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FIS
TEC
| Food
ind
lAgrlcul
lOrganl;
I of
the
United
Review of the state
of world marine
fishery resources
Marine Resources Service
Fishery Resources and Environment Division
FAO Fisheries Department
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this
publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on
the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or
area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers
or boundaries.
M-43
ISBN 92-5-103471-0
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reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla,
001 00 Rome. Italy.
FAO 1994
Ill
PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT
Since the widely-quoted review prepared by the Marine Resources Service on global
marine fishery resources, (Gulland, 1971), almost every biennium FAO has updated a
document entitled "Review of the State of World Fishery Resources. Part 1, The Marine
Resources" (Fisheries Circular 710). This Circular is regularly presented as a background
document to the Committee on Fisheries (COFI), but is of restricted distribution and, strictly
speaking, is not a citeable document. The latest and 8th revision printed in December 1992,
was presented at the 20th session of COFI early in 1993, was a significant expansion over
Revision 7 with a more readable format and provided the basis for the present document.
Bibliographic references were never included in Circular 710, but this text has been revised
to include some of the source material and literature used in its preparation.
Many persons have contributed to this present technical paper, both inside and outside
FAO. These persons included: Areas: 21 (J.F. Caddy); 27 (H. Sparholt); 31 (J. Csirke and
D. Die); 34 (T. Do Chi); 37 (J.F. Caddy); 41 (J. Csirke); 47 (T. Do Chi); 51 (A. Bakun);
57 (P. Martosubroto); 61 (S. Chikuni); 67 (A. Bakun); 71 (J. Csirke and D. Die); 77 (J.
Csirke and A. Bakun); 81 (D. Die); 87 (J. Csirke); 48, 58 and 88 (R. Shotton). The special
topics on tuna and tuna-like species, whales and dolphins and environmental issues in
fisheries were prepared by J. Majkowski, R. Shotton and A. Bakun, respectively.
Overall editing was provided by G. Turner, J. Caddy, R. Shotton, J. Majkowski, G.
Burgos and A. Brunamontini, and statistical data provided by G. Cagnacci, and assistance
in data analysis was provided by C. Stamatopoulos.
Distribution:
FAO Fisheries Department
FAO Regional Fishery Officers
Directors of Fisheries
Regional and International Fisheries Organizations
IV
FAO Marine Resources Service, Fishery Resources and Environment Division.
Review of the state of world marine fishery resources.
FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 335. Rome, FAO. 1993. 136p.
ABSTRACT
This document provides a review, commentary and tabulations of the main trends
that have occurred in exploitation of fisheries resources since 1970's, largely as
they are reflected in the FAO database on fishery landings; supplemented with
selected information from the fishery literature. Reviews were prepared separately
for the 15 main FAO Statistical Areas that the World's oceans are divided into,
and then compared from a global perspective to reveal relative trends by species
and areas, which are highlighted. Several special topics are reviewed, including
those on tuna and tuna-like species, whales and dolphins, and environmental issues
in fisheries.
This design provides the first global view of the geographical distribution of the production
of plants (phytoplankton) in the oceans, which is the basis for food chains leading to marine
fisheries. It is redrawn from a composite image of ocean chlorophyll production based on
remote sensing imagery for 1978-81 prepared under the NSF/NASA-sponsored, US Global
Ocean Flux Study.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A. INTRODUCTION
Recent trends in world fisheries
B. REGIONAL REVIEWS
Northwest Atlantic
Northeast Atlantic
Western Central Atlantic
Eastern Central Atlantic
Mediterranean and Black Sea
Southwest Atlantic
Southeast Atlantic
Western Indian Ocean
Eastern Indian Ocean
Northwest Pacific
Northeast Pacific
Western Central Pacific
Eastern Central Pacific
Southwest Pacific
Southeast Pacific
Southern Oceans
(Area 21)
(Area 27)
(Area 31)
(Area 34)
(Area 37)
(Area 41)
(Area 47)
(Area 51)
(Area 57)
(Area 61)
(Area 67)
(Area 71)
(Area 77)
(Area 81)
(Area 87)
(Areas 48, 58 and 88)
Page
1
1
11
(Table 5)
11
(Table 6)
20
(Table 7)
26
(Table 8)
31
(Table 9)
36
(Table 10)
45
(Table 11)
48
(Table 12)
50
(Table 13)
54
(Table 14)
55
(Table 15)
57
(Table 16)
60
(Table 17)
62
(Table 18)
64
(Table 19)
65
(Table 20)
69
C. SPECIAL TOPICS
Tuna and Tuna-Like Species
Whales and Dolphins
Environmental Issues in Marine Fisheries
D. LIST OF ACRONYMS
E. REFERENCES
F. MARINE RESOURCES TABLES
(Table 21)
70
74
76
81
83
101
BOX" INDEX
Area Title
21 The northern cod fishery 15
27 Multispecies stock assessment 25
31 Caribbean spiny lobster: a fishery for annual recruits 30
34 Effects of upwelling on a West African fishery 34
37 Productivity estimates for the Mediterranean: 38
evidence of accelerating ecological change
37 Fishery induced and anthropogenic effects on the Black Sea ecosystem 41
51 Recent fisheries and environmental findings from the Gulf 52
81 Orange roughy: a sustainable fishery from 100 year old fish ? 66
87 Pelagic catches off western South America 68
A. INTRODUCTION
The origin for this report can be traced back more than 20 years to Gul land's 1971
publication H The Fish Resources of the Ocean", which became the 'bible' for anyone seeking
an overview of the status of fisheries in any one of the major oceans or sub-regions. In addition
to the reviews on the status of fisheries, Gulland described hydrographic factors controlling
primary and secondary production, and discussed estimates of the fisheries potential. The
service provided by his book is evident from the frequency that it is still cited by those preparing
regional reviews of fisheries resources. Every two years or so , FAO Fisheries Department has
provided an update of the regional information on the status of stocks throughout the world, and
this has been the purpose of the FAO Fisheries Circular No. 710 which has now gone through
eight revisions. With the last such revision it was felt that an expansion of this document and
more source material should be provided to help those who use this Circular to obtain more
explicit reference? to facts and figures. In this FAO Fisheries Technical Paper therefore a major
effort has been made to provide sources for an important part of the background information that
has been used in compiling the publication. Because FAO staff use data from a number of
sources which often are not published or exist in a non-citable form, this endeavour is inevitably
less than complete. The Paper is composed of:
(i) a general review of trends in world fisheries,
(ii) more specific reviews of fisheries and marine resources in each FAO statistical area and
(iii) reviews on tuna and tuna-like species, whales and dolphins and environmental issues in
marine fisheries.
From the high seas resources, only tuna, tuna-like species, whales and dolphins are reviewed
on a global scale in this report: other high seas resources and fisheries are mentioned in the
regional reviews. Also, high seas resources and fisheries are reviewed by Garcia and Majkowski
(1992) and straddling and highly migratory resources by FAO (1993c).
Recent trends in world fisheries
Up to 1970, judging from statistics available to FAO, the world catch of marine fish
continued to rise at an overall rate of some 6% per year, but in the early 1970s, especially with
the collapse of what was then the world's largest fishery for Peruvian anchoveta, this slowed
dramatically, and during 1980-89 the overall rise was only some 2.3% annually. In 1990 came
the first decline in FAO's year global data series since 1976 (FAO, 1993a); a drop of some 3%
to 83 million tonnes (Table 1; Figure 1). A discussion of the socio-economic factors that
underlay these main statistical trends is found in the special SOFA chapter on "Marine Fisheries
and the Law of the Sea: A Decade of Change". 1 This important document signals that the
emphasis on management that FAO has been promoting for at least the last two decades in areas
with long histories of industrial fishing, is now also required for the so-called "developing
country fisheries". A change from a focus on short-term development of fishing fleets, to
proper management is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for sustainable development
(COFI, 1993). The SOFA fisheries chapter also clearly shows that "Sustainable Development"
as promoted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in
The State of Food and Agriculture, FAO, 1992.
-2-
1992 (UN, 1992), cannot be achieved under open access regimes, whether these are within or
outside EEZs. The diagnosis offered by the SOFA chapter relating particularly to economic
considerations, parallels some of the more purely resource-related issues mentioned later in this
document.
Are we then reaching in the 1990s the limits of production from "wild" marine resources
predicted by FAO in the early 1970s? The answer to this question seems not only in the
affirmative, but for many resources this limit was reached decades earlier than the peak in global
landings. A combination of factors has helped to mask the depletion of many conventional
resources. These include:
(1) The increase in global landings in the 1980s was largely due to increased landings of a
relatively few species. The five largest fisheries fell within the low-value category of
small pelagic fish, (with the exception of Alaska Pollock whose unit value has now risen
with the advent of surimi technology - Roache, 1987; Lanier and Lee, 1992), (Figure 2).
These accounted for 13 million tonnes of the increase in world landings, but made a
much smaller contribution to their total economic value. Small pelagic stocks are subject
to wide natural fluctuations (Gushing, 1973; Parrish & aL, 1983) over close to decadal
time periods, and in past years, wide swings in abundance of some of these have masked
declines in some smaller, high value resources.
(2) In contrast, the SOFA chapter notes that as few as eight species (or uniform species
groups) made up almost 50% of the total global value, but a much smaller percentage
of the weight of marine landings. The fmfish made up 19% of this value, and their value
was dominated by tunas, salmons, Alaska pollock and Atlantic cod. A higher proportion
(29%) was made up of invertebrates: shrimps, cephalopods, crabs and lobsters. A
continued investment in fishing fleets throughout the world has meant that although catch
rates and abundance of these high value species have often declined, the overall level of
fishing effort has increased so that roughly similar levels of landings are being taken at
a much greater cost to many fishing nations. Thus, the exploration of new fishing
grounds in the 1960s and 1970s, initially by distant water fleets but later by coastal
states, although it has added smaller populations of traditional resources to the pool of
exploited stocks, has not resulted in any significant net increase in the supply of fish on
world markets.
-3-
Table 1
Annual world landings of aquatic resources (million tonnes)
(excluding mammals and seaweeds)
1948 1953 1958 1963 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1989 1990
-52 -57 -62 -67 -72 -77 -82 -87
Inland waters
Anchoveta
2.5
0.0
3.8
0.1
5.8
3.7
7.3
9.0
8.9
10.0
6.8
2.8
7.7
1.4
10.9
1.6
13.4
3.6
13.9
5.4
14.5
3.8
Marine 19.4 25.1 30.3 37.6 48.2 56.4 63.8 74.5 82.1 81.0 79.0
(less anchoveta)
Total
21.9 29.0 39.8 53.9 67.1 66.0 72.9 87.0 99.1 100.3 97.3
GROWTH IN GLOBAL MARINE CATCH
Million tonnes
100
80
60
40
20
Trend 1948-1971
Trend 1971-1990
Actual catch
0>CD(7>O)Cr>O>O)
O)O)0)CJ>O>O>
Source: FAO
Figure 1 Growth in the Global Marine Catch, 1948-90
(million tonnes)
Cumulative catch (million tons)
28 T
82 83 84 85 86 87
Year
89 90
Legend
Alaska pollock
Chil. jack mackerel
Peruvian anchoveta
Japanese pilchard
p| S. Amer. pilchard
Figure 2 Catch of the 5 major species J 980-90
(3) There has been a continual replacement of declining stocks of traditional resources by
new resources of generally lower value. This has occurred in two ways: first, by the
exploitation of new resources that have expanded in size to replace those species that
have been depleted by fishing. Among this replacement group are many short-lived
species, and many but not all (e.g., squids) are of lower unit value, lower in the food
web, and some have a higher potential to support heavy fishing. A significant proportion
of the former target species in statistical (ISSCAAP) 2 groups 31-33, the demersal fish,
are predators high in the food chain. Second, as the stocks of predatory fish have been
depleted, formerly discarded species have taken their place in landings and markets.
Species replacement in landings for both of the above reasons has been particularly
evident for the slow-growing, high-valued species such as the sea perches and gadoids;
the Atlantic cod and haddock, the Cape hake, and several other economically important
species such as the Atlantic herring and mackerel, and is referred to in the sections that
International Standard Statistical Classification of Aquatic Animals and Plants
-5-
follow. In tropical seas this change has been paralleled by declines in high value 'top
predators' such as snappers and groupers, and increases in small, short-lived trash fish,
penaeid shrimps and cephalopods.
(4) Increases have nonetheless been observed in some higher value species:
an extra million tonnes of tuna catches came mostly from the Western Central Pacific and
Western Indian Ocean and were mostly landed by distant water fleets (FAO, 1990b;
1992h).
shrimp production rose significantly, to a large extent due to increased aquaculture
production, and was accompanied by the increased use of 'trash 9 (by-catch) fish as
aquaculture foodstock, to the detriment of fish supplies for food.
the world catch of cephalopods has grown, again, largely as a result of distant water
fishing focussing on relatively few outer shelf and oceanic areas especially in the
Southwest Atlantic, Northwest Pacific and off West Africa (Caddy, 1983). Here, the
effects of intensive harvesting of these resources are already being felt.
(5) The possible role of reporting errors in causing inflation of landing figures is less easy
to establish. In some cases, improvements in statistical reporting certainly have occurred,
especially in the species breakdown of landings (WHOI, 1991; FAO, 1992b). Elsewhere
reporting may have deteriorated, as small scale fleets have taken over from the larger,
more easily monitored industrial vessels. This issue is one of the more urgent ones to
resolve globally if true trends in marine productivity are to be established as will be
needed, for example, in order to evaluate the effects of climate change.
(6) For some inshore and semi-enclosed areas, such as the Mediterranean and Black Seas,
there is growing evidence that nutrient runoff from land may be responsible for increases
in both biological production and landings, and with further eutrophication, their
subsequent decline (Caddy, 1993).
(7) Continued high fishing intensity will contribute to a loss of biological diversity and there
are fears that this may lead to more unstable, and possibly lower, catches in the long
term.
Analysis of the FAO Yearbook of landing data (FAO, 1993a) by species group over the
last 21 years (1970-90 incl.) shows that although the aggregate total for landings of most species
groups rose over the period, when these species are placed in sequence from fast increases to
very slow or no increase in overall landings, the short-lived species rose fastest, and for the
long-lived conventional resources the long-term rise was slow, and essentially stopped in the late
1980s (Figure 3).
KRILL
1970 80
YEAR
90
SHRIMPS
1970 80
YEAR
90
CLUPEIDS
1970 80 90
YEAR
13
SELACHIANS
1970
80
YEAR
90
-6-
CEPHALOPODS
1970 80
YEAR
90
OTHER
CRUSTACEA
1970
80
YEAR
90
10
CLUPEIDS
MISC. FISH
1970
80
YEAR
90
LOBSTERS
1970
80
YEAR
90
TUNAS
1970
CRABS
1970
11
80
YEAR
90
MISC. FISH
1970
80
YEAR
90
15
DEMERSAL
1970
80
YEAR
90
OTHER
MOLLUSCS
1970 80
YEAR
8
90
SHADS +
DIADROMOUS
1970 80
YEAR
JACKS *
MULLETS
1970 80
YEAR
Figure 3. Ranking of global landings by species group from the FAO Yearbook data from
species groups showing a high rate of increase (e.g. 1: krill) to almost no
increase or a plateau (15: demersal fish)
90
90
Care must be taken not to extrapolate these global conclusions to fisheries for individual
species in a country or region. This will be discussed later in this report in the sections on
statistical areas. Several salient features do emerge however, namely (apart from tunas) the high
rate of increase (and high ranking) of invertebrate resources, and the low ranking for
-7-
conventional bottom fish resources. It is interesting to consider in more detail what is the
species composition of the trend in global marine landings shown in Figure 1 and how the
number of participating countries in global marine fisheries has changed. Some indirect
evidence on these points emerges from Table 2.
Table 2, based on the FAO Yearbook statistics again, compares changes in the number
of countries reporting and the number of species they reported landing at the start and end of
the 21 -year interval 1970-90 for the more important marine statistical areas (see Figure 4 for
geographic boundaries of major fishing areas). Table 2 also illustrates that the small increases
in global landings, especially since 1970-72, should be considered in the light of a 25% average
increase in the number of countries fishing in each FAO statistical area and an average 16%
increase in the number of species reported landed.
Table 2 also throws light on the relative efficiency of reporting within each area, and/or
on the selectivity of fishing, if one considers the index in the last column. If all countries were
sampling the same marine species mix in a statistical area and fully reporting them by all
species, the ratio C/(AxB) would equal 100%. Evidently, a 100% value for this index is
improbable, since not all countries fishing an area harvest the whole range of habitats and
species available or they may have gear that is selective by species and may either discard
unwanted species or report them as undifferentiated catch.
Many fishing gears are relatively unselective. Thus, reporting one or only a few species
in a trawl fishery, for example, implies that either non-reporting or discarding is taking place
(Vendeville, 1990; Prado, 1992). The very low values of this index of the number of species
caught for most of the statistical areas means that many species caught are not being individually
reported by some countries. The tentative conclusion may be drawn that the total for global
landings is significantly higher than reported, although the extent of under-reporting cannot be
established without independent data which is unavailable to FAO.
The increase in the number of species for which landings are now being reported to
FAO, to some extent reflects more recent accurate identification of resources which were already
being landed in the past, and either left unidentified, or discarded, but probably more
realistically, reflects an increase in market price for lower value species. Here, increased
availability of field guides such as the FAO Species Identification Sheets has undoubtedly played
a role 3 , although it would be misleading to assume that a better breakdown of landings by
species has necessarily been accompanied by improved accuracy of reporting.
3 One consequence of the greater dissemination of species identification guides is that catches
that previously may have been aggregated into one species get disaggregated into several. This
can give a false impression that there has been change in the species composition of the catch
(Fischer, 1989; Fischer & oL, 1987; Cohen & &L, 1990)
8-
Table 2
Summary statistics on numbers of countries reporting catches from key FAO fisheries statistical areas
in 1970, the number of species reported, and the number of country species units reported. The
brackets show percent increases of these three categories by 1990
FAO
statistical
area
A
Countries
reporting
B C*
Species Number of
reported countries species
units
_3L
AxB
No.
% t
No.
% t
No.
% t
21
11
(27.0)
78
(11.5)
104
(56.7)
12.1
27
20
(20.0)
110
(9.0)
371
(50.4)
16.9
31
33
(18.0)
99
(17.2)
251
(39.4)
7.7
34
28
(14.3)
76
(21.1)
212
(43.9)
10.0
37
16
(37.5)
94
(19.1)
254
(48.8)
16.9
41
3
(33.3)
76
(10.5)
97
(18.6)
42.5
47
11
(0.0)
49
(20.4)
75
(13.3)
13.9
51
29
(6.9)
78
(9.0)
179
(9.0)
7.9
57
7
(14.0)
84
(22.6)
105
(47.6)
17.9
61
7
(14.3)
139
(2.9)
195
(36.4)
20.0
67
1
(100.0)
31
(19.4)
25
(112.0)
81.0
71
19
(21.1)
119
(21.0)
316
(24.1)
14.0
77
14
(14.3)
60
(20.0)
116
08.1)
13.8
81
3
(33.3)
56
(19.6)
67
(37.3)
39.3
87
5
(20.0)
67
(17.9)
93
(22.6)
27.8
Mean values
(24.9)
(16.1)
(38.5)
22.8
The total countries species units in an area is equal to the total number of species reported
in an area times the number of countries fishing that area.
-9-
FAO- FIR -1990
Figure 4 Geographical boundaries ofFAO marine statistical areas
The category "Miscellaneous Marine Fishes" in the FAO Yearbook (FAO, 1993a) throws
some light on this situation. The 'developed' fishing areas of the North Pacific, North Atlantic (in
bold in Table 3), show declining landing trends in this category, suggesting some improvements
in reporting by species. Other areas show increases in this category, implying perhaps, a worsening
of the statistical situation and/or an increase in landings of 'trash' or low value fish, which are
commonly associated with intensively exploited tropical trawl fisheries for shrimp.
Conclusion: To a significant extent, the above analysis of Yearbook data suggests an actual
increase in number of species subject to directed or mixed species fisheries, with better
identification of by-catch species and reduction of discards, improved fishing methods, and new
species entering the market, largely due to a growing scarcity of conventional species. It also
reflects a marked broadening in the number of countries fishing for these species. This means that
the very modest recent increases in global landings shown in Figure 1 are largely counteracted by
declines in individual resources, reflecting the fact that a significant number of stocks have begun
to be overexploited over at least the last decade.
The results of ranking the FAO statistical areas according to the percentage of the species
groups showing overall catch declines are shown in Table 4. Over the 21 -year period 1970-90, a
long development in resource harvesting is generally associated with a relatively high position in
this table. Those areas with long histories of fishing (D) that are already fully or overexploited,
have shown both increases and decreases in landings of species groups, whereas those with shorter
histories of industrial fisheries (U), except for those harvested by distant water fleets, as yet show
low percentage declines in species groups.
- 10-
TableS
Ranking of trends in "Miscellaneous Marine Fishes"
for the main FAO statistical areas from 1970-90
Rank Statistical Area Comment
1
81
Southwest Pacific
2
41
Southwest Atlantic
3
51
Western Indian Ocean
4
57
Eastern Indian Ocean
Increasing trend
5
31
Western Central Atlantic
6
87
Southeast Pacific
7
61
Northwest Pacific
8
67
Northeast Pacific
9
77
Eastern Central Pacific
10
71
Western Central Pacific
11
34
Eastern Central Atlantic
No trend
12
37
Mediterranean and Black Sea
13
47
Southeast Atlantic
14
27
Northeast Atlantic
Decreasing trend
15
21
Northwest Atlantic
This provides few grounds for complacency however, given the speed with which fleet build-up
can occur and any further increases in fleet size should be preceded by careful appraisal of the
status of stocks.
A relatively high proportion of long term declines of species groups occurs in those areas
where fishing has a long history, areas which have been considered as role models for fisheries
management. This must be of special concern and raise some fundamental questions as to the
efficiency of strategies that have been used to manage marine fisheries over the last two decades.
We now seem to be at a critical stage in searching for improved or alternative practical strategies
for managing coastal fisheries to replace the standard open-access management systems that have
dominated most marine fisheries to date (Pearse and Walters, 1992). Such management systems,
to a significant extent, depend on the availability of data from which to assess the potential yield
from stocks.
Although the 1980s has been a period of growing awareness and concern for environmental
change, it is important to continue to single out overfishing (and its economic counterpart, over-
investment), as the main culprit for local resource degradation over the last 50 years, and that may
now be leading to a reversal of the long-term positive global catch trend. Recent analyses have
been quite explicit in this regard in identifying the scope and nature of the problem. One index
- 11 -
extracted from FAO statistics (FAO, 19935) is that over the period 1970-89, the global industrial
fleet size was increasing at a relative rate which was double that shown by global landings.
The negative consequences of this may be equally serious from an economic as well as from
a resource perspective (COFI, 1993) and the SOFA chapter arrives at a parallel and remarkable
conclusion in this regard, namely, that the annual operating costs of the global marine fishing fleet
in 1989 were on the order of US$ 22 000 million greater than the total revenues, even without
considering capital costs!
The perspectives offered in the previous paragraphs have focused principally on the gross
picture that is emerging with respect to trends in landings from global marine fisheries. This is of
an unsatisfied demand for fish and fish products that has encouraged individual fishermen,
governments and entrepreneurs to make individual investment decisions in the means of capture and
processing that in total are far in excess of any possible level of productivity of the natural
resources. This situation has been made possible, and exaggerated, by a general failure of most
management systems to adequately contain the pressure from improved technology and from new
entries to marine fisheries. More detailed examples are given in the descriptions of events for the
individual FAO statistical areas that follow. The wide diversity of fisheries situations covered by
these reviews reflects the wide differences in development both of the fisheries and the differences
in availability of fisheries information between "developed 9 and "underdeveloped 9 statistical areas.
B. REGIONAL REVIEWS
NORTHWEST ATLANTIC (Area 21) (Table 5)
Total landings of finfish and invertebrates in 1990 were 3.2 million t, up slightly from 1985
to 1989, but still below the level of landings in the early 1970s. This figure includes a decrease
in catches of most groundfish species (particularly, cod, haddock and flatfishes) and an increase
in catches of redfishes, of most invertebrates (lobster, shrimps, squid, scallops and oysters), and
of small pelagics (capelin, herring and menhaden). Considerable geographical variations remain,
both in the state of the resources, as well as the criteria used for management.
The coastal States in the Northwest Atlantic have sharply curtailed or eliminated
distant-water effort in their exclusive economic zones, and with the exception of stocks on the tip
of the Grand Banks, and those for which advice has been requested by coastal States, management
of shelf areas seaward of 200 miles has been conducted through the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries
Organization (NAFO). This organization has attempted to maintain, not completely successfully,
stock levels or a stock rebuilding strategy by harvesting depleted stocks at the F } level 4
(Gulland and Boerema, 1973).
4 The F ol level is the effort level at which the increase in yield produced by one
additional unit of effort is l/10th of the rate of increase in yield obtained by applying one
additional effort unit
- 12-
Table 4
Ranking of FAO areas in terms of increasing proportion of 15 selected ISSCAAP species groups
and super groups showing declines in landings: 1970-90 (see also Figure 1)
Rank
Statistical Area
Decline Increase
Level of
%
%
Development
1
67
Northeast Pacific
42
25
D
2
47
Southeast Atlantic
42
25
M
3
21
Northwest Atlantic
33
50
D
4
27
Northeast Atlantic
17
25
D
5
77
Eastern Central Pacific
17
42
M
6
61
Northwest Pacific
8
42
D
7
34
Eastern Central Pacific
8
42
U
8
81
Southwest Pacific
8
58
M
9
87
Southeast Pacific
8
75
M
10
31
Western Central Atlantic
-
25
M
11
71
Western Central Pacific
-
33
U
12
41
Southwest Atlantic
-
42
M
13
51
Western Indian Ocean
-
58
U
14
37
Mediterranean/Black Sea
-
58
M
15
57
Western Indian Ocean
-
92
M
U
= Coastal States with underdeveloped fisheries
D
=
Coastal States with developed
fisheries
M
=
Mixed: both U and D present
NAFO, of which all coastal states except the United States are members, is responsible for
assessing straddling stocks considered to overlap Canada-Greenland-France (St. Pierre and
Miquelon) boundaries and stocks exclusively fished by coastal States but which extend beyond the
200 mile limits into international waters and provides regional statistics (NAFO, 1993a;c), and
reports of its scientific deliberations (NAFO, 1993b). The F , criterion is still used in the
Canadian zone (CAFSAC, 1992) and for some NAFO stocks, but quota control has been essentially
abandoned for most fisheries in southern area 21 (NMFS, 1992a). Some member countries of
NAFO are promoting the use of F levels higher than F , and object to some NAFO
- 13-
recommendations. Fishing by non-members compounds the problem of setting TACs intended to
lead to stock conservation.
Difficulties have been experienced in collecting catch data for fitting realistic age-structured
models for some stocks and there is a growing awareness of the difficulties of quota management,
especially in mixed species fisheries, where estimates of total removals are affected by misreporting
(both between species and sub-areas) and by discarding as by-catch. Problems of setting stable
quotas are made more serious by wide inter-annual variations in recruitment for species such as
haddock.
Experience in southern subarea 21 suggests that in the absence of quota or access control,
commercial catches are likely to decline, as has been largely the case for stocks of haddock, hakes,
redfish and yellowtail flounder; however, this is also the case for a number of northern stocks
under quota control. The debate on appropriate catch levels has placed emphasis on the allocation
process, and it is clear that improved biological advice is only a small component of an efficient
fishery management system. The search for more efficient mechanisms for interaction between
fishermen, biologists, economists, managers and politicians will continue to be a priority in this
region for the foreseeable future.
Long-term changes in production in the Northwest Atlantic, show the influence of the
physical environment, especially where a species is close to the extremes of its range. Warm/saline
and cold/diluted periods in oceanic climate typically last for three to five years: a similar
periodicity has been noted for northern cod stock recruitment where the catches of cod in the Davis
Strait increased slightly in 1987 after years of decline. Although winter temperatures were below
normal, increased summer temperatures in recent years probably account for increased shrimp
landings and may also affect catches of squids, clams, scallops and crabs, all of which showed
significant increases, as did northern shrimp landings from the Davis Strait and off Greenland.
The general increase in landings of invertebrates has been notable over the last decade in
Area 21; they comprised 32% of the catch in 1990 and a higher proportion of the total value.
Noteworthy was the American lobster: this valuable species is subject to heavy pressure throughout
its range and it seems unlikely that recent steady increases are due to improvements in management
of the resources rather than environmental considerations.
1. Northern areas:
Assessments inside the Canadian east coast EEZ are carried out by the Canadian Atlantic
Fisheries Scientific Advisory Committee (CAFSAC, 1992), and include a three-year management
plan for groundfish. The industry has asked for stable groundfish quotas in order to assist in
planning. It has been pointed out that this can only be achieved by constant changes in fishing
effort from year to year. The CAFSAC plan calls for fishing at the F A level, or higher rates of
removal if biomass levels are adequate. A new modelling framework ("ADAPT" - Gavaris, 1988;
Mohn and Cook, 1993) simultaneously takes into account both survey and catch data, giving greater
consistency of results. The use of teleconferences between fishery assessment workers from widely
separated locations in eastern Canada is commonly used. 'Precautionary' TACs at fishing rates
below F j levels are routinely applied in the case of species where quantitative information is poor,
such as many herring stocks.
-14-
For straddling stocks, NAFO has been facing a crisis situation in recent years with the
recommendations of its scientific committee (NAFO, 1993b;c) being jeopardized by the
uncontrolled fishing activities of non-contracting parties to its convention within its regulatory area.
Delays in catch reporting by members have also contributed to assessments with incomplete data.
A minimum cod-end mesh size is now being promoted in the region with the only exceptions being
for capelin and squid (for which 60 mm stretched mesh applies).
Some events in the fisheries of the northern pan of Area 21 may be related to a period of
local low temperatures of coastal waters. These cold water anomalies (Drinkwater, 1993; Petrie
and Drinkwater, 1993; Sigaev, 1993) could be due to the effect of increased ice break-up, which
are believed to be correlated with the impact of climatic change in West Greenland. The recent
dramatic declines that have occurred in the cod fisheries of the Grand Banks and Flemish Cap may
be in part a consequence of this (see Box "The northern cod fishery").
The following comments apply for the more important resources:
(a) Demersal fish; Cod catches from the once largest Northwest Atlantic cod stock on the
Grand Banks and off Labrador increased rapidly after the 1950s with spawning and pre-spawning
concentrations heavily exploited by distant water fleets. Peak catches of 800 OOOt occurred in 1968
with a steady decline thereafter to 1978. Inshore catches also declined from some 160 OOOt in the
1960s to 35 OOOt in 1974. Management was formerly by the International Commission for
Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF), later replaced by NAFO. Early management was restricted
to mesh size regulation but TACs were introduced in 1973. Following extension of jurisdiction by
Canada in 1975, CAFSAC has regulated the fishery suggesting a target fishing mortality below or
at F , to encourage stock rebuilding (see Box: "The northern cod fishery").
The Flemish Cap cod stock was at a minimum in 1987 and further declined in 1990-91;
catches were then set at the lowest level possible (Vazquez, 1993). Cod landings in northern,
eastern and western Gulf of St. Lawrence dropped from 106 OOOt in 1983 to 47 OOOt in 1989, the
lowest historical level, partly due to the exclusion of one of the major fleets, France (St. Pierre and
Miquelon), from this fishery. There are two diverging. interpretations of stock status based on
survey data and commercial catch statistics respectively. The former suggests biomass has
declined, the latter suggests that the stock is lightly fished and stable. This latter estimate may be
biased by misreporting and discarding which are believed to be significant in this fishery. In the
southern Gulf and adjacent Scotian Shelf stable catches and rising biomass levels are occurring
under a system of enterprise allocations applied to cod landings by vessels of 50 ft.
-15-
BOX: The northern cod fishery
Depletion of the northern cod stock was evident in the mid-1970s with respect to historical levels
(Bishop et L, 1993; Davis et aL, 1993) and the quota levels lagged behind stock declines (Box Figure).
A special meeting of NAFO in June 1992 recommended that catches should not exceed 50 OOOt: the low
range of F .j values. The meeting could not specify the cause of decline, but in addition to over fishing,
other negative influences included the impact of current cold water in the Northwest Atlantic on cod
recruitment, and increased predation on young cod by harp seal populations which have increased in size
since culling was banned. Recent declines in capelin, the principal food organism of cod, might also be
involved.
Disagreements on the management objective for this straddling stock may be a prime cause of stock
depletion, but the differences in the scientific advice based on commercial catch per unit effort versus
research survey indices, also contributed to uncertainty of advice. Possible biases in abundance trends
can probably not be excluded, due to a fixed calender of research surveys on a seasonally migrating
stock, in a period of changing seasonal patterns. Serious differences in the advice formulated using
several population dynamic models was the main reason why it was not possible to make an agreed stock
projection in June 1992.
The stock decline, about which no one disagrees, also raises a number of controversial political
issues. These include the need to reinforce the role of fisheries commissions and of coastal States in
regulating fisheries on those portions of straddling stocks lying beyond EEZs. Although the areas falling
outside the Canadian 200 mile zone are relatively small, a more significant part of the stock, through
migration, may occur in these areas at certain periods of the year. Here, there has been a disagreement
between the coastal States who recommend F , management criteria and distant water fishing countries
wishing to fish at higher levels of exploitation, as well as problems in deciding on a uniform approach to
fishery surveillance of all participants. This case also illustrates the difficulties faced by Commissions
not having independent means to control biases in statistical reporting and surveillance, particularly when
such reporting has direct implications on the quotas in the following year. The inertia of the quota
allocation mechanism (Box Figure) is clearly evident, particularly in a period when declining abundance
was not unambiguously reflected in all of the assessments. The closure of domestic fisheries by the
Canadian Government in 1992, followed by a compensation package to support fishermen in a province
with high unemployment and few job alternatives, has had severe consequences for overfishing for
coastal communities (McClellan, 1993).
- 16-
1000-
i
%600-i
13
400-
^
200-
1960
1970
1 ' \ '
1980
1990
YEAR
Box Figure: Landings, TACs and allocation in the northern cod fishery
LOA, with trip limits applied for smaller vessels. Recent good recruitment is compromised by the
high discard rates observed by the observer programme on commercial vessels. In the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, density-dependent growth of cod appears of greater importance than other environmental
effects. Investigations are considering the impact of size-selective mortality in leading to selective
survival of slow-growing populations.
On the eastern Scotian Shelf, enterprise allocations and trip limitations also apply with by-
catch being regulated (CAFSAC, 1991). Yields of cod from fixed gear drop rapidly as mobile gear
effort increases since the latter gear intercepts younger fish. Commercial trawler catch rate is a
poor index of abundance since skippers now aim for an optimal species mix and size composition
to avoid discarding. Observer data appears more reliable, with assessments relying more on catch
rates from fixed gear which is protected by a special catch allocation.
Since 1984, a maritime boundary has divided the Georges Bank and Gulf of Maine. Cod
and stocks northeast of this boundary are considered separate from stocks to the southwest.
Northeast of the boundary, conservation measures include limited numbers of trips, trip limits, and
obligatory use of square mesh in trawls.
- 17-
Stocks of haddock from the Grand Banks to Georges Bank are in a fragile condition
(CAPS AC, 1991) as elsewhere in the Northwest Atlantic, with heavy dependence on a few age
groups. They are subject to high incidental catch as juveniles in other fisheries and low or reduced
catches have been recommended. In eastern areas, no directed fishery is allowed for haddock to
assist rebuilding of the stock. On the Scotian Shelf, directed fishing dropped to a low level in the
early 1970s, but the species quota has still been exceeded due to by-catches in other fisheries. The
situation is not aided by misreporting between species and areas, which industry admits to be a
common feature of quota management. In attempting to avoid discards of by-catches, an aggregate
cod/haddock/pollock quota was introduced in 1989, divided between three 4-month periods. It
appears however that there are still problems with discarding of the less valuable catch of pollock.
A haddock nursery area was introduced in 1987 to aid stock rebuilding, and areas were closed to
fishing where survey cruises had located abundant juveniles. Haddock catches on north-eastern
Georges Bank declined from 60 OOOt in the 1960s to a few thousand tonnes in 1976. There is some
recent evidence of slight stock recovery.
Catches of redfish peaked in the 1960s and 1970s (CAPS AC, 1991). Where effort was
controlled, stocks in the 1970s and 1980s have shown some recent signs of recovery, as in the Gulf
of St. Lawrence and some redfish stocks on the Scotian Shelf and Grand Banks. Redfish are
seriously depleted off Greenland, possibly due to the by-catch of juveniles in the shrimp fishery,
which may be controlling redfish recruitment. On the eastern Grand Banks quotas for this species
have been exceeded each year and the stock continues to decline.
Landings of American plaice are far below historical levels on the Grand Banks and effort
reduction is recommended (CAFSAC, 1991). Other flatfish (witch flounder and yellowtail) are also
at a low level here, except for Greenland halibut where catches appear to be stable from Davis
Strait to Grand Banks. There is some evidence that declines in ambient temperature and not
overfishing is responsible for stock declines of American plaice in northern areas. Elsewhere, high
discards of small flatfish (some 40-80% by number) are a persistent problem in other fisheries.
American plaice catches are stable in Flemish Cap. American plaice, and witch and yellow
flounder are covered by a common quota on the Scotian Shelf, but there has been a general decline
in catches; the quota is taken largely as by-catch.
(b) Small pelagic fish: Inshore fisheries for capelin roe were carried out off Labrador in the
1980s, mainly for the Japanese market, stimulated by the closure of the Barents Sea fishery in
1986. Acoustic surveys play a large part in assessment as commercial catch rate is not considered
a good indication of stock size: catch rate in passive gear (traps) is considered less biased.
Scientific advice cautioned against heavy catches being taken from close to inshore spawning areas
because of the effect this might have on future spawning and on inshore cod populations feeding
on these stocks (CAFSAC, 1991). Although capelin catches on the southern Grand Banks have
been below quotas in recent years the stock appears to be declining and a TAG not exceeding 10%
of the biomass has been recommended. On the southern Grand Banks a peak catch of 132 OOOt was
taken in 1975 but the fishery was closed for 1979-86 and, with fishing set at less than 10% of the
long-term mean spawning biomass, no harvest will be allowed in 1993.
Herring are caught in a wide variety of gears (purse-seines, midwater trawls, gill nets, weirs
and traps) which exploit autumn and spring spawning stocks. Their abundance is estimated from
data on sales receipts indicating quantities landed and log books collected at point of landing.
- 18-
These data are now supplemented by acoustic surveys which require a calibrated acoustic
backscattering cross section: the ratio of incident sound reflected per unit weight of sonified fish.
Preliminary estimates indicate that acoustic procedures may have overestimated stock biomass, and
in the case of herring, stock distribution areas in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence have changed.
Herring fisheries on the southwestern Scotian Shelf peaked in the 1960s, reaching 196 OOOt due to
development of the fishmeal industry and west purse seines but subsequently the taking of herring
for meal was banned and it is now used for human consumption.
The herring stock on Georges Bank was formerly the largest in the West Atlantic with
landings peaking at 374 OOOt in 1968, but crashed in 1977 under an intensive international fishery.
After a decade of apparent extinction, there is now evidence of spawning, but no directed fishery
will be encouraged prior to significant stock recovery. Recoveries have been registered among
other herring stocks in eastern Canada since the mid-1980s, but further increases in TACs are
regarded as a cautionary approach. However, to a significant extent herring catches have varied
in relation to fluctuations in markets for fish and roe and restrictions on fish meal processing.
Northwest Atlantic mackerel stocks are managed as a single unit despite two spawning
areas; (1) in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and (2) between Cape Cod and Hatteras. Both groups
overwinter in Sub Areas 5 and 6 where they were subject to an intensive fishery by non-coastal
states which harvested a peak of 430 OOOt in 1973. This fishery was halted in 1977-78 with
extension of maritime jurisdiction of USA and Canada. There is no catch limit imposed in this
fishery which with catches of some 50-90 OOOt, is well below F , harvest levels. Potential
removals of some 200 OOOt annually from a biomass of some 1 million tonnes would not be likely
to endanger this stock.
International fisheries for Atlantic salmon are subject to coordination by the North Atlantic
Salmon Conservation Organization (NASCO) and in the USA are covered by a management plan
that forbids commercial fishing. For stocks in Canadian rivers, the management objective is to
realize a target escapement of spawners through the offshore and river fisheries. With respect to
the fishery off Greenland, which intercepts salmon from European and North American rivers, the
preemptive quota of 900t was not caught in 1989-90, and lower returns to rivers are expected in
1991.
(c) Molluscs; Canadian scallop catches on Georges Bank east of the International Court of
Justice (ICJ) line established in 1984, have averaged around 5 500t/yr (CAFSAC, 1991). The last
peak recruitment which gave annual catches of 1 1 OOOt was in 1977-78. Catches are controlled by
an overall TAC, split up under an Enterprise Allocation Plan. A minimum allowable meat weight
for random samples of adductor muscles in the catch (the only part landed), was enforced in 1986.
The fishing effort unit used in this fishery (crew-hour-metre) takes into account not only the crew
size (which determines extraction rate of meats), but also the hours fished and the size of the
dredge. US sea scallop fisheries are covered by a management plan that specifies a maximum
average count of 30/lb of adductor muscles ('meats').
Catches of squid on the Scotian Shelf off Newfoundland peaked at 162 OOOt in 1979, but
dropped to 2 OOOt in 1983-88, showed a slight recovery in 1989-90, but again declined in 1991.
Climatic factors are believed to influence abundance of these annual species. A substantial clam
- 19-
resource, Spisula polynyma. has been located on the Scotian Shelf, which, together with ocean
quahogs, appears to offer potential for a new fishery.
(d) Crustaceans: Shrimp stocks in Hudson Strait and off Greenland are at the lowest level since
1987 (Skuladottir, 1993). Efforts are being made to increase mesh size and monitor the fishery to
reduce discarding. Effort control does not appear to have worked well in the snow crab fishery
of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and consideration is being given to season/area closures in combination
with quotas. A claw hardness gauge has been proposed to test for soft shell crabs which may lead
to closures when soft shells are too abundant. Surveys are now routinely using 'kriging', a
statistical procedure adapted from mining prospection to outline distribution areas of shellfish
species.
II. Southern areas
United States fisheries are subject to management by regional councils made up of
government and fishery sector representatives and technical advisers. A Fisheries Management
Plan is drawn up for most major resources, which takes into account a range of relevant biological
and socio-economic factors (NMFS, 1992b). The growing importance of sports fishing in the
southern half of Area 21 is leading to a reaction against uncontrolled effort levels by commercial
fishing. Limited entry has been accepted in at least some US fisheries and Individual Transferable
Quotas (ITQs) have even been adopted in the surf clam fishery. This, despite resistance on the
basis of the unequal distribution of societal benefits that some hqve feared would result for formerly
open-access resources. There is growing concern in the USA that present marine harvest strategies
are not sustainable, and other alternatives to limited entry are also being discussed, notably the
concept of the ecological reserve or marine park. This has the attractive feature that closed areas
favour a larger role in reproduction to larger, older more fecund fish.
Fisheries in the southern part of Area 21 (Subareas 5 and 6) have begun to show progressive
symptoms of overfishing in recent years, especially by the trawl fishery (NMFS, 1992a). In the
New England area this fishery for 10 key species is covered by the Northeast Multispecies Fishery
Management Plan which specifies gear type and area/season closures but although permits are
issued, no quotas are set. The landings of several high value species (cod, haddock and yellowtail
flounder) are now at or close to all-time low values. In some heavily fished areas such as Georges
Bank, there appears to have been a change in the fish community favouring low valued species in
place of a fish community formerly dominated by high value gadoids. Landings have shifted to
formerly lower value species, including pollock, dogfish (of little value), silver hake, skates and
flounders.
Redfish are now taken primarily as a by-catch of the mixed-species otter trawl fishery in
the Gulf of Maine and by 1987 stock biomass had declined by over 80% since the late 1960s. By
1987, commercial catch rate indices and research vessel survey abundance indices of yellowtail
flounder had also declined to record-low levels and the fishery remains heavily dependent upon
incoming year classes. Recent recruitment of yellowtail flounder stocks has been poor on Georges
Bank and in the Gulf of Maine. Survey abundance indices for most of the 'other flounder' stocks
also exhibited declines in 1987. The exploitable biomass of pollack was expected to decline
beginning in 1987 and landings in 1988 had fallen from the record-high level in 1986 but still
remain significant. Recruitment of silver hake in the last several years has been of average
-20-
strength, but decreased fishing effort from distant-water fleets has helped to steadily increase stock
biomass from the very low levels of the mid-1970s. Up until 1987, Atlantic herring landings in
the southern part of Area 21 had remained fairly constant. Maine vessel landings increased slightly
and landings in the fixed gear fisheries remain at historically low levels.
Offshore clam fisheries are the subject of a management plan under the Mid- Atlantic
Management Council and are the only east coast US fisheries to be subject to an overall quota and
ITQs, set as percentages of the quota. Closed areas exist to protect predominantly small clams.
Soft-shell and hard-shell clam landings in many areas are depressed, and have been partly
compensated for by increased landings of ocean quahogs. Only landings of scallops showed an
increase, probably due to the impact of favourable environmental conditions during recruitment of
currently exploited year classes, a situation that seems to occur at intervals of eight to ten years.
The abundance of Loligo squid in research vessel surveys was the lowest in the 1968-87 time series
but landings of Illex were up significantly in 1987.
Judging from statistics reported to FAO, resources that have shown recent declines include
estuarine species (e.g., tomcod, oysters, bay scallop, smelt and char), which may reflect
deterioration in estuarine environments as much as overfishing. However, landings of Atlantic
salmon have shown some increase, which may be due to improved river and high seas management
and curtailment of commercial sea fishing. Increased landings of blue mussel appear to reflect
increases in aquaculture. Fisheries for other species that have shown declines are inshore species
such as scup, cusk and wolf fish which are vulnerable to inshore fishing.
Several fisheries have shown recent increases, and among these are species such as those
formerly discarded, e.g., Cancer crabs (by the lobster fishery), brill and skates (by trawlers). Two
valuable crustaceans have posted significant upward trends, American lobster and pink shrimp, both
of which have been heavily fished, and whose landings are subject to environmental (climatic)
changes. American lobster fisheries in southern Area 21 are the subject of a management plan
specifying size limits and trap design.
Tuna and billfish stocks in the region fall within the mandate of the International
Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) and total landings are listed in Table
21. However, within US waters, billfishes and swordfish are the subject of separate management
plans.
NORTHEAST ATLANTIC (AREA 27) (TABLE 6)
Total reported catches in 1990 were 9.2 million t, down slightly from 9.9 million t in 1989
(FAO, 1993a). Of the 9.2 million 1 8.2 million t, were fmfish and 1.0 million t were invertebrates.
Most of the demersal stocks continued to exhibit long-term downward trends due to excessive
fishing pressure, undesirable fishing patterns (i.e., too much fishing on young fish and discarding)
and poor recruitment, probably related to reduced spawning stock biomass and unfavourable
environmental changes.
The level of exploitation of the North Sea cod, haddock, and whiting stocks is very high.
Most of the caU?h consists of fish which are one or two years old, and fewer than one third of the
-21 -
fish alive at the start of the year survive to the end of the yea*. The fisheries are therefore very
dependent upon newly-recruited young fish.
The North Sea cod stock has been fished down to the lowest level ever observed (some
1 OOOt in 1990 down from some 250 OOOt in the 1970s) and it is uncertain whether it can produce
enough recruits to maintain itself (ICES, 1992a). Fishing mortalities must be reduced to give the
stock a chance to recover. The year-classes 1986-90 are all below average. Spawning stock
biomass has fallen to 66 OOOt in 1990, below the lowest acceptable level of ISO OOOt. The
prospects for the haddock stock are also bad although not quite as bad as for cod. The year-classes
1987-89 are all very much below average, but year-classes 1990 and 1991 are only a little below
average. Spawning stock biomass was at a record low level in 1991 of 64 OOOt but will improve
to above 100 OOOt (advised as the 'lowest desirable 9 level) in 1993 due to the 1990-91 year-classes.
Spawning stock biomass and catches of North Sea whiting increased in 1990 and 1991, and the
prospects are a further increase in 1992 and 1993 due to above average recruitment in 1988 and
1990. Fishing mortality is high, but whiting is a predator on other commercial species and it is
not desirable to have too big a stock. The situation is less clear with the North Sea saithe. There
has been a declining trend in the spawning stock from 107 OOOt in 1985 to 74 OOOt in 1990, but it
now seems to have stabilized.
The landings of Baltic cod were at a record high in 1980-85, of between 335 000 and 441
OOOt (ICES, 1992b). The stock suffered a high fishing mortality and has since then been constantly
declining. The spawning stock has declined from over 800 OOOt in 1980 to 115 OOOt in 1992 and
is now below the minimum biologically acceptable level. The International Council for the
Exploration of the Sea (ICES) recommends a total stop for the cod fishery in the Baltic except for
the small stock in the western Baltic where ICES recommends that fishing mortality be reduced to
the lowest possible level. In setting the first TAG for cod in the Baltic it was recommended that
fishing mortality be reduced to the lowest possible level and this was agreed by the countries
participating in the fishery in 1989. The agreed TACs have always been much higher than those
recommended by ICES and the resulting fishing mortalities have been at an almost constant and
very high level. For 1993 the managers have agreed on a 40 OOOt TAG for cod. This corresponds
to a reduction in fishing mortality to half of the previous level but is still higher than F^ by
approximately 50%. Recruitment to the stock shows a general downwards trend since 1976. Lack
of inflow of high salinity water rich in oxygen from the North Sea to the Baltic has resulted in a
decline in salinity and oxygen content of deep waters of the Baltic. This might have resulted in a
high mortality on cod eggs which sink after extrusion.
The Northeast Arctic cod stock was one of the world's largest, with landings on average
of about 700 OOOt in the 1970s, peaking at 1.1 million t in 1968 and 1969. This fishery was
controlled by a USSR/Norwegian joint commission (ICES, 1992a). Cycles of production tend to
be driven by good recruitment when Gulf Stream drift affects Barents Sea temperature. Quotas
were over-optimistic until recently, and the landings were 332 OOOt in 1989 and in response to stock
declines quotas were halved to 172 OOOt in 1990 and 1991. The earlier low in capelin abundance
contributed to poor condition, cannibalism and poor recruitment. Spawning stock increased from
172 OOOt in 1989 to 571 OOOt in 1991 mostly due to the good survival of a big 1983 year-class.
The catches and spawning stock of North Sea sole increased sharply in 1990 due to a big
1987 year-class, and should stabilize at an average (1971-90) level (ICES, 1992a). However, it
-22-
is recommended that the spawning stock biomass should not be lower than 50 OOOt in order to
buffer the possibility of two successive poor year-classes. This stock is known to have widely
fluctuating year-classes. For North Sea plaice, fishing mortality, yield and recruitment have steadily
increased from 1964 to 1990. The spawning stock size has decreased slightly in the same period,
but is still above the lowest acceptable level of 300 OOOt.
The stocks of mackerel in the North Sea and west of the British Isles have been declining
since 1973-74. The spawning stock of the North Sea mackerel is at its historic lowest level and
is only a small percentage of the stock-size in the 1960s. The western spawning stock biomass has
been rather stable between 1.8 and 2.2. million t in 1984-90. Fishing mortality has increased since
1984 but is still at a reasonable level.
The industrial fishery in the North Sea is targeted on small species like sandeel, Norway
pout, and sprat for fish meal and oil production (ICES, 1992a). Landings were around 1.8 million
t in the mid-1970s and have fluctuated between 1.0 and 1.5 million t since then. Sandeel is the
most important species and makes up more than 60% of the total in all years.
The Barents Sea capelin stock is rapidly recovering from almost complete depletion with
spawning stock biomass rising from 17 OOOt in 1987 to 2.6 million t in 1990 (ICES, 1992a). The
1988 capelin year-class is good although still below the long-term average and its growth rate is
exceptionally high. The fishery was closed from May 1986 to January 1991. The mean annual
landings in 1973-90 were 1.3 million t and in the winter and spring of 1991 the catch was 679
OOOt. The Iceland/East Greenland stock fell below the minimum safe limit of 400 OOOt during 1989
and 1990. Because of the short lifespan of capelin the state of these stocks is highly variable.
The North Sea herring stock collapsed in the mid-1970s after extremely high fishing
pressure (ICES, 1992a). From a previous level of several million t of spawning stock biomass and
a stable annual catch of about 0.5 million t, the spawning stock decreased to 52 OOOt in 1977 and
the fishery was banned. Since then the stock started slowly producing larger and larger year-
classes. Now the spawning stock is at 1.3 million t and the catch has been from 492 000 to
646 OOOt since 1986. The spawning stock is well above the minimum acceptable level of
800 OOOt which is the minimum spawning stock size for which the recruitment is not suspected to
be hampered. Large herring are fished for human consumption and young herring for producing
fish meal and oil, which is, however, not the intention of management since this fishery for young
herring constitutes 'growth overfishing' and significantly reduces the potential spawning stock size.
The Icelandic summer-spawning stock supported slightly increasing catches of around 100
OOOt in 1988-90 (ICES, 1992a). The spawning stock biomass has stabilized around 0.5 million t,
the highest level since 1947. The Norwegian spring-spawner stock, once the largest herring stock
in the world with a spawning stock biomass of 10 million t in 1957, has been slowly recovering
from virtually zero in 1972 to about 1.5 million t in 1990. However, the stock is still at only 60%
of the lowest level (2.5 million t) known to have given good year-classes in the period prior to the
collapse. Landings in 1990 were 86 OOOt compared to 10 000-20 OOOt during 1972-83.
Other smaller herring stocks which have increased or are still at a stable level, include those
of Skagerrak-Kattegat and western Baltic, several areas west of Scotland and Ireland and several
in other parts of the Baltic (ICES, 1992b). The main stock in the Baltic has experienced a decrease
-23-
in fishing mortality and an increase in spawning stock biomass which is now approaching
3 million t (ICES, 19925).
An epidemic of the fungus Ichthyophonus spp. started in 1991 in the adult herring of the
Norwegian spring spawner stock, the North Sea stock, and the western Baltic stock. The
processing industry periodically stopped processing herring due to low quality and high frequencies
of infected fish and mass mortalities were observed during the autumn of 1991 in the Sound
between Denmark and Sweden. In the autumn of 1992 the frequencies of infested fish were still
high. The disease is lethal, but it is still not possible to quantify its impact on the sizes of the
infected stocks.
Catches and exploitation levels in the traditional redfish fisheries around Iceland, East
Greenland and the Faroe Islands have been at a fairly constant level between 120 OOOt and 170 OOOt
since 1980 (ICES, 1992a). The size of the stock is uncertain due to problems in age determination.
A new fishery began in 1982 on an oceanic stock of Sebastes mentella. in international waters
between Greenland, Iceland and the Atlantic Ocean north of the Azores. Catches rose from 60 OOOt
in 1982-83 to 105 OOOt in 1986, but have declined significantly since to 23 OOOt in 1991.
Hake landings have remained fairly stable since 1978 around 70 000 to 80 OOOt (ICES,
1992a). The stock status is uncertain, but there is clearly a high mortality on young hake, the catch
of which are generally discarded. The landings of sardine have decreased from about 200 OOOt in
1980-85 to 139 OOOt in 1990. Catches of European anchovy have fluctuated between 5 000 and
34 OOOt since 1979.
Landings of the northern blue whiting dropped from 1.1 million t in 1979-1980 to 529 OOOt
in 1990 (ICES, 1992a). The spawning stock was at an historic high of 6.3 million t in 1976-77,
declined to a minimum of 1.9 million t in 1984 and increased to 2.5 million t in 1990. A fairly
strong 1989 year-class will result in a stock increase in coming years. Horse-mackerel landings
have increased in recent years with 441 OOOt reported in 1990. The stocks are supported by a very
strong 1982 year-class, but unless other strong year-classes appear the resource will be unable to
support continued landings at the present level.
Pollution has caused environmental deterioration in some parts of Area 27. The level of
nutrients, heavy metals, and poisonous organic compounds are high in most sea areas influenced
by river outlets. Except for the Baltic Sea this is mostly a coastal problem. The pollution of heavy
metals and poisonous organic compounds have generally decreased in recent years. However the
pollution by nutrients in river discharge initially increased, but with the clean-up of the major river
systems (notably the Rhine) in recent years, nutrient inputs may have declined somewhat with
repercussions on coastal productivity. Especially the eastern part of the North Sea (influenced by
the rivers Rhine and Elbe) but also the Skagerrak and Kattegat, and the whole Baltic suffered in
the 1980s from frequent oxygen depletion due to eutrophication. Cod and plaice stocks in these
areas seem to have been affected. Increased levels of fish diseases are often observed in areas of
oxygen depletion of bottom water and close to river outlets, but on too small a scale to affect entire
fish stocks.
The scientific advice on which management measures are based (e.g. , total allowable catches
(TAG), minimum mesh-sizes, etc.) is provided by the ICES through its Advisory Committee on
-24-
Fishenes Management (ACFM) (ICES, 1992a). However, ICES revised its procedure in 1991-92
and form of fishery management advice and now only makes recommendations in cases where
stocks are exploited outside safe biological limits, i.e., where stocks are below or are expected to
fall below a 'minimum biologically acceptable level' in the near future at present rates of
exploitation. Minimum biologically acceptable levels for a particular stock are usually defined as
the smallest spawning stock size that can produce average year-classes or as the smallest historical
spawning stock size. When stocks are exploited within safe biological limits, ACFM will provide
options without indicating a preference - but will indicate the biological consequences and risks
associated with each option. The choice of a particular option is left to the managers. Thus,
biological reference points such as F^ F 01 etc., will no longer be the basis of ICES
recommendations. They might still be relevant for stating the consequences of a certain policy.
Advice relative to the management of Atlantic salmon throughout the North Atlantic (excluding the
Baltic) has been provided by ICES to NASCO since 1984.
The Total Allowable Catch system has been used as the standard tool in managing the stocks
in Area 27 (ICES, 1992a). As a general rule, agreed TACs throughout Area 27 have exceeded the
TACs recommended by ICES and actual catches have exceeded the agreed TACs. Enforcement
of management measures has not been adequate in all areas and problems arise from the fact that
many of the regulated stocks are harvested in mixed fisheries. The reliability of reported landings
statistics has deteriorated for some stocks as a result of management/enforcement problems which,
in turn, has reduced the reliability of the scientific advice on those stocks. Discarding of
undersized fish or due to low prices for specific sizes appears to be an increasing problem. Besides
this obvious waste of resources this phenomenon makes the assessment of the stocks more difficult
as data on the amount discarded are difficult to obtain.
ICES has in some cases in recent years departed from the practice of giving advice based
on a TAC. For cod in the North Sea misreporting undermined the TAC system and ICES
recommended an effort reduction with restrictions on the number of days each fishing vessel is
allowed to fish in addition to TACs. ICES has recognized the need for multispecies assessment and
advice taking into account both the biological relationships among species and the technical
interactions in the mixed species fisheries and has been actively involved in the relevant research
and development of methodologies (see Box: "Multispecies stock assessment").
-25-
BOX: Mutispecfes stock assessment
Multispecies models are under development within ICES for the North Sea and the Baltic and reflect the
fact that consumption of fish by other fish is a major cause of death for many species. These models have been
under development for the last 10-12 years, collecting data and testing them. The models are called Multi-Species
VPAs (MSVPA) (Sparholt, 1990; Sparre, 1991) because they are conceptually simple extensions of the Virtual
Population Analysis (VPA) which back-calculates the numbers of fish at earlier ages in the population from the death
rates and the age composition of the catch. VPAs for many species are done simultaneously so that the prey interact
with their predators. This affects the death rate due to natural causes used in the VPA for the prey species.
In addition to the data needs of a VPA analysis, the MSVPA require data about what and how much the
predators eat (Helgason and Gislason, 1979). This has been obtained by extensive experimental and field studies on
stomach contents, digestion rates of fish and their diet. In the North Sea two major stomach sampling projects were
carried out in 1981 and 1991 collecting about 100 000 stomachs of the major fish predators. On the basis of the
1981 data, such a model has been established and tested. Data from 1991 should be the 'final' test of the model, and
if no surprises occur, the model is then ready for use in routine assessment. These models cannot predict recruitment
which is estimated outside the model, hence they cannot provide information on the recruitment to be expected from
a given strategy to each species.
The two most important findings by the model are that predation mortalities on young fish are very high,
often over 65 % per year and that the current fishing pressure remains below that providing the maximum yield-per-
rccruit. The main practical conclusion of the model is that the total value per recruit (all species) in the North Sea
fishery may decrease if effort decreases on predatory species, since this will reduce the abundance of their prey. As
there is no stock-recruitment relationship built into the model it can only be expected to be reliable within stock sizes
which are above the 'minimum biological acceptance level' However, as noted in the main text, many stocks are
below this limit, which is a serious constraint on the model's applicability. The MSVPA model for the North Sea
has confirmed that whiting is an important predator in this ecosystem and that the total value of North Sea catches
will benefit from an increased fishery on this species. This is therefore a tool which managers can use with
recruitment forecasts to 'tune' the output.
In the Baltic, about 80 000 cod stomachs have been sampled from 1977 to 1990 and the MSVPA model is
i
now used in the routine assessment of herring and sprat. The assessment of cod will also be done by the MSVPA
model in the near future. The fish component of the ecosystem in the Baltic is simple with cod as the only important
predator, and herring, sprat and small cod as the relevant prey, but the MSVPA model will have a significant impact
on the biological reference points used and on the management strategies followed. Due to the decline of the Baltic
cod stock a lot of research is at present focused on developing stocking programmes for cod. The MSVPA gives
valuable information about the likely loss of released juvenile cod due to cannibalism. The average cod stock from
1977 to 1990 eats each year about 5 OOOt of young cod less than 20 cm in length. One has to count on producing an
additional 50 OOOt per year just to be eaten by other cod if the aim is to bring back the previous size of the cod stock
by stocking.
-26-
WESTERN CENTRAL ATLANTIC (Area 31) (Table 7)
This area includes the Caribbean region, the Gulf of Mexico, the north eastern coast of
South America and the south Atlantic coast of the USA. The Caribbean basin coastal oceanography
is dominated by the effects of three of the largest river systems in the world; Mississippi, Orinoco
and Amazon. The runoff of these rivers is related to mesoscale climate changes and has been
linked to El Nifio events in the equatorial Pacific. Inter-annual variability in this area is also
influenced by the frequency and intensity of hurricanes, both of which are also related to the
equatorial Pacific climate. The influence of hurricanes on fisheries productivity is confined to
localized areas, and largely depends on the intensity and timing of the storm. The influence of
river runoff patterns however, extends over large areas of the coast and shelf, and is probably the
major source of variability in fisheries productivity in the area, other than fishing pressure (e.g.,
on Gulf of Mexico shrimp and menhaden, Guyana-Brazil shrimp). It is also well known that
coastal habitat degradation, due to the pressures of coastal development and tourism, is one of the
major reasons for decreases in reef fishery productivity in this area.
Reported landings in the area have decreased from a high of 2.6 million t in 1984 to 1.7
million t in 1990 (FAO, 1993a). Most of this reduction can be attributed to declines in the catches
of three US fisheries: the Gulf menhaden, the American oyster and the calico scallop. These three
fisheries constituted 60% of landings from Area 31 in 1984, but only 40% of landings in 1990.
Landings from the other remaining fisheries of the region have remained stable over the last decade
at around a million tonnes.
The main fisheries within Area 31 are for small pelagics (menhadens, flyingfish, mackerels),
large pelagics (tunas, billfishes and sharks), reef fish (snappers and groupers), coastal demersal fish
(drums, weakfish, croaker), crustaceans (shrimps, lobsters and crabs) and molluscs (oyster, scallops
and conch) (FAO, 1993a). There are some under-utilized resources like cephalopods (squid and
octopus), small pelagics, deep water shrimps and deep water snappers which may lead to increases
in landings, but it is unlikely, excepting cephalopods, that these increases will be significant in the
near future.
Except for some US, Mexican and Cuban fisheries, there are few resources in the region
administered through a management plan with a regular mandate for stock assessments. As a
consequence, knowledge on the status of fishery stocks is limited. However, experts in the region
agree that a number of the resources are fished at their maximum sustainable level and many are
overfished.
There may be hope for increased landings of small pelagics in certain areas, but the total
landings will always be dominated by the US menhaden catch. Because the Gulf menhaden is fully
exploited and the Atlantic menhaden is over-exploited, only a limited increase in landings can be
expected from the latter as stock sizes recover through quota management (NMFS, 1992b).
The stocks of coastal migratory pelagics (mainly mackerels) are probably heavily exploited
in most areas and overexploited in a few. The migratory behaviour of these fish and the fact that
they support artisanal, industrial and recreational fisheries makes their assessment and management
a very difficult task (Haughton, 1987). These fisheries are highly seasonal and the potential for
-27-
conflict between user groups is high as evidenced by the management problems faced by these
fisheries in the USA. Problems with resource sharing within the USA between commercial and
recreational fisheries, and with other Caribbean States internationally also have their parallel in
Central American waters and the Antilles where island nations share the same resource. However,
for the Lesser Antilles, joint management of shared resources by island countries is fostered by a
common management approach. For Trinidad and Tobago, consultation on resource sharing is now
occurring with Barbados for the flying fish resource and with Venezuela for shrimp.
Distant-water fisheries for large pelagics have expanded within the region in recent years;
those for tunas by Venezuela, and swordfish by US vessels, being especially notable. Since many
of these species migrate over considerable distances their utilization and rational management will
also require close collaboration between the countries of the region.
In general, our knowledge of the status of reef fish stocks is very poor even in places such
as the USA (FAO, 1989a; Joseph 1984). The major problem is that statistics are unreliable because
the fishery harvests a large number of species and uses a type of gear (handlines, traps, gillnets)
for which estimation of fishing effort is a difficult task. Deep water resources in the region may
be underexploited but their estimated potential yield seems small. Reef resources within the
continental shelves of the Caribbean islands and some areas of the mainland are probably extremely
overexploited (Joseph, 1984; Friedlander and Beets, 1988) and there is widespread concern on the
high level of artisanal effort and the use of unselective gear such as fish traps (FAO, 1989a). Few
reef fish can be considered underexploited. Evidence of this is the fact that catches of
snapper/grouper species have remained at roughly the same level over the past decade in spite of
the expansion of the fishery to offshore grounds and increased landings of low valued species. The
snapper-grouper fishery off Venezuela has shown increased landings from 1989 to 1990 which is
primarily due to changes in the port of landing and on increased reporting of the catch. A serious
problem with overexploitation of groupers, here and elsewhere in the tropics, relates to their
extreme vulnerability to fishing on spawning aggregations. A similar expansion in the snapper
fishery has also occurred in Suriname. Many other groups of reef fish (e.g., parrotfishes and
grunts) show signs of overfishing in several countries of the area.
Landing figures for coastal demersals do not include the catch by sports fishermen, or the
quantities discarded at sea by commercial shrimp trawlers which can be very significant. Along
the US Gulf and South Atlantic coasts, the catches of preferred species by sports fishermen
generally exceed the commercial catches. In fact, the growing economic importance of sports
fishing has seen progressive restrictions being introduced in some areas on the commercial fishery.
Concern has increased in recent years over the effect that the intense trawl fishery for shrimp in
the northern Gulf of Mexico has had on species taken incidentally in the catch, notably, marine
turtles and, primarily in the USA, the juvenile stages of fish of interest to the important sport
fisheries. Although the long term potential yield of most US stocks of coastal demersals is
unknown, all their stocks are probably overexploited. Increased landings have been registered for
sharks and rays, but groundfish stocks on the outer shelf and slope have remained relatively
untouched throughout Area 31.
Most shrimp resources of the region seem to be fully exploited, and the industries
overcapitalized, due to the open entry policy of most countries. The conflicts that the shrimp
-28-
industry has with the US Government over by-catch issues seem to be leading to an increasingly
unpredictable future for this fishery. Turtle excluder devices have been legislated for use in some
areas and interest is centred on more selective ways of harvesting shrimp. Considerable attention
has recently been focused (e.g., Mexico, USA, Venezuela, Guyana) on improving management of
these key resources using economic as well as biological criteria (WECAF, 1989). Cooperation
in management of common shrimp resources takes place between the USA and Mexico in the Gulf
of Mexico and the first steps in this direction have been made in the Guyana-Brazil region.
Discards by shrimp trawlers continue to be significant for different shrimp fisheries in the area.
These reduce the possibilities for further expansion of bottom fish catches. Given that valuable
shrimp fisheries continue to receive priority, a more effective use of by-catch is an obvious way
of increasing yields.
The US spiny lobster fishery has maintained stable landings over the last decade but again
at the expense of increased overcapitalisation of the fleet (the same landings could be achieved with
roughly half the present number of traps) (NMFS, 1992b). Legislation has recently been passed
to reduce the number of traps in the Florida fishery by establishing trap transferable licences. The
Florida stock seems to be very heavily exploited and few recruits survive each designated fishing
season because increased fishing effort over the last decade has progressively shortened the
effective fishing season (see Box: "Caribbean spiny lobster: a fishery for annual recruits"). With
the exception of the Bahamas, most other lobster stocks in the region are heavily exploited and
recent expansions of the fishery to offshore banks (as for Pedro Bank in Jamaica) do not seem to
warrant new increases in effort and these grounds seem to be fully exploited now, although some
stock components in deep water may be still underexploited. In several countries (Cuba, Puerto
Rico, USA) there is evidence that stocks suffer growth overfishing and that landings might increase
if larger minimum legal sizes were imposed (Burnett-Herkes el aL 1986). Declining recruitment
in these stocks suggests that there is localized recruitment overfishing. Several countries (Mexico,
Cuba) are successfully using artificial habitats (casitas) for harvesting and to enhance survival of
juvenile lobsters. Cuba has restricted fleet size and effort, leading to significant catch increases.
The American oyster fishery in Area 31 has shown a significant decline in landings over the
last eight years due to disease and is still not showing signs of recovery (NMFS, 1992b). Landings
from the US calico scallop fishery have historically responded to the wide fluctuations in abundance
experienced by the populations of this bivalve. Past peaks in landings should not be taken as the
norm, but rather as events which repeat themselves at intervals of several years.
Conch is fished throughout the area and because of its vulnerability and slow growth is very
prone to overfishing (Appeldoorn, 1992; Berg and Olsen, 1989). Intensive fishing in most areas
has depleted conch population to the point of forcing permanent (USA, Mexico, Bermuda- Berg
Si aL 1992a;b) or temporary (Cuba) closure of the fishing grounds to commercial fishing.
Reseeding programmes to rebuild conch stocks have been tried in many countries but few of such
initiatives survive today (Mexico, Netherlands Antilles). Concern has been expressed regarding
the possibility of a reduction of genetic diversity due to conch reseeding programmes (Berg fit aL,
1986; Campton el aL, 1992). Recruitment to the different adult populations is highly variable with
some areas receiving a fairly stable supply (Cuba, Bahamas, Belize, Turks and Caicos) and other
areas characterized by highly variable recruitment (Bermuda, Mexico). Most countries that harvest
conch today rely on a steady supply of recruits. Stocks in Cuba seemed to recover quickly after
-29-
a temporary closure of the fishery and stocks in the USA are steadily increasing after many years
of fishing closure. In Bermuda, however, in spite of more than ten years of protection, stocks have
not recovered from overfishing. Countries like Mexico and the Netherlands Antilles maintain
reseeding programmes as their only hope to rebuild their stocks.
Octopus fisheries now occur in a limited number of locations, most notably on Campeche
Bank (Mexico), in Cuba and in Venezuela; this, despite a much wider distribution and growing
market which could lead to a significantly expanded fishery. The potential for squid fisheries in
the eastern Caribbean is almost undeveloped and deserves investigation, for both human
consumption and as a bait for large pelagic and sport fisheries.
Ciguatera poisoning continues to slow down development of demersal fisheries in the
northern Lesser Antilles, Outbreaks of the disease are fairly localized but higher demand is
increasing the pressure to exploit ciguatera-prone areas and therefore increases the chance of
landing ciguatoxic fish (Vernoux, 1988).
Some countries of the region have moved to full-scale shrimp aquaculture using wild fry.
This has led to concern with the destruction of shrimp nursery habitat (mangroves and coastal
marshes) as a result of pond construction. There is also a problem in some areas with the effects
of runoff of agricultural chemicals on to shrimp nursery areas.
This area offers great contrast in terms of management of fish stocks, from some of the
highly managed US fisheries to the completely unmanaged fisheries of countries like Haiti. This
partially reflects the difference between industrial and artisanal fisheries but also shows dissimilar
approaches to management of fish resources by individual countries. The only limited entry fishery
within the region is the shrimp fishery off northern Brazil but other forms of control such as closed
seasons and gear restrictions are used by several countries (Dias-Neto, 1991 ; Valentini el aL 1991).
Most US fisheries are managed through output controls by imposition of catch quotas and/or bag
limits, however there are instances (e.g., Florida lobster) where a form of input control (limits and
progressive reduction of the total number of traps) has recently been agreed to by the fishing
industry. Size limits are also used throughout the region and may reflect biological, economic and
marketing considerations.
The very low yields recently obtained from reef fisheries due to overexploitation, has lead
to policies focusing on development of new pelagic resources at the expense of improvements in
the management of reef demersals. There is certainly a lot to be gained by attempting to maximize
the overall bio-economic yield of all reef species. But this strategy would certainly lead to
overexploitation of some stocks and underexploitation of others, and measures should be put in
place to prevent population collapses of individual species. Careful consideration needs to be given
to the interdependency between the artisanal reef fishery and the seasonal fishery for coastal
pelagics. Agreements have to be reached on separate access rights for these two fisheries, if the
coastal reef resources are to recover.
- 3U-
BOX: Caribbean spiny lobster: a fishery for annual recruits
Spiny lobsters are distributed over the entire Caribbean and as far south as Northern Brazil;
however no major fishery occurs within the Gulf of Mexico. Juveniles and adults do not move much
beyond their settlement area but larvae have the potential to mix throughout the whole Caribbean basin.
Stocks are close to full exploitation and the annual crop of recruits is depleted each season. For any given
stock high catch rates are evident at the beginning of each fishing season followed by a decline in catch
per unit of effort through the season (Figure a).
Lobsters over the minimum legal size are only common in the landings at the opening of the
season and thereafter landings become dominated by recruits (Figure b). Given this situation it is critical
to ensure that the minimum legal sizes allow for sufficient escapement to spawning by adults every year
to replenish the annual crop of recruits (see, eg, Buraett-Herkes ej al.. 1986). Annual yield in the fishery
seems largely independent of fishing effort once the annual recruits have been harvested (Figure c). This
effort pattern has lead to considerable overcapitalization of fishing fleets (e.g., Aiken and Haughton,
1987). Only recently Florida fishermen have agreed to a scheme to reduce the number of traps in the
fishery to increase economic viability. The main goals of management should be to reduce excess fishing
effort, enhance survival of prerecruits and ensure sufficient spawning. Although the first two goals may
be achieved through local management the third may require Caribbean-wide cooperation (Snead, 1987).
Season's
opening
2
Year
I
o
Rshing effort
c
Box Figures: Showing the rapid fishing down of larger lobsters during the season both in (a) catch
rate (CPUE), (b) sizes, and (c) how overall landings do not go up significantly with continued
increases in fishing
-31-
M any of the resources of the region are shared by several countries and there is growing
recognition of the need for cooperation in fisheries management. Countries with isolated island
shelves could contemplate independent management based on socio-economic considerations.
Larval dispersal and adult migration characteristics of some stocks may still mean that biologically
oriented management will have to be coordinated at the regional level.
Investigations on the marine resources of the area fall within the terms of reference of the
Western Central Atlantic Fisheries Commission (WECAFC), except for tunas, which are covered
by the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICC AT). The WECAF
Commission and its two working parties (on Marine Resources and Economics and Planning) meet
in alternate years, as does its Committee for the Development and Management of Fisheries in the
Lesser Antilles.
EASTERN CENTRAL ATLANTIC (Area 34) (Table 8)
Catches in this region rose to 3.8 million t in 1977, fell to 2.9-3.0 million t in 1985-86, and
recovered to 3.7-4.0 million t in 1989-90. The magnitude of changes in landings illustrates the
large fluctuations of the small pelagic resources such as horse mackerel and sardine which are
usually influenced by changes in climatic and fishing pressure, characteristic of this region.
Catches were recorded by 21 coastal countries and more than 18 non-coastal countries,
giving a markedly international character to many of the region's fisheries and the share of landings
by non- African long-range fleets remains high. It has decreased from 67% of the catch during the
period 1970-74 to 43% in 1975-79, and was 58% in 1980-84. This share remained at 58% in 1989
and 1990, partly reflecting policy decision by coastal states, but also the current difficulty of some
African countries in fully exploiting the resources themselves, especially given the large fluctuations
of pelagic offshore resources which are of principal interest to foreign fleets.
Changes in the economies of Eastern Europe may soon result in a reduction of catches in
Area 34 as their distant water fleets begin to operate under market forces. For example, the former
USSR caught 40% of the catch, primarily small pelagics, off West Africa in 1990. This represents
an opportunity for coastal States to benefit by replacing the foreign operations. However, care
should be taken as the investment risks and costs are high and the prices of small pelagics are low.
Northern Sector
In the northern sector from Cap Spartel (Gibraltar Strait) to the north of Cape Timiris
(Mauritania), the demersal stocks are almost fully exploited or overexploited, both economically
and biologically. These include cephalopods, hakes and sparids; the one possible exception being
the stocks of black (Senegalese) hake found to the south of Cape Juby. Fishing effort should be
significantly reduced for cephalopods and for European hake, which also needs adequate protection
as small fish. Recent management measures taken in Morocco (closed seasons) have proved to be
beneficial (FAO, 1992c;d).
-32-
The coastal stocks of seabreams are heavily exploited to the north of Cape Juby and
markedly overexploited to the south of Cape Bojador. The recovery of the stock is threatened by
the rapid expansion of the cephalopod fishery, which produces a high incidental fishing mortality
on juvenile seabreams (FAO, 1992d). The large stock of Moroccan sardine seems to have returned
to historical levels with improved accessibility by coastal fleets off northern Morocco.
In the Mauritania-Senegal sector the fishery has undergone major development in the last
ten years, due to increases in fishing by foreign fleets and development of national fishing capacity.
Catches have not increased, and all the stocks traditionally exploited are considered at least fully
fished. The levels of abundance of demersal stocks have been seriously reduced since the early
seventies and the future of the resources is a matter of concern. Pink spiny lobster stocks, which
were slowly recovering after several years of serious overfishing, are again subject to highly
intensive fishing with pots and gillnets. Green lobsters were probably underexploited in the north,
but fishing is intensifying on southern stocks. An unexploited clam stock with a potential of about
300 OOOt has been discovered off the coast of Mauritania (FAO, 1992d).
Shrimp stocks of Senegal are fully exploited and the overall potential seems to have
increased significantly compared to earlier studies. This, and the fact that octopus abundance has
also increased while that for traditional species has decreased, may be an indication that the
ecosystem is under severe fishing pressure.
The large stocks of sardine, mackerel and horse mackerels of this region are highly variable,
and their assessment difficult. They are periodically subjected to high variations in abundance due
to climatic changes, to large variations in fishing effort, or both. Because foreign fleets tend to shift
from one species to another, trends in catch rates are difficult to interpret. The stock of mackerel
seems to be fully fished, while the stock of sardine north of Cape Blanc has apparently experienced
a period of increased abundance leading to unusually large catches, especially by foreign fleets.
Recent acoustic surveys in northwest Africa show that the school density of sardinellas is very high
particularly off Mauritania, with biomass estimates of around 4 million t. The state of the deep
sea resources on the slope is unknown. Fishing is intensive on shrimps, hakes and seabreams, either
directly or through "incidental" mortality resulting from by-catch in the horse mackerel fishery.
Research effort is insufficient and recent attempts to assess the resources were unsuccessful (FAO,
1992d).
Southern Sector
Recent trawl surveys in Guinea have shown that coastal resources inside 20 m depth
(roughly at 15 nautical miles, offshore) offer a potential of 45 OOOt for the development of the
artisanaJ fishery, of which 15 OOOt could be exploited by small sized trawlers. The traditional
offshore stocks have been very heavily fished by foreign fleets for years. The potential of demersal
resources is estimated to be around 84 OOOt of which 32 OOOt are of high commercial value and 52
OOOt are of medium value. The pelagic stocks represent more than 50% of the marine resources
of Guinea but their potential is unknown. At present, the pressure from foreign vessels is low.
Recent estimates showed that pelagic and demersal resources have a potential of some 65 000 t.
Increased fishing intensity of bottom trawlers and small-scale artisanaJ fisheries has led to major
-33-
problems for the traditional artisanal fishery. In zones shallower than 20 metres the biomass has
decreased and the catch rate of sciaenids has increased significantly (FAO, 1992g).
In the Sherbro area (Sierra Leone and Liberia) the state of the stocks is not well known.
They have been heavily fished by foreign fleets in recent years, but biological data and statistics
are still inadequate for a detailed scientific analysis (FAO, 1992d;e). From data collected by an
acoustic survey in the Sherbro area, it appears that the large stock of triggerfish, Balistes
carolinensis. which developed in the seventies (Caveriviere, 1991) has practically disappeared,
possibly because of fishing pressure, but more likely due to a reversal of the earlier change in
climatic conditions. This change also occurred along the western coast of the Gulf of Guinea where
landings of the globefish (LagprepMys laevigatus) and of the high value cuttlefish (Sepia
officinalis) increased significantly.
Throughout the sector, the most common commercial fish species in depths of less than 50
m seem to be fished at high levels of exploitation. Demersal stocks, further offshore in 50 to 200
m, are still not fully exploited. However, it is unlikely that their exploitation rate will increase
because the fishery is not economically attractive due to the lower density of fish and catch rates,
and higher fishing costs. The pink shrimp (Penaeus notialis) present in small concentrations from
Senegal to the Congo, seems to be heavily exploited. Competition exists between artisanal inshore
and industrial offshore fisheries. As catch rates increase, shrimpers are keeping larger amounts of
fish by-catch for marketing, and better use is being made of fish which used to be discarded.
The important and unstable stocks of small pelagics of the C6te d'lvoire-Ghana-Togo-Benin
area, which collapsed in the past due to both high fishing pressure and unfavourable climatic
conditions (Binet ej aL, 1991; Cury and Roy, 1991), have returned to record and steady high levels
since the beginning of the mid-1980s with landings of Sardinella aurita of 80 000 to 106 OOOt/year
(Freon, 1991). The stock of sardinellas seems to be in good shape. However, low catches of
Sardinella maderensis which ranged from 20 000 to 48 000 t/year during the same period, are
of concern. Very little is known about the stocks of anchovy and mackerel. The catches of the
former species are extremely high while those of the latter appear highly variable (FAO, 1992f).
Little is known about pelagic and demersal resources in the whole southern Gulf of Guinea,
where many countries have not yet developed the appropriate data base and research structure.
Fishing effort on demersal stocks has been concentrated on the inshore zone and on juveniles. The
demersal stocks of the deep shelf and slope, especially on hard bottoms, still seem to be
underfished in most of the southern Gulf of Guinea. They may offer some potential for modern
artisanal fishing with gillnets or longlines.
-34-
BOX: Effects of upwelling on a West African fishery
A small pelagic fishery off the coast of West Africa provides a good example of the effects that
environmental conditions can have on the abundance of a fishery resource. Sardinella aurita. is mainly
exploited by the artisanal fishermen from Ghana and to a lesser extent from Togo and Cdte d'lvoire, and
by the semi-industrial fishery from Ghana and Cote d'lvoire. The success of this fishery depends not only
on the amount of fishing effort but also on environmental conditions in previous years in the area, i.e.,
the intensity of the seasonal upwelling.
The solid line in the Figure shows the highly variable catch rate (CPUE) in the fishery from
1966 to 1980. Conventional fishery models utilized to assess the potential of a fishery are based on stable
fish populations and do not account for environmentally-induced fluctuations such as was evident in this
fishery. The intensity of upwelling in the previous years was inserted in the model in order to make it
more realistic (Freon, 1991). The dotted line in the Figure is the projected catch rate which results from
adjustments made for different values in intensity of upwelling. The results show a highly unstable fishery
which collapsed in 1974 due to high fishing pressure and unfavourable upwelling conditions. However, it
recovered in 1978 and the catch rate (not shown) has stabilized since the mid-1980s. The modified model
is a useful approach for the efficient management of a fishery provided that the influence of climatic
variables is known and is restricted to the years preceding exploitation or where they can be adequately
predicted.
10-
5-
Observed
T"
66
T"
68
70
-i 1 r-
72 74
YEAR
76
78
80
Box Figure: Observed and predicted catch rates for small pelagics (sardinella) of West Africa,
predicted by a production model with climatic inputs
-35-
Research programmes in Cameroon have demonstrated that coastal resources are subject to
very high levels of fishing mortality, particularly in the estuary where small trawlers operate pan
of the year. Since the early 1980s, fish catches decreased while those for shrimp, Penaeus notialis.
increased slightly. There appears to be a need to increase mesh size and possibly reduce fishing
effort.
The assessment and elaboration of biological advice for management of the resources in this
region are undertaken in the framework of the Committee for the Eastern Central Atlantic Fisheries
(CECAF) by the national research laboratories, bilateral assistance programmes, and the FAO
regional projects dealing with fisheries management. Important initiatives have been taken at
sub-region level by the coastal countries to promote collaborative assessments on shared stocks
through working groups and it is the objective of CECAF to promote and support these initiatives
as far as possible. With a few exceptions, most stocks extend beyond the coastal countries EEZs
and are occasionally shared, as in the case of horse mackerel, by as many as seven countries. This
characteristic compounds the difficulties of stock assessment and the subsequent adoption and
implementation of the management measures necessary for a rational use of the resources.
In 1988 the CECAF Sub-Committee on Management (FAO, 1989b) went through a process
of overall review of all stocks in the area and the overall conclusions were: (a) most large stocks
are fully fished or overfished; (b) pelagic stocks are highly variable and difficult to evaluate: their
future management must be flexible and take this instability into account; and (c) the rate of
updating of the evaluations is not satisfactory. In fact, the frequency of the assessment working
group meetings has decreased considerably during the past few years, because of the termination
of the Regional FAO/CECAF Project, and due to insufficient development of research at the
national level in many countries. Despite this, the willingness to increase collaboration between
coastal countries in the northern CECAF area is very encouraging.
Some 43 stocks and groups of stocks of importance need to be evaluated regularly in the
whole CECAF area, many of which are shared by several of the 21 coastal States in the region.
The data available since 1980 show that the CECAF project and the countries together produce new
information (often still insufficient) on 20 stocks on average, i.e., 2.5% of the number of available
stocks. Because these updatings are largely concentrated on the northern CECAF area, the shortage
of information in the rest of the region is clearly evident.
During the last biennium, prospects for fisheries research in West Africa and new solutions
for strengthening national research capacities through regional cooperation have also been
considered. The main priorities in research items which could be developed at the regional level
concern resources assessment and monitoring, population dynamics, ecosystem dynamics, typology
of fisheries, bio-economic analysis and improved support of fisheries research. The CECAF Sub-
Committee on Management (FAO, 1992c) recommended the continued evaluation of the principal
pelagic and demersal stocks, the realization of bio-economic analysis of fisheries and the creation
of a Geographical Information System for oceans and fisheries.
-36-
MEDITERRANEAN AND BLACK SEA (Area 37) (Table 9)
Total landings in the Mediterranean and Black Sea combined varied from 1.9 to 2. 1 million
t from 1982 to 1988 but declined to 1.7 and 1.5 million t in 1989 and 1990. Most of this decline
is from landings in the Black Sea where the catch dropped from 833 OOOt in 1988 to 489 OOOt in
1989 and 428 OOOt in 1990. Preliminary figures for 1991 (GFCM, 1991) suggest an even steeper
decline in small pelagic catches from the Black Sea.
Mediterranean resources have a long history of biological investigation, but for many
countries, research specifically in support of fish stock assessment has only been carried out
relatively recently, and the application of research to management of marine fisheries is still low
(Caddy, in press). The pace of ecological change in the Mediterranean and Black Sea Basins
(Caddy, in press), has accelerated over the last decade, both due to early growth in fishing
intensity, and progressive anthropogenic effects such as nutrient runoff in this semi-enclosed sea,
and continues to do so at a rate that is of concern to Mediterranean countries, and this is
particularly evident with respect to fishery resources (Caddy and Griffiths, 1990; GFCM, 1993).
Advice and recommendations for the management of the resources are elaborated through
the General Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean (GFCM) and the Joint Commission on the
Fisheries of the Black Sea. Since 1980, some resource evaluations have been updated within the
framework of GFCM in a series of technical consultations held regularly in the Western and
Central Mediterranean area, the Adriatic Sea and the Eastern Mediterranean.
Although national management authority over demersal resources is limited to territorial seas
with extensions of from 6 to 30 nautical miles, problems of shared fisheries management have, until
recently, been relatively limited in the Mediterranean. Shared stock problems for the demersal
resources are, actually or potentially, for the Gulf of Lions and the Gulf of Gabes, the demersal
resources of the Adriatic Sea, and some (e.g. , the hake) resources of the Ionian/ Aegean Sea. These
problems are now being tackled at a sub-regional level through GFCM. The main shared stock
problems relate however, to the large pelagic fish resources, and to the small pelagic stocks of the
Aegean, Gulf of Lions, Adriatic and the Sea of Alboran.
Fishing by some vessels from northern Mediterranean ports along the southern
Mediterranean shelves historically has occurred, and is still frequently reported (Caddy, 1990a).
Countries along the southern shores of the Mediterranean in the 1970s and 1980s have already
been, or are still now, building their fleet and governmental fisheries infrastructure. Problems
involving shared stocks have been more serious in the Black Sea (Ivanov and Beverton, 1985),
where formerly the lack of a common framework for management contributed to a degree of
overexploitation of a number of resources.
In the western Mediterranean, stocks are fully exploited with the possible exception of
mackerel and horse-mackerel and, in some areas, sardines, while in the Adriatic and Gulf of Lions
there is evidence of overfishing of most of the highly valued demersal species such as hake, red
mullet and clams (vongole). In the central Mediterranean, the demersal resources generally are
also fully exploited to heavily overexploited, particularly off Italy where demersal stocks are very
heavily fished. Despite this, landings of demersal species for the whole continental shelf of the
-37-
Mediterranean increased for most species by some 3-8% per year between 1975-76 and 1985-86.
This included overall reported landings of Mullus spp. and hake both of which rose by 5-7% per
year. Similar rises were reported for prawns and shrimps, but landing trends forPagellus spp. and
cephalopods were more modest, at 3-5% per year. A few species, such as Maena spp. registered
small overall declines (Caddy, 1990a). In inshore Spanish waters, an increase in the proportion
of octopus in the catch has been suggested as a response to declining bottom-fish stocks.
It may be possible to explain some of this earlier increase as a result of the higher fishing
effort exerted, and/or improvements to the statistical data base. However, other factors such as an
increase in productivity of previously nutrient-limited demersal and pelagic food chains due to
increased nutrient runoff (UNEP/UNESCO/FAO, 1988), seem to be indicated as a strong candidate
(see Box: "Productivity estimates for the Mediterranean: evidence of acceleratig ecological
change"). These increases seem to progressively favour pelagic food webs as bottom anoxia
becomes permanent (Caddy, 1990b; 1993), but the food web is drastically modified and simplified
with further nutrient enrichment, as has happened in the Black Sea (see Box: "Fishery induced and
anthropogenic effects on the Black Sea ecosystem"), where dramatic declines in pelagic fish
production have been registered over the last two years.
History of management in Mediterranean fisheries
The overall effects of very high local fishing intensities have been long understood, and
declining catch rates and small sizes at first capture were soon evident after the second world war,
particularly in the northern Mediterranean (Caddy, in press). Fishing capacity for demersal
resources also increased for most of the southern and eastern Mediterranean as a result of fleet
construction in the 1970s and 1980s, and as a consequence of demersal fish prices which tend to
be higher than in most other parts of the world (Caddy, 1990a).
Past heavy fishing effort in Cyprus has reduced catches of formerly abundant species, and
led to a fishery dependent on smaller species. In response to this situation, typical of a number of
Mediterranean fisheries, a seasonal closure of the trawl fishery in order to protect the young fish
stocks was enacted in the 1970s. This measure roughly doubled the fish landings, and increased
profitability for artisanal and trawl fisheries (Garcia and Demetropoulos, 1986). It also led to
dramatic rises in fishing effort by both trawl and artisanal fleets, with the result that increased
profits for individual fishermen are still not being generated by the fishery (Hannesson, 1989).
Fisheries economists have recommended that in the event of increases in catches due to improved
management, dissipation of the resultant profits by investment in excess vessels should be avoided
by licence limitation of both artisanal and industrial fleets.
38-
BOX: Productivity estimates for the Mediterranean;
evidence of accelerating ecological change
Despite generally high exploitation rates, the overall Mediterranean landings for all species
continued to rise in the 1970s and 1980s (GFCM, 1991), This is not easily explained in terms of steady
state fisheries theory, given that landings might have been expected to decline as effort further increased
and stocks were depleted. An examination of man-induced environmental trends over the last few
decades, pointed to the likely importance of nutrient enrichment for increasing fishery productivity within
the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, seas where biological and fishery productivity were formerly
considered to be strongly limited by low nutrient levels. This hypothesis seems compatible with pollution
studies carried out under the Mediterranean Action Plan, and with remote sensing imagery available
fl from NSF/NASA, 1989).
It seems from GFCM statistics that increases in fishery production in the 1970s and early 1980s
were particularly evident for semi-enclosed basins such as the Black Sea and Adriatic, where nutrient-
enrichment from land and river runoff has been more pronounced, than for the generally nutrient-poor
regions of the eastern Mediterranean and around Sardinia. The effects of large inputs of nutrients, as for
the Aegean Sea (receiving nutrient-rich water from the Black Sea outflow), and the Gulf of Lions (from
the Rhone river), also appear to be reflected in recent landings trends; as well as where there is a more
diffuse discharge of nutrients from human activities, as from the Nile delta (since construction of the
Aswan Dam). The still largely oligotrophic nature of water masses in the southern Mediterranean as
shown in Figure a, appears reflected in the significantly lower productivities in terms of tons of fish
production per shelf area shown in Figure b.
-39-
NSF/NASA IMAGERY: MMTCtRANtAN AND BLACK SEA PRODUCTIVITY ESTIMATION
Figure a: Distribution of phytoplanbon concentrations in the Mediterranean and Black Seas,
based on 30 NSF/NASA (USA) images in May 198O.
TOTAL CATCH PER SHELF AREA WITHIN EACH STATISTICAL SUBRBGION
3T/IIII
Figure b: Total production of pelagic and demersal fishes (1989) expressed per shelf area
inside 20O m depth.
-41 -
BOX: Fishery induced and anthropogenic effects on the Black Sea ecosystem
A general deterioration of the marine environment of the Black Sea has occurred (Balkas et aL, 1990), and
apart from largely contemporaneous events in the Aral Sea, represents the first example of the collapse of fishery
productivity for a large inland sea. This situation has been particularly pronounced in the Sea of Azov, which has
been affected by strongly reduced inflows from northern rivers (VNIRO, 1979), diverted for industrial and
agricultural purposes, and on the northwest shelf of the Black Sea, where the effects of eutrophic runoff, particularly
from the Danube, first had a strong influence. Uncontrolled fishing, nutrient inputs from other rivers and the littoral
zone, and the introduction of exotic species, have combined with heavy fishing to change the ecosystem of this
enclosed water body (Caddy and Griffiths, 1990).
These anthropogenic effects were felt earliest on the demersal, benthic resources, on anadromous and
migratory fish species and marine mammals, but have extended through the ecological chain, including the
phytoplankton and zooplankton. The first two groups were most severely affected by widespread anoxia of bottom
waters on the northwestern and western shelves of the Black Sea, and in the Sea of Azov, as for wild stocks of turbot
and other bottom fish and shellfish, and sturgeons and river herring (Zaitsev, 1993). Problems of environmental
degradation, plus overfishing, are also relevant to the Sea of Marmara (Kocatas et al.. 1993), which prior to the
1980s, was an essential migratory route for many pelagic species such as bonito, blue fish and mackerel, moving
between the Mediterranean and Black Seas, but which are rarely encountered now in the Black Sea.
The first effects of nutrient enrichment and the decimation of stocks of fish predators, appear to have been
an increase in small pelagic biomass (Ivanov and Beverton, 1985). Biomasses and landings in the Black Sea rose in
the late 1970s: landings, particularly of anchovy, from a previous level of around 350-400 OOOt to just short of 1
million t (Box Figure). This was accompanied by a significant decline in species diversity, and increases in
phytoplankton production. Recent evidence suggests that a collapse in the anchovy stocks occurred in 1988-89, with
estimates of landings in 1991 of less than 150 OOOt.
The introduction of an exotic, non-commercial species of coelenterate into the Black Sea, the ctenophore
Mncmiopsis. which is a predator on fish eggs and larvae, may have acted in combination with heavy fishing and
environmental changes, and appears to have been a key factor in the collapse of Black Sea anchovy and other pelagic
fish (Zaitsev, 1993). This situation has preoccupied the international community, and a programme for rehabilitation
of the Black Sea environment and living resources is now underway.
Experience from the Black Sea suggests that under nutrient enrichment, heavy fishing of stocks of small
pelagics may make space for alternative invertebrate planktivores, such as medusae and ctenophores, which compete
with, and feed on fish eggs and larvae. The effects of nutrient enhancement (bottom up effects) and heavy fishing on
predators (top down effects), seem to be synergistic in changing the ecological balance towards short-lived
planktophagic species. If these types of mechanisms apply in heavily exploited marine ecosystems, overfishing could
reinforce the effects of eutrophication already mentioned above, and appear to provide warning signals to other
enclosed seas such as the Baltic, Caspian and Yellow Sea (Caddy, 1993).
The situation with respect to fisheries statistical reporting and joint management of the Black Sea fisheries
and environment is likely to radically change in future years, now that there are six coastal States which have signed
a joint Convention for protection of the Black Sea Environment. There is also the possibility of revival of the Black
Sea Fishery Commission, with participation of all coastal States.
-42-
FISHERIES CURRENTL Y FORMERL Y
YIELD AND SUSTAINABLE OPTIMAL
REVENUE i FLEET SIZE FLEET SIZE
\
CURRENT
FLEET
SIZE
MSY (late 80's) .
-1 million tons
MSY (to mid 80's)
350-WO,OOOtons
i
CURRENT EXCESS INVESTMENT
PREVIOUS EXCESS
INVESTMENT
FLEET SIZE
Box Figure: A biological scenario for stock increases and subsequent collapse of small pelagics
in the Black Sea, and its consequences for fishery investment
-43-
Relatively few countries have taken management action to control increases in fishing effort
despite the repeated recommendations of GFCM. Allowing for changes in fishing power, catch
rates of demersals in inshore fisheries are still generally low, and present levels of landing are
achieved by exerting a high fishing effort by generally over-capitalized fleets. The top priority is
still therefore to correct the serious overfishing that exists immediately offshore from most
Mediterranean littoral zones. It seems likely also, that effort control is a precondition to the
success of other management measures, such as increasing the size at first capture and, more
importantly, increasing the spawning biomass and spawning success. At the same time, urgent
measures need to be taken to protect inshore nursery areas from the adverse impacts of fishing and
pollution.
Italy has recently introduced the use of seasonal closures to protect their young fish stocks,
and this appears to have been effective in the Adriatic in increasing recruitment of red mullet.
Separate fishing areas in Israel are now allocated for different types of gear in order to reduce
conflict between trawlers and inshore fishermen.
The small mesh size used in trawling in many countries continues to be a problem, and the
need to enforce the 40 mm mesh size regulation has been supported by the Adriatic and Western
Mediterranean Consultations of GFCM, but not in the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean. Here,
other measures such as inshore closures and direct bans on landing small fish are in effect, which
are also applicable to gear other than trawls. From the perspective of mesh size regulation of cod
ends, three categories of demersal resources exist (Caddy, 1990c):
(a) Fish with large sizes at first maturity, many of which are also the apical predators of the
demersal system. These include the common hake (Merluccius merluccius). the Angler fish
(Lophius piscatorius). the small elasmobranchs (especially the Squalidae, Scyliorhinidae and
Rajidae), the larger Scorpaenidae, the ling (Molva spp.), Conger conger and the larger
flatfish (including Lepidorhombus spp. and the common sole, Solea solea). For these
species, the trawl cod-end stretched mesh sizes that would be needed to postpone capture
until the size at first spawning, would have to be of the order of 80-100+ mm.
(b) A group of species of considerable importance, such as many seabreams, the common
pandora, poor cod, the red mullets, Norway lobster and cuttlefish, would require a stretched
mesh size of at least 40 mm to achieve the same result as for group (a).
(c) Small species such as small shrimp and cephalopods, gobies, solenettes, and other "forage"
species, can be taken only with smaller mesh gear, but have considerable local importance.
For these, a cod-end mesh size of less than 40 mm is required if these species are to be
available for harvesting. This requirement apparently also applies for mixed catches of small
demersals and small pelagic fish.
The effect of a 40 mm or smaller mesh size without effort regulation, risks decimating
group (a) if spawning fish are fully available to fishing. On the other hand, a mesh size of 40 mm
or over would capture few of category (c), even if this mesh size is close to optimal for category
(b). Mesh size regulation appears to be no substitute for protection of sensitive nursery areas, e.g.,
eel grass beds, from the effects of trawling, and the general priority remains with control of
-44-
excessive fishing effort, pollution, and prevention of degradation of the coastal zone. A "passive"
approach to reducing destructive inshore fishing on inshore PoSidonia beds (important as nursery
areas for young fish) has been tried in some areas: the location of concrete blocks as obstacles to
inshore trawling.
Red coral is one of the more valuable Mediterranean resources, being used with similar
precious corals from Indo-Pacific waters, for production of jewellery. In the past, this species
occurred in commercially exploitable concentrations off Spain, Algeria and Sardinia, and at lower
densities elsewhere. Fishermen and industry have been greatly concerned with the declining returns
to an ever more sophisticated harvest sector (GFCM, 1989), which has exchanged primitive
dragging equipment for diving equipment capable of operating at a hundred metres depth. A
rotating harvest scheme was seen by the industry and scientists as one of the few realistic options
for a heavily exploited resource, which in absence of management is likely to be placed on the
CITES list of species for which export of the organism or its products is restricted or prohibited.
Molluscs support some of the more valuable fisheries, with the explosive development of
mussel culture acting as an indication of enrichment in the Gulf of Lions and Adriatic. Mechanized
clam ( H vongole H ) harvesting in the Adriatic was one of the single most valuable Mediterranean
fisheries, but suffered from overexploitation in the 1980s (see Froglia, 1989), and probably also
from the effects of pollution. Control of licences has recently been introduced.
Industrial scale development occurred somewhat later for the small pelagic resources and,
apart from anchovy fisheries, many of these resources are less heavily exploited; reflecting the
generally high differential in prices received in the region for demersal versus small pelagic
resources. Large fluctuations in stock size for the small pelagic stocks of the Mediterranean, are
documented in the fisheries of the Sea of Alboran and the Adriatic. Sardine stock size for several
areas has been shown to be influenced by primary production (e.g., Vucetic and Alegria-
Hernandez, 1988), itself responding to levels of nutrient runoff (e.g., in the Adriatic and off the
Nile delta (Wahby and Bishara, 1981)) which have been generally increasing in coastal waters
(Pucher-PetkovicgtaL, 1988; Degobbis, 1989; Friligos, 1989). Uncontrolled enrichment processes
and larval predation, in combination with heavy fishing, have however had serious negative impacts
on small pelagic resources in the Black Sea (see Box "Fishery induced and anthropogenic effects
on the Black Sea Ecosystem 11 ).
The sardine stock appears to be rather underexploited in the northwestern Mediterranean,
judging from hydro-acoustic surveys, although growing use of high opening trawls in some
countries has increased utilization of small pelagics, while this gear still maintains pressure on
demersal stocks. The sardine stock in Morocco appears to be fully exploited, and has declined
recently relative to the anchovy stock. Small pelagic stocks in Algeria appear to be underfished,
especially for anchovy, and Mediterranean stocks of horse-mackerel, in general, appear under-
exploited. Landings of small pelagics have been variable, but an overall increase of roughly 4%
per year was recorded for all small pelagics combined, over the decade preceding 1985-86 (Caddy,
1990a).
Management measures to control fishing have been relatively limited for small pelagic fish,
apart from restrictions on pelagic trawling in some countries. Few stock assessment
-45-
recommendations have been made, except for the Gulf of Lions stock of sardines. The problem
for most small pelagics, except for anchovy, seems related more to difficulties in achieving
effective utilization and marketing rather than overfishing. In fact, there is evidence that some
pelagic resources may have increased in recent years (e.g., Marasovic et aL, 1988).
Increased interest in large pelagic resources in the Mediterranean has led to heavy pressure
on the bluefin tuna and swordfish resources, using fishing techniques such as large-scale surface
drift nets. This is of special concern in the vicinity of straits and along migration routes. Many
local swordfish fisheries in the Mediterranean appear to now be operating on very young, small fish
(GFCM, 1990).
Bonito, Sarda sarda. and swordfish, Xiphias gladius. have shown landing increases
averaging over 8-10% per year from 1975 to 1985 - figures almost equalled by bluefin tuna. Local
increases in fishing effort, or new or expanded fisheries, such as those for swordfish in Greece,
Malta, and the Ionian Sea, appear to account for increased landings, but although local increases
in fishing effort are implied, there appears to be a real increase in recruitment of small swordfish
to these fisheries. This may be related to the increase in abundance of their prey, notably the small
pelagic fish referred to earlier. The need is apparent for some coordination of research and
statistics gathering, not only for swordfish but also for bluefin tuna. Bluefin tuna is considered by
ICCAT as in serious need of conservation measures, as are swordfish, bonito and dolphin fish.
These matters were discussed in a joint ICCAT-GFCM workshop in 1990, which will be repeated
later in 1992 (Ivanov and Beverton, 1985). Possible problems with other highly migratory species
may be indicated by the effective termination of mass migrations of bluefish, bonito and mackerel
into the Black Sea since the 1970s (Ivanov and Beverton, 1985).
The complex of problems faced in many Mediterranean countries with fishery management,
are most clearly focused on the coastal zone, where critical habitats for fisheries (nursery areas,
sites for aquaculture development), often encountered uncontrolled expansion in the use of the same
areas for other human activities, such as tourism, domestic waste disposal and runoff of chemicals
from industry and agriculture, and are subject to fishing pressure by artisanal fleets using a wide
range of gear types.
SOUTHWEST ATLANTIC (Area 41) (Table 10)
Total catches in this area increased almost continuously from one million t in the mid-1970s
to 2.4 million t in 1987, then decreased to 2.0 million t in 1990, to raise slightly to 2.2 million t
in 1991 . Most of the recent changes are due to the year to year changes in the catches of squids,
hakes, and other demersal stocks in the Patagonian Shelf and Slope area, and of the sardinella
catches off Brazil.
One of the most important fisheries in terms of total landings and value continues to be that
for hake. Two species of hake are reported in the commercial catches in this area: the common
hake (Merluccius hubbsi) which is the most abundant and found mainly in the northern Patagonian
Shelf off Argentina and the continental shelf off Uruguay and southern Brazil, and the Patagonian
hake (M. polylepisl which is found farther offshore in the southern Patagonian Shelf, around the
Falkland (Malvinas) Islands, and along the Patagonian Slope. The areas of distribution of the two
-46-
species tend to overlap, particularly offshore, where it is difficult to distinguish between these two
species in the commercial catches. However, it is certain that more than 95% of the hake catches
correspond to the common hake (Merluccius hubbsi). which is also the one that attracts most of the
research efforts and is best known in the area (Otero el aL, 1982; Otero and Verazay, 1984; Arena
61 aL, 1986; Bezzi el aL, 1986; Otero el aL, 1986; Key and Grunwaldt, 1986; Verazay and Otero,
1986; Angelescu and Prenski, 1987; Arena el aL, 1987; Ubal et aL, 1987; Otero and Verazay,
1988; Podestd, 1990; Bezzi el aL, 1993). After being stable at around 350 OOOt for several years
in the early 1980s, total hake catches dropped to 260 OOOt in 1984, to increase again with some
year to year fluctuations to a new record of 520 OOOt in 1991.
Hake is mostly exploited by Argentinean fleets that operate over the entire area of
distribution of the species, by a Uruguayan fleet operating in the Argentinean/Uruguayan Common
Fishing Zone, and to a lesser extent, by a small Brazilian fleet fishing in southern Brazil. Offshore
catches of hake by long-range foreign fishing fleets, mainly from Spain, Japan, Portugal and the
former USSR increased for several years, but are now greatly reduced. Long-range foreign fleets
were reporting less than 2% of the total catches of hake in this area until 1985, their share
increased to 16% in 1988, but it is now back to less than 4%. Most of the off-shore catches are
suspected to be Patagonian hake. Judging from the current exploitation levels and the assessments
made in the past (Otero el aL, 1982; FAO, 1983; Csirke, 1987; Bezzi el aL, 1993), it is most
likely that these two species of hake are fully exploited.
No major changes are noted in the catches of croakers and weakfishes. Most of these stocks
are moderately to fully exploited (Otero and Ibanez, 1986; Haimovici, 1988; Arena, 1990). The
stocks of weakfish in the Argentinean and Uruguayan Common Fishing Zone are now stable, after
having recovered from a collapse in the early 1980s. Some limited possibility for further expansion
of this fishery exists in northern Brazil.
Catches of sardinella (Sardinella brasiliensis). taken exclusively by Brazil, declined to
65 OOOt in 1988 and 32 OOOt in 1990, after being relatively stable at 100 OOOt for several years and
in 1991 the total catch increased to 64 OOOt . This stock is considered to be fully to heavily
exploited, and the drop in total landings may be a result of a combination of heavy fishing and
biomass fluctuations due to natural causes. During the last two years there has been a reported
increase in the abundance of anchoita (Engraulis anchoita) off central Brazil. This is the
northernmost area of distribution of this species as well as the main fishery grounds of sardinella
(Saccardo, 1983; Matsuura el aL, 1985; Matsuura, 1989; Bakun and Parrish, 1990; 1991).
Besides the sardinella, other clupeoids and other small pelagics are lightly fished in this
area. The stock of anchoita (Engraulis anchoita) off southern Brazil, Uruguay and northern
Argentina is virtually unexploited, with an estimated potential of a few hundred thousand t per year.
Total catches of this species seldom exceed 20 OOOt, mostly reported by Argentina. Although it
shows some wide year to year fluctuations in its overall abundance, all the assessments made in the
past (Ciechomski and Sanchez, 1988) clearly indicate that the anchoita has high abundance levels
and is a key element in the marine food chain in the area. This stock can easily sustain increased
levels of exploitation, but so far, further development of this fishery has been limited by
technological and economic factors, and the difficulties to overcome various problems associated
-47-
with type of distribution and behaviour of the species, and the quality and cost/value ratio of
possible products.
As reported in past assessments (Boschi, 1989), major changes continued to occur in the
stock of shrimp (Pleoticus muellerrt in the central part of the Patagonian Shelf. After increasing
from 2 600t in 1981 to 23 OOOt in 1984, catches dropped to 10 OOOt in 1985, 7 OOOt in 1986, and
2 500t in 1987. However, catches of this species increased to 17 800 t in 1988 to then decline
steadily to 8 200t in 1991. The wide fluctuations in the total catches of this species are almost
certainly associated with year to year changes in the overall abundance of the stock, affected by
heavy fishing and annual environmental changes.
After a continuous increase from 31 OOOt in 1980 to 350 OOOt in 1986, and a peak catch of
750 OOOt in 1989, catches of squids in this area declined to 552 OOOt in 1990 to peak up again to
674 OOOt in 1991. Most of these catches are short-fin squid (Illex spp.) and common squid (Loligo
spp.) caught by Argentina and by long-range fleets from Japan, Republic of Korea, the former
USSR, Poland and Spain on the southern Patagonian Shelf and Slope. Several studies have been
conducted on those stocks, particularly on short-fin squid in the Patagonian Shelf and Slope area
(Koronkiewicz, 1980; Brunetti, 1981; Otero el aL 1982; Hatanaka & aL, 1985; Hatanaka, 1986;
Koronkiewicz, 1986; Csirke, 1987; Hatanaka, 1988; Haimovici el aL, 1990), and after a period
of great uncertainty regarding the state of these stocks, and the fear of overexploitation, several
management measures were introduced to reduce the fishing effort in some of the main fishing
grounds. This helped to keep fishing effort under control, although fishing pressure continues to
be very high. The overall abundance of these stocks is reported to vary widely from year to year
due to natural causes, and close monitoring is needed for adequate protection. These stocks are
considered to be fully to heavily exploited in the Patagonian Shelf and Slope, and lightly exploited
elsewhere, particularly in the northern coastal areas.
The other important fisheries in the southern Patagonian Shelf and Slope are for southern
blue whiting (Micromesistius austral! s) (Zukowski and Liwoch, 1977; Inada and Nakamura, 1978;
Perrotta, 1982; Liwoch, 1986a;b; Csirke, 1987), mostly caught by the former USSR and Polish
fleets. After being virtually unexploited in the late 1970s, catches of this species increased rapidly
to a peak of 240 OOOt in 1983, to decrease and remain more or less stable at around 100 OOOt per
year from 1984 to 1988. Catches have increased in recent years to 130 OOOt in 1989 and to
190 OOOt in 1990, and decreased slightly to 150 OOOt in 1991. The stock is considered moderately
exploited, although it would be closer to the level of full exploitation if the recent rate of increase
is maintained. Other demersal fish stocks in the Patagonian Shelf include the grenadiers (Macrourus
spp.), tadpole mora f Sal i lota austral is), pink cusk eel (Genypterus blacodes). toothfish (Dissostichus
eleginoides). sharks, rays and notothenids. Total catches of these species increased steadily
from less than 20 OOOt in the early 1980s to 125 OOOt in 1988, but decreased to 77 OOOt and
70 OOOt in 1989 and 1990. Although there is little specific information, most of these stocks are
considered to be moderately exploited.
Several management measures have been in force in the area for some years. These include
restricted licensing of national vessels to control fishing effort on hake, and mesh size regulations
to reduce capture and discarding of juvenile hakes. Restrictions on pair trawling, and on in-shore
fishing operations have probably contributed to the recovery of some croaker and weakfish stocks.
-48-
Some measures have also been adopted to limit the access and control the operations of long-range
foreign fleets in the area.
Argentina and Uruguay continue to maintain close cooperation within the framework of the
Joint Technical Commission for the River Plate Maritime Front, particularly regarding the research
and management of fisheries in the Argentinean/Uruguayan Common Fishing Zone. In Brazil, ten
permanent working groups, responsible for providing advice on the management and development
of fisheries along the Brazilian coast, continued to update information and data on the assessment
of the fish stocks of Brazil, although they have been less active in recent years.
An issue of serious concern for the conservation and long-term management of the fish
stocks in this area was the rapid development of the offshore fishing in the southern Patagonian
Shelf and Slope by long-range fleets. Some important fish stocks are being exploited both within
the 200 nautical mile limit where national jurisdiction can be exerted, and in the area beyond where
no national jurisdiction is recognized. After the re-establishment of diplomatic relationships
between Argentina and the UK, the two countries are cooperating to improve the research,
monitoring and control of fishing in the region. Management measures have been adopted to restrict
access and regulate fishing effort in some fishing grounds, including voluntary restrictions in fishing
grounds located beyond the 200 mile limit.
SOUTHEAST ATLANTIC (Area 47) (Table 11)
The Southeast Atlantic area, particularly off southern Angola and Namibia, has an
exceptionally high biological productivity principally because of the upwelling of nutrients resulting
from the Benguela current which flows northward along the coast. The total fishery potential of the
Benguela current system is not well known.
Relatively few species account for the greater part of the total fish biomass: hake
(Merluccius) are present both inshore and offshore, horse mackerel (Trachurus) and, to a lesser
extent, chub mackerel (Scomber) are the major offshore species. Pilchard (Sardinops) and anchovy
(Engraulis) are the most abundant inshore pelagic species of the coastal upwelling system. In
addition, there are less abundant but economically significant resources of snoek, kingklip, sole,
rock lobster, dentex and squids (Wysokinsky, 1986).
Total catches in this area have remained relatively stable at about 2.1 to 2.7 million t per
year between 1980 and 1989, only to decrease to 1.5 million t in 1990 (FAO, 1992J). Most of the
fluctuations in recent years are due to changes in the total catches of anchovy (Engraulis capensis)
and to a lesser extent, cape horse mackerel (Trachurus capensisV These two species together with
the hakes (Merluccius capensis. M- paradoxus. and M- Bfilli), sardinellas (Sardinella aurita and
maderensis). pilchard (Sardinops ocellata^l and Cunene horse mackerel (Trachurus trecae) made up
58% of the total catches in 1989.
A large share of the catches (43%) was formerly taken by distant water fleets operating
mainly off Namibia and Angola (ICSEAF Fishing Divisions 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5). This situation
arose because there was no coastal State control over fishing off Namibia while Namibia's
-49-
independence was pending, and therefore this area became one of the few free fishing grounds left
in the world after the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) went into
effect. In the same area, Angola which became independent in 1975, is now emphasizing the
development of its small-scale coastal fishery; previously there had been intense offshore fishing
effort by foreign vessels operating in its 200 mile zone.
Upon independence in 1990, Namibia requested all foreign fleets to cease their fishing
activities off the Namibian coast, pending the approval of a national fishing law, the declaration
of a 200 mile exclusive economic zone, and the definition of a national policy regarding fisheries
in the newly independent coastal State. Several options are currently being considered, and further
studies on the state and potential yields of fish stocks are now being undertaken to help in the
decision-making process regarding the future exploitation of Namibian fishery resources. Fishing
by large distant-water fleets in the 200 mile zone off Namibia ceased, at least temporarily, in the
third quarter of 1990. This caused a reduction in total catches in ICSEAF Divisions 1.3 to 1.5 in
1990, and hopefully will contribute to the recovery of some of the fish stocks that have been
severely reduced due to heavy fishing in the past.
Hakes are the main and most abundant demersal stocks in this area. There are two species,
Merluccius capensis and Merluccius paradoxus. which are not reported separately in the fishery
statistics (FAO, 1992J). The stock off northern Namibia (ICSEAF areas 1.3-1.4) differs from that
of the southern part (ICSEAF area 1.5) and is the most important of the two. The northern stock
is shared with Angola while the southern stock is shared with South Africa. These stocks are
exploited by foreign long-range fleets in the north (ICSEAF areas 1.3 to 1.5) and by coastal South
African fleets south. After removal of more than 800 OOOt per year in the early 1970s, catches of
hake decreased to about 445 OOOt in 1989. All the stocks have been overexploited, although the
most southern stock seems to show some sign of recovery.
Of the several pelagic stocks of commercial importance in this area, the most abundant are
the cape horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus capensis) and the anchovy (Engraulis capensis). The
cape horse mackerel yielded a catch of almost 500 OOOt in 1989, and is considered to be moderately
to fully exploited, although this stock is known to be highly variable and is mostly fished by foreign
long-range fleets. The anchovy stock is exploited almost entirely by coastal South African fleets,
and yielded almost 452 OOOt in 1989. These stocks are considered to be fully exploited.
Another important pelagic stock in this area is the sardinella, which is currently exploited
by the former USSR and Angola. The catch of this species was of 106 OOOt in 1989, and the stock
is moderately exploited. The Cunene horse mackerel was intensively exploited by the former USSR
and Angolan fleets, with total reported catches of 159 OOOt in 1989. The chub mackerel stocks are
heavily exploited, and the pilchard (Sardinops ocellata) stock which collapsed off South Africa in
the 1960s and off Namibia in the mid-1970s continues to be depleted, showing no sign of recovery.
A high biomass of round herring (Etrumeus whiteheadi) exceeding 1 million t in ICSEAF Divisions
1.6 and Sub-area 2, was reported at the Standing Committee on Stock Assessment during the Tenth
ICSEAF Regular Session held in Palma de Mallorca, Spain, in November-December 1989
(ICSEAF, 1989). Total catches for this species are of the order of 60 OOOt per year, and the
perspectives for further development are promising.
-50-
Due to the lack of suitable stock assessment data, little can be said about the state of other
fish stocks being exploited in this area, such as soles, kingklip, fflonkfish, dentex, rock lobsters and
squids.
Until 1989 the exploitation of the stocks of this region was monitored through the activities
of the International Commission for the Southeast Atlantic Fisheries (ICSEAF) which was mainly
concerned with the international assessment, monitoring and management of fisheries in the then
unclaimed waters off Namibia. This regional organization decided to cease its operation early in
1990 following the declaration of independence by Namibia in April 1990. Namibia is now
managing fisheries within its exclusive economic zone as of July 1990.
WESTERN INDIAN OCEAN (Area 51) (Table 12)
Total recorded landings in the area were 3.4 million t in both 1989 and 1990, having
increased from 2.9 million t in 1988 and 2.7 million t in both 1986 and 1987. The major coastal
countries with their total catches in brackets in thousand tons, were: India (1 653), Pakistan (366),
Iran (209), Sri Lanka (134), Oman (120), UAE (95), Yemen (89), Maldives (78) and Madagascar
(75). Spain (107) and France (79) also reported major catches in the area.
Landings in India exceeded 1.6 million t in both 1989 and 1990. This is compared to
landings of 1 .2 million t in 1988 and 1 . 1 million t in 1987. These increases in Indian landings have
accounted for the major part of the increase for the total Western Indian Ocean area. Much of the
increase was for pelagic species, Indian oil sardine, Indian mackerel and anchovy. Mackerel
landings increased in 1989, more than doubling the level of recent years but declined in 1990. The
decline was offset by increased catches of oil sardine and anchovy. The demersal finfish catch in
India consists of a large number of different species, with croakers, Bombay duck and catfish being
the most important. Catches of croakers contributed substantially to the overall increased landings.
The total landings of shrimps have remained relatively stable, but a shift in species towards smaller,
less valuable species has been observed. The shrimp stocks appear to be heavily exploited.
Accompanying the large increases of Indian landings are the more gradual increase in
landings in other countries in the region. Pakistan's total landings have been slowly increasing in
recent years. Landings of shrimps have remained at around 28 OOOt from 1982 to 1988, declined
in 1989 but returned to the former level in 1990. The shrimp resources appear fully exploited or
overfished. Attempts have been made to encourage the fishery to move to underexploited resources
in deeper waters.
Omani landings increased from around 100 OOOt from 1983 to 1986 to 166 OOOt in 1988;
the main catches being pelagics (tunas, kingfishes and small pelagics) caught by gillnets. However,
landings decreased to 118 000 and 120 OOOt in 1989 and 1990 respectively. The Norwegian
research vessel DR FRIDTJOF NANSEN surveyed Omani waters (1983-84) and found these to be
very productive areas. This survey gave an estimate of biomass for small pelagics (scads,
mackerels and sardines) of 1.2 million t and a demersal biomass of 345 OOOt (seabreams, catfish,
croakers, grunters and emperors). The MSY has been estimated at 270 OOOt of pelagics and
77 OOOt of demersal fish.
-51-
Landings by Iran have steadily increased. The 1989 and 1990 landings of 210 OOOt and
200 OOOt respectively are more than double those of years prior to 1986. Shrimp landings have
doubled over a similar period to reach a level near 10 OOOt per year. Tuna and other large pelagics
yield more than 20 OOOt per year. Landings in the United Arab Emirates have also increased from
a level near 72 OOOt through the first half of the 1980s to 95 OOOt in 1990.
Shri Lanka's marine landings have dropped from 180 OOOt in the early 1980s to 140 OOOt
in 1985-86, recovered to 166 OOOt in 1989, but fell back to 134 OOOt in 1990. Tuna and small
pelagic species (sardines) caught by gillnets are the largest components of their catches, and there
has been an offshore expansion in recent years, especially in shark fisheries. To some extent the
restriction in coastal fisheries has been due to civil disturbances in the country. Pelagics (tunas,
kingfishes, scads, sardines) form the main catch. A second important group is the demersal fishes
(emperors, groupers, snappers). The recorded landings by Yemen reached 89 OOOt in 1990, up
from 73 OOOt over the previous several years. Pelagics comprise the major part of the catch.
Landings by the Maldives, primarily of tuna and tuna-like species caught by the traditional pole and
line fishery, rose to 78 OOOt in 1990. Considerable resources of reef fish (groupers, snappers, etc.)
are virtually unexploited.
Countering the general rising trend in the region are the landings in the countries most
directly affected by the Gulf War. Shrimp landings by Kuwait dropped from 5 OOOt in 1988 to less
than 2 OOOt in 1990. Total marine fish landings have dropped by a similar amount (See Box:
"Recent fisheries and environmental findings from the Gulf*). Saudi Arabian shrimp landings
declined from 7 OOOt in 1984 to less than 5 OOOt in 1990, and total fish landings of 45 OOOt in 1990
are also down from the level of the previous several years. Marine fish landings by Iraq also
declined from previous years. The magnitudes involved in these reductions are not large enough
to have changed the rising trend of landings for the northern zone of the Western Indian Ocean as
a whole.
Total landings in countries bordering the Southwestern Indian Ocean, including Somalia but
excluding landings by foreign fleets, have gradually increased from 131 OOOt in 1981 to 290 OOOt
in 1990. Most of this is accounted for by a continuing large annual increase in landings reported
by Madagascar and the Maldives, from 51 OOOt in 1981 to 153 OOOt in 1990. The major shrimp
catching countries in the Southwestern Indian Ocean in 1990 were Madagascar (9 OOOt) and
Mozambique (6 OOOt). The state of exploitation of artisanal fisheries in the Southwestern Indian
Ocean is unknown, and the extent to which they interact with the industrial trawl fisheries is also
unknown.
The main opportunities for increased catches are in fishery development for small pelagic
stocks off Mozambique and Somalia, expansion of fishing for demersal trawl fish off Mozambique,
Madagascar and Tanzania, increased utilization of by-catch from shrimp trawlers and some further
expansion of artisanal fisheries off Madagascar and Somalia (Ardill and Saunders, 1991). The
potential for development of fisheries for small pelagics (anchovies, scads, Indian and Japanese
mackerel, and round herring) in the Southwestern Indian Ocean needs to be assessed to see whether
harvesting of these resources is economical.
-52-
BOX: Recent fisheries and environmental findings from the Gulf
Following the 1991 Gulf War, international concern as to the environmental effects of the war
led to a number of rehabilitation and research initiatives in the region. These included a major UN
interagency effort coordinated by UNEP, the establishment of a reserve and research station supported by
the EEC in the area of the oil spill in Saudi Arabia, and an extended research cruise by a vessel of the
US National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. All of these activities were supported by
the countries in the region and complemented by national research and rehabilitation initiatives. These
actions largely cleaned up the major oil spill and provided valuable environmental information.
Fisheries in the Gulf appear to have been directly and indirectly affected by the war (Carpenter,
1992). During the first half of 1991, there was very little commercial fishing in the Gulf, because the
most valuable shrimping grounds are in the northern part of the Gulf near the war zone and the area of
the oil slick (Box Figure). Small scale fisheries did however operate south of the war zone. The shrimp
catch in late 1991 and early 1992 was very low compared to previous years, presumably because of the
disruption of fishing operations, but an apparent stunting of growth of shrimp in the Gulf was noted. It is
not known if this stunting was due to reduced sea water temperatures caused by the smoke from burning
oil wells in Kuwait, water and sediment pollution from the war, or some other natural factor. Although
oil spills from the war affected the rich fishing grounds off Kuwait and northern Saudi Arabia, otherwise
there are reports of an overall reduction in oil pollution in the Gulf, probably due to decreased tanker
traffic.
Jj Shrimp fishing area
Oil slick
Box Figure: Distribution of major oil slicks during the Gulf war in relation to shrimp fishing areas
-53-
Several countries (Tanzania, Madagascar, Somalia) are expecting increased catches from
artisanal fisheries for demersals on the basis of differences between the estimated potential yield,
and the reported catch. However, because of the difficulty of collecting good landing information,
real catches may be much closer to the potential yield than present statistics suggest. The
strengthening of fishery data collection is very important in order to provide a sound data base for
development and management advice.
Several resources in the Southwestern Indian Ocean are fully exploited (Ardill and Saunders,
1991) and most coastal countries recognize that some form of management is required to prevent
overexploitation. This is the case of the demersal trawl fishery in Somalia, shallow water shrimp
fishery in Mozambique and Madagascar, and the handline fishery for demersal stocks on offshore
banks between Mauritius and Reunion. In general, there is a great need for stock assessment work
in the Southwestern Indian Ocean, which should be focused on several priority resources, such as
those for valuable crustaceans and fish, and for those stocks with developmental prospects. A need
also exists to focus research on assessment and management problems of artisanal fisheries, given
that substantial increases in yield can be expected if these fisheries are properly assessed and
managed. The area could benefit from more effective management of shrimp fisheries where in
some cases a 75% reduction in effort could maintain the harvest at the present level, and greatly
increase the profitability of the fishery.
Many countries rely on a system of licensing national and international vessels as their main
tool for controlling fishing effort of their industrial fisheries (FAO, 1986). In practice however,
it seems that this system is not sufficient to ensure that effort reductions take place when they are
needed. It is important that countries understand that there has to be a managerial and legal
mechanism which allows administrations to use the licensing system as a fishery management tool.
France, Spain, Taiwan (Province of China), Korea and Japan were the principal foreign
countries fishing for tuna and tuna-like species in the area. This fishery started in 1981 and
recorded a catch of 277 OOOt in 1990. The state of the stocks of oceanic tuna are covered in Table
21 and in the chapter on tunas.
Large unexploited resources of mesopelagic fish (lantern fish) have been detected by the
Norwegian research vessel DR FRIDTJOF NANSEN, but no economic way of catching these fish
has been devised. In most cases the concentrations are not high enough for economic exploitation
by purse seines or midwater trawls. It remains an open question whether the mesopelagic stocks
might represent potential fisheries for the area.
The Indian Ocean Fishery Commission (IOFC) (Marashi, 1993) is the regional organization
for the Indian Ocean (Area 51 and Area 57) that assists and coordinates national programmes in
fisheries development, promotes regional research activities and examines management problems
relating to offshore resources. Special committees are set up for the management of fish stocks in
the Gulfs, Southwest Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean tuna. These committees
do not regulate fisheries but act as advisory bodies in the management of the fishery resources in
the various countries in the region.
-54-
EASTERN INDIAN OCEAN (Area 57) (Table 13)
Statistical area 57 (Eastern Indian Ocean) covers the waters of the Bay of Bengal, northern
part of the Malacca Strait and Eastern Indian Ocean proper. The countries bordering the area
include India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and Australia. The shelf area
of the Asian continent stretches from the eastern part of India over the coast of Bangladesh,
Myanmar and down to the Malacca Strait, with an extensive shelf area found off Myanmar and east
India. Freshwater runoff greatly influences the northern part of the region, where large rivers enter
the Bay of Bengal from northeastern India (Ganges River), Bangladesh (Brahmaputra River) and
Myanmar (Irrawaddy and Salween Rivers). Estuarine resources are important here; for example
the toll shad, an estuarine species, dominates the marine catch in Bangladesh.
This area is subject to the seasonal influence of the southwest monsoon (May-September)
when the sea is relatively rough. Myanmar fish abundance fluctuates according to this monsoonal
cycle, and in the pre-monsoon period, fish are found in more abundance than during the post
monsoon. A special characteristic of this area is that it is subject to destructive cyclones that form
over the open ocean and head for shore in a generally westward direction. The northeastern coasts
of India and Bangladesh are the most vulnerable to cyclones.
Reported landings in area 57 reached 2.8 million t in 1990, a slight increase over the
previous year's catch of 2.7 million t (Table 13). Catches come mainly from inshore, from the
small-scale fishery. The five countries contributing 85% of the catch in 1990 were India,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand. Increases in the catch were noted for most demersal
and pelagic species. However, some inshore resources, in particular shrimp, have experienced
intensive exploitation in coastal waters off east India, Myanmar and Thailand.
Small-scale and industrial trawl fisheries, fish the same coastal grounds off the Indian coast,
and user conflict and intense fishing pressure have been reported in coastal waters. To reduce the
conflict commonly arising between artisanal and trawl fishermen inshore, some countries are
deploying artificial reefs which provide new fishing grounds for artisanal fishermen, but also
discourage trawl fishing in these areas. Thailand and, to a certain extent, Malaysia, have considered
this activity to be one of the programme priorities.
Under-exploited fish resources may still exist in this region, particularly in the shelves of
the Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago. Deep sea resources (groupers, snappers, pomfret, etc.)
have a potential of about 73 OOOt a year on the shelves of the Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago,
and offer alternatives for the deployment of large Indian deep-sea trawl fleets (Sudarsan, 1990).
A deep water lobster (Puerulus sewelli) and penaeid shrimp of the genus Aristeus are believed to
be abundant in the southern part of the continental slope of Myanmar (FAO, 1984), but there are
no indications that commercial trawling has occurred there.
A large shrimp by-catch, estimated to be about 120 OOOt in 1990, is discarded off the east
coast of India by the trawl fishery (Gordon, 1991). In Thailand, however, most of the by-catch
are used by the fishmeal industry which supports a growing aquaculture industry.
-55-
A longline fishery for tuna which targets for sashimi consumption in Japan has developed
in the Indian Ocean off Indonesia, and although this fishery was initiated by foreign fleets, local
fishermen are taking over the foreign boats.
Off northwestern Australia, the demersal fishery is now exclusively in Australian hands. The
resources are considered fully exploited and all foreign fishing has ceased. A large number of
species are taken in the southeast demersal trawl fishery, but catches in recent years have been
dominated by orange roughy at a depth of 800-1 200 m. These stocks are near full exploitation.
Fishing by foreign vessels in Area 57 has grown less intense. Japan, the Republic of Korea,
and Taiwan (Province of China) have traditionally fished for tuna employing long-lines but landings
by these countries amounted to 17 OOOt or less than 1% of the overall catch in 1990.
Scientific management of fisheries resources is not yet well established in some areas of this
region, although development of fisheries has reached a point where this is necessary. Fishery
management involving effort control is better established in Malaysia than in the rest of the region,
except in Australia, where resource management is well established. Countries in this area are
members of the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Commission (IPFC) and the Indian Ocean Fishery
Commission (IOFC). Both of these bodies are only advisory and thus do not have any regulatory
power. Countries presently exploiting tuna resources in the Indian Ocean are in the process of
establishing the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission which will be responsible for the management of
the regional tuna resources. The Bay of Bengal Project (BOBP), a regional project funded by
multidonor agencies (DANIDA, ODA, SID A, UNDP), has also assisted development of marine
fisheries, particularly in providing assistance to fishing communities.
NORTHWEST PACIFIC (Area 61) (Table 14)
Reported landings from the Northwest Pacific have decreased slightly from a record 26.7
million t in 1988 to 25.7 million t in 1990 (FAO, 1993a). The decrease was primarily from the
decline in landings of Alaska pollock and the Japanese pilchard. The total annual landings remain
among the highest in the world: 31% of the total world marine catch. The production is also
distinct, being supported by the environmental diversity in the area with its well-balanced
composition of demersal and pelagic species.
Salmon stocks in the area, once depleted during the 1960s especially in Russia, began to
recover since the late 1970s, and appear to have stabilized in recent years. These include odd- and
even-year class pink, chum (Russian origin), sockeye, coho and Chinook salmons. Catch of chum
salmon around Japan accounts for more than half of total salmon catch from the entire area.
Artificial breeding and releasing techniques, along with rehabilitation and enhancement of natural
conditions in ascending rivers in northern Japan are believed to be partially responsible for this.
The fishery for Alaska pollock continues to land the highest catch for any single demersal
fish stock in the world. The catch was over 5 million t from 1986 to 1988 but declined to 4.8
million t and 4.2 million t in 1989 and 1990. All the stocks are considered to be fully exploited
and there has been a significant increase in the proportion of undifferentiated (low value) fish in
-56-
the catch. A second important demersal fish in the northern part of the area is Pacific cod.
Landings have increased from around 80 OOOt in the early 1980s to over 200 OOOt in recent years.
Most cod stocks are fully exploited. Other demersal fish in the north are considered fully
exploited, and several stocks have been depleted, including bastard halibut, plaice and flounder,
tonguefish and rockfish. Landings of demersal fish in the south are stable at a low level with the
exception of largehead hairtail, filefish and sandlances.The catch of largehead hairtail has varied
from 531 OOOt to 650 OOOt annually since 1985.
The demersal stocks in the East China Sea and Yellow Sea are seriously depleted and are
estimated to be at one-fifth to one-tenth of their highest levels (Yu, 1991). There is little sign of
recovery in these fisheries. Overfishing in these cases may be due to serious losses of post-larvae
and juvenile fish to the fine mesh fishing gears used in the coastal fisheries. The coastal pelagic
fish stocks in this area are very productive. They exhibit large fluctuations in abundance and
change dramatically in dominance from one species to another. These features are most noticeable
in the stocks around Japan, involving the Pacific herring, Pacific saury, Japanese pilchard, Japanese
chub mackerel, Japanese anchovy and Japanese jack mackerel. An example of this has been the
change in abundance of the Japanese pilchard around Japan. The catch in the mid-1960s was
around 9 OOOt, but exceeded 5.4 million t in 1988, making it one of the world's largest single
species catches. The catches in 1989 and 1990 were 5.1 and 4.7 million t. A recent analysis of
the age structure of the stock suggests that a decline in abundance may be forthcoming in the
future. Management of such unstable pelagic fish stocks is quite difficult, and requires frequent
monitoring of the population. Clear causes of these changes are unknown; it has become generally
accepted that they are probably natural causes and there is little evidence of a direct link with
fishing pressure.
Landings of Pacific herring have continued to decline from over 200 OOOt in 1985 to 1988
to 109 OOOt in 1990. Catches of Pacific saury have increased from 274 OOOt in 1985 to 331 OOOt
and 416 OOOt in 1989 and 1990. Another coastal pelagic fish, the chub mackerel, has declined in
catch from 1.5 million t in 1986 to 1.0 and 0.7 million t in 1989 and 1990. The total catch of all
pelagic fish in the area in recent years has continued to be from 6 million to 8 million t. Due to
the major changes in relative abundance of the different species, it is difficult to establish long-term
sustainable yields for the individual species. The catch of scads (Decapterus spp.) reached 0.4.
million t in 1990. The catch was taken by China from the coasts bordering the South China Sea
and southern East China Sea.
The annual landings of the Japanese flying squid fishery declined from over 400 OOOt in the
early 1970s to 200 OOOt in 1988 but have recovered somewhat to 287 OOOt and 298 OOOt in 1989
and 1990. The cephalopod stocks around Japan are considered fully exploited, but the oceanic
squids in the northern region, along with neritic cephalopods in the southern region, could provide
substantially larger catches (Chikuni, 1985). Prawn and shrimp stocks are considered fully
exploited, and little change in the landings is expected.
At present, there is no functional multilateral organization to cover the entire area, although
such an organization would be helpful in the assessment and management of shared fish stocks.
Present research and management are the responsibility of the individual coastal countries. Five
bilateral fishery agreements between individual countries currently exist in the region through which
management of the shared stocks is partially conducted.
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NORTHEAST PACIFIC (Area 67) (Table 15)
The environment: Inter-annual variability in the marine environment of the northeastern Pacific
Ocean appears to be strongly linked with El Nifio phenomena originating in the tropical Pacific
(Wooster and Fluharty, 1985). This results in an intensification of anti-clockwise wind circulation
over the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea, and increased northward transport of water properties and
organisms within the eastern boundary zone of the ocean. Thus warmer conditions and incursion
of southern species have generally coincided with El Nino events. The entire period of the late
1970s and early 1980s generally exhibited enhanced "El Nifio 19 -like characteristics: especially
marked in 1976 and in 1982-83 (Norton l aL, 1985; Wooster and Hollowed, in press).
El Nifio conditions appear detrimental to resident fish populations in the southern parts of
the area (Pearcy, 1992), but favour successful recruitment in some important stocks of the northern
Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea (Beamish and Bouillon, in press). For example, better than average
reproduction in many North Pacific groundfish stocks in the late 1970s, coinciding with the
extended M E1 NinoMike conditions, appears to have been important for sustaining the populations
through the following decade.
Fisheries commissions: The Pacific Salmon Treaty, enacted in 1985 between Canada and the
USA, enables the benefits to be obtained from their management and enhancement efforts. A
Pacific Salmon Commission establishes general fishery management objectives for international
conservation and harvest sharing of intermingling Canadian and US salmon stocks. The
International Pacific Halibut Commission (IPHC), established in 1923, with membership of Canada
and the USA, deals with research and management of the Pacific halibut resources in the entire area
(Marashi, 1993).
The International North Pacific Fisheries Commission (INPFC), established in 1952 with
Canada, Japan, and USA as members, coordinates collection, exchange and analysis of data on high
seas fisheries. A very recent development is the North Pacific Marine Science Organization
(PICES), established in 1992 to coordinate and promote scientific research on the environment and
resources of the northern North Pacific Ocean (Marashi, 1993). Early membership is expected to
include Canada, China, Japan, Russian Federation and the USA. Several other countries are
considering membership.
Management measures: Much of the 200-mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ) within the region
is under US jurisdiction and in US waters, within the purview of the Magnuson Fishery
Conservation and Management Act of 1976. This act requires formal fishery management plans
which are designed to achieve sustainable yield and are implemented through regional councils.
Regular resource surveys are undertaken for fishery-independent stock assessment. Annual
assessments of status of stocks incorporate fishery statistics and catch-at-age data with survey
results to project biomass estimates for each coming year. All of the major fishery stocks of the
region are managed by catch quotas or harvest guidelines, including the stocks off the British
Columbia coast of Canada which follows limited entry policies. In many cases resources are shared
with the USA. Fishing areas have occasionally been allocated for conflicting harvesting methods
(e.g., pots and longlines versus trawl fisheries in Alaska). By-catches are tabulated and analysed
as a component of yield.
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Over the past decade or so, fisheries in this region have shown a transition from dominance
by salmon resources, king crab and halibut, to a growing importance of groundfish and other
species, i.e., more recently exploited resources such as Alaska pollock and other crabs and
shellfish. Catches in the directed longline fishery for halibut are controlled by a USA-Canada
agreement and Commission. Strict limits on allowable by-catch of halibut and king crab (now
severely depressed, but a still valuable but over-capitalized fishery), once attained, result in other
fisheries being closed even if their own quota allocation has not been reached. This feature may
have had a positive impact in slowing exploitation, and many fisheries meet criteria. High levels
of exploitation in new fisheries are discouraged by a requirement that fishing targets not aim for
an exploitation rate more than 80% of the calculated MSY level. However, although pressure to
exploit once underexploited groundfish resources has increased sharply, some resources, notably
large populations of flatfish, can be only lightly exploited under the allowable trawlfish by-catch
limit for halibut. A search is underway for a new set of "rules" for the mixed species fisheries that
maximize the net total revenue from die fisheries as a whole. One such working rule that is being
suggested in US groundfish fisheries is to aim for an exploitation rate that is equivalent to that also
giving a spawning biomass of 35% of that for the virgin stock.
The requirement that natural resources be exploited under criteria leading to sustained yield
is built into the constitution of Alaska, and applies to both commercial and the very important sport
fisheries. Risk evaluation has been assigned a specific role in the management process. In order to
avoid strategies leading to stock collapse, fixed escapement policies have been applied. However,
threshold policies, where the fishery is pursued at a fixed level of exploitation but closed when
biomasses drop below some preset value, are being explored.
Catches and stock status: The total fish catch in Area 67 has remained in the neighbourhood of
3.2 to 3.5 million t for the five-year period 1986-90, following a steadily rising trend through the
early 1980s. Alaska pollock, presently the largest fished stock in the world, has by itself rather
consistently accounted for slightly less than half of the total catch in this region. In the Alaska
pollock fishery, a transition from a formerly foreign fishery for surimi to joint ventures with US
enterprises and then to a wholly domestic fishery has occurred, except for high seas areas such as
the "Donut Hole" where an international fishery has been carried out under agreements of the
parties concerned. Large catches in this international zone have led to concern for impacts on the
eastern Bering Sea population, and in August 1992, China, Japan, the Republic of Korea, USA,
Russian Federation, and Poland agreed to a two-year moratorium on fishing for Alaska pollock in
the "Donut Hole" (an area beyond 200 mile limits lying within the Bering Sea).
The burst of good recruitment years in the late 1970s and early 1980s built the Alaska
pollock stocks to very high levels. Presently, the biomass of this stock in the eastern Bering Sea
appears to be at a moderately high level but a decreasing trend appears to be underway (NPFMC,
19925). In the Gulf of Alaska, the pollock stock has likewise tended toward a gradual decline
(NPFMC, 1992a) (but there are indications of an increase in 1992).
Total landings of the major salmon stocks during 1989 and 1990 are estimated to be
446 OOOt and 437 OOOt, respectively. This represents a high level of catches relative to previous
years. Preliminary reports for 1991 indicate a further increase. The recent abundance of salmon
in the world market has resulted in depressed prices and some economic distress to Alaskan
-59-
fishermen, alleviated in part by the high biomass available. In contrast to the Alaskan situation,
stocks of salmon off Washington, Oregon and California have undergone a major decline since the
mid-1980s. Some of this decline is attributed to degradation of the freshwater habitat resulting from
urbanization and long-standing drought conditions.
Recent halibut landings were quite stable from 1986 to 1988, with catches ranging from
41 000 to 43 OOOt, close to the record landings in 1962. Landings have decreased slightly in 1989
and 1990 to 39 000 and 37 OOOt, respectively. Stock biomass appears to have increased during the
1970s, and probably peaked in 1986-87. Although stocks are still considered healthy, a decline in
biomass seems to have begun. Management strategies have restricted the commercial harvest and
have been set at about 75% of the estimated annual surplus production. Problems with regard to
restricting the amount of fishing effort continue. For example, Canada has instituted a new system
of individual vessel quotas (IVQ) on a two-year trial basis.
Landings of flatfish have been affected by early closures due to halibut by-catch restrictions.
The catch of yellowfm sole in the Bering Sea declined sharply in 1989 and 1990 to around 150 OOOt
after a long period of increasing catches starting in the early 1970s and culminating in 1988 at
219 OOOt. The landings of M other flatfish" also peaked in 1988, and also dropped sharply in 1989
due to early by-catch closure but then rebounded substantially in 1990.
Pacific cod catches also dropped slightly in 1989 after a continued rise since the mid 1970s.
Pacific cod also followed the pattern apparent in many of the stocks in the region of a strong
rebound in 1990, in this case to a new record annual catch. However, recent surveys indicate
Pacific cod stocks, like the pollock stocks, to be declining. North Pacific hake is another large
population that now seems to be declining. However, there are indications that the 1990 year class
may turn out to be large.
Stocks of Pacific Ocean perch (a long-lived fish, taking 16 years to mature) remain at a
depleted level, with recent landings of less than one- third those of the early 1970s. Several strict
management measures have been imposed for some time now, and Pacific Ocean perch is presently
landed only as by-catch. Recent evidence suggests that the condition of the stocks of this very long-
lived species has shown limited improvement.
Sablefish resources in the Gulf of Alaska are considered to be in good condition but, like
many other important stocks of the region, appear to be in a state of decline. Landings in the
region in 1989 and 1990 totalled 45 000 and 43 OOOt respectively, down from their 1988 peak of
52 OOOt. Pacific herring is the only coastal pelagic fish resource being exploited in the area. There
are believed to be a number of separate stocks, and recent declines in some have appeared to be
at least partially offset by increases in others. The total landings have been quite steady in the
1980s, usually in the neighbourhood of 80 OOOt, largely reflecting market demand for roe. King
crab stocks are in a depressed state, with landings continuing to be only a fraction of those of the
1970s and early 1980s. Pacific snow crab landings have been steadily increasing, with a particularly
sharp increase occurring in 1990.
In summary, the effect of the burst of good recruitment years in North Pacific groundfish
stocks in the late 1970s and early 1980s, which apparently acted to sustain the growth of the
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fisheries through much of the 1980s, now appears to be fading and many of the most important
populations (e.g., pollock, halibut, Pacific cod, North Pacific hake, sablefish) seem to be in gradual
decline. The effects of natural trends and fluctuations in the ocean-atmosphere system remain
beyond human control. Apparently, the recent environmental situation has not been such as to
produce a high frequency of strong recruitments in these populations. Clearly, even well-posed,
conservative fishery management plans and procedures can be disrupted by unforeseen long-term
trends in recruitment frequency patterns. On the other hand, salmon stocks have recently been so
productive that oversupply has been a problem.
At this time there is major interest in the region in limiting effort in order to improve the
economic yield of the fisheries and economic well-being of the fishermen. For the king crab, lack
of limited entry has generally resulted in very short seasons, substantial overcapitalization, and
difficulties in rationalizing product extraction and monitoring. Pressures are now growing for the
institution of individual transferable quotas (ITQ) or, alternatively, community development quotas
(CDQ), which take into account the needs of native peoples and coastal communities.
Concern over potential effects of the squid driftnet fishery on salmon and other marine
populations in this region led to adoption in 1989 of a United Nations resolution calling for a
moratorium on all large-scale driftnet fishing on the high seas by 1992. Taiwan (Province of
China), Republic of Korea, and Japan, the major nations involved in this fishery, have each
announced intentions to abide by the UN moratorium.
WESTERN CENTRAL PACIFIC (Area 71) (Table 1(5)
This area extends from the tropics to the subtropics and covers the main continental shelf
of Southeast Asia, stretching south and east. Oceanic waters are the dominant influence on the
climate of small island countries. Freshwater runoff from monsoons obviously impacts the western
part of the area, with freshwater input from the big rivers in Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and
Indonesia influencing the major shelf area. Another shallow water shelf lies between Indonesia and
Australia as an extension of the Australian continent, forming an extensive trawling ground between
the two countries.
The development of fisheries in the region has intensified since the 1960s, particularly in
Southeast Asia. Small-scale fisheries contribute the most to the total catch. Landings reached a
record of 7.3 million t in 1990 (Table 16) with more than 85% of the catch taken by Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam. Demersal and small pelagic fish comprise most of
the total catch. Shrimp and tuna are the major export fisheries. Fisheries of Papua New Guinea
remain undeveloped. Small islands are very much dependent on the tuna fisheries.
Total catch of the region has continuously increased over the last 20 years, but the rate of
increase has slowed. Certain demersal fish species: including slipmouth (Leiognathidae), catfish
(Ariidae) and croakers (Sciaenidae) show signs of overexploitation, particularly in the Gulf of
Thailand and the Malacca Straits. Local pelagic stocks, including mackerels and round scads, are
heavily exploited in the Malacca Straits, the Java Sea, the inner part of the Gulf of Thailand and
inner parts of the Philippine waters, while sardines are heavily exploited in the Bali Strait (RAPA,
1989; SCORRAD, 1990; Silvestre, 1990).
-61-
The increase in total catch in the region is attributed primarily to the extension of fishing
onto new grounds. Some Thailand catches were reported to have originated from outside their
waters in the late 1970s. Indonesia had also increased its catch in the mid-1980s through further
development of fisheries in the eastern part of the country. Recent development of industrial fishing
in eastern Malaysia also contributed to an increase in catches. Some of the overall increases in
catches are attributable to the increased catch of species such as the squid fishery in the Gulf of
Thailand in 1980s. Some scientists believed that the increased abundance of squid was a result of
heavy exploitation on its predators, the demersal fish.
Few countries in the region have formulated fisheries management plans, integration and
those measures implemented have not been fully successful in reducing fishing pressure and, as a
consequence, some of the excess fleet (e.g., Thailand's fleet) have had to compensate by fishing
in the waters of neighbouring countries through various bilateral agreements. Indonesia provides
fishing access to foreign fleets 12 miles off its archipelago, primarily in the South China Sea and
on the Pacific side (CDMSCS, 1991).
Most stocks of coastal shrimp in Asian waters and in northern Australia are fully exploited.
Trawl fishing has been banned in the western part of Indonesian waters since 1980 but a recent
trammel net fishery has continued pressure on the coastal shrimp stocks. Total catches have levelled
off during the past decade at 200 000 to 300 OOOt. The catch of the northern Australia prawn has
increased but this was believed to be more related to seasonal variability than to management
(Anon., 1991). Over-capitalization of the industry has caused recruitment overfishing of the tiger
prawn.
Development of new fisheries in the region has certainly been responsible for the increase
in overall catch. However, fisheries development, particularly in Southeast Asia, has been
hampered by increased fishing effort on some of the depressed stocks and conflicts among
fishermen using various fishing gears. Some countries have deployed artificial reefs which serve
as barriers for inshore trawl fishing (Pauly and Chua, 1988).
The degradation of coastal environments in the region is a major problem due primarily to
growth in the human population, movement of people to coastal cities and coastal development in
the regions. This leads to increased discharge of municipal and industrial effluents, landfill and
mangrove clearing. Increased agriculture also increases the amounts of herbicides and pesticides
in rivers which may reduce survival of juvenile fish and shrimp in coastal areas. Other human
induced activities include increased terrestrial runoff of silt due to land reclamation and
deforestation as well as recent development of coastal aquaculture which contribute to changes in
the aquatic environment. These factors are of key importance since a high percentage of marine
fish production comes from stocks which pass their early and most vulnerable stages in coastal
waters.
Management of fishery resources by small island countries in the eastern region, particularly
for tuna, has been successful through cooperative work of the Fisheries Forum Agency (FFA). This
organization serves as the focal point for the island States for access of fishing agreements with
distant water fishing nations. FFA has developed a register of foreign fishing vessels enabling
member countries to monitor foreign vessels.
-62-
The Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) has, with limited success,
initiated the improvement in the collection of statistics of multispecies fisheries in the countries in
the region for stock assessment purposes. Regular monitoring surveys by Thailand have been
directed towards aquatic resource evaluation, the results of which, unfortunately, still do not play
a major role in management decisions. Therefore, the main priority of fisheries development in the
region revolves around the question of strengthening fisheries management. The International
Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM), SEAFDEC and the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) are fisheries organizations not directly involved in regional
management. The Indo-Pacific Fisheries Commission (IPFC) and its subsidiary body, the Standing
Committee on Resources Research and Development (SCORRAD) are fisheries advisory
organizations and do not have authoritative power. The ASEAN/US Coastal Resources
Management Project, coordinated by ICLARM, is playing a significant role directed toward
integrated coastal area development, including fisheries, in the region.
EASTERN CENTRAL PACIFIC (Area 77) (Table 17)
Fisheries in this area are strongly influenced by the California Current System, which is one
of the major eastern boundary current systems in the world (Bakun and Panish, 1980; Parrish el
aL 1981; Bakun and Parrish, 1982; Parrish el aL 1983). The shelf along the western coasts of
the Americas is also relatively narrow in this area, and coastal areas support important fish stocks,
which are dominated by small pelagics in the upwelling areas off southern California, northern
Mexico and Panama, tunas and other large pelagics offshore, and highly valuable shrimp stocks
inshore.
Total catches in this area have fluctuated between 1.5 and 1.8 million t per year since 1985.
In 1990 and 1991 the total catch was 1.5 million t, down from 1.8 million t in 1989. Fisheries are
dominated by pelagic species in terms of volume of catches, and by shrimp species in terms of
value. The abundance and total catch of some fish stocks in the area tend to fluctuate from year
to year due to environmental changes, mostly associated with the "El Nino" (Sharp and Csirke,
1984; Lluch-Belda el aL, 1992). During 1991 and 1992 the area was affected by a mid-intensity
"El Nino" that is expected to affect fisheries in this region.
Total catches of Californian sardine (Sardinops sagax caeruleus) were 440 000-480 OOOt per
year from 1986 to 1988, increased to 510 OOOt in 1989, declined to 400 OOOt in 1990 and increased
again to 470 OOOt in 1991. This fishery collapsed in the USA in the 1950s and although there is
a recovery of the stock, the overall abundance is below the previous levels. The stock is considered
to be moderately to fully exploited, but is subject to wide natural fluctuations, and currently is only
being exploited by Mexico. Changes in the area of distribution and duration of the fishing seasons
have been reported during 1991 and 1992, and the sardine has almost disappeared from the Gulf
of California.
Total catches of Northern Pacific anchovy (Engraulis mordax) dropped sharply from
110 OOOt in 1989 to only 6 OOOt in 1990 and 21 OOOt in 1991, after being at around 120 000-
170 OOOt per year for several years. Most of the anchovy is caught by Mexico to produce fish meal,
but small quantities are caught in California for live bait. The low catches during recent years seem
-63-
to be a consequence of a reduced overall abundance of the stock due to recruitment failure and a
northern shift in distribution which has affected the Mexican fishery.
Catches of Central Pacific anchoveta (Cetengraulis mysticetus) continue to fluctuate off
Panama. After a maximum of 240 OOOt in 1985, catches were 40 OOOt in 1988, 120 OOOt in 1989,
and 60 000-65 OOOt in 1990 and 1991 . Most of these fluctuations are due to natural annual changes
in overall abundance and distribution. The stock is probably fully exploited. Catches of Pacific
thread herring (Opisthonema spp.) continue to fluctuate in the area. It is mostly caught off Panama
and annual landings ranged from 10 OOOt to 40 OOOt in the last five years. Several stocks of thread
herring are present in the area, and most are moderately to fully exploited.
The chub mackerel (Scomber japonicusl is moderately exploited in this area, and total
catches have been maintained at around 50 000-80 OOOt per year. The Pacific jack mackerel
(Trachurus symmetricus) is lightly exploited. Catches have remained slightly above 10 OOOt per
year until 1989, and dropped to 4 OOOt and 2 OOOt in 1990 and 1991.
Catches of tuna have also been relatively stable since the decline in 1982-83, and have
recovered slightly. Landings of skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) have been in the range of
about 40 000-80 OOOt since 1986, after a catch of 130 OOOt in 1985. Catches of yellowfm tuna
(Thunnus albacaresl increased from 130 OOOt in 1983 to 276 OOOt in 1986 and 282 OOOt in 1988,
to decrease to 212 OOOt in 1991. This stock seems to be fully exploited. The albacore (Thunnus
alalunga) and bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesusl are moderately exploited and their total catches are
relatively stable at about 20 OOOt and 90 OOOt per year, respectively.
Shrimp stocks (mostly Penaeus spp.) are fully to heavily exploited almost everywhere in the
area. The stocks off Nicaragua were lightly to moderately exploited, but fishing pressure is building
up rapidly also there. Catches of squat lobster (Pleuroncodes planiceps) declined from almost
12 OOOt in 1987 to slightly over 3 OOOt in 1988 and 2 OOOt in 1989 and 1990. This stock seems
to be lightly exploited and good concentrations have been reported by the R/V DR FRIDTJOF
NANSEN which surveyed the area in 1987. These surveys, conducted as a part of a
UNDP/NORAD/FAO Project, also confirmed a total biomass of more than 1 million t of small
pelagic stocks in the area, and another 250 OOOt of demersal stocks (IMR, 1988). An increase in
the catches of squids has also been reported with 77 OOOt in 1988 and 83 OOOt in 1990. These
stocks are lightly exploited and offer some potential for further development, although they are
highly variable.
There are no FAO regional bodies in the area. At the moment research and management
on tuna in the area are coordinated by the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC)
based in La Jolla, but not all the countries in the area are members of this body. FAO and the
Organizacidn Latinoamericana para el Desarrollo de la Pesca (OLDEPESCA) promoted further
subregional cooperation within the framework of a working group on fisheries research for Central
America and Panama, of which Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and
Panama are members.
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SOUTHWEST PACIFIC (Area 81) (Table 18)
This area includes waters off southeastern Australia (namely off New South Wales), New
Zealand, the EEZs of several island countries, and a large area of deep ocean water. Total catches
for the area have levelled off for 1988-90 at around 1 million t, after a rapid increase in the early
and mid-eighties (FAO, 1992J).
New South Wales is the major centre for oyster farming in Australia, and prawns dominate
trawl fisheries catches in the north (NSW Fisheries, 1992; Kailola el aL, 1993). Over 60 species
of fish are taken in the demersal fish catch off southeastern New South Wales, but catches tend to
be dominated by only a few species. Total catch in this region reached 38 OOOt in 1990-91;
gemfish, redfish and ocean perch stocks are probably overexploited, and a number of other species,
most recently orange roughy, are fully exploited. Recently gemfish has suffered a collapse in
recruitment which suggests that abundance may decline for several years even in the absence of
fishing. The major demersal stocks off New Zealand are probably fully exploited (Baird, 1992;
Annala, 1993; New Zealand Fishing Industry Board, 1993). Unfortunately, recent statistics on
catch and fishing effort for many species are considered inadequate for satisfactory stock
assessments.
Landings of blue grenadier increased rapidly from 43 OOOt in 1985 to 392 OOOt in 1990.
The increased catches of grenadier account for most of the recent increase in landings in this area.
Stocks of blue grenadier are currently being fished down, and the New Zealand TAG was reduced
from 250 OOOt in 1989-90 to 200 OOOt in 1990-91 (Annala, 1993), and will almost certainly be
brought down further. The snapper is New Zealand's most valuable coastal finfish fishery. Snapper
stocks have shown signs of overfishing for at least a decade, and catches and quotas in most areas
have been progressively reduced. Most stocks are still under stress and their TACs are being held
down to promote rebuilding.
Rock lobster is the second most valuable inshore fishery off New Zealand (Baird, 1992;
Annala, 1993; New Zealand Fishing Industry Board, 1993). Concern has recently been expressed
over the status of this resource. The fishery is believed to be fished beyond its full potential and
the resource is declining because of high fishing effort. Biologists are predicting seriously
diminishing catches unless there is some reduction in fishing effort. The New South Wales rock
lobster fishery is also showing signs of overexploitation (NSW Fisheries, 1992; Kailola el aL,
1993). Landings of cephalopods, which had levelled off over the last ten years at just over
100 OOOt, are starting to show large fluctuations with a record of 228 OOOt landed in 1989 but
only 92 OOOt in 1990.
The New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is responsible for the management
of fisheries under New Zealand jurisdiction (Annala, 1993; New Zealand Fishing Industry Board,
1993). In 1986 the Ministry adopted a market-driven system of ITQ within a quota management
system which has been able to stabilize a number of fisheries at more appropriate economic levels.
Recently ITQ have been changed from a fixed tonnage to a proportion of a variable overall TAG.
This new system should be more effective for those stocks that face substantial reductions in their
TAG in the near future, such as orange roughy.
-65-
TACs are determined periodically (yearly for all ITQ fisheries) with the help of scientific
fishing surveys (Baird, 1992; Annala, 1993). Orange roughy was the most valuable fishery for the
New Zealand fleet in the late 1980s, but has since been overtaken by blue grenadier (Annala,
1993). Unfortunately present orange roughy harvest levels will only be obtainable for a few years
unless new major stocks are discovered (see Box "Orange roughy: A sustainable fishery from 100
year old fish?). Present assessments suggest that many stocks are at a level below 50% of their
virgin spawning biomass and some are at 10-20%. Given these parameters, present TACs will not
ensure sustainable catches in the medium or long term nor will they allow stocks to rebuild. This
is the reason why significant decreases in TACs are predicted for several orange roughy stocks.
In fact, TACs of orange roughy off New Zealand have been reduced in the past three years for the
two largest of the six stocks.
Because of the imposition of the ITQ system, New Zealand has put considerable effort into
ensuring their indigenous people receive a fair share of fishing rights. In 1991 a special legislation
was passed to give Maori people certain special privileges and to promote their access to those
fisheries where they previously did not participate.
Australia is adopting a system of Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQ) for some selected
fisheries, notably the southeast trawl fishery which includes most catches made in New South Wales
(NSW Fisheries, 1992; Kailola gt aL 1993). Most other Commonwealth fisheries are managed
by TACs, but few State fisheries are managed that way. New South Wales for example has
unlimited entry for its prawn trawl fishery (Annala, 1993), whereas Queensland, which fishes part
of the same stock, does have limited entry for their trawl fisheries. The northern prawn fishery
and South Australian prawn fishery have had significant experience with limited entry and with
seasonal closures to increase landings and landed prawn size in order to maximize revenues and
reduce fishing costs (South Australian Department of Fisheries, 1992). These differences occur
because of the agreement between the Australian Commonwealth and the States which gives
jurisdiction of most coastal stocks to the States and most offshore and some shared stocks to the
Commonwealth (Department of Primary Industries, 1992; NSW Fisheries, 1992; Kailola el aL,
1993).
SOUTHEAST PACIFIC (Area 87) (Table 19)
The northern boundaries in this statistical area now include the coastal zones of Colombia
and Ecuador, and Peru and Chile. The species and area totals have been revised accordingly. The
area borders the western coast of South America, with a narrow continental shelf. The central and
southern part off Chile and Peru is dominated by an eastern boundary current system which
generates a cold, nutrient-rich upwelling. The northern part off Ecuador and Colombia has a
tropical climate and is less productive. The central and southern part of this area is dominated by
small pelagic stocks which sustain its main fisheries while further north, the main fisheries are
inshore those for shrimp and offshore for tuna. This area is greatly affected by the periodic arrival
of N E1 Nino* 9 , with the most noticeable impact being on the catches and overall abundance of
pelagic fish stocks (FAO, 1976; Guillen, 1983; Parrish el aL 1983; Jordan, 1985; CucakSn and
Mariduena, 1989; Flores, 1989; Yanez, 1989).
-66-
BOX: Orange roughy: a sustainable fishery from 100 year old fish ?
Although present in most deep water temperate oceans, orange roughy only currently supports a
commercial fishery off New Zealand and Australia. Some scientist claim that these fish may reach 100
years of age and mature at an age of 20-25 years. The fishery started in the early eighties and was initially
confined to New Zealand (Annala, 1993), but since 1986, substantial catches have been made off Australia
(Kailola t al.. 1993). The fishery targets large spawning aggregations which occur in very localized areas.
Catch rates at the spawning site remain high as long as there are fish spawning, but drop dramatically
thereafter. The high catch rates obtained by individual boats tended to mask the rapid decline that occurred
in the spawning population, and were an incentive to increase fishing effort every year. In spite of the
significant depletion of the presently known spawning aggregations, overall catches in the region have
continued to increase (Box Figure) as new spawning sites and new fishing grounds have been found.
The rate of depletion of some of these spawning aggregations has been very high (Annala, 1993),
with some of the early concentrations having decreased to 10% of their virgin biomass. It is estimated that
the St. Helens concentration off eastern Tasmania has been reduced to about 50% of the virgin biomass in
five years (Kailola gt al.. 1993). The longevity and slow growth of this fish suggests that the maximum
harvest rates that a stock can sustain are around 1-5% of the virgin biomass. Early harvest rates and
present TACs are both higher than these levels, indicating the fishery will not be sustainable unless new
stocks or concentrations are found.
A serious management problem this fishery shares with other fisheries harvesting long-lived
species, is that any effects of fishing pressure on the spawners will affect recruitment up to 20 years later.
Assessments are also complicated because of the unknown interchange of individuals between the various
spawning concentrations, and between the non-spawning and spawning adults. There is the temptation from
an economic perspective to harvest such slow-growing resources by "pulse fishing'*. However,
management should set conservative TACs because the very low natural mortality of orange roughy ensures
that fish which are not caught today will remain in the stock for many years to come and stability in
landings could quite readily be achieved.
CO
T>
cd
CO
O
CO
CD
O
120
100
80
60
40
20
B Total
New Zealand
Australia
1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989
Box Figure: Trends in orange roughy catches in the Southwest Pacific
-67-
After the major decline in catches in the 1970s and early 1980s following the collapse of
the Peruvian anchoveta, total catches in this area have recovered, and since 1985 they have always
been above 10 million t per year. They increased to 15.3 million t in 1989 but dropped to 14
million t in 1990. These totals are above the record catches of 13.8 million t in 1970, when the
anchoveta fishery was at its peak and dominated the landings.
The species composition of the catches is now more diversified, although small pelagics are
still dominant and represent around 90% of the total landings (see Box: "Pelagic catches off
western South America 9 *). The most important pelagic stocks in this area are the sardine (Sardinops
sagax) the Peruvian anchoveta (Engraulis ringens) and the jack mackerel (Trachurus murphyi)
(Arana, 1986; Mathisen and Tsukayama, 1986; Pauly and Tsukayama, 1987; Tsukayama and
Palomares, 1987; Espino and Wosnitza-Mendo, 1989; Parrish, 1989; Pauly and Palomares, 1989;
Pauly el aL 1989; CPPS, 1993). These three species made up almost 85% of the total catch in
1990. Other small pelagic fish stocks of relative importance in the area are the Pacific breams
(Seriolella spp.), the eastern Pacific bonito (Sarda chiliensis). and the chub mackerel (Scomber
japonicus). The most important demersal fish stocks are the Chilean hake (Merluccius gayi). the
Patagonian grenadier (Macruronus magellanicus) and the Patagonian hake (Merluccius polylepis).
After the record catch of 6.5 million t in 1985, total catches of sardine decreased to 5.4 million t
in 1988, 4.3 million t in 1990 and 4.2 million t in 1991. This stock is mainly exploited by Peru,
where catches have fluctuated between 1.7 and 3.5 million t per year, and Chile, where catches
have declined from 2.9 million t in 1985 to 0.7 million t in 1991. The stock is considered to be
fully exploited, with some concern for overexploitation.
Catches of Chilean jack mackerel continue to increase with record catches of 3.8 million
t reported in 1991. This species has a very wide distribution in the southeast Pacific. Chilean and
Peruvian fleets fish along the coast and the former USSR and Cuba fish offshore. Catches by the
Chilean fleet have increased consistently, reaching a record 3.0 million t in 1990. Catches by the
coastal Peruvian fleet have been variable with 136 OOOt reported for 1991, after a maximum of
504 OOOt in 1977. The stock is also actively exploited by foreign fleets beyond the 200 mile zone,
and the catches by the former USSR, the main offshore fishing country, increased to more than 1 . 1
million t in 1990, but changed to 640 OOOt in 1991. The offshore catches by Cuba were of the
order of 40 OOOt in 1990 and 31 OOOt in 1991. The abundance of this stock seems to have
increased over the past years, and the expansion in its distribution makes it very difficult to assess
the long-term potential. It is still considered to be moderately exploited although catches are
relatively high.
After its dramatic collapse in the 1970s, catches of Peruvian anchoveta were less than 1
million t in the early 1980s, almost 5 million t in 1986 and since then have fluctuated between 2. 1
million t in 1987, and 5.4 million t in 1989, with 4.0 million t being caught in 1991 . It is exploited
primarily by the Peruvian purse seine fleet off northern Peru, and by the Chilean purse seine fleet
off northern Chile. This stock is highly variable, and under the present conditions is estimated to
have a potential annual yield of 2 to 5 million t. It is considered to be fully to heavily exploited,
and although the purse seine fleets off Peru and Chile are also targeting other small pelagic species,
they maintain a heavy pressure on the Peruvian anchoveta. Catches of the eastern Pacific bonito
and the chub mackerel have been increasing over the last few years. Captures of other small
pelagic species, such as the South Pacific breams (Seriolella spp.), and the Chilean herring
(Strangomera bentinckri have been more or less stable.
-68-
BOX: Pdagic catches off western South America
One of the most productive areas for fisheries in the world is the upwelling region off the west
coast of South America. Here the pelagic fish stocks exhibit large fluctuations in abundance and change
in dominance from one species to another. For example, the catch of the Peruvian anchoveta peaked in
1970 at 13.8 million t (19.7% of the world's marine catch) and had collapsed to only 126 000 t by 1983.
There is still not complete agreement on the relative contribution of fishing and environmental changes to
the collapse.
Although the anchoveta stocks have recovered somewhat in the late 1980s, other pelagic species
have filled part of the vacuum created by the decline of the anchoveta population (Figure). These include
South American pilchard, Chilean jack mackerel and chub mackerel. . Catches of eastern Pacific bonito
are also increasing, after collapsing in the 1960s. The total landings of all species in 1989 (13.9 million t)
just exceeded the total landings in 1970.
Cumulative catch (million tons)
18
16
14
12
1CH
8
6
4
2
Legend
Peruvian anchoveta
S. Amer. pilchard
Chil. jack mackerel
East. Pac. bonito
Chub mackerel
7071 72737475767778798081 828384858687888990
Year
Box Figure: Trends in landings of small pelagic fish of western South America
-69-
Landings of the Patagonian grenadier increased consistently from 20 OOOt per year in the
early 1980s to almost 230 OOOt in 1989, but then declined to 130 OOOt in 1990 to raise to 165 OOOt
in 1991. Catches of Patagonian hake have also increased from around 20 OOOt in the early 1980s
to almost 70 OOOt in 1988, have remained above 50 OOOt in 1989 and 1990, to drop to 40 OOOt in 1991.
These two stocks are exploited off the coast of southern Chile. Catches of Chilean hake dropped to less
than 50 OOOt in the early 1980s, but then increased steadily to almost 150 OOOt in 1988 and
225 OOOt in 1990, to decrease to 140 OOOt in 1991. This stock is being exploited off northern Peru
and central Chile.
Landings of squid have varied widely from 19 500t in 1985, 4 800t in 1987, 7 200t in 1988,
and 11 000 and 22 OOOt in 1989 and 1990, with a sharp increase to 130 OOOt in 1991, which is
believed to be much closer to the potential yield of these stocks. After being considered as virtually
unexploited in this area, squid fishery had further developed in the area, particularly the one
targeting on the population of flying squid (Dosidiscus gigas). The management and development
of this type of fisheries poses some problems, due to the high variability of the stocks which make
it difficult to plan long-term investments based on the exploitation of a single, highly variable stock.
Regional research activities regarding fisheries and other marine-related research activities,
are coordinated by the Permanent Commission for the Southeast Pacific (CPPS), of which the four
coastal States in this area are members. This area is not covered by an FAO regional body, but
very good relationships and cooperation are maintained between FAO and the CPPS.
SOUTHERN OCEANS (Areas 48, 58 and 88) (Table 20)
The total catch in the Southern Oceans was 429 OOOt in 1989/90 compared to a range of
458 000-503 OOOt from 1985/86 to 1988/89 (FAO, 1992J). Most of the catch is krill (Fischer and
Hureau, 1985; CCALMR, 1992a), accounting for 89% of the total in 1989/90. The major krill
and fmfish catches taken in the Southern Oceans comes from the waters around the islands of South
Georgia and South Orkney in the Atlantic Ocean (Area 48) (CCAMLR, 1992a;c).
The major catch of fmfish consists of lanternftshes (Myctophidae), mackerel icefish
(Champsocephalus gunnarH and Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) (Fisher and Hureau,
1985; CCAMLR, 1992a). The history of exploitation of fish resources in the Southern Oceans is
one of continuous shifting from one overfished stock to another less exploited one. The fish
resources are very limited and their yield too small for them to sustain high catches.
The krill catches were 395 OOOt in 1988/89 and 381 OOOt in 1989/90 (FAO, 1992J). Most
of the catch was taken by the former USSR fleet and Japan (Fischer and Hureau, 1985; CCAMLR,
1992a;c). Because the annual net production of krill is believed to be low compared to the
available biomass, the resource could be vulnerable to overfishing. Therefore, there is a need for
precautionary management measures. This need becomes very obvious when considering the
present degree of depletion of the other more economically viable resources of the Antarctic, and
the failure of their international management.
-70-
The Antarctic fisheries are managed by the Convention for Conservation of Antarctic
Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) (CCAMLR, 19925). Areas north of 60N are theoretically
under the responsibility of relevant regional fisheries bodies, but there is no effective fisheries
management policy in any of these bodies regarding Antarctic resources. The concept of ecosystem
management followed by CCAMLR is unique to this resource management body, which has wider
terms of reference than fisheries. The failure to achieve sustainability of important Antarctic fish
resources, given a primary focus on the interactions among species, combined with the very
difficult problem of enforcement of an entirely distant water fleet, means that there are serious
problems in addressing the issue of the interaction between men and the valuable, but fragile,
harvestable resources.
TUNA AND TUNA-LIKE SPECIES (Table 21)
Tuna and tuna-like species belong to the sub-order Scombroidei, which is composed of
tunas, billfishes, swordfishes and other related species (Collette and Nauen, 1983; Joseph el aL,
1988). They occur in the tropical and temperate zones. Species of albacore, bigeye tuna, northern
and southern bluefm tuna, skipjack tuna and yellowfm tuna are referred to as the principal market
tuna species because of world-wide demand for sashimi and/or canning (Saran, 1991).
The northern bluefm tuna occurs in commercial quantities in the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans, from 70N to 25 N and, to a smaller extent, south of the equator in the Pacific (Bartoo,
1987). The southern bluefm tuna is found also in these two Oceans and the Indian Ocean, but from
10S to 50S (Bartoo, 1987). The bigeye tuna, yellowfm tuna and albacore occur throughout the
Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans between 40-55 N and 40-45 S (Bartoo, 1987). The skipjack
tuna, of relatively lower commercial value, is also distributed in the three oceans from 50-60N
to 50S (Bartoo, 1987). Some principal market tuna species undertake long migrations and are
considered as highly migratory under the Law of the Sea (Hey, 1989). Two other oceanic species
(slender tuna and butterfly kingfish) occur in the Southern Ocean with a circumpolar distribution
between 15S and 50S (Collette and Nauen, 1983). Despite their lower value, they offer
significant potential and are now incidentally caught by the Japanese fishery targeting at southern
bluefm tuna. Slender tuna are also a significant by-catch of driftnet fisheries (FAO, 1990a;
Northridge, 1991).
Other important tunas have more neritic distributions; they live on or close to continental
shelves and around islands and archipelagos. In this category are found less commercially
important species such as the longtail and blackfm tunas (Collette and Nauen, 1983). The first
species occurs in the eastern Indian Ocean, the Pacific off Southeast Asia (mainly in the Gulf of
Thailand and the South China Sea) and off Australia (20N to 35-40S), and the second in the
western Atlantic (40N to 25 S). The billfishes include marlins, sailfish and spearfish (Nakamura,
1985). The swordfish includes one species only. With the exception of two spearfish species,
these fish have wide geographical distributions, but do not necessarily occur in all oceans. The
other species of importance to fisheries include wahoo, bullet, frigate tuna, kawakawa, black
skipjack, little tuna, bonito, Spanish and king mackerels, seerfish and sierra (Joseph sL al> 1988;
FAO, 1992J). These represent a significant potential for some coastal countries, being frequently
subject to artisanal and/or recreational fishing.
-71 -
Most tuna and tuna-like species are commercially caught with purse-seine, longline and pole
and line methods (Joseph fit aL 1988; Joseph, 1990). The first and third methods are used for fish
swimming close to the surface (e.g., skipjack and small to medium yellowfm, albacore and
northern and southern bluefin tuna), whereas the last method targets fish at greater depths (e.g.,
large northern and southern bluefin tuna, bigeye tuna, yellowfm tuna, albacore, billfish and
swordfish; the last two species, especially billfish, being by-catch). Most of purse seine and pole
and line catches are canned, while longline catches with the exception of those of albacore, are
mainly sold for the sashimi market.
The use of pole and line and longline methods has been generally declining, while purse
seining is becoming more popular (Joseph, 1990). This has resulted in increased catches of
skipjack and small to medium yellowfm, while catches of big yellowfm and the other principal
market tuna species have remained relatively stable. The other gears used are troll lines, hand-
lines, driftnets, traps and harpoons. Natural or artificial fish aggregating devices (FADs) are often
utilized in conjunction with purse-seining, pole and line fishing or hand-lining.
Trends in Catches and Fishing Operations: The total annual catch of tuna and tuna-like species
has been steadily increasing from an average catch of about 1.9 million t in the early 1970s to 4.2
million t in 1990 (FAO, 1992J). During the same period, the catch of the principal market tuna
species increased from 1.4 to 2.8 million t (FAO, 1992J). With a more than two fold increase in
the annual catch of skipjack and yellowfm catches, these species made up 45% and 35%,
respectively, of the 1990 catch of principal market tunas. The catches of the other principal market
tuna species remained steady (albacore and bigeye tuna) or decreased (southern and northern bluefin
tuna).
A total of 71% of the skipjack, 66% of the yellowfm, 58% of the bigeye and 53% of
albacore were taken in the Pacific in 1990. The Indian Ocean catch of skipjack was 1.6 times
higher than that in the Atlantic, but that for yellowfm was comparable in the two Oceans. The
bigeye and albacore catches in the Atlantic were, respectively, 1.5 and 1.7 times higher than those
in the Indian Ocean. The northern bluefin tuna is taken mainly in the Atlantic (79%) with the
remainder in the Pacific. Most southern bluefin tuna are taken in the Indian Ocean (61 %) and the
remainder in the Pacific and Atlantic.
Approximately 63% of the 1990 catch of the principal market tuna species was taken by the
traditional tuna fishing countries: Japan (649 OOOt), Taiwan (Province of China) (278 OOOt), Spain
(262 OOOt), Republic of Korea (233 OOOt), USA (233 OOOt) and France (144 OOOt) (FAO, 1992J).
Between 1985 and 1990, the combined catch of these countries increased by 30% mainly due to
increased catches by the Republic of Korea, Taiwan (Province of China), Spain and France. The
catches of the first two countries more than doubled mainly in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The
landings of the remaining, mostly developing countries increased by 36% during the period (FAO,
1992J). Off Southeast Asia in both the Indian and Pacific Oceans, tuna fisheries are growing,
including the artisanal sector catching mostly small tunas, skipjack and yellowfm (FAO, 1992h;k).
This sector's growth was also significant in the entire Indian Ocean. In addition to traditional tuna
fishing countries, Indonesia, the Philippines, Mexico, Venezuela, Maldives, Ecuador, Panama,
Ghana and the Solomon Islands contributed most to the 1990 catch. In fact, the catches of Indonesia
and the Philippines have exceeded that of France.
-72-
In the early 1980s (mainly in 1983 and 1984), part of the Spanish and French purse-seine
fleets shifted from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, significantly contributing to the increase in
Indian Ocean catches of tuna and tuna-like species (more than doubled between the early 1980s and
1989, with a slight decrease in 1990), while in the Pacific and Atlantic, these catches increased by
41 % and 6% , respectively. Now, some of the purse-seiners have moved back to the Atlantic. Most
US purse-seiners have stopped operating in the eastern Pacific because of incidental catches of
dolphins (see further text); some have now moved to the western Pacific. The Republic of Korea
and Taiwan (Province of China) have also started substantial purse-seine operations in the western
Pacific. Coastal countries, including island countries in the Indian and western Pacific Oceans are
entering the tuna fishing through the purchase of purse-seiners and longliners (Law son, 1992). This
trend is expected to continue to grow in the near future.
Because the catches of non-principal market tuna species other than billfish and swordfish
are mostly taken by developing countries, where the system of collecting and processing fishery
statistics still needs improvement, catch statistics for these species may be less reliable and few,
if any, management measures control their exploitation. Also, some catches of these species are
discarded and not reported by industrial fisheries. The very rapid catch increase from 1970 to 1990
may partly reflect an improvement in the statistics (FAO, 1992J). Also, the catch composition of
the secondary species is frequently not accurate, because of likely misidentification of species. The
1990 catch was composed mainly of Japanese Spanish mackerel (247 OOOt) frigate and bullet tuna
(215 OOOt), longtail tuna (141 OOOt), narrow-barred Spanish mackerel (115 OOOt), kawakawa
(98 OOOt), swordfish (77 OOOt), eastern Pacific bonito (54 OOOt), seerfish (46 OOOt) and Indo-Pacific
king mackerel (43 OOOt) (FAO, 1992J).
The catch of tunas other than the principal species, also rose from about 0.5 million t in the
early 1970s to 1.5 million t in 1990 (FAO, 1992J). Only a very small portion of this catch is
composed of billfish and swordfish (10% in 1990), taken mainly in the Pacific and Atlantic.
Status of Stocks: (The areas mentioned in this section encompass the assumed natural boundaries
of stocks, which are not necessarily FAO's statistical areas.) Many stocks of the principal market
species appear to be heavily to fully exploited and some stocks are overfished (northern bluefin tuna
in the western Atlantic and southern bluefin tuna). Skipjack in all Oceans is an exception. Also,
recent studies indicate that the present catch of yellowfin in the western Pacific can be more than
doubled without adversely affecting the stock. Yellowfin tuna in the central and western Pacific
and albacore in the Atlantic are moderately exploited. In the Indian Ocean, fisheries for tunas and
tuna-like species operated at relatively low intensity until the early 1980s, but the status of these
stocks is not well-known (FAO, 1990b). The status of yellowfin tuna in the western Atlantic,
albacore in the Indian Ocean and northern bluefin tuna in the Pacific is largely unknown.
The stock of albacore in the North Atlantic is moderately exploited (ICCAT, 1993). In the
South Atlantic, MSY for albacore was estimated at 20-28 OOOt, and there is some evidence of a
decline in the stock to 20-30% of the unexploited level (ICCAT, 1993). In the Indian Ocean, the
stock of albacore seems to be heavily exploited, but its assessment is uncertain (FAO, 19905). In
the North Pacific, the albacore stock at present is, at least, one third smaller than that in the mid
1970s, but the stock seems to be in a stable condition (Shomura, el aL in press). In the South
-73-
Pacific, the deep water strata of the resource (older age groups) is presently heavily fished (South
Pacific Commission, 19925). On the basis of data from that fishery, MSY was estimated at
31 000-37 OOOt, but might be increased by surface fishing, though this could affect longline catch-
rates. The 1988/89 combined driftnet, longline and troll catch might be unsustainable, but the
driftnet fishery ceased in response to United Nations resolution on this fishery (FAO, 1990a).
In the Atlantic, bigeye tuna are fished at a level close to MSY, which is estimated at
67 000-76 OOOt (ICCAT, 1993). In the Indian Ocean, bigeye tuna are heavily fished, but probably
they are in a healthy condition (FAO, 19905). In the Pacific, the stock of bigeye tuna is exploited
at a level close to MSY (139 000-170 OOOt) (Shomura ei aL in press). In the Atlantic, skipjack are
only moderately exploited. In the Indian Ocean, the stock of skipjack seems to be in a healthy
condition, but its potential is largely unknown (FAO, 19905). Catches of skipjack can probably
be further increased both in the eastern, central and western Pacific (South Pacific Commission,
1992a; IATTC, 1992).
The 1989 abundance of medium sized (five to nine years old) and large (over ten years old)
northern bluefm tuna was two thirds and just over a half, respectively, of the 1970 levels for the
eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea (ICCAT, 1993). Small fish (two to four years old) have
been increasing in abundance with large fluctuations since 1970. In the western Atlantic, the stock
is considered significantly overfished and the biomass of adults is now only 10-23% of the 1970
level. In the North Pacific, the status of northern bluefm tuna is uncertain and recruitment seems
to be highly variable (IATTC, 1992). It is probable that the yield-per-recruit could be increased
by increasing the minimum age of capture to 2.5 years. The southern bluefm tuna in the Indian,
Pacific and South Atlantic Oceans is overexploited; its parental biomass has been in a continuous
decline, at least until 1990. Recent analyses have suggested a decline in recruitment from 1975 to
1983, but subsequent recruitment levels could not be determined.
The eastern Atlantic stock of yellowfm tuna is exploited at about the MSY level (ICCAT,
1993). The 1990 catch of 147 OOOt was above the estimated MSY of 132 OOOt due to strong year
classes, but fishing effort seemed to be slightly below that associated with MSY. The status of the
western Atlantic stock is uncertain (ICCAT, 1993). In the Indian Ocean, yellowfm tuna do not
seem to be threatened by overexploitation, despite the tremendous increase of catch during the last
ten years (FAO, 1992i). However, more research is needed before their status can be precisely
determined. In the western and central Pacific, most analyses suggest that a doubling of the present
yellowfm catch is sustainable (South Pacific Commission, 1992a). In the eastern Pacific, the stock
declined between the 1970s and 1982 and then increased due to targeting at larger fish (improving
the yield-per-recruit) and due to increased recruitment, which has stabilized since 1985 (IATTC,
1992). The stock now appears to be slightly underexploited.
Fishery statistics for billfish and Indian and Pacific Ocean swordfish, are incomplete and
even basic biological information is limited (FAO, 19905). Some concern has been expressed about
blue and white marlin in the Atlantic (ICCAT, 1993). Swordfish in the North Atlantic has been
intensively fished close to the MSY level if not already exceeding it (ICCAT, 1993). There are
indications that sailfish are moderately exploited in the western Atlantic and less so in the eastern
Atlantic (ICCAT, 1993). Very little is known about the status of billfish and swordfish in the
-74-
Indian Ocean, but the last species seems to be underexploited. Similarly, Pacific swordfish appears
to be moderately exploited (FAO, 1990b).
Fisheries Management Concerns: The overall potential yield from the tuna and tuna-like resources
depends on the combination of fishing techniques used because different methods have different
ability to target the various age groups. Improvements in the yield can be achieved in some cases
(e.g., albacore and yellowfin in the Atlantic and northern and southern bluefin tuna) by protecting
small or immature fish and targeting more precisely older age-groups. Problems occur with
compliance to the present size regulations (e.g., within the framework of the International
Commission for Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), especially for northern bluefin tuna in
the Mediterranean Sea (FAO, in press). In general, small fish frequently aggregate at their nursery
grounds along the coasts, and large fish occur offshore where they are only available to industrial
fisheries. The need to protect dolphins in the eastern Pacific may lead to smaller catches of large
yellowfin usually associated with dolphins, leading to sub-optimal tuna fishing (National Research
Council (U.S.). Committee on Reducing Porpoise Mortality from Tuna Fishing, 1992). Protection
of small sizes may be ineffective for stocks with high natural mortality like skipjack, or are locally
ineffective in areas with intense emigration.
Bio-economic interactions among fisheries need to be scientifically addressed for the
resolution of fisheries management problems. Coordinated effort in this direction is being made.
For example, FAO has initiated a Japan-funded Trust Fund project: "Cooperative Research on
Interactions of Pacific Tuna Fisheries". Its activities are carried out within a framework of the
"TUNET" network of ten Working Groups. In 1991, the project sponsored the First FAO Expert
Consultation on Interactions of Pacific Tuna Fisheries hosted in Noumea, New Caledonia by the
South Pacific Commission (SPC) and in cooperation with the Office de la Recherche Scientifique
et Technique Outre-Mer (ORSTOM).
Dolphins caught incidentally by purse-seiners are one area of concern, primarily for
yellowfin in the eastern Pacific (National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Reducing
Porpoise Mortality from Tuna Fishing, 1992). Research and monitoring have been aiming at
reducing the incidental mortality of dolphins. Also, some management restrictions have been
imposed. Recently, many canneries have stopped accepting tuna that are caught with dolphins.
This has implications on the fishing operation in the eastern Pacific, where the fishing intensity has
decreased (some boats moved to the western Pacific) and less large yellowfin, which are usually
associated with dolphins, are being caught.
WHALES AND DOLPHINS
Whales: Cetaceans are traditionally classified as either large or small. The first group is composed
of baleen (with the exception of pigmy right whale) and sperm whales, while the second includes
small toothed whales and dolphins. Cetaceans exist in all oceans, from the Arctic to the Antarctic
(FAO, 1978; Watson, 1981). Some species including those of major, or formerly major,
commercial importance (blue, humpback, fin, sei, minke, sperm whales and killer whale) are
cosmopolitan.
-75-
Marine mammal resources are among the most vulnerable to overfishing because of their
slow growth, low fecundity and, possibly also through the link between social behaviour and
reproductive success. In particular, unrestrained whaling severely reduced many stocks in the 18th
and 19th centuries and nearly all species of large whales early in the 20th century, giving one of
the best examples of non-sustainable development in fisheries. With the exception of minke whale
(Kasamatsu, 1990; Oeien, 1991), Gray whale in the eastern North Pacific and Bryde's whale in
some oceans, the large cetaceans have been seriously depleted, in some cases perhaps beyond the
level of recovery.
Early concern about unrestricted whaling resulted in the signing of the Convention for the
Regulation of Whaling in 1931 and the consequent creation of an International Whaling
Commission (IWC) in 1946 (Gulland, 1990). This did not prevent the serious decline in the
abundance of important species like the blue and humpback whales. At that time, quotas did not
differentiate among different species and geographical areas (Lamkester, 1988). Quotas were
reduced by more than 90% between 1937 and 1969, partly, because of scientific advice given by
the IWC Scientific Committee and, certainly, because quotas were not able to be filled. Finally in
1965, the IWC reduced catch limits towards levels which it was hoped the stocks could sustain.
At the same time, blue whale fishing was banned. In 1972, quotas were set by species and
specifically for sperm whales by sex. However, they applied to whole ocean areas without taking
into account possible stock boundaries. By 1976, 13 years after scientists 9 recommendations to
introduce such a system, all major whale stocks were placed under individual quota regulations.
The Indian Ocean Sanctuary was established in 1979.
In 1982, the cessation of commercial whaling was approved pending a Comprehensive
Assessment. This important decision was based largely on political considerations, despite the
opinion of some parties that some species, such as southern and northern stocks of minke whales,
were able to sustain some controlled exploitation. The actual phasing out of fishing was very
gradual but, by 1988, whaling was dg facto limited to aboriginal subsistence fishing by
Greenlanders, Alaskan Eskimos and Siberian Aleuts. Limited additional catches were taken for
scientific purposes by some whaling nations, despite doubts on this procedure forcefully expressed
by other members of the IWC Scientific Committee.
In conjunction with the Comprehensive Assessment process, the final Revised Management
Procedure was adopted in 1992, taking into account existing uncertainties in information and data
and calling for protection of stocks reduced below 54% of the pre-exploitation level. This coincided
with the completion of the Comprehensive Assessment for the Southern Hemisphere and North
Atlantic minke whales. It is planned to assess the other baleen whales in the Southern Hemisphere
and North Atlantic minke whales very soon. Some traditional whaling countries now hope to
overturn the moratorium in the context of the Revised Management Procedure, and to re-open the
minke whale fishery. This clashes with the opposing view of other countries concerned principally
with conservation, and is leading to a crisis within the IWC. The conservation and management of
whales was also considered at the meeting of UNCED's Preparatory Committee and by the
Conference itself in Rio de Janeiro (June 1992). The central role of IWC was re-confirmed, but
the proposal for a new moratorium did not receive conclusive support.
-76-
Small Cetaceans: The knowledge of the biology, stock structure, and status of small cetaceans is
generally more limited than for large cetaceans. In fact, for some of them, very little is known.
The populations of some species have a wide geographical distribution and they could be considered
as highly migratory. However, many other species form local stocks. Small cetaceans have been
targeted mainly by coastal fisheries (Harwood and Hembree, 1987; Goodall el aL 1988; van
Waerebeek and Reyes, 1990) even though they also occur on high seas. They have also been
incidentally caught by many fisheries operating on high seas as well as in EEZs (Peltier l aL,
1992), but there is frequently little or no information available on these catches. Large scale gillnet
and purse seine fisheries, both coastal and on high seas take incidental catches of small cetaceans.
The operation of these fisheries on the high seas is subject to Resolution 44/225 of the General
Assembly on Large-Scale Pelagic Driftnet Fishing and Its Impact on Living Marine Resources of
the World's Oceans and Seas, which recommends that a moratorium be imposed on these fisheries
by 30 June 1992 unless effective conservation and management measures are taken, based upon
statistically sound analysis.
The management of small cetaceans resources leaves a lot to be desired. During UNCED's
process in 1991/92, there was a debate on whether small cetaceans should be managed on a global
basis (e.g., through IWC with an enlarged mandate) or regionally (through regional fishery bodies).
No agreement was reached. Fortunately, IWC as well as the Programme and Coordinating
Committee (PCC) of the FAO/UNDP Marine Mammal Action Plan have recently paid more
attention to small cetaceans, which are not often considered by traditional fisheries management
bodies.
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN MARINE FISHERIES
In recent years, an important change in perception has been gradually emerging in fisheries
science. Traditionally, the point of view has been that fish population dynamics operate within a
stable environmental context. However, environmentally-induced fluctuations in the 1970s changed
our views on the validity of steady-state models. Environmental variation often has overwhelming
effects on fishing success, on fish populations, and on the ecosystems that support them.
Anthropogenic effects, including effects of runoff from land and possible climate change,
also now require that stock assessments be preceded by a broader evaluation of the likely nature
and direction of such change. The importance of reconciling ecological, economic and biological
criteria in setting management goals needs to be specifically recognized early in the assessment
process.
The most dramatic effects of nutrient runoff have involved semi-enclosed systems (Caddy,
1993) such as the Black Sea and Baltic Sea. However, river runoff entering coastal waters is under
the influence of Coriolis and other dynamic forces (Mann and Lazier, 1991), and tends to remain
discrete and close to the coast. Thus, even in more open bodies of water such as the North Sea and
Adriatic, river plumes may run parallel to the coast for hundreds of kilometres; hence the effects
of successive rivers may be additive. Other types of rather stable hydro-dynamical structures,
gyres, etc., also contribute to local retention of water masses (Sinclair, 1988). Eutrophication
resulting from input and retention of nutrients in coastal waters has resulted in changes in biological
-77-
community structure. For example, it has been implicated (Mellegaard and Nielson, 1990) in
periodic formation of anoxic bottom conditions in the open North Sea off the Danish coast (see
also, boxes for the Mediterranean and Black Seas).
Natural Environmental Perturbations
Establishing impacts of fishing and other anthropogenic effects is complicated by the wide
natural variations which characterize the dynamics of our planetary system and its coupled oceans
and atmosphere. A well known example is the El Nino phenomenon which had devastating effects
on a number of marine populations, particularly in the eastern Pacific (Glantz and Thompson, 1981 ;
Wooster and Fluharty, 1985). El Nifio episodes appear at irregular frequencies of generally two
to ten years, but particularly strong El Nifio events may arise only once or twice a century.
Because the ocean-atmosphere system of the Pacific is so large and so dominant over global
weather patterns, El Nino events are a major source of climatic variability world-wide (Angel and
Korshover, 1984). For example, fluctuations in the annual monsoon cycle in the Indian Ocean and
western Pacific Ocean regions are strongly linked with El Nino occurrences. Apparent connections
have also been reported to rainfall patterns in such widely- separated regions as northeastern Brazil,
southern Africa, central North America and Russia (Glantz t aL, 1987). At the time of
preparation of this document, the global system has been undergoing an El Nino episode of
substantial intensity (see "Pelagic catches off western South America" box). This event will
undoubtedly affect both the landings and the population dynamics of important fish populations in
many regions of the world.
Another major recent event has been the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the
Philippines in June of 1991 . Aerosols in the earth's stratosphere due to this eruption appear to have
led to a recent global average cooling of 0.5C, which is equivalent to the average global warming
occurring over the past century. The amount of direct solar radiation reaching the earth's surface
may have declined by as much as 20-30% since the eruption. These effects are expected to persist
for several years (Anon., 1992).
Many of the world's commercial fish populations are dependent on estuarine environments
at some stage in their life cycles. Of those that are not, many inhabit the large areas of the world's
continental shelves which are affected by freshwater inflows. As noted, these inflows tend to
spread along shore, rather than dispersing in the open ocean. In such areas, the processes of
nutrient enrichment, larvae transport and retention, frontal formation, dispersion and concentration
of larvae and larval food, to which life-cycles are adapted, all tend to be dependent on freshwater-
seawater interactions. In the second half of the 20th century, global water use has been rising by
4-8% annually (IPCC, 1990). It is continuing to grow in the developing world, while it is
stabilizing in industrial countries, withdrawals are nearly equal to locally generated runoff, and
water quality has deteriorated markedly.
Moreover, major alteration of sediment loading in freshwater runoff is occurring. Roughly
30% of the world's freshwater outflow is contributed by the Amazon River system. However,
Milliman (1981) has estimated that of the roughly 8 thousand million t of sediment carried to the
sea by the world's 40 largest rivers, nearly 50% comes from the long-ago deforested Hwang-Ho
-78-
and Ganges/Brahmaputra systems which together contribute only about 6% of the total freshwater
outflow; a additional 24% of the total sediment discharge comes from four other major rivers
draining the Indo-Asian landmass where population densities are high. Rapid development and
deforestation of African and South American watersheds are leading to massive increases in river
sediment burdens in these regions. Corresponding effects on anadromous, estuarine-dependent, and
coastal species may be expected.
Global Climate Change
The same factors of human population growth, intensive agriculture, industrial development,
and deforestation that affect freshwater, estuarine and near-shore ecosystems, also act to change
the basic climatic context in which these processes operate. Recent decades have seen a continuing
accumulation of carbon dioxide and other "greenhouse" gases in the earth's atmosphere, leading
to predictions of global climate changes (Ramanathan, 1988). Although there is controversy as to
the precise nature of these changes, the bulk of current scientific opinion is that substantial climate
changes are likely to occur over a relatively brief time scale (i.e. , decades). The effects on marine
ecosystems and organisms would go beyond mere temperature change. Fish typically have complex
life cycles in which certain stages are at the mercy of dynamic processes acting within the ocean-
atmosphere system, which are ultimately driven by the pattern of global heating. This is the very
thing that is altered by accumulation of atmospheric greenhouse gases.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has assembled the best available
consensus of views of the scientific community on the probable magnitudes of the expected changes
(IPCC, 1990). These include an effective doubling of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere between
now and 2025 to 2050 (for a "business as usual" scenario), with an increase of global mean
temperature in the range of 1.5C to 4.5C. The direct impacts on the marine system would include
a sea-level rise of about 20 cm by 2030 and about 65 cm by 2100 with an average rise in the
temperature of the surface layer of between 0.2 and 2.5C. Despite recent international agreements
to limit production of ozone-destructive gases, depletion of the earth's protective layer of
stratospheric ozone is expected to continue unabated at least through the 1990s.
The potential consequences to marine ecosystems, and to fish populations, are many and
varied. Temperature has pronounced physiological effects on organisms, directly controlling
physiological rates of cold-blooded organisms. Areas of temperature conditions appropriate for
particular species will probably be altered substantially. Because the changes would be
unprecedentedly rapid, biological adaptations to the new conditions would lag. Thus fish
populations may lose access to ocean structures and interfaces vital to their reproductive strategies.
Migratory navigation may be dependent on ocean temperature gradients and isotherm positions, and
hence finely tuned migratory behaviours may be disrupted. There may be changes in overlaps
among various predator and prey species, altering the viability of certain populations within them.
One concrete effect, which is evident in response to normal climatic variation, is the latitudinal
movement of the centre of stock distributions in relation to maritime boundaries: this effect, which
has already been detected in some areas (e.g., the pelagic stocks in the Southeast Pacific), could
be accentuated by climate change, and lead to gg facto changes in allocation of fishery resources
between adjacent coastal states.
-79-
Variations in wind conditions are among the most important environmental factors affecting
reproduction of many fish species. One likely "greenhouse effect" is increased contrast in
temperature between heated land masses and the oceans during the warmer seasons. This would
amplify sea breezes and alongshore winds, enhance wind-driven offshore transport in the surface
layer, and intensify upwelling and turbulence in coastal regions (Baton, 1990). On the other hand,
greenhouse effects will tend to lessen the tropical-polar gradient in global heating.
The potential effects of climate change on freshwater runoff are uncertain, but it appears
that many land areas would experience increases in precipitation, while others may experience
decreases. The IPCC Report (IPCC, 1990) estimates that in some limited areas, as much as a 40%
to 70% reduction in annual runoff could occur. Increased winter temperatures will have important
ramifications on seasonal runoff patterns. Marine ecosystems associated with mountainous drainage
basins will likely be particularly severely impacted.
Sea level rise would flood shallow water habitat and nursery grounds. Inundation and
erosion of coastlands could lead to increased marine ecosystem productivity, but also to
eutrophication and pollution of marine habitats. Sea level is already rising at over one centimetre
per decade (with regional variations due to local geological movements). Too rapid a rise due to
climate change might drown coral reefs and reduce fishery production and biological diversity. In
addition, the fishing sectors of low lying countries would suffer economic distress and dislocation
caused by loss of coastal property and facilities by coastal flooding and erosion.
Reductions in the earth's ozone shield may affect both the health of fishermen and others
involved in exposed outdoor activities and the resources on which their livelihood depends. The
increased cell damage that affects all organisms exposed to increased ultraviolet radiation affects
the viability of fish larvae, which are often concentrated very near the sea surface.
As the above patterns become apparent, it will be important to have already begun
assembling the necessary information to correlate these to patterns of response of fishery resources.
This requires collecting and assembling data in ways that will allow definition of sub-regional and
inter-regional patterns of response, in a period of unprecedentedly rapid global environmental
change.
-81-
LIST OF ACRONYMS
ACFM
ASEAN
BOBP
CAFSAC
CCAMLR
CDQ
CECAF
CITES
COFI
CPPS
DANIDA
EEZ
FAD
FAO
FFA
GFCM
IATTC
ICCAT
ICJ
ICLARM
ICNAF
ICSEAF
INPFC
IOFC
IPCC
IPFC
IPHC
ISSCAAP
ITQ
IVQ
IWC
MAP
MSY
NAFO
NASCO
NORAD
ODA
OLDEPESCA
ORSTOM
PCC
PICES
SCORRAD
SEAFDEC
Advisory Committee on Fisheries Management
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
Bay of Bengal Project
Canadian Atlantic Fisheries Scientific Advisory Commttee
Convention for Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
Community development quotas
Commission for the Eastern Central Atlantic Fisheries
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (IUCN)
Committee on Fisheries
Permanent Commission for the Southeast Pacific
Danish International Development Agency
Exclusive economic zone
Fish aggregating devices
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Fisheries Forum Agency
General Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean
Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission
International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas
International Court of Justice
International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management
International Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries
International Commission for the Southeast Atlantic Fisheries
International North Pacific Fisheries Commission
Indian Ocean Fisheries Commission
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Indo-Pacific Fisheries Commission
International Pacific Halibut Commission
International Standard Statistical Classification of Aquatic Animals and Plants
Individual transferable quotas
Individual vessel quotas
International Whaling Commission
Marine Mammal Action Plan
Maximum sustainable yield
Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization
North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization
Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation
Overseas Development Administration
Organizacidn Latinoamericana para el Desarrollo de la Pesca
Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre-Mer
Programme and Coordinating Committee of the FAO/UNDP
North Pacific Marine Science Organization
Standing Committee on Resources Research and Development
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center
fi-
SIDA
SOFA
SPC
TAG
TIM
UNDP
Unesco
WECAFC
10
Swedish International Development Agency
State of Food and Agriculture
South Pacific Commission
Total allowable catch
A network of ten Working
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations Environment Programme
It
Western Central Atlantic Fisheries Commission
Organization
-83-
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C. MARINE RESOURCE TABLES
Notes for all tables
Source of information for all tables: 1970-1990 Yearbooks of Fishery statistics
(Catches and landings), FAO, Rome
Additional sources of information by individual area:
Eastern Central Atlantic (Area 34)
1970-1989: CECAF Statistical Bulletins
1990: Provisional FISHDAB (Fishery Data Base, Rome)
Mediterranean and Black Sea (Area 37)
1970-1989: GFCM Statistical Bulletins
Southeast Atlantic (Area 47)
1975-1988: ICSEAF Bulletins
1989: Questionnaires supplied by member countries
Main fishing countries: The main fishing countries are listed in ranking order by catch size
Country descriptions: The former USSR is listed as USSR in the tables since the reorganization
of the States had not occurred by 1990
Catches and landings: All catches and landings are expressed in metric tons and are rounded
to the nearest thousand tons
State of exploitation: The state of exploitation is for the latest information available and noted
by the following abbreviations:
? = Unknown/uncertain
U = Under-exploited
M = Moderately exploited
F = Fully/heavily exploited
O = Over-exploited
D = Depleted
R = Recovering
NOTE TO READERS: If you have information that you believe will contribute to improving
the accuracy of future revisions of this document, you are kindly requested to entitle it "C710
revision" and send it to The Chief, Marine Resources Service, FAO, Via delle Terme di
Caracalla, 00100 Rome
Table 5
Northwest Atlantic (Area 21)
i33zsic8X8*8Zzszxz3zzszz33333Zzxzz2zzzzz3Z3Z333Zzszzz2Z3zzzzzz::zzzzzz:zzz:::zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz:zz::zz3zs3Z3S33zz3szz3zzzx
Main fishing Catches f'OOOt) State of
Stock a/ countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
Z8XCXZZXXZt8ZXS8Z3SZStXZ38ZSZZZZ3Z3XZZZZZZZ2ZZXZZ2ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ2ZZZZZZ=ZZZZZZZZZ3Z2ZZZXZZSZZZZZSZZZZ33ZS33S3Z33333XZ33
Atlantic cod Canada, Greenland, USA, 972 538 654 640 667 601 626 630 543 F-0
Portugal, Spain, Germany
Red hake USA, Portugal 45 15 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 D
Haddock Canada, USA 34 42 67 50 55 35 35 30 25
Saithe (Pollock) Canada, USA 34 43 54 66 78 75 62 58 50 F
Silver hake USSR, USA, Cuba 270 136 71 99 103 78 91 106 91 U
Roundnose Germany, USSR, 42 24 5 5 7 8 6 5 4 M
grenadier Portugal
Atlantic redfish Canada, USSR, Portugal 267 165 123 128 166 209 148 162 180 F-0
Flatfishes Canada, USA, Spain 284 238 212 205 217 220 182 163 159 F-D
Other groundfish USA,Canada,USSR,Spain 137 118 94 97 111 122 96 90 118
Capelin Canada, USSR 130 217 42 54 84 66 110 118 184 R
Atlantic herring Canada, USA 612 320 199 220 223 287 284 275 314 R
Atlantic menhaden USA 273 267 313 312 222 297 327 326 395 F
Atlantic USA, Canada, Germany, 355 133 29 55 64 74 79 74 65 U
mackerel USSR, Bulgaria, Poland
Other fish USA, Canada, USSR 140 92 59 69 57 80 54 62 63
Total fishes 3595 2348 1925 2002 2056 2155 2102 2M 2193
xzz388sxcx8&xxxszzxxzzzzzczzzzztz3szzzzzzz33zzzzzzzzzzzzzzz::zzzzzzzzzz=zzzz::zzzzzzz::::z=z2xzzzzxzzzr;::zzzzzrzzzzz::zzr::zzzzz
Table 5 (continued)
ssssssxszssssss
Stock a/
crabs
Main fishing
countries
(1990)
EXXZZXZI
USA, Canada
American lobster Canada, USA
Northern prawn Greenland
Other shrimp Canada
Scallops
USA, Canada
Clans (quahogs, USA, Canada
soft shell)
Squids
Other molluscs
USA
Catches ('OOOt) State of
1970 1975 I960 19BS 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
-74 -79 -84
46 50 95 99 94
87 85 90
30 33 43 54 59 60 63 67 74
12 42 46 56 65 71 76 63 89 f
13
8 11 14 15 18 19 20 23 F
Total crustaceans
101
133
195
223
233
229
245
255
276
Amer. cupped oyster USA, Canada
173
146
118
53
72
59
38
34
28
I
Cupped oyster USA
1
1
11
M
s
73 182 152 108 129 190 191 205 219 P
231 232 325 435 418 395 382 414 420
45 117 58 23 23 24 2 37 39
5 8 16 25 31 28 42 34 27
Total molluscs
Others
527 685 669 644 673 696 676 725 744
1 1
1 1
1 3
xxzxxaxxzzxxxxsxixjzxsissszsriszszzzzssrzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzsrszzzzzzzzizzzzzzzzzrxstzzzxzzzzzzszrszzzzzzszrsxzszrxx
Total area
4224 3167 2790 2870 2964 3081 3026 3086 3221
a/ Fart of stock occupies Western Central Atlantic (Area 31).
Management measures, All important stocks in Canadian, NAFO (Northern Atlantic Fisheries Organization) and northern areas
are covered by catch quotas. These quotas are set by coastal states (Canada and EEC) for waters within 200 miles and by
NAFO for waters beyond national jurisdiction. In addition to quotas, there are controls on effort, gear, area and season.
Table 6
Northeast Atlantic (Area 27)
SM M M .,.., S 8 .. SSSSSH SSSSSSSSSS .. SSSK
Main fishing Catches ('OOOt) State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
tttIIlIItMtIi MS ii lS tBsssssss . SSSS3gssssIsrssssss!!Ss . s! . sas .. ssl . ss . ssgsssssBssasss ___ ssssigBsi[sj(ss ^^_ s ^ s _ s ^^^
Freshwater and Norway, UK, 56 49 66 85 110 124 172 228 279 ?
diadromous UK Scotland, Finland
Plaice Netherlands,Denmark, 184 167 147 203 182 185 192 192 205 F
UK England Hales
Common sole Netherlands, France, 31 23 29 34 28 30 28 29 32 F
Belgium
Other flatfish Iceland, Norway, 159 127 147 143 140 157 171 180 155 p
Spain, France
i
Tusk Norway, Faeroe Is. 32 34 42 44 44 41 34 43 40 ? 5
Atlantic cod Iceland, Norway, 1831 1714 1527 1314 1368 1468 1330 1145 955
Denmark, USSR
Ling France, Norway, 68 73 84 87 85 87 81 82 74 ?
Iceland, Spain
Haddock i Iceland,UK Scotland, 601 385 312 327 364 363 303 239 183 o
Norway, Faeroe Is.
Saithe (Pollock) Norway, Iceland, 646 537 439 439 388 409 390 379 373 p
Faeroe Is., France
Polar cod "SSR 193 18 29 11 1 ?
Norway pout Norway, Denmark, 523 541 500 391 285 339 277 352 296 H-F
"=:::=::r=r:=:is::z::
Table 6 (continued)
8x8xxzxx8x8xxx888sxxxzszxxxsxszsssssssszzs3s3s*8ss8ss5ssssssss:sssss8sss8sss:::r:szsss8s8szsxsxxxsss3sssss8sxxss8sssxxszxxz
Main fishing Catches ('OOOt) State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1960 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
XXXXXXSXXXXXXXXXSXXXXXfXXXXXXXSSSSSXXSSSSSSSSSZSSXSSXSSXSXSSSSXSSSXSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSZSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSXSSSSSXSXSSSSXSSS
Blue whiting Norway, USSR, 41 410 729 651 804 693 661 651 566 H-F
(Poutassou) Denmark, Faeroe Is.
Whiting UK Scotland, France, 204 220 178 134 113 118 119 94 91 F
UK England Males
European hake Spain, France, 97 76 . 66 77 72 72 72 67 68 F
Portugal, Denmark
Other gadoids France, Spain, USSR 42 52 53 45 67 55 53 47 45 ?
Sandeels Denmark, Norway, 358 643 681 657 973 857 1042 1134 753 F
UK Scotland
Atlantic Iceland, Norway, 155 312 292 271 253 209 222 175 192 F
redfishes USSR
Monk France, Spain,
(Angler fish) UK Scotland
35 37 53 60 52 54 55 54 53 ?
Other demersal Denmark,France,Ice- 145 155 119 118 144 194 200 191 153 ?
fish land,Norway,Faeroe I
Capelin Iceland, Norway, 1658 2921 2426 2132 1292 1022 1031 777 797 F
Faeroe Is,
Atlantic horse Norway, Denmark, 279 234 169 206 229 261 357 384 405 M
mackerel Netherlands, Spain
Atlantic Norway, Sweden, 1373 764
herring Denmark, USSR, UK
Scotland, Netherlands
Iceland, Finland
1294 1307 1305 1401 1356 1225 H-D
Table 6 (continued)
Main fishing Catches {'OOOt) State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
8888ZS888Z33838S88S8SSSS8Z8S88S8SSZSS8ZSSSZ8ZSS:SSS:ZSZSZSSS:SS:SZ:r:s=S:ZZrSS:S888S8S:S8ZZSSSSSS88SS88SZ:SZZSSS8SSSSSS8S88
European sardine Portugal, Spain 161 164 217 220 199 182 175 173 177 F
(pilchard)
Sprat Denmark, USSR, Poland 402 748 426 212 200 246 255 209 190 H
European anchovy Spain, France 35 47 17 13 11 18 17 17 17 F
Atlantic UK Scotland, Norway, 482 724 589 536 537 616 622 511 585 F
mackerel Ireland, Netherlands
Tunas Spain, Portugal 53 49 46 44 53 59 62 48 50 F
Other pelagic Spain, Portugal 44 53 26 66 52 39 50 52 58 ? -
fish 8
I
Sharks France, Norway, 71 64 56 68 65 70 65 61 66 ?
UK Scotland
Skates France, UK England 31 27 27 23 25 30 28 26 23 Some species:D
Hales, UK Scotland Others: M
Other fish Portugal, France, 225 183 171 92 63 30 54 38 40 ?
USSR, Norway
Total fishes 10215 11571 10512 9997 9506 9333 9519 8934 8152
Crabs France, UK England 25 33 35 38 34 38 36 33 34 ?
Hales
Norway lobster UK Scotland, France 36 40 46 55 51 54 54 49 48 F
Northern prawn Norway, Iceland 21 33 85 172 127 115 112 113 133 F
B88888888888888888S83S8888S8S8888SZZ38ZSS8S88C8888SSSS88SS88S888&SSS:SS:8SSSS8ZSZS:SSZSSSSS8Z8SS8SS&SZSZZS8SSSZ8CZSSSSSSS:Z
Table 6 (continued)
SSSSSZSSSSSS:S23Sr=ZSS
Main fishing Catches ('OOOt) State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1965 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
8ZSZZZ3ZSZZZZZZ8Z8888ZZS31ZS8SS3SSSZZZZZZSZZZS3Z3ZSSSZ33SZSSSSS3SSrzSSZ3ZZZSZZZZZZZZZZS3S3SS8ZZSSSSZZZZSESS883333SSZ83S8
Common shrimp Netherlands, 40 38 46 20 20 21 20 24 16 F
+ Crangon Germany
Other crustaceans France, Spain 16 8 6 12 7 7 9 8 7 ?
Total crustaceans 138 152 218 297 239 235 231 227 238
Oysters France, Spain 70 99 103 142 146 135 135 144 149 F
Blue mussel Spain, Netherlands, 293 328 479 538 532 534 494 472 463 F
Denmark, France
Scallops Iceland,! Scotland, 41 44 49 50 61 89 64 48 55 F 2
Faeroe Is, *
I
Common cockle UK England Hales, 30 28 17 12 26 50 34 26 33 M
France, Germany
Cephalopoda France, Spain, Portugal 36 25 39 38 26 44 42 49 54 U
Other molluscs France, Portugal, Spain 41 32 27 21 30 37 50 45 38 ?
Total molluscs 511 556 714 801 821 889 819 786 792
Others a/ 420000000
Total area 10868 12281 11444 11095 10566 10457 10569 9947 9162
a/ Including starfish, purple sea urchin and aquatic invertebrates n.e.i,
Management measures. The management regime of this region is in a period of transition, with the establishment
of entailed jurisdiction by the coastal state, and the slow development of a common fishery policy by the EEC.
A variety of measures, principally catch quotas, and controls on mesh sizes and sizes of fish have been set.
Table 7
Western Central Atlantic (Area 31)
Main fishing Catches ('OOOt) State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
Freshwater and Venezuela 10 7 10 16 11 13 11 8 8 F
diadromous fishes
Snappers Venezuela, Hexico, 21 19 22 22 24 26 23 23 36 H-F
Cuba, USA
Groupers Hexico,Venezuela,USA 24 21 26 22 22 24 . 26 27 30
Grunts Venezuela, Cuba 29 23 8 9 9 9 7 8 8
Sciaenids Venezuela, USA, Hexico 37 39 31 30 31 29 28 29 28 ,
M
Sharks and Rays Hexico,Venezuela,USA 9 12 21 25 24 24 30 32 29 K "
I
Other demersal Hexico, Venezuela 36 38 51 32 28 33 34 37 36
fishes USA, Dominican Rep,
Mullets USA,Mexico,Venezuela 27 23 31 24 27 31 31 34 35 ? a/
Atlantic menhaden USA 51 80 83 47 34 26 34 31 34 F
Gulf menhaden USA 571 636 603 884 829 907 639 583 520 F
Round sardinella Venezuela 44 40 50 59 84 87 62 72 59 H
Other clupeoids USA, Cuba 20 15 11 10 6 5 6 9 9 H
King and Spanish Hexico, USA, 21 22 23 20 20 21 19 21 22 H-F
mackerels Venezuela
Other tunas Venezuela, USA 32 35 58 74 56 42 48 56 43 H
Stock
Unidentified
fishes
Table 7 (continued)
Main fishing Catches ('OOOt) State of
countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
Other pelagic Venezuela, USA,
fish Mexico, Barbados
Mexico, USA,
Guyana, Cuba
22 25 27 25 24 25 33 29 37
129 157 244 269 279 259 254 255 300
Total fishes
Crabs
USA, Mexico
Spiny lobsters Cuba, Bahamas
Shrimps
USA, Mexico
1083 1192 1499 1568 1508 1561 1285 1254 1234
35 41 49 51 51 56 65 55 48 U
20 22 24 30 28 26 25 26 22 F-0
170 166 171 183 201 180 165 174 180
Other crustaceans St Kitts and Nevis, 1
Virgin Is. Br,
1 2
1 1
Total crustaceans
226 230 244 265 281 264 256 256 251
Oysters USA, Mexico 161 172 206 223 186 173 158 152 127 Culture
potential
Cephalopods Mexico, Venezuela 5 7 10 10 13 12 12 18 19 U
Calico scallop USA
Other molluscs Venezuela, USA
9 14 150 126 17 85 122 68 11 M-F
17 33 38 54 41 49 44 56 54
Total molluscs
192 226 404 413 257 319 336 294 211
Others
Total area
1112
111
1502 1649 2148 2248 2047 2145 1878 1805 1697
a/ Probably moderately to heavily fished if the discards by shrimp trawlers are taken into account.
Table 8
Eastern Central Atlantic (CECAF - Area 34)
M****itMMsr*isis*ss*sssssasassBSssiBstrssssssssssssss=ss=sssBsssBss=sssssssisr=ssrsssssssssssrrsssasssssK**tists
CECAF Main fishing Catches ('OOOt)
Sub-areas stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990a/ State of
(1989) -74 -79 -84 exploitation
*M""S**MBBS8SESSBSSSSSSSBSSSSSSSSSSSSSSES8SS8SSSSSSBSSSSSSSS=E88SSSSSSSSSSSBSSBBSSSSSBSSSSSSBS8SSSSBSSrSSSSSSSSSSSB
NORTH
All sub-areas Cephalopods Korea Rep. , 173 146 133 96 122 86 108 123 o
Spain
34.1.1+34.1.3 Octopus Morocco, 94 79 79 57 64 45 61 62
Spain
34.1.3+34.3.1 Cuttlefish Spain,Senegal 30 25 24 16 22 15 17 18 o
Korea Rep, Italy
34.1.1+34.1.3 Squids Morocco 14 16 10 2 2 6 9 6 '
8
34.1.1+34.1.3 European USSR,Morocco, 392 630 484 299 316 633 769 972 F '
pilchard Romania, Spain
34.1.3+34.3.1 Sardinellas USSR,Senegal, 162 173 155 134 125 271 293 311 F-0
Guinea, Romania
34.3.1 Bonga Senegal, 27 17 16 12 16 7 15 24 ?
Gambia
34.1.3+34.3,1 Horse USSR,Germany, 299 313 290 45 58 329 310 263 F
macterels Senfi 9 al highly variable
34.1,3+34,3.1 Mackerels USSR, Romania 87 81 82 6 12 86 278 262 F
highly variable
34.1.1 Hakes Morocco,Spain 10 20 6 7 6 7 6 7 o
34.1.3+34.3.1 Hakes USSR, Italy 52 39 22 2 3 7 7 8 0-?
=S=SSES8BSSSBEBSSSSSSSSBSSBSIESSE8BS8SSSSESSSa=Z=MZ==srSSSaS
Tables (continued)
^^
Main fishing Catches ('OOOt)
tub-mil Stock countries 1910 1915 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990i/ State of
(1989 > " ?4 * - 8 < exploitation
.. M ,,, 8 SSSSSMS SSK8 SSSSMKSSSM ssassssssiss L S8MS
34,1,3134,3,1 Sea breams Senegal, USSR 98 53 33 26 25 39 30 31
Mauritania
Others
TofaTiiorth
' 337 564 444 508 516
2307 2203 1820 1039 1127 1975 2411 2603
SOUTH
34,3,JtJ4,3,4Ull prawns Cameroon, 4
34,3,5134,3,6 and shrimps Gabon,Nigeria
34,3,4 Sardinellas Ghana, 57
C6te d'lvoire
34,3,6 Sardinellas Congo, Zaire 6
All sub-areas Bonga Nigeria, 46
Sierra Leone,
Cameroon,
C5te d'lvoire
Others
11 20 19 19 21 22 25
,
55 66 136 112 113 HO 1 04
6 11 11
51 86 95
u 15
N
84 101 100 107 p
. ,
C6te d'lvoire: D
291 253 205 268 386 360 328
"5 609
ts8ISSMS8SMsss ^^^
704
Tables (continued)
sssiMMistssssssssssssssssrsscssssssssssssrsssstsssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssrsssssssssssssssssssssrissssiiaiitsMi
CECAF Main fishing Catches |'000t)
Sub-areas Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990a/ State of
(1989) -74 -79 -84 exploitation
sss3Msssssssssissrcrss!sssrssasssss!sssssrssssissssssssssssssssssrssssrsssssssssssssssssssssMssxrssassi8issiassMtw
OCEANIC
34.1.2+34,2,0+ 56 62 119 14 8 10 10 8 ?
34,3,2+34,4,1+
34,4,2
TUNA
34 - b / Spain,France, 204 258 306 268 251 264 287 288 H
Ghana, Japan
UNKNOWN AREA
3Ul 120 186 923 995 145 102 94
ssss . ssss ^
Total CECAF Area 3238 3040 2836 3018 3185 3529 3697 4098
a/ Breakdown by sub-areas for 1990 not yet avalaible,
b/ Catches in vhole areas; see also Table 21,
Table 9
Mediterranean and Black Sea (Area 37)
zzzzsssHtzzzzzzzzzzzzszzzzzzzzzszzzzzzzszsssszzzzzzszzszszzzzzzzzzszzszzzzzszzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzxzszzzzssszzszzszzssz
Species Coastal Catches ('OOOt)
Sectors/ groups countries Remarks 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 b/
-74 -79 -84
8ZSZZZZ888ZZZ8ZZZZZZZZSSZZZZZZZSSZZZZZZZZS::ZSZZZZZZZZZZZZZSSZSS:SZSSSS:ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZSZZZZZZZZSSSZZZZZ:ZSZ8SZZZSS
Balearic
Demersal
Algeria Trawl only
26.9
37.0
43.5
44.2
34.7
34.6
24.0
34.
8
37.1.1
Coastal pel.
Horocco
93.2
132.4
154.2
146.1
158.6
156.6
173.9
171.
6
Hiscel. c/
Spain
10.2
22.7
29.0
22.7
21.9
14.9
18.0
17.
4
Gulf of Lions
Demersal
Finfish
4.1
7.2
8.9
5.5
5.9
12.2
9.2
8.
8
37.1.2
Coastal pel.
France Sardine
19.7
18.5
25.5
23.9
21.3
43.5
34.7
35.
5
Hiscel. c/
9.4
4.8
2.2
2.7
2.5
6.0
8.3
8.
Sardinia
Demersal
France Trawl only
33.3
22.8
23.5
31.2
29.2
32.9
31.0
22.
37.1.3
Coastal pel.
Italy
58.8
39.1
36.9
35.8
36.3
29.9
21.4
18.
1
Hiscel. c/
Tunisia
15.1
12.4
13.1
16.4
15.1
15.8
13.9
10.
8
Adriatic
Demersal
Italy Trawl only
18.2
19.6
18.7
16.2
18.6
20.6
19.0
15.
8
37.2.1
Coastal pel. Yugoslavia
80.2
91.7
122.4
119.8
91.7
92.4
80.3
84.
3
Hiscel c/
30.6
37.2
33.6
24.2
30.3
14.0
13.1
10.
8
Ionian
Demersal
Albania Trawl only
30.8
42.2
49.7
87.9
74.3
66.2
70.2
67.
8
37.2.2
Coastal pel.
Italy, Libya
32.2
43.8
51.3
61.2
65.9
62.4
62.4
59.
Hiscel. c/
Malta, Tunisia
16.3
37.2
41.2
38.0
40.3
38.4
37.4
42.
2
Aegean
Demersal
16.3
22.2
26.9
32.3
39.0
38.8
47.1
55.
37.3.1
Coastal pel.
Greece
23.2
35.8
46.4
61.5
58.7
65.0
104.4
96.
9
Hiscel. c/
Turkey
7.5
10.2
9.2
7.7
6.2
8.1
10.9
11.
Levant
Demersal
Cyprus, Egypt Finfish
9.7
12.0
13.2
12.1
14.1
15.4
20.1
23.
3
37.3.2
Coastal pel.
Israel, Lebanon
9.1
9.0
13.8
15.7
18.8
17.3
19.6
19.
6
Hiscel. c/
Syria,Turkey
4.1
3.1
3.7
6.0
5.3
18.7
15.8
12.
7
Hhole
Demersal
139.3
163.0
184.4
229.4
215.8
220.8
220.6
227.
5
Mediterranean
Coastal pel.
316.4
370.3
450.5
464.0
451.3
467.1
496.7
485.
Hiscel. c/
93.2
127.6
132.0
117.7
123.6
116.0
117.4
112.
9
(0
I
Total Hediterranean 548.9 660,9 766.9 811.1 790.7 803.9 834.7 825.4
Table 9 (continued)
iKSitisjxtMiiKSKiMSStKKsisKSSsssEsssir!ssssssss:ssss:ssssssssssrssss:its:ssrrrsKssssssetsrssitsttstKxs
Species Coastal Catches ('OOOt)
Sector a/ groups countries Remarks 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 b/
74 -79 -84
xxixsxxiMxxxsstssxxsssxxrsssxssxsssstssrs::sssssstsrssssss:ssssssssz:nrssrsss:ss:=ssssstisssrssssssssr!5ssiisssstsssrsss
Black Sea Demersal Bulgaria,Romania 24,4 31,6 42,3 49,9 48,6 57,6 51.3 43.6
37.4 Coastal pel. Turkey 293,9 369,0 682,8 655,1 740,3 628,5 735,9 396.0
Hiscel. c/ USSR 98,6 73,1 99,2 135,9 104,9 105,3 46,2 47,1
Total Black Sea 416,9 473,9 624,3 840,9 693,8 791.4 833,4 488,7
Whole area Tunas 22,9 30,1 54,2 62,3 55,4 59,0 69,9 51,8
37,0
Dhole area Others d/ 125,6 165,7 229,7 261,1 278,7 303,2 337,7 344,4
37,0
Totals Demersal 163,7 194,8 226,7 279,3 264,4 278,4 271,9 271,1
Coastal pel, 610,3 739,3 1133,3 1119,1 1191,6 1095,6 1232,6 863,0
Hiscel, c/ 191,8 200,7 231,2 253,6 228,5 221,3 163,6 160,0
Tunas 22,9 30,1 54,2 62,3 55,4 59,0 69,9 51,8
Others d/ 125,8 165,1 229,1 261,1 218,1 303,2 331.1 344,4
Total area 1114,5 1330,6 1875,1 1975,4 2018,6 1957,5 2075,7 1710,3 1489.0
a/ GFCH statistical divisions (boundaries given in GFCH Statistical Bulletins),
b/ Breakdown by sub-areas not available.
c/ Miscellaneous; diadromous, marine fishes n.e.i,
d/ Others: crustaceans, molluscs, other aquatic animals,
Table 10
Southwest Atlantic (Area 41)
8888888Z88S888S88S8888S8Z8SSSSS8SSSS888SSSSS8SSSSSSS8SSSSS8ZSS8SSS8SSS8SSSSSSSS8SS8SSS8888888X38S&88888S8S88XZZ8S8ZSZ8888Z
Main fishing Catches ('ODOt) State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
Argentine hake Argentina, Uruguay, 144 318 329 376 381 439 434 396 421 F
Spain, Japan, Brazil
Southern blue USSR, Poland 11 131 95 104 85 101 132 194 U-H
whiting
Atlantic croaker Brazil, Uruguay, 54 84 80 57 70 71 67 61 55 H-F
Argentina
Veakfishes Brazil, Argentina, 40 56 77 69 66 60 58 56 50 M-F
Uruguay
i
Sardinella Brazil 174 136 127 124 126 91 65 78 32
Anchoita Argentina 28 20 18 12 16 20 21 21 14 U
Red shrimp Argentina 11 10 7 3 18 12 10 F-0
Other prawns Brazil 48 54 52 69 57 57 49 50 51 F-0
and shrimps
Squids and Korea Rep,, USSR, 4 44 150 270 354 744 656 751 552 Patagonian
octopuses Japan, Taiwan (Prov, shelf: F-0
of China), Spain Elsewhere: U
Other demersal Argentina, USSR, 2 11 24 44 74 96 125 77 70 N
Patagonian shelf Poland
Others 324 333 360 575 592 701 698 619 580
Total area 818 1067 1359 1701 1847 2367 2292 2255 2029
Table 11
Southeast Atlantic (Area 4?)
88888S8S8SSS883S883ssssssBsssssss8SSssBssssssssssssssssssssssssrssssssssssss8ssssssssssss8Sssssssss8S38XS8S888S8SS8S8SSSS8
Stocks Main fishing Catches ('OOOt) State of
Species ICSEAF countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
divisions (1989) -74 -79 -84 a/
8S8888888888S88S8SSSSS&8SSSS8888S8S888SSSSS8SSS8SSSS8SS8S8S:SSS:SSS8:S8:S8SSSS8SSSS8SS8SSSSSS88SSS88888S888S8X88888888S8
Hakes 1,311,4 USSR, Spain 414 280 162 212 231 136 212 137
1.5 Spain, USSR, 231 162 116 173 150 163 97 174
S, Africa
1.6 S, Africa 164 106 89 100 109 104 90 83 OR
2,1+2,2 S, Africa 55 53 43 56 51 41 45 52 R
Kingklip All sub-areas S. Africa, 12 10 8 16 17 14 9 8
Spain, Japan, ,
USSR
M
Ul
Large-eyed 1,3+1,4 Bulgaria 15 23 6 1 1 1 1 D: mid 1970s '
dentex R: no sign
Panga 1,6+2,1+2,2 Japan,S,Africa 86222222 F
Sardinella 1,1+1,2+1,3 USSR, Angola 92 125 205 211 165 108 133 106 M
Cunene 1,1+1,2 USSR, Angola 31 45 28 53 54 39 63
horse mackerel
1,3 USSR, Angola 159 190 60 28 55 51 91 96 F-0
Cape horse 1,3+1,4+1.5 USSR, Romania, 161 386 283 426 448 518 539 440 H-F
nackerel Bulgaria,
S, Africa,
Germany, Spain
1,6+2,1+2,2 S,Africa,Japan 32 52 17 27 32 39 41 59 H-F
88S88888888888SS888888888S8SSSS8S8S8SS888S8S8SSSS8SS:S8SSSSZS8:SS:SSSSSS8S8SSSrrs::SS8SSSSSS888SZSSSSS88SS8SSS8SSSSS:8SS88
Table 11 (continued!
Stocks Main fishing Catches |'000t| State of
Species ICSEAF countries 1970 1975 I960 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
divisions (1989) -74 -79 -84 a/
Pilchard 1,3+1,4+1,5 S. Hfrica 4(2 279 47 57 5] 67 66 79 D
1,6 S, Africa 68 85 44 33 36 41 42 35 D
Anchovy 1,3+1,4+1,5 S, Africa 211 212 190 52 16 376 118 158 F-0
1,6 S.Africa 2]} 244 315 273 300 593 565 294 F
1,1+1,2+1,3+ USSR, Spain 3 77 33 28 28 31 11 12
mackerel 1,4+1,5 S.Africa
1,6+2.1+2,2 S.Africa 58 2 3 4 3 5 8 17 F-D
I
M
Others 377 455 615 375 375 386 391 442 X
Mai area 2755 2778 2283 2104 2125 2729 2500 2258 1530
a/ 1990 species breakdown not available,
Table 12
Western Indian Ocean (Area 51)
XXIXXXtMXtIItfZXZZZ8ZZZZXZZaZtZZX8ZZZS8ZS3ZZZZ8ZZ8ZZSZZZZ*SZZZ3ZZZZZZZSZZZZS8S38SX3ZZSSS8ZZSSSZZZZZZiKZZSZZXSZZZZZZ
Hain fishing Catches ('OOOt) State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
zzxszxxiiztitisxxixxszzssszzxzzzxzzszzzzzszzzzxzzzzzzzszzczzszzzssszzzzzzzzzzzszzzzzzzzszzzzszzzzzszzszzzzzzzxzszzzzzzzsss
Shad (Hilsa)
Pakistan
11
9
4
2
2
2
2
1
1
Giant sea perch
Pakistan
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
Flat fishes
India
12
10
14
9
15
12
8
21
17
Bombay duck
India
94
122
100
104
95
88
98
116
124
Sea catfishes
India, Pakistan
60
58
52
33
45
45
57
48
49
Lizard fishes
India, Egypt
2
8
9
6
6
8
7
10
10
Pike congers
India, Pakistan
9
17
11
11
10
7
6
7
9
Groupers
UAE, Saudi Arabia,
4
4
12
19
20
20
25
22
23
Pakistan, Oman
False trevally
India
5
3
6
4
5
3
5
6
8
Snappers
UAE, Saudi Arabia
4
5
7
8
9
10
10
10
10
Ponyfishes
India
16
7
14
12
16
10
6
11
11
Grunts
Pakistan
3
4
4
8
8
7
10
7
7
Emperors
UAE, Tanzania, Saudi
6
12
18
27
34
34
42
38
36
(Lethrinids)
Arabia, Mauritius
Croakers, drums
India, Pakistan
39
101
111
146
150
152
151
199
226
Goatfishes
India
3
5
9
19
12
9
22
20
19
Porgies,
Oman, Pakistan,
8
10
14
15
17
21
21
15
14
seabreams
Korea Rep.
Threadfins
Oman, Yemen, Tanzania
1
1
1
2
3
2
2
2
3
Other identified
India, Tanzania,
14
26
26
20
28
31
44
43
43
demersal percom, UAE, Italy
Demersal
Oman, Egypt,
32
44
51
39
36
20
18
31
33
percom, n.e.i,
Sri Lanka
Black pomfret
Pakistan
4
5
3
4
4
1
1
1
1
Butter fishes
India, Pakistan
23
28
36
28
23
25
29
31
"
Carangids
India, Pakistan, UAE,
28
53
59
65
73
80
88
161
171
Sri Lanka, Egypt
Sardinellas
India, Pakistan, UAE
163
237
266
253
242
213
237
286
314
Anchovies
India, Pakistan
31
40
53
48
40
34
55
56
94
H-F
U-H
XIZZtSZZZZtXZZZXCZXZZZ3ZZZeZZZZZZZZSZZZ3SZZZZZSZ2ZZZS5ZZS:ZSZ==ZSSZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ3ZZZZZC:S:ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ33ZSZZ
Table 12 (continued)
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm
*******
Main fishing
**
***
BESSCZSS
successes:
Catches (
EfiSSSSS
'OOOtJ
2S59SSSS
SSC5
State of
Stock
countries
1970
1975
1980
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990 exploitation
(1990)
74
79
-84
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXCXXXCCZX&XXXXSXCr
xxzxsxxxxxxsxzxxxsxsszzzzxxxxzzz:
:zxz3xxxzxzxsxz3xx8Xszxzs3X38XS3X38333X33X3**S3Ss
Wolfherrings
India, Pakistan
7
11
16
19
12
12
12
17
24
Hixed clupeoids
Pakistan, India,
70
60
100
74
79
110
130
125
132
Sri Lanka
Other identified
India, Sri Lanka,
22
29
41
41
42
46
64
70
50
pelagic percom
, Oman, Pakistan,
Pelagic
Yemen, Oman
188
143
115
86
79
68
85
77
85
percom, n.e.L
Seerfishes
India, Oman,
22
27
44
76
72
82
77
66
61
(kingfish)
Pakistan, UAE
Skipjack
Maldives, Spain,
35
28
51
125
137
156
191
219
201
France, Sri Lanka
Yellowfin
Spain, France, Oman,
25
28
45
89
107
115
166
136
162
Taiwan (P. China),
i
to*
Panama
M
00
Longtail tuna
Iran, Oman, Pakistan
12
14
12
37
31
37
40
36
36 '
Kawakawa
India, UAE, Maldives
2
3
15
26
25
20
30
17
17
Big-eye
Taiwan (P. China),
12
20
24
31
35
37
40
33
33
Korea R,, Japan, France
Albacore
Taiwan (P. China)
8
8
10
7
8
9
' 11
6
8
Southern bluef in
Japan
5
3
5
3
2
2
3
3
1
Billfishes
Sri Lanka, Korea, Oman
4
4
5
10
11
12
12
12
10
Other tuna
Pakistan, India,
24
26
25
20
32
45
36
50
58
Madagascar, USSR
Hairtails
India
21
37
38
66
56
56
43
40
41
Indian mackerel
India
113
66
49
99
75
77
75
163
124
(Rastrelliger)
Sharks, rays
Pakistan, India,
101
107
97
86
89
92
96
96
96
Sri Lanka
Other fish
India, Iran, Pakistan,
250
343
349
565
587
606
621
761
668
Madagascar, Sri Lanka
1494 1767 1922 2344 2375 2437 2677 3069 3046
Table 12 (continued)
itiSM:issMiSM8:5Msssissss::8::sss:::5!s:s:::::::s:s:s:s:::s::::::::s:::::::::::::::::::nsiKiKi:K!:KsiwxKWSiMt
Hain fishing Catches ('OOOt) State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 198? 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
iim:iriK:mxxn:!Ks:t::ri::ti::::::::"
Crabs Madagascar, Bahrain, 012222233
Pakistan
n,Odian,Hadagascar 453555556
Shrimps India,Pakietan,Iran, 200 225 222 259 239 231 245 239 258 F-0
Other crustaceans India, Sri Lanka 8 16 21 11 10 11 11 14 12
Total crustaceans 212 247 248 277 256 249 263 261 279
Cuttlefishes Taiwan (P, China), 10 13 7 8 8 5 4 6 10
Yemen, Korea I, Oman
Other cephalop, India, Iran, 3 9 13 21 19 31 38 41 39
and bivalves Tainan (P, China)
Total Mlluics 15 22 20 29 27 36 42 47 49
Others 000010111
ttms8tinmins&iHs:cts::::::::::t::::::::::K^^
Total area 1719 2036 2190 2651 2659 2722 2983 3378 3375
M
Table 13
Eastern Indian Ocean (Area 57)
Main fishing Catches j'OOOt)
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
(1990) -74 -79 -84
Zaxxxxxxxxtxxxxxxxx8xxxxxxxxx8xxxxxxs8xxxs8xxxzxxszzzzzzzzszzzzzzzzzzszzzszzzzzzzzzzxzzzzzzzxsxxz88z8zzxs8xx888xsssszxs8
Toll shad
Giant seaperch
Flatfishes
Sea catftshes
Lizard fish
False trevally
Sillago-whitings
Ruffs
Snappers
Threadfin breams
Fonyfishes
Croakers
Goatfishes
Bangladesh
India
India
India, Malaysia
India
Australia
Australia
Indonesia
Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia
India, Indonesia
India, Malaysia
India
Half beaks, needlefish India, Indonesia, Australia
Barracudas India, Indonesia
Threadfins India, Indonesia
Carangids Indonesia, India, Thailand
Butterfishes India
Sardinella, sardines India, Thailand, Indonesia
Anchovies India
Holfherrings India
Other Clupeoids Indonesia, Australia, Malaysia
Kingfish, seerfishes India, Indonesia
Skipjack Indonesia
Yellowfin Indonesia, Japan,
Taiwan (Prov, of China)
Bigeye Taiwan (Prov. China), Japan
Albacore Taiwan (Prov. of China)
Southern bluefin Australia, Japan
Marlins, billfishes, Taiwan (Prov. China), Japan
swordfish
Other tuna Indonesia, India
11
72
84
104
106
111
112
1
1
2
4
5
6
6
7
7
2
2
3
4
5
5
4
9
6
17
20
29
31
40
34
33
45
45
2
5
6
6
6
6
4
6
5
3
4
4
2
2
3
3
3
2
1
2
3
3
4
5
5
5
6
5
4
4
6
9
11
12
10
13
2
4
6
7
7
9
9
12
14
1
5
10
7
10
11
9
10
10
28
34
40
35
32
38
39
45
50 ,
21
29
40
42
51
53
55
51
44 -
K)
2
4
5
5
9
9
3
10
15
1
9
8
10
11
15
14
7
8 '
2
3
6
7
7
8
9
9
10
4
11
8
7
9
10
11
13
12
15
26
60
78
81
91
115
94
93
6
8
14
11
15
22
10
12
15
4
66
89
95
115
135
98
101
103
15
24
36
24
28
26
17
15
17
5
8
11
16
21
17
16
17
16
57
32
69
54
59
68
68
64
76
10
16
22
21
25
28
51
49
49
3
6
11
12
12
13
14
19
20
5
10
10
12
12
14
13
18
18
4
12
13
12
12
12
14
8
10
3
3
5
3
20
33
30
13
32
21
19
24
25
20
17
16
11
9
2
3
5
6
5
4
3
3
2
16 38 42 38
57
52 66 72
XZSIXXXXXIBZIZXXZXZZXXZXXXZZXXXZXXXXXXZXXZXZZZZZXZZZXZXXXSZSZZZSZZXZZZZSSSSZXSSSSZZZZZSZZZZZZZZZZZZXZZZZZZZZZXZZZZXZXXZZXZ
Table 13 (continued)
88S88S8SS888S8S8ssssss8S8sssssss83S3S8ssssscsssssssssssssss33ssssssssssssssssssss3sssss3ssssssssrssssssss8SSSSssss8SSS8SS
Main fishing
Catches
('OOOt)
Stock
countries
1970
1975
1980
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
(1990)
-74
-79
-84
S888388SSSS888&8SS8S8S88S8883S8SS&8S83888S3S8S8S888S38SS83
SSS3SS3SSSS3SS3SSSSSS88SSSSSSSSS8SSS3SSSSS3SSSSSSSSSSS33S8SSSSS8:
Hairtails
India, Indonesia
23
31
34
41
36
33
28
19
31
Mackerels
Indonesia, Malaysia
15
37
108
124
105
109
107
107
111
(Rastrelliger)
Thailand, India
Sharks and rays
India, Indonesia, Australia
31
38
50
47
53
59
78
65
64
Other, identif. fish India, Malaysia, Indonesia,
35
60
101
105
121
151
189
190
199
Thailand, Australia
Marine fishes n.e.i
. Myanmar, Thailand, India,
457
682
917
956
1049
1068
1066
1102
1150
Malaysia, Bangladesh, Indonesia
Total fishes
811
1234
1802
1932
2118
2284
2307
2326
2446
Sand and mud crabs
Thailand, Indonesia
4
8
8
10
10
10
10
10
Lobsters
Australia
12
14
16
17
16
17
18
14
19 K
Penaeid shrimps
Malaysia, India,
3
30
67
61
67
67
98
107
H
Indonesia, Thailand
Sergestid shrimps
Malaysia, Thailand
2
11
11
9
8
8
9
9
Other crustaceans
Bangladesh, India, Indonesia
29
44
70
83
97
115
89
89
98
Total crustaceans
44
94
172
180
199
217
223
229
249
Abalones
Australia
6
5
7
7
7
6
6
5
6
Oysters and mussels
Thailand, Australia
1
6
6
6
9
13
13
13
Scallops
Australia
4
4
18
15
12
9
7
5
6
Cockles and clams
Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand
27
109
76
73
71
70
73
68
Cephalopoda
Thailand, Malaysia, India
2
12
24
28
33
45
53
76
36
Other molluscs
India, Thailand
1
2
6
7
3
3
3
Total molluscs
12
49
165
134
137
147
152
175
132
Jelly fishes
Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand
2
29
25
64
32
3
2
2
Total area 867 1379 2168 2271 2518 2680 2685 2732 2829
88B888888M88888888888888S888SS888888888S8SS8SSSZ88SSS8S8S88SS888SSSSSSSSS8SS8SS3S8S8S88S38S38S88SSSSSS8S88888Z8S88S88S8CS
Table 14
Northwest Pacific (Area 61)
XXXXXZXXXXXXXZZZZZZZSX8SXXXXZ8XI
Main fishing Catches ('OOOt) State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
Ziz8izx*xxzxx8xizxxxi>izxsxzzxztzxxxxxzzzxzzxxzzzzxxzxxzx8xzzxzzzxxxxxxzzxzx88x8xzxxxzxxxxxx8xxz88x8xzxxxzxxxc8xzxxxxsx
Salmon Japan, USSR 186 230 239 334 250 287 258 386 361 D-R
Alaska pollack USSR, Japan, 3014 3564 3618 4733 5154 5009 5108 4827 4225 F
Korea Rep,, Poland
Other demersal Japan, China, Korea 1683 2072 1830 1999 2213 1994 1807 1852 1786 F-0
Rep., USSR, Taiwan
(P, China), Hong Kong
Pacific saury Japan, USSR, 283 334 235 274 251 227 347 331 416
Taiwan (P. China) ^
N
Japanese jack Japan, Korea Rep, 192 116 108 174 122 201 274 212 250 .
mackerel
Pacific herring USSR 465 248 145 203 249 255 213 118 109
Japanese Japan, USSR, 157 1433 3959 4723 5191 5321 5429 5143 4735 F
pilchard Korea Rep,
Japanese Japan, Korea Rep, 441 356 349 349 412 308 304 316 442
anchovy
Chub mackerel Japan, China, Korea Rep., 1554 1789 1354 1217 1479 1133 1138 981 673
USSR, Taiwan (P, China)
largehead China,Korea Rep., Japan, 673 571 657 636 566 556 531 591 650 F
hairtail Taiwan (P, China)
i
Tunas, Japan, Ch'ina, 384 419 449 423 481 454 534 542 617 F
billfishes a/ Taiwan (P, China)
XXZZXZZXXSZXZSZXZZZXXZSZXXZZZXXXXZXZXXXZZXZXXZZZSZZZZZZSSZZZZSZZZZZZZZZXXSSZZXZSZZZZZXXXXXXXZKSZXXXZXXXSKXZZZZZXZZZXXXXXXX
Table 14 (continued!
Hain fishing Catches |'000t| State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1969 1990 exploitation
(1990| -74 -79 -84
stuu::sixsx:si::::x:::s::::::::::::::::::n^
Other small Japan, China, Taiwan 187 523 758 879 55] 1002 910 987 1099
pelagic (P. China) , Korea Rep,
Marine fiehee China ( Korea Dero,Japan, 2844 3522 1809 3949 4234 4289 4661 4768
n.e.i, Hong Kong, Korea Rep,
425 285 267 192 143 264 231 287 298 P
flying squid
Others 1872 2499 2957 3761 4031 4521 4926 4954
Total area 14560 17961 20734 23846 25709 25821 26671 26295
5
W
a/ Includes skipjack tuna, larger tunas, smaller tunas and billfishes,
Table 15
Northeast Pacific (Area 67)
I88888888II38S8SSS8S888SBSSSSS8SS3S8SSSSS3ZS8SSSSSSSSSS8SSZSSSSS3SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS8SSSSSS8S388SS8SSSS8SSSSSS8S3SSS3888S18
Main fishing Catches ('OOOtj State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
88888S388883838S38888888883883883S88883838SS88S88S3888SS33S888SSSS8S88S888888S83S83S8838888SSS888888S8S8S833S33SSS88388S3
Salmons USA, Canada 197 219 354 435 396 318 340 446 437 F
Pacific halibut USA, Canada 25 14 19 34 41 42 43 39 37 F
Yellowfin sole USA 56 76 86 203 179 183 219 153 150 H
Other flatfishes USA, Canada 172 112 118 134 166 126 179 110 154 H
Pacific cod USA 79 62 112 138 172 208 245 222 261 H
Alaska pollack USA, Korea Rep. 1063 888 1086 1399 1605 1714 1550 1494 1568 F 1
North Pacific hake USA 169 163 95 99 186 298 199 241 184 H '
Pacific ocean perch USA, Canada 109 41 26 22 32 34 33 32 49 D
Sable fish USA 47 26 24 30 40 48 ' 52 45 43 M
Pacific herring USA, Canada 114 101 78 83 68 85 84 85 82
King crabs USA 40 53 3 7 12 13 10 12 15 D
Pacific snow crabs USA 31 52 39 39 50 52 66 75 97 F
Pacific oceanic USA 54 67 22 14 28 32 33 36 26 F
Others 236 184 260 245 230 296 292 290 325
88888>t888888888888SS88S888SS888S888SZ888SS88SSSSSS88S8S888S8SS8SS88888SSSS8:888S8888SSS8S888888888S8S8SSSSSS8888S888S8S8
Total area 2392 2060 2322 2882 3205 3449 3345 3280 3428
Table 16
Western Central Pacific (Area 71)
8SISS8SSSrSSSSSSSS8SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSB8SSSSSSSSBSSBSSSSSBSSS=SSSSSSS88S8SSSSBSBSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS8SBSS8SSSSSSSSSSSSSKS
Hain fishing Catches ('OOOt) State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
SS8SSSSSSSSS8SSSSSSSSSSBS8SSSSBSSSSSSSSSSSSSSBSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS8SSSSSSSSSSSSBSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS8SS88SSSSSXSBBSSSBSS8MX8
Demersal fish Philippines, Indonesia, 491 612 613 682 734 756 764 800 804 P
Thailand, Halaysia
Coastal small pelagic fish
Kackerels Thailand, Indonesia, 222 227 255 325 304 305 294 311 323
(Rastrelliger) Philippines, Halaysia
. Round scads Philippines, Indonesia, 264 343 275 327 357 364 312 360 402
Thailand, Halaysia
i
Sardinellas Indonesia, Philippines, 175 341 392 298 320 341 394 441 480 -
Thailand u
I
Anchovies Philippines, Indonesia, 146 166 209 307 252 264 289 289 274 H
Thailand
Total coastal small pelagics 809 1077 IS 1257 1233 1274 1289 1401 1479
Coastal larger pelagic fish
King/Spanish Indonesia, Philippines, 55 61 79 72 83 84 83 88 86
mackerels Thailand
Smaller tunas Thailand, Philippines, 62 94 160 203 194 260 324 346 296 H
a/ Halaysia
Total coastal larger pelagics 117 155 239 275 277 344 407 i34 382
Table 16 (continued)
Hain fishing Catches f'OOOt) State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
Sxxxssssxss:8ssss>sss3xtxsszs::ssssstssss^^
Skipjack tuna Indonesia,Philippines 42 70 99 137 151 164 170 159 195 F
Major oceanic countries c/ 31 48 47 39 42 34 39 40 37 F
Non-coastal countries d/ 103 156 227 207 362 346 449 412 417 F
Total skipjack tuna 176 274 373 383 555 544 658 fill 649
Yellowfin tuna Indonesia, Philippines 48 62 77 94 94 85 93 117 139 see
Hajor oceanic countries c/ 4 8 10 7 4 8 13 11 , 10 tuna
Non-coastal countries d/ 27 56 99 74 116 167 102 145 152 review
Total yellowfin tuna 79 126 Iflfi 175 214 260 208 273 301
Fenaeid shrimps Thailand, Indonesia, 195 217 206 173 203 207 227 234 228 F-0 M
Malaysia, Philippines a!
i
Other shrimps Indonesia, Vietnam, 83 135 140 152 153 162 180 177 179
and prawns Thailand, Philippines
Total shrimps and prawns 278 352 346 325 356 36T 407 in 407
Cephalopoda b/ Thailand, Philippines, 95 134 152 159 185 186 184 188 184 U-H
Indonesia, Vietnam
sz88S88C8S8SSS8:essss:tsssss::::sss:s8:ss::s:8s:s8sss::::ss::ss:::::ss::=ss:s::::2:sr:s::ss:8:s8sss:sss:8s:888S8s:s:ssz::ss
Total area 4471 5118 5455 5909 6418 6840 6953 7248 7311
a/ Bullet and frigate tunas, kawakawa and longtail tuna,
Nominal statistics are incomplete, only a few countries separated these species,
b/ Squids, cuttlefish and octopuses,
c/ Fiji, Kiribati, Solomon Islands, etc,
d/ Japan, Korea Rep., USA and Taiwan (Prov, of China).
Table 17
Eastern Central Pacific (Area 77)
ssssssssssssssssssassssasszsssssssss&sssssssssssssssssssrsssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssxs
Main fishing Catches ('OOOt) a/ State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
S888888888888S888SSSS883SS888SS8S8SSSSS88SSSS88SSSS:SS:S8S8SSSS::SSSS:SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS8SS8SSS8SSS8S8SSSS8S8SSS8&SS8S
Freshwater and USA 222234622
diadromous fishes
Demersal fishes Mexico, USA 79 68 91 71 61 65 70 64 73 U
Chub mackerel Mexico, USA 1 15 38 47 50 47 52 60 78 M
Pacific jack USA 19 27 38 10 11 12 10 13 4 U
mackerel
Californian Mexico 58 142 353 372 471 477 446 509 399 M-F '
pilchard (sardine) to
%j
i
N, Pacific anchovy USA, Mexico 92 238 280 154 123 167 119 111 6 U
Central Pacific Panama 37 104 103 241 84 127 39 121 60 M-F
anchoveta
Pacific thread Panama 17 19 19 2 5 11 41 18 34 M-F
herring
Other coastal Mexico, USA 7 12 19 14 12 20 19 20 17 U
pelagic fishes
Skipjack tuna USA, Japan, Mexico 58 119 108 129 62 52 86 80 45 M
N. bluefin tuna USA 9 8 2 4 5 1 1 1 1 H
Albacore Taiwan (P. China), 15 20 24 34 33 24 26 21 17 M
Japan, Korea Rep.
Bigeye tuna Japan, Korea Rep. 42 70 64 78 100 98 80 78 83 M
EZZSEZZzzHMSZSZzzszzEEZszzszzzzszzESSEzsszEssszEssszEszszzsEzssszszszszsssszsszszssssEEzszsssEzzszzzzszssssszzssszzzszsz
Stock
Table 17 (continued)
Main fishing Catches f'OOOt) a/ State of
countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
Yellowfin tuna Mexico, USA, 170 202 151 231 276 272 284 277 257 P
Venezuela, Japan
Other oceanic Mexico, Japan, 37 34 32 30 33 43 40 41 45 U
fish USA
Unidentif, fishes Mexico
119 96 135 135 142 118 119 109 176
Total fishes
762 1176 1459 1554 1471 1538 1438 1525 1297
Dungeness and USA
Pacific rock crabs
2 1 1 1 2 2 U
Shrimps Mexico, Cost a Rica, 68 58 75 84 82 85 78 83 67 F
Panama
Other crustaceans Mexico, El Salvador, 2 3 11 9 13 18 10 10 10
USA
Total crustaceans
72 62 86 94 96 105 90 93 77
Squids
Japan, Korea Rep,, 11 14 23 25 36 68 76 81 83 U
USA
Other molluscs USA, Mexico
17 15 25 21 28 27 38 43 47
Total molluscs
28 29 48 46 64 95 114 124 130
Others
USA, Mexico
Total area
10
6 10 14 19 20 16
15
865 1277 1599 1704 1645 1757 1662 1758 1519
a/ Species and area totals have been revised because of boundary changes between areas 77 and 87,
the latter now including Ecuador and Colombia, the catches of which were previously included in the former,
Table 18
Southwest Pacific (Area 81)
Hain fishing Catches ('000 t) State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
ssssssssssssssBsssssssssssassssssssssssssssssssssssssssEsssssssstssssssssrssssssssssssssssssssBsssssssssBsssssssttssscssss
Blue grenadier New Zealand, Japan, 7 49 38 43 187 181 246 210 392 F
(Hoki) USSR
Southern blue New Zealand, USSR, 23 19 17 8 17 14 19 32 42 ?
whiting (Pout as sou) Japan
Orange roughy New Zealand a/ 1 42 44 47 49 56 54 50 P-0
Oreo dories New Zealand 9 33 35 22 23 23 IB 21 ?
Other demersals 60 80 121 116 107 110 127 113 141
Greenback horse, USSR, New Zealand, 13 13 23 42 133 135 96 94 in ?
jack mackerels Japan
Other small pelagics 12 25 15 20 21 20 21 20 24
Snoek New Zealand, Japan 17 21 30 18 18 36 30 27 29 ?
Sharks and rays N.Zealand, Australia 5 7 13 16 14 16 21 16 19 ?
Unidentified fishes 14 29 17 54 20 142 190 158 25
Total fishes 151 253 349 396 586 726 829 742 854
S8S8S S8B 8 SS 8S888S S 8SS SSS . SSSSS . S= . SSS . SS .... S .. SSSK
Table 18 (continued)
'Main fishing Catches |'000t| State of
Stock countries 1970 1515 1980 1565 198$ 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990| -74 -79 -84
Australia J.Zealand 19 20 18 17 IS 13 18 17 13 F
I 1 5 11 16 18 25 24 24 F
New Zealand, USSR 8 37 116 123 101 104 135 228 96 ?
Korea
Total lolluscs 29 8 139 151 132 13S 178 269 133
Rock lobsters Uealand, Australia 5 4 5 6 5 5 4 4 3 F-0
62 58 56 25 32 30 36 48 45 i
M
lotalarea 247 373 549 578 755 896 1047 1063 1035
a/ Substantial catches of orange roughy, lade by Australia since 1986, are reported to FAO
as "other finfish", and are part of the group of "other demersal" in this table.
Table 19
Southeast Pacific (Area 87)
Zzzzzzzzzzz3z88zzzzz8zzszzzzs38zzzzzz3zzszszzzzszzzzss::sss::s:s2zrs:s:ss:sz:s:z:sz:s:szzzzzzzzzzzszzzzzzzzzzzszzzzzz8zzss
Hain fishing Catches ('OOOt) a/ State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 I960 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
zzzzzzzzc8Z23zzzzszzzzzsz8zszzz:zzzzzzz:s::rzssss:::sss::s:::srr:s:=:r:::ssss:s::s:::sz:::zzzzzzz:::zz:sz2rzzzszzzzzzszzzs
Chilean hake Peru, Chile, USSR 139 194 85 47 74 64 150 156 225 F
Chilean jack Chile, USSR, Peru, 173 776 1845 2148 1961 2682 3246 3655 3828 H
mackerel Cuba
Patagonian hake Chile 9 37 32 39 57 69 57 52
Patagonian Chile 3 22 19 37 132 212 227 128
grenadier
South Pacific Peru, Chile 16 18 20 20 41 48 30 22 17
breams JJ
M
South American Peru, Chile, USSR, 103 1512 3743 6509 4961 4950 5383 4530 4254 F-0
pilchard (sardine) Ecuador
Chilean herring Chile, Cuba 131 31 35 38 38 32 30 164 299
Anchoveta Peru, Chile 6959 2251 884 987 4945 2101 3613 5408 3772 F-0
(Peruvian anchovy)
East, Pac. bonito Peru 51 7 18 10 5 19 35 27 40
Chub mackerel Ecuador,Chile,Peru 103 527 412 201 149 174 236 245 402 M
Squids Chile, Peru 1 . 1 2 19 6 5 7 11 22 U
Others 362 402 677 713 746 727 765 836 906
CSZZZZZZZZZZBCZZZZZZZZZZZZZSSZZZSZZSZZZSBZZSZZZZZZZSZZZSZZZZZSZZSZZZZZSZZBBZZZSSSBSZZSZSZZZZZZZZSBSZSZZSZBZZSZZZZZZZZrzZZB
Total area 8038 5731 7780 10743 13002 10991 13776 15338 13945
a/ Species and area totals have been revised because of boundary changes between areas 77 and 87,
the latter now including Ecuador and Colombia, the catches of which were previously included in the former.
Table 20
Southern Oceans (Areas 48, 58 and
zzsszzzzzzszzzzzzzzzzzsszzzzzzzzzzzzz
Main fishing Catches j'OOOt) a/ State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 198S 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84
szissxizzzazzziissixxzzizzEaiigzazzxzzszazzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz:zzzzz:zzxz::zzzzzz:zxzzzzzzs:zzzxz::z:::zz::zsz:
Notothenia rossii
Area 48 b/
Area 58 c/
Notothenia squamifrons
Area 48 b/
Area 58 c/
Patagonotothen brevicauda
Area 48 b/ USSR 3 18 12 16 9 13 13 ?
i
Notothenia gibberifrons jj
Area 48 b/ USSR 8 7 8 2 3 10 2 F-0
USSR
63
7
11
2
USSR
47
13
5
2
1
USSR
1 .
1
2
1
?
USSR
22
11
7
7
2
3
5
5
3
F-0
Champsocephalus gunnari
Area 48 b/
USSR
3
62
63
16
14
71
36
22
11
F-0
Area 56 c/
France, USSR
24
26
10
8
17
4 .
2
24
1
F-0
Other fishes
Area 48 b/
USSR
1
16
17
8
4
5
19
34
32
Area 58 c/
USSR
3
1
1
8
1
3
1
2
1
Area 88
Poland, USSR
1
1
Total fishes
Area 46
87
97
116
47
36
88
80
72
43
Area 58
96
53
23
25
21
10
8
31
5
Area 88
1
1
Table 20 {continued)
Main fishing Catches ('OOOt) a/ State of
Stock countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1967 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990] -74 -79 -84
:::::::^
Krill
Area 48 OSSR,Japan,Chile ( Poland 5 9) 253 161 426 347 363 395 350
Area 58 Japan, USSR 27 I 6 IS 29 7 30
Urea 88 Japan 1 5 5 4 1
Total areas
Area 46 92 190 369 228 462 435 443 46? 393
Area 58 96 80 127 31 37 39 15 31 35
016540011
:::::::::^
Total Southern Oceans 168 271 502 264 503 474 458 499 429
N
0)
w
a/ Split year fishing season; July 1 to June 30;
split-year data shovn under the calendar year in which the split-year ends,
b/ Principally around South Georgia,
c/ Principally around Kerguelen,
Table 21
Tuna and other tuna-like species
Main fishing Catches ('000 t) State of
Ocean Species countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84 a/
xxxzxxxxxiXXXxxxxxxzzzxzz2Z2Z2xxxzzzzzz2zz2zz:2222Z222zz22Z2zzz2zz22zzzzz2zz2Z22ZZ2z:2zz22xz22X2zxz2Z222zz2zzzxzzzxz:2X2Z2
Atlantic Albacore Spain, Taiwan 78 72 64 73 75 64 67 64 69 North: H
(Prov. of China) South: H
Bigeye Japan, Spain, 51 53 66 77 60 49 57 70 65 P
Portugal, France,
Ghana
N, Bluefin France, Spain, 16 23 22 26 21 20 25 23 23 West: D
Italy, Japan East: F
Skipjack Spain, Ghana, 75 85 131 114 115 108 142 115 133 M '
France, Brasil w
Yellowfin Spain, France, 86 124 142 148 133 136 130 155 159 East: F
Venezuela, Taiwan Vest: ?
(Prov, of China)
Billfishes, Spain, Italy, USA, 21 21 29 42 41 45 52 54 51 Blue & white
swordfish Algeria, Japan tnarlin: F
Sailfish, east: U
Swordfish, north: F
Total principal tunas, 327 378 454 480 445 422 473 481 500
billfishes and swordfish
Small tunas Turkey, Hexico 88 86 121 100 86 106 120 108 112
and seerfishes Ghana, Senegal
Total Atlantic Ocean 415 464 575 580 531 528 593 589 612
Table 21 (continued)
===:=:==r==rrzrrr=======r=rz:r
Hain fishing Catches ('000 t) State of
Ocean Species countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84 a/
Indian Albacore Taiwan 11 11 16 9 28 42 41 19 40 F-?
(Prov, of China)
Bigeye Korea Rep, Taiwan 16 33 37 43 47 49 54 40 43 F
(P. China), Japan
S, Bluefin Japan, Australia 50 38 43 35 27 26 23 19 16 D
Skipjack Maldives, Spain, 38 34 63 137 149 169 205 238 221 L-H
France, Indonesia
i
Yellowfin Spain, France, 30 38 55 101 118 129 180 154 180 F jjj
Oman, Taiwan ,
(Prov, of China)
Billfishes, Taiwan (Prov. of 6 7 10 17 18 18 18 16 14 Swordfish: K
swordfish China), Sri Lanka,
Korea Rep., India,
Japan
Total principal tunas, 151 161 224 342 387 433 521 486 514
billfishes and swordfish
Small tunas India,Sri Lanka, 56 86 140 214 221 262 278 278 285
and seerfishes Pakistan, DAE,
Yemen, Iran
Total Indian Ocean 207 247 364 556 608 695 799 764 799
Table 21 (continued)
Main fishing Catches ('OOOt) State of
Ocean Species countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 exploitation
(1990) -74 -79 -84 a/
Pacific Albacore Taiwan (P. China), 121 118 104 105 108 110 116 162 124 North: F
Japan, USA, Korea R, South: F
Japan, Korea Rep. 83 125 111 124 150 150 121 128 150 F
N. Bluefin Japan, USA 20 19 19 11 14 12 6 9 6 ?
i
Skipjack Japan, USA, Philip., 395 506 666 661 815 756 935 868 885 M
Indonesia, Taiwan
(P, of China)
Yellovfin Mexico,USA,Japan, 300 390 400 476 542 602 586 627 648 East: N ,
Philip,, Indonesia Center i west: U *
Billfishes, Japan, Taiwan 59 60 62 57 66 73 76 76 81 Swordfish: H
ewordfish (Prov. of China)
Total principal tunas, 978 1278 1362 1434 1695 1703 1840 1870 1894
billfishes and swordfish
Small tuna Indonesia, Philip,, 340 369 532 627 641 695 815 874 918
and seerfishes Japan, Thailand, Korea R.
Total Pacific Ocean 1318 1647 1894 2061 2336 2398 2655 2744 2812
Total all oceans principal tunas, 1456 1817 2040 2256 2527 2558 2834 2837 2908
billfishes and swordfish
Total all oceans small tunas 484 541 793 941 948 1063 1213 1260 1315
and seerfishes
Total all tunas and tuna-like fishes 1940 2358 2833 3197 3475 3621 4047 4097 4223
ItSSSSSSMMSSEIEESSEBSSSSSSSSESSESSESSSSSSESSSSSSSSSESSSSSSSSSSSSESSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSasaSSESSSSSSESSSSES
a/ Refers to no specific FAO statistical area(s), but the entire stock.
b/ Includes S, bluefin caught in the Pacific and Atlantic.
5
t'