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Si
EESEEVOIES
FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER,
AND
DOMESTIC WATER-SUPPLY.
WITH
AN ACCOUNT OF VARIOUS TYPES OP DAMS AND THE
METHODS AND PLANS OP THEIR CONSTRUCTION.
TOGETHER WITH
A DISCUSSION OF THE AVAILABLE WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION
IN VARIOUS SECTIONS OF ARID AMERICA; TEE DISTRIBUTION,
APPLICATION, AND USE OF WATER; THE RAINFALL
AND RUNOFF, THE EVAPORATION FROM RESER-
VOIRS; THE EFFECT OF SILT UPON
RESERVOJRS, ETC.
BY
JAMES DIX SCHUYLER,
Member American Siwiety of Civil Engineers; Member Institution of dvU
Engineers^ London ; Member Technical Society of the Pacific Coast ;
Memhiir Engineers and Architects* Association of Southern
California ; Member Franklin Institute ; Correspond'
ing Memtfer Amei'ican OeographiccU Society,
FIRST EDITION,
FIRST THOUSAND.
NEW YORK: '
JOHN WILEY & SONS.
London : CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited.
1901.
Copyright, 1901,
BT
JAMES DIX SCHUYLER.
ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRTNTKR, NEW TORE.
APR 19 1901
PREFACE.
In 1896 the author was requested to prepare a brief descriptive account
of such of the principal dams and reservoirs as had come under his observa-
tion in the course of his professional practice in the arid region of the
United States, for publication among other Water-supply and Irrigation
Papers issued by the U. S. Geological Survey for the general information
of the public on topics of popular interest.
In compliance with this request a paper was written somewhat hastily
in the rare leisure intervals of a busy season, which was printed and cir-
culated as a portion of the 18th Annual Eeport of the Geological Survey,
in a more pretentious form than had been anticipated when the manu-
script was prepared. The rapidity with which the edition of the paper was
exhausted testified to the existence of a widespread interest in the subject
of water-storage in the West, and a general demand for the facts regarding
the works which have been built and those which are projected. This has
encouraged the author to republish the paper in another form, revising and
adding to it as the material has become available. The work does not
pretend to be an exhaustive treatise on the subject of dam-construction
in western America, nor does it assume to cover the field by an account of
all the important dams which have been built. It is chiefly a straightfor-
ward description of those works with which the author has become familiar,
either as a consulting engineer, or as designer and constructor, or merely
as an interested observer of the development of the ideas of other en-
gineers. The field is too great to be completely covered by any one work,
and new projects are developing with such rapidity as to render the task
of enumerating them all quite beyond the power of any one individual.
For what it may be worth in the way of information or suggestion to
the fellow members of his profession, or to others interested in the storage
of water, the volume is modestly presented, craving indulgence for all
errors of omission or commission.
James D. Schuylek.
OCfTOBER, 1900.
INTRODUCTION.
The development of a water-supply for irrigation in the arid West
sooner or later reaches a stage where the construction of storage-reseryoirs
becomes a necessity. If the stream is one of considerable Yolume, numer-
ous irrigation-canals will be constructed from it at all convenient points,
and its entire normal flow will be utilized before the impounding of flood-
volumes is thought of as a possibility. But with the varying seasons there
will occasionally come a year when the best of streams are so shrunken
below the normal as to limit sharply the area which can be irrigated from
it, and emphasize the regret that some means had not been provided for
holding back the wealth of water which at times pours into the sea without
benefit to any one, so as to render it available in the drier part of the year.
Other streams there are, which dram very large districts and at certain
times of the year are formidable and almost impassable rivers, that in the
summer and fall are dry for months at a time. If these sources are to be
rendered servicable storage-reservoirs must be built as the initial step in
irrigation development.
All streams, except they be regulated by nature by means of lakes or
subterranean reservoirs, are subject to great fluctuation. It is the function
of artificial reservoirs to equalize in a measure these variations in flow, im-
pounding the floods for use in the season when irrigation is necessary.
Were it possible to conceive of a stream flowing throughout the year without
change in volume, such a stream would not have its fullest measure of use-
fulness without storage of the water flowing during the period of the year
when irrigation is not needed.
Inasmuch as the total available water-supply of the arid region is vastly
short of the quantity needed for irrigating all the land requiring artificial
watering, it is evident that, under every condition and with every class of
stream, storage-reservoirs are needed to develop the fullest measure of use-
fulness of the existing supply.
Unfortunately it is beyond the possibility of hope that all the water
flowing can be stored or utilized. There is such a wide range in the total
run-off of every stream from one season to another that it would rarely be
possible to flnd storage capaicty for the extremes of flow. On large rivers
Vl INTRODUCTION.
the ratio between maximum and minimum years may vary as 12 to 1, while
on smaller streams the total flow one year may be one hundred times as
mu<5h as that of the next year. Hence the reservoirs which might be pro-
vided to catch all the flow of average years would occasionally be over-
whelmed by freshets so extraordinary as to fill them several times over.
This condition has an important bearing on the design of every reservoir
located in the path of floods, first, in emphasizing the necessity for provid-
ing ample spillway capacity, large enough to carry safely the greatest possi-
ble or probable flow, and, second, in fixing the proportion which the
capacity of the reservoir may bear to the total annual run-off of the stream,
so as to minimize the ratio of silt deposited to the total volume of water
impounded. It may be accepted as true that the destiny of every reservoir
is to be filled with silt sooner or later. If a reservoir were created on a
stream carrying silt to the extent of 1^ of its volume on an average
(although few actually carry so much as 1^), and the average annual fiow
of the stream were, for an extreme example, fifty times as great as the
capacity of the reservoir, the latter would be filled and become unservice-
able in two years, assuming that the greater portion of the silt carried was
deposited in the reservoir. It would evidently, therefore, be unprofitable
to construct such a reservoir unless provision were made for an immediate
increase in height of dam, for diverting the river around the reservoir,
which is usually impracticable, or for sluicing or dredging the silt from the
reservoir, a process involving great expense. If, on the other baud, the
reservoir capacity was made great enoagh to store rather more than the
usual average flow for one year, the period of usefulness of the works would
be vastly increased, and the consideration of the problem of silt disposal
would be left for future generations to solve.
The importance of reservoir-construction and water-storage for irriga-
tion was not so generally recognized in the arid region prior to about the
year 1885 as it has been subsequent to that time, and it is only within a
comparatively recent period that capital has been extensively enlisted in
such works except for the storage of water for cities and towns. With a
few prominent examples of successful achievement in that line as precedents,
however, the subject of water-storage has awakened wide-spread attention,
and each year it appears to be attracting deeper public interest. Capital
has been slow to undertake the largest and most important works of this
character, because of the difficulty of realizing immediate returns upon the
investment. The development of a new section upon which water is but
recently introduced, the constraction of distributing canals, ditches, and
pipes, the cultivation of the land and the planting of orchards — in fact the
conversion of a desert to a condition of profitable productiveness, is the work
of time, which cannot be begun until the irrigation-works are actually com-
pleted, and when begun is slow of full development. Meantime, however^
INTRODUCTION. vii
the interest accoant accnmnlates, and often is so far in excess of possible
revenues as to bring discouragement, and sometimes actual bankraptcy,
before a paying basis is reached. The uncertainty of the laws of the differ-
ent iStates governing water rights in reservoirs, the difficulty of establishing
fixed rates for water that will be high enough to afford an adequate revenue
to the capital involved and low enough to enable the farmer to pay for the
water he requires and make a living while developing his farm, and the
responsibilities involved in the risk fiom floods, accidents, and dry seasons,
have been potent in deterring capitalists from investing in the business of
storing and selling water, per se^ unless it were coupled with the ownership
of the lands to be irrigated, or with the domestic supply of a growing town,
or with the possibilities of generating water-power.
The recent development of electrical machinery, by which power may
profitably be transmitted long distances with comparatively small loss, has
indirectly benefited the irrigation development of the country by adding
an incentive to the construction of storage-reservoirs for the primary and
more profitable purpose of generating power. Many reservoirs are being
favorably considered by capitalists for the power which they will afford that
would otherwise be regarded as comparatively valueless or unprofitable
investments for irrigation alone. As the great bulk of precipitation in the
arid region occurs in the mountains, where it increases with some degree of
uniformity with every foot of increased altitude, the mountains are coming
to be regarded as indispensable to the wealth of the country, valuable not
only for their precious metals, stone, and timber, but for the store of water
which they are able to supply to the thirsty plains below. The mountains
not only supply the water, but they usually afford the best sites for reservoirs
to impound it, in ancient lake-beds, and high, cool, deep valleys, surrounded
by forests; while the latter fulfil a most important function and attain a
value far higher than the mere commercial one to be derived from their
lumber and firewood, by serving to retard the rapid run-off of the water-
supply. Forest growth is of primary importance in the preservation of the
source of streams, in preventing the mountains from being washed down
wiCh destructive force to the valleys and the sea, and in creating natural
reservoirs on every square mile of their surface.
That storage-reservoirs are a necessary and indispensable adjunct to
irrigation development, as well as to the utilization of power, requires no
argument to prove. That they will continue to become more and more
necessary to our Western civilization is equally sure and certain; but the
signs of the times seem to point to the inevitable necessity of governmental
control in tlieir construction, ownership, and administration. Those which
private capital may undertake should only be permitted to be erected under
the most rigid governmental supervision, to assure their absolute safety.
Many reservoirs are needed for the development of the arid regions which
Vlii INTRODUCTION.
are of too great a magnitade to be andertaken by privato capital or organized
indiTidaal efiFort. In e^ery other coantry sach works are andertaken by
the national government. In general it may be said that the lands which
would be benefited by such works in arid America belong to the govern-
ment. To make these lands productive and capable of sustaining popula-
tion, the government of the United States should undertake their reclamation
and construct and administer the reservoirs. That such a policy will ere
long be inaugurated seems inevitable. The purpose of this work is to
familiarize the public with the details of constraction and the general
features of interest appertaining to the principal reservoirs constructed or
projected in the Western States and Territories which have come within the
knowledge or observation of the writer, describing in a popular way their
characteristics, their water-supply, the results accomplished or sought to
be accomplished by them, and the methods and materials employed in the
construction of the dams which form them.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAOB
ROCK-FILti DAMB 1
Varioas types of rock-fill dams described. — The Esoondido dam, faced with
redwood plank— the first rock-flU dam built for irrigation storage. — Lower Otay
steel-core, rock-fill dam, general description of construction. — Morena rock-fill
dam, with concrete facing. — Barrett dam, ander construction. — Upper Otay dam,
projected and begun. — Ghatsworth Park rock-fill, with concrete and masonry
tikin, — The Pecos Valley, N. M., type of rock-fill dams, with earth facing. — Quick-
opening spillway gates. — ^Walnut Grove rock-fill dam, and its disasterous failure.^--'^'
East Canyon Creek rock-fill dam, with plate-steel center-core. — South Platte
dam. — ^The English dam, Cal., timber-crib rock-fill. — The Bowman dam, an exist-
ing example of earlier rock-fill construction.
CHAPTER IL
Htdbaulic-fill Dahb 70
Principles of dam construction by the agency of water. — San Leandro and
Temescal dams, supplying Oakland, Cal., partially built by the hydraulic method.
— The Tyler, Texas, hydraulic-fill dam, the cheapest on record.— La Mesa, Cal.,
hydraulic-fill dam, and the assorting of rock and earth by the varying velocities
of water. — The Lake Christine hydraulic-fill dam, San Joaquin River, Cal., in
process of construction. — The filling of high trestles with earth and rock embaok-
ment by hydraulic methods on the Canadian Pacific and Northern Pacific railways,
as illustrating the principles of hydraulic dam construction.— Hydraulic construe*
tion at Seattle, Tacoma, and elsewhere.
CHAPTER HL
Mabonbt Daks 117
Elementary principles involved. — Curved ««. straight masonry dams. — The
advantages of curvature in all masonry dams as a safeguard against cracks due to
extreme changes of temperature. — The old Mission dam, erected by the Jesuit
Fathers near San Diego, Cal., one of the first structures of its kind in America. —
£1 Molino dam. — The Sweetwater dam, its original design, construction, severe
test and subsequent enlargement. — The silt problem in the Sweetwater reservoir,
i— The Hemet dam and the irrigation of land from Lake Hemet reservoir. — The
Bear Valley dam, the slenderest dam of its height in the world. — La Grange
dam, the highest oTerflow dam In America.— The Folsom dam, Cal., erected by
ix
X TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PiflB
convict labor.— The San Mateo, Cal., concrete dam, the greatest mass of concrete
in existence. — Ran-off of streams supplying the San Mateo and adjacent reser-
voirs. — Pacolma submerged dam. — Agua Fria dam, Ariz., and the limited volume
of underflow in streams shown by its construction. — The Seligman dam. — The
Williams dam. — The Walnut Canyon dam, Ariz., and the phenomenal leakage of
the reservoir behind it. — The Ash Fork, Ariz., steel dam, the only one of its type
in the world. — The Lynx Creek dam, and its failure, a conspicuous example of y
how dams should not be built. — Concrete dams at Portland, Oregon. — The Basin
Creek, Mont., masonry dam. — A masonry dam under 640-ft. head. — New Croton
dam. New York, and other dams of the New York City water-supply works. —
Indian River dam. — Cornell University dam and the provision made for con-
traction cracks— Bridgeport and Wigwam dams. Conn. — The Austin dam and its ^
recent failure. — Masonry dams in Guanajuato, Mexico. — Foreign dams of Spain,
France, Belgium, Italy, Wales, Algiers, Germany, Egypt, India, China, and
Australia.
CHAPTER IV.
Eabthbn Dahb 274
Ancient earth dams of Ceylon and India, of enormous dimensions. — Modern
dams of India. — General principles to be observed in earth dam construction. —
The Vallejo dam. — Cuyamaca dam and reservoir and the irrigation system sup-
plied. — Merced reservoir dam. — Buena Vista Lake dam. — Pilarcitos and San
Andr6s dams, supplying San Francisco. — Cache la Poudre dam. — Earth dams
erected by the State of Colorado. — Doubtful results of State construction of stor-
age-reservoirs.
CHAPTER V.
Natural RESERYOnis 209
The Alpine Reservoir, Cal., formed by an earthquake. — Twin Lakes Reservoir,
Colo. — Larimer and Weld natural reservoir. — Marston Lake, supplying Denver. —
Loveland basin. — The Laramie basin, Wyo. — Lake de Smet, Wyo. — Natural
gravel-bed storage-reservoirs on the Los Angeles, San Gabriel and Santa Ana
rivers, in Southern California.
CHAPTER VI.
Projected Reseryotrs 814
Reservoir surveys made by the U. S. Geological Survey, tables of capacity and
area, and contour maps in Appendix. — Government surveys in Wyoming and Col-
orado, reported on by Col. H. M. Chittenden, Corps of Engrs., U. S. A. — Govern-
ment reservoir surveys on the Gila River, Arizona, to provide storage water for
irrigation on the Gila River Indian Reservation. — The San Carlos, Riverside, and
Buttes sites. — The Tonto Basin reservoir, Ariz., and the projected mammoth dam
of masonry. — Proposed reservoirs on Rio Verde, Arizona. — Projected dam in Bear
Canyon, near Tucson, Arizona, for power and irrigation. — Proposed dams and
reservoirs on the Rio Grande in New Mexico and Texas. — The Elephant Butte
masonry dam. — Run-off of the Rio Grande and water-supply available for irrigation.
— Proposed reservoirs in Texas. — Caimanche Lake. — Nueces reservoir, — Fria River
reservoirs. — Sand Lake reservoir. — Upper Pecos reservoir-sites in New Mexico. —
TABLE OF C0NTENT8. id
PAOB
Projected dam and reservoir on Rock Creek, Nev., for irrigation in tbe Hnmboldt
Vallej. — Lost Canyon, Colo., natural rock-fill dam. — Projected reservoirs in Cali-
fornia. — The Little Bear Valley dam, of concrete, in process of construction by tbe
Arrowhead Reservoir Co. — Huston Flat reservoir-site, and its projected hydraulic-
fill dam. — Grass Valley reservoir-site. — The projected masonry dam at Victor, Cal.
on the Mojave River. — Projected reservoirs in San Diego Co. — Proposed reservoirs
on Kern River, Cal. — ^The Manache Meadows site and the project of the Kern-
Rand Reservoir and Electric Co. for power utilization. — Kern Lake reservoir-site. —
Big Meadows. — Utilization of natural lakes. — The enterprise of the Great Plains
Water Co. in the Arkansas Valley, Colo., in the storage of flood waters in enor-
mous natural basins.
APPENDIX.
Containing tables of reservoir areas and capacities of selections made by U. S.
Geological Survey — tables of capacities of various reservoirs in service — tables
of cost of reservoirs per acre-foot of reservoir capacity, etc 385
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
nOCRB PAOB
1. Map of Escondido Irrigation District and System of Works 2
2. Feeder Canal on the Side of Rodriguez Mountain, Escondido Irrigation District 8
8. Feeder Conduit of Escondido Irrigation District 6
4. Escondido Irrigation Dam, looking north, showing Spillway 7
5. Back of Escondido Irrigation Disirict Dam 9
6. Plans and Profiles of Escondido Dam 13
7. Details of Gate of Escondido Dam 18
8. Pick-up Weir at Head of Distributing Sjstem in Escondido Irrigation District. 14
9. Contour Map of Reservoir of Escondido Irrigation District 16
10. Construction of Facing of Escondido Dam 17
10a. Escondido (Cal. ) Rock-fill Dam— Wooden Lining .facing page 18
106. Site of Dam, South Platte Reservoir Site — Narrowest Part facing page 19
11. Masonry Foundation of Lower Otaj Dam 21
JJ^- i Otay (Cal.) Rock-fill Dam— Steel Core facing pages 22. U
12. Steel Web-plate and Anchor- trench at West End of Lower Otay Dam 28
12a. Otay (Cal.) Rock-fill Dam— Steel Core. facingpage 25
18. Crest of Lower Otay Dam, showing Web-plate of Steel embedded in Concrete.
Dam nearing Completion 25
aS. Map of Lower Otay Reservoir 26
*^15. Plans of Lower Otay Reservoir 28
16. Explosion of Great Blast at Lower Otay Rock-fill Dam 29
17. Barrett Dam. .' 88
18. Morena Dam-site, looking Eavt 87
19. Morena liock-fiU Dam in Process of Construction. Showing Top of Toe-wall
above the Water-line 89
20 Murena Rock-fill Dam, showing a Portion of Toe- wall under Construction 40
v^21. Reservoirs near San Diego, California 41
22. Upper Otay Dam, Foundation Masonry 42
28. Sketch of Reconstruction of Chatsworth Park Rock-fill Dam 44
24. Castlewood Dam, Colorado : Plan, Sections, and Elevation 46
24a. View of Castlewood Dam, Colorado, during Construction, looking North
farcing page 46
246 View of Castlewood Dam and Reservoir, Colorado .facing page 47
25. Sketch-map of Dam at Head of Pecos Canal 47
26. Lake Avalon Dam. Rock-fill in Process of Construction 48
27. Lake Avalon Dam, Pecos River, New Mexico. Showing the Crest of Com-
pleted Dam and Spillway Discharging 49
28. Canal Headgates, Lake Avalon Dam 50
29. Quick-opening Qates in Spillway of Lake Avalon Reservoir, Pecos Valley, New
Mexico 61
xiii
xiv LiaT OF ILLUBTRA.TI0N8.
FIOtTRB PAGB
80. Sections of Lake Avalon and Lake McMillan Rock-fill and Earth Dams, Peooa
Valley, New Mexico 51
81. Sketch-map of Pecos Valley Canals 52
^83. Map of Pecos Valley, New Mexico, showing Location of Reservoirs and Canals 55
88. Cross-section and Elevation of Walnut Grove Dam, Arizona 59
84. View of Walnut Grove Dam, Arizona 60
85. East Canyon Creek Dam, Utah. Rock-fill with Steel Core 65
86. Balanced Valve, used for Reservoir Outlet, South Platte Rock-fill Dam 68
87. South Platte Rock-fill Dam. View of False Work and Bridge over tbe Dam-site 60
87a. Site of Dam, South Plate Reservoir Site — Above .facing page 71
88. Map of Reservoir formed by Rock-fill Dam on South Platte River, Colorado ... 72
88a. Plan and Cross-section of the Bowman Dam facing page 74
886. Plan and Cross-section of the Fordyce Rock-fill Dam, California. . ,facing page 75
80. Plans and Cross-sections of San Leandro and Temescal Dams 78
40. Hydraulic-fill Dam at Tyler, Texas, showing Delivery-pipe supported on a
Grade-line, carrying Material to Opposite Side, and Spillway Cut made by
sluicing the Earth into Base of Dam 70
41. Hydraalic Sluicing for building Dam at Tyler, Texas 81
42. Hydraulic-fill Dam, at Tyler, Texas, in Process of Construction • . . 85
48. View of Finished Dam and Wasteway of La Mesa Reservoir 87
43a. La Mesa (Cal.) Dam in Course of Construction by the Hydraulic Process
facing page 84
44. La Mesa Reservoir. Beginning of the Construction of Hydraulic-fill Dam 91
45. Details of Outlet-gate and Well-culvert of La Mesa Dam 08
46. Construction of Hydraulic Dam, La Mesa Reservoir, illustrating the Method of
Suspending Pipes 05
47. Cross-section of La Mesa Dam 07
48. La Mesa Hydraulic-fill Dam, showing Pipe Discharging Material on the Dam. . 08
48a. View of Lake Christine Dam-site, showing Outlines of Hydraulic- fill Dam
facing page 03
48&. View of Lake Christine Dam-site, San Joaquin River, near Fresno, California,
where a Hydraulic-fill Dam is in Process of Construction .facing page 00
40. Hydraulic Sluicing, Canadian Pacific Railway. View of Pit, and Hydraulic
Giant at Work 101
50. Hydraulic Fills, jMurtially completed, at Mountain Creek, B. C, Canadian Pa-
cific Railway 107
51. Hydraulic Filling of High Trestle at Mountain Creek, B. C, on Canadian Pa-
cific Railway, near View of Dump 100
52. Northern Pacific Railway. Bridge 100 Ill
58. Northern Pacific Railway. Bridge 180, Cascade Mountains 112
54. Northern Pacific Railway, Hydraulic-fill Construction. View in Pit showing
Hydraulic Giant in Action 118
55. Northern Pacific Railway, Bridge 184. Hydraulic Filling in Progress 114
56. Comparison of Profiles of Zola, Sweetwater, and Bear Valley Dams 120
57. Old Mission Dam, near San Diego, Cal. The First Irrigation Dam built in the
United States 128
58. Original Sweetwater Dam as completed to the Sixty-foot Contour 127
50. Elevations and Sections of Sweetwater Dam 120
60. Face of Sweetwater Dam in 1800. After Two Years of Drouth 180
61. Details of Tower of Sweetwater Dam 183
62. Sweetwater Dam as finished, April, 1888 188
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XV
VIOURB PIGB
68. Sweetwater Dam daring tlie Great Flood of January 17, 1895 185
68a. Sweetwater (Cal.) Masonry Dam .facing page 187
64. Spillway of Sweetwater Dam, seen from Below 189
65. Sweetwater Dam, showing New Apron of Spillway and Protecting Spar- walls
on Pipe-line 141
66. Repairing and Increasing tbe Height of the Parapet of Sweetwater Dam 148
67. Plan of Sweetwater Dam 145
68. Profile and Sectional View and Plan of Wasteway Tannel, Sweetwater Dam... 145
69. Details of Sweetwater Dam 145
70. Sweetwater Dam, showing Head of Outlet Tunnel and Spillway 147
71. Map showing Ix)cationof Lake Hemet, the Main Conduit, and Irrigated Lands. 158
72. Hemet Dam, Riverside County, California 155
78. Hemet Dam as finished, showing the Spillway Ridge south of the Dam 157
74. Contour Map of the Lake Hemet Reservoir 159
75. Hemet Dam, Riverside County, California 160
76. Hemet Dam Construction Plant 161
76a. Lake Hemet (Cal.) Masonry Dam .facing page 16S
77. Cross-section of Bear Valley Dam 165
78. Plan and Elevation of Bear Valley Dam 165
79. Bear Valley Dam, looking south, toward Spillway 167
80. Spillway of Bear Valley Dam, with Flashboard Gates 169
81. Base of New Rock-fill Dam, Below the Bear Valley Dam 171
82. Map of Bear Valley Reservoir 175
82a. Plan of La Grange Dam, California • 177
826. Profile of La Grange Dam, California 177
88. Upper Face of La Grange Dam 178
84. Ijower Face of La Grange Dam 179
85. La Grange Dam, California, during Constuctiun — finishing the Crest 181
|!^- 1 La Grange Dam. California 181 , 188
88. La Grange Dam. California, daring Flood 188
89. Map showing Location of Folsom Dam and the Main Canal 185
90. Plan, Cross-section, and Elevation of Weir and Headw^orksof Folsom Canal. . . 186
91. American River Dam at Folsom 187
92. Hydraulic Jacks for raising Shutter on Folsom Dam 189
93. View of Masonry Dam on American River, California, at the Folsom State
Prison, sliowing Canal Head-gates 191
94. Plant for Mixing and Handling Concrete at San Mateo Dam 198
95. Construction of Intake of San Mateo Dam 195
96. Moulds for Concrete Blocks, San Mateo Dam 197
97. Roughening Surface of Concrete Blocks to receive Fresh Cement, at San Mateo
Dam 199
98. San Mateo Dam being Inspected by American Society of Civil Engineers in
July, 1896 201
99. Plans and Sections of San Mateo Dam and Map of Crystal Springs Reservoir
facing page 208
100. The Newell Curve 204
101. Excavation of Trench for Pacoima Subterranean Dam 207
102. View of Flood passing over Pacoima Subterranean Dam 209
108. Plan and Profile of Pacoima Dam. ... 211
104. Measuring-box 21^
xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIGCUB PAOB
lOo. Cross-sections of Agua Fria Diverting-dam and Storage-reservoir Dam, Arizona. 213
106. Foundations of West Ciiannel of Agua Fria Diverting-dam 215
107. Diverting-dam of the Agua Fria 217
108. Submerged Storage- and Diverting-dam, near Kingman, Arizona 219
109. Seligmau Dam, Arizona 220
110. View of Upper Face of Seligman Dam daring Construction 221
111. Section and Profile of Seligman Dam 222
112. Ash Fork, Arizona, Steel Dam, View of Steel Construction from Lower Side. . . 225
113. Ash Fork, Steel Dam, showing Frame ready to receive Plates 225
114. Ash Fork Reservoir 226
115. Walnut Canyon Dam, Arizona 227
116. Section and Profile of Walnut Canyon Dam, Arizona 227
117. Lynx Creek Dam, Arizona, after Kupture by Flood. View from below 228
118. Lynx Creek Dam, Arizona. Section showing Facing Walls, and Concrete Heart-
ing 229
119. Inner Face of Concrete Dam at Portland, Oregon 231
120. Exterior View of Reservoir Dams at Portland, Oregon 233
121. Reservoir No. 2, Portland, Oregon, showing Aerating Fountain 125 feet high. . 235
122. Masonry Dam under 640-foot Head, the Greatest Recorded Water-pressure on
Masonry 236
123. Austin Dam and Power-house, Texas 243
123a. Austin Dam, during Flood of April 7, 1900, and immediately before the Break 245
1236. Austin Dam, Texas. View taken during Flood, a few Minutes after the
Break 247
123(;. View after Subsidence of Flood of April 7, 1900, showing Section of Masonry
moved bodily Downstream 247
124. Upper Dam at Guanajuato, Mexico 249
125. Lower Dam, or •• Presla de la OUa '* Guanajuato, Mexico frontispiece
126. The Ekruk Tank, Bombay, Plan and Details 276
127. Cross-section of the Ashti Dam, India 278
128. View of Cuyamaca Dam and Outlet Tower 283
129. Masonry Diverting-dam of the San Diego Flume Co., California 288
130. Plan and Elevation of Diverting-dam of San Diego Flume Co., California 286
181. Sample of High Trestle Construction on San Diego Flume, California 287
131a. Map showing Location of Merced Reservoir, California 290
132. View of Yosemite Reservoir, Merced, California 291
^ 133. Reservoir of South Antelope Valley Irrigation Company 801
134. Map of Little Rock Creek Irrigation District 302
135. View of a Corner of the Basin of Alpine Reservoir before Work was Begun.. .. 805
[ 36. Details of Tunnel-outlet of the Alpine Reservoir 804
[37) Arkansas River Basin. Twin Lakes Reservoir-site .facing page 307
Detail's of Outlets for Twin Lakes, Colo 308
189. The ** Devil's Gate," Sweetwater River. Wj^oming 817
140. Contour Map of Buttes Reservoir-site, Gila River. Arizona .facing page 853
141. Longfitudinal Section of Buttes Dam-site, Gila River. Arizona 823
142. Section of Proposed Rock-fil' Dam at the Buttes, Gila River. Arizona 824
143. Section of Proposed Buttes Dam through Spillway, showing End Wall of Rock
Fill 824
y 144. PlanofButtesDam-site, showinq: Location selected for Rock-fill Dam /(7«w/7;?«.<7e 825
{ 145. Plan of Riverside Dam-site, Gila River, Arizona, showing Location selected for
Proposed Masonry Dam 325
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xvii
nGUBS PAUB
146. Contour Map of San Carlos Reservoir-site, Gila River, Arizona. . . . facing page 827
147. Longitudinal Profile of Sau Carlos Dam-site, showing Elevation of Proposed
Masonry Dam 836
148. Contour Plan of San Carlos Dam-site, showing Location selected for Proposed
Masonry Dam .facing page 329
149. Maximum Profile of Proposed San Carlos Dam of Masonry 827
149n». San Carlos Dam-site, looking Down-stream .facing page 829
150. Section of San Carlos Dam through one of the Outlet Towers, illustrating
Arrangement of Control 828
151. Details of Outlet Tower and Gates. San Carlos Dam, Gila River, Arizona.. . . . 829
152. San Carlos Dam, Arizona, Section through Spillway 829
152a. San Carlos Dam-site, looking Down-stream 831
153. Boring Apparatus 881
154. View of San Carlos Dam-site, Gila River, Arizona 338
154a. View of Left Abutment V^all, San Carlos Dam-site, showing Dip of Lime-
stone 885
155. View of the Buttes Dam-site, looking Down-stream 835
155a. Buttes Dam-site, looking Up-stream from Upper Toe 337
156. Buttes Dam- site, looking Up-stream; Proposed Quarries on Left ; Spillway on
Left Center of Field 887
157. View of Riverside Dam-site, Gila River, Arizona 889
158. Plan of Tonto Dam 340
159. Sections of Dam and Canyon of Tonto Reservoir 841
160. Map of Tonto Basin Reservoir, showing Elevations of Ten Cross-sections of the
Reservoirs 842
161. Tonto Basin Dam-site, Salt River, Arizona, looking Down-stream 848
162. Dam-eite on Salt River below Mouth of Tonto Creek. 845
168. Map of Gila and Salt River Valleys, showing Existing and Proposed Irrigation
Works .facing page 846
164. Map of Salt River Valley, showing Canals Constructed and Proposed facing page 847
165. Map of Site of Horseshoe Reservoir, on Verde River 347
166. Map of Lower Portion of McDowell Reservoir 349
167. Elephant Butte Dam on Rio Grande, above El Paso, Texas. Plan and Section
of Dam-site, Profile of Dam, and Plan of Outlets 855
168. Map of Elephant Butte Reservoir on the Rio Grande 356
169. Diverting-dam near Fort Selden, Texas, in Process of Construction 357
170. Wood-stave Pipes, laid under Bed of the Rio Grande 860
171. Map of Rock Creek Reservoir, Canal Lands, and Lands to be Irrigated 364
172. Plan of Dam-site and Reservoir-site, Rock Creek, Nevada 365
173. Sketch of Longitudinal Section of Lost Canyon Natural Dam 866
174. Sketch of Cross-section at Upper End of Lost Canyon Natural Dam 367
174a. Comparison of Dams of the System of the Arrowhead Reservoir Company. . . . 369
174d. View of Huston Flat Reservoir-site 371
175. Map of Little Bear Valley Reservoir facing page 372
176. Map of Sources of Water-supply in the Vicinity of San Diego, California
facing page 378
177. Cross-section of Dam-sites in San Diego County, California 878
178. Map of Watershed and the Lands to be Irrigated from Victor Keservoir 874
179. Cross-section of Dam-site 375
1 80. View of Victor Dam-site looking Up-stream 377
181. Map of Victor Reservoir 879
xvm
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
riOUKB PlOB
lb2. Map of Manacbe Meadows Reservoir 880
188. Map of Manache Meadows Dam-site. 861
PLATES IN APPENDIX.
CALIFORNIA.
1. Eleanor Lake Reserroir-site.
2. Toulume Meadows Reservoir-site.
8. Little Yosemite Reservoir-site.
4. Kennedy's Lake and Meadows Reser-
voir-site.
LAHONTAN BASIN.
5. Donner Lake Reservoir-site.
6. Hope Valley Heservoir-site.
7. Independence Lake Reservoir-site.
8. Webber Lake Reservoir-site.
9. Long Valley Reservoir-site.
ARKANSAS RIVER BASIN.
10. Cottonwood Lake Reservoir-site.
11. Sugar Loaf Reservoir-site.
12. Monument Reservoir-site.
18. Tennessee Park Reservoir-site.
14. Clear Creek Reservoir-site.
15. Hay den Reservoir-site.
Leadville Reservoir-site.
MONTANA.
16. Sun River Reservoir System, Reser-
voir No. 1.
17. Reservoir No. 2.
18. Reservoir No. 8.
19. Reservoir No. 4.
20. Reservoir No. 5.
21. Reservoir No. 6.
22. Reservoir No. 7.
28. Reservoir No. 8.
24. Reservoir No. 9.
25. Benton Lake Reservoir.
EESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER,
AND DOMESTIC WATER-SUPPLY.
CHAPTER I.
ROCKFILL DAMS.
The natural fertility of reeoarce in the American people has led to
many novel experiments in the conBtrnction of dams to adapt them to the
materials most conveniently available, and this has resulted in the develop-
ment of nnmerons interesting types. Among these the most conspionoas
are the rock-fill dams, which may be said to have originated forty to fifty
years ago in the mining region of California, where dams were bnilt in re-
mote and almost inaccessible locations, to which the transportation of cement
was impracticable. These were considered to be of a temporary nature, where
dams of permanent masonry were not warranted, but where a water-supply
for mining purposes needed to be impounded. They began with timber or
log cribs filled with loose stone. Their next stage was an embankment of
loose stone a portion of which was laid up as a dry wall, with a facing of
two or more thicknesses of plank to secure water-tightness. The latter
type has proven so serviceable that it is still regarded as one of the most
desirable classes of dam that can be built, where economy is of prime consid-
eration. In the attempt to secure a greater degree of durability other types
have been developed as follows :
1. Rock-fill dams with facing of asphalt concrete laid on a sloping dry
wall.
2. Rock-fill dams with a central core of steel plates, and without hand-
laid facing- walls.
3. Rock-fill dams with facing of Portland-cement concrete laid on dry
wall.
4. Rock-fill dams with facing of masonry, built vertically, backed with
earthy and covered on the lower side with blocks of stone laid in mortar.
RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
5. Kock-fiU (lamB with facing of steel plates laid on the sloping interior
sarface on a dry hand-laid wall.
6. Rock-fill dams with facing of earth.
Existing examples of these Tarions types and the irrigation systems sap-
plied by them will be considered in the following pages.
The Escondido District Dam, California. — Few of the irrigation districts
organized in California under the well-known Wright law have been sac-
V
Pig. 1. — Map of Escondido Irrigation District akd System of Works.
cessfal in accomplishing the pnrpose of their organization, and many
disastrous and lamentable failures have to be recorded in the practical
operation of a law which, at one time, was looked upon as a wise and
feasible measure for the general irrigation of the arid lands of the States.
Among the very few that succeeded in selling bonds and constructing a
storage-reservoir and distributory system is the Escondido district in the
northern portion of San Diego County. The district (Fig. 1) is in a valley
whose description is implied by its Spanish name, Escondido — ^hidden. It
is surrounded by mountains and embraces 13,000 acres. The storage-dam
supplying the district is located on the Yon Segern branch of San Elijo
ROCK-FILL DAMS, B
Greek, which passes through the town of Escondido. It is aboat two miles
east of the district at its nearest point, and at an elevation of 1300 feet
above sea-level, or about 650 feet above the town.
The immediate watershed tributary to the reservoir measures about
8 square miles, which in that region affords insufficient run-off to fill the
reservoir, although adding materially to it at times of heavy rainfall.
Hence the main supply had to be brought to it from the San Luis Bey
Biver, the nearest stream to the north, by a conduit which taps the river at
an altitude of 1600 feet, in a wild, rocky canyon, which is almost inaccessi-
ble by reason of its roughness. The conduit has a capacity of 28 second-
feet, and is 5.6 miles long, consisting of 67,287 feet of ditch built along the
rugged mountain-side (see Fig. 2), 14,142 feet of flume, and 806 feet of
tunnel. The intake is made by a tunnel 356 feet long, heading in the river
3 feet below low-water level, while at the other end the rim of the reservoir-
basin is pierced by a second tunnel 450 feet long. This tunnel discharges
into a ravine leading down to the dam, 3^ miles below. The intake tunnel
is cut through solid granite, which is excavated below grade at its lower
end to form a settling-basin, in which sand accumulates at the rate of about
1000 cubic feet daily. This is sluiced back into the river by the opening of
a side outlet-gate. By this means the water of the conduit is kept com-
paratively clear and but little sediment has accumulated in the reservoir.
The upper 8000 feet of the condait consists of a flume (Fig. 3), sup-
ported on posts on the sides of a rugged canyon, which in places presents a
vertical face of considerable height. The lumber of this flume was hauled
by a roundabout road to a blaff on the opposite side and 600 feet above the
river-bed, whence it was transported by a wire cable with a span of 1500
feet by means of a trolley manipulated by hand windlass and rope. At
other points the lumber was hoisted to the line by horse-power, by means
of a car and portable track several hundred feet in height. The flumes
are mainly 4 feet wide by 3 feet deep, and the ditch is excavated with a
bottom width of 5 feet and side slopes of 1 on 1, the minimum excavation
on the lower side being about 3 feet. The formation throughout that
region is granitic, partially decomposed, the disintegration of the rock
forming a few feet of soil, from which protrude large bowlders of very hard
granite embedded in softer rock in situ.
The total cost of the conduit was $116,328.60, or $1.29 per foot for
construction and engineering, and 12 cents per foot for right of way, com-
missions, etc. The conduit is capable of filling the reservoir to its present
capacity in a little over sixty days when running to its full capacity.
Should the dam be completed to the height of 110 feet as it has been pro-
jected, the conduit would require to run full for rather more than six
months to fill the enlarged reservoir.
In seasons when the precipitation exceeds 20 inches the run-off from the
6 RESRBVOIBS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
immediat« watershed above the dam ie alone expected to fill the reservoir
as at prBHent constracted. For the preaerration of the main coadait, of
which Dearly 30^ \i wooden flume which ahoald be kept wet for proper
maiutenance, it would be desirable to maintain a flow of water throagh it
the entire season. For this pnrpose the constrQction of an anxiliary reeer-
Fio. 8.— Fkedbr CoNDDtT OF Ebcondido Irbioation DiarrticT.
Toir at the head of the conduit is regarded aa one of the most desirable of
the projected improvements to the system. A very capacions reeervoir-site
exists at Warner's Bancb, 15 miles aboye the head of the canal, where the
drainage of 210 square miles of watershed may he imponnded. A much
greater volume of water can here be stored than wonld he needed by the
district. In fact the capacity of a reservoir with a dam 100 feet high at
this point would be 193,200 acre-feet, covering 5535 acres, which is far
beyond the probable yield of the watershed in years of masimnm rainfall.
ROCS-FILL DAMS.
A. orosB-eectioti of the dam-sito is shown in Fig. , where the width of the
site at 100 feet ie soen to be but 690 feet. A more modest dam of earth,
36 feet high, to hold 30 feet depth of water aad to impound 6400 acre-feet
in a reservoir covering 740 acree, wonld serve all the requirements of the
Fro. 4.— Ebcondldo Ibiuoation Dam, lookiko horth, showino Spillway.
district and at moderate cost, provided the land is obtained at reasonable
rates.
The Eecondido dam is of the ordinary type of rock-fill, with facing of
redwood plank. In this respect it resemblea the mining dams of northern
California, althoagh the nae of redwood has given the facing a longer life
than the more perishable pine used in the North. This structare appears
to have been built with nuasnal care, and though ragged and onfinished in
appearance, it is of ample dimensions for the pressures it withstands and ie
8 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, FTC.
reasonably water-tight. It is 76 feet high, 380 feet long on top, 100 feet
on bottom, with a base of 140 feet, and a thickness at the crest of 10 feet.
A spillway has been excavated at the north end on the right bank of the
reservoir, in solid rock, 25 feet wide, its bottom being at the 71-foot
contonr, or 5 feet below the crest of the dam. This is left open and
nnobstracted, although it has been customary near the end of the rainy
season to build a barrier of sand-bags across it in order to impound a greater
depth of water, after the danger of floods is presumed to be over.
The slopes of the dam are ^ to 1 on the water-face, and on the back
1 to 1 for half the height, flattening to 1^ to 1 from mid-height to base.
The cubical contents are 37,159 cubic yards, of which 6000 yards were
hand-laid in courses of dry rubble on the face, the thickness of the wall
being 15 feet at bottom, and 5 feet at top. The remainder consists of
loose, angular blocks of granite, of all sizes up to 4 tons weight (Fig. 5),
which were loosely dumped from cars and placed to some extent with
derricks. No small quarry-spa wis or earth were used, and the result is a
clean rock-fill, which has not settled more than three inches since its final
completion. No large ledges affording well-defined quarries of any con-
siderable extent were uncovered in the course of construction, but all the
material was taken from scattered bowlders and rock-masses protruding on
either side of the canyon above and below the dam for a distance of 800
feet. Temporary tramways were built at different levels on either side, as
the dam rose in height, so arranged as to permit the cars to run to the dam
by gravity, the empty cars being hauled back by horses. These tracks were
carried across the dam on elevated trestles, the posts of which remain buried
in the embankment. This arrangement involved the pushing of the cars
across the trestle by hand, which was a slow and expensive process. The
entire method of work was costly and inconvenient compared with the
modern systems of cable way transportation of such materials.
In stripping the foundations bed-rock was found about 4 feet below the
bed of the creek, nearly level across the canyon from side to side. The top
soil was removed over the entire base of the dam and the filling of rock
placed directly upon the granite foundation. The bed-rock was of the
formation described as prevailing along the main conduit, which is a
common characteristic of southern California, and consists of disintegrated
granite holding hard bowlders indiscriminately through it. The formation
is not impervious to water, and for that reason is not considered a desirable
or satisfactory foundation for a heavy masonry dam because of the resultant
upward pressure on the base due to that condition, but for a rock-fill struc-
ture of this class it is unobjectionable. Into this bed-rock a trench was
excavated at the upper toe of the dam, from 3 to 12 feet deep, which was
refilled with rubble masonry 5 feet thick, laid in Portland -cement mortar.
Into this masonry was embedded the plank facing, which was thua
• / »
BOCK'FILL DAMS. 11
coanected all aroand the toe with the canyon walls and bed. The dry wall
forming the npper face of the dam was so laid as to embed in its surface a
series of redwood timbers, 6" X 6" in size, placed in vertical parallel lines,
S feet 4 inches apart between centers. These timbers projected 2 inches
beyond the face of the wall, and the planks were spiked to them. As each
TOW of plank was pat in position, beginning at the bottom, concrete was
rammed into the 2-inch space between the plank and the face of the wall,
giving a full bearing for the plank thronghont. This provision was
certainly a wise one, and so far as the writer is informed was never employed
before in the dams of this class previously coustracted. On the lower third
of the dam the facing plank are 3 inches thick, on the middle third
H inches, and on the upper third 1^ inches, all being doubled throughout.
Joints were broken as far as possible, both at the vertical and the horizontal
fieams, by the second layer, and they were calked with oakum and smeared
with hot asphaltum.
Springs of water were developed in the excavation of the foundation to
the extent of 30,000 to 40,000 gallons per day, constant flow. These were
led oat by pipes to the outer toe. The leakage through the dam when
filled to the 47-foot level was found to be 130,000 gallons daily, exclusive
of the springs. This increased to 450,000 gallons daily when the reservoir
filled to the top. It is not known whether this leakage comes through the
joints of the facing or percolates through the disintegrated granite beneath
the dam. Whatever may be its origin, it is entirely harmless as far as can
be observed, and is not a source of anxiety. In the winter months when
irrigation is not required this leakage-water is used for domestic service,
and the whole of it is at all times picked up by the diverting-dam and
carried into the distributing system. Hence it occasions no direct loss of
water. While this amount of leakage would be dangerous to an earth dam,
and even in a masonry structure would indicate the existence of an upward
pressure that might endanger its stability if the section were too light, yet
in a work of this nature the drainage through the open, loose rock is so
perfect that the gravity of the mass is not lessened or disturbed by it, and
no serious consequence can be anticipated.
The facing-planks have been carried up 3 feet higher than the top of
the rock-fill as a wave protection, so that the extreme crest is 9 feet above
the floor of the spillway as shown by the section illustrated in Fig. 6.
The outlet was originally designed to be controlled by means of a tower,
the foundations of which were laid at the upper toe of the dam near the
£outh end, but the plan was changed and a grating placed over the base of
the unfinished tower a few feet above the gate covering the outlet. The
gate is of cast iron with brass facings, set in a frame, also faced with brass,
and bolted to the cast-iron outlet. It is set at the incline of the upper
slope and is controlled by a long rod resting in guides at frequent intervals.
Fio. «.— Plans ai.d Pbofiles op Eecoi
ROCK-FILL DAMB.
13
fastened to the wooden facing, and leading to a vorm-gear placed at a cod-
Tflnient height above the top of the dam (Fig. 7). The ontlet-pipe is 24
inches in diaineter, consisting of a cast-iron elbow connecting with vitrified
Fis. 7.— Details of Gate of
lever-pipe of ordinary weight, laid in a trench cut in the bed-rock and
embedded in concrete, which coven it fully 13 inches in depth.
The total cost of the dam nnder the contract was $86,946.31, or $37.8%
per acre-foot of reservoir capacity below the spillway level. The land for
14 BESBRV0IB8 FOR IRRIGATION. WATER-POWER, ETC.
the site coat io additioD 123,112.88, inclndiDg clearing. The total coat
was therefore $110,059.09, or $38.41 per acre-foot o( capaoitj. The
prices paid were nausaally high for each work, and were the following per
cabic yard: earth excavatioD, 30 cents; rock excavatioo, (1.10; rock-fill,
11.50; dry etone masonry, $3,75; rabble maaonry in cement mortar, $8;
concrete, $14; lamber, $50 per thousand feet board measure.
The detail of thia work is given with special fnllnoBs, as it is the first
Tock-fiU dam to be constructed in California for irrigation storage, and is
of a type which is likely to be employed quite commonly in the fatare in
localities better adapted for its nse than in this particular case, where stone
was comparatively scarce in the immediate vicinity of the dam.
The Sistribnting System. — Owing to the rolling character of tlie topog-
raphy over a considerable portion of the Escondido District the system of dis-
tribution of water necessarily consisted largely of pressure-pipes, alternating
with ditches and flumes. Water is released from the dam into the rocky bed
of the canyon in wbicb it flows for half a mile to a small masonry weir, built
on solid bed-rock, illustrated in Fig. 8. The main conduit heads here with
a flume, having a capacity of 30 second-feet. The laterals leading from
ROCK'FTLL DAMS. 15
this condait have capacities of from 1 to 10 second-feet. When completed
in 1895 the distribating system consisted of 14.5 miles of riyeted steel pipes,
3 to 20 inches in diameter, 2 miles of flames, 1.5 miles of vitrified clay and
cement pipes, and 13.5 miles of open ditches in earth — ^a total of 31.5 miles.
Daring 1897, '98, and '99 aboat 11 miles of the open ditches in earth have
been lined with cement to prevent loss of water by leakage; 4^ miles of
vitrified pipe from 5 to 14 inches in diameter have been laid, also 1.15 miles
of 4- and 6-lnch cement pipe, 0.87 mile of 2-, 3-, and 4-inch iron pipes,
and 0.16 mile of 8-inch wood pipe. In addition to this are 15 miles of
2- and 4-inch pipes that formed the domestic-supply system of the town
of Escondido, which is a part of the irrigation district, and is provided with
domestic water by the district in the same proportion as a similar area of
farming lands. This town-distributing system was in private ownership
prior to the organization of the district, and was supplied by wells and
pumps. It was purchased by the district for 19000 in bonds, and there
was included in the purchase a lined and covered reservoir of 800,000
gallons capacity, a Worthington steam-pump of 500,000 gallons daily
capacity, three 20-foot brick-lined wells, 20 feet deep, and twenty 2-inch
driven wells, all connected by suction-pipes to the main pump. This
auxiliary pumping supply, though small in amount, is very convenient to
draw upon for domestic service in the late summer and fall when the water
in the reservoir becomes foul and unfit for domestic use. The entire first
cost of the distributing system was t85,727.80.
The works of the district summarize in cost as follows:
Main feeder conduit $116,328.60
Dam and reservoir 110,059.09
Distribution system 85,727.80
Total $312,115.49
The first issue of bonds by the district, out of the total amount of
1350,000 authorized, was $344,500, which realized in cash or its equivalent
$313,750, all of which was expended on first construction. The proceeds
of the remaining $5500 of bonds, together with $2500 additional raised by
taxation, were expended in the early part of 1897 in lining the main dis-
tributing ditches with cement plaster.
The irrigators using water in 1897 were 225 in number, cultivating
1575 acres, chiefly planted to citrus fruits. In addition to these the taps
on the distributing system in the town numbered 204.
The annual expense of operating the system, is about $4000, while the
interest on the bonds at 6^ amounts to $21,000 per annum. The bonds
run for twenty years, but their retirement begins on the tenth year from
their issuance, and are payable thereafter at the rate of one-tenth each year.
The total annual expense for salaries and interest divided by the number of
00
Q
o
o
o
I
o
Pi
g
o
o
O
I
ROCK.FILL DAMS. 17
acre-feet of reaerroir capacity bringg the annnal cost per acre-foot of avail-
able water to about t8. Taking into accoant, however, the Iobscb bj
evaporation in the reservoir and leakage from the ditchea and flames in
traneit:, the cost of water actually available for nae on the lands is not far
from tlS.SO per acre-foot, or nearly 4 cants per 1000 gallons. The svsntge
reqairemeotforadeqaate irrigation is estimated at abont 1^ inches in depth,
FlO. 10. — CONBTKVCTION OF FaCIHO OF ESCOKUIDU DaK.
or 1 acre-foot per acre. At this rate the district when fully irrigated would
need 13,000 acre-feet, or nearly fonr times the present capacity of the
reservoir. The total annnal expenses divided by the total area of the
district gives an average of about 11.80 per acre. The assessed valuation
of the district in 1807 was *677,50O, and the tax-rate assessed by the direct-
ors for irrigation expenses was $3.60 per $100. As the best land wa£
i at t40 per acre, it was shown on that basis that the average cost to
18 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
the ow^ner was bat $1.48 an acre, which is a low rate, provided the payment
of the tax wonld iasare him a snfficieafc sapply for the irrigation of hi^
land; but as the provision thns far made for the district in water-supply is>
less than one-fourth of what will ultimately be required to irrigate the
whole district, and as the water available is apportioned to the irrigator pro
rata to the amount of tax he pays, his annual rate must necessarily be
higher than the amount stated if he receives the water he actually requires.
The apportionment is made in regular runs, once each month, beginning
at the head of the system, and in order to accomplish the satisfactory irri-
gation of their tracts the orchardists are obliged to buy what water they
lack of full supply from such of the neighboring taxpayers as do not yet
use the water to which they are legally entitled. This assigned water is
sold at about 10 cents per miner's inch for 24 hours' run, which is about
one-third cost. During 1897 the water thus transferred was about 9488
inches for 24 hours. A toll of 1 cent per 24-hour inch, or 25 cents as a
minimum, is charged as a gate-tax for zanjero's* fees for turning water on
and off, which brings in a revenue of about $80 per month during the
irrigating season, and $60 per month during the rest of the year. This toll
was increased in 1899 to 40 cents, which covers all costs of operating.
The selling-price of water has steadily advanced daring the late years of
drought. In 1897 it was sold at 5 to 20 cents per miner's inch for 24 hours
(12,960 gallons). In 1898 the rates were increased to 25 to 35 cents per
inch, and in 1899 they were 50 to 60 cents per inch. The catchment of
the reservoir has been approximately as follows:
1895, 48 feet depth = 880 acre-feet
1896, 60 '' " = 1925 "
1897, 74 " *' = 3700 " ,
1§98, 59.5 '' " = 1000 "
1899, 47 " " = 830 **
Total 8335 acre-feet, or an average of 1667 per annum.
A large number of orchards had been started and were being irrigated
by water pumped from wells by windmills and gasoline engines before the
completion of the works of the district. The cost of pumping by the
various methods employed ranged from 3 to 8 cents per 1000 gallons ($10
to $26 per acre-foot), and this high cost, coupled with a very moderate and
inadequate supply, caused many of the landowners whose property was not
incorporated in the district to seek admission on equal terms with those
inside. Several hundred acres were thus taken in after the works had been
completed to the present stage upon payment of all back charges pro rata.
* From the Spanish, meaning ditch-tender.
Fio, 10a.— Ehcundido (Cal.) ICock-f
J
a
sS
ROCK-VILL DAMS. 19
The residents of the district realize that their works are la an incomplete
stage, and that to secure an adequate supply it is necessary to carry the
storage-dam 40 feet higher, giving it a capacity of 11,355 acre-feet. This
can readily be done at a cost not to exceed $110,000. The land purchased
for the reservoir covers the enlarged area proposed, and it is only necessary
to continue the embankment higher, adding the necessary width of base to
give the same safe slopes which the present embankment possesses, and
extending the wood-facing. With this improvement, and the addition of
the smaller regulating reservoir on the river before mentioned, it is believed
that the district will have an ample supply for its needs at a total outlay of
about $40 per acre, and an average annual expense of $2.50 to $3 per acre.
During the fall of 1897 the validity of the bond issue was questioned by
a portion of the landowners, many of whom ceased paying the tax levied
to meet the interest on the bonds. In March, 1899, the bondholders
requested the trustee, the Farmers and Merchants' Bank of San Diego, to
take charge of the system according to the terms of the trust deed, and as
provided by the Wright Act under which the district is organized. This
was done, and the former superintendent was continued as manager.
Lower Otay Bock-fill Steel-core Dam, California. — One of the most
interesting of all the rock-fill types of dam yet constructed is located on
Otay Creek, San Diego County, California, 22 miles southeast of San
Diego, 10 miles back from the coast, and not more than 5 miles from the
Mexican boundary-line. It forms the lower one of a series of four
mammoth dams projected by the Southern California Mountain Water
Company, to impound water for the municipalities of San Diego and
Coronado and for the irrigation of an extensive area of f restless mesa lands
adapted to citrus-fruit culture, reaching from the Mexican border north-
ward to San Diego, including the peninsula of Coronado, and for the
domestic supply of the villages and towns within reach of the distribating
system to be built from the reservoir. This system of reservoirs and
conduits is the most comprehensive one yet projected in California for
irrigation purposes, and when completed in its entirety it must add so
greatly to the productive area and population of the region in the vicinity
of the Bay of San Diego as to bring that port into the prominence in the
world's commerce which its general excellence as a harbor has long deserved.
The Lower Otay dam was completed in August, 1897, and the Morena and
Barrett dams, the other two of the series, have been under construction
since that time, although both are still far from completion.
The Otay Creek, at the point selected for the dam, cuts through the
great dike of porphyry which traverses San Diego County from north to
south nearly parallel with the coast-line. This dike in places is 10 miles
or more' in width, and at others less than 1 mile, and occupies the middle
ground between the granite formation lying east of it, and the mesa forma-
20 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION^ WATER-POWER, ETC.
tioD, wliicb is an irregular strip of land, 10 to 15 miles wide, lying between
the porphyry dike and the shore of the Pacific. The mesa formation is
alluvial iu origin; consisting of marl, indurated sand, gravel, cobbles, and
all shades of soil from clay to sandy loam, but is devoid of hard rock, while
the porphyry is an igneous rock, exceedingly tough, of high specific
gravity, without regular cleavage, but broken by numerous fine seams wich
infiltration of reddish clay. The highest protrusions of the dike form the
San Ysidro and San Miguel mountains, 2500 to 3000 feet in altitude. It
is intersected by all the streams of the county that reach to the ocean,
affording sites for the Lower Otay, the Upper Otay, the Sweetwater and
La Mesa dams, and others further north that are projected. The Escondido
dam is but a mile or two eai^t of the dike in granite formation. The Otay
dam is within a few hundred feet of the western limit of this dike, and in
fact the outlet tunnel of the reservoir avoids it entirely and was excavated
through the soft brown marl of the mesa formation.
The site of the Otay dam was an ideal one for a ma£onry structure,
because of the satisfactory character of the bed-rock foundations, and the
abundance of suitable rock and sand at the site, while its convenience to a
port of entry rendered the cost of cement very moderate. The usual
incentive for building rock-fill dams iu preference to masonry, due to their
remoteness and the high cost of freighting cement to the site was lacking
in this case, and in fact the work was originally planned as a masonry dam.
A foundation was laid for this purpose 65 feet thick at the base, reaching
down to a depth of 31.4 feet below zero contour, and carried up to a height
of 8.6 feet above zero, with a length on top of 85 feet. A view of the work
is shown in Fig. 11.
Whether the change in plan from masonry to rock-fill with steel core
has resulted in economy of first cost is difficult to determine, as the actual
cost of construction has not been made public, or whether there may be
grounds for regret that the change was made cannot be known until the
stability of the structure is fully tested by the lapse of time. The reservoir
has never filled above the 60-foot contour since the completion of the dam
np to the fall of 1900, and nntil the reservoir is filled and remains full a
considerable period without developing signs of weakness or extensive
leakage the success of the novel design cannot be known. Meantime the
engineering profession will entertain the liveliest interest in the develop-
ment of this novel type of dam, which, if successful, will certainly have
wide application to other sites where the choice of material has a more
limited range. The credit for originating the idea of making a rock-fill
dam water-tight by inserting in its center a web-plate of steel, filling the
entire cross-section of the canyon from side to side, and for putting it in
application on a large scale, belongs to the president of the water company,
Mr. E. S. Babcock, of Coronado. Wiien this plan was decided upon a
ROCK-FILL DAMS. 31
heavy T iron was anchored to the top of the finished masonr; foaadation
by l-inch bolts, set in the masonry. The vertical leg of the T vas panched
Tith ^-inch rivet-holes, spaced 3 inches center to center, and the bottom
plates riveted to it. The plates were 5 feet wide, and 17.5 feet long, and
the three bottom coaraes were 0.33 inch thick. From 28 to SO feet high
they are ^ inch thick, and above 50 feet they are 8 feet wide, 20 feet long,
and lessening in thickness as the top is approached. After riveting the
Pio. 1 1 — Mabosbt FonNDATioH OF Lower Otay Dam.
plates together with hot rivets they were chipped and calked on the side
next to the water, and coated with Alcatraz asphalt, F grade, applied hot
with brnshes. Over this coat a layer of bnrlap was placed on each side of
the plates, while the asphalt was still hot. This adhered tightly to the
plate and served to hold the soft asphalt from flowing. A harder grade of
asphalt was sabseqaently pat on over the barlap, and the whole then
encased in a rnbble-masonry wall laid with Portland-cement concrete, S feet
thick, the steel plate being in the centre. This wall at base is 6 feet thick,
22 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIQATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
tapering to 2 feet in a height of 8 feet. The moalds for the concrete, con-
sisting of 1-Jnch boards laid horizontally and 2 X 6-inch vertical posts, were
left in position permanently and the rock-fill built against them on either
side. The steel core, or web-plate, was carried into the side walls of the
canyon in a trench excavated to the depth necessary to reach solid rock and
anchored with bolts leaded into the rock. The end plates were not trimmed
to fit the irregalar line of the rock cutting, but the masonry was widened
to a maximum thickness of 20 feet at the sides, tapering from the normal
thickness of 2 feet in a distance of about 20 feet. Fig. 12 shows the trench
on the right bank about at the 40-foot contour. The function of the wall
is to steady and stiffen the web-plate and protect it from injury from the
loose rock piled against it, and as the wooden moulds were not removed the
embankment is free to settle without injuring the concrete or the plates.
The expansion of the plates after they were riveted together, and the
obtuse angle up-stream on which they were first started, which gradually
was obliterated by an approach to a straight line toward the top of the
dam, gave them a very irregular alignment, as will be seen in Fig. 13, which
is a view looking along the top of the dam toward the left bank just before
its completion.
The dam is a loose, rock-fill embankment, lying as it was dumped,
without any portion of it, except the 2-foot core-wall, being laid by hand.
In this respect it differs from its predecessors of the same type, which have
been built with a considerable proportion of their slopes on the water-side
laid up as a dry wall. It was designed to be 20 feet wide at top, with side
slopes of 1^ on 1 on each side. When work was suspended the up-stream
slope, composed of the finer grades of materials coming from the quarry,
had assumed about the slope stated, but the lower slope was steeper and
stands about 1 to 1, while the top width is from 9 to 12 feet. When
visited by the writer in September, 1899, the material excavated from the
spillway cut was being dumped on the upper slope and the top width
increased. The spillway is located some few hundred feet from the east
end of the dam, and will consist of a channel 30 feet wide, 300 feet long,
with a maximum depth of 30 feet, cut in the rock to a depth of 10 feet
below the crest of the dam. The depth of water will be controlled by
flash-boards resting at an angle of 30^, between channel-iron frames placed
5 feet apart. A wagon-bridge will be built over the top of these frames,
from which full control of the flash-boards will be had. The discharge of
the spillway will reach the creek channel several hundred feet below the
toe of the embankment.
The entire volume of stone used in the work, approximately 180,000
cubic yards, was qaarried immediately below the dam on the right bank,
and was transported from the quarry by means of a Lidgerwood cableway,
the cable having a diameter of 2:^ inches, and a span of 948 feet between
Tia. IS. — Steel Wrb-plate and Aiiniiou-TitENCH at Wbst End ok Lowur Otaj
BOCK-FILL DAMS. 25
towen, crosaiDg the canyon diagonally, at an angle of abont 60° with the
■xie of the dam. The head tower was 130 feet high, the tail tower down-
stream 60 teet high, the tops being practically level, and a direct line
between them crosaed the axis of the dam 260 feet above the bed of the
stream. The cableway had a gnaranteed capacity of 10 tons, center load,
ander which its deflection was S8 feet, or 43 feet higher than the top of the
Fio. 18.— Crest of Lowbu Otat Dam, snuwiNa Wkb-plate of Sti
i.v CoNCRBTE. Dam NEARiMo Completion.
dam. Up to the height of 75 feet the rock damped nnder the line of the
cable was distribated by means of derricks, hot aabsequently a secondary
cableway was erected parallel with the line of the dam, underneath the
main cable. This was anchored at each end to heavily ballaeted cars rest-
ing on tracks, which permitted the cable to be shifted 30 feet, or 15 feet
either side of the center of the dam. The loaded skips from the qnarry
brought to the dam by the overhead cable were picked np by the secondary
cable and carried to any point desired along the line of the dam. Tools,
materials, derricks, 35-n. P. hoisting-eDgines, and all other articles required
RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER POWER, KTO.
Fio. 14. — Map of Lower Otat Reservoih.
ROCK-FILL DAM8. 27
to be moved from one position to another were hauled rapidly and safely by
means of these cableways, and not infrequently the employees preferred the
aerial jonrney across the canyon by the cableway to the more laborious
climb over the trails. Fig. 15 illustrates the general plan of the dam, with
a cross-section of the site and details of the outlet tunnel.
Quarry, — All or the greater portion of the rock had been loosened in
the quarry by very heavy blasts, the first of which was made by driving a
tunnel 50 feet into the face of the cliff with lateral drifts, 18 and 28 feet
long respectively. In the shorter drift, 4000 pounds of Judson powder
(containing 6% nitro-glycerine) under a vertical depth of 70 feet, and in the
larger, 8000 pounds under a depth of 85 feet, were exploded simultaneously,
which resulted in loosening and throwing out about 50,000 to 75,000 cubic
yards. A view of this blast taken at the moment of explosion is shown in
Fig. 16. The second large blast was prepared by sinking a shaft 115 feet
deep, 85 feet back from the nearly vertical face left by the first blast. At
a depth of 50 feet two drifts were run laterally a distance of 25 feet each,
and at the bottom of the shaft two more drifts, 30 and 35 feet long respec-
tively, were extended into the rock toward the face and in the opposite
direction, and the four holes thus prepared were loaded with 30,000 pounds
of powder, of which the greater portion was located in the bottom drifts.
This blast did greater execution than the first, and supplied sufficient rock
to complete the dam. Minor blasting of the ordinary class was necessary
throughout the work to break up the larger masses to sizes that could be
handled by the cableway. The quarry being near the lower toe of the dam,
the first large blast filled in the toe with large bowlders, some of which
weighed upwards of 50 tons, and a subsequent freshet, pouring over and
through these rocks, scoured out the sand beneath them so as to settle them
well to bed-rock, which was a fortunate occurrence.
The watershed of Otay Greek above the reservoir is about 100 square
miles in area, but as its average altitude is not over 1600 feet the precipita-
tion is light and the run-off insufficient to fill the reservoir except in occa-
sional years. In dry seasons there is no flow whatever. The catchment in
four years prior to September, 1899, has not exceeded 5000 acre-feet. To
make up for this shortage in supply and to fill the reservoir regularly the
company is planning to divert water from Cottonwood Greek, a stream
adjoining on the south which drains an extensive region of the highest
mountains of the main range. This stream enters Mexican territory and
returns again, emptying into the sea near the boundary-line, where it is
known as the Tia Juana River. The conduit for diverting its flow will
start at the second reservoir of the system, known as the ^^ Barrett dam,"
at an elevation of 80 feet above the stream-bed, or about 1650 feet above
sea-level, and be supported along the southerly slopes of Lyon's Peak to
Dulzura Pass, where the divide will be crossed by a long tunnel, from which
Fio. 15. — Pi-AHs OK LowRD Ot&t Rebbrvoir.
ROCK^FILL DAMS. 31
the water will drop into the east fork of Otay Creek and thence to Otaj
reservoir. The condait will be a trifle over 8 miles in length, and consist
of a saccession of cement-lined tunnels in granite. To regulate the flow of
the stream and store additional water the company have under construction
two dams of mammoth size — the Barrett and Morena, both of which have
been projected as rock-fili dams.
Outlet Tunnel, — ^There are no pipes or outlets through or under the
dam proper, and the only outlet provided is a circular tunnel through a
narrow part of the enclosing ridge 1000 feet west of the dam. This tnnnel
is 1150 feet long, the bottom of which is at the 48-foot contour. Below
the tunnel-level, therefore, as will be seen by reference to the table of reser-
voir capacities in the Appendix, there remains a volume of water of approxi-
mately 2000 acre-feet (652,400,000 gallons), covering nearly 160 acres of
surface which can never be drawn off. The material encountered in this
tunnel was a brown hard-pan, resembling marl, and cemented gravel, both
bone-dry. The western limit of the porphyry dike is between the tunnel
and the dam. For 500 feet from the inner heading the tunnel was lined
with concrete to a clear circular diameter of 5 feet, the lining being 12 to
18 inches thick and plastered with cement mortar. At the end of this
section a shaft, 104 feet in depth, reaches to the surface. Below this shaft
a 48-iuch riveted steel pipe is laid to the outside, and the entire annular
space between the pipe and the walls of the tunnel is filled with concrete,
with a minimum thickness of 12 inches. This pipe was put together in
sections of 38 inches in length, stovepipe fashion, the insertion at each
joint being 2 to 3 inches. The joints were driven as closely as possible, but
owing to the sag of the pipe and the absence of careful ramming of the
concrete at the bottom of the joint it was found on completion that there
were cavities which rendered it impossible to calk the joints from the inside
and make them water-tight. As it was desirable to utilize the full depth
of the reservoir pressure on the condait outside the tunnel, it was essential
to stop the leakage in the pipe lining of the tunnel, and a plan has been
devised by H. N. Savage, M. Am. Soc. C. E., consulting engineer of the
company, to do this by means of threaded '^ patch-bolts," tapped into the
joints at intervals of 3 inches, thus drawing the plates together. When
this is done cement grout will be pumped into the cavities at one of the
bolt-holes, an inside band will be inserted covering the heads of the patch-
bolts, and the space filled with cement. It is expected that the device will
prove successful. At the upper end of the tunnel a balanced valve will
control the admission of water, and additional control will be snpplied by a
gate-valve in the pipe at the tunnel-outlet, and a gate-valve operated from
the shaft at the junction of the large and small sections of the tunnel.
The location of this tunnel-outlet through the hill saved a mile or more of
pipe-line through the canyon from the dam, although the latter might have
32 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
been cheaper. The main condait from the reservoir to San Diego will con-
sisfc of steel and wood-stave pipe, from which the intermediate lands will be
supplied.
The Barrett Dam. — The middle one of the chain of three great resenroirs
under constraction by the Sonthern California Mountain Water Company
is located aboat 40 miles southeast of San Diego, and about 6 miles north
of the Mexican boundary, at an altitude of about 1600 feet. It occupies a
singularly valuable strategic position, as it is the lowest feasible reservoir-
site on the stream from which water can be conveyed by gravity conduits
without passing through foreign territory. It is also at the lowest elevation
from which water can be distributed to the most valuable mesa lands
adjacent to the coast, and at the same time it is low enouorh on the stream
to receive the run-off from the greatest area of mountain watersiied avail-
able for any reservoir in southern California. This area is about 250 square
miles. The precipitous and rocky character of this watershed insures a
maximum average run-off and catchment in years of normal precipitation.
The dam- and reservoir-site were acquired by the San Miguel Water
Company, a local organization, in 1889, and subseqaently transferred to the
Jamacha Irrigation District, organized under the Wright Law of California,
for the consideration of $105,000 of the bonds of the district, the purchase
including 560 acres of land and certain water-rights. The district has
taken no steps to construct the dam and conduit by which alone the
property would have value, other than to contract with the Southern
California Mountain W^ater Company for its water-supply, and the latter is
now engaged in constructing the dam. In 1897 the company erected a
masonry dam, shown in Fig. 17, 72 feet»in height from its base, which is
22 feet below the stream-bed, to its top 50 feet above. This structure rests
on solid granite bed-rock throughout, and is 14 feet thick at bottom, 5 feet
at top, and aboat 30 feet long on the crest. This was to be used simply as
a pick-up weir to divert water into the Dulzura pass conduit. Subsequently
it was decided to build a storage dam, similar in plan to that of the Lower
Otay, to an extreme height of 175 feet, and a new location was chosen
about 1000 feet further down stream, where rock could be more con-
veniently obtained for a rock-fill structure. Here a new masonry dam was
built in 1898, reaching to bed-rock in the stream-bed and extending about
35 feet above, upon which to begin the sheet-steel core of the rock-fill
The dimensions were as follows :
Length on top 115 feet.
Thickness at base 30 "
Thickness at top 13 "
Its cubical contents are 3100 cubic yards, and there were consumed in its
EOCK-FILL DAM8. 35
constraction 1777 barrels of cement An outlet tunnel, 8x8 feet in size,
600 feet long, has been excavated in solid rock on the right bank, at a
height of 80 feet aboTe the stream, which is the beginning of the tunnel
conduit to Dnlzura Pass. Actual work upon the rock-fill portion of the
dam has not yet begun, and it is possible that the plans may yet be recon-
sidered and a masonry dam substituted for the rock-fill, out of deference to
the torrential character of the stream in seasons of exceptional rainfall, and
the possible risk involved in a rock-fill on such a stream during construc-
tion and subsequently. The vast importance of this structure as the key
to ^the entire system, not only for storage but for the diversion of water,
doubtless emphasizes the necessity for unquestionable stability, and suggests
the wisdom of relying upon masonry. It cannot be claimed for rock-fill
dams that they are inherently superior to masonry or concrete structures of
heavy gravity section, and they are only to be preferred as a substitute
where natural conditions render them very much cheaper, and hence prac-
ticable for nse in cases where the greater cost of masonry would be prohibi-
tive.
Watershed, — The tributary watershed ranges in altitude from 1600 to
6000 feet, and probably averages 3600 feet. The mean precipitation on this
slied may ordinarily be expected to be from 10 to 20 inches greater than
that of San Diego, from the natural increase due to altitude, and in some
years it may be 30 to 35 inches greater. The mean precipitation of San
Diego for 40 years from 1850 to 1890 was 9.86 inches, ranging from 3.02
inches in 1863 to 27.59 inches in 1884. To fill the reservoir to the 175-
foot contour will require 47.970 acre-feet (20,900,000,000 cubic feet) which
would be supplied by an average run-off of 3.6 inches from the watershed.
Under unfavorable conditions this depth of run-off would be expected from
an annual rainfall of 24 inches, and may at times be the product of but 15
inches' precipitation, depending largely upon the distribution of the storms,
and the frequency with which they succeed each other. In years like 1884
or 1895 the run-off may be as great as ten times the capacity of the
reservoir, and the maximum spillway capacity to be provided may reach
40,000 second-feet.
Morena Rock-fill Dam. — The third great reservoir of the Southern
California Mountain Water Company is located 10 miles east of the Barrett
dam, on one of the two streams that unite just above Barrett, at an altitude
of 3100 feet above sea-level. It is 50 miles from San Diego, and 7 miles
north of the international boundary. The dam is a rock-fill structure,
placed in a narrow canyon, cut through massive granite cliffs that tower
hundreds of feet high, on the brink of a precipitous fall or cataract, where
the stream takes a plunge of 1200 to 1300 feet in a mile of distance. This
canyon is filled with enormous bowlders throughout, and at the site of the
dam the narrow fissure eroded by the stream was found to be more than
36 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRTGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
100 feet deep below the stream-bed. Fig. 18 is a view taken of the dam-
site looking ap stream, and well illnstrates the character of the rock-masses
filling the gorge. The tree growing at the right of the picture is on the
line of the masonry toe- wall. This wall was carried down to the bottom of
the fissure, 112.5 feet below the general stream-bed at that point. This
wall is at the upper toe of the rock-fill, and is 36 feet thick at the bottom,
where the width between solid walls was but 4 feet for a height of 12 feet.
The widest part of the fissure was 16 feet, and at the zero contour it was
80 feet wide. At this point the thickness of the masonry was made 20 feet.
It was carried up 30 feet higher, where the thickness is 12 feet. The top
of the wall is shown in the view of the partially finished dam (Fig. 19) just
abore the water-line. The upper toe of the rock-fill, which will be finished
on a slope of 1^ to 1, will reach to the top of this toe-wall, and will be
covered with 5 feet of Portland cement, uncoursed rubble masonry, over
which it was intended to lay a sheet of asphalt concrete, 12 inches tbick at
base and 4 inches thick on top, extending into a groove moulded in the
wall, 5 feet in depth. The plan for using asphalt concrete has been
abandoned recently and some other material will be substituted. The rock-
fill, as shown by this view, is about 80 feet high above the wall.
The canyon walls are of clean, hard granite, singularly free from fissures
and seams. The width between tbem is but 80 feet at the stream-bed and
470 feet at the height of 160 feet above. The sides thus have a slope
steeper than 1 to 1, or about 41° from the vertical. Had the planes of the
side slopes continued beneath the surface the maximum depth to bed-rock
would have been but 30 feet instead of 112.5 feet where it was found. The
situation is a favorable one for any type of dam, except eartli, and especially
favorable for a masonry structure, although the freighting of cement to the
site would have made that class of work more costly than at the Lower
Otay. Work was begun in the summer of 1896, and by the fall of the fol-
lowing year the rock-fill had reached a height of 80 feet above the top of
the toe-wall, when work was suspended. The ultimate height to which the
dam is designed to be carried is 160 feet, to hold a maximum depth of 150
feet of water, and impound 46,733 acre-feet (20,360,000,000 cubic feet).
The volume of rock in the structure, computed on slopes of 1 to 1 on the
face, and 1^ to 1 on the back, will be approximately 400,000 cubic yards.
If the face is given a slope of 1^ to 1, the volume will considerably exceed
this amount. The thickness at base is over 800 feet, while the extreme
height of rock-fill from the lower toe down the canyon will be in excess of
250 feet. Large blasts were employed in loosening the rock for the dam in
a similar manner to the method used at the Otay dam, with the exception
that the quarries were located on each side of the canyon above the top of
the dam, in such position that much of the rock was thrown down in place
thereby and did not subsequently require removal. Bowlders weighing
ROCEFItL DAMS. 88
hnndnds of tons were thoB deposited in the bed of the canyoQ and on its
slopes:
The flnt blast of 100,000 Iba. of powder, exploded December 26, 1896,
wu efltimsted to have moved 75,000 oabic yards. A aecoDd blast, fired fire
days later, with 80,000 lbs., did good ezecation, and on March 24, 1897,
the ezploeion of 70,000 Ibe. is reported to have loosened 100,000 tons.
The machinery assembled for the constraction is said to have coat
tl 75,000. Two lines of Lidgerwood cableway span the chasm at a height
of 400 feet, operating from the qnarries on either side. These csbleways
are attached to heavily ballasted cars, sapported on three lines of railway-
track on either side, with a range of movement of 100 feet each, parallel
with the axis of the dami Powerful derricks of the moat improved types
liave been placed in convenient position, and no less than twenty hoisting-
engines have been assembled for the work.
Outlet. — The water is to be drawn from the reservoir through a tunnel,
600 feet long, cut in the granite on the south side ai the 30-foot contour,
the dimensions of which are 8 x 8 feet. This tunnel is to be controlled by
a series of balanced valves to be placed at the reservoir end, while the water
ia to be discharged into the canyon and flow down the channel to the
Barrett reservoir below.
Waterslted. — The area of drainage intercepted by the dam is 130 square
miles, or rather mare than half of that tributary to the Barrett, of which it
ia a part, and ranging in altitude from 3200 to 6000 feeC, averaging about
4000 feet. Both reservoirs cannot be expected to fill every year, although
there are frequent seasous when the run-oS will sarpasa the capacity of all
40 RBSBBVOiaa FOB IBRIOATIOIT, WATEB-POWBB, ETC.
tbree reservoirs in the sjitem. By proriding ample storage and holdiog^
over a large earplns ever; year, the masimam duty can be obtaioed from
the tribatary streams.
Conditions of Construction. — The dam ia beiog bailt nnder a oontract
with the city of San Diego by which the compaay nDdertakes to deliver
1000 mioer's inches continaoas flow (13,960,000 gallons daily), at a point
designated as the '' Meter>house Site," abont II miles southeast of the
nearest limits of the city, for the snm of 1727,000. This is to be accom-
plished by the conduit from the Barrett dam to Dalznra Pass, 9.5 miles in
length, which is to have a large snrplns capacity for conveying water to the
Otay reservoir, and by a continnation of this coadait of smaller capacity a.
r TOK-WALI. DNDER
distance of 26 miles farther, from the Dalznra Pass to the Meter-honse
Site.
Between the oatlet level and the 130-foot contonr the reservoir has a
capacity sofficiently in excess of the agreed amonnt required to supply 1000
inches flow for one year to cover probable loss by evaporation, and under
the contract so much of the reservoir up to the 120-foot contour is to be
conveyed by deed to the city, while all the land above the 120'foot level is
to be reserved by the company, together with the privilege of building the
dam to a greater height, thus storing water for its own use and for sale to
other parties on top of the city's reservoir. The addition of 30 feet will
increase the capacity 200^, giving the company about 30,000 acre-feet of
water. The watershed area above the dam as before stated is about 130
BOCK-FILL DAMS. 41
sqasre milee, from which a ran-oS of 30^ of 33 iacbes of raiufall ironld
eaffice to fill the reserroir.
Work upon the reserroir has beeu scBpeiided pending the ontcome of
protracted litigation over the Tsliditj of the contract between the city
council of San Diego and the water company, and the validity of the city
bonds Tot«d far the water-works.* Meantime it is nnderstood that the
Barrett dam is to be completed, and the condnit to Dnlzura Pass and
beyond, by which the com[«ny will be enabled to utilize ita system for irri-
gation independently of the water-supply of San Diego.
The entire system is the most comprehensive storage enterprise yet pro-
jected in California for the utilization of water that normally flows to the
sea unemployed and useless. Its completion will be an important factor
in the development of a portion of the frostless area of southern Califoraia.
The Upper Otay Dam. — This structure, which is a part of the general
system just described, is on the West Fork of Otay Greek, and is at such
an elevation that the high-water line of the Lower Otay reservoir will touch
the base of the dam of the Upper one. The dam-site is in a porphyry-rook
Fia. 21.— REsuRvoiRa near 8an Diego, Califokma.
gorge, where the width between walls at the stream-bed is but 20 feet.
The supporting hills fall away quite rapidly, however, go that at the CO-foot
contour the width is 316 feet, and at the 130-foot contour it is 1060 feet.
The dam baa been started as a masonry structare and carried to a height of
34 feet, but as the watershed directly tributary is but 8 square miles, and
the capacity of the reservoir quite limited (15,342 acre-feet), as compared
with the Lower Otay, its completion and nltilization as a storage-reservoir
will be independent of its own local water-supply. The masonry wall
already laid has a length at bottom of bat 12 feot, and is bat 75 feet long
* This coDiract has reMOtly boeo declared void, tlie Supreme Court of Ckliforala
Iiftvlog decided tlikt the election for the bonds voted by the City wis illegd and invalid.
42 BESEBVOmS FOB IBBTOATION. WATEB-POWEB, ETC.
on ita preaent crest. The height is to be materially increased in the near
fiitare if the plans of the compacy are not changed, sad it may become a
stTDctnre of considerable magnitude.
ChativoTth Park Rook-fill Dam. — A stractnre of more than common
interest aa an example of " how not to do it" was erected on Mormon
Canyon, in the westerly part of San Fernando Valley, Los Angalea Co.,
California, near the station of Gliatsworth Parli, in the winter of 1895-9D,
for impounding water for irrigation and to serve as a diverting-dum for a
conduit to carry the flood-water of the stream to a secondary reservoir of
Fig. 32. — Upper Otat Dam. Foundation Mabonrt.
mnch larger capacity a short distance away to the Bonth, Two failures of
earth dams erected at the same site had already occurred prior to the build-
ing of the dam in question, both having been overtopped and carried away
by reason of insufficient spillway capacity. The last one was swept out
shortly before beginning work on the rock-fill, chiefly as the result of bad
management. The spillway had been filled with sand-bagB to make the
reservoif hold a little more, and when the flood came there was no one at
hand to remove them. When the attendant flnally arrived the elaice-gnte
was stuck fast and could not be opened, and before any relief was afforded
the water rose over the top of the dam and washed it away, althongh it was
a well-built structure.
The rock-fill dam was bnilt 41.33 feet high above the creek<bed, 10 feet
BOCK-FILL DAMS. 48
wide on the top, with sides sloping at an angle of 60^, above and below
alike, or 1 yertical to 0.57 horizontal, which gare a base width of 60 feet.
The length on bottom is 100 feet, and at top 159 feet; cubical contents,
6.025 cubic yards; area of water-face 7700 square feet, covered with
Portland-cement concrete from 8 inches thick at top to 16 inches at bottom.
The rock used for the fill is a soft sandstone, quarried on the line of the
dam at one end, 500 feet away, and 75 feet to 100 feet higher than the top
of the dam. The quarry-face was 30 to 40 feet high. A light trestle was
built on a sharp incline from the quarry to and across the dam, and a cable,
passing over a drum or pulley at top and with a car attached to each end,
was the means employed for transportation, the loaded cars fetching up the
empty ones. The material was dumped in place promiscuously and without
selection. Some of it disintegrated and crumbled into sand when blasted,
hammered, or dropped from a few feet in height, and, as everything
loosened in the quarry was put into the fill, the proportion of sand and
earth is very large and the natural angle of repose of the mass is much
flatter than that of rock alone, and flatter than the slopes proposed by the
planj. The specifications required the slopes to be laid up two feet in
thickness as a dry wall of uncoursed rubble, but this was done in such an
indifferent manner that within two weeks after the contractor had moved
off the work more than three-fourths of the lower face-wall fell or slid
down, followed by some of the embankment behind it so as to leave the
concrete facing unsupported and its under side exppsed to view for several
feet from the top of the dam. The dam was not of much value for water-
tightness, as it leaked considerably with but 10 feet of water behind it.
The work was done by contract, at a total coet of about $9000, part of which
was payable in land. After the work was done the contractor took advan-
tage of the failure of the company to comply with the California law
requiring contracts to be recorded to make them valid, and brought suit to
recover a greater amount than the contract price. He succeeded in getting
a jury to give judgment for about 40^ additional, while the owners have
been obliged to reconstruct the dam. This was begun on the plan illus-
trated in Fig. 23, the lower slope being hand-laid to a thickness of 4 feet,
and covered with a masonry slope-wall 6 feet thick, although the work is
still incomplete. This is believed to be the first case on record of a dam
falling down before the water-pressure had been applied to it.
The watershed area above the dam is about 15.5 square miles, from 1000
to 3800 feet in elevation, from which maximum fioods of 700 to 800 second-
feet may be expected — sufficient to fill the reservoir in three or four hours,
as the capacity is not in excess of 200 acre-feet.
The Castlewood Dam, Colorado. — The Ohatsworth Park dam, just
described, bears some resemblance to the Castlewood dam erected on Cherry
Creek, some 35 miles above Denver, Colorado (which city is at the mouth
44
RE8ERV0IR8 FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
of the same stream), althoagh the latter struct are is a much more saccess-
ful engiueering work and of greater size aad importance. The Castle-
wood dam was bailt in 1890 by the Denver Land and Water Company, for
the impounding of water for the irrigation of some 16,000 acres of fertile
mesa land lying between Cherry Creek and the Soath Platte Bi^er, and
extending to the city limits of Denver.
The area of watershed above the dam is about 175 square miles, from
which the run-off after severe cloud-bursts on the ''divide" sometimes
Q"Concrete
Fig. 23. — Sketch op Reconbtrtjction op Chatsworth Park Rock-pill Dam.
reaches or exceeds 10,000 cubic feet per second for a short time. The
reservoir covers about 200 acres, and has a capacity of 4,000,000,000
gallons, or about 12,280 acre-feet. The dam is a rock-fill with a masonry
wall on the upper face, while the lower slope is covered in steps of 2 feet
with large blocks of stone laid in cement mortar, the general slope being 1
to 1. The facing wall is of rough rubble masonry, 4 feet thick, standing
on a slope or batter of 1 to 10. The two walls are joined at the top with a
coping of large stones, forming the crest of the dam, 8 feet in width, 4 feet
thick. The geological formation at the dam-aite J3 peculiar. The floor of
the reservoir basin is covered to a great depth with hard, blue clay, over-
lying which is a great sheet of sandstone and conglomerate rock or
^' pudding-stone " 100 feet or more in thickness. The dam was founded
on the clay, and the facing-wall was carried down into it to a depth of 6 to
ROCK-FILL DAMS. 45
22 feet. The lower slope-wall was also foanded on this clay at a depth of
10 feet from the surface. The general dimensions of the stractare are:
length at top, 600 feet; extreme height abov^e floor of reservoir, 70 feet;
height above foandation of face- wall, 92 feet; width on top, 8 feet. The
main spillway is located in the center of the dam, and is 100 feet long by
4 feet deep. An aaxiliary spillway, called a by-pass, is located at the west
end of the dam, and is 40 feet in width. The total spillway capacity thns
provided is abont 4000 second-feet, while the outlet-pipes, eight in number,
each 12 inches diameter, have a combined capacity of abont 250 second-
feet.
A ^' water-cushion " has been provided at the toe of the dam, to receive
the impact of the waste water pouring over the structure and to prevent
erosion of the toe. This is 25 feet wide, 200 feet long, and consists of a
rock pavement, 3 to 6 feet deep, heavily grouted at the top with cement
mortar.
The face-wall has been reinforced by an embankment of earth placed
against it, and covered with stone riprap, 1 foot thick. This embankment
reaches to within 30 feet of the top of the dam at the outlet-tower near the
center, and rises to the full height at either extremity. The outlet-tower
is a rectangular structure, built in the body of the dam, with a central
opening of 6 X 7. 5 feet reaching to the top. Into this the eight 12-inch
outlet-pipes discharge at four successive levels, 6 feet apart from the base
up, the gate-valves being placed inside the tower. From the base of the
tower the water discharges into the creek channel through a 36-inch open
pipe, made of concrete 4 feet thick, surrounding a cement pipe of standard
dimensions. The water is picked up li^miles below the storage-dam by a
low diverting-dam, 125 feet long, and conveyed through 40 miles of canals,
wich maximum capacity of 75 second-feet, to the lands irrigated and to an
aaxiliary reservoir, formed from a natural depression in the plain. This
reservoir has a surface area of 60 acres and a capacity of 700 acre- feet, its
maximum depth being 16 feet.
The construction of the Castlewood dam was attended by much opposi-
tion from the citizens of Denver, who were apprehensive of its safety and
severely criticised the plan. Unsuccessful attempts were made to enjoin
the construction, but it was finally permitted to be completed and has suc-
cessfully withstood all floods to the present time. The facing-wall has
shown no sign of settlement, but the main embankment settled a few
inches, sufficiently to produce an unsightly crack in the center of the dam
along the lower line of the face- wall. The coping-stones were subsequently
relaid to true line again and no subsequent crack has developed. The
canals and reservoirs have cost about $425,000. The dam was planned by
A. M. Wells, C.E., of Denver, with Mr. Alfred P. Boiler, M. Am. Soc.
C. E., of New York, as consulting engineer. Fig. 24 (taken from Engineer-
46 RKSEBVOiaS FOR IRRIQATIOS, WATBB-POWBR, ETC.
ROCK-FILL DAMB. 48
ing Record, Dec. 34, 1898, and reprodaced by conrtee; of that jonroal)
illaatraceB the constractioQ of tlie dam in plan, section, and elevation.
FeoM Valley Rook-flll Damt, New Hezico. — Two rock-gll dams with
earth faciogs have beeu constracted acrosB the Pecos River, in the Pecos
Valley, New Mexico, which have boldly and Bacceaafally exemplitied a dis-
tinct type of dam that is considered to be preferable to all other rock-fills
where the proper conditioDS exidt and suitable materials are obtainable.
One of theee danriB is located 6 miles and the other 15 miles above the town
of Eddy, N. M. They were bnilt by the Pecos Irrigation and ImproTement
Company.
Lake Avalon Dam. — The lower dam, designated locally as the Lake
Avalon dam, was bnilt primarily aa a means of raising the level of water of
the river in order to divert it into a canal at a safe height above the reach
of maximam floods, and at the same time to eqnalize the flow by providing
Flo. 25.— Sketch-map
Pecos Canaii
a considerable volame of storage in the reservoir thus created. The present
dimensions of the dam are as follows: length on crest, 1135 feet; maximum
height, 48 feet; enter slope of rock-fill, IJ^ to 1 ; width of rock base, 106
feet; crown, 10 feet. The earth facing has also a crown width of 10 feet,
making the total width 20 feet on top. The slope of the earth embank-
ment that is built against the rock-fill is 3 to 1, which is covered with a
revetment of Ioobc stone 2 to 3 feet thick for wave protection. The rock-
50 SBSBSrOIBS FOB IRRIGATION, WATBR-POWBR, ETO.
fill before the addition of the earth facing is illnstrated by Fig. 26, a view
taken during construction. Fig. 27 ia a view of the finished dam, taken in
1893. The grade of the main canal leading out from the dam on the east
side of the valley is 10 feet above the base of the dam, and is excavated
in limestone to a maximum depth of 38 feet. Fig. 28 ia a vievr of the inaio
canal and headgates, taken from the lower side.
Pio. 86.— Lake Avalon Dam. Rock-till ni Pbocbss oy Combtkuctioii.
The dam was in service nntil Anguet 3, 1893, when it was ruptured by
a fiood-wave that was in excess of the spillway capacity — the old story con-
nected with dam failures. The water poured over its crest, and, as this
style of dam is not calcnluted to withstand Buch an overflow, it speedily
washed out a breach to the bed-rock over 300 feet in length. This was
immediately repaired and built 5 feet higher, at a total cost of $86,000.
The capacity of the open spillway at the west end of the dam was increased
by widening it from 200 feet to a width of 240 feet, and by catting it 3 feet
deeper, making it begin to discharge while the water is 15 feet below the
crest. A second spillway in rock was cut abont half a mile to the west of
spillway No. 1, having a length of 300 feet. In addition to these discharge-
channels the main canal below the dam is so arranged that surplus water
will begin to slop over its banks at a height of 13 feet above the bottom of
the canal, over a length of about 300 feet. By opening the headgates and
partially closing the secondary gates across the canal below, this slop-over
can be given a large capacity of dischai^e. Ordinarily, however, the
BOCK-FILL DAMS. 51
-vrater-level in this section of csoal ia maiDtained to a depth of over 20 feet
above the floor of the canal by a Beries of thirty-one gates placed on the side
of the canal, parallel to it, and across the spillway. These gates are hinged
at the sides, and are each S feet i inch wide by ? feet K inches high.
They can be opened in an emergeaoy almost instantly by the stroke of a
hammer upon a latch-releasing bar at each gate, when the pressnre forces
them to fly open like a door. The opening can be closed above the gates
by flash-boards, permiLting the closing and latching of the doors. (See
Fig. 29, taken from Engineering News, Sept. 17, 1896.) The total
capacity whicli the spillways now have is estimated at 33,000 aecond-feet,
while the water-level is still below the top of the dam.
The original cost of the dam was about 990,000, and the recosBtraction
was therefore bat little less than the first cost.
Mr. II. II. Cloud, formerly of the Colorado Midland Bailroad, was the
■chief engineer of the dam, with Mr. E. S. Nettleton acting as consulting
engineer, and Mr. Lonis D. Blanvelt as principal aBaietant. Mr. Cloud
EBCribes the cause of the overtopping of the dam to the fact that the spill-
ways were choked by the debris from bridges, together with the bodies of
drowned cattle brought down by the river. Another accoant states that
the gate-keeper and his assistants were in Eddy at the time, indulging in a
drnnken spree, aud did not start for the dam until the only bridges across
62 BBBBRVOIHB FOB IBRIOATION, WATRB-POWSB. ETC.
the river were washed away, and they coald aot cross. When they finally
secared boats for crossing and reached the dam joat before the disaster,
thej were nnable to open the waste-gates becanse of a defect in coDBtruc-
tioQ, since remedied. It was believed that if the lateral waste-gates along
the canal had been opened when the dood-wave first reached the dam, the
relief thns afforded would have avoided the disaster. No loss of life was
reported as a resnlt of the flood, and but little property was damaged.
The reservoir capacity of Lake Avalon from the floor of the canal to the
spillway-level is about 6300 acre-feet.
Irrigation from Reservoir. — The main canal, on the east side of the
Fig. 38— Canal ElEADaATEa, Lake Avalon Dam.
river, has a capacity of 1300 second-feet for 3.3 miles, to the janctlon of
the Southern and East Side canals, the width on bottom heing 15 feet,
depth 7 feet, and grade 1.5 feet per mile. The Southern Canal from the
junction down for 9 miles has a capacity of t)80 feet. On this section the
canal is carried across the river from the east side to the west, in a flume
468 feet long, 25 feet wide, 6 feet deep, supported on high trestle bents.
The approaches consist of embankments, or " terre pleius," with maximum
height of over 30 feet. The second section is 4.3 miles long with 460
second-feet capacity. The third section is 3 miles with 385 second-feet
capacity, followed bv 31.6 miles in which the maximum capacity is 315
second-feet — the bottom width being 14 feet and the depth 4 feet. The
total length is 40 miles, although operated for bat 31 miles.
ROCK-FILL DAMS.
Fio. 80. — SKCTioMfl OF Lake Avalon add Lakk McMillan Bock-f
Dams, Pecos Valley, N. M.
64 RE8ERY0TRS FOB IRRIGATION, WAl BR-POWER, ETC.
The Eaat Side Canal is 19.6 miles long, mth mazimam capacity of 334
second-feet. The upper 4 miles only are ased, and bnt 16 miles are avail-
able for service. The entire canal system has cost about $400,000 in all.
The area irrigated from these canals in 1S9? was as follows:
Southern Canal 13,000 acres.
East Side " 2,500 "
Total 15,500 "
Tlie area commanded bj these two canals is 110,000 acres, of which
90,000 acres are under the main Sonthem Canal.
Water-tightness of Lake Avalon Dam. — The dam is apparently free
from direct leakage throngh it, although water stands in a pool at the base
Fio. 81. — Skktch-map ov Pbcos Valley Cakals.
of the dam, which is believed to come from springs, issuing from the rock.
From the dam down for several miles there are springs of large volume
coming out on the river-banks, whose total flow at the stone dam at Eddy,
as measured by the writer in October, 1897, was approximately 90 second-
feet. Since the construction of the reservoir these springs are said to be
increasing in nnmber and volnme. The largest one, flowing 5 to C second,
feet, broke out in a new place in 1896, some 3 miles below the dam-
Distinct swirls and miniature maelstroms have been observed on the surface
of both reservoirs, from which it is surmised that water in considerable
quantity is thus lost throngh the limestone formation, and that some of the
springs are fed from this source, although many were in existence prior to
FiQ. 39. —Map of Pboos Vallbt, N. M., showing Location of Rbsbrtoibb
AND Canals.
ROCK-FILL DAMS. 56
the bailding of the dams. This '' leakage '* does not in any manner affect
the stability of the dama and is of interest chiefly becaase of the fact that
reservoirs in limestone formation are generally to be expected to be subject
to similar losses, and in this case the illustration is specially well marked
and visible.
Lake McMillan Dam. — The Upper Pecos River reservoir is called Lake
McMillan, and is formed by a rock*fill dam of the same general type as the
lower one. This was bailt in 1893 under Mr. Loais D. Blaavelt as chief
engineer. The dam has a top length of 1686 feet, and a maximum height
of 52 feet The rock-fill portion was made 14 feet wide at top, and the
earth-fill 6 feet at top — making the total width 20 feet as in the lower
dam, the slopes being the same, viz., 1^ to 1 on lower and 3.5 to 1 on upper
side. The inner face of the rock-fill against which the earth rests has a
batter of 0.5 to 1, the wall being laid up 2 feet thick by hand. The dam
contains 102,400 cubic yards of rock, 103,600 yards of earth, 3800 yards
of dry retaining wall, and 6200 yards of riprap. Its cost complete is stated
to have been $200,000. An auxiliary embankment, 5200 feet long, 10 feet
wide on top, 18.8 feet maximum height, with slopes of 1.5 to 1 and 3 to 1,
and containing 78,400 cubic yards, was thrown up to close a gap in the
ridge near the dam, at a cost of 110,000. It was made entirely of earth,
paved with stone for a portion of its height on the water-side. When
visited by the writer in the fall of 1895, and again in 1897, the dam showed
no signs of leakage, or settlement, or any form of weakness, although the
reservoir was more than half full. The works have never been completed
to store more than 50,000 acre-feet, covering an area of 5500 acres, and it
will be necessary to construct an expensive spillway before a material addi-
tion can be made to the volume of storage. At present the limit of storage
is 17 feet below the crest of the dam, above which the water passes oft
through a gap of such dimensions as to carry 200,000 second-feet before
the dam could be overtopped. The plan proposed is to close this gap with
an embankment and excavate a small spillway through solid limestone on
the right bank, with a capacity of 10,000 second-feet. When this is done
the water-level will be raised 7 feet, or 10 feet below the crest, and the
volume of storage will be approximately 89,000 acre-feet, covering 8331
acres of surface.
Outlet. — The outlet for the water is provided by means of a canal 1100
feet long, cut through solid limestone at the east end of the dam, to a
maximum depth of 35 feet below the crest. This is controlled by massive
wooden beadgates, placed on the line of the dam, six in number, each
4 feet wide, and arranged to open to a height of 8 feet by screws. Above
these openings is a solid wooden bulkhead filling the cross-section of the
canal. The gates are 6 inches thick, heavily ironed. The water issuing
from the gates passes back into the channel of the river and thence flows to
66 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
the lower reservoir. The canal is 30 feet wide, aad reqaired the excavatioD
of 68,000 cabic yards of rock, solid measarement, ail of which was used ia
making the rock-fill of the dam. The canal beadworks cost $20,000.
The gates have a discharging capacity of 4400 second-feet when the
depth of water over the floor of the canal is but 18 feet, and considerably
in excess of this amonnt when the maximnm depth of 25 feet is reached.
This type of rock-fill dam appears to possess every element of safety so
long as sufficient spillway is provided to insare them from being overtopped.
It seems particularly well adapted to the conditions found in the Pecoa
Valley, where ledges of limestone crossing the valley appear at the surface
at intervals, affording reliable foundations for dams, and material for their
construction; where an abundance of suitable earth is available for backing,
and where dams of but moderate height are required to impound large
volumes of water. Here also the country is so open as to make the work
easily accessible from all sides. These conditions do not prevail in moun-
tain canyons as a rule, and in such localities, where construction is cramped
for room, and earth is scarce and hard to obtain, some other material for
water-tight facing is cheaper and preferable to earth. For the special con-
ditions existing where they were built these dams must be regarded as the
best that could have been planned.
The total cost of the two reservoirs and the canal system depending
upon them was $776,000, an average of about $7 per acre for the 110,000
acres of land commanded by the canals. The same company has built an
expensive cut-stone masonry dam for power purposes at the town of Eddy,
and another system of canals near the town of Koswell, 90 miles further up
the valley. The dam is ogee in section, is 320 feet long, 6 feet high, with
abutments 20 feet in height, and cost $22,000. It was nearly destroyed by
the flood of 1893, when the Lake Avalon dam gave way, and was subse-
quently rebuilt. A canal leading from it on the east side, calied the
Hagerman Canal, covers about 5000 acres, of which 300 acres are irrigated.
The Northern Canal, near Roswell, N. M., commands 59,000 acres, of
which 4000 acres were irrigated in 1897. The canal is 38 miles long and
has a capacity of 300 to 120 second- feet. It is fed directly from springs
that form the sources of the Hondo Eiver.
Water-supply, — The area of watershed drained by the Pecos River above
the southern boundary of New Mexico is approximately 24,400 square
miles, having a maximum elevation of about 11,892 feet. After leaving
the main mountain range in Northern New Mexico, where it has its source,
the Pecos enters upon a tortuous course across the great plateau of eastern
New Mexico and western Texas, skirting to the eastward of the foothills of
various mountain groups and isolated peaks, from which the river receives
numerous important tributaries, but no feeders come to it from the east or
the region of the *' Staked Plains," whose drainage is caught in shallow
ROCK-FILL DAMS.
67
pools, or sinks into the limestone formation underlying the plains. The
maximum flow of the river is in the months of May, June, July, and
AagQst as the result of summer rains, more than 75^ of the entire precipi-
tation of the year falling in these months. Of the total watershed of the
Pecos in New Mexico
{f^ has a mean precipitation exceeding 20 inches.
505^ " " " from 16 to 20
20fi " *• " " 10 to 15
25{^ " " " under 10
n
These data are taken from the maps of the U. S. Weather Bureau, palx
lished in 1891, from which the following data as to mean and maximum
precipitation at various stations within the Pecos watershed are compiled :
station.
Mean Annual
Precipitation.
Inches.
Maximum Annual
Precipitation.
Inches.
Elevation above
Sea- level.
Feet.
Fort Stanton. N. M
10.05
15.01
16.29
17.08
19.14
22.08
i2!66
28.70
27.27
16.70
27.82
28.14
15!82
15.55
6154
** Sumner. **
4300
Puerto de Luna. *'
4500
Gnllinas Sorinfirs. **
4800
Port Union. **
6750
Las Ve&ras. "
6418
Roswell. **
8857
Eddy. ••
8140
MJ\MX»J f •«•••■••.•
The estimated discharge of the stream past the southern boundary of
New Mexico was approximately 700,000 acre-feet in 1890, 1,300,000 acre-
feet in 1891, and 1,000,000 acre-feet in 1897. In 1893 the discharge
exceeded « that of 1891.
The minimum flow above Lake McMillan in August, 1891, was 202
second-feet, and in August, 1897, 225 second-feet. The maximam of 1893
was estimated at 42,500 second-feet. The total flow of the stream is thus seen
to be from 10 to 15 times the combined capacity of the two reservoirs, a fact
which suggests the probability of a somewhat rapid filling of the reservoirs
by silt carried in suspension, and also emphasizes the necessity of ample
spillway capacity. Furthermore it indicates that as the maximum flow is
dnriog a portion of the irrigation season, the reservoirs do not require to be
drawn upon except at the lower stages of the river, and hence their duty
promises to be unusually great. The great surplus of unappropriated water
is also suggestive of the need for additional reservoirs, some of whose possi-
bilities are discussed in subsequent pages.
68 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC,
Duty of Water in Pecos Valley. — From all the evidence obtainable it is
concluded tliat the average consumption of water in Pecos Valley the first
year of irrigation is 4 to 5 acre-feet per acre, and the altimate daty after
the third or fourth year is about 2 acre-feet per acre, including all losses
by percolation, leakage, and evaporation in the canals. Alfalfa requires
about three-fourths of a foot at the first watering each year, and yields four
crops, needing one good irrigation of half a foot in depth at each cutting.
Sugar-beets, planted in June, have to be irrigated three or four times,
besides the watering needed for preparing the grouud. They take about
one-third of a foot at each irrigation. Small grain, sown in October, is
irrigated once before sowing and once in November or December. In
March, when dry winds prevail, the surface has to be wetted every ten days.
In all six or seven irrigations, consuming about 2 acre-feet per acre,
are required. Orchards need three to six irrigations. The labor-cost of
irrigation averages about 15 cents for each application, and the cost of
water is $1.25 per acre for the entire season, regardless of the volume used.
The Walnut Orove Bock-fill Dam, Arizona. — Among all the rock-fill
dams that have ever been built or projected in the West unquestionably the
slenderest and most flimsily constructed was that erected across the
Hassayampa Eiver, 30 miles south of Prescott, Arizona, in 1887-88, the
destruction of which by a flood on the night of February 22, 1890, was accom-
panied by the loss of 129 lives. This disastrous result was predicted when
it was building by those familiar with its construction, as an event that was
likely to occur, and the frightful consequences that ensued illustrate and
emphasize the necessity and importance of governmental supervision of the
plans and details of construction of all structures of that class, either by
the State or Federal authorities. It should never have been permitted to
be built of the dimensions given to it, and the manner of its bailding was a
conspicuous display of criminal neglect of all requisite precautions to secure
the safety of any dam, and particularly one of the rock-fill type.
The dam was 110 feet high, 10 feet thick at top, 138 feet thick at base,
about 150 feet long at the bed of the stream, and 400 feet long on top.
These dimensions would not have been excessive for an overfall dam of
solid masonry laid up in Portland cement, but for a rock-fill the slopes
were so much steeper than the natural angle of repose of loose rock
(20 horizontal to 47 vertical on the upper side, and 70 horizontal to 108
vertical on the lower side) that it was really in danger of settling or sliding
down to flatter slopes without the assistance of water-pressure against it.
That it did not do so was solely due to the fact that the faces of the
embankment were laid up as dry walls, each having a thickness of 14 feet
at base and 4 feet at top, the center being a loose pile of random stone
dumped in from a trestle. If these facing-walls had been carefully laid
ROCK-FILL DA218. 09
with large stones, on level beds, and an adequate spillway provided to cany
the waate water aronnd the dam and prevent it passing over the top, and if
proper foundations had been laid for the entire stmctnre, it might have
been standing to-day. In a paper read before the Technical Society of the
Pacific Coast, on October 5, 1888, eighteen months before the dam failed,
Lather Wagoner, C.E., who was employed on the construction of the dam
part of the time, called attention to " some very bad work *' on the onter
Walsdt Gkovb Dam, Arizona.
wall near the mid-height, and states that he *' advised the company to cat
a large wasteway and pnt the loose rock below the dam to strengthen this
weak place." The following is extracted from Mr. Wagoner's paper: " The
history of the constmction of the dam is one fall of blanders, mainly caused
by the officers of the company in N^ew York, Work was commeaced on
company acconnt by Prof. W. P. Blake, who carried a wall across the
60 RBSBRYOIBS FOR IRRIGATION, WATBR-POWES, ETC.
canyoa to bed-rock throngh about 20 feet of Band and gravel. He vas
sncceeded by Col. £. K. RobineoD as chief engmeer, and the work vae cod-
traoted for by Nagle & Leonard of San Francisco, Under Col. Robinson
the dam was commenced in the rear of the Blake wall, and was described
Id the specifications as being composed of front and back walls 14 feet at
the base and 4 feet at the top, with loose rock-filling between, the dam to
be made water-tigb£ by a wooden skin or sheathing.
"Quarries were opened by the contractors npon both banks of the
stream above tbe top of dam. * Coyote ' holes from 8 to 15 feet deep were
charged with low-grade powder (4<£ nitro-glycerine), and the stone dislodged
in large amounts. The stone was loaded up in cars, having the bed inclined
at aboat 15°, and these were lowered onto the dam hy a bnll-wbeol and
Fig. 84. View of Walndt Grove Dam, Abisoka.
brake, a three-rail railroad being laid on trestle across the dam, at a height
of from 10 to 15 feet. On the slope midway was a turnout so as to allow
the loaded cars to pass the empty car. The loaded car was unhooked on
the level and run out and damped and returned above by the next loaded
car. The legs of the trestle were left in the wall, only the caps and
stringers being raised. Dnring the first etagss of construction derricks
were used to distribute the larger atones; later the center was kept high
and tbe stones from the wall were moved by bars. The effect of this upon
the stability of the dam is bad, because it tends to form cnrved beds whose
slope makes an acute angle with the direction of tbe resultant pressure.
ROGK'FILL DAMS, 61
^^ The company parcbased a sawmill and cut the lumber for tbe dams,
bnildings, etc., and tbe skin was pat on by contract. Cedar logs, 8 to 10
incbes in diameter, 6 feet long, were bailt into tbe wall on tbe npper face,
and projected out one foot. Vertical stringers, 6" X 8'\ of native pine»
were bolted to tbe logs; tbe stringers were about 4 feet apart. At each
joint of the stringers a cedar log was built into tbe wall about 2 inches
above the joint, and two 4'' x 10'' spliced pieces, bolted through tbe log
and spiked to tbe 6'' X 10'' pieces with galvanized-iron boat-spikes, com-
pleted the joint. Upon the main wall of tbe dam a double planking of
3-inch boards was laid horizontally, having a tarred paper put on with
tacks between the planks. The outer row of planks was calked with
oakum and painted with a heavy coat of paraffine paint, — refined aspbaltum
or maltha, dissolved in carbon bisulphide. Tbie junction of the plank-skin
and the bed-rock was secured by a Portland cement. Through the dam la
a wooden culvert, 3x4 feet inside, about tbe level of the old creek
channel; this is boarded with 3-inch plank inside and has a gate to draw
off the water and waste it.
*^ The contract for the dam proper was for 46,000 cubic yards, lumped
at $2.40 per cubic yard. The skin and cementing was extra. Lumber cost
about $15 per M at tbe dam.
'' With 70 feet of water abo7e bed-rock the dam leaked 3.75 cubic feet
per second. Various theories were advanced for tbe cause of the leak; on&
was that settlement of the dam had forced an opening of t)ie junction of
the inclined and horizontal skins; and another was that it leaked over tbe
whole surface. Tbe extreme right-hand skin below the bed of the stream
is made of but one layer of plank. The machinery for draining tbe water
was inadequate, and tbe men who did the cementing assured me that they
worked in 4 feet of water, and that they did not go to the bed-rock. The
probable cause of leakage, I believe, is due to all three cf the reasons
named."
The outlet provided for the reservoir was a culvert made partly in
tunnels through a spur on the left bank, and partly as an arched masonry
conduit, in which were laid two 20-inch iron pipes with gate-valves at the
lower end below tbe dam. These pipes terminated above the dam in a
square wooden tower 90 feet high built of 8" X 8" timbers, 8 feet long^
notched one-half at each end, secured by a f-inch rod through each corner,
the joints calked with oakum, and the outside painted with paraffine
paint. Two wooden valves were placed to admit water into this tower, one
at tbe bottom and tbe other 20 feet higher. They were arranged to slide
on wood, on the outside of tbe tower, with wooden valve-stems, 6 incbes
square, running up the outside to tbe top, where the operating device con-
sisted of two pinions, a spur-wheel, and a rack. The openings were each
about 15 square feet in area, against which tbe pressure with full reservoir
62 ^RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
amounted to a resistance or load of nearly 40,000 lbs. (estimating the
coefficient of friction of wood on wood at 0.40), while the lifting-device
gave a mazimam power of less than 1000 lbs. These were pat in regardless
of the protest of Mr. Wagoner, for the reason assigned that '^ they were
designed by an engineer and mast work."
This defect in outlet, however, in no way affected the stability of the
dam, and even had it been possible to raise the gates at the approach of the
flood, the relief which they would have afforded could not have averted the
disaster, as the maximum capacity of the pipe was less than 200 second-
feet, while the flood must have been several thousand second-feet for
a considerable period.
Spillway, — The wasteway as built was 26 feet wide and 7 feet in depth,
constructed at the right bank adjacent to the dam, the spill falling near
or against its toe. Its maximum capacity when full was 1700 second-
feet. As recommended by Mr. Wagoner, the material taken from this
spillway was placed against the lower side of the dam, as a loose dump,
increasing its bottom thickness to about 185 feet, and reaching nearly half-
way up.
Mr. H. M. Wilson, hydrographer, U. S. Geological Survey, in an able
review of the construction of this dam published in 1893,* says:
'^ Mr. Robinson designed a wasteway 55 feet wide and 12 feet deep, cut
through a ridge one-half mile north of the dam and spilling into a separate
watercourse, which would in all probability have carried off the great flood
of 1890. For some unaccountable reason a much smaller wasteway was
ultimately constructed."
It is stated that the spillway was being enlarged at the very time of the
destruction of the dam. Mr. Wilson further says: '^ One of the much-dis-
cussed points in connection with the construction of this dam was its
foundation; it was intended that it should be founded on bed-rock.
Witnesses before the courts, men who had taken part in its construction,
claimed that the foundation did not reach bed-rock on the up-stream face.
The body of the loose rock rested on the gravel bed of the river. The
lower wall rested on bed-rock, but a portion of the upper wall rested only
on river gravel. This fact was discovered during construction of the dam.
An excavation was made under the dam and a masonry wall, 14 feet deep
and about 14 feet wide, was laid, presumably to bed-rock, with another
portion of this wall turning inward to the east on bed-rock. It was
claimed, however, that this wall did not come within 5 feet of bed-rock, so
that in fact, even after the alterations, the dam still rested on the gravel.
The main up-stream wall of the dam rested for only 2^ feet on this
secondary base which was built under it, the remainder of the thickness of
* " American Irrigalion Engiueering," page 298.
ROCK-FILL DAMS. 68
the wall resting on the battress which inclined inward to bed-rock. The
correctness of this view of the construction of the dam is indicated by the
fact that considerable water passed ander or throngh the dam in spite of its
plank sheathi ng. ' '
One year prior to the bursting of the dam, Prof. W. P. Blake prepared
a paper describing it which was published in the Transactions of the
American Institute of Mining Engineers, New York, in February, 1889,
from which the following extract is taken :
'' The reservoir was filled by the first floods and the water rose rapidly
to and beyond the 80- foot contour-line. As to the effect npon the stream
below there has been an agreeable surprise either from a partial opening of
one of the gates or a leak. There has been a constant flow of water from
the dam, and this has kept a constant stream throngh the yalley, giving
more water than usual along its course, so that instead of the owners of
water-privileges denouncing the dam and asking for injunctions, they are
hoping the dam will always leak to their advantage. These results are of
great value as to the demonstration of what the functio7is of such dams and
reservoirs may be throughout the arid regions of the West; even if not
perfectly tight, they would be of immense value in catching the temporary
floods and in equalizing the flow of such intermittent streams as the
Hassayampa and many others."
It is remarkable that the designer of this dam should have looked upon
the really enonnous leakage developed in it in a spirit of exultation, as an
achievement worthy of note, rather than as a source of alarm and danger.
To write of such leakage as one of the results '^ of great value " requires
nnusual confldence in the stability of one's work.
None of the published descriptions of the construction of the dam have
stated what disposition was made of the culvert under the center of the
dam at the st|2<»am-bed, after construction was flnished, or whether it was
walled up or merely closed by a wooden gate.
The elevation of the dam-site is about 3000 feet above sea-level, while
the drainage-basin of 311 square miles reaches to maximum altitudes of
8000 feet. The mean precipitation of the shed is estimated at 16 inches.
The capacity of the reservoir to the spillway-level, 83 feet above the outlet
tunnel, was about 10,000 acre-feet.
The water was intended to be used for placer-mining and irrigation.
A diverting-dam, located some 20 miles down the canyon, was in process of
construction at the time of the flnal catastrophe, under the supervision of
Major Alex. 0. Brodie (late Major of First Begiment U. S. Volunteer
Cavalry), who barely escaped with his life.
The original owners of the property have had in contemplation for some
time past the reconstruction of the dam in a substantial manner, although
plans for the new structure have not been made public.
64 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
East Canyon Creek Dam, Utah. — A modification of the Otay steel-core
rock-fill dam wafl completed April 1, 1899, on East Canyon Creek, Utah,
forming a reservoir of 5700 acre-feet capacity, to be used for irrigation,
snpplementary to the supply of the Davis and Weber Coanties Canal
Company.
The dam is 68 feet high above the creek-bed, where the width of the
canyon is bat 50 feet. The length of the dam on top is 100 feet.
A concrete wall, 15 feet thick, was carried down through the gravel bed
of the cacyou to bed-rock, a depth of 30 feet, and in the center of this wall
the steel web-plates were anchored. These are -j^ inch thick for the lower
20. feet, i inch for the middle 20 feet, and j\ inch for the upper 28 feet.
The rock-fill is given a slope of ^ to 1, on upper side, and 2 to 1 on lower
side, the top width being 15 feet. In construction all the rock necessary
was thrown into the canyon after the concrete base was laid, by a series of
heavy blasts, and the fill consists of masses that in some cases have a bulk
of 100 cubic yards. The canyon walls rose to a height of more than 100
feet above the top of the dam on either side, and the material in falling
packed very solidly together. After the rock-fill was thus thrown down in
sufficient quantity an open cut was excavated in it down to the concrete
wall, having a width of 15 feet at base, and as little slope on sides as possi-
ble. The steel core was then erected in the cat, and a wall of stone was
laid up on either side, leaving a space of 4 inches each side of the plate,
which was filled with asphalt concrete, consisting of 30^ sand, 70^ gravel,
and sufficient asphalt to fill the voids, requiring 8 lbs. per cubic foot of the
mass. The inner portion of the rock- fill was laid up as a substantial dry
wall with headers and stretchers, reaching from the plate out to the water-
face, the main rocks being placed with a derrick. Notwithstanding the care
given in this construction the settlement of the wall as the water rose upon
it to a height of 45 feet was so great as to draw the asphalt concrete away
from the plate, an extreme distance of 5 feet at the top, bending towards
the lake, and forming a curve from a point about 30 feet below the top,
and finally the upper portion of the wall fell off, as indicated by the broken
line in Fig. 35. The down-stream portion also settled somewhat, causing
the concrete to part from the steel plates about 6 inches at the top.
This peculiar action is thought to have been caused by the adhesion of
the asphalt to the stone wall, the bond being stronger with the stone than
its adhesion to the steel plates. The rock used is a conglomerate with an
admixture of red clay, which disintegrated when wet and produced the
extreme settlement.
The dam remained with full head of water against it for several months
without apparent leakage, except through crevices in the bed-rock, and it
is believed the expense of repairs will be light. The total cost of the
structure was $40,000.
BOCK FILL DAMB.
66 BE8ERV0IR8 FOR IRRIGATION, WATER POWER, ETC.
The oatlefc to the reservoir is by means of a tannel 200 feet long, the
bottom of which is 10 feet above the original stream-bed. At the entrance
to the tannel two 30-inch riveted steel pipes f inch thick are imbedded in
concrete, controlled by 30-inch Ludlow valves bolted to them, operated
from a platform projecting from the face of the cliff above. The valve-
stems are 2^inch steel pipes. The main control of the ontlet is by means
of two other valves of the same size, placed at the bottom of a shaft, 50 feet
back from the mouth of the tunnel, between two lengths of cast-iron pipe,
the whole being imbedded in concrete which completely fills the tunnel.
These are the working valves, the others being used only in emergency.
The spillway is at one end of the dam, and consists of a flume 6 feet
deep, 27 feet wide, discharging below the toe of the dam. The available
depth of the reservoir between the bottom of the spillway and the floor of
the tunnel is 52 feet.
Mr. W. M. Bostaph was the engineer in charge, and Mr. Samuel For tier
was consulting engineer.
This account of the construction is an abstract of an article in Ejigineer-
ing Recordy by M. S. Parker, M. Am. Soc. C. E. The writer is indebted
to the Record for the loan of the cut illustrating the construction.
Theoretically the plan of imbedding the steel core in the center of a
wall of asphalt concrete was an improvement upon that of the Otay dam,
and had there been no settlement of the rock the construction would have
been faultless. But in the Otay dam the steel core and the cement concrete
either side of it are independent of the rock-flU, which is free to settle
without pulling on the core. This is undoubtedly a superior plan, although
the ultimate action of settlement when the reservoir is filled remains to be
tested in the Otay dam, as up to the present writing it has never been filled.
It has been feared that a rupture of the plates might be produced by the
strains of unequal settlement.
Denver Water Company's Bock-fill Dam. — The third American dam
where steel plates are employed to give water- tightness to a rock-fill is ia
process of erection on the South Fork of the South Platte River, 48 miles
above Denver, Colorado, by the Denver Union Water Company. It is the
highest and most pretentious dam of its class that has ever been projected,
and when completed it will be one of the highest dams in the world. Its
estimated cost is $350,000. It is to be 210 feet high, 600 feet long at top,
and have a base of 450 feet, up and down the canyon. The dam is being
constructed as a rock-fill, loosely dumped from cars that run by gravity
from the quarries out upon a bridge that spans the canyon above the top of
the dam. The lower slope is 1^ to 1, and the upper slope ^ to 1, with a
dry, hand-laid wall, 15 feet thick at bottom, 5 feet in thickness at top, on
the water-face. Over the face of this wall on the slope is placed a web or
skin of sheet-steel plates, 1130 in number, dipped in asphalt, and riveted
ROCK'FILL DAMS. 67
to 6-iQch T beams, placed 5 feet apart, and resting against the wall. The
plates are flanged at the side of the canyon and bolted to the solid granite,
with split bolts, driyen 1 foot deep into the rock. The space between the
plates and the face of the dry wall is filled with concrete, and the entire
sheet is covered with a layer of concrete from the bottom np to a height of
126 feet, or 10 feet above the top of the npper outlet or spillway tnnnel.
The plates are 5' X 10' X f" thick for 75 feet in height; then for the
second 75 feet the thickness is redaced to -f^ inch, and for the remaining
60 feet to ^ inch in thickness, the size being uniform throughout. For the
upper 80 feet the plates will be unprotected from the action of the elements,
except by such paint as may be applied from time to time. The spillway
tunnel being located below this level permits the inspection of the exposed
plates at any time by drawing down the water of the reservoir. The gorge
is an exceptionally narrow one, and the walls are of remarkably hard
granite, of close texture, and comparatively free from seams or fissures.
Indeed the site would be regarded as a particularly favorable one for a
masonry dam, although its remoteness in the mountain fastnesses would
render the cost of cement for masonry very high. At the extreme base,
which is 18 feet below the outlet tunnel, the width between canyon walls is
but 43 feet. The volume of rock required for the structure is estimated at
225,000 cubic yards, which is very small indeed for an embankment of such
unusual height.
Outlet. — The main reservoir outlet is a tunnel starting 100 feet above
the dam at the base, and piercing the spur of the mountain, forming one
of the abutments of the dam. This tunnel is 7 feet wide, and 6 feet high
for about half its length, to the junction with the inclined spillway tunnel,
whence its size is increased to 8 feet wide and 9 feet high, the total length
being 470 feet.
The spillway tunnel starts 110 feet above the lower tnnnel and dips at
an incline of 45° to its intersection with the lower tunnel. Its size is
7x6 feet. Both tunnels are controlled at the upper end by balanced
valves, set over the tunnel-mouth at an incline of 30*^ from the horizontal.
These valves are closed by gravity, and opened by hydraulic pressure con-
veyed to the cylinders at one end of the valves through lead-lined steel
pipes, laid in trenches surrounded by concrete, from the valves to a reservoir
located at suitable height on the adjacent mountainside. When submerged
there will be no other connection with the surface, and no other means of
moving the valves. The opening of a faucet will put on the pressure that
will open the valves and release the water from the reservoir, and the entire
operation will be out of sight and perfectly noiseless. The valve was made
from drawings prepared by the chief eugineer, Mr. Charles P. Allen, to
whose courtesy the writer is indebted for the accompanying illustrations.
Fig. 36 illustrates the construction of the valve, which consists of four
OH SB8SRV0IS8 FOB ISSIGATIOIT, WATBB.POWBB. ETO.
hoods, or chambers, of cast iron, reetiag oa a heavy framework of T beams
and opening oat into the tanoel at the bottom. A continnoos shaft passes
through all the hoods from end to end, apon which are fastened heavy disks
of cast iron, so spaced as to close all the openings in the hoods when the
Tftlre is shat, and oncover openiogs at each eod of each hood vhen the
shaft ia moved. The hydraulic cjlioder, in which power by water nnder
pressare b applied, is shown at one end of the valve, which end is highest
as the valve lies inclined over the tnonel-mouth. The valve weighs abont
flight tons and coat tlSOO at the shops in Denver.
Additional control of the reservoir oatlet is afforded by two 4ti>inch
gate-vatves, imbedded in concrete in the tnonel a short distance above the
point of junction with the spillway tunnel. These lie on their edges, side
by side, with their stems pointing away from the tunnel and attached to
hydraulic cylinders, which afford the power for actnating the valves. To
make room for this mechanism a chamber was excavated in the rock on each
side of the tunnel, 17.5 feet deep, 12 feet wide, and 7 feet liigh. The
gates are placed in the line of the upper sides of these chambers, heavily
anchored to the bed-rock by steel straps and anchor-bolts on all sides, with
vertical T beams placed against the lower side of the gate-frames, and the
whole imbedded in concrete, so placed as to form a smooth funnel leading
to the gates from above, and spreading oat to the size of the tnnnel below.
Beneath the gates are two 12-inch pipes controlled by gate-valves, to
serve as a by-pass. The necessity for heavy construction at this point is
appreciated when it is considered that the pressure upon this bulkhead
Then the reserroir is fall is nearly 600,000 lbs. The hydraulic cylinders
Fia. 87,— SoiTiiPi-A'
BOCK^FILL DAMS. 71
and all the moving parts of the valyes are acceBsible from the chambers in
i?hich they are placed, and from which the water is excladed by concrete
iralls separating the chamber from the tannel proper.
The reservoir, when fall, will cover 775 acres and extend np the canyon
A distance of 7 miles. Its maximum capacity will be 67,210 acre-feet, or
^1,900,000,000 gallons. A table of contents and areas at different levels
will be found in the Appendix.
This site was examined, surveyed, and reported upon favorably in 1897
"by Col. H. M. Chittenden, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., under authority
of the Congressional Biver and Harbor Act of June 3, 1896, directing an
examination of at least one site each in the States of Wyoming and
Colorado '^ for the storage and utilization of water, to prevent floods and
overflows, erosion of river banks and breaks of levees, and to reinforce the
How of streams during drought and low-water seasons."
In his able and exhaustive report on this subject Col. Chittenden says:
'^ This site is remarkable in affording an excellent place for a high
masonry dam." He recommends a dam 200 feet high, on curved plan,
with 300 feet radius, whose cubical contents would be 75,200 cubic yards.
His estimate of cost was 1540,000. The area of watershed above the dam
is given at 1645.2 square miles, and the volume which could probably be
fltored annually at 43,620 acre-feet, or a mean of 60 second-feet. The
average run-off for 1896, a low year, was estimated to be about 166 second-
feet past the dam-site. The loss by evaporation he estimates at not exceed-
ing 100,000,000 cubic feet annually.
The dam was expected to reach the height of 100 feet by May, 1900.
Pig. 37 shows the false work for the erection of the bridge across the
canyon, from which the rock is dumped. This bridge rests on trestle
piers at the ends, which are long enough^ to permit the bridge to be moved
np and down stream to facilitate the spreading of the rock-flll uniformly
over its base. The outlines of the reservoir are shown on Fig. 38.
The English Dam, California. — Among the earlier constructions of the
rock-flll type was one known as the English dam, situated on the headwaters
of the Middle Fork of the Yuba Biver, in California, at an elevation of
6140 feet, which was destroyed June 17, 1883. The reservoir was formed
by means of three timber crib-dams, and covered an area of 395 acres,
impounding 650,000,000 feet of water. It was supplied by the run-off from
a drainage area of 12.1 square miles, reaching to the summit of the Sierra
]N^evada. The middle dam, the largest of the three and the one which was
subsequently destroyed, had a vertical height of 100 feet on the interior,
and 131 feet on the exterior, above the deepest part of the foundation. Its
thickness at base was 185 feet, length on top 331 feet, and bottom length
about 50 feet. The original construction consisted of a crib made of tama-
rack logs, 79 feet high, 100 feet thick at base, with inner slope of 60"^ from
72
BB8BRV0IRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETO.
ROCK-FILL DAMS, 73
the horizontal, the crib being filled with rock, and the whole stractare
faced with plank. It was built in 1856, and repaired in 1876-77, by tear-
ing out the decayed portion of the old crib and replacing it with new
timbers. At the same time an addition to the thickness and height was
made by building a stone facing on the outside, laid up as a dry rabble
wall, on a slope of 44°. This wall was carried up to a height of 14 feet
above the top of the original dam, meeting a similar wall laid on the inner
slope. The upper 7 feet was formed of a substantial timber cribwork.
The addition to the dam cost $70,000, anxl the entire cost of the three struc-
tures was 9155,000, or $10.40 per acre-foot of storage capacity. The
high-water mark, or the spillway-level, was 14 inches below the top of the
upper cribwork. From the time the repairs were completed until the
destruction of the dam, about five years, no signs of weakness or leakage
were manifest, and the water-level was raised annually to the high-water
mark. On the evening before the break the water-level was 2^^ inches below
the spillway. The first intimation given of the break was at 5.30 a.m.^
when the watchman heard two violent explosions, and on reaching a point
where he could see the dam he observed the water pouring through a wide
breach in the upper cribwork. It was inferred that the break had been
caused by dynamite. In a few moments the water cut an immense gap
through the structure to its very foundation and the entire contents of the
reservoir were emptied inside of an hour. The flood-wave caused a rise of
40 feet at a point 43 miles below. At Marysville, 85 miles below, the rise
observed was but 2 feet 8 inches, and at Sacramento the extreme rise was
but 8 inches. The damage done by the flood was estimated at about $4000
to some wheat-fields that were overflowed. The flood was 24 hoars in
reaching Sacramento, and the total time in passing that point was 26 hours.
Had the break occurred in time of flood the opinion is expressed by A. J.
Bowie, M.E., that it would not have been observed by a marked increase
in the level of the larger streams of the Sacramento Valley — ^the Feather
and Sacramento rivers.* While the composite character of this structnre,
and its age at the time of its failure, would lessen confidence in its stability,
it is the only one of its type which has given way, and the circumstances
seem to point to malice rather than inherent weakness as the possible cause
of its failure.
The volume of water released by the breaking of the dam was about
600,000,000 cubic feet, which exceeded by nearly 20^^ the contents of the
South Fork reservoir whose failure produced the frightful Johnstown,
Penn., disaster in 1889, and that there was no loss of life resulting from it
and very slight property damage is quite remarkable.
* Transactions Technical Society of the Pacific Coast, vol. ii. page 10. — A Paper
on the Destruction of the English Dam.
74 RB8BRV0IR8 FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
The Bowman Dam. — The timber-crib rock-filled dams of the mining
regions of California are well illustrated by the Bowman dam, located on
the Soath Fork of Yuba Biyer, and impounding the drainage from 19
square miles of the higher Sierras.
The dam was built in 1872 to the height of 72 feet in a manner similar
to the original construction of the Eoglish dam, consisting of a timber crib
of unhewn cedar and tamarack logs, notched and bolted together and filled
with small stones. The slopes on each side were 1 on 1, and the face was
made with a skin of pine planking*, laid horizontally. In 1875 the dam was
raised to the extreme height of 100 feet, by adding an embankment of stone
to the lower slope, wide enough to carry the entire structure, including the
crib-dam, to the desired height. The outer face of this embankment was
made as a hand-laid dry rubble wall in which stone of large size were used.
This wall is 15 to 18 feet thick at base, and 6 to 8 feet at the top, the stone
weighing from | ton to 4| tons. Vertical ribs were bolted to the wall on
the water-face, with f-inch rods, 5 feet long, and to these the plank were
spiked. These were 9 inches thick, in three layers, for the bottom 25 feet,
6 inches thick for the next 35 feet in height, and 3 inches thick on the
upper 36 feet. The outlet to the reservoir is arranged by three 18-inch
wrought-iron riveted pipes, about 25 feet long each, extending from the
inner face of the dam to a culvert, built in the dam from the lower side to
the gates placed at the outlet end of these pipes. The combined discharg-
ing capacity of the pipes is 280 second-feet, when the reservoir is full.
They discharge into a covered sluice or flume in the bottom of the culvert,
21 inches high, 7^ feet wide. The gates are approached by a walk above
this flume. The culvert is 8 feet high, 7.5 feet wide at bottom, 5^ feet at
top, made of dry rubble side walls, covered with heavy granite slabs,
18 inches thick, 6.5 feet long.
The dam is 425 feet long on top, and has a base thickness of 180 feet.
Its contents are 55,000 cubic yards, and its cost was $151,521.44.
Like many of the earlier types of rock-fill dams it was built with an
obtuse angle in the center, whose apex is pointed up-stream. This angle is
165°. Its purpose was evidently to give a fancied additional security, and
was the nearest approach to the arched form which could conveniently be
given to such a structure.
The reservoir covers an area of nearly 500 acres, when full, and has a
maximum capacity of 918,000,000 cubic feet or 21,070 acre-feet. Its cost
was therefore an average of 17.19 per acre-foot of storage capacity.
The annual precipitation at the Bowman dam, as recorded for sixteen
years prior to 1887, ranged from a minimum of 44 inches to a maximum of
120 inches, the mean being about 72 inches. The watershed is of a
character to yield maximum run-ofE estimated at 75^ of mean precipitation.
Maximum floods from melting snows reach 5000 to 7000 cubic feet per
c/toss Sccrtofif
Fia. 68b.— Plan and Ckobsskctton or the Fordtce Rocs-Fn.T. Dui,
CAUrOHKlA.
ROCK^FILL DAMS.
75
second. The minimum annual rainfall is sufficient to gire ample run-off
to fill the reservoir, while the maximum precipitation would yield sufficient
to fill it four times in one year. The crest of the spillway is placed but 18
inches below the crest of the dam. The latter is made as a coping of hewn
cedar, 18 inches wide on top, anchored by iron bolts into the wall. The
structure is so well built that a few inches depth of water overflowing the
crest of the dam would pass off without injury to the lower slope- wall.
The reservoir is owned by the North Bloomfield Mining Company, and the
water is used for hydraulic mining.
The same company have four smaller reservoirs of similar type, con-
structed at a total cost of 995,000. The following table gives the capacity
of the principal mining-reservoirs of California, which have been the proto-
types of rock-fill dam construction in the West, some of which have been
more fully described in the foregoing pages. Many of them are located at
the sites of natural lakes whose surfaces have been raised by the erection
of dams at their outlets.
Capacity op the Principal Mining-rkskrvoirs op the Hydraulic Mining
Districts op Northern California.
Name.
Oompany.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Area.
Height of
Dam.
Len^cth of
Dam.
Bowman
North Bloomfield
Mining Co.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Eureka liake Min-
ing Co.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Milton Minine^ Co.
South Yuba Min-
ing Co.
Do.
Do.
Cubic Feet.
900,000.000
8.428,000
28,028,000
2,895,800
2,907,700
150,000,000
661.000 000
58.800.000
15,000,000
50,000,000
650,000,000
1,075.525,000
107,950.000
58,975 000
800.000,000
1,071,000,000
Acres.
500.0
26.2
48.8
i'o.8
88.5
837.8
90.0
20.0
Feet.
100.0
10.0
12.8
8.6
21.8
68.2
21.0
5.0
Feet.
Shotgun Tiake
Inland Lake
425
Middle Lake
Round Lake
Weaver Lake
Eureka Lake
Faucherie Lake . .. .
Jackson Lake
Smaller lakes
250'
English dam
Fordyce dam
Meadow Lake
Sterling Lake
Omefira
895.0
1,200.0
262.0
181.0
76.0
28.0
30.0
881
650
500
800
Califurnia • .
CHAPTER II.
HYDRAULIC-FILL DAM-CONSTRUCTION.
The forces employed in hydraulic mining for tearing down a bank of
sand, by the use of a large volame of water issaing from a nozzle under
pressure, gravel, and rock, and transporting the materials considerable dis-
tances on suitable grades while suspended in water and depositing them
where desired, have been utilized in the evolution of a novel and interesting
type of dam-construction, which in many localities can be applied success-
f ally where the cost by other methods wonld be prohibitive. The condi-
tions required for the successful employment of hydraulic-dam construction
are:
1st. The existence of an abundance of water at the proper elevation to
form a sufi&cient " sluicing-head " ;
2d. An abundant deposit of materials for forming the dam, convenient
to either end, and high enough above the top of the proposed structure to
permit of the requisite grades for carrying the material; and
3d. A suitable foundation, which is, of course, requisite in all dams.
The volume of water necessary for a ** sluicing-head " should be from
5 to 10 cubic feet per second, although smaller heads may be used. Ten
second-feet may be readily handled in one head, and is more effective pro-
portionally than smaller heads. The duty of water in hydraulic mining in
California per miner's inch per 24 hours ranges from 2 to 5 cubic yards
of solid bank measure loosened and washed down. This is equivalent to a
duty of from 80 to 200 cubic yards removed in 24 hoars per second-foot of
water. The ratio of water to solids would thus be from 2.5^ to 6.25^. In
hydraulic gold-mining it is essential to keep the percentage of solids quite
low to permit the gold to drop freely to the bottom of the sluice-boxes,
where it is caught by quicksilver. In dam-construction, on the contrary,
it is desirable to maintain as high a percentage of solids as the water will
transport. With sluice grades of 6^ to 10^, the volume which may be
transported by a sluicing-head of 10 second-feet is 2000 to 4000 cubic yards
per 24 hours.
The most suitable material is an admixture of soil, sand, and gravel of
all sizes. Small angular stones, not exceeding 100 lbs. weight, may be
76
HTDRAULIC'FILL DAM C0N8TRUCTI0N. 77
carried through the sin ice-boxes with a sufficient amoant of sand and soil
to enable it to flow well. It is customary to deposit the materials on the
dam on the lines of the two slopes, which are stadioasly kept higher than
the center of the embankment. The larger stones are here dropped, while
the finer materials are carried towards the center where the water is drawn
o£^ through stand-pipes which lead back into the reservoir or which conduct
it to a flame or pipe by which it may be wasted below the dam.
The material for this class of constmction may either be loosened by a
hydraalic jet of water issuing under pressure and playing against the bank,
which is the cheaper and more rapid method, or if pressure is not available
it may be plowed or picked and ground-sluiced.
San Leandro and Temescal Hydraulic-fill Dams, California. — This pro-
cess of building up reservoir-embankments has been in vogue in a small way
in the mines of California from the earliest days of hydraulic mining, but
the first application of it on a large scale was made by Mr. A. Chabot, in
the construction of the reservoir-dams for the water-supply of Oakland,
California, a city of 60,000 inhabitants.
These dams were planned and built by Mr. A. Chabot, who, though not
an engineer, had had years of experience as a practical hydraulic miner and
was the principal owner of the water-works. They are both earthen dams,
of which the central portion, including the puddle-core, were built up with
scraper teams and rollers in the ordinary way, but extensive additions to
their slopes and height were made by hydraulic sluicing.
The Temescal dam was built in 18(38. It is 105 feet high, 18 feet wide
on top, with original slopes of 2^ to 1, which have been greatly increased
by the material sluiced in from year to year subsequently. The water
available being limited in supply to a few days each season after storms, the
work was continued for a number of seasons as an economical method of
increasing the bulk of the dam. It forms a reservoir of 18.5 acres, with a
capacity of 188,000,000 gallons.
The San Leandro dam was built in 1874-75, and has a height of 120
feet above the stream-bed. It is located 9.5 miles east from Oakland, 1.5
miles above the village of San Leandro, at an elevation at base of 115 feet
above tide. The total volume of the dam is 542,700 cubic yards, of which
about 160,000 yards were deposited by the hydraulic process. The water
was brought 4 miles in a ditch, and the sluiced materials were conveyed in
a flume, lined with sheet-iron plates and laid on a grade of 4^ to 6^. The
water used was 10 to 15 second-feet, and the ground-sluicing method was
alone employed, as it was not convenient to get water under pressure. The
cost was estimated at one-fourth to one-fifth that of putting the earth in
place with carts or scrapers. The entire cost of the dam proper was about
$525,000, but the outlets, wasteway-tunnels, and improvements of various
kinds about the reservoir have increased the total to over $900,000, or about
78
RBBERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION. WATSR-POWER. ETC.
$68 per acre-foot of storage capacity. The reservoir covers an area of 335
acres and has a mazimnm capacity of 13,370 acre-feet, or 4,32li,446,000
gallons. The area of the watershed tributary to the San Leandro dam is
50 square miles, from which the run-off is ordinarily in excess of the storage
capacity, and considerable difBcuIty was experienced in disposing of the
snrplns, without washing away the dam, nntil a waste-tnnnel, 1100 feet
long, with a capacity of 2000 aecond-feet, was constracted in 18S8, discharg-
ing into the stream half a mile below the dam.
The plans and sections of these dams are shown in Fig. 39, in which are
Temeecal, Elevation.
Fio. 89.— Plarb aro CBoes-BBCTiona op Bah Leandro and Tehescal Daks.
represented the restraining levees for holding the ainiced material in
terraces, as it was deposited on the outer slopes. The deposit on the inside
was made by simply dumping the contents of the flnme into the water and
allowing it to assume its own slope on the surface of the embankment.
Hydraulio-fill Dam at Tyler, Texas. — In projecting improvements to the
water-works of Tyler, Smith County, Texas, in May, 1894, the engineer of
the company, J. M. Howells, C.E., conceived the idea of creating an
impounding- reservoir by means of a dam to be constracted by the hydranlic-
jet and sluicing method. The only means of getting water to the works
was to pump it, and all the materials used in the dam were sluiced in from
a neighboring hill. The total cost of the work, including the plant and all
the appurtenances of the reservoir in the way of gates, outlet-pipes, etc.,
vas but 4| cents per cubic yard. The dam, Fig. 40, is hlh feet long on
8?
ir
p
5S
ii
h
1!
I
ll
i!
il
U
if
il
HTDRAULIO-FILL DAMCONaTBUOTION, 83
top, 32 feet high, and contains 24,000 cubic yards, the inner slopes being
3 on 1, and the outer 2 on 1, with a 4-foot berm on the inside 10 feet below
the top. The maximum depth of water is 26 feet; the reservoir covers 177
acres and impouuds 576,800,000 gallons, or 1770 acre-feet. The water
used in sluicing was forced through a 6-inch pipe by a Worthington steam-
pump of 750,000 gallons daily capacity, belonging to the old city pumping-
station situated on the opposite side of the valley from the hill which
supplied the material. This hill is 150 feet high, and the pipe terminated
about half-way up from its base, where a common fire-hydrant was placed
to which was attached an ordinary 2^-inch fire-hose, with a nozzle of 1^
inches diameter. From this nozzle the stream was directed against the face
of the hill under a pressure limited to 100 lbs. per sqaare inch (Fig. 41).
The washing was carried rapidly into the hill on a 3^ up-grade which soon
gave a working face of 10 feet or more, increasing gradually to 36 feet
vertical height. By maintaining the jet at the foot of the cliff the latter
was undermined as rapidly as the earth could be broken up and carried
away bv the water. The material found in the hill consisted of a soft,
friable sandstone infiltrated with ocher of varying shades of yellow, brown,
and red, alternating with clay and sand, the whole overlaid by a surface
soil of sandy loam, 2 to 6 feet deep. Experiment and observation led to
the conclusion that 65^ of the entire mass washed into the dam was sand,
and 35^ was clay.
In beginning the work a trench 4 feet wide was excavated throngh the
surface soil down into clay subsoil, a depth of several feet, and this trench
was refilled with selected puddle-clay sluiced in by the stream. Then the
form of the dam was outlined by throwing up low sand ridges at the slope-
lines, which were maintained as the dam rose in height, in the form of
levees by men with hoes (Fig. 42). A shallow stream of water was thus
maintained over the top of the embankment, the water being drawn off
from time to time, either into the reservoir or outside, as preferred. As
the embankment rose it assumed a grade-line from the side nearest to the
source of supply to the opposite side. The material was transported from
the bank in a 13-inch sheet-iron pipe, put together with loose joints, stove-
pipe fashion. This pipe extended from near the face of the bluff, where
the jet was operating, across the center line of the dam, and was so arranged
as to be easily uncoupled at any point, so as to direct the deposit where
required to build up the embankment uniformly. When the end of the
dam nearest the bank reached the full height the pipe was raised on a
trestle to give it grade for transporting the sand to the opposite side. A
spillway was cut out by the same sluicing process, at the end of the dam
farthest from the side where the main sluicing operation was conducted,
and the earth from it was also placed in the dam. It was found that the
quantity of solids brought down by the water varied from 18ji in clay to
84 BE8EBV0IRS FOR IBRIOATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
30^ in sand. Sharp sand does not flow as readily as rounded sand or
gravel, and is improved in delivery by aa admixtare of clay and stones. In
this case the clay acted as a lubricant, which served to increase the carrying
capacity of the water.
The entire volume of water pumped in building the dam, if computed
by the percentages of solids given, must have been less than 20,000,000
gallons, although it is unlikely that these percentages were maintained
throughout. The volume discharged through the nozzle under the stated
pressure must have been about 1.4 second-feet, which is a very small
sluicing-head. The nozzle velocity was 115 feet per second. The limita-
tion of the nozzle pressure to 100 lbs. per square inch restricted the
delivery of water and its effective power in disintegrating and transporting
the soil to considerably less than might have been accomplished with higher
pressure.
The entire cost of the dam with all its accessories is said to have been
bat 91140, which must be regarded as a marvel of cheapness for a structure
of the size of this one and performing the function of an impounding dam
of its magnitude. Another interesting feature connected with it was that
the construction of the reservoir permitted the new pumping-station
supplying the city of Tyler to be located on the border of the pond so much
nearer to the town than the location of the original pumping-plant, which
was at the site of the dam, as actually to save the cost of the dam in the
length of main pipe that was thereby dispensed with.
The average cost per acre-foot of storage capacity in the reservoir formed
by the dam was but 90.65. The dam is reported to have no apparent
defects and gives satisfactory service. Mr. L. W. Wells was engineer and
foreman in charge of the works, from whose memoranda, furnished by
courtesy of Mr. Howells, consulting engineer, the foregoing description has
been compiled. The accompanying illustrations were obtained through the
courtesy of Mr. Ben R. Cain, of the Tyler Water Company.
La Mesa Dam, California. — In the spring of 1895 the San Diego Flume
Company, which supplies the city of San Diego, California, with domestic
water and furnishes an extensive territory of agricultural land with an
irrigation-supply through a long line of flume, built an impounding-
reservoir on the Mesa, or tableland, 8 miles northeast of San Diego, near
the terminus of the flume, for the parpose of impounding the tail-water
of the flume and the surplus accumulating at night, as well as to store the
flood-water of the San Diego River in winter to the extent of the unused
capacity of the flume. The dam (see Figs. 43 and 45) was designed and
constructed by J. M. Howells, C.E., who was then president of the
Flume Company.
With the successful experience obtained with hydranlic dam-construc-
tion at Tyler, Texas, the previous year, Mr. Howells applied the same
I?
1^
.:8
Is J
iff
tag
513
3 5-'
l§
HYDRAULIC-FILL DAM-CONBTRUCTION. 89
methods Iq a modified form to the erection of La Mesa dam. The sicnation
and materials available were less fayorable than at Tyler, and it was not
possible to obtain water ander pressure for disintegrating the soil. Hence
it was necessary to resort to groand-slaicing alone.
The dam-site is in a narrow gorge cut through hard porphyry, whose
walls are but 40 feet apart at the stream-bed, and stand nearly vertical on
one side for 40 feet in height, from which elevation the ground slopes
gently upward on both sides. The site had been regarded as particularly
suitable for a masonry or rock-fill dam, as the foundations were of the best
character and the materials at hand all that could be desired. With these
advantages in view the first plans made were for a rock-fill with plank
facing, of the following dimensions: height, 55 feet; length on top, 470 feet;
thickness at base, 110 feet; at top, 12 feet; upper slope, i to 1; lower slope,
1 to 1; volume, 15,000 cubic yards. Bids were received on these plans,
the lowest of which called for 99 cents per cubic yard for the rock-fill, and
$2.08 for dry rubble wall. These prices are but 55^ to 66^ of the contract
prices paid for the Escondido dam. The total cost under these bids would
have been 120,260, exclusive of the plank facing and the outlet-gates and
pipes. The hydraulic-fill dam proposed by Mr. Howells was given the
preference by the company on a guarantee of a material reduction of cost
below the bids for the rock-fill dam, and, although numerous difBcnlties
were encountered, it was finally completed for about 117,000, including
plant, excavations for foundations and spillway, outlet-gates, culvert and
stand-pipes, paving of slopes, and all accessories, and furthermore it was
built to a height of 66 feet, or 11 feet higher than the proposed rock-fill.
It was made 20 feet wide on top, with a base width of 251.5 feet. All of
the dam except a few feet on top, which had to be finished out with
wagons, was put in place by flowing water. The surplus water from the
flume was used at a time when little or no irrigation was going on, and at
the same time the water was stored in the reservoir as it was being formed
back of the dam.
The total volume of material handled was 38,000 cubic yards, some of
which was transported an extreme distance of 2200 feet, and taken from
an area of 11.5 acres, which was stripped to a mean depth of 2 feet. Had
the material been as abundant and as accessible throughout the construc-
tion as it was up to the time one-fourth of the dam was in place, the entire
structure could have been finished for 25^ to 30^ of its ultimate cost, but
unfortunately it was found that below a depth of 2 feet from the surface
the gravel and cobblestones of the mesa were cemented together so hard as
to resist further washing, and this condition necessitated the employment
of horses and scrapers to bring much of the material used to the sluiceways,
at greatly increased cost. The results, considering all the unfavorable con-
ditions, are an indication of what can be accomplished by this process where
90 BBSERV0IB8 FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC,
sarroaadiQg conditions are more anspicioas. The surface soil and sand
contained in the coarse gravel constitnted less than one-third of the mass,
and consequently the dam can properly be termed a rock-fill with an earth
core. The deposit on the dam being always near the oater slopes, the
larger stones were natarally dropped there, while the finer materials shaded
cfl towards the center. The gravel is of all grades, from egg size to large
cobbles, 8 to 10 inches in diameter. On the enter slopes the largest of
these were laid up in a dry wall of uniform slope and surface.
In beginning the work a trench was excavated in bed-rock, as shown in
Fig. 44, from 2 to 5 feet deep, 20 feet wide at center and tapering to 5 feet
at the ends. At right angles to this trench in the bed of the gulch a
culvert was built to reach entirely through the dam at its widest point.
This culvert, whose details are shown in Fig. 45, consisted of a coucrete
conduit, 48 inches wide, 30 inches high, extending from the inner face of
the dam outward 180 feet, to a point 72 feet from the lower toe, where it
connects with two 24-iQch cast-iron pipes, that form the outlet to the
reservoir. One of these pipes connects with a wood-stave pipe supplying
water to San Diego, and the other is used as a waste, or clean-out, pipe.
Both are controlled by gate-valves at the toe of the dam. The walls of the
concrete culvert are 12 inches in thickness, and four vertical stand-pipes
connect with the culvert at intervals of 35 feet from the inside end. These
stand-pipes consist of 24-inch vitrified pipes, surrounded with concrete,
which pass upward through the body of the dam, and are now used as
outlet-pipes to the reservoir at four different levels. During construction
they performed the important function of conveying the water into the
reservoir after it had dropped its load of gravel and sediment on to the
surrounding embankment They were built up a joint at a time in 2-foot
sections, as the work progressed, and were finished off at the top with brass
ring and fiap-valve, the latter being controlled by rods reaching up the
slope through the water to the surface. (See Fig. 43.) These flap- valves can
only be opened when pressure is relieved by closing the gate-valves below.
The volume of water used in constructing the dam was from 300 to 400
miner's inches — 6 to 8 second-feet, which was all that could be spared from
the flume after supplying the domestic consumption in San Diego and along
the line, and the little irrigation which is kept up, even in winter, when
the rains do not come just right. From the end of the 37-mile flume,
which terminates on the mesa 10 miles from San Diego, the water was
siphoned across a deep ravine by a 36-inch wood-stave pipe, 3000 feet long,
discharging into a ditch which carried the water 1.5 miles to the top of the
ridge overlooking the dam-site on the south. From this main ditch at
various points laterals were carried down the slope of the hill towards the
dam on a grade of 6^, dividing the ground into irregular zones of 50 to 100
feet in width, by several hundred feet in length. In sluicing these divisions
94 RE8EBV01HB FOB IRRIOATION, WATER-POWER, ETO.
were stripped off clean to the cemented gravel bed-rock, beginning next to
the head ditch and working downward toward the dam across the end of
the strip. The fall from the apper-line ditch to the lower side of the zone
was as great as the slope of the gronnd would admit, — the greater the fall
the more rapidly the sluicing was done. The work accomplished was satis-
factory as long as this slope was not flatter than about 25^, but as the hill
from which the material was taken rounded off toward the top the Telocity
of the water in the cross-ditches became lessened, until it was insufficient
to erode the material from its bed, and the process had to be assisted by the
nse of picks or plows, where the ground was not too soft for teams to get
oyer it. This additional labor of loosening materially increased the coat.
All of the material was obtained from one side of the dam, which was a
farther disadvantage.
As the stream secured its load of earth or gravel it was conveyed along
the line of the lower ditch by 24-inch wood-stave pipes until deposited on
the embankment. About 2000 feet of this piping was used in the work,
the first cost of which was 90 cents per foot, exclusive of the lining of
strips of tire-steel subsequently added to resist wear and tear. It was made
in sections of 10 to 14 feet, loosely placed together and connected by stripa
of canvas wound around the ends of abutting joints and held in place by
an ingenious tourniquet of tarred rope placed back of the last round band
on the end of each section, the twist on one being made by a long nail, and
on the other by an 8-inch piece of ^-inch gas-pipe, the nail slipping into
the gas-pipe and so preventing both ropes from loosening or untwisting.
During a portion of this work the pipes were supported to the desired
grade-line ou the dam by trestle-work. A wire cable was also used for thia
purpose, aUhough the latter did not give satisfactory results. Fig. 46 illus-
trates both methods of suspending the pipes, and shows the clam when about
30 feet high. The necessity of frequently unjointing the pipe on the dam
for distributing the material evenly over the line from side to side made
the use of a canvas joint over that portion of the pipe inconvenient, and it
was replaced by loose straps of iron bolted to the pipes on the sides,
which kept them in line, and the water would shoot across the joint with-
out material loss. These joints were easily taken apart when desired.
The pipes were found to wear very rapidly, and were lined, first with stripa
of wood, and later with strap-iron or tire-steel. Cast-iron pipe or open
flumes would be preferable for this sort of service.
The work on the dam began February 14, 1895, and daring the first thirty
working-days, of 24 hours each, 21,000 cubic yards, or bb% of the entire
dam, were put in place — an average of 700 cubic yards per day, although at
times more than double this amount was moved in 24 hours. The ratio of
solid embankment to water used during this period was abont 3.3^. The
force of men employed varied from 27 to 45, working in eight-hour shifts*
HYDItAULIC-FILL DAMCONaTBUCTION.
97
Two men were kept on the damp directing the stream of material and
building up the outer edges of the slopes to the proper lines, while the
others were chiefly engaged in ground-sluicing. With looser or deeper soil,
bt under conditions permitting the use of a jet of water under pressure, the
cost of loosening, which in this case was the chief item of expense, would
be reduced to a nominal amount.
It is apparent that an embankment built in this manner is compacted
as thoroughly as it could be by any process of rolling and is not subject to
furbher settlement. It is also manifest that the finer materials are by this
process precipitated in the interior of the fill, next to the discharge-outlets
for the water, and that the particles are in a general way graded in size
from the outside toward the center. In this dam all of the stand-pipes are
placed inside of the center line, as shown by the section of the dam
(Fig. 47)^ and therefore more of the coarse and permeable bowlders and
gravel are placed on the outer half of the embankment, where they afford
Fig. 47.— Cross-section of La Mesa Dam.
ready drainage to the percolation that might find its way through the dam.
(See Fig. 47.) Thus the failure of the structure through the ordinary
process of supersaturation and the sloughing of the outer slopes is rendered
highly improbable if not impossible. A dam built in this way is tested as
it grows by the pond of water standing on top of it and the rising lake
behind it, and if any weakness exists it is sure to be discovered and remedied
by the operation of natural laws.
This dam is not entirely free from leakage, although as the water comes
through quite clear it causes no anxiety and shows no tendency to increase.
The leakage measures 100 gallons per minute when the water in the reser-
voir stands at the 54-foot level, and 23 gallons per minute when the water
stands at 4G feet.
The reservoir-basin is large enough to impound 18,890 acre-feet if the
98 RB8BRV0IB8 FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
dam be raised to the 140-foot contoor. Such a dam, of safe dimeusioos,
would contain 683,000 cubic yards, and its constraction has been seiiousi;
coDsidered, the material to be obtained bj excavating the interior of the
basin, conrejing it to the dam by the hydraulic method and then hoisting
it in place by mechanical means.
The elevation of the base of the dam is 433.5 feet above sea-lcTel, and a
24-ioch wood-stave pipe, C500 feet long, banded to withstand 180 feet
maximum pressure, connects it with a 15-inch steel main that is laid from
the end of ihe main flume to San Diego. The location and elevation of the
connection of these pipes has practically determined the 43-foot contour in
Pio. 48.— La Mesa Htdkadi
the reservoir as the lowest level to which the water will ordinarily be drawn
when used for city service, unless a more direct connection be made. Id
times of scarcity the water below the 43-foot level has been pumped from
the reservoir.
Lake Christine Hydranlic-flll Dam, California. — Some years ago the Saa
Joaquin Electric Company erected a power-plant on the San Joaquin River,
34 miles north of Fresno, to utilize water brought from the North Fork of
the San Joaquin to the power station. The power-drop at this place la
1410 feet, and the plant is remarkable as one of the first to make nse of bo
high a drop, as well as for the long distance of the transmission of power,
as the company deliver electricity to Hunford, a distance of 70 miles, as well
HTDBAULIC'FILL DAM-CONSTRUCTION, 101
as to Ereano. The plant was designed and built by J. J. Seymoar, C.E.,
president of the company, and by J. S. Eastward, chief engineer, under
contracts with the General Electric Company. The plant was entirely suc-
cessful until the recent drouth developed such an unprecedented shortage
in the low-water supply as to diminish the possible power output below the
demands upon it. To remedy this deficiency the company is engaged in
the erection of a storage-dam for impounding the flood run-off of the Korth
Fork. The dam has been planned and is being built by J. M. Howells,
C.E., and is to be purely of the hydraulic-fill type. The general dimen-
sions are as follows :
Maximum height 100 feet.
Length on top 720 "
Slope on water-side 2:1.
tower Bicie • ■«••••«•«•..•.•.. XtO r i.
Width of canyon at base 30 feet
Width 65 feet higher 300 feet.
Water for sluicing is bronght to the dam-site a distance of 5 miles, by
flumes and ditches. The volume used is 15 second-feet (750 miner's
inches), which is delivered to the summit of a hill overlooking the dam and
200 feet above it. This hill, which is to farDish the materials for bnilding
the dam, has been surveyed and explored by borings to determine the
quantity and quality of available earfch for the purpose. The hill has an
underlying base of granite, which has disintegrated very irregularly, leaving
hard exposures at various points, while in places the depth to solid rock is
very great. This disintegrated material is sandy in places, and in spots it
has passed into the clayey stage, while fragments of granite still lie bedded
intact, furnishing rock for the outer paving of the embankment. Hard
bed-rock is exposed over nearly the entire area covered by the dam. It is
of granite throughout, hardest near the level of the stream, where erosion
has polished it smooth and glassy. Higher on the sides it is not so hard,
but will make an excellent foundation. Advantage has been taken of a
cut, blasted out from the solid rock, at a level 14 feet above the stream-bed,
by an old mining company for a ditch grade, in which to place the outlet,
sluices. This cut is arched over with masonry for the entire width of the
dam, and will ^erve to carry the flow of the stream during construction.
Oates are set in this cut on the center line of the dam, to be closed when
the dam is finished and storage begins. The gate-stems will extend up
through a circular shaft, 22 inches in diameter, 3 inches thick, reaching to
the top of the dam. This shaft isnnade of successive rings of cemeat pipo,
12 inches in height, which are added one at a time, as the dam. rises.
During construction this shaft will serve to draw off the surplus water from
102 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC,
the pond formed on top of the embaakment, after its load of material has
been dropped on fche rising dam.
A center core of doable plank sheeting will be carried np through the
dam from bottom to within 10 feet of the top, and throaghoat its entire
length. This sheeting will be embedded in concrete at bed-rock. The
concrete will be made of high grade, thoroughly rammed and water-tight
on the upper side of the sheeting, but made open and porous on the lower
side, with a 4-inch pipe molded in it close to bed-rock and running the
entire length of the sheeting. This conduit is intended to drain the dam
of any water which may pass through seams in the rock, underneath the
dam, or leakage through the puddle-core in the center. The outlet to this
drain is a 6-inch pipe of cement, laid from the lowest point in the drain to
the outer toe of the dam.
The dam will be composed of a combination of rock, gravel, coarse and
fine sand, and clay, the finer particles being graded by the varying velocities
of the water and deposited in the center of the embankment, while the
coarser materials, and fragments of granite, up to 12 inches in dimension,
will be dropped on the outer faces and slopes. This method of filling will
more perfectly fill all the voids in the dam than any other possible means.
The materials will be transported from 600 to 2000 feet, and deposited on
the dam by the agency of water alone. The fineness of the central mass,
and its impervious character, are relied upon to remain constantly moist and
free from air, and thus preserve the wooden sheeting from decay. To more
thoroughly mix the materials of the puddle-core and break up a tendency
to stratification, it is proposed to draw wagon-wheels, properly weighted,
backward and forward, parallel with the central sheeting, during construc-
tion, by means of a wire cable and capstans.
The dam is estimated to cost but $25,000, including the entire cost of
the fiumes and conduits. Considering the remoteness of the site in the
mountains, and the difficulty involved in transporting supplies, this cost,
for so high a dam, .is remarkably low, and the completion and test of the
work will be looked forward to with unusual interest. The spillway of the
dam will be through a natural gap, located 800 feet away from the dam.
This spillway will be 100 feet wide at the 90-foot level, and 225 feet at the
100-foot level.
The reservoir will have a length of 3 miles, and an average width of '
about i mile. Its capacity will be approximately 360,000,000 cubic feet
(8264 acre-feet), which is estimated to yield a fiow daring low-water period
of three times the present requirements of the power-plant.
Hydranlic Fills on the Canadian Pacific Bailway. — Further examples of
the successful employment of hydraulic- mining principles to the work of
building embankments are to be found on the Pacific coast, but none more
instructive than the extensive hydraulic fills made by the Canadian Pacific
HYDRAULIC-FILL DAM- CONSTRUCTION. 103 .
Bailway in British Oolambia, where trestles of great height are being sup-
planted by earbh and gravel embankments made by the agency of water
alone. The methods employed differ materially from those described in the
foregoing pages, bat will doubtless find freqnont application elsewhere in
irrigation-dam consfcraction.
At trestle No. 374, near North Bend, in Fraser River Canyon, 110 miles
east of Vancouver, there was required to fill a chasm an embankment 231
feet in height, containing 148,000 cubic yards. When visited by the writer
in November, 1896, the fill had reached a height of 167 feet and contained
70,000 cubic yards, all of which had been put in place by the hydraulic
process. The plant used consisted of 1450 feet of double-riveted sheet-steel
pipe, 15 inches in diameter, 1200 feet of sluice-boxes or flumes, about 3 feet
wide and the same depth, one No. 3 double-jointed *' Giant " monitor with
5-inch nozzle, and a large derrick fitted with a Pelton wheel connected with
the winding-drum of the derrick and operated by diverting the jet of water,
nsed in piping the bank, npon the wheel when loads were to be hoisted by
the derrick. The gravel bank where the material was obtained was 1130
feet distant from the center of the track, and from this pit the pipe was
laid to an adjacent stream, 1450 feet, in which length the fall available was
125 feet. The sluice-boxes were laid on a grade of 11^ for the first 425
feet, increasing to 25^ the rest of the way. They were chiefly supported
on trestles. These boxes, constituting a continuous flume, were paved with
wood blocks on the lighter part of the grade, and with pieces of old railway
rails, laid close together lengthwise of the flume, where the grade was
heaviest.
One of the most serious difiSculties here encountered — and each locality
develops its special problems — was the fact that about 50^ of the materials
in the gravel-pit was such as to be classed as cemented gravel; 20^ con-
sisted of bowlders, too large to pass through the flume and requiring to be
hoisted out of the way and piled up by the derrick; while but 30^ was
loose gravel, of the character Best adapted for the work. Notwithstanding
these disadvantages the result? accomplished are quite remarkable, as the
entire cost of the work, including the plant, was but $5089, an average of
7.24 cents per cubic yard. The entire force employed consisted of eight
men, disposed as follows: 1 piper at the monitor, 1 man at the head of the
sluice-boxes and in the pit, 2 on the flume, ^' driving" the material along
to prevent choking, 3 on the dump, distributing the material and making
brush mattresses for the slopes, and 1 foreman, a carpenter, chiefly engaged
on general repairs of flume and overseeing the work. The time occupied
was as follows: sluicing, 95.3 days; removing bowlders from the pit, 50.4
days; repairing flume and plant, 13.5 days; total, 159.2 days of 10 hours
of the entire force. The total number of yards moved, divided by the actual
working-time when sluicing was in progress, gave an average of 738 cubic
104 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC,
yards per day of 10 hoars, or at the rate of 1771 cabic yards per 24 honrs.
The water used was approximately 11 cubic feet per second, or 550 miner's
inches under 4-inch pressare (440 inches under 6-inch pressure), the duty
performed being 3.22 yards per 24-hoar inch under 4-inch pressure, or
4.02 cubic yards per inch under 6-inch pressure, which latter is the unit of
measure most commonly used in the hydraulic mines.
Had the gravel-bank been free from large bowlders, the work could have
been done in two-thirds of the time actually occupied, and had the pressure
been greater and the gravel all loose instead of being partially cemented,
requiring the use of explosives to loosen it, the duty of the water, on the
high grades available for the flume, should have been increased more than
threefold, as the ratio of solids carried was only about 5^ of the volume of
water used. An understanding of all these conditions suggests what might
be accomplished by this method with a perfect combination of circum-
stances, viz. , water under pressure of 400 to 500 feet head, loose materials
in abundance for washing, freedom from rocks of large size, and heavy
grades to the dump.
In building the embankment no provision was made for draining off the
water down through the center, but it was allowed to pour over the slopes,
which were protected from erosion by brush and tree-tops woven in alter-
nating layers along the edges of the fill. Old track-ties and poles were also
used with the brash. In addition to this protection it was necessary to
exercise care to prevent the water from concentrating in channels or from
reaching to the sides or flowing down the hill over the natural surface. By
keeping the sides of the fill as nearly level as possible the water was spread
in a thin sheet over the face-slopes and reached the bottom of the embank-
ment without washing or doing injury. The slopes are remarkably trae
and uniform, and the embankment was packed very hard, particularly near
the end of the fflaice, where the gravel had dropped from a considerable
height to the dump below.
The device employed for handling the .bowlders in the pit by water-
power was ingenious and effective, and was similar to those in common use
in hydraulic mines, where water under pressure is turned at will upon a
tangential water-wheel with peripheral buckets. This wheel, being attached
to a winding-dram, the wire hoisting-rope leading from the derrick boom
is rapidly wound up and the load handled at will. A friction-brake with
long lever gave the operator perfect control of the load and enabled him to
lower it as swiftly or as gently as desired. Sharp turns in the flume were
made by vertical drops of 2 feet at the angle, and two turns of 90^ each
were thus successfully made.
Bowlders with one or two square feet of face would sometimes stop
rolling, and if not quickly started would cause a jam and overflow,
endangering the flume on the gravel hillside. Hence it was necessary to
HTDRAULIC'FILL DAM-C0N8TBUCTI0N. 106
employ two '' driyers" to patrol the portion of the flnme where the grade
was lightest, to keep all such stones in continaoas motion. On the heavier
grade, however, no such attention was necessary.
In the sammer of 1894 the railway company made a similar fill of 66,000
cnbic yards, at the crossing of a stream called Chapman Greek, the average
cost of which was 7.5 cents per cubic yard, of which 3.2 cents was for
plant. The actaal work of sluicing was bat 1.78 cents per cubic yard.
In this case also, it was necessary to use explosives to loosen the gravel and
prepare it for washing.
In 1897-98 the same company made a similar fill at the crossing of
Mountain Greek, in the Selkirk Mountains, requiring 400,000 cubic yards.
(See Fig. 50.) The total length was 10,086 feet over all, with extreme
depth of 154 feet. The fill was carried up on a slope of 1^ to 1. Between
Aug. 10 and Not. 1, 1897, over 65,000 cubic yards were sluiced in place, at
the following cost:
Mattresses $1370.79
Sluicing labor 1195.96
Maintenance and repairs 678.90
Superintendence and tools 385.05
Total $3630.70
This gives the average cost of the first 65,000 cubic yards at 5.59 cents
per yard. Including a proportion of the plant, the average was less than
8 cents per cubic yard of embankment. The work was done in about 60
working days of 10 hours each, and the average was nearly 1100 cubic yards
per day. The water was delivered to the nozzle of the monitor under a
head of 160 feet, the diameter of nozzle being 5.5 inches. The volume
was therefore 15.75 second-feet, or 787 miner's inches. The ratio of water
to gravel was as 19 to 1 and the duty of the water was nearly 4.2 cubic
yards per 24-hour inch under 6-inch pressure. The sluice-boxes had a
grade of 8^. The water-supply was brought in a flume, 4 feet wide, 2 feet
high, 2 miles long, built on a grade of 20 feet per mile. The entire plant,
including roads, camp, stables, flume, pipe-line 1200 feet long, sluice-boxes
600 feet in length, etc., cost $10,038.40. Considerable expense was caused
by snow and land-slides, which damaged the plant.
The trestles were filled beginning at the banks of the stream and work-
ing back each way. On the made bank thus formed masonry piers were
constructed, and a steel bridge of five spans was built over the main
stream between them.
The work has been planned and executed under direction of H. J.
Gamble, Chief Engineer Pacific Division, Canadian Pacific Bailway, and
bis Chief Assistant Engineer, Edmund Ducbesnay, of Vancouver, B. C, by
whose courtesy the data concerning the work have been supplied.
The class of work done on the Canadian Pacific Bailway described in
100 RESERVOIES FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC,
tl]e foregoing pages is identical with that which is reqaired in dam-
construction with similar materials, and the processes employed will be
recognized by engineers as distinctly applicable in a treatise on the subject
of hydraulic dam-building, the only difference being that in railway fills no
attention is paid to such a distribution of materials as will secure the water-
tightness of the bank and free drainage of percolating waters on its exterior
surface.
Hydraulic Fills on the IfGrthem Pacific Eailway. — The cheap and effec-
tive transportation of earth, gravel, rock, and sand and their deposit in
embankment by water at a cost far below all other feasible methods, is the
main principle involved, and this principle has been given further demon-
stration on a large scale on the Northern Pacific Railway, in the State of
Washington, during the years 1895-96-97. No less than fifteen high and
dangerous trestles on the Cascade Mountain division have been replaced by
hydraulic-made embankments of earth, gravel, and loose rock, washed from
the adjacent mountainsides. The total amount of material thus moved
aggregates 606,750 cubic yards, the average cost of which was 6.39 cents per
cubic yard; or 5.82 cents for labor and 0.57 cents for materials. The lowest
cost of any of the fills was 3.38 cents per cubic yard, everything included.
The average cost of 377,000 cubic yards was 4.79 cents per yard, of
which the detailed cost per cubic yard was as follows, figures which may be
of special interest to those contemplating similar undertakings:
Sluicing and building side levees 3.89 cents per yard.
Hay used in side levees 0.09 " *' "
Tools 0.08 " " ''
Lumber and nails 0.22 '' ** "
Labor building flumes 0.44
Engineering and snperintendeucc 0.11
Total 4T79 " " **
This work was done in the midst of a dense forest, where the ground to*
be sluiced had to bo cleared, and stumps and roots necessarily interfered
with the loosening of the material. All of the 377,000 yards were carried
and deposited by water brought to the pits by gravity. In one case, how-
ever, that of bridge 191, the water was supplied by pumping and 42,250
cubic yards were moved by water thus lifted at an average cost of 13.5 cents,
per cubic yard, the detail of which was as follows:
Sluicing and building levees 10.81 cents per yard.
Hay used in side levees 0.21 *' " "
Tools 0.14 " " "
Lumber and' nails 0.12 '' '' *'
Labor building flumes 0.14 ** " "
Coal used in pumping 1.87 " ** "
Engineering and superintendence 0.20 " " "
Total 13^ '' " *'
(C (C cc
<( (C ((
nTSBAUHC-FILL DAM-COSSTBUCTION. HI
The plan adopted on this work for disposal of the water after it had
accompliBhed its duty was practically the same as that used at the La Mesa
dam. A waste-box (or a number of them if the fill was a large one) was
taken up through the body of the embankment, and built up a little at a
time, as the filling increased in height. The top of the boxes was always
kept lower than the side levees, so that the water could escape without
orerflowing the sides as in the case of the Canadiau Pacific fills. Hay or
straw was used for the aide lerees instead of brush or logs, which would
Pig. C2.— Northern pAcryic BArt-WAV. Bridob 190.
have cost cousiderablv more. In order to prevent the rapid wearing ont of
the bottom of the fiumes a paving of square timbers was used, cut into
3-incb blocks, so that the end would be presented as wearing surface.
It was found that grades of 7^ and preferably 8^ were most advan-
tageous for the sluicing-flumes to carry material containing considerable
gmvel and rock, to prevent frequent blocking of the flumes.
By courtesy of H. H. McHeury, uhief Engineer, and Charles S. Bihler,
Division Engineer, Xorthern Pacific Railway, the writer has been furnished
with the interesting photographs of the work (Figs. 52, 53, 54, and 55)
which JUastrate the process of hydraulic filling very clearly in all its phases,
and demonstrate with what precision embankments can thus be formed.
112 RESERVOim hon jriuoaiioa; water-power, etc.
The foUovring general description of Ibe work from the pea of Mr. Bihier
" The resnlts have been rery gratifying, both aa to cost and character
of the fills made. We are using, or trying to obtain, abont 100 inches of
water for each nozzle, as with a leas qnaotity the rocky character of the
material mored does not give good resnlts. Iq some cases we bare beeo
able to obtain water at the bridge, witboot the necessity of building any
ooneiderable length of flumes. In other cases we had to constract eereial
miles of flumes for the water-snpply. These flames are constructed ia the
Fia. 53.— NoHTBERN Pacific Railway. Bhidob 189, Cascade Mountaims.
most temporary manner, of inch -and -a-qnarter lumber, 16 to 18 inches
square. Wliere the locality would permit we have carried the dirt to the
bridges to be filled a distance of over half a mile. The manner of bailding
up the fill is very clearly shown in the photographs. We use hay for keep-
ing up a levee on the onteide, and wooden frames or baffle-boards which are
easily moved, to deflect the main cnrrent from the levees. The waste-water
is taken oft through a waste-box which is taken np through the body of the
flll and bnilt np as the filling increases in lieight. By adjusting the height
of the waste-gate a larger or smaller amount of fine material can be retained
in the fill, as desired. In building np the fill naturally a separation of the
BYDRAULJC-FILL DAM-CONSTSVCTION. 318
materiula takes place. The coarser material is deposited right onder the
ead of the slnice-boxes, while the fiaer material is carried along toward the
waste-boxes, the finest particles of each being deposited in the vicinit; of
the waste-gate io the shape of mnd. For large embaakments it is therefore
neoeeaary to hare several waste-gates, so that coarse material may be
deposited, from time to time, at those places, and the accamulation of too
mnch of the fine material at any one point may be avoided,
" The plant reqnired for the work is rather inexpensive. According to
locality, one nozzle woald require from 300 to 1000 feet of light eheet-iron
Fio 54.— Northern Pacific Railway, Hydraulicfi
Pit eaowma Hn>RAri.ic Giant m
pipe, costing abont 37.5 cente per foot, and a No. 3 Giant, costing 195.
Ontaide of this nothing is required escept picks, shovels, hoes, and axes.
" The character of the material that we have available is not very favoi^
able. The pits are very rocky, and the banks overlying bed-rock which
can be loosened by the water-jet are not deep. The cost given for slnicing
and bnilding levee inclades all coeta of clearing. From five to six men are
reqaired with each nozzle, to bnild the levee, move slnice-boxes, and do
everything else connected with the work.'*
RE8ERV0IRB FOH IliBIGATIOX. WATBR-POWEB. ETC.
Following is s sainmar; of the Tolnma sad coat of hydraulic filling s
reported to date, ou the Northern Pacific Railway:
Ai(rajt« Co«t p?r T«rd.
IM
8,200 ■'
1(1.58
167
24.500 ■'
14.00
170
BO.HOO ■'
8.75
17*
4,300 "
10 55
178
...J... S,100 '•
13 23
179
H»,80J "
0.31
18a
53.800 "
8.80
185
800 •'
80 21
186
51.600 ■•
7.02
18B
..IW.IOO "
5.10
190
128.800
6.11
lai
4ii,a60 *■
18.60
HTDRAULIC'FILL DAM-CONSTRUCTION. 115
The distinctive advantage recognized in favor of hydraulic filling cf
trestles on railways is that it can be carried on withoat interruption to the
traffic and withoat endangering the trestle, either by falling rocks or
unequal settlement, and when it is completed no further settlement of the
embankment can occur. The latter advantage applies with special force to
dam-construction, and is one whose importance can scarcely be overesti-
mated. Where the materials available consist of large and small stones,
either angular or rounded with small gravel, sand, and silt, the ease with
which these materials may be graded and assorted so as to permit the outer
portion of the embankment to be built of the coarser rock where it will
afford ready drainage, while the finer particles may be assembled in the
center and inside where they will best resist percolation, constitutes a
further advantage, which may well be considered as an efficient substitute
for the ordinary puddle-wall of earth dams built in the usual manner.
OTHER HYDRAULIC CONSTRUCTION.
Seattle, Washington. — Except in the manner of loosening the materials
and putting them in motion, the methods of hydraulic construction of
embankment described in the foregoing pages are quite similar to those
employed in the reclamation work done by the Seattle and Lake Washing-
ton Waterway Co., at the city of Seattle, Washington.
This work, however, has a totally different object, namely, the opening
of navigable tidal channels by dredging and the reclamation of valuable tide-
lands adjacent to the business center of the city, by filling them with the
fine black sand dredged from the channels. Two powerful suction-dredges
were used, each with a capacity of removing 6000 to 7000 cubic yards of
solids per 24 hours, which was pumped from the bottom of the channel
through 18-inch pipes, a distance of 2000 to 4000 feet, and deposited to a
depth of 18 or 20 feet over the area to be reclaimed. Some 36,000,000
cubic yards are to be handled in this way, and 1600 acres filled in solidly
to a height of 2 feet above high tide. The actual cost of this class of work
does not exceed two cents per cubic yard.
The mean velocity maintained in the delivery-pipes was 13.6 feet per
second, and the discharge was 24 second-feet, so that when the work was at
a maximum the percentage of solids carried by the water was 9^, although
tests have shown as high as 20^. The bulkhead along the channels which
hold the sand in place is made of brush mattresses, while the temporary
cross-levees are effectively formed by the use of coarse hay, straw, or swamp-
grass, precisely as used on the Northern Pacific fills.
Tacoma, Washington.— Hydraulic filling was done on a very large scale
s few years since, at Tacoma, Washington, with salt water pumped from
Puget Sound. The wharves in front of the city were located near the foot
116 BB8EBV0IB8 FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
of a high blnff of glacial drift, and it was desired to fill a large area of
lowland approaching the wharves, and substitate a portion of the wharves
with an embankment of solid ground. To do this work the pumped water
was piped against the bank, which was undermined, and the material
carried to the place of deposit by the water. The cost of the work is repre-
sented to have been very low, not exceeding six cents per cubic yard, aud
the object sought was attained with entire success.
Holyoke Dam, Massachusetts. — The Holjoke dam, across the Connecti-
cut Biver, was built as a timber-crib structure 1017 feet long and 30 feet
high. In 1885 the dam was reconstructed and filled with a mass of puddle-
gravel, washed in and puddled by hydraulic streams, under direction of
Mr. Glemeus Herschel, M. Am. Soc. 0. E., of which he writes:* ''No
part of the work gave less anxiety and more satisfaction than this from the
day it was started.'' Referring to similar work Mr. Herschel again writes: f
^' Pure grayeU just as it comes from the gravel-pit, will make a water-tight
stop, when used between planks, or in any other position for which puddle
is used, as far as my experience goes, better than clay or a clay mixture
ever did."
Georgia. — In the course of an extended experience in hydraulic mining
on the Etowah River, in Georgia, Col. Latham Anderson, M. Am. Soc.
G. E., demonstrated that '* Gravelly hydraulic tailings coald be deposited
within sharply defined limits and in any shape desired, limited only by the
condition that the slopes should not be steeper than the natural repose of
the material." (Private letter to the writer.)
Utah Experiments. — The experiments made by Prof. S. Fortier, of the
Utah Agricultural College Experiment Station, on the mixture of yarlous
aggregates for use in construction of earthen dams, shows that gravel, sand,
and clay will occupy less space and become more compact when poured into
water, mixed therewith, and allowed to drain and settle, than by any
process of tamping either moist or dry.|
These miscellaneous citations safficiently illustrate the principles and
methods that may be successfally employed, in any locality where natural
conditions are favorable for the construction of dams, safely, cheaply, and
efficiently by the powerful and convenient aid of flowing water.
Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., vol. xv. p. 568.
; t -/Wd., vol. xxvi. p. 684.
X Earthen Dams, by Samuel Fortier; Bulletin Uiah Agricultui-al College, No. 46,
Nov. 1896.
CHAPTER III.
MASONRY DAMS.
The character of stmcture which appeals most effectively to the
majority as worthy of confidence in its ability to withstand water-pressnre
and the action of the elements for ages is nnqaestionably the masonry dam,
founded on solid rock and built up as a monolith between the natural rock
buttresses of a gorge, with Portland-cement mortar. Such a structure
invariably commands greater respect and confidence in the public mind
than any other. It may not in certain cases actually be safer from ovlr-
tuming or better able to resist the strains and forces tending to rupture it
than well-built dams of w(>od, earth, or loose rock, but it usually has the
appearance of strength; and the moral effect of a dam of that character
upon the public, as well as upon investors in securities dependent upon the
stability of dams and the permanence of the water-supply retained by them
in reservoirs, is one which cannot be disregarded.
That masonry dams are not built in every site is due to the fact that
the foundations are not always suitable, and surrounding conditions often-
times render their cost prohibitive.
Masonry dams are distinct from buildings, arched bridges, and other
masonry structures in that the best class of masonry as ordiuarily applied
and used is not best adapted to dam-construction. Gat-stone masonry or
ranged ashlar, while more expensive and of greater strength than, is not so
suitable for masonry dams as, random rubble, laid regardless of beds or courses,
homogeneous concrete, or a combination of large irregular masses of stone
embedded in concrete — a rubble-concrete, — either of which is much
cheaper. The strains in a dam are in various directions, whereas ranged
ashlar, laid in horizontal courses, is best adapted to resist the forces acting
perpendicular to those courses, and not those having the same horizontal
direction. The dam should therefore be made as nearly homogeneous and
monolithic as possible, and the stones used thoroughly interlocked in all
directions, avoiding the horizontal courses of ordinary cut-stone masonry.
While masonry dams have been built antedating the Christian era, and
some very notable ones were constructed in Spain for irrigation -storage
more than three hundred years ago, it is only within the past fifty years
117
118 EE8EEV0IS3 FOB IBEIQATION, WATEB-POWEB. ETC.
thafc the correct theories of the straios to which sach stractares are snb-
jected, and the proper proportions to be given them to secare stability
uader all conditions, have been reduced to some degree of mathematical
certainty. The Spanish dams built in the sixteenth centnry were massive
blocks of masonry, almost rectangular in form, containing a large surplus
of material beyond actual requirement, but so unscientifically disposed as to
produce maximum pressures dangerously near the point of crushing.
The French engineers who were required by the French Oovernment to
prepare plans for high masonry dams for the control of floods on torrential
rivers in southern France about fifty years ago, were the first to advance
new ideas and practical theories on the principles that should govern the
design of these structures. M. Sazilly prepared a paper on the subject in
1853, and a few years later the matter was more fully elaborated by
M. Delocre, on whose formala were drawn the plans for the great Furens
dam, 183.7 feet high. In 1881 Prof. W. J. M. Rankine, the noted English
engineer, was called upon to report on the best form of masonry dam to be
bailt for the city of Bombay, India, and investigated the question in a
tliorongh mathematical way, producing a form of profile which is recog.
nized as one of the most logically correct in its conformity to all requisite
conditions. He established as one of the governing principles that no
tension strains should be permitted in any part of the masonry, and that
therefore the lines of resultant pressure, with reservoir either full or empty,
should fall within the inner third of the dam at all points. The acceptance
of this principle carries with it as a necessary sequence that the maxima
pressures will fall below safe limits, whereas if the dam be designed with
regard to safe limits of pressure alone the structure may be so slender as to
carry the lines of pressure far beyond the center third and thus set up
dangerous tension in the masonry.
Other prominent English engineers who have investigated the subject
are Mr. Guilford L. Molesworth and Mr. W. B. Coventry.
Mr. H. M. Wilson, Assistant Hydrographer, U. S. Oeological Survey, in
his '' Manual of Irrigation Engineering," devotes a long chapter to an ad-
mirable discussion of masonry dams, while the most recent American treatise
is the elaborate work entitled '' The Design and Construction of Dams,"
by Edward Wegmann, C.E., of which the fourth edition was issued in New
York in 1899. Mr. Wegmann has rendered invaluable service to the pro-
fession in the investigation of the difficult problems involved in the design
of masonry dams, and in simplifying the mathematical formnlsB for com-
puting the economical safe proportions of such structures.
The general principles to be considered in designing such a dam are
briefly as follows :
(1) That it must not fail by overturning.
(2) That it must not slide on its foundation or on any horizontal joints.
MASONRY DAMS. 119
(3) That it must not fail by the crashing of the masonry or the settle-
ment of its foundation.
(4) That it mast be equally safe from excessive pressure upon the
masonry whether the reservoir be fall or empty.
(5) That certain known safe limits of crashing of masonry of the class
to be nsed shall not be exceeded.
Masonry dams may resist the thrast of water-pressure either by their
weight alone or by being bailt in the form of an arch, which will transmit
the pressures to the abutments. The first of these two classes of structure
is called the gravity dam. The second is the arch dam, and it may be
either of the gravity type in arched form, or it may depend upon its arched
form alone. In either case the weight of the dam must be borne by the
foundations, and these must be of the best quality of solid bed-rock.
Everything of a friable nature should be removed, and the excavation so
made as to leave the surface rough, to avoid the possibility of the dam
sliding on its base. The maxima pressures permissible should not exceed
15 tons per square foot, and may require to be as low as 6 tons per square
foot. For very high dams it is essential that they should diminish in thick-
ness as the top is approached, else the masonry might be crashed and fail
of its own weight. This consideration suggests the simple triangle as
theoretically correct, with certain modifications. The thrust of the water
tends to overthrow the dam by revolving it around its lower toe, and hence
there is such a concentration of water-pressure and weight of masonry at
that point as to necessitate a sufficient width of base to confine the resultant
of these forces inside the outer toe-line of the wall, and avoid the crashing
of the masonry by distribution of the strains over a greater area. If the
hypothenuse of the right-angle triangle were presented to the water as the
upper face of the dam, the forces acting perpendicular to that face would
give the wall greater stability from overturning, if the structure were con-
sidered as a rigid body incapable of being crushed. On the contrary, if the
vertical side of the triangle be presented to the water, the dam, while less
liable to be overturned, is more capable of resisting fracture or crushing,
the pressures are more evenly distributed over its base, and the foundations
less likely to yield.
While the simple triangular form of dam, of such base-width that the
lines of pressure with reservoir full or empty fall within the inner third,
amply fulfills the requisite conditions to resist the quiet pressure of water,
in practice it is necessary to give a certain definite width to the top of the
dam to enable it to resist wave-action and ice-thrust. In dams 50 feet high
or less this top width need not exceed 5 feet; for dams 100 feet high the
width need not be more than 10 feet, and for a height of 200 feet a width
of 20 feet is considered ample. Greater widths are given where the top of
the dam is to be used as a roadway. The crest cf the structure should also
120
BE8ERV0IB8 FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
be raised a certain elevation above the highest water-level to provide for
extreme floods. This superelevation will necessarily be governed by the
size of the spillway provided and the area of watershed tributary, bat
ordinarily it should be limited to about 10 feet at the extreme.
High reservoir dams erected across large streams, where conditions da
not easily permit of the construction of a spillway to carry the water around
them and it is necessary to permit the passage of floods over their crest, are
subjected to shocks due to the weight of water falling upon the toe of the
dam, which cannot be computed accurately and for which no formulae have
been deduced. In cases of this kind it is customary to allow a substantial
addition to the dimensions given by the theoretical profiles deduced from
the formula for gravity dams under qniet pressure, and to provide a water-
cushion at the toe of the dam by the erection of an auxiliary wall a little
distance below. The lower face of the dam should also conform as closely
as possible to the natural curves assumed by the falling water.
Curved Dams. — While there is an essential general agreement among
engineers as to the theoretical profile best adapted for gravity dams, there is
a wide difference of opinion as to the effect of the value of the arch in
adding stability to the dam. That such stmctures can and do successfully
transmit pressures laterally to the abutments is proven by the Bear Valley,
the Zola, and the Sweetwater dams (Fig. 56), the three highest and most
n
^*. . . .
/997hfS
SeAR yAd.l£.r^A^
ZOIA £?A/^
^rrssrrrAr£A Oam
Fig. 56.
•COMFAUISON OF FfiOFlLBS OF ZOLA, iSwSBTWATER, AND BSAB YaLLET
Dams.
noted types of arched dams in existence. The Bear Valley and Zola dams
are so slender in profile as to be absolutely unstable were they built straight,
while the Sweetwater dam, though more nearly approaching the gravity
type, is of such proportions as to be theoretically unstable as a gravity dam,
MASONR T DAMS. 121
although it has Bnccessfally withstood the shocks of an enormoas flood
poaring o^er its crest; for nearly two days.
M. Delocre has said that a cnr\red dam will act as an arch if its thick-
ness does not exceed one-third of the radios of its upper face, while another
eminent French engineer, M. Pelletrean, considers that it will so act pro-
vided the thickness be not greater than one-half the radius. Mr. J. B.
Krantz maintains that a radius as small as 65 feet is essential to permit a
dam to act as an arch and transmit water-pressure to the sides. AH
engineers appear to agree that the mathematics of curved dams are extremely
uncertain, and irreducible to a satisfactory demonstration. It is un-
doubtedly true that in a narrow gorge a considerable saving of masonry
might be made by constructing the dam as an arch, with equal stability to
one of gravity type built straight. M. Delocre is of the opinion that in no
situation is it necessary for a curved dam to be of greater thickness at any
point than the width of the valley at that height. The principle now
generally adopted as safe is to make the structure strong enough to resist
water-pressure by its weight, and curve the form as an additional safeguard.
The curving of all dams of whatever length or height regardless of
whether they may act as an arch or otherwise for the purpose of enabling
them to better resist the tendency to vertical cracks due to variations in
temperature, especially in countries subject to climatic extremes, is coming
to be recognized as of sufficient importance to lead to its general adoption.
In this connection the following. quotation is taken from the remarks of
Prof. Forchheimer of the Aix la Cbapelle Polytechnic School, Germany, in
discussing a paper read by Mr. George Farren, before the Institution of
Civil Engineers, in 1893, on '' Impounding Reservoirs."* Referring to a
dam 82 feet high, plastered and rendered over with two coats of asphalt,
built by Prof. Intze in Remscheid, Westphalia, Prof. Forchheimer says:
^'A backward and forward movement, amounting to 1^ inches,
occurred during the filling and emptying of the reservoir, and the move-
ment due to temperature was almost as great as this. The latter was due
less to the temperature of the air than to direct solar radiation. The crest
of this dam was 460 feet long and was arched with a radius of 420 feet.
One side was exposed to the sun longer than the other, and the more exposed
part moved to and fro seven-eighths of an inch in the course of the year,
while the other part moved only one-eighth of an inch, the crest expanding
one nine-thousandth of its length, or five-eighths of an inch. In arched
dams such movements do no harm, but in straight dams these phenomena
are objectionable. As dams are usually built during the warmer seasons of
the year, the masonry has a tendency to contract in the colder weather.
In a curved dam this can take place by movement of the structure without
cracking, but not in a straight dam. ... If the temperature is lowered
* Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. cxv. p. 156.
122 BE8BRV0IR8 FOB IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
10^ C. (18° F.) and it is DOt free to contract, tension amoantiug to betweea
140 and 280 pounds per square inch is set up, which is greater than the
mortar will stand. . . . That a straight, or almost straight, wall incurs-
considerable danger of fracture is shown by practical experience. Th&
dams of Habra, Grands-Cheurfas, and Sig, in Algiers, have broken, and in
that of Hamiz a tear occurred during tbe first filling. The Habra dam
broke in December, and the Grands-Cheurfas and Sig dams gave way in the
month of February. The Beetaloo dam, in Australia, also developed a.
crack one-eighth of an inch wide in the middle of winter without any
apparent cause. The Mouche dam, Haute Marne, a structure 1346 feet
long and about 100 feet high, exhibits clearly the dangers attending
straight dams. In the winter of 1890-91, when tbe temperature varied
between - 10° C. and — 20° 0. (14° to — 4° F.) and the water-surface
was 10 feet 8 inches below the normal level, seven vertical cracks appeared
in the dam, situated at uniform distances of about 160 feet apart. They
were widest at the top, and died out about 37 feet below the normal water-
level. Their aggregate breadth was 2^ inches. The cracks gradually closed
as the temperature rose, and by the end of February, 1891, four of them
had completely vanished, while the others had perceptibly contracted."
It has been the observation of the writer that all carved dams are free
from cracks, but that straight reservoir walls are quite certain to crack.
The tendency of the water-pressure is to close any cracks that may appear
where the dam is curved, and a curved dam is able to take up the move-
ment due to temperature, without cracking, even though the pressure may
not cause the arch to come in action. The inference is that every masonry
dam should be built in the form of an arch, whatever its profile may be,,
for the avoidance of temperature cracks.
Mr. H. M. Wilson says: * '^ An additional advantage of the arched form
of dam is that the pressure of the water on the back of the arch is perpen-
dicular to the up-stream face, and is decomposed into two components, one
perpendicular to the span of the arch and the other parallel to it. The
first is resisted by the gravity and arch stability, and the second thrnsts the
up-stream face into compression, which has a tendency to close all vertical
cracks and to consolidate the masonry transversely. An excellent manner
in which to increase the efficiency of the arch action in a curved dam la
that employed in the Sweetwater dam. This consists in reducing the^
radius of curvature from the center towards the abutments. The good
effect of this is to widen the base or spring of the arch at the abutments,
thus giving a broader bearing for the arch on the hillsides. The effect of
this is seen in projections or rectangular offsets made on the down-stream
face of the dam, the center sloping evenly, while the surface is broken by
* Manual of Irrigalion Eoglneering, pp. 390, 391.
MASONRY DAMS. 126
steps when it abuts against the hillside. . . . Though the cross-section
of a carded dam may anqaestionably be somewhat reduced, it would be
unsafe to reduce it as much as has been done in the case of the Bear Valley
and Zola dams, though these have withstood secnrely the pressures brought
against them. It might with safety be reduced to the dimensions of the
Sweetwater dam, thus saving largely in the amount of material employed."
AMERICAN DAMS.
Old Mission Dam, San Diego, Cal. — The first masonry dam built in
California of which there is any record was erected in 1770 by the Jesuit
Mission Fathers. It was constructed across the San Diego Biver, 13 miles
above its mouth, at the lower end of El Cajon Valley, where the stream
cuts through a dike of porphyry. It was built for impounding and diverting
water for irrigation and domestic use at the San Diego mission 4 miles
below. It was 244 feet in length, 13 feet in thickness, and about 15 to 18
feet high. Fig. 57 is a recent photograph of the old dam in its present
condition, half buried in trees and driftwood. The view is taken below the
main outlet-sluice. The water was conveyed to the mission through an
open masonry conduit, lined with semicircular tile or half-pipes. The
cement used in the dam was made from limestone possessing hydraulic
properties, quarried near the dam. The dam, though still in existence, has
been disused for half a century past. It shows evidence of having been
damaged by floods and repaired at various times. The manual labor of
construction was done by Indians, of whom no less than 1600 neophytes
were at one time supported at the mission. Considering the quality of the
materials and labor available, and the torrential nature of the river, which
it has resisted, as evidenced in the photograph by the driftwood piled up
against it, the masonry is of excellent grade.
El Molino Dam. — A few years after the erection of the Old Mission dam
of San Diego the Jesuit Fathers constructed a masonry wall of similar size
about 10 miles east of Los Angeles, the purpose of which was to control
and raise the level of a natural lake and impound it for use in irrigation at
the Mission San Gabriel. The dam is located on what is now known as £1
Molino rancho, the name being derived from the fact that the priests here
built a mill, whose massive walls are still intact, for grinding corn and
wheat, the power for which was deriyed from water gathered from springs
that issued from the hillside and fed the lake. The mill was a little above
the level of the crest of the dam, and the water from the wheels flowed into
the reservoir, where it was caught for use in the valley below. The dam
was straight in plan, about 200 feet long, and 15 feet high at the center.
The masonry is of superior character and is still in perfect state of preserva-
tion, although it has not been in service as a dam for many years past.
126 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETO.
The Sweetwater Dam. — This stmctare is located ia the Sweetwater
Biver, 7 miles above the mouth of the stream aad 12 miles southeast of the
city of San Diego, California, and was bailt in 1887-88 by the San Diego
Land and Town Company to impound water for the irrigation of lands
bordering on the bay of San Diego and for the domestic supply of National
City. The Sweetwater, like all the so-called rivers of San Diego County
that empty into the Pacific Ocean, is a torrential stream, subject to violent
floods in seasons of abundant rains, and dwindling to a diminutive brook
within a few weeks or months after the rain ceases. During the summer
and fall it ceases to flow, and on occasional years of low rainfall the run-off
even in winter is practically nothing, so that it was essential to provide
storage for at least two years' supply for the territory depending upon it.
Prior to the beginning of work nothing was known of the probable run-off
to be expected, further than that the watershed area of 186 square miles,
having an extreme elevation of about 6000 feet, would probably receive a
precipitation very greatly in excess of the recorded rainfall at San Diego,
where the record has been maintained for nearly forty years, and that
judging by this record the run-off from such a watershed should give an
average supply adequate to the needs of the community to be provided,
with a storage capacity of two years' supply in the reservoir. Subsequent
experience has shown that the fluctuation in run-off has ranged from prac-
tically nothing for three consecutive years to 70,000 acre-feet in one year,
or nearly four times the reservoir capacity, per annum. At the time the
construction of the dam was begun in November, 1886, an active land
*' boom " was in progress in southern California, and the San Diego Land
and Town Company, owning a large area of fertile lands, found them
unsalable without water. It was essential, therefore, to obtain a certain
portion of the supply quickly in order to market the lands. The dam was
thus necessarily planned without the usual preliminary studies of its
capacity for storage, or the volume of supply which would be required or
could be made available.
As originally designed, the dam was to be a slender masonry or concrete
structure, fashioned after the Bear Valley dam by the same engineer who
built the latter, and was to be but 10 feet thick at base, 3 feet at top, and
50 feet high, backed on the water-face by an embankment ^f quicksand.
When the wall had reached a height of 15 to 20 feet at the highest part, at
an expenditure of $35,000, and its outline and design were fully realized by
the management, the plan was disapproved and the writer was engaged to
construct a more substantial work on the same site, utilizing the masonry
already in place. The new plan was drawn to have an extreme height of
60 feet, and the new work enveloped the old. This structure is shown
nearly complete in Fig. 58, and its profile is shown in dotted lines in the
middle section on Fig. 59. It was built in steps onthe back with a view to
XABOSBT DAMS
Fio, BB.— Eij:vatiom and Skctions of Swektwateb Dam.
130 RESEUVOIRB FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POIVER. ETC.
ndding to its height, as was Bnbseqaetitl; don«. The dam had a masimum
thickness of 35 feet at base, and vaa 5 feet think at the top. It was forti-
fied by aa embankment of cla; and gravel 50 feet wide, 10 to 15 feet high.
Fio. «0 — Pacb ok Swbbtwatkr Dam in 1899. Afteii Two Years of Drouth.
placed against the npper side and well tampeil in place. A portion of this
embankment above the water-line is shown in Fig. 00, a view taken in the
summer of 1899 when the reservoir was practicallv empty.
Shortly before the completion of the (iO-foot diim authority was given
for its extension to 00 feet in height, on the recommendatioa of the writer,
whose surveys had revealed the fact that the re!<erTDir capacity conid be
increased nearly fivefold by snch addition of 30 feet to the height. Accoril-
ingly excavation was renewed at the lower side for an e^cteneion of the width
of the base, and work proceeded on the final plan without interrnpLion
nntil the completion of the entire structure in April, 18S8. The conEirnc-
tiou occupied sixteen months in all, including two months of waiting for
cement. The profile adopted is shown in Fig. 59. As finished the dimen-
sions were the follotving:
Length on top 380 feet.
" at base 150 "
Thickness at base 40 "
" top 13 "
Height on upper side exclusive of parapet 90 "
Height on lower side !>8 "
Radius of arch 222 "
MASONRY DAMB. 131
The np-stream face has a batter of 1 to 6 from base to within 6 feet of
top; thence vertical. The lower slope has a batter of 1 in 3 for 28 feet»
then 1 in 4 for 32 feet, and thence 1 in 6 to the coping.
Water is drawn from the reservoir through a tower of hexagonal form^
placed 50 feet above the dam, near the center (see Fig. 61), and connected
with the dam by a foot-bridge of iron (see Fig. 62).
It has seven inlet-valves which are placed at intervals of 10 feet in
height from the top down. Two cast-iron outlet-pipes, 18 and 14 inches
diameter respectively, lead from the tower to and throngh the dam. They
lie in a trench cut in the bed-rock, and on top of them is built a masonry
conduit from the tower to the dam, connecting with a third pipe, 36 inches
diameter, of riveted wrought iron, ^ inch thick. All are carefully
embedded in the masonry of the dam, and no leakage has ever taken place
along them. Gate-valves control their flow below the dam. The tower
valves are simple plates of cast iron fitting over elbows set in the masonry
of the tower, and can only be moved when the lower gates are closed.
The stone used in construction was quarried from the cliffs on either
side below the dam, within a distance of 800 feet, and was all hauled in
wagons and stone-boats. Animal power was alone used for manipulating the
derricks in the quarry and on the dam, as well as for mixing concrete.
The stone was a blue and gray porphyry impregnated with iron, weighing
175 to 200 pounds per cubic foot. It quarried out with irregular cleavage,
but generally presented one or two fairly good faces. The seams in the
rock contained plastic red clay to such an extent that it was necessary to
wash and scrub by hand every stone that went into the dam with good steel
and fiber brushes. Imported English and German cement was used
throughout the work, mixed with clean, sharp river sand in a revolving
square box of wood, with a hollow shaft passing through two diagonally
opposite corners, throngh which the water was introduced. The masonry
weighed when tested 164 pounds per cubic foot.
The waste-weir is formed at the left bank as a part of the dam, and as
first built consisted of seven bays, each 4 feet in clear width, closed with
flash-boards, which could be opened to a depth of 5.7 feet below the crest
of the dam. These bays were separated by masonry piers, each 2 feet in
thickness. This wasteway and a 30-inch blow-off gate from the main pipe
below had a combined capacity of 1300 second-feet, which was in excess of
the maximum flood discharge as indicated by high-water marks, although a
subsequent flood exceeded this capacity a little more than ten times.
The volume of masonry in the dam proper, including the parapet 3.5
feet high, 2 feet thick, was 19,269 cubic yards. The wasteway, inlet-tower,
and other accessories required 1238 cubic yards additional, or a total of
20,507 cubic yards of masonry, in which were used 17,562 barrels of
132 ssiaBiiroiiis for irrigation, water-pgwbr. etc.
Fio. W,— Dbtailb of Towes of Swkktwatkr Dam.
MASONRY DAMS. 137
cement, an average of 1.17 cubic yards per barrel. The total cost was
t234,074.11, divided as follows:
Plant $6,236.76
Materials 87,431.70
Labor 140,405.65
Total $234,074.11
The reservoir capacity formed by the dam was 5,882,278,000 gallons or
18,053 acre-feet, of which 80^ is within the npper 30 feet, and 40^^ in the
last 10 feet. The area covered at high-water mark was 722 acres, of which
300 acres was cleared and grabbed at a cost of $10,808.46, or about $36 per
acre. The average depth of the reservoir is 25 feet.
Enlargement. — On the 17th and 18th of January, 1895, the Sweetwater
dam SQCcessfully withstood a test far more severe than is usaally imposed
on reservoir walls of sach comparatively slender dimensions (thaoks to the
painstaking care exercised in its original construction), and beyond any
previous calcalation or expectation. On those dates the reservoir was filled
to overflowing by a flood resulting from a rainfall of more than 6 inches in
24 hours, and for forty hours the dam was submerged to a maximum depth
of 22 inches over the parapet wall, with the wasteway and blow-off gate
wide open. This was 5. 5 feet higher than the water had been expected to
rise in extreme floods, as it had not been considered possible for the crest
of the parapet to be reached.
A gap in the ridge to the south of the reservoir, the crest of which was
about level with the parapet, carried off quite a large additional volume at
the extreme of the flood. The maximum rate of discharge during the flood
was carefully computed by Mr. H. N. Savage from weir measurement, and
found to be 18,150 second-feet, a rate of discharge which was maintained
for one hour.
This extraordinary freshet, which within a week produced a run-off of
nearly three times the capacity of the reservoir, was gratifying in one
respect, in that it demonstrated the ability of the dam to cope with such
emergencies, as not a stone of the masonry was disturbed or moved from
place, although so much damage was done to the pipes and surroundings of
the dam as to necessitate a large expenditure in repairs. The water-supply
was cut off from consumers for more than a month before a partial restora-
tion could be made.
Advantage was taken of the opportunity afforded by the general repairs
to make a material enlargement of the reservoir capacity by virtually raising
the permanent high-water level to the point it had assumed during the
flood, and at the same time preparing the dam for receiving a repetition of
such an experience by enlarging the wasteway and fortifying the weak
points developed by the flood.
188 BE/3ERV0IR8 FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETO.
The freshet caused a tremendous erosion of the bed-rock on either side
of the dam, particularly in front of the spillway discharge, where the strata
were inclined at about the proper angle to enable the water to strip off layer
after layer with surprising rapidity. It was estimated that no less than
10,000 cubic yards of the solid rock on that side were torn away and washed
down-stream, and some 2000 yards from the opposite wall of the canyon.
The approach of a disused tunnel below the spillway, which was some 25
feet long, and about 30 feet of the tunnel itself, in solid rock, were cut off
and the surrounding rock washed away. This tunnel had been opened
some years before to draw down the reservoir, in compliance with the order
of the United States Circuit Court, in the famous litigation over the con-
demnation of lands in the reservoir-basin, and terminated directly in front
of the spillway channel. The bombardment of the stones rolled down the
canyon during the flood upon the pipe-line resting on one side and covered
with masonry, destroyed it for a considerable distance down-stream, as well
as the railway track leading to the dam.
The repairs to the dam, and the general improvements designed, were
completed in the summer following at a cost of $30,000, under the capable
direction of H. N. Savage, chief engineer, the writer acting as consnlting
engineer during its progress. The alterations made were the following:
1. The parapet of the dam was raised 2 feet and strengthened, so as to
permit of permanently holding the water in the reservoir as high as its
crest, leaving 200 feet in the center as a weir, 2 feet deep. This weir was
arranged with cast-iron frames carrying flashboards, to be removed in
extreme floods, as shown in Fig. 66.
2. The spillway was extended in length by adding four more bays, each
5 feet wide, and carrying all the bays np to the level of the new crest of the
dam, giving it a maximum depth of 11.2 feet and a discharging capacity of
5500 second-feet.
3. The unused tunnel, 8 by 12 feet in size, the bottom of which at the
heiwi is 50 feet below high-water mark, was adapted for use as an additional
spillway discharge, by laying four pipes through it on a 4^ grade, two or'
which are 36 inches and two 30 inches in diameter, all arranged with valve
covers over elbows at their upper ends, where a shaft, reaching to the sur-
face on the line of the dam, gives means of control (see Figs. 68, 69, and
70). Further control is had by gate-valves set in the pipes directly below
the masonry bulkhead built across the tunnel at the shaft, all the pipes
passing through this bulkhead. In the summer of 1899, when the reservoir
was empty, the head of this tunnel was protected by a concrete portal with
an inclined grillage of iron rails to keep out drift, as shown in Fig. 70.
4r. The eroded rock slope below the wasteway after being made uniform
was covered with a grillage of iron rails embedded in concrete, which has a
Fio, 66.— Kbpaihiko akd
MASONRT DAMS. 145
thicknesa of 3 feet, and ia deeigned to prevent all fatnre eroeion of the bed-
rock (FigB. 65 and 69).
5. A ceucrete wall 15 ieet high, 18 inches thick, with counterforts of
i!ia. vi
— rLAN ow
BWKKTWATKR UAH.
/^
>l
-Jl "
1
U A
\ ; \.
Fig. 68.— Profile
Plas ot Wabtkwat Tn wN EL.
15 feet base, was built from bed-rock 50 feet below the dam on a cnrve
concentric with it, to form a water-cashion or pool in case of a future over-
flow. This is shown in plan in Fig, 67.
ill
MASOSRT DAMS. 147
6. The main snpplj-pipe vaa replaced throngh the canyon in a Bolid
rock cut u portion of the way, and protected thronghottt the canyon by
concrete collars and covering and spnr walls, all with iron rods incorporated.
At the same time a new steel pipe-line, 24 inches in diameter, which
va8 partly luid when the dood occurred, was completed to I^ational City on
Fm. 70— SwEKTWATBU Dam, bbowino Head of Outlet Tdknbl ahd Spiliwat.
the north side of the valley, as a high-level conduit. This was connected
with and took supply from one of the 30-1 rich-diameter pipes built in tJie
tannel, and connected with the original distrihution system at National
City, thus giving two independent conduits.
The eSect of raising the parapet wall in the manner described has been
to raise tbo height of the reservoir 5.5 feet and increase its capacity about
%b%, or from 18,053 acre-feet to 32,5f>6 acre-feet. The dam having shown
its ability to withstand this increased pressure, it is now proposed to make
ibis addition to the reservoir a permanent feature of the works.
Concrete was nsed in all the new work, ns preferable to rubble masonry,
because of the greater ease with which all the materials conld he handled
and because of the fact that the work conld be performed by unskilled labor
nndor intelligent foremen. The concrete was mixed with a rotary Ransome
mixer, one of the best machines for the purpose yet devised. A steam
hoisting-engine furnished all power required for rock-jrnshiog, actaating
the mixer, and hoisting the concrete to the top of the dam, where it was
distributed by wheelbarrows. Old rails and scrap bar-iron of all sizes were
embedded in the concrete wherever it would add desired reinforcement to
the strength, as in the 6-inch floors of concrete forming the foot-bridge
148 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC,
over the wasteway, Bpanning the 5-foot spaces between piers; in the roof of
the gate-hoase over the shaft in the tnnnel from which the heavy gates are
saspended, and in the floor of the house; in the carved wall forming the
auxiliary water-cushion dam, which is 10 to 15 feet high, and but 18 inches
thick, and in the inclined apron of the wasteway. This construction is
quite satisfactory, and shows no cracks anywhere. The rates of expansion
and contraction of iron and concrete under changes of temperature are
practically identical, and no separation of the two elements can occar by
such changes.
There are no visible e?idence8 of cracks in any of the masonry of the
dam, nor any indications of a tendency towards crushing at the toe of the
dam. This may be due to the fact that the stone is extremely hard and
strong, and the mortar of prime quality. It may be further owing to the
fact that arch action has resisted pressure from the top down to some
neutral point where gravity alone suffices. There have never been any
spouting leaks to indicate the transmission of an upward pressure upon the
masonry of the slightest moment The leakage through the wall was never
of considerable amount, and has steadily diminished, so that when full the
wall is practically dry over most of its outer face.
This leakage was reduced in amount in 1890 by carefully repointing the
inside face as far down aa the water was lowered in the reservoir, about 60
feet below the top, and applying successive washes of potash-soap and alum-
water alternating.
Protracted litigation followed the building of the Sweetwater dam, over
the attempted condemnation of a tract of about 300 acres of land at the
upper end of the reservoir-basin, submerged by the impounded water. The
land was comparatively valueless for agricultural purposes, but a jury gave
an exorbitant judgment of its value on testimony erroneously admitted as to
its special adaptability for reservoir purposes. This litigation lasted several
years and was finally compromised, but the effect of it was quite disastrous
to the progress of the country depending upon it for irrigation. During the
progress of this litigation a tunnel, heretofore referred to, was opened
around the south end of the dam, at the level of 25 feet above the lowest
outlet, by means of which the flooding of the land could be avoided. In
obedience to an order of the United States Circuit Court the reservoir,
which had been flUed, was ordered emptied, and an enormous volume of
water was thus wasted at a time when it was greatly needed for irrigation.
Including the period of retarded growth during the progress of litigation
the dam has been in service for thirteen irrigation seasons, during which
time the impounded water has created values aggregating several millions
of dollars, reckoning all improvements made in the district directly
dependent upon it for water-supply. The area irrigated from it is now
4580 acres, chiefly planted to citrus fruits, of which the greater part is
MASONRY DAMS,
149
devoted to lemonB. A popnlatioQ of 2500 to 3000 people is dependent
apon the reservoir for domestic water. The distribation for irrigation as
well as for domestic use is entirely by pressare-pipes, and the agricaltaral
community is as well equipped for fire-pressure and general water-supply as
the average American city. All water for irrigation, and practically all
domestic water, is measured by standard water-meters. The pipe system
has cost in the aggregate some $800,000.
Eun-off of Sweetwater Eiver. — The area of watershed above the Sweet-
water dam is 186 square miles, ranging in elevation from 220 feet above
flea-level, which is the elevation of the top of the dam, to about 5500 feet
at the summit of the mountain-range in which it heads. The mean eleva-
tion of the basin is probably about 2200 feet There is practically no
diversion of the stream above the reservoir, and no utilization of its water
other than that of the dam. Hence the catchment at the reservoir repre-
sents the entire run-off of the shed. A careful record of this run-off has
been kept since the construction of the dam. Its extremely yariable
character is shown by the following table:
Tablb of Mbascred Run-off, Sweetwater Drainage-basin.
Area 186 square miles.
Season.
Rainfall at
Sweetwater Dam.
Inches.
Run-off as
measured at the
Dam.
Acre-feet.
Average Yearly.
Ruii<off in
Second-feet
per [Square Mile.
Average Annual
Run-oflf.
Second-feet.
1887-88
7,048
0.0534
9.74
1888-89
18.58
25.258
0.1875
34.88
1889-90
16.53
30,583
0.1535
38.36
1890-91
13.65
31,565.5
0.1603
29.79
1891-93
9.88
6,198.8
0.0460
8.36
1892-93
11.63
16.260.7
0.1310
33.51
1898-94
6.80
1,838.4
0.0099
18.45
1894-95
16.19
73.413.1
0.5453
101.40
1895-96
7.39
1,820.9
0.0098
1.83
1896-97
10.97
6,891.6
0.0513
9.53
1897-98
7.05
4.8
0.00003
0.006
18U8-99
5.05
345.5
0.0018
0.H4
1899-1900
0.0
0.0000
0.00
Total
180.066.1
Mean for 18 jrs..
13,851.3
20.39
Of the entire period of tweWe years recorded the ran-off has exceeded
the capacity of the reservoir in bat foar seasons. The remaining eight
reasons have been so far below the fall reservoir-capacity in yield of stream-
flow as to jastify the recommendation made by the writer on the completion
of the dam that a fall reservoir should always be considered as a two-years'
sapply, and that no more than one-half its capacity should be used in any
one season. The percentage of probable mean rainfall which this run-off
represents is remarkably small, in view of the mountainous and precipitous
160 BEaEBVoma fob ibbiqation, wateb-poweb, eto.
character of a considerable part of the draiDage-basia. The mean rainfall
of 1894-95 was estimated at 27.14 inches, of which the ran-off was bat
26^. The following year, with an estimated mean rainfall of 16 inches the
ran-off was bat six-tenths of 1^. This illastrates the great yariation ta
which sach streams are subject. When the rainfall in the lower two-thirda
of the basin does not exceed 12 inches it is all absorbed in plant-growth and
evaporation from the soil and does not feed the stream except when it comea
in violent storms. Under such conditions the apper third of the basin
supplies all the ran-off, and if that portion does not receive more than 18-
to 20 inches, the stream-flow is very small and of short daration. The
record of catchment at the Guyamaca reservoir, whose watershed is all on
the monntain-top from 4800 to 6500 feet in elevation, adjoining the upper
portion of the Sweetwater shed, clearly shows that the larger part of the
ran-off of all of these coast streams must ordinarily come from the higher
mountains, and illustrates the value of elevation in any shed for purposes
of yielding run-off for reservoirs.
The precipitation and catchment record kept at the Guyamaca dam
from 1888 to 1896 shows that the drainage-basin of 11 square miles gave an
average yield of 491 acre-feet of water per square mile, while the mean of
the Sweetwater during the same period was 100 acre-feet per square mile^
or about one-fifth that of the Guyamaca.
Since the great flood of January, 1895, the Sweetwater system to and
including 1899 has not experienced a season of sufl^cient run-off to fill the
reservoir, aod has endured practically four years of continuous drouth, as
the entire catchment in these four seasons was 8,034 acre-feet, or 36^ of
the reservoir capacity. As a result the reservoir was drained to the bottom
early in 1899, and it became necessary for the company to develop and put
in operation an entirely new and independent supply for the preservation
of the orchards. Two independent gasoline-engine, centrifugal-pump
pnmping-plants were established in the bed of the reservoir about 1^
miles above the dam, by which water was drawn from 35 small wells put
down in the shallow sand and gravel-bed; the water there stored in the
subterranean voids was thus made to yield a constant flow of about
1 second-foot. This was conducted in a flume to the dam, and there
admitted to the tower and the distributing system. The pumping was
done with gasoline-engines, the lift being about 18 feet. In the valley
below the dam three substantial pumping-s tat ions were installed, with
steam-pumps, drawing from a large number of wells, bored at intervals of
100 feet along the suction-pipe leading to the pump. In this manner the
stored water in the sandy bed of the valley was made to produce 4 to
5 second-feet additional. The season was successfully passed owing to the
energy with which the supply was developed, the orchards were kept alive
and thrifty, and no great suffering was experienced, although it seemed
MA80NBY DAMS. 151
inevitable afc the beginning of the irrigation season of 1899 that the orchards
woald perish, or at least that there would be a total loss of frait, if not of
the trees. Pumping operations extended from May to November 23, 1899,
daring which time the total volume pumped was about 458,000,000
gallons, or 1402 acre-feet. The area irrigated was approximately 3800 acres.
Deducting from this total the amount of water used for domestic service,
the mean depth actually applied to the orchards averaged 3.| inches.
This small amount, supplemented by thorough cultivation, proved sufficient
to save the orchards and keep them in healthy growth, which is an in-
teresting demonstration of what can be done in an emergency.
The cost of the pumping-plants and wells so quickly inaugurated as a
substitute for the reservoir was about $27,000. The cost of pumping was
about 6^ cents per 1000 gallons, which was covered by an increase in rates,
to which the community cheerfully acceded as an emergency. The season
of 1899-1900 having failed to give any run-off to the reservoir, all the
pumping-plants in the reservoir-basin and below the dam were reinstalled,
and an auxiliary plant, consisting of 40 wells, 2 inches diameter, 50 feet
deep, pumped by a 22-H.P. gasoline-engine and 6-inch centrifugal pump,
was added to the main plant at Linwood Grove, while at Bonita the same
number of wells were sunk, and pumped by two 6-inch centrifugal pumps,
placed in tandem and actuated by gasoline-engines. In this way it is
hoped to tide over the third year of drouth.
Sedimentation of Sweetwater Beiervoir. — Prior to the construction of
the dam some apprehension was felt as to the probability of the speedy
filling of the reservoir with sand brought down by the stream, which had
been thought to be so large in volume as to destroy the usefulness of the
reservoir in a short time. The writer made some observations on the load
of sediment carried by the stream in flood during the constrnction of the
dam, which led him to conclude that the reservoir might be filled with
water a thousand times before becoming entirely filled with sediment.'*'
Careful re-surveys of the reservoir made by Mr. H. N. Savage, chief
engineer, since it became empty, demonstrate that the total filling has been
about 900 acre-feet since the construction of the dam, or at the average
rate of 75 acre-feet per annum. The total volume of water that has entered
the reservoir in twelve years has been 180i,O6^ acre-feet. The measured
solids deposited from this water have therefore averaged a trifie more than
one-half of 1^. The deposit has been almost directly as the depth, being
greatest at the dam, where the depth of silt of almost impalpable fineness
is 2^ to 3 feet. The addition made to the reservoir capacity after the flood
of 1895 was 4.6 times the accumulated sediment of twelve years, or, in other
words, sufficient to offset the filling of half a century.
* The Construcliou of the Sweetwater Dam. Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., vol. xix.
p. 214.
162 BE8EBV0IB8 FOR IRBIOATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
Evaporation, — ^The percentage of water lost in storage-reeeryoirs by
evaporation is the most serioas factor which the projectors of sach enter-
prises have to anticipate. It is subject to wide variation dne to differences
in mean depth, exposure, temperature, winds, and relative humidity, but
it is always in operation, and subjects the reservoir to a constant loss, so
great that it must be considered in all calculations of reservoir duty, as, in
extreme cases, it may amount to 50^ per annum.
Careful measurements of evaporation in a floating pan at Sweetwater
dam shows the annual loss to be about 54 inches in depth. It is about
2 inches during the month of January, and over 8 inches per month during
July and August. This causes an annual loss of about 15^ of the stored
water, and as a reservoir must always be held back for dry years, so that
practically a reservoirful is at least a two-years' supply, the loss is really
30^ of the total supply, leaving but 70^ of the reservoir capacity available
for use, one-half of which only can be safely counted on each year. This
reduces the available annual supply to about 8000 acre-feet.
At the Guyamaca reservoir, on the adjacent watershed, the average
loss reported during nine years prior to 1897 was 56f inches in depth per
annum. This loss amounted to 25.5^ of the total water caught and stored
during that time, which is nearly double that of the Sweetwater. This
difference is due to greater surface exposure per unit of volume stored.
The Sweetwater reservoir has an exposare of 39. 8 acres per 1000 acre-feet
of capacity when full, while the Guyamaca has an exposnre of 84 acres per
1000. This is an illustration of the advantage of great average depth in
reservoirs, and an argument in favor of high dams for effective conservation
of water.
Conduits, — The main pipe leading from the dam is 36 inches in diameter
for 1600 feet, thence 30 inches diameter for 28,200 feet to Chula Vista.
It has a minimum capacity for delivery of 1260 miner's inches (25.2
second-feet) to an elevation of 90 feet above sea-level, which is high enough
to cover the larger part of the settlement. This pipe was found to be
inadequate to the demands upon it, because in practice the maximum rate
of consumption is about double the mean rate, and for the further reason
that the higher levels could not be supplied and at the same time permit
the maximum discharge to the lower levels. To remedy this lack of
efiSciency a second conduit, 24 inches diameter, was built in 1895 on the
north side of the valley of the Sweetwater. It is of riveted steel, 30,142
feet in length, and cost $65,000. It has a minimum capacity of 450
miner's inches (9 second-feet) and is used chiefly for high service. It con-
nects at the dam with one of the 30-inch pipes laid through the tunnel.
The distributing system of pipes, from 4 to 24 inches diameter, is over 65
miles in length, and has cost over half a million dollars.
Eemet Dam, California. — ^The most massive and imposing structure that
MASONRY DAMS.
153
Las thus far been erected iQ western American for irrigation-storage is the
dam erected in the San Jacinto Moantains, in Bi^erside Goanty, California,
at the ODtlet of Hemet Valley, the location of which with respect to the
irrigated lands is shown in Fig. 71. The view in Fig. 72 is rather an
imperfect representation of the appearance of the dam from below. Fig.
T6 is an end view which shows the arched form of the dam.
The dam is built of granite rabble, laid in Portland-cement concrete,
and was designed to be carried to the ultimate height of 160 feet above the
stream-bed. Its present height is 122.5 feet above base, or 135.5 feet above
rjp.6S,f^./yy Tb.6S.Rje To.6S.f^.£C rn.6S./f.S£.
Pig. 71.— Map showiiitg Location of Lakb Hemet, thb Main Conduit, and Isbi-
GATED Lands.
lowest fonndations. It is 100 feet in thickness at base, and has a batter of
1 in 10 on the water-face, and 5 in 10 on back. Its present crest is 260 feet
long, while the length on base is but 40 feet. The dam was bailt np with
fall profile to the height of 110 feet above base, at which point the thick-
ness is 30 feet. Here an offset of 18 feet was made, and the remaining wall
is 12 feet at base, and 10 feet thick at top. A spillway notch 1 foot deep,
50 feet long, was left in the center. Extreme floods may exceed the
capacity of this spillway and pass over the entire length of the wall to the
depth of several feet. This actaally occarred in Janaary, 1893, when the
dam was 107 feet in height. The dam is arched np-stream with a radias
of 225.4 feet on the line of its apper face at the 150-foot contonr, althongh
it has a gravity section, with the lines of pressare inside the center third,
as shown on section in Fig. 75.
The site seemed to be more saitable for a masonry stractare than any
other type benanse the canyon is extremely narrow, the fonndations excel-
lent, and materials for constraction abandant. After dae consideration of
all alternative possibilities the writer was directed to prepare plans saitable
for the maximam height to which a dam coald be bailt to advantage at this
164 RE8EBV0IB8 FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
site, and in the sammer of 1890 the plant was assembled and ezcavatioa
began. The stripping to bed-rock occupied several months, with the aid
of a cableway for conveying the waste to a damp beluw the dam. In thia
operation a large hole was developed in the rock, 13 feet in depth, within
the lines of the base of the dam. This hole was foand to be filled with
gravel, firmly cemented in place so tightly that it might safely have been
bailt upon had its limits been known. After the hole was cleaned oat a
center trench was cut in the bed-rock np the sides, as a key or anchorage^
to receive the masonry.
The cement and all tools had to be haaled up the mountain, a distance
of 23 miles from the nearest railroad station, over a road whose maximum
grade is 18^, making a total ascent of 3350 feet, and descending to the dam
from the summit nearly 600 feet. The haaling was done at a cost of $1
to 11.50 per barrel, and occupied a considerable time in delivering a suffi-
cient quantity to make a beginning, and it was the 5th of January, 1891^
before the first stone was laid.
The total amount of cement used was about 20,000 barrels, which cost
delivered about $5 per barrel.
Work was prosecuted without interruption until January 24, 1892,
when severe weather and floods compelled a suspension of construction for
four months, when the 45-foot level was reached.
On resumption of work the following spring it was pushed to the 107-
foot contour, when the workmen were again driven off by a storm and
freshet on January 9, 1893, when the reservoir was filled so rapidly that
many of the buildings and tools were submerged before they could be
removed. The work remained at this stage until the fall of 1895, when
the dam was completed to its present height and all machinery and tools
were brought down the mountain. At its present height the dam contains
31,105 cubic yards of masonry.
The concrete used to embed the blocks of stone was mixed in the pro-
portion of 1 of cement, 3 of sand, and 6 of broken stone, crushed to pass
through a 2^-inch ring. Mortar was only used in laying the facing-stones
and pointing the joints on the exterior faces. Both concrete and mortar
were mixed by a cubical iron mixer, one of a number that had done service
on the San Mateo dam in northern California. The sand used was clean
and sharp, and was constantly brought to the dam by the small living stream
fiowing from the mountains, the sand being rolled along its bed. It was
accumulated in a little resenroir formed by a temporary log dam, and con-
veyed to the mixing-platform by an endless double-wire-rope carrier, fitted
with triangular buckets, placed at intervals of 20 feet. By this means the
sand was hoisted 125 feet and carried horizontally 400 feet to the mixing-
platform, where it was stored in a bin. This device was very simple, inex-
pensive, and quit^ effective, and the sand was always washed clean. Fig.
MA80SB7 DAM8.
160
BBSEBVOISa FOH IRBlGAT102f, WATEB-POWEB. ETC.
76 shows a view of the plant for crashing the stone and mixing the
concrete. A portion of the sand- conveyor is also visible in the photograph,
as well as one of the engines naed on the cableways, and the cars for the
Profile Masonry Dam «
..^^^
Sect/Of} of Ape a/tt/Ha/fa
Fio. 75.— Ukuet Dau, KivEiiHiDE (Juuhtt, Caliporhia.
delivery of concrete to the dam. These latter ran along a tramway, laid
on a trestle bnilt from the mixing-platform along the face of the vertical
cliS, some 300 feet, to the dam at the 80-foot level. When the dam reached
this level an elevator was bailt to a higher line of trestle.
MASONRY DAMS. 161
The stone was all qnarried witbin 400 feet of the dam, on both sides of
the canyoD, both abore and below the darn. It was hoisted and coDvejed
to the wall by two cablewajs, each abont 800 feet long and 1} inches id
diameter. The cables crossed the dam nearly at right angles with ihe
chord of the arch, bat diverging from each other, and were anchored to
coQTenieat trees on either side of the gorge. Their position was seldom
changed, except to lift them higher up into the tree-tops, aud to erect " A "
frames on top of the masonry to support the cables, when the wall bad
reached such a height as to r^qnire it. Loads of 10 tons could be hoisted
Fio. 76. — Hewet Dam Cohbtrhction Pi.AirF.
and handled with ease, and with the aid of two derricks, one at each end of
the dam, the rock bronght by the cables was placed where required. The
loads were readily transferred from the cableway to the derricks while in
the air. The trolley which traveled on the cableway, and the devices for
sustaining the hoisting-line as the load moved back and forth, were devised
on the ground and operated satisfactorily.
The derricks were actnated by water-power obtained from a 36-inch
Pelton wheel located below the dam and propelled, nnder a head of 76 feet,
by abont 80 miner's inches of water, bronght from the stream by a flnme
1.5 miles long to the edge of the cliff at the mixing-platform, and thence
in a 13-inch riveted steel pressare-pipe. The pipe passed through the line
of the dam and was embedded in the masonry. Subaeqnently it was cat
162 RE8BRV0IR8 FOR IRRIQAIION, WATER-POWER, Eia
off at the upper face of the dam and was made available as the lowest outlet
of the resenroir. Two other outlets were provided, consisting of 22-inch
lap-welded steel pipes, placed at the 45-foot and 75-foot levels, near the left
wall of the canyon. These pipes were provided with cast-iron elbows
tnrning upward and flaring to 30 inches diameter, just inside the line of
the dam. They are closed by semi-spherical cast-iron covers, which are
raised and lowered by wire ropes passing over a pulley and windlass that are
provided for each, and stand on an overhanging frame bolted to the top of
the masonry. These covers are ordinarily removed and replaced by cylin-
drical flsh-screens that stand on the top of the elbows, and the main control
is had by gate-valves set on each pipe at the lower line of the dam. When
these valves are open the water spouts freely into the air and falls in a spray
upon the rock below. This water is collected in a pool a short distance
from the dam, and passes over a weir for measurement, before beginning
its 5-mile plunge down the canyon, to the final point of diversion into the
main flume.
When construction began, the reservoir-site was well covered with pine
forest, and, as it was desirable to clear the flowage tract, the trees were cut
and sawed into lumber. Over one million feet B.M. of this lumber was
used for buildings, flames, and staging about the dam, and half a million
more was hauled to the valley for flumes and trestles. Much of the fire-
wood cat from the tree-tops was also hauled down the mountain by the
retarning cement teams. The main conduit is partly built of this mountain
pine, and, although it is knotty and inferior lamber for general purposes,
the flume made of it did good service for eix or eight years before it was
recently replaced with California redwood, which is much more durable.
The conduit is 3.24 miles in length from the pick-up weir, just above the
janction of Soath Fork and Strawberry Fork, to the mouth of the main
canyon, where it connects with a 22-inch riveted iron pipe, 2 miles long.
From the end of this pipe an open ditch, lined with masonry 8 to 10 inches
thick, and plastered with cement mortar, conveys the Water 5 miles to a
20-acre distributing-reservoir, located near the highest corner of the irri-
gated lands. This reservoir has a capacity of about 90 acre-feet, and from
it the water is distributed by some 30 miles of pipe, flumes, and lined
ditches. The slope of the land is 40 feet per mile from east to west,
requiring small conduits for distribution. The main canyon flume was
built of 1^-inch lumber, and is 38 inches wide, 18 inches deep, and has a
grade of about 140 feet per mile. It was calked and battened, smeared
with asphalt inside, and whitewashed on the exterior with lime. The ditch-
lining consists of granite cobbles of 10 inches maximum diameter, laid in
equal parts of lime and cement mortar. It is 2.75 feet wide on bottom,
7 feet at top, 2.75 feet deep, and has a capacity of 60 second-feet or 3000
inches.
MABONBT DAMS. 163
The dam of the distribating-reBerroir is of earth, 300 feet long, 14 feet
high, and 8 feet wide on top. The reservoir is usaally filled within a foot
of the top of the dam. In constr action a trench was excavated 9 feet deep
under the center line, in the center of which a tighfc board fence was built,
reaching to the top of the dam, to prevent the harrowing of ground-
sqairrels and gophers^ a fanction which it effectually performs. The trench
was refilled with paddled soil each side of the fence, and the paddle brought
to the top of the dam. The area irrigated by the system in 1896 was 1092
acres, and is increasing each year as the tracts are sold to settlers.
This area was in 72 separate tracts, of which the average size is 10 to
20 acres. The rates charged for water are t;2 per acre annually, with an
additional charge daring the nominal '' non-irrigating season" (November
15 to April 15) of $1 per month for each tract for domestic service. In
the town of Hemet, which is supplied by the same system, there were, in
1896, 55 taps, paying a uniform domestic rate of 11.50 per month. Water-
power is used in the town to drive an electric dynamo for lighting the hotel
and some of the buildings, the waste water flowing to a small reservoir.
The apportionment of water by the water-right contracts given with
the deeds to the land is at the rate of *' one-eighth of 1 miner's inch of
perpetual flow from April 15 to November 15 of each year for each acre."
This is equivalent to 46,224 cubic feet per acre per annum, or a mean depth
of 12f inches over the land. The water-rate of t2 per acre woald thus be
equal to 4.3 cents per 1000 cabic feet, or 0.57 cent per 1000 gallons.
The altitude of Hemet Valley where the dam is located is approximately
4300 feet. The watershed area, as determined from the topographic map
of the United States Qeological Survey, is 69.5 square miles, the extreme
elevation of which is about 9000 feet This point is Tahqnitz Peak, a spur
of Mt. San Jacinto. The total drainage-area of the San Jacinto Biver
above the mouth of the canyon is 141.8 square miles. The reservoir there-
fore receives the run-off from nearly one-half the entire drainage-basin of
the river. The average yield of the shed has not been accurately deter-
mined, although it has been insufficient to fill the reservoir in any one
season since 1895. The irrigation season of 1899 began with but 1000
acre-feet in the reservoir (gage 73 feet).
The present capacity of the reservoir is 10,500 acre-feet, but the addi-
tion of 27^ feet to the height of the dam will increase it 2^ times. The
cost of the dam and irrigation-works has never been made public. The
area of the tract depending upon the reservoir for irrigation is about 7000
acres, of which not more than half have been irrigated.
The Bear Valley Dam, California. — Probably the most widely known
irrigation system in California is that of the Bear Valley Irrigation Com-
pany of Badlands, California, chiefly by reason of the remarkably slender
proportions of the Bear Valley dam, which has been to the engineering
164 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC,
fraternity the '^ eighth wonder of the world/' and has no parallel on the
globe. The dam has no stability to resist water-pressure except that due
to its arched form, and it has been expected to yield at any time, although
it has successfully withstood the pressure against it for fifteen years, and is
apparently as stable as it ever was. The probabilities are that nothing but
an extraordinary flood or earthquake, or a combination of unusual move-
ments, will ever accomplish its destruction. Such vast interests are now
dependent upon the water stored by the dam that its failure would be a
public calamity, greatly to be deplored. The settlements of Redl&nds,
Grafton, and Highlands, which are among the choicest of the orange-
growing regions of southern California, and the irrigation districts of
Alessandro and Perris, are the outgrowth of this water-storage, although
the Perris district receives but a small portion of its supply from this
source. Prior to the construction of the dam in 1883-84, the natural
streams entering the San Bernardino Valley had been entirely appropriated
and used in irrigation, and had apparently reached the limit of their
irrigable duty. No storage-reservoirs were then in service, and the creation
of the Bear Valley reservoir for conserving the flood- waters of the Santa
Ana Eiver has more than doubled the area of land irrigated previous to its
construction in the territory covered by its water, and has increased the
valuation of property in far greater ratio. The useful function of the
storage-reservoir was never more fully exemplified than in this case. The
Bear Valley dam was designed and built by F. E. Brown, C.E., a graduate
of Yale Scientific School. The construction of the dam was a bold and
difficult undertaking, as it was the pioneer enterprise of California for
irrigation-storage, and the site is in a remote locality, to which the cement,
tools, and supplies had to be hauled over a rough mountain-range from
San Bernardino, descending on the opposite side to the Mojave Desert
and again climbing the mountain to Bear Valley, a total distance of 70
miles. The cost of hauling cement was 110 per barrel, and its total cost
delivered was $14 to $15 per barrel. Under such conditions, and with a
scarcity of funds for what was considered a questionable experiment, it is
not surprising that economy of masonry was practiced to such an extent
that it is quite without a parallel for boldness of design. The d&m is
curved up-stream with a radius of 335 feet, and is 64 feet high from base
to crest. The length on top is about 300 feet, and the thickness but 2.5
to 3 feet on top, and 8.5 feet at a point 48 feet below the crest, where it
rests on a base of masonry that is 13 feet wide, making an offset of about
2 feet on each side at the center; but as the base was built with a curve of
shorter radius than the upper 48 feet of the dam, the offset is not uniform,
but tapers to nothing on the waterside at the ends of the base, and is fully
4 feet wide on the back. The lowest foundation of the base is 20 feet wide,
as shown in Figs. 77 and 78. The entire dam contains about 3400 cubic
Fio. T6((. — Lake Hemet (CaI: ) Mabohry Dam.
MASONBT DAMS.
165
yards of tnaaonrj, in which were ased about 1600 barrels of cement:. It is
reported to have cost t75,000, or over #23 per cnbic yard, of which the
cement alone cost bat 17.50 for each cnbic yard of masoiiry laid. That the
plant and labor could have cost bo much as tl4.dO per cubic yard, which is
severnl times the ordinary cost of snch work, mast, if true, have been
largely attributable to the lack ot adequate machinery, as well as extrava-
gant management. The masonry is a rongh, uncnt, granite ashlar, with a
Pio. 7?.— CROaBSBCTiON OF Bear Vallkt Dam.
Fio. 78.— Pr AN AND Elevation of Bead Valixy Dam.
hearting of rough rubble, all laid in cement mortar and gravel. At the
beginning an earth dam was erected, 2^ milea above, 6 feet in height, to
retain the summer flow. Ae the masonry rose water was let down to the
main dam, forming a pond which floated timber rafia on which stone was
transported to the site, and from which construction was carried on. Hand-
derricks were carried on these rafts.
Tl)e work was evidently done slowly and with great care, as it has leaked
bnt little beyond the usual sweating, which has left its marks in an efflores-
cence or deposit of lime, brought out of the mortar by the moisture oozing
through. This occurred during the iirst few years after completion and
166 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
has almost entirely ceased. When iDspeeted by the writer in Angast, 1896,
the water stood within 10 feet of the top of the dam with little or no visible
leakage below.
The south end of the dam abnts against a projecting ledge of granite,
standing boldly oat from the side of the canyon 100 feet or more beyond
the general line of the side slopes, illastrated in the photograph. Fig. 79.
07er the top of this ledge, as far from the dam as it could be placed, a
spillway, 20 feet wide, was excavated to a depth of 8.5 feet below the level
of the extreme top of the dam (Fig. 80).
The extreme capacity of this spillway does not exceed 1700 second-feet,
which is dangerously small.
The great Sweetwater flood of 1895 gave a maximum discharge of nearly
100 second-feet per square mile of watershed. A freshet of proportional
volume from the Bear Valley shed would give a discharge of about 5600
second-feet, or more than three times the spillway capacity. Occurring at
a time when the reservoir were full, such a flood would overtop the dam by
a depth of 2 to 3 feet. The result might be disastrous.
The spillway was for a time closed with sand-bags to hold the lake to a
higher level, but this device was substituted by movable flashboards,
arranged in four bays, separated by suitable framework.
The only outlet or means of control of the reservoir is an iron gate made
to slide on brass bearings, and closing a rectangular opening, 20 by 24
inches, leading to a culvert cut in the bed-rock. The culvert trench was
made 2 feet wide and 3 feet high, fiat on bottom and arched over the top
with concrete. The dam was built over it, and the culvert simply passed
through or under the wall. The gate is operated by a screw-stem that
passes up through a 6-inch pipe, standing vertically in the water next to
the dam, and reaching up to a wooden platform at the coping-line. The
gate-stem, hand-wheel, and mouth of outlet culvert are shown in the illus-
tration. The maximum discharge capacity of the gate when wide open
with full reservoir is about 167 second-feet, which is much more than is
ever required to be drawn. The capacity with reservoir practically empty
is over 80 second-feet.
The top of the dam is not finished to a true level line, as the coping-
stones have been omitted over about one-half the length, and this portion is
2 to 3 feet lower than the finished crest. It requires considerable nerve to
walk over the top of the dam, because it has no hand-rail or parapet and is
so narrow that few visitors care to attempt the feat. Water has stood for a
considerable time within a few inches of overfiowing, although it has never
actually passed over the top, as the spillway has thus far been capable of
carrying the surplus flood-water. The maximum volume stored in the
reservoir, thus far, has been somewhat in excess of 40,000 acre-feet, and
Fio. T9.— Bbaii Vallet Dam, i.otiKiNO Souri
MA80NRT DAMS. 173
in seasoiis of excessive precipitation the ran-off has exceeded the reservoir
capacity.
Iq order to be able to imponud the entire ran-off from the watershed,
or the greater portion of it, the company at one time contemplated the
erection of a higher dam, to be bailt about 200 feet down-stream from the
present dam, and impound water to the 75-foot contour of the reservoir, or
11 feet higher than the crest of the existing structure, at which level the
capacity of the basin is 80»000 acre-feot, flooding a surface area of 3060
acres to a mean depth of 25.3 feet. It was regarded as impracticable to
add another foot to the height of the present dam, and no engineer cared
to risk the responsibility of excavating at the toe of the wall for such an
addition to it as would enable it to be raised to the desired height; hence
it was deemed best to go a safe distance below to avoid jarring or disturb-
ing the fragile wall, and there begin an entirely independent structure.
Tiie new dam was designed as a rock-fill, and was to be 80 feet in height
above the base of the present dam, but was never finished beyond the
foundations, which were laid in a substantial manner in 1893 (Fig. 81).
It is a matter of regret that the second dam was not completed, as its com-
pletion was recognize! as affording a rare opportunity for studying the arch
action upon the present masonry wall. At the time it was begun a com-
mittee was appointed by the American Society of Civil Engineers to
examine and measure the movement in the masonry incident to the loading
and unloading of the arch. This could be quickly accomplished by empty-
ing and refilling the pond between the two dams. If taken at the right
time, the effect of a flood pouring over the crest of the thin masonry wall
could have been observed, and much nseful knowledge obtained on the
subject of the strains in arched dams of which so little is now known.
The watershed tributary to the Bear Valley reservoir, as determined
from the best available maps, is approximately 56 square miles, the maxi-
mum elevation of which is about 7700 feet, or 1500 feet higher than the
valley. On the north and east the shed borders on the desert, and the pre-
cipitation shades off to a considerably less amount than is recorded at the
dam.
The record of rain and melted snow at the dam from 1883 to 1893, the
season beginning in each year on September Ist, is as follows:
Inches. Inches.
1883-84 94.60 1888-89 46.03
1884-85 28.06 1890-91 78.40
1885-86 65.51 1891-92 38.00
1886-87 24.00 1892-93 44.32
1887-88 62.30 1894-95 50.00
Mean for 12 years 53.70
174 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
The dry years which have occarred since 1895 mnsfc andoabtedly reduce
this mean very considerably, aUhoagh the record has not been made pablic.
In 1891 the ran-off from the watershed was compnted by Wm. Ham. Hall
from the records of catchment, as follows, beginning with the completion
of the dam :
9-00. «--f-, season. f-^^,^
1883-84 236,000 1887-88 132,400
1884-85 21,600 1888-89 70,400
1885-86 142,400 1889-90 211,600
1886-87 8,000 1890-91 186,800
Mean 126,150
This estimate is so large as to be decidedly qaestionable. Mr. J. B.
Lippincott, Hydrographer U. S. Geological Survey,* estimates, by compari-
son of observations in other parts of the State, that the probable maximum
run-off of the shed is about 100,000 acre-feet, and the mean about 28,500.
The minimum was doubtless reached in 1895-99. The irrigation season of
1899 began with but 1560 acre-feet in the reservoir, a small portion of
which was held o7er from the previous year. This was entirely exhausted
early in the season, and an attempt was made to maintain the supply by
pumping from shallow wells in the bed of the reservoir, although with
indifferent success. Four to six acre-feet per day were obtained for a time,
but it was largely dissipated by evaporation in passing down the canyon.
The loss to be anticipated, from this reservoir by evaporation is a sub-
ject of much interest. It is at an altitude of 6200 feet, and well sheltered
from winds by surrounding mountains, favoring minimum loss. On the
other hand the water is shallow and spread out over a large area. Observa-
tions made at the gate-house of the Arrowhead Reservoir Company in Little
Bear Valley, in the same mountain-range, but at lower elevation (5160 feet
above sea-level), indicate that the evaporation from water-surface is about
36 inches per annum in that locality, of which about 90^ occurs in the
eight months from March to November, inclusive. This rate of loss applied
to Bear Valley reservoir when full would indicate a probable loss of over
20^ per annum if &o water were drawn out, or about 14^ per annum if a
uniform draft of 2500 acre-feet per month were made during the period
from March to November, inclusive.
The general form of the reservoir is shown in Fig. 82.
La Grange Dam, California. — There is something quite unusual in a
masonry dam 125 feet high which is erected for the sole purpose of divert-
ing water from a stream for irrigation purposes, and this is the character of
structure that was built on the Tuolumne River, 1^ miles above the town
* Nineteenth Annual Report for 1897, U. S. Geol. Bur., Part IV., p. 585.
MASOyRT DAUS.
176 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
of La Orange, California, in 1891-94, by the Turlock and Modesto irriga-
tion districts jointly. The Tuolumne River, as it leaves the mountains, on
its way across the San Joaquin Valley, is cut down so deeply below the
geneial level of the plain as to require a high dam to raise the water suffi-
ciently to get it out on the irrigable lands. The dam is located at the
mouth of a narrow box canyon and is in no sense designed or used for
storage. It is 125 feet high on the up-stream face, 129 feet on the down-
stream side, 90 feet in thickness at bottom, 24 feet at crest, and but 310
feet long on top. The wall is built as the segment of a circle of 300 feet
radius, the arch being opposed to the direction of the water-pressure,
although its profile is of purely gravity type, in which the lines of pressure
are well within the middle third. On the water-face the dam is vertical for
70 feet below the top, and thence to the foundation has a batter of 1 in 20.
The edges of the crest are rounded off on a radius of 3 feet on upper side,
and 17.5 feet on lower side, leaving 6 feet of the crest level. At 6 feet
below the crest the dam is 24.13 feet thick; at 69 feet below it is 52 feet
thick; at 89 feet it is 66.25 feet; and at 97 feet, the top of the foundation
masonry, it is 84 feet thick. The extreme bottom width at the highest
point of the dam is 90 feet. The lower face has a batter of J to 1, from 70
feet below the crest, where a compound curve of 63 and 23 feet radii
commences, which carries the face to its intersection with the battered face
of the foundation masonry about 3 feet above low water. From this point
the foundation batter is 1 in 7, to the bottom, about 32 feet in the
deepest place. These dimensions give practically an ogee form to the
down-stream face, which permits the water to follow the masonry without
leaving its face in its descent, provided the depth be not more than 4 to 5
feet, and gives it a horizontal direction at the bottom. The curvature of
the dam and the fact that the canyon is but 80 feet wide at the base of the
dam, or top of foundations, so concentrate the stream that some erosion
may be anticipated at the base, although nothing serious in that line has
been reported.
The dam contains 39,500 cubic yards of masonry and cost $550, 0C9.
It is built throughout of rough, uncoursed rubble masonry, laid in Portland-
cement concrete, in practically the same manner as that described in the
construction of the Hemet dam. The work was done by contract, at $10.39
per cubic yard, including the excavation for foundations, but not including
cement, which was furnished by the districts. The cement cost $4.50 per
barrel delivered, and 31,500 barrels were used in the work.
It is believed to be the highest overflow dam in the United States, if not
in the world. The volume of water passing over it may in extreme floods
amount to 100,000 second-feet. The maximum flood that has yet gone
over the dam was about 46,000 second-feet in volume, the deptii on crest
being 12 feet.
FiQ. 82a.— Pi-AK t>¥ La GBANor. Dam, Caupornu.
^^ _^
Fio, 824.— PKOFrLB OF La Uhakoe Dau, Caupobhia.
178 BBSBSrOiaS fob IBEIGATION, WATBB.POWBB. ETC.
Daring conetrnction the low-water diacharge was carried past the work
in a flame the first year, and snbsequently through two culverts, one at low-
water level, and a second 10 feet higher. These were 4 feet wide, 6 feet
high.
The Modesto Canal takes water throngb an open cut from the dam, on
the right bank, and haa a capacity of 750 second-feet. The Tnrlock Canal
reaches the reservoir above the dam by meane of a tnnnel 560 feet long, 12
feet wide, 11 feet high, with regalating-gate at the head.
PiB. 88.— Uppek Face oy La Obanoe Dam,
In construction of the dam three lines of cableway were used, spanning
the canyon, for hauling the materials.
The excessive cost of the work was doubtless due to the uncertainty as
to the value of the bonds of the irrigation districts, which created a temerity
among contractors, and there were few bidders. The contractor was
obliged to buy the bonds at not less than 90^ of their face value, and dispose
of tliem at a figure from which he could obtain a profit on his work.
Under ordinary conditions of prompt payments in cash the construction
shonld have been done for one-half tlie actual cost.
The dam was designed by Luther Wagoner, C.E., who resigned
MASONRY DAMS. 179
shortly after work began, and coustmction was completed under chaise of
E. H. Barton, engineer for the Turlock district, and I£. S, Crowe, repre-
aenting the Modesto district.
The elevation of the crest of the dam is 299.3 feet above sea-level, and
the canal grade ie 8.3 feet lower.
The Turlock irrigation district embraces 176,210 acres, and the canal
supplying it has a reported capacity of 1500 second -feet. The main canal
ie 18 miles long, feeding five laterals of an aggregate length of 80 miles.
Fig. 84.— Lower Facb of La Quakob dak.
The Modesto district covers 81,500 acres, with a main canal 33.76 miles
long before reaching the district, having a capacity of 640 second-feet.
Tho entire irrigation system when fully completed will be the largest and
most comprehensive one in California, and the dam upon which its success
depends haa been wisely constructed of such dimensions as to be of unques-
tionable stability. Figs. 83 and 84 give two views of the stmcture.
Folsom Dam, California. — There are many features of the Folsom dam,
on the American River, California, which give it special interest to engi-
neers and all others who have seen it, one of which is that it was bnilt by
the State of California entirely with convict labor, incidentally to give
employment to the inmates of one of the State prisons, but primarily to
ISO RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER POWER, ETC.
develop water-power for use in various industries about the prison and for
transmission to other localities. A further purpose is served by the dam in
the diversion of water from the American Eiver out upon the plains of the
Sacramento Valley for irrigation. The plan, profile, and section of the
dam are shown in Fig. 90, and a photograph taken by a convict during
construction is given in Fig. 91.
The dam is of the same general character as the La Grange dam,
serving no purpose of storage, but designed solely for the diversion of the
stream and so constructed as to permit flood-water to pass freely over
its crest.
It is located at the top of a natural fall in the bed-rock of the stream,
its height at tlie up-stream toe being 69.5 feet, while at the down-scream
footing the height is 98 fest to the crest-line. . The top thickness is 24
feet; base 87 feat. A movable shutter, 180 feet long, is placed in the center
of the dam for raising the normal wnter-level at low stages. This shutter
is placed in a tlopression, C feet in depth, below the general level of the dam,
and is lowered during floods to allow the passage of extreme freshets over
tlie dam. At low water tlie shutter is raised to a nearly vertical position
by means of liydraulic jacks, as sliown in Fig. 92, which are operated from
the prison power-house. The entire crest length of the dam is 650 feet,
including the curved approach to the canal head-gates.
The main dam is straight in plan. The construction of the dam was
begun in 1886 and completed in 1891. It contains 48,r)90 cubic yards of
masonry in the dam proper, while the retaining-wall of the canal has
27,000 cubic yards and the power-house 13,700 cubic yards of granite
masonry, all laid in Portland-cement mortar. The dam is a very massive
and substantial piece of masonry, composed of rough granite ashlar in
large blocks of 10 tons or more in weight. The quarry, which deter-
mined the location of the State prison, affords an unlimited quantity of excel-
lent granite which has a fine cleavage and is readily quarried into blocks of
any desired size. The excavation of the canal along the granite cliff gave all
the material needed for the dam. "JMie stone was delivered to the dam bv a
cableway of unusual construction, in that two cables were used side by side
like a suspended rail way- track, and the trolley was a four-wheeled carriage
from which the loads were hoisted and suspended. There are many disad-
vantages to this form of cableway, and no special features to recommend it
as preferable to the single cable. The latter admits of dragging roi-ks from
either side of the line of the cable for a considerable distance, an operation
which would tend to derail the trolley of a double cableway.
The canal taken from the left side of the dam passes through the
prison grounds and thence to the town of Folsom, one and one-half miles
below, where the main power-drop of 85 feet is utilized for generation of
power, which is transmitted electrically to Sacramento, 22 miles distant.
1
N
Pio. 80-— La Gr.'
fto. 87.— La Giianub Dam, California.
Pro, 88. — La Qranok Dam, Caufohnia, i
Fio. 89.— Map showino Location of Folsom Dau and the Main Canal.
ELEVATION
CROSS SECTION OF WEIR
Fxa. 90.~PiiAK, Cross-section, and Elevation of Weib and Headworks of
FoLSOM Canal.
186
MASONRY BAMS. 189
In paasing the prison power-house a drop of 7.5 feet is ntilized by six
8?-iDch Leflel turbines of the double improved type, aud about 800 H.P.
are developed at the maiimum. The canal is 8 feet in depth throughout,
the vidth belov the prison power-houso being 30 feet on bottom, 4U feet
on top. Above the power-house the width is 10 feet greater. The grade
is 1 : 3000, and the capacity of the canal about 1000 second-feet.
¥~i
Fio. 93.— Etdraulic Jacks for raibino Brctter on FoLaoK Dam.
The 8aa Kateo Dam, California. — Doubtless the most enormous mass of
masonry of any sort in the West, if not in the entire United States, is the
great concrete dam erected on San Mateo Creek, 6 miles above the vilUge
of San Mateo, California, by the Spring Valley Water-works of San Fran-
cisco, to impound water for the supply of that city. The dam ranks
among the highest and most costly of the world, and was erected in 1887
and 1S88.
It was projected to reach to a height of 170 feet, at which the top width
ms to be 26 feet and base width 176 feet, but construction was suspended
at the height of 146 feet, or 34 feet below the ultimate height. When
finished the top length will be 680 feet. It has a uniform batter of 4 to 1
on the np-stream face, while the lower slope, beginning with a batter of 2^
on 1 near the top, curves with a radius of 258 feet to near the bottom,
where the batter is 1 to 1. The dam is arched up-stream with a radius of
637 feet.
It is built throughout with concrete, made of broken stone, beach sand,
and Portland cement. This material was chosen because of the difhculty of
secaring rock in the vicinity suitable for rubble masonry. The stone was
qnarried in the immediate vicinity, and occurred in small irregular nodules.
190 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRTOATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
frequently so coated with clay and serpentine as to require it to be thoroughly
washed before it was fit for use. After crushing, it was passed through
revolving cylindrical tumblers, where a constant stream of water was main-
tained to carry off the mud and tailings, which passed off through a flume
and dropped to the stream-channel, where the deposit from these washings
covered several acres to a considerable depth. The proportion of waste was
large. The sand used in the concrete was obtained from the sand-dunes of
Korth Beach, San Francisco, where it was loaded on cars, hauled one mile,
and dumped into barges, then towed 25 miles up the bay to a landing oppo-
site San Mateo, and thence hauled 6 miles by wagon to the dam. All the
materials were thus unusually expensive.
The concrete was mixed in a battery of 6 cubical iron mixing-machines
revolved by steam-power. It was delivered to the work by a double-track
tramway on a high trestle carried part way across the canyon at the level of
the top of the dam on the lower side, as shown in Fig. 94. The cars on this
tramway were pushed by hand and dumped into hoppers let into the floor
between the rails, leading to vertical pipes, 16 inches in diameter, which
extended down to platforms that were placed from time to time at a level
with the top of the work as as it progressed. The concrete dropped down
these pipes, striking on steel plates, from which it was shoveled into wheel-
barrows and trundled to the place of use. The height of this drop was
sometimes as great as 120 feet, but no injury resulted to the concrete, or to
the men shoveling it as it fell. The concrete was mixed in the proportions
of 1 part cement to 2 parts sand, 6^ parts broken stone, and f part water
by measure. It was moulded in cyclopean blocks of 200 to 300 cubic yards
each, with numerous offsets ingeniously dovetailing the blocks together, and
every possible precaution was taken in the joining of the successive portions
to secure an absolute bond. The surfaces of the blocks after the forms were
removed were roughened with picks, swept and washed clean, and grouted
with pure cement before concrete was placed against them. The result has
been very satisfactory ; the dam is almost absolutely water-tight, although
some moisture does find its way through and appears in spots on the lower
face. No settlement or expansion cracks are visible, and the work has the
appearance of being absolutely homogeneous. Figs. 96 and 97 show the
general method of foiming the blocks and preparing them to receive fresh
concrete, and Fig. 98 is a general view of the dam taken at the time of the
visit of the American Society of Civil Engineers in Annual Convention,
July, 1896. Plans and sections of this dam are shown in Fig. 99. At the
170-foot level the reservoir will have a capacity of 29,000,000,000 gallons,
or 89,000 acre-feet. The present capacity is approximately 20,000,000,000
gallons.
The entire volume of the dam is approximately 139,000 cubic yards.
When the dam is extended to its ultimate height it will be necessary to
11
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF OAM
OUTLET TUNNEL
ICmm THItOUGH OATETOnEir MID OUTLET TUNNEL
cmsTAL sf*ntNes resekvoib
/•LAN SH0IVIN6 LAYER OF CONCJfETE BLOCKS
4
HOCK EXCAVATION FOR FOUNDATION OF DAM
„„.<. l>
Dam *m> JIai- ok C'KvttTAl. hl'UlMis Ulci^J.u\ciii(
MA80NBT DAMS. 208
dose a gap in the ridge a short distance north with a wall about 25 feet
high. The outlet to the dam is a tunnel 390 feet long, driven through the
hill on the north side of the channel, through which a 54-inch riveted iron
pipe is laid. The tunnel is 7^ feet wide inside the lining, and of the same
height, and is lined with four courses of brick, 21 inches thick.
The tunnel is intersected by a brick-lined shaft, 14 feet clear diameter,
placed just inside the dam in the reservoir. Inside this shaft is a stand-pipe
connecting with the main outlet-pipe. Three branch tunnels, carrying large
pipes, open out from the reservoir to this stand-pipe, each pipe being con-
trolled by gate-valves that are placed in the main shaft. This is an admir-
able form of outlet, as all the pipes from the shaft are accessible to inspection
and repair. The ends of the tunnels under water have plain cover-valves
over elbows, and are provided with fish-screens that are put into position
from floating barges. A main pipe, 44 inches in diameter, leads from the
dam to San Francisco. The present crest of the dam is 281 feet above tide-
level.
When the reservoir is filled it submerges the old Crystal Springs reser-
voir and dam, the latter being an earth structure which did service for many
years until superseded by the new dam. A smaller reservoir, that formerly
supplied the town of San Mateo, was also obliterated from view, and the
water at highest level will extend up the valley of the north arm of the
creek nearly to the toe of the San Andreas dam.
The old Crystal Springs reservoir had a tributary watershed of 14 square
miles, which yielded a mean annual run-off of 319 acre-feet per square mile
during the eight years from 1878 to 1886. The mean rainfall during that
period was 34.95 inches. This run-off is equivalent to a mean of 14.4^ of
tlie mean rainfall, the maximum having been 34^ and the minimum 0.5^.
The Pilarcitos and San Andreas watersheds, whose catchment is retained
by earthen dams, receive a much higher precipitation, especially the former,
which is more directly exposed to the saturated wind-currents from the
ocean. The average precipitation over all the Spring Valley Water Co.'s
sheds, during the seven yeara from 1868 to 1875, was 43.5 inches, from
which the mean run-off was 35.5^, including loss by evaporation. These
watersheds are partially wooded, undulating pasture-lands, uncultivated,
covered with deep soil, and clothed with native grasses that spring up annu-
ally from seed and have little permanent sod. The results of the measured
catchment from these areas indicates that, in geneml terms, on watersheds
of this character from 20 to 35 inches of rainfall are annually taken into the
soil and absorbed in plant-growth and evaporation.
The Xetoell Curve of Run-off, — On Fig. 100 is shown a diagram, called
the ** Newell Curve," from its originator, Mr. F. H. Newell, C.E., Chief
Hydrographer, U. S. Geological Survey, which expresses the general relation
between mean annual rainfall and mean run-off, as determined from the
BEBERY0IB8 FUR IBRIOATION, WAIER-POWEU, BIO.
MABONRT DAMB. 206
measurements of a large number of streams, compared with the best avail-
able data as to the probable mean precipitation on the watersheds of those
streams. This is a convenient diagram for general deductions, as it shows
at a glance the increasing percentage of run-off to be expected from heavy
rains, and the very small amount to be derived from low rainfall. Upon
this diagram the author has platted a number of actual measurements of
run-off on certain California watei-sheds and some others, which are mostly
indicative of lower percentage of run-off than the lines of the curve. The
difficulty in applying such a diagram to estimates of probable run-off is in
determining the mean rainfall applicable to any given shed, and in the
variability of run-off in different seasons, due to the uneven manner in
which storms appear. Bains gently and evenly distributed will give a much
smaller stream-flow than the same amount would yield if it came in a succes-
sion of violent storms, quickly following one another.
Pacoima Submerged Dam, California.— One of the most novel and inter-
esting masonry dams erected for impounding water in California, where so
many novelties and experimental works have been carried out, is a slender
little reservoir wall built across Pacoima Creek, in the San Fernando Valley,
20 miles north of Los Angeles, for the purpose of forming an underground
reservoir, whose storage capacity consists solely of the voids in the gravel-
bed filling the valley of the stream.
The creek drains a watershed whose area is 30.5 square miles above the
point where it issues from the mountains. Here it flows over exposed bed-
rock, and the normal summer flow, which diminishes gradually from about
100 to less than 10 miner's inches, is entirely diverted by a pipe-line and
used below for irrigation. The dam in question is located 2^ miles further
down, where the channel of the stream is contracted to a width of 550 feet
by a ledge of sandstone which crosses it at about right angles. Between
the dam and the mouth of the canyon is a continuous bed of gravel, in
places half a mile wide, which, though lying on a heavy grade, constitutes
the storage-reservoir. The dam was constructed by excavating a straight
trench (shown in Fig. 101), 6 feet wide, from side to side of the channel,
down to and into the sandstone bed-rock. In the center of the trench a
wall of rubble masonry was laid, 3 feet wide at base, 2 feet at surface, using
the cobbles excavated from the trench, and a mortar of Portland cement
and sand. The mistake was made of not filling the entire width of the
trench with concrete, thoroughly rammed between the side walls, which
would probably have insured satisfactory water-tightness. As it was, the
space each side of the wall was refilled with gravel, and the wall was not
thick enough or sufficiently well pointed to be entirely water-tight. The
general height of the wall is 40 feet, the maximum being 52 feet. Plan,
profile, and section of the dam are shown in Fig. 103. Two gathering-
206 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC,
wells are provided in the line of the wall, each 4 feet inside diameter,
reaching from bottom to top.
Three lines of drain-pipes, 8 and 10 inches diameter and made of asphalt
concrete, laid with open joints, are placed inside the dam leading to the
wells, the function of which is to gather the water and feed it to the wells.
Outlet-pipes 14 inches diameter, one from each well, lead to either side of
the valley. These are placed 13 feet below the top of dam and connect
with a main leading to the pipe distributing system supplying the irrigated
lands. When the reservoir is drained down to the level of these outlets
further draft is made by pumping, which is required for about 100 days
during late summer and fall.
The cost of the dam is given at $50,000, and the volume of masonry
was about 2000 cubic yards. It is a piece of amateur work, built without
engineering advice, but it serves a useful purpose, though not at all commen-
surate to its cost. It is, however, a type of dam that may be applicable to
other localities more naturally favorable than this.
The dimensions and capacity of this novel reservoir cannot be clearly
determined, but its surface area is approximately 300 acres, its mean depth
probably 15 to 20 feet, and its capacity equivalent to the volume of voids in
the gravel, or 1300 to 1500 acre-feet.
Agna Fria Dam, Arizona. — One of the tributaries of the Gila River,
which joins it from the nortli, below the city of Phoenix, is the Agua Fria
Eiver, heading in the mountains near Prescott, and draining some 140O
square miles of mountainous territory. The Agua Fria Land and Water
Company have erected a masonry diverting-weir across the stream, at a
point 1^ to 2 miles above the northerly line of Gila Valley, and have pro-
jected a storage-dam \\ miles higher up the stream, at a point called the
Frog Tanks, to impound the flood-water for irrigation of the plains,
beginning some twenty miles west of Phoenix.
The dam is projected to the height of 120 feet above the bed of the
stream. The width of the canyon is here 298 feet at the level of the sand,
but at top the dam will be 1160 feet long. Sections of the .two dam-sites
and profiles of the dams are shown in Fig. 105. Soundings have been
made over the greater portion of the channel width, and what is presumed
to be bed-rock has been found at depths of 9 to 15 feet, but for a space of
50 feet no bottom was found with 24-foot sounding-rods. As the greatest
depth to bed-rock at the diverting-dam below was but 40 feet, this depth has
been assumed for the maximum of the unexplored 50 feet at the upper site,
thus making the extreme height of the dam 160 feet. The reservoir to be
closed by this dam will be 5 miles in length, flooding an area of 3200
acres and impounding 108,000 acre-feet. With a dam of gravity profile,
with base of 124 feet and crest 8 feet wide, the volume of masonry required
is computed at 128,650 cubic yards.
MASONRT DAMS.
211
The enterprise, when completed, ia expected to fnniish vater for irrigat-
iDg 50,000 acres of superb valley land that is now an absolute desert. A
main canal baa been projected, S5 miles in length, with a capacity of
400 second-feet, and some 4 miles of the beavieet woik was completed
Saitd.Srart/aiH/Bouiaera
StcTKmoewm. SterioMortkMj.
Fig. 103.— Plan and Pbofilb of I'acoiha Dak.
from the dam down the left bank, to the point where the canal ia intended
to cross the river by a 700-foot fltime. This canal is 18 feet on bottom
and is to carry 8 feet depth of water, on a grade of 3.11 feet per mile. The
diversion-dam, upon which about #100,000 had been expended at the time
work was suspended in the fall of 1895, will have a top length of 640 feet,
a maximum height of 80 feet, a top width of 10 feet, and a base of 65 feet.
212
RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
When finished it will contain 17,200 cubic yards of masonry, and will have
cost in the neighborhood of $150,000.
The only apparent parpose of this dam was to save the construction of
a conduit, 1^ miles in length, in the canyon between the storage-dam proper
and the diver ting- weir. The storage-dam must be built before the scheme
is of any value, or before there is any water available for irrigation.
The reasons which led to this error in judgment were, first, a misappre-
hension as to the depth to bed-rock at the lower site. In fact, the dam was
begun without a sufficient knowledge of what a great undertaking it was to
be, and so much money had been expended before it was known or suspected
that the extreme depth finally reached was to be so great that it was then
/fycfrant
Fig. 104.— Measxtrino-box upkd by Maclat Rancho Water Company.
too late to abandon the work. The second reason was the confident expecta-
tion that the volume of underflow that would be brought to the surface of
the dam would reach from *' 500 to 1000 miner's inches," which, if real-
ized, would have enabled the projectors to use the canal at once in the rec-
lamation of the desert land entered under the United States Desert Land
Act before the main reservoir could be made available. This " underflow'^
development was, however, a sore disappointment, as the flow when finally
secured amounted to less than fifteen miner's inches, about what had been
predicted by the writer when consulted on the subject a year or more
before.
The cross-sectional area of the two channels in which the underflow was
passing beneath the surface is approximately as follows :
East Channel 504 square feet.
West " 2G35 *' *'
Total 3139 '' "
If the voids in the coarse sand with which these channels are filled could
be assumed to be 28j< of the entire area, which they are approximately, the
MASONRY DAMS,
213
rate of flow established by the discharge of 16 inches (0.3 second-foot)
would be precisely one mile per annum, a velocity whicli coincides with the
observations of several authorities on the rate of flow through sand of that
character. It may be noted in this connection that the volume of under-
flow in sandy rivers is generally vastly smaller than the popular conception
of it, and for this reason submerged dams for raising this underflow are
usually commercial failures, except where the material of the stream-bed is
a coarse gravel, with little or no fine sand intermingled.
630'-
Tftp Of nnished Mosonnf
Island
Surface ofriw^bed
Sectional Arm I9000 s^,ft.
Querry
Fig. 105.-0 IIOSB sections op AgUA FrTA DfVERTING-DAM and bTOUAGl^-ltBbAKVOIB
Dam, Auizona.
The masonry used in the diverting-dam is a rough rubble, faced with
coursed ashlar, mostly laid in a mortar of hydraulic lime of good quality,
burned about 20 miles from the dam. (See Figs. 106 and 107.) For a
portion of the work a small amount of Portland cement, made in Colton,
California, was used. The rock was handled by a Lidgerwood cableway,
with a span of 700 feet. The excavation of foundations, amounting to
about 12,000 cubic yards, was accomplished by teams and scrapers, the
water being handled by centrifugal pumps.
In October, 1895, a flood came which poured over the fresh masonry
for several hours to the depth of 8 feet, and finally carried away a section
100 feet long, 12 feet deep, near the west end. The partial failure of the
wall is accounted for by the fact that in laying the masonry each course was
leveled off smoothly with mortar, in the fashion to which brick-masons are
addicted in laying up house-walls. There was thus little bond between the
courses, which is so essential in dam-work. A view of the dam, taken from
214
EBSBRV0IR8 FOR IRRIOATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
the canal bank, is shown in Fig. 107, reproduced by permission from a
paper entitled ''Irrigation near Phoenix, Arizona," by Arthur P. Davis,
C.E., Hydrographer, U. S. Geological Survey, being No. 2 of the series of
** Water-supply and Irrigation Papers," from which some of the data for
the foregoing description are derived.
In addition to the Frog Tanks reservoir-site the company have a second
location, 8 miles higher up the river, where the gorge is but 262 feet wide
at the river-bed, in solid rock, and but 500 feet wide at a height of 200
feet. This basin is said to have a capacity of 150,000 acre-feet, with a dam
150 feet high. The watershed, which drains the east slopes of the Brad-
shaw Mountains, reaches summit elevations of 6000 to 8000 feet. A
reasonable estimate of rainfall and run-off from this shed is a precipitation
of 16 inches and an annual run-off of 15;^, which would yield 142,300 acre-
feet.
Storage-reservoirs for Water-Supply Along the Line of the Santa F6
Pacific Bailway in Arizona. — The northern portion of Arizona, traversed
by the Santa Fe Pacific Railway, is an elevated plateau draining into the
Colorado Canyon on the north, the Colorado Eiver on the west, and the
Verde, Salt, and Gila rivers on the south. This region has a maximum
elevation of over 7000 feet along the railway and receives a greater precip-
itation than the lower altitudes in the southern part of the territory, but it
is largely capped with volcanic lava and indurated ash, through which the
water from rain and melted snow rapidly sinks and disappears. Living
springs and streams are therefore infrequent, and the water-supply for rail-
way purposes is so unevenly distributed as to necessitate the impounding of
flood-waters in artificial reservoirs. This necessity is chiefly due to the
general absence, in the valleys of that region, of beds of coarse sand and
gravel, which constitute nature's storage-basins. The railway company, to
avoid hauling water from point to point over this section of the road, has
constructed several substantial dams for storage purposes at convenient
points near the line of the railway, all of an interesting character in their
construction from an engineering standpoint, although unimportant in the
volume of water stored compared with works located in more favorable
localities. These reservoirs are the following :
Locality.
Volume Stored.
Height
of
Pam.
Feet.
Character of I>am.
Elevation
Cubic Feet.
Aci-e-ft.
al)ove
Sea-level.
Kinfirnian
16
68
40
46
70.4
Masonry, submerged
Masonry
Steel
Masonry
Masonry
Seliirnian
30,651,000
4.950.000
14.700.000
20,798,000
703
113.6
338
488
5H84
Ash Fork
5445
7000
6282
AVilliams
Walnut Canyon
MA80XUT DAMS, 219
The Eiugman Submerged Dun. — About oue mile west of Eiagman the
railway compaDj have a well Buuk ia the gravelly bed of Eailrond Cauyon,
from which they pump water for filling their tank at Kingman to
supply the town, as well as the locomotives of the railway. To increase
thia supply and to furnish water by gravity to another tank 4 miles
below, a masonry dam was built on bed-rock to intercept the underflow, of
the stream and store wat«r in the gravel bed above the dam. The dam
consisted of a slender masonry wall, 2 feet thick at top, 6 feet thick at base,
and 16 feet high, crossing the canyon from side to side and reaching up
nearly to the BurfiKse of the stream-bed. A trench was excavated in a
straight line, the dam was built, and the gravel restored to its natural
position, so that floods pass over its top unobstructed. The dam is thus
entirely concealed from view. At the northerly end of the dam it was
Pio. 108.— BuBUERGED Storaqe- AND DivBRTiNO-DAH, HEAJt EiNOHAN. Arizona.
necessai-y to tunnel some distance under the railway in gravelly fonnation
in order to carry the masonry to the bed-rock wall of the canyon on that
side. Thia tunnel was made 12 feet wide, 20 feet high, and about 30 feet
long, the top of the tunnel being 16 feet below the rails. A 6-inch cast-
iron outlet^pipe is built through the dam 12 feet below the top, at one side.
Four feet above the dam an elbow is placed, upturned vertically, and an 8-
inch wrought-iron stand-pipe 10 feet long is inserted in the elbow. This
stand-pipe is perforated with |-incli holes, placed ^ inch apart, for straining
the water, the top being capped. The gravel reservoir is kept filled to the
top of the dam by the natural underflow, and thus the town well is sup-
plied and the lower tank automatically filled by gravity, the discharge
being controlled by a float No shortage of water has been experienced
since the dam was built in 1897. The dam is 173 feet long on top, and
contains 320 cubic yards of masonry. (See Fig. 108.)
The Seligman Dam.— This etrueture was begun June 25, 1897, and
completed Feb. 28, 1898. It is the largest and most expeusive of all the
structures of its class built by the railroad company. It is located three
miles southeast of the town of Seligman, an important division terminal
220 SB3ERV0IB3 FOR IRlUGAriON. WATSU POWER. E2V.
5104 feet above sea-level. The dimenBiouB of the dam &re as follows:
Length at base, 145 feet; leugth ob crest, 643 feet; height, 08 feet; thick-
neas at base, 47.7? feet; tbickoeas 3.1 ft. below the over How or 6.1 ft. below
the crest, 5.14 feet; thickness at top, 1.75 feet. It is arched up-streata
with a radius of 800 feet from the line of the water-face. The cubica
contents are 18,161.4 cubic yards, divided as follows:
Concrete in foimdatioQ 300 cubic yards.
liough rubble in core 13,843.4 '• "
Dressed ashlur 3,817.7 "
Coping aOU.3 " "
The work was done by contract, the railway company famishing the
cement and delivering the stone, sand, and cement on cars to the dam-site,
the contractor quarrying and loading the stone. The rubble aandstoue wns
Fis. 109. — Selioman Dah, Arizoka.
hauled 43 miles from Bock Bntte. on the S. F.. P. & P. R.R., the facing-
stonp WAR hanled 175 mil^ from Holbrook, and the sand 150 miles from
the Sacramento Wash. The contract prices were: $9 per yard for coping,
$6.50 per yard for facings, 14.02 for rubble, and $2.81 for concrete. The
total cost of the dam waa in excess of $150,000.
The character of the masonry is well shown by the photograph (Pig.
109) of the lower face during erection. Fig. 110 shows the water-face and
end buttresses. The water appearing in the foreground is retained by a
low earth dam that had been in use for some time prior to the construction
of the masonry dam. The center of the dam is depressed two feet below
MASONRY DAMB. 221
the crest for a difltence of 340 feet, and curved in the form of the segment
of & Tortical parabola for the overflow, which is the true form taken by
falling water pouring over a weir. The maximuin capacity of this spillway
ia 3400 second-feet, and as the watershed tributary to the dam is but 18
square miles, the capacity provided is doubtless greatly in excess of what
will ever be required.
The outlets to the reservoir consist of two 8-inch cast-iron pipes, placed
fi feet apart between centers, 64 feet below the crest of dam, on the north
side of the ravine, and one of similar size on the south side, used as a
waste. These pipes are connected with vertical stand-pipes, inside the
reservoir, standing 10 feet high and 6 feet from the face of the dam.
They arc of wrought iron, capped at top and perforated with §-inch holes,
bored I inch from center to center. They form the intake and serve to
strain the water, and keep out trash from the pipes. Gate-valves are
Fio. 110 — Seliqhas Dam, Akizoha. View of Upper Pace Dtmiuo ComfPTRCcTioN.
placetl in each pipe at the outside toe of the dam, and tlie pipes are reduced
below the valves to 6 inches in diameter, where one of them is connected
with the main pipe Hue leading to Seligman. The reservoir is 3000 feet
long, and covers an area of 25^ acres. Its maximum capacity is 30,651,000
cubic feet, or 703 acre-feet, of wliich one-third ia in the upper tan feet.
The average loss by evaporation from January to June inclusive was found
to be 0.03 foot per day, or an annual rate of 10.05 feet. This loss, applied
to tJie mean surface exposed, would amount to 15;^ per cent of the entire
volume in 809 days, assuming an average daily consum])tion of 16,000
cubic feet during that time. A full reservoir is therefore expected to
supply 120,000 gallons daily for 2J- years, after deducting evaporation.
The catchment is somewhat unreliable, and the reservoir did not receive any
water for the first two years after it was built. Fig. Ill illustrates the section
of the canyon and the profile of the dam. The fine appearance which the
immense mass of masonry presents inspires regret that it should be hidden
from public view from passing trains, although it is easily accessible to
those who care to step off at Seligman and inspect it.
222 SESEBVOIBS HOB IBSIOATION, WATSR-POWES. ETC.
The Aah Fork Steel Dam. — This structure is tho first one of its class that
has ever been erected, and lias so many novel features of an experimental
cliaracter that it is specially interesting and instructive to the engineering
profession. It was designed by F. H. Baiubridge, C.E., of Chicago, and
was erected in 1897 on Johnson Canyon, at a point 4.3 miles east of Ash
Fork, the jnnction of the Santa Fe Pacific with the Santa F^, Prescott and
PhffiQix Railroad. The dam is one mile south of the track of the foimer
road. Tho steel portion of the dam is 184 feet long, 46 feet maximum
height for 60 feet in center. This steel structure connects with masonry
walls at eacli end, which complete tlie dam across the gorge to a total length
of 300 feet on top. The steel structure consists of a series of twenty-four
triangular bents or frames, standing vertically on the lower side, with s
batter of 1 to 1 on the upper. These frames are composed of heavy I beams.
Fid. 111. — StcTtON AND Fkofiia OF Seuomak Daii. Aiuzuka.
with diagonal stmts and braces, resting on concrete foundations, and placed
8 feet apart, center to center, all well anchored into the bed-rock on the
concrete base, and braced laterally in pairs. The dimensions of the bents
vary with their height. The end bents are 12 to 21 feet in height, nine in
number; four of the bents are 33 feet high, and the remainder from 33 feet
to 41 feet 10 inches high. The batter-posts, to which the face-plates are
riveted, are of 20-iiich I beams, the longest being 66.5 feet. The face of
the dam is composed of curved plates of steel, f inch thick, 8' lOf" wide,
and 8 feet long, the concave side being placed towards the water. They
thus present the ajipearance of a series of troughs or channels between the
supports. The bent plates do not extend into the concrete at the base, but
the bottom course consists of flat plates, and the course next to the bottom
is dished in the form of a segment of a sphere, making the transition
between the curved and straight form. The edges of the plates are beveled.
for calking, and riveted together with soft iron rivets. The joint between
the steel and masonry stnictures at the ends is formed by embedding flat
plates into the concrete, the face of which has the same slope as the face of
MASONRY DAMS. 223
the steelwork. The abutments project 8 inches beyond the line of the face-
plates. The masonry- work consists of 342.6 cubic yards of rubble and
1087 cubic yards of concrete, and there was used in the work a total of
1751 barrels of Portland cement. The work was begun October 7, 1897,
and completed March 5, 1898, under the supervision of R. B. Burn?,
Chief Engineer, Santa Fe Pacific Eailway, Mr. W. D. Nicholson, Assistant
Engineer, being directly in charge.
The dam is designed to carry flood-water over the top of the stee}
structure. The steel plates are carried over the top of the frame, forming a
rounded apron to carry the overfall beyond the line of posts. This apron,
connecting with the curved inner plates, forms a series of trough-like
cliannels between posts, 1.3 feet deep at center. The abutment wall at the
east end of the dam is 2 feet higher than the bottom of the spillway chan-
nels, and that at the west end is nearly 8 feet higher. The rock at the
dam-site is volcanic in origin, very hard on the surface where exposed, but
containing occasional pockets of ashes or cinders, and badly broken by seams.
The rock excavated for foundations was used for concrete and rubble
masonry. The concrete was mixed in the proportion of 1 of Portland
cement to 3 of sand and 5 of broken stone. The outlets consist of two
C-inch cast-iron pipes placed 6 feet apart, with perforated stand-pipes, 10
feet high, inside the reservoir, similar to those at the Seligman dam. The
pipes are embedded in the concrete 28 feet below the top of the dam, and
reduced to 4" diameter at a point 16 feet below the gates that are placed at
the toe of the masonry. The fall in the pipe-line, 4.3 miles long, is 200
feet from base of dam to the top of the water-tank at Ash Fork.
The reservoir has a capacity of 37,023,000 gallons, or 4,950,000 cubic
feet, and receives the drainage from 26 square miles of watershed. The
average consumption is estimated at 90,000 gallons per day, or three-fourths
that of Seligman. The loss by evaporation is expected to be 40^ to 50^ of
the total supply, but, inasmuch as it will receive water from summer rains
as well as from melting snows, it is anticipated that the supply will be main-
tained equal to the ordinary demand.
It cannot be said that this experimental steel dam, the first of its class
that has been erected, is entirely successful, and it is doubtful if the com-
pany, with the experience already had in two years of service, would care
to repeat it or recommend that class of construction in lieu of something
more substantial and permanent. It has been found difficult, and in fact
impossible, to make a tight joint between the steel and masonry work. The
structure leaks quite badly at both ends. The water also follows down the
face-plates on the up-stream side and comes out on the down-stream side,
notwithstanding that concrete has been rammed in on both sides of the
plates for a distance of 5 feet.
The total weight of steel in the structure is 478,704 lbs., which was
224 EBSERV0IR8 FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC,
framed and erected by the Wisconsin Bridge and Iron Company at a cost of
(55.78 per ton of 2000 lbs. The detailed cost of the entire dam is given
as follows:
MATERIAL.
Lumber, etc., in buildings 1659.94
Explosives and tools used in excavating 937.20
Corrugated iron and nails in facing 181.02
Hubble stone 155.25
Paint and oil for painting dam 213.49
Cement, 1926 barrels 6,774.92
Steel in dam, erected 13,351.05
Fencing for reservoir 409.26
Total material *21,C82.13
LABOR.
Spur-track $15.00
Building camp 272.75
Hauling material 3,378. 10
Excavating and laying masonry 15,440.36
Engineering and superintendence 3,102.83
Plans and tests of metal 233.63
Freight on metal 1,651.30
Total labor 24,003.97
Total cost of dam complete. , 145,776.10
The pipe-line to Ash Fork cost 15,978.70
Figs. 112 and 113 give an excellent general idea of the construction.
Fig. 114 shows a portion of the reservoir, and represents clearly the igneous
rock formation of the canyon in which it is located.
The Williams Dam. — The first of the series of dams for storage erected
by the railway company was constructed near the town of Williams in 1894.
It has an extreme height of 46 feet, is 385 feet long on the crest, 50 feet
long at the base, where its thickness is 32 feet. The thickness at top is
4 feet. It is arched up-stream with a radius of 573 feet from the line of
the vertical water-face. The dam contains 5226 yards of masonry, and
consumed 3640 barrels of cement in construction. Its cost was $52,838*
The dam has been a serviceable structure. The capacity of the reservoir is
110,000,000 gallons. The watershed area is not definitely known, but is
Bmall.
MABONUr DAMS. 225
Th« Walnut Cannon Sam. — Walnut Canyon is a tributary of the Little
Colorado Kivor, which heads in Mormon Mt. a little south and east ot
Flagstaff. Tlie watershed area above the dam is 12ii square miles, which
Fia, 113.— Abb Fokk, Arizona, Stekl Dam, View op Steel Constbcction
FROM Lower ISide.
ordinarily affords a much greater run-off than the storage capacity oC the
reaervoir. The geological formation of the canyon walls at the dum-sitc is
sandstone in heavy layers or strata in nearly level beds. The bottom of the
Fio. 113.— Ash Fork, Stbel Dam. Showing Fraue rbidt to obceivb Plates
canyon was so filled with debris of earth and stone that it was necessary to
excavate 28 feet below the surface to reach bed-rock, on which the dam waa
erected. The width at this point was hut 30 feet, at the surface of stream-
bed 130 feet, and at the top of the dam 268 feet. The extreme height of
226 RSSBRYOim FOR IBBWATION. WATEB-POWER, ETC.
the dam is 77.6 feet. Ita thickness at base is 61.5 feet. The water-face is
vertical, while the upper face has a butter of 7^ inches to the foot botween
the vertical curves at top and toe. The top is rounded in parabolic form
to a thickness of 13 feet at a point 10.4 feet below the crest, to form an
easy overdow for surplus waste water, while at the base the wall is vertical
for 10 feet, above which is a vertical curve, tangential to the horizon, pass-
ing through 58° of arc, to a point 46.4 feet below the top, where the thick-
ness is 35.5 feet. This design forms an exceedingly massive structure witli
unusually large factor of safety. The dam is arched up-stream with a radius
F|o. 114.— Abh Fork Heservoih.
of 400 feet to the line of the water-face. The masonry consisfs of 5244
cubic yanls of heart nibble, 1572 cubic yards of facing ashlar masonry in
irregular courses, with dressed beds, and 80 cnhic yards of cut coping-stone—
a total of 698C cubic yards. There were GOTO barrels of Portland cement
used in construction. The toial cost, exclusive of excavation, was about
*55,000. The stone used was quarried at the dam-site and was of good
quality.
The outlets consist of '.wo 10-inch cast-iron pipes, placwl 6 foot apart, at
an elevation of 30.4 feet below the top of the dam, 10 feet al)ove the stream-
bed. Vertical strainer -pi pes, 10 feet high, are placed over the upper ends
of the outlets in the reservoir, 6 feet from the face of the dam. Outside,
the pipes are controlled by 10-inch Ludlow gates, and are reduced to 8
inches liameter below the gates. The main pipe-lint from the dam follows
the canyon for 4,J miles to the railroad crossing, and thence follows the truck
easterly 12 miles further to a tank.
Fig. 115 is a view of the dam from below when nearly compleicd. Fig.
116 shows the profile of the dam as constructed, and a section of the canyon
at the dam-site.
MASOJS'BT DAMS. 227
The reservoir was filled for the first time on the 8th of March, 1898, and
if it had been water-tight should have supplied an estimated consumption of
60,000 gallons daily for more thaii two years, allowing for a daily evapora-
Fio. 11.''.— Walnut Castos Dam, Akizuna.
tion loss of 0.03 foot. The water, however, disappeared very rapidly, and
by September 20th was all gone, having lasted but 196 days instead of the
estimated 356 days. The draft for consumption on the road was not greater
than had been assumed in the original calculation, and the excessive loss
could only be accounted for by percolation through the sandstone or through
the seams separating the underlying limestone from the sandstone. It is
hoped that the reservoir will ultimately puddle itself and become tight, and
228 RESBRVOIBS FOB IRIUGATION. WATER-POWBR. ETC.
efforta are being made to assist tlie proceBs by plowing and loosening clay
soil at points above. It is unfortunate that the usefulness of such a line
Btructure should be curtailed by this unexpected leakage in the walla of the
reservoir, but it is possible that the loss of water may gradually lessen and
finally cease. This experience illustrates, however, one of the vicissitudes
attending the impounding of water. Under the most favorable condiiions
the annual loss by evaporation on this reservoir would be nearly 35^ of the
volume of storage capacity. Ko mn-ofE was caught during the summer of
1899, and in the latter part of August it was still dry. The entire series of
reservoir dams have been constructed under the supervision of Mr. R. B.
Burns, Chief Engineer, Santa Fe Pacific Railway, to whom the writer is
indebted for the data coucernlug the works and the views which illustrate
them.
Lynx Creek Dam, Arizona. — This structure was located 13 miles east of
Prescott, Arizona, and was designed to impound water for hydraulic mining
on Lynx Creek, some 4 miles below. It was intended for an ultimate height
of 50 feet, and was started with a base of 28 feet. When it had reached
a height of 28 feet on the np-stream side, the lower edge of the crest being
2 feet higher, it was roughly squared off with the intention of adding the
remaining portion at a later date, when a sudden flood overtopped the dam
and ruptured it, taking out about 35 feet of the masonry down to the bed-
rock. The break is shown by the view, Fig. 117, looking up-stream. It
occurred in 1891, and the dam has never been rebuilt. The dimensions of
the dam were ample to withstand any overflow to be expected from tlie
MASOSRT DAMS. 229
floods drainiDg the tributary waterehed of 30 square miles of territory, from
6500 to 7500 feet in elevation, had the masonry been of reasonably good
quality. The failure, therefore, was clearly due to poor workmanship and
unsuitable materials. The dam was 150 feet long on crest, and was built
with a central angle of about 165° opposed to the direction of the current,
the up-stream face being vertical. The wall consisted of a thin facing of
hand-laid masonry, not over one foot thick, the core being filled with a weak
concrete of fine gravel, stone, spawle, and sand. The section of the dam as
constructed is clearly seen from the photograph (Fig. 118). Considerable
Fio. lis. — Lynx Creek Dau, Arizona. Skction showinu Faciho Walls ahd
CONCRBTK H&ARTINO.
lime was used with the cement, which was of poor quality, and the concrete,
though ten years old, possesses so little cohesion that it may be crumbled
with a light touch. The cement used averaged but 1 barrel to 6 cubic
yards of masonry. The failure of the dnm, under all the circumstances.
might have been anticipated. It is referred to here merely as an example
to illustrate the natural consequences that must follow any carelessness or
lack of attention to proper selection of materials and skill of construction
in masonry or concrete dams that must withstand the erosive action of
floods as well as normal water-pressure.
Concrete Dams of Portland, Oregon. — Among recent constructions of
concrete masonry three dams designed and erected by the writer for the
water-works of Portland, Oregon, in 1894, may be classed as worthy of note.
They were built for the purpose of forming distributing reservoirs, and were
located across natural ravines, or embayments in the hills, the reservoir space
being largely augmented by excavation, and the slopes covered with a lining
230 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC,
of concrete. One of these dams, shown in Fig. 119, closes reservoir No. 1
on the side of Mount Tabor, and is 35 feet high, 300 feet long, with a base
of 18 feet and top width of 6 feet. The reservoir capacity is 12,000,000
gallons. Behind the dam the material excavated from the reservoir was
placed, forming a heavy embankment whose top width is 100 feet. This is
such an immovable barrier that the chief function of the concrete wall is to
act as a retaining-wall for the inner slope of the earth-fill, and to form a
part of the reservoir lining. The reseiToir receives the water delivered by a
steel-pipe line 24 miles long, amounting at maximum capacity to 22,400,000
gallons daily, and distributes it to three other reservoirs, one of which is but
2000 feet distant, shown in the photograph Fig. 121, and the other two are
five miles away, across the Willamette Kiver, and designated as reservoirs 3
and 4 (Fig. 120). Reservoir No. 3, high service, has a dam 200 feet long which
is arched up-stream with a radius of 300 feet. Its height is 60 feet, base 40
feet, top width 15.5 feet, carrying on its crest a driveway of the City Park, in
which it is located. This is the only dam of the three which is curved, and
the only one which does not exhibit some slight expansion-cracks. The dam
forming reservoir No. 4, low service, is 50 feet high, 350 feet long, and 40
ieet wide at base. The faces of these two dams, both of which are in the
City Park, are moulded and chiseled to resemble stone, and considerable
ornamentation has been done on the parapets and about the gate-houses, as
shown in Fig. 120, to which the concrete and iron construction lends itself
to good advantage. It is needless to add that the dams of the dimensions
given are of safe gravity profile, with ample factors of safety.
Basin Creek Dam, Montana. — This dam was built in 1893-95 to impound
water for a portion of the domestic supply of the city of Butte, Montana,
and is located 13 miles south of the city, on Basin Creek. It was designed
by Chester B. Davis, M. Am. Soc. C. E., and constructed under direction
of Eugene Carroll, C.E., Chief Engineer. The construction was described
in Engineering Neios, December 17, 1892, Aug. 7, 1893, and Sept. 5, 1895,
in communications prepared by these engineers, from which the following
data have been taken. The dam is constructed of large stone, with spaces
thoroughly filled with concrete, made of crushed granite 3 parts, sand 3
parts, and Yankton Portland cement 1 part. It was designed for an
ultimate height of 120 feet above the lowest foundation, assumed to be at
elevation 5780 feet above sea-level, or 30 feet below stream-bed, and was
curved up-stream with a radius of 350 feet from its water-face. The thick-
ness at base was to be 83 feet, and at top 10 feet ; up-stream face vertical.
At full height it. would impound about 1,000,000,000 gallons (3069 acre-
feet), covering' an area of 130 acres to a mean depth of 23.6 feet. The dam
was not completed higher than to the 5860-foot contour, or 40 feet below
the projected crest, although its actual maximum height is 88 feet, of
which 28 feet is below the stream-bed level, and it now can impound
MASONItr DAMS. 235
200,000,000 gallona. The contents of the dam are 11,500 cnbic yards of
masonry. Its top length ia 259 feet. Three 20-inch pipes are laid through
tlio dam at its center, at the creek-bed level, two of which are nsed for blow-
off. These pipes are controlled by plain cover-valves, resting on upturned
elbows inside the dam, and raised by a windlass from the top. Gate-valves
on the pipes below the dam give aecondary control.
The materials of construction were hauled by a Lidgerwood cableway,
with a clear spaa of 893 feet, the main cable being 2^ inches diameter, siu-
Pia. 121.— Rkber VOIR No. 2, Portland, Oregon, showing AERATiiia PoDNTAUt
123 VEET HIGH.
pended 60 feet higher than the 120-foot crest-line. This cableway crossed
over the quarry, and was stretched on the chord of the inner face of the
dam. Tlie loads were swung either side of this line by using a single horse
pulling from a rope attached to the load and leading back over a sheave to
a snubbing- post. The limited space made the use of derricks for this
purpose inconvenient. For a distance of 9 miles from tlie dam the main
conduit to the city consists of a wooden-stave pipe, 34 inches in diameter,
built by tlio Excelsior Wood-stave Pipe Co. of San Francisco, of which
Mr, D. C. Henny is manager and engineer.
A Dam under 640-foot Head.— A curiosity in the line of masonry dams
is the one bnilt in tho Curry mine, at Norway, Michigan, to close a drift
6 feet wide, Tt feet high, and thereby cut off a troublesome stream of water.
It was built of sandstone, arched against the direction of the pressure, with
a thickness of 10 feet, and laid in II il ton-cement mortar, in the proportion
236 RESERVOIRS FOR JRRIQATION, WATER-POWER. ETC.
of 1 to 2 of sand. The dam (Fig. 122) is nearly 800 feet below the surface,
aud when the water fills behind it is subjected to a pressure of 277 lbs. to
the square inch, equal to a etatic head of 640 feet, or a total pressure
against the dam of over 800 tons. The dam was designed and built by
Wm. Kelly, M. Am. Inst. M. £., and doubtless affords the moBt extraordi-
Ungltudinal S«<;tl«n.
Pig. 122.— HASONitT Daii unber 640-rooT Head, the Gn&ATEer Recobp&d
■\VATER-rnE8SDRE ON Masonrv.
uary precedent on recoi'd of masonry under such estremely high pressure.
It was made practically water-tight by building a brick wall, 22 inches
thick, 26 inches above the face of the dam, filling the intermediate space
with concrete, and placing a quantity of horse-manure against the brick- -
work, which was held in position by a plank partition or bulkhead. When
finally tested the leakage was but 7 gallons per minute. The dam cost
»i84.27. (&ee, Engineering Neios,~DiiC. 10, 1397.)
New Cioton Dam, Few York. — The great dam in process of erection
for increasing the water-supply of New York City will, when completed, be
MASONRY DAMS. 287
the highest as well as the most costly dam in America. It will consist of a
central masonry dam 730 feet long, 290 feet maximum height; a masonry
overflow-weir about 1000 feet long, extending up-stream from the north
end of the masonry dam ; and an earthen dam with a masonry core- wall,
about 440 feet long, continuing the masonry dam to the south side of the
valley. The three sections of the dam, including the weir and core-wall,
will thus form a continuous masonry wall across the valley, which will be
about 1300 feet long on top. The masonry dam proper will have a base
width of 185 feet and crest width of 18 feet, exclusive of the parapets pro-
tecting the roadway. The extreme height of the dam above the original
stream-bed is to be 163 feet. The crest is to be 14 feet higher than the lip
of the overflow- weir, and the top of the earth dam is to be 10 feet higher
than the masonry. The contract for construction of the dam was let to
Jas. S. Coleman, Aug. 31, 1892, for $4,152,573, of which $2,876,000 had
been expended for work done to January 1, 1899. The ultimate cost will
largely exceed the contract price, on account of a great increase of depth
beyond the original expectations. The stone is handled by three lines of
cableway with spans of 1200 feet between supports, and by 30 steam-
derricks located on the dam. It is quarried 1^ miles distant and brought
to the work by a narrow-gauge railway, on which 7 locomotives and 83 flat-
cars are employed. Thirteen derricks with independent steam hoisting-
engines are used in the quarry. The volume of water pumped from the
excavations to and into the bed-rock has not exceeded 5,000,000 gallons
daily. This volume, compared with the approximate area of the cross-
section of the valley from bed-rock up to the level of the river-bed, indi-
cates a maximum movement of the subterranean water down the valley at
the rate of about 2^ miles per annum, assuming that none of the water
pumped was returning to the pit from the lower side. The watershed area
above the dam is 360.4 square miles. The reservoir when full will sub-
merge an area of 3360 acres. The plans for the dam were designed by
Alphonse Fteley, Chief Engineer of the Aqueduct Commission. Construc-
tion is under the immediate charge of Charles S. Gowen, Division Engineer,
and B. S. Value, Assistant Engineer.
The original estimate of the volume of masonry of all kinds required in
the dam was about 679,000 cubic yards, of which the greater portion, or
470,000 yards, was to be rough rubble laid in American (natural) cement
mortar, the remainder to be laid with artificial Portland cement.
The Titicns Dam, New Tork. — This structure is a part of the system of
storage for the supply of New York City, and was built in 1890 to 1895, at
a cost of $933,065. It resembles the New Croton Dam in general design,
in that it is a combination of masonry and earth, the higher portion in the
center of the valley consisting of masonry, flanked on either side by earthen
embankments, provided with a central core-wall of masonry. The main
238 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
masonry dam is 135 feet high above foandation, 109 feet high above original
surface, 75.2 feet thick at the level of the stream-bed, 20.7 feet thick at top,
and 534 feet long. The earthen dams are 732 and 253 feet long, respectively,
the total length of dam being 1519 feet. A waste-weir, 200 feet long, built
in steps on the lower side, is carried over a portion of the main masonry
dam. The masonry consists of rough rubble, faced on either side with cut
stone, laid in regular courses. The earthen dam is 9 feet higher than the
crest of the spillway. It is 30 feet wide on top, with slopes of 2^ to 1.
The core-wall is of rubble masonry, 6 feet on top and 17 feet thick at a
depth of 98 feet. It reaches to a maximum height of 124 feet above base.
The greatest depth of water is 105 feet. The dam was planned by A.
Fteley, Chief Engineer, and construction was originally in charge of Charles
S. Gowen, who was subsequently succeeded by Alfred Craven as Division
Engineer, and M. S. Sidgway, Assistant Engineer.
The Sodom Dam, Hew York. — This is a purely masonry structure, built
across the east branch of the Croton Eiver in 1888-93, by the Aqueduct
Commission of New York, and, in connection with the Bog Brook dams 1
and 2, forms what is known as ** Double Reservoir 1.'* The reservoirs were
connected by a tunnel, 1788 feet long, by which the surplus water from the
Sodom dam is made to supply the other reservoir, whose watershed was but
3.5 square miles, while that tributary to the Sodom reservoir was 73.4 square
miles. The tunnel thus equalizes the supply from the two watersheds. The
combined storage capacity of the two reservoirs is about 9,500,000,000 gal-
lons. The Sodom dam is 500 feet long on top, 98 feet high above founda-
tion, 78 feet above stream-bed, and the masonry has a bottom thickness of
53 feet, and is 12 feet wide at top. It contains 35,887 cubic yards of rubble
masonry, chiefly laid in Portland-cement mortar, mixed 2 to 1 and 3 to 1.
A continuation of the masonry dam is carried along the crest of the ridge,
nearly at right angles to the wall, in the form of an earthen embankment, 9
feet high, 600 feet long. In extension of this bank is a masonry overflow, 8
feet high, 500 feet long.
The cost of the dam was $366,490. It was planned by Chief Engineer
Fteley, and constructed by Geo. B. Burbank, Division Engineer, and Walter
McCuUoh, Assistant, later Division Engineer. An interesting account of
the dam is to be found in a paper prepared for the American Society of Civil
Engineers in March, 1893, by Mr. McCulloh, from which it appears to be
one of the few masonry dams that were quite water-tight from the first filling
of the reservoir, although "sweating" appears at several points on the lower
face. The dam was built by the aid of a 2-inch cableway, stretched along
its axis, with a span of 667 feet between towers. The Sodom reservoir
covers an area of 574.9 acres and impounds 4,883,000,000 gallons. The
Bog Brook reservoir, with which it is connected, floods a surface area of
410.4 acres. The Bog Brook dams are of earth with masonry core. Dam
MASONRY DAMS. 239
Nor. 1 is 60 feet high and holds 54 feet mazimum depth of water. It is 25
feet wide on top. The core- wall is 10 feet thick at base, 6 feet at top. Dam
No. 2 is 25 feet high. The cost of the two dams was $510,430.
The Boyd's Corner Dam, Hew York. — In 1866 the Croton Aqueduct
Board of New York began a masonry dam near Boyd's Cornere, on the west
branch of Croton River, which was completed in 1872. The dam contains
27,000 cubic yards of masonry, of which 21,000 yards are concrete hearting
and 6000 yards are cut-stone facings. The dam has a maximum height of
78 feet, is 670 feet long on top, 200 feet long at level of stream-bed, 63.6
feet thick at base, 8.6 feet at top. The base is laid with a batter of ^ to 1
on each side to the original stream-level, 60 feet below the crest, where an
offset of 1.5 feet was made on each side, and the dam was then carried up
vertically on the water-face, and given a batter of 0.4 to 1 on the lower side.
The reservoir covers 279 acres and impounds 2,722,700,000 gallons of
water.
The Indian Kiver Dam, Hew York.— This important structure was
erected in 1898 for increasing the size of Indian Lake and thus store water
to supply the Champlain Canal, to add to the water-power, and to improve
the navigation of Hudson River. It is located in Hamilton County in the
northern part of New York State, on a tributary of the Hudson, at an
elevation of 1655 feet at the high-water line. The dam is a combination
masonry and earth structure, straight in plan, the masonry portion being
47 feet in extreme height, having a base width of 33 feet, a thickness on
crest of 7 feet, and a total length of 207 feet. The earth embankment is
a continuation of the masonry, 200 feet long, 15 feet wide on top, with
inner slopes of 2^ to 1, paved with 12 inches of stone riprap. The outer
slope is 2 to 1. Through the center is a core- wall of masonry, 4 feet thick
at base, 2 feet at top, reaching to within 2 feet of the crest of the embank-
ment. The end of the embankment next the dam is supported on the
down-stream side by a masonry spur-wall at right angles to the dam. The
embankment rests on hard-pan, into which the core-wall is carried down
uniformly 4 feet thick to depths of 8 to 20 feet, filling the trench cut
for it.
On the opposite or west end of the dam a spillway was excavated in
granite, having an effective length of 106.5 feet and a depth of 6 feet, to
the bottom of the floor-stringers of the foot-bridge which spans it and
which rests on five masonry piers. The capacity of discharge is estimated at
5000 second-feet. The coping is made of large, selected stones firmly
doweled to the masonry. A logway, 15 feet wide, whose crest is 17 feet
below the top of the dam, is provided through the masonry. It is closed
with 45 wooden needles, 4" X 8", 20 feet long, which are handled by block
and tackle. The outlets to the reservoir consist of two 50-inch steel pipes,
controlled by Eddy flume-gates, and having a discharging capacity of 1500
second-feet with full reservoir. The gates are inside of a tower, on the
240 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
exterior of which are auxiliary sluice-gates of wood^ raised by screws. > A
6-inch by-pass pipe enters the tower from the reservoir, by which the tower
is filled and the pressure relieved from the wooden gates, so that they can
be readily raised.
The total actual cost of the work, including $13,000 for clearing, was
$83,555, the contract price being $92,000. Under the most favorable con-
ditions the cost per cubic yard for the masonry was as follows :
Cement $2.00
Sand 15
Quarrying stone 35
Labor of laying masonry 53
Labor of pointing masonry 15
Labor of mixing mortar, concrete, and crushing 20
General expenses, superintendence, etc 27
Total $3.65
The cement used was made at Glenn's Falls, N. Y., of the "Ironclad*'
brand of artificial Portland.
The reservoir formed by the dam has a storage capacity of 4,468,000,000
cubic feet, or 102,548 acre-feet, and floods an area of 5035 acres. The
original lake covered 1000 acres, and the new dam raised the mean surface
of the lake 33 to 34 feet. The tributary drainage-area above the dam is
146 square miles, the run-off from which can be safely estimated to fill the
reservoir every year.
The dam was built for the Forest Preserve Board of New York State by
the Indian Eiver Company. It was planned by Geo. W. Rafter, M. Am.
Soc. C. E., and consttncted under his supervision by Wallace Greenalch,
Jun. Am. Soc. C. E., as Assistant Engineer.
For further details of this interesting work the reader is referred to Eft-
gineering News of May 18, 1899, containing descriptive illustrated papers on
the subject by Messrs. Saf ter and Greenalch.
Cornell TTniversity Dam, Hew York. — In 1897 an overflow masonry dam
was built across Fall Creek near Ithaca, N. Y., as a portion of the hydraulic
laboratory plant of Cornell University. It is curved in plan on a radius of
166.5 feet, and is 153 feet long on top, with a maximum height of 30 feet,
and a gravity section, vertical up-stream, and stepped on the lower face. It
is located at the head of Triphammer Falls, in a picturesque gorge, cut
deeply into the shale formation of that region, where the total fall is about
400 feet in a mile. The stream drains a watershed of 117 square miles, on
which the mean precipitation from 1880 to 1897 was 35.22 inches. The
mean flow is about 175 second-feet, ranging from a minimum of 12 to a
maximum of 4800 second-feet. In times of flood the water discharges over
the crest of the dam and over a natural spillway ledge at one end of the
dam, a total width of 267.5 feet, made up of 134.5 feet on the dam and 133
feet on the natural spillway.
MASONRT DAMS. 241
The dam is of gravity section^ and made of concrete, composed of four
parts of hard, clean, argillaceous shale, two parts of sand, and one part of
" Improved cement/' The *' Improved cemenf is a mixture of Eosendale
and artificial Portland in the proportion of weight of 3 to 1, ground together
in the clinker state, and costing one-half the cost of pure Portland cement.
One of the interesting and unusual features of the construction of this
dam was the provision made for concentrating the contraction due to tem-
perature changes in the concrete to a central point of weakness. This was
done by leaving a 5-f t. circular opening through the dam during construc-
tion, connecting with which was an open well extending up through the
heart of the dam to its crest. At this point the section was thus reduced
to 60;^ of the normal, and shortly after completion the wall cracked for one-
half its height down through the well. During unusually cold weather,
when the crack was widest, the opening through the dam and the well were
filled with concrete, and the contraction-crack was thus effectually closed.
The dam and other works connected with the entire plant designated as
the hydraulic laboratory were designed by Prof. E. A. Fuertes, M. Am.
Soc. C. E., Director of the College of Civil Engineering. Construction
was in charge of Mr. Elon H. Hooker, Resident Engineer. Mr. Ira A.
Shaler, M. Am. Soc. C. E., was contractor for the work. A full descrip-
tion of the laboratory is given in Engineering News^ March 2, 1899.
The Bridgeport Dam, Connecticut. — The town of Bridgeport, Conn.,
having a population in 1890 of 48,890, is supplied by a number of storage-
reservoirs, one of which is formed by a masonry dam across Mill River, built
in 1886. Its general dimensions are as follows :
Maximum height 42.5 feet.
Bottom thickness 32.0 **
Top thickness 8.0 -^
Length at crest 640
Length at base 50
The structure is composed of rubble masonry built of gneiss rock laid in
a mortar of Rosendale cement and sand in the proportion of 1 to 2. The
lower face of the dam is built in steps. The outlet from the gate-chamber
is a 30-inch cast-iron pipe, controlled by a gate-valve in the chamber. The
latter structure is built against the dam, is 10 X 16 feet inside, in two com-
partments, between which a fish-screen is placed. Three 30-inch openings,
at different levels, controlled by gates, lead from the reservoir to the outer
compartment. The spillway, at one end of the dam, is 80 feet long, 5 feet
deep. The reservoir covers 60 acres and has a capacity of 240,000,000 gal-
lons (737 acre-feet). The dam has leaked so much as to require an earth
backing.*
'* The Design and Construction of Dams/' by Edward Wegmann, p. 85.
242 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC. .
The Wign'^am Dam, Connecticut. — The city of Waterbury, Conn. (pop.
28,646 in 1890), constructed a masonry dam in 1893-94 to store water in a
reservoir located on West Mountain Brook and receiving the drainage from 18
square miles of watershed. The dam was designed and built by Robt. A
Cairns, City Engineer. It was planned for an ultimate height of 90 feet, at
which its full length on top will be 600 feet, and it was completed with full
section to within 15 feet of the ultimate crest, and there stopped, as the
storage at that level was sufficient for present needs. The base thickness is
63.08 feet, and it is 12 feet thick on the crest. The cubic contents of the
completed portion are 14,887 cubic yards, of which 5754 yards are laid in
Eosendale cement, and the remainder in American Portland cement mortar.
The cost has been $150,000. The present capacity of reservoir is
335,000,000 gallons (1028 acre-feet), which will be increased to 714,000,000
gallons when the dam is completed. A temporary wasteway, 82 feet long,
2 feet deep, has been made at one end of the dam, which is of insufficient
capacity. The completed dam will have a wasteway 100 feet long over a
rocky ridge some distance away, and another 78 feet long at the dam. An
earth embankment is required to close a gap in the reservoir, as an auxiliary
to the masonry dam. This will be 35 feet high when finished, but is built
only to a height of 20 feet.
The Austin Dam, Texas. — The city of Austin, Texas, the capital of the
State, with a population of about 25,000 inhabitants, has erected one of
the most notable masonry dams of the United States, across the Colorado
Kiver, 2^ miles above the city, for power-development purposes. The dam.
Fig. 123, was built in 1891-92. It was designed by Mr. Jos. P. Frizell,
M. Am. Soc. C. E. of Boston, and about two- thirds completed by him. He
was succeeded by Mr. J. T. Fanning. The dam proper is 1091 feet long
between bulkheads and 68 feet high. It is vertical on the up-stream face,
while the down-stream face is inclined at a batter of 3 in 8, terminating in
a vertical curve of 31 feet radius, while the crest is rounded on a radius
of 20 feet on lower side, forming an ogee curve that has the general shape
of the trajectory of falling water.
Mr. Frizell's original design contemplated a flat top for the purpose of
facilitating the erection on the crest of a series of movable flashboards,
or some other form of falling dam, that could be lowered in flood-time, but
would permit of increased storage during low seasons, and the development
of a more uniform volume of power at low and high water.
The power is used for pumping water for city supply, for electric
lighting, propulsion of street cars, and general manufacturing. Its volume
is estimated at 14,636 horse-power for 60 working hours weekly.
The dam is straight in plan, and contains about 88,000 cubic yards of
masonry, of which 70,000 yards arc of rough rubble, made of the limestone
quarried near the site, and 18,000 yards are of cut-stone range-work, in
XA80NBT DAMS. 245
which Bnmett County blue grauite was used, brought a distance of 80 miles.
The entire work was done by contract, at a cost of $11 to %\5 per yard for
the cut-stone masonry, and t3.60 to 14.10 per yard for the rubble, the
larger sum being for work in which Portland cement was required. The
cost of the dam and head-gate masonry was $608,000, and the entire
expenditure, including dam, power-house, reservoir and distributing sys-
tem, lighting-plMit, etc., was $1,400,000, for which amount the city voted
its bonds May 5, 1890.
The dam is founded on limestone rock throughout, the river here
flowing through a gorge with cliffs rising from 70 to 125 feet in height
above the river. Lidgerwood cableways were employed in placing the stone
and for hauling all materials.
The Colorado River at Austin drains an area of 40,000 square miles,
from which the discharge has a range of from 200 to 250,000 second-feet.
The reservoir formed hy the dam is very long and narrow, extending
hack 19 to 33 miles up the river and having an average width of but 800
feet. Its surface area is 1836 acres, and the capacity at the time the dam
was finished was 53,490 acre-feet, the mean depth being 29.1 feet, or 42.5%
246 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
of the maximum. The dam was completed in May, 1893, and the water
first overflowed the crest of the dam on the 16th of that month.
Four years subsequently, in May, 1897, Prof. Thomas U. Taylor, of the
University of Texas at Austin, made accurate soundings of the lake tot
determine the volume of silt which had accumulated in four years, and
ascertained that the deposit amounted to 968,000,000 cubic feet (22,227
acre-feet), or 41.54% of the original capacity. The greatest depth of fill
was at the dam, 23 feet; three miles above it was 16.5 feet deep at the
maximum; seven miles above, 20 feet; 9.3 miles above, 21.3 feet; 14.6
miles above, 15.3 feet; 15.9 miles above, Q.Q feet. To this point the filling
was composed of mud. Above this distance the deposit was mostly sand.
Considering the total volume of water which must have passed through
the reservoir during the four years, the percentage of silt deposited seems
very small, and the result is not such as to discourage the construction of
reservoirs on streams where the ratio between run-off and storage capacity
is less disproportionate. There are no definite data availal)le of the total
discharge of the river, but assuming it to have been about 50 acre-feet
annually per square mile of watershed, which is a reasonable assumption
for streams of that class (the run-off of New York and New England
streams is from 700 to 2000 acre-feet per square mile, while that of the
Eio Grande and Gila rivers is 25 to 35 acre-feet per square mile), the total
volume of water discharged in the four years must have been approximately
8,000,000 acre-feet, or about 160 times the reservoir capacity. The rela-
tion of the silt deposited to total run-off would be in the ratio of about
one-fourth of one per cent of this volume, or 2770 cubic feet per million.
The river Po,* as determined by M. Tadini, carried as the mean of four
months 3333 cubic feet per million: the river Ganges, 980 as the mean of
12 months, and in flood 12,300; the Mississippi, 291 to 1893; the river
Indus, in flood 2100. A stream of the size and character of the Colorado
Biver of Texas, to be utilized for irrigation should have a reservoir of
one to two million acre-feet capacity, to be in proper proportion to the
volume of run-off and amount of silt carried, and maintain a sufficiently
long period of usefulness to be profitable. Such a reservoir would probably
not be filled with silt short of 400 to 500 years.
Failure of the Austin Dam. — On the 7th of April, 1900, a severe flood
in the Colorado River and its tributaries, unprecedented since the erection
of the dam, resulted in the failure of this fine structure, with considerable
loss of life. About 500 feet of the masonry was first pushed bodily down-
stream, about 60 feet', apparently sliding on its base, and after a few hours
was entirely broken up and washed away, with the exception of a small
section, which still stands upright in the position where it was first de-
* See Humphrey and Abbott's report on Mississippi Delta Survey, 1878.
—Austin Dam. Texas. View
Pio. laSc— Austin Dam, Texas, aftkb Subsidence of Fumd of Apbil 7, 1900.
Sliowlng sectlou of mnsoiir)- tnoTed bodily donu-Blreain.
MA80NRT DAMS. 261
posited. Measured along the crest, the break left about 500 feet of the
dam at the west end and 83 feet at the east end still unaffected. About
two-thirds of the wall of the power-house below the dam next the river
was also destroyed by the flood. The entire property loss must have ex-
-ceeded $500,000. At the time of the break the lake-level had reached a
height of 11.07 feet above the crest. The flood was the result of extraor-
dinary rains throughout a very extensive watershed area. In fifteen hours
the rainfall at Austin and vicinity was 5 inches, falling on ground already
well soaked by previous rains. The maximum flood prior to the catastrophe
occurred June 7, 1899, when the water rose to 9.8 feet above the crest of
the dam, without injury to the structure. The dam will probably be rebuilt
upon safer plans, and precautions taken to anchor it into bed-rock a suf-
ficient depth to prevent it from sliding on its foundations.
The appearance of the dam immediately before the break is shown in
Fig. 123a. Figs. 123& and 123c graphically present the break and the
bodily movement of a section of the dam down-stream intact, better than
any detailed description. The author is indebted to Engineering News for
these three cuts.
Mexican Bams. — By courtesy of Modem Mexico, of St. Louis, Mo., the
accompanying views of two notable masonry dams at Guanajuato, Mexico,
are incorporated in this work, as types of reservoir construction in our
neighboring republic. Fig. 124 shows the upper dam, from which water
is supplied to the higher portion of the city, through a stand-pipe that is
shown in the view of the lower dam, or the " Presa de la 011a," Fig. 125
(frotispiece).
The upper dam is evidently a massive, ornate structure that would do
credit to any country of the world, as far as exterior appearances can
lead one to judge, although the precise dimensions are unfortunately lack-
ing. Estimating from the proportions of the figures in the foreground,
the height of the dam must be at least 80 feet.
The view of the lower dam was taken on St. John's Day, the 24th of
June, which is celebrated annually by a function called the " Fiesta de la
Presa," or the feast-day of the dam.
Sharply at 12 o'clock, noon, of that day, the people congregate to
witness the opening of the gates, bringing refreshments and musical in-
struments for a picnic, and thus commences a fortnight of gayety,
gambling, bull-fights, cock-fights, theater, and dancing. The object of
letting out the water is to clear the reservoir preparatory to the advent
of the rainy season, which usually begins about that day.
The water thus released washes out the river-bed below, which is the
main drainage of the city.
252 RE8ERV0IRS FOR IRBIQATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
Foreign Dams.
The following descriptions of the principal masonry dams of the world
outside of the United States have been condensed from the valuable work
on "The Design and Construction of Dams," by Edward Wegmann,
M. Am. Soc. C. E., published in 1899.
The Almanza Dam, Spain. — The oldest existing masonry dam was
erected in the Spanish province of Albacete prior to 1586. It is built of
rubble masonry, faced with cut stone, and is 67.8 feet high, 33.7 feet thick
at base, and of the same thickness for 23.5 feet of its height, the upper side
being vertical, and the lower face stepped. The crest is 9.84 feet thick.
The lower 48 feet is built on curved plan with radius of 86 feet. The
upper portion is irregular. The maximum pressure upon the masonry is
14.33 tons per square foot.
The Alicante Bam, Spain. — This structure, erected in a narrow gorge
on the river Monegre, in 1579 to 1594, is the highest dam in Spain, and
is used for irrigation of the plains of Alicante. The height is 134.5 feet,
the base width being 110.5 feet, and the crest 65.6 feet. The gorge
is remarkably narrow, being but 30 feet at bottom and 190 feet at the top
of the dam. The dam is curved in plan, with a radius of 351.37 feet on the
up-stream face at crest, which has a batter of 3 to 41. The dam is built
of rubble masonry, faced with cut stone. It is supposed to have been
designed by Herreras, the famous architect of the Escurial palace.
The reservoir formed by the dam is small for so large a structure,
having a length of but 5900 feet and a capacity of 975,000,000 gallons
(2982 acre-feet).
The stream carries such a large volume of silt that it is necessary to
scour out the sediment by a device called a scouring-gallery. The scouring
is done every four years. The gallery is a culvert through the center of the
dam at the bottom, 5.9 feet wide, 8.86 feet high at the upper end, and en-
larged below. The mouth is closed by a timber bulkhead, which is cut out
from below when the scouring is to be done. The sediment forms to a
great depth above the mouth of the culvert, and has to be started to move
by punching a hole through it with a heavy iron bar. The total cost of
scouring the reservoir amounts to $50. The sediment which is not swept
out by the velocity of the current is shoveled into the stream by workmen.
The Elche Dam, Spain. — This structure has a maximum height of 76.1
feet and a base of 39.4 feet, and is formed in three parts, closinsf converging
valleys. The principal wall is 230 feet long and built of rubble faced with
cut stone. It is curved in plan, up-stream, with a radius of 205.38 feet.
It is provided with a scoureins^-sluice similar to that at the Alicnnto rlam,
but so designed as to be safer for the workmen who remove the timbers
MA80NRT DAMS. 253
forming the bulkhead at the mouth of the sluice. The dam is located near
the town of Elche, on the Kio Vinolapo.
The Fuentes Dam^ Spain. — This structure is noted because it was of
unusual height and massiveness^ and yet failed by reason of its having
been founded on piles driven into a bed of alluvial soil and sand instead
of bed-rock. It was erected in 1785 to 1791, on the Guadalantin Kiver,
at the junction of three tributary streams, and stood successfully for eleven
years, during which time the depth of water never exceeded 82 feet, but
in 1802 a flood occurred which accumulated a depth of 154 feet in the
reservoir, and produced suflBcient pressure to force water through the ->
earth foundation. The reservoir was emptied in an hour, the plpb founda-
tion was washed out, and a breach in the masonry, 56 feet wide, 108 feet /' ^*
high, was created, destroying the dam and leaving a bridge arching over
the cavity. The extreme height of the dam was 164 feet, and its crest
length was 925 feet; its thickness at base was 145.3 feet, and- at top 35.72
feet. The extreme pressure on the masonry was computed by M. Aymard
at 8.12 tons per square foot. It was built of rubble masonry, with cut-stone .
facings, and was polygonal in plan, with convexity up-stream. Water was
taken from it through two culverts, one near the base, and the other 100
feet from the top. These were 5.4 feet wide, 6.4 feet high, and connected
with masonry wells having small inlet-openings from the reservoir. A
scouring-sluice, 22 feet wide, 24.7 feet high, was also provided through the
dam, divided by a pier into two openings at its mouth to shorten the span
of the timbers that closed it. At the time of the break the mud deposited
in the reservoir was 44 feet deep.
The disaster caused the loss of 608 lives and the destruction of 809
houses. The property loss was estimated at $1,045,000.
The dam is reported to have been recently restored, and was doubtless
extended to bed-rock for its foundation.
Val de Inflemo Dam, Spain. — This dam is 116.5 feet high, and founded
on rock. It has an enormous section, the base width being 137 feet. Even
within 15 feet of the top the thickness of the wall is over 97 feet. It was
built for irrigation in 1785 to 1791, and is located on one of the branches
of the Guadalantin River, above the Puentes dam. It is not now in service,
and the reservoir has entirely filled with sediment. The scouring of the
silt from the reservoir injured the property below, which led to the aban-
donment of the structure.
The scouring-sluice of the dam is 14.8 feet high, 9 to 12.3 feet wide.
The Nijar Dam, Spain. — This dam has a maximum height of 101.5 feet
above the bed of the stream, and consists of a massive base of masonry,
144 feet thick, 70 feet high. On this the dam proper rests, having a base
thickness of 67.6 feet. The upper face is vertical, and the down-stream
face is built in high steps. The scouring-sluice, which is an appendage
254 BE8ERV0IR8 FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER. ETC.
of all Spanish dams, is 3.3 feet wide by 7.2 feet high, closed at its upper
end by a gate operated by a long rod extending to the top of the dam. The
reservoir capacity formed by the dam is 12,570 acre-feet.
The Lozoya Dam, Spain. — ^The object of this structure, which was built
about 1850 across the Bio Lozoya, was not to store water, but simply as a
diversion-weir to supply a canal leading to the city of Madrid. Its height
is 105 feet, top length 237.8 feet, and it consists of a wall of cut stone,
straight in plan, having a thickness of 128 feet at base, backed up partially
by a sloping bank of gravel. The canal is taken through a tunnel in the
rock on the right bank, 22.4 feet below the top. A second tunnel, used
as a scouring-sluice, is placed 7.5 feet lower than the canal, below which
the reservoir is allowed to fill with sediment. A waste-weir is cut in the
rock, on the left bank, 11 feet deep, 27.6 feet wide.
The Villar Dam, Spain. — ^In 1870-78 the Spanish Government con-
structed a second dam on the Bio Lozoya, to supplement the supply to
Madrid by storage. The dam is 170 feet high, 547 feet long on top, 154.6
feet thick at base, 14.75 feet thick at the crest, which is 8.25 feet above
the spillway level. The dam is modem in design, and has a gravity profile
with large factor of safety. It is also curved in plan, on a radius of 440
feet. • It is constructed of rubble masonry throughout, with the exception
of cut-stone copings. Its cost was about $390,000. The capacity of Ihe
reservoir formed by it is 13,050 acre-feet. Two scouring-sluices are built
through the dam and closed by gates that are operated by hydraulic power
from a central tower.
The Hijar Dams, Spain. — ^Water is stored for irrigation on the Martin
Biver, above the city of Hijar, Spain, by means of two masonry dams built
in 1880. The general dimensions of each of these dams are about alike,
the height being 141 feet, length 236 feet on top, thickness at base 147 feet,
and at crest 16.4 feet. The water-face is vertical for 82 feet from the top,
continuing with a vertical curve to the base. The outer face is in a series
of steps below a point 29.5 feet from the top, each step being 6.5
feet high, 4.9 feet wide. Both dams are arched up-stream with a radius of
210 feet.
One of the reservoirs has a capacity of 8913 acre-feet, and a watershed
of 17 square miles; the other impounds 4864 acre-feet, and receives the
drainage from 92 square miles.
The Oros-Boifl Dam, France. — ^This structure has been severely criticised
because of the fact that it would be more stable to resist water-pressure
applied from the lower side than the upper, and for the reason that it
has an excess of masonry over what would be required if it were distributed
in proper form; and yet it has but a small factor of safety, as was proven
by the fact that it slid down-stream on its base about 2 inches, and was
t)nly relieved of strains that produced cracks and leaks by the addition
MASONRY DAMS. 255
of nine counterforts, 13 to 37 feet thick, projecting 26 feet from the base.
The dam was originally built vertical on the down-stream face, and stepped
on the waterside. Its height above bed is 73.2 feet, extreme height 92.9
feet; top length 1804.6 feet; thickness at base 45.9 feet, at top 21.32 feet.
It is founded on argiUaceous rock, rather soft. The dam was built in
1830-38, on the Brenne River, for feeding the navigable canal of Bour-
gogne.
The Chazilly Dam was constructed after the general type of the Gros-
Bois dam, and on the same profile. It is on the Sabine River, near the city
of Chazilly, and is 1758.6 feet long, 73.8 feet high, 53 feet thick at base,
13.4 feet at crest.
The Zola Dam, designed by the father of the noted novelist, is one of
the few dams depending solely upon their arched form for their stability.
It is 119.7 feet high, 48.8 feet thick at base, 19 feet thick at top, and 205
feet long on the crest, which is surmounted by a parapet 4 feet high. The
gorge has a width of but 23 feet at the base of the dam. The radius of
the arch is 158 feet at the crown. The water-face has three steps or offsets
from the vertical and the profile is quite erratic and irregular. It forms a
reservoir for supplying the city of Aix with water, and was built about the
year 1843. It is made of rubble masonry, founded on rock.
The Fnrens Dam. — Among many engineers this famous dam is recog-
nized as a model of correct form, profile, and dimensions, whose outlines
conform closely to what are accepted as certainly safe and well-balanced •
proportions throughout, even though the volume of material may be
slightly excessive. It was built by the French Government in 1862 to 1866
for the purpose of controlling the floods of the Furens River and protecting
the town of St. Etienne from inundations.
The dam is 183.7 feet in extreme height on the down-stream side, 170.6
feet in height on the up-stream side, and carrying a maximum depth of 164
feet of water. Its base thickness is 165.8 feet, and it is 16.4 feet thick at
a depth of 21 feet below the top. The crest is 12.4 feet wide, and is used
as a carriage-road; the top length is 326 feet. The dam was four years in
building, construction being limited to six months each season, owing to
the altitude and to the severity of the winter weather. Each year, while
building, the water was allowed to flow over the top of the finished masonry,
and when completed no leakage was visible further than a few damp spots
on the lower side with full reservoir.
The dam contains 52,300 cubic yards of masonry, and cost $318,000,
of which the city of St. Etienne paid $190,000 for the privilege of the
storasre for its domestic supply. The rock used was mica-schist. Notwith-
standing its safe gravity profile the dam was curved up-stream, with a
radius of 828 feet for architectural effect. The volume of water stored
by this great dam, the highest in existence, is comparatively insignificant.
256 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC,
being but 1297 acre-feet (422,625,000 gallons). M. Graeflf, Chief Engineer
of the Department of the Loire, and M. Delocre designed the dam, and M.
Montgolfier was engineer in charge of construction.
The Temay Dam. — Located on the river Temay, in the province of
Ardcche, southern France, this dam was erected in 1865 to 1868, for con-
trolling floods and supplying the neighboring town of Annonay. It is con-
structed of granite rubble masonry, and is founded on bed-rock of granite.
The proportion of mortar in the work was 40%. In plan it is curved with
a radius of 1312 feet, while the profile is a gravity type, resembling that
of the Furens dam. The extreme height is 119 feet, and bottom thickness
89.2 feet. The up-stream face is vertical for 58.5 feet, and battered below
that point. The lower face is chiefly formed in a vertical curve of 147.6
feet radius, reaching from the water-level to within 30.5 feet of the
bottom, the slope to the base being tangent to the curve. The center of
the circular curve is 7.5 feet above the crown of the dam.
The dam was designed and built by M. Bouvier, Engineer des Fonts et
Chaussees, under the general direction of J. B. Krantz, Chief Engineer.
The profile of the dam, however, is considerably lighter than the type
recommended by M. Krantz in his " Study on Reservoir Walls," which
form resulted from his adherence to a limiting pressure of 6 kilograms
per square centimeter (85 lbs. per square inch) upon any portion of the
masonry, whereas the maximum pressures in the Ternay dam are esti-
mated to be 9 kilos per square centimeter. M. Krantz comments, how-
ever, on the Ternay dam as follows: " The reservoir wall of Ternay, which
was remarkably planned and built by M. Bouvier, has, in my opinion,
scarcely a defect."
The capacity of the reservoir back of the dam is 686,766,000 gallons
(2107 acre-feet). The total cost of the dam was $204,372.
The Vingeanne Dam, France. — This structure resembles the Ternay in
height and general form, being 113.8 feet high, 18.1 feet thick at base,
11.5 feet on top. It is located near the town of Baissey, and was built in
1885.
The Ban Dam, France. — ^Next to the Furens dam in height the reservoir
wall constructed in 1867 to 1870, near the city of St. Chamond, was built
upon the same general principles, except that a greater maximum pressure
was permitted upon the masonry, the computed extreme being 8.18 tons
per square foot. Its extreme height is 157 feet, length 512 feet, base thick-
ness 127 feet, top width 16.4 feet. The wall is battered or curved on both
sides, there being no vertical faces. In plan it is curved convex up-stream.
It is composed of rubble masonry founded on rock. It is used for the
supply of the city of St. Chamond, and its cost was $190,000.
The Vcrdon Dam, France. — ^This structure is not of great height, being
but 59 feet, but its construction presented great difficulties, owing to the
MASONRY DAMS, 257
volume of water carried by the Verdon River, and the narrow canyon in
which it was placed. The low-water flow is 350 second-feet, while in floods
the discharge reaches over 4200 second-feet. The dam had to be founded
on rock, after excavating 20 feet through gravel and bowlders; and as the
canyon is but 130 feet wide at the top of the dam and considerably less
at the water-level, there was little room to do the work and take off the
constant flow.
The dam is used for diverting water to a canal, supplying the city of
Aix and other places in the vicinity. The dam proper is curved up-stream
with a radius of 108.8 feet, resting on a rectangular base of concrete. The
masonry consists of rubble with cut-stone facings. The general dimen-
sions are:
Length on top 131.3 feet.
Thickness of base 32.5 "
Thickness of crest 14.2 "
Height above river-bed 40.2 "
Height above foundations 59.0 "
The concrete foundation has a thickness of 48 feet. This is protected
from the falling water by an embankment of large blocks of loose stone.
The maximum depth of overflow was estimated at 16.4 feet.
The Pas Du Eiot Dam, France. — Subsequent to the construction of the
Furens dam, a second storage-reservoir for the further supply of the city
of St. Etienne was built in 1872 to 1878 to the height of 113.2 feet, curved
in plan, and similar in profile to its greater neighbor. The reservoir formed
by it has a capacity of 343,380,000 gallons (1054 acre-feet). The cost of the
dam was $256,000.
The Cotatay Dam, Ftance. — In 1885 a dam was built on the Cotatay
brook near the city of St. Etienne to supply the city of Chambon-Fen-
gerolles. This also is of the Furens type, curved in plan, and of the same
height as the Pas Du Riot dam — 113.2 feet.
The Pont Dam, France. — This structure, of granite rubble, founded on
rock, has a maximum length of 495 feet and an extreme height of 85 feet-
It is curved in plan, with a radius of 1312.4 feet. The base thickness is
62 feet, and crest 16.4 feet. The water-face batters 4.2 feet in its total
height.
On the lower face, from the top down for 62.3 feet, is a vertical curve,,
whose radius is 98.4 feet. The remaining height has a batter tangent to
this curve. IN'early 20 feet of the base of the dam is below the river-bed.
Seven counterforts or buttresses, 16 feet long, 3 feet thick, help sustain
the dam. The dam was built in 1883 on the Armangon River, 2J miles
from the city of Semur.
258 RE8ERV0IBS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC,
The Chartrain Dam, France. — The profile of this modem structure,
built in 1888-92, is one of the most graceful and scientific in design of all
of the French dams of recent construction. It has a maximum height above
lowest foundations of about 180 feet, and a base width on top of founda-
tions of 135 feet, the foundations extending above and below the toes of the
wall to a total width of 156 feet.
The dam is located on the river Tache, and was built to store water
for the supply of the city of Roanne. The reservoir, however, is quite
small for so high and costly a dam, covering but 54.36 acres in area and
impounding 3647 acre-feet to a mean depth of 67 feet, or 41% of the
maximum depth.
The cost ol the dam was $420,000, or $115.10 per acre-foot of storage
capacity.
The BoTuey Dam, France. — The failure of this structure April 27, 1895,
with the loss of one hundred and fiftv lives and the destruction of much
property, has particularly emphasized the value of several features of
masonry dams which may be regarded as essential in the design of all
such works:
1st. That they be founded on impermeable bed-rock, and the possi-
bility of upward pressure from water passing through fissures be avoided.
2d. That they shall have a profile of such dimensions as to permit of
no tension in the masonry.
3d. That the masonry shall be practically impervious to water.
4th. That it be curved in plan to avoid temperature cracks and move-
ments as the result of expansion and contraction of the masonry.
The Bousey was lacking in all of these essential features, and its failure
was not surprising in the light of all the facts that have been published
regarding it.
It was built in 1878 to 1881, near Epinal, France, across the small
stream of Aviere to form a storage-reservoir of 1,875,000,000 gallons for
supplying the summit level of the Eastern Canal, which here crosses the
A^osges Mountains in connecting the rivers Moselle and Saone, this canal
being a connecting link in interior navigation between the Mediterranean
and the Xorth Sea. The reservoir was fed by an aqueduct from the
Moselle River. The reservoir covered an area of 247 acres. The general
dimensions of the dam are as follows:
Length on top 1700 feet.
Height above river-bed 49 "
Heifirht above foundations 72 "
Width on top 13 «
Width 36 feet below water-level 18 ^
MASONRY DAMS. 259
The wall was vertical on the water-face from top to bottom.
The masonry was founded on red sandstone, which in places was
fissured and quite permeable, with springs which gave trouble in construct-
ing the foundations. The foundation was not excavated to solid, im-
permeable rock under the entire dam, but an attempt was made to remedy
this deficiency by building what was called a '* guard-walV^ 6.5 feet thick
on the upper side of the dam,, extending down below the foundations
through the imperfect rock for the purpose of cutting off leakage under-
neath. This was carried up to the river-bed and lapped against the main
wall. The dam was completed in 1880, and the- following year water was
admitted. When it had reached about one-third the height, 33 feet below
the top, enormous leakage, amounting it is said to 2 cubic feet per second,
appeared on the lower side of the dam, partly due to two vertical fissures
or expansion-cracks in the wall. March 14, 1884, when the water had risen
to within 10.4 feet of the top, the pressure was sufficient to bulge the
wall forward for 444 feet, forming a curve convex down-stream, the ex-
treme movement being from 1 to 3 feet according to different authorities.
Four additional fissures then appeared, and the leakage increased to about
8,000,000 gallons per day. These cracks opened in winter and closed in
summer. The water was kept behind the dam and the following year
allowed to rise to within 2 feet of the top, after which it was drawn off,
when it was discovered that for 97 feet the dam had been shoved forward,
separating from the guard-wall, and numerous cracks were found on the
inner face. Extensive repairs were then undertaken. The joint between
the main wall and the guard-wall was covered with masonry and sur-
rounded by a bank of puddle, 10 feet thick, while a heavy, inclined buttress-
wall was built at the lower toe, deep into the bed-rock, and toothed into
the masonry of the dam to prevent the tendency to slide on its base. This
abutment was nearly 20 feet in height, and its base was 84.3 feet below the
top of the dam, making the total thickness of base 71.6 feet. Notwith-
standing all this work the dam was fatally weak at a point near the river-
bed level, where the line of resistance falls considerably outside the middle
third, and the final break occurred at a point about 33 feet below the top,
where the fracture was almost horizontal longitudinally, and 694 feet of
the central part of the dam was overturned. The break was level trans-
versely for about 12 feet and then dipped toward the outer face. The
repairs finished in 1889 were presumed to have made the dam safe, and
the break did not occur for six years afterwards, during which time the
action of temperature-changes is presumed to have produced the weak-
ness resulting in the final catastrophe. An interesting account of the fail-
ure of the dam was published in Engineering News, May 16 and 23, 1895.
The lesson taught by it will be serviceable to engineers the world over.
The Konche Dam,. France. — ^The purpose of this structure, completed
260 RE8EBY0IR8 FOR IRRIQATION, WATEB-POWER, ETC.
in 1890, is similar to that of the Bousey dam — to form a storage-reservoir
for feeding a navigable canal. It is located on the Mouche Kiver, near the
village of St. Ciergues, and forms a reservoir of 241.8 acres, having a mean
depth of 29 feet and impounding 7010 acre-feet. The general dimensions
are as follows:
Length on top 1346 feet.
Maximum height, lowest foundation to parapet. 114.5 "
Height, base to water-line 94.5 ^'
Width of base Q%,1 ''
Width of top 11.6 "
The up-stream face has a batter of 1 foot in 50, while the down-stream
batter is nearly 1 to 1.
The dam is straight in plan and carries a roadway over the top, nearly
25 feet wide, supported by arches resting on abutment-piers that give the
required extra width. There are forty of these arches, each with a span
of 26.2 feet.
The masonry was found experimentally to weigh 134.2 lbs. per cubic
foot, and the computations of the profile were made on that basis, pre-
serving the lines of pressure, reservoir full and empty, well within the
center third.
The excavations for foundation were required to be so deep to reach
bed-rock that 56% of the masonry is laid below the surface, the maximum
depth of excavation being about 40 feet. The water-face of the dam was
given three coats of hot pitch, and subsequently whitewashed.
The Oileppe Dam, Belgium. — Xo masonry structure of modern times
has so great a section as this, and few if any contain such an enormous
mass of masonry, the total volume of which is 325,000 cubic yards, all of
which was put in place in six years, from 1870 to 1875 inclusive. The
dam is most imposing in appearance, but it has a vast excess of masonry
beyond safe requirements, the effect of which is to place additional stress
upon the foundation masonry without increasing the stability. The prin-
cipal dimensions are as follows:
Maximum height 154 feet.
Length on top 771
Breadth on top 49
Breadth at base 216.5 "
The dam is curved up-slream on a radius of 1640 feet. It was designed
by M. Bidaut, Chief Engineer, who occupied nine years in the preliminary
MASONBT DAMS. 261
studies before plans were submitted to the Belgian Government, by whom
it was erected to regulate the flow of the Gileppe Elver and provide a pure-
water supply for the cloth manufactories at the city of Verviers.
The reservoir formed by the dam covers an area of 198 acres and im-
pounds 3,170,000,000 gallons, or 9730 acre-feet. The mean depth is 49
feet, or just one-third the maximum depth. The capacity of the reservoir
is about one-half the average annual run-off from 15.4 square miles of
watershed.
The masonry is rough rubble throughout, of sandstone quarried on the
spot. The dam is surmounted by a cyclopean statue of a lion sitting on
a pedestal. An ample carriageway is provided across the dam.
Considering the great thickness of the wall and the care taken in its
construction, it was a great disappointment to find on filling the reservoir
that it leaked quite considerably. This leakage gradually diminished and is
of no importance as affecting the stability of the dam.
The entire cost of the dam was $874,000, or $89.83 per acre-foot of
storage capacity.
The Remscheid Dam, Germany. — This structure is one of the best
existing types of reservoir-walls as they are designed and built by modem
German engineers, and possesses more than ordinary interest. It is 82
feet high, 49.2 feet thick at base, 13.1 feet thick at crown, and is curved
in plan, with a radius of 410 feet. The total contents of the dam are 22,886
cubic yards, and its cost is given at $91,154, an average of $3.98 per cubic
yard. The reservoir formed by it has a capacity of 35,310,500 cubic feet,
of 811 acre-feet; while its average cost was $112.45 per acre-foot of stor-
age capacity.
The dam is built across the Eschbach valley, and is designed to supply
the city of Remscheid, and manufacturers in the valley below. It was
begun in May, 1889, and water turned on November, 1892. It is composed
of rubble masonry, the stone, a hard slate, being laid in trass mortar. Trass
is a rock of volcanic origin, from which hydraulic lime is made resembling
pozzuolana, used so extensively in Italy. The mortar consists of one part
lime, one and one-half parts trass, and one part sand, and was preferred
by the engineer to Portland cement, because it sets more slowly and tests
showed it to be superior in point of elasticity. The dam has shown no
settlement, no cracks, and no leaks. The courses of masonry were laid
so as to be as nearly perpendicular as possible to the varying direction of
the resultant pressures at all points. The water-face of the dam was
plastered with cement mortar, over which two coats of asphalt were placed,
the asphalt extending 20 inches over the bed-rock. Then a brick
wall, 1^ to 2i bricks thick, was carried up outside, tight against the
asphalt.
The dam was designed and built by Prof. 0. Intze, and described in a
262 RESEBVOnta FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
paper published in the Journal of the Society of Oerman Engineers^ from
which the facts above given are gleaned.
The Einsiedel Dam, Germany. — This dam was completed in 1894:^ and
forms a reservoir for supplying the city of Chemnitz. It is composed of
rubble masonry, the total volume of which was 31,600 cubic yards. Its
maximum height above foimdation is 92 feet, of which 65 feet is above
the natural surface. The length over top is 590 feet, top thickness 13 feet,
base 65.5 feet. It is curved to a radius of 1310 feet. The storage capacity
of the reservoir is 95,000,000 gallons (291 acre-feet).
The Oorzente Dam, Italy. — The city of Genoa derives a water-supply
from a reservoir formed by a masonry dam, built in 1882, on the Gorzente
Eiver. The reservoir capacity is 748,800,000 gallons (2298 acre-feet),
covering 64 acres. The dam has a maximum height of 121.4 feet, and is
492 feet long on top, 23 feet thick at top, 99.6 feet thick at base. The
masonry is a rubble composed of serpentine rock and mortar of Casale lime
and serpentine sand.
Cagliari Dam, Italy. — This structure is located on the island of Sar-
dinia, 13 miles from the city of Cagliari, on the Corrungius River. It was
built in 1866, and is 70.5 feet high, 52.5 feet thick at base, 16.4 feet at
top, and 344.5 feet long on top. It is built of rubble masonry composed
of granite and a hydraulic lime mortar, mixed with clean, well-washed,
granitic sand. »
The Vyrnwy Dam, Wales. — Since July 14, 1892, the city of Liverpool,
England, has been chiefly supplied by water from a large storage-reservoir
in the mountains of Wales, 77 miles distant, formed by a monumental dam
of masonry erected across the Vyrnwy valley, in 1882 to 1889. The dam
has a top length of 1172 feet, is straight in plan, and has a maximum height
of 161 feet from foundation to parapet. It is used as an overflow-weir over
its entire length, and its profile was designed to offer additional resistance
over that presented by water-pressure alone. An elevated roadway is
carried across the dam on piers and arches, above the level of flood-water,
which adds greatly to the architectural effect and ornamentation of the
imposing mass of masonry. The great wall is composed of cut stone. The
base width of the dam is 117.75 feet. The back-water level below the
dam is 45 feet above its base.
The total volume of masonry in the dam is 260,000 cubic yards, which
was laid with such extraordinary care that its average cost was nearly $10
per cubic yard, in a country where materials and labor are of the cheapest.
The base of the dam is founded on a hard slate rock, and one end of
the masonry is built into the solid wall of bed-rock on the side of the
valley. At the other end, however, the rock was so deeply overlaid with
a deposit of bowlder clay that the masonry was connected with this material
by a puddle-wall of clay recessed into the masonry.
MASONRY DAMS. 263
The general dimensions of the dam are as follows:
Total length on top 1172 feet.
Maximum height on top of roadway parapet 161 "
Height, river-bed to parapet 101
Height, river-bed to overflow-level 84 "
Greatest width of base 120
Batter of water-face 1 to 7.27 "
The cost of the dam is given as follows:
Borings and preliminary work $34,600
Excavating 220,820 cu. yds. and backfilling 79,501 cu. yds 287,600
Puddle-wall, including excavation 16,800
Masonry and brickwork 2,532,000
Begulating and gauging plant 46,000
Basin and other work below dam 40,000
Total for dam proper $2,957,000
In addition to this the removal of a village in the basin, the building
of roads around the lake, culverts, fencing, planting, dressing slopes, and
erection of superintendent's house cost $377,000, or a total of $3,334,000.
The reservoir formed by the dam covers a surface area of 1121 acres,
and impounds 12,131,000,000 Imperial gallons, or 44,690 acre-feet. This
gives a mean depth of 39.87 feet, or 47.5% of the maximum. The water-
shed area is 29 square miles, upon which the minimum recorded rainfall
is 49.63 inches, and the maximum 118.51 inches.
The average cost of the dam per acre-foot of storage capacity formed
by it was $74.61.
The dam was planned and constructed by Geo. F. Deacon, Chief
Engineer, Liverpool Water-works. Messrs. Thos. Hawkesley and J. F.
Bateman were consulting engineers.
Tests made by Kirkaldy of large blocks of the concrete and masonry
taken from the dam showed a compressive strength of 300 tons per square
foot, while the maximum strains to be borne by it are but 9 tons per square
foot, an excess of strength which has been considerably criticised.
The Hi^bra Dam, Algiers. — The French Government has built, or en-
couraged the construction by private parties of, a number of notable stor-
ac^e-reservoirs for irrigation in Algiers, of which the largest was that
formed on the Habra River, by a masonry dam, whose disastrous failure
has made it well known among the engineering profession, and added to
the many lessons which such failures carry with them. The dam was
264 RE8EEY0IR8 FOR IRRIOATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
begun in November, 1865, completed in May, 1873, and after eight years
of service was ruptured in December, 1881, causing the loss of 209 lives
and the destruction of several villages.
The main dam was straight in plan and 1066 feet long on top, flanked
by an overflow wall, 410 feet long, making an angle of 35** with the direc-
tion of the dam, the top of which was 5.2 feet below the crest of the dam
proper.
The maximum height of the dam was 117 feet from foundation to the
water-line, above which a parapet extended 8 feet higher. The dam was
14 feet thick at top, 88.4 at base, battered on both sides and of ample
dimensions to withstand the water-pressure, provided the masonry had
been properly constructed and of first-class material. When completed and
first filled the dam leaked like a gigantic filter, but the leakage practically
ceased in course of time.
The reservoir formed by the dam had a capacity of thirty million cubic
meters, or 24,330 acre-feet. The watershed of the Habra Biver is very
extensive, covering 3859 square miles above the dam, from which the
annual discharge, however, was only about 3J times the capacity of the
reservoir, owing to the slight rainfall of that region. The summer fiow
was about 18 second-feet, and the normal winter flow was about 100 second-
feet, while extreme floods reached 25,000 second-feet in volume. The
flood which caused the rupture of the dam came from a rainfall of 6^
inches in one short storm, during which the run-off in one night was
computed at 3,500,000,000 cubic feet, or more than three times the reser-
voir capacity. This resulted in a general overflow of the crest of the wall,
as the spillway was of insufficient capacity, and produced such excessive
pressure upon the outer face of the masonry as to exceed its normal
strength. Over 300 feet of the wall was torn out to the very foundation.
In a paper on the subject written the following year by the eminent
Italian engineer, G. Crugnola, he attributes the failure to inferiority in the
quality of the masonry. The sand was not of good quality, and in the cen-
ter of the dam a red earth, containing 22 to 24 per cent of clay, was used
instead of sand. Furthermore, the mortar was made of hydraulic lime
burned from calcareous rock found on the banks of the river, which, though
hydraulic, was not very good. The inference drawn by AI. Crugnola is that
the hydraulic lime contained a quantity of quicklime, which expanded in
time, causing porosity if not actual cavities in the interior of the masonry.
The stone, as well as the mortar, was extremely porous, consisting chiefly
of calcareous Tertiary grit, which was of variable hardness, some having a
decided schistose structure.
One must conclude from all the facts that had the spillway been suf-
ficient in capacity to avoid the submersion of the dam, and had the face
MA80NBT DAMS. 265
of the wall been made absolutely water-tight by 8uch precautionary meas-
ures as were employed on the Bemscheid dam, the failure would not have
occurred. The curvature of a wall of the great length of the Habra would
doubtless have avoided temperature cracks, which, as has been pointed
out by Prof. Forchheimer (page 122), may have been a leading source of
weakness. The failure occurred during the coldest weather, when such
cracks appear in masonry walls.
The Hamiz Dam, Algiers. — Next in importance to the Habra dam, and
somewhat higher, is the Hamiz dam, erected in 1885 on the Hamiz Kiver.
This wall is also straight in plan, but only 532 feet in length on top, 131
feet long at base. The extreme height above foundation is 134.5 feet, and
above river-bed 91.2 feet, and at top 16.4 feet. Both faces are curved in
outline.
The dam impounds 10,500 acre-feet of water, gathered from a shed of
54 square miles.
The Oran Chenrfas Dam, Algiers. — This structure is quite similar in
dimensions to the Hamiz dam, and was built in 1882-84, on the Mekerra
Eiver, 9 miles from St. Dionigi. Its foundation extends 32.8 feet below the
river-bed, and has a thickness of 134.5 feet at base and 78.7 feet at top.
On this foundation the dam proper rests, with an offset of 3J feet on each
side, making its thickness at bottom 72 feet, while at top the wall is 13 feet
thick. Both faces are curved in parabolic form, presenting a graceful
profile. The maximum pressures on the masonry are 6.1 tons per square
foot.
The dam failed in part when first filled, and a breach of 130 feet was
made in the wall, but it was immediately repaired. The failure occurred in
winter. The dam is straight in plan.
The reservoir capacity behind the dam is about 13,000 acre-feet.
The Tlelat Dam, Algiers.— This masonry wall is 69 feet high, 325 feet
long, 40 feet thick at bottom, 13 feet thick at top, and impounds 445 acre-
feet, derived from a water-shed of 51 square miles. The dam was erected
in 1869 on the Tlelat River to supply the town of Sante Barbe, 7^ miles
below, and also for irrigation. The wall is vertical on the water-face, while
the lower side has a vertical curve, the center of radius being 11.8 feet
above the top of the dam.
The Djidionia Dam, Alg^iers, is 83.7 feet in extreme height, of which
28 feet is foundation below the river-bed level. The face is vertical, and
the dam is straight in plan. The foundation is broader on top than the
bottom of the dam, and will permit of an increased height in the structure
by adding to the lower side from the foundation up. This has been de-
cided upon, and 26 feet additional in height will be built. The reservoir
will then have a capacity of about 4000 acre-feet. The dam was built in
266 BE8EBV0IR8 FOB IBBIQATIOHf, WATBB-POWEB, ETC.
1873-75, on the Djidionia River, to supply the towns of St. Aim6 and
Amadema with water. The masonry of this dam is slightly in tension on
the water-face when the reservoir is filled, amounting to about 15 lbs. per
square inch, but no injurious effect upon the masonry is apparent from
this small tensile strain.
The Tansa Dam, India.* — This great dam, forming a reservoir for the
supply of Bombay, was begun in 1886, and completed in April, 1891. The
work was done by contract and cost $988,000. It is straight in plan, the
alignment consisting of two tangents, and it has a total length of 8800
feet, the maximum height being 118 feet. For a length of 1650 feet the
dam is depressed 3 feet, to serve as a waste-weir. The thickness of the
masonry at the base is 96.5 feet, and the entire section is made of sufficient
dimensions for an ultimate height of 135 feet, to which it may be raised
in future, when its length will be 9350 feet on top.
The dam was built with native labor, and consists of uncoursed rubble
masonry throughout, all the stones being small enough to be carried by
two men. The stone is a hard trap-rock, quarried on the spot. The
cement was burned at the site of the dam from nodules of hydraulic lime-
stone, called kunkur, which are found throughout India, and occur in clay
deposits, although in this case it had to be brought long distances by rail
and carts. Most Indian masonry is made with kunkur hydraulic lime.
The nodules require to be exposed to the sun, dried and washed before
being burned. They are usually of one or two pounds weight, although
sometimes found in blocks of 100 lbs. or more.
From 9000 to 12,000 men were employed on this dam during the work-
ing season of each year, from May to October, but during the monsoons all
work was suspended.
The volume of masonry in the work is 408,520 cubic yards. It ia
reported to be entirely water-tight. The excavation was carried to a
considerable depth in places, and necessitated the removal of 251,127 cubic
yards for the foundations.
The reservoir covers an area of 5120 acres and impounds 62,670 acre-
feet above the level of the outlets, which are placed 25 feet below the crest
of the spillway, or 89 feet above the river-bed. The loss by evaporation
reduces the available supply to 15,870 acre-feet, although, of course many
times this quantity could be drawn from the lake if the outlets were near
the bottom. The watershed area is 52.5 square miles, on which the precipi-
tation is from 150 to 200 inches annually, and the estimated annual run-
off is 267,000 acre-feet.
* See Procepdinfirs Institution of Civil Engineera, vol. cxv. Pap^r by W J. C.
Clerke, M.I.C.E.. on **The Tansa Works for tlio Water-supply of Bombay"; also,
•' Irri^tion in India," by Herbert M. Wilson, 12tb Annual Report U. 8. Geological
Survey.
MASONRY DAMS. 267
The dam was planned and built by W. J. C. Gierke, Chief Engineer.
The Foona or Lake Fife Dam, India.* — This was one of the first
masonry dams built in India by the British Government for irrigation
storage, and was begun in 1868. It is made of uncoursed rubble masonry,
founded on solid bed-rock, and is straight in plan, having a top length of
5136 feet (nearly a mile), of which 1453 feet is utilized as a wasteway.
Its maximum height above foundation is 108 feet, and above the river-level
98 feet.
The design of the dam is extremely amateurish. The up-stream batter
is 1 in 20, and the down-stream slope 1 in 2, unchanged from top to bottom,
the top width being 14 feet, and the base 61 feet. The alignment of the
dam is in several tangents with different top width for each, according to
its height, the points of junction being backed up by heavy buttresses of
masonry. When completed the dam showed signs of weakness and was
strengthened by an embankment of earth, 60 feet wide on top, 30 feet
high, piled up against the lower side.
The water is drawn from the reservoir 59 feet above the river-bed,
and there is therefore available but 29 feet of the total depth of the reser-
voir. The amount available above this level is 75,500 acre-feet. The lake
is 14 miles long and covers an area of 3681 acres.
The dam is located 10 miles west of the town of Poona, on the Mutha
Eiver. Its cost was $630,000, and it contains 360,000 cubic yards of
masonry.
The canal on the right bank is 23 feet wide, 8 feet deep, and 99.5
miles long, drawing 412 second-feet from the reservoir and distributing
it over 147,000 acres of land to be irrigated. At the town of Poona a
drop of 2.8 feet is utilized for power by an undershot wheel, to pump
water to supply the town. The left-bank canal is 14.5 miles long and
carries 38 second-feet. The sluices from the reservoir are each 2 feet
square, closed by iron gates operated by capstan and screw from the top
of the dam. Ten of these supply the larger canal, and three discharge
into the smaller one. Eight additional circular sluices, 30 inches in
diameter, supply water to natives for mill-power and discharge into the
larger canal.
The Bhatgur Dam, India.f — There are no masonry structures in the
United States or Europe which surpass in size those of India which have
been constructed for irrigation purposes by the British Government, in
the attempt to render the great population of that country self-supporting
"Irrigation in India," by H. M. Wilson, in 12th Annual Report IT. 8. Geological
t Ibid,
268 RESERVOmS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
and check the frightful famines by which it has been periodically devas-
tated.
The Bhatgur dam, constructed on the Yelwand River, about 40 miles
south of Poona, is one of the most notable of these great structures. Its
length on top is 4067 feet, its extreme height above foundations is 127
feet, and it forms a reservoir 15 miles in length, having a capacity of
126,500 acre-feet The extreme bottom width of the dam is 74 feet, and
the crest is 12 feet wide, forming a roadway. The alignment of the dam
curves in an irregular way across the valley, so as to follow the outcrop of
bed-rock on which it is founded. The section of the dam was designed
after a formula similar to that deduced by M. Bouvier, and all the calcula-
tions were worked out by Mr. A. Hill, M.I.C.E., who was afterwards
assistant on the construction of the Tansa dam. The curve adopted for
the lower face was a catenary, but the wall was actually built in a series
of batters.
The three primary conditions of the design were:
1st. The intensity of the vertical pressure was nowhere to exceed 120
lbs. per square inch (8.64 tons per square foot);
2d. The resultant pressures were to fall within the middle third of the
section; and
3d. The average weight of the masonry was assumed at 160 lbs. per
cubic foot. The use of concrete was only permitted where the pressure
was calculated not to exceed 60 lbs. per square inch, which gave a factor
of safety of between 6 and 7.
The dam was designed and built by J. E. Whiting, M.I.C.E.
Waste-weirs at each end of the dam have a total length of 810 feet,
and can carry 8 feet depth of water. The roadway is carried over these
weirs on a series of 10-foot arches. Additional flood-discharge is given
by twenty under-sluices, 4x8 feet in size (of which fifteen are located 60
feet below the crest), having a total capacity of 20,000 second-feet. These
sluices are lined with cut stone, and closed by iron gates, operated from
the top of the dam. The overflow wasteway is closed by a novel series of
automatic gates that open in flood and rise up into position as the flood
recedes, permitting the full storage of the additional 8 feet depth to be
utilized. The gates are. nicely balanced by counterweights that occupy
pockets in the masonry. As the water rises to the top of the gate it fills
these pockets, reducing the weight of the counterpoises, and the gate, being
then heavier, will descend below the crest of the weir. When the level of
the flood is reduced so that it no longer enters the pockets, the latter are
emptied by small holes in the bottom, and the counterpoises overcome the
weight of the gates, lifting them into place again.
The reservoir is used to supply the Nira Canal, which heads 19 miles
below. This canal is 129 miles long, 23 feet wide, 7.5 feet deep, and carries
MASONRY DAMS. 2G9
470 second-feet, supplying 300 square miles of land. The water is diverted
to it b}' a masonry diverting-dam, known as the Vir weir, which is of itself
an important structure, being 2340 feet long, 43.5 feet high, constructed
of concrete faced with rubble masonry. Its top width is 9 feet. Maximum
floods of 158,000 second-feet pass over its crest to a depth of 8 feet, coming
from a watershed of 700 square miles. A secondary dam, forming a water-
cushion, is located 2800 feet down-stream. This is 615 feet long, 24 feet
high, built of masonry founded on bed-rock, and carries a roadway over
its crest. During maximum floods the water is 32 feet deep in the cushion,
when the water is 8 feet deep over the main dam.
The works were finished in 1890-91.
The Betwa Dam, India.* — This masonry structure forms a diversion-
weir for turning the water of the Betwa Biver into a large irrigation-canal,
and also serves for storage to the extent of 36,800 acre-feet, which is the
capacity of the reservoir above the canal flow, although not all available.
The total length of the dam is 3296 feet, and its maximum height is
60 feet. It has an extremely heavy profile, being 15 feet thick at top and
61.5 feet at base. At its highest part the down-stream face is vertical, and
a large block of masonry 15 feet thick reinforces the dam at its lower toe.
It consists of rubble masonry laid in native hydraulic lime, with a coping
of ashlar, 18 inches thick, laid in Portland-cement mortar.
In plan the dam is divided into three sections, of different lengths, by
two islands, and is irregular in alignment.
The canal floor is placed 21.5 feet below the crest of the dam. A
masonry subsidiary weir, 12 feet wide on top, 18 feet high, to form a water-
cushion for the overflow of the dam, was built 1400 feet below, across the
main channel, and a second subsidiary weir, 200 feet below the main weir,
was made, to check the right-bank channel at the same level. The main
dam and subsidiary weirs cost $160,000, not including the regulating and
flushing sluices, which cost $10,000. The main canal is 19 miles long, and
with its branches supplies 150,000 acres.
The Periyar Dam, India. — None of the modem structures for irrigation
storage in India have presented greater difficulties than the great dam
erected across the Periyar River, which was begun in 1888 and completed
in 1897. The project, of which the dam was the basis, includes the con-
struction of a wall to close the valley of the Periyar River to store 300,000
acre-feet of water; of the construction of a tunnel 6650 feet long, through
the mountain-range dividing the valley of the Periyar from that of the
Vigay River, for the purpose of drawing off the water of the reservoir,
with the necessary sluices and subsidiary works for controlling the water
on its way down a tributary of the Vigay; and finally the necessary works
See " Irrigation in India," by H. M. Wilson, in 12tb Annual Report^ U. S. Geo-
logical Snrvey.
270 BE8EBV0IR8 FOR IBRIOATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
for the diversion, regulation, and distribution of the water for the irriga-
tion of 140,000 acres in the Vigay valley, of which area the water-supply
of the Vigay was only sufficient for irrigating 20,000 acres.
The dam is 155 feet high above the river-bed, with a parapet 5 feet
higher, the foundations reaching to a depth of 173 feet below the crest.
It is 12 feet thick at top and 114.7 feet at base, and is constructed through-
out of concrete composed of 25 parts of hydraulic lime, 30 of sand, and 100
of broken stone. The water-face is plastered with equal parts of hydraulic
lime and sand. The length of the dam on top is 1231 feet. Its cubic con-
tents are about 185,000 cubic yards of masonry.
A wasteway has been excavated on each side of the dam, one of which
is 420 feet long, and the other 500 feet long. The latter is partially formed
by a masonry wall 403 feet long, filling a saddle-gap. The crests of these
waste ways are 16 feet below the top of the parapet. The rock is a hard
syenite. The maximum floods of the river reach 120,000 second-feet at
times. The drainage-area above the dam is 300 square miles, on which
the rainfall is from 69 to 200 inches, averaging 125 inches per annum.
The river is one that is subject to violent and sudden floods, in an
uninhabited tract of country, far even from a village, some 85 miles from
the nearest railway, where there were no roads or even paths, in the
midst of a range of hills covered with dense forests and jungles tenanted
by wild beasts, where malaria of a malignant type is prevalent, where the
commonest necessaries of life were unobtainable, and where the incessant
rain for half the year prevented the importation of labor and rendered
all work in the river-channel impossible for six months out of every
twelve. During the first two years of construction watchmen with drums
and blazing fires had to guard every camp at night against the curiosity
of wild elephants that constantly visited the works, uprooting milestones,
treading down embankments, breaking up fresh masonry, playing with
cement-barrels, chewing bags of cement and blacksmith's bellows, kneeling
on iron buckets, and doing everything that mischief could suggest and
power perform.
The limestone for making the hydraulic lime was brought a distance
of 16 miles, surmounting an elevation of 1300 feet by an endless wire
rope, 3 miles long, to which the stone was brought by wagon-road. From
the lower end of the ropeway the stone was carried on a short tramway to
canal-boats plying on the river as far down as the dam, the stream having
teen made navigable for this purpose.
The sand used was dredged from t^e river-bed.
This brief summary of the unusual conditions under which the dam
was built, gleaned from a paper written by Mr. A. T. Mackenzie,
A.M.I.C.E., gives a general idea of the extraordinary^ difficulties which had
to be overcome in constructing this great work, which is certainly one of
MASONRY DAMS. 271
the most notable of the many monuments to English engineering in
India.
The total cost of all the works connected with the project amounted
to about $3,220,000. The estimated net revenues were $260,000 annu-
ally.
The dam was designed and constructed by Col. Pennycuick, Chief
Engineer. It is so designed (by M. Bouvier's formulae) that the greatest
pressure on front and back shall not exceed 9 tons per squai^e foot, and
the lines of pressure are kept within the middle third. Most modern dams
of any magnitude have been built of uncoursed rubble masonry. Col.
Pennycuick justifies the use of concrete in the Periyar dam in the follow-
ing language, as quoted by Mr. Wilson: " Concrete is nothing more than
uncoursed rubble masonry reduced to its simplest form, and as regards
resistance to crushing or to percolation the value of the two materials is
identical, unless it be considered as a point in favor of concrete that it
must be solid, while rubble may, if the supervision be defective, contain
void spaces not filled with mortar. The selection depends entirely upon
their relative cost, the quantities of materials in both being practically
identical."
In this opinion of the value of concrete he is less conservative than
the engineers of the Tansa dam, who limited the use of concrete to the
upper portion of the dam, where the limit of pressure did not exceed 60
lbs. per square inch.
While the full reservoir capacity is 305,300 acre-feet, the level of the
outlet-tunnel is such that but 156,400 acre-feet can be utilized, although
this may be supplied several times annually.
The Beetaloo Dam, South Australia. — Like the Perivar dam in India
and the San Mateo dam in California, this structure is composed entirely
of concrete, of which about 60,000 cubic yards were used.
The dam was built in 1888-90, to form a reservoir of 2945 acre-feet
capacity for irrigation and domestic water-supply.
The dam is 580 feet long on top, curved in plan, with a radius of
1414 feet, and designed after Prof. Eankine's logarithmic profile type.
The maximum height is 110 feet, the base width being the same as the
height. The thickness at top is 14 feet. The spillway is 200 feet long,
5 feet deep. The cost was $573,300.
Water is distributed entirely by pipes under pressure, some 255 miles
of pipe from 2 to 18 inches diameter being required.
The dam was designed and built by Mr. J. C. B. MoncriefF, M.I.C.E.,
Chief Engineer.
The Oeelong Dam, Australia. — This structure is also constructed wholly
of concrete, made of broken sandstone and Portland cement, in the pro-
portion of 1 of cement to 7^ of aggregates.
272 RESERV0IB8 FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
The dam is 60 feet high^ 39 feet thick at base^ and 2.5 feet on crest.
It is curved in plan on a radius of 300 feet from the water-face at crest.
The coping is formed of heavy bluestone of large size, cut and set in
cement. The work was carried up evenly in courses a few inches thick,
and thoroughly rammed. The surface of the finished concrete was wetted
and coated with cement grout before adding a fresh layer to it.
The dam forms a reservoir for the supply of the city of Victoria. Water
is drawn from it by two 24-inch pipes passing through the masonry, one
of which is used for scouring purposes. The dam leaked slightly at the
outset, but this leakage quickly disappeared.
The Tytam Dam, China. — This modem English structure was built
to store water for the supply of Hong Kong. It is about 95 feet high, and
is intended to go 20 feet higher. The present crest width is 21 feet, base
about 65 feet. The water-face of the wall is almost vertical, the outer face
being stepped in 10 feet vertical courses. The water-face is laid up in
granite ashlar, the remainder being concrete, with stones of 2 to 6 cubic
feet embedded. About 40% of the entire wall is composed of stone, and
60% of concrete. The screenings of crushed granite were used as sand,
together with some river sand, which was scarce, and used without wash-
ing, as it was believed the rock dust and fine particles of soil would con-
duce to water-tightness. The strength of the mortar was less of a
consideration than the securing of a water-tight wall
The Assnan Dam, Egypt. — A dam is under construction at the present
time across the Upper Nile, in Egypt, by English capitalists and English
engineers, which in many respects is equal to the boldest and most ex-
tensive storage works constructed in India. The dam is intended to form
a reservoir in the Nile valley, whose storage capacity is about 1,031,500
acre- feet, for the irrigation of a tract of 2500 square miles of land, located
some 350 miles down the valley of the Nile below the dam. Water
released from the reservoir travels down the Nile a distance of 330 miles
to a point called Assiout, where a diverting-dam is being constructed to
raise the water to the level of the canal.
The Assuan dam is to be about 6400 feet long, founded on granite
rock throughout, and having a maximum height of 90 feet above founda-
tions. The thickness of masonry at base will be about 80.4 feet, and the
top width 23 feet, the crest being 9.84 feet above the estimated level of
high water in the reservoir, and carrying a roadway. It is built of granite,
uncoursed rubble, the stone being quarried from adjoining ledges of red
syenite The wall will have one hundred and forty culverts or under-
sluices passing through it, each 23 feet high and 6.56 feet wide, and forty
upper sluices, having one-half the area of the lower culverts. These are
to be employed for the passage of extraordinary floods and the scouring
of silt from the reservoir. All of the upper sluices and twenty of the lower
MASONRY DAMS. 273
ones will be lined with cast iron^ and the remainder with cut-stone ashlar.
The piers between sluices are 16.4 feet wide, with an abutment-pier at
every tenth sluice, 39.37 feet wide.
The maximum floods of the Nile are estimated to discharge 490,000
second-feet, and a mean maximum of about 350,000 second-feet.
The sluices will all be opened during floods. The under-sluices will
be regulated by Stoney's self-balanced gates. A navigation-canal will be
taken around the west end of the dam, 5250 feet long, having four locks,
with a total descent of 68.9 feet. This canal will be excavated partly in
rock and partly formed by an embankment. It will be 49.2 feet wide on
bottom. The dam and locks are estimated to cost $6,125,000, and are
being built by English contractors, who agree to complete the work by
July 1, 1903.
The dam was designed by Mr. W. Willcocks, M.LC.E., in the service of
the Egyptian Government.
The ABsiout Dam, tipper Egjrpt.* — In connection with the utilization
of water stored in the great Assuan reservoir a diverting-weir is being
erected across the Nile, below the head of the Ibrahimia Canal, which is
estimated to cost $2,245,000, including the navigation-canal and locks.
This dam is also of masonry, and will have a total length of 3930 feet,
and a maximum height of 48 feet. The dam will have one hundred and
twenty sluices, each 16.4 feet wide, with piers 6.56 feet wide between them.
The navigation-lock will be 262 feet long, 52.5 feet wide, capable of
passing the largest steamers that ply on the Nile. It is located about 200
miles above Cairo. The head-works of the Ibrahimia Canal will cost
$380,000.
The loss of water from evaporation and seepage in the Assuan reser-
voir, and in traversing the distance of 330 miles to Assiout, is estimated at
about 21.5%, leaving 736,800 acre-feet as the net amount available for
irrigation.
* See Engineering Beeard, Dec. 80, 1899.
CHAPTER IV.
EARTHEN DAMS.
The earliest constructions for water-storage of which there is historical
record have been earthen dams erected to impound the water for irrigation.
India and Ceylon afEord examples of the industry of their inhabitants in
the creation of storage-reservoirs in the earliest ages of civilization, which
for number and size are almost inconceivable. Excepting the exaggerated
dimensions of Lake Moeris in central Egypt, and the mysterious basin of
" Al Aram," the bursting of whose embankment devastated the Arabian
city of Mareb, no similar constructions formed by any race, whether ancient
or modem, exceed in colossal magnitude the stupendous tanks of Ceylon.
The reservoir of Koh-rud at Ispahan, Persia, the artificial lake of Ajmeer,
or the tank of Hyder in Mysore, cannot be compared in extent or grandeur
with the great Ceylonese tanks of Kalaweva or Padavil-colon. The first
Ceylon tank of which there is historical record was built by King Pandu-
waasa in the year 504 B.C. The tank of Kalaweva was constructed a.D. 459,
and was not less than 40 miles in circumference. The dam or embank-
ment of earth which formed it was more than 12 miles in length, and the
spillway of stone is described by the historian Tennent as " one of the
most stupendous monuments of misapplied human labor on the island."
The same author describes the tank of Padavil as follows:
" The tank itself is the basin of a broad and shallow valley, formed
by two lines of low hills, which gradually sink into the plain as they
approach the sea. The extreme breadth of the enclosed space may be 12
or 14 miles, narrowing to 11 at the spot where the retaining bund has
been constructed across the valley. ... The dam is a prodigious work, 11
miles in length, 30 feet broad at the top, and about 200 feet at the base,
upwards of 70 feet high, and faced throughout its whole extent by layers
of squared stone. . . . The existing sluice is remarkable for the ingenuity
and excellence of its workmanship. It is built of hewn stones varying from
6 to 12 feet in length, and still exhibiting a sharp edge and ever^^ mark
of the chisel. These rise into a ponderous wall immediately above the vents
which regulated the escape of the water; and each layer of the work is
kept in its place by the frequent insertion, endwise, of long plinths of
274
EARTHEN DAM8. 276
stone, whose extremities project beyond the surface, with a flange to key
the several courses and prevent them from being forced out of their places.
The ends of the retaining-stones are carved with elephants' heads and
other devices, like the extremities of Gothic corbels; and numbers of
similarly sculptured blocks are lying about in every direction. . . . On
top of the great embankment itself, and close by the breach, there stands a
tall sculptured stone with two engraved compartments, the possible record
of its history, but the characters were in some language no longer under-
stood by the people. The command of labor must have been extraordinary
at the time when such a construction was successfully carried out, and the
population enormous to whose use it was adapted. The number of cubic
yards in the bund is upwards of 17,000,000, and at the ordinary value of
labor in this country [England] it must have cost £1,300,000, without
including the stone facing on the inner side of the bank. The same sum
of money that would be absorbed in making the embankment of Padavil
would be sufficient to form an English railway 120 miles long, and its
completion would occupy 10,000 men for more than five years. Be it
remembered, too, that in addition to 30 of these immense reservoirs in
Ceylon, there are from 500 to 700 smaller tanks in ruins, but many still
in serviceable order, and all susceptible of effectual restoration. . . . None
of the great reservoirs of Ceylon have attracted so much attention as the
stupendous work of the Giants' Tank (Kattucarr6). The retaining-bund
of the reservoir, which is 300 feet broad at the base, can be traced for more
than 15 miles, and, as the country is level, the area which its waters were
intended to cover would have been nearly equal to that of Lake Geneva,
Switzerland (223 square miles). At the present day the bed of the tank
is the site of ten populous villages, and of eight which are now deserted."
It was but recently discovered that the reason why the great reservoir
was never utilized after having been built at such enormous expense, was
an error in the original levels by which the canal from the Malwatte River,
that was intended to feed the reservoir, ran up-hill.
Capt. R. Baird Smith, in his work on "Irrigation in the Madras
Provinces," says:
" The extent to which tank irrigation has been developed in the Madras
Presidency is extraordinary. An imperfect record of the number of tanks
in fourteen districts shows them to amount to no less than 43,000 in repair '
and 10,000 out of repair, or 53,000 in all. It would be a moderate esti-
mate to fix the length of embankment for each at half a mile, and the •
number of masonry works in sluices, waste-weirs, etc., would probably not
be overrated at an average of six. These data, only assumed to give some
definite idea of the system, would give close upon 30,000 miles of embank-
ments (sufficient to put a girdle round the globe not less than 6 feet thick)
and 300,000 separate masonry works. The whole of this gigantic ma-
EARTHEN DAMS. 277
chinery is of purely native origin, not one new tank having been made
by the English. The revenue from existing works is roughly estimated
at £1,500,000 sterling per annum, and the capital sunk at £15,000,000/'
The same author described the Ponairy tank of Trichinopoly, now out
of repair, as having an embankment 30 miles in length, and an area of
60 or 80 square miles. The Yceranum tank is very ancient, though still
in service and Yielding a revenue of $57,500 per annum. It has an em-
l>ankment 12 miles long, and covers 35 square miles of area.
The Chumbrumbaukum tank has an embankment 19,200 feet in length,
end forms a reservoir of 5730 acres, with a capacity of 63,780 acre-feet.
The dam is 16 to 28 feet high. The water from the reservoir yielded an
annual revenue to the government of $25,000 in 1853.
The Cauverypauk tank, in use from four hundred to five hundred years,
has an embankment 3J miles long, revetted with a stone wall 6 feet thick
at bottom, 3 feet at top, and 22 feet high, rising to within 5 or 6 feet of the
top of the bank, which is uniformly 9 feet high above high-water mark.
The embankment is nowhere less than 12 feet wide on top, with a front
slope of 2^ to 1, and a rear slope of 1^ to 1. The whole outer surface is
carefully turfed and planted with grass. Water is distributed from nine
masonrv sluices.
Mr. H. M. Wilson, in his work on " Irrigation in India," describes the
abandoned tank of Mudduk Masur as having been built over four hundred
years ago, when its capacity must have been 870,000 acre-feet of water.
The restraining-dams were three in number; the main central dam, which
is 91 to 108 feet high, and having a base of 945 to 1100 feet, is still intact,
and the whole reservoir is capable of easy restoration. The lack of a spill-
way caused the destruction of the tank by the overtopping of one of the
minor embankments. Mr. Wilson states that in the Mysore district of
southern India there are 37,000 tanks, aside from the 53,000 enumerated
in the Madras Presidency by Capt. R. Baird Smith. In the Mairwara
District 2065 tanks have been built under English rule since the date of
Capt. Smith's work, before quoted — 1854.
Of the modem earthen dams built by English engineers in the employ
of the Indian Government, two of the most interesting were recently con-
structed in the Bombay Presidency, the Ekruk tank near Sholapur, and
the Ashti tank, on the Ashti River. The Ekruk tank (Fig. 126) impounds
76,130 acre-feet, and has a dam whose maximum height is 72 feet. The
total length is 7200 feet, which included 2730 feet of masonry, of which
1400 feet is at the northern end and 1330 feet at the southern end. The
cost of the dam was $666,000. The loss of water by evaporation during
eight months is 7 feet in depth and amounts to 12,500 acre-feet, or 16%
of the entire capacity.
The Ashti tank (Fig. 127) is formed by an earth dam 12,709 feet long,
EARTHEN DAMS. 279
58 feet in maximxun height^ having slopes of 3 : 1 inside and 2 : 1 outside.
The crest of the dam is 12 feet above high-water mark, and has a width
of 6 feet. The interior slope is paved with stone. The storage capacity
of the reservoir is 32,G60 acre-feet, of which 9200 acre-feet, or 28%, is
lost by evaporation. The reservoir has a surface area of 2677 acres. The
following description of the construction of the dam is condensed from
Mr. H. M. Wilson's "Irrigation in India":
The site of the dam was cleared of vegetation and top soil, so that
the entire structure rests upon a sound and firm foundation. There is no
puddle-wall proper, but a puddle-trench, 10 feet wide, was excavated down
to a compact, impervious bed, the entire length of the dam, and was filled
to one foot above the natural ground surface. This filling was composed
of two parts sand and three parts black soil. The central third of the
dam is built up of selected material of black soil, extending, as shown in
the accompanying section, in a triangular section, 60 feet wide at the base,
to the crest of the dam. Outside of this central section are two triangular
sections of brown soil, faced with 1 to 15 feet of puddle of sand and black
soil. On the inside a stone paving 6 inches thick is laid over the slope to
resist wave-action. Across the river-bed a trench 5 feet wide was excavated
along the entire length of the dam and extending 100 feet into the banks.
On each side this trench was filled with concrete and connected with the
puddle-trench. The puddle-trench was curved around the concrete wall
and continued across the river at a distance of 20 feet from the concrete
wall on the up-stream side. This work having been finished in dry weather,
the sand of tfie river-bed was sluiced out of the way by confining the
stream and directing it into narrow channels by loose rock spur-walls and
piers.
The cross-section of the Ashti dam is considered amply strong, yet a
more liberal section is believed to be advisable, especially in the matter
of top width.
The wastewav of the Ashti reservoir consists of a channel 800 feet
wide, cut through the ridge rock, the crest of which is level for '600 feet
in length; thence the stream falls with a slope of 1% into a side channel.
Its discharging capacity is 48,000 second-feet, causing the water to rise
7 feet above its sill, or to within 5 feet of the top of the dam.
In 1883 a serious slip occurred in the Ashti dam, causing a total settle-
ment of 16 feet at the crest of the embankment, and causing the ground
at the top of the dam to bulge upwards. The cause of this slip was
attributed to the fact that for a considerable portion of the length of the
dam it is founded on a clay soil containing nodules of impure lime and
alkali, which render it semi-fluid when soaked with water. The slip
occurred during or after excessive rains. It was corrected by digging
drainage-trenches at the rear toe, which were filled with bowlders and '
280 RBaSRVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
broken stone, and by the addition of heavy berms or counterforts of earth,
for 700 or 800 feet of its length, to weight the toe.
Similar slips occurred in the Ekruk dam, due to similar causes. These
occurrences point to the value of thorough drainage to the outer toe of all
earthen dams, and the desirability, of the adoption of that form of combina-
tion of rock-flll and earth used so successfully in the Pecos dams, wherever
rock can be obtained for the outer portion of such embankments.
Yallejo Dam, California. — Wherever earthen dams are constructed
partially upon exposed bed-rock foundations, it is essential to provide free
drainage to the water which seeks to follow along the bed-rock. An inter-
esting application of this principle was made in the construction of a dam
erected a few years since for the water-supply of Vallejo, California.
The dam was built for storage purposes and formed a reservoir of 160 acres,
3 miles from the city. The bed-rock was exposed in the channel, and
formed a low fall about the center line of the dam. Just above this fall
a concrete wall was built upon the bed-rock some 6 feet high, with a
drainage-pipe extending out to the lower toe of the embankment. A
quantity of broken stone was placed above this wall, which formed a
collecting-basin for any seepage that might pass through the embankment
or that might creep along bed-rock, and the dam was then built over the
wall in the ordinary way. This provision efEectually prevents the satura-
tion of the outer slope and keeps the dam well drained. The dam was
planned and built by Hubert Vischer, C.E., with Mr. C. E. Grunsky
acting as Consulting Engineer.
Earthen dams are usually constructed in one of the following ways:
(1) A homogeneous embankment of earth, in which all of the material
is alike throughout;
(2) An embankment in which there is a central core of puddle con-
sisting either of specially selected natural materials found on the site,
or of a concrete of clay, sand, and gravel, mixed together in a pug-mill
and rammed or rolled into position;
(3) An embankment in which the central core is a wall of masonry or
concrete;
(4) An embankment having puddle or selected material placed upon its
water-face;
(5) An embankment of earth resting against an embankment of loose
rock;
(6) An embankment of earth, sand, and gravel, sluiced into position by
flowini^ water — a form of construction described in the chapter on Hy-
draulic-fill Dams. Earthen dams have also been built with a facing of
plank, made water-ti^ht by preparations of asphaltum or tar. The choice
of these various available plans is dependent upon local conditions at the
site of the dam to be built, the materials available, and the predilection or
education of the engineer planning the structure.
EARTHEN DAMS. 281
European engineers, judging from their works, lean toward the central
puddle-core, and the greater number of the earth dams of the British
Empire are constructed on this plan. American engineers appear to prefer
the masonry core-wall, or the puddle facing on the inner slope of the
embankment to the central puddle-core, as a means of cutting oflE per-
colation through the dam and thus securing water-tightness.
The natural slope of dry earth placed in embankment is about 1^ to 1,
but in practice it is customary to increase this to 2 to 1 on the exterior,
and to 3 to 1 on the interior slopes. The necessary height of the em-
bankment above the high-water mark depends to some extent upon the
length and size of the reservoir, and the " reach " of the waves generated
by winds, as well as upon the width of the spillway and the height to which
water must rise in the reservoir during maximum floods to find full dis-
charge through the spillway. Ample spillway capacity is of primary im-
portance to the security of any earthen dam, unless it be one whose reser-
voir is filled by a canal or other controllable conduit from an adjacent
stream. A lack of sufficient spillway is the cause of the greater number
of the failures of earthen dams that have occurred, of which the most
memorable case was that of the Johnstown dam, whose rupture caused the
loss of two thousand lives and the destruction of many millions of dollars'
worth of property. Had the spillway been ot ample dimensions, this dam
would have resisted any pressure that could have been brought to bear
upon it and the disaster would, in all probability, never have occurred.
A common source of failure is in the doubtful practice of buildins: the
outlet-pipes through the body of the dam. These should either be laid in
a tunnel at one side, or in a deep trench cut into the bed-rock or the
solid impervious base of the dam, and the pipes surrounded by concrete,
filling the entire trench.
In building earth dams of any type it is essential that the earth should
be moist in order to pack solidly, an3 if not naturally moist it must be
sprinkled slightly until it acquires the proper consistency. An excess of
moisture is detrimental. It should be placed in thin layers, and thor-
oughly rolled or tamped, and the surface of each layer should he rough-
ened by harrowing or plowing before the next layer is applied. Droves of
cattle, sheep, or goats are often used with success as tamping-machines for
earth embankments. They are led or driven across the fresh made ground,
and the innumerable blows of their sharp hoofs pack the soil very thor-
oughly.
The Cuyamaca Dam. — One of the first earthen dams built in California
for irrigation storage was the Cuyamaca reservoir-dam, erected in 1886
by the San Diego Flume Company. It is located in a summit valley
between two of the Cuyamaca peaks, some 50 miles east of San Diego, at
an elevation of 4800 feet. The dam is 635 feet long on top, 41.5 feet higli^
282 RBSEBVOIRB FOB IRRIGATION, WATBR-POWSB. ETC.
with inner slope of 2 : 1, and outer slope of 1.5 : 1. The crest of the dam
is 6.5 feet above the floor of the epillways, one of which is 90 feet and
the other 41 feet in width.
Before work was begun on the dam the site was covered with loose
rock, and it was supposed that bed-rock was near the surface. Hence the
original plan was to build a masonry dam. Excavations were started for
that purpose, and considerable cement was brought to the ground to
construct the foundations of masonry. It was soon found, however, that
the loose rock was merely a surface layer on top of a bed of clay, and
the plan was changed to a dam of earth throughout.
The discharge-sluice of the dam was built through the center of
the structure, and consisted of a masonry culvert 3J feet wide, 4J feet
high, 120 feet long, resting on a bed of concrete 18 inches thick, laid
in a trench of that depth cut in the clay. This culvert has a fall of
3J feet in length. At its upper end is a circular brick tower, 5 feet in
diameter inside, with an opening at the bottom 3 feet wide, 4J feet
high, that is closed hy a ponderous wooden gate, so large and heavy as to be
almost immovable. A second gate, 16 feet higher, of similar size and
construction, is provided to close another opening into the tower. These
Pig. 138.— Vtew of Cctauaca Dam and Outlet towkb.
gates slide vertically ia wooden grooves. An iron gate inside the tower
closes the head of the culvert.
The bond between the earthwork and the culvert was imperfect, and
considerable leakage ensued after the reservoir first filled, but this was
afterwards remedied.
Fig. 128 is a view of the dam from the side of the reservoir, showing
the tower.
The dam is reported to have cost $51,000 as originally constructed to
the height of 35 feet. In 1894 an addition of C.5 feet was made to the
height of the dam, at a cost of $3400. This addition increased the capacity
EARTHEN DAM8,
285
of the reservoir to 11,410 acre-feet, covering an area of 959 acres to a mean
depth of nearly 12 feet. The watershed tributary to the reservoir is about
11 square miles. The following table, prepared by Mr. F. S. Hyde, C.E.,
from the records of the company in 1896, gives the volume of catchment
and use during the first nine years after the completion of the dam:
Table of Rainfall, Run-off, Evaporation and Average Draft from the
CuTAMACA Reservoir, San Dieoo County, California.
Rain and
Melted
Snow.
luchea.
Run-off in
Acre>feet.
PeroentaM
of Run-off
to Precipita-
tion.
Percent.
Run-off
per
Square Mile.
8«»cond-feet.
Evaporation.
Average
Draft from
Ke»ervoir
for
Irrifcation
and
City Supply.
Acre-feet.
Calendar
Tear.
Total.
Ft. In.
Average
per Day.
luehee.
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1898
1894
1895
1896
24.05
52.88
62.91
64.96
42.56
41.51
24.90
58.52
26.44
8,076
5,568
6.214
7,785
5.168
4,098
2,085
11,464
1,158
21.75
17.91
16.79
20.24
20.62
16.78
18.89
88.81
7.45
0.885
0.697
0.768
0.969
0.647
0.512
0.255
1.486
0.145
8 9.50
4 5.00
8 9.25
8 8.75
8 6.75
5 8.25
7 1.00
5 8.75
5 7.50
0.816
0.250
0.208
0.208
0.241
0.808
0.841
0.817
0.284
2,858
2,881
8,084
4,821
5,965
2,989
6,287
5,777
M<^AIlfl . .
44.29
5,897
19.83
0.676
4 8.75
4,881
Subsequent years of drouth have resulted in emptying the reservoir
entirely. The rainy seasons of 1897-98, 1898-99, and 1899-1900 have
furnished practically no water for storage.
Referring to the above table of rainfall and run-off, it should be ex-
plained that as the rain-gauge on which the precipitation was recorded
is located at the dam" between two high, wooded peaks, which act as
condensers of the moisture-laden clouds, the record shows a greater amount
than the average of the watershed, which a few miles east of the dam
borders on the desert, where the rainfall is known to be much less. This
is borne out by comparing the measured run-oflE with the " Newell Curve ^'
of run-oflE, which would indicate that if the recorded precipitation were
a mean of the entire area, the yield should be two to three times as great
as it actually was. This Cuyamaca rainfall record is misleading as a
criterion of mountain precipitation in this region. The water actually
flowing in diflEerent seasons from a known area, as shown by the table, is
more reliable as a guide for estimates of the yield to be expected from
adjacent sheds than any single rainfall record, or any possible collection
of rainfall statistics without such empirical knowledge of actual yield in
stream-flow produced by any given rainfall.
During the period covered by the table the mean annual draft from the
286 BBSBBVOiaS FOR IRRmATION, WATBR-POWBR, ETC.
reservoir was 4331 acre-feet, while the mean atmual run-off was 5397 acre-
feet. The difference between these figures, or 1066 acre-feet, represents
the mean annual evaporation, or 19.75 per cent of total catchment.
After flowing down Bowlder Creek and the San Diego River \2\ miles,
dropping 4000 feet vertically in that distance, the water released at the
dam is picked up and diverted to the flume by means of a masonry weir
extending across the San Diego River. This diverting-dam is 340 feet long
on top, 35 feet high, 22 feet thick at base, 5 feet at the crest. To cut off
leakage under the dam a subwall was built on the up-stream side in the
main channel, lapping onto the base of the dam and extending down 15
feet deeper. This wall is .5 feet thick at bottom. The original wall had
been founded on disintegrated granite. The subwall was built in a trench
that cut deeper into the soft granite, but was not entirely effectual in
stopping the leakage. (Pigs. 139 and 130.)
Tia. 180.— Plab abd Elevation o¥ DrvmiTiNO-DAii or 8ah Diboo Flumk Co.,
Califurnia.
The main flume is 34.85 miles in length, G feet wide in the clear, with
single sideboards IG inches high, though the frame-posts arc 4 feet high
and will admit of additional sideboards to give a total depth of 4 feet. It
completed as originally designed, the flume would have a capacity of 5000
miner's inches under 4-inch pressure. Its present maximum capacity is
not over 900 inches. The flume is supported at places on high trestles,
one of which is shown in Fig. 131, and there are a number of long and
costly tunnels on the route. The grade of the flume is 4.75 feet per mile.
It commands all the irrigable lands of EI Caj'on Valley, Spring Valley, and
the San Diego mesa, and supplies wafer to about iJ^flO acres, mostly culti-
vated in orchards of citrus fruits. The city of San Diego has also received
EARTHEN DAMS. 289
its domestic supply from this source during the greater portion of the time
since its completion, through a 15-inch steel-pipe line laid over the mesa,
from the end of the flume to the city, about 10 miles.
In the summer of 1897-98 the reservoir was quickly exhausted, and it
became necessary to install an independent system of supply for the
orchards and the city of San Diego. For the orchard supply this was
accomplished by sinking a series of bored wells in the gravel bed of the
San Diego River, above El Cajon Valley, where the flume leaves the
immediate valley of the river. Pumping-stations were erected, and the
wells, which were placed at intervals of 50 feet along a horizontal suction-
pipe 1000 to 1300 feet in length, were drawn upon in series simultaneously,
the water being forced up to the flume with a lift of 300 feet. About 3
second-feet (150 inches) were thus obtained, and though the supply was
meager it was sufficient to maintain the life of the trees and keep them
in bearing with good cultivation. The city was supplied in a similar
manner by wells sunk in the river-bed in Mission Valley, from 2 to 4 miles
above the main pumping-plant. The water was lifted to the surface at sev-
eral points and conveyed to the pump-station by small flumes. Over
3,000,000 gallons daily were thus obtained. These plants have had to be
maintained and increased in capacity up to the present writing (April,
1900), with a prospect of continuance until the next rainy season. The in-
habitants of southern California have reason to congratulate themselves
that Nature has provided underground storage-reservoirs capable of being
drawn upon so liberally that they are able to endure such an unprecedented
period of drouth as they are now experiencing. To obtain the supply,
however, by wells and pumps is generally far more costly than water stored
in surface reservoirs.
The Merced Beseryoir Dam, California. — The highest and longest
earthen dam closing a reservoir chiefly devoted to irrigation in California
is that which forms the so-called " Yoseraite Eeservoir," 6 miles north-
east of the town of Merced. This dam was constructed in 1883-84 by the
Crocker-Hoffman Land Company as a part of its general system of irriga-
tion, by which some 150,000 acres are commanded for irrigation. It has
a maximum height of 50 feet, and is built entirely of earth composed of a
sandy clay with inner slopes of 3 : 1 and outer slopes of 2 : 1. From the
top down for 15 feet the interior is paved with loose rock, 12 inches thick,
for wave-protection. The entire length of the dam is 2200 feet, of which
1400 feet is less than 10 feet high. It was built up as a homogeneous bank
of earth, without a puddle-wall, or without adding to the natural moisture
of the soil. The earth was simply put in place with scraper-teams, the
material being deposited with care in thin layers. The top width is 20 feet,
base 290 feet. The dam rests on a very firm foundation of cemented
gravel, into which a wide, deep puddle-trench was cut and carefully re-
290 RBSEBVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWBR, BTO.
Fio. 181a.— Map bhowinq Location o7 Mebcbd Rebervoir, Califobitia*
BABTHEN DAMS. 293
filled. Much of the material used in the dam had to be loo&ened by
blasting.
The reservoir-outlet consists of a masonry conduit, made of brick laid
in cement mortar, placed in a trench cut in the cemented gravel. This
conduit carries the main, cast-iron, delivery-pipe, 24 inches in diameter,
and a blow-off sluice-pipe. The conduit is 4 feet in diameter in the clear,
the brickwork being 12 inches in thickness.
The reservoir, dam, and outlet-tower are shown in Fig. 132.
The reservoir covers 600 acres and has a capacity when full of 15,000
acre-feet, of which about 20% is annually lost by evaporation. It is fed
by a canal 27 miles in length, leading from a diversion- weir placed in the
Merced River a short distance above the town of Snelling. For the first 8
miles the canal has a maximum capacity of 1500 second-feet, which is the
largest canal in California. The total cost of the canal system, with its
laterals, and the reservoir was about $1,500,000.
The watershed area of the Merced River above the head of the canal ic^
1076 square miles, in which is included the famous Yosemite Valley. The
mean annual fiow of this stream as determined by the California State
Engineering Department for the six years from 1878 to 1884 was about
1600 second-feet, the maximum being 6510 second-feet in the month of
June, and the minimum 65 second-feet in the months of November and
December. During the three months of May, June, and July, when the
greatest amount of irrigation is required, the mean discharge of the river
in the period named was about 4000 second-feet.
Bnena Vista Lake fieseryoir, California. — The large storage-tank
formed of Buena Vista Lake, in the southern end of the San Joaquin
Valley, is the largest irrigation-reservoir in the State, covering an area of
25,000 acres to a mean depth of nearly 7 feet. The volume of water which
it is capable of impounding above the level of the outlet-canal is 170,000
acre-feet, and in its general characteristics it more nearly resembles the
great tanks of India than any reservoir in this country.
The reservoir is formed by a straight dike, or dam, 5.5 miles in length,
following a township line from the foot-hills at the base of the mountains,
due north. The maximum height of the dam is 15 feet, tapering out to
nothing at either end. Its top width is 12 feet, and the slopes are 4:1
inside, 3 : 1 outside, the crest being 4 feet higher than the high-water level
of the reservoir when full. The erosion of this bank due to wave-action
rendered it necessary to riprap the face with stone over a long section
from the south end northward, where there were no tules growing to serve
as a breakwater to lessen the effect of wave-action, as was the case at the
north end. To procure the material for this riprap a narrow-gauge rail-
road was built for some ten miles from a quarry at the base of the moun-
tains. The cost of this work was more expensive than the construction
294 BE8ERV01RS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
of the embankment and brought the entire cost of the dam and outlets up
to about $150,000. The dam divides the reservoir from what was formerly
known as Kern Lake, before its bed was drained and cultivated.
The reservoir now receives all the surplus water of Kern River and the
waste at the tail end of all of the Kern Island canals below Bakersficld.
The water thus stored is only available for use on a belt of arable land
that was formerly a swamp, extending from Buena Vista Lake to Tulare
Lake. This land before reclamation was periodically overflowed when
the water of the river was not so extensively absorbed in irrigation in
the delta and upon the adjacent plains as it has been in recent years.
Since its reclamation it requires to be irrigated, and the reservoired water
is devoted to that purpose.
The reservoir was first filled in 1890, and has been in service ever since.
Its creation was the result of the compromise of the most extensive and
costly litigation over water-rights that has ever arisen in California. The
title of the action was that of Lux vs. Haggin. It will go down in history
as the case in which the Supreme Court of California, by a majority of
one, first established the English common-law doctrine of riparian rights
as applicable to the streams of the State. It is believed that this doctrine^
though greatly modified by subsequent decisions, has been a serious draw-
back to irrigation development in California.
The surface of the reservoir is so large as compared with the volume
stored that the annual loss by evaporation is estimated at 120,000 acre-feet,.
or 70% of the total capacity. This is an enormous waste of water, which
might be saved to a considerable extent by the construction of storage-
reservoirs in the mountains, where the ratio between surface area and
volume would be very much less, and the rate of evaporation smaller. The
reservoir is generally filled from about May 1st to July 20th, during the
melting of the snows, after which time to September 1st the inflow is
about suflRcient, ordinarily, to offset evaporation. Thus during the five
hottest months, when nearly 70% of the total evaporation of the year takes
place, the loss is supplied by the river, and by the return waters of irriga-
tion. Therefore, in those seasons when the run-off is sufficient to supply
the demand of the canals and yield a surplus great enough to fill the
reservoir by September 1st, in addition to evaporation, the net amount
available for use from the reservoir would approximate 125,000 to 135,000
acre-feet. Measurements of the river taken daily from 1879 to 1884, and
from 1894 to 1897,— ten years in all,— show a minimum yearly discharge
of 364,000 acre-feet, a maximum of 1,760,000 acre-feet, and a mean of
789,000 acre-feet of water discharging into the valley at the mouth of the
canyon.
The Pilaroitos and San Andr^ Dams, California. — ^The water-supply
of San Francisco is largely derived from the storage of storm-waters on
EARTHEN DAMS. 295
the peninsula south of the city. The San Mateo dam, of concrete, described
in a previous chapter, supplanted one of the original earthen dams, that
known as the Upper Crystal Springs; but there are two other notable
structures still in service, called the Pilarcitos and the San Andr6s dams.
The Pilarcitos dam is 640 feet long on top, 95 feet in height above the
original surface of the ground, and has a top width of 24 feet. The slopes
are 2 : 1 each side. A puddle-wall, 24 feet thick, extends down 40 feet
below the surface, into a trench cut in bed-rock. The reservoir formed by
the dam has a capacity of 1,180,000,000 gallons (3622 acre-feet), and
gathers the run-off from a watershed of 2510 acres. The elevation of the
lake is 696 feet above sea-level.
The San Andr6s dam has a top length of 850 feet, a maximum height
pf 93 feet above the original surface, and a top width of 24 feet. The
inside slope is 3.5:1, while the outer slope is 3:1. The central puddle-
wall reaches to bed-rock through 46 feet of earth and gravel. The dam
was originally built to a height of 77 feet, but in 1875 it was raised 16 feet
by the addition of the new material upon the outer slope. The base of the
new section was 135 feet As the inner slope was projected to the new
crest of the dam it became necessary to make a horizontal offset in the
puddle-wall in order to keep it within the center of the new section.
The San Andres reservoir has a capacity of 6,500,000,000 gallons
(19,950 acre-feet), and intercepts the drainage from 2695 acres of water-
shed immediately tributary. It is also fed by a flume, 17.42 miles in length,
leading from Lock's Creek. This flume gathers the water from 1800
acres of the Lock's Creek shed, all above 505 feet elevation. Other feeders
to the reservoir gather the water from Pilarcitos Creek below the Pilarcitos
dam, and from a branch of San Mateo Creek.
Cache la Poudre Beservoir Dam, Colorado. — The Union Colony of
Greeley, in northern Colorado, is supplied with water for irrigation by the
Cache la Poudre Canal, an important adjunct of which is a storage-reser-
voir of 5654 acre-feet capacity, formed by an earthen dam, 38 feet in
height. For a long time after the construction of the canal it was thought
unnecessary to supplement its river-supply by a reservoir. Later experi-
ence showed that the low-water period came on in many years before the
potato-crop was made, and a reservoir-site was sought to store water to
carry the farmers over this critical period. The site selected was one
which could be filled by a supply-canal, 8 miles long, discharging into the
main canal 2 miles below its head.
The dam was made by scraper-teams, of the soil at the site, and is
homogeneous in character, without puddle. It was originally made with
a uniform inner slope of more than 3 to 1, but the action of waves has
made it quite irregular. The embankment settled 4 to 5 feet the first year
after the water was turned in, and becomes quite soft throughout whenever
296 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
the reservoir is filled, but this is yearly becoming less. The rock for rip-
rapping the face of the dam was brought by rail to the nearest point, and
hauled by wagon two miles, costing $1.10 per ton laid down. The dam cost
$81,623 for construction, in addition to $28,643 paid for real estate and
rights of way — a total of $110,266. The year after it was completed and
filled, the reservoir proved its value by saving the crop of potatoes valued
at $331,366, of which one-half is credited to the reservoir.
The feeder-canal has a capacity of 150 second-feet, while the outlet-
canal will carry 200 second-feet.
The outlet-conduit is founded on tough clay, and has a floor of wide
flagstones laid on concrete. The conduit is 5 feet wide, and 5 feet high
in center, the side walls being 2^ feet high, and a semicircular arch form-
ing the roof. Two collar-walls extend into the embankment to cut off
leakage. The gates are the invention of Gordon Land, a well-known
hydraulic engineer of Denver, and are known as " railroad gates." They
are two in number and travel on a double track, set at an inclination of
20** from the vertical, the gates being provided with wheels. They go
down to their seats by gravity, and are raised by wire ropes passing over
a windlass at the top of the embankment.
Colorado State Dams. — In 1892 the State of Colorado by legislative
enactment inaugurated a system of storage-reservoirs for irrigation, under
which five dams were erected in different parts of the State by money
appropriated for the purpose by the State legislature. This is a policy
which has not been attempted by any other of the States of the Union,
so far as the writer is aware, and in this case it does not appear to have
been successful or to meet with popular favor. The dams are under the
control of the State Engineer, and water from them is sold to the irriga-
tors.
The selection of the sites and the expenditure of the money appear to
have been controlled by politics rather than by good engineering. The
experiment cost the State $102,544.88 in all, and the total storage provided
was but 2574 acre-feet in the aggregate. An account of these works,
gleaned from the State Engineer's reports, is of interest, and is con-
densed as follows:
The Monument Creek Dam. — This earthen dam is located on Monument
Creek, some 15 miles north of Colorado Springs, at an elevation of 7000
feet above sea-level.* Its dimensions are the following:
Maximum height 40 feet
Width on top 20 ^'
Length on top 855 *'
Inner slope 3:1
Outer slope 2:1
EARTHEN DAMS. 297
The water-line is 7 feet below the crest of the dam. The inner face of
the dam is covered with a clay puddle-wall laid on the slope, with a hori-
zontal thickness of 50 feet at the base and 10 feet at top. This puddle is
carried down to bed-rock in a trench 14 feet deep, at the inner toe of the
dam, the minimum width of the trench being 5 feet. Over the puddle-wall
is laid a riprap wall of stone, placed with care by hand. The outer half
of the dam is composed of coarse gravel, rock, and earth. These general
principles must be regarded as unexceptionable in earth-dam construc-
tion.
The reservoir-outlet is formed by two 16-inch cast-iron pipes, laid in a
trench excavated underneath the dam, with concrete collars, 12 inches
wide and the same thickness, at each of the joints. Between these collars
the trench was filled with puddled clay. Just above the inner line of the
crest of the dam a gate-tower is carried up through the embankment from
the level of the outlet-pipes. At the bottom of this tower two 16-inch
stop-valves are placed in the outlet-pipes, their stems reaching to the top
of the dam inside the tower. The tower is circular in form, 4rJ *feet inside
diameter for the lower 8 feet, and 3 feet diameter for the remaining
height. It is built of sandstone, 18 inches thick, laid in cement. The
entire tower is encased in puddled clay.
The spillways provided each side the dam have a total width of 200
feet, although 50 feet width was regarded as probably ample to carry the
maximum floods from the 22 square miles of drainage-area.
The dam was planned and built under the supervision of J. P. Maxwell,
State Engineer. The work was done by contract for $25,000, exclusive
of engineering, but when finally completed in 1894 its entire cost had
reached $33,121.53. The award of the contract was made subject to the
proviso that El Paso County, in which it is located, should furnish, without
cost to the State, a clear title to the land required, which was done.
It was estimated that the reservoir could be filled three or four times
every year, but it is found to fill once and sometimes twice in a year.
The reservoir covers 62 acres to a mean depth of 13.8 feet, or 42% of
the maximum depth. It impounds 885 acre-feet.
Tlie Apishapa State Dam is located in the Metote Canyon in Las Animas
County, and was completed in 1892. The dam is of earth, and forms a
reservoir of 459 acre-feet capacity. Its cost was $14,771.80. It is filled by
a ditch, 2 miles long, leading from Trujillo Creek, which has 30 square
miles of watershed, the water from which is fully appropriated and used
by prior locators.
The Hardscrabble State Dam is an earthen structure, completed by the
State in 1894, at a cost of $9997.31. It impounds but 102 acre-feet of
water, and is filled by a ditch from Hardscrabble Creek, in Custer County.
The Boss Lake State Dam is located in Chafifee County, on the head-
298 RBaEBVonta for irrigation, water-power, etc.
waters of the South Arkansas Eiver. It was finished in 1894, at a cost
of $14,654.24, and forms a reservoir with a capacity of 205 acre-feet. It
is made of earth, and was reported to be unsafe in construction and was
never filled. The tributary watershed is 4 square miles.
The Saguache State Dam is located near the town of Saguache, and is
an earthen dam which cost $30,000. The reservoir capacity behind it is
954 acre-feet. It is filled by a ditch from the Saguache Eiver, but as the
normal fiow of the stream is fully appropriated, only the winter and spring
floods are available.
CHAPTER V.
NATURAL RESERVOIRS.
I
On the great plains east of the Kooky Mountains there are thousands
of natural basins which have no outlets and which gather the storm-water
run-off from a few hundred acres of surrounding territory, and hold it in
shallow ponds until it is lost by evaporation. Many of these depressions
hav^ been utilized as storage-reservoirs by carrying water to them from
adjacent streams, and by providing them with outlets, either by tunnels
or cuts; and many more have been selected for future utilization. They
Are often at the proper elevation to command large areas of arable land,
And can usually be converted into safe storage-reservoirs at small expense.
Such natural basins appear to be invariably water-tight, and in every way
suitable to the purpose, except in occasional instances where they contain
■deep beds of alkali.
The Alpine Reservoir, California. — The project of the South Antelope
Valley Irrigation Company, completed in May, 1896, and put in service the
following year, is dependent upon a reservoir, formed in a natural basin,
which has unusual features and is of special interest, not only as the
first reservoir of any magnitude completed on the borders of the Mojave
Desert in southern California, but because it lies directlv in the line of
what is known as " the great earthquake crack '* of this region, which is
marked by a series of similar basins behind a distinct ridge that appears
to have been the result of the great seismic disturbance.
This remarkable line of fracture can be traced for nearly 200 miles
through San Bernardino, Los Angeles, Kern, and San Luis Obispo coun-
ties, and deviates but slightly here and there from a direct course of about
N. 60** W. There appears to have been a distinct " fault " along the line,
the portion lying south of the line having sunken, and that to the north
of it being raised in a well-defined ridge. In many places along the great
crack ponds and springs make their appearance, and water can be had in
wells at little depth anywhere on the south side of the ridge before
mentioned. A tough, plastic, blue clay distinguishes the line of the break
in this portion of its course, at least, and where the line crosses Little
299
800 RESERVOIBS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
Rock Creek the blue clay has formed a submerged dam^ which has forced
the underflow to rise near the surface and created a ^^ cienega ^^ immediately
above it. After crossing the line the water of the creek drops quickly away
into the deep gravel and sand of the wash. The same effect is noticeable
at other streams^ and the earthquake crack has been suggested as the
probable cause of the very distinct rim marking the lower margin of the
San Bernardino Valley artesian basin and confining its waters within well-
defined limits^ as this rim is nearly on a prolongation of the line that is
traceable on the north side of the mountains, — the break having possibly
crossed the mountains through the Cajon Pass on the line of Swartout
Canyon.
One of the largest depressions on the earthquake line is the basin near
Alpine or Harold station on the Southern Pacific Sailroad, which has
always held a small amount of water, supplied by the rainfall over the
small catchment of 6 or 8 square miles above it, but which is now trans-
formed into a reservoir fed by a canal, 8.6 miles long, from Little Bock
Creek. The railway passes through one side of the basin and crosses the
outer rim near the outlet-tunnel. A low levee or dike, about 4000 feet
long, will have to be built alongside the track to enable the reservoir to
be filled to its maximum depth of 34 feet, for which it has been planned.
At this level it will cover 263 acres of surface and impound 5500 acre-feet
of water. The basin will carry 15 feet of water without submerging the
track, and for present purposes a dike lower than that which is planned
for a full use of the basin has been built to permit the storage of 21 feet '
depth of water. A corner of the basin is shown in Fig. 135 as it appeared
before beginning work. The view is taken looking east across the railroad-
tracks toward the mountain source of supply.
The feeder-canal from Little Rock Creek consists of 2 miles of flume
and chute and 6^ miles of earth canal, including two ponds used as sand-
settling basins, 1600 and 1400 feet long. The location of the conduit,
after getting out of the canyon of the creek, is directly on the earthquake
line for the greater part of the way, the straightness of the line being
noticeable on the map. Fig. 134. The canal heads at an elevation of
3130 feet above sea-level, and it has a total fall to the surface of the reser-
voir of 317 feet, of which the canal grade required but 70 feet. The
superfluous fall was taken up by a series of inclines or chutes, down
which the water flows with great velocity. They are seven in number and
have a total length of 4600 feet.
The canal has a maximum capacity of 250 to 300 second-feet. Under
normal conditions it is expected that the reservoir can be filled twice or
more each season, and by irrigating freely in winter and early spring the
duty of the reservoir and canal system may be increased to accomplish the
irrigation of as great an area as though the reservoir were of double the
802
RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
capacity. The tract which the company hopes to supply from this source
covers about 10,000 acres, a part of which is being planted in olives.
The watershed of Little Eock Creek, as shown by the best maps to be
had, does not exceed 61 square miles, but as it heads in one of the highest
peaks of the Sierra Madre and drains the north slopes of the mountain,
the run-off to be expected from it may ordinarily reach 400 acre-feet per
Fig. 184.— Map of Little Rock Creek Ibbigation District.
square mile. The normal flow of the stream, which reaches a minimum of
2 second-feet, is diverted at the before-mentioned earthquake cienega by
a ditch supplying the Little Rock Irrigation District, the outlines of which
are shown on the sketch-map {Fig. 134). Consequently the South Ante-
lope Valley Company must depend entirely upon the surplus flood-water
after the district is supplied.
Incidentally it will be of interest in this connection to mention that
a careful measurement of the underflow in the gravel bed of the stream
overlying the blue clay of the earthquake crack, made by Mr. J. B.
Lippincott in June, 189(), resulted in the conclusion that the rate of flow
of the percolating water passing through the sand and gravel of the
NATURAL RESEBVOIES. 305
channel was 2.16 feet per hour, or 3.53 miles per annum, which is ex-
tremely slow, but much greater than that noted at the Agua Fria River,
Arizona (p. 210), doubtless because of the greater coarseness of the gravel
at Little Rock.
The outlet to the Alpine reservoir (Figs. 135, 136) is made by a tunnel
750 feet long, in which a 36-inch riveted steel pipe is laid for irrigation
supply alone, and a 10-inch pipe of the same character is placed above
the former for domestic purposes only, both being surrounded with con-
crete, filling the 8-inch space concentric with the pipes to the walls of the
tunnel. The pipes extend only 200 feet from the interior to a. gate-shaft,
and thence the main pipe discharges into a flume placed inside the tunnel-
timbers^ This flume is 2 feet deep, 3 feet 8 inches wide, and delivers the
water to the distributing-ditches running east and west from the mouth
of the tunnel on suitable grade-lines. A wooden platform on a trestle
built over the inner end of the tunnel serves as a place from which to
operate the 36-inch gate- valve at the head of the pipe and three 10-inch
valves on a stand-pipe at different levels controlling the domestic supply,
which is taken under pressure to the town of West Palmdale. The works
were planned and built by Burt Cole, a civil engineer residing in the dis-
trict. The cost of the system was about $100,000.
Twin Lakes Reservoir, Colorado. — One of the reservoir-sites surveyed
by the government in 1892 was the Twin Lakes site, on a fork of the
Arkansas River (Fig. 137). These lakes cover an area, at normal stage of
water, of about 1900 acres, and have a depth of more than 80 feet. They
are at an altitude of 9194 feet, and receive the drainage from 387 square
miles of watershed, including within this area some of the highest moun-
tains of Colorado. The annual run-off from this area is from 40,000 to
100,000 acre-feet.
The plan proposed by the government engineers for utilizing these two
lakes and converting them into one large reservoir was to erect an earth
dam, with a maximum height of 73 feet, across the valley below the lakes,
and thus increase their surface area to 3475 acres. This would give a
reservoir capacity above the normal lake surface of 103,500 acre-feet.
To fill the reservoir it was designed to supplement the run-off of the
streams directly tributary by diverting water from the main Arkansas
River, by a canal leaving the river a short distance below Leadville.
Some years after this survey was made a private corporation, called the
Twin Lakes Reservoir Company, was organized by Buffalo capitalists to
carry out the work on a modified plan. This company acquired sufficient
land around the margins of the lakes to control them, and began work
in the summer of 1898. The plan adopted by them contemplated work^
that would enable them to draw off the lakes to 16 feet below their normal
level, and in addition build a low dam that would store 9 feet in depth
306 BESESVOIBS FOR IRRIGATION. WATER-POWER, ETC.
above that level, — thus commanding a total depth of 25 feet and a total
volume of 48,000 aere-feet. Of this volume, two-thirds, or 32,000 acre-
feet, is below the normal lake-level. In pursuance of this plan they ex-
cavated a canal at one side of the outlet-stream, 2000 feet long, from
the edge of the lower lake to the point of its intersection with Lake Creek.
This canal is 40 feet wide on bottom, and has a maximum depth of 37 feet.
The excavation was in sand, bowlders, and silt, or " glacial flour," and was
chiefly made with a ateam-shovel. At the point where the excavation wm
L^ ^*"^^
r
»«,^~>q^
Canal Section
..-•'
.'•"^'•^^
"H ■■•..
-i^ — ,
7 1 1 ? 3 2 T 3 3 ;5 3 '''ZSn*',
Icnyffai/inal Ste.^ Outl^ Tanne/ from naamr^Oir Sa^^^ «^T 1 -Sma
eovmrtaSar-f/um
•/7g *^ecBencf> f/ume
Fia. 186.— Details of Tunnel- ootlrt of the Alfink l<Ei:ii:itv<jiii.
deepest, some 300 feet from the lake margin, they prei)ared to erect head-
gates of iron, on a heavy base of concrete, with abutment- walls of cut
stone laid in cement mortar. The structure was to have been 32 feet in
height. The gates were twelve in number, each 2 feet 8^ inches wide,
.5 feet high, made of ^-inch boilor-plate, and carrj^ing iron flashboards,
loosely resting one above another, on top of the gate, and reaching up to
above high-water mark. The gates were to slide vertically between 12-inch
I beams. These beams were to he embedded in the concrete floor. The
foundations for this floor were made by driving piles, upon which the
abntment-walls and center pier rest. (Fig. 138.)
The concrete base of the gate structure was planned and built 72 fget
long, with a width of (iff feet to the' outer lines of the a hutment- walls. It
,was made .5 feet in thickness, with double grillage of T rails, encased in
the concrete. Three lines of apron or curtain walls extended down 5 feet
below the bottom of the concrete, across the line of the canal.
Fig.' 137.
[To face page 807.
ISAS RIVER BASIN
IRESEIR¥®M, iOTE
ner H.BodfifiK,Eingineer.
1 Capacity 103500 Acre Feiet^
1B89
\
\
c
\
N
NATURAL RBSEBYOma. 307
In the spring of 1899 this structure was partially completed, the floor
was finished, and one of the abutment-walls was built 12 feet high, when
work was stopped by threats of injunction made by officials of the Denver
and Bio Grande and the Colorado Midland railways, whose tracks through
the canyon of the river below would have been endangered by any failure
of the proposed reservoir. At this juncture Mr. 0. 0. McEeynolds was
appointed Chief Engineer, and the writer was employed as Consulting
Engineer to prepare plans to make the work secure and allay apprehen-
sions of its safety. The modifications which were made in the plan are
shown in Fig. 137, and the work has since been completed in compliance
with the new design. The changes were made in such manner as to adapt
them to the part already completed and to utilize materials already on the
ground. These were the following: A series of four culverts were built
on top of the completed floor, extending from the line of gates to the
lower edge of the concrete platform, a distance of 47 feet. These culverts
are each 7 feet 11 inches wide and 7 feet high, with a semicircular arch
over them. They are built of concrete, the thickness of the arch being
2 feet. On top of these culverts a masonry dam is built across the canal,
reaching to a height of 30 feet above the floor of the structure. This
wall is of sandstone ashlar, laid in large blocks with Portland-cement
mortar. Its base width is 15 feet, top 4 feet; down-stream batter 5 : 12.
Extending welf into the banks on each side, in line with the dam, is a con-
crete wall, 2 feet thick, designed to cut off seepage through the earth
filling on the sides that would tend to pass around the dam. Against the
masonry dam on the lower side is an embankment of earth over the top of
the culverts, forming a driveway over the canal, 22 feet wide on top.
The outer slope terminates against a low wall forming a fagade for the
culvert-portals. The slope is paved with stone. For 50 feet above
and 75 feet below the concrete platform the canal is paved with con-
crete on the bottom, and the sides protected from erosion by substantial
walls of concrete above the dry rubble below the headworks. The gates
built for the original design were used, but the hoisting-device was im-
proved, and a substantial gate-house built over the gates.
Spillway. — A space is left between the gates and the masonry which
will admit of a maximum discharge of 600 second-feet over the top of the
flashboards, without raising the gates. Whenever any water thus passes
over the top of the flashboards it can escape freely through the culverts
and down the canal. This provision for sudden floods in the possible
absence of attendants to open the gates is considered an ample spillway
allowance. The culverts have a combined capacity of over 2000 second-
feet.
Fishway, — To provide for a free passage of migratory fish over the
dam, in compliance with the State law, it is proposed to erect a fish-ladder
BB8ESV0IRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATSB-POWBR. ETC.
Fia. 138. — Details or OnrLETs for Twik Lakes, Colo. OEsiaMBD for the
Twin Lakes Rebertoik Co. bt J. D. Schcileb, Cohb. Esait., and built bt
O. O. HcRbtnolds, Chief Emsinbeb.
.'» •
NATURAL RESERVOIRS. 809
of approved design, supplying it with water piped from a neighboring
stream. The lakes abound in trout.
The entire cost of the improvements, including the purchase of valuable
villa sites on the lake margins, will be about $200,000. The works were
finished during the current year (1900).
" Olacial Flour." — ^An interesting feature of these improvements is the
peculiar character of the material through which the canal has been
excavated and upon which the head-works have been built. The lakes are
located between two great lateral moraines, hundreds of feet in height,
while the barrier across the valley, forming the natural dam inclosing
the lower lake, is a terminal moraine deposit, consisting largely of rock
dust, or almost pure silica ground to an impalpable powder, known to
geologists as ^^ glacial flour.'' This material is so fine in texture as to
resist percolation through any considerable mass of it, and hence it be-
comes practically impervious as an embankment of ordinary dimensions.
It is neither quicksand nor clay, and has none of the characteristics of
these elements.
The natural channel through which the lakes overflow into the
Arkansas Biver will be closed by an embankment of this glacial flour^
well riprapped with stone on both sides.
Larimer and Weld Reservoir. — One of the natural basins, located 1^
miles north of Fort Collins, Colorado, has been made to hold an important
auxiliary supply to the Larimer and Weld canal, feeding into the latter
2 miles below the head of the canal. When filled to the rim it holds a
maximum depth of 25 feet, and has a storage capacity of 7700 acre-feet
at that level. This capacity was increased in 1895 to 11,550 acre-feet by
constructing a low levee or bank about 2000 feet long at the lowest part
of the rim of the basin. This added 5 feet to the depth of water in the
lake.
The cost of the improvements was $21,796, but land and water rights,
attorneys and court fees, and miscellaneous expenses swelled the entire
cost to $64,782. On the same canal system are two other natural basins,
utilized as reservoirs, the larger of which, called the Windsor reservoir, is
25 miles below the head of the canal. It carries a maximum depth of 28
feet of water, and cost $52,000, of which $25,000 was for the land and
attorneys' fees. To increase the depth to 40 feet, an embankment is to be
built which is estimated to cost $23,000 additional. The reservoir will
then have a capacity of 23,000 acre-feet.
The Larrimer County Canal utilizes six of these basins on the plains,
as storage-reservoirs, which have a combined capacity of 10,860 acre-
feet.
All of these basins above described derive their water-supply from the
Cache la Poudre Eiver.
810 BE8EEV0IRS FOE lEEIQATION, WATEE-POWEE, ETC.
Harston Lake. — One of the largest of these natural basins^ situated at
an elevation to command the city of Denver, has been utilized by the
Denver Union Water Company as a storage-reservoir of 5,000,000,000
gallons capacity. It is fed by a canal from Bear Creek, and is provided
with two outlet-tunnels which connect with the main conduits leading to
the city of Denver, 10 miles distant.
Loveland Beservoir-site. — One of the largest of the natural-basin
reservoirs that has been projected for use in Colorado is located 3 miles
northeast of Loveland, Colorado, at Boyd Lakes. These are two basins
adjacent, each containing small lakes, on the high ground between the
Cache la Poudre and Big Thompson rivers. The basin will require no
dam, and when filled will have a maximum depth of 44 feet, and a surface
area of 1920 acres, the capacity of which will be 45,740 acre-feet.
The method proposed for its conversion into a reservoir is to make an
open cut, 10 feet wide at the bottom, on a grade of 1.5 feet per mile. At
the deepest point in the cut a masonry wall is proposed to be built across
the cut, with six 3-foot, cast-iron pipes passing through the wall. The
reservoir would be fed by two canals from the rivers on each side of it.
The entire cost of the improvement is estimated by Capt. H. M. Chitten-
den at $262,106.34, or $5.73 per acre-foot of storage capacity.
The Laramie Natural Reservoir-site, Wyoming. — Capt. Chittenden's
able report f on reservoir-sites in Wyoming and Colorado describes a
natural basin that could be made available for storing the surplus water
of the Laramie and Little Laramie rivers, which is one of colossal magni-
tude. Its maximum depth is 170 feet, covering an area of 13,651 acres,
and having a capacity of 937,038 acre-feet. This is greatly in excess of
the supply available from the two streams mentioned, which is estimated
at 70,000 acre-feet annually, although this could be increased by gathering
the supply from more distant sources.
When filled to the 100-foot level, the annual loss by evaporation would
be 24,000 acre-feet, leaving a supply of 46,000 acre-feet for irrigation.
The estimated cost of the canals, reservoir-outlets, rights of way, etc.,
for utilizing the basin on the basis of storing only the waters of the two
Laramie rivers, was $416,254, or $9.05 per acre-foot of average supply.
Lake De Smet Reservoir-Bite, Wyoming. — Among the reservoir-sites
examined and reported upon by Capt. Chittenden, in the report quoted
above, was a natural depression without outlet, called Lake De Smet.
This basin is 3 miles long, 1 mile wide, and covers an area of 1965 acres.
The improvement of this basin which he recommended was to construct
Report of Capt. Hiram M. Chittenden, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., upon examina-
tion of Reservoir-sites in Wyoming and Colorado, nnder the provisions of Act of Con-
gress of Jnne 8. 1896. House Document No. 141, 55th Congress, 2d Session.
NATURAL RESERVOIRS.
311
a feeder-canal, 3^ miles long, with a capacity of 727 second-feet, and con-
struct two outlets, one at each end of the basin, discharging into Box
Elder Creek on one side and into Piney Creek on the other, each to have
a capacity of 425 second-feet. This would convert the basin into a reser-
voir by the addition of 30 feet in depth, bringing the level of the lake up
to the rim of the basin, increasing its surface area to 2400 acres, and
aflEording an available storage of 67,627 acre-feet of water. The entire cost
of the improvement was estimated at $113,360, or $1.67 per acre-foot of
storage capacity.
Such natural basins as those described in the foregoing pages, which
can be filled by controllable canals, present advantages as storage-reser-
voirs which are certainly ideal. The great thickness of the natural ridges
which surround them renders them absolutely safe against bursting, pro-
vided their outlets are properly designed and well constructed; they are
generally quite free from loss by percolation, and the volume of silt de-
posited in them is in direct ratio to their capacity, as no more silt-laden
water need be put into them than is drawn out of them for use, in addition
to evaporation, whereas a reservoir located in the channel of a river may
often have to receive the silt from a volume of water many times the
reservoir capacity. The only disadvantage they possess is that the surface
area exposed may be greater per unit of volume stored than in deep reser-
voirs formed by high dams, and consequently the ratio of loss by evapora-
tion may be somewhat greater.
This disadvantage is, however, amply offset by the many superior
features they possess when compared with the average stream-bed reser-
voir.
Natural Beservoirs of the Arkansas Valley, Colo. — The most extensive
enterprise for the storage of flood waters for irrigation in natural-basin
rpservoirs yet undertaken in the West was recently completed by The Great
Plains Water Company in the Arkansas Valley in Eastern Colorado, and
the reservoirs were partially filled and used for the first time during the
irrigation season of 1900. The reservoirs are five in number, lying in a
group closely adjacent to each other, and have the following capacities:
* Name of Reiervoir.
Nee 8opnh..
Nee Gronda.
Nee Noahe. .
NeeSkah...
King
Totals
8.600
8,490
8.770
1.030
1,831
Tot«l
Capacity.
Acre-feet.
Vnlnme below
Outlet I^vel
and
Unavailable
Acre-feet.
14,131
84.872
97.069
82.121
82,9«5
18.279
264.826
10.908
89,860
21.485
9,989
Vo1um<»
A callable
for Use.
Acre-feet.
82,192
28.464
57,209
60.686
28.046
18,279
182.r»S5
* The Dames of the reservoirs are from the Osage Indian language, nnd have the
followincr interpretations : Nee Sopah, Black-water ; Nee Gronda, Big-water ; Nee
Noehe. Standing-water ; Nee Skah, White- water.
812 RB8ERV0IR8 FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
The reservoirs are located 12 to 18 miles north of the town of Lamar,
and are fed by a canal from the Arkansas River, which heads near La Junta,
Colo., and has a maximum capacity of 2096 second-feet. The company
has built various other canals, as shown by the following table:
Name of Canal. ^m8S.*" ^S?-ff. *"
Fort Lyon 113.00 2096
Kicking Bird 36.50 1000
Satanta 12.50 300
Comanche 16.78 400 •
Pawnee 6.34 200
Amity 110.00 870
Bujffalo 16.10 192
The company has invested about $2,250,000 in its irrigation works and
lands, the area of its holdings being about 100,000 acres. The manager of
the company is Mr. W. H. Wiley, of New York, now residing at Holly,
Colo.
The three reservoirs described in the foregoing table are so connected
that they can be drawn upon by one outlet. This has been formed by a
deep cut through the rim of the basin, in which the gates are placed in
substantial headworks of cut-stone masonry. The outlet to Nee Skah is
of a similar plan. The King reservoir as yet has no outlet provided for it.
Natural Oravel-bed Storage-reservoirs. — It may be said that all the soil
of the earth is a storage-reservoir, which receives a large proportion of the
precipitation from the clouds and gives it off slowly to feed the natural
springs by which the normal flow of the streams is maintained. These
natural reservoirs are increased in capacity and useful function by a
maintenance of the forests, which shade the ground, lessen the force of
the winds, increase the humidity of the air, diminish evaporation, and knit
the soil together with a network of roots and so enable it to resist erosion.
In many parts of the country the storm-waters from the mountains
flow over great beds of coarse gravel, extending from the foot-hills out into
the valleys, for many miles. These gravel beds constitute natural storage-
reservoirs of enormous capacity, and if, at some lower point, a contraction
occurs in the stream-channel, or some natural barrier intercepts the flow,
the water is again forced to appear on the surface and feeds the stream by
a constant outpouring from the gravel reservoir, long after the feeders of
the reservoir have gone dry.
In southern California there are a number of such natural reservoirs,
one of the most notable of which is in the San Fernando Valley, north of
Los Angeles, and supplies, by its natural overflow, the Los Angeles River.
The San Fernando Valley has an area of 182 square miles, about one-
NATURAL RESEBVOIBS. 318
fourth of which is a deep hed of coarse gravel, constituting a natural
storage-reservoir. The valley is surrounded by mountains, of which about
300 square miles in the area drains into the valley. At its outlet the valley
narrows down to a width of about 2 miles, and at this first contraction
the Los Angeles River begins to appear, growing by rapid accretions in the
space of a mile or more, at the rate of 10 to 25 miner's inches per 100 feet
of channel. All the streams flowing into the valley are intermittent, and
for months at a time have practically no surface-flow. The overflow of the
gravel reservoir, however, is practically constant through all seasons, wet
and dry, maintaining a discharge of from 70 to 90 second-feet. Even after
three seasons of drouth the river at the present writing shows a diminution
of but about 15% from the normal.
The TTpper San Oabriel Valley, some 15 miles east of Los Angeles,
constitutes another natural reservoir, of somewhat greater discharge than
that of the Los Angeles River. The passage of the stream through the
coast range of hills is but one mile in width, and contracts the basin
sufficiently to cause the reservoir to overflow at the surface, producing
a never-failing water-supply for irrigation in the valley below. Near the
outlet of the upper valley a number of artesian wells have been bored
which pierce strata of impervious clay and add considerably to the natural
output of the reservoir.
The San Bernardino Valley is another interesting example of nature's
storage-reservoirs, whose overflow at the narrows below yields a large and
unfailing supply to the adjacent irrigated districts. This valley also pro-
duces a large artesian flow to augment the supply which naturally seeks
outlet to the surface, as the overflow of the gravel reservoir.
Only second in importance to these natural reservoirs which retain
water and let it out to the surface at a uniform rate, where it may be
diverted by gravity to the lands, are the great artesian basins fed by under-
ground streams, which require to be tapped by the boring of wells, and
the more numerous and widespread subterranean basins from which water
in wells may be pumped in practically immeasurable quantities.
CHAPTEK VI.
PROJECTED RESERVOIRS.
If all the reservoirs which have been surveyed and projected in arid
America within the past ten years were to be constructed, the water-
supply which they would conserve for irrigation \yould doubtless far ex-
ceed in volume all the water which has ever been made use of from the
natural streams, or from the reservoirs already built, while there are still
vast numbers unexplored which may be developed in the future.
In 1890, '91, and '92 a comprehensive series of reservoir locations were
made by the U. S. Geological Survey, and by Act of Congress the lands
covered by the sites selected were segregated and withdrawn from public
entry. The detail of this work is found in the 11th, 12th, and 13th
Annual Reports of the TJ. S. Geological Survey.
In the appendix will be found tables giving the data of these various
reservoir-surveys, the height of dams required, the area of reservoirs and
their storage capacity. The work was distributed over the following States
and Territories, viz.:
California 45 reservoir-sites.
Nevada 2 "
J Colorado 55 "
Montana 48 "
New Mexico 39 "
Utah 13 "
Wyoming 1 "
Idaho 1 «
Total 204
a
The most capacious rcscrvoir-site discovered by the survey at this
time, and doubtless the largest in the United States, was the Swan Lake
reservoir, on Snake River, Idaho, covering an area of over 32 square miles,
and capable of impounding 1,500,000 acre-feet, with a dam 125 feet in
height. The cost of the dam was estimated at $500,000. This consider-
814
PROJECTED RESERVOIRS, 315
ably surpasses the proposed Swift River reservoir in Massachusetts, whose
capacity is given at 1,245,000 acre-feet, or 406 billions of gallons.
Projected Beseryoirs in Wyoming. — Reference has been made in a
previous chapter to the able report of Capt. H. M. Chittenden, U.S.A.,
to the Secretary of War, on reservoir-sites in Wyoming and Colorado. The
examination of this matter was authorized by the River and Harbor Act
of June 3, 1896, providing for '* the examination of sites, and report upon
the practicability and desirability of constructing reservoirs and other
hydraulic works necessary for the storage and utilization of water, to
prevent floods and overflows, erosion of river-banks, and breaks of levees,
and to reenf orce the flow of streams during drought and low-water seasons,
at least one site each in the States of Wyoming and Colorado.
A number of the views which appear in this book have been kindly
loaned by the public printer, having first been used to illustrate Capt.
Chittenden's report, for which the writer makes due acknowledgment.
Five reservoir systems were examined under the provisions of the
Act of June 3, 1896, — three in Wyoming, two in Colorado. The Wyoming
reservoirs reported on were the Laramie site, the Sweetwater site, and the
Piney Creek system, comprising three reservoir-sites, viz., the Cloud Peak,
the Piney, and the Lake De Smet sites. The sites examined in Colorado
were the Loveland site, already described in a previous chapter, and the
South Platte site, 50 miles above Denver. At the latter site the Denver
Union Water Company is constructing a high dam, which is described in
the chapter on Rock-fill Dams.
The Laramie and Lake De Smet sites have already been referred to in
a previous chapter, in the class of natural basins.
The Sweetwater Site is located on the Sweetwater River, at a point
known as the Devil's Gate, about 65 miles north of the town of Rawlins,
Wyo. The river here cuts through a granite ridge with a remarkably nar-
row gorge, and only about 35 feet wide at the water-surface, 330 feet deep,
and 400 feet wide on top. The top length of the dam at the 100-foot level
will be but 150 feet. Here it is proposed to build a masonry dam about 100
feet high, which would form a reservoir 13 miles long, covering an area of
10,578 acres, and having a storage capacity of 326,965 acre-feet. The cost
of the work is estimated at $276,484.80 or 85 cents per acre-foot of ca-
pacity. The available supply for storage is stated at about 100,000 acre-
feet annuallv.
«
The profile of the dam proposed is of heavy dimensions, the base width
being 94 feet and the thickness at crest 25 feet, yet with these dimensions
the entire cubic contents of the dam are but 21,534 cubic yards. The
proposed outlet is by a tunnel 1000 feet long in the solid rock around the
base of the dam. The estimate includes an item of $75,000 as the value
of the land flooded by the reservoir.
816 RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
Capt. Chittenden says of the dam-site: "It stands almost without ex-
ception as the most favorable site for a masonry dam in the world."
The accompanying photograph, Fig. 139, corroborates this statement.
A gap in the ridge at one side of the dam limits the height to 100 feet, and
aflfords a natural spillway of any desired capacity.
The Cloud Peak Site is a natural lake, about 1^ miles long and i mile
wide, covering 173 acres. Its elevation is nearly 10,000 feet above sea-level,
and it is surrounded by high mountains densely clothed with forests. The
dam proposed for this site is the combination earth and rock-fill of the
Pecos Valley type. The rock-fill is planned with side slopes of 1:1, and
a top width of 6 feet. Against this is to be built an embankment of
puddled earth, with a crest width of 20 feet, and inner slope of 3 : 1. The
total height is 34 feet, top length 820 feet. A wasteway, 100 feet wide,
6 feet deep, is planned. The high-water mark will be 4 feet below the crest
of the dam. By means of a sluiceway, cut 10 feet deeper than the base
of the dam, it is proposed to draw down the lake-level 10 feet, giving a
total available capacity of 6800 acre-feet. The drainage-area is 30 square
miles in extent, from which the run-off will fill the. reservoir every year.
The estimated cost of the work was $31,048, or $4.56 per acre-foot of
storage capacity.
The Pincy Site is located 6 miles below the Cloud Peak site, at an
altidude of 8800 feet. It requires a dam 54 feet high to store 11,020
acre-feet, covering a surface area of 328 acres. The dam proposed is about
1000 feet long, and is planned to be of the same type as the Cloud Peak
dam. Its cost is estimated at $70,226.25, or $6.37 per acre-foot. The
total drainage-area above this site is 65 square miles.
Capt. Chittenden has given in his report the ablest and most convincing
arguments in favor of the construction of storage-reservoirs in the arid
West by the U. S. Government that have yet been advanced by the most
ardent advocates of that policy. He says:
" Of the very great importance of irrigation, not only to the West but
to the country at large, there would seem to be no room for doubt. To one
who has seen the changes wrought in the once desert regions of California,
Arizona, Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado, in what used to be as forbidding
regions as any still remaining in that country, there can be no doubt that
the destiny of the arid section of America is more dependent upon the
waters that flow from its mountains than upon the minerals that lie con-
cealed within them. Already in the greatest mineral-producing States of
the West, California and Colorado, irrigated agriculture yields a greater
wealth of product than the mines. . . . Already in many sections the
natural flow has been used as far as it is practicable to do so. . . . Here,
then, is a definite reason of the highest validity for the construction of
reservoirs. . . . The inevitable tendency of Western development is there*
FiQ. 189.— Tbk '■ Devil's Gate," Sweetwater Ritkr, Wtominq.
PROJECTED BESEBVOIBS. 319
fore to store the waters of the streams, and the limit of development in
this direction seems certainly to be nothing less than the final utilization of
all their flow. As reservoirs are indispensable aids to this end, it will be
seen that their construction as an element of growth of the Western coun-
try is not merely ^desirable' — it is absolutely necessary. What is the
proper agency to do the work? "
After discussing the financial, legal, commercial, and physical difficul-
ties in the way of these works being carried out by private individuals or
corporations on any adequate scale, he says:
"The matter of private or corporate construction of these storage-
works is therefore seen to be one of very doubtful practicability from a
financial point of view alone, while in neither case is it likely that reser-
voir-sites would be developed to their full capacity, as they should be, but
only to the extent that would be most advantageous to the investment
itself. ... It is becoming more and more apparent in the course of irriga-
tion development in the West that the waters of the streams should not be
made the subject of private property, but they should inhere in the land to
which they are applied, and that purchase or sale of water as a commodity
should not be allowed. Although in most States the contrary doctrine has
hitherto prevailed, the disposition of the courts at present and the views
of practical irrigators seem to incline more and more to the doctrine of
the public character of all streams. ... It is clear that this principle can
best be promoted, so far as stored waters are concerned, by having the
storage-works public property. A proper development of a storage system
for the waters of Western streams, it is thus seen, cannot be expected
through private agencies. It must be accomplished through some form of
public control."
The writer then shows that the irrigation district system of public con-
trol, though theoretically advantageous, has practically failed, and though
the system may be improved, it could not be sufficiently comprehensive to
produce best results. The question is thus resolved to State and national
agencies as the only ones qualified to deal with or create a comprehensive
reservoir svstem. He concludes that " the work is distinctlv interstate in
character, and is therefore less properly a State than a national enter-
prise. Already the interstate character of some of these streams is giving
rise to troublesome questions, which only Federal authority can answer.
In the case of reservoirs it not infrequently happens that some of the very
best sites are to be found close to State lines, where the waters so stored
will flow immediately into neighboring States. In these extreme cases the
States where they are located could not, of course, be expected to construct
reservoirs, and the States to be benefited would not be likely to go outside
their own borders to do so. The function clearly pertains to that sov-
ereignty which covers all the country and embraces the streams from their
820 RESERVOmS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC,
sources to the sea. It alone can store these waters and be sure that it is
reaping the full benefit.
" Another reason why the government should have an interest in this
work is that it is the largest landowner in the arid West. In Wyoming
over 90 per cent of the soil belongs to the government, and its holdings
throughout the West include millions of acres which can be reclaimed from
their present desert condition and made |)roductive lands. In this respect
government assistance in providing water for irrigation is a simple busi-
ness proposition for the enhancement of its own property.^'
In summarizing the arguments of which but brief extracts have been
given in the foregoing, Capt. Chittenden draws conclusions from which
the following extracts are taken:
"Reservoir construction in the arid regions of the West is an indis-
pensable condition to the highest development of that section. It can be
properly carried out only through public agencies. Private enterprise can
never accomplish the work successfully; as between State and nation, it
falls more properly under the domain of the latter.
" Eeservoir construction by the General Government need not in any
way involve government control of irrigation-works. These should be
left in the hands of the States and private individuals under State laws.
" The total extent of a reservoir system in the arid regions which shall
render available the entire flow of the streams will not exceed 1,161,600,-
000,000 cubic feet. If the construction of such a system were to consume
a century in time, it would represent an annual storage of 266,300 acre-
feet. At $0.73 per acre-foot this would cost $1,430,031 per annum. This
amount distributed among the seventeen States and Territories of the
arid section gives an average annual expenditure in each of $84,119. The
annual value of the stored water would return the original cost and main-
tenance in an average period of three years."
The latter statement is based on the estimate that the future average
annual value of stored water for irrigation alone throughout the arid West
is not less than $2 per acre-foot, which is certainly conservative.
Government Regervoir Surveys in Arizona. — The waters of the Gila
River in Arizona have been used for irrigation by the Pima and Maricopa
Indians from time immemorial, on the lands now included within the
limits of the Gila River Reservation. They are peaceable, pastoral tribes
of Indians, accustomed to derive their livelihood from the cultivation of
the soil. Within the past decade, however, the settlement of the upper
valleys of the Gila by white farmers has been followed by such a complete
diversion of the summer flow of the stream on the irrigated fields above
that the Indians have been practically deprived of their accustomed water-
supply, and reduced to a condition of dependence upon the government
for bare subsistence. In response to an urgent appeal on their behalf made
PROJECTED RESERVOIRS, 321
by the Indian Agent and the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the
Secretary of the Interior, an investigation was made in 1896 by Mr.
Arthur P. Davis, of the U. S. Geological Survey, of the feasibility and
cost of building storage-reservoirs to supply the Indians. The sites ex-
amined and reported upon were the Queen Creek site, and a site on the
main Gila Kiver at the Buttes, 14 miles above Florence.
The lack of suitable apparatus for determining the depth to bed-rock
at these sites led Mr. Davis to recommend that " thorough exploration
should be made with a core-drill before beginning the construction of the
dam.^' July 1, 1898, an appropriation of $20,000 was made to continue
the investigation, the money to be expended by the Director of the U. S.
Geological Survey, under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior.
The work was placed in the hands of Mr. Davis, and the investigation
thoroughly outlined by him, the writer acting as Consulting Engineer;
but before the field-work was completed, Mr. Davis was obliged to resume
his studies of the water-supply of Central America with the Isthmian
Canal Commission. The responsible oversight of the work was then in-
trusted to Mr. J. B. Lippincott, whose report was published as Xo. 33 of
" Water-supply and Irrigation Papers." The report of the writer as Con-
sulting Engineer was transmitted to the TJ. S. Senate, as Document No.
152, 56th Congress, 1st Session.
In conducting these investigations the depth of bed-rock at the various
sites selected was tested by two machines, which had been successfully
used on the Nicaragua Canal, and were loaned by the Nicaragua Canal
Commission for the purpose. The machine consisted of a light, portable
pile-driver, by which pipe from 2 to 4 inches diameter could be driven
through sand, gravel, and bowlders, to bed-rock, with a diamond core-drill
for penetrating the rock and bringing up a core for testing its quality. The
cost of each outfit delivered in Arizona was about $1600. Six men were
required to operate each machine which was capable of boring 200 feet
in rock, and making 6 to 8 feet per day in hard rock, and 10 to 15 feet
per day in softer rock. The average cost per foot of drilling done was
$2.46. The entire Amount of drilling done was 3254 feet, of which 322 feet
was in rock. Five dam-sites were thus tested, as follows: Queen Creek,
The Buttes, The Dikes, Riverside, and San Carlos.
The maximum depth to bed-rock at the Buttes site was 123 feet, while
at the Riverside and San Carlos sites the greatest depth was found to be
about 75 feet below the surface.
The net results of the investigation are summarized in the following
conclusions taken from the report of the writer:
" 1st. That a minimum of 40,000 acre-feet of water annually should be
stored for the supply of the Indian reservation.
'^2d That it is not feasible to obtain this supply from Queen
822 RE8EBV0IB8 FOR IBBIQATION, WATEBrPOWEB, BTO.
Creek, although the dam and reservoir proposed on the stream are feasible
of construction if a sufficient water-supply were available.
" 3d. That the Gila Eiver is the only available source of permanent
supply.
"4th. That it is not feasible or advisable to build a dam and reser-
voir on the Gila for storing so small a quantity as 40,000 acre-feet of
capacity on account of the rapidity with which a small reservoir must be
filled with silt.
" 5th. That it is not feasible to construct a reservoir outside of the
immediate channel of the Gila of sufficient capacity to provide for the
wants of the Indians, filling the same annually by a conduit from the
river.
" 6th. That it is not advisable to build a dam and reservoir on the
channel of the river of less capacity than one-half the total annual flow
of the river in minimum years.
" 7th. That feasible reservoir- and dam-sites exist on the Gila at the
Buttes, Riverside, and San Carlos. *
" 8th. That it is not feasible to build a masonry dam at the Buttes on
account of the rotten quality of the rock, the great depth to bed-rock,
and the excessive height of dam required to obtain a storage of 174,000
acre-feet, or about one-half the minimum flow of the stream.
" 9th. That a combination rock-fill and masonry dam is feasible to
construct at the Buttes at a cost of $2,643,327, storing 174,040 acre-feet,
but that it is not feasible to construct a dam of any type of greater height
or capacity.
" 10th. That the Buttes reservoir of the stated capacity may be ex-
pected to fill with solid matter in eighteen years, unless dredged or sluiced
out.
" 11th. That it is feasible to construct a masonry dam at Riverside at
a cost of $1,989,605, including damages for right oif way and the cost of
diversion-dam at the head of the Florence Canal, forming a reservoir with
a capacity of 221,134 acre-feet.
" 12th. That it is feasible to increase the height of the Riverside dam
at least 70 feet higher than the one estimated upon, giving an ultimate
reservoir capacity of about 650,000 acre-feet, which would not be filled
with solid matter short of sixty-seven years.
*^ 13th. That it is feasible to construct a masonrv dani at San Carlos
at a cost of $1,038,926, including damages for right of way and the cost of
new diversion-dam at the head of the Florence Canal, forming a reservoir
of 241,396 acre-feet capacity; that the water-supply is ample to fill such
a reservoir in the years of minimum flow, and that the volume of storage
will irrigate at least 100,000 acres in addition to the irrigation of the lands
of the Indians.
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FiQ. 192.— Sah Cablob-dah, Arizona, Bectioh thhodoh Bpillwat.
330 BE8EBV0IB8 FOB IRRIQA2I0N, WATER-POWER, ETC*
" 14th. That it is feasible to construct a dam at San Carlos at least 70
feet higher than that contemplated in the estimates, forming a reservoir
whose ultimate capacity would be approximately 550,000 acre-feet, and
whose probable life of usefulness would be sixty-three years before be-
coming filled with silt."
Unquestionably the best dam-site yet discovered is that located in the
narrow canyon immediately below the San Carlos Apache Indian reserva-
tion. The walls of the canyon are but little more than 100 feet apart at
the level of the river-bed, and are composed of hard limestone, the lowest
stratum being a pink color, and the upper layers dark gray, both of high
specific gravity, and affording very satisfactory foundation for a high
masonry dam. The maximum height of dam planned for this location
from deepest bed-rock to the top of the central portion of the dam is 216
feet, and the maximum length, including spillways, is 617 feet. The
spillway on the left bank is excavated almost wholly out of the solid cliff,
and is 128 feet in length. That on the opposite side of the dam is 237 feet
in length, and is approached by a channel excavated largely from the
mountainsides. The rock from these spillways will be used in constructing
the dam. The central portion of the dam is 236 feet long, and is raised
12.5 feet above the crest of the spillways. The latter have a discharging
capacity of 57,000 acre-feet at that depth. Three feet additional depth
would give a discharge of 79,000 second-feet over the spillways and 1000
second-feet over the body of the dam, which is so greatly in excess of the
probable volume to be cared for in flood, owing to the equalizing effect
of the large reservoir above, that no water will, in all probability, ever
pass over the central portion of the dam. The section, however, has been
planned heavy enough to withstand the shock of any overflow that may
occur in addition to the normal water-pressure. The crest width is to be
16 feet, and the extreme base 183.6 feet.
It is proposed to construct the dam of concrete masonry made with
Portland cement ground with silica and to constitute what is known as
" sand cement," as the binding material, which will be used with sand and
broken stone in the usual manner. In the body of the concrete, large
blocks of stone will be embedded as closely together as possible consistent
with a perfect ramming of the concrete. The lines of pressure, with
reservoir full and empty, are well within the inner third of the dam, result-
ing in a safe gravity structure. Expansion and contraction are provided
for by arching the dam up-stream. The maximum pressure on the down-
stream toe is computed at 12.5 tons per square foot, and at 12 tons per
square foot on the upper toe.
The outlets to the dam are to be made throufi:h two semicircular
towers. The intakes into the towers are a scries of elbows, with plain cap
or cover, six in number to each tower, each 3 feet in diameter.
Pio. 152a,— 8am Carlos D&ii-site, lookiho Down-stkeam.
Fro. 153. — BoniNo Appauatcs. coksistiko of Pilb-dkiter and Diauosivcore
Drill at Work. Ubbd for testing Bkd-hock at Oila Kiter Dah-sitbs,
Abizona.
Fi«. 1&4.— ViKW OF THE San Cakias Dam-bite, Gila Rn-EB. Akizona.
Fio. 151a.— View ov Left Abutment Wai.i,, Sax Caklos Dam-sitk, SHOWiNa
Fia. 153.— ViBW OF THE BUTTEB Dam-SITE LOOlklKa DOWK'
Pio. 156a.— BuTTEfi D&u-siTB, ixwkiko Up-btream f
PROJECTED RESERVOIRS. 339
From each tower two 48-iDch pipes pass through the dam, discharging
into the river-bed below. These are controlled by balanced valves placed
inside the tower.
The reservoir will cover an area of 6230 acres at the 130-foot contour
above river-bed at the dam, to a mean depth of 39.29fc of the maximum.
This will be entirely on the Apache Indian reservation, and will flood 587
acres of land that has been irrigated and farmed by the Indians. Of the
remaining area, 4405 acres are irrigable and 3360 acres cannot be tilled.
An abundance of equally good land on the reservation can be provided with
facilities for irrigation above the reservoir-site. The estimate includes
Fio. is?.— ViBw" OF RivBHsiDB Dam-bitb, Gila Rtver, Abizoha.
$20,000 for these substitute works. The removal and reconstruction of
the buildings of the Indian agency is estimated to cost $60,000, and the
rebuilding of five miles of the Gila Valley, Globe and Xorthcrn Railway
is estimated at $50,000, including the removal of two bridges. The entire
cost of the dam and the contingent expenses noted, including the cost of
new head-works for the canal to convey water to the reservation, located
on the river, 60 miles below, is estimated at $1,038,026, or $4.30 per acre-
foot of storage capacity.
For the details of the entire system of proposed reservoirs on the
Gila River the reader is referred to the able and interesting report of
Mr. J. B. Lippincott, M. Am. Soc. C. E., in " Water-supply and Irrigation
840
RESBRVOIRa FOR IRRIGATION. WATER-POWER, ETC.
¥ia. 158.— Plan of Tonto Dam.
PROJECTED sESBuroma.
341
Papers," So. 33, from which the cuts illustrating the plana, prepared by
Mr. J, H. Quinton, M. Am. Soc. C. E., in collaboration with the writer and
Mr. ]>ippincott, have been obtained by courtesy of the Director of the
U. S. Geological Survey.
The manifest duty of the government to provide a water-supply for the
impoverished and dependent Indians, which will enable them to become
again self-supporting, has been used as a lever to commit the government
to the policy of reservoir-construction in the arid West, and it is hoped
by the advocates of this policy that the entering wedge will be formed
by the constniction of the San Carlos dam on the Gila. It has been shown
by Mr. Lippincott's report that sufficient water may be impounded by the
dam to irrigate over 100,000 acres of valuable land belonging to the
Fio. 159.— Srctioks of Dam asd Canton of Tonto IIesbbvois.
government, in addition to supplying the Indians, the value of which, with
6uch permanent water-rights, will exceed $5,000,000. In addition the ex-
pense of feeding the Indians, amounting to $109,500 per annum, would be
saved.
The relative estimates of the cost of the dams reported upon on the
Gila River show that the Buttes dam would cost $15.19 per acre-foot; the
Riverside dam, $9.01 per acre-foot; and the San Carlos dam, $4.30 per
acre-foot of storage capacity.
Tonto Basin Sam, Arizona. — Of all the reservoir projects for irrigation-
storage in Arizona, the largest and most extensive is that of building a
high masonry dam on Salt Biver, and converting the great Tonto Valley
343 BB8ERV0IR8 FOR mSIQATION, WATEB-POWER, ETC.
PROJECTED RESERVOIRS. 343
into an enormous reservoir, covering 14,200 acres and impounding over
one million acre-feet of water. The dam projected will be 200 feet in
height above the ordinary low-water level of the stream (Figs. 158 and 159).
The extreme height of the dam above its foundation will be 250 feet, and
its length on top will be 647 feet, measured on the arc of its curvature up-
stream, which is to be on a radius of 818.5 feet.
The scheme is projected by the Hudson Canal and Reservoir Company
of New York, and is a combined irrigation and elcctric-power project, the
same water being used for both purposes. The estimated cost of the
reservoir and dam, capable of storing water for the irrigation of 500,000
acres of land, is $2,450,000, The cost of the electric plant and transmis-
sion lines for developing and delivering G7G8 H.P. is estimated at
$1,152,000, a total of $3,COS,000, including interest on capital invested
during construction. The estimated net revenue, based partly on actual
contracts, ia $1,134,000 per annum, of which $560,000 would be derived
from the sale of water to canal companies and new lands in the lower Salt
River and Gila River valleys, and the remainder from the sale of power to
mining companies.
344
RE8ERV0IRS FOB IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
The outline of the reservoir (Fig. 160) is mapped only to the 180-foot
contour, and the ultimate height of the water-level will cover a much greater
surface than is shown by the map. Mr. A. P. Man, Chief Engineer of the
company, by whose courtesy the plans and maps have been made available
for this work, furnishes information as to the hydrography of the basin,
from which the following data are compiled:
The area of the watershed above the dam is 6260 square miles; the
elevation of the base of the dam at low-water level is 1925 feet above tide-
water. The maximum altitude of the watershed is about 7000 feet, and
the mean precipitation upon the shed is estimated at 23 inches per annum.
The run-ofif for seven years has been computed as follows:
Year.
Acre-feet.
Year.
Acre-feet.
1R89
1890
1891
1S92
1.111,790
1.659,726
1,999.092
668,025
1894
189o
297.704
1.124.196
Mean
1,125,466
The mean of these seven y%ars would represent about 15 per cent of a
mean precipitation of 23 inches. The maximum flood yet recorded, that
of February, 1891, was 180,000 second-feet for 24 hours. This would
have filled the spillways to a depth of 22 feet, while the crest of the dam
is intended to be 13 feet higher than this miximum-flood height. Maps
of the region to be irrigated by the water from this reservoir are given in
Figs. 163 and 164.
The mean annual run-off from the Salt River basin has been computed
from the records of gaugings made of the streams at 177 acre-feet per
square mile of watershed, while the flow of the Gila above the Buttes
averages but 26 acre-feet per square mile of shed. The difference is doubt-
less due to the great elevation of the Salt River shed.
The project is regarded with great favor by all irrigators in the lower
Salt River valley, for the reason that their present supply from the normal
flow of the river is often greatly diminished in midsummer and early fall,
so that the full productive capacity of their lands can only be reached by
having a supply of stored water to draw upon during the low-water stages
of the river. The canal companies are eager to purchase all the reservoired
water to insure a constant supply. The reservoir company is thus in the
fortunate position of being able to sell their water at wholesale to an es-
tablished community of irrigators, who are in urgent need of the supple-
mentary supply. This is a rarely favorable position for a private enter-
prise. The majority of such large projects have to meet with the long
delay incident to the settlement of the country, which they are to provide
with water before any adequate revenue can be derived from it. During
848 BESERVOIBS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
this period of waiting the interest account accumulates, and if this cannot
be met, the enterprise, though intrinsically meritorious, is destined to
failure.
Projected Beservoirs on the Eio Verde, Arizona. — The Rio Verde, which
has a watershed of 6000 square miles above its junction with the Salt
River of Arizona, supplies a large surplus flood flow, which the Rio Verde
Canal Company is organized to utilize as far as possible. The principal
reservoir-site is located some 40 or more miles above the mouth of the
stream, and is called the " Horseshoe reservoir," where a dam 170 feet in
height will close a reservoir of 205,000 acre-feet capacity (Fig. 1G5). The
length of this dam will be 1250 feet on top, the length at the stream-bed
being 360 feet. Soundings taken along the line of the dam indicate that
the greatest depth to bed-rock is 24 feet below low-water line, which will
therefore make the extreme height of dam 194 feet. A spillway 1000 feet
long, over a solid rock ledge, located 2200 feet away from the dam, is a
commendable feature of the work.
The elevation of the top contour of the reservoir is 2052 feet above
tide-level, and it covers an area of 3402 acres. Water released at the dam
will flow down the river-channel for 25 miles to a diverting-dam, 70 feet
high and 480 feet long at the crest-line, of which the elevation is 1614
feet above sea-level. Both dams are of the same type — rock-fills with a
facing of asphaltum concrete. A canal with a capacity of 800 second-feet
starts at the lower dam and skirts the northern edge of the Salt River
Valley, practically parallel with the Arizona Canal, but extending far be-
yond the lower end of the latter. It is to be 69 miles in lencrth, of which
25 miles, from the mountains to Cave Creek, are practically completed.
The outlet-tunnel to the Horseshoe reservoir, 715 feet long, through solid
granite rock, is also finished. It is 12 f^et wide and 13 feet high, and has
a gate-shaft near its upper end for controlling the supply to the canal. The
estimated cost of the work is as follows:
Horseshoe reservoir $600,000
Diverting-dam 200,000
Main canal to Xew River 560,000
Extension of main canal, 19 miles 180,000
Miscellaneous 60,000
Total $1,600,000
The area of tillable land above the highest canals that would be irri-
gated by the works herein mentioned (which are only those noted in the
company's prospectus as the works to be built on " Initial Construction '')
is given as 220,000 acres, of which 15,000 acres are in the Verde Valley and
PROJECTED RESERVOIRS.
849
4
Fkg. 166wMap of Lowbb Portion of McDowell Bfi&sRYOiB.
360 REBERVOlRa FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
may form a part of another reservoir to be built by the Arizona Improve-
ment Company, 110,000 acres are between old Fort McDowell and the
Agua Fria River, and 95,000 acres are west of the Agua Fria.
The plans of the company also contemplate the construction of the
following: A reservoir on New River, to be fed by the canal and the rather
limited drainage of the stream, and to have a capacity of 133,500 acre-feet,
covering 3-416 acres; " Reservoir No. 3," covering 1000 acres, with a
capacity of 10,000 acre-feet; and " Reservoir No. 4,^' with an area of 2493
acres and a capacity of 68,093 acre-feet. The cost of these is not included
in the above estimate. The entire system will cost from $3,000,000 to
$4,000,000. All of the dams proposed are to be of the rock-fill, asphaltum*-
covered type.
The company proposes to guarantee to the irrigators, in their water-
right contracts, the delivery to them of 2 acre-feet per acre, if demanded,
in any one irrigating season; if more water is required, it will be paid for
extra, and the company does not guarantee to furnish it if there is a
shortage. The annual rates are to be on a sliding scale of increase up to
the eleventh year, when the maximum will be $2.42 per acre-foot, the first
two years being one-half that rate. Water-rights are sold at $10 per acre,
of which $1 is paid down and $1 per acre per annum thereafter until fully
paid, with 8 per cent interest on deferred payments.
McDowell Beservoir Project, Arizona. — The Arizona Improvement
Company, the owner of the Arizona Canal, which heads in Salt River half
a mile below the mouth of the Verde, has in contemplation the erection of
a storage-reservoir dam a short distance above the mouth of the Verde,
on the Verde River, to afford a means of fortifying their canal during low-
water periods. The reservoir (Fig. 166) will flood a large part of the
abandoned military reservation of Fort McDowell, from which it takes its
name. The capacity of the reservoir is computed by Mr. F. P. Trott,
county surveyor, of Phoenix, as 15,000,000,000 cubic feet, or 344,350 acre-
feet. The height of dam proposed is 140 feet; extreme length, 1594
feet. A spillway, 800 feet long and 10 feet deep, will be excavated in the
crest of a ridge of rock east of the dam. The computation of contents is
made from a contour-line run at 114 feet above the low-water level at the
dam, or 1430 feet above tide. Bed-rock is exposed across the site with
the exception of 200 feet, where soundings made with rods locate it at a
depth of from 1 to 22 feet below the surface. Plans for the dam have not
been definitely adopted, and no estimates of cost have been made.
Bear Canyon Dam, near Tucson, Arizona. — The Santa Catalina range of
mountains, a few miles north of Tucson, Arizona, reaches to an altitude
of over 10,000 feet, in the culminating peak called Mt. Lemon. From the
southern slopes of this mountain two torrential streams of considerable
magnitude at times debouch into the valley 12 miles from Tucson. These
PBOJEOTED BE8ERV0IRS. 361
are called Bear and Sabina canyons. The Catalina Reservoir and Electric
Company, of Tucson, has projected a high dam in Bear Canyon, to impound
the waters of these streams, diverting a fork of Sabina into the reservoir.
The dam will be of masonry, 200 feet in height, and will require about
50,260 cubic yards of masonry to construct it. The width between the solid
granite walls of the canyon is but 20 feet at base, 130 feet at the 50-foot
level, 230 feet at the 100-foot level, and 435 feet at the crest of the dam.
The wall will be arched up-stream on a radius of 400 feet. The reservoir
will cover 214.8 acres, and impound 14,762 acre-feet of water. The outlet
will be placed 50 feet above the base of the dam, discharging into a cement-
pipe conduit, 32 inches diameter, 3.65 miles long, laid on a grade of 3 feet
per 1000. This pipe will connect with the head of a steel pressure-pipe,
22 inches in diameter, 5000 feet long, laid down the slope of the mountain
to the power-house, with a total drop of 1470 feet. This fall will be utilized
to generate power, which will be transmitted electrically to Tucson and
vicinity, where it is worth $150 per H.P. per annum. The average available
power to be delivered for sale is estimated at 2445 H.P.
The water will be used for irrigating land in the vicinity of the power-
house to the extent of about 4000 acres.
The cost of the project is estimated by the writer as follows:
Masonry dam ; $596,530
Power conduit 81,210
Pressure-pipe 45,764
Power-stations and transmission-lines 120,340
Total .$843,844
The net revenue is estimated at about $100,000, on the basis of using
but one-half the storage capacity of the reservoir in any one year.
The elevation of the base of the dam above sea-level is 4200 feet.
Proposed Beservoirs on the Rio Grande. — The El Paso International
Dam. — The impounding of water on the Rio Grande River at El Paso,
Texas, has long been discussed as an international enterprise to be jointly
entered into by the governments of the United States and Mexico for the
purpose of making a division of the river for irrigation purposes on either
side of the international boundarv. The Mexican authorities have claimed
a grievance against the American people on account of the absorption of
the stream in Colorado and New Mexico, by means of which their irrigation-
supply has in recent years been greatly impaired and diminished, and repre-
sentations have been made to the effect that the stream should be either
permitted to flow as it was wont to do when the Mexican canals were first
used, or that the flood-waters should be impounded by a reservoir of large
capacity at the expense of the American people, and the wonted supply
352 RBiSERVOlRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
freely furnished to the Mexican canals as of yore. A survey of a mammoth
reservoir-site was made in 1889 by Major Anson Mills, U. S. Engineer
Corps, the site of the dam being located a short distance above El Paso,,
in American territory. A masonry dam was here proposed, to be 65 feet
high above the river-bottom, the construction of which would create a
reservoir 14.5 miles long by 4 miles maximum width, with a surface area of
26,000 acres, an average depth of 23.6 feet, and a capacity of 537,000 acre-
feet. The estimated cost is a little over $300,000, to which must be added
the cost of removing the tracks of the Southern Pacific and the Atchison,
Topeka and Santa Fe railroads, which traverse the basin for a number of
miles below the water-level, and their reconstruction on higher ground,
above the flow-line. This was estimated to cost $590,000, while the lands
overflowed were valued at about $69,000. The total investment would
therefore be about $1,060,000. This work has never been undertaken.
The Elephant Butte Dam. — Other sites for water-storage in large vol-
ume were known to exist in the Rio Grande Valley between San Marcial
and El Paso, and in 1890 two of them were surveyed and segregated by the
U. S. Irrigation Survey. They are described in the 18th Annual Report
of the U. S. Geological Survey and fire designated as reservoir-sites Nos.
38 and 39. Site No. 38 forms a lake of 5540 acres, having a storage ca-
pacity of 175,000 acre-feet, with a dam 80 feet high. The length of the
reservoir is 21 miles, its maximum width a little less than 2 miles, and its
mean depth 31.7 feet, or 39.5% of the maximum. The dam-site is located
in rock.
Reservoir-site No. 39 is in Paradise Valley, some 25 miles above Rincon,
and is of little value, as the dam-site is without rock foundation. A dam
40 feet high to the water-line would here form a reservoir covering 6380
acres, with a capacity of 102,000 acre-feet, having a mean depth of 16 feet-
Nearly midway between these sites is the location selected by the Rio
Grande Dam and Irrigation Co. for the erection of a masonry dam called
the Elephant Butte, from its proximity to a well-known landmark on the
river by that name. This corporation was organized in 1893, and its prin-
cipal offices and stockholders are in London, England. The plans of the
company are very comprehensive and contemplate the irrigation of the
Val Paraiso above Rincon, the Mesilla Valley, reaching from Fort Selden
to El Paso, and the lands below El Paso on the Texas side of the border as
far down as Fort Quitman, Texas, in all some 230,000 acres. Thus the
principal areas covered by Reservoir Site No. 39, and the reservoir basin
of the International dam above El Paso, are proposed to be irrigated. Of
the total area of 230,000 acres proposed to be watered, it is estimated that
48,300 acres are now irrigated, but in a somewhat uncertain and intermit-
tent fashion, from lack of storage facilities for equalizing the flood-flow.
The construction of the reservoir is expected to provide facilities for the
PROJECTED RESERVOIRS. 368
complete irrigation of these lands as well as the larger areas of fertile,
nntilled valley soil commanded by the new system.
The Elephant Butte dam is located 112 miles above El Paso at a point
where the river enters a narrow canyon, 300 feet in width between sand-
stone walls, at the level of the river-bed. On the right bank the wall rises
iibruptly 250 to 300 feet above the river, while on the left the height is 95
feet to a flat bench, 450 feet wide, which is to be utilized as a spillway.
The dam will be 100 feet high, the crest being 10 feet thick in center and
16 feet thick at abutments. The thickness of the base will be 63.5 feet at
center and 66.5 feet at the sides of the stream-bed. The length will be
570 feet, on a curve of 637 feet radius, at the upper face, which will be
lertical. The bed of the canyon at the site is covered with large limestone
bowlders, but the surface indications lead to the belief that solid bed-rock
will be found not deeper than 10 feet below the top of these bowlders.
The elevation of the dam is 4325 feet above sea-level at the crest.
The dam is estimated to contain 49,980 cubic yards of rubble masonry
-and 1005 cubic yards of concrete, and to cost $281,515, including founda-
tions, outlet-pipes, sluice-gates, and valves. The spillway is designed to be
cut in solid rock, 450 feet wide, with a sill placed 15 feet below the crest
of the dam. The capacity of the spillway is computed at 108650 second-
feet, at 10 feet in depth, which is regarded as ample, in view of the fact
that the maximum recorded discharge of the river at El Paso is less than
17,000 second-feet.
The outlets of the dam are planned to have a maximum discharging
•capacity of 1200 second-feet, and consist of ten cast-iron pipes, 40 inches
in diameter, passing through the dam at the bottom, in parallel lines, 6
feet apart between centers. These pipes are reduced at the upper end by
short reducers to 30 inches in diameter at the gates. The gates are to
consist of hinged flap-valves of cast iron, resting on seat-rings of bronze,
and are to be raised by iron screws reaching to the top, the motion of the
valve extending over an arc of 90**. An ingenious cylinder for controlling
the motion of the valve and preventing it from suddenly opening or closing
by the eddying currents of outrushing water is attached to the valve in the
form of a quadrant, with a loose-fitting piston which allows water to
escape from the cylinder slowly. Between each of the gates a pilaster is
built the full height of the dam, eleven in all, projecting from its face 5^^
feet. These pilasters are grooved near the outer face, sufficiently to receive
a series of loose flashboards, or check-planks of cast iron, which slide up
and down in the grooves. When these check-planks are in place they form
open chambers from top to bottom, called penstocks, which separate the
water supplied to each gate from the others. These penstocks are 2 X 3
feet in dimension, and are lined throughout with cast iron. The water
enters them by overflowing the top of the check-planks, of which a suf-
354 RESEBVOIBS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETO.
ficient number are left out to give the required depth of overflow. As the
reservoir lowers, additional planks are removed. When these planks are
placed so as to reach above the level of the water each penstock forms a
shaft, through which a man can descend to the gate below to make repairs.
The check-planks are 2 feet square, and rest on bronze seats. They are put
in place and removed by a carriage sliding down in the same grooves, and
provided with automatic clutches that engage in lugs cast upon the sides of
the planks, near the top. This carriage is hoisted and lowered by means of
a geared hand-hoist, placed over the penstock at the top of the dam. The
plan thus contemplates drawing ofiE water from the top of the reservoir at
all times.
An alternative plan provides for closing the pipes by means of circular
gates fitted with roller bearings to reduce friction. These can be raised
entirely to the top and removed if desired.
On Fig. 167 is shown a plan of the dam-site locating the position of
the dam and spillway, a profile of the masonry structure designed with
lines of pressure, reservoir full and empty, and a cross-section of the dam-
site and spillway.
The Reservoir. — The reservoir formed by the dam is 25 miles long on
the 75-foot contour, covers an area of 7965 acres, and has a capacity of
253,368 acre-feet. (See Fig. 168.) It reaches to the dam-site of the U. S.
Bes. Site No. 38. Of the lands embraced in the reservoir, 2549 acres are
public lands, while those in private ownership cover 5416 acres and arc
valued at $7517.
The dip of the rock strata is toward the river from each side. The
sandstone when tested developed a weight of 147 to 160 lbs. per cubic foot,
and a crushing-strength of 216 to 360 tons per square foot.
From the dam the water will be released into the channel of the river,
which it will follow for 6 miles to a diverting-weir at the head of Paradise
Valley. This weir is to be built of rubble masonry, faced with cut-granite
blocks, and have 300 feet of overfall for the passage of floods. • Here are
placed the head-gates of a canal to be constructed for the irrigation of
40,000 acres of Paradise Valley, in a solid rock cut, affording rock for the
construction of the dam.
Below Paradise Valley the river is again inclosed in a rocky canyon,
near the lower end of which a second diversion-weir is located, the con-
struction of which has begun, as shown in Fig. 169. This dam is 5^ miles
above Fort Selden, N. M., and about 50 miles below the storage-reservoir
at Elephant Butte. Its purpose is merely the diversion of water for the
irrigation of the Mesilla Valley, extending from Fort Selden to El Paso.
It is a concrete structure, combining an overfall waterway for the passage
of the river, and head-gates for the canal. The height of the crest of the
overflow-weir is 5 feet above the river-bed, or the exact depth of the water
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PROJECTED RESERVOIRS. 369
in the canal^ whose grade is coincident with the bed of the river. The
length of the weir-channel is 300 feet. The thickness of the concrete at
base is 20 feet, and the crest is in the form of a rollerway curve. The
abutments are 7 feet high above the crest of the weir. The water is ad-
mitted to the canal through six cast-iron pipes, 48 inches diameter, set in
a concrete wall, and closed with sluice-gates. The entire structure, includ-
ing wing walls and abutments, is founded on piles, driven by hydraulic
jet into the sand bed of the river, and inclosed with triple-lap sheet-piling
above and below. Fig. 169 gives a view taken during construction. The
weir is estimated to contain 2450 cubic yards of concrete and to cost
$19,653.50.
A third diversion-weir, to be built of masonry on bed-rock foundation,
is also contemplated for the supply of canals below El Paso, the location
selected being the site of the proposed " international dam," 5 miles above
El Paso. It is believed that the latter structure, as originally contem-
plated, will never be built, but that the Elephant Butte dam, when finished,
will serve as an efficient substitute, at less cost, and without interference
with the railways.
Some 200 miles of main canal and primary laterals are projected from
the two diversion-weirs above El Paso. The entire enterprise is estimated
as follows:
Elephant Butte storage-dam $281,515
Diversion-weir, 6 miles below 27,874
Diversion-weir, 50 miles below 19,653
Canal svstem above Rincon, N. M 75,749
Canal system in Mesilla Valley 249,682
Canal system below El Paso 196,000
Total $850,473
«
This is an average cost of $3.70 per acre for the 230,000 acres to be
sxipplied with water, altho\igh the estimate does not include the diverting-
dam near El Paso.
Construction began in 1897 with the concrete weir near Fort Selden,
but has been interrupted by litigation. From this weir, a canal 34 feet
wide on bottom, 5 feet deep, on a grade of 1 : 5000, was excavated 7 miles
down the west side of the Eio Grande Valley, where it was carried across
the river by a series of four inverted siphon pipes, 50 inches in diameter,
laid in a trench 11 feet below the bed of the stream. These pipes are
made of long-leafed Texas yellow-pine staves, held in place with round
rods of steel at intervals of 12 inches from center to center. They are
each 388 feet long, and have a fall of 3.06 feet from the water-level m the
canal on the west side to that of the canal on the east. They pass through
360 BESEUVOIBS FOB IBBIGATION, WATEB-POWBR, ETC.
wooden bulkheads or wing walls, which confine the river on either side to
its natural banks. They have a combined capacity equal to that of the
cana), or 465 cubic feet per second. The plan of the crossing and the
method of construction are well illustrated by the accompanying photo-
graph, Fig. 170,
The chief engineer of this work, which when completed will be one of
the most important and extensive irrigation projects in the arid region,
is Mr. J, L. Campbell of El Paso.
KiQ. 170.— WooD-flTAVB Pipes, laid under Bed of the Rio Okaddr. for
BTPHONINQ OaNAL ACItOBB THB HlVEK, BT BlO GHANDB DaU AND IltlUQATIOM
Com PANT,
Wafer-svpply of the Rio Grande al El Paso. — Gaugings of the flow of
the Rio Grande Kiver at El Paso, made by the U. S. Geological Survey
and published in their annual reports since 1890, give the following data
of the discharge of the stream:
May 10, to Dec. 31, 1889 (no flow during the months of
August, September, October, or November).... 367,266 acre-feet
1890, flowing the entire year 963.466 "
1891, January to June, inclusive 1,567,173 "
1897, stream dry during a part of August and
September 1,360,360 "
PROJECTED RESERVOIRS. 361
From these data it is apparent that the reservoir at Elephant Butte
vould have filled during any one of the years during which these gaugings
were made.
Gaugings made at San Marcial, some 50 miles above Elephant Butte,
give the following as the discharge of the stream at that point:
1895, February to August, inclusive 1,246,509 acre-feet
1896, February to December, inclusive 541,499 "
1897, February to December, inclusive 2,215,257 "
In 1897 the stream was practically dry during August and September,
yet the total discharge of the year was sufficient to have filled the Elephant
Butte reservoir nearly ten times.
In comparing the discharges given in 1897 at San Marcial with those
at El Paso, nearly 200 miles below, one cannot but be struck with the
enormous loss of water in the stream in traversing that distance, amount-
ing to 854,897 acre-feet during the year, or 38.5% of the total flow. A
small part of this may be due to the diversions for irrigation and to
evaporation, but the greater portion must find some subterranean escape.
A possible explanation of this source of loss is given in the following ex-
tract from the printed report of Mr. J. L. Campbell upon the Elephant
Butte reservoir site. He says (p. 9) :
" Barring the existence of possible subterranean fractures, open suf-
ficiently to carry away considerable amounts of water, the character of the
reservoir-site topographically and geologically is peculiarly adapted for
storage purposes."
These fissures may, and probably will, in time be entirely closed by
the deposit of silt in the reservoir, and thus the supply may be augmented
by the prevention of this source of loss.
The Silt Problem. — From 118 samples of the water of the Eio Grande,
taken by Major Anson Mills at El Paso, the conclusion was reached that
the silt carried in suspension averaged 0.345 of 1% of the volume, or in
other words 1 acre-foot for each 290 acre-feet of water. The determina-
tions of the Geological Survey during 1889 and 1890 at the same point
show a somewhat less percentage.* It is there stated that " the total sedi-
ment for the year ending June 30, 1890, is in round numbers 3,830,000
tons; this earth, at a weight of 100 lbs. per cubic foot, would cover a square
mile 2J feet in depth.'^
This would be equivalent to 1760 acre-feet of sediment, and as the
discharge of the river during this period was 820,425 acre-feet, the ratio
of silt to water is therefore as 1 to 466. A mean of these ratios would
llth Annaal Report, U. S. Geological Survej, Pan II, page 67.
862 BEBEBV0IR8 FOB IBBIQATION, WATEBPOWEB, ETC.
be 1 to 388. If^ on this basis^ all the sediment carried by the stream be
assumed to deposit in the Elephant Butte reservoir^ it would catch but 650
acre-feet every time its full capacity were carried through it. If the river
carries sufficient volume to fill the 253,000 acre-feet of its capacity five
times per annum on an average, it would require 130 years to fill the
reservoir. Long before this result- could occur it would be profitable to
add a few feet to the height of the dam, or construct the large reservoir
in the adjoining basin above, or take measures for sluicing out a portion of
the accumulated sediment. It does not appear that the silt problem is one
which need give serious concern in this situation.
Evaporation, — The loss by evaporation from. the surface of the reser-
voir is estimated by the chief engineer to be 7 feet in depth per annum,
based on the observations of the U. S. Geological Survey at El Paso during
1889-91. From this he computes the annual loss from the reservoir at
50,000 acre-feet, and from the surface of the canals at 22,000 acre-feet.
Proposed Keservoirs in Texas. — In "Water-supply and Irrigation
Papers," No. 13, published by the U. S. Geological Survey, Mr. Wm. F.
Hutson describes some large projected storage-reservoirs on the Nueces
Kiver, in Texas, which are important in their dimensions and of general
interest.
The Caimanche Reservoir. — Cairaanche Lake lies to one side of the
Nueces River, and gathers the water of a large drainage-basin extending
from the Rio Grande divide on the south to many miles beyond the South-
ern Pacific Railroad on the north, a region containing springs and an
easily obtainable supply of artesian water. It is proposed to convert
Caimanche Lake into a storage-reservoir by means of an earthen dam If
miles in length and 20 or 25 feet in height. It will store about 132,750
acre-feet of water at the spillway-level. In addition to the natural drain-
age-basin tributary to the lake it is proposed to turn into it the water of
the Nueces River by a short canal, 1| miles long, from a point called Rock
Falls.
The area of the reservoir will be about 10,000 acres. The promoters
expect to irrigate from this reservoir about 50,000 acres of land.
The Nueces Reservoir. — Some 45 miles below Rock Falls, on Nueces
River, a masonry dam has been projected across the river, 2600 feet in
length, 50 feet in height, which will form a reservoir of 12,700 acres in
area and impound 222,250 acre-feet.
Lower Reservoirs. — About 100 miles further dovm the Nueces, at the
junction of Frio River and below, surveys have been made by private
capital for an enormous system of storage-reservoirs for irrigation. These
are fourteen in number, having a combined storage capacity of 1,792,300
acre-feet. The two largest of these will be formed by masonry dams
across the Nueces and Frio rivers. The total area to be brought under
PROJECTED BE8ERV0IB8. 368
irrigation by the system of canals to be supplied by these reservoirs is
something over 1,000,000 acres.
Sand Lake Reservoir, Western Texas, — ^About 9 miles north of Pecos
City, Texas, a natural basin, called Sand Lake, has been selected as an
available reservoir-site for impounding water to be used for irrigating
lands in the vicinity of Pecos City and Barstow. The basin now contains
a pond of 300 acres, maintained by the run-off from the local watershed.
The basin can be filled to a depth of 28 feet before overflowing, impound-
ing 55,000 acre-feet and covering a surface area of 3740 acres. A dam
on the rim of the basin, 12 feet in maximimi height, 4000 feet long, would
increase the area to 5080 acres, and the storage capacity to 79,200 acre-
feet. The outlet to the reservoir would require a cut 3 miles long, 18 feet
deep, to draw off 72,500 acre-feet. The reservoir would be fed by a canal
from the Pecos River, 23 miles long, having a capacity of 450 second-feet,
from which the reservoir could be filled in ninety days. The total cost of
the canal and reservoir-outlet is estimated at $130,000.
Upper Pecos Reservoir-site. — Some 50 miles above the to^Ti of Eoswell,
N. M., a notable reservoir-site exists on the Pecos River, where a dam 50
feet high would impound 250,000 acre-feet of water, forming a lake 12
miles long, 2 miles wide. The dam-site is at a point where the river has
cut through a ledge of limestone to a depth of 58 feet on the west side and
75 feet on the east. The cost of a masonry dam at this site would be
about $300,000, or $2.20 per acre-foot of storage capacity. A rock-fill
and earth dam, of the type described in a previous chapter as having been
built lower down on the Pecos, would be about one-half the cost of a
masonry dam.
The area of arable, irrigable land in the valley of the Pecos between
Eoswell, N. M., and Grand Falls, Texas, is as follows:
Land commanded by the Pecos Irrigation and Improvement
Co.'s canals and reservoirs 174,000 acres
Land between State line and Riverton, Texas 15,000
Land under the unfinished Mentone Canal, east side 36,000
Land under the Highland Canal, west side 50,000
Land under the Pioneer Canal, constructed 38,000 *'
Land under the Pioneer Canal, extension 15,500 "
Additional area below Barstow 1,500 "
Total 330,000
«
The volume of water annually passing the head-gates of the Pioneer
Canal at Barstow, as determined from records kept for several years, is
approximately 700,000 to 1,000,000 acre-feet. This volume is sufficient
866
RESERVOIRS FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
for the irrigation of all the lands of the valley if properly stored and
utilized.
The data concerning reservoir-sites on the Pecos Eiver are taken from
a report hy the writer made in 1898.
BrOck Greek Eeservoir, Nevada. — One of the tributaries of Humboldt
Eiver, which enters that stream a few miles above Battle Mountain, Nevada,
from the north, is known as Eock Creek. It drains a watershed of 760
square miles, whose altitude ranges from 5000 to 13,000 feet above tide-
level. As it debouches into Humboldt Valley it passes through a narrow
gorge, 5 miles long, cut deeply through a volcanic range of hills, at the
head of which is a favorable site for a dam and reservoir, as the stream
passes through a large open valley. The capacity of this reservoir at the
75-foot contour above the base of the dam is 80,000 acre-feet, covering
3670 acres (Fig. 171). The canyon at the dam-site, is but 120 feet wide
Fig. 173. — Sketch of Longitudinal Section of Lost Canton Natural Dam
at bottom and but 300 feet at the 7o-foot level. On the left bank the
canyon wall rises abruptly to a height of over 250 feet (Fig. 172). The
material is a hard porphyry at the dam-site, capped at a few hundred feet
height by a layer of basalt of great depth. The character of dam proposed
for the site is a rock-fill, of the Pecos type, faced with an embankment of
earth. The estimated cost of the dam is about $80,000.
The run-off from the watershed is estimated to exceed 150,000 acre-
feet per annum, or about 200 acre-feet per square mile. The precipita-
tion on the shed varies from 7 inches annually at the dam, to over 40 inches
in the higher mountain-ranges.
Used as a needed supplement to the normal summer flow of the
Humboldt, the reservoir is expected to irrigate about 100,000 acres of the
valley lands, bordering the river, between Battle Mountain and Golconda.
PROJECTED RBSSRVOIRS. 367
Lost Canyon Natural Dam, Colorado. — The region of Lost Park and
Lost Canyon, on Goose Creek, Colorado, a tributary of South Platte River,
is one of rugged grandeur, characterized by scenery of the wildest imagin-
able description, abounding in high cliffs and rock-masses of fantastic
shapes and colors and of Titanic dimensions. Xature has here made an
effort at rock-fill dam-construction on a grand scale by filling in the
canyon to a maximum depth of 250 feet with an aggregation of enormous
bowlders thrown from the neighboring cliffs. This remarkable rock-fill is
Fio. 174.— Sketch or Crobb-bectioh at Upper End of Lost Canton Natural Dah.
2100 feet in length, and is fairly well represented in a general way by the
longitudinal and cross sections shown in Figs. 1*3 and 1T4. The maximum
height above the upper toe is, as stated, 2.>0 feet; hnt as the bed of the
canyon falls 150 feet in the length nf the dam, the height of the crest is
400 feet above the lower toe, where the stream emerges from underneath
the bowlders. The extreme width on top is 400 feet, although the bull^
of the fill is less than 100 feet in width, and at the bottom the canyon width
868 REBERVOIRa FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETO.
bbcween well-polished walls is but 20 to 25 feet^ at such places as it is pos-
sible to go underneath and inspect it.
Some of the bowlders that form the embankment are as large as an
ordinary two-story dwelling-house, and the stream finds its way through
them with little apparent obstruction, although the presence of a pile of
driftwood at the mouth of a cave on the upper face, 150 feet above the
bottom, is an indication that occasionally the volume is too great to find
exit in the lower passages and is forced to rise to this higher outlet. It is
possible to descend in this cave, by means of ladders and ropes, into the
interior of the dam almost to the water-level. The crest of the solid mass
of the dam proper is at the 200-foot level, although a chain of huge
bowlders, 25 to 50 feet high, lying near together, extends across the canyon
from side to side. The entire surface of the natural embankment is dotted
over with large fir-trees, growing in the soil that has lodged in the crevices.
As the stream emerges from the foot of the dam it has the appearance of
a spring flowing out from beneath an old glacial moraine.
Surveys of the site have developed the fact thac a reservoir with a
capacity of 24,000 acre-feet can be made available for storage and use by
making nature's dam water-tight. This may readily be done by filling
the crevices and cavities on the upper face with concrete and providing a
proper outlet for the water by means of a tunnel.
The latter has been projected on the 75-foot level, and will require to
be 1200 feet long to reach a neighboring canyon. The cost of this work
has been estimated at $104,000, or $4.35 per acre-foot of storage capacity
in the reservoir. An addition of 20 feet to the top of the dam would
increase this capacity to 27,700 acre-feet, and the cost to $144,000, the
work to be done in Portland-cement masonry. The reservoir has been in
contemplation for some years as a storage for irrigation and domestic
supply in and around Denver, from which city it is some sixty miles
distant.
California Beservoir Projects. — Little Bear Valley Dam. — The Arrow-
head Reservoir Company of Cincinnati, whose headquarters are located
at San Bernardino, Cal., began construction some years ago on a masonry
dam of large proportions which is to store water in a mountain valley,
called the " Little Bear,'* on the head waters of the Mojave River. This
stream flows northward into the Mojave Desert, and its water runs to
waste. The project of the Arrowhead Company is to gather together a
number of the tributaries of the stream above an elevation of 4800 feet,
store the water in reservoirs and convev it across the San Bernardino
Mountains for irrigation in the San Bernardino Valley. A contour map
of the reservoir is shown in Fig. 175.
The dam, of which a portion of the foundation only has been laid, is
designed to be carried to an extreme height of 175.5 feet above the
PROJECTED RESERVOIRS,
369
assumed " base ^^ of the dam, although the lowest foundations will be 20
to 30 feet lower than the " base." The outlet-tunnel is 15.5 feet above
" base." The dam is intended to be a monolithic structure of Portland-
cement concrete, arched up-stream, with a radius of 550 feet to the up-
stream face. Its top length will be 747 feet, and its base thickness 133
feet.
The reservoir will cover an area of 884 acres and impound 60,179 acre-
feet of water.
The company has been at work on the main conduit leading from the
reservoir since 1892, their efforts being directed chiefly to the opening of
^4-753
Houston
Hat
Va/Iey /
.'SOiO ^ ""
Bmse of Dam
Fio. 174a.— Comparison of Dams of the System of the Arrowhead Reservoir
Co. IN THE Ban Bernardino Mountains, California.
the principal tunnels on the line, of which there are a number. The
longest of these is the outlet to the reservoir, 4957 feet in length exclusive
of approaches. This was made necessary to avoid 10 miles of canal around
a long mountain-ridge. It has been completely lined and arched with
concrete. Two other tunnels, 1844 and 1792 feet long, have been com-
pleted, and are to be lined during the summer of 1900.
The total length of conduit required to turn the water over the
summit of the mountain-divide is 13 miles. From the summit crossing
to the grade of the conduit at the base of the mountains skirting the
upper slopes of the valley north of San Bernardino the total descent is
2700 feet, which will be utilized to develop power.
870 BE8ERV0IR8 FOR IRRIGA7J0X WATER-POWER, ETC.
The volume of water which the company expect to develop and supply
is 5000 to 6000 miner's inches (100 to 120 second-feet) of continuous flow
during 200 days each year.
The determination of the volume of supply which can he impounded
and sold from the system has been the result of eight years of continuous
stream measurements and precipitation records. The company maintains
2 6. rain-gauges, located at different points on their watersheds, and a large
number of self-registering devices for measuring the depth of overflow on
their weirs. It is doubtful if any such systematic and intelligent study of
probable available water-supply from the catchment of ^ood run-off prior
to the construction of works has ever before been attempted in the West,
and the final result must prove of great value to the company, as well as
an invaluable addition to the general store of knowledge on such subjects
when finally made public.
The area of the watershed directly tributary to the Little Bear Valley
reservoir is but 6.6 square miles, but it will be fed by a large conduit
diverting the water from Holcomb Creek, Deep Creek, and intermediate
streams. This conduit will consist mainly of a large tunnel from Deep
Creek. The entire area of shed from which the system will be supplied is
about 77 square miles, all of which is above 5000 feet in altitude, on a well-
forested mountain-crest, and is among the most productive areas in south-
ern California in stream run-off. The Little Bear Valley drainage-basin
shows the greatest amoimt of precipitation and stream-flow, and in the period
of observation has given a minimum of 600 and a maximum of 2200 acre-
feet of run-off per square mile per annum. An intercepting-canal 13 miles
in length, including the tunnel mentioned above, to gather the stream-
flow from 61.43 square miles of watershed lying east of Little Bear Valley
and empty it into the main reservoir, is an essential part of the general
system. This canal will have a capacity of 200 to 400 second-feet, increas-
ing as it takes in each successive stream on its way.
Two other reservoirs are contemplated, one at Grass Valley, 4 miles west
of Little Bear, elevation 5108 feet, where a dam 175 feet high will give
27,547 acre-feet of capacity on a reservoir area of 382 acres; the other
at Huston Flat, 5 miles west of Grass Valley, elevation 4450 feet. The
175-foot contour at the latter site will give a capacity below it of 24,753
acre-feet. This dam, being near the line of the conduit from Little Bear
reservoir, which would pass the dam-site at an elevation of nearly 300
feet above the 175-foot contour, could be built advantageously by the
sluicing and hydraulic jet process, as an abundance of material for the
purpose can be had conveniently on both sides of the canvon where the
dam would be located. To utilize this reservoir will necessitate a tunnel-
outlet 5900 feet long, and it has been proposed to make this tunnel a part
of the main conduit, by which means 4^ miles of canal would be saved, the
Fio. 1744.— View of IlnsTON Flat Rksbhvoir-bitb, one or the Bybtkm of thb
AuHowHBAD Rbbkrvoir Co.
Tbli dnm Is to be b»Ut b^ tlie b7dr«ullc-fl)l process.
Heau Valley Reseuvoik.
[Tu face page 31 i.
y
374
RS8ERV0IR8 FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC
height of 130 feet, at which it will have a capacity of 61,500 acre-feet,
covering 1214 acres. Its cost has been estimated at $400,000, and the 28
miles of canals for distribution to 40,000 acres of land at $230,000, an
average cost for the system of about $16 per acre.
The capacity of the drainage-basin for run-off has been demonstrated
in a striking way on two notable occasions when floods from this section
destroyed the Southern California Bailway through the Temecula Canyon,
causing enormous loss and destruction of property. The track has not
been restored since the last time it was destroyed, in 1890-91.
Fig. 178. — ^Map of Watershed and the Lands to be inRiOATED from Victor
Reservoir.
Victor Dam, California, — Doubtless the most capacious reservoir pro-
jected in California is that of the Columbia Colonization Company, located
on the Mojave River in San Bernardino County, at the Upper Narrows,
near the town of Victor (Fig. 178) on the line of the Southern California
Railway, which now passes through the site of the dam, and will have to
be rebuilt for 5^ miles to clear the reservoir. The pass at the Narrows is
in a granite ridge, which affords most admirable buttresses for a masonry
dam, and is a remarkable one, favorable in all respects for such a structure.
PROJECTED RE8BRV0IRB.
875
The width at the stream-bed is but 140 feet, while at the height of 150
feet the walls of the canyon are but 360 feet apart. Soundings have been
taken with steel rods driven through the sand, which show the maximum
depth to what is believed to be bed-rock at 53 feet. Fig. 179 is a cross-
eection of the site, showing the soundings, and Fig. 180 is a view looking
Flo. 170.— Cross- SECTION of Victor Dam-site.
up-stream from the county bridge through the dam-site, the stakes shown
in the water marking the positions of the various soundings. The reser-
voir-basin is shown in Fig. 181, and Fig. 178 is a general map of the
watershed and the lands proposed to be irrigated.
As planned, the dam will contain about 70,000 cubic yards of masonr;.
876 REBBEV0IR8 FOB IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
including the filling of a narrow gap in the rim rock above the 105-foot
contour, some 600 feet west of the dam proper. On the opposite side
a natural spillway of ample dimensions exists at a height of 145 feet, by
which the waste will be returned back to the channel at a safe distance
below over a ledge of solid granite. The reservoir at the 145-foot contour
covers an area of 7718 acres, and has a capacity estimated at 17,000,000,000
cubic feet, or 390,000 acre-feet, the mean depth being 50J feet, or 34.86
per cent of the maximum. The ratio between mean and maximum depth
in all large commodious reservoir-basins which have a fairly uniform slope
of stream-bed from the dam-site up, and do not show a series of rapids
for a distance above the dam, is found to range from 28 to 45 per cent,
and it is often customary on preliminary estimates, after determining the
area of the highest contour embracing the reservoir, and before making
detailed survey of the interior of the basin, to apply such a percentage
of the height of the dam for computation of contents as the engineer may
consider safe within these limits, taking into consideration the general
topography of the site. Such has been the method of determining the
capacity of the reservoir in question.
The watershed area draining out through this dam-site is somewhat
indeterminate from lack of surveys in the eastern part, but it has been
roughly computed as 1250 square miles, of which the drainage from the
greater portion of 77 square miles on the mountain-crest may be diverted
by the works of the Arrowhead Reservoir Company. The precipitation has
a wide range of variation, from 60 inches and upward on the summits of
the mountains to 5 or 6 inches at the dam. Measurements made by F. W.
Skinner, civil engineer, between Januarv 1 and August 1, 1893, gave a
maximum discharge of 8500 second-feet and a minimum of 38 second-ieet,
from which the mean flow from August 1, 1892, to August 1, 1893, was
computed as 825 second-feet. This would be equivalent to an annual
run-off of 597,300 acre-feet, or nearly double the proposed reservoir
capacity. At the same time it was noted, by the appearance of the drift
along the banks and the statements of the residents of Victor, that the
highest floods of that season lacked several feet of reaching the high-
water marks of previous years.
In connection with the laying of the foundations of the dam, it is in-
teresting to consider the probable volume of underflow in the stream at
this point. The area of cross-section shown by the soundings below the
surface is approximately 4160 square feet. The rate of percolation deter-
mined by the Agua Fria dam-construction (p. 234), if applied to this area,
would give an underflow of 11 miner's inches; and even if this were multi-
plied by 10, the flow to be handled by pumps during construction would be
but little more than 4 second-feet, which is not a formidable amount to
contemplate taking care of.
Fig. 181.— Map of Victor Ukbervoik.
880
BESERV0IR8 FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC.
The lands to be irrigated from the reservoir lie west of the river, be-
tween the Southern California Railway and the Atlantic and Pacific Rail-
road, and north of the latter. The area of good land in this region re-
quiring water is greatly in excess of the probable water-supply. The cost
of the entire system of storage and distribution, including canals and
laterals delivering water to 200,000 acres, is estimated at $1,742,000, or
$8.46 per acre, although the company states that it has secured bids from
reliable contractors which will greatly reduce these figures of cost. It
appears to be an enterprise which would reclaim so large an area of the
31
32
3S
36
6
^
H
1
T
7
ZOS.ff.35
8
9
^^h
1 "^
^Z
18
17
16
isJ
M
^
^
17
19
^
H
Z4
19
D&mSitB
20
30
^
27 '
b 25
31
32
33
34-
36
Fio. 182. — Map op Manache Meadows Reservoir.
public domain that is now a desert as to entitle it to be classed among
those which should be carried to successful completion.
Since the above article was written in 1897, the U. S. Geological Sur-
vey has made borings, in 1899, to determine the depth to bed-rock, with
the diamond drill-core, and practically confirmed the correctness of the
original soundings.
Projected Keservoirs on Kern Biver, California. — A number of available
PROJECTED RE8ERV0IRB.
881
sites for impounding a considerable volume of the flood-waters of Kern
River have been surveyed in the mountains near the sources of that noble
stream the "Eio Bravo of the South/' as it was known to the native
-aeao'
•* e£e(/
* ^ ^-aa^o'^
^^^Mt
Fio. 188.— Map of Manachb Meadows Dam-sitb.
Califomias, the largest of which is in the Manache Meadows^ on the
south fork of Kern River, at an elevation of 8200 feet above Rea-level (Fig.
182). A rock-fill dam at this site, estimated to cost $150,000, will create
882 REBBRV0IR8 FOR IRRIGATION, WATER-POWER, ETC
a reservoir of 5830 acres and impound 248,850 acre-feet^ from which it is
apparent that the site takes front rank among the most capacious sites that
have come to public notice in the West. The locality has the appearance
of having been a large lake in a comparatively recent geological period,
and the basin is so flat that it is classed, and has been surveyed and
segregated, as " swamp and overflowed land." The highest peaks in the
catchment-area are over 13,000 feet high, and Mount Whitney, 15,000 feet
in altitude, is drained on one side by Whitney Creek, the water of one
branch of which can be diverted into the reservoir by an inexpensive cut.
The area of drainage naturally tributary is 155 square miles.
The dam-site (Fig. 183) shows solid ledges of granite on each side, and
soundings indicate that bed-rock is but 8 to 10 feet below the surface
across the canyon-bed, which is but 160 feet wide at the bed of the stream
and 460 feet wide at a height of 85 feet. Lime can be burned for use on
Whitney Creek, 20 miles distant, and there is a great abundance of timber
which clothes all the surrounding mountains.
The Manache Meadows reservoir-site has been located by the Kern-
Rand Eeservoir and Electric Company of Los Angeles, with the view of
utilizing it to equalize the flow of the stream sufficiently to enable them to
use the water continuously for power. The fall available at the middle
power-station is 2250 feet, which it is proposed to utilize in one drop, gen-
erating 24,000 H.P. and transmitting it electrically to Los Angeles, 125
miles distant. The upper station has an available drop of about 1900 feet,
requiring a conduit of 15 miles to reach it. The lower station has a drop
of 200 feet and would deliver water to the highest of the irrigation-canals
in South Fork Valley. The total theoretical power available for all three
stations is estimated at 45,870 H.P., of which about 30,000 H.P. may be
delivered to points of intended use.
The mountain valley of the South Fork, above its junction with the
North Fork, has an altitude of about 3600 feet, and contains some 25,000
acres of good arable land, of which about 15,000 acres are irrigated, chiefly
for alfalfa. There are thirty ditches, each from 1^ to 3 miles in length,
5 to 6 feet wide on bottom, and carrying 1 to 2 feet depth of water. The
reservoir in the Manache Meadows would interfere with the supply to these
ditches only during the last half of July and the months of August and
September. During the remainder of the year the streams below the
Meadows are adequate for this service. In fact, the Manache is but one-
fifth the total area of the South Fork drainage above the South Fork farm-
ing community, and probably does not supply more than 40 per cent of the
flow of the stream.
The main characteristics of the North and South forks of Kem River
are as widely diflFerent as though the streams were in separate States. The
North Fork rises in very high, rugged, and precipitous mountains on which
PROJECTED BEBERVOIRB. 383
the snow lies late in summer. Its canyon is a deep^ narrow gorge through-
out its entire length, from its source to Kernville, near its junction with
South Fork, with only here and there a narrow strip of meadow-land along
the stream, not in any way resembling the expansive meadows and open
plains which characterize the South Fork for so great a part of its course.
The North Fork drains 1069 and the South Fork 754 square miles of
watershed, but the precipitation and run-off of the two sheds vary so
greatly that the normal flow of the former is ten to twelve times greater
than the latter at their point of junction. Unfortunately the relative
advantages of the two forks respecting sites for storage seem to be in in-
verse ratio to their volume of flow and capacity for filling reservoirs.
Kern Lake Beservoir. — One of a large number of sites surveyed in 1881
by the State Engineering Department of California is at the " lake " on
North Fork, where a landslide has filled the canyon some 20 feet and
created a pond 40 acres in area. This place has been viewed with the idea
of constructing a high rock-fill dam, to be formed by a few huge blasts from
the cliffs that tower almost vertically above it for 2000 to 3000 feet. The
capacity of a reservoir at this place would be 4(5,600 acre-feet at the 220-
foot level, covering about 600 acres. The outlet would be made by means
of a tunnel of sufficient capacity to carry the river during construction of
the dam. The plan suggested contemplates filling the canyon for several
hundred feet with such an enormous mass of rock as to give it unques-
tionable stability, and after it is thrown down, to lay up a dry wall on its
upper face and cover it with asphalt concrete, excavating a spillway en-
tirely around the dam so created. The canyon width at the site is but 100
feet at bottom and 400 feet at a height of 230 feet. The work is estimated
to cost $225,000.
One of the advantages of the reservoir in this locality would be that
it could be filled twice a year or oftener. Experiejice has demonstrated
that the usual shortage in supply to the Kern Valley canals occurs twice
a year — in February and March, and in August and September. In these
months a reinforcement of the stream is very much needed. Between each
of these periods the North Fork reservoir could be filled and its contents
made available for the next low stage.
It may be considered, therefore, that the reservoir, if built and oper-
ated in the manner suggested, would practically add 46,000 acres to the
irrigable area of the valley, at a cost of about $5 per acre.
Big HeadowB Beservoir. — Located on Salmon Creek, a branch of the
North Fork of Kern River, at a point known as Big Meadows, is a site
where a dam of 75 feet height will form a reservoir of 870 acres that
would impound 31,150 acre-feet of water. The dam-site is in a granite
canyon with clean bed-rock on bottom and sides, the width at bottom be-
tween walls being but 25 feet, while the top width at the 75-foot level
384 REBEBVOIBS FOB IBBIQATIOUT, WATEBrPOWEB, ETC.
would be 390 feet. A rock-fill dam is estimated to require 26,000 cubic
yards of material, and to cost $80,000. The area of watershed is estimated
at 14 to 25 square miles.
Throughout the higher Sierra Nevada are innumerable lakes of con-
siderable area and capacity, generally so high as to be above the timber-
line, which can be utilized as storage-reservoirs at small expense. They
may be counted by the hundreds on the headwaters of Kings, San Joaquin,
Merced, and Tuolumne rivers, although it cannot be said that any of them
are so extensive or capacious as to be distinctly noticeable or require special
description. Preparations are being made by people living in Visalia to
utilize two such lakes on the headwaters of the Kaweah River in a some-
what novel manner. By means of a number of 10-inch pipes they propose
to siphon the water out of the lakes to a depth of about 20 feet, and as
one of them, called Moose Lake, is about 300 acres in area, it is expected
to draw from it in the season of greatest shortage about 5000 to 6000 acre-
feet of water. The other, known as *^ Big Lake," has almost as large an
area. This method of utilizing the lakes without the expense of building
dams may have more than a local application.
On the eastern slope of the Sierra, near the town of Independence, a
high mountain lake of this sort has been tapped by a cut about 10 feet
in depth, which has given a flow, as reported, of several hundred inches
more than customarily came from it before.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
Throughout the text of this work the author has endeavored to make
due acknowledgment for information furnished and courtesies extended,
in connection with each of the subjects treated. If any omissions have
been made, their subsequent discovery will cause him sincere regret and
mortification. To cover any such omissions in the first edition he begs
to make a broad and general expression of gratitude for all aid extended
in making the work more complete.
Special acknowledgments are due the Director of the TJ. S. Geological
Survey, and to Mr. F. H. Newell, Chief Hydrographer, for the use of the
greater portion of the cuts and illustrations which embellish the fore-
going pages, and are indispensable to the proper understanding of the text.
APPENDIX.
CONTAINING TABULATED DATA OF RESERVOIR SURVEYS
MADE BY THE U. 8. GOVERNMENT; TABLES SHOW-
ING THE COST OF RESERVOIR CONSTRUCTION
PER ACRE-FOOT IN THE UNITED STATES
AND IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, AND
TABLES OF RESERVOIR CAPACI-
TIES AND AREAS.
386
APPENDIX.
U. S. Reservoir Surveyb in California.
1
2
8
5
6
7
8
10
11
14
15
16
17
18
10
20
21
22
28
24
25
27
28
29
80
81
82
38
84
85
86
87
88
89
40
41
42
43
44
55
O I
d
Location.
Clear Lake
Independence Lake
Webber Lake
Donner Lake
Soda Springs
Truckee River
Little Yoseiuite Valley
Lake Tenava
Tuolumne Meadows.
Lake Eleanor
Kennedy's Meadows.
12 i Kennedy's Lake
18 I Blood's Creek.
Red Lake
Pleasant Valley
East Carson Creek
Indian Pool, Deer Creek.
Heenan Lake
Silver King Valley
Wolf Creek
Dumont's Meadows
Mokelumne River
<(
Pacific Valley
Bell'sMeadows, CanyonCr
Coffin's Hollow. •• ••
Hull's Meadows
Granite Lake
Cherry Valley
Lake Vernon
Big Meadows
Errarar*s Meadows
HetcU-Hetchy Valley, . . .
Little Truckee River . . . .
Stampede Valley
Twin Vallcv
Little Truckne River. . . .
Monument Peak
Young's Crossing
Grass Lake
Hope Valley
Harvey's Meadows
American River
Twin Lakes
Altitude.
Feet.
5.808
6.997
6,769
6.095
6.750
6,190
5,980
7,990
8,U89
4.561
0,182
8,009
6,911
7,850
5,900
6,000
8,000
7,100
6,400
6,500
7,500
7,020
6,840
7,000
5,500
5,000
5,000
5.040
4,500
6,530
7,500
6,000
1,500
6.430
5.800
6,200
5,550
7,700
5,200
7,800
7,050
5,900
7,800
7,900
Water-
Khed
Area.
Sq. Mi.
418
i
6
12
132.5
11
169
48
67.6
5.4
4.7
Small
<<
Small
< <
it
Extens.
Small
Small
410
12
Ample
<(
i(
Small
Ample
Small
Reser-
voir
Area.
Acres.
Reser-
voir
Capac-
ity.
Acre-ft.
40,821
984
778
1,337
2,006
300
225
86,3
597
1,127
128
110
348
80
60
40
20
130
256
190
226
75
80
75
280
175
115
220
165
480
980
95
680
450
120
310
850
160
150
350
1,808
40
185
420
Area
Sejfre-
Raied.
Acr»*s.
885,800, 50,921
23,707;
11,152'
22,205
42,827
2,4001
1,350'
45,195
23,000
1,081-' 43,185
.- »
680
560
1.694
1,400
1,880
,45.770 1,910
7,408t 860
2,000 440
U. S. Reservoir Surveys in
1 f
Truckee River, lower. . . .
** " upper....
17 I Long Valley Creek
18 West Carson River i 7,050
4,250
4,800
1,000
1,000
400
895
1,086
1,800
6,917
1,050
790
975
160
1,460
5,740
4,680
5,480
1,120
480
980
6,300
2,200
2,160
8.800
2,500
5,700
11,000
1,070
25,500
10,100
2,250
8,480
6,500
4,800
8.870
4,000
90,810
600
2,400
4,700
Nevada.
7,500
7,400
34,425
90.810
881
860
402
200
25
400
722
600
680
320
200
320
800
480
379
520
720
920
400
812
1,440
1,043
440
840
880
433
640
920
2,958
280
440
884
1,000
1,040
Heiffbt
of
Dam.
Feet.
f
None
40
30
26
^8
20
16
115
35
75
L 65
^65
102
31
55
20
15
36
86
65
22
80
60
66
66
40
88
85
60
35
50
40
40
30
80
80
100
60
50
30
50
80
60
80
163
40
47
30
03
50
\ 60
'i 100
168
Lengtb
of
Dam.
Feet
None
1,828
812
8,021
580
916
1075
870
1,800
410
900
1,670
300
240
450
400
580
344
660
426
816
344
817
1,200
770
556
290
530
660
820
800
320
318
870
530
400
'525
i'seo
1.000
870
APPENDIX.
U. 8. RBBERTOni SURTKTB IN COIXHIADO.
LtMth
Iwin Lakes, ArkBDMB it.
LeHdville,
9 104
iO.OOO
387
8,476
9.340
10,000
8,400
8.870
8,000
7,900
8.100
8,500
8,500
0.000
9.000
0.800
S.800
5.4SO
5.600
6.500
5,100
6.400
S.000
4,840
6,400
Seven-Mile Cre«k
80
'seo"
SO
26
20
160
00
25
870
35
30
10
00
180
70
70
■"io
160
2;546'
80
560
200
1.400
1,820
50
167
80
115
60
310
215
620
90
1,920
836
Weal Beaver Creek
Sand Creek
Eigbt-Hile Creek
Arkansas, 8 m.«b. Pueblo
St. Charles River
GranerosCreek..'."'.'.'.'.*
4.980
6.800
S.892
B,ft95
7,800
7,200
6.700
6.860
0.030
8.800
8.S0O
5,600
6,B60
4.700
4 250
4,300
4,500
4.250
4,150
4,150
lO.flOO
10.100
8.600
8.545
8,000
0,425
6.200
4,9.'i0
4,450
180
65
email
600
40
35
4S
100
820
60
65
420
170
200
700
115
180
450
420
440
460
340
762
350
Santa Clara Hiver.
ApisLapa River
I'urg«lnire River
Stonewall Vftllej
Smith CanynnCrefk....
290
140
110
260
20
80
25
20
600
80
SO
75
3,400
1.400
1,600
1,000
480
700
1.680
4,160
490
250
90
130
420
80
800
840
8,860
Cottonwood Creek
Two Butte Creek
Nat. Basin, n. Rocky Ford
■' " - La Junta..
" " " Arlington..
Pine Creek, n. 'Aiiivi^'.
Timpas Cr^ek
Las Animas Blver
08,500
4,716
r73;
8,875
760
7.000
730
45 00(
2.303
'l20
45,00(
1,916
4.G5<
560
100
HT,0<l(
3.896
68
10,10(
8.686
140
1.52(
8.571
1,3»4
86
67
3,731
28,46<
2.400
96
m
160
68
4,liOI
480
100
1,95(
860
84
«,HN
820
100
520
70
7 10(
616
«,WK
1,000
80
1,92(
856
60
169, (KK
8.643
90
60
8,4U
686
3.04(
440
«,«41
660
77
37 3IH
1.406
166
4,125
4(10
lasoi
1,040
139
10, 1»
1.240
142
6.20<
966
11.20(
223
185
33,70(
480
&4,23(
8.003
98
33 7M
3.380
83
25 OK
1.806
6,90(
1.000
50
14,72(
1.284
80
31,407
3,420
714
4,10(
600
4(1
I,BO(
240
70
3.50(
SIB
60
11 M(
1.308
I.HIC
060
O.WM) 900
18.6401 1,530
88
4,040
108
888
APPENDIX.
U. S. BeBBBYOIB SrBTETB IK MOKTAVA.
■**
o5
o
PS
1
2
8
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
18
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22 &
28
24
25
26
27
28
29
80
81
82
88
84
85
86
87
88
Location .
Sun River.
Altitude.
FeOva
«« " ,' North Fork.
" ** .South Fork.
Willow Creek
(<
i<
San River.
Benton Lake
Near Martinsdale.
Daisy Dean Creek.
«< 41 44
N. Fork, Masselshell R...
S.
4(
44
<l
4<
Sixteen-Mile Creek
S. Fork, Smith River. . . .
44 44 «4 (<
Confederate Gulch
• • . *
Mitchell Creek
Big Hole River
Black-tail Deer Creek. . . .
Beaver Head River
Red Rock River
Ruby River
Nat. Basin, Choteau Co...
41
44
44
41
Box Elder Creek
West Otter Creek
Sage Creek
Judith River
Dry Basin near Utica...
44
44
44
44
Lebo Lake
Near Martinsdale.
• • .
8,682
5,015
4,900
5,000
4,880
5,485
5,000
5,100
5,550
5,625
5,880
4,000
5,000
6.000
5,500
5,800
8,600
5,000
4,900
5,000
4.900
4,900
5,000
6,000
Water-
shed
Aroa.
Sq.Mi.
1,172
1,186
668
818
87
87
small
44
none
10
40
18
60
95
90
12
50
85
25
120
Beser-
▼oir
Acres.
275
367
1,102
670
1,660
840
285
140
70
9,180
. 80
40
20
80
40
100
25
1,055
120
110
15
50
11,800
600
1.400
1,200
400
2,800
200
180
70
80
100
85
55
250
voir
Capao*
iiy.
Acre>ft.
5.249
18.018
50.056
19,591
86,605
6,081
5.226
2,091
727
140,200
160
800
105
890
520
19,781
1,125
1,280
8,000
1,500
250
8,000
200
850
gated.
Acres.
1,014
1.240
1,760
1,080
2,860
1,120
880
440
860
11,987
210
120
160
200
240
820
120
2,279
440
860
80
240
10.705
1,155
2,640
1,894
920
8,944
520
960
860
160
860
160
160
676
649
Helffht
of
Dam.
f^eec
1
15
57
99
122
113
84
15
74
41
28
85
\
15
40
15
85
85
55
20
50
25
80
10
15
100
40
125
40
85
20
15
46
66
21
76
8
10
85
Leogih
Dam.
Feet.
680
590
380
470
677
578
855
690
8,160
528
481
n. S. Reservoib Subyets in Utah.
1 Bear Lake, partly in Idaho
2 Silver Lake
8 Twin Lakes
4 Mary's Lake
5 Sevier River, near Oasis..
6 Sanpitch River
7 Sevier River
5,949
8.784
2,400
8
5.000
500
2,500
69,120
140
25
25
940
880
290
208,000
6,014
8
2,500
440
52
450
160
20
550
160
25
10,000
2,878
16
9,000
2.001
22
1,600
920
10
56
5,200
180
140
475
580
260
APPENDIX.
389
U. S. RB8BRY0IR BURTSTB IK UTAH.
s
o
8
9
10
11
13
18
1
2
8
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
18
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
28
24
25
26
27
28
29
80
81
82
88
84
85
86
87
88
89
Location.
East Fork, Sevier Rirer. .
Otter Creek
East Fork, Sevier River. .
<<
It
i<
(«
Panquitch Lake,
Blue Spring....
Water-
Reeer-
Reser-
Area
Heigfat
Altitude.
shed
▼olr
voir
Segre-
of
Area.
Area.
Capacity.
gated.
Dam.
Feet
Sq.Mi.
Acres.
Acre-ft.
Acres.
Feet.
6,200
700
460
8,000
1.120
12.5
6.200
500
1,860
14,000
8,860
15
7.000
575
8,050
76.000
4.956
50
7.200
800
770
8,500
1.278
10
8.100
80
1.280
10.700
1,560
10
8.200
25
440
18,000
845
48
U. S. Reservoir Surveys ik New Mexico.
Horse Lake
Bowlder Lake
Stinking Lake
Vallecitos Creek
NearElRito
VallecitoB Creek
RioCaliente
Rio Hondo
Rio Colorado
RioPicuris
Rio Picuris and Rio Lusio
Hio Grande . . . .• ........
Rio Jemex, East Fork. . . .
<i
I*
<(
Rio Salado
Rio Jenies.
Santa F6 Creek
Rio Medio and Rio Fri jole
Rio Mora
Manuelitos Creek
Cherry Valley Lake
Rio Gallinas.
Rio Pecos
Rio Grande
Rio San Jos^
San Mateo Creek
Blue Water Creek
<<
(<
<«
Agna Fria Creek.
7,600
7.500
7.000
7,000
7,000
7,000
7.000
'6,666'
9.066*
8.500
8.400
7.000
8,660'
7,666'
6,000
6,000
6,000
6,000
. . . a .
Rio Colorado.
Rio Salado. . .
Rio Alamosa.
Rio Grande. .
<«
1.120
2,250
8,680
100
60
60
880
50
270
62
286
1.500
4.080
256
212
575
1,046
155
1,640
40
45
620
1.770
1,087
800
170
870
250
4.452
900
880
490
1,900
298
420
2.800
1.185
5.540
6,880
21,000
UnBg. ?
40
51,000
*«
100
125.000
«f
50
8.500
<(
100
8.000
200
150
1,800
60
80
10,000
1,059
80
1,000
.•••••.*
100
9,000
100
1.200
62
60
6,000
286
80
80.000
1,500
50
18.000
5,000
256
58.5
4,500
212
57
18.000
58
82,000
1,046
70
8,700
155
60
60.000
1,640
90
1,100
200
72
800
45
50
5.400
620
60
88.000
1.770
90
41.000
1,087
100
15.000
1,400
none
5.800
170
100
8.800
870
75
7.800
82
87.000
198
81
20,000
900
46
5,500
880
48.5
8,000
960
19
58,000
8,540
74.5
( 21
2,740
960
\ 86
( 24
11,000
877
72
68,000
4.120
68
59,000
871
125
175.000
8,607
80
102,000
6,760
40
1 IJackson Lake.
Length
Ditfn.
Feet.
280
200
225
6.825
110
260
U. S. Reservoir Surveys is Wtoking.
I I 840 1 1 500.0001 1 25 1
n. S. Reservoir Surveys in Idaho.
1 |8wan Valley, Snake Riveri | 5.865 | |1.500.000i | 125 '
390
APPENDIX.
Cost of Rbseryoik Construction per Acre-foot. American Rbseryoirs.
Name.
Character of Dam.
Capacity of
Beaervoir.
Acre-feet.
Cost.
Costoer
Acre-foot.
Sweetwater dam, California
Bear Valley dam, '*
Hemet dam, <' ......
Escondido dam, "
Lower Otaj dam, "
Masonry
i<
<(
Rock.fiU
Rock-fill,8teel core
Hydraulic-fill
Earth
it
Rock.fiU crib
Earth
Rock.fiU
<<
Rock-fill and earth
HvdnLuliA.fill
32,566
40,000
10,500
8.500
42,190
1,800
11,410
170,000
15,000
14,900
21,070
18,270
15,170
1,850
6,800
89,000
1,770
5,654
11,550
23,000
885
459
102
205
954
708
110
888
480
98,200
22,000
14,980
12,720
102,548
1,028
1264.500
68.000
150.000
110,059
111. 72
1.70
14.29
81.44
La Mesa dam, <'
Guyamaca dam, **
Buena Vista Lake, "
Yosemite Lake, "
17,000
54.400
150,000
18.10
4.76
0.88
English dam, "
Bowman dam, "
San l..eandro dam, **
Eureka Lake dam, "
Fancherie dam, " .......
Lake Avalon, Pecos River, N. M..
Lake McMillan " ** « ..
Tyler. Texas
155,000
151,521
900,000
85,000
8,000
176,000
180,000
1.140
110,266
89,782
75.000
88,121
14,772
9,997
14,654
80,000
150,000
45,776
52,888
56.000
4,150.573
983,065
866.990
510,480
83,555
150,000
10.40
7.19
68.00
2.82
5.92
27.94
2.02
64
Cache la Poudre, Colorado
Larimer and Weld, "
Windsor, "
Monument, **
Apishapa, '<
Hardscrabble, "
Boss Lake, <*
Saguache, "
Seligman, Arizona
Ei
Ml_,
irth
\i
u
[(
t(
E(
t(
t<
Aflonrir
19.50
7.77
8.26
88.69
82.18
97.78
71.89
81.45
169 50
Ash Fork, "
Steel
Masonry
Masonry and earth
<4 <( i(
(< l< <<
Earth
Masonry and earth
MiiAnnrv 1
416 30
Williamfl, "
Walnut Canyon, Arizona
156.85
114 60
New Croton, New York
42.27
Titicus, "
42.42
Sodom, "
24.50
Bofl^Brook, "
40.12
Indian River, **
0.81
Wiirwam, Conn
145.90
APPENDIX.
391
Ebtimatbd Cost of Rsbsryoir Conbtbuction per Acrb-foot. Projectad
American Reservoirs.
Name.
ToDto Basin, Arizona
SanCarloe, *'
Riverside, "
Buttes, *'
Horseshoe, **
Bear Canyon, "
Victor, California
Manache Meadows, California . .
Bock Creek, Nevada
Columbus, Oliio
Elephant Buttes, New Mexico. . . .
Pecos River, •* . . . .
8aud Lake, Texas
Laramie, Wyoming
Sweetwater River, "
CloudPeak, *'
Piney, "
LakeDeSmet, **
liOTeland, Colorado
Tarryall. •'
Lost Canyon *'
Character of Dam.
Maconry
((
Rock-fill & mas'ry
Rock.fi 11
Masonry
«(
Rock.fiU
Masonry
ti
Rock.fiU
Natural basin
<< <«
Masonry
Rock-fill and earth
Natural basin
<* **
Masonry
Natural rock-fill
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Acre-feet.
757,000
241,396
221,186
174,040
206,000
14,762
890.000
146,400
80,000
17,440
253,868
200,000
72,500
414,000
826,965
6,800
11,020
67,628
45,741
46,000
24,000
Estimated
COBL
Cost per
A era- foot of
Capacity.
12,450,000
1,088,926
1,992,605
2,648,827
600,000
596,580
450,000
180,000
80,000
824,177
281,515
150,000
86,000
1,416,254
276,485
81 ,049
70,226
118,110
262,106
550,000
104,000
$3.24
4.80
9.01
15.19
2.98
40.40
1.15
0.89
1.00
18.60
1.11
0.75
0.60
8.42
0.86
4.56
6.87
1.67
6.78
1?.00
4.35
Cost of Reseryoir CoNSTRrcTiON per AcRE-yoor. Foreign Reservoirs.
Name.
Couzon, France
Furens, "
Temay, "
Ban, "
Pas du Riot, *'
C^artrain. "
Lak*) Oredon, *'
Houcbe, ' '
Liez. "
Wassy. "
Patas, India
Ekruk. «•
Ashti, "
Lake Fife, *•
Bhatgur, •'
Tansa, *'
Betwa. "
Chnmbrumbaukum, India
Villar. Spain
Oilleppe, Belg^ium
Remscheid. Germany. . • .
Yyrnwy, Wales
Beetaloo, Australia
Character of Dam.
Masoniy
«
it
Earth
Masonry
Earth
««
(I
Earth and masoniy
Earth
Masonry
(t
»t
*t
Earth
Masonry
<«
i(
Concrete
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Acre-feet.
1,297
1,297
2,488
1,499
1,064
8,647
5.894
7,011
18,051
1,740
826
76.176
82,660
75,500
126,600
68,670
86,800
68.780
18,050
9,780
811
44,690
2,946
Coat.
$247,600
818,000
204,872
190,000
256,000
420.000
142.000
1.008,657
598.418
138.942
15,925
666,000
270,000
680,000
Cost per
A ere- foot of
Capacity.
988,000
160,000
812,000
890,000
874,000
91,164
8,834.000
678,800
$190.00
245.00
84.00
127. 0()
248.00
115.10
24.00
148.00
46.00
80.00
49 00
8.74
8.26
8.84
18.76
4.86
4.89
28.88
89.88
112.46
74.61
194.70
392
APPENDIX.
TABLES OF RESERVOIR CAPACITIES AND AREAS.
EscoNDiDO Ibbigation District Rebebyoib, California.
[Area of tributary waterthed, 8 square mflee; elevation of base of dam above aea^level. 1800 feet.]
Height
above Base
of Dam.
Feet.
Surface Area.
Acres.
CafMtcity of
Reservoir.
Acre-feet.
Remarks.
20
85
60
65
80
90
100
110
46
288
970
2,400
4,576
6,455
8.698
11,855
r
^
«
Capacity of reseTvoir as com-
. pleted in 1895, 3,500 acre-feet.
Outlet of reservoir is 16 feet
above base.
174
285* *
Lower Otat Reservoir, California.
[Area of tributary watershed. 100 square miles; elevation of base of dam above sea-level, S45 feet.]
Height
above Base
of Dam.
Feet.
Surface Area.
Acres.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Acre-feet.
Remarks.
80
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
180
150
40
96
160
289
276
808
452
567
1.000
1,414
321
1,002
2.284
4.281
6,860
9.756
13.580
18.828
42,190
66,455
Outlet tuDoel 48 feet above base
^ of dam. For cross-section of
dam site see Fig. 177, p. 878.
MoRBNA Reservoir, San Diego County, California.
[Area of tributary watershed, 185 square miles; elevation of base of dam above sea-level, 8100 feet.]
Heigrht
above Base
of Dam.
Surface Area.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Remarks.
Feet.
Acres.
Acre-feet.
50
46
460
•V
60
78
1,079
70
111
2.029
80
152
8.816
Outlet tunnel is at 80-foot con-
90
225
5.188
tour. Rock-fill dam, with
100
804
7,831
- aspbalt concrete facing. For
110
488
11.466
cross-section of dam-site see
120
624
16,804
Fig. 177, p. 378.
130
850
24.107
140
1.187
84.358
150
1.370
46,738
J
APPENDIX.
393
La Mbba Rbseryoib, San Dibgo Coumtt, Califobnia.
[Area of tifbutary watershed, 6 square milee; elevation of base of dam above sea-level, 48S.6 feet.]
Heifliit
above Base
of Dam.
Feet.
Surface Area.
Acres.
Capacity of
BMservoir.
Acre-feet.
Remarks.
•
80
85
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
140
12
18
24
80
41
58
62
70
88
96
118
129
152
181
205
444
110
190
290
480
610
850
1,190
1,460
1,850
2,290
2,820
8,420
4,120
4,950
5,920
18,890
Uydraulic-fiU dam, completed
- 1895, to 66-foot contour. Out-
let at base of dam.
J
Pine Valley Reservoir, San Diego County, California.
[Area of watershed, 46 f^quare miles; elevation of base of dam, 8700 feet.]
HelRht
above Base
of Dam.
Feet.
Surface Area.
Acres.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Acre-feet.
Remarks.
40
50
60
65
70
80
90
100
110
120
125
130
140
150
90
160
240
277
800
815
830
849
897
520
586
640
720
784
6o0
1,800
8,800
5,100
6,580
9,610
12,885
16,280
19,960
24.540
27,080
80,880
87,180
44,695
Dam proposed to be constructed
\}j hydraulic process as a
" rock.fi] 1 earth-dam. For cross*
section of dam site, see Fig.
177, p. 878.
394
APPENDIX,
Lake Hbmbt Rbsbryoib, Riyersidb County, Caufornia.
[Area of watershed, 05 to 100 square miles; elevation of base of dam, 4200 feet.]
Heiffht
above Base
of Dam.
Surface Area.
•
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Remarks.
Feet.
Acres.
Acre-feet.
40.0
2.0
88
45.0
2.8
78
Lowest outlet at 45 feet.
50.0
8.0
118
60
29.0
882
70.0
62.0
778
80.0
103.0
1.603
•
90.0
188.0
2.787
100.0
187.0
4,891
110.0
. 252.0
6.^98
120.0
828.0
9.512
122.5
865.0
10,500
Top of dam as completed 1895.
180.0
486.0
13,590
140.0
601.0
19.077
150.0
788.0
25.836
Little Bear Valley Reseryoir (Arrowhead Resbryoir Company), San
Bernardino County, California.
[Area of tributary watershed, 6.6 square miles; elevatioD of base of dam, 4M6.8 feet.]
Height
above
Tunnel
Surface Area.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Remarks.
Outlet.
Feet.
Acres.
Acre-feet.
10
29.7
198
^
20
55.8
619
80
77.0
1,280
40
109.6
2,207
50
191.8
8,680
60
286.9
5.830
70
286.0
8,414
Bottom of outlet tunnel is 15.6
80
836.8
11,518
feet above bed of creek at
90
895.8
. 15.170
^ base of dam; lowest founda-
100
452.0
19,401
tions about 15 feet lower.
110
635.0
24.326
120
626.0
80,094
185
716.0
40,144
147
800.0
49.238
.
160
884.0
60.179
175
932.0
73.800
J
APPENDIX.
395
Sweetwater Dah, San Diboo County, California.
[Area of tributary watenhed, 186 square miles; eleyatlon of lowest outlet above sea^level. 140 feet.]
HelKbt
above Low-
est Outlet.
Feel.
Surface Area.
Acres.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Acre-feet.
Remarks.
0.0
10.0
20.0
80.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
75.5
8.5
17.1
75.2
153.7
272.2
898.0
589.0
732.0
895.0
.Lowest outlet is 24 feet above
> lowest foundations of dam.
J
94
540
1.679
8.748
7,066
11,787
18,058
22,500
Grabs Valley Reservoir- bite (Arrowhead Reberyoir Company) 8an
Bernardino County, California.
[Area of tributary watersbed, 2.7 squire miles; elevation of base of dam-site. 5108.3 feet.]
Hel«rbt
above Base
of Dam.
Surface Area.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Heisrht
above Base
of Dam.
Surface Area.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Feet.
Acres.
Acre-feet.
Feet.
Aci-es.
Acre-feet.
22
5.4
87
92
159.7
5.946
82
29.5
196
102
180.4
7,682
42
52.8
f03
112
200.2
9,550
52
72.8
1,225
122
210.0
11.685
62
100.7
2,090
125
284.0
12,829
72
115.7
8,180
150
801.8
19,010
82
188.0
4,460
175
881.7
27.547
Huston Flat Reberyoir (Arrowhead Reservoir Company), San
Bernardino County, California.
[Elevation of creek-bed at dam-site, 4450 feet.]
Hetjrht
above Base
of Dam.
Surface Area.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Heifcbt
above Base
Reitervolr.
Surface Area.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Feeu
Acres.
A cm-feet.
Feet.
Acres.
Acre- feet.
20
8.0
60
100
157.1
6.150
80
20.8
200
110
180.5
7,616
40
87.0
486
120
206.0
9.762
50
55.8
947
130
284.0
11,975
60
74.5
1,595
140
257.9
14,411
70
93.5
2.430
150
283.2
17.188
80
112.7
8.459
175
829.5
24,763
90
185.6
4,700
896
APPENDIX.
Pauba Rbbbbyoir-sitb, San Diego Cottktt, Calxfobitia.
[Area of tributary watershed, 372 square miles; elevation of base of dam, 1850 feet.]
Height
above Base
of Dam.
Surftuse Area.
Capacity of
Besenroir.
Feet.
Acres.
Acre-feet.
10
10.7
54
«v
20
62.8
441
80
110.5
1.262
40
190.7
2.760
50
60
70
80
282.8
840.7
447.0
584.2
5.150
8.250
12,200
17,855
Mazimam depth to bed rock
V aboat 26 feet in center of
channel.
90
689.4
24,723
100
805.9
82,200
180
1,214.0
62.496
140
1.441.0
75.770
J
Warneb's Ranch RsBBByoiB-fflTE. San Luib Ret Riybb, San Diego County,
Calepobnia.
[Area of tributary watershed, 210 square miles; elevation of base of dam, S61S feet. Vor crtMS^ectioo
of dam-site see Ak- 177, p. 878.]
Height above
Stream-bed.
Surface Area.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Feet.
Acres.
Acre-feet
10
42
200
20
228
1.565
80
789
16,415
40
1.200
16,140
50
1,582
29,880
60
2,086
47.710
70
2,695
71.410
80
8,287
103.500
90
4,487
142.740
100
5.535
198,200
APPENDIX.
397
Santa Maria Valley Resbrtoir-bitb, Sak Diego County, California.
[Area of tributary watershed, 60 square miles; eleyation of base of dam, 1800 feet. For cross-sectioo
of dam-site see Fig. 177, p. 878.]
Height above
Base of Dam.
Surface Area.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Feet.
Acres.
Acre-feet.
do
7.6
45
80
28.2
199
40
41.8
522
50
80.8
1.108
60
154.8
2.805
70
285.9
4 500
80
561.8
8,736
Pamo Valley Rsseryoir-site. San Diego County, California.
[Area of tributary watershed, 125 square miles; elevation of base of dam, 808 feet.]
Height
above Base
of Dam.
Feet.
Surface Area.
Acres.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Acre-feet.
Remarks.
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
180
140
150
160
170
185
204
488
766
1,242
2,049
8,805
5,088
7.874
10.425
14,127
18.527
24.065
81,700
88,800
49,100
Outlet of reservoir to be at tLe
40-foot level. For cross-section
of dam-site, see Fig. 177, p. 878.
■•*'•*
......
401.4
476.5
614.8
708.8
Dye Valley Reservoir-site, San Diego County, California.
[Area of tributary watershed, 6 square miles; elevation of base of dam, 2200 feet.]
Height above
Base of Dam.
Feet
80
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Acre-feet.
4,800
Remarks.
To be fed by diversion of Santa Ysabel
Creek, draining 80 square miles of
mountain territory.
398
APPENDIX.
CuTAMACA Rrservoik. San Diego County, Califori^ia.
[Area of tributary watershed. 11.08 square miles; elevation of dam, about 48S0 feet.]
Height
above Base
of Dam.
Feet.
Surface Area.
Acres.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Acre-feet.
Remarks.
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
80
82
84
85
6
44
106
178
255
846
428
519
605
684
768
842
919
959
12
60
200
490
900
1.520
2,290
8.240
4.860
5,650
7,100
8.710
10,470
11,410
Top of dam, 41 . 6 feet above base.
^ Floor of wastewaj at 85-foot
contour above base.
•
Barrett Rbssrvoir-site, San Diego County, California.
[Area of tributary watershed, 250 square miles; elevation of base of dam, 1600 feet.]
Height
above Base
of Dam.
Feet.
Surface Area.
Acres.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Acre feet.
Remarks.
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
180
140
150
160
170
175
70
97
147
188
281
285
868
469
576
662
784
871
986
586
1.412
2611
4.812
6.322
8 975
12,128
16.845
21,580
27,835
85,160
43,440
47,970
Used as a diverting-dam, to the
height of 60 feet, for diverting
1 Morena reservoir water to the
' Lower Otay reservoir. For
cross-section of dam>site, see
Fig. 177, p. 878.
APPENDIX.
399
Upper Otat Rbsbryoir-sii'b. San Dieoo County, California.
[Area of tributary watershed, 8 square miles; elevation of base of dam, 480 feet. For cross-section of
dam-site see Fig. 177, p. 873. J
Height above
Base of Dam.
Surface Area.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Feet.
Acres.
Acre-feet.
60
89
648
80
178
8,286
100
298
7.871
120
452
15,842
Bear Yallet Rebbryoir, San Bernardino County, California.
[Arf a of tributary watershed, 56 square miles; elevation of base of dam, about 6200 feet.]
Height
above Base
of Dam.
Surface Area.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Height
above Base
of Dam.
Surface Area.
Caps city of
Reservoir.
Feet.
Acres.
Acre-feet.
Feet.
Acres.
Acre-feet.
15
10
62
53
1,859
26,468
20
85
159
55
1,960
80,010
25
141
411
57
2,069
84,040
80
295
1,558
60
2,261
40,476
85
428
8,847
65
2,582
52,428
40
1,060
7,166
70
2,812
65,066
45
1,425
18,857
80
8,800
95,500
50
1,691
21,189
1
South Antelope Valley Irrigation Company's Alpine Rbbbrtoir, Los
Angeles County, California.
[Area of tributary watei^ihed, 6 square miles; elevation bottom of reservoir, 2779 feet.]
HelRht
above Base
of Dam.
Feet.
•
Surface Area.
Acres.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Acre-feet.
Remarks.
6
5
16
21
26
31
86
106
140
170
202
228
252
277
415
1,031
1,807
/ 2,734
8,808
5.008
6.332
Filled by 8 miles of conduit from
K Little Rock Creelc, with drain-
age of 61 square miles.
400.
APPENDIX.
Victor Reservoir- site, Sak Bernardino County, California.
[Area of tributary watershed, ISOO square miles; elevation of base of dam, 270S feet.]
Height above
Base of Dam.
Feet.
Surface Area.
Acres.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Acre-feet.
145
7,718
390,000
San Leandro Reservoir, Lake Chabot, Oakland Waterworks, California.
[Area of tributary reservoir, 60 square miles; elevation of base of dam above sea-level, 115 feet.]
Height
above Base
of Dam.
Feet.
Surface Area.
Acres.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Acre-feet.
Remarks.
80
60
70
90
110
180
150
170
1,154
8,635
7,886
14,088
22.290
83,780
45.740
Outlet level.
82
165
259
855
468
576
715
"\
Higli- water mark at present,
120 feet above base; capac-
ity, 18, 1 1 5 acre-feet, or 5,825,-
845,000 gallons.
Man ACHE Meadows Reservoir-site. South Fork Kern River. California.
[Area of watershed, 155 square miles; elevntion of dam-site, 8200 feet.]
Height above
Base of Dam.
Surface Area.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Feet.
Acres.
Acre-feet.
10
22
110
20
146
954
30
812
4,568
40^
1,865
18,827
50
2.599
40.732
60
8,254
69,885
70
8,814
105.236
80
4,4-20
146,419
100
5.880
248.852
APPENDIX.
401
Big Meadows Rbbbbyoib-sitb. Salmon Fork Kern Riybr, California.
[Area of watershed (estimated), SS5 square miles.]
Height above
Base of Dara.
Surface Area.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Feet.
Acres.
Acre-feet.
20
81
409
80
468
8.174
40
608
8,580
50
728
15,169
60
802
22,784
70
870
81,148
80
930
40,086
100
1.020
59,8U
North Fork Lake Reservoir- bite, Upper Kern Riyer. California.
[Elevation, 6500 feet.]
Height
above Base
of Dam.
Feet.
Surface Area.
Acres.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Acre-feet.
Remarks.
20
70
120
170
220
46
104
189
818
598
Outlet level.
8,763
11.101
23.770
46.614
BuENA Vista Lake Reservoir, Lower Eern River, California.
[Elevation above sea-level, 860 feet.]
Height
above
Outlet.
Feet.
Surface Area.
Acres.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Acre-feet.
Remarlcs.
10
28.570
25,000
170,000
\ A depth of 6 feet below the bot-
y torn of outlet-canal is never
) drawn upon.
402
APPENDIX.
FoNTO Basin Reservoir- bite, Salt Riveb, Abizoka.
[Area of watershed, 6*^60 square miles; elevation of base of dam, 1935 feet.]
Height
Height
above Dam
at Low-
Area Flooded.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
above Dam
at Low-
Area Flooded.
Capacity of
Reservoir.
water Mark.
water Mark.
Feet.
Acres.
Acre-feet.
Feet.
Acres.
Acre-feet.
25
880
4,400
120
5,860
241.800
80
420
6.100
125
6,210
272.800
85
570
9,000
180
6,570
808,900
40
730
11.900
185
6.950
888.600
45
890
16,200
140
7,850
878.400
50
1,030
20.000
145
7.980
418.000
55
1.280
26,900
150
8,580
458.000
60
1,610
88.800
155
9,110
498,000
65
1.740
42,000
160
9,680
544.000
70
1.980
50.700
165
10.170
594.000
75
2,800
62.100
170
10.680
645,000
80
2.610
73.500
175
11,240
701.000
90
8,480
103.600
180
11,750
757,000
95
8,820
122,700
185
12,300
820,000
100
4,210
141.800
190
18,000
880,000
105
4,610
164,700
195
18,600
950,000
110
4,990
187,700
200
14,200
1,020,000
115
5.480
214,700
Queen Creek Reservoir-site, Arizona.
[Area of watershed, 80 to 850 square miles; elevation of base of dam, creek bed, 2050 feet.]
Height
above Base
of Dam.
1
Surface Area.
Capfu;ity of
Reservoir.
BemarlES.
Feet.
Acres.
Acre-feet.
20
22
190
^
80
52
560
40
•112
1,880
50
209
2.985
60
279
5,425
70
856
8.600
Height of dam suggested, 115
80
445
12,605
V feet, would flow to the height
90
588
17.520
of 110 feet.
100
630
23,860
110
757
80,795
120
894
89.050
130
1.019
48.615
140
1,191
59.665
•
APPENDIX.
403
Bttttes Reservoir-bite, Gila River, Arizona.
[Area of tributary watershed, 18,750 square miles; elevation of base of dam (low water), 1800 feet.]
HeifTht
above Base
of Dam.
Surface Area.
Acr^
Capacity of
Reservoir.
Bemarkn.
ireeti
Acre-feet.
10
20
100
■N
20
71
560
80
229
2.050
40
897
6,180
50
538
9,880
60
741
16,200
70
928
24.545
80
1,106
84.710
90
100
110
12U
1,829
1,566
1,769
2.029
46,880
61.355
78,080
97,020
Height of dam proposed, 170
feet, will carry 160 feet depth
of water.
180
2,367
119.000
140
2,746
144,565
150
3,149
174,040
100
8,602
207.795
170
4,118
246.395
180
4,609
290.000
190
5,188
888.740
200
5,651
392,660
J
INDEX.
AgxitL Fria :
dam, 206-217
reservoir, 206
river, 206
Algiers, dams, 122
Alicante, Spain :
dam, 252
reservoir, 252
Allen, Cbas. P.. 67
Almanza dam, Spain, 252
Alpine reservoir, 299, 803, 899
American River, 179
Anderson, Col. Latham, 116
ApisLapa state dam, Colo. ,'297
Apportionment of water, Hemet district,
168
Aqnedact Commission, N. Y., 287, 288
Arch dam, 119
Area :
Hemet irrigation, 168
Pecos Valley, 862, 868
Areas :
reservoir, 392-403
watershed, 392-403
Arizona reservoir surveys, 320
Arrowhead Reservoir Company, 868
Ash Fork, Arizona :
reservoir, 214
steel dam, 214, 222-224)
Ashti dam, settlement of, 279
Ashti tank, India, 277-279
Asphalt concrete, 86. 208
Asphalt, use of. for protection of steel core
of Otay dam, 21
Assiout dam, Upper Egypt, 278
Assuan dam, Egypt, 272
Anstin, Tex.:
dam. 242-247
failure of, 246
reservoir, 245
Aymard, M., 258
Babcock,E. S., 20
Bainbridge, F. H., 222
Balanced valves, 81, 67, 68
Ban dam, France, 256, 891
Barrett dam, California, 82-85, 898
Barton, E. H., 179
Basin Creek, Mont., dam, 280-285
Bear Canyon dam, Arizona, 850, 891
Bear Valley dam, California, 120, 125, 163-
174, 899
Bear Valley Irrigation Co., 168
Beetaloo dam, S. Aus., 122, 271, 891
Betwa dam, India, 269, 891
Bhatgur dam, India, 267, 891
Bidaut. M., 260, 261
Big Meadows reservoir-site, Cal., 888, 401
Blake, Prof. W. P., 59, 68
Blasting, types of heavy blasts :
Lower Otay dam, 27, 29
Morena dam, 89
Blauvelt, Louis D.. 49
Bog Brook reservoir. New York, 288
Bofler, Alfred P., 45
Bombay, India, water-supply. 266
Bonds, La Grange dam, 178
Boss Lake state dam, Colo., 297, 298
Bostaph, W. M.. 66
Bousey dam, France, 258, 259
failure of 258
Bonvier, M., 256
Bowie, A. J.. 73
Bowman rock-fill dam, California, 74, 75
reservoir, 74
Boyd's Comer, New York :
dam, 289
reservoir, 239
Brick and asphalt facing of Remscbeid
dam, Germany, 261
406
406
INDEX.
Bridgeport, Conn.:
dam, 241
reservoir, 241
Brodie, Maj. Alex. O., 68
Brown, F. B , 164
Buena Vista Lake, California :
dam, 293
reservoir, 298, 401
Bums, K. B., 228
Cablewaj, 180
Lidgerwood, 22, 89, 285
Cache la Poudre, Colo.:
dam, 295, 296
reservoir, 295, 296
Cagliari dam, Italy, 262
Caimanche, Texas, reservoir-site, 862
Cambie, H. J., 105
Campbell^ J. L., 861
Canadian Pacific Ry., Ljdraalic fills on,
100, 101, 105, 106, 107, 109
CaDal :
Modesto, 178
Poona reservoir, 267
Siphoning, across Rio Grande River,
860
Turlock, 178
Canal lines. Rock Creek, 868, 864, 866
Capacity of reservoirs, 75, 892-403
Castlewood, Colo.:
canals, 45
dam, 4&-47
reservoirs, 45
Catchment :
Escondido reservoir, 18
Otay Creek, 27
Cauverypank tank, 277
Cedar logs, use of, Walnnt Grove dam,
61
Cement, 21, 81
mixing, Hemet dam, 154
Center core. Lake Christine dam, 100
Ceylon tank, 274
Chabot, A., 77
rhartrain dam, France, 258, 891
Chatsworth Park dam. California, 42-44
Chazilly dam, France, 255
Chittenden, Capt. H. M., 71, 810. 820
Chnmbrnmbankam tank, 277, 891
Clerke, W. T. C, 267
Cloud, H. H., 49
Cloud Peak, reservoir-site, Wyo., 816, 891
Coleman, J. S., 237
Colorado state dams, 296
Columbia Colonization Co., Cal., 374
Concrete, 81, 66. 67, 117. 271
Ash Fork dam, 223
base Alpine reservoir gates, 804
collars, 147
dam. 189, 229-288, 271
La Mesa dam, 90
mixer, 147
mixing, San Mateo dam, 192, 198
San Mateo dam, 189
Conduit :
Escondido reservoir, 5
La Mesa dam, 90
Sweetwater dam, 152
Congressional River and Harbor Act, 71
Construction plant. Hemet dam, 161
Convict labor, Folsom dam, 179
Contents Basin Creek dam, Mont., 235
Cornell University dam, 240
Cost of :
Ash Fork dam. 224
Assuan dam, 273
Austin dam, 245, 251
Bear Canyon reservoir, 851, 891
Bear Valley dam, 165
Bowman dam, 74
cement. Bear Valley dam, 164
conduit Sweetwater dam, 152
Denver Water Co's. dam, 71
English dam, 78
Escondido dam, 14, 15
hydraulic filling Canadian Pacific Ry.,
105, 106
hydraulic filling Northern Pacific Ry.,
114
Indian River dam, 240
La Grange dam, 176
Lake Christine dam, 100
Lake McMillan dam, 53
materials, Hemet dam, 154
New Croton dam, 237
Norway, Mich., dam, 236
Pacoima dam, 206
Padaviltank, 275
Periyar dam, 271
reservoir construction, 390, 891
Rio Grande reservoirs, proposed, 869
Rio Verde reservoirs. 848, 850
San Leandro dam, 77
Segilman dam, 220
INDEX.
407
Coitof :
Sodom dam, 288
Sweetwater dam, 187, 895
Titicus dam, 287
Tyler dam, 84
Victor reservoir and canals, 880, 891
Vyrnwj dam, 262, 268
Walnut Canjon dam, 226
Williams dam, 231
Cotatay dam, France, 257
Coventry, W. B., 118
Cracking of dams, 122, 148
Cross-section, Agua Fria dam and reservoir,
213
Cross-sections, dam-sites, San Diego Co.,
873
Crowe, H. S., 179
Crugnola, Q., 264
Crystal Springs reservoir, California, 208
Curved dams, 118, 120, 121, 122
Cushion, water, 120
Cuyamaca dam, 281, 898
Dam :
cracking of, 122, 148
curved. 119-122
earthen, 267
hydraulic-fill, 76
masonry, 117
necessary width of, 119
rock-fill, 1
Dam-sites, see Reservoir-sites.
Davis, Arthpr P., 821
Davis, Chester 6., 280
Davis and Weber Counties Canal Company,
64
Deacon, Geo. F., 268
Delocre, M., 118, 121, 256
Denver Water Company's dam, 66-70
reservoir. 71
Derricks, 89, 181
use of, at Walnut Grove dam, 60
water power, 161
Design and construction of dams, 252
Design, conditions of Bhatgur dam, 268
Details of Sweetwater dam, 146
Dimensions :
Barrett dam, 82
Bear Valley dam. 164
Bridgeport dam, 289
La Grange dam, 176
Seligman dam, 220
Distributing system Escondido reservoir, 14
Distributing system Sweetwater reservoir,
152
Diverting dam, 206-217
Fort Selden, N. M., 854, 857
Djldionla dam, Algiers, 265
Drainage area :
Colorado River, 245
English dam, 71
Indian River reservoir, 240
Duchesnay, Edmund, 105
Dulsura conduit, 82
Dulzura Pass, 27
Duty of water, Pecos Valley, 58
Earthen dams :
Apishapa stat«, Colo., 297
Boss Lake state, Colo., 297, 298
Buena Vista Lake, Cal., 298, 401
Cache la Poudre, Colo., 295
Cuyamaca, Cal., 281-289
experiments on materials for, 116
Hardscrabble state, Colo., 297
history of, 274-279
India, 274-280
Merced reservoir, California, 289
modes of construction, 280
Monument Creek, Colo., 296
Pilarcitos, California. 294, 295
Saguache state, Colo. , 298
San Andres, California, 294. 295
E^rth, packing of, in earthen dams, 281
Earthquake crack. Southern California, 299
East Canyon Creek dam, Utah, 64, 65
Eastward, J. S., 99
Einsiedel dam, Germany, 262
Ekruk tank, 277
El Cajon Valley, 125
Elche dam, Spain, 252
Elephant Bntte, New Mexico :
dam, 852
reservoir, 854-856
El Molino dam, California, 125
El Paso, Texas, international dam, 851
Embankments, Madras. 275
English dam, Cal., 71-74
failure of. 78
flood-wave from bursting of, 78
reservoir, 71
Escondido dam, California, 2-19, 892
distributing system, 14
Escondido, irrigation district map, 2
408
INDEX.
Evaporation, 174
Assuan reservoir, 378
Baena Vista Lake reservoir, d04
Cuyamaca, 285
Rio Grande River, 862
Sweetwater reservoir, 152 ^
Tansa dam, 26G
Explosion of heavy blasts, £x>wer Otay
rock-fill dam, 29
Fiulure of dams :
Austin dam, 246, 261
Boasey dam, 258
Habra dam, 263
Lynx Creek dam, 228
Puentes dam, 253
Fanning J. T., 242
Farren, George, 121
Feeder canal :
Escondido irrigation district, 8
Little Rock Creek, 800
Feeder conduit, Escondido irrigation dis-
trict, 6
Fishway, Twin Lakes reservoir, Colo., 807
Floods of the Nile, 278
Flood-wave from bursting of a California
dam, 78
Folsom dam, 179-189
Forclilieimer, Prof., 121
Fortier, Prof. 8., 66, 116
Frizell, Jos. P.. 242
Fteley, A., 286. 288
Fuertes, Prof. E. A., 241
Furens dam, 118, 891
Gates :
concrete base for, 804
Escondido dam, 11, 18
quick-opening, Lake Avalcm re6ervoir,
61
railroad, 279
stems, 99
valve, 90. 181
Geelong dam, Ans., 271
Giants' tank, Ceylon, 275
Gila River, Arizona, proposed reservoirs
on, 889
Gileppe dam, Belgium, 260, 891
Glacial Flour, 809
Gophers, guarding reservoir against, 168
Gorzente dam, Italy, 262
Gowen, Chas. F., 287
Qraeff, M., 266
Gran Cheurfas dam, Algiers, 266
Grands-Cheurfas dam, 122
Gravel, natural storage-reservoirs in, 811
Gravity dam, 116
Greenalch, W., 240
Gros-Bois dam, France, 264
Gransky, C. E., 280
Guadalantin River, 258
Habra dam, Algiers, 122, 268-265
failure of, 264
Hamiz dam, Algiers, 122, 265
Hardscrabble state dam, 297
Hassayampa River, 58
Headgates Lake Avalon, N. M., dam, 60
Hemet dam, California, 152-163
construction plant, 161
reservoir, 159
Herschel, Clemens. 116
Hi jar dam, Spain, 254
Hill, A., 268
Hilton cement, 235
Holyoke dam, 116
Homogeneity, masonry dams, 117
Hooker, Elon H., 241
Horse-power, use of, for derricks, 181
Horseshoe reservoir-site, 848, 891
Howells. J. M., 78, 84, 99
Hudson Canal and Reservoir Company, 843
Hyde, F. S., 285
Hydraulic construction :
Georgia, 116
Seattle, Wash., 115
Tacoma, Wash., 115
Hydraulic cylinder, 68
Hydraulic-fill dam construction, 76
Hydraulic- fill dams :
Holyoke, Mass., 116
Lake Christine, 98-100
La Mesa, 84-98
San Leandro, 77, 78
Temescal, 77, 78
Tyler, Texas, 78-84
Hydraulic filling, Canadian Pacific Ry.»
100, 101, 105, 106, 107. 109
Hydraulic filling Northern Pacific Ry.,
106, 111, 114
Hydraulic jack for raising shatter, Fol-
som dam, 189
Hydraulic mining districts. Northern Cal.,
73
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)
>
I
t
INDEX.
409
ImpoaDding reservoirs, 121
Improved cement, 241
Independence, Cal., higli mountain lake
tapped, 884
Indian River, New York :
dam, 289
reservoir. 240
Inlet valves, 181
Inlet tower, 181
Interlocking masonry dams, 117
Intze, Prof., 121. 262
Investigation, reservoir-sites, 321
Irrigated lands, Hemet, 153
Irrigation area, Sweetwater, 149
Johnstown, Penn., 73, 281
Kelly, Wm., 236
Kern Lake reservoir-site, 888
Kern-Rand Reservoir and Electric Com-
pany, 882
Kern River, Cal., reservoir-sites, 880
Kingman, Ariz., submerged dam, 214,
219
Krantz, J. B., 121, 256
Krantz, M., 256
La Orange dam, Cal., 174-179
Lake Avalon, N. M., dam, 47-52
Lake Christine, California, hydraulic-fill
dam, 98
Lake De Smet, Wyo., reservoir-site, 810,
891
Lake Hemet, 158, 894
I^ake McMillan :
dam, 51, 58
reservoir, 58
Lakes, Sierra Nevada Mis., 888
La Mesa, Cal.:
dam, 20, 84, 95, 98, 898
reservoir, 91, 97
Land, Gordon, 296
Larimer and Weld reservoir, 809
Larimie reservoir-site, 810, 891
Leakage :
Escondido dam, 11
Sweetwater dam, 148
Walnut Canyon dam, 227
Walnut Creek dam, 60
Linda Vista irrigation district, 878
Lippincott, J. B., 174, 802, 821. 889
Little Bear Valley reservoir, 871, 894
Little Bear Valley reservoir-site, 867
Little Rock Creek irrigation district, 878
Loss of life :
Bousey dam failure, 258
Habra dam failure, 268
Johnstown dam failure, 281
Puentes dam failure. 253
Walnut Grove dam failure, 60
Loss of water, Assuan reservoir, 278
Lost Canyon, Colo. :
natural dam, 868, 391
reservoir-site, 866
Lower Otay, rock-fill steel-oore dam, 19-
82.392
Lozoya dam, Spain, 254
Ludlow gates, 226
Ludlow valves, 66
Lux M. Haggin, 298
Lynx Creek dam, Ariz., 228, 229
failure, 228
Mac Kenzie, A. T., 270
Man, A. P., 841
Manache Meadows dam and reservoir, 880,
881. 891, 400
Marston Lake, Colo., 810
Masonry dams :
Agua Fria, Ariz., 206-217
Alicante, Spain, 252
Almanza, Spain, 252
Assiout, Upper Egypt, 278
Assuan, Egypt, 272
Austin. Texas, 242-251
Ban, France, 256, 891
Basin Creek, Mont., 280-285
Bear Valley, California, 163-174, 899
Beetaloo, S. Aus., 271, 891
Betwa, India, 269
Bbatgur, India. 267, 891
Bousey, France, 258
Boyd's Corner, New York, 289
Bridgeport, Conn., 241
Cagllari. Italy, 262
Cbartrain, France, 258
Chazilly. France, 255
Cotatay. France. Wt
Cornell University, New York, 240
Djidionia, Algiers, 265
Einsiedel. Germany, 262
Elche, Spain, 258
essential features of, 258
Folsom, California, 179, 189
410
INDEX.
Masonry dams :
Furens, France, 255, 891
Geelong, Australia, 271
general principles of, 118, 119
Gilleppe, Belgium, 260
Oorzente, Itelj, 262
Gran Cheurfas, Algiers, 265
Grosfiois, France, 254
Habra, Algiers, 263
Hamiz, Algiers, 265
Hemet, California, 152-168
Hijar, Spain, 254
Indian River, New York, 239
Kingman, Arizona, 214, 217
La Grange, California, 174-178
Lozoja, Spain, 254
Lynx Creek, Ariz., 228, 229
Mexican, 251
Mouche, France, 260, 891
New Croton, N. Y., 286
Nijar. Spain, 254
Norway, Micli., 235, 286
Old Mission, California, 125
Pacoima, Cal., submerged dam, 205-211
Pas Du Riot, France, 257, 891
Periyar. India, 269
Pont, France, 257
Poona or Lake Fife, India, 267, 891
Portland, Oregon, 229-288
Puentes, Spain, 258
Remscbeid, Germany, 261, 891
San Mateo, California, 189-205
Seligman. Arizona, 214, 219-221
Sodom, New York. 288, 239
Sweetwater. California, 20, 120, 122,
125. 126-152. 895
Tansa, India. 266
Ternay, France, 256, 891
Titicus. New York, 287
Tlelat, Algiers. 265
Tytam. China, 272
Val de Infierno, Spain, 258
Verdon, France, 257
ViUar. Spain, 254, 891
Vingeanne. France, 256
Vyrnwy, Wales, 262, 891
Walnut Canyon. Arizona, 214, 225-228
Wicrwam, Conn.. 241
Williams. Arizona, 214, 224
Zola. France, 255
Matbematics, of curved dams, 121
Maxwell. J. P., 297
McDowell reservoir-site, 848, 849
McHenry, E. H., Ill
McReynolds, O. O., 307, 808
Measuring-box, 212
Merced reservoir-dam, 289
Mexican dams, 251
Mills, Major A., 851, 861
Mining reservoirs Northern- California,
capacities of, 75
* 'Modern Mexico," acknowledgments to,
251
Modesto irrigation district, Cal., 176, 179
Moles worth, Guilford L., 118
MoncrieflE, J. C. B., 271
Montgolfier, M., 256
Monument Creek dam, Colo., 296
Morena dam, California, 19, 85-41, 892
outlet, 89
reservoir, 40
Mormon Canyon, Cal., 42
Mouche dam, 122, 260, 391
Mountain pine for conduits, 162
Movable shutter, for increasing height of
water at low stage, Folsom dam,
Cal., 189
Mudduk Masur, 277
Natural dam. Lost Canyon, 868-866
Natural reservoirs :
Alpine. Cal., 209
Gravel-bed storage- reservoirs, 811
Lake De Smet reservoir-site, Wyo.,
810
Laramie reservoir-site, Wyo., 810
Larimer and Weld. Colo.. 809
Loveland reservoir-site, Colo., 810
Marston Lake, Colo., 810
Twin Lakes, Colo., 808
Nettleton, £. S., 49
Ne<v Croton dam, N. Y., 236
Newell curve showing relation of run*- off
to rainfall. 204, 205, 285
Newell, F. H., 208
Nicholson, W. D., 228
Nijar dam, Spain, 254
Nira canal, India, 268
Northern Pacific Ry., 111-114
Norway, Mich., dam, 285, 286
Nueces reservoir-site, Texas, 862
Old Mission dam, San Diego, Cal., 125
Otay Creek, Cal., 19
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X
INDEX,
411
Outlet :
Alpine reBervoir, 80d-807
Ash Fork dam, 228
Bear Valley dam, 166
Denver Water Company's dam, 67
East Canyon Creek dam, 66
Hemetdam, 162
Lake Christine dam, 100
Lake McMillan dam, 63
Merced reservoir dam, 289
Monument Creek dam, 296
Morena dam, 89
San Mateo dam, 203
Seligman dam, 221
Twin Lakes reservoir, 808
Walnut Canyon dam, 226
Walnut Grove dam, 61
Outlet-gate, La Mesa dam, 98
Outlet pipes, 181
building of, 281
Outlet tunnel :
Lower Otay dam, 81
Morena dam, 89
Pacoima Creek, 205
submerged dam. 205-211
Padavil :
tank of, 274
cost of embankment, 275
Parabola, 221
Parabolic curve, for top of dam, 223
Paraffine paint, 61
Pas Du Riot dam, France, 257, 891
Pecos :
canal, 47
Irrigation and Improvement Company,
47
River, 54
Valley dam, 47. 891
Valley, area of arable, irrigable land
in. 862. 368
Pelletreati, M., 121
Pennycuick, Col., 271
Percolation, rate of, 876
Periyar dam, India, 269
Pick-up vreir, 162
head of distributing svstem Elscondido
irrigation works, 14
Pilarcitos dam, California, 295
Piling for dam foundation, 856
Piney, reservoir-site, Wyo., 816, 891
Plan:
Folsom dam, 179
Pacoima dam, 211
San Mateo dam, 195
Sweetwater dam, 145
Pont dam, France, 257
Poona, or Lake Fife dam, India, 267
Portland cement, 21, 117, 179, 205
Portland, Oregon, concrete dams, 229, 283
reservoirs, 229, 230, 288
Power drop, Folsom canal, 179
Precipitation :
Bear Valley, 174 1^ ^
data on U. S. weather bureau, 57
Puentes dam, 253
Spring Valley, California, 208
Salt River watershed. Ariz., 348
Victor watershed, 876
Pressure Puentes dam, 253
Pressures, maxima, of dams, 119
greatest recorded, of water on ma-
sonry, 286
Profiles :
Bear Valley, Sweetwater, and Zola
dams. 120
Projected reservoirs, see Reservoir-sites.
Puddle core. 281
Puddle core hydraulic dams, 77, 100
Puentes dam, Spain. 253
Pumping plants, Sweetwater district, Cal-
ifornia, 150, 151
Quarries, 60
Quarry, Lower Otay dam, 27
Quick-opening gates. Lake Avalon reser-
voir, 51
Quicklime, Habra dam, 264
Quinton, J. H., 389
Rafter. Geo. W., 240
Rainfall, Cuyamaca reservoir, 285
Rain gauges, Little Bear Valley, 371
Railroad gates, 296
Rate of flow, underground waters, 802
Redwood, facing Escondido dam. 7
conduit, 162
Remscheid dam, Germany, 121. 261, 891
Reservoir :
areas. 892. 403
Ash F(.rk, 228-226
Bear Valley. 166, 174. 175
Bowman. 74
412
INDEX.
Reservoir :
Bridgeport, 241
Capacities, 892, 408
Construction, by general government,
820
cost of construction, 800, 891
Denver Water Company's, 71
elevation of, 892, 408
Habra dam, 268
Hemet, capacity of, 162
Indian River, 240
La Mesa, 91, 97
Lower Otay, 26-28, 892
Morena, 40, 892
Rock Creek, 868, 864, 891
San Leandro, 78
Seliguian, 221
Sodom, 288
South Antelope Irrigation Company,
801
Sweetwater, 187, 895
Wigwam, 242
Williams, 224
Reservoirs :
Ceylon, 276
natural, 299
near San Diego, Cal. , 41
Portland, Oregon, 280
projected, see Reservoir-sites.
Reservoir projects :
California, 870
San Diego County, 872
Reservoir-sites :
Bear Canyon, Ariz., 850, 891
Big Meadows, Cal., 888, 401
Caimancbe, Texas, 861
Cloud Peak, Wyo., 816, 891
data on, 886, 408
Elephant Butte, Texas, 851, 891
El Paso international, Texas, 851
Horseshoe, Ariz., 844
Kern Lake. Cal., 888
Kern River, Cal., 880, 888
Little Bear Valley, Cal., 867
map, 175
Lost Canyon, Colo., 868, 891
Manache Meadows, Cal., 880, 891, 400
McDowell, Ariz., 848
Nueces River, Texas, 862
Piney, Wyo., 816
recommendations on, 821-328
Rock Creek, Nev., 868, 891
Reservoir-sites :
San Carlos. Ariz., 380, 891
San Diego County, Cal., 872
Sand Lake, Texas, 802, 891
selection by L^. S. Geolog. Survey,
314, 821
Swan Lake, Idaho, 814
Sweetwater, Wyo., 815. 891
Tonto Basin, Ariz., 339, 391, 402
Upper Pecos, Texas, 362
Victor, Cal., 878, 391, 402
Reservoir surveys, U. S., 814, 821, 848-351
Rio Grande Dam and Irrigation Company,
852-354
Rio Grande River :
evaporation from, 861
proposed reservoirs, 851
silt of, 861
water-supply of, 860
Rio Verde Canal Company, 844
Rio Verde River, projected reservoirs on,
844
Robinson, Col. E. N., 59-62
Rock Creek reservoir-site, 863, 864
Rock-fill dams :
Barrett, Cal., 32-85
Bowman, Cal., 74, 75
Castle wood, Colo., 48-47
Chatsworth Park, Cal., 42-44
Denver Water Company's, Colo., 66-70
East Canyon Creek, Utah, 64r-66
English dam, Cal., 71-78
Escondido, Cal., 2-19. 892
Lake Avalon, N. M.. 47-53
Lake McMillan, N. M.. 51, 53-59
Lower Otay, Cal., 19-82, 892
Morena, Cal., 85-42
Pecos Valley, N. M., 47
Upper Otay. Cal., 41-43, 399
Walnut Grove, Ariz., 60-68
Rubble-concrete, 117
Run-off, 203. 204 :
Bear Valley, Cal., district, 174
Cuyamaca watershed, 285
Rock Creek watershed. 868
Salt River, Ariz., 844
Sweetwater, Cal., district, 174
Saguache state dam, Colo., 297
Salt River, Ariz., 841-844
San Andreas dam, Cal., 295
San Carlos reservoir-site, Ariz., 880, 391
7
^.
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INDEX.
413
8aD Diego River» Cal., 125
San Diego County reservoir-sites, 872
San Elijo Creek, Cal., 2
San Joaquin £leciric Company, 98
San Leaudro hydraulic- fill dam, 77, 400
San Luis Rey River, Cal., 5
San Mateo dam, Cal., 189-205
Sand Lake reservoir-site, Texas, 862
Santa Ana River, Cal., 164
Santa Fe Ry., storage- reservoirs, 214
Savage, U. N., Chief Engineer San Diego
Land and Town Co., 81, 187, 188, 151
Sazilly, M., 118
Section, Walnut Canyon dam, Ariz., 227
Sedimentation, Sweetwater reservoir, Cal.,
151
Self-balanced gates, 278
Seligman dam, 214, 219-221
Settlement, Ashti dam, 279
Seymour, J. J., 99
Sig-dam, 122
Silt:
deposit of, 151, 250
Rio Grande River, 361
volume of, carried by river Po, Indus,
Ganges, Mississippi, and Colorado,
250
Siphoning canal across the Rio Grande
River, 859
Sluicing-head, 76
volume of water necessary for, 76
Sodom, N. Y., dam, 288
South Antelope Valley Irrigation Company,
Cal., 299, 801
South Fork reservoir, Penn., 78
South Platte dam, Colo.. 70
Southern California Mountain Water Com-
pany, 19
Spanish dams, 118
Spillway :
Bear Valley dam, 166
Denver Water Company's dam, 67
East Canyon Creek dam, 66
Hemet dam, 158
lack of, 281
Lake Christine dam, 100
Lower Otay dam, 22
Seligman dam, 221
Sweetwater dam, 188, 189
Tyler dam, 88
Walnut Creek dam, 62
Spring Valley Water- works, 189
State dams. Colo., 296
Steel-core rock-fill dams :
Denver Water Company's, 66
East Canyon Creek, 64
Lower Otay, 19
Steel dam :
Ash Fork, 214, 222-224
cost of, 224
questionable success of, 228
Storage-reservoirs :
natural gravel, 811
Santa Fe Uy., 214
Strains, masonry dams, 118
Submerged dams :
Pacoima, 205-211
Kingman, 214-219
Surveys, reservoir, U. S. Geolog. Survey ^
814. 821, 886-889
Swan Lake reservoir-site, 814
Sweetwater, California:
dam, 20, 120, 122. 125, 126-152, 895
reservoir distributing system, 153
Sweetwater, Wyo., reservoir-site, 815
Swift River, Mass., reservoir, 815
Tables :
cost of reservoir construction per acre-
foot, American reservoirs, 890
cost of reservoir construction per acre-
foot, projected American reservoirs,
891
cost of reservoir construction per acre-
foot, foreign reservoirs , 891
reservoir capacities and areas, 892-
408
reservoir capacities, areas, \%atershed
and elevation, from U. S. reservoir
surveys, 886-889
Tadini. M.. 250
Tamarack logs, 78, 74
Tanks :
Ceylon. 274
India, 277
Tansa dam, India. 266
Temescal hydraulic-fill dam, California, 77
Tension in dams. 122
Tension strains. 118
Ternay dam, France. 256, 891
Tests concrete and masonry Vymwy dam,
268
Tia Juana River, California, 27
Timber crib rock-fill dam, 74
414
INDEX,
Titicus dam, 237
Tlelat dam, Algiers, 265
Tonto Basin , Arizona, dam- and reservoir-
site, 339, 891
Tower :
reservoirs, 362
Sweetwater dam, 132
Tramways used, Escondido dam construc-
tion, 8
Triangular form of dam, 119
Trass mortar used in Remselieid dam as
a substitute for Portland cement, 261
Tuolumne River, Cal., 174
Turbine wheels, at Folsom dam, Cal., 189
Turlock Irrigation district, 176, 179
Twin Lakes reservoir, Colo., 303
Tyler, Texas, liydraulic dam, 78, 79, 81, 85
Tytam dam, China, 272
Underground waters, rate of flow of, 218,
802
Upper Otay, Cal. :
dam, 41-43
reservoir, 399
Upper Pecos, reservoir-site, 862
Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, 116
Val de Infiemo dam, Spain, 253
Vallejo dam, Cal., 280
y eranum tank, India, 277
Velocity of flow through sand, 218
Verdon dam, France, 267
Victor:
dam and reservoir-site, 373-379, 391
reservoir capacity, 375-379
watershed, 374
Villar dam, Spain, 254, 391
Vingeanne dam, France, 256
Visclier, Hubert, 280
Volume :
Agiia Fria dam, 206
Little Bear reservoir, 371
masonry, New Croton dam, 237
of water for sluicing-heads, 76
Vyrnwy dam, Wales, 262, 891
Wagoner. Luther, 59, 62, 177
Walnut Canyon. Ariz., 225
dam, 214, 225-228
Walnut Grove, Ariz., 58
rock-fiU dam, 58-68
Warner's ranch reservoir-sit*, San Luis
Key River. Cal., 6
Waste-weir, 131, 288
Water cushion, 45
Water-power, derricks, 161
Water rights, litigation over, 293
Watershed :
areas, 392-408
Barrett, 35
Bear Valley, 178
Chats worth dam, 48
Denver Water Company's reservoir, 71
Habra, 264
Hemet, 168
Little Bear Valley, 872
Morena, 89
New Croton, N. Y.. 237
OUy Creek, 27
Pecos River, 54
Seligman. 222
Walnut Canyon, 225
Water-supply :
Lake McMillan, 57
Pecos River, 54
Rio Grande River, 360
Sante FeRy., 214
sources in vicinity of San Diego, 371
Weather bureau, U. S. data on precipita*
tion, 57
Wegmann, Edward, 118. 247
Wells, A. M., 46
Wells, L. W., 84
Whiting, J. E., 261
Williams dam, Ariz., 214. 224
Wilson, H. M., 118, 122, 277, 278
Wire ropeway used in construction of
Hemet dam, 161
Wood stave pipe, 90, 285
used for siphoning canal across Rio
Grande River, 859
Wright law, 2. 19
Wyoming, reservoir- sites, projected in,3i5
Yellow pine, use of, for wood stave pi;^e,
359
Zola dam, France, 120, 125, 255
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