faith, his
exercices will be all fruitless (2). They believe also that their good
deeds will be rewarded one day in the Western Paradise, Si-t'ien
4°. Images of Amitabha.
Amitabha is represented seated or standing on a lotus-throne (3).
He has short, curly hair, and long-lobed ears. He bears the itrna
on the forehead. As the guide of souls to the Western Paradise,
he has abnormally long arms, and is accompanied by one of his
faithful worshippers, standing on the open calyx of a lotus. When
(1) Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 6 (Titles given to Amitabha).
(2) The name Amitabha is repeated incessantly, and the beads counted
in connexion with the repetition, until the sound becomes wearisome.
Regarding this kind of worship, every person should first of all excite in
himself a believing heart. Beal. Buddhism in China, p. 129 (Amitabha). —
Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 99, 109.
(3) The Lotus is a symbol of self-creation. Every Buddha and Bodhi-
sattva is supported by a lotus-flower to indicate his divine birth. In the
hand of Padmapani, the lotus denotes creative power. Getty. The Gods of
Northern Buddhism, p. 172.
— 111 —
a worshipper of Amitabha dies, it is said that Kwan-yin f|l ^ takes
the soul, and places it in the heart of a lotus. It is then wafted to
the Sacred Lake in the Pure Land, and on awaking, finds itself
enjoying- the bliss of Paradise (1).
5°. The Sukhavati, or Western Paradise, Si-t'ien 'gf ^.
Primitive Buddhism knew only the heaven of Maitreya, Mi-leh-
fuh ijjjg fjj {$, It was for the enjoyment of this happy land that
Hsiien-tsang ;£ §| (A.D. 602-664), and other devout Buddhists of
his day, prayed on their death-beds (2). The Western Paradise,
Si-t'ien 'j§ Ji, is an invention of later days, and arose at the time
when the worship of Amitabha spread among Northern Buddhists.
The Chinese had never been able to understand the Hindu doctrine
of Nirvana (3). Their great teachers and philosophers were ances-
tor-worshippers, and as such highly disapproved of the idea of
annihilation after death. Nirvana was, therefore, abandoned, and the
Western Paradise set up in its stead. This invention is due princi-
pally to the Tsing-t'u $■ ±, or "Pure Land School" (4), founded
by Hwei-yuen jg yfc, in the fourth century of the Christian era.
This wonderful paradise is located in distant space far to the
West (5). Those who reach it will henceforth escape all subsequent
births. There is no fear of becoming a hungry ghost (Preta), or an ani-
mal by transmigration, for such modes of life are unkuown there. It
is composed of gold, silver, lapis-lazuli, beryl, ruby and cornelian (6).
(1) Johnston Buddhist China, p. 109 (Lotus symbolism in the Maha-
yana School).
(2) See Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 183 (Maitreya's heaven).
(3) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 38.
(4) The "Pure Land', or Amidist School teaches salvation through faith
in Amitabha, and holds out the promise of a future life of unalloyed happiness
in the Western Paradise, where Amitabha reigns in unending glory. Johnston.
Buddhist China, p. 92.
(5) The supposed western position of this fanciful world has no reference
to mundane geography. Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 97.
(6) See Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 233. — Beal. A Catena of Buddhist
Scriptures from the Chinese, p. 379 (The Western Paradise).
— 112 —
There are all kinds of beautiful flowers, which the inhabitants pluck,
and offer to the thousands of Buddhas who visit them from other
worlds. Birds of gay plumage sing day and night the praises of
Buddha, the Law and the Brotherhood. Fountains bubble up on
all sides. In the middle of the lakes are lotus flowers, large as a
chariot wheel, blue, yellow, red and white, each reflecting brilliant
hues of its own colour, and possessed of the most perfect and deli-
ghtful fragrance. In fine, it is a place of splendour, beauty and
pleasure, a blissful land, whence sorrow, grief and pain are banished
for ever.
Amitabha, O-mi-t'o-fuh |5pT ijf§ [?£ f^jj, rules over this paradise,
and admits thereto all those who trust in his abounding power and
pity, and who faithfully repeat his holy name (1). Chinese com-
mentators of the Amitabha Sutra, O-nn-t'o-king (Jp[ ^ |?£ |?g, assert
that no amount of virtue will ensure rebirth in this happy land if
unaccompanied by invocations of Amitabha (2). The Sutra itself
says that the man, who, with steadfast faith, calls upon this name
for a week, or even for a single day, may face death with perfect
serenity, assured he will reach the blessed region beyond (3). The
journey to the Pure Land is often represented by more or less crude
woodcuts, which show boat-loads of Amitabha's worshippers sailing
over the bitter sea of human sorrow, under the guidance of Kwan-
yin |H ^. Those reborn in this blissful land do not always enjoy
immediately the joys of their heavenly home. Those who have left
their families, become disciples of Buddha, and devoted their lives
to every kind of religious merit, instantly enjoy the happiness of this
heaven ; others, though reborn there, are excluded for some time,
nay for long kalpas, from the happy vision of Amitabha. During
(1) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 208, 233.— Johnston. Buddhist China.
p. 98.— Beal. Buddhism in China, p. 129.
(2) Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 99 (Rebirth in Amitabha's paradise).
(3) Amitabha, attended by a host of celestial Bodhisats, will assuredly
appear before the dying man's eyes, and will carry him away to a joyful
rebirth in the Pure Land, where sorrow and sighing are no more. Johnston.
Buddhist China, p. 99.
Amitabha, le Bouddha qui guide les humains vers le Paradis de l'Ouest.
Amitaba the Buddha who leads mortals to the Western Paradise.
— 113 —
their period of expiation, they lie imprisoned within the closed calyx
of a lotus flower (1).
Amitabha is attended in the Western Paradise by the two
Bodhisattvas Avalokitesvara, the Chinese Kwan-yin $^ ^ , Goddess
of Mercy; and Mahastama, the emblem of might and power (2).
Both act as guides and protectors of men, in their perilous journey
over the ocean of life and death.
It is to the above happy land that the greater part of modern
Buddhists aspire. A small minority still hold that it is not the last
stage in the endless chain of rebirths, but rather a preparatory step
towards Nirvana, the final goal of genuine Buddhism. This opinion
is nowadays less and less maintained, and will soon vanish beneath
the growing popular belief in Amitabha's paradise (3).
6°. Efficacy of the name of Amitabha.
The powerful name of Amitabha is the mysterious sword, which
overcomes all doctrine opposed to that of the Western Paradise ; it
is the antidote, whereby all fear of Hades is banished from the
mind ; it is the brilliant light which dispels the darkness of the
understanding ; it is the merciful craft, whereby mortals are wafted
across the ocean of misery and suffering, and borne to the happy
land of the West.
The name of Amitabha is the assured means of ending the
fearful series of rebirths ; the shield which protects all worshippers
from any further death ; the mystic power, which enables to lay up
merit, and practise the highest perfection.
(1) Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 107. This temporary exclusion from
the happy vision of Amitabha is strangely similar to that of the catholic
purgatory, and may possibly have been borrowed from Persian or Syrian
Christianity.
(2) See on these two Buddhist divinities. Chinese Superstitions. Vol.
VI. p. 17. notes 3 and 4.
(3) As a matter of fact, we find that a large proportion of the great
monasteries now existing in China are perfectly tolerant of the Pure Land
teachings. Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 93.
15
— 114 —
Amitabha is the heavenly dew, which soothes the hearts of
mortals and wins them over to truth; the invocation: "Hail to
Amitabha, the Ever-compassionate Lord", iVan-wu O-mi-t'o-fuh, is
the magic passport which opens to all sinners the portals of heaven.
Worshippers of Amitabha, O-mi-t'o-fuh ^ ;jf$ PS {$> keep a
faithful record of the number of invocations of his name, and fancy
they will thus lay up immense merit for the world beyond (1). This
false idea is generally one of the greatest obstacles to their conversion
to Christianity. They fear they will lose these immense treasures
piled up during their whole past life.
The birthday of Amitabha is celebrated by Buddhists on the
17th day of the eleventh month (2).
(1) Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 109 (Recording Amitabha's name).
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 610.
— 115 —
ARTICLE IV.
THE HEALING BUDDHA.
Baishajyaguru, Yoh-shi-fuh ||| gjjj $fc (1).
This Buddhist ^Esculapius and Supreme Physician is deemed
to have lived in a previous kalpa. When he was a Bodhisattva, he
is said to have uttered twelve great wishes for the benefit of living
beings, including the removal of various bodily and mental calamities
from those who are afflicted with them, and the lengthening of their
life (2). He received his healing power from Guatama, and is said
to dispense spiritual medicine, when properly worshipped. It is
even believed that an efficacious cure may be accomplished by merety
touching his image. These images are worshipped almost as
fetishes, and cure by sympathetic magic (3).
The supplicant, after bowing and praying devoutly, rubs his
finger over the eye, ear, knee, or other part of the image correspon-
ding to the patient's own affected spot, and then carrying back this
hallowed touch, applies the finger to the suffering part of his own
body. This constant friction is rather detrimental to the features
of the divine physician (4).
Baishajyaguru Buddha is venerated not only in Tibet and
Manchuria, but also in China and Japan, and is in all places a
(1) Yoh-shi-fuh H ftji #. The "Healing Teacher", or "Supreme Medical
Tathagata". A disciple of Sakyamuni, from whom he is said to have received
his healing power. In one of his previous forms of existence, he was Vima-
lagarba. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 22. —Getty. The Gods of
Northern Buddhism, p. 23.
(2) He is worshipped as a deity, who removes suffering and lengthens
life, and is in fact the symbol of these ideas. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism,
p. 235.
(3) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 32.— Waddell. The
Buddhism of Tibet, p. 353.
(4) Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 354.
— 116 —
most popular divinity (1). In China, his Sanscrit name Baishajyaguru
is rendered by Yoh-shi-fuh H g|j) $jj, that is the "Healing Teacher"
or "Medical Buddha".
This Buddha rules over a world somewhere to the East in
endless space. There intervene between his world and ours, kingdoms
of Buddhas to the number of ten times the sands of the Ganges.
This fanciful world is composed of lapis-lazuli, its walls and palaces
of the seven precious stones and metals, its streets of gold, thus
resembling to no small extent the blissful paradise of Amitabha (2).
He has two leading Bodhisattvas, who assist him in removing
all suffering. One is called Yoh-tsang §§| ^j, the "Treasury of
Bemedies", and the other Yoh-wang ||| 3:, the "King of Medicinal
Herbs". These two assistants are also known by the names of the
"Far-shining light of the Sun", Jeh-kwang pien-chao 0 jt 1 l,i
and the "All-pervading light of the Moon", Yueh-kwang pien-chao
n %m m (3).
In large Buddhist temples, a side-chapel is erected in honour
of this "Healing Buddha", and his two Bodhisattva attendants.
In China and Japan, he is generally represented in bronze, but
in paintings the colour must be blue. In several places, he is
found in a Triad with Amitabha and Guatama. There is also a
group of eight medical Tathagatas, who are believed to have created
all medicinal plants. Yoh-shi-fuh |H ftjj {$ is the most popular of
the group (4).
His birthday is celebrated on the 28th day of the fourth month (5).
(1) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 23.— Edkins. Chinese
Buddhism, p. 235.
(2) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 235. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol.
VI. p. 108 (The Western Paradise).
(3) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 23. — Edkins. Chinese
Buddhism p. 235.
(4) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 24.
(5) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 583. Fourth month, 28'h day.
**,
— 117 —
ARTICLE V.
MAHASTAMA BUDDHA.
Ta-shi-chi -fa ^ 31 (!)•
Mahaslama, or Mahasthanaprapta, rendered into Chinese by
"he who has obtained great strength", Ta-shi-chi ^ fj| 2g, is a
Dhyani-Bodhisattva, but does not belong to either the group of five
or of eight Bodhisattvas, as found in some places. He is mentioned
in the "Lotus Sutra of the Good Law", Cheng-fah lien- hw a- king J£
£fe ii= $1 $£> an^ is believed to be a deified form of Maudgalyayana, the
right-hand disciple of Sakyamuni. Famous for his magic powers,
he is said to have transported an artist to the Tuchita heavens, to
get a view of Buddha, and make a statue of him. He also went to
Hades, and released his mother, who was suffering there as a Preta,
or hungry ghost (2).
In China and Japan, he is frequently found in a Triad at the
right of Amitabha, with Avalokitesvara on the left (3).
In the monastery of "Boundless Happiness", Kwang-fuh-sze J|
|g ^p, in Shang-hai J^ $|, the visitor may see in the Great Hall,
along the North wall, the image of Dipamkara, Jan-teng ^ jg (4),
and of six Bodhisattvas (5): Avalokitesvara [Kwan-yin |^ ^),
Samantabhadra (P'u-hsien ^ |f), Mahastama [Shi-chi f$ ^),
Manjusri [Wen-shu % %), Sariputra {Sheh-li-fuh ^ ^ij #,), and
Maudgalyayana {Muh-lien @ jgi).
(1) Ta-shi-chi jz §* =g. "He who has obtained great strength". Eitel,
Grunwedel and Schott identify him with Maudgalyanana. Eitel. Sanscrit-
Chinese Dictionary, p. 67. — Grunwedel. Buddhist Art. p. 205. — Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 17. note 4.
(2) Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 65.
(3) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 209, 234, 262. They are styled to-
gether the "Three Sages of the West", Si-fang san-sheng f% ~fi H 1b
(4) See on Dipamkara. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 89,
(5) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 241 (Arrangement of idols in the
Great Hall).
— 118 —
The birthday of Mahastama is celebrated on the 13th day of the
seventh month (1).
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 594.
119 —
ARTICLE VI.
VAIROCANA, BUDDHA SUPREME AND ETERNAL.
P'i-lu-fuh ^ £ f$ (1).
Dhyani-Buddhas are the outcome of Buddhist mysticism and
contemplation. They are pure abstractions, ethereal representations
of the transitory earthly Buddhas, fictitious beings invented by the
Mahay ana and Yoga Schools (2) of later Buddhism.
Every Buddha, who appears on earth in a human form, exists
also in an ideal state, or ethereal representation of himself in the
formless worlds of abstract thought. As there are five chief human
Buddhas in the present kalpa : Kracucanda, Kanaka-muni, Kasyapa,
Guatama, and the future Buddha Maitreya, so there are also five
corresponding Dhyani-Buddhas, or Buddhas of Meditation, namely
Vairocana, Akshobhya, Batnasambhava, Amitabha, and Amogasiddha.
Each of these Dhyani-Buddhas produces by a process of evolution
a kind of emanation from himself, called a Dhyani-Bodhisattva,
who acts as the practical head and guardian of the Buddhist
community, between the interval of death of each human Buddha,
and the advent of his successor. Hence there are five Dhyani-
Bodhisattvas : Samantabhadra, Vajrapani, Batnapani, Padmapani
(1) P'i-lu-fuh BJt jg $}}. Literally, the "Illuminator, he who enlightens
all" (Eitel); the "Omnipresent" (Beal); the "Omniscient", the "Supreme and
Eternal Buddha" (Getty). In Japan, he is called the "Great Buddha". Ori-
ginally worshipped as the first of the Five Dhyani-Buddhas, with Samanta-
bhadra as his Dhyani-Bodhisattva, and later on as "Adi-Buddha" (the
Primordial Buddha), and "Nirvana Buddha". Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dic-
tionary, p. 160. — Beal. A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese,
p. 124.— Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 29 and 32 (Vairocana).
(2) The Yoga system was introduced into China in A.D. 720, and was
carried to Japan in the early part of the 9'h century. Getty. The Gods of
Northern Buddhism, p. 29.
— 120 —
(Avalokitesvara, or the Chinese Kwan-yin $| ^), the lotus-handed,
and Visvapani (1).
An important addition (2) to the above doctrine of the Mahayana
School took place in Northern Buddhism about the 10th century of
our era. The theory of a Supreme Being, conceived of as a universal
essence of pantheistic nature, was introduced. This Being was
called Adi-Buddha, or the Primordial Buddha, and was declared to
be the source and originator of all things (3), and the evolver of the
Dhyani-Buddhas, or Buddhas of Contemplation, while they again
were supposed to evolve their corresponding Dhyani-Bodhisattvas (4).
Vairocana, P'i-lu-fuh [IjJt; Jf| ff,, is thus the first of the Dhyani-
Buddhas (5), evolved through the abstract meditation of mystic
Buddhism. He is, therefore, like Amitabha, O-mi-t'o-fuh |JpJ "jf$ [?£
${j, a thoroughly fictitious being, having no reality beyond the
extravagant fancy of Buddhist mysticism. Later on, he was con-
founded with Adi-Buddha (6), and worshipped as the Supreme and
(1) Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 203 (Dhyani-Buddhas and Dhyani-
Bodhisattvas). —Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism (Dhyani-Buddhas.
p. 26. Dhyani-Bodhisattvas. p. 43). -Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 20-21.
(2) This addition was an adaptation of Buddhism to Brahmanism, and
Adi-Buddha was invented to serve as a counterpart to the One Universal
Spirit Brahma, the one eternally existing spiritual Essence, from which all
existing things are mere emanations. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 204.
(3) Not in the Christian sense of Creator, for Northern and Southern
Buddhists hold that the world is eternal, and that its only Creator is the
force of its own acts. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 205.
(4) The group of Five Dhyani-Buddhas was evolved by the Adi-Buddha.
Each of these Dhyani-Buddhas received from him both their existence, and
the virtue of producing a Dhyani-Bodhisattva. Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 2G.
(5) Vairocana was originally worshipped as the first of the Five Dhyani-
Buddhas of the actual universe, and is best known under that form. Getty.
The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 29.
(6) The Adi-Buddha is placed above the other 5 Dhyani-Buddhas, as
their spiritual father and creator. To this rank was promoted the first and
central one of the metaphysical [Buddhas, namely Vairocana, the "Omni-
present". Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 347.
Pi-lou-fou.
P'i-lu-fuh.
Vairocana, Buddha Supreme and Eternal.
.5&iro& bra sma-ra $2 &&)!>ss3 ,1:.*.,. ■ jjTJ
— 121 —
Eternal Being, but of a pantheistic nature, omnipresent, and
manifesting Itself in various forms of existence (1).
The Tantra School, founded by Asangha, embodied the above
theory, and gave to each Buddha a triple form of existence. In
other words it considered Buddha from a triple view-point: — 1° As
having entered Nirvana. In this state, Buddha is deemed to have
an invisible, immaterial, immortal body, and is called " Vairocana
Buddha". He corresponds to the Dhyani-Buddhas of the Mahayana
School. The Chinese call this state the "Body of Absolute Purity",
Ts'ing-tsing fah-shen fpf ffi f£- J^ (2). 2° As existing in an ideal
state in the formless worlds of abstract thought. Viewed in this
state of existence, Buddha is said to exist in reflex, and is called
"Lochana Buddha". Chinese Buddhist writers call this state the
"Body of Absolute Completeness", Yuen-man-pao-shen [g] -^ ^ &.
It corresponds to the Dhyani-Bodhisattvas. 3° As having lived on
earth in a human form. In this state, Buddha, after innumerable
transformations, is deemed to have lived here below in a visible
and mortal body. Viewed in this form of existence, he is called
"Manuchi Buddha'' (3). Chinese Buddhists call this state the
"Transformed Body", Hwa-shen ffc J^ .
With reference to the above doctrine, Vairocana is the Nirvana
Buddha, or Buddha considered as having entered Nirvana, while
Lochana considers him as existing in reflex in the worlds of formless
(1) This one essence is the basis of all phenomena, which are evanescent
and unreal. As a mirror reflects all images, so this essence embraces all
phenomena, and all things exist in it, and by it. Beal. A Catena of Buddhist
Scriptures from the Chinese, p. 125.
(2) In analogy with the three forms of existence ascribed to Buddhas,
Chinese Buddhists add three attributes: absolute purity, absolute comple-
teness, and endless number Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 149.
(3) Manuchi Buddha. That is a human Buddha of the present age. A
general term, designating human beings, or divine beings assuming human
form. Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 131. — Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese
Dictionary, p. 73.
16
— 122 —
thought. These three lorms of existence are well known in Nepal,
Tibet and China, and are generally described as
The Nirvana Buddha
The Dhyani Buddha
The Manuchi, or Human Buddha (1).
Taoists, Tao-shi ^ ^, borrowed this god from Buddhism,
and set him up in their temples. They consider him as the disciple
of the Supreme Teacher of the Eastern Heavens, Tung-t'ien kiao-cliu
M 3^ Hfc ^ (2)- This latter was a tutelary genius of the Shang
dynasty, Shang-ch'ao jgj fjj (B.C. 1766-1122), but being defeated
by Chun-t'i iijl |j| (3), P'i-lu-fuh |Hjfc jj {$ abandoned him, and
accompanied Chun-t'i iipi $| to the Western Paradise, where he
subsequently became a Buddha.
In Nepal and Tibet, statues of Vairocana, either as Adi-Buddha,
or Dhyani Buddha are extremely rare, but in Japan, he is frequently
found both in statues and paintings (4). In China, he is repre-
sented seated on a lotus-throne, and wearing the five-leaved crown
of a Bodhisattva. The hands are joined in mystic pose of deepest
meditation. He has the uvna, or sign of foreknowledge on the
forehead, and the lobes of the ears are enormously long.
At JiX-kao ^p JfL, in North Kiangsu fx. li> the principal hall
of the Ting-hwei monastery, Ti7ig-h\vei-sze 5t 3|§ ^p, is dedicated
to P'i-lu-fuh |g[jj jj f$. In Nanking, one of the largest temples of
(1) Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 149 (Trikaya, or threefold
embodiment of all Buddhas).
(2) See the title of "Sovereign Teacher of the Western Heavens" given
to Amitabha. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 110.
(3) Chun-t'i ]$ £|. The Bodhisattva Maritchi, the Hindu Goddess of
Light. Among Chinese, she is represented with 8 arms, two of which are
holding aloft emblems of the sun and moon. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Diction-
ary, p. 75.
(4) In Japan, Vairocana is considered as the sun, the centre of a system
around which revolve his emanations, the 4 Dhyani-Buddhas as planets. All
things are absorbed into him, even souls after death. Getty. The Gods of
Northern Buddhism, p. 30 and 32.
Lochaua. En chinois "Lou-che-aa" reflet de l'essence ideale dc Bouddha.
Lochana. In Chinese "Lu-sheh-na" reflex of the ideal essence of Buddha.
— 123 —
v.
the city is erected in honour of P'i-lu-fuh ftfc Jg f$ (1). A beautiful
statue of Bodhidharma, Tah-mo j^ ||, the 28th Indian and 1st Chi-
nese patriarch, is found on one of the altars.
In Tantra Triads, P'i-lu-fuh fljj; Jg| f$ is found together with
Sakyamuni and Amitabha (2).
Lochana, Lu-sheh-na J| ^ $fl, the reflex, or ideal representa-
tion of the universal essence of Buddha, is represented in China in
a sedent posture, with the right foot apparent. He has a halo or
nimbus around the head, short curly locks, and long-lobed ears.
The arms are fully extended, and the hands directed downwards,
with the palms to the front in an attitude of charity. The illustra-
tion here annexed is taken from a Buddhist manual of prayers,
entitled the "Dharani of Great Mercy", or Kwan-yin, Ta-pei-chow
^ M % (3\ kindly lent to the Author by one of the priests.
Chinese Buddhist monks worship Lochana, Lu-sheh-na jj
^ $$, and recite various prayers in his honour. His name is
transliterated by them as follows : P'o-lu-hih-ti sheh-fuh $| j|| ^
In book style, he is generally called the "Lochana Buddha,
and Body of Absolute Completeness", Yuen-man-pao-shen Lu-sheh-
na-fuh m ffi m % B. & M #. (4).
(1) Varidtes Sinologiques. n° 23 (Nankin. Apercu historique et geogra-
phique). p 47 and 94. "Pi-lou-se est actuellement la pagode la plus consi-
derable de la ville".
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 18 (A Tantra Triad).
(3) Ta-pei ^ f£. Literally "Great Mercy", a title given to Kwan-yin
H tt- Chow v/t- A charm or spell, but here a litany recited by Buddhist
priests. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
(4) In Sanscrit Sambhoga-kaya. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary,
p. 149.
K§34
— 124 —
AETICLE VII.
THE TWELVE DIVINE BUDDHIST TEACHERS.
Shih-eul ta-t'ien-shi -f- ~ ^ 5R ^ip (!)•
In the large monastery of "Fixed Wisdom", Ting-hwei-sze "j&
*| ^p, at Jil-hao ^p JfL, in North Kiangsu jj^ jj§|, along the two
outer walls are found the 18 Lohans (2), Lo-han j|§ |J|, 9 on each
side. In the centre of the principal hall is the statue of Vairocana,
P'i-lu-fuh ^ jH fijj1, , attended by two genii. Further to the front
is Maitreya, Mi-leh-fuh ^ '}$] jfo, accompanied by the Pearly
Emperor, Yuh-hwang ta-li 3£ J| ;fc 1^> ar>d Brahma, Fan-wang
« I (3)-
Some three or four yards higher up in niches, and borne on
clouds, are 12 other statues, representing the twelve divine Buddhist
teachers, Shih-eul ta-t'ien-shi -f- Zl ^C JR. 0|fj - Beneath each statue
is a wooden plank bearing the name of the personage represented.
As it was impossible to examine them closely, or apply a ladder
against the wall without injuring the mouldings, the monks were
requested to supply some information with reference to these distin-
guished Worthies. At last, one of the most intelligent among
(1) T'ien-shi ^ Biji. Literally "heavenly or divine teachers". Among
them, Manjusri, Samantabhadra and Maitreya are well-known Bodhisattvas,
but the others seem to be attributes of Manjusri. Why the number 12 has
been chosen, remains a mystery. Possibly, it may have been adopted in
imitation of the Twelve Apostles?
(2) Lohans or Arhats. The Buddhist equivalent of Taoist hermits.
According to Hindu legends they are 16, but the Chinese added 2, making
them thus 18. Hackmann. Buddhism as a Beligion. p. 212. — Getty. The
Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 156. — Watters. The 18 Lohan of Chinese
Buddhist temples. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 528, 608.
(3) Fan-wang ^ 3E. King Fan, or Brahma, adopted by Buddhism, but
placed in an inferior position to Sakyamuni. Eitel. Sanscrit'Chinese Dic-
tionary, p. 26.
Les 12 ta tien che de la pagode Ting-hoei-se.
The .12 great celestial Worthies of the Pagoda Ting-hwei-sze.
Manjusri, Wen-shu 3t ~%, Buddha of Transcendent Wisdom.
Fia:. 22
Samantabhadra, P'u-hsien ^ H, Buddha of Universal Kindness.
— 125 —
them discovered a book, which contained the names of the whole
group. These names are the following : —
1°. Wen-shu yen-k'ung (1)
2°. P'u-hsien sin-li (2)
3°. P'u-yen fah-kiai
4°. Kin-kang-tsang k'i-sze
5°. Mi-leh shen-chi (3)
6°. Ts'ing-tsing-Iiwei shwoh-fah
7°. Wei-teh san-kwan
8°. Pien-yin wu-kwan
9°. T sing -y eh ch'u-ngo
10°. P'u-hioh tseh-fah
11°. Yuen-kioh h'oli-ki
12°. Shen-show kien-sheh
£ % Ufi £ Manjusri.
^ !H 'fr fit Samantabhadra.
# m m ft-
£i
'«;tbiA
M f J # |? Maitreya.
^ i§ -
*3l
^
->&»
m-w
Permission was granted for two painters to remain a few days
in the monastery, and make exact copies of these 12 divine teachers,
whose statues adorn one of the finest temples of Central China.
In the annexed illustrations, the reader will find these 12 "Worthies
in the order stated above. Each one wears the five-leaved crown of
a Bodhisattva, and is seated on a lotus-throne, while beneath is a
fabulous monster (4).
(1) See on Manjusri, the "Buddha of Transcendent Wisdom". Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 579-580. — Vol. VI. p. 19. note 3; p. 12G.
(2) See on Samantabhadra. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 527. note
4; p. 573. note 3. -Vol. VI. p. 19. note 4; p. 128.
(3) See on Maitreya. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 103-105 (Mai-
treya, the Coming Buddha).
(4) Two represent dragons, one a tiger, the others being nondescript.
— 126 —
MANJUSRI, BUDDHA OF TRANSCENDENT WISDOM.
Wen-shu # % (1).
Manjusri, or Manjugosha, the Buddhist Apollo, is the God of
Transcendent or deified Wisdom. When the time came for his
manifestation, Sakyamuni, Shih-hiali-fuh |p j$g <$\, , caused a golden
ray to burst from his forehead, and thus was born the Prince of
Buddhist Sages, Arya Manjusri. He was thus without father or
mother, and free from the pollution of the common world. In some
Sutras, he is referred to as being mortal. Thus, a legend relates
that he introduced Buddhism into Nepal, about 250 years after the
death of Sakyamuni ; also that he found a lake of that country filled
with aquatic monsters, and slew them all with his sword (2). His
name is mentioned by Fah-hsien ^ If (A.D. 400), and HsiXen-
tsang l£ j|| (A.D. 630) saw at Mathura a stupa containing some
of his relics (3). Beferences are also made to him in the "Lotus of
the Good Law", Cheng- fah lien-hwa-king J£ ^ ^ ;f£ $g, in
connexion with Sakyamuni, Shih-kiah-fuh fp $W f^j; . Manjusri is
a Dhyani-Bodhisattva, but belongs to the group of eight Bodhisattvas,
found in Northern Buddhist temples on either side of an important
divinity. He is thus a fanciful and mystic creation of the Mahayana
and Yoga Schools (4).
(1) Manjusri. The "sweet-voiced" (Waddell) ; "wisdom deified", the
"god of wisdom", the "Buddha of Transcendent Wisdom" (Monier Williams,
Getty). Born from a ray that burst from Buddha's forehead. His duty is to
turn the "Wheel of the Law", for the salvation of the Chinese. He is generally
represented with a sword and book, and seated on a lion. Manjusri is a
Dhyani-Bodhisattva of the Mahayana School, but belongs to the group of 8
Bodhisattvas. Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 355.— Monier Williams.
Buddhism, p. 201. - Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 97. -
Hackmann. Buddhism as a Religion, p. 211. — Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dic-
tionary, p. 71. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 19. note 3.
(2) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 97.
(3) Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 72 (Manjusri).
(4) "A purely metaphysical creation". Waddell. The Buddhism of
Tibet, p. 355. — "A mythical Buddha". Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 202.
— Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 97. —Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese
Dictionary, p. 72.
Fig. 23
Plu-yen fah-kiai # m & %■■
Fig. 24
Kin-kang-tsang k'i-sze & W\ M j& .&•
— 127 —
The chief function of Manjusri is the dispelling of ignorance.
He presides over the Law, and inspires with his divine intelligence
those who actively propagate Buddhism in the world. With his
bright sword of transcendent wisdom, he cuts all knotty points of
the Law, and solves the most difficult problems (1). He generally
carries in his left hand the Praja-paramita, or Book of Transcendent
Wisdom (2), placed upon an open lotus-flower. In some places,
instead of the lotus-flower, he bears a small sceptre, or Ju-i £p ^ (3),
special symbol of Buddhism. He is looked upon by certain sects as
the patron of architecture and astrology.
Most Northern Buddhist countries have their own special
Manjusri (4). In China, he is said to have manifested himself
principally at Wu-t'ai-shan Ji j| \[\ [5), in the province of Shansi
[Jj "g§", where he is extremely popular, and worshipped both by the
Mongols and the Chinese. According to tradition, Sakyamuni
informed Manjusri it was his duty to turn the "Wheel of the Law"
for the salvation of the Chinese.
His most common titles are "Great Wisdom", Ta-chi ^ ^
(Mahamati), "Prince", T'ai-tze % i1 (Kumara-raja), and "Religious
King with one thousand arms", Ts'ien-pi kiao-wang ^flf ffc3i (6)-
Manjusri is usually represented sitting on a lotus-throne, with
the five-leaved crown of a Bodhisattva on the head. He may
(1) Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 355 (Manjusri). — Getty. The
Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 97.
(2) Praja-paramita. It contains little of historical matter ; all is specu-
lation, a profusion of abstractions and extravagance. Waddell. The Buddhism
of Tibet, p. 161.
(3) See on the Ju-i f# M as a symbol of Buddhism. Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. VI. p. 48. note 2.
(4) Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 356 (Manjusri).
(5) Legend relates that the 5 peaks were of 5 different colours, that a
flower grew on each of its own especial colour, and that a different shaped
pagoda was on the summit of each peak. Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 96.
(6) Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 72 (Titles given to Manjusri).
— 128 —
sometimes have a small image of Akshobhya in the crown (1).
When represented in bronze, he rides on a lion (2). When painted,
he must be yellow. He bears the urna, or sign of spiritual insight,
on the forehead, and carries in the left hand either the "Book of
Transcendental Wisdom" (Praja-paramila), a blue lotus (Utpala), or
a Ju-i in M (3)-
In China and Japan, Manjusri is generally worshipped in a
Triad with Sakyamuni and Samantabhadra, and sometimes with
Avalokitesvara and the same Samantabhadra. He is represented in
both countries seated on a lion and holding the sword of wisdom (4).
Chinese Buddhists honour his birthday on the fourth day of
the 4th month (5).
SAMANTABHADRA, BUDDHA OF UNIVERSAL KINDNESS.
P'u-hsien -]f ff (6).
Samantabhadra, P'u-hsien ^ JJ, or "Buddha of Universal
Kindness", is the first Dhyani-Bodhisattva, the spiritual son of
(1) The Mahay ana School made Manjusri the personification of wisdom,
but the Yoga School placed him among the Dhyani-Bodhisattvas, calling him
the spiritual son of Akshobhya, and identifying him with Vajrapani. Eitel.
Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 72. — Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism,
p. 97.
(2) The lion symbolises boldness, bravery, and a fresh, eager, and
advancing spirit. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 385.
(3) See Illustration n° 21. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 126.
(4) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 99. — Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. VI. p. 19-20.
(5) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 208. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V.
p. 579-580.
(6) Samantabhadra. A fabulous Bodhisattva, invented by the Tantra
School, which claims him as the founder of the system, and hence he may be
considered as the "divinity of religious ecstasy". He is represented seated
on an elephant, and many Dharanis are ascribed to him. He is worshipped
at O-mi-shan |1$ jg Mj, in Szechw'an [TFJ )\\. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p.
139. — Hackmann. Buddhism as a Religion, p. 237. — "Waddell. Buddhism in
Tibet, p. 358. — Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 116. — Getty. The Gods
of Northern Buddhism, p. 46.
Maitreya, the Future Buddha.
Fig. 26
Tsling-tsing-hwei shwoh-fah Jf ip1 s§ I£ */£■
— 129 —
Vairocana, in the Mahayana group of 5, and is also found in that
of 8 Bodhisattvas. In this latter, he occupies the seventh place,
being ranked before Manjusri (1). He was very popular among
ancient Northern Buddhists, but his influence waned when the
two great Tibetan sects, the "Red and Yellow Caps", set up
Vajrahara (the thunderbolt-bearer) as Adi-Buddha, or the Primordial
Buddha (2).
Samantabhadra is one of the 4 great Buddhas of the Tantra
School. This school looks upon him as the god of religious ecstasy,
and claims him as the founder of the Yoga system. He is the
special patron of those who study the Saddharma-pundarika, or "Lotus
of the Good Law", the standard classic of the "Lotus School".
This Buddha is represented with the five-leaved crown of a
Bodhisattva on the head. He holds a scroll in the left hand, and
in bronze statues is usually seated on an elephant (3). In China,
he sits on a lotus-throne, the hands in Vitarha, or argument pose.
He is seldom represented alone, but is found in Triads with Sakyamuni
and Manjusri, and also with Avalokitesvara and Manjusri [\).
Savnantabhadra is principally worshipped at O-mei-shan |Ijj§ J|
|Jj, in Szechw'an P3 j|| (5). In one of the monasteries, there is a
fine bronze image of the god, seated on a sacred elephant, and
many Dharanis (charms and mystic formulas possessing magic
power) are ascribed to him.
(1) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 4G (Samantabhadra).
(2) This theory of a supreme Being, but of a Pantheistic nature, origin-
ated in the 10th century of the Christian era, and was borrowed from
Brahmanism. Monier "Williams. Buddhism, p. 204.
(3) The elephant indicates a weighty dignity, care, caution, and gent-
leness. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 385 (Buddhist Symbolism). — Waddell.
The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 358. — Hackmann. Buddhism as a Religion, p 211.
(4) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 40. — Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. VI. p. 19-20.
(5) Edkins Chinese Buddhism, p. 139. - Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 40. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 527. 573. note 3 ; Vol.
VI. p. 19. note 4.
17
— 130 —
Chinese Buddhists honour his birthday on the 21st day of the
second month (I).
VAJRAPAM, THE THUNDERBOLT-HANDED.
Sze-kin-hang pq £ p|J.
Vajrapani is the second Dhyani-Bodhisattva, the spiritual reflex
evolved from the Dhyani-Buddha Akshobhya (2). He is also the
ferocious emanation of Vajrahara (3), and personifies force and
might. He is thus the product of the Mahayana and Tantra schools.
Grunwedel identifies him with Indra, the Hindu god of rain (4),
and Buddhists are said to pray to him when the watery element is
needed or too abundant.
Vajrapani is represented in early Buddhist legends as having
being present at the birth of Sakyamuni, Shih-kiah-fuli |p ^g fjflj ;
also as assisting at his flight from the palace, and finally when
Buddha entered Parinarvana. Hsiien-tsang j£ ^ mentions his
worship in India in the 7th century (5). He is a popular object of
veneration in Northern Buddhist countries, where he is held to be
a powerful subduer of evil spirits.
Vajrapani is seldom seen in his mild form. In his Tantra
form, he is a fierce and awe-inspiring figure, wielding a Vajra (6)
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 573. Second month, 21st day.
(2) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 48. — Waddell. The
Buddhism of Tibet, p. 357. — Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 159.
(3) Vajrahara. A kind of supreme Buddha, identified in Tibet with
Adi-Buddha (the Primordial Buddha). He acts through Yajrasattva, better
known as Vajrapani. Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 3.
(4) Grunwedel. Buddhist Art. p. 90. — Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 48.
(5) Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 35G.
(6) Vajra. Literally "diamond", but generally translated "thunderbolt".
Claimed by some to be of Western origin, and an adaptation of the thunderbolt
held by Jupiter. Buddha wrested it from the Hindu God Indra. It is
the special symbol of Akshobhya, and of Vajrapani. Getty. The Gods of
Northern Buddhism, p. 180.
Fig. 27
Wei-teh san-kwan j^ 13§ z=. M«
Fig. 28
Pien-yin wu-kwan § a I
Fgi. 29
Tsing-yeh ch'u-ngo f H [| lc-
— 131 —
in his uplifted right hand, while the left holds a bell, or other
implement according" to his varying. titles. When painted, he should
be of a dark-blue colour.
This Dhyani-Bodhisattva formed an early Triad with Avaloki-
tesvara and Manjusri (1). Magic prayers of great efficacy against
demons are ascribed to him (2).
APPENDIX.
Yoga, and Tantra Schools.
1°. The Yoga School. — The Yoga system (3) arose about
A.D. 500, or even later. The first Yoga School was founded by
Asangha (4), a native of Peshawar. He is said to have been
transported to the Tuchita heavens, where he received the principles
of the system from Mailreya himself. Tibetan Northern Buddhists
hold they are due to Samantabhadra, the Buddha of religious
ecstasy, while Japanese sects attribute them to Vairocana. In
A.D. 720, Vajrabodhi introduced the Yoga system into China,
where Amogavajra continued to propagate it, and make it known
throughout the whole country. Towards the end of the 8th century,
it was carried to Japan (5).
(1) Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 196 (Second Buddhist Triad, intro-
duced by the Mahayana School).
(2) Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 159 (Vajrapani).
(3) Yoga. Abstract meditation, consisting in mental fixity, neither
thought nor annihilation of thought; religious ecstasy; mystic union of the
individual with the Universal Spirit, a Pantheistic cult, which superseded the
early system of Buddhist salvation through good works, and the performance
of moral duties. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 174. — Getty. The
Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 29.— Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 13
and 138.
(4) Asangha. Born at Gandhara (Peshawar), in the early part of the
5th century or even later (Eitel says he lived about A.D. 'iOO, but Grtinwedel
places him A.D. 550). He lived mostly in Oude, and followed the Mahayana
School. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 14.
(5) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 29 (Vairocana).
— 132 —
Yoga was grafted on the theistic Mahayana doctrine of a
Supreme Being, a universal, impersonal Spirit, with which the
whole world was really identified, and into which all beings were
finally absorbed. This Pantheistic cult was imported into Buddhism,
and Yoga was invented as a method of obtaining the mystic union
of the individual with the Universal Spirit. Yoga may thus be called
"contemplative Mahayana", religious ecstasy, mystic union in which
the individual is absorbed in the unfathomable depths of the
divinity (1). In this state of abstraction, the body becomes ether-
eal (2), enjoys the power of flying through the air, and performing
other wondrous feats (3). This innovation superseded the early
system of Buddhist salvation through good works, and the perfor-
mance of moral duties.
2°. The Tantra School. — The Yoga system contained within
itself the germs of Tantrism. Tanlrism began at the end of the 6th,
and in the early part of the 7th century of our era. Influenced by
Sivaism, it developed demoniacal Buddhas. Wild and terrible forms
were given to the gods, often even monstruous, according to the
supposed moods of each divinity. Demons were held to people all
parts of the Universe, and afflict man with disease and misfortune.
To counteract these evil influences, and render those malignant
spirits subject to man's will, witchcraft, magic and exorcisms were
developed beyond all bounds. Tantrism gave also female energies
(1) Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 13, 128, 141.— Monier Williams.
Buddhism, p. 226. — Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 30.
(2) Yoga holds that adepts may throw their gross bodies into a state
of unconsciousness, and by a determined effort of will, project or force out
the ethereal body through the pores of the skin, and make this phantasmal
form visible in distant places. The Psychical Research Society once sent
delegates to India, who inquired into this subject, and exposed the absurdity
of the above alleged phenomenon. Monier 'Williams. Buddhism, p. 248
(Mystical Buddhism. Ethereal souls and gross bodies).
(3) Flying through the air and performing other extraordinary feats may
be obtained through ecstatic meditation. These alleged miraculous powers
are regarded as the attribute of every perfected saint or Arhat. Waddell.
The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 128 and 141.
P'u-kioh tseh-fah # % % fe.
Fig. 31
Yuen-kioh k'oh-ki
Fig. 32
Shen-show kien-sheh ^| "ft*
— 133 —
or consorts to the Celestial Bodhisattvas, as well as to most of the
other gods. This was never adopted by the Chinese and Japanese
in its crude and sensuous forms (1).
The Tantric cult developed organized worship, litanies, pompous
ritual, offerings and sacrifices to its demoniacal gods and goddesses,
for favours temporal and spiritual (2).
Tantra works comprise in the Buddhist Canon as many as 22
volumes, all filled with extravagant mysticism, sorcery, charms,
hymns, and instructions for expelling demons (3).
(1) Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 14 and 129 (Tantric Buddhism).
The Tantric form of Buddhism was introduced into Tibet about A.D. 640.
Tantra gods often have several heads, and always more than 2 arms. Getty.
The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 176.
(2) Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 143. Magic is largely employ-
ed to compel the gods into assisting their votaries.
(3) Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 163 (The Buddhist Canon).
— 134 —
ARTICLE VIII.
AVAE0R1TESVARA, THE GODDESS OE MERCY.
Kwan-shi-yin f$J -jti; ^ (1).
PART I. THE LEGEXDOE MIAO-SHEX tfy ^ (2).
In the eleventh year of the epoch of the Golden Heaven, B.C.
2587, the great king known as P'o-kiah 2|| $|j, and surnamed
Lo-yuh JH 3i, having defeated in war the neighbouring princes,
ascended the throne at the age of twenty years, and ruled over the
Western regions, Si-yuh "g jxfc. His kingdom was called Hsing-lin
H $t, and the style of his reign Miao-chwang ££ |j£.
The kingdom of Hsing-lin fit ^ was bounded on the West by
the State of T'ien-chuh ^ &£ (3), on the South by T'ien-chen ^
(1) Kwan- shi-yin § f ^-. Literally, "the looking down lord, the
sovereign who looks down, and hears the sounds (prayers) of the world".
A Buddhist deity, symbolising "mercifulness and compassion". At first an
Indo-Tibetan divinity (Avalokitesvara), upon which a Chinese native god
was afterwards grafted. In course of time, under what influence it is not
known, the sex even changed. She is principally worshipped by Northern
Buddhists, but is unknown in Siam, Burmah, and Ceylon. In some pictures
representing her, she presents a child to mothers praying for offspring. She
is in general the patroness of women, and those engaged in perilous callings.
Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 171. — Hackmann. Buddhism as a Beligion.
p. 210. — Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 18. — Monier Williams. Bud-
dhism, p. 200. — Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 78.
(2) Miao-shen j& 3|. A Chinese princess, who lived B.C. 2587, or
according to others B.C. 696. She refused to marry, and preferred to lead a
life of seclusion, and thus arrive at a state of Buddha. The legend of her
life, composed in A.D. 1102, by the monk P'u-ming, is a religious fairy tale,
based on Buddhist ideas and Taoist lore. It is not proved that Kwan-yin is
a development of Miao-shen. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 18.—
Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p 73 (The Legend of Miao-shen).
(3) T'ien-chuh ^5 &. The common name of India in early Buddhist
books. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
Fig. 33
Miao tchoang wang, pere de Koang-yng pou-sah.
Miao Choang-wang, father of the Goddess Koang-yin.
— 135 —
j^, and on the North by Sien-lo jg f§ (1). It was 3000 Chinese
miles in length, and had for Prime Minister Chao-chen ^§ ft, while
the Generalissimo was Ch'u-lieh %'ft ?k. The queen Pao-teh ^ ^,
family name Peh-ya f£ 5f , and the king Miao-ckwang £j? $£ (2)
were both approaching the age of fifty, and so far had no male child
to succeed them on the throne. This caused them much anguish
of soul. Peh-ya ff£J j5f suggested to the king that the God of the
Sacred Mountain of the West, llwa-shan ||1 \\] (3), was most
powerful, and should he invoke him, and repent of all misdeeds
and bloodshed in previous wars, the God would unfailingly grant
him a male child.
The king agreed to making a pilgrimage, and summoning
forthwith his Prime Minister Chao-chen ^ Jj|, he ordered him to
dispatch to the temple of the Sacred Mountain of the West, Hwa-
shan lj| [Jj, the two Presidents of the Board of Rites, Sih-heng-nan
^ fa Pj^, and Chi-tu ^ |$, and there assemble fifty Buddhist and
as many Taoist priests, Tao-shi j$g ^, who would supplicate the
God for seven days and seven nights, from the 13th to the 19th of
the second month. The seven days over, the king and queen would
proceed personally to the shrine, and there offer incense to the local
God (4).
The two high officials were to bear as sacrificial offerings : ten
pieces of best Ch'engtu }fc %$ silk, fifty pounds of first quality
incense, five boxes of Korean paper, four Lingchi ^ ^ whole hogs,
eight pairs of T'aihwo -jk ^rj hens, ten Kiukiang ji yX fishes, a
(1) Sien-lo -j|| |f. The kingdom of Siam. The word is an imitation of
the native sound "Sayam", meaning a brown colour, and alluding to the
special hue of the people. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
(2) Miao-chwang # £t. Is the style of reign, not the king's name. It
is usual, however, to designate Oriental rulers by their style of reign.
(3) Hwa-shan 3$ llj. One of the Five Sacred Mountains of China. It
lies in Shensi |& ®, to the South-East of Si-ngan-fu M £ B- Williams.
Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
(4) Offering incense to the gods is the principal act of worship in Chin,!,
as it was in Pagan Rome. Thousands of martyrs refused to perform this
idolatrous act. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 540. note I.
— 136 —
large quantity of marine plants, fragrant herbs, and an abundant
supply of cakes. Silt Heng-nan -$■ fg Pj|j carried out these orders,
and set off for the temple. Buddhist and Taoist priests, Tao-shi ^
•^2, cleaned up the Great Hall, and convoking all the members of
the monastery, had the royal edict read in their presence. During
seven days and seven nights, the great bells, drums, and various
musical instruments mingled their notes with the unceasing prayers
of the monks (1). On the appointed day, the king, queen, and all
the court grandees arrived at the temple, and offered sacrifice to the
God of the Sacred Mountain.
When the ceremonies were over, the Buddhist and Taoist priests
fell on their knees and saluted the king, who thanked them for all
the trouble they had taken on his behalf. The God who presided
over the Sacred Mountain of the West, Hwa-shan ]§| jjj , was well
aware that king Miao-chwang £J? $£ would have no male child, in
punishment for the massacres committed in the many wars which
he waged during three long years.
On the other hand, the Buddhist and Taoist priests, Tao-shi
M, i> poured out their most earnest supplications before the
God ^2\ and stated that the king having come personally to offer
sacrifice, his prayers could not be rejected. Hereupon the God
dispatched "Thousand-mile-eye1', Ts'ien-li-yen ^f- Jl Uj|, and
"Favourable-wind-ear", Shun-fung-eul j!|ff JjSj 5 (3) ; and begged
(1) Buddhist worship consists in the chanting of their Sutras, the reciting
of prayers and bowings, accompanied with music, drums and cymbals. A
skull-shaped block, called a wooden fish, Muh-yu 7fc M., is also used to beat
time when chanting. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 554. note 3.
(2) Buddhist gods are nowadays accommodated in Taoist temples, while
Taoist immortals and genii occupy a prominent place on Buddhist altars.
The mutual borrowings of the two religions have produced the most curious
medley of gods and goddesses that the student of religion has ever encoun-
tered. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. Preface, p. 1; Vol. VI. p. 2-3.
(3) "Thousand-mile- eye" and "Favourable-wind-ear" are two genii, who
attend on the "Queen of Heaven", a sailor-goddess much worshipped in
Southern China. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 574. note 3. Second
month, 29th day. — Doolittle. Social Life of the Chinese. Vol. I. p. 264.
— 137 —
them investigate whether there was not some great personage ready
to be reborn into a new existence ?
Soon afterwards the two genii returned, and announced that
in the village of Chi-shu-yuen fg; j$ jg, amidst the Tsiu-ling ^
^H hills, in far away India, there lived a venerable man Shi K'ing-
chang jjfc Jpj J|, whose ancestors for three past generations observed
faithfully all Buddhist abstinences. This model Buddhist had three
boys born to him, named respectively: Shi-wen jfe ^, Shi-tsin jyfc
-If, and Shi-shen jfe ^j|, all three strict observers of Buddhist laws,
and youths of exemplary life.
At this time, the leader, Wang-cheh 3i no D)' name> °f a gang
of brigands, and thirty of his followers, happened to be pursued and
hard pressed by Indian soldiers (1). Sorely in need of food and
shelter, he arrived at Shi-wen's house, and begged him to give
them something to eat. Shi-wen jjfe ^r and his two brothers,
knowing they were outlaws, refused to give them anything. Let
them die of hunger, said the brothers, the peasants will thus be
delivered from their depredations. Seeing that their request was
not granted, the brigands held counsel, and resolved to plunder one
of the rich families of the country, called Tai ^. Hereupon, they
burnt down the house, killed many inmates of the family without
discrimination of sex or age, and carried off everything they could
lay their hands on.
The local God, T'u-ti ± $J (2), reported forthwith to the
Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hwang 3£ J| (3), stating that "the Shi Jg
(1) This incident is deftly introduced by the Buddhist writer in order
to account for the punishment of the three brothers in a subsequent existence.
(2) T'u-ti-shen ± ifc #, or T'u-ti lao-yeh ± it % M, an agricultural
divinity, the local God of the Soil. He acts here below as a spy and general
reporter of events to the Supreme Taoist God, Yuh-hwang 3£ M.- Williams.
Dictionary of the Chinese Language.— Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 570;
Vol. VI. p. 29. note 3.
(3) The Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hwang 2E Ji. The supreme God of the
Taoist pantheon, corresponding to the Confucian Shang-ti _L ift, and the
Buddhist Fuh ffi, or Sakyamuni. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 112.—
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 12. note 1.
18
— 138 —
family had performed meritorious deeds for three generations, and
that the brigands deserved absolutely no compassion ; however, it
should be admitted that the three brothers, by refusing them
wherewith to appease their hunger, morally compelled them to
pillage the Tai ]t| family, kill and rob on all sides, and exterminate
even the heir of the house. Such conduct is tantamount to having
committed the crime themselves. All three should, therefore, be
seized, and imprisoned in Hades, and never again see the light of
day" (1). The messengers added: "since your love of Miao-chwang
£j? !£ inclines you to grant him a male child (2), why do you not
beg the Pearly Emperor, Yuli-Itwang 31 H;> to forgive the three
brothers, and cause them to be reborn of queen Peh-ya f£| ^f, in a
subsequent phase of life. They would thus enjoy a new existence,
and perform therein meritorious deeds". Hereupon, the God of the
Sacred Mountain of the West, Hwa-shan ^ [Jj, summoned the
Genius of the Wind, and handed him a petition to be presented to
the Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hwang 3£ M.-
The petition ran as follows: "king Miao-chwang £j? |ji (,3) has
offered a sacrifice to me, begging me grant him a male child, but
as he caused the death of many persons in previous wars, he does
not deserve obtaining a son who would succeed him on the throne.
As the brothers of the Shi ffe family have offended you, by morally
compelling the brigand Wang-cheh 3£ ^ to kill and rob, I beg yon,
in view of their past meritorious deeds, to forgive them, and grant
them the means of expiating their fault in a future existence. Let
all three, therefore, be reborn of queen Peh-ya f£| 5f , but as children
(1) The Buddhist Hades (in Sanscrit, Naraka) is not eternal, but a
temporary place of punishment, a phase of transmigration, till one is reborn
in a future existence. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. I. p. 152. note 2. —
Haekmann. Buddhism as a Religion, p. 165. — Johnston. Buddhist China,
p. G2. note 2.
(2) The above phrase is addressed lo the God of the Sacred Mountain
of the West, Hwa-shan |p mj .
(3) Miao-cJuvang f}? $±. This is the style of reign, and not the ruler's
personal name, as remarked above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 135.
— 139 —
of the female sex (1). They would thus in a subsequent existence
perform meritorious deeds, expiate their fault, and save many folks".
The Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hwang 3£ Jl, received the petition with
great pleasure, and forthwith ordered the God of the North Pole (2)
to deliver the three brothers out of Hades, and conduct their souls
to the palace of king- Miao-chwang ^ $£, where in the course of
three years they would be reborn of queen Peh-ya f£j 5f , as children
of the female sex.
The king, who ever expected the birth of a male child destined
to succeed him on the throne, was informed one fine morning that
the queen had given birth to a daughter, who was named Miao-tscing
t^ ift- A year afterwards, another daughter was born, and received
the name of Miao-yin ^ -|f. In the course of the following year,
the queen gave birth to a third daughter, thus crowning the fatal
series (3). The king, almost beside himself, summoned his Prime
Minister, Chao-chen -Jg J=|, and said to him in doleful words.
"I am over fifty years of age, and so far have had no male
children who may succeed me on the throne ; the dynasty will thus
become extinct. Of what avail have been all my wars and the
battles in which I have been victorious?" Chao-chen ^j| U endeav-
oured to console him, saying: "heaven has bestowed upon you three
daughters ; all the powers of this world cannot alter this inexorable
decree. When the young princesses shall attain marriageable
(1) This on account of their demerits in a previous existence. In his
repeated births, Sakyamuni was born 10 times as a lion, 6 as an elephant,
once as a hare, but never as a woman. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 112,
332. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. Ill p. 308. note 2.
(2) Stellar gods belong generally to the Taoist pantheon. Sec on this
God of the North Pole. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V . p. 582. Fourth
month, 18H> day; p. GOO, Tenth month, 270> day; p. 616, Twelfth month,
29th day.
(3) The Buddhist doctrine of metempsychosis is here fully borne out.
The three daughters represent the souls of three brothers rescued from II..
but condemned to be reborn as girls for their demerits. See Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. I. p. 137 (Re-incarnation of souls through birth).
— 140 —
age, we shall find worthy consorts for them, and you can choose
one among these for successor. None would dare dispute the crown
with the prince selected by your Majesty".
The king named this third daughter Miao-shen ^? ^j|, that is
"Excellent and virtuous Princess". She was distinguished for her
rare virtues and her modesty, and observed from childhood all
Buddhist observances (1). Her cheerful disposition endeared her
to everybody.
One day, as the three princesses disported themselves in the
royal park, Miao-shen $fy ^ said in a serious tone to her two sisters:
"riches and worldly glory are like a passing spring-shower, or the
morning dew-drops ; they last for a few moments, and then vanish
for ever. Kings and rulers would fain enjoy for ages the honours
which give them a privileged place among mortals, but illness
brings them soon to the grave, and there all ends in dust (2).
Where are nowadays those powerful monarchs, whose will the whole
world obeyed? As for me, replied the princely damsel, I shall deem
myself happy if I can spend my life in a solitary mountain-cave,
and there attend to the pursuit of perfection. Should I reach
eminent holiness, then wafted on the clouds of heaven, and passing
in a moment from East to West (3), would I visit this forlorn world;
I would also save my father and mother, the down-trodden and
(1) The intelligent reader will observe that this happened B.C. 2587 (a
short time after the reign of Hwang-ti ilr ^-), or according to others B.C. 696
(towards the close of the Chow JS] dynasty), when Buddhism did not yet exist.
Sakyamuni was born in India B.C. 622 (though some place the date as late as
412), but the fantastic writer has no regard for historical truth. See Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 51. note 2.
(2) This precocious maid of 19 Summers has already mastered the most
abstruse principles of Buddhism, and gives a lecture on vainglory to her
worldly sisters.
(3) This is one of the magic powers deemed to be conferred by Yoga, or
that state of abstraction in which the individual is mystically united with
the Universal Spirit, and the body becomes as it were ethereal. Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 132 (The Yoga System).
— 141 —
suffering- members of humanity, and lead them to the blissful
regions of the West ; in fine, I would convert all the wicked souls
in Hades. Such is my life-dream, such my sole ambition here
below" (1).
Scarcely had she uttered these words than a court lady arrived,
and announced that the king had chosen two suitable consorts for
his two eldest daughters, and that the nuptial ceremony was fixed
for the next day. She had, therefore, to dress up in best style,
and don her choice pearls ; the king's orders were most explicit.
The consort chosen for Miao-ts'ing ^Jp ^ was a Hanlin graduate,
called Chao-kw'ei )jg J||> anc* surnamed Teh-tah ffi j^. His father
was a high court official of the reigning dynasty. The husband of
Miao-yin }fy |f was a military officer, called Ho-fung fpT j^, and
surnamed Ch'ao-yang jj^j [^|. He headed the list of all military
graduates in the metropolitan examination. The wedding festival
was celebrated with the greatest splendour, and prolonged during
several days ; at last each newly married pair moved into its own
palace, and joy was unbounded. The next step was to find a worthy
consort for the third daughter, Miao-shen ^j? 3|. The king and
queen wished to choose for her a man distinguished for his science
and virtue, capable of governing the State, and making a worthy
successor to the present aged ruler. Now, the king summoned
Miao-shen ^? ^j| into his presence, exposed to her his scheme, and
the hopes he built upon her complying with his wishes. — "It is
with the greatest regret, replied the damsel, that I cannot comply
with your paternal desires (2). My aim in life is of quite another
(i) The all-saving principle of Buddhism is the outcome of philosophical
speculation, and belongs to a later phase of doctrine. It was introduced
especially by the Mdhayana School, and embodied in the Bodhisattvas, who
all utter great vows to save mankind. Hackmann. Buddhism as a Bcligion.
p. 52. —Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 274. note 2.
(2) This refusal of a girl to obey the wishes of her father is a most
extraordinary thing in China, where parents are almost deified, and children
spoiled by the doting love of father and mother. Dyer-Ball. Things Chinese,
p. 278.— Williams. The Middle Kingdom. Vol. I. 513 (Filial Piety).
— 142 —
kind, so I hope you will not oppose my purpose". — "Speak out",
said the king. — "I do not wish to get married, but desire to lead
a life of seclusion, and thus become a Buddha (1). I promise
you, I shall never prove an ungrateful daughter". — What the
deuce of a girl, you are! replied the king angrily; you want to give
a lesson to the sovereign of a State, and the ruler of countless
millions ! Did any one ever see a king's daughter enter a Buddhist
monastery? a decent woman would never associate with such folks (2\
Give up all these notions about entering a Buddhist nunnery,
and let them never again enter your head. Tell me plainly the kind
of husband you would like (3). Must he be a Hanlin doctor, or a
military officer of the highest grade? — "Mortals here below seek a
royal crown, and aspire to the joys of the married state. As for
me, I wish to be a Buddhist nun. Riches and glory have no charm
for me; with regard to them, my heart is as cold as an extinct
ember, and I feel impelled to be more and more detached from such
vain things". — Upon hearing these words, the king rose up filled
with indignation, and wished to banish her from his presence. The
princess, feeling she could not resist the orders of her father, sought
to attain her purpose indirectly. ■ — • "If you want me absolutely to
enter the married state, said she, I am willing to do so, but the
lord of my choice must be a physician". — "A physician, murmured
the king, and is the kingdom so destitute of men of noble birth and
(1) Buddha. From the Sanscrit Bodhi, that is the "enlightened, the
intelligent, the awakened". This state is attained when one has thrown off
the bondage of sense perception, discerned the unreality of all phenomena,
and finally annihilated all desire of personal existence Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese
Dictionary, p. 27.
(2) Buddhist nunneries are not tolerated in various parts of China,
while in others they are frequently suppressed. Officials and the people
generally look on such establishments with much distrust. See Doolittle.
Social Life of the Chinese. Vol. I. p. 253; Vol. II. p. 289.
(3) Marriage is the one end and aim set forth for a girl in China. In
this, however, she is little consulted, but must obey the wishes of the family.
The individual is nothing in China; it is the respective families that are
taken into account. Dyer-Ball. Things Chinese, p. 419 (Marriage).
— 143 —
rank, that you cannot find any other choice than a physician ?" —
"Listen a moment, replied Miao-slien ^? 3=, I wish to dispel all the
evils of our poor suffering- humanity : cold, heat, the passions of
men, old age and infirmity (1); I wish to suppress class privileges,
and place rich and poor on an equal footing; I want all property to
be held in common, without discriminating between what is mine
and what is thine (2). If you grant my wishes, I shall thus become
a Buddha, a saviour of mankind ; it is needless to request a sooth-
sayer to fix the marriage day, I am ready for the ceremony at any
moment".
These last words highly incensed the king : "deuce of a girl
that you are ! how dare you express such eccentric ideas in my
presence? And forthwith summoning llo-t'ao fpj \>Q, the officer
who on that day kept watch before the royal chambers, he said to
him. "This damsel wishes to become a Buddhist nun, and thus
bring dishonour on her famil}r. Remove her from my presence,
have her despoiled of her princely robes, and then shut her up in
the queen's garden, where I hope she will die of cold ; that would
console in somewise my aching heart". — The princess fell on her
knees, thanked her father, and proceeded to the queen's garden,
where she commenced to lead a secluded life, chilled in the daytime
by the cold blast, and reclining beneath the moonbeams throughout
the night ; happy, however, to have severed her shackles, exchanged
(1) The fundamental doctrine of Buddhism is here distinctl}' set forth.
The great object of Buddhism is to rescue all living beings from misery.
Life is misery, and is inseparably bound up with misery. The remedy pro-
posed by Sahyamuni is the suppression of all desire for continuity of existence.
This redemption is consummated in Nirvana, or the final extinction of -ell
and of all personal existence. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 73, 99,
551. — Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 190.
(2) The Buddhist Brotherhood is an association of monks (nol priests),
uttering equality of condition to high and low, rich and poor, and a haven
of refuge to all oppressed by the miseries of life. All property was to he
held in common. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. T.'-S (Nature of the Buddhist
Brotherhood).— Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 36.
— 144 —
the cloister for the palace, and recovered freedom to tend henceforth
to Nirvana, the goal of her ambition (1).
The queen, distressed at the sufferings of her daughter in a
lonely garden, dispatched two maids of honour, Kiao-hung jjjff |X
and Ts'ui-hung Jp. £l\ to inquire about her. These two ladies,
seeing that she persisted in her design, fell on their knees, and
besought her to bow to the wishes of her royal father, saying: "no
joys can be compared with those of the married state ; you should,
therefore, return to the palace, and enjoy all these worldly advantages.
Your love of seclusion and austerity will deprive you of all that is
pleasant in life. A royal princess of your rank should be clad in
silk, and wear the choicest of pearls. You cannot lead an austere
life and live on a coarse vegetarian diet 2N; such conduct would
disgrace both yourself and your family". — "Ah ! how little you
understand my preferences, replied the princess ; the greatest favour
the king can confer on me, is to confine me in this lonely garden ;
1 prefer it to all the pleasures of the Court. I feel as if I had
escaped from a blazing furnace, my happiness is unbounded, and I
can henceforth tend to Nirvana, unimpeded by all worldly obstacles.
The heavens are brighter when the storm is over, and on the return
of Spring, Nature resumes her verdant garb. Enough of your silly
prattle ; please let me enjoy my life of seclusion". — The ladies,
fearing to intrude any further, bowed to the princess, and withdrew.
When they had left, Miao-slien ^ ^ said smilingly to herself:
"these wretched folks being now gone, my joy is immense ; with
the moon lighting up my lonely recess, am I not happy as the
(1) See on Nirvana, the final goal of Buddhism. Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 143. note 1.
(2) Buddhists generally abstain from animal food in obedience to the
precept: "kill not any living thing". By adopting a vegetarian diet, they
hope to obtain favours from the gods, to be delivered from misfortune, and
lay up meritorious acts, through which they may be reborn in a better
condition in subsequent phases of existence. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. IV.
p. 454 (Buddhist Abstinence).
— 145 —
dragon that disports in the watery depths (I), or the tiger that
roams over the mountain wilds !" So saying-, she placed a little
incense in the burner (2), and thanked "heaven and earth" for her
happiness. She was then but nineteen years of age.
The queen felt most sad, and the image of her beloved daughter
and her painful condition ever haunted her mind. She, therefore,
summoned the two court ladies, and inquired of them about the state
of the princess. Kiao-hung jj&j |x replied and said : "Miao-shen £j? |fe
is more obstinate than ever ; her heart is steeled against the attractions
of the world, and no argument will make her change her mind1'.
The king himself, so hopeful during the past few days, felt his
heart overwhelmed with anguish, and determined to go accompanied
by the queen, and endeavour to make the princess adopt a more
sensible line of conduct. Both found Miao-shen $$? ^ engaged in
reciting her Sutras, and invoking Buddha's holy name (3). No
sooner did she perceive her parents, than she hastened to come and
meet them. The king then said to her: "my daughter, at our last
meeting, I have been very displeased with your conduct, and so
have confined you in this garden; since then, the queen and myself
are filled with sadness ; we come, therefore, to day to request you
to return to the palace, and follow the state of life which becomes
your rank". — The princess replied: "I have already expressed to
you my desire of leading a life of seclusion, and my set purpose of
not getting married (4). During the past few days, 1 have enjoyed
(1) See description of the Dragon, various kinds of Dragons, and worship
of the Dragon. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. G80-687.
(2) Burning and offering incense to the gods is the principal act of Bud-
dhist worship in China. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 135. note i.
(3) The great prayer of the true Buddhist is: ''1 go for refuge to Buddha,
the Law. and the Order ". This is deemed to be all-powerful. Monier Wil-
liams. Buddhism, p. 78.
(4) The true Buddhist renounces the world, and leads a celibate monastic
life. However, lay-brothers, lay-sisters, and married householders are also
admitted, but as appendages. These can accumulate merit by furnishing
food and clothing to the monks, and helping them in various other ways.
Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 89.
19
— 146 —
the charms of my solitary recess ; I have prayed to Buddha, and
kept all Buddhist observances, for the sole purpose of renouncing'
the world, and all worldly grandeur". — "Beflect seriously on your
conduct, pursued the king, by renouncing all the advantages of your
rank, you shall live a useless life ; be, therefore, sensible, and return
with me to the palace, where 1 shall choose for you the best of
husbands". Miao-slien ffi ^ cast down her eyes, bowed respectfully,
and kept a mournful silence.
The queen addressed her in turn, saying: "I have no male
child (1), and only you three girls in the family ; the king and
myself are advanced in years, and there is no hope of now having a
son to succeed us on the throne; return, therefore, to a better frame
of mind, and give up your visionary ideas. If you continue in
disobeying your father, he will get irritated, and you will find
yourself in a critical situation, from which I cannot extricate you".
Upon hearing these words, Mino-shen ^? ^, amidst sobs and tears,
cast herself on the ground, and said: "I refuse to marry; I wish
to lead a secluded life. Should one live even to a hundred years of
age, and not acquire merit, all would be of little avail (2'; a day
must come when all hopes of salvation shall vanish, and then to
whom can we fly for help? I beg you most earnestly return to the
palace, and banish all thoughts of me from your memory ; you have
my two sisters, who will soothe your drooping years, so consider
me as being no further a member of the family. If you persist in
endeavouring to make me change my purpose, I swear before
"heaven" that I would prefer dying a thousand times rather than
return to the palace". Hereupon, her father, in prey to extreme
(1) This happened in punishment of demerits, for violating the first of
the 10 precepts of the Buddhist law: "do not kill any living being". This
extends even to animals. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 78 and 126. —
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. IV. p. 445-450.
(2) Buddhism inculcates good works, not through any love of holiness
or perfection, but in order to accumulate a stock of merit, and thus escape
from the bugbear of repeated births. Metempsychosis is at the basis of all
Buddhist philosophy and life. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 124.
— 147 —
anger, exclaimed: "a child that disobeys her father is untilial, and
lacks the most necessary of all virtues (1). I consider that all those
who become Buddhist or Taoist priests, Tao-shi jif| -^, are lazy
folks, miserable and starving wretches, the dregs of humanity,
people seeking some kind of a livelihood (2); dear daughter, do not
imitate such sorry knaves". — "If that be true, replied Miao-shen £j?
^j|, all the Buddhas, and those countless sages who have abandoned
the world, do not deserve to be called human beings?" — The king
turning towards the queen, said to her briskly: "That's enough ! let
us return to the palace ; it is useless to argue with this damsel, as
she resists all our admonitions". — When they had left, Miao-shen
ify ^S sat down on a stone, and commenced to recite her Sutras.
A short time afterwards, two court ladies came to announce
the visit of her sisters. Miao-shen ^? ^fe arose, and advanced to
meet them. "It is a long time since we did not seejyou, said they
upon meeting her ; we have come to-day to take you back to the
palace; your father and mother are heart-broken with grief, and it
is time to put an end to their sorrow" (3). — "Our views, 1 fear,
shall be ever divergent, replied Miao-shen ~ffi ~^& ; my mind is
absolutely made up, and nothing on earth will shake my resolution.
You shall both be the consolation and joy of our aged parents". ■ —
(1) Filial piety is the greatest of all virtues in the eyes of the Chinese,
while disobedience is the greatest of all crimes. With regard to parents, it
is most exacting, and generally carried to extremes unknown in the West.
Dyer-Ball. Things Chinese, p. 278.
(2) Confucianists and others have frequently accused Buddhist monks
of being lazy folks, and vagabonds ; of renouncing their family and all natural
ties, introducing a foreign cult, and being a danger for the State. The
denunciations of Fu-yih #^, in the time of the T'ang dynasty (7th century;,
resulted in a general persecution, in which thousands of monasteries were
destroyed, and official families forbidden to consort with monks or nuns.
Mc Gowan. Imperial History of China, p. 290. —Parker. China and Religion.
p. 129. — Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 44 (Fu-yih).
(3) All means are employed to overcome the obstinacy of the youthful
princess, but despite renewed efforts she holds to her original purpose, and
wishes to reach the state of Buddhahood.
— 148 —
"Sister, rejoined her elders, you must never think of withdrawing
yourself from the tender affection of your parents, and the sincere
love of your sisters" (1). — "Our views will never be in thorough
conformity, 1 tell you over again; my only desire is to retire to some
secluded mountain-spot, where I can lead a life of perfection, and
tend to the state of Buddha. Enjoy the honours and pleasures of
the Court ; let each of us follow our own wa}' of life, and so let the
matter be ended". The two sisters returned disconsolate, and Miao-
shen ^? ^j| resumed the reciting of her Sutras.
The king and queen dispatched anew Kiao-hung j(j|j $X and
Ts'ui-hung J|| $X> begging them make a last attempt to overcome
the obstinacy of the princess. Miao-shen ^? ^j|, pestered by their
renewed assaults, cursed them, and told them with firmness not to
annoy her any further with their silly prattle. "I have heard it
said, added she, that there is the famous "Monastery of the White
Sparrows", Peh-tsioh shen-sze £=j ^g jjjp. ^f (2), in the territory of
Ju-chow yfc ^'I'l ; this is inhabited by five hundred Buddhist nuns,
all intent on studying the true doctrine, and engaged in the practice
of a perfect life. Go and beg the queen to obtain from the king
permission to proceed there,. Should you obtain for me this favour,
I will reward you for your trouble later on" (3).
Miao-chwang £j? |j£ summoned the two court ladies, and inquired
of them the result of their endeavours. — "She is more obstinate
than ever, replied they. She even requested us to go to the queen,
and beg her obtain from your Majesty permission to enter the
"Monastery of the White Sparrows", which lies in the territory of
Ju Chow ffc '){]. Five hundred Buddhist nuns live in this monastery,
and she wishes to follow their rule of life".
(1) See on filial piety, and it exacting duties in China. Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. VI. p. 147. note 1.
(2) Tsioh %£, a bird, but especially the sparrow. Shen |f , fixed con-
templation, Dhyana, a general term for Buddhist. Sze ^, a monastery.
Hence the "Monastery of the White Birds, or Sparrows". Williams. Dictionary
of the Chinese Language.
(3) When she will become, a Buddha and saviour of men. See above.
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 142. note 1.
— 149 —
The king sent forthwith severe orders to the abbess of the
monastery to dissuade his daughter by all means from joining- their
community. He then commanded that Miao-shen £p ^& be brought
into his presence. The lady Hwai-ngan jff -^ was ordered to carry
out the wishes of the king. Proceeding to the garden where the
princess was banished, she said to her: "your father thinks it
difficult for you to follow your way of life in this garden, and realize
there the sublime state of perfection, which you wish to attain ; he
desires, therefore, to see you, and have you conducted to the "Monas-
tery of the White Sparrows", as you have requested him (1).
Miao-slien %$? ^S, elated with joy, started in all haste for the
palace. On meeting her father, she fell on her knees and said :
"you have kindly granted me permission to enter the "Monastery
of the White Sparrows11, Peli-tsioh-sze f£3 ^ ^ ; I come, therefore,
to thank you with all my heart, and bid you farewell before leaving
the palace11 (2). — You are most silly, my dear girl; your aged father
can no longer bear to see you leading such a wretched life in this
lonely garden, eating coarse food, and suffering from the cold, hence
he summoned you into his presence, hoping you would give up for
ever your ideas of leading a Buddhist life. It has never entered
my mind to have you taken to the "Monastery of the White
Sparrow7s !"
"Dear father, I have always heard it said that a monarch keeps his
word, if you fail to do so, how can you govern the State!" — "You
silly girl, as you refuse to obey your father, go away to the monas-
tery, and we will see how you fare there". — "Excuse my apparent
lack of filial piety, replied Miao-slten ify ||; I now bid you farewell,
but when I have attained the state of Buddha, I shall return and
(1) This was unexpected news for the princess, who so far only mel
with stern opposition from her parents, sisters, ladies and officials oi the
Court.
(2) The reader can see hereby that the princess was not lacking in filial
piety, but felt herself called to a higher ideal of life, and the hope of
becoming a Buddha.
— 150 —
save my dear father and mother" (1). So saying", she fell on her
knees, bowed profoundly to her father, and set out for the "Monastery
of the White Sparrows (2)".
Her sisters, hearing" of her departure, hurried in to meet her
as she passed through the palace, and ordered all their servants to
do their best to keep her at home. These begged her with tears
not to abandon her father and mother, but Miao-shen ^ ^p railed
at them in fine fashion, and told them not to meddle with the
business of other people. She then proceeded on her way. Further
on, she was met by the officers, civil and military, of the palace.
One of these, addressing her on behalf of the others, said: "we beg
your Highness to allow us address you a few words before you leave
us". — "Let us hear you, said Miao-shen ify ^". ■ — "We, your
faithful servants, have learned from our ancestors that filial piety
is the foremost of virtues (3), and that devotion to one's parents
is much better than the itinerating and dishonourable life of
Buddhist nuns. At the risk of our lives, we beg to request you to
return to the palace, and give up your ideas of leading a Buddhist
life". — The princess replied: "nobody here below can escape the
law of metempsychosis (4); each of us, therefore, must decide for
himself. You, civil officers, be the pillars of the State; and you,
(1) She will accomplish this vow later on, after living nine years in
P'u-t'o island, P'u-t'o-shan ^ ft^ UU, in the Chnsan Archipelago. Hearing
that her father was dangerously ill, she cut off the flesh of her own arm, and
made it into a medicine, which restored him to health. Eitel. Three Lectures
on Buddhism, p. 128.
(2) See Illustration n° 34, depicting her departure for the monastery.
(3) See on filial piety, and the extremes to which it is carried in China.
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 147. note 1; p. 148. note 1.
(4) Metempsychosis is the bugbear of Buddhism, which borrowed the
doctrine from Brahmanism. It holds that every individual is forced to pass
through life again and again, until one has renounced all desire for a subse-
quent existence. Final escape is attained in Nirvana. Hackmann. Buddhism
as a Religion, p. 10 and 15. — Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 110 —Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. I. p. 133 (Metempsychosis).
Pier. 34
Koang-yng refuse de se marier et se met en route pour ia pagode de
Toiseau blanc afiu de se faire bonzesse.
Koang-yin refuses lo marry and sets oat for the monastery of the
While Bird.
— 151 —
military men, protect your country ; as to renouncing the world, and
entering- a Buddhist monastery, each one has his own fancy. Stop
here, I beg you, and don't trouble yourselves with accompanying
me any further". Having spoken these words, she advanced with
rapid steps, and set out for the monastery, despite the fatigue and
dangers she might encounter on the way. The king's messenger
had preceded her, and strict orders were sent to give her a cold
reception.
The "Monastery of the White Sparrows", Peh-tsioh-sze £=| ^§|
^F, was built by Hwang-ti Jl ^ (B.C. 2697-2597); the five hundred
Buddhist nuns, who then inhabited it, had for Superioress the lady
I-yiu ^ |H, a native of the State of T'u-lo ^ j|i, and highly
distinguished for her rare virtues. Upon receiving the king's orders,
she summoned the choir-mistress, Cheng Clieng-cli'ang JU$ J£ ^",
and informed her that the third daughter of king Miao-chwang £j?
$£ i^l), the princess Miao-shen ^j? ^j|, owing to some misunderstanding
with her father, would soon arrive at the gate of the monastery; she
should meet her, and employ all means in her power to dissuade
her from joining their community. Having given her orders, the
Superioress, accompanied by a novice, awaited the arrival of .1/f'ao-
shen ££ 3|. On meeting her at the gate of the monastery, she
bowed deeply towards her; Miao-shen ^j? ^ returned the salute and
said : "your humble servant has renounced the world, and has come
to obey your orders ; there is no need of your troubling yourself with
saluting me. I beg you to take me to the principal shrine of the
monastery (2\ in order that I may worship Buddha". I-yin ^ %_
(1) Miao-chwang fj> $&. This is the style of reign, not the ruler's
personal name. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 135. note 2 ; p. 138.
note 3.
(2) Every large Buddhist monastery has a temple or shrine (Vihara),
where the images are set up; a separate building for the monks, and a hall
for preaching or exposing the doctrine. During instruction, all sit on mats
in true Hindu fashion. In the courtyards are found a bell-tower, a lotus-pond,
and a specimen of the Bo-tree (Ficus religiosa), under which Buddha sat
when he was illuminated. Hackmann. Buddhism as a Religion, p. 108.
— 152 —
led her to the Great Hall, ordering- at the same time to light the
sticks of incense (1), ring the bells, and beat the great drum.
Having worshipped Buddha, she proceeded to the Instruction Hall,
and there bowed to her future teachers. The Superioress then
addressed her, saying: "your Highness is of royal blood, this lowly
monastery and its straw-covered roof are not suited for your dignity;
we, therefore, dare not receive you among us. Besides, we are
poor, ignorant folks, belonging for the greater part to the class of
common people, so we are unworthy of associating with a lady of
your rank". — "Whosoever aims at a life of perfection should ignore
all these social distinctions, replied Miao-slien %/jp ^ ; if you refuse
to teach me the true doctrine, how can I become a Buddhist nun?" —
You are not in earnest, it would seem (2), replied the Superioress ;
because you are unwilling to obey the orders of your father Miao-
chwang ^? |j£ (3), you make pretence of becoming a Buddhist nun.
Beflect seriously upon the step you are going to take. Born and
brought up amidst the luxury and pleasure of a palace, how can
you bear our poor and humble life, our coarse garments, our scanty
fare, our cold and dreary rooms? — "Coarse diet purifies the
affections of the heart, and proverty promotes cheerfulness of mind.
Besides, if I am not mistaken, among the five hundred nuns who
live in the monastery, there must be at least a few who belong to
well-to-do families, and who have received a good education ; you
are not all recruited from the class of the common people. As I
wish henceforth to become a member of your community, why
endeavour to make me feel aversion for your way of life? If I judge
rightly, you haven't entered the monastery in order to enjoy all that
is comfortable and pleasant in life, or to spend your days amidst
(1) See on "Incense sticks and their usage in China". Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. V. p. 533-540.
(2)tiThis objection is made in order to test her purpose, and in obedience
to the orders other father, who would rather see her stay in the palace, and
enter the married state, like her other two sisters.
(3) Title indicating the style of reign, and not the king's personal name.
See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 135. note 2; p. 138. note 3.
Fig. 35
Su'en Hou-tse vient aider Koang-yng et lui apporte La pcche do lim-
mortalite.
Sun Hu-tze comes to help Koang-yin and brings her the Poach of
Immortality.
— 153 —
luxury and ease". — I-yiu J% H; replied, saying: "I don't deny
that, but we have received the king's message, ordering us to
persuade you to return to the palace, and if we do not succeed,
perhaps our monastery may be burnt down, and this is why we
cannot receive you". — "I now perceive, replied Miao-shen ^? ^j|,
that you have not yet fully renounced the world, for whosoever has
really left it, fears neither calamity nor death. After all, if the
monastery is burnt down, we must put up with such misfortune". —
"Your Highness is wrong, it is not reasonable that we should all
suffer through your disobedience to your father". — "Though you
should be my teachers, replied Miao-shen typ sijfe, your arguments
are rather weak. A true Buddhist should practise the five renunci-
ations (1), and the six transcendent virtues (2); he must not act as
worldly folks do ; called to a state of perfection, he must even be
ready to see his very hands cut off, in order to show his love for
others. You have not yet made such a sacrifice, as I see you
trembling and fearful at the very thought that your monastery might
be burnt down". — Hereupon the choir-mistress interrupted, and
said: "a proverb tells us that when a cow cannot calve, it should
be killed and ripped open, and thus the calf may be secured". It is
useless to argue with this damsel, she is too smart; let her experiment
our life, and we shall see whether she is sincere or not. Her office
shall be to do the cooking of the community, to heat the water for
washing and cleaning ; she should also render various petty services
throughout the monastery, and if she does not acquit herself well
of these duties, she shall be dismissed. Are you willing to perform
these duties '?"
(1) The five renunciations of Buddhism are: of wife, of children, of
money and worldly goods, of life, and of craving for existence in future births.
Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 127.
(2) The six transcendent virtues (Paramita) leading to the further shore,
and the happy goal of Nirvana are: — 1. Giving to all who ask, even the
sacrificing of limbs or life for others : 2. Virtue or moral conduct : 3. Patience
or tolerance; 4. Fortitude or energy ; 5. Suppression of desi 1 1 : 6. Transcen-
dental wisdom. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 128.
20
— 154 —
Miao-shen £J? =£ accepted all with the greatest pleasure. "Well,
replied Cheng Cheng-ch'ang fff$ J£ ifj, since you are willing- to do
the cooking', come and beg Buddha to bless your work". — Miao-
shen ^? =j| knelt down before the "Thus-come Buddha", JiX-lai-fuh
JM ?JS f"J|i (1), and prayed as follows: "bountiful and merciful Buddha,
grant to thy humble servant to persevere for ever in her good
purpose. O Buddha ! graciousl}r hear the prayer of thy handmaid".
Miao-shen £j? ^ also promised to observe the rules of the
monastery, and obey her superiors.
This generous sacrifice touched the heart of the Pearly Emperor,
Yuh-hwang 3£ Jl (2), who forthwith summoned the God of the
North Pole, and gave him the following orders : "the third daughter
of king Miao-ch-wang ^?|}£ has renounced the world and its pleasures,
in order to lead a life of perfection ; to punish her disobedience, she
has been banished by her father, and secluded in the "Monastery of
the White Sparrows", Peh-tsio!i-sze £} ^ ^. The princess has
accepted with pleasure to perform all the menial services of the
community; she should, therefore, be helped in her difficult task,
otherwise none will in future follow her example, and practise the
arduous duties of the religious life. Enjoin, therefore, upon the
Three Bulers, San-kwan j£ ^ (3), the gods who preside over the
Five Sacred Mountains, Wu-yoh Ji ^, the eight ministers of the
Heavenly Dragon, the tutelary gods of the monastery, Kia-lan
(1) The "Thus-come-Buddha", Ju-lai-fuh f\\ 3& #• Transliteration of
the Sanscrit Tatha-gata, explained by "thus come", that is, endowed with per-
fect knowledge and high intelligence, he comes and manifests himself. An
appellation of Sakyamuni. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 6. — Eitel. Sanscrit-
Chinese Dictionary, p. 141.— Chinese Superstitions. Vol. 1. p. 71. note 2.
(2) The Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hioang 3? Ji. The chief god of the Taoist
pantheon. He corresponds to the Confucian Shang-ti _h *$, ar>d the Buddhist
Fuh {%, or Sakyamuni. Though the legend of Miao-shen f}> 3| is Buddhist,
Taoist gods, doctrine and lore are frequently introduced. See Chinese Super-
titions. Vol. VI. p. 134. note 2.
(3) See on the "Three Rulers", San-kwan H IT- Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 22-34.
— 155 —
#11 H: (1), and the local God of the Soil, T'u-ti lao-yeh ± Jfc ^ jfc (2),
to lend her assistance. Bid the sea-dragon open a fountain of
water beside her kitchen ; bid the tiger fetch her firewood from the
forest, and the birds of the air collect grain for the nuns ; bid the
heavenly genii, Shen-sien ftp $jj, to help her in her work, in order
that she may enjoy peace, and serve Buddha in all perfection. Let
these orders be punctually carried out". The God of the North Pole
proclaimed forthwith the orders of his Supreme Lord, and all the
heavenly genii tendered their services to the virtuous princess.
The Superioress, I-yiu J% ||j, observing that the gods and
genii assisted her novice in the performance of her duties, summoned
the choir-mistress, and requested her advice. "We have enjoined
upon the princess to perform the most menial services in the monas-
tery, in order to disgust her with our way of life, but since she
commenced to perform her duties, the genii of the eight heavenly
grottoes have descended to our earth, and brought her all kinds of
fruit ; the tutelary gods of the monastery, Kia-lan jfjft j|£, sweep her
kitchen ; the tiger brings her firewood from the forest ; the birds of
the air gather all kinds of fruit for her ; every evening, at sunset,
the monastery bell tolls of itself, as if struck by some invisible
hand ; in fine, her life is such a tissue of marvellous and wondrous
facts, that I beg }rou to proceed to the king's palace, and request
him to take back his daughter". Cheng Clieng-ch'ang ff[$ j£ ^ set
out on her errand, and informed his Majesty of the strange happen-
ings, which took place in the monastery. The king promised to
send the next day a strong escort, and have the princess brought
back. He then summoned Hwuh Pih-lih ^ >jfc •)], the commanding
officer for the day, and ordered him to start at the head of five
(1) Kia-lan fjfl jf, tutelary gods. These comprise some of the higher
Chinese divinities, such as the God of War, Kwan-ti §1 ^, and even others
who are not genuinely Buddhistic, ns Confucius, the God of Literature, and
the so-called "kitchen-god", who is found in every Buddhist monastery.
Hackmann. Buddhism in China, p. 214.
(2) See on the "God of the Soil". Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 137. note 2.
— 156 —
thousand armed men, infantry and cavalry, for the city of Lung-shu-
hsien f| ifff J$£. Here, he was to surround the "Monastery of the
White Sparrows", Peh-tsioh-sze £j %. ^p, and set it on fire with
all its inmates (1). Early the next day, the army set out for the
appointed place ; on arriving, the commanding officer surrounded
the monastery, and prepared to set it on fire. Meanwhile the poor
inmates, in prey to terror and dismay, supplicated "heaven and
earth", T'ien-ti 5R j& (2), and addressing themselves to Miao-shen
^ ^j?., exclaimed: "it is you who have drawn down upon us this
terrible disaster!" — Miao-shen %$? ^& replied, saying: "it is indeed
my fault ; I alone am responsible for your misfortune". She then
fell on her knees, and invoked Buddha, saying: "Great Ruler of the
Universe, thy servant is the daughter of king Miao-chwang ££ |j£.
You are yourself the grandson of a Cakravarti, Lun-wang j|q ^F (3);
do not, therefore, abandon thy supplicant. Thou hast fled from thy
palace, as I have myself; thou didst retire to a solitary mountain-
place to lead there a life of perfection, I also came here for the same
purpose ; rescue me, therefore, from the midst of these flames". —
Having completed her prayer, the princess unloosed the bamboo pin
that bound her hair, and pricking therewith her gums, obtained a
few drops of blood, which she spat out towards heaven (4). All of-
a sudden, heavy clouds darkened the air, and rain fell in torrents;
the flames were thus extinguished in a few moments, and the
(1) The king's purpose was to have his daughter consumed in the
flames, and also to avenge himself on the nuns, who received her into their
monastery.
(2) "Heaven and Earth", T'ien-ti ^c Ufa. In Chinese philosophy, this
expression represents the transforming power of Nature, not the living,
personal God, the Supreme Being, the Sovereign Lord of all things. Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. IV. p. 420. note 1 ; Vol. V. p. 627. note 1.
(3) Cakravarti. — In one of his previous births, Buddha is said to have
been born as a Cakravarti, or universal king. Monier Williams. Buddhism,
p. 423. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 104. note 4.
(4) This would seem to be the supreme cry of the soul begging assistance
from on high.
Fig. 36
Wei-touo pou-sah et les Dieux protegent la pagode de lViseau blanc
TliePu-sah Wei-tuo and the Gods protect the monastery of the White Bird-
— 157 —
monastery saved (1). The five hundred nuns soon flocked around
Miao-shen ^? 3|, and falling on their knees, thanked her for having
saved their lives.
ll-wuh Pih-lih & ,j£, j] was compelled to retire, and proceeded
in all haste to inform the king of the strange happening. Mi;w-
chwang ^? |j£, on hearing the story, burst out into anger, and
despatched forthwith the officer, ordering him to seize the princess,
load her with chains, and have her executed without delay.
Hwuh Pili-lili ^ >j£ J] begged another officer, named Fung-
hsiung ifr£ fjxjj, to assist him in the execution of his duty, and both
prepared to set out for the "Monastery of the White Sparrows",
Peh-tsioh-sze g % =£.
Meanwhile the queen, being informed of the king's orders,
proceeded in all haste to the royal apartments, and begged to suspend
the execution of her unfortunate daughter. "If you will allow me,
said she, 1 shall have a stately tower erected beside the road, over
which the captive princess will travel ; I shall go there personally,
together with my two other daughters and their husbands; a splendid
banquet shall be prepared ; the hall shall be decked out in the most
gorgeous style, while music and singing will lend to the place an
enchanting aspect. When the princess passes by, we shall invite
her to enter, and enjoy all these pleasures ; perhaps in comparing
her unfortunate condition with our happiness and joys, she may
change her mind" (2).
"Do as you please, replied the king; we shall postpone the
execution of the princess until you have carried out your scheme to
(1) Buddhist literature abounds in the marvellous. This appeals to the
imagination of the unthinking crowd, and tends to make them overlook its
fictitious gods, its endless succession of births (the soul's pilgrimage through
nature), its salvation through knowledge, its pessimistic view of life, and its
final extinction of all individual existence in Nirvana. Monier Williams.
Buddhism, p. 75 and 545. — Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 23G.
(2) This is a last endeavour, prompted by maternal love, to overcome
the obstinacy of the princess, but it is doomed to failure like the others, and
her determination to become a Buddha remains ever unshaken.
— 158 —
convert her1'. All preparations were, therefore, made to influence
favourably Miao-shen ^p ^j|, and instil into her heart a love of
worldly happiness. As she passed by, and contemplated the imposing-
tower, and the banquet set forth for her enjoyment, she exclaimed :
"I abhor these vain pleasures, and swear I would rather die than
enjoy them for a moment" (1). These words sealed her doom. In
presence of the whole Court, she was led to the place of execution ;
a departing sacrifice was offered, and the last farewell pronounced
by a court grandee.
Hereupon her mother arrived, and was saluted by the king and
his courtiers. She begged to make a last appeal to the unfortunate
princess. Miao-shen ^? ^ listened with downcast eyes, and did
not utter a single word.
The king was averse to putting to death his own daughter ; he,
therefore, had her confined within the royal palace, in order to
exhort her for the last time to change her views, and thus save her
life. "I am a king, said he, so my orders cannot be resisted
without exposing oneself to the most grievous punishment. If you
continue to disobey me, despite all my affection for you, you shall
be put to death to-morrow at the palace gate".
The local God of the Soil, T'u-ti lao-yeh ± i& % %ft (2),
hearing of the determination of the king, set off in all haste for the
palace of the Pearly Emperor, Yuli-hwang 3E 3£ (3), and informed
(1) The unreality of all earthly phenomena, and the idea that all life is
misery, and entails misery, determine the genuine Buddhist to shun the world
and withdraw from it. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 559. — Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 145. note 3.
(2) The God of the Soil, T'u-ti lao-ijeh ± ife % jg. An agricultural
divinity, who acts here below as a spy and general reporter of events to the
Supreme Taoist God, Yuh-lnvctng 3? J|. 'Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese
Language.— Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 570; Vol. VI. p. 29. note 3;
p. 137, note 2.
(3) The Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hwang 3? Ji. The supreme God of the
Taoist pantheon, corresponding to the Confucian Shang-ti _fc iff, and the
Buddhist Fuh $5, or Sakyamuni. Edkins. Religion in China, p. 112.—
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 12. note 1 ; p. 137. note 3.
— 159 —
him of the sad fate that awaited Miao-shen ^? ^k. When the
messenger had ended, the Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hwang 3£ Jl,
exclaimed: "There is not in the whole Western world, with the
exception of Buddha, a more virtuous person than this noble
princess. To-morrow, you will proceed to the place where the
damsel is to be executed, and there shiver to pieces the swords of
the executioners, so that they will be unable to put her to death.
She must not feel even the least bodily pain. At the last moment,
you will appear under the form of a tiger (1), and seizing her body,
bear it away to the pine-clad hills ; there, you will lay it down
respectfully, and place in her mouth a magic pill, which will
preserve the corpse from corruption (2). Her valiant soul, upon
leaving Hades, must find the body in a state of perfect conservation,
re-enter it, and animate it anew (3). She shall then proceed to the
Fragrant Hill, Ilsiang-shan :ff |]j, in P'u-t'o Island, P'u-Vo-shan
■^ [>£ lil) where she will become a Buddha.
On the day fixed for carrying out the death-sentence, Hwuh
Pih-lih %), ,jls •}] brought the captive princess to the place of execu-
tion, while a body of troops maintained order, awaiting the arrival
of the Imperial edict. Meanwhile the local God of the Soil, T'u-ti
lao-yeh i || ^ f , was stationed at the palace gate. Miao-shen
^? ^j| displayed the greatest joy, and laughed merrily. "To-day,
said she, I shall leave this miserable world for a better one ; take
away my life without delay, but do not ill-treat my body in the
(1) The Chinese believe that the souls of men and gods may pass into
beasts and vice-versa. This false doctrine is based on the pantheistic theory,
that the universe is one compound of an infinite number of the same Yang
|§ and Yin |?j£ substances, continuously infused into men and beasts equally,
hence animals, men and gods have all the same constitution. The belief is
also, it would seem, a logical consequence of the Buddhist doctrine of
metempsj'chosis. De Groot. The Religious S3^stem of China. Vol IV. p. L57;
Vol. V. p. 542.
(2) This is pure Taoism, introduced into the Buddhist legend by the
fantastic writer.
(3) See on this re-animation of the corpse by its own soul re-entering
the body. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. I. p. 136 (Metempsychosis).
— 160 —
least". At last the royal edict arrived, when suddenly heavy clouds
darken the heavens, a strong light environs the head of Miaoshen
M; ^jfe, the sword is raised, but shivers to pieces in the hands of the
executioner; he then seizes a lance, and endeavours to transperse
her, but the lance turns in the air, and falls broken at his feet.
Hereupon her father orders her to be strangled with a silken cord (1).
As she expires, a tiger suddenly arrives, springs into the midst of
the affrighted crowd, and placing the lifeless body of the princess
on its back, bears it away to the dark forest. Hwuh Pih-lih $?f, $
~f\ fled in all haste to the palace, and informed the king of all that
had taken place. The ruler rewarded him with two pieces of gold.
While the God of the Soil, T'u-ti laoyeh ± % % fj (2),
deposited the corpse of Miao-shen typ ^£ amidst the dark pine forests,
her soul felt itself wafted on a cloud; then recovering consciousness,
it awoke as if from a dream, and found itself transported to the
nether world (3). "My father has ordered me to be strangled, said
she, in heaving a deep sigh ; how have I come to this strange land?
Here no hills, no trees, no verdant fields ; no sun, no moon or stars,
no house to live in ; the ear perceives no sounds, not even the cackle
of a hen, or the barking of a dog; how can I ever live in this
dreary land?" Suddenly a blue-clad youth, resplendent with light,
and waving a large banner approached, and said to her: "I am
ordered by Yen-wang ^ 3E (4), the ruler of Hades, to take you
(1) According to this legend, she was not beheaded, but strangled with
a silken cord. Another legend relates that the executioner, seeing his lance
broken to pieces, seized the string of his bow, and strangled her therewith.
Annals of the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan pao-kilen # lU K #.
(2) See on this "God of the Soil". Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 137.
note 2; p. 158. note 2.
(3) That is to the Buddhist Naraka, or earth-prison, Ti-yuh M f£. Different
torments are endured there, but they are not eternal. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese
Dictionary, p. 82. — Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 121.
(4) Yen-wang fU 3:, or Yama. The Hindu god of the dead, and king
of the demons, Kwei $1, in Hades. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 219. —
Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 173. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V.
p. 557; p. 576; p. 596. note 2.
— 161 —
through the eighteen departments of his dismal realm". — "Awakened,
as if from a state of torpor, she exclaims ; what is this gloomy
region wherein I wander?" — "The youth replies: it is the nether
world, the land of Hades. Your refusal to enter the married state,
and the magnanimity which made you prefer death rather than
swerve from your purpose, have ingratiated you with the Pearly
Emperor, Yuh-hwang 3i bI» and the ten presidents of Hades,
Ming-fa shih-wang 5§£ )rf ~f~ 3i Oh all of whom have despatched
me to you ; fear not and follow me".
Miao-shen ffi ^ then commenced her tour of the infernal
regions. The ten presidents of Hades tendered her their congratu-
lations. "Who am I, replied she, that I should deserve to be
complimented by you?" — "We have heard, said the officers, that
when you recited your Sutras, all evils vanished as if by enchant-
ment ; we would, therefore, be pleased to hear you praying". — "1
accept, replied Miao-shen tp^&, on condition that all the imprisoned
souls of the ten infernal regions be set free, in order to listen to
me". — Forthwith, Buffalo-head, Niu-t'eu ^ |f, and Horse-face,
Ma-mien J| "gf (2) set to liberating the legions of imprisoned souls,
and Miao-shen ££ # commenced reciting the praises of Amitabha,
0-mi-Vo-fa.il |SpT % |?g ft, (3). Scarcely had she ended, when Hades
was suddenly transformed into a paradise ; all the instruments of
torture were changed into lotus-flowers, and the suffering victims
enjoyed unbounded happiness (4). Hereupon, P'an-kwan £]J *j[J,
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. I. p. 64. note 1. — Hackmann. Bud-
dhism as a Religion, p. 211.
(2) Buffalo-head, Niu-t'eu ^ gjf, and Horse-face, Mu mien ).!.j ifi. are
two assistants in the underworld. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. I. p. 64.
(3) Amitabha. A Dhyani Buddha, invented by the Mahayana Sghool
about A.D. 300. He is held to-day to be the ruler of tin- Western Paradise,
to which he leads all those who invoke his name. Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 113 (Efficacy of the name of Amitabha).
(4) Her spirit went to hell, but hell changed into a paradise. Yama
sent her back to life to save his hell. Mitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary.
p. 20.— Three Lectures on Buddhism, p. 127.
21
— 162 —
registrar of the underworld, presented a petition to Yama, Yen-wang
Us) 3: (l')» stating that since the arrival of Miao-shen ££ || in the
"Land of Shades", all suffering had disappeared, and the tortured
victims were filled with joy. "As it has been eternally established,
and as justice requires, there must be in the world a place of
punishment, and a place of reward (2). You must, therefore, have
Miao-shen ty ^ sent back to earth without delay, or else there will
be no further Hades here". Since such is the case, replied Yama,
let forty-eight standard-bearers escort the princess across the bridge
over the Styx, Nai-ho-k'iao ^ }pJ j§ (3), and let her soul return to
the world above, and re-enter her body.
The ruler of Hades, accompanied by his ten underlings, bade
her farewell beneath the bower of Granny Meng, Meng-p'o niang-
niang jg ^ j$ iffo. The blue-clad youth escorted back to earth the
soul of the princess, which finding its body in the dark forest,
re-entered it forthwith, and animated it anew. Miao-shen $fy H
was thus again breathing mortal air, and heaving a sigh, exclaimed:
"the memory of Hades, and all that I have seen there, is still fresh
in my mind. I sighed for the day when I would be released, and
here I am back again in my own body (4). Around me, there is
no secluded place where I may lead a life of perfection ; whither am
I going to dwell?". While uttering these words a stream of tears
rolled down her cheeks, and suddenly the "Thus-come-Buddha",
(1) Yama or Yen-wang SU 3E. The ruler of Hades. The common people
all expect to meet him after death, and be judged by him with the strictest
impartiality. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 219. — Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. V. p. 557; Vol. VI. p. 100. note 4.
(2) Buddhism admits the idea of reward and punishment after death.
This instinct underlies man's nature everywhere. Monier 'Williams. Bud-
dhism, p. 546.
(3) The bridge over the Buddhist river Styx, Nai-ho-k'iao 2& jBT -ft, so
called, because the soul cannot help crossing it. Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. I. p. 85. note 2.
(4) I was in heaven, she exclaimed, and yet here I find myself again on
earth. Eitel. Three Lectures on Buddhism, p. 127.
— 163 —
Jix-lai-fuh jm ^ {$ (1), appeared in the air, and consoled her
tenderly. Miao-shen ^? ^ thanked him in a few words.
"What has brought you to this dreary forest?"' inquired the
visitor. Miao-shen £4? "H explained to him why the king-, her
father, had put her to death, and how after her visiting the under-
world, her soul returned and re-entered her body. — "1 pity your
misfortune, replied the "Thus-come Buddha", Jix-lai-fuh jj$\ $£. f$i,
and nobody shall come here to bear you assistance. I am the only
person in this place, and would gladly take you for wife (2). We
would erect a little hut, and spend a happy life together ! do you
accept this proposal ?" — Sir, be more correct in your proceedings.
Being dead, I have returned to life, how then can you speak so
slightingly of the law of metempsychosis"? Please, get thee away
from hence". — Then, disclosing his identity, the visitor said: "he
who speaks to you is the ruler of the Western Paradise (3). I
came to test your virtue ; this place is ill-suited for leading a life of
perfection, it would be preferable to betake yourself to the Fragrant
Hill, Hsiang-shan "ff [jj". — Miao-shen £j? =£ fell on her knees,
and said to Buddha: "my corporal eyes have deceived me, I never
imagined you would come to such a drear)7 place; excuse my
apparent lack of reverence. And now tell me where is the Fragrant
Hill, Hsiang-chan "ff |]j ?" — "The Fragrant Hill, Ilxiang-shan -ff
[Jj , said the god, is the site of an ancient monastery, erected in
the time of China's primitive rulers, and inhabited by the Genii.
It is situated in the midst of the ocean, near the island of P'u-t'o,
(1) The "Thus-come-Buddha", Ju-lai-fuh j$ #S $,. From the Sanscrit
Tatha-gata, that is, one whose coming and going accords with that of his
predecessor. It is the highest appellation given to every Buddha. Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 51(>. note 1; Vol. VI. p. 154. note 1.
(2) Buddha, says Eitel, appeared as a hermit, and invited her with
many bland speeches and subtle arguments, to share his hermitage with him.
Eitel. Three Lectures on Buddhism, p. 127.
(3) Amitabha, who leads to this so-called blissful land, all those who
trust in his power and mercifulness, and invoke faithfully his name. Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 112: p. 161. note 3.
— 104 —
P'u-t'o-shan j& |V£ |i| (1). There you shall reach the state of
Buddhahood". — "How far away is the holy island?-' — "About three
thousand Chinese miles, or more". — "I fear I shall be nnable to
endure the fatigue of such a long journey". — "Dispel all anxiety, 1
possess a magic peach, such as never grew in earthly gardens.
When you have eaten it, you shall henceforth experience neither
hunger nor thirst; old age and infirmity will never assail you, and
you shall live for endless ages" (2). Miao-shen ^? ^j| ate the
marvellous fruit, bade farewell to the "Thus-come-Buddha", Ju-lai-
fuh ^ ?fc '$}> and set out for P'u-t'o Island, P'u-t'o-shan ^ |?g jjj .
From his palace on high, the God of the North Pole perceived her
trudging on foot along the way, and calling the tutelary genius of
the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan ^ff |Jj, said to him: "Miao-s/ien
Ify jj| is on the way to your island, the road is long and dreary ;
assume the form of a tiger, and bear her in haste to her journey's
end" (3). —The local God of the Soil, T'u-ti lao-yeh ± j| ^ fj,
obeyed forthwith, and appearing on the road, as the princess passed
by, uttered a ferocious roar. — "I am a poor girl, who has been
(1) P'u-t'o island, P'u-t'o-shan ^ fl'fe jXl - Believed to be a corruption
of Potala or Potaloka. 1° A port near the mouth of the Indus, and the original
home of Avalokitesvara. 2° A mountain near Lhasa (Tibet), on the top of
which towers the palace of the Dalai-Lama, who is himself regarded as an
incarnation of Avalokitesvara. 3° A rocky island in the Chusan Archipelago,
to which Miao-shen j& 3| (alias Kwan-yin) was miraculously transported on
a lotus-flower, and where she lived nine years, reaching finally the state of
Buddha. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 93. — Johnston. Buddhist
China, p. 271. — Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 55 and 69.
(2) The peach, conferring immortality, is peculiar to Taoism, from
which the Buddhist writer borrows the idea and magic efficacy of the fruit.
The whole tale, as stated above, is based on Buddhist doctrine and Taoist
lore. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 717-721; Vol. VI. p. 134. note 2;
p. 154. note 2.
(3) Another phase of the legend states she was borne to P'u-t'o island,
P'u-t'o-shan ^ At Ul, on a lotus-flower. The lotus is a special Buddhist
symbol, and Buddhist gods are represented seated on lotus-thrones. Eitel.
Three Lectures on Buddhism, p. 128. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 110.
note 3.
— 165 —
lacking- in filial piety, said Miao-shen ^j? ^j| : I have disobeyed my
father's orders. Devour me, and let this be the end of my misfor-
tune".— The tiger then addressed her, and said: "1 am not a
genuine tiger, but the tutelary genius of the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-
shnn ^ [X( ; 1 have been ordered to bear you to that sacred place ;
haste thee to get on my back". — "Since you have been ordered to
render me such a signal service, I must obey, and when I have
reached the state of Buddha, your benefits shall not be forgotten". —
Scarcely had she mounted the tiger, than the animal darted off with
lightning speed, and almost in a moment, she found herself landed
on the shore of P'u-t'o island, Pcu-tco-shan ^ \\] |?£ (1).
Miao-slien %jjp ^ spent nine years in this solitary retreat, and
finally reached a state of sublime perfection. Ti-tsang-wang jfc $|
3E (2) happened to visit the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan "§ [J], and
filled with admiration of the virtue of the princess, conferred with
the local God of the Soil, T'u-ti lao yeh ± jf y£ |f, as to what
reward should be bestowed upon her. "With the exception of the
"Thus-come Buddha", Ju-lai-fuh i\\ ^ ££, there is not in the
whole Western world perfection comparable with hers ; she is the
queen of the three thousand Bodhisattvas, and of all living beings ;
she is the universal sovereign. We shall, therefore, on the 19th day
of the second month (3), place her on a lotus-throne, in order that
she may extend her benefits to the whole world". The local God
of the Soil, T'u-li lao-yeh ± jfo % |j?, convoked all the higher
gods for the coming apotheosis. The Naga king of the Western
(1) This is the rocky island in the Chusan Archipelago, to which Miao-
shen $J # was miraculously transported. The first Buddhist temple was
erected there about A.D. 000. Chinese Recorder, 1880. Vol. X. p. Ill
(Pootu, ancient and modern).— Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 326.
(2) Ti-tsang-wang M M '£■ °ne of the fivc well-known Bodhisattvas
(merciful beings representing the saving principle of Buddhism), and the ruler
of Hades, from which he can deliver those who worship him assiduously.
Hackmann. Buddhism as a Religion, p. 211. -Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V.
p. 504. note 2; p. 525. note 1 ; p. 530. note J.
(3) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 573 (Birthday of Kwan-yin).
— 166 —
Seas, Si-lung -wang "gf f| 3^; the Gods of the Five Sacred Mountains,
Wu-yoh 31 ^; the Five Ancient Rulers and their 120 attendants;
the 36 Gods who preside over the year, T'ai-sui -fa jj|; the Gods of
the Wind, Rain, Thunder and Lightning-; the Three Principles,
San-yuen 3 % (1); the Five Sages, Wu-sheng ji §1 (2); the Eight
Immortals, Pah-sien A f|l|; and tlie 1° Presidents of Hades were
all present on the appointed day. Miao-shen £j? ^ was placed on
the lotus-throne, and the assembled gods proclaimed her sovereign
of "heaven and earth", and of the whole Buddhist world. Besides,
the assembly deemed it advisable that the deified princess should
not be left alone in the island ; they, therefore, begged her to choose
two suitable attendants, one male and the other female, who would
await on her in her temple. The task of finding these two attendants
was again entrusted to the local God of the Soil, T'u-ti lao-yeh J:
Jill 3£ M- The lat*er used his best endeavours, and discovered at
last a young Buddhist monk, named Shen-ts'ai 3| "jf . He was a
native of Li Cliow 2^ ')]], and after the death of his parents, led a
secluded life on the Sacred Mountain of the West, Ta-hwa-shan ^
lp [Li (3), but was still little advanced in virtue. When the local
God returned, and informed Miao-shen ^? ^j| about the person he
had discovered, she ordered that he be brought into her presence.
"Who are you? said she1'. — • "I am a poor Buddhist monk, whose
parents are deceased. From early youth, I have led a solitary life
on the Sacred Mountain of the West, Ta-hwa-shan ^ lf| \[\, but 1
have not yet advanced much in true virtue. I have heard that
(t) The Three Principles, San-yuen H 7C- See Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 22-24.
(2) The Five Sages, Wu-sheng % lg. Also known as the "Five intelligent
Gods, or Immortals". Sly demons who enter dwellings, cause diseases,
commit arson and other mischief, and seduce women. They are principally
worshipped at Soochow $fc •)]]. De Groot. The Religious System of China.
Vol. VI. p. 111G. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. IV. p. 418. note 5.
(3) Hwa-shan Ijjg UU - One of the Five Sacred Mountains of China. H
lies in Shensi |& If, to the South-East of Si-ngan-fu M £ }ft. Williams.
Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
— 167 —
your goodness is as great as your power, so I beg- you to lead me
to the highest perfection". — "I am afraid your desire of perfection
is not sincere". — "I have no relatives in this world, and have
travelled over 1000 miles (1), in order to be guided by you: how
can I be insincere?" — "What progress have you made?" (2) — "I
am really little proficient, but trusting in your boundless compas-
sion, I hope under your direction to reach the goal". Well! you
may retire to the summit of the island, until 1 have thought out a
scheme of leading you to perfection".
Miao-shen ^? ^ summoned the local God, T'u-ti ± j^fj, and
begged him request the hosts of the genii to assume the appearance
of pirates, scale the rocky cliffs of the island, and armed with
swords and lances, threaten to put everybody to death. Hereupon,
I shall take refuge, said she, upon the ledge of a rock, and casting
myself into the chasm beneath, will thus test the fidelity and
affection of Shen-ls'ai ^ •% . Soon afterwards, a gang of fierce-
looking pirates attacked the monastery of the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-
shan :ff |Jj. Miao-shen ^? M cries out for help, and ascending
the rocky hill-side, loses her footing, and falls into the abyss
beneath. Shen-ts'ai 3& 3f, seeing his benefactress in danger, and
totally forgetful of self, rushes to bear her assistance (3). "What
have you to fear from these outlaws? said he, in weeping; you have
nothing which they can take away. Why then have you cast
yourself down from this precipice, exposing yourself fatally to
(1) The Chinese mile or LA Ig. is reckoned at 300 paces, equivalent to
1800 Chinese feet, or 1894.12 English feet. The distance, as the bird Hies,
from the Sacred Mountain of the West, Ta-hwa-shctn A; ^ifU, to the Chusan
Archipelago, is about 800 English miles.
(2) That is, in regard to Buddhist abstinence, progressive stages of
meditation, and the attainment of miraculous powers, which the pert* I
saint or .4 rhat is deemed to possess. Waddell. The Buddhis f Tibet, p. 12*
and 141. — Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 428. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol.
VI. p. 132. note 3 (Yoga and Tantra Schools).
(3) The first of the six transcendent virtues (Paramitas), inculcated by-
Buddhism, is the sacrificing of limbs or life for the good of other mortals.
Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 128.— Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 154.
— 168 —
death?" — Miao-siien Ify ^fe commenced also to weep, and said: "we
must submit to the will of heaven".
Shen-ts'ai 3& jf disconsolate, supplicated "heaven and earth",
T'ieri-ti Ji jfa, to save his benefactress. Miao-shen ££ ^ then
addressing him, said: "you should not have exposed your life, by
following me into the abyss ; you have not been yet transformed (1),
but you have performed a noble deed, and I have now a proof of
your sincerity. Well ! look down into the precipice, and tell we
what you see?" — "I see a corpse, if I mistake not". ■ — "Yes, it is
your former body ; now, that you are transformed, you can fly at
will through the |air" (2). Shen-ts'ai ^ ^ fell on his knees, and
thanked his benefactress, who said to him: "henceforth you will
pray beside me, and be my life companion for ever".
The transcendent gaze of Miao-slien fyj? ^& espied at the bottom
of the Southern seas the third son of the Naga king, Lung-wang
fl 3: (3), who, in carrying out the orders of his father, dashed
through the waters under the form of a carp, but happened to be
caught in the net of a fisherman, who exposed him for sale in the
market-place of Yueh Chow $fc j<[\. Miao-shen ^j? 3| despatched
forthwith her faithful Slien-ts'ai ^| ^", and ordered him to purchase
the fish. Taking with him one thousand coppers, he set out for the
place, secured the carp, and having brought it back to P'u-t'o
island, P'u-t'o-shan ^ |?£ jjj , restored it to its watery element at
the foot of the hill (4). The son of the Naga king, Lung-wang f| 3E,
(1) That is, he had not yet acquired his ethereal body, produced by
Yoga, and the higher stages of Buddhist meditation. Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 132.
(2) This, and other supernatural powers, are deemed to be obtained
through ecstatic meditation. Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 128 and
141.
(3) Nagas, Lung-wang || dE, are serpent-demons, with human faces,
and snake-like lower extremities. They live in one of the lower regions below
the earth, or under the waters. Buddhism borrowed these ideas from
Brahmanism. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 220.
(4). This legendary incident gave rise to the picture of "Kwan-yin with
the fish-basket". Gett}'. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 74 and 87.
— 169^
thanked his benefactress, and having returned home, informed his
father of the mishap that befell him, and how he had been delivered
through the kindness of Miao-shen £j? ^j|. The Naga king, Lung-
wang "fl 3i, was much touched, and sent her a pearl that gave
light in the dark, so that she might read the sacred books during
the night. The daughter of the third son of the Naga king, Lung-
wan g f|[ 3£, requested her grandfather to allow her take the pearl
to Miao-shen £j? ^|, and choose her as teacher in the study of the
true doctrine, and the practice of perfection. The Naga king,
Lung-wang ff[ 3l, having approved of the demand, the damsel set
out and presented the pearl to Miao-shen £j? ^j|, begging her at the
same time to accept her as disciple, and lead her to perfection.
After offering some objections, in order to test her sincerity, she
granted her request. Shen-ts'ai ^& "jf called the new acolyte sister,
while Lung-nil fj| -fc gratified him with the sweet name of brother.
Both lived henceforth as brother and sister attending on Miao-shen
After king Miao-chwang ^? |j£ had burnt down the "Monastery
of the White Sparrows", Peh-tsioh-sze £=| ^ ^r", and put to death
his daughter, the tutelary god of the temple, Kia-lan f§[j jg, forwarded
a full report of all that happened to the Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hwang
3£ Jl, and begged him to punish such foul crimes (2). The Pearly
Emperor, Yuh-hwang 3£ l|, highly incensed, ordered the registrar
of Hades, P'an-kwan f\] *£, to consult his books, and inform, him
how long this cruel king was to reign. The registrar turned over
the files of his books, and found that the "decree of heaven"
assigned this king's reign to last for twenty years, but this period
(1) See picture of Kwan-yin g & attended by Lung-nil |jg £\ the Naga's
daughter. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. I. Illustration 1.
(2) We have here a Buddhist god begging the Supreme Taoisl deity to
punish crimes committed against a Buddhist monastery. Further down, the
Taoist god meddles with the Buddhist Hades. Both religions constantly
borrow from each other. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. Preface, p 1;
Vol. VI. p. 136. note 2; p. 154. note 2.
22
— 170 —
of time had not yet elapsed (1). As "heaven's decree" cannot be
altered, replied the god, I shall, therefore, punish him by afflicting
him with sickness He summoned forthwith the God of Epidemics,
and ordered him to cover the king's body with ulcers, which could
not be cured except by remedies obtained from his daughter Miao-
slien ^p 3|.
Upon receiving these orders, the God of Epidemics afflicted the
king with such painful ulcers, that he could find no rest either day
or night. His two daughters and their husbands spent their time
in merry-making (2), while the poor aged monarch turned on his bed,
and suffered the most excruciating pains. The most famous doctors
were summoned to his bedside, but effected no improvement, and at
last the patient became almost hopeless of recovery. Hereupon a
proclamation was issued, offering the succession of the throne to
whomsoever would cure the king's illness, and restore him to health.
Miao-shen ^? =£=, his third daughter, was apprized miraculously
in her monastery at the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan § |Jj, of the
misfortune that happened to her father. She assumed the form of
a Buddhist hermit, skilled in the medical art. Garbed in Buddhist
dress, wearing a cap (3 and straw-sandals, and carrying a pill-box
and remedies suspended from the girdle, the disguised monk proceeds
in all haste to the palace gate, reads the royal edict requesting the
attendance of a competent doctor, and then taking it down, tears it
to pieces (4). Hereupon, he is challenged by the sentry on guard,
(1) The king ascended the throne at the age of 20, and at 50 had yet no
male children. He has, therefore, reigned full 30 years. The registrar of
Hades and the legendary writer are rather clumsy at figures. See Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 134, 139.
(2) This detracts much from their filial piety, for children should attend
upon their parents, when these are seriously ill. Dyer-Ball. Things Chinese,
p. 279 (Filial Piety).
(3) In India and Southern countries, Buddhist garments do not include
a head-covering, but this is required in the North, owing to the inclemency
of the seasons. Monier "Williams. Buddhism, p. 310.
(4) This was the custom, it seems, and a skilful physician displayed
thereby his assurance that the patient would be infallibly cured.
— 171 —
who arrests him, and says : "who are you to dare tear down the
royal edict?" — "I am a poor Buddhist monk, but skilled in the
medical art ; I have read the royal edict posted up throughout the
city and at the palace gate, requesting the presence of a competent
physician. Now, 1 am a doctor and a learned man, and came to
cure the king'1. — If you are a learned man, why did you become
a Buddhist monk ; would it not have been preferable to pursue your
honourable profession, rather than have your head shaved, and lead
a vagabond and useless life? Besides, the most distinguished
experts of the medical art endeavoured to cure the king, but have
failed ; do you think you are more skilful than those experienced
practitioners?" — "Dispel all anxiety, T have inherited from my
ancestors the most renowned nostrums (1), and 1 am sure they will
cure the king". The guard had the demand taken to the queen,
who went and informed the king, and the hermit was introduced
into the palace. Being ushered into the royal presence, he bowed
profoundly, then seated himself, in order to enjoy serenity of mind
and full self-possession before examining the royal patient. Rising
up, he approached the king's bedside, and having examined the
pulse (2) and the condition of the patient, assured that the illness
could be easily cured.
One thing, however, offered great difficulty, namely that the
proper remedy was almost impossible to be procured. The king,
upon hearing this remark, felt rather displeased. "For every kind
of illness, said he, there is a remedy; and if the proper remedy be
(1) The doctor, most entitled to confidence in China, is the man whose
father has been one before him, and the confidence increases should his
grandfather have followed the same calling. This is not due to an ignorant
belief in the influence of heredity, but because a son or grandson possesses
all the books of prescriptions of his sires. Dyer-Ball. Things Chinese, p. 213.
(2) Chinese doctors feel the pulse at both wrists, and thus learn the
nature and seat of the disease. A prescription is then written out. Should
a speedy cure not result, the patient calls in another physician, and if no
better, yet another, and so on in rapid succession, until all human aid failing,
he at last goes to his gods. Dyer-Ball. Things Chinese, p. 215.
— 172 —
prescribed, why cannot it be procured?" — "The remedy, that will
cure your Majesty's illness, is not found in any apothecary's shop,
and none would venture to expose it for sale". Hereupon, the
king became angry, and imagining he had been imposed upon by
the hermit, expelled him forthwith from his presence. The monk
left sneeringly.
The following night, the king beheld in a dream a venerable
old man (1), who addressed him in the following terms : "this
hermit alone can cure your illness, and if you request him, he will
himself procure you the proper medicine". Hereupon the king
awoke briskly from his sleep, and begged the queen to call back the
hermit. — "Now, what medicine must I take in order to be cured?
inquired the king". — "You must have the hand and eye of a living
person (2), and taking them as a medicine, you will be cured". The
king replied indignantly: "this Buddhist monk is imposing upon
me; who would ever give me a hand or an eye! or even if they did,
I would never have the courage of taking them as a medicine". —
"There is, however, replied the monk, no other remedy which can
cure you". — "Then, I beg you, where may I procure such a
remedy? — "Your Majesty, can despatch two of your faithful
ministers to the monastery of the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan ;ff
\1] (3), and there, they will find the proper medicine. Buddhist
abstinence must be observed on the way" (4). — "Where is the
(1) Probably Micw-shen f}> H, who appeared under this disguise, in
order to forward her merciful mission.
(2) This strange remedy is proposed in order to exemplify one of the
extremes of filial piety in China, as well as the first of the six transcendent
virtues of Buddhism, namely the sacrificing of limbs or life for the good of
others. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 128. — Dyer-Ball. Things Chinese.
p. 279. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI p. 167. note 3.
(3) The Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan ff Mj. That is to P-u-t'o island,
P'u-t'o-shan ^ tf'£ Hj, in the Chusan Archipelago, to which Miao-shen j$ #
was miraculously transported, and where she lived for nine years, reaching
finally the state of Buddha. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 164. note 1;
p. 165. note 1.
(4) See on Buddhist Abstinence. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. IV. p. 451-455.
— 173 —
monastery of the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan :ff j]j , and how far
away is it?" — "It is three thousand Chinese miles away (1), but I
will trace out the road leading- thereto, and in a short time the
ministers shall be back". The king-, who suffered intensely, hearing
that the journey would be quickly accomplished, felt much pleased.
He then summoned into his presence the two ministers, Cliao-chen
jH[ JH and Liu-h'in ||lj §fc, and bade them proceed in all haste to
the monastery of the Fragrant Hill, Ilsiang-slian ^ [Jj , being careful
to observe Buddhist abstinence throughout the way. Meanwhile,
he ordered the Minister of Rites to keep the hermit in the palace,
until the messengers had returned.
The two sons-in-law of the king, Ho-fung fpj ^ and Chao-
kw'ei ^ j|£, wno hac* already plotted to secure for themselves the
throne, after the demise of Miao-clwang £j? $£, learned to their
great surprise that the Buddhist monk entertained every hope of
curing the king, and that he remained in the palace, awaiting the
arrival of a special medicine. Fearing to lose the throne, or that
the succession might be conferred upon the hermit (2), they sum-
moned H\co/i-li H fi|, a depraved courtier, and organized a scheme
for defeating the hopes of the ambitious monk. It was necessary
to act with promptitude, as the messengers travelled quickly, and
would be back soon. This very night, Hwoh-U $? jjjf would admin-
ister to the king a poisoned draught, apparently prepared by the
hermit, in order to allay his Majesty's pains until the messengers
had returned. Confederates would then murder the monk, and thus
both their rival and the king would be despatched, leaving the
succession to the throne in the indisputed possession of the sons-
in-law (3). The two warders, Ts'ang-t'eu ^ gf and Soli- tah % %?,
(1) The Chinese mile or Li IB. is reckoned at 300 paces, equivalent to
1800 Chinese feet, or 1894.12 English feet. Williams. Dictionary of the
Chinese Language.— Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 167. note 1.
(2) The two sons-in-law ever saw in the hermit a rival, who would
thwart their ambitious scheme.
(3) The Buddhist writer has skilfully woven this daring plot into the
religious legend.
— 174 —
were detailed to murder the hermit. The whole plot being duly
prepared, the two sons-in-law withdrew, filled with joy, and
thoroughly assured of the success of their scheme.
The hermit, who remained in the palace, had but a fictitious
body (1), while the genuine Miao-slien tyjp s§| returned to the
monastery of the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-clian ;ff |Jj . As she conversed
with Shen-ts'ai ^ ^", she perceived the two plotters, Ho-funrj ffij
Jjfk and Chao-kw'ei 0 ^, mixing the poisoned cup, and preparing
to administer its contents to the king (2). Summoning forthwith
the heavenly genius Yiu-yili $£ ^, who kept guard on that day,
she ordered him to speed to the palace, change the poisoned cup
into a sweet, refreshing drink, and bind tightly the would-be
murderers of the hermit.
The midnight hour rang out, when Hwohrli |H f|j, bearing in
his hands the poisoned draught, knocked at the door of the royal
apartment, and informed the queen that the hermit, awaiting the
arrival of the messengers, had prepared a refreshing drink for his
Majesty. The queen took the cup in her hands, and was going to
present it to the king, when lo ! the heavenly genius Yiu-yih |j£ 2$5
appears. With lightning speed and unerring aim, he shatters to
pieces the poisoned cup, which the king was raising to his lips,
and throws to the ground all the bystanders (3). At the same time,
the murderer Soh-tali f£? ^ enters the room of the hermit, looks
him in the face, and prepares to slay him with the sword. The
(1) This hermit was none other than Micto-shen & 3£7 who, having
attained the state of Buddhahood, could assume an ethereal or transformed
body at will. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 168. — Waddell. The Bud-
dhism of Tibet, p. 128.
(2) Buddhas are deemed to be gifted with supernatural powers of per-
ception, and can summon the inferior deities to their assistance, and bid
them carry out their orders. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 108.
(3) In Buddhist books of China, there is abundance of what is
extraordinary, wonderful and marvellous. All this appeals powerfully to the
imagination of simple folks. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 220. — Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 157. note 1.
— 175 —
monk, quickly swerving- aside, eludes the blow, while the murderer
finds himself thrown to the ground, enveloped in the hermit's robe.
He makes every endeavour to get up, and unloose the garment, but
his hands are retained as it were by an invisible power, and all
escape becomes impossible. The heavenly genius Yiu-yih jjfe ^S,
having carried out the orders given him, returned in all haste to the
Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan ;ff \\] (1), and informed Miao-shen %p
^j| of the success of his errand.
In the early morning, the two sons-in-law of the king were
informed of the strange events of the night (2). The whole household
was in the greatest consternation, rumours of poisoning were heard
on all sides, the lifeless corpses of ladies were found on the ground,
the hermit had been slain, and the murderer lay motionless on the
ground, bound hand and foot. Upon hearing that the hermit had
been murdered, the king summoned the High Chancellor, Ch'u
Ting-lieh $f % ?|J, second son of General Ch'u-kieh $f ;fc, and
bade him seize the perpetrators of the crime. The judge forthwith
arrested Soli-tah ^ ^, whom he found lying motionless on the
ground. The guilty wretch, finding himself in presence of the law,
exclaimed: "how on earth have I come here?" He remembered
confusedly that he aimed a blow at the hermit, then fell to the
ground, and found himself strongly bound. The whole incident
seemed to him like a dream (3). The High Chancellor questioned
him, but he remained silent; he was then tortured, and yielding to
the pain, acknowledged his crime. He told in detail, how the two
daughters of the king and their husbands, fearing that the succession
to the throne would be conferred on the hermit, plotted with Hwoh-
(1) That is to P'u-t'o island, P'u-t'o slum H |f£ LU, in the Chusan Archi-
pelago, to which Miao-shen # # was miraculously transported. See Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 165. note 1.
(2) The tragic issue of the plot must have caused the greatest surprise
to the sons-in-law, and the more as they ignored the intervention of Miao-
shen fjf #, and the heavenly genius Yiu-yih $? %.
(3) He was so mysteriously and suddenly overpowered by the heavenly
genius Yiu-yih i$ 2j>3.
— 176 —
li ffl |* to put him to death, and poison the king (1). Hwoh-li Ifg
jjj!|]} added: "my superior ordered me to commit the crime; how
could 1, his humble servant, disobey him?" — All these circumstances
were related to the king, whereupon he burst into such a fit of
anger, that his teeth gnashed together and he became almost
speechless.
"Am I not a monster? said he to the queen. I have put to
death my dearly beloved and virtuous daughter, and her two other
sisters, upon whom I lavished wealth and worldly possessions,
have endeavoured to poison me this very day, and murder the
hermit-doctor, who came to cure me! This is how 1 am thanked for
all my benefits! (2). Such ingratitude deserves to be punished by
heaven". Hereupon, he ordered his two sons-in-law, Ho-fung fill Jf^
and Chao-hw'ei ^§ %^, to be seized and put to death, while Hwoh-li
|g m and Soh-lah ^? ^ were to be sliced to pieces (3), These
orders were to be carried out without delay. Cli'u Ting-lieh ^ fe
$\{ lost no time in proceeding to arrest the two traitrous husbands,
as prescribed by the king, and the more as he had to endure much
from their haughtiness and arrogance. He, therefore, assembled
two thousand soldiers of the royal guard, and surrounding the
palaces of the plotters, seized them and cast them into prison. The
two daughters of the king had no other resource left but to implore
the clemency of the queen. The latter, impelled by her maternal
love, proceeded to the royal palace, and with tears begged the king
to have pity on her misfortunate condition. "Their sister has been
(1) Jealousy of the hermit-doctor, and the fear of seeing him succeed to
the throne made the sons-in-law plot against the king's life.
(2) In strange contrast with this ingratitude, the legend labours to show
the great filial piety of Miao-shen & If.
(3) The "slicing process", Ling-ch'i i^^M, was the penalty for parricides
and matricides, no matter how accomplished, whether accidentally or preme-
ditated, and other heinous crimes against the State. This punishment, with
other barbarous accompaniments of the death-penalty was abolished by an
edict of the Empress-Dowager, Tz'e-hsi 2g jjjg, in 1905. Dyer-Ball. Things
Chinese, p. 387. — Encyclopaedia Sinica. p. 309.
— 177 —
already put to death, said she; and I have no other consolation left
but them, so I beg you to spare their lives". The king maintained
a prolonged silence, and after deep thought, said at last: "let them
be confined within the palace ; as to their husbands, the death-
sentence must be carried out" (1). The king's orders were forthwith
executed. When the two sisters found themselves alone in the
palace, they kissed each other, and wept bitterly. We had better,
said they, die also, and thus meet our sister Miao-shen M? 3fe in
the nether world. As they uttered these words, they fell senseless
on the ground. Hereupon, the tutelary God of the Soil, T'u-ti
lao-yeh ±, f$ jg |^ (2), appeared to them in a dream, and said :
"your younger sister is not dead, she has reached the sublime state
of Buddhahood. Imitate her holy life, and later on, she will come
and save you ; forget not my words".
Meanwhile, the two royal messengers, Chao-chen ^g Jjj and
Liu-h'in fflj §fc, arrived at the monastery of the Fragrant Hill,
Hsiang-shan :ff |ij . Miao-shen %$? 3|, informed of their arrival,
ordered Shen-ts'ai ^ ^ (3) to introduce them into her presence.
The two envoys presented her the royal letter, couched in the fol-
lowing terms. "The king has been informed that in this monastery
lives an Immortal, whose power and mercifulness are unbounded,
and whose reputation of clemency has passed beyond the four seas,
reaching even the far-away kingdom of Hsing-lin M ffi i'*)- h
Miao-chwang ify £}£, ruler of the above kingdom, and now over fifty
(1) As said above, this was the law in case of parricide, and other
heinous crimes committed against the State. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol.
VI. p. 176. note 3.
(2) The God of the Soil, T'u-ti lao-yeh ± it % M- An agricultural
deity, who acts here below as a spy and general reporter of events to the
Supreme Taoist God, Yuh-hwang 3f j|. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese
Language. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 570; Vol. VI. p. 29. note'!:
p. 137. note 2 ; p. 155. note 2 ; p. 158. note 2 ; p. 160. note 2.
(3) See on Shen-ts'ai # fr, and how he deserved to become the life
companion of Miao-shen fjf #. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 168.
(4) See on this fabulous kingdom. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 134-135.
23
— 178 —
years of age, am afflicted with ulcers, which so far have defied every
remedy. However, a hermit-doctor has assured me that at the
Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan ;ff |_£j (1), I could obtain the hand and
eye of a living person, and that he would therewith prepare a
medicine capable of restoring me to perfect health. Trusting in his
words, and the mercifulness of the Immortal, who dwells in this
monastery, I hereby beg that the two members required would be
kindly granted me, for which favour I shall be eternally grateful.
I have despatched my two faithful ministers, Chao-chen ^j| j|| and
Liu-k'in |?lj ffi, to this shrine, and hope they will return with the
objects demanded".
The next morning, the Immortal bade them sever with a knife
her left hand, and cut out her left eye. Liu-k'in |?lj ^ takes the
knife presented to him, but dares not cut off the hand (2). "Hurry
on, exclaimed the Immortal, you are ordered to return as early as
possible; why then do you hesitate like a shy maiden ?" Liu-k'in
|flj $ft, mustering up courage, buried the knife in the flesh, and
severed the arm and eye. Blood flowed abundantly from the wounds,
bespattering the ground, and filling the air with a sweet fragrance,
as of incense (3). The arm and eye were placed on a golden platter,
and given to the messengers, who, thanking the Immortal, hastened
back with their precious burden (4). When the officers had departed,
Miao-shen ^ 3|, who had transformed herself, in order to let her
hand and eye be severed from her body, said to Shen-ts'ai ^ ^f:
"I am leaving for the kingdom of Hsing-lin ML ffi, in order to
prepare the medicine, which will restore Miao-chwang ^? $$:. Should
the queen send other messengers demanding my right hand and eye,
(1) P'u-t'o island, P'u-t'o-shctn |f |?£ Uj, in the Chusan Archipelago.
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 164. note 1; p. 165. note 1; p. 175. note 1.
(2) The horrible process of mutilation deterred him from acting, and it
is only in obedience to the goddess herself that he deprives her of her hand.
(3) She had not, however, a real body, but a transformed one. The
sweet fragrance diffused showed the miraculous character of the blood.
(4) They were taken back in some miraculous way, otherwise the
journey would have required months.
— 179 —
I shall assume anew a transformed body, and you will give them
the members requested". Scarcely had she said these words, when
a cloud appeared in the air, and wafted her through space (1).
Meanwhile, the two officers had returned to the palace, and presented
to the queen the unsightly remedy, which they bore back from the
Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan :ff \\} . The old lady, on seeing it, felt
most thankful, and bursting into tears, exclaimed: "what Immortal
has been so compassionate, as to sacrifice her hand and eye for
restoring the health of a king!" Then all of a sudden her tears fell
more abundantly, as she recognized by a certain black mark on the
flesh, the very hand of her own daughter Miao-shen $$? ^.
"Who indeed, pursued she, in a tone mingled with sobs,
would ever give one's own hand or eye, except a child, to save her
father!" (2) — "What do you say? returned the king ; there are
many hands that are alike in this world". While they were
discussing the matter, suddenly the hermit-monk enters the king's
apartment, and says: "for more than two hundred years, this
famous Immortal led a life of perfection (3), and countless are those
whom she has saved from misery. Give me this hand and eye,
which you have brought hither". Taking them in his hand, and
obscuring the eyes of the bystanders, he mixed them up with a
magic pill, thus making a medicine, which he forthwith tendered to
the king, saying: "apply this ointment to your left side". Scarcely
had the remedy touched the royal body, when all pain and every
trace of the ulcers disappeared, as if by enchantment; the right side,
however, remained still swollen and painful as before.
(1) See on the marvellous in Buddhist literature. Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 157. note 1 ; p. 174. note 3.
(2) Similar instances of self-denial are said to be found among Chinese
children. They cut out pieces of their own flesh, cook it, and give it to their
parents to eat, when seriously ill, and when other remedies have failed. Tins
seems to be a never-failing cure, to judge from accounts that appear in the
native newspapers concerning it. Dyer-Ball. Things Chinese, p. 279.
(3) She went to P'u-t'o ^ Pt at 19, and spent there «J years, thus
making her 28 years old. Where she lived for the 200 years is a mystery !
— 180 —
"Why, inquired the king, has this mysterious ointment cured
one side, and left the other still ailing?" — "It is, replied the
hermit-doctor, because the left hand of the Immortal cures only the
side corresponding to itself (1). Should you once more send officers
requesting the right hand and eye, your other side will likewise be
cured". Hereupon, the king despatched again the two officers, and
giving them a letter thanking for the favour already conferred (2),
requested to complete it, by sending also the right hand and eye of
the Immortal.
When the royal messengers arrived, Slien-ts'ai *& z% (3)
presented the mutilated form of Miao-shen ffi ^j|, and begged them
now sever the right hand and eye, and bear them back in a platter.
Liu-k'in fflj ^, upon beholding the four gaping wounds and the
blood issuing therefrom, could not help exclaiming: "this Buddhist
monk is a cruel wretch, as he mutilates thus a poor girl, in order
to cure a dying king, and succeed him on the throne!" (4).
Having uttered these words, he set out with his companion to
return to the kingdom of Hsing-lin &L ^Jc. The king, upon seeing
them back, was filled with joy, and announced the glad tidings to
the hermit-doctor. Hereupon, the latter, taking a second magic
pill, mixed it with some water. Then, presenting the ointment to
the king, he bade him apply it on the right side, whereupon his
ulcers disappeared in a moment, as the morning gloom when
(1) The supposed efficacy of this proceeding is founded on the principle
that "like produces like". "Whereas science distinguishes between real
causality and analogy, primitive man made but little distinction. Jevons.
Introduction to the Study of Comparative Religion, p. 268.
(2) That is the left hand and eye, which had been granted to the royal
messengers at the time of their first visit. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol.
VI. p. 172 and 178.
(3) See on Shen-ts'ai |§ ;J% and how he became the life companion of
Miao-shen j$> 3=. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 168; p. 177. note 3.
(4) This minister, like others of the royal household, suspected the
monk of being ambitious, whereas he acted through a sentiment of kindness
and mercy.
— 181 —
lighted up by the rising sun. At the news of the king's recovery,
the whole court arrives and congratulates him, while the hermit-
doctor is lauded to the skies. The king confers on his benefactor
the honorary title of "Bright-eyed monk". On receiving these
praises, the hermit falls on his knees, and thanking the king, says:
"1 am but a poor monk, who has renounced the world, and hence
wish sincerely that your Majesty would continue to govern the State
with justice and clemency, and that all officers would faithfully fulfil
their duties. As for me, I have no desire of reigning in your
stead (1); my happiness surpasses all that may be enjoyed in this
passing world". Having uttered these words, he shook the sleeve
of his garment, and suddenly a clond appeared in the air. Entering
therein, he soared away, and disappeared from mortal gaze (2).
From the cloud fell a letter, containing the following words: "I am
one of the rulers of the Western world (3), and came to cure the
king, and bear witness to the true doctrine".
All who beheld these marvels, exclaimed: "this monk is the
living Buddha, who has soared away to the skies". The letter was
taken to king Miao-chwang $p |j£, who said: "who am I, that one
of the heavenly denizens should come and cure me, even sacrificing
for this purpose his very hands and eyes!" "What form had the
venerable Immortal, who gave you such a remedy, inquired the king
of minister Chao-chen Jg jg?" — "That of a female, replied the
officer, and she resembled much your deceased daughter Miao-shen
££ H". — "When you severed the hands and eyes, did she seem to
suffer?". — "I only saw the blood flowing from the wounds in great
abundance, whereupon my courage failed me, but the features of
(1) The hermit here refutes all suspicions of ambition, so far attributed
to him. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 173. note 2; p. 180, note i.
(2) See on the marvellous in Buddhism. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 157. note 1 ; p. 174. note 3; p. 179. note 1.
(3) The Buddhist writer endeavours here to confuse Miao-shen j£
with Avalokitesvara, who together with Amitabha, leads mortals to the
Western Paradise. Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 101 and 190.
— 182 —
the benefactress expressed the greatest joy". — "It is assuredly my
daughter Miao-shen ^? ^j|, who has reached perfection ; who else
but she would have given me her own eyes and hands?" (1). You
all, members of the household, purify yourselves, keep Buddhist
abstinence (2), and you shall make a pilgrimage to the Fragrant
Hill, Hsiang-shan ^ (Jj, in order to thank the pious damsel for
the great favour conferred upon us. Later on, I shall proceed there
myself, and thank her personally in her shrine.
Miao-ts'ing ^? ^ and Miao-yin ^? -g1, secluded in the palace
by order of the king, applied themselves to the practice of perfection,
kept Buddhist abstinence, and recited the Sutras. On the fifteenth
day of the eighth month, the "Thus-come-Buddha", Jii-lai-fuh j(p
?fc f*ft (3)> left his palace, in order to take part in the Flat-peach
Festival given by the Fairy Queen of the West, Si-wang-mu ^ 3E
-JjJ: (4). Hereupon, the two door-keepers of the temple, Green Lion
and White Elephant (5) said to each other: "the god is away; why
should we not avail ourselves of the opportunity, and go out for a
walk?" (6). So saying, they assumed the form of charming youths^
entered an inn, and called for some wine; later on, they started on
a courting tour with the young lasses of the kingdom of Hsing-lin
ffl. ;jyfc. In order to deceive the better the two daughters of the king,
confined within the palace, they assumed the form of their sister
(1) He recognizes she is his daughter by her filial piety, and the sacrifice
she has made of her own hands and eyes in order to cure him. See Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 172. note 2.
(2) See on Buddhist abstinence, and its various practices. Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. IV. p. 451-455.
(3) The "Thus-come-Buddha", Jii-lai-fuh £fl % #. See Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. VI. p. 154. note 1; p. 1G3. note 1.
(4) See on The Fairy Queen of the West, Si-wang-mu f If. Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. III. p. 256, 258; Vol. V. p. 587. note 5.
(5) The elephant as a Northern Buddhist god is the demon Vinatuku.
Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 168.
(6) The following story, and the incidents related therein, deserve to be
classed among the "Tales of the Genii.
— 183 —
Miao-shen^p^, and thus penetrated into their private apartments (1).
Finally, these two lewd genii bore them away to the Flowery
Valley, and shut them up in the cavern of the Five Pines. A short
time afterwards, the two_ maids of honour, Kiao-hung ^ £x and
Ts'ui-hung Jp. £l, were also spirited away. A magic tortoise, one
thousand years old, was placed at the door of the cavern, and
ordered to keep watch over the captives (2).
Three years had already elapsed since the king was cured, and
he was now preparing to perform a pilgrimage to the Fragrant Hill,
Hsiang-shan ;ff \\] . As he was going to start, he was informed
that his two daughters and their maids of honour had disappeared
from the palace. This news created great excitement in the Court ;
search was made on all sides, but in vain, and it was thought they
had escaped in some ingenious manner.
The king, accompanied by the queen and all the grandees of
the kingdom, set out for the monastery of the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-
shan ^jf \\], escorted on the way by three thousand troops of the
royal guard (3). At the end of the first day's journey, they reached
the district city of Ch'eng-sin-hsien •]§£ jfr j§£ (4), and the king and
queen were accommodated in the great hall of the local magistrate.
Suddenly, in the midst of the night, a storm broke out, and the
two evil genii, who had ravished the king's daughters and their
maids of honour, carried off also the king and queen, and transported
them to a large and dark cavern, situated at the foot of a wooded
mountain. The next morning, the local magistrate arrived for the
(1) The Author has here wisely omitted the sequel, as unfit to meet the
eyes of the Christian reader. Buddhist gods and genii are not always models
of unblemished virtue.
(2) The tortoise is in China the symbol of lewdness, profligacy and lax
morals. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 662.
(3) This must have been a most expensive pilgrimage, especially if we
consider the number of persons who take part in it, and the distance and
difficulties of the journey.
(4) A fabulous place invented by the Buddhist writer, and corresponding
to no geographical reality.
— 184 —
purpose of saluting the ruler, but when the officers entered the royal
apartment, they could find no trace of the king or queen. Two
maids, attending on the latter, said that when the storm broke out,
they perceived two giants entering the room (1), but noticed nothing
further. Hereupon, it was decided that the minister Chao-clien jjg
J* would continue the journey to the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan
^ [1| (2), and there beg the protection of the Immortal, who had
already saved the king's life. As to General Ch'u-kieh ^ /fc, he
was to muster all his troops, and scour the country in order to
discover the whereabouts of the king. The evil genii soon learned
that the king's minister pursued the journey to the Fragrant Hill,
Hsiang-shan ^ [Jj, and fearing that the Immortal who dwelt there
would deprive them of their captives, despatched the magic tortoise
to Hangchow Bay, for the purpose of waylaying the royal messenger.
The wily animal assumed the form of a boatman (3), and ferrying
Chao-chen ^g J| across the bay to P'u-L'o ^ |?£, seized him in the
midst of the strait. The monster then transported him through the
air, and shut him up in the same cavern with the king and queen.
Meanwhile, most extraordinary events happened in the kingdom
of Hsing-lin $L ^jc. The son of Ho-fung fpT jf^, who had attained
the age of eighteen years, when his father was beheaded by order of
Miao-chwang £j? |j£ (4), fled to the neighbouring State of Tah-han
^ ?P (5). Upon hearing that evil genii had spirited away the
king and queen, when journeying to the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan
:ff |Jj, and that the State was left unguarded, the youthful prince
(1) These were the two evil genii, who spirited away the king and
queen. See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 183.
(2) The Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan # Uj. That is P'u-t'o island, P'u-
t'o-shan 3^ [^ U"J, in the Chusan Archipelago, where Miao-shen jfr # had her
shrine. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 165. note 1 ; p. 175. note 1.
(3) Tortoises may assume various forms for evil purposes. Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 662.
(4) See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 176.
(5) Tah-han 'fS. ?f. A fabulous region, invented like many other places,
by the Buddhist writer of the legend.
— 185 —
mustered thirty thousand troops, and invading- suddenly the king-
dom of Using-lin |fi. ffi, secured the throne without the least
opposition. His first care was to deliver his mother, whom he
deemed shut up within the palace, but he was told she had
been spirited away long- ago, and nobody knew her whereabouts.
Ho Chao-yang fnj ^ |f^, on ascending the throne, took the title of
Yuen, the Great Warrior, Yuen-ta,-wu 7^ -fc j£, and anxious to
share his success and happiness with his mother, spared no efforts
to find where she had been secluded in the neighbouring States.
Miao-shen ^j? ^ learned in her monastery at the Fragrant Hill,
Hsiang-shan ^ff \\], that eighteen wicked demons had escaped from
Hades, and spread terror among mortals. The heavenly genius Li,
Li-t'ien-wang ^£ 3^ 3E '). had already started at the head of his
army, in order to repress them, while Miao-shen ^ ^£ was ordered
to accompany Li-jen ^ ^, second son of the above genius, daring
the expedition. Before leaving, she made her recommendations to
Shen-ts'ai ^j| "jf and Lung-nil f| -fc (2), and informed them that
during her absence, king Miao-chwang ^? $£ and queen Peh-ya f£j
5f would come to the monastery for the purpose of thanking her.
She should, therefore, receive them with all deference due to their
high rank. Having uttered these words, a cloud appeared, and
wafted her away to the West (3).
"Here, we have nothing to do, said Shen-ts'ai ^ jf to Lung-
nix f| -fc, so let us go out for a walk". Entrusting the local God
of the Soil, T'u-ti lao-yeh ± j& % |j?, with the care of the shrine,
and keeping incense burning in the censers, they assumed the form
(1) Heavenly genii, T'ien-wang ^ 3E- These are the Hindu Devas, or
spirits. They are inferior in power and splendour to the Buddlias and
Bodhisattvas, and are subject to their orders. Hence Miao-shen # # sum-
mons them to her assistance. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 172 — Hackmann.
Buddhism as a Religion, p. 213.
(2) See on these two attendants of Miao-shen j$ #. Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. VI. p. 168-169.
(3) See on the marvellous in Buddhist Literature. Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 157. note 1: p. 174. note 3 : p. 179. note 1.
24
— 186 —
of two Buddhist monks, and set out for the kingdom of Hsing-lin
ML ffi. There they learned from an aged eunuch all that had
happened of late in the kingdom. The tutelary god of the palace,
T'u-ti J: Jtjj, informed them how the king and queen had been
spirited away, and transported by two evil genii to a dark and
remote cavern. "Above all, added he, beware of falling into the
hands of the prince now reigning, for he hates Buddhist monks,
and fears that a hermit-doctor, who cured his grandfather (1),
would return and supplant him on the throne".
Shen-ts'ai ^ ^ and Lung-nil f| -fc returned in all haste to
the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan ^ [jj (2), and held counsel as to
what to do in the crisis. Miao-shen ^? ^ was absent; her parents,
the king and queen were held in captivity by two evil genii , was it
not, therefore, their duty to endeavour to rescue them? and the
more as many benefits had been received at their hands. The
heavenly hosts w7ere summoned to bear assistance, and its special
position was assigned to each company. King Yin, Yin-wang fifc
3E, and Kow-pih ^ JJ| led the front ranks; the Five Brilliant
Generals and the Three Sages commanded the left and right wings
of the army, while the rear ranks and reserve troops were handled
by the Twelve Heavenly Genii, who preside over the year, T'ai-sui
yfc Wi (^)- The whole army of the genii, reckoning four hundred
thousand strong, advanced upon the cavern, in which the king and
queen were held imprisoned, and surrounded it on all sides.
As they arrived, the two evil genii enjoyed a musical quartet
with the two maids of honour Kiao-hung j^ $1 and Ts'ui-hung
(1) See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 178-180.
(2) Hsiang-shan ^ Uj . That is P'u-t'o island, P'u-t'o-shan |f P6 UT in
the Chusan Archipelago, where Miao-shen j£ ^ had her shrine. Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 105. note 1"; p. 175. note 1.
(3) T'ai-sui ;& gfc. Literally the "Great Year". Also twelve years,
during which the planet Jupiter, T'ai-sing jz jjt, completes a full revolution
on, its orbit. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language. — Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. IV. p. 398. note 2 ; Vol. V, p. 506. note 3.
— 187 —
% $£. The magic tortoise, that kept watch at the entrance to
the cavern, beheld the strange army approaching, and forthwith
announced the event to the two wicked genii. These replied, and
said: "dispel all fear; we shall bring them to their senses, and
bind them all hand and foot". The Green Lion, or fiery genius,
despatched a magic centipede, begging his brother, the Lone-fiery-
demon, Tuh-hwo-hwei $§ >K %i H)? to come to his assistance.
The White Elephant, or watery genius, sent also the magic
double-tail serpent to his younger sister, the Fairy Queen of the
West, Si-wang-rhu 15 3: -S£ (2), requesting her to hasten to his
help with her army of the genii. The two messengers assumed the
shape of mosquitoes, and sped with lightning velocity to accomplish
their assigned errand.
Tuh-hwo-kwei /j§§ fc fy arrives with his five thousand fiery
warriors, his glowing chariots, and fire-spitting crows. The God-
dess of Waters, Shui-mu niang-niang 7k. -fjj: t& %i, brings her five
thousand sailors, her magic tortoises and crabs from the Eastern
seas. In the twinkling of an eye, the heavenly hosts are surrounded
by these quaint battalions. The two evil genii, coming forth from
their cavern, are transformed into giants, forty feet high, with three
heads and six arms, wherewith they hurl firebrands into the enemy's
ranks. One rides on a gold-furred leopard, while the other is astride
on an eight-clawed wolf, and hurls into the air stones and sand,
which are instantly changed into millions of w7arriors.
(1) The "Green Lion'' and the "Lone-fiery-demon". These two beings
are purely fabulous, as well as the whole battle of the genii, so fantastically
described in these pages.
(2) The Fairy Queen of the West, Si-wang-mu H 3E ft- Another fabu-
lous being of the female sex, dwelling upon Mount K'uen-lun fit ■$, at the
head of troops of genii, and holding from time to time intercourse with
favoured rulers of China. Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual, p. ITS. —
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. p. 250, 258: Vol. V. p. 587. note 5; Vol VI,
p. 182. note 4.
— 188 —
Wang-ling-hwan 3E §| & (M opposes bravely this formidable
array of troops. He wears his helmit, steel armour and high boots,
and brandishes in the air his magic whip, wherewith he subdues all
kinds of demons. Mounted on his magic charger, " Water-spitter
and Firebrand", he provokes insultingly the White Elephant, saying:
"you ungainly brute with such a long proboscis! why have you
abandoned the guardianship of Buddha's palace, and come to upset
this lower world? Send back in haste to his kingdom its ruler
Miao-chwang ffl £}£, and thus atone for your arrogant conduct,
otherwise you will feel the smart of my whip on the back1'.
The two genii replied in a similar strain, saying: "why do you
meddle with our affairs? you lend an ear to the recriminations of
that silly Shen-ts'ai ^& ^f, and without the least provocation, you
come and attack us in our cavern ! If you let us alone, we shall
forgive you, but if you do not withdraw without further delay, you
shall find every road leading to heaven and earth closed against
you. Wang-ling-kwan 3E 9. *iT> in nowise deterred by these words,
orders his troops to charge the enemy. The Green Lion, or fiery
genius, spits a column of flame one thousand feet high ; the Lone-
fiery-demon, Tuh-kwo-kwei jj§§ ^ j^, arrives with his fiery chariots
and crows ; the whole heavens are ablaze with fire. The Goddess
of the Waters, Shui-mu niang-niang 7Js. -£jj: ^ ^ (2), accompanied
by her magic tortoises and crabs, pumps up torrents from the five
lakes, which sweep over the plains like an immense tidal wave.
(1) Wang-ling-kwan j£ H *g" . One of the 26 commanders of the heavenly
army, a fanciful invention of Taoism. Yung-loh *k %& (A.D. 1403-1425), of
the Ming tlfj dynasty, specially worshipped him, and erected a shrine in his
honour. Though of Taoist origin, Buddhists frequently assign him a place
among the guardians of the temple. He carries a whip in his hand, symbol
of his power for expelling demons. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. p. 269.
note 3; Vol. V. p. 592. Sixth month, 24th day.
(2) The Goddess of 'Waters, Shui-mu niang-niang y\K -^ #g $g. A deity
of Taoist origin, who presides over waters, lakes and rain. See Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 6.
— 189 —
The celestial warriors, attacked by fire and water, were thus
held up in the midst of the air, surrounded on all sides, and
compelled to protect their heads from above, and their feet from
beneath; the situation was critical in the extreme. Shen-ts'ai ^fe
Z% and Lung-nu f| -t£ held counsel, saying: "these ferocious
monsters make a terrible onslaught; how can we defeat them?"
Lung-nix ^ -f£ replied, and said: "1 have heard that on the Hwo-
yen mountain, Hwo-yen-shan >X. jl'fj ill > lived the Red-child-
demon, Hung-hai-kwei $X ?j£ Mn whose body lias been hardened
by fire during three days ; go and beg him come to our assistance.
On my own side, 1 shall beg my father, the Naga king, Lung-wang
"II 3: (^)» ruler of the Southern seas, to send us his sons; we shall
thus oppose fire to fire, and water to water, and victory shall soon
crown our efforts. Let us keep this plan of battle secret, and
meanwhile maintain our troops on the defensive". Having uttered
these words, both depart on a cloud, and seek help for the coming
onset. Shen-ts'ai ^& ZJf and the Red-child-demon, Hung-hai-kwei
$L ?£ %ii meet on the way the Naga king, Lung-wang £1 3i, and
his sons, who had already mustered their troops, and started for
the battlefield. The Red-child-demon, Hung-hai-kwei £x ^ %,
was to attack the enemy on the Western side, and the Naga king
on the South.
Shen-ts'ai ^j| ^ left in all haste to communicate to his troops
the plan of battle. Suddenly the cannon's roar is head to the West.
The old magic tortoise totters off to inform the two evil genii that
the invading army had been reinforced. Hereupon, the signal was
given to commence fighting. Wang-ling-kwan 3E M. la (2) ancl
(1) Nagas, Lung-wang || 3E, are serpent-demons, with human faces,
and snake-like lower extremities. They live in one of the lowei regions
below the earth, or under the waters. Buddhism borrowed these ideas from
Brahmanism. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 220.— Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 168. note 3.
(2) Wang-ling-kwan 3E II t\ also called Generalissimo Wang, one of
the 26 commanders of the heavenly army, a fanciful invention of Taoism.
See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 188. note 1.
— 190 —
his troops attack the White Elephant. The Goddess of Waters,
Shui-mu niang-niang ?K "^ ttl ^l> raises immense volumes of water
to protect herself, but the Red-child-demon, Hung-hai-kwei $T. ^
j||, vomits a deluge of fire, and heats the water to boiling point.
The Goddess and her troops, thus scalded to death and battered by
fiery arrows, withdraws from the battlefield, and flees to Sze Chow
fill] j]'\ (1) with the remnants of her army, while the White Elephant,
almost roasted, takes refuge on the Ts'ing-liang hill, Ts'ing-liang-
slian fpf <jft [Ij (2). The Green Lion and the Lone-fiery demon,
Tuh-hvoo-kwei $$ >X. /&, attaked on one side by the army of General
Yin ^, and drenched on the other by a mass of water, which the
Naga king, Lung-wang f| 3E, '"aised from the ocean, escaped with
great difficulty to a cavern in the side of a wooded hill. The Lone-
fiery-demon, Tuh-liwo-hwei $§ 'K Jili and his followers fled to the
Tung-tsiu mountains, Tung-tsiu-shan j|f ^ \\j. The battle was
now won, but the captives remained still in prison, and the two evil
genii had escaped from the cavern.
The Flat-peach Festival, P'un-t'ao-hwei fy§ jfc -g}- (3), being
over, Miao-shen ^? ^j| returned to the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan
:ff I_L| - On bidding farewell to the "Thus-come-Buddha", JiX-lai-
fuli jip $. UJ} , she perceived high up in the air the two evil genii,
who held captive her parents and two sisters. "Why, said she to
Buddha, do you allow the White Elephant and the Green Lion to
cause trouble in the world of mortals, and molest my family?"
"Feel assured, replied Buddha, I shall repress them and have them
punished". When he had returned, he ordered the Four demon-
(1) Sze Chow iH 'N\ . A city found at the present day in the province of
Ngctnhwei £ ^.
(2) Ts'ing-liang-shan j<jf j£f MJ. A hill situated in the North-West of the
walled in city of Nanking ffi Jr, near the Hansi Gate, Han-si-men g| M f"J.
See Varietes Sinologiques. n" 23 (Nankin. Apercu historique).
(3) The "Flat-peach-Festival", P'an-t'ao-hwei 4|^#. All the gods are
invited to this festival, at which the Fairy Queen of the West, Si-wang-mu
EIf> treats them to her magnificent peaches that confer immortality.
See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. III. p. 258.
— 191 —
kings, Sze-kin-kang 0 ^ |jj (1), to seize the two evil genii, and bring
them before him. The Four Maharajas then led Miao-shen £j? 3|- to the
cavern where her parents were imprisoned, and set them at liberty
in her presence. Miao-shen $.\? ^, in order to hide her identity,
had assumed on the occasion the form of a Buddhist monk (2).
The king and queen, their two daughters and the maids of honour,
who had been delivered, thanked effusively the Buddhist monk, and
promised to make the pilgrimage to the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan
:ff |lj , as soon as the troubles, which recently broke out in the
State, were appeased. General Ch'u-kieh ^ ^ and his troops
returned in haste to the kingdom of Hsing-lin M. $t, laid siege to
the Capital, expelled the usurper, and re-instated Miao-chwang ffi
$£ on the throne. Order being thus re-established, the ruler and
his Court resolved to proceed to the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-slian |f
jjj , in order to thank the Immortal for so many favours received at
her hands.
Miao-shen ^ || ordered Shen-ts'ai ^ ^ to receive the king
and queen, when they would come to offer incense (3), and thank
her for her favours. She placed herself on the high altar, and
offered herself to their gaze, deprived of her eyes, her two hands
severed, and blood flowing from the gaping wounds. The king
recognized in her his daughter, and felt exceedingly sorry for having
condemned her to death (4). The queen swooned at her feet, while
her sisters poured forth Hoods of tears. Hereupon, Miao-shen £j?
3| addressed them, and said: "on the day when I was put to death,
(1) The "Four demon-kings", Sze-kin-kang |7C|^f5JiJ. These preside over
the four quarters of the world, and lead an army of spiritual beings to proteel
mankind and Buddhism. Their images are found at the entrance to all Bud-
dhist monasteries. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 216.— Hackmann. Buddhism
in China, p. 203. — Chinese Superstitious. Vol. HI. p. 284.
(2) This was her usual disguise in her beneficent work of compassion
and mercy. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 170, 181.
(3) That is to worship her at her shrine, and thank her lor restoring
the kings health. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 1"'.'-I80.
(4) See this incident related above. Chinese Sup as Vol VI
p. 159-160.
— 192 —
the local God of the Soil, T'u-ti lao-yeh ;£ ty % |j? (1), assuming
the form of a tiger, bore me away to a dark forest. My soul then
visited the ten departments of Hades, and returning afterwards,
re-entered my body. The "Thus-come-Buddha", Ju-lai-fuh #fl ^
$j}, advised me to retire to the Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan :ff \\j,
and there practise perfection (2). I have obeyed him, and now all
the heavenly Spirits honour me as the goddess of the Fragrant Hill,
Hsiang-shan § \[\. To punish you for having killed so many
human beings in the war which led to the throne, and also to
avenge the burning of the "Monastery of the White Sparrows",
Peh-tsioh-sze £3 % ^ (3), the Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hwang 3; |l,
afflicted you with ulcers. It was then that I assumed the form of
a hermit-doctor, and gave to your two ministers my hands and eyes,
in order to restore you to health. It is I also, who obtained from
Buddha your deliverance from the two evil genii, who shut you up
in a cavern. I accompanied the Four demon-kings, Sze-hin-hang
ffl ^ PU) wll° rescued you from their hands. In order to disguise
myself, 1 assumed the garb of a Buddhist monk".
Miao-ts'ing ^; fj^ and Miao-yin $ -^, who wept bitterly on
beholding the state of their sister, addressed her, and said: "dear
sister, what must we do in order to heal your wounds?" Miao-shen
££ ^j| replied, and said: "I am the most merciful; my father need
but worship heaven, and forthwith I shall recover my lost eyes and
hands". Upon hearing these words, the king fell on his knees to
the ground, offered incense, worshipped heaven and earth, and the
sun and moon (4), adding in a loud voice intermingled with sobs:
"I have committed a monstrous crime by putting to death my
(1) The local God of the Soil, T'u-ti lao-yeh ± -±tft % f?. See Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 29. note 3 ; p. 137. note 2 : p. 155. note 2 ; p. 158.
note 2; p. 160. note 2; p. 177. note 2.
(2) See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 163-165.
(3) The Monastery of the White Sparrows, Peh-tsioh-sze {3 %' # See
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 148. note 2; p. 149, 151, 154, 156.
(4) This is nature-worship, addressed to the created world and not to
the Creator. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. Preface p. II: p. 512. note 3;
p. 515. note 1 ; p. 555. note 2. * ■->«-•-
— 193 —
daughter, who has subsequently sacrificed her hands and eyes in
order to restore me to health". Scarcely had he uttered these words
than Miao-shen typ ^ recovered her natural form, and descending
from the altar, advanced towards her parents and sisters. Her
body was perfect as formerly, and resplendent with such beauty,
that the whole family wept with joy. "Well, said Miao-shen ify
^, addressing herself to her father, would you still compel me to
enter the married state (1), and thus prevent me from attaining
perfection?'' (2). — "Don't mention that any more, dear daughter,
rejoined the king; I was quite wrong. If you had not reached
Buddhahood, I would not be alive to-day. I have, therefore, resolved
to renounce the world, and practise henceforth perfection under your
guidance (3).
Hereupon, in presence of the whole Court, he addressed himself
to his Prime Minister Chao-clien ^ Jj, and said: "your zeal for
the interests of the State has rendered you worthy of ruling the
country; I, therefore, hand the royal crown over to you". The
whole assembly approved, and proclaimed Chao-cheu ^g J£ king of
the State of Hsing-lin M $t. The new ruler bade farewell to
Miao-chwang £j? |j£, and returned filled with joy to his far-off
kingdom.
Buddha ordered that the White Elephant and the (4reen Lion
be brought into his presence, and he was on the point of sentencing
them to be shut up for ever in Hades, when the merciful Miao-shen
^ H, moved by pity, interceded for them. "Truly, said Buddha,
you deserve no forgiveness, but I cannot refuse anything t<> the
(!) She refused to marry, and preferred to lead a life of seclusion, and
thus reach the state of Buddhahood. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI p. 142,
145, 146, 148.
(2) The true Buddhist renounces the world, and leads a celibate monastic
life. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 89. - Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 145. note 4.
(3) Miao-shen j& # thus accomplishes her vow, and saves her lather.
See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 140, 150. note 1.
26
— 194 —
prayers of Miao-shen ■$ ^, whose compassion is boundless (I). I,
therefore, hand you over to her, and your duty will henceforth be to
serve and obey her in all things".
Miao-shen typ ~^& led the two genii into the presence of her
sisters, and said; "do you recognize these monsters, that formerly
confined you in a cavern?" Upon beholding them, the two sisters
felt their hearts boiling over with anger, and would fain avenge them-
selves on the wretches, but Miao-slien ^? ^&, turning towards them,
said: "now, that you have renounced the world, be merciful, and
banish all resentment from your hearts (2); these genii will hence-
forth obey me in all things; Buddha has given them over to me".
Meanwhile, Shen-ts'ai ^& ^ prepared suitable apartments for
the king and queen, and their two daughters, and cooked for all a
vegetarian meal. Henceforth, the whole family, under the guidance
of Miao-shen $,j? =&, were to lead a life of Buddhist perfection.
The genius, who presided over the day, announced the arrival
of a heavenly messenger, the great white golden planet, T'ai-peh
kin-sing -Jk: £j ^ Jr (3), despatched by the Pearly Emperor, Yuh-
hwang 3£ z£- The envoy bore in his hands a divine edict, which
he delivered respectfully to Miao-shen £j? ^fe. It contained the
following : —
(1) Compassion for all who suffer is the great characteristic of Buddhism,
especially in its later, or Mcthayanct phase. Bodhisattvas, all make vows of
saving mortals from pain and misery. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 128. —
Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 08, 177, 192, 201.
(2) We find in a text of the Dharmapada (Buddha's Way of Virtue)
the following: "he who holds back rising anger like a rolling chariot, him 1
call a real driver: any other merely holds the reins. Let a man overcome
anger by gentleness, and evil by good". However, the Buddhist's motive in
avoiding anger, is not because it is sinful, or displeases a Holy God, but
because it is incompatible with that equanimity, which ought to characterize
every wise man aiming at the extinction of his own personality. Monier
Williams. Buddhism, p. 129 and 131.
(3) The great white golden planet, T'ai-peh kin-sing jk 6 ^ !• This
is Venus, a stellar god, despatched by the Pearly Emperor, Yuh-hwang 3? Ji,
to Miao-shen j$ ||.
— 195 —
"I, Supreme Lord of the Universe (1) do hereby announce: king
Miao-chwang ^ Ht, oblivious of heaven and hell, slighting the six
transcendent virtues (2) and the laws of metempsychosis, has lived
a guilty life, but thy nine years spent in doing penance, thy filial
piety, which made thee sacrifice thy own body in order to restore
him to health, in a word, all thy sublime virtues have atoned for
his sins. Thy eyes behold all the good and evil deeds of mankind,
thy ears hear the prayers of mortals (3), and thou art the dearly
beloved of my heart. Hence, I hereby canonize thee, and raise thee
to the rank of a goddess" (4).
Miao-sJien typ ^ will henceforth be styled: "the most merciful
and compassionate goddess, succour of the afflicted, miraculous and
ever-helpful protectress of mortals". From thy lofty and precious
lotus-throne, thou shalt look down on the world, be the Queen of
the Southern Seas, and of P'u-t'o island, P'u-t'o-shan ^ p£ |i| .
Thy two sisters, seekers in their youthful days of worldly
pleasures (5), shall gradually practise virtue, and finally arrive at
the highest perfection.
Miao-ts'ing ^? ^ will be styled: "the most virtuous goddess,
all-fair, and seated on the Green Lion" (6).
iMiao-yin $$; ^f will be styled: "the most virtuous goddess, all-
resplendent, and riding on the White Elephant".
(1) The common people, who have but a vague idea of the true God. as
Creator and Ruler of all things, believe all these false tenets of Taoism.
(2) See on the "six transcendent virtues". Chinese Superstitions. Vol.
VI. p. 153. note 2 : p. 107. note 3.
(3) Miao-shen is here endowed with the characteristics of \ oalohitesvcirct,
and the Chinese Kwan-yin fjpj ^?.
(4) We have here a Buddhist saint canonized by the Supreme Taoisl
God. The writer of the legend borrows unscrupulously from the two reli
gions. See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 169. note 2.
(5) See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 157; p. 170. note 2.
(6) See other titles given her: '•queen of the 3000 Bodhisattvas, and ol
all living beings ; the universal sovereign". Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 165-166.
— 196 —
King Miao-chwang £j? $£ shall be raised to the rank of a god,
and styled: "virtuous conqueror, ruler of the Immortals".
As to Queen Peh-ya f^ 5f, she is hereby proclaimed a goddess,
and styled: "queen of countless virtues, and ruler of all famous
women".
Shen-ts'ai ^ ^ is canonized with the honorary title of "golden
youth", Kin-t'ung-tze 4& M ~? •
Lung-nil f|, ^, the Naga's daughter, receives also the glorious
title of "pearly damsel", Yuh-niX 3£ -f£.
The whole family shall thus be worshipped, and incense offered
on their altars for ever and ever (1).
PART II. AVALOKITESVARA, THE LOOKING-DOWN LORD.
Legends of the Mahayana Scliool relate that Amitabha (2),
O-mi-t'o-fuh JJpf §jff |?£ {$ , being one day lost in ecstasy, caused a
white ray of light to issue from his right eye, and thus Avalokites-
vara was brought into existence (3). He is thus the spiritual son
or reflex of Amitabha, and the fourth Dhyani-Bodhisattva in the
well-known group of five, while he is the first in the group of eight.
His name is mentioned in early Buddhist literature after that of
Manjusri, Wen-shu ~% ^ (4), Immediately after coming into
existence, he made a vow to rescue all beings in Hades, and lead
(1) This may be taken as a fair specimen of how Buddhist and Taoist
saints, the most of them purely fictitious beings, are raised to the rank of
Gods and Goddesses, and worshipped by the Chinese people. See above how
hero-worship finally terminated in deification (Case of Kwan-yu $| ^).
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 78-79.
(2) See on Amitabha, Buddha of Boundless Light. Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 106-114, where this Dhyani-Buddha is fully described.
(3) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 54. — Monier Williams.
Buddhism, p. 487. In the legend related by this latter writer, the ray of light
that produced him was red.
(4) See on Manjusri, Buddha of Transcendent Wisdom. Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. VI. p. 126-128.
— 197 —
them to Sukhavati, or the Western Paradise (1), but finding the
task impossible, as new-comers constantly occupied the place of the
out-going tenants, his head split into a thousand pieces. Then
Amitabha, deeply moved by his son's misfortune, hastened to his
assistance, and formed the one thousand pieces into ten heads (2).
A picture, representing the above legend, gives the Bodhisattva
eleven heads, that on the top being the head of his father Amitabha.
Avalokitesvara's name is composed of the two Sanscrit words :
Avalokila, meaning "looking down or looking on"', and isvara,
"Lord", this latter word being the Brahmanical name for the
Supreme God. Hence the title given him may be explained as the
"Lord, that looks down from on high (3), he who has pity on all
beings, the All-pitying One, the Lord of Mercy" (4). These names
are all in keeping with his general characteristic of mercifulness,
pity and compassion, and his reputation for hearing the prayers of
those who suffer. People pray to him more frequently than to any
other Bodhisattva, and not only for release from the misery of future
re-births (5), but in all cases of present bodily danger, and domestic
affliction.
(1) The Western Paradise. An invention of later Buddhism. Amitabha
rules over it. and is attended by the two Bodhisattvas Avalohitesvara and
Mahastama. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 111-113.
(2) Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 487. -Getty. The Cods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 65 (Aryavalokitesvara-the Kleven-hended).
(3) Hsiien-tsang ± H, who visited India in the 7 th century (AD 629
645), states that his images were often placed on the tops of mountains.
Possibly this fact may account for the name he acquired of the "Looking-
down Lord". Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 199. — Getty. The Gods ol
Northern Buddhism, p. 55.— Beal adds that "he is probably a relic or revival
of the old worship of the hill-gods".
(4) Edkins holds he is a form of Buddha, .0111111- int.. this suffering
world in a lower position than Buddha (i.e. as a Bodhisattva), in order more
effectually to instruct and save the ignorant. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism.
p. 384. He would thus be a personification of Mercy, as Manjusri personifies
Wisdom, and Mahastama Power.
(5) As connected with Amitabha and the Western Paradise, he pres
over the whole cycle of soul-migration. Monier Williams. Buddhism, p 191
(Avalokitesvara).
— 19S —
It is not known how early the worship of this Bodhisattva
existed in India. His name is found for the first time in a Sutra
contemporary with the Christian era. In Northern India, his
worship was popular in the third, and attained its climax in the
seventh century. The Chinese pilgrim-monk Fah-hsien jgj H|} prayed
to him for aid when in great peril during a storm at sea, while
HsiXen-tsang ~i£ J£fe. speaks of him with much reverence. About the
eighth century, his worship lost ground in India, and practically
disappeared in the twelfth century (1).
In his earliest form, Avalohitesvara is represented with one
head and two arms, and in either a sitting or standing posture.
This natural form is also found seated sideways on a crouching
lion, the head turned upwards towards the god. This image is
called the Simhanada Avalohitesvara, or the "Lord with a lion's
voice" (2).
The first Tantra form (3), that appeared in Northern India,
about the end of the sixth century (4), gave him four arms
instead of two (5); another gave him four heads, and twenty-four
arms. Later on, he was represented with eleven heads, and one
(1) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p 55. — Monier Williams.
Buddhism, p. 199.— Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 273.
(2) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 57 (Simhanada-Avaloki-
tesvara, a non-Tantra form of this Bodhisattva). — Waddell. The Buddhism
of Tibet, p. 35G.
(3) The Tantra School, which began at the end of the 6th, and in the
early part of the 7th century of our era, gave wild, monstrous and extravagant
forms to the gods. Tantra gods often have several heads, and always more
than two arms. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. YJ. p. J32-133 (The Tantra
School). — Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 17G.
(4) Waddell states that the earliest Indian images of Avalohitesvara
found by him date to about the 6lh century A.I). Waddell. The Buddhism
of Tibet, p. 35G-357.
(5) The "Musee Guimet ", in Paris, has a small copper statue of Avalo-
hitesvara with 1 head, and 10 arms: a dogmatic form has also 1 head and 12
arms. Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 02 and 03.
— 199 —
thousand arms, an eye being- found at the extremity of each hand 1
This image is symbolical of his saving power, and the fact that he
looks everywhere, perceiving the distress of afflicted mortals. The
■j-
eleven heads are usually arranged in the form of a cone, in series of
three, the topmost head being that of Amitabha, the spiritual father
of Avalokitesvara. Those looking forward, bear an aspect of bene-
volence; the left ones express anger at the faults of men, while those
on the right smile graciously at the good deeds of mortals (2).
Avaloliitesvera is found in an early triad with Manjusri and
Vajrapani. He is principally worshipped in Northern Buddhism,
but is unknown in Siam, Burma and Cevlon.
Buddhism entered Tibet about A.D. 640, in its Tantric or
debased form, and with it the worship of Avalohilesvara, better
known in this country as Padmapani, or the Lotus-bearer. Pad-
mapani is the non-Tantra form of Avalokitesvara (3). He received
from Amitabha the power of creation, and the present Buddhist world
is held to be his work. He also propagates and protects Buddhism,
until the fifth world, created by Visvapani, will appeal- (4).
Padmapani is extremely popular in Tibet, of which he is
the tutelary god. His chief sanctuary is on Mount Potala, at
(1) The fixing of the number of hands and eyes at 1000, is merely expres-
sive of multitude, and has no precise numerical significance. Waddell. The
Buddhism of Tibet, p. 357.
(2) Monier Williams claims that the 3 tiers of heads indicate that
Avalokitesvara looks down on the 3 worlds, that of desire, of form and
formlessness. According to Eitel, they represent the triad: Vvalokitesvara,
Manjusri and Vajrapani, or Mercy, Wisdom and Force personified. Moniei
Williams. Buddhism, p. 199. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 18.
(3) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 58 (Padmapani, the
Lotus-bearer).
(4) After the death of Guatama, Padmapani is believed to have under-
taken the work of propagation of Buddhism, until the creation of the *>tli world.
It is for this'reason that he is extremely popular in Tibet, and also in Japan.
under the name of Kwan-non (a corrupt pronunciation of Kwan-yin). Getty.
The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 58.
— 200 —
Lhasa (1), and he is supposed to have been incarnate in the Dalai-
Lama.
In his earliest form, he is represented as Avalokitesvara, in
Northern India, with one head and two arms, generally standing,
and holding in his left hand a full-blown lotus-flower, symbol of his
creative power. Later on the vase, peculiar to Brahma, was added (2).
In the seventh century, Tantrism gave female energies, or
consorts, to the celestial Bodhisattvas, as well as to most of the other
gods. The most ancient form of a female Kwan-yin |^ -g- is
the Sahti or consort of Padmapani, better known as the Green
Tarn (3). Like her male counterpart, she is a "saviour and deliverer".
She is represented as a comely and bejewelled Indian lady, with
uncovered head, seated on a throne, the left leg pendent, and holding
in her left hand a long-stemmed lotus-flower.
PART 111. THE GODDESS OF MERCY, li WAN-SHI- YIN M # "h
Kwan-yin $|J "g-, or Kwan-shi-yin f| jfc ^ (4), is the Chinese
(1) Eitel holds he was first heard of at Potalct, at the mouth of the
Indus, the reputed home of the ancestors of Sakyamuni, but his chief sanc-
tuary is on Ml Potala, at Lhasa. Eitel. Three Lectures on Buddhism, p.
126. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 164. note I.
(2) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 59. — In Tibet, his pictures
are white, while in Nepal they are of a red colour. Foucher. Iconographie
Bouddhique. P. II. p. 43.
(3) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 71. — Wadded. The
Buddhism of Tibet, p. 359.— L. de la Vallee Poussin believes that the trans-
formation of Avalokitesvara into a woman had already been effected in India.
See Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 270.
(4) Europeans, as well as most Chinese scholars look upon Kivah-yin
IH -^ as a manifestation of Avalokitesvara. Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism. --The Lotus of the Good Law (Saddharma-pundarika), identifies
Avalokitesvara with Kwan-yin. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 18. —
Avalokitesvara is the Indian name for the well-known Chinese deity, Kwan-
yin. Hackmann. Buddhism as a Religion, p. 76 and 2J0. —In China, Avalo-
kitesvara is represented as a woman called Kwan-yin. Monier Williams.
Buddhism, p. 489 . — Kwan-yin represents in Chinese Buddhism Avalokitesvara.
Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 190, 267.
— 201 —
female counterpart, or Sakti, of Avalohitesvara. The Mahay ana
School entered China in the fifth century of the Christian era, and
probably introduced Kwan-yin $|l -^ into the country about the
same time, or later (1). Kumerajiva, who entered China through
Tibet A.D. 405 (2), and translated the Lotus of the Good Law.
Saddliarma-pundarika, was the first who employed the title /vwan-
shi-yin $|l -JW; ^. The rendering Kwan-lze-tsai fUJ [| %£, was
introduced by Hsiien-tsang j£ |£|, from the shorter Hindu name
Avalokita (3). Despite all their efforts, the Indian Buddhist monks
were unable to impose the Sanscrit name of the god on the Chinese.
In India and Tibet, Avalohitesvara had but male attributes, whereas
in the popular religious lore of China, Kwan-yin ^ ^ is represented
as a female. Whether the new worship was introduced by way of
Tibet, or directly from India, through Turkestan, is historically
difficult to establish. Another moot question is that of sex. Edkins
holds that the feminine form did not appear in China before the
early part of the 12"' century (4). According to others, there is
evidence that at a much earlier date, Kwan-yin |j^ -^f was regarded
as a female (5). Some paintings of the 7th and 8th centuries are
markedly feminine (6), though a few of the same period represent
(1) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 382, says she was worshipped prob-
ably in the Han g£ dynasty (i.e. as early as the 3rd century A.D.), butthis
is not historically proved.
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 106. — Getty. The Gods of
Northern Buddhism, p. 68.
(3) This new rendering, which means "self-existent", was introduced
by Hsiien-tsang, instead of the older Kwan-shi-yin ,j'lA ft ,'',• Edkins. Chinese
Buddhism, p. 262.— Beal. A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese.
p. 383.
(4) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 382. — Recorder. 1879 (Pootoo, Ancienl
and Modern, p. 119). -Giles. AGlossary of References 2.ndEd. 1886 (Kwan-yin).
(5) Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 275. note I (where he quotes Fenol-
losa. Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art).
(6) The reproduction of a painting by the Chinese artisl )'e>< Li-peii, o(
the 7* century, is decidedly that of a female (see reproduction in Fenollosa.
Illustration- 34.- French Edition, -p. 9fe A copy may be seen in Freer's
Museum, Detroit. U.S.A.)
26
— 202 —
her as a male (1). From the 12th century down to the present day,
it has been the custom in China to represent Kwan-yin |^ g1 as a
female (2). Various suggestions have been made as to how the
Chinese came to regard her as a female divinity. 1° Avalokitesvaru
may have been transformed into a woman in India, as the French
Buddhist writer L. de la Vallee Poussin holds, and hence introduced
into China in female form. In the middle of the 7th century, India
had many Bodhisattvas with their Sahtis, as we know from Hsiien-
tsang's narrative. Later on, when K'ang-hsi J|§ EB sent to Tibet
for an image of Kwan-yin, to be presented to the P'u-t'o shrine,
P'u-t'o-shan ^ |?£ |Jj, the figure received was that of a female (3).
Being scantily dressed, with only a few lotus leaves and some jewels,
the monks threw a silk cloak over it. Bound the pedestal are
several white elephants and lions carved in wood, which all bespeak
a foreign origin. 2° The quality of Mercy, or the compassionate
and helping principle of Buddhism, which is embodied in Kwan-yin
|^ -^f, seems to have appealed to the Chinese as feminine rather
than masculine (4). In other words, in deifying ideas, Chinese
Buddhists, and possibly popular taste assigned feminine attributes
to Mercy. 3° Kwan-yin ||l -^ is in many respects the counterpart
of the Taoist goddess Holy Mother, Queen of Heaven, T'ien-heu
sheng-mu ^ ^ 1 f, Both are worshipped as beneficent and
compassionate goddesses, who save men from misery and peril,
(1) In the greater part of the representations of Kwan-yin, made in the
time of the T'cmg J* dynasty (A.D. 620-907), Kwan-yin wears a slight
mustache. Fenollosa. Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art. p. 96.— According
to Johnston (Buddhist China, p. 275. note 1), the Kwan-yin of Wu Tao-tze J&
*t -?• (8th century) is distinctly male (see reproduction in Fenollosa. 111. 35.
p. 96).
(2) Fenollosa. Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art. p. 96. — Edkins,
however, adds. Kwan-yin is in masculine costume in temples, where great
attention is paid to precedent, but the popular taste is in favour of a goddess
rather than a god. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 383.
(3) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 261 (Gifts by K'ang-hsi).
(4) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 68 (Kwan-shi-yin).—
Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 383. .
— 203 —
especially from the dangers of the ocean ; and both are regarded as
the patrons and protectors of mothers, and as the givers of child-
ren (1). Buddhism would thus have borrowed from Taoism, as it
did in many other cases (2). 4° Later intercourse with India may
have also influenced the change of sex in Kwan-yin ^ ^. Ilsuen-
tsang j£ zg?, who visited India in the 8th century, remarked there a
goddess with flowing garments, and holding a child in her arms ^3).
This was Ilariti (4), then worshipped in Northern India as giver of
children. When the worship of the Hindu goddess was introduced
into China, she was confounded with Kwan-yin H| "If i and called
"giver of sons". 5° The romantic story of Miao-shen £j? 3S|, written
in the 12th century (5), did much to establish the belief that Kwan-
yin H^ -gif was a female (6). It was about this time that Buddhist
monks first settled in P'u-t'o island, P'u-t'o-shan ^ |>£ jjj, and
established there the worship of Kwan-yin $|l ^ (7). The purpose
of the legend was to give to the newly introduced deity a Chinese
(1) Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 2G8. A shrine to this Queen of Heaven,
T'ien-heu 5*c jg, is found at the entrance to one of the large temples dedicated
to Kwan-yin in P'u-t'o island, P'u-t'o-shan j^ ^ Ui — The Queen of Heaven
is worshipped on the 29th day of the 2nd month. Chinese Superstitions. Vol.
V. p. 574.
(2) See Wieger. Textes Philosophiques. p. 467, where the Author holds
this opinion as probable.
(3) Or with several children climbing about her. Getty. The Gods of
Northern Buddhism, p. 75.
(4) Hariti. A Hindu Goddess, protectress of children (Originally an
ogress or cannibal demon, who devoured 449 out of her 500 children. Buddha
saved the last, and converted the ogress, giving her a diet of pomegranates,
the red fruit being supposed to resemble human flesh). Bulletin de l'Ecole
Franchise d'Extreme Orient. Vol. XVII. n' 3 par Noel Peri. Hanoi 1917. —
Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 75 (Hariti).
(5) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 134. note 2 (The Legend of
Miao-shen j£!) H).
(6) The great popularity of the story hastened the genera] acceptance of
the theory that Kwan-yin was a female. Johnston. Buddhist China, p. -"I
(7) It was about A.D. 915, that the Island of P'u-t'o, P'u-t'o-shan g [It
jjj, was taken possession of by Buddhists. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 139.
— 204 —
origin, but in this it failed. Kwan-yin $^ ^ is essentially Indian
in origin and form, and it is not proved she is a development of
Miao-sheri ££ ^ (1).
Kwan-yin |^ ^, or Kwari-shi-yin |j|l -jtf; "a" means "she who
hears the sounds (prayers) of mortals ; she who looks down upon
the world, and hears its cries" (2). Kumerajiva, who entered China
in the 5th century, was the first who rendered the Hindu name
Avalokitesvera by its Chinese equivalent Kwan-shi-yin ||§ jM; ^. In
Kwan-yin ||l -g^ mercy is symbolised, hence she is known to both
Foreigners and Chinese as the "Goddess of Mercy". According to
Edkins, she is but a form of Buddha, coming into this suffering
world in a lower position than Buddha, in order more effectively to
instruct and save (3). Her great mission is to listen with compas-
sion to the prayers of those who invoke her, to save all those who
are in distress of body or mind, or in danger or peril, especially on
the sea. For this merciful purpose, she may assume 32 different
forms, and proceed to the various kingdoms of the world, to bear
assistance and rescue suffering mortals (4). Like her counterpart
Avalokitesvara, she also propagates and protects Buddhism, until
the actual world, which is the fourth, will come to an end (5).
(1) Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 359. —Johnston. Buddhist
China, p. 270. —Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 73. — Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI p. 134. note 2.
(2) Monier Williams. Buddhism, p. 200. - Johnston. Buddhist China,
p. 101, 267— Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 382 —Getty. The Gods of Nor-
thern Buddhism, p. 68. — Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 18. — See Beal
for a rendering of Kwan-yin as "the voice that is everywhere diffused, the
voice or word of Amitabha". Beal. A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the
Chinese, p. 384.
(3) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 384. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 197.
(4) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 383. — Beal. A Catena of Buddhist
Scriptures from the Chinese, p. 388.— Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p.
356 (where he mentions 22 manifestations).
(5) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 58. — Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. VI. p. 199. note 4.
— 205 —
Kv&n-yin || ^, being the personification of Mercy, this latter
quality seems to have appealed to the popular Chinese mind as
feminine rather than masculine, hence she is generally represented
at the present day in female form (1).
In Northern Bnddhism, no divinity holds so large a place in
popular worship as Kwan-yin ||| ^g (2). It might even be said
that she has eclipsed Buddha himself, and the other great Bodhisat-
tvas. This is principally due to the mysterious and exceptional
functions she fulfils in the Buddhist world. 1° She is associated
with Amitabha, O-mi-t'o-fuh |fpT </§ f>£ fj, and the Sakhavati, or
Western Paradise, Si-t'ien "|Jlj ^, the land of supreme bliss for all
Buddhists in China and Japan (3 . The journey to this Pure Land
is frequently represented by more or less crude woodcuts, which
show boat-loads of Amitabha's worshippers, sailing over the bitter
sea of human sorrow under the captainship of Kwan-yin ^ -pf- \ .
They are thus saved, though all do not enjoy immediately the Full
bliss of their heavenly home. Those who have left their families,
become disciples of Buddha, devoted their lives to acquiring merit,
or practised filial piety, instantly enjoy the happiness of this heaven;
others, though reborn there, are excluded for some time, nay for
long kalpas, from the happy vision of Amitabha (5). During their
period of expiation, they lie imprisoned within the closed calyx of a
(1) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 388. — Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 68. —Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 267.
(2) Eitel. Three Lectures on Buddhism, p. I2."> Kwan-yin). — Getty.
The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 54.— Hackmann. Buddhism as a Religion.
p. 76. — Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 101, 104.
(3) Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 100-101.— Chinese Superstitions. Vol.
VI. p. 113 (Amitabha's Sukhavati, or Western Paradise, Si-t'ien Ei 7z)-
(4) See woodcut, representing the "ship of salvation '. in which Kwan-
yin leads souls to Amitabha's Paradise. .Johnston. Buddhist China, p. I
(5) These committed heinous sins during life, but have been saved l>.\
invoking at the last moment the name of Amitabha. I'hev are now in
heaven, yet not of it, for they have no share in its delights, and are tenopor
arily deprived of the joy of contemplating the glory of Amitabha. Johnsl
Buddhist China, p. 107. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 113. note I.
— 206 —
lotus-flower. 2° She is a Saviour and a Deliverer. As the Paradise
of Amitabha is the great desire of all Buddhists, so Kwan-yin ^
^f is worshipped as the Universal Saviour of all living beings (I).
Like all Bodhisattvas, she began her legendary career by uttering
12 great vows to save mankind (2). Beal, translating from the
Chinese the 24th chapter of the Lotus of the Good Law, Saddhnrma-
pundarika, describes her saving power as follows: "though there
were countless millions of creatures in the universe, all suffering
from the miseries of human life, they need but invoke this name of
Kwan-yin ||| ^; the goddess immediately perceiving the sounds of
the voice so pronounced shall deliver them all, be it from fire, sharp
swords, raging torrents, thunder and lightning, venomous snakes,
wild beasts, prison, robbers, enemies and demons of all kinds" (3).
Pictorial representations of these extraordinary favours may be often
seen in Chinese temple-frescoes. 3° She is a sea-goddess. This at-
tribute may have some remote connexion with her function as
captain of the "Bark of Salvation" (4), conveying souls to the
blissful Paradise of the West. Kwan-yin ||l ^ also presides over
water (5), as Ti-tsang jfc ^ over earth, P'u-hsien ^ Jf over fire,
and Wen-shu ^ ^ over air. Some think she received this title,
because she came over the seas from India to China, wafted on a
lotus-leaf (6). Others hold that the function may have been bor-
rowed from the Taoist Goddess, Holy Mother, Queen of Heaven,
T'ien-heu sheng-mu 5£ Jgf JJS -JIJ:. This latter deity saves men from
(1) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 2G1. — Beal. A Catena of Buddhist
Scriptures from the Chinese, p. 383.— Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 274.
(2) Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 274. note 2 (Amitabha is said to have
made over 40 such vows).
(3) Beal. A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, p. 390. —
Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 283.
(4) Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 269. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 205. note 4.
(5) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 265.
(6) Eitel. Three Lectures on Buddhism, p. 128. — Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 164. note 3 (The Legend of JMiao-shen 3$ H= states she was borne
to P'u-fo-shan ^ [5£ |Jj , on the back of a tiger).
— 207 —
misery and peril, and especially from dangers of the ocean (1).
Kwan-yin $| ^, as goddess of the sea, is represented in temples
with rocks and crudely-carved waves about her. Sailors, when
starting on a voyage, pray to her for protection, while those who
have escaped shipwreck, make thank-offerings at her altar. As a
sea-goddess, she is especially worshipped in P'u-ro island, P'u-t'b-
shan Pfc; ^ llj. 4° She is a giver of children, male and female (2).
The belief that she is able to grant children to those who pray to
her, is founded on a passage in the Lotus of the Good Law,
Sad.dharma-punda.rika, where we read: "if there be a woman, who
desires a male child, and prays to Kwan-yin || -g% the goddess
will cause her to become the mother of a well-endowed and highly-
gifted child ; or if she desires a female child, she shall become the
mother of one extremely beautiful, endowed with every gift, and
beloved of all" (3). The worship of Kwan-yin |0J -g1, as giver of
children, may also have been influenced by Hariti (4\ and the Taoist
goddess, Holy Mother, Queen of Heaven, T'ien-heu sheng-mu ^c fn
II -Q; (5), but to what extent, is difficult to determine. 5° It may be
added that in China and Japan, Kwan-yin ^ ^ is the idealization
of womanhood (6). In her is concentrated all that is graceful and
good, the virtues of compassion and gentleness, which are the
ornament of the female sex. Chinese pictorial art has lavished
upon Kwan-yin
3z.
0
its best inspiration, and depicted her as
(1) Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 268. — Wieger. Textes Philosophiques.
p. 467.— Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 204. note 4.
(2) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 262, 383. -Johnston. Buddhist China.
p. 269-270.
(3) Beal. A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, p. 391.
(4) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhi.-m. p. 57 (Hariti). — Bulletin
de l'Ecole Franchise d'Extreme orient. Vol. XVII. nc .'5. par Noel Peri. II inoi,
1917. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 203. note i.
(5) This Taoist goddess is also regarded as the patron and protectress
of mothers, and the giver of children. Johnston Buddhist China, p. 268
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 203.
(6) Hackmann. Buddhism as a Religion, p. 211. - Johnston. Buddhisl
China, p. 274.
— 208 —
captain of the "Bark of Salvation", as sea-goddess amidst rock-
scenery and waves, or in her function of bestower of children upon
mothers who invoke her powerful assistance.
The Annals of the Northern Ts'i, Peh-t'si-shu-chwan 4b ^ i=r
f^, furnish us a quaint legend on Kwan-yin f|| ^. The emperor
Wu-li jj£ ^ (A.D. 483-494) beheld one day floating in the air a
bright-coloured object, which gradually approached, and assuming
the shape of a beautiful damsel, finally landed beside him. She was
of colossal stature, and bore the aspect of Kwan-yin ||f ^ (1).
The famous Hsu Tze-ls'ni ^ ~f- ^, Imperial physician to the
Court of Ts'i ^, states that this emperor was haunted with volup-
tuous visions, and his imagination being excited, he took one of
these fancies for an apparition of Kwan-yin f| -gf .
Another legendary life of Kwan-yin ||| ^, found by the Lady
Kwan fr, consort of Duke Chao-wei |g §|, in A.D. 1305 (tenth
year of the reign of Ch'eng-sung jfc ^ A.D. 1295-1308), relates
that a king had three daughters, the eldest named Miao-yin ^? ^;
and two younger ones, named . respectively Miao-yuen typ $fc and
Miao-shen $p 3| (2).
Kwan-yin f|£ ^ appeared one day in the private apartments
of the king, disguised under the form of Miao-yin $$? -^f . In the
time of the Tang fg dynasty 'A.D. 620-907), Miao-yin typ ^ was
regarded as a form of the Goddess Kwan-yin f^ ^.
The abridged life of Kwan-yin, Kwan-shi-yin chwan-lioh $|l -[W:
^ f*|. |l|ff, calls her Miao-shen £j? H (3), and relates how she refused
(1) Both Wu-ti jj^ ^ and his son, the heir apparent, were devoted
adherents of Buddhism. They invited into the palace the most famous
Buddhist monks, who exposed before them and the courtiers the principal
tenets of the new religion, especially on ''Rewards and Punishments". Mc
Gowan. Imperial History of China, p. 220.
(■2 The above work seems to have borrowed those names from the
"Legend of Miao-shen %}f #", composed A.D, 1102. Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 134. note 2.
(3) This, and the other incidents. related here, agree on the main with the
"Legend of Miao-shen f)> |f". See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 134-196.
— 209 —
to marry, the various cruel means adopted by her father to compel
her to change her mind, how she overcame all obstacles, the
sublime heroism which caused her to pluck out her eyes and sever
her two hands, in order to make a medecine which would restore
her dying- father to health (1). As the blood gushed forth from her
wounds, she was suddenly rewarded with a thousand hands and
eyes (2), thus realizing what had been foretold her by Buddha.
Yuen-chwang j£ ^ (3) is also credited with the translation of
a volume of Dha.ra.nis, attributed to the eleven-headed Kwan-yin
1°. Opinions of Chinese Writers on the origin and sex of Kwan-yin.
A). Arguments attributing to her the masculine sex.
Hu Ying-lin ^ $jt J||, a celebrated scholar, native of Lank'i-
hsien f|] fft J§£, in Chekiang $ft yX> and ^'no lived during the reign
of Wan-lih f$ Jg (A.D. 1573-1620), of the Ming BJ dynasty, held
that Kwan-yin f| ^ was a man, and not a woman. He quotes in
favour of this opinion Wang Ch'ang-kung 3£ -J| Q, author of a life
of Kwan-yin f|| -|f, gleaned from the two works, the Lenga Sutra,
Leng-yen-king $f Ic $?, (4)' and P'u-men-p'in-king ^ ft Dap ffl.-
The learned writer endeavours to show that the Buddhist monks,
who lived in the time of the Yuen j£, or Mongol dynasty (A.D.
(1) See the "Legend of Miao-shen fJ?W- Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 178-180, 191-192.
(2) See above how the Tantra School gave 1000 arms and eyes to Ava-
lokitesvara. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 198-199.
(3) Yuen-chivang 7c !*. Another name for Hsuen-tsang Jf %. the Bud-
dhist monk, who visited India (A.D. 629-645), and returned with 657 volumes
of Sutras, images and relics. Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 290. —
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 100. note k.
(4) The Lenga Sutra. Full name Langhavatara Sutra. A philosophical
treatise on the so-called instructions of Buddha concerning the mind. Oul
of the mind, there is held to be no Buddha. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism.
p. 130.— Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 61.
27
— 210 —
1280-1368), invented the Legend of Miao-shen ^? || (l), and made
of this Chinese saint the goddess Kwan-yin |f^ ^ .
IIu Ying-lin $} Jfg $$| quotes also several other works. These,
pursues the writer, relate the life and acts of Kwan-yin ^ -g^,
under the Tsin ff (A.D. 265-420), Sung ^ (A.D. 420-479), Ts'i H
(A.D. 479-502), Liang ^ (A.D. 502-557), Ch'en f% (A.D. 557-590),
and Sui pf (A.D. 590-620) dynasties, that is from the 3rd to the
7th century (2), and in them this deity is represented at times as a
Buddhist monk, at others as a Taoist priest, Tao-slii ^ ^, or a
god, but never as a woman.
The work, entitled Shih-yuen ch'u-liu shan-tung lin-ki ft j£
/& M. I-Jj ^ ^ IE? represents this deity with all the attributes of a
man, majestic mien, dress, gait etc...
T'an Wu-ch'an j§ M <]||, who translated the Tripitaka, Pao-
tsang-king 5f H $2 (3), in the time of the Liang if£ dynasty (A.D.
502-557), holds that Kwan-yin f|| ^ was Puh-hsuen ^ JIfij, eldest
son of a Cakravarti (4), or king who turns the Wheel of the Law,
Chwan-lun jjji| jjjj^.
(1) This legend was composed in A D. 1102, under the Northern Sung
dynasty, Peh-Sung 3fc $fc, nearly 200 years before the Yuen yt dynasty com-
menced to rule the country. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 134.
note 2.
(2) The Mahayana School entered China in the 5th century, and the
Lotus of the Good Law, Saddharma Pundarika (the scriptural basis of
Kwan-yin's cult), was translated into Chinese about A.D. 417. There is,
therefore, little probability that a life of Kwan-yin should have been written
so early as the 3"! century. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 201.—
Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 272.
(3) The Tripitaka, Pao-tsang-hing J! $f £«, literally "Precious Collection
or Treasury. The Buddhist Canon. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p.
150.
(4) Cakravarti. Literally, a holy king. A military monarch and con-
queror, who governs part, or the whole of a universe. A universal monarch.
Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 142. — Monier Williams. Buddhism,
p. 15.— Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 104. note 4; p. 108. note 3.
— 211 —
Some Buddhist works, translated in the time of the Ts'in |^|
dynasty (B.C. 249-20G), that is about three centuries before Bud-
dhism entered China (1), mention also this Puh-hstien ^ [$}, and
state he was none other than Kwan-yin ^ s^f.
So far, we have various Chinese writers holding that Kwan-yin
||l ^ was a man.
Another work, called the Sutra of the All-powerful Kwan-yin
Kwan-shi-yin, Teh-ta-shi show-shwoh-king Wl 1}t i=C ffi 3: % 5Z
1$t $£> gives tne o rig-in of Kwan-yin §| ^ as follows: in the
kingdom of Buddha, Jii-lai jfl] ^5, whence are excluded all women,
the ruler Wei-teh j^ ^ one day enjoyed himself in the royal park.
While plunged into a deep slumber, two lotus-flowers suddenly
sprang up beside him, and brought forth two male children (2).
The one on the left was called "Precious Wish", Pao-i ^ ;j§£, or
Kwan-yin |^ -]=f; while the child on the right was called "Precious
Excellence", Pao-shang ^^ ^fpj, or he who possessed great power, Teh-
ta-slii ffi j$ §!]:. This legend confirms the view set forth above
that Kwan-yin || "ff was a man.
We shall close these extracts with the following passage from
the Historic Annals of the Liang ^ dynasty (A.D. 502-557).
During the time of the above dynasty, a heavenly deity, named
Kwan-yin |g ^, was much worshipped in the kingdom of Fu-nan
fc 1$ (3), which lay to the South of the Feudal State of Jeh-nan
0 Iff.
A bronze image of this deity represented him at times with
two faces and four hands, and at others with four faces and eight
hands, in which various objects were held, a child, a bird, and
(1) Buddhism was officially introduced into China A.D. 65, under the
emperor Ming-ti HJ3 iff, of the Later Han dynasty, Heu-Han ft <)'.
(2) The intelligent reader will not fail to remark the utter absurdity of
this legend as a proof that Kwan-yin was a man.
(3) Fu-nan ft ^j. The kingdom of Cambodia, according to Heal. Beal.
Four Lectures on Buddhist Literature in China. Lecture I. p. 26.
— 212 —
sometimes the sun and moon (1). In this country, Buddhism
reckoned numerous followers, and the deity worshipped there was
called Kwan-shi-yin |f| lit it-
B). Arguments attributing to her the feminine sex.
All the lives of Kwan-yin ||| -g1, dating from the time of the
Yuen 7C, or Mongol dynasty (A.D. 1280-1368), down to the present
day, the fanciful Records of Western Countries, Si-yiu-ki "gtf $fc
!£ (2), statues and pictures of this deity represent her in female
form and garb ; as a goddess filled with mercy and compassion
towards all beings, lending an attentive ear to the prayers of mortals,
and bearing them assistance in their sufferings and perils, as her
name Goddess of Mercy, Kwan-shi-yin |^ -jti; ^, suggests, that is
she who hears the sounds or prayers of the world (3).
The preceding facts show only that Kwan-yin |^ -^f was
represented in female form from the 13"' century down to the present
day, but enlighten us in nowise with regard to the period which
preceded the Mongol dynasty (4).
2°. When was Kwan-yin first represented in female form ?
Hu Ying-lin $j Jj|| |U|, quoted above, holds that she was not
represented as a woman until the time of the Sung ^ (A.D. 960-
(1) This seems to have been Marichi, the personification of light, and
Goddess of the Dawn. She is represented as a female with 8 arms, two of
which hold aloft the sun and moon. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p.
75. — Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 117. — Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. V. p. 577. note 4.
(2) Si-yiu-ki Bj $£ |£. A fanciful account of the journey, which Hsiien-
tsang ^ H, a Buddhist monk, made to India in the 7th century, and after
sojourning 17 years in the country, returned with 657 volumes, images and
pictures, all relating to Buddhism. Wylie. Notes on Chinese Literature, p.
202. — Giles. Chinese Biographical Dictionary, p. 313. — Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. V. p. 694. note 2.
(3) See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 204.
(4) See the sex of Kwan-yin discussed for the 7th and 8th centuries.
Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 201-202.
— 213 —
1280) and Yuen j£ (A.D. 1280-1368) dynasties, or in other words
not before the 10th century (1).
The Taoist priest Show-yai H }J£ seems to have been the tirst,
who, under the Sung ^ dynasty, mentioned her as a woman, and
celebrated in poetic strains her unparalleled beauty and charms,
which surpassed the splendour of the morning drew-drops, or the
brilliant hues of an isicle, when lighted up by the rays of the rising
sun.
Another poet, Cheng Lung-yiu ffr || ;£, sings her praises as
merciful goddess, who leads to the blissful Land of the West.
It seems to be also in the time of the Sung ^ dynasty (A.D.
960-1280), that the Buddhist monk P'u-ming wrote the legendary
story of the Chinese princess Miao-shen £jp || (2), whom he en-
deavoured to pass off for Kwan-yin f£| -^ (3).
In a life of Kwan-yin, Kvsan-yin-chwan $|l ^ fik", we find it
related that in the reign of the emperor Hsien-tsung jjr ^ (A.D.
806-821), of the T'ang J* dynasty, the goddess was engaged in the
work of converting the inhabitants of Western Sliensi ^ "jrtf (4).
For this purpose, she metamorphosed herself into a charming
damsel, and promised she would marry the scholar, who could learn
by heart in one night the P'u-men-p'in-king ^ f^ ^ |g. The
following morning twenty bright literati advanced, and declared
they could recite the whole classic through.
How can 1 take simultaneously twenty husbands, said Kwan-
yin ||^ ^. I am willing to take the one, who can recite to-morrow
(1) This Chinese writer ignores the paintings made by the artists Yen
Li-pen and Wu Tcto-tze i% j£i ^f-, in the 7'h and 8"» centuries, and which
already represented her as a female. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 201
202.
(2) This romantic legend was composed in A.D. 11(12, in the reign of
Hwei-tsang %_ %*, towards the close of the Northern Sung dynasty, Peh-Sung
lh 5fc- Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 134. note 2.
(3) See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 203 204.
(4) One of the functions of Kwan-yin (1\1 ,'v is to pr<>| ind prot
Buddhism throughout the world. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 204.
— 214— '
morning the whole Diamond Sutra, Kin-kang-king £ W\ $$. (^)-
Some ten scholars still succeeded in achieving this wonderful feat
of memory.
A third selection became thus necessary. She now promised
to marry the one, who, after three days, could memorize the 7
volumes of the Saddharma Pundarika Sutra, Fah-hwa-king jgj ^
IS (2)- The only one who succeeded in this last ordeal, was the
youthful Ma f^. Hereupon, Kwan-yin || -gf took him for her lord,
but unfortunately before the marriage dinner took place, she died
all of a sudden, and was buried a short time afterwards.
Later on, an aged Buddhist monk, leaning on a staff, knocked
at the door of Mr Ma J^, and inquired about the health of his
newly-married wife. She is dead, was the reply given him, and to
confirm these words he was led to her tomb. The monk struck the
mound with his staff, and immediately the coffin flew open. Upon
examining its contents, the only things found were the two collar-
bones, but changed into pure gold. The monk drew them out
with the end of his staff, and forthwith they fled away through the
midst of the air.
On account of the above legend, Kwan-yin H^ ^ is sometimes
styled the consort of the youthful Ma J^.
The work entitled "Praises of famous Buddhist Monks", Ts'an-
hwo-shang-tsan J|§ ^p ^ 1|f , quoted by the writer, taunts humor-
ously Mr Ma }£j, and invites him to seek in what family may be
treasured the bones of his faithless spouse. Such legends as the
(1) Kin-kang-king £ ]fij jfcjjj, or the Diamond Sutra. A condensation of
the Prajna-paramita, a philosophical Buddhist work, translated for the
1st time into Chinese by Kumerajiva. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p.
159.— Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 8.
(2) Saddharma Pundarika, or Lotus of the Good Law. One of the
canonical books of the Nepalese ; the standard classic of the Lotus School.
It is strongly saturated with Tantra ideas. Chapter 24 treats on Kwan-yin
||S ^-, and is published separately for the devotees of the goddess. Eitel.
Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 106.
— 215 —
above, have done much to accredit the idea that Kwan-yin ?$J ^
was a woman.
3°. Was there a Goddess of Mercy worshipped in China
before the introduction of Kwan-yin ?
Eitel (1) admits that a Goddess of Mercy may have been
worshipped in China before the introduction of the Mahayana into
the country. According to Edkins (2), this is going- too far,
and in fact there is no historical proof that a Goddess of Mercy
existed there prior to the introduction of Indian Buddhism (3). If
any such goddess was worshipped earlier than the female form of
Avalokitesvara, this divinity could have been none other than the
legendary Chinese princess Miao-shen ££ 3|. But this fabulous
saint is said to have lived B.C. 2587, or later (4), and to have led a
Buddhist life long before Buddha himself was born ; then nothing
is heard of her till the 11th or 12th century, when Buddhist monks
settled in P'u-t'o island, P'u-t'o-shan ^ |?g \\} (5), and the worship
of Kwan-yin || ^ began to spread throughout the whole of Northern
China. The inventor of this romantic tale wrote it when Buddhism
(1) Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 19-20 (Avalokitesvara). — Getty.
The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 69 (Kwan-shi-yin).
(2) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 415.— Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 69.
(3) No documents have been found showing that Kwan-yin is a devel-
opment of Miao-shen, or that the latter was worshipped as Goddess of Mercj
before the introduction of Buddhism into China. Getty. The Gods of Nor-
thern Buddhism, p. 69.
(4) Some Chinese legends identify her father with king Chwang, Chivang-
ivang ££ 3E (B.C. 696), of the Choiu ffi dynasty. Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 69. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 134. note 2.
(5) The establishment of Buddhism in P'u-t'o Island, P'u-t'o-shan ,", Pt
III, was not earlier than the 10th century. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p.
137.— Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 203. note 7.
— 216 —
and Taoism were fully developed (1), and had for his purpose to
give to the newly introduced deity a Chinese origin. Despite all
his efforts, Kwan-yin $|l ^ remains thoroughly Indian, and it is not
proved that she is a development of Miao-shen $!jp ^| (2).
As previously stated (3), Kwan-yin f|J ^ is in many respects
the counterpart of the Taoist goddess, Queen of Heaven, T'ien-heu
Ji Ja- Both are compassionate, and save men from misery and
peril, especially from the dangers of the ocean ; both also ai-e
regarded as the patrons and protectors of mothers, and as the givers
of children. This Queen of Heaven, T'ien-heu 5£ Jn, was the sixth
daughter of a sub-district magistrate in Foochow fg ')]]. Born A.D.
979, she is especially a sea-goddess, and hence much worshipped
by Southern sailors (4); her image is even found at P'u-t'o island,
P'u-l'o-shan ^ [>£ [Jj (5). Buddhists thus associated her with the
worship of Kwan-yin ||l ^, but no documents show that she is the
Buddhist Goddess of Mercy.
Literati and others, who have written on Kwan-yin ||| ^ , the
various lives of the goddess, and general popular opinion in China,
all agree in assigning to her a Buddhist origin (6).
Taoist priests, Tao-sJii %g J^, have later on borrowed Kwan-yin
||l T=f from Buddhism, and set up her image in their temples
(1) See the medley of Buddhism and Taoism in the Legend of Miao-shen
& H (Metempsychosis, the Western Paradise, Yoga doctrine, while the
princess and her family are finally canonized by the Pearly Emperor, Yuh-
hwang 3s Jl, supreme god of the Taoist Pantheon). Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 134-196.
(2) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 69, 73.— Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. VI. p. 204. note 1.
(3) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 202-203.
(4) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 574. 29th day of the 2nd month.
(5) A shrine to the Queen of Heaven, T'ien-heu, is found at the entrance
to one of the large temples dedicated to Kwan-yin in P'u-t'o island, P'u-t'o-
shan =|f |f£ |1|. Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 268.
(6) Chinese Buddhists acknowledge that the original seat of Kwan-yin's
worship was at a great distance from China, generally assumed to be Potala.
Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 270.
— 217 —
to be worshipped by their devotees. Buddhists could not reasonably
object to this mutual exchange of divinities, as they themselves
frequently borrowed from Taoism (1).
Images of Kwan-yin || ^ are sometimes found bearing- the
inscription "Sage (apparently Taoist) of the Merciful Barge1', Tie-
hang tao-jen M ^l M A- Now, all pagans, including even Taoists
themselves, when questioned by the Author, unanimously replied
that the expression Tao-jen ^ \ does not suggest a Taoist origin,
but means that through a desire of perfection, she became a menial
in the Monastery of the White Sparrows, Peh-tsioh-sze £j ^g ^p (2).
In fact, Tao-jen ^ff \ is a term designating any menial in a temple,
or a person that aspires to perfection, even in a Buddhist monas-
tery (3).
4°. Various representations of Kwan-yin |g| ^ in female form.
A). From the 5th down to the 10th century.
A chapter on the pictorial art in China, taken from the pon-
derous encyclopaedia T'ai-p'ing yii-lan ^C ^p- f^] f^ (4), published for
the first time by Li-fang ^ -)f, A.D. 983, will furnish us the best
list of representations of Kwan-yin || -gf , from the earliest times
down to the 10th century.
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. Ill Preface, p. 1 (Buddhism borrowed
from Taoism both gods and charms).
(2) See above. The Legend of Miao-shen fj? H . Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 148. note 2.
(3) Tao-jen jt A- Up to A.D. 500, Buddhists called themselves Tao-jen
ji|j A. that is men seeking for reason, or intelligent men, denoting thereby
their aspirations after Bodhi (enlightenment). Williams. Dictionary of the
Chinese Language.
(4) T'ai-p'ing y it-Ian ^ ^ ffl W- This encyclopaedia comprises liMin
volumes, divided into 55 sections. The emperor T'ai-tsung jx. ^ (A.I). 976
998), 2nd of the Sung 5fc dynasty, revised it throughout, reading 3 books per
day. Quotations are given from over 2000 works now almosl extinct. A new-
reprint was published in 1572, and another in 1S12. It is on the whole a
most important repertory. Wvlie. Notes on Chinese Literature, p. 183.
28
— 218 —
1°. Kwan-yin with 36 arms, San-shih-luh-pi kwan-yin j£ -f-
This image represents Kwan-yin jf§j -^ with 36 arms. It is
attributed to the artist Fan-k'iung fj£ 3||, and differs little from the
two images of the goddess, as she appeared once on the Fragrant
Hill, Hsiang-shan ;ff \\] (1), in the district of Paofung-hsien -f|f Mf
j§£, in Honan jpj "j^; and again at Tung-tsing )|f y^, in the province
of Hupeh $j 4b- Despite the great number of arms, they are all
distinctly represented, and one may discern the various objects
which the goddess holds in her hands. The image, however, is
barely a foot high.
2°. Kwan-yin with floating hair, P'i-fah kwan-yin ^ =§§ ^
This image represents Kwan-yin || ^ standing on a stone,
and according to popular belief, the colour changed as the stone was
one day immersed in water. The hair of the goddess floats loosely
over the shoulders, while her garments are of rich material and
display the most brilliant hues. The above image, says Li-fang ^
~ff , seems to belong to the period of the five short-lived ctynasties
(A.D. 907-960), or even to the latter part of the House of T'ang Jf
(A.D. 800-900). It can hardly be attributed to Wu Tao-tze J% jf
^ (2), as the lively colouring and rich dress are in strong contrast
with the sober tone so characteristic of his works.
3°. The long-girdled Kwan-yin, Cheang-ta kwan-yin -^ ^
.rfc.
0 ■
This image is the work of the Hanlin doctor, Li Peh-shi ^ £=J
f^f, surnamed Li Kung-lin ^ ^ jf$|, and known also as the "Sleeping
(1) The Fragrant Hill, Hsiang-shan #11]. A name given to P'u-t'o,
P'u-t'o-shan ^ [J'fc MJ, in the Legend of Miao-shen j& H, but here said to be
in Honan -Jnf ]^J. See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 164-165.
(2) Wu Tao-tze J& *f T" (8th century, AD). One of the most famous
artists of China, and founder of the Japanese school of painters. The emperor
Hsiien-tsung appointed him Imperial artist-in-chief of the palace. His style
was original, and he drew figures of men and animals, gods, landscapes and
foliage, with equal success. Giles. Chinese Biographical Dictionary, p. 889.
— 219 —
Dragon", Lung-mien kii-shi f| f}g jg- ~^. He lived in the time of
the Northern Sung- dynasty, Peh-Suhg ft % (A.D. 960-1127).
Kwan-yin f| it" is represented wearing a long girdle trailing
to the rear. The artist invented this novel style merely to excite
the curiosity of spectators, but despite its quaintness, the goddess
lost nothing of her majestic dignity.
4°. Kwan-yin recumbent, Wo-hwan-yin [^ ^ ^ (1).
This image is engraved on stone, and represents Kwan-yin $j|
•gf in a recumbent posture. It is attributed, as the preceding one,
to the artist Li Peh-shi ^ £j H^f, who engraved it for the benefit
of LiX-kwan-wen hih-fu g |^ ■% ^ ~$\, of Yen-ngan $t£ ^c, in
Shensi ffi If.
According to the compiler of the above 'ancient encyclopaedia,
Kwan-yin |^ ^ was frequently represented in female form, in the
time of the T'ang j^ dynasty, and in that of the five short-lived
dynasties, Wu-Vai 2 ft, that is from the 9th to the 10th century (2).
In confirmation of Li-fang's views, it may be added that a
print attributed to Wu Tao-tze ^L ^ ^ , who lived in the 8lh cen-
tury, represents Kwan-yin f|| ^ distinctly in female form. The
goddess is standing, and wears the high head-dress of the Gandhara
School, long-flowing garments, girdle and ear-rings. The feet are
conspicuous, a fact which shows that Chinese ethical taste had not
yet influenced her form (3).
(1) Wo 0y, to rest, to lie down, to repose. Wo-hioan-yin [ft jftl /?, "the
recumbent or reclining Kwan-yin". Williams. Dictionary of the Chin
Language.
(2) See above. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 201. note 6. where
Yen Li-pen has been already quoted, even for the 7'" century.
(3) See this print reproduced in the present volume. Illustration. 38.
Johnston holds that another representation of Kwan-yin, made by Wu I
tze, and reproduced in Fenellosa, is distinctly male. Opinions differ much
on the matter. Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 275. note 1. -Fenellosa. Epochs
of Chinese and Japanese Art. p. 96. Illustration .'55. -Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 202. note 2.
— 220 —
D). From the 10th century to the present day.
From the time of the Sung <% dynasty (A.D. 960-1280) down
to the present day, it has been the custom in China to represent
Kwan-yin || ^ as a female (1). Fenellosa, describing" the evolution
of Chinese art at this period, remarks : "the T'ang j^ dynasty (A.D.
620-907) considered this deity as a great demiurge or creator, while
the artists of the Sung ^ dynasty (A.D. 960-1280) laid stress on
her maternal character" (2). Images of Kwan-yin |^ -gf represent
her in various forms and attitudes, some with one head and two
arms, others with three, five or eleven heads, while the arms vary
from 4 to 1000, and even occasionally attain 22,000 (3). The one
thousand-armed Kwan-yin is a Tantra form, and very popular in
China. It resembles much the one thousand-armed Avalokitesvara,
described above (4), though the Chinese endeavour to explain this
form in their own peculiar way. In all early forms of Kwan-yin
HI ^, the features are Indian, with long-lobed ears, and the feet
either pendent or crossed in Hindu fashion. Later on, the features
became more and more Chinese, influenced by the legend of Miao-
Shen ^? 3|, and the tendency to give her a native origin and form.
1°. Kwan-yin in non-Tantra form, or with one head and two
arms.
Like Avalokitesvara, of which she is the counterpart (5), Kwan-
yin ^ ^ is represented with one head and two arms, and may be
either standing or sitting. This form may also wrear the five-leaved
crown of a Bodhisattva, and be seated on a lotus-throne (6). On
(1) Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 2G7. — Edkins. Chinese Buddhism,
p. 383.
(2) Fenellosa. Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art. p. 97 (French edi-
tion).—Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 276.
(3) According to Edkins, there are even representations with 84,000
arms and hands. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 383.
(4) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 197 and 199.
(b) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 200. note 4; p. 201.
(6) See Illustration 40, where she is represented as a Bodhisattva,
crowned and seated on a lotus-throne.
— 221 —
the right is a vase, symbol of Padmapani, while on the left is a
dove, symbol of fecundity. Sometimes a roll of prayers is held in
the right hand. The face is Indian in aspect, with long-lobed ears.
This form holds no child.
2°. Kwan-yin seated on a lion, Simhanada Kwan-yin (1).
This image represents the goddess sitting sideways on a lion,
with the left leg pendent. The head of the animal is turned upwards
towards the goddess. A similar form represents her seated on an
elephant (2). The features, long-lobed ears and head-dress are
thoroughly Indian.
3°. Kwan-yin giver of children, Sung-tze kwan-yin %£ -^ f^
This form seems to have entered China from Turkestan about
the 7th century, or later (4). At this time, Hariti was worshipped
in Northern India, and seems to have furnished the model of Kwan-
yin, giver of sons. Hsuen-tsang ~t^ l£| says she was represented in
flowing garments, and holding a child in her arms, or with several
children climbing about her (5). In present-da}7 images, Kwan-yin,
giver of sons, Sung-tze kwan-yin ^ -? $U ilf, holds a child in her
arms. She has flowing garments, and drapery falling from her
head over her shoulders. This form is standing. Another represents
(1) This is a form of Avalokitesvara, described above. Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. VI. p. 198.
(2) The Sicawei Museum of Antiques has a fine specimen of Kwan-yin
seated on a lion, and another representing the goddess sitting on on elephant.
(3) Some early missionaries mistook this form of Kwan-yin for the
Virgin and Child, and imagined it was borrowed from Christian sources, but
this does not seem proved. See Kircher. China Illustrata. p. 133 (Ay una
imagen de una muger con un Ninno en sus brazos). — Edkins. Chinese Bud
dhism. p. 242.
(4) A small painting of Kwan-yin with head-drapery, and holding a child,
was discovered by Herr von Le Coq at Turfan, and is said to date even from
the 5th century. Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 70.
(5) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 203. note 3. — Getty. The
Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 75.
— 222 —
her seated on a rock, with a cluster of bamboos to the rear. Beneath
the rock are lotus-flowers, floating- on the surface of the waters.
The goddess holds a child on her knee, while beside her is Lung-niX
fl ^C) bearing a willow-branch in a vase. Higher up is a dove,
and on the right Wei-t'o 7^ |?£, valiant protector of Buddhism (1).
4°. Kwan-yin with the fly-flap (2).
This image represents the goddess standing on a rock, which
overhangs the sea. She extends her fly-flap to a child borne on a
skiff, and wafted on the surface of the waters. The sea symbolises
the various phases of metempsychosis, and the child a soul that
begs the all-powerful goddess to hasten its rebirth in a happier
condition.
5°. Kwan-yin crossing the sea, Kwo-hai kwan-yin ^ if$
*(3)
This image of Kwan-yin ||l ^ alludes to her legendary passage
from Potaloka, at the mouth of the Indus, to P'u-t'o island, Pcu-
t'o-shan ^ |?£ |Jj, on the coast of Chekiang fjft ££• She performed
this long voyage seated on a lotus-leaf (4). Kwan-yin crossing the
sea is represented in temple-frescoes amidst rock and water scenery,
and sometimes attended by her faithful acolythes Shen-ts'ai ^ "%
and Lung-niX f| -fc (5).
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. I. Illustration I. (Kwan-yin presen-
ting a child to mothers praying for offspring). The group does not represent
maternal affection, or the mother and child. The child is purely a symbol,
and is stiffly held by the goddess. Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism,
p. 71.
(2) See Wieger. Textes Philosophiques. p. 476 (Koan-yin aux chasse-
mouches).
(3) See Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 262. — Johnston. Buddhist China,
p. 268. — Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 72.
(4) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 206. note 6. - Eitel. Three
Lectures on Buddhism, p. 128.
(5) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 242.— Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 169.
— 223 —
6°. Kwan-yin of the eight sufferings, Pali-nan kwan-yin /\,
WMm (1).
This image is a form of Padmapani, and represents 8 metamor-
phoses assumed for the purpose of saving mankind from 8 kinds of
suffering. The goddess wears a crown of eight heads, disposed in
two tiers of four. Shipwrecked sailors are seen wafted on the
surface of the waters, or a traveller who escapes from a wild beast.
The deliverer Kwan-yin |g ^ stands by.
7°. Kwan-yin with the fish-basket (2).
This form represents Kwan-yin standing on a lotus-flower, and
bearing in her hands a fish-basket. Beside her are crudely-carved
waves. The goddess wears flowing garments, and the peculiar
head-dress of the Gandhara School. This image is connected with
the legendary incident of Miao-shen ^ 3| (3), and the son of the
dragon king, Lung-wang |[| ^£, who had taken the form of a carp,
and being caught by a fisherman, was exposed for sale in the
market. Miao-shen typ 3| despatched Shen-tscai 3& ^ to purchase
the fish, and set it at liberty. Kwan-yin with the fish-basket is
very popular in Japan (4).
8°. Kwan-yin saving wandering souls, Yil-lan kwan-yin ^
M M a"-
This image represents Kwan-yin $|l -^f fulfilling her function
of Saviour and Deliverer (5), rescuing all souls that invoke her name,
(1) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 246. - Getty. The Gods of Northern
Buddhism, p. 73. — Johnston. Buddhist Chinn. p. 288. Strictly speaking,
these are 8 states or situations, in which it is impossible to hear the lavs ol
Buddha, and therefore difficult to attain salvation.
(2) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 87.— John-ton . Buddbisl
China, p. 291. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 108. note 4.
(3) See Chinese Superstitions Vol. VI. p. 168. Fenellosa, ignoring this
legend, mistook the symbolism of the fish. Epochs of Chinese and Japanese
Art. p. 101 (French edition).
(4) See the Butsuzo-Zui, or Japanese Manual of Buddhist divinities.
(5) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 204 and 206.
— 224 —
and leading them to the paradise of Amitabha. This Kwan-yin is
set up by Buddhists when celebrating the "rescue of hungry ghosts",
Ya-lan-hwei ]£ H #, on the 15th day of the 7th month (1). The
ceremony, originally Hindu, was brought to China by Amoga, about
A.D. 733, and grafted upon native ancestral worship.
9°. Kwan-yin in the bamboo grove, Tze-chuh kwan-yin fj| Yf
m #•
This is one of the finest paintings produced by Chinese art (2).
The scene is laid in P'u-t'o island, P'u-t'o-shan # (?£ llj- The
goddess is represented seated on a rock overhanging the sea. She is
in meditative attitude, the two hands clasped, the hair falling
gracefully over her shoulders, while to the rear stands a clump of
bamboos. At her feet the high ocean rolls its mighty waves;
wafted on a frail skiff, a shipwrecked sailor raises his hands and
begs her protection (3).
-i£ Itfr m *
10°. The P'u-t'o kwan-yin -]f |?g
n
Kwan-yin is the patron deity of P'u-t'o island, P'u-t'o-shan
■^ |?£ |lj (4), hence her image takes precedence there over all other
Buddhist gods. In the great hall of the principal shrine, a large
gilt image represents her. It was brought from Tibet, and presented
to the monastery by K'ang-hsi J|§ J5B. The figure is that of a
female, sitting cross-legged in Buddhist fashion (5). To the rear of
the goddess, is a standing image of Padmapani, the male counterpart
(1) Yu-lan-hwei j£ II #■ See on this festival. Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. V. p. 595. note 2.
(2) See Illustration 37, representing the goddess as here described.
(3) Some hold this is Shen-ts'ai % #*, who one day fell into the sea,
and was rescued by Miao-shen f)> |f. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 167-
168.
(4) P'u-t'o-shan ^ |5t Jl], or P'u-t'o island. An island in the Chusan
Archipelago, where Kwan-yin H ^ is said to have lived nine years. Chinese
Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 109. note 1.
(5) Edkins. Chinese Buddhism, p. 261. She was so scantily dressed
with only a few lotus leaves, that the Chinese monks threw a silk cloak over
the image.
Fig. 37
U tableau fameux de la Koang-yng aux bambous, dans Pile de Pou
Famous painting representing Koang-yin in the midst of bamboos
■touo
in Pu-
tu Island.
— 225 —
of Kwan-yin (1). Along the East and West walls of the hall are
32 images, representing the various metamorphoses of the goddess.
They are all male, and diversified by variety of dress, posture and
head-covering.
11°. The white-robed kwan-yin, Peh-i kwan-yin £ ^ g| ^f.
This form of Kwan-yin is said to have originated in the time
of the five short-lived dynasties, Wu-t'ai 3£ ft (A.D. 907-960),
and is founded on the following legend : the emperor T'ai-tsu ^ |§.
(A.D. 907-923), of the Later Liang dynasty, Heu-Liang fg Dg, had
a statue of Kwan-yin removed from the monastery of Yiu Chow (g)
>)\], to a new temple, erected to receive it on the Muh-yeh hill, Muh-
yeh-shan ^ ^ <Ij. Kwan-yin is represented in a half-sitting
posture, richly dressed, and the face turned towards Buddha, who
bids her manifest herself in the form of P'i-t'O (!)}(;. |?£, the heavenly
nymph.
Beside her is a damsel, clad in white, holding in her hands a
bunch of flowers, and regarding Kwan-yin. This damsel is P'i-t'o
Wi P£> tne heavenly nymph. On the left is a youth, the two hands
joined in prayer, and begging the protection of the goddess (2).
Such is the origin of this image according to Chinese writers.
Others connect it with the legend of Miao-shen ^ 3|, who, when
she retired to P'u-t'o, P'u-t'o-shan ^ |>'£ |Jj, at the command of
Buddha, clothed herself in white (3). According to Eitel, the
"white-robed kwan-yin" holds a child on her arm, and is worshipped
by women desiring progeny (4).
(1) Here the male and female forms of this deity are represented to-
gether, but the latter takes precedence.
(2) This youth and damsel resemble much the two attendants of Miao-
shen j& ^, Shen-ts'ai H ;f and Lung-nu j^g ix- See Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 169.
(3) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 73 and 87.
(4) Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 18 (Avalokitesvara). — See
Illustration representing the White-robed Kwan-yin. Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. I. p. 1.
29
— 226 —
12°. The thousand-armed kwan-yin, Ts'ien-show kwan-yin
This Tantra form of Kwan-yin is highly popular in China, and
is also found in Japan (I). It resembles much the "thousand-handed
Avalokitesvara", described above (2). The goddess may wear either
the crown of eleven heads, or a high crown without heads. In this
latter form, she is generally seated (3). The arms are outstretched,
the two original ones being clasped on the breast, while the others
hold various Tantra and non-Tantra symbols, the patra or begging-
bowl, the ambrosia vase, the shining pearl, the wheel of the lawr, a
rosary or necklace, and sometimes the sun and moon (4). The
upper arms are raised above the head, and clasp the image of Ami-
tabha, her spiritual father (5). Sometimes, there is an eye in the
palm of each hand, thus giving her "one thousand arms and eyes".
This representation of Kwan-yin |^ -gf is symbolical of her
saving power, and the belief that she looks everywhere, perceiving
the distress of afflicted mortals. The fixing of the number of hands
and eyes at one thousand is merely expressive of multitude, and has
no precise numerical significance (6).
In the legend of Miao-shen $p ^j|, there is an incident, which
seems to explain the one thousand arms otherwise. The father of
Miao-shen falling ill, the princess cut off her two arms, and made
(1) This form was probably introduced into Japan in the 9th century,
when the Buddhist priest Kobo Daishi returned from China. Getty. The
Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 79.
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 199.
(3) See Wieger. Textes Philosophiques. p. 471 (Koan-yin Chinoise aux
mille bras).
(4) The Hindu Marichi, personification of light and Goddess of the
Dawn, holds also aloft in her two hands the sun and moon. Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. VI. p. 212. note 1.
(5) See on Amitabha, Buddha of Boundless Light. Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 106-114.
(6) Waddell. The Buddhism of Tibet, p. 357. -Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 199.
Fig. 37
bis
Trpuj Putfx feu Cjlehs aut tfidis Sirienfium
•aB 3PSi3?i
ji si.trjja s
The eighteen- armed Kwan-yin, rising from the sea, and
attended by two Dalai-Lamas, re-incarnated reflexes of the goddess
(From Kircher's China Illustrata).
— 227 —
them into a medicine, which saved his life. To show his gratitude,
he ordered a statue to be erected in her honour with "arms and
eyes complete", Ts'ilen- show ts'iien-yen ^ ^ & BJJ, but the sculptor
mistook the order for "with a thousand arms and eyes", Ts'ien-
s/iovv ts'ien-yen ^^ ^f BJ£, and thus it happened that a statue with
one thousand arms and a thousand eyes perpetuated her memory (1).
Another view holds that Amitabha, the spiritual father of
Kwan-yin, is a sun-god, evolved from Persian influence and Mani-
chaean ideas (2). The one thousand arms would thus represent the
rays of the sun. This doctrine was brought to China from Cashmere
A.D. 147, by the Shaman Shirgatchin, a Buddhist monk of Hunnish
origin, who entered the country at that time, and worked at trans-
lations till A.D. 187, in Loh-yang fg. |§ (3).
The name Amitabha signifies "Boundless Light", and his
attributes are infinite love and compassion (4). His characteristic
as a sun-god was a horned figure, or circle surrounded with rays ;
later on instead of the sun's disc, we find the Lotus, symbol of
creation and the evolution of Buddhist worlds from eternal cosmic
matter. These symbols possibly go further back than Buddhism,
but have not yet been sufficiently examined, to admit of any further
solution of the origin of Amitabha (5).
(1) Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary, p. 20. Three Lectures on Bud-
dhism, p. 128. —Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 71. note 2. —
Wieger holds this Chinese explanation to be a pure invention. See Textes
Philosophiques. p. 467.
(2) Eitel. Three Lectures on Buddhism, p. 124. — Waddell. The Bud-
dhism of Tibet, p. 127, 347. - Wieger. Textes Philosophiques. p. 467 and
473. —Image of Kwan-yin in Kircher's China Illustrata. p. 140 (where the
head of this deity is represented surrounded with rays, resembling the sun 9
disc). — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 108.
(3) Beal. Four Lectures on Buddhist Literature in China, p. 6
(4) See on Amitabha, Buddha of Boundless Light. Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. VI. p. 100-114.
(5) It is impossible from any existing work, to ascertain accurately the
origin of the name and attributes of Amitabha. Beal. A Catena of Buddnist
Scriptures from the Chinese, p. 371.
— 228 —
Kwan-yin || ^ is found in various Triads, chiefly with
Sakyamuni and Mahastama, or Maitreya; also with Amitabha and
Mahastama, and occasionally with Manjusri and Vajrapani. Some-
times Samantabhadra takes the place of Vajrapani (1).
5°. Emblems and symbols of Kwan-yin.
Images of Kwan-yin || ^ bear various emblems and symbols,
denoting her origin, legendary life, attributes, power and worship.
Principal among these are the following.
1°. The two acolytes.
These are Shen-ts'ai ^ ijf and Lung-nil f| -i£. Shen-ts'ai
H Z% was a Buddhist monk, who attained to perfection under the
guidance of Miao-shen ^ ||. The goddess finally attached him to
her person (2). Lung-nil f| ^C, the Naga's daughter, brought a
precious pearl to Miao-shen $?p 3|, and chose her as teacher in the
study of the true doctrine (3). Both were canonized under the
respective titles of "golden youth", Kin-t'ung-tze ^ i|| ^, and
"pearly damsel", Yuh-nu 3£ it (4)-
2°. The willow-branch.
Avalokitesvara has been generally represented holding a lotus-
flower in the hand, hence the epithet Padmapani, or the lotus-
bearer (5). Why the lotus was abandoned, and a willow-branch
substituted for it has not yet been sufficiently explained. Perhaps,
says Johnston, we may find an explanation in the fact that the
(1) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 19, 20, 21, 113, 117, 128, 129.
(2) See Chinese Superstitions. The Legend of Miao-shen $?#. Vol. VI.
p. 167-168.
(3) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 74. — Chinese Super-
stitions. Vol. VI. p. 169.
(4) See Chinese Superstitions. The Legend of Miao-shen. Vol. VI. p. 196.
(5) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 200. - The Indian Padmapani
carries the bud of a lotus in his hand, while the Tibetan form holds a full-
blown lotus-flower. Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 73.
— 229 —
willow has been put by the Chinese to various magical uses (1).
With this branch, the goddess is deemed to sprinkle about her the
divine nectar of life, called in Chinese Kan-lu ^ f§, and in Sanscrit
Amrita (2). The willow-branch is sometimes placed in a vase, or
carried in the hands of Lung-nil f| ■£.
3°. The ambrosia vase, Ts'ing-p'ing fjtf $£; in Sanscrit Kalasa.
This was originally a dish, held in the hand of a god, to catch
the dew of heaven. Later on, it assumed the shape of a phial, at
times round or oval, and at others elongated (3). In Kwan-yin's
hands, it is long-necked, and used to sprinkle the water of life on
pious" worshippers. It may sometimes be placed on a stand beside
the goddess, and hold a willow-branch.
The vase is a special symbol of Paclmapani, and may also be
carried by Amitabha and Maitreya (4).
4°. The roll of prayers in the hand.
This is the Sulra, which Miao-shen ^p 3= constantly recited,
when relegated by her father to the palace garden, when visiting
Hades, and in her solitary retreat in P'u-t'o island, Pru-trO-shan
^ PS lil (5)- If she desired to recite her prayers during the night,
she was lighted up by the flaming pearl, which she received as a
present from the Naga king of the Southern Seas, Lung-wang f| 3E-
(1) Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 286 (Emblems of Kwan-yin).— See on
the Willow and its magical uses. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 503.
(2) Kan-lu ft g|. Literally "sweet dew". It is regarded as the ambrosia
of the gods, and priests sprinkle it for ghosts to sip. Williams. Dictionary
of the Chinese Language. — Chinese Superstitions. Vol. II. p. 214. note 1.
(3) The Kalasa is round in shape if Indian, and oval or pointed if of the
Gandhara School. When carried in the hand, it is held at the neck. Getty.
The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 59.
(4) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 200. — Getty. Ill* Gods of Nor-
thern Buddhism, p. 59.— Johnston. Buddhist China, p. 285. note 2.
(5) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 147, 161, 165,
— 230 —
5°. The luminous pearl.
This symbol refers to an incident related in the Legend of
Miao-shen %/jp 3|. When the princess saw that the son of the
Dragon King of the sea had been caught by a fisherman, and
exposed for sale in the market, she sent her acolyte Shen-ts'ai ^ ^
to purchase the fish, and set it at liberty. To thank her for this
favour, the Dragon King made her a present of a luminous pearl (1).
When Kwan-yin $^ -|f holds a child in her arms, the pearl is
sometimes entrusted to Lung-nil f|? -f£.
6°. The parrot or white cockatoo, Peh-ying-wu £j |!§ ftf.
This emblem of Kwan-yin fU ^j=f is peculiar to Northern Bud-
dhism, and is not found either in India or Tibet (2). The bird is
called in Chinese Peh-ying-wu £| f| jftf, which means a parrot, the
macaw, or white cockatoo brought from the archipelago (3). Others
hold it is a dove and a symbol of fecundity (4). Its origin seems to
be traced to the Legend of Miao-shen ^? ^j|, where we read that
the birds of the air collected grain, and brought her all kinds of
fruit, when she served as a menial in the "Monastery of the W7hite
Sparrows", Peli-tsioh-sze £| ^ ^P (^)-
7°. The necklace or rosary.
This emblem is first mentioned in the Lotus of the Good Law,
Saddharma-pundarika. Here the fabulous Bodhisattva Akcliayamati
is introduced discoursing on the name, attributes and power of
Kwan-yin ||l ^. At the close of his arguments, he loosens from
his neck a pearl necklace, and offers it to Kwan-yin ^ ^ , saying :
"Virtuous One, receive this necklace from a motive of pity to me,
(1) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 169. — Johnston. Buddhist
China, p. 87. — Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 74.
(2) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 71.
(3) Peh-ying-wu ^ H #j. A large parrot that can talk, the white
cockatoo. It is sacred to Kwan-yin. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese
Language.
(4) Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 71.
(5) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 155.
Fig. 39
1 t
Inscriptions en 1'honneur de Koang-yng.
Inscriptions in honour of Koang-i/in.
— 231 —
and to all creatures" (1). Others hold it is a Buddhist rosary (2),
which pious votaries delight in repeating-, in view of securing
happiness, and laying up merits for the nether world.
8°. The gold-furred tiger, Kin-mao-hu & ^& }&.
When Miao-shen ^p M was beheaded by order of her father,
the tutelary God of the Soil, Tu'-t'i lao-yeh ± ty % ffi, having
taken the form of a tiger, bounded out of the forest, and carried her
inanimate form to the mountains (3). Later on, the local god of
P'u-t'o island, P'u-t'0-sha.n *£. pg dj ; took also the form of a tiger,
and carried her to this solitary place with the rapidity of the wind (4).
Hence the goddess is represented sitting on a tiger, as Indian forms
represent her seated on a lion or an elephant (5).
Two ornamental inscriptions, given here by the Author (see
Illustration 39), contain various emblems of Kwan-yin ^ -|f, and
read as follows :
Ever verdant is the foliage of her Western bamboo-grove, Si-
fang chuh-yeh ts'ien-nien-ts'ui ptj' -ff Yf |j| =f- ^ 2j£.
The lotus-flowers of the Southern Sea give out the most exquisite
scent, Nan-hai lien-hwa kiu-p'in-hsiang ~$] jff: ||| ;{£ ji ^ §.
6°. Worship and festivals of Kwan-yin |^ ^'.
In Northern Buddhism, no divinity holds so large a place in
popular worship as Kwan-yin H^ -^f . She has thrown into the
background Manjusri, Wen-shu "/£ $fc, Samantabhadra, P'u-hsien
■# W, and to a certain extent even Buddha himself. This is
(1) Beal. A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, p. 393
(Kwan-shi-yin ® Ut ^).
(2) See on the "Buddhist rosary". Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V
p. 526-528. Also Illustration 194bis.
(3) See the Legend of Miao-shen f)? ff. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI.
p. 160.— Getty. The Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 74.
(4) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 164-165. — Getty. The Gods of
Northern Buddhism, p. 74.— Eitel. Three Lectures on Buddhism, p. 127.
(5) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 198, 221. note 2.
— 232 —
principally due to her being a "Saviour and Deliverer1' from all evils,
to her reputed all-powerfulness, and her boundless mercy. In all
city temples, her image occupies a prominent place, and attracts
crowds of worshippers, especially of the female sex, on her principal
festivals. In the household or family shrine, she is also a favourite
deity (1). In all dangers or perils whether of body or mind, as a
patron and protector of mothers, and as giver of children, she is
constantly invoked, and the people in general place implicit confi-
dence in her powerful protection (2).
The principal feasts of Kwan-yin ^ ^ occur on the 19th of
the 2nd month, reputed birthday of the goddess ; on the 19th of the
6th month, this being the day on which she was canonized; and on
the 19th of the 9th month (3). To prepare themselves for these
festivals, pious devotees keep Buddhist abstinence from the 1st to
the 19th of each of these months (4). Numerous minor festivals,
with processions and theatricals, are also celebrated on other dates.
The chief sanctuary of Kwan-yin's worship in China is found
in P'u-t'o island, P'u-Vo-shan ^ |?£ \[\, off the coast of Chekiang
$ft iX- Kwan-yin ||| -g1 is the goddess who looks down from the
sacred mountain of Potala (5). The Buddhists of China decided
they must have a Potala for their Kwan-yin ^ ^ . They selected an
island, because it agreed best with their legends (6). This place
was P'u-t'o -|^ |?£, a shortened form of Potaloka. Here, her image
occupies the place of honour in all the temples of the island. The
principal pilgrimage takes place on the 19th of the 2nd month, birth-
day of the goddess. It is celebrated with stately services, and attended
by crowds, some of whom come from the remotest provinces of China.
(1) See on the "Household or family shrine". Chinese Superstitions.
Vol. IV. p. 418. note 2.
(2) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 204, 206. notes 2 and 3; 207.
(3) Chinese Superstitions. Vol. V. p. 573. note 1 ; 591, 604.
(4) See Chinese Superstitions. Vol. IV. p. 452 (Buddhist abstinence).
(5) See on Potala. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 164. note 1.
(6) Kwan-yin if| ^ is a sea-goddess, and rescues sailors from the dangers
of the ocean. Chinese Superstitions. Vol. VI. p. 206-207; p. 222.
Fiff. 40
La Koang'-yng" couronnee, accompagnee de Wei-touo pou sah,
Koany-yin crowned accompanied by the Pu-s&h Wei-luo.
— 233 —
Select prayers for these festivals abound, as well as for the
various circumstances, in which the goddess is deemed to help
suffering- mortals. Devotees recite faithfully these prayers, and
hope thereby to escape from danger.
A Liturgy or Office in honour of Kwan-yin |fj| ^ was inserted
in the Buddhist Canon A.D. 1412, and published with a preface by
Yung-loli 7j< ||§, third emperor of the Ming §fj dynasty. The form
of this office bears a striking resemblance in its outline to the
common type of Eastern Christian Liturgies, and seems to have been
borrowed from Nestorian sources (1).
(1) Beal. A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, p. 307-398
(There is a preface, prayer of incense, lections, processions round the altar,
confession of sins and dismissal).
— 234
^@M'K^
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v.6
Dore, Henri
Researches into Chinese
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