Full text of "The revolutions of Europe: being an historical view of the European nations from the subversion of the Roman Empire in the west to the abdication of Napoleon"

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THE

REVOLUTIONS OF EUROPEt

in: I NU

AN HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE EUROPEAN NATIONS

I K'.M TUB

SUBVERSION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE WEST

ABDICATION OF NAPOLEON.

CHRISTOPHER W. KP C H

riu>ncM>R or i-fiiur jfuiM-Bi-DKMcK AT rruracKO.

THAN8LATKU I T.OM THE FRENCH,

A N D 11 1C W C R I C II T O N.

SKCONI) KDITION.

LONDON: WIIITTAKER AND CO., AVE MARIA LANK

MDCCCXXXIX.

12011322243

I 6 3 c l

TKAN'SLATOirs I'KK FA( K.

THE Vnvr or TH* REVOLUTIONS OF EUROPE, by M. Koch, has been long known and highly
esteemed on the Continent, as a work of incontestable merit, and entitled to hold tl
rank among productions of its kind. It occupied tin- labours and researches of thirty years
uf tin- author's life; and had the benefit of receiving, at different intervals, several addition**
ami improvement.* from his own hand. As a concise, luminous, and accurate summary of
il history, it stands unrivalled. The principal events and vicissitudes of more than
fourteen hundred ye.irs an- her.- condcn-cd within an incredibly small space ; bringing, as
-. uiuler one view, the successive changes and destinies of Europe, from the f.ill of the
Roman Empire, in the fifth century, to the restoration of the Bourbons in France. The
eouiitrie^ whieh the different nations from time to time have occupied. their laws and
institutions their progress from barbarism to refin. in nt the revival of arts and sciences
the origin of inventions and discoveries and the wonderful revolutions, both moral and poli-
tical, to which they gave birth, arc here detailed at once with brevity and perspicuity. The
author has restricted himself as it were to the pure elements or essence of useful knowledge,
discarding from his narrative every thing that did not minister to solid instruction. II.-
book has been compared to a sort of chart or genealogical tree of history, where only the
grand and prominent events have been recorded, striptof all their secondary and subordinate
circumstances, which often distract the attention without adding in the least to the interest
or elucidation of the subject. His researches have thrown a new light on some of the
difficulties and obscurities of the Middle Ages, particularly with regard to Chronology and
Geography. 1 1 is veracity and precision are unimpeachable; and, though his style has been
thought inelegant, his candour, judgment, and erudition have never been called in question,
f all parties and of opposite opinions, both in politics and religion, have united their
suffrages in his praise. M. I'ontanes, Grand Master of the Unix ersity of 1'aris ; M. bvesque,
: -nt of the Class of Ancient History and Literature, and M. Dacier, Perpetual
Secretary of the Third Class, in the Institute; M. Fourrroy, Director-General of 1'ublie
Instruction at Paris; M. lY'-deric Huchholx, of Berlin, who translated the Tableau into
(ierman ; and many others, have spoken of this book in terms of the highest commendation,
and obtained it a place in most of the t'niversities. Schools, and Libraries on the Continent.

The REVOLUTIONS, although an excellent digest of the history and policy of Europe,
claims no higher merit than that of an elementary work. It was originally designed for tin-
young entering on their political studies, and is an outline that must be filled up by sub-
it reading, and from collateral sources. With regard to the prc.-cnt English edition,
the Translator has only to say, that he has endeavoured to give a faithful transcript of his
author, and as literal as the idiom of the two languages would admit, lie has been more
studious of fidelity to his original than elegance of style or novelty of expression. 1
prefixed a short sketch of the author's life, abridged from two of his biographers, MM.
Sclurll and Weiss.

Tin- : Periods bring down the History of Europe to the Freneh Kc-.olntion, which

is all that our author undertook, or rather lived to accomplish. The period from that
to the restoration of the Hourbons in 1815, has been continued by M. S< hu-11.* the editor
h's Works, and author of the History of the Treatiet qf Peace. Sec. As the conti-
nuation, houexer, differs a little in some points from the \iewsof the original, and is not
so full on others as might be \\Mird, the Translator has introduced tuch additions and
amendments as seemed necessary to complete what was defu -lent, according as nearly as

If. Schci-ll has also inttraperaed a few explanatory paragraph*, which, in the present volume, the

render \\ill timl iucliuktl within brackets [ J.

LIFE OF KOCH.

pos-ible with the spirit and design of the author himself. These alterations, as well as the
authorities on which they have' been made, will be found carefully marked.

LIFE OF CHRISTOPHER W. KOCH.

CHRISTOPHKR WILLIAM KOCH, equally distinguished as a lawyer and a learned historian, was
born on the Mh of May, 1737, at Bouxwiller, a small town in the seigniory of Lichtenberg,
in Alsace, which then belonged to the Prince of Hesse-Darmstadt. His father, who was a
member of the Chamber of Finance under that prince, sent him to an excellent school in
his native place, where he received the rudiments of his education. At the age of thirteen,
he went to the Protestant University of Strasburg, where he prosecuted his studies under
the celebrated Schcepflin. Law was the profession to which he was destined ; but he showed
an early predilection for the study of history, and the sciences connected with it, such as
Diplomatics, or the art of deciphering and verifying ancient writs and chartularies, Genea-
logy, Chronology, &c. Schcepflin was not slow to appreciate the rising merit of his pupil,
and wished to make him the companion of his labours. He admitted him to his friendship,
and became the means of establishing him as his successor in that famous political academy,
which his reputation had formed at Strasburg, by attracting to that city the youth of the
first families, and from all parts of Europe. Koch devoted much of his time to the Canon
Law, and soon gave a proof of the progress he had made in that branch of study, by the
Academical Dissertation which he published in 1761, under the title of Commentatio de
Collatione dignitatum et beneficiorum ecclesiasticorum in imperio Romano- Germanico. This
treatise was a prelude to his Commentary on the Pragmatic Sanction, which he published
in 179 a work which excited an extraordinary sensation in Catholic Germany, and pro-
cured the author the favourable notice of such prelates as were most eminent for learning
and piety.

After taking his academic degree, Koch repaired to Paris in 1762, where he staid a year ;
honoured with the society of the most distinguished literati in the capital, and frequenting
the royal library, wholly occupied in those researches which prepared him for the learned
labours in which he afterwards engaged. On his return to Strasburg, he wrote the con-
tinuation of the Historia Zaringo-Badensis, of which the first volume only was drawn up by
Schcepflin. All the others were entirely the work of Koch, though they bear the name of
the master who had charged him with the execution of this task. Schcepflin bequeathed to
the city of Strasburg, in 1766, his valuable library and his cabinet of antiques, on condition
that Koch should be appointed keeper ; which he was, in effect, on the death of the testator
in 1771. He obtained, at the same time, the title of professor, which authorized him to
deliver lectures ; for the chair of Schcepflin passed, according to the statutes of the University,
f o another professor, a man of merit, but incapable of supplying his place as an instructor
of youth in the study of the political sciences. The pupils of Schcepflin were thus transferred
to Koch, who became the head of that diplomatic school, which, for sixty years, gave to the
public so great a number of ministers and statesmen.

In 177'.J the government of Hanover offered him the chair of public German Law in the
;sity of Gottingen, which he declined. Next year the Emperor Joseph II., who knew
well how to distinguish merit, complimented him with the dignity of Knight of the Empire,
an intermediate title between that of baron and the simple rank of noblesse. About the
same period lie obtained the chair of Public Law at Strasburg, which he held until that
university was suppressed at the French revolution. Towards the end of 17'.>, the Pro-
testants of Alsace sent him as their envoy to Paris, to solicit from the King and the Constitu-
tional Assembly the maintenance of their civil and religious rights, according to the faith of
former treaties. He succeeded in obtaining for them the decree of the 17th of August, 17W,

i ilieieriftht*. and declared that the ecclesiastical brnefi'

tho-e \\ ! -. had

: the ii.itimi. The former di-cree wa-
:!<! by an act, bearing date December 1, !7!m. Kuth <>i il:,-c U.-H- .<;.| i ,\i-d and

Meantime, tin- terrors and turhnlein e of the revolution had dispersed from Strasbwg
that brilliant assemblage >i M.iuh, which tin- n-|.ut tM n of the professors, and the natural
i attracted from nil i, astrous events interrupted

the cm eh, at a time \h' n In- w.i* ca] .idcring Btt BKMt tepOftfJDt

i thai moment he devoted himself to public a: ing appn.

mem' \s<embly. he o|)|x>se<l the fiction which

and ultimately suhverte. I the throne. When president of the comnu a assembly,

r the maintenance of peace ; and in a report which In- made in 17
!il the calamities v. huh would overwhelm France, if war should !< drri.tred
publican faction, by their clamours, silenced the remonstrances ot

when, on the -joih of April, he spoke in opposition to a mea.-ure which proved so fatal to
which lie addressed, loth of August, to the constituted authorities

of the b>wer Hliine, sufficiently expressed the horror with which that dayV ; .gs had

in-piied him. HP procured, n. of his fellow-citi/ens in a reai-

which he had then some reason to hope would be made a common c.tu>e by th-

;.T drc\\ down upon him the peiscculion of tin- inline jiarty. lie was im-
mured i:i a pri>on, \\h.-ri' he languished for eleven months, and from which he had no pro-

\cept to mount the >catlold. The revolution of the Uth Thermidor n
him to liU-rty, when he was appointed, by the voice of his fellow-citi/ens, to tl>

of their provincial department, lie endeavoured by all means in hi.- pov.er to defeat the
measures that were taken to injure his constituents; and had influence enough, it is said,
to prevent the sale of the funds belonging to manufactories and hospitals. He t!
with plcaMire those functions which he had unwillingly accepted ; in 17'J", he recomn.
his professorship of public law, and returned with new /eal to his literary labours, which had
>o long interrupted. Six years he spent in these useful occupations; from which, bow-
ever, he was once more detached by a decree of the senate, which nominated him a member
of the Tribunal. This nomination Koch accepted, in the hope of being useful to his Protestant
countrymen, and to the city of Strasburg, in obtaining the re-establishment of the reformed
religion, and its restoration in the university. He did, in et'eet, exert himself much in
n, according to the confession of Augsburg, as well as of the Protestant
Academy at Strasburg, which was suppressed at this period.

I'll'' Tribunal having been suppressed, Koch declined all places of trust or honour which
were offered him ; and only requested permission to retire, that he might have a short interval
for himself between business and the grave. A pension of 3000 francs was granted bin),
without any solicitation on his part. In ISO*, he returned to Strasburg, where he con-
tinned to devote himself to letters, and in administering to the public good. About the end of
< .rand-master of the I'ltiversity of France conferred on him the title of Honorary
of the Academy of Strasburg. His health, which had been prolonged by a life of
great temperance ami regularity and the peace which result- from a good conscience, became
.n l^i J. u ! :i I. Fell into a state of languor, which terminated his life on the 25th
of October lsi;{. His colleagues, the professors of Strasburg, erected to his memory a
monument of white marble in the church of St. Thomas, near those ot u and

Oberlin, which was executed by M. Ohnmacht, an eminent sculptor in Strasburg. One of
his biographers has pronounced the following eulogium on Koch: "A noble regard for
futicc and truth, a penetration i 'inmon. a diligence unrivalled in historical

researches, a remarkable talent in arranging and illustrating his subject, an incorruptible
t principle, and unclouded serenity of mind, with a zealous desire of renderim;
lies, his information, and activity useful to his species these were the prominent
s of the mind and character of this amiable u lias been

Kcd, that although professor Koch had not the art of a graceful or even a fluent elm u-

A I THOR'S PREFACE.

tion, no man ever possessed in a higher degree the talents and qualifications of a public
instructor. Like Socrates, he had a manner peculiar to himself. He was not so much a
teacher of sciences, as of the means of acquiring them. He could inspire his scholars with a
taste for labour, and knew how to call forth their several powers and dispositions. Though
a man of the most domestic habits, and a lover of children, Koch never married.

Two lives of this celebrated professor have been written by foreigners. The one is by M.
Schweighaeuser, junior, a professor at Strasbourg; and the other is prefixed to the new
edition of the Histoire des Traites de Paix, by M. Schcell, the editor and continuator of
several of our author's works. This latter biographer has accompanied his sketch with a
descriptive catalogue of all Koch's works, the principal of which are the following: ].
Tables Genealogiquesdes Maisons Souveraines du Midi et de FOuest de r Europe. 2. Sanctio
Pragmatica Germanorum illustrata. 3. Abreg6 de FHistoire des Traites de Paix entre les
Puissances de f Europe. A new edition of this work appeared in 1818, enlarged and conti-
nued by M. Schcell down to the Congress of Vienna and the Treaty of Paris, 1815. 4. Table
des Traitis entre la France et les Puissances Etrangeres, depuis la Paix de Westphalie, fyc.
5. Tableau ties Revolutions de I'Europe, fyc. 6. Tables Gn6alogiques des Maisons Souve-
raines de FEst et du Nord de I'Europe. This work was published, after the author's death, by
M. Srlurll. Besides these, Koch left various manuscripts, containing memoirs of his own
life, and several valuable papers on the ancient ecclesiastical history and literature of his
native province.

A. C.

AUTHOR'S PREFACE.

THE work here presented to the public is a summary of the Revolutions, both general and
particular, which have happened in Europe since the extinction of the Roman Empire in the
fifth century. As an elementary book, it will be found useful to those who wish to have a concise
and general view of the successive revolutions that have changed the aspect of states and
kingdoms, and given birth to the existing policy and established order of society in modern
times.

Without some preliminary acquaintance with the annals of these revolutions, we can
neither study the history of our own country to advantage, nor appreciate the influence
which the different states, formed from the wreck of the ancient Roman Empire, recipro-
cally exercised on each other. Allied as it were by the geographical position of their terri-
tories, by a conformity in their religion, language, and manners, these states, in course of
time, contracted new attachments in the ties of mutual interests, which the progress of
civilisation, commerce, and industry, tended more and more to cement and confirm. Many
of them, whom fortune had elevated to the summit of power and prosperity, carried their
laws, their arts, and institutions, both civil and military, far beyond the limits of their own
dominions. The extensive sway which the Romish hierarchy held for nearly a thousand
years over the greater part of the European kingdoms, is well known to every reader of
history.

This continuity of intercourse and relationship among the powers of Europe became the
means of forming; them into a kind of republican system ; it gave birth to national law -and
conventional rights, founded on the agreement of treaties, and the usages of common prac-
tice. A laudable emulation sprang up among contemporary states. Their jealousies, and
rvi'M their competitions and divisions, contributed to the progress of civilisation, and the
attainment of that high state of perfection to which all human sciences and institutions have
been carried by the nations of modern Europe.

It is these political connexions, this reciprocal influence of kingdoms and their revolu-
tions, and especially the varieties of system which Europe has experienced in the lapse of so

\i i IlEFACE.

many ages, that require t.> be developed in a general view, such as that which profene* to

I tin- present Work.

author lus l,rri- remodelled his " View of tin- Revolution* of tli.-' Mi.ldle Ages"
(published in IT'-H)), and extended or abridged th- iods according

tinuin- this \iork down to tin- ]!- n: tiim-. In- has deemed it necessary to
conclude at the Fn-n.-h Revolution; a.s tin- iiuun ; Its of that ^reat event are too

much involu-d in uncertainty to be clearly or impartially exhibited by contemporary
rs.*

:-ilinu with tin- principal revoh

which have changed, in > ;lic jxilitical state ot Knrope. At the head of each jx-riod

is placet 1 i-ithcr the <li -lu'iution ,.f its particuliir revolution, or that of the power or empire
which helil tin a.-endaiicy at the time. In limiting his treatise solely to the revolutions of
KUI-OJM-. the writer has not touched upon those of Asia and the East, except in so far as they
have bad an immediate influence on the destinies of Europe. Conscious also that tl
tinuishin characteristic of an historian is veracity, and that the testimony of a writer who
has not himself been an eyewitne>s of the events he records cannot be relied on with implicit
confidence, the author has imposed on himself the invariable rule of citing, with scrupulous
care, the principal authorities and vouchers, of each period and country, that have :
him. during his researches, in selecting and examining his materials by the torch of patient
criticism. Without this labour and precaution, the Work would have been of no avail as an
elementary help to those who were desirous of acquiring a more minute and solid knowledge
of history.

In the edition of 1823, from which the present translation is made, the Tableau has been conti-
mied by tli f, S, 1m 11, down to the 20th November 115. T.

f Nine in the last editions, including the continuation.

ANALYTICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

REVOLUTIONS OF EUROPE.

PAOE

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE iii

Lin OK M.KOCH iv

AUTHOR'S PREFACE vi

INTRODUCTION: Use of history, 1. Archives and records,
8. Geography. 2. Genealogies, 2. Chronology, 3. Age
of the World, 4. The Mosaic or Sacred history, 4. Julian
year, 4. Gregorian calendar, 4. Reformed year or
calendar, 4. Old and new style, 4. Birth of our Saviour
anil Christian era, 5. Epochs or eras in ancient and
modern computation of time, 5. Hegira or flight of
Mahomet, G. Vulgar or Dionysian era, 6. Era used
in Spanish and Portuguese records, 6. Julian period,
according to Scaliger, 6. Cycle of the sun, 6. Lunar
eyc-le, 6. Cycle of indications, 6. History, how divided
and classified. C. Universal history, ? The middle ages,
7. The ancient historians, 7. Astronomical science origi-
nated in Chaldea, 7. Phoenicians the first navigators, 7.
Early history of Europe unknown, 7- Early monarchies,

7. Vestiges of the Egyptian civilisation and power, 7.
Antiquities of the states of Assyria and Babylon, 7. Tra-
ditions thereof unsupported by Herodotus, 7- The only
certain account of the conquests of Shalmaneser and
Nebuchadnezzar to be found in the Scriptures, 7. Per-
sian monarchy founded by Cyrus, 7. Petty kingdoms
of Greece, a. Powerful republics of Athens and Laceda;-
mon, 8. Military prowess, love of liberty, learning, art
and sciences of tne Greeks, 8. Philip, King of Macedon,

8. Conquests of Alexander the Great, 8. Kingdoms
established at his death, 8. Egypt and Syria, 8. Kings
of Home, 8. II istory of the republic of Rome, 8. Roman
historians, 8. The Carthaginian power, c. The Punic
wars, or contest of Rome and Carthage, 8. Destruction of

;hage, 9. No vestiges, monuments, or public records,
of that maritime city, now extant, 9. Pompey, Caesar,
and Crasiun, 9. Destructive ambition of Julius Caesar, 9.
Fall of the Commonwealth of Rome, 9. Death of Caesar,
I riunmr.iie of Octavianus, Antony, and Lepidus, 9.
heath <>( Marc Antony, in Egypt, 9. Roman Empire
founded by Augustus or Octaviauus, 9. Extent and popu-
lation of the Roman Empire, 9. Conquests of Trajan, 9.
Tin- Human Senate loses all real authority under Tibe-
rius, Caligula, Nero, and Domitian, 9. Reigns of the
emperors Titus, and the Antoniues, 9. Constautine the
Great establishes the Christian religion, 10. He transfers
the seat of empin- t" l!y/.antium, then-after named Con-
staniiiio|ili-, 10. Division uf thu Roman Kmpire by the
will of Theodoxiux tin- <;rt-at, 10. Honoring Emperor of
ur Rome, 10. Arcndins Emperor of the East or
Constantinople, known as the Greek Kmpire. 10. Origin
ut'thi- |,.i|iai power at Rome, 10. Mahomet founds u new
religion and an empire, 10. Kingdoms of the Franks and
noiilii-rn barbarians, 10. The Normans, Russians, and
Hungarians, &c., establish monarchies, 10. Germany
becomes a paramount state and sovereignty, 10. Rise of
the lloineuf Capet, 10. Norman conquests. 10. Domi-
nation of tl,e ropes, 10. Restoration of Kmnan jiuis-
prudrnre. Id. Italian republics, 10. Mogul Empire in
:, 10. Magna Charta aii'l Kn.-h-h I.iliniy, 10.
Tin- Inquisition. 10. The Turku under Mahomet II. con
<|iier tin- <in-ek or Lower Kmpire, lu. Fall of Constau-
tinnple, ID. Restoration of learning in the \Vet, 10. Re-
newal of roni in-, lo. Revival of the idles Icttrel, 10

The reformation, 10. Discovery of America, 10. Hell
gums wars, 10. Political system of Europe. 10. Federal
>Ktem, 10. Peace of Utrecht, 10. Libertine and im-
pious philosophy, 10. Revolutionary epoch, 10.

PERIOD I.

From the Invasion of the Roman Empire in the West ly
the Barbarians, to the time of Charlemayne. A.D.
406-800.

300 Barbarian nations invading the Western Empire

of Rome, enumerated 1

300375 The Goths embrace Christianity 1

300400 Confederacy of- the Franks 1

300 Confederacy of the Alemanni 1

200 The Saxons and Angles |

375 The Huns invade Europe 1

412 Ataulphus King of the Visigoths 1

413 Conquests of the Burgundians 1

Conquests of the Alemanni and Suevi

430 Clodion founds the kingdom of the Franks at

Cambrai *

451 Attila defeated by Stilts, in which obstinate battle
Theodoric King of the Visigoths, the ally of the
Romans, is slain

486 Clovis defeats Syagrius and the Romans at

Soissons "

496 Clovis defeats the Alemanni at Tolbiac near

Cologne " J

496 He embraces Christianity j

50: He defeats the Visigoths at Vouille 1*

534 The descendants of Clovis conquer the kingdom

of Burgundy ]

409 The Vandals conquer Spain 1

415 5H4 The Visigoths establish their dominion in

Spain and in Africa 1

427 Genseric the Vandal subdues the Romans in Africa 1

455 The Vandals pillage Rome

534 Belisarius overturns the Vandal kingdom in Atru-a l.i

410 The Romans retire from Britain j

450827 The heptarchy of the Anglo-Saxons 1

827 Egbert crowned King of England

476 Augustuliis, the last Roman emperor, is dethroned

bv Odoacer "". '

489 Odoacer put to death at Ravenna by Theodoric

the Ostrogoth j

547 Totila takes Rome ]

552 Death ol Totila -

553 Nurses defeats Teias the last king of the Ostrogoths 1

it'H The I. omtiards invade Italy |

f>7'J I'avia taken by King Albuinus 1

572 On the state of Germany 15

400 GOO The Slavi establish themselves along the

Danube- \

Fiefs of Germany J

Customs of the Germans -j

Laws of the Germans J

Influence of the Christian religion 1

The Latin language used by the clergy ; modern

longua"i-s thai arc- derived from it 17

678 Pepin d'lleristal. Kingdoms of Australia and

Neustria ; '/

733 Charles Martel defeats the Saracen invaders^

under Abdalrahmau of Coi duva I/, 19

736 The Iconoclasts. Religious liissensiiiiis ol the

Eastern or Greek empire ; 1

730 Roman republic- temporal iv revived ill the ponti-
ficate ol'Oregory II !

751 Astolphus the Lombard king seizes Ravenna .....
lla\ enna ,-eded by king Pepin to the Roman p.intill

(',22 Tim he.giru of Mahomet.

713 The Saracens conquer Spain

7l!9 Alphonso I. establishes the kingdom of Ovie.lo or
A: ,1111. as (^iilisequeiilly of Leon)

r-AOt

800-900 Divtaionoflbe caUlpUUoftheSeJMeM.

i .in- and science, at the Arabian* 19, 8"

Commerce of Arabia nU 1 ml ia .

l II.
r to Otto tkt Ortat, A.D.

PTM Aeceeeton of Charle* the Great or ChariecMga*.* 90

800 Fall of the Lombard kingdom ..... ... 90

Pall of lh new Roman rep.iMic. and of the ejur-

rh4te of Rjvrnn* ............. .... 90

800 Charles the Great crowned cmpeiur uf the (toman*

by Pope L ... 91

800 900 Sute of learning. Foundation of .chooU.... 91

897 BffbertttlacofKngUnd ......... ... 99

814 Sucoresor* of Charlemagne ..................... 99

Iiaari4ll. K in -.. I (..:!.!:> ........... 99

IrealyofVer.! ... 92

844 877 RelgnofCharleatheli K trance.. 98

The romance idiom was the origin of the French

language ................................... 92

888 Empire of the Writ i separated into the King-
\. Lorraine. Ilurgundy,

Nar.,rr.-. .. ... 92

008 09> Reign of Charl.

Affair. G .mil of the duchy of Lorraine.. 93

879 Hoaoo founder of the. Kingdomof burgundy ..... 93

930 Rodolph King of Burgundy ............. ...... 23

85tf Kingdom of Navarre .......................... 23

Feudal iiMiiluii.iiis of the Franks ami German* .. 23

Vim erof military chief*, and of the noble* ........ 1M

t .il partHkHtt ........................... 94

;i.ilU ....................... 94

............................ 93

TII.-II pir-i.-i.-s and sea-king* .................... 95

Tlie r rum|ue*l* ............................... 95

Their invasion of Ireland ____ ................... 95

874 Norman* found a republic in Iceland ............ 95

919 Roll... -. r Roliert. Duke uf Noriii.uidy ............ 95

i m conquest* .......................... 96

-ti invasion* of Kngland ................... '-6

879 Reign oi Alfred the Great ..................... 86

Norman navigator*, and maritime discoveries .... 9C

PERIOD III.
From OtMo the Oriat to Orrgory the Ortnt. A D. 96121074.

MI i*6i Civil inftiniliun<i)f the (iernian monarchy.. 97

it Henry I. ur named I he Kowli-r .................. 97

964 Otlio i Kropcror uf (ifrmany.ronquen luly ..... K7

' "

M A ly. John Xl'l. INipe

96* 150$ The i-lective king* of (;rm.iny c

emperor* by the ceremony of a triple coronation
"

. ..

-lective king* of (;rm.iny con*tituted

at Rome ............... " ..................... 98

Mart , n.li'iihtuif. MUnia and Liuatia 39

f the rh'irrii in (irrnuiiiy ................. IfJ

1039 Kini(d<>m of Hur^iindy, or Arlrvunit.itto .,.

man crown. onian dynaty ........ 99

Power of the Count. ..: < hamnagne,

Savoy, the Dauphin and other hereditary feuda-
toriei ....................................... 99

< of /.ihringen. Regent of Hurt:uii.ly . 89
1100 1191 The Dnke* of /ahriiiK- - itier-

Und ............. ... 89

1043 Trrat) l>etwrm the Emperor Hmry III., and

Samuel AK* KmK ot lluni(.ry ................ 99

.t of Henry III.'* dommiuui. .r (irrmau
Emj.. ............... 29

1046 I'ammount aitlhority of the German emperor*. . .
Temporal *vlem of tin- ppr< .................

r.ir' uuth ! ...... 30

10501100 Pief.of the empiie become her. ditary ..... 30

Imi^iialandprefeetiNUI < .... 30

< acquire temporal power in Germany ..... 30

Decline of the lmprn.il authority under the inc.

;< I
'.

oflu

tlon. dethroned .....
ngdoms on the ruin*

on the de-

10351..

tcen

lii*de-
bret ..........

anle tnrr ngum* n on* monarcy, an
pel the Moon from Spain
' ih Capet r.ubluhr. a new <t) i, ,

-10HO Tancred. and hi* aone Robert and i

1474 Ferdinand of Arragon and Itabell. of CtMilU
anile tnrlr kingdum* in on* monarchy, and
pel the Moon from Spain

' ih Ca

1033

.Kxjuer part of l
. 'ie North of I

10941035 Sweyn II. King uf Norway
null- I. irk .........

u. euatom*. and |uernmrn

...

906ftH) Christianity introduced into I'uUnU and

...
988 Vladimir the Grrat >pou*e* toe (ir.-i-k VrioepM

. ':i i ......

kiow. capital of thp Rui.in liraud U
1015 Jaruslau*. Kiiian lawgiver ...... : ............

>ry I. uf Hrincf rcpoute* Anne ilaughur (
JaitMUu* ...................................

uiity introduced into Hungary ...........

: lien I., king, lawgiver, anJ Bpotilooflup llun-
eariniM ....................... ...

I'oliiical iiKtitiitiont and u-rniurial division* of

ilitiun uf the H -T.I ............

1000 Keel* and >chi>in* of thr Grrek church ..........

Schism and breach between the churches o! '
t.intinpli- and Kume.. . . ...

Hun-, Avar*, and other barbarians, also th>-

lian* and Russians, haras* the Eastern Kmpire

W 71* Arab* conquer Sicily, and besiege Constan-

tinople ....................................

Thr Iximhard. Normans, Arab*, and Turk* eix
on its pruvincci .............................

470-774 l.oinlianlkin^clomof Itily ..................

Tin- <ii.-.-k t.

TtO I. in, Krnpemr <-f Coiit.infc.

;o-IOOO TheSt-ljuk Tuiks conquer Alia Minor .....

1000 Noun-ill ,-,,ti.p,-.t, in It.ly .....................

too The Turk .ililain autiioiity iu

Hi.- i ....................

Institution l I'.miri of Srljuckians and Aralii.i
MS RoiMli, Kmir-al-Omrah, or cummandi-r of com.

34
31

34
34

43 The llowidr* or Great Kmirs .................. .

<l u! the A rnliiitn rali|>hati* ..........

1038 i .il Oinr^h . .

lu7l AI|-Arlan takes the Greek Emprrur Ilomantu
|iri.."in-r ......... ............. .........

Turk.-
1079 Mal^k Sha

Is nametl
1092 Death of
i-r

, S-ljuckun Sultan ...............

omniandrr of the K-iithful ...........

alek and partition of his dominions into

1.1' 1 1. 1 n. Krrni.iu, and Koum .........

1159 Caliph* of llaplmd reloreU

PERIOD IV.
From POM Orryvry Vlt. to frmiface I'll I. A.I

to 1

10711300 Supremacy of the Koman pontiffs ......... 36

IBM I*ope Nicholas II. form* an alliance itli Robert

u ........... .. 36

tan In'' -"'-'I Mil'l. lit.i:i 1 in tli- lection

IK- Alrx.mdi-r II ......................... 36

1071 Hild--l.r .11.1 ol'tuui* the tiara underthe apprllatloM

'k'ur\ \11 ................. ... 3$

1MO lie* Rome subtert to the liennan potentate ..... 36

ters Invest. ture l the ring and erotic:. .. 36

- II. 1 .r bids the exercise of the vecular
right of investiture ............ . . 37

I).- proc'aima himsrlf independent of leaipotal
authority .......

1074 tin renews the law of clerical elib%ry ........... 37

The False Decretals forced by Istdore ........... 37

..iv VII .-XMU canonical obedience. tValiy
and homage to Kume

to convoke general Councils ......

I- .-;e and power of legatee .
Gregory wipmne head of the church, eonatitate*
himself Ihe arbiter of temporal pnnre. ......... 38

the emperor Henry IV. to appear
b

ANALYTICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

A.D. PAOE

1076 That emperor and the German hMiops pronounce

the deposition of the pope, at Worms 38

TV VII. excommunicates and deposes Henry

IV * 38

He absolves the emperor after a penanre 38

1080 New papal sentence fulminated again*! Henry IV. 38

in V I l.'s address to Philip I. of France 39

1076 1080 He claims a jurisdiction over Solomon
Kin;: of Hungary. Sueno of Denmark and other

princes ". 39

Hi> M-heme of an universal domination 39

10861088 His successors Victor III. and Urban II.

maintain the object of a papal supremacy 39

Contest between the emperors ot Germany and the

copes " 39

Rise of the c;ue I ph. or imperial, and the Ghibelline,

or papal, lactions 39

l>eror Henry V. cedes the right of investiture

to Calixlus ]"!., at Worms 40

Decay of the German Empire 40

1198 Innocent III. assumes the temporal government

of the city of Rome 40

The ecclesiastical states 40

Patrimony of the Countess Matilda ceded by Fre-
deric 1 1. to Pope Honorius III 40

Multiplication of religious orders 40

The Benedictine Order 40

817 Rule of St. Benedict prescribed at the Council of

Aix-la- ( 'hapelle 40

10001100 The Carthusians and the Order of St. An-
thony 40

1198 Innocent III. establishes the Mendicant Orders. . 40
1271 Gregory \., at the Council of Lyons, reduces the

Friars to four orders 40

The Monks employed as legates and as mission-
aries 40

1198 1216 Character and ambition of Innocent III. .. 41
He appoints legates h latere to preside over the

collation to all ecclesiastical preferments 41

Provisional mandates, and reversions to benefices. 41

1265 Rf servations instituted by Clement IV 41

The Crusades or Holy Wars 41

107o Pilgrims to Jerusalem oppressed by the Seljuckian

Turks 42

10/5 Council of Clermnnt convoked 42

101*5 Urban II. preaches the first crusade in the assem-
bly at Clvrraont 43

Peter the Hermit excites the Christian princes and
barons to take the cross 42

1096 Godfrey of Bouillon aud Baldwin lead the crusaders

through Hungary and Bulgaria 42

Hugh of Vermandois, Robert of Normandy, Ste-
phen of Blois, and Robert Count of Flanders,

proceed through Italy 42

Raymond Count of Toulouse, and other crusaders,
take the route, of Dalmatia 42

1097 They t ike Nice in Asia Minor, and defeat the

Turks in Bithynia 42

1098 Crusaders take Antioch 42

W They take Jerusalem from the Caliph of Egypt. . . 42

109J 1187 Kingdom of Jerusalem established "under

Godfrey of Bouillon 42

1099-1144 Counts of Edessa 42

11001188 Princes of Antioch and Counts of Tripoli... 42
1268 1289 The Mamelukes reconquer those domi-
nions 43

1 191 Richard Coeur de Lion conquers Cyprus 43

1191 1487 Guy de Lusignan aud his descendants. Kings

of Cyprus 43

114" The Emperor Conrad III. and Louis VII. under-
take a second crusade 43

:189 Saladin and the Saracens take Jerusalem 43

1189 The Emperor Kred.-ric Barbaroua. Philip Augus-
tus, and Richard Coeur de Linn, join in the third

crunade 43

)i! Innocent III. instigates to fourth crusade 43

Conquest of Constantinople bribe Latin* 43

1217 Amlrew, King of Hungary, in obedience to the de-
crees of tin- rimncil of LaUrran, leads a fifth

crusade 43

1228 The Empeior Frederic II. regains Jerusalrmin the

sixth crusade ; 43

1244 The Chariimian Turks pillage and burn the Holy

City I..... 43

1249 Louis IX. conducts the seventh crusade to the

i nd bikes Dumietta 43

and t.iken prisoner at Mansoura... 43
imelukes take Tyre and Ptolemaic 43

A.rt. PAOE

The aggrandisement of papal power a result of the

Ku-,tern crusades 43

Crusades directed against the Moors, the Slavoni-
ans, anil other infidels 43

Also against Christian princes who disavowed

papal supremacy 43

AIM against the Waldeiises, Albigenses, and Hus-
sites 43

Consequences of the crusades on the political condi-
tion of Germany, Italy, Hungary, and England. 43
They increased the power of the French monarchs. 44
Aud were the origin of armorial bearings and he-
raldry 44

Surnames brought into modern use 44

Origin of jousts and tournaments 44

1100 Institution of the Religious Military Orders 44

Order of St. John of Jerusalem 44

The Knights Hospitallers 44

1310 They establish themselves in Cyprus, and conquer

Rhodes 44

1530 Emperor Charles V. grants Malta to the Knights

of St. John, or Knighis ol Malta 44

1 119 Order of Knights Templars 44

11201192 The Teutonic Knights of St. Mary of Jeru-
salem 45

1309 Their history, and conquest of Prussia 45

1528 Albert de Brandenberg, Grand Master of the Teu-
tonic Order 45

1200 1300 Various military and religious orders.in imi-
tation of the preceding 45

Institutions of chivalry in the feudal ages 45

Learning fostered by the caliphs 45

Magniticence and literature of Constantinople.. . . 45

Commerce of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa 45

1241 Commerce ot Hamburg and Lubec 45

Origin of the Hanseatic League 45

12001300 State of European society 45

The peasantry serfs, and not possessing the rights

of citizens 45

Communes or free corporations 46

Italian republics of Naples, Genoa, Venice, Pisa,

and Amalfl 46

1108 Louis le Gros grants constitutional charters to di-
vers cities 46

1120 Barons emancipate the serfs for a pecuniary com-

pensation 46

Increase of municipalities 46

1223 The citizens obliged to military service in France

under Louis VIII 46

1106 Municipal charters in Germany, under the Empe-
ror Henry V" 46

The principle of the wealth of nations recognised . 46
1265 The Commons called to Parliament under Henry

III. of England 46

1303 Philip le Bel convokes the States of France 46

12981303 Dispute of Philip with Boniface VIII 46

1342 Edward III. calls two Houses of Parliament, the

barons, and knights of the shires and burgesses. 46
1309 Pir.-t German Diet held at Spire, under the ''Empe-
ror Henry VII

1344 Diet of Frankfort 47

( '. ir|)i ati- bodies and municipalities 47

Enfranchisement of serfs progressive 47

Feuds ofihe Italian republics 47

1180 1315 Louis VII. and Louis X. grant freedom to

the French peasantry 47

Enfranchisement takes place in Germany 47

Henry II., Duke of Brabant, grants freedom to the

cultivators of the soil 47

Roman jurisprudence extended throughout the

kingdoms oftiie West 47

Principles ot civilisation, liberty and good govfin-

ment " 47

Code of Justinian taught at Bologna. 4"J

TheCnuon Law established by the Roman pontilfs. 48
1145 Eugeniui 111. encourages Gratian in the compila-
tion of canons, known as the Denetals o! the

Popes

1152 He gives the Decretals his sanction 48

Tri 1 mi. ui's Institutes of Justinian, or code of the

Human law 48

1235 Gregory IX. publishes another collection of Decre-
tals 4s

These strengthen the papal authority 48

And have a salutary influence on society 48

The Peace or Truce" of God, explained 48

The Judgments of God and Ordeals abolished .... 48
The feudal law reduced to order and system 48

.\ III \l \M> < HKONOUXiK \I I \

PMfcMtM Of the few **Jdtod . .

.cal .ladle*, ami *xiene*

Degree* conferred Ml student. ..f the ( mm U>-
UM //afcfn of

.... 48

: the llnuvuf II .1,, .lauCrn

1 luierregniuu. period of aaarchy la

Germany . . . ... 49

253 TV- Han*ealic League

1278 Rodolph of llapaburg. Emperor <>f Germany 49

Ph. tfrtMi of the ductile* of Bavaria

and Saauir. 49

Pro., i 49

lUti.bon declared immrdtatt.ot holdiag of

in* eruwD . 49

1180 Bernard, too of the margrave of Hrnndenbuig. in-

vested tih the duchy of Saxony 49

Suabta aiMl Pranconla ...

1446 Succession of the duchy of Austria M

ISM Richatfl of Cornwall, rmp. r . . 50

.in-,,: II. KingofBohemi.. . ... 90

I25H I* *lain by the Emperor Hodolph at lh lull I.- of

Marchfield 60

11061138 Italian republics reeoKnise the German em-
peror a* thrir suprrme head, but claim sovereign

power ftir iheniw. . . . . M

1158 Frederic Barbaras** claim* the kingdom of luly . 50

ll'-S He rate* the city of Milan 10

I .eagoe of the cities of ljimbar.lv 50

W* Frederic 1 1. ren.-w. thr war in lialv 50

1226 He ta oppoaed by Gregory IX. and the league of

Lumbardy 50

Faction* of the "uelph* ami (ihibelline* in Italy . 50

The Italian municipalities low tlicir hli.-riy 50

The institii-.ion of Podesta in several Italian state*. 50
Thr I'.xirsias.or captain*, arrogate Mvereign power

over Uieir cities 51

Commerce of Venice and Genoa 51

7 Doge of Vrnicr. institution of that magistrate 51

ilicr 51

Hereditary aritiocracy of that republic 51

HMory of Genoa 61

Account of the republic of Pia 63

Norman chief* acquire a portion of Italy 53

*7 Rotfer. sori-reign of Sicily 52

1130 Anaclein* II.. anil- pope 62

1166 William II.. King of Naples and Sicily 63

Account of the 1 1 HUM- of lliili-ii<t.iuffii 42

1189 Maniace of the Emperor Il.-ur> I V.ithCon*tanee

of Naple* ." 69

1189 The tuurper Tancmi 53

I3SM Mainfrui uiurpi the kingdom of the Two Sicilies.. 63
.nt IV. 111% ruts Charles .,f AnJMi with the

kingdom of Maples 53

1!W M oinlroi slain in thr battle of Hrnrvrntum 63

1968 Conradm hrir to Uwtcruwnof Naplec.aud Frederic

of Austria, hrheadml 62

Michael Haleolngu* expel* the Latin* from c3on-

stair 53

i .e Sicilian Vriper*. mawacre of tin- Krenrl 58

MM Peter III. of ArraOB crowned in Sicily 53

lly . . .
Conquests of Moorlih klnvdoms ID Spain by the

Kins* of Arrntfun and Castile
1234 Count of Champagne acquires the kingdom of Na-

varrein right of Blanche, daughter of Sancho VI. 53

( France acquire* Navarre and Cham-
pagne by his marriage with Juan, daughter of
Henry 1. of Na.i. ... 53

1838 Joan, daughter of I....H, le Hut in. transfers the
kingdom of Navarre to the Count of Ktreux, re-
linquishing Champagne and Brie to Philip of
VaU. . . 53

1338 Philip of Valol* ineceed* Charles the Fair on the

1137 Raymond. Count of Barcelona, becomes King of

tron. hy hi* marriage with Petronilla 63

grandson. 1'e.lio 1 1., doe* homage to Innocent

111 53

1830 Jame* I. of Anagon conquers the Balearic Islands

and the kingdom of Valeolia 53

M.uiii. IV. with Pedro 111. of Ar-

Alphonso I.) con
ihr kinjdutn of Toledo... .... 53

Commander of the Faithful, expel* the

Zeiride* from Africa .... 63

1089 His n YousufT builds the city of Morocco 53

dyaaaty of I]
AlMonsrtaV*

-f the

h*.te^ and uTerthrow* the AlmoravlsW* 63

Na.r Mohammed at:etnpU Ihe eunqiM*)* of gpain. 63

1313 I .dalntfoain 64

13361862 MIM.II.II kmgd..: . Seville, and

Murcia. cooq tiered by Ferdinand III 64

|M M..i Met I- .'. '.ra ....u M

1 1M k>anUb Order of Alcantara. ..64

1I6M Order of Calalrava instinii. . .. 64

1161 Order 01 .. 64

109U II .f Portugal.... 64
i -i so I. ol Portugal, roala the Moon

... 64

1 ii n< >ci- tit IV. depute* Haucho II. of Portugal .... 64
1349 Al| I,. .1,. .Ill .uuquer* Algane from the Maho-
metans 64

1'oweiful vassals of the King* of France enume-

- rated... 64

Rivalry between France and England 64

108? War hetuixt William the Conqueror and Philip

Louia VII. divorce* hi* queen, Eleanor of Potton. 64

1159 Her marriage llh II .-iu..i 64

11001393 Reign of I'lnl.p II. A.^.I.I.IS. King of

Fran. ..66

I...uis VII . I'hilip AuKiutu*. and Loul* IX.. seve-
rally look the crosa and proceeded to the II

Land 66

1308 Innocent III. persuadrc Loui* VIII. to a crusade
against the Alliigeuses, under ihe Count* of

Toulouse and Caicastonne 66

1836 Death of I... ins V HI 65

1239 Loui* IX. acquire* Langaedoe by the treaty of

Pan* 65

County of Toulouse, county of Venaiasln, and pos-
sessions of the Count* of Carcassonne 66

Establishment of the tribunal of the Inquisition.. 66

1220 Onler of Si. Domini.- foiin.-ed 66

1 167 Death of the Empress Matilda 65

1167 Henry II. of England inherit* Normandy. Gat-
cony, Guienne, Aujou, Tuuraine, and Maine. ... 65

1173 H is conquest of Ireland 65

1175 Roderick, King of Connaught, submits 65

1199 Usurpation of Kin* Jnlu. 66

12101213 John of England deposed by Innocent III. 66
1215 John signs Magna Charts at Kuunymede near

Windsor ... 66

1216 12J2 Reign of Henry 1 II. of England 56

1879 Edward 1 66

1389 He conquer* Wale*. Llewellyn being slain near

the Menai. and Prince David executed 66

1157 Valdemar 1.. King of Denmark, undertake* a

cruaade again* t the pagan nations of the North.. . 66
1183 Canute VI., of Denmark, reduces I'omeranU.

Irntiurg.and Scherin 66

1909 Conquests of Valdemar II. of Denmark 66

1080 1133 Anarchy in Sweden 66

the apostle nud roui|iieroi of Finland .... i?

Charles I. Kini: of Sweden and (iothland 67

1250 Hirger. King of Sweden, spread* the Christian re-
ligion in the north of Europe . 57

PrttMiaa* unknown before the cloe of the tenth

century 57

St. Adelliert suffer* martyrdom in Prussia 67

1215 The Abbot of Oliva appointed the first bishop in

Prusaia, by Innocent III 57

..ritis III, piil.ii.hes a crusade agalust the

pagan* of Prussia ... 67

1928 Conrad, Duke of Masovia. grant* to the Teutonic
Knight* the cotxruesis they might make in

Prussia . 57

1855 They build the city of Koningtberg 67

1280 They found Manenburg. their capital 5/

13*3 The Teutonic Knlf.hu enlarge their cooque.t*. . . 37

I1UO-12W Commerce of the Baltic

1199 Mainard, Bishop of Livonia . 67
1204 He iiisiit.ii.-. ihe Order of Knight* of Christ, or

8word-beai. ... 67

nkm of these with the Teutonic Knight* 67

HtaloryoflheMof .... M
1906 Conque*U of 7.l)ghU Khan

. 60

n Oetai Khan eosjotiers the north of China. 68

1837 Baton rouqncrs Klpta* and enter* Russia 64

The Mo C ul Tartan overrun Poland. Huniaiy. and 99

Moravia... ... W

1978 CuUai.or Yuen Chi taon. conquer, the south of

China . . 88

ANALYTICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

A.D. PAGE

Tartarian khans of Persia. Zagatai, and Kipzac. . . 58
1291 Fall of the Mogul power in China and death of

Cublai 58

Tlu- Grand or Golden Horde, or Horde of Kipzac,

a terror to the Russian princes 58

1431 Actinift Kh.iu, the last chief of the Horde of

Kipzac 53

Defendants of Vladimir the Great share the Rus-
sian territories 59

1157 The Grand-Duke Andrew 1 59

Grand-duchy of Kiow devastated by the Lithua-
nians and Poles 59

1223 Toushi, son of Zinghis Khan, defeats the princes

of Kiow 59

1237 His son Baton takes Moscow 59

Tin? Mogul Tartars conquer the Grand-duchy of

Ylademir, and devastate Russia 59

1241 Alexander Newski defeats the Knights (if Livonia. 49
1:261 On his death he was declared a saint in the Rus-
sian calendar 59

The Piast dynasty in Poland 59

1138 Dissensions ou the partition of that kingdom by

Holeslaus II 59

1230 Conrad, son of Casimir the Just, establishes the

Teutonic Knights in Culm 59

Laws of the II uugdrians 59

1077 1095 Conquests of Ladislaus I. King of Hungary 60
1102 Coloman, King of Hungary, conquers Croatia and

Dalmatia 60

1131 Bela II.. King of Hungary 60

Appanages of the younger sons of the kings

weaken that kingdom 60

1204 Andrew II., King of Hungary 60

1217 He undertakes a crusade to the Holy Land 60

12i2 The Golden B ull, or Constitution of Hungary 60

Andrew 1 1. confers privileges on the Saxons settled

in Transylvania 60

1235 Bela IV., King of Hungary 60

I'-'ll The Moguls under Batou and Gayouk conquer

that kingdom 60

1244 Ou the death of Oktai Khan, his son Gayouk

with the Moguls return towards China 60

Decline of the Greek or Eastern Empire 60

1195 The Emperor Isaac Angelus dethroned by Alexius

III 60

1203 The Crusaders replace Isaac on the throne of Con-

stantinople 60

Alexius, named Mourzoufle, usurps the throne ... 61

1204 The Crusaders again take Constantinople, and

place Baldwin, Count of Flanders, on the
throne, the first Latin emperor of Constanti-
nople 61

Venetian acquisitions in the Levant 61

Boniface. Marquis of Montferrat, acquires the so-
vereignty of Candia, the ancient Crete 61

1207 Boniface transfers Candia to the Venetians 61

1206 Theodore Lascaris crowned emperor at Nice in

Bithynia 61

1205 Alexius and David Comnenus found an empire in

Pontus, of which Trebizond is the capital 61

Michael Angelus Comneuus, emperor at Durazzo,

over Kpirus, Acarnania, /Etolia. ami Thessaly. . 61
1261 BaldwiuII. .the last Latin emperor, flies from Con-
stantinople 61

1261 Michael Paleologus, Greek emperor at Constanti-
nople, with assistance of the Genoese 61

Atabeks, of Iran, reign in Syria 61

1099 Fatimite Caliphs of Egypt dispossessed of Jeru-
salem by the Crusaders 61

1168 Noureddin sends Saladin to Egypt against the

Crusaders ." gj

11J1 Saladin, or Salah-ed-deen, sultan on the death of

the Atabek Noured<lin 61

His conquests in Mesopotamia, Armenia and

Arabia 61

1187 He defeats tbe Christian princes at Ilium near

Tiberias 61

He takes Guy de Lusig.-ian, King of Jerusalem,

prisoner 61

Subsequent history ef the Saracens 61

The M.imeluke slaves acquire power 61

The Ayonbile dynasty ; reign of the Sultan Saleh. 62

1250 Sultan Totiran sh-ih assassinated 62

Itwg, the Mameluke. Miltan of Egypt 62

1210 The Mamelukes take Damascus and Aleppo from

the Moguls 62

1268 They conquer Antiuch 62

1289 And possess themselves of Tripoli 62

A.D. PAOK

1289 Ptolemais taken by assault 62

Tyre surrendered to the Mamelukes 62

1291 The Franks entirely expelled from Syria 62

PERIOD V.

From Pope Boniface VIII. to the tatting of Constantinople oy
the Turks. A.D. 13001453.

1303 Usurpations of Boniface VIII. over the secular

princes of Europe 62

History of the popes considered to be the best his-
tory of Europe

Aggrandisement of papal dominion

1305 Clement V. pope

1309 Translation of the popes to Avignon

1367 Gregory XI. again removes the see to Rome

1347 Rienzi, tribune of Rome, restores for a time the

form of a commonwealth

The Ecclesiastical States a prey to the Italian
nobles

1492 Pontificate of Alexander VI

1502 Julius II . restores the papal influence

1378 Urban VI. elected at Rome by the Italian eccle-
siastics

1378 Clement VII., the pope at Avignon, chosen by the
French cardinals

1389 Boniface IX. at Rome. 1394, Benedict XIII. at
Avignon

1409 Deposition of the rival popes by the Council of

Pisa, and election of Alexander V

Schism, of the see of St. Peter, consequent on the
co-existence of three popes

1410 John XXIII. elected at Pisa

1414 The Emperor Sigismund convokes a general coun-
cil at Constance

Schism in the pontificate terminated by this

council

John Huss, the Reformer of Bohemia, burnt at

Constance

Jerome of Prague burnt

1417 Otho de Colonna elected pope, who assumes the

name of Martin V

His scheme of church reform

1431 Council of Basil assembled

1437 Eugenius IV. transfers the council to Ferrara and

to Florence

1439 The prelates at Basil elect Arnadeus VIII., ex-duke
of Saxony, as pope under the name of Felix

Schism renewed until the resignation of Felix V. .
1433 The Pragmatic Sanction promulgated by Charles

VI I., King of France

The liberties of the Uallican church

1448 Nicholas V. concludes a concordat with the Ger-
mans

1516 Leo X.'s concordat with France

General councils considered superior in authority

to the Roman pontiff

Rise of the Reformation, or reformed religion ....
John of Paris defends Philip the Fair against the

arrogance of Boniface VI II

Dante Alighieri maintains the cause of Louis of

Bavaria against the power of Rome

William Ockham, Peter d'Ailly, and other early

controversial writers

Philosophy of Aristotle occasions a controversy

among schoolmen

1294 Heath of Koger Bacon

1321 Of the poet Dante

1374 Of Petrarch

1375 Of Boccacio, author of the Decameron

History of Inventions: Paper : Painting in oils.

1436 Printing

1460 Copper-plate engraving

1300 1400 Application of gunpowder in warfare

146J Mortars and bombs

Cnnnons and muskets

The mariner's compass

Italian and Hanseatic commerce

The Lombard meichant*

Genoese trade in the Black Sea

Venetian commerce with India

Maritime power of the Hanse Towns

13501450 Enumeration of towns forming the II m-
seatic League

Causes of its decline

. \l \M> ( HRON<

1360 1450 Artisan* of Plandcr* *nd Brabant carry UM

ih manufacture into En.-Uu.l

13081438 Prioe** of Luxemburg elect.. I tot lie empire

rg circled to the Kmpiru . .

j| Hi* i- lector r ii..- (ierman

1356 TIM &UN Hull aiitnoriaed by Charle* IV. of

1439 Decree. ..f the Ciiunnl ,.f IU,il ..!,. |,tM.

; ,-,.r :..!. UN Ni. '.

I'liilipthe F...

134'J lluml.eri II.,.. -i.hu territory

French monarch

i br.piealh* Prorence tothecrown
ofKr,
1348 Avignon s.,1,1 by Joanna 1 of Naple* to (

HI* Puke* ol \'.:iirt

r-rlitud. under the Imperial go-
vernment

IfM Albert t of Austria

13V8-1 urn Switwrland...

1315- 1355 rV.I.-r.il league ol the citie* of Switzerland

1415 The s i. , ,|-,, m .- l--r.-d.-ric of Austria of liii patrl-

1363 Duke* ..f lt.irieun.lv

130ft Wcnee*lau \ . of II -hernia, a**a*inatrd

1309 Henry VII.. of Luxemburg, emperor, seise* on
I'-.'ieni i.i

ir ofthe Hussites

Crusade m;iiui /.j.k.i. or John de Troctnora ....

13S9 House of \MttcIsback po**e**ea the Palatinate

ao<l lUviiriii

The Aecanian prince* lw Saxony

1373 Fre.lerie of Hohrnzollrrn acquire* Saxony

13W) Anarchy in Italy

1309 MriKn of tin- Km'|H-r..r Henry VII

1336 House of E*te govern Modena and Reggio

15,'W Houteof Oonxaga. duke* of Mantua

1395 John i;.ilf4i, of the Houe of Viiconli, duke of
Milan

14*7 II.. ,..-,.f Sforxa acquire Milan

13001400 Florence. Veoice. and Genoa maintain re-
publican institution*

im The Gonfaloulere of Juitice established in Flo-
rence

1406 The Florentine* oYerpower the republic <>f P-M.. .
irpatii.n of thr \I. i. i m Florence

ir ..I Genoa and Venice

IVter Doria take* th |">rt of Chioggia from the

Vcn.-ti.uu

1380 The Vi-n.-u.iii. rxpel th.- (-noee from ChioKgia..
1464 Genoa become* a dependency of the duchv of

Mii.m v. : :...

1528 Genoa recover* it* independence

iiau criie on Treviio

1440 They ileprive SiguniuDd, Kiug of Hungary, of

I >!m.itm

1404. . ;.inion. in Italy

13Hi Joanna I., of Naple*. auopta Chatlr* uf Duraixo.

ho put her todra'h

1433 Joanna ll..daui(hierof Charle*uf Duraixo. adopt*

.f A njiNi

\njou expelled from Naple* by Alpliunto

V. of Armietin .'

1340 Alphnnw XU of Caitile, defeat* the Moon at

TinfU

13S4 John I. .of Caitil*. rupiraae* Beatrix of Portugal.

and lay* ie*e to LUbon

1385 John the iUUrd. King of Portugal, defeat* the

13S8 Acceuion of th* Houe of Valoi* to the throoe of

Fran>

1338 ('omen ..f K.lwarJ III. wiih Philip VI

The Salir !- .

1398 Insanity of rhai I > v I . of France

141 '.i Jean ;>'n I'rur. Duke of Burfuody,m*u*inated..

11 > II rnry V. vielorioa* at A|tacoart

1 1 it marrUfe ith Catt.eriM of France

:u> VI. cmwned at \Vr.tmin.trr a* King of
Knelaml and Franc.-

. uglith uoder
iho I

Joan of A ic, the Maid of (>rlr<

1429 Coronation of Charle* VII. at Khcim

MM
1445 A .landing anny formed by CharW. VII. to re

! t.-.. l,,..mbitW.o. .s. ... 74

!..**. of York aa4U*MMl*t.. 74

! t

74
IfM Candidate* for the etww u.f Scotland

.it II , k'n<. Establishment of the Sluaits

. .n ili.- thn>ne of Scotland

13X7 Murgaret f Norway

Norway, and l^n-
mark governed by Mar
141 i r 7*

.toptier III. .uceeeds to that t'niou of Northern

... 75

1448 Charle* VIII. Canutson. King of Sweden 75

.risii.n I. King of Denmark and Norway 75

1457 Charles VIII. dethroned 75

1461 Hi. restoration 7*

14W Christian I. acquires Holstein nod Sle*wic JS

i dukes ufKusMa ,5

.liik.- ol I .it >.. i i ni. i 75

(irand-dukes ..f \Vol.xliinir 7*>

1380 Victory of p.-nietriiis Iwanorilsch, sornamed

i. or conqueror of the Don "6

13111343 The Teutonic Knights of Marienburg ac-

quite D.IIIUU- 76

Their war* against the pagan Lithuanian* ~d

1454 Their wars with the kiuijs ,.f Poland 76

146G Peace of Thorn '

Teutonic Knights established in Koningfberg 76

1S20 Uladislaus IV.. King of Poland 76

1340 Caiimir the Great'* conquest of Red Itussia 76

1*7" Piast dynasty extinct

1370 Ix)ui*. King of Iliuigiry acquire* the crown or

Poland
1386 riadiilaus Jairello. of Lithuanu, King of Poland ;;

1404 i Jen.-r.il Piei of Polish noble* J 7

1310 Charle* Robert of Anjou, King of Hungniy ,,

134J Loui* I., of Hungary, acquire* great territorial ac-

in 77

1386 Hi* daughter Mary rnarrie* Sigismund of Luxem-
burg, who unite* Hungary to the German

Kmpirc 77

1411 Calamitou* reik'n of the Emperor Sigisrannd . . .
i I i* son Albert. Kmperor and King of Hungary .
1444 I'ladislau* of Poland, King of Hungary, slain at

Varna by the Turk* '. 77

1 -1.16 John II un'nindes defeats Mubomet 1 1. at Belgrade 77

1300 Origin ol the Ottoman Turk*

1327 Oman, <ir Ottoman take* Buria in Bithynia 78

The Janissarie* established by Orchan 7"

1358 Sultan Soiirann take* Gallipot in the Thrarian

Chersunesus

1360 Amuraih I. conquer. Thrace

He i* (lain by the Servians at Cauova

13% Bajsxet (.defeat* Sigismund of Hungary at Ni-

copoli*

1369 Timour. or Tamerlane, establishes hi* authority m

Samarcand a* hi* capital 7"

He conquer* Kipcac, Persia, and India TK

1400 He defeat* Bajaiel 1. in the battle of Angora ,8

1 HO He marches toward* China, and die*....

1500 The MOKII! Kmime in Hindottan esulni.bed by

Babnur. or Baba

1431 Amurath II. cunquersthe Morea. or IVIoponrwns '.*
Seamier IH-K and Johu H.mniadrs oppose Amurath

II .,!(-.-... 78

1453 Mahomet II. takes Constantinople 79

146C Datid Comnenu*. Kmperor of Trebiioud. slain by

the Turks 79

1464 Pins 1 1. die* while preparing a crusade against th

power of Mahomet II 79

PERIOD VI.

fro*, f A takima of Cmtal<*vpk * Utt Turkt to Uu Ptaet
A.D. I4i3 1648.

140 Rev iral of learning in Kurope

Italian school of painting
Metaphyneal nd ph

philoMmhical pursuit* ......

nw dlacoreri.

her ColMbua sail* In the Bahama Island* 80
1 4 'I He dlscorer* the Continent of America ......... 9)

1497 Amerifo Ve*pntlo. a Florentine. give* hi* name to

South America ... ... 80

Spanish eoe)q**t la America .................. M

xvi

ANALYTICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

A.D. PAOI

Ferdinand the Catholic receives a grant from Alex-
ander VI. of the American territories 8 '

The Portuguese discoveries in the East 80

1521 Cortes subdues the empire of Mexico 80

Death of Monteium i and Guatimoziu 80

1533 Pizarro makes conquest of Peru 80

Atabalipa. Inca of I'eru. slain 80

The Spaniards import negroes to work in the

mines of South America 80

They establish the Inquisition in those, countries. 81
1500 Cnbral takes possession of Brazil for the King of

Portugal 81

15841616 Virginia colonized by Sir Walter Raleigh. . 81

1603 Reignof James 1., King of Great Britain 81

1699 West India Islands settled by the English 81

1655 Admirals I'enn and Venables take Jamaica from

the Spaniards 81

1534 1604 French establish themselves in Canada in

the reigns of Francis Land Henry IV 81

1608 City of Quebec founded 81

1635 French settle in Martinique and Guadaloupe 81

1630 1/22 Their colony in St. Domingo 81

Barthelemi Diaz, a Portuguese admiral, doubles

the Cape of Good Hope 81

1498 Vasco di Gama reaches Calicut, by that route, in

the reign of Emanuel 81

1509 Francis Almeida defeats the Egyptian and Indian

fleets 81

1511 Alfonzo Albuquerque conquers Goa 81

1547 Silveira defeats the fleet of Soliman the Great at

Diu 81

Mercantile establishments of the Portuguese in

India 81

Change in the commerce with India once carried

on by the Venetians 82

The Portuguese and Dutch engross the trade by

the route of the Cape 82

English, French, and Danish commerce withjAme-

rica and India 83

15171542 Portuguese commerce with China and Japan 82
1519 Magellan's voyage by the route of Cape Horn, aud

the Straits o'f Magellan 82

Establishment of horse posts in Europe, for letters 82

1500 Abuses of the clergy of Rome 82

Causes of the Reformat ion 82

1513 Sale of indulgences by Leo X 82

Martin Luttier burns' the bull issued by Leo X.

against him, at \Vitirmber:,' . 83

Zuingle preaches the Reformation at Zurich 83

15321538 Doctrines of John Calvin 83

1529 Protest f the Lutherans and Calviuists against

the Decrees of the Diet of Spire 83

1530 The Confession of Faith presented to the Diet of

Augsburg and the Emperor Charles V 83

Universities and schools founded in the Protestant

Slates 83

Ware ensue throughort central Europe in conse-
quence of the Reformation 83

1545 Paul II I. convokes th- Council of Trent M

1547 He iranfers this assembly to Bologna. . 84

1551 Julius 111. re-assemble* the Council at Trent .... 84
Maurice, Elector of Saxony, takes Augsburg and

marches against the emperor 84

1560 Pius IV. renews the Council of Trent 84

Its decisions maintain the cause of Rome against

the Prote-tant League 84

1534 Ignatius Loyola founds the order of Jesuits 84

Their vow of obedience to Rome 84

Their missions to China, Japan, and the Indies.. 84

Balance or power, devised in Italy 84

1477 Maximilian, of Austria, by his marriage with Mary

of Burgundy, acquires the Low Countries, in

(Incline Pranche-Comte, Flanders, and Attois . . 85
1506 Charts V. Kmperorof Germany, called Charles I.

of Spain, inherits the Low Countries 85

Extent of his empire 85

1557 He cedes his patrimonial dominions in Austria and

Germany to his brother Ferdinand 1 85

1526 Louis. King of Hungary aud Bohemia, is slain at

tip- battle of Mohacs by the Turks 85

His king iom devolve on Ferdinand I. of Austria 85
1700 The House of the Kmperor Charles V. becomes

extinct on the demise ol' Charles 1 1. of Spain ... 85
1740 The male line of Ferdinand 1., of Austria, ends in

les VI

1580 Philip II. inheiiu Portugal in right of his mother

Isabella, daughter f Emaniiel 85

1580 Death of Henry the Cardinal, King of Portugal . . 85

A.D. PAQE

1544 1551 Francis I., King of France, and his son
Henry II. oppose the further aggrandizement of

the House ol Austria 85

Henri Quatre, Louis XI II. .Richelieu, a ndMazariu,

join the Protestant League against Austria 85

1618 Thirty years' war commenced 85

1619 Reign of the Emperor Ferdinand II 85

1648 Peace of Westphalia 85

1650 Treaty of the Pyrenees 85

1493 Reign of the Emperor Maximilian 1 86

Anarchy of the German Empire 80

1495 The perpetual public peace, published by the Diet

of Worms 86

The Imperial Chamber constituted 86

1512 Institution of the Aulic Council, by the Diet of

Cologne 86

1519 The Imperial Capitulations, a guarantee of Ger-
man liberties 86

1521 The war of Smalcalde 86

Proscription of Luther by Charles V 86

Charles V. condemns the Confession of Augsburg . 86
1530 Union of Smalcalde, or league of Protestautprinces

in Germany 86

The Holy League of Catholic princes h'J

The Turks invade Hungary, which occasions the

truce or accommodation of Nuremberg 86

1544 Peace signed at Cressy with Francis 1 86

1546 Proscription of the Protestant Klector John Fre-

deric of Saxony, and the Landgrave of Hesse . . 87

1547 Capture of those princes by Charles V >7

1518 Maurice created Elector of Saxony 8J

The Interim designed for the extirpation of the

reformed religion 87

Maurice, of Saxony, espouses the Protestant cause,

and nearly surprises Charles V. at Insprurk .... 87
1552 Treaty of Passau secures toleration to the Pro-
testants > /

1555 Dietof Augsburg concludes a pacification SJ

The Kcclesiastical Reserve explained 8y

1608 Henry IV., of France, promotes a new union of the

Protestant princes of Germany 87

1609 Holy League renewed at Wurtzburg 87

1610 Murder of Henry IV. by Ravaillac 87

1618 Thirty years' war narrated 87

1620 Battle of Prague , . ,-7

1626 Tilly defeats Christian IV., of Denmark, at Lutzen 87

Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden, puts himself at the

head of the Protestant league 88

1631 He gains the battle of Leipsic

1632 U slain at Lulzen. where his arms were victorious 88

1634 The Swedes defeated at Nordliugen 83

1635 Tr.-aty of Prague between John George of Saxony

and the Emperor 88

Louis XIII. declares war against Spain 88

Banier and Torstenston, Swedish generals, con-
tinue the war in Germany , 88

Turenne and UT.nghien distinguished in this con-
test against the emperor 88

1648 Peace ol Minister 8S

The religions pacification confirmed 88

France acquires M.-tz, Toul, Verdun, and Alsace . 88
The Low Countries inherited by Philip II. of Spain SS
1556 1699 Origin of the republic of the United Pro-
vinces 88

1559 The Inquisition established in the Low Countries

by Philip II 89

Confederacy of the nobles at Breda, called the

Compromise

They are denominated Giieux or Beggars >'.>

William of Orange, Louis of Nassau, and the chief

nobility '-migrate 89

1567 Duke of Alva sent into Flanders executes 18,000

persons, together with the Counts Egmont aud

II.,:.. 89

The Beggars of the Woods -:i

Tin- Maritime Beggars "'.>

1568 The Prince of Orange places himself at their head 89
l.'ijL' He takes the Brill by surprise 89

The republic founded by the Assembly of Dort ... 89

1576 The Pacification ol Ghent signed

Queen Kli/.al>eth countenances the new republic.. 90
Alexander l''arn.'-i>, a Spanish governor, take's

M.i-'stricht by assault 90

l.~>7'. The Prince of Orange) by the Union of Utrecht,
establishes the Seven United Provinces of Hol-
land, Sec 90

1584 William, Prince of Orange, assassinated at Delft. . 9

Maurice of Orange, stadtholdur 90

\.N U.YTH VI. \M> IIIU>NOLO<

IMS Th Print* of Parma (Alexander Fame**) takes

Ant . ... 90

mpanyeetat ... 90

lew Tniee of Twelte year* between t)

... M

.tlofthrwar ... 90

Ht>of France and !>> .1 M

1*48 In.l.-|rdenee of ihr I

ledged bv Mpain . . .. 91

Closing of the Schrl.il ruin* ihe commerce of

Aot 91

Retrospect of the affair* of Swiu.-rlan.l 91

<.ln l Nancy by the Swiss . . 91

Maximilian I ... 91

1499 Peace rooclvded at Ba*il 91

15011903 IUk>.or B*>ll, ld**4kwsw*v *od Appensel.

mlmitlril M Caulon. of the Heltetir (

1519 The Frenrh expelled from Milan, which rererts tu

KuWHuMbat .... 91

The Swiss gain ihr bttU> of Norara, but are de

fratrd at Hann..no 91

1516 Treaty of Priburg ttwren Switzerland and

France 99

1591 Treaty of alliance with Frmocii I. it Lucerne 9S

1591 Tho Catholic Canton* make war on the Pro-

l*taut or/>irirh. Bernr. fcc 99

1534 U*ne*a thr *eat of ( 'al t ini.m 99

1536 Duke of Sawiy blockade* < .encva 99

Thr Berorte i-t thr Generan* M

1564 Peace withll,- H.ike of Saroy 99

Thr Euper. ^ ctutomarilyerownMl as

King* nf Italy at Milan, and emperor* at Rone 99
1506 Maximilian I uuaMe to repair to Rome, it content

with ihr lyle nf Emperor Elect 99

1530 Coronation nf Charles V. at Bologna by Pope

nt VII 92

Expedition* by Charle* VIM.. Loui XII.. aad
Franci* I., into Italy, frustrated by the Spa-
niard* 99

1544 The Sp.inih power dominant in Italy 98

1537 Clement VII. besieged in Rome by the Impe-

riali.H 99

1530 Mo.i v of Medici re-eUblifhed at Florence 92

1537 Alexander de' Medici asas*inated by Lorenzo de'

'Medici ... 93

1537 Coiuode' Medici, duke of Florence and Sienna . . 93

I960 He become* Grand- Duke of Tucn> 93

md-Duke. holding of the

llnu 93

1564 Maximilian II. emperor 93

iwxmti, Sfbna.and Pitrnete 93

it Farne*e. ton of Pope Paul III., aasas-

inaled 93

1310 15J3 KuinhUofSt. John occupy Rhode* 93

1533 They >unvnd>-r Rhoile* to Soliman the Ureat after

*iz month*' *iegv 93

1530 Thrv rn-rive a gr* nt nt Malta from the Empeior

Char 93

1597 The French. aUted by Andrew Doria, repoweM

themtf It of Grtoa 94

DorU next epoii*e*the cmu*ei>f (,'harle* V. 94

Thr Krvnc>> l..-i.-j.- N iplrn, but are frustrated by

tl.it i, .1 94

! ' irt. oflTered ihr orrtri.-nty ..f
!>. I li..rlr. V.,*tip.ilat.-- ily of that

.nd rxpel. the Fiench {arriion 94

!>..'. .111.1 .ui-.-r.ir\ ul li. -HIM :>l

: f Venetian* increate their cnntinrntal territory 94
1503 On ihr .v ,ih at Pope Alrxan.ler VI.. they aciw on

Rimini and Paensa ... 94

Jamr*. Kin( of Cypru*. wpouse* Catherine Cur-

nam, a Vrnrtian 1 . 94

1475 Shortly after hi* death the Venetian* teiie on

Cypro*.... 94

Injury to Venetian commerce, by the ducotery of
the paatage to India ruund the Cape of Good

LUboa become* the mpurlam foe Eait Indian

prndurr ... 95

1508 Alliance again*! Venice cooclooVd at Cambrai by

. . 95

1509 t...m. XII. .I.-V.U. f.- VrnrtiaM at AgMdello .. 95
The ' ivr them of tome pucu:.

i.m. !.. M*1taia and Na|ioli

magna in the Morea 95

- iltau Selim II. eooi)aen C>ru*.. ... 95

. Juan of Au.lria destroys the Turki.h ftset at

I-*!" . 96

173 Veneilansc*.! ... 96

... 96

Maxim.llanof Austria esputiae* Mary of Burgundy.
and thereby acquires PI.

1477 LouUXI. seiirsontheduriiy of Hurgnndy ( Ihe

..on of the war* with Au.tr, . ... 96
II telies on PfOTsnon, and claims Milan and
Naples.... 96

1494 His sou Charle. VIII. oecopie* N, . 95

1495 He defeat* ihe Italian confederate* al Pomnooro,

and quits Italy . . 96

14981515 Expeditions of Loots XII. again*! Milan

and Na|.l- 96

i:50 Henry II. of France join* the Protectaot league.

and Maurice Klectnr of Sax<my 96

1579 Chark-* IX. massacre* the HugonuUor falviulsts

of Prance 96

1576 Edict of pacification by Henry III., of France,

who had been King of Poland... ... 96

1589 HoaseofValoisen.il with Henry III., murdered

by Jaquea Clemen! 96

Arce.fion of Henry IV., and the House of

:..'- II- |, .1 :.,' .'-',' tY. Y :'.''.' '<\'. ':,,''.'. :"..":."...'.' '.

linert, <ifhi. *>|i.jeets 97

He encourages the manufactures of Prance 97

1610 I. .97

u.son LnuisXllL. and administration

off, 97

1698 Reduction of \M Rochelle. the fortress of the Cal-

Tinit party ... 97

Richelieu maintain* the Duke of Never* in the

duchy of Mantua 97

1631 Peace concluded at Ratubon and Quenuque 97

1643 Minority of Louis XIV.. and regency of Anne of

Auitria the queen -mot her ." 97

AdminUtration of Cardinal Mnurtn

1648 By the pence of Muniter, Loui, XIV. acquire*

Alsace. &c 97

Ily the peace of t . acquire* Kou<
lillon and *ome cities of Flandrr* and Luxem-
burg 97

1474 Reiitn of Ferdinand the Catholic and Ita!lla of

Castile 97

1476 .Million o V., of Portugal, defeated at Torn by Fer-
dinand lh.- ' 97

1478 Ferdinand and Isabella establish the Inquitition

inS| M .i, 97

Ferdiu.ind conquer* the Moorih kingdom of

(r-nada 97

He banitbe* the Jew* from Spain 97

Emigration of the M.>or . 98

Al.-v.n'ler 1 1 1. confer* on Ferdinand the title of

Catholic King ... 98

Ferdinand conquers the Spanish province ..

varre 98

1510 Julius II. form* the Holv League again*! I.OUM

XII. m Ii., t ' 98

1516 Charle I.. King of Spain, grandson of Ferdinand

the C.ilh. Ik- .... 98

1519 He i elected em^-ror under the title of Charles V.
1557 Philip II .Kmx of Spata... . 9*

1559 He make* peace at Chateau CambresU with

Prance ... 90

.!>-. nm gives occasion for esiablUhlng the
Dutch .ep.il.lic... ... 98

1588 The Invincible Armada defeated by Elizabeth's

admiral*... ... 98

- SpanUh power 98

1610 Reign of Philip III., who expels the Moors from

Spain .. 98

r.manuel the Fortunate Kin of Portugal 98

1511 1557 Greainexol Portugal under John HI W

Sebattian of Portugal slain in Ihe kingdom
of Kei. and Muley Mahomet. King of Morocco.

drowned 99

IVrlineof the Portuguese power . ... 99

1580 Death of Henry : ,ke of

Alva conquer* I'ortugal far Philip II of Spain . 98
The Dutch purchase in Lisbon the prmlucikw* of

India 99

Pt.ilip II I ..-.I.M . the Dutch merchant* from re

i^ to Portugal ... 99
1595 Coroel.ua H.-uiman ad Molin.ar sail to India... 99
Tlirv defeat the Portuguese at sen near Bantam in
Java 99

ANALYTICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

A.D. PAGE

They conquer the Moluccas and engross the spice

trade 99

Goa aud Diu alone remain to the Portuguese 99

16-10 Revolt of the Catalans 99

1640 The Duke of Bragntiza soi7.es on Lisbon, and is

crowned king by the title of John IV 99

14*"i The lions,- of York ends, by the ileath of Richard

III. in the battle of Bosw'orth 100

I486 Ileniy VII.. of the House of Tudor, espouses Eli-
zabeth, daughter of Edward IV 100

Agriculture ami commerce revive on this happy

conclusion of the wars of the Two Roses 100

1'09 Reign of Henry VIII 100

1521 The pope grants him the title of Defender of the

Faith 100

1532 Henry VIII. divorces his queen, Catherine of Ar-

ragon ICO

Clement VII. having maintained her cause, gives

rise to the separation of the English church from

Rome 108

1531 Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, on the death

of Cardinal Wolsey 100

1534 Henty V11I. declares himself supreme head of the

church 1 00

Court of High Commission established 100

15361539 Suppression and confirmation of monasteries

iu England 100

The Six Articles of religion iu the reign of Henry

Mil 100

1542 He takes the title of King of Ireland 100

1547 Reign of Edward VI. Calvinism established in

England 100

1553 Mary I., Queen of England, persecutes the Pro-

testants 100

She restores the Catholic religion 100

1554 Her marriage with Philip II 100

Cranmer, Latimer. and Ridley, burut 100

1558 Reigu of Queen Elizabeth . . ." 100

eth establishes the Protestant faith 100

Distinction of the English or High Church, and

the Calvinistic or Presbyterian .". 100

Marv of Lorraine, widow of James V., is Regent of

Scotland 100

The Congregation, or Presbyterian church of Scot-
land 1 101

1560 Elizabeth's general expels the French troops from

Scotland by the capitulation signed at Leith.... 101
1560 Mary, Queen of Scots, and her husband Francis II.,

renounce her claim to the English ctown 101

15CO Death of Francis II., King of France 101

Death of Parnley, second husband of Mary of

Scots ." "....101

1568 The Scottish queen flies into England 101

1537 Mary is beheaded by Elizabeth's order, on a suspi-
cion of conspiracies 101

1567 Minority of James VI. .King of Scotland 101

1598 Rebellionof Hugh O'Neal, Earl of Tyrone 101

Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, having failed to
suppress it, Charles, Lord Mountjoy, reduces

Ireland ." 101

Queen Elizabeth patronises commerce and naviga-
tion 101

She encourages the Flemish manufacturers in Eng-
land 101

1555 Richard Chancellor's voyage to Archangel 101

Charter granted by John HnMlo\itz II. to the Knj;-

lish company trading to Russia 101

\?>"\bb() Sir Frnncis Drake's voyage round the world 101

if.iKj English East India Company instituted 101

1584 Sir Walter Raleigh attempts to colonize Virginia. . 101
Maritime greatness of England. The Spanish ar-
mada destroyed 102

1603 Accession ol James I. (James V 1. of Scotland), and

the House of Stuart 102

1625 Reign of Charles 1 102

lie levies impositions without a parliament 102

He endeavours to establish episcopacy in Scotland 102
1638 The Covenant taken by the Presbyterians of Scot-
land ". 1 ->

1640 The Ixing Parliament Straflord beheaded 102

1641 The civil war in England 102

1642 Dr. Laud. Archbishop of Canterbury, beheaded .. 102
1644 The Pnrliarrentati:ins defeat Charles I. near York. 102
1646 He flies to Scotland, and is sold by the Scottish

army to the parliament 102

The raiiUM ovetpowend by the Independents.. 102

1649 Charles 1. beheaded at Whitehall 102

Oliver Cromwell, Protector 102

A.D. PAGE

Revolutions in the North of Europe 102

Union of Calmar dissolved 108

14711520 StenoSttire. Suante Sture, and Steno Sture

the young, govern Sweden 102

1497 Jolin.'King of Denmark 102

1513 1520 Victory of Christian II. of Denmark over

Steno Sture the youug, at Bogesund 102

1520 Christian II. crowned at Stockholm 102

He massacres the Swedish nobles 102

1521 Gustavus Vasa delivers Sweden from the Danes.. 103

1523 Is crowned King of Sweden 103

15i/ Frederic I. of Denmark embraces the Reformation

of religion 103

1534 Christian III. abolishes the Catholic worship and

episcopacy, in Denmark and Norway 103

House of Oldenburg ". 103

1544 Treaty of Partition among the branches of this

family 103

The Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp 103

1588 Reign of Christian IV. in Denmark H'3

1616 The Danish East India Company instituted 1"3

Danish colony in Tranquebar 103

University of Copenhagen, and other Danish col-
leges . ." 103

Reformation of religion in Sweden 104

1540 The Hereditary Union passed at Orebro 104

1604 Charles IX.. King of Sweden 101

1611 Gustavus Adolphus the Great, King of Sweden,

commands the Protestant confederates in Ger-
many 104

1631 He defeats Tilly at Leipsic 104

16i>2 Is slain when gaining the victory ot Lutzen 104

1632 Christina, Queen of Sweden . . .". 104

1466 Albert of Brandenburg, Grand-Master of the Ten-

tonic Order 105

1519 His contest with the Poles 105

Doctrines of Luther disseminated in Prussia 105

1525 Duchy of Prussia made hereditary in the House of

Brandenburg, by tlie treaty of Cracow 105

1525 Walter de Croneiiberg establishes the Teutonic

Knii'hts iu Franconia 105

1527 Walter de Platlenberg. Grand-Master of the Teu-
tonic Order, made a prince of the Empire by
Charles V '.105

1535 Joachim II. Elector of Brandenburg 106

1640 Frederic William the Great, Elector of Branden-
burg and Duke of Prussia 105

1688 His son, Frederic!., King of Prussia 105

Lutheranism introduced into Livonia 106

1561 Golthard Kettler, Grand-Master nf the Knights

Sword-bearers, cedes Livonia to Sigismund Au-
gustus, King of Poland 106

Keiller is created Duke of Courland 106

Suppression of the Knights of Livonia, and of the

Archbishops of Riga and their suffragans 106

15611582 The city of Revel, and Esthi.uia. cla:m the
protection ot Kric XIV., King of Sw eden, against

the Russians 106

Contest between Poland and Sweden 106

1660 Terminated by the Peace of Oliva 106

1481 Achmet.Khan of Kipzac, resisted in Russia by John

Basilov i tz III . . '. 106

1481 1552 The Nogai Tartars assist the Czars in the

destruction of the Grand Horde of Kipzac 1<>6

1552 John Basilovitz IV. takes Casan and Astracan ... 106

The Strplit7.es, or standing army, instituted 107

Discovery of Siberia 10?

1548 Reformed religion embraced in Poland by

mund II 107

1573 Henry III. of Valois. KiiiL' of Poland 10/

1618 Uladislaus of Poland marches to Moscow 107

1458 Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, son of John

Hunniades ". 108

1485 He takes Vienna from the Emperor Frederic III., li'tl
1490 Death of Matthias at Vienna 108

1526 Louis, King of Hungary, slain at Mohacz by Soli-

man I. the Great " ". 108

1526 Ferdinand of Austria claims the crown of Hun.
j, which is given by the H nngai ians to John
/apolya. Count of Zips and Tran*\l\ama. ... 108
1529 Soliman I. aids John de /.apolya, aud lays siege to

Vienna ". 108

1541 Solimau invades Hungary and takes Hilda 1<W

1562 Truce between Ferdinand and Soliman 108

Protestants of Hungary and Transylvania perse-
cuted ". 108

Bethlem Gabor, and George Ragotzi, Protestant
princes of Transylvania 108

ANALVTH \I. \M) CHKONOLOGK \I I \

ro
1606 R.d>lph II. f AuilrU agree* to religion* pttlft-

:i lit Vicuna

)f,l' rVf.tin..nd I I.. -mirror

:* 10H

Lints 108

reformers, of lloh.-mia tolerated

.11 II 108

1MB Dif when Kodolph II. grants them

108

tiers of Majesty cutil.rmed I.;. King Mat-

liemian cro* n elective

its' War. a consequence uf rrligiuu*

I'ahtline 1<"

Verities of Ferdinand II of Austria 109

> .eorge. KI.-<-t"r of Saxon) 109

14-4 1 nqner* RecMraliU lu'J

:i I. drf.-at-. tlu- SUh Ismail. Sophi of Pei-

109

1517 He defeats the Sultan f Lyvpt, overthrows the

Manieliik.--., and takes Ca r 109

15901534 Soliman I. the Great conquers Rhodes. Hun-
gary, and B.igdnd 109

1566 Death of Sultan Soliman. ami decline of ih

man puwer 109

-bm 1 1 . take.. Cyprus 110

1571 Hi* fleet destroyed at U-panto 110

PERIOD VII.

from the Peace of ITettphalia to that of I'trechl. A.D.
1648- 1713.

Revol ution in the political system of Europe 110

Formidable power of Franco 110

Abawmrnt of the House of Austria 1 10

16431713 I-oiiis XIV. patronises learning and the arts. 110

Administration of Colbert 1 10

Hit queen. Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV.

.in 110

i .'iix XIV., in her right, conquer* Flanders Ill

! i iple Alliance signed at tie Hague Ill

1673 He attacks tr.e Sr\t-n I'mied Province*, and over-

runs Hollaud Ill

England and Sweden make an alliance wjtli Louis 111
Amsterdam def.-n>le.| by cutting the dxkes and in-

undatini; the country Ill

1674 Charles II. of England makes peace with Holland 111

Louis XIV. conquers Frauche Comte Ill

Coinli- gain* tin- victory of Senef Ill

Tureune conquers Alsace Ill

1675 Death nf Tun-one in the campaign against Monte-

cm-uli Ill

Tin- Swedm routed at Fehrbellin by Frederic Wil-

li mi of Krandenburg Ill

1678 Petire of Nimeguen Ill

Trouble* of the re-union* 119

M. de Ixiuvois takes Sirasbnrg \\-2

16b4 Truct- of twenty years signed at Ratisbon 11-

t-s the Calvinists 1 1-J

The l>ragnnnades 11-

-iie edicts of Nantes and of Nisrae*. Ill
The French Protestant* carry their industry and

manufactures into foreign lands 119

16~5 Louis's disputes with Clement IX. and Innocent

XI. as to the Regain 119

Libertie of the Gallican church 113

16S-* Leopold I. emperor 113

1688 Loin* XIV. brrnks the truce, and publishes a ma-
nifesto airainst Leup<il>l 1. 1 13

m;r II. Kiugof Kngland 113

1688 1 he English Revobr .113

1689 William and Mary crowned 1K<

Alliance against Louis \ I 113

1690 Marshal de Luxemburg cains the. victory of

113

Marshal Catinat defeat* the Duke of Savoy at

Stafarda 113

1697 Peace of Rvswirk .. 113

es II. u f Spi 114

1098 Treaty of Partition 114

of the Archilukr Ch.rle. 114

. 11. names Phili|> of Aujon. second son of

the D.1tl{ll>:: . . . . 114

1701 Philip V. proclaimed at Madrid... ... 115

170-i William III .

airninvt I . . . \1\
1704 M

1706 Rattle of Ka

ra Annr. UM

. 115

:sh.ll

115

raillie* won by Marlhorou|(h ........ II "

1 -niH-r I u.'rnc defeats Marshal de Marsin alTnrin 115

hirlborouxh defeats Villars at Malplaque-

1711 I' : J. ,-,,)! |. .

The arch'lnk' 'rmny.. 115

The Tories supplant the Whig ministry in Eng-

land ....... .. ............. . ....... . ...... .. 115

I'r.-liniinnrirs of peace signed in London .......... 116

1712 Villars defeats the Karl of Albeciarle at Denain . . 116

1713 1 >t ............................. 116

1714 Pence between the emperor and France signed at

Itaden ..................................... llfi

1715 Death of Louis XIV .......................... 116

1 li-putr between llie Moliniits and the JansenU's. 116
The Hull I n u. nitns ............... ............ 116

1658 State of Germany under I .eo] u!d 1 .............. 1 17

'Hi.- Electors of tlie Empire .................... 117

House of WitteUbach .......................... 1 17

1C9-J Ernest Augustus of Brunswick-Lunenbury. first

Elector of Hantivcr ........................ 117

The Kin.- of llohemia obtains a voice in the Elec-
toral C, I--,- ............................... 117

The Ini) ii.il Capitulations changed into a perpe-
tual Capitulation ............................ 117

Kingdom* of Saxony and Prussia estnblished ..... 117

1701 Installation of Frederic I. KinK of Prussia ........ IH

The Electress Sopln . of ll.in%er, daughter ofEli-
xabeth and the Elector Palatine, and grand-
daughter of James I. of England .............. 118

171 t Her son. George. Elector of Hanover, ascends the

throne nf England ........................... 1 IS

History of the ducal lloti-e of S.m.y ............. 118

1713 The Cortes i>l Spain i.-i/n'ate the Cat Hlian Sueeti-

tion to be in the male line of Philip V ......... 119

1661 Warof Aluhnnso VI. of Portuiral against Spain... 119
He cede* Tangier* to the English .............. 119

He cede* the Maud of llomb >> also to the English 119
1663 1665 Victories of Count Schomberg and the Por-

tugllese ..................................... 119

1667 Alphonso VI. dethroned, aud Pedro II. appointed

regent ....................................... 1 20

1668 Spain recognises the independence of Portugal ... 190
1706 1'edni II. joins the alliance against Philip V. of

Spain ....................................... ISO

The Portuguese nnd English proclaim the Arch-

duke Charles at Madiid ...................... 190

1715 Treaty of I'ln-cht betweeu Spain and Portugal . .

Cessions to Portugal in S>uth A merica ........... 1 .-"'

1649 The Commonwealth of England ................. liO

li.M OraiMraOfUae* the Navigation Act ............ ISO

Ifi55 1C58 Heacquire* Dunkirk and Jamaica ........ 120

|t ; .V.t Richard Cromwell resigns the protectorate ....... 120

1660 General Monk restores Charles II ............... 1 -JO

. nf Whig and Tory i actions ................ l'.'l

1685 Ri-ivnof James II. of fc'nglaud ................ I'.'l

The bishops committed to the Tower ............ 191

1688 Birth of the Pretender ......................... !-

William Prince of Orange lands in Torhay ........ 191

1689 Jnrne* II. defeated at tU- lioyne by William III.. 191
The Declaration of Kights. . ." ..... " ............. l-'l

17" I Succrionof the Home of Hanover enacted ..... 191

1689 ReUn of William ami Mary ..................... IS

\nne ...................... 1-1

17U Reigu of George 1 .............................. 191

Hiiyler and Van Tromp sail up the Thames to

Chathum ................................... 19

Treaty of Brrd ............................... 199

1674 Treaty of Westminster . . . ....... . . 198

1650 Death of \\illiam 1 1 . Prince of Orant e .......... 199

John de Witt enacts the Perpetual Edict ......... 1Z2

1675 Ixitiis XIV. invad.-s Hll.u>d ................... 199

John and Cornelius de Witt assaavinatnl at the

Haiti.- ......... .........

1673 William 111. of Or.uae. sladtlioMer ............. 129

The Barrier Treaty .............. . . 199

1656 War of religion in Switierlund between /itrieh and
ll.-rne in the Pn<t-sUnt cause, and St. Gall. &e>
on the Catholic .Me .......................... 193

1654 duties X. succeeds Christina, f Sweden ......... 193

1658 He besieges Copenhagen ....................... \13

1 'he Pinch fleet defeat* the Swede* and relieve*
Coeoharii .............. ............. 193

ANALYTICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

A.D. PAOE

1660 Minority of Charles XI. of Sweden 123

Pence concluded at Copenhagen 1 23

Peace of Oliva 123

1680 Revolution in Sweden effected by Charles XI.

against the aristocracy 12i

1693 Despotic power entrusted by the Swedish Diet to

Charles XI 124

1697 Accession of Charles XI 1 124

1688 Peter tlie (Jrcat 124

1700 Charles XII. gains the battle of Narva 124

17011703 He defeats Augustus of Saxony, King of Po-
land 124

1T04 Stanislaus Lec/.inski. King of Poland 124

Charles XII. marches towards Moscow, but di-
verge" to the Ukraine 125

Mnzeppa, Hetman of the Cossacs, joins him 125

1708 Peter the (ireat defeats General Lewenhaupt at

Desna 125

1709 Defeatof Charles XII. nt Puhowa 125

1718 Charles XII. killed at the siege of Fredericshall,

in Norway 125

1719 Treaty of Stockholm between Sweden and George

I. of England , 125

1721 Peace of Nystadt between Peter I. and Frederic I.

Kins of Sweden 125

Sweden thereby acquired Finland, and Peter I.

acquired Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, and Oarelia. 126
1660 Frederic III. of Denmark convokes the States-Ge-
neral 126

The Royal Law becomes the constitution of Den-
mark 126

lf>75 Christian V. declares war against Sweden 126

16/7 Naval successes of the Danes l'/7

16J9 Peace signed at Lunden 127

104-' R'-ign of John Casimir, King of Poland 127

The l.ibervam Veto explained 127

1647 War of the Cossacs and the Poles 127

1645 Reign of Alexis Michaelovitz in Russia 127

166" Treaty of Andrussov between Russia and Poland. 12J

1673 John Sobieski defeats the Turks at Choczim 127

John Sobieski was then elected King of Poland. . . 127

1699 Peace of Carlowitz 123

1C76 Heigu of Feodor Alexievitz in Russia 128

1686 I'eace of Moscow concluded by the Princess Sophia

ol llussia .' 128

1688 Peter the Great deposes his sister Sophia 128

He c-t.ibl >hes the marine of Russia 128

1698 He travels to Holland and to England to study

ship-building and naval science 128

He puts the Stielit/.es to death 129

He disciplines tie Russian soldiery 129

1703 Peter I. founds the northern capital of St.Petersburg 129

He constructs the port of Kronschlot 12'J

1701 He vanquishes Charles XII. at Pultowa 1:29

I7in Peter puts his son Alexis to death 129

1725 < atlierine I. ascends the throne on the death of the

Emperor Pet.-r I 129

1664 The Turks invade Hungary and Germany, and are

defeated by Montecuculi 129

Tru<v of twen'y yearn concluded at Temeswar .... 129

I'.Tl H ut.garian nobles beheaded, and the Protestants

persecuted 130

1677 Count Teke.li, leader of the Hungarian malcon-
tents 130

1683 Kara Mustnpha lays siege to Vienna 130

John Sobieski, King of Poland, saves the city of

Vienna 130

..tries of Lorraine. Louis of B*den. and Prince
Eugene, defeat the Tut ks and take Bnda 130

1687 The Imperialists defeat the Turks at Mohacz 130

Mahomet I V. causes Kara Mustapha to be strangled,

ami U himself deposed by the Janissaries 130

Leopold I. assembles the states at Preslmrii, which
crown his son, Joseph 1., as hereditary King of

Hungary 130

1669 Louis of linden gains the victories of Nissa and

Widdin 130

Muslnplm Kupruli retakes Nissa, Widdin, and

Belgrade 130

1691 Is defeated by Louis of Baden at Salankemen. and

slain 130

1697 Prince Eugene defeats Mustapha II. near the river

Teus 130

.r Carlowitz 131

uicis Ragoczi, prinre of Transylvania, leader of

the Hungarian insurrection . . . .' 131

1645 Sultan Ibrahim attempts to take Camlia, or Crete,

from the Venetians 131

A.D. PAOE

1648 Mahomet IV. Sultan 131

1669 Achmet Kupruli, after a long siege, takes the city

of Candia '. 131

PERIOD VIII.

From the Peace of Utrecht to the French Revolution. A.D.
17131/89.

1700 1800 Progress of the sciences and of literature... 132

The modern philosophy 132

Hobbes, Bolingbroke, Shaftesbury, and Tindal... 132

Voltaire, D'Alembert, Diderot, and Helvetius 132

Deism and infidelity 13.'!

The Economists . . .". 133

Francis Quesnay, and Victor de Riquetti, Marquis

of Mirabeau 133

The Pre-ideut de Montesquieu publishes his Esprit

des Ltiix 133

The Contrat Social of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. ... 133

The llluminati in Germany 134

Balance of power in Europe 134

Preponderance of England 134

State of Russia and of Prussia 134

The mercantile system of Europe 134

Colonies of the European powers 135

Public fuuris and funded debt 135

The sinking fund instituted by Mr. Pitt 135

1715 Minority of Louis XV. The regent Duke of Or-
leans '. 135

Philip V., and administration of Cardinal Alberoni

in Spain 135

1718 The Spaniards conquer Sardinia and Sicily 135

The Quadruple Alliance signed at London 135

Articles ol this treaty specified 135

1720 Philip V. exiles Alberoni 135

1721 Peace of Paris 136

Renunciation of Italy and the Netherlands by

Philip V 136

The Company of Osteud 136

Question of the reversion of Tuscany, Parma, and

Placentia 136

1725 Treaty ofVieuna between the Emperor Charles VI.

and Philip V 136

The alliance of Hanover between France, England,

and Prussia 136

1727 Death of Catherine I. of Russia 137

1/29 Cardinal Fleury engages England, Spain, and
France to guarantee Parma and Tuscany to Don

Carlos 137

1731 Charles VI., on the death of Anthony Farnese,

takes possession of the duchy of Parma 137

Treaty of Vienna, suppressing the Ostend Company,
and ranting Tuscany, Parma, and Placentia to
Don Carlos 137

1715 War between the Turks and Venetians for the pos-

session of the Morea 137

The Emperor Charles VI., Philip V., and the pope,
side with the Venetians 137

1716 Prince Eugene gains the battle ol Peterwar.i.ini

and takes Temeswar. .

1717 He routs the Turk- at Belgrade

1718 Peace of Passarowit/ |3g

l~2-2 Diet ol Presbnrg confirms the succession to females

according to the Austrian Pragmatic Sanction .. 138

1719 Ulrica Bleonor* elected Queen of>wedeii

The lln/al shs>ir<;nce, limiting the authority of the

crown in Sweden

1720 Frederic I. of Hesse Cassel, King of Sweden.. ..
1733 Stanislaus Lecziuski restored lo the tlirone of Po-
land

1730 Death of Peter II. of Russia, and accession of the

Empress Anne 13g

Augustus III., supported by the Empress Anne

and the Polish nobles, proclaimed king 138

Field Marshal Munich besieges Kin;; Nani-laus

in Dantzic 139

1733 LouU XV. seizes on Lorraine lit'.'

IT.'M Marshal Berwick slain ut I'hilipsburg lli'.l

1738 Peace of Vienna 139

1739 The Turks, directed by the Count de Honneval,

defeat the Austrian.* and lay siejje to Belgrade.. 140

1739 Munich defeats the Turk* at Checsim 140

IV.! re signed at Belgrade 140

1740 Mari.i Theresa, yueen of Hungary HO

1/42 The Elector of Bavaria elected emperor by the title

of Charles VII 141

137

138

13S

138

\N AJ.YTH \l. \M> ( HBOVOIXX.

* n.
1740

1741

17"
1745

Frederic II .King of Pr..ia. invade. Silesia 141

... 141

- Inch he acquired Silrsla and
Glat< ... 141

Affair, ufiar.!,!,.. 141

Oeorgell.Kingof Enj<U< ... 141

victory at Detlingr: .. 141

Soc'oMsrs of Maria Tnere-a . 141

Louis XV. invade* the Au.trian N.-tu. -ri .ii.U Ul

Treaty of union with Charles V 1 1 . tinned at Fr ..

fort.. ... 141

Frederic 11. Invades Bohemia ...141

Death of the Emperor Charl.. \ II 14*

Frederic 1 1. defect* the truop< of Augn.tu* 1 1 1. and

Maria Theresa, at Hohenfriedberg 1 43

He take* Dresden ... 14S

.. 143
XV and M..r.'",I Saxe defeat the Duke of

C,,, ; , .-,!. l,. I .1 I'....'- : 11-'

1 4'J

> Stuart lands in Scotland and ad-

! 'tike of Cumberland defeat* him at Culloden ..... 148

! nnrc Doria expels the Austrian* from < JetxM. ... US

Blix-kad* of (Jeooa ............................. 14*

1747 LoaU XV. conquers Dutch Flanden .........

Stof of Maeuicht ............. ..... u:t

>aee of Aix-la Chapelle .....................

Contract of the Aiieuto ........................ 144

1740 Mioorlty of Ivan and regency of Anne of Mecklen-

burg in Ru ' .................... 144

nimn created Duke of Courland ................. 144

Faction, f ihe Hats and the Cap* iu Sweden ..... 144

1741 HlMbeth proclaimed Empres of Rusla ......... 144

1743 Adolphus Frederic, biihop of Lubec. elected King

of Sweden ................................... 144

Peace of AKo .................................. 144

1750 JoMph I. King of Portugal ...................... 145

Tho J "

esuits inititntc a republic in Paraguay ...... H">

War between Portugal and Spain ................ 145

-Urn dettruyed bv an earthquake .............. 145

1758 King Joaeph wounded, and in contequence tome of

the Portuguese noble* are executed ........... 145

The Jesuit* banihed from Portugal ............. 14 >

1763 The Jesuit* expelled from Prance and Spain ..... 145
Their good* ronAtcated ......................... U'i

1773 Clenii-nt MV. upprsses Ihrir onli-r ............ 146

1764 Contest of England and Prance re-|x-ctin( the de-

marcation ! riia ami Canada, ic... 146

The Knglish capture French merchant \esiel* off
New iniiinlUna ami on the high sra* ........... 146

1756 Treatv of Writmt inter between England and Frede-

ricll.of l'ni*ia ............................. 146

Frederic II. inrailrs Saxony ......... ........... 146

1757 League agaiu.t Krederic 1 1 ..................... 146

1/56 The Frmrh, under the Dukeuf Richrlicu, conquer

Minor.-, ................................... 14

Thev occupy llaiunrr, Miuoswick, and HesM ..... 14*>

1757 l~il I ) Knidi.h take Chandernaj(ore. Pondi

cheny.an.i ..................... U"

1759 General Wolfe tlain at Quebec, when Canada falls

itiln (>, h.uiil- of the EnjflNh ................ 147

Guadalonpe, Martiniqur. Toda^'O. Dominica, and
Tariou* West India colonie*. taken by the Eng-

.......... 147

1756 176 I -evrn Yeart'War ........... U7

.~<, tf \]\ Kinw-f Kniflaii.l ................... 14?

1761 The familv ('mpa.t cunclmled at Paris by the

...................... 147

Peter III. Emperor of Russia .................... 147

1765 i: <"* with Fre-leric It ............. 14?

Peter III. dethruoed. Catheiine II. Empress of

Ru**ia .................................... 147

1763 A irenernl pacittcatioa signed at Poolainebleau and

.. 147

Article* of the. peace of Pari*. *ppcifyinx cessions
or restitution* ............................... 1 47

Commerce of England with all parts of the w or M . . 148
Cooequence of the peace in the policy of Conti-
nental Europe. . . ..... ' .......... 148

Decline of the Mogul Empire in India ........... 14-

Sourajah Dowlah. Sul>a>> of H.-n.-al ............ 148

feat* in action )>> Ixnd Clive ............. 14S

.. 14-

Sbah Allum cde* Bengal. Bahar. and OrUsm to
UieEndish ------

OoBUrt with Hyder Ali, Rajah of Mysore ........ U-

l,."

-..'the crowns of Spain and of ibe Two

... 140

.-I at Can* on tin. Mit>Ject
Aggi.f .Un power. .

. . 149
erin* It. concludes a treaty with Denmark at

! 450

ISO

I/*) The Corsican. ri,e ag.in.t lli-
The Einperm i

17.14 lii ifferi. general of the Cor.ican* . .

1736 Tlin.loi,-. Banm NculiofT. elected by the Cortkams

for thrlr king

1738 The French Ian

urral of the Cotsican*

,ICH to lx.uis XV

1764
1768

1770

1779
1771

1774

1778

itowikiiM the

. 1

..lent*, or Protestant* of Poland

Tn-aty.ifWar.aw

Polith confederacy

War bei .nd Turkey..

Cnthei.i . and Wallarhia

PlUt.'l

and Kukuli

Count 1'aniii carrie* Hender by a.taull

The Ruitian* burn the Turki.h fleet in the bay of

ChUme

Princ.- DolyorncUi conquer* the Ciimea

The plague at Mo*co

The court* of Vi.-nna aud Berlin oppose the am

lutioi: ' .itlierine 11

-< .it Bucharest

Achmet IV., sultan

.|--s peace with Komanxow at K.iinar.'i

n.-.r Sili.trm

The Tartars of the Crimea and Cuban declared

iiulepenilei.t of ihe I'orte

W.ofT and Kinbiirn l>y this

.e city uf Cher>on

Knkowina.ri-iiiil to Au.tria.
Ru*ian eUbli*hmrnt* on the shore* of the Hue',

Prince Henry of I'miiia propoec* to partition

1779 Contention signed l>> Ruia. Austria, and Prnstia
at St. Petersburg for partiiiou of ceiUin part

Shares confirmed to those power* by the republic

of Warsaw ................................

The /.ifr-rvn fel-i ratiflrd .....................

1771 GiMtavn* III.. King uf Sweden ................

Captain Hellicliiu* conspiiv* again*t the authority

of ihe Hates ol Sweili-n .......................

(utatu* 1 1 1. carrie* the revolution of Stockholm

into i-fTiTt ...................................

New o>n<iiiut>on of the SwetlUh monarchy ......

A partial rrrolufon take* |>la> e at Copenhagen .
The Zaparog Cossacs ............ ...

Succession to thr K.lectorate of Bavaria contested

on the demiv of Maximilian . . . .

1778 Convention signed nt Vienna on ih! question ....
Frederic II. take* the Held on thi* occasion, and

invade* liohemia. but i* foiled b> Marshal
Laudohn .............. . .

1779 Congre** held at Trschen in Siletia c

dominion* to the Elector Palatine. Char'.e*

PacirtcatKMi of Germany ......... ...

1785 The (irrmanic ConfedrMlion ..... . .

\orth America..

I he Sump Act patwd and reciudrd ............

1767 Duties on tea, &c. in North America ............

Aiminilration of U.nl >rth ...... .....

150
1M

l.M
151

151
151
153

1H
153

153

1.VJ

153

1.V1
153

153
1 i3

154
154

1">3
155

155

IMS
156
I
156

157

158

1774 Embargo on the port of Boston
i;,4 Congms at Philadelph
f indeend

Gsxm Washington

i;,4 Congms at iaepa .
1776 Declaration of independenc*
Command eunfcirea 1 on Gsx

1 1 e .urpn.es UM Hewisuw at Trmton ...

I'.urguyoe ravituUtr* at Saratoga . .

1778 Treaty of Paris between France and the United

State* of North America . . .

1778 Action between Keppel and Count d'l tmlliers. . .

15H

.-'
. -
150
159

16U

.'
U

ICO

M
161

ANALYTICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

'.Var between England and the Dutch republic. . . 161

1 rd Rodney defeat* Count .lelirasfe 161

The French take Dominica, Tobago, and other

islands 161

They al.o possess themselves of Senegal 161

The Spaniards take Pensacola and Western Flo-
rida 161

17801782 Siege of Gibraltar 161

Port Maliou and Fort St. Philip taken by the

French and Spaniards 161

The French take Trincomalee 161

1781 Lord Cornwall!* capitulates to Washington, La

Fayelte, and Rochambeau 161

1783 Peace concluded at Paris and Versailles 101

Independence of the t'nited States acknowledged

by England 161

The cessions and restitutions agreed on 162

Armed neutrality of the northern powers 162

17SO Manifesto of Catherine II 162

The Baltic declared by Denmark to be a shut sea Ifi2
European siat.'s which joined the armed neutrality 162
1778 Catherine II. places Sachem Gueray on the throne

oi the Ciimea 162

1782 Dispute with Turkey respecting the Khan of the

Crimea 163

17S3 The Empress Catherine seizes on the Crimea and

Cuban 1P3

Governments of the Taurida and Caucasus 163

The Dutch blockade the Scheldt 163

1785 The Emperor Joseph II. consents, by the treaty of

Fontainebleau, to the closing of the Scheldt .... 164

Discontents in the United Provinces 164

Louis, Duke of Brunswick, governor of the Sta.lt-

holder, driven from Holland 164

Parties, named the Palriuts, and the Free Bodiei. , 164

1783 Insurrection at the Hague 164

William V.. Prince of Orange, the stadtholder, re-
tires 10 Guelders 164

',7-7 1 rederic William II., King of Prussia, sends an
army into Holland for protection of his sister the
Princess of Orange 164

1788 The cUdiholdership declared hereditary in the

House of Orange 165

Factions in the Belgic provinces, and insurrection

in Brabant Ifi5

The states of Urabant declare their independence 165

1790 The sovereign congress of the Belgic states 165

Reign of the Emperor Leopold 11 165

The Belgic provinces submit to Leopold 166

1787 Catherine II. accompanied by the Emperor Jo-
seph II., of Germany, in a journey to visit the

Crimea " 166

M.de BoulgakolT. Russian ambassador, committed

. to the Castle ot the Seven Towers 166

Prince Potemkin marches against the Turks 166

1789 Marshal Laudolm, with an Imperial army, invests

i.i.- '. 166

1789 Gustavus III. invades Finland, and threatens

Cr.iiistn.it 166

Tin- D.ine* la\ -iege to Gotteuburs 166

(>u>tavus 1 1 1 . defeats the Russian fleet under the

Prince of NaMau-Seig*-ii 1G6

1J90 Peace concluded Between Sweden and Russia .... liij

Prince Potemkin takes OczakoIT by assault 167

.mm and the Prince of Cotioiirg defeat the
Turks lit Focksani. and likewise on the Kymna. 167

Bender urreudered to the Russians 167

Marshal Suwarow takes Ismail by assault 167

Frederic William II., in alliance with England,
ends an army against Catherine II. and
Leopold II 167

1791 Lco|>oid II. makes peace with the Porte at Szis-

town in Bulgaria, and restores Belgrade lf>7

The Emprets of Russia con tin nes the war 167

1792 IV.-ire signed at Jassy between I-elim III. and the

Empirss Catherine Ifi/

Catherine 11. founds the city and port of Odessa
ou the coast of the Black Sea 16"

PERIOD IX.

From thf. Commencement of the French Revolution to the

l of Btiuttaparte. A.D. 1789 1815.

[he French Revolution ........................ IfiS

Primar) c nu-es conducing to this important event. 169

Retrospect of the reign of Louis XV .............. 169

A.D. PAOE
1774 Reign of Louis XVI 169

Administrations of the Count de Maurepas, of

Turgot, ami of Mal.-sherbes 169

1783 French finances exhausted at the close of the

American war 169

1787 M. <!> Calonne, minister of finance 170

Assembly 01 the Notaries 170

Loans, and deficit of the revenue 170

1788 Cardinal de Brienne's administration 170

M. Necker's several administration- 170

Double representation of the Tiers Etat 1 JO

1/89 The States General meet at Versailles 170

Louis XVI. opens the Assembly in person 170

Costume of the nobles, the clergy, anil the deputies 170

The National Assembly constituted 170

The Count de Mirabea'u 1JO

The Duke of Orleans employs his resources to

agitate the public, and promote insurrections. . . 170
Marquis de la Fayette, commandant of a national

guard 170

1789 Destruction of the Bastille 170

Declaration of the Rights of Man 1/0

The ancient provinces divided into eighty-three

departments 171

Emigration of the wealthy class, and the nobility.. 171

Louis XV 1 . flies, and is arrested at Vareni.es 1 J 1

The Orleans party 171

The Moderate party preponderant 1/1

1791 The Constituent Assembly, succeeded by the Le-
gislative Assembly 171

Leopold II. addresses the sovereigns of Europe in

the cause of Louis XVI 171

Alliance of Prussia and Austria 171

The Legislative Assembly composed of inexpe-
rienced deputies 171

Popular society denominated the Jacobins 1J2

179' Administration of Dumouriez, Roland, and oilier

republicans 1/2

Insurrection of the Fauxbourgs 172

The Sections of Paris 1/2

Attack on the Tuileries and massacre of the Swiss

Guards 172

The National Convention 172

Louis XVI. and the royal family imprisoned in the
Temple '. 172

1791 The Duke of Brunswick and General Clairfait

take Verdun and Long wy 172

1792 The Republic one and indivisible 173

1793 Trial and execution of Louis XVI 173

Proscription of the Girondists 173

Discredit of the assignats, or paper-money 1/3

The Queen, Marie Antoinette, executed 174

The Duke of Orleans guillotined 174

The whole kingdom visited with remorseless execu-
tions of men, and of women 174

Era of the Republic adopted 174

The Christian religion aliolished 174

Royalist insurrection in Brittany 174

1793 Battle of Saumur '. 1/4

1J93 Toulon admits some English auxiliaries, but is

taken by assault 174

Buonaparte distinguishes himselt under General

Carteaux in this siege 174

L\ons taken by the republicans and partly de-
stroyed " "..... 174

1792 General Custine takes Mayence 174

Dumouriez gains a victoiy at Jeraappe, and con-
quers Belgium 174

1793 Vicissitudes of the campaign in Flanders l/.i

The Duke of York defeated at Hondscote 175

General Pichegru obliges the Austrians under

Wurmser to repass the Hhine 17"'

The Committee of Public Safety, presided by
Robespierre 1/5

1794 Rol>espi.-rre and many of the Mountain faction

guillotined lT. r >

Jourdau defeats the Duke of Cobourg at Fleurus . 175
Dugomraier and Periguou defeat the armies of

Spain 175

1/95 General Pichegru conquer* the I'nite,! rn,\inres . 17"i

William V.. uta.lthol.ter. retires to England 1J6

Monsieur takes the title of Louis XVIII. ou the

death of the Dauphin 1J6

Insurrection . I the Chouaus in Brittany and Nor-
mandy 17C

R\ allots landing at Quibcrou defeated bv General
tloclie 176

1795 The Executive Directory 176

AN \l.\ IK M \M> riIK<iNM OGK \1. I \

xxiii

VAN

1796 Royalists ol La Vendee OWpOwered

of Tuscany, and I
Ham 1 1 . of l'mtu. make peace ith the French

177

Generals JourJan and Pichegru cross the Rhine,
but are not sueee*. .. 177

.-rer disWU General de Vinsat Lorano
In the Genoese territory.

Cha. id part of

Domingo to the French, l.\ the treaty of

Basl ... 177

179ft Lord Hridport defeats a French ll. ,t. 177

1796 Buonapru>"i vletorious car.-.- "-re be

.ts Generals Beaulieu and Colll. 177

He grant* a true* to the K lug of Sardinia and the

i ma 177

Buonaparte and Augereau force the bridge of Lodi 177

-..-rtMilau 177

Ferdinand IV.. of Naples, and the repuhli

i. conclude peace with France \~*

Buonaparte defeats Alviusi at ArcoU 178

1796 The Archduke Charles defeats fieneral Jourdan.

and obluet him to recn.it the Rhine

Celebrated retreat of General Moreau 178

vacuaUs Corsica 1*8

1796 Negociations of Lord Malmesbury at Lille prove

abortive 178

French armament under (ieneral Huche unsuccess-
ful in an invasion of Ireland 178

1797 Marshal Wurmser surrenders Mnlu i 178

Buonaparte suns |>relimin.<rie! at Leoben with

Francis II.. Emperor of Germany 1J8

Genoese territories constituted into a I.igurian re-
public 1J8

Peace concluded at Campo Fonnio 17'.)

Articles of this treaty 179

Negoeiations at Rastadt 179

Tlie Cisalpine republic 179

Tumults at Home 179

1798 General Berliner establishes a republic at

Rome 179

The Helvetic republic subservient to France 179

1799 Death of Pius VI. at Valence 179

1798 The Toulou fleet under Admiral Brueyi. with

Buonaparte and a French army, sail and take
Malta " 180

Buonaparte lands his troops in Egypt 180

Lord Nelson, after an indefatigable pursuit, de-
stroys or takes the Toulon fleet iu the Nile, or
Bay of Aboukir 180

diaries Emanuel IV., King of Sardinia, concludes
a convention at Milan with the French re-
public 180

The second coalition against France 1 -it

17*6 Paul, Kmperor of Ruisia 190

1798 Treaties of alliance enumerated

Disorder of the French finances 1 -"

Military conscription in France iso

Ferdinand IV.. of the Two Sicilies, attacks the

Fr-nch in Home 180

General Chamnionnet takes Naples, and esta-
blishes a Partnenopean republic 190

Charles Emanuel IV. retires Iu Sardinia

1799 Congress of Rastadt dissolved 1-1

War between Francis II. and the French 181

The Archduke Charles defeats Jourdan at

Stockach 181

Snwarow. generalissimo of the allies in Italy, de-
feats Moreen at Caasano '..... 181

General Macdonald effects a junction with Moreau 181
1799 Suwarow defeats Joubert at Novi. who is slain in

the action 181

The Archduke Charles attacks Massena In Swit-

terland. and marches toward* the Rhine 181

Snwarow crosses UM Alps 181

The Turkish and Russian fleets take Corfu and

other i.Un.U 183

1799 The Duke of York conduct! an expedition to the

r 183

He returns home, according to a capitulation with

General Nrune

The English take Surinam from the Dutch

1799 Buonaparte, hating conquered Egypt. is obliged to

raise the siege of Acre 189

A Turkish army laaded at Aboukir. and was
totally routed by Buonaparte ... ... 183

ids at Frrjus in Proveoor . i-j

Discontents against the Directory

.; i:
lurreettoo of UwCteMM .......... 181

:i by Buosjaparto and his

, lliul.ilr<l .

Bwmaparte. Camhateres, and I* llruu. cuuiuls of

the i

PaeiBcation . f I.- \Vrt .,f Krn. . .
Mr I'm', subsi.lie! to the runtlneoUl silk* at

... m

1800 In

Hmiii i llie Alpi, ab'l lakrs MlUii

!i'6-ai Mela! in i'ur inttli- of Mareofu. where
General l).-.aix ii >Uin ...................... 183

il Mini-nil defeats Orneral Kr.i>. and eutrrs
'I ................

Francis II. refuses to ratify t!ir |>rrlimiuarir
igned at Pri .......... .......... 183

ArmUtictt and truces agreed on in Germany and
Italy ........................

1800 Peace of Lmi.-viU- ...............

Tlie (Cii|{li>h compel (jeneral V'aubois to surrender
MalU ...... ...................... 183

Convention of EI-Ari.h ........................ ItCi

1801 General Kleber aisassinaied in Egypt ........... 183

1801 Sir Ralph AiMrrromuy landi at Aboukir and de-

feats General Menou at Kahmanieh neat AUx-
andria ........................ ... 183

Death uf Abcrcromliy ......................... IS 4

llu- Frrncli capitulate U> General Hntchinson at
Alexandria ................................. 184

1901 Alexamlt-r. Emperor of Rutsia ................

1SOS Peace of Amiens .............................. 184

Sti|,ul.ni.,ii fur surrrudeiinx Malta to the Knights
of St. John .................................. 184

The principle of flee commerce not alluded to ill
the Treaty .................................. 185

Retrospect of the affairs of Spain ............... J -.'

>7M Character of Charles IV ........................ 186

Don Maburl <;.,<!..>. I'nn.-eof the IVace ......... lai

1797 Sir John Jen-is defeats Admiral Cordova off Cape

St. Vincent ...............................

a- EnjcIWi t;vk.- Trinidad and Minorca ........ 183

1800 Spain surrrmleri: ; .leveutu-illy Parma

to tlte French, by the treaty of St. lldefonto. ... 185
The Granil-Duchv of Tuscany promised, in conse-
quence, to the Infant of Parma ............... 185

1801 Treaty of Madrid sign*-.! by I.iu-u-u Uuouaparto. . 186
1719 A.i ministration of the Right llou. Willum Put... 196

Eloquence of Mr Kdmund Burke ............... 1K6

i MI i if the Habeas Corpus Act ........... 186

1793 Alien liill ..................................... 186

1796 A French fleet sails to Bantry Bay ............. 186

England subsidizes the continental powers, and

< the coalitions against the French republic 186

1798 Insurrection in Ireland ......................... 186

1800 The Union between Great Britain and Ireland ... 186
Right of search ................................ 186

Armed Neutrality ............................. 186

1901 Sir llyte Parker and Lord Nelson attack the

Danish fleet at Copenhagen ................... 186

Hanover occupied by the Kingof Prussia ........ 186

1795 The Batavian Republic established ............ 187

1/97 Admiral Lord Duncan defeats De Winter in the

action off Camperdown ....................... 1

Treaties of peace and alliance .................. 187

1798 Overthrow of thu Heretic confederacy .......... 187

1809 State of Italy at the peace of Amiens ............ 187

i?n Victor Amadeuslll.. K ing of Sardinia ........... 17

Charles Emanuel IV ......................

The Cisalpine republic ........................ 187

Republic ol <ie D<> democratic ................... 188

1801 Pnnee f Parma proclaimed King of Etrurla ..... 188
1791 Pius VI.. protests against the French uniting

Avignon to the Venaissin ...... ...... 188

1796 He equips an army under General Colli .....
,.,<-,. .1 T..leniin.>with IV..

17W General Duphut killed in an indirection at Rome 188
A republic proclaimed in ROOM ... 188

1799 Pin* VI. mad* prisoner, sod dies at Valence ...... 188

Pictures and statues removed froas Rome. Ice., to

the Louvre. ... IW

Admiral l. T-wche obliges Ferdinand IV. to re-
cognise the French republic .... . . 188

1800 Republic ..f the Seven Islands, or Ionian Islands . 188
1793 Neutrality of the North of Germany recognised by

the Convention of Ba.il ...................... 188

1796 Frederic William II. of Prussia lenuins neutral.. 188

1796
1797

ANALYTICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

A.D.

1796

1788

1791

1792
1793

1794

1/94

17%
1801

1793

1,0;

190
190
190
190

PAGE

Doctrines of the French revolution invade the

Herman people 189

Confederation of Warsaw 189

Kim; Stanislaus Augustus sanctions a new consti-
tution in Poland 189

That throne declared hereditary in the House of

Saxony ". 189

Absurdity of the Lihernm Veto 189

r at her me II. sends an army into Poland 189

The Poles take up arms 189

Convention of 1st. Petersburg, between Russia

and Prussia

New dismemberment of Poland

Extent of lite portion seized by Catherine II ....

Prussian acquisitions

Treaty between Russia and Poland as then con-
stituted 190

Secret association of Warsaw elects Thaddeus

Kosciugzko general of the insurrection 190

Revolt of the Ciiy of Warsaw 190

Siiwarow defeats Kosciuszko at Matchevitz 191

He carries Praga, the great suburb of Warsaw, by

assault 191

King Stanislaus Augustus retires to Grodno, where

he abdicates 191

Final partition of Poland 192

Death of Catherine II 192

Murderof the Emperor Paul 192

The Emperor Alexander of Russia abandons the

claim for a free trade by neutral vessels 192

Assassination of Gustavus 111. of Sweden 193

Reign of Christian VII. in Denmark 193

PERIOD IX, continued.
The nililnry preponderance of France under the sway of

rapefeM Buonaparte. A.D. 18021810.
1S02 Buonaparte declared, at Lyons, President of the

Italian or Cisalpine republic 193

1801 French concordat with Pope Pius VII 194

Restoration of the Catholic liishops 19-t

Institution of the Legion of Honour 194

1802 General Le Clerc's expedition to St. Domingo.. 194
Huonaparte chosen Consul for ten years, and also

for hie 194

General Ney enters Switzerland 195

1*03 New constitution of Switzerland, or the Act of

Mediation 195

The Recess of the Deputation of Ratisbon 195

Declaration of war between England and the

French republic 195

Presidency of Mr. Jefferson in the United States.. 195
Those States purchase Louisiana of the trench... 195

Affairs of tin- liatavian republic 195

1804 Charles IV. of Spain unwillingly joins in the wnr

against England 1%

18031804 The Army of England collected near Bou-
logne lor the threatened invasion 196

D.-nrrara and Essequibo taken by the English

from Holland 196

England conquers various islands and colonies

from her enemies 196

1804 CoiMpiiaeyofGenernI Pichegru 196

Expatriation of the celebrated General Moreau,
wh'i visits America 196

1804 Military execution of the Duke d'Knghien, son

of the Duke de Hourbon 196

1&04 Napoleon Iluonaparie, Emperor of the French ... 197
1'iiiit VII. assists at his coronation in Notre Dame 197
Alrxanderof Russia demands Ihat .Napoleon should

evacuate Hanover, and iuileiiiiiify Sardinia.... 19?
Coalition of Russia, Prussia, and Austria against

tin- French Knipcror 197

Tlie English take Surinam I'.i,

French spoliations of the Italian states 197

Mr. Pitt again appointed Prime Minister 197

\ aiitms treaties which led to the coalition against

198

Camp of Boulogne IIP. ken up, and an Invasion of

England averted 198

1805 The Archduke Chnrlei commands iu Italy, and tin'

Aichduke John in the Tyrol 198

.rsof liniiitia, Wurtemherg and linden, quit

the muse of the allies 198

1805 Defeat i, f Gener.il Muck, who capitulates in Ulra

to Napoleon 198

The French emperor eaters Vienna 199

A.D.
1805

1806
1805

1806

Battle of Austerlitz , 199

Peace of Presburg 199

Part of Italy, Venice, Dalmatia, and Albania ceded

to Napoleon 199

Austria cedes the Tyrol to the Elector of Bavaria 199

The Emperor Alexander repairs to Berlin 199

liy a treaty signed at Vienna, Frederic William

111. of Prussia acquires possession of Hanover 1!>9
Sir Robert Calder's success off Cape Fiuisterre. . . 199
Battle of Trafalgar, and death of Admiral Lord

Nelson 200

Ferdinand IV. embarks for Sicily 200

Joseph Buonaparte created King of Naples 200

Eugene Ueauliarnais, Viceroy ol Italy, and declared

next in succession t that throne
Arrangement of several Italian duchies.

1805
1806

1806

ISO',

1807

1806
1807

1808

200
200
Murat created Grand-Duke of Berg and Cleves .. . 200

liernadotte made Prince o! Pontecorvo 200

Berthier created Prince of Neuchatel 201)

The French enter Frankfort and levy a contribution 200

Violation of the existing treaties , . . 200

Death of Mr. Pitt, also of Mr. Fox in 1806, who

had joined Lord lirenville's administration .... 200
Lord Lauderdale negociates for peace but returns

without success 201

Treaty signed at Paris between the Emperors

Alexander and Napoleon 201

The Confederation of the Rhine '20 \

Maximilian Joseph, King of Bavaria 201

Kingdom of Wurtemherg established 201

Declaration of the Emperor Francis II., who resigns

the empire, and becomes Francis 1. of Austria. . 201

Louis Buonaparte, King of Holland 201

Frederic illiam III. sends his ultimatum to Paris 201
Prince Hohenlohe totally defeated by Napoleon at

Jena '. '. 201

Duke of Brunswick, defeated by Marshal Davot.st

at Auerstadt, diesof his wounds 201

General Blucher surrenders at Lubec 202

Capitulation of Magdeburg 202

Frederic Augustus, K ing of Saxony 202

General Bennigseu with the Russian army arrives

in Prussia 202

Battle of Pultitsk 202

The English claim a right of blockade 202

Napoleon publishes the Berlin Decree, forbidding

English merchandise on the contiuent 202

Battle of Prussian Eylau 202

Negociations for peace, iufrtictuous 202

Convention of Bartensteiu preparatory of a new

coalition 202

Siege of Dantzic 203

Battle of Friedland 203

Napoleon enters Koningsbcrg 203

Armistice concluded at Tilsit between France,

Russia, and Prussia 203

Interview of the Emperors Alexander and Napo-
leon, on a ruft in the Niemen 203

Spoliation of part of the Prussian dominions -'u.'i

Convention of Koningsberg 203

Wars of Gustavus Adolphus IV. of S eden 203

The King of Saxony put in possession of the Duchy

of Warsaw 204

Jerome Buonaparte, King of Westphalia, has

Brunswick and Hesse, part of Hanover, &c.,

given him for his kingdom 204

Affairs ot Spain 204

Con ven l ion of Fontainebleau . 204

Maishal .In not enters Spain lid I

Being joined by a Spanish force he takes Lisbon. 204
John Prince, Regent of Portugal, with his family

sail to Rio Janeiro 204

Conii-ealioii of English merchandise in the Han

B cities 204

English Orders in Council, regulating a blockade

of hostile ports 204

The decree of Milan 2ti j

Napolei stablishes the Continental System,

against British trade 205

Pius VII. refus.-s to accede to it 20;>

General Miollis thereupon enters Home 205

Napoleon creates a new French nobility -'U.~>

Insurrection in Madrid against Godoy 205

Abdication of Charles IV 205

Fei.liuand VII. King of Spain 205

The French under Murat enter Madrid 205

Charles IV. cedes his dominions to Napoleon, at

Bayouue -'05

\N \l.\ 111 \l \M I!:

PM1

1800 PMlBUd VII.. Menaced With death. I. obliged to
COO MO I to that arrangement, anil It < ..nBoed at
Valeocay . 105

MaMMrVby Mnrai !...MS

i|>rfe. Klnjf of S|>ln 906

Mural. <>r Joxrhlm, Kin* of Nap ...906

General iiKurrt-riiiin of Spain KOI) Portugal 105

MM Inter, lew of Alexander ao.l Napoleon a< i

906

Franc-is. Emperor of Au.lrm, calls out the Land-

.is dominion* 206

Francis appeal* In the German Stales; heo Ha-
. ny and Wurtembrrg declare war
aiMiii.i him . . . 906

Amount and ehl'fsof the Austrian force* S(l6

1809 TV* Emperor Francis Invades Bavaria 908

rut lliller.t Ai*usherg 906

1809 He defeat* iheAirh.luke O, .rl-. at Krkmuhl and

at H.if..lH.n 906

Napoleon enter. Virnnnin triumph ...
1809 Bailies of Bbersdorff. and of A*perne or Essllngen 906
Napoleon in dangt-r In the I.I.- f l.obau on the

... 806

Cnnu.ii-1. ,.' i ; Archduke John in Italy iWi

BeauharnaH rff.-ct - -Iron . . . . 9U6

The Archduke Ferdinand lakes Warsaw and

attack* I'ru.iian I'olnu.l 906

1809 Buttle of Waram 806

Insurrection u( ilir Tyrol headed by Hoffer 906

Expedition of the Duke of Brunswick Oels KM

An armistice concluded at /.u.i\m 806

1909 The Earl ul Chatham

take the Island of Walcberen 906

They take Flushing 906

i armament frustrated as to Antwerp
by Marshal Bernadotte 307

1809 Peace of Srluriihriinn between the emperork

Fnncis and Napoleon 207

The lllyriau provinces not united with the French

Empire 207

Napoleon seixrs oo the Ecclesiastical Slates 807

r..|-- 1'ius % ll.ilr ( Ni.eil by Napoleon 907

Naal victories of the Kncll.h 907

Colonie* of Cayenne and French Guiana, taken... 207
- ;-.inianl expel the Freucli fnun St. !>,. 111111^0 907
18091810 Napoleon divorces tin* empreis Jost'phiiu-,

and espouses Maria Louisa of Austria 207

1810 Abdirat>n of l^.ui. ll,,,,,. n| .arte . . . . 907
Napolron annrxes Holland to the French Empire 9V7
(juadaloupe. the Mauritius and Island of Bourboa

taken by the Kngliih 208

The Continental System. Decree or tariff of

T nan. >n 208

1806 Insurrection at Oporto 908

>ur Welletley defeats Juuot at Vimiera. . . . 208
Russian fleet in the Tapis surrendered t><

Charl.-n C.i-.tnii

Marshal Jiinot's army, by capitulation at Cintra,
eonteyed in Kuvliili vessels to France 908

1809 Marshal Soult takes Oporto after a resistance by

the I'ortiiKuett . 908

Bit Arthur Welleslejr land* at Lisbon, when Soult

. . into OalUeia 908

1806 General Bemford and Sir Home l'<>|.tiam take

Ilurin> A> rr< 909

1807 ODeral Anrhmaty lake* Motite Vidro 909

General Whitelucke defeated in an attempt to re-
take Iliieuos Ayrr* 909

Thr Juuu of .Wille declares for Kiur Frrdioand
VII 909

1808 General Dupoot surrenders at Haylru 209

16V9 Death of sir John Moore at Corunoa XU9

DrfrureofSar.Ko.wb) Palalux 909

Lord Wellington defeats Jourdan and Victor at
TalaTrr* 910

1810 Soull overrun* Andalusia. Sier of fadix 910

.not ukrs Ciu.U.I Kodrifo and Almeida L'lU

Wellington mainUin* his post of Torre* Vrdras

M'iost Marshal Maateoa at Santarrm 910

Knglwh comrorro-. Krop.rr of the Sea. Conque*t

.nch. Spanish aud Dutch eolottie* 910

trade by Kngland 910

Condition of Holl.ui>! 810

Affair* of Switirrlan-l, and of Italy, reviewed .... 211
Political oniitition of liermany . . . . 'Jl I

1806 Abdication of the imperial crown by Fiancis.

Emperor of Austria .. 91]

Confederation of the Htiin-

.'>. r*i

1806 Slab- and nlenl of the A .1. Irian dominloo* e* the

> of Lanevill. ...919

of Sehotabnutsj ...

Aeq.ii- 813

Tin- ifrup.iti. ii of Hanover eaase* a war between
England and Prussia ... ... 913

union of Prus.U. and enlightened adminlsi ra-
tio..
Drtigns of Napoleon on Denmark....

1807 Lotd* Cathrart and Gambler bomb..

gen, aud *ecure tlie Dauiih fleet

UN Chrt.n.u. Ml. succeeded by Frederic VI.. King

ol Denmark 914

1807 The KIIII>. ror Alexander declare* war against tlie

-i> ... 814

1808 H conquers FinJajasT from n.e e>!e 914

Sir I. Jin Mre arrive* mtti English soeeoors at

Gottiiigen, but i* ill receded by Gustavo* IV.

1809 Gnttavus Atotphus IV., deposed. .. 2.5
The Dnki- of >iidi-Mii.i!ii i proclaimed a* King

rh..ile. Mil

Peace of Fredericsham between Russia anil v r-ien X15

1810 Marshal Brrnadotte. el. ried I'rincr hVj.il I after

ward* crowned as King Charles John, uf Sweden) 916
MiiniAreut luuitilkiiori*, and national undertakings

oft.' T, in Kimia 216

Swe>inli a n 'i I ii..iii .ir, unimportant 816

Affair* of Persia and the Porie

Alexander annexes Georgia to his empire ....

1813 Hit urith Per-ia 216

His war with Turkey 916

All Pacha of Joanniua X16

17W Condition of Tui key under Selim III 816

1007 Sir John Duckworth forces the passage of the

Dardanelles 216

Admiral Siniaviu ueirals the Turkish fleet at

Lemno* 917

Selim III., establishes the Nixami gedid. troops in

European uniform*, and disciplined 917

1807 AlHlicatiouofS-limlll Si;

Muttapha IV. .Sultan 817

1808 Mustapha IV. and Selim III. are alike victims

in an insum-ciiou

Mahmoud 11.. Sultan 817

1809 1810 The Russian generals take Ismail, and

Silistria 818

General Kamenskoi defeats Mucktar Picha. . .

Strong Turkish position atShumla 9lt(

1810 Tlie Russians take Rudschuk, Gulrdesov aud
Widdin

PERIOD IX..CWC/KW.

The Decline and Anea/a/ / Iht Kmpire of Bttonafarfr.
A.b. 18101813.

1811 Napoleon's infant son receives the title of King of

Home

VII. refuses to confirm the nomination of the

French prelates

1911 A council assembled at Paris, for this object, fails HI-
1811 Retreat of Massrna, pursued by Lord Wellington,

through Portugal

1811 Badajos invested by Wellington. bo retreats into

I'ortucal 919

Marshal Sochet storms Tarragona, and defeat* the

:.h General Blake at M umedru 919

1819 Wrlllnttoo lakes Ciudad Rodngo. and agaiu retire* 919

1812 He defeats Marmont at Salamanca ..819
Alliance of Rutsia and Sweden against N(o.eon,

anil devign on Norway . - ... 919

Napoleon s alliance ilh Frederic William III... *1'J
Tlie Kmperor FraucU uuites * ith Napolnia against
HU..I.I, hut is not much in earn. . . . 919

Enumeration of N'apoleoa'* force* 980

Napoleon passes the river NiweB t9V

1819 Battle of Muhilofl ... . . 990

Napoleon lakes SmoJesuko ...890

Napoleon defeats Prince Kutusoffat the Mo.ka. 2*0

1818 He enter* Moscow. September 14 *)

Conflagration ot ii> . tfo

liiMutroas retreat of the Preach froM Russia 999

KntososT. who bad*bilba*to irlnrated. now puisnes

and harasses UM French army 290

Pmasage of the Bereataa on the retreat, with serere
ks ... 281

ANALYTICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

A.D. PAOK

1812 Napoleon returns to Paris, leaving his army under

the conduct of his marshals 821

General Yorke and the Prussian troops capitulate
to the Russians 22 1

1812 PiusVlI. at Fontainebleau signs a concordat 221

1813 Treaty of Kalisch, between Alexander and Fro-

deri;- William III 221

KutusoflTs proclamation from Kalisrh for the Dis-
solution of the Rhenish Confederation 221

1813 King Murat retires to Naples. 222

Forces of the belligerents preparatory to the

campaign oflSIS 222

Napoleon takes the command in person 222

Battleof Gross-Gerscheu or Lutzen 222

Battle of Bautzen 2:!2

1813 Convention signed at Dresden, under the media-
tion i) the Emperor Francis 222

Francis declares war against the French 223

Treaties signed antecedent to the sixtli coalition

of the allieil sovereigns 223

Armies of tlie Allies enumerated ii'.'3

Strength of Napoleon's army 223

Battleof Gross-Beeren 224

1813 Battle of Dresden 224

Kail of General Moreau 224

Vaudamme, defeated in the Battle of Culm, sur-
renders to Barclay de Tolly and Marshal Milio-

radowich 224

Ney routed by Bernadotte 224

1813 Battle of Leipsic gained by Blucher, Bennigsen

and the Prince Royal of Sweden 224

Flight of Napoleon to Mayence 224

King of B ivaria joins the allies 224

Marshal Davoust attacked in Hamburg by the

Prince Royal 225

18H Frederic VI. of Denmark joins the allies 225

Peace at length concluded between Denmark and
England 225

1813 Wellington defeats Marshal Jourdan at Vittoria .. 225
The electors of Hanover and Hesse recover those

dominions, and other political arrangements take

place throughout Germany 2S5

Forces of the contending parties, before the cam-
paign oflSU 225

18131814 The allies enter France 225

1814 Napoleon defeated by Blncher at Rothiere 225

Blucher, surrounded 'by Grouchy, loses 6000 men

at Etnges ". 225

Events and vicissitudes of the war in France 225

1814 Napoleon defeated at Laon 225

Congress of Chfitillon for a peace 226

The Quadruple Alliance signed at Chaumont,

Maich 1 226

Marmont and Mortier driven from Motitmartre and

Belleville 226

1814 The allied sovereigns enter Paris 226

Count d'Artois, Lieutenant-General of the kingdom 226
1814 Napoleon abdicates in favour of the King of Home 226
The sovereignty of Elba secured to him, to which

island he is conducted by commissioners 226

Wellington delimits Sunlt at Orthes 22ii

The Battle of Toulouse 227

Conduct of Joachim Murat. King of Naples, in

Italy, at this crisn of political affairs 227

1814 Eugene BeauharuaiiT action witli Field Marshal

Itellegarde 22J

A.D. PAOE

1814 He retires to Germany 227

Keian of Louis XV 1 1 1.' King of France 22?

He grants a Charter lo his people 227

1814 Cession- and restitutions uf colonies, on the con-
clusion of a general peace at Paris 227

1814 The Emperor of Russia, King of Prussia, Prince
Metternich, Prince Blucher, 1'latolT. and oilier
generals, visit the Prince Regent in London.... 227

Articles of the Peace of Paris 228

King of Saxony loses a portion of his dominions. . 228
Treaty for the abolition of negro slavery

1814 Buonaparte lands in Provence 229

1 1 is adventures and successful march on Paris . . . 229
Louis XVI 1 1. retires to Ghent

The Additional Act to the Constitution of the

Empire 229

1315 The Champ de Mai, held at Paris

The allies prepare to fulfil the treaty of Chanmont i29

Murat declares for Buonaparte 2J '

He is defeated at Tolentiuo 229

1815 Ferdinand IV. restored in Naples 229

The Act of the Germanic Confederation 22'J

The Act of Congress signed

The armies of the allies approach France 230

Numerical strength ot Buonaparte's army 230

June. He crosses the Sambre, and defeats timelier at

Ligny, who retires in good order 230

The D'uke of Wellington defeats Buonaparte at

Waterloo 230

Prince Blncher and Billow assist in that final

victory 230

Buonaparte flies to Paris 230

His abdication . 230

He surrenders to Captain Maitland, R.N 230

Is banished to St. Helena, where he dies 5th May,

1821 .".230

Wellington and Blucher march in triumph to Paris 230

Capitulation of that capital

Louis XVI 1 1. is restored to the throne of France. 230
Military execution of Marshal Ney and Colonel

Labedoyere 231

Indemnity paid by France 231

Agreement entered into for the at olition of the

slave trade 231

1815 The Holy Alliance signed at Vienna 231

The Cortes of Spain 231

Retrospect of the political affairs of Europe 232

1810 Mental affliction of George III 232

1811 George, Prince Regent

1812 War between the United States ami Knvland 233

Cape of Good Hope, Essequibo, Berbice, and

Demerara ceded to Kngland 233

Recapitulation of treaties, &c 234

The Ionian Islands placed under the protection of

Great Britain 234

1815 Military execution of Murat on landing in the

kingdom of Naples 234

Settlement of the states of Germany 235

1814 Norway acquired by Sweden V3j

War between Russia and Turkey favourable lo the

former power 236

Russian acquisitions in the Turkish provinces, in

those uf Persia, and in Poland 236

State of the Ottoman Empire 236

HISTORICAL AND EXPLANATORY Notts.

237

VIEW

REVOLUTIONS OF E U R P K.

INTRODUCTION.

HISTORY has very properly been considered as that
particular branch of philoo]>liy, which teaches, by
examples, how men ought to conduct themselves
in all situations of life, both public and |

is tin- infirmity and incapacity of the human

mind, that abstract or ^fin-rul ideas make no lat-

apressionon it; and often n|>pearto usdouht-

ful or obscure, at least if they be not illustrated

nnd confirmed by experience and observation.

It is from history alone, which supcradds to our
own experience that of other men and of other
times, that we learn to conquer the prejudices which
we have imbibed from education, and which our
own experience, often as contracted as our educa-
tion, tends in general rather to strengthen than to
subdue or destroy. " Not to know (says Cicero)
what happened before we were born, is to remain
always a child ; for what wen- the life of man, did
we not combine present events with the recollec-
tions of past ages 1"

There are certain principles or rules of conduct
that hold true in all cases ; because they accord and
consist with the invariable nature of things. To
collect and digest these, belongs to the student of
history, who may, in this way, easily form to him-
self a system, both of morals and of politics, founded
on the combined judgment of all ages, and con-
firmed by universal experience. Moreover, the
advantages that we reap from the study of history
are preferable to those we acquire by our own ex-
.r not only does the knowledge we de-
rm- from this kind of study embrace a greater
number of oliject.s, l.ut it is purchased at the ex-
pense of other*, while the attainments we make
in. MI personal experience often cost us extremely
dear.

" We may learn wisdom, (says Polybius) either
from our own misfortunes, or the misfortunes of
others. The know ledge (adds that celebrated
historian) \\hich we acquire at our own expense
i* undoubtedly the most efficacious ; but that which
we learn from the misfortunes of others is the
aJMt, in as much as we receive instruct ion with-
out pain, or danger to ourselves." This know-
ledge has also the advantage of being in general
more accurate, and more complete than that which
we den\. from indnidual experience. To history
alone it belongs i.i judge with impartiality ..t' pub-
lic characters and political measures, which are
often cither misunderstood or not properly appre-
ciated by their contemporaries ; and while men

individually, and from their own observation, can
see great events as it were but in part, h.
embraces the whole in all its various details. 'I
for example, we can tee but imperfectly all tin-
.;igs of that mighty revolution which is now
(IT'.i:i) passing before our eyes; and it will re-
main tor posterity to perceive all its inti
ctl'ects and to judge of its different actors without
feelings of irritation or party spirit.

It is a fact universally admitted, that all ranks
and professions of men find in history appro;
instruction, and rules of conduct suited to their
respective conditions. In occupying the mind
agreeably with such a vast di\< r-it\ of -u'j
serves to form the judgment, to inspire us with the
ambition of glory, and the love of virtue. Those
especially who devote themselves to the study of
politics, or who are destined to the management of
public affairs, will discover in history the stn.
and constitution of governments, their faults, and
their advantage*, their strength and their weak-
ness; they will find there the origin nnd progress
of empires, the principles that have raised th
greatness, and the causes which have prepared
their fall. The philosopher, and the man of letters,
will there trace the progress of the human mind,
the errors and illusions that have led it astray ; the
connexion of causes and effects ; the origin of arts
and science*, their changes, and their influence on
society ; as well as the innumerable evils that
have sprung from ignorance, superstition, and t \ -
ranny.

Histor\, in short, avails more than all precepts
to cure us of those mistakes originating in self-
love, and national partiality. He who knows no
other country than his own, easily persuades him-
self that tin- government, manners, and opinions
I the little corner of the earth which he inhabits,
are the only ones consistent \\iih reason and pro-
priety. Self-love, so natural to man, cherishes this
prejudice, and makes him disdain all other nations.
It is only by an extensive acquaintance with his-
torv, and by familiarising ourselves with the insti-
tutions, customs, and habits of different ages, and
of dit: . that we learn to esteem

wisdom and virtue, ami to acknowledge talents
wherever they exist. Besides, when we observe,
though revolutions are continually changing
the face of kingdoms, nothing essentially new ever
happens in the world, we cease to be longer the
slaves of that extravagant admiration, and that

Use of i !

1 ublic Rpcords.

Ninnisiiiata.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Geography.
Chronology.
Genealogies.

credulous astonishment -which is generally the
characteristic of ignorance, or the mark of a feeble
mind.

The most important attribute of history is truth,
and in order to find this out, it is necessary to ex-
amine the materials which serve as the elements and
evidences of history, by the test of sound criti-
cism. These materials are of two kinds: I. Pub-
lic Acts and Records, such as medals, inscriptions,
treaties, charters, official papers ; and in general,
all writings drawn up or published by the csta-
blished authorities. II. Private writers, viz. au-
thors of histories, of chronicles, memoirs, letters,
&c. These writers are either contemporary, or
such as live remote from the times of which they
write.

Public acts and official records are the strong-
est evidences we can possibly have of historical
truth ; but as, in different ages, there have been fa-
bricators of pretended acts and writings, it becomes
necessary, before making use of any public docu-
ment, to be assured that it is neither spurious nor
falsified. The art of judging of ancient charters
or diplomas, and discriminating the true from the
false, is called Diplomatics ;* in the same way as
we give the name of Numismatics to the art of
distinguishing real medals from counterfeit. Both
of these sciences are necessary ingredients in the
criticism of history.

It will not be out of place to subjoin here some
rules that may serve as guides in the proper selec-
tion of historical documents. 1 . The authority of
any chartulary or public act is preferable to that
of a private writer, even though he were contem-
porary. These public registers it is always neces-
sary to consult if possible, before having recourse
to the authority of private writers ; and a history
that is not supported by such public vouchers must
in consequence be very imperfect. 2. When pub-
lic acts are found to accord with the testimony of
contemporary authors, there results a complete and
decisive proof, the most satisfactory that can be de-
sired, for establishing the truth of historical facts.
3. The testimony of a contemporary author ought
generally to be preferred to that of an historian,
who hag written long after the period in which the
events have happened. 4. Whenever contem-
porary writers are defective, great caution must be
used w,ith regard to the statements of more modern
historians, whose narratives are often very inac-
curate, or altogether fabulous. 5. The unanimous
i- of contemporary authors on any memorable
>< of its.lf a strong presumption for suspect-
ing, or even for entirely rejecting, the testimony of
recent writers. 6. Historians who narrate
f vents that have happened anterior to the times in
which they lived, do not, properly speaking, de-
serve credit, except in so far as they make us
acquainted with the sources whence they have
drawn their information. 7. In order to judge
of the respective merits of historians, and the pre-
ference we ought to give some beyond others, it is
necessary to examine the spirit and character of
each, as well as the circumstances in which they
are placed at the time of writing. Hence it
follows That we ought to distrust an historian
who is ddirii nt in critical discernment, who is fond
of fables, or who scruples not, in order to please
and amuse his readers, to alter or disguise tin-
truth : That as impartiality is an essential quality

in an historian, we must always be on our guard
against writers who allow their minds to be warped
aside by the prejudices of their nation, their party,
or their profession ; for, in order to be impartial,
the historian must form his judgment on actions
themselves, without regard to the actors : That
historians who have had a personal concern in the
transactions, or been eye-witnesses of the events
they describe, or who, writing by the permission or
authority of government, have had free access to
national archives and public libraries, ought always
to be preferred to those who have not enjoyed the
same advantages : That among modern historians,
he who has written last often deserves more con-
fidence than those who have handled the same
subject before him ; inasmuch as he has had it in
his power to obtain more exact information, to
avoid all party spirit, and rectify the errors of his
predecessors.

There are several auxiliary sciences which may-
be said to constitute the very foundation of his-
tory ; and among these, geography, genealogy,
and chronology, hold the first rank. In truth, no
fact can be fully established, nor can any narrative
possess interest, unless the circumstances relating
to the times and places in which the events have
happened, as well as to the persons who have been
concerned in them, be previously made known, and
distinctly explained. It is obvious, therefore, that
geography, genealogy, and chronology, are the
faithful interpreters and inseparable companions of
history.

Geography may be divided into the mathemati-
cal, the physical, and the political ; according to
the different objects which it embraces. Mathe-
matical geography regards the earth, considered as
a measurable body. Physical geography has for its
object to examine the natural or physical structure
of the earth ; while political geography illustrates
the different divisions of the earth which men have
invented, such as kingdoms, states, and provinces.
This science is also divided, relatively to the times
of which it treats, into ancient, middle-age, and
modern geography. Ancient geography is that
which explains the primitive state of the world,
and its political divisions prior to the subversion of
the Roman Empire in the west. By the geogra-
phy of the middle ages, is understood that which
acquaints us with the political state of the nations
who figured in history from the fifth century to the
end of the fifteenth, or the beginning of the six-
teenth. Modern geography represi nts to us the
state of the world and its political divisions, from
the sixteenth century to the present time.

Antiquity has handed down to us the works of
several very eminent geographers, the most crle-
brated of whom are Strabo, Ptolemy, Pomponiu-
Mela, Pausanias, and Stephanus of Byzantium/
Among the moderns who have laboured in this
department of geography, those more particularly
deserving of notice, are Cuvier, Cellarius, Briet,
D'Anville, Gosselin, Maunert, and Ukert.

The geography of the middle ages is lint little
known ; and remains yet a sort of desert which de-
mands cultivation. There does not exist a single
geographical work which gives a correct represen-
ts ion of that new order of things, which the '
man nations introduced into Europe after the
downfall of the Roman Empire in the tifth century.
The literati of France and Germany have thrown

i MB l( .: .

IN I lid

erne raya of light on certain parts of thne obscure

regio: ut of

thoroughly iera.

uodrru author*, too, the mixt conspicuous M
l)u- restorer of geographical wicnre, i Sebastian

llillshril a

\\..; k on cosmography, toward* the tnidilli- '

.< mings uid the Dutch
have been among the earliest cultivu-
graphy wiice the revival of letter-. Or

.. ml
. known 1>\ tin- maps and learned

work- wllirh they ha\c produce. I.

Among tin- liuiiilirr of i I'll I., iti tl 1'iriii :.

graphera are to be reckoned N.HI-
Ca*i le ; IIIK! n. \ /.iiiii.iiii,

Bauche, Mrnt.-ll.-, Barbie du Bocage, Multe-
lliuii, A..-. i is the Ant who subn

geography to the touchstone of astronomical ob-
servation. Buachiug, a German, wrote a work on
geography, which has been translated into <
languages, and has n- UH additions and

impr.ncmcnts. especially in tin- hands of the
h tran*laton. M. Hit;, r, a professor at
lli-rlm. published a work in which he gives a new
uiul M .1 to geography.

It wan during the latter half of the eighteenth

century that the attention of tin- h-arm-d wa*

turn.. I more particularly towards geography, wh>-n

a series of the most elegant maps app. -an-d in all

tin- principal states of Hiiro pe. The wars that

' from tlu- revolution encouraged several

engineer* and geographers, hoth ton i_'ne,s and

uhliih those masterpieces of their

art, the charts and plans of the countries that had

as the theatre of hostilities.
Connected with geography is the science of
Statutirn, or the study of tin- constitution and po-
litical economy .<: . I u u Italians, SaiwoM uo
and Bolero, about the end of the sixteenth cen-
tury, were the first that attempted to treat this as
a particular science, separate and distinct from
geography. The Germans followed nearly in the
fooUteps of the Italian writers ; they introduced
statistics into their I in v entities a* a branch of
. and gave it also the name by which it is
still kn\\n.* It was chiefly, how>-\er. during the
coune of the eighteenth century that the govern-
ments of Euro|x- encouraged the study of this new
science, w hich borrows its illustrations from his-
tes at present an essential branch
nal jx.lity.

GENEALOGY, or the science which treat* of the

-i and descent of illustrious families, is not

let* important to the knowledge >f history than

geography. It teaches us to know and distinguish

th>- pi m. ipal characters that have acted a connpi-

- part n the tt 1,1 ; an d by

l.licit ideas of the ties of r> -

btionshij) that subsist among sovereigns, it enables

us to investigate the rights of succession, and the

respective claims of rival prince*.

The study of Genealogy is full of difficulties,
on account of the uncertainty and fabulous ob-
scurity in which the oriirin of almost
family i* einelop.-d. \.uiity. aided by t!
has given birth to a thousand legendary' wonder*.
es at the touch o? sound criticism.
!>y the light of this science tint we learn to
rtainties from probabilities, and pro-

Ul.ilitiea from fables and conjectures. Few fa-
milies who have occupied the throne* of former
dynasties, or who now bold pre-eminent rank in
..-, can trace their genealogy beyond the
> of Capet U the only

it can boat of a pedigree that reaches back

to the middle of the niutli century. The origin

royal families of Savoy, Lorrain, Unino-

ii)l, and Haden. belongs to the el-
centur) ; all the otlu-rs are of a date porter.
tl,. M.

A single fact in diplomatics has proved suffl*
o. ut to Us. i.-.iit a multituile of errors and fablea,
that tradition hud engrafted on the legend* of the
dark ages. From the examinations that have
hccn made of ancient charters and records, there
is abundant that, prior to the twelfth

o nt in y, unions I uiiili.-s even the moil illustriou*,
tin- distinction of surname* wa* unknown. The
greatest noblemen, and the presumption U much
stronger that oommon .never used any

ire than their baptismal name; to .
.m. times annexed that of the dignity or or-
der with which they were invested. There wa*
then-fore little chance of il
from each other, and till less of distinguishin.
dmduals of one and the same family. It was only
towards the end of the eleventh century, and
during the era of the crusades, that the use of
family name* was gradually introduced ; and that
they began, in their puhlic transactions, to super-
add to th.-ir baptismal and honorary names, that of
the country or territory they possessed, or the
castle w here they had th.-ir residence ; and it must
have required nearly two hundred yean before
this practice became geueral in Europe.

The Germans were the first, aAfr the Reforma-
tion, who comhimd the study of genealogy with
that of history. Aiiion* their most distinguished
genealogists may ID- mentioned Ueincrus 1.
culm. Jerome Ueuniiiges, Klias Keunncru-.
colas Ritterahusiers, James-William Imhof, and
the two (iebhards of Luncburg, father and son.
'1 In- work of Hcnningcii is much sought aft-
account of its rarity ; but the genealogical labour*
of the two .. tihards arc particular) remar
for the profound and accurate criticism they
play. The principal writen on this subject among
the' French are, D'llori.-r. (iodefroy, An
Duchesne, St. Marthe, Father Anselme, Chazot
de Nantigny, and M. ! St. Allais.

CHBOMOLOOT, or the computing time,

represents fact* or event* in the order in which
they have occurred. The historian ought by no
mean* to neglect to ascertain, a* nearly as possible,
.act mid precise date of events; since, with-
out this knowledge, he will be perpetually liable
to commit anachronism*, to confound thing* with
persons, and often to mistake effects for cause*, or

causes !'<n i !!' .I-.

This study U not without it* difflmHie*. which

are a* perplexing a* they are singularly various.

both in kind and degree. Thee* embarrassment*

relate chicHy, 1. To the age of the world ; -'.

The different form* of the year ; S. The number

.n that elapsed from the creation to the birth

rist ; 4. The variety of epoch* or period* of

reckoning time.

Many of the ancient philosopher* maintained
that the world waa eternal. Ocellus Locanue, a

A?e of the World.

Mow.

Astronomy.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Gregorian Calendar.
Jn'ian Year,
lu't'ormed Calendar.

Greek philosopher of tin- Pythagorean sect, at-
tempted to prove this hypothesis, in a treatise en-
titled lit- ('iiirt-rsa, which t!ie Marquis IVArgrns
and the Abbe Batteux have translat >! into French.
Aristotle followed in the footsteps of Ocellus. His
opinion as to the eternity of the minors, > is de-
tailed at length in his commentaries 011 Physics.

Some modern philosophers, as Bulfon, Hamil-
ton, Dolomieu, Saussure, Faujas de St. Fond, &c.
have assigned to our globe an existence long an-
terior to the ages when history commences. Their
reasoning they support by the conformation of the
globe itself, as well us the time that must have ne-
. ;ily elapsed before the earth, in the progres-
sive operations of nature, could be rendered a
suitable habitation for man.

The most ancient account that we have of the
origin of the world, and of the human race is de-
rived from Moses. This leader and lawgiver of
the Jewish nation lived about 1500 years before
Christ ; and nearly 1000 before Herodotus, the
mo-t ancient profane author whose works have
been handed down to our times. According to
s and the Jewish annals, the history of the
human race does not yet comprehend a period of
six thousand years. This account seems to be in
opposition to that of several ancient nations, such
as the Egyptians, Indians, Chaldeans, Thibetians,
and Chinese, who carry back their chronology to a
very remote date, and far beyond what Moses has
assigned to the human race. But it is sufficient
at present to remark, that this high antiquity,
which vanity has led these nations to adopt as a
reality, is either altogether imaginary, or purely
mythological, founded on a symbolical theology,
whose mysteries and allegories have been but little
understood. This primeval epoch is usually filled
with gods and demigods, who are alleged to have
reigned over these nations for so many myriads of
year-..

Traditions so fabulous and chimerical will never
destroy the authenticity of Moses, who indepen-
dently of his nativity, and the remote age in which
he lived, merits implicit credit from the simplicity
of his narrative, and from the circumstance, that
there lias never yet been discovered on the surface
or in the internal structure of the earth, any or-
ganic evidence or work of human art, that can
lead us to believe that the history of the world,
or more properly speaking, of the human race, is
antecedent to the age which the Jewish legislator
lia< n^i^ned it.

With regard to the division of time, a consider-
able period must, no doubt, have elapsed before
j ifn bewail to reckon by years, calculated accord-
ing to astronomical observations. Two sorts or
forms of computation have been successively in
use among different nation*. Some have employed
solar years, calculated by the annual course of the
sun ; others have made use of lunar years, calcu-
late-. I l,y the periodical revolutions of the moon.
All Christian nations of the present day adopt the
solar year ; while the lunar calculation is that fol-
lowed by the Mahometans. The solar year con-
sists of :*'<;.-) dajs 5 hours, 48', 45'', 30'" ; 'the lunar
year, of 354 days, 3 hours, 48', 3S", 12"'.

The invention, or more properly speaking, the

calculation of the solar year, is due to the ancient

l'.j \ptians, who, by the position of their country,

11 as by the periodical overflowings and eb-

bings of the Nile, had early and obvious induce-
ments for making astronomical observations. The
solar year lias undergone, in process of time, va-
rious corrections and denominations. The most
remarkable of these are indicated by the distinc-
tions, still in use, of the Julian, the Gregorian,
and the Reformed year.

Julius Ca?sar introduced into the Roman empire
the solar or Egyptian year, which took, from him,
the name of the Julian year. This he substituted
instead of the lunar year, which the Romans had
used before his time. It was distinguished, on
account of a slight variation in the reckoning, into
the common and bissextile or leap year. The
common Julian year consisted of 365 days ; and
the bissextile, which returned every four years, of
3t>G days. This computation was faulty, inasmuch
as it allowed 365 days, and 6 entire hours, for the
annual revolution of the sun; being an e
every year, of 11', 14", 30"', beyond the true time.
This, in a long course of ages, had amounted to
several days ; and began, at length, to derange the
order of the seasons.

Pope Gregory XIII., 3 wishing to correct this
error, employed an able mathematician, named
Louis Lilio, to reform the Julian year according
to the true annual course of the sun. A new ca-
lendar was drawn up, which was called after the
name of that pontiff, the Gregorian calendar ; and
as, in consequence of the incorrectness of the
Julian era, the civil year had gained ten da,s, the
same Pope ordered, by a bull published in 15S1,
that these should be expunged from the calendar ;
so that, instead of the 5th of October 158'2, they
should reckon it the 15th.

The Catholic States adopted this new calendar
without the least difficulty ; but the Protestants
in the Empire, and the rest of Europe, as also the
Russians and the Greeks, adhered to the Julian
year ; and hence the distinction between the old
and new style, to which it is necessary to pay at-
tention in all public acts and writings since the
year 1582 of the Christian era. The difference
between the old and new style, which, until l(i'.ii),
was only ten days, and eleven from the commence-
ment of 1700, must be reckoned twelve days
during the present century of 1800 ; so that the
1st of January of the old year, answers to the 13th
of the new.

The Reformed year or Calendar, as it is called,
is distinct from the Gregorian, and applies to the
calculation of the year, which was made by a pro-
fessor at Jena, named Weigel. It differs from the
Gregorian year, as to the method of calculating
the time of Iv.ister, and the other moveable feasts
of the Christian churches. The Protestants of
Germany, Holland, Denmark and Switzerland,
adopted this new calendar in 1700. Their ex-
ample was followed in 17f)'2 by Great Britain; and
in L753) by Sweden; but since the year 177li, the
Protestants of Germany, Switzerland and Holland,
abandoned the reformed calendar, and adopted the
Gregorian; and there is, properly speaking, no
nation in Europe at this day, except the Russians
and the Greeks, which makes use of the Julian
calendar, or old style. 4

But it is not merely the variations that have pre-
vailed as to the form and computation of the
that have perplexed the science of chronologj ;
the different methods of commencing it have also

CMMMMMt of Ymr.

M..;.r., I !, r. .,.......-:. t.

INTROIM <

TW CVfcMM Era.

been the source of much confusion. 'I In- Romans,
i irsar, began the year

IMI the first of Jnnunrj. The ancient Greeks at
MI tin- wint.r si.Utice, and after-
wards front niiiUumn ^ro- Macedonians
or Seleuoidsj, commenced from (he autumnal equi-
acred year of (he Jews began
w moon after (he venial equinox, that
i-., in the month of March; and their civil yemr
began with tin- m \\ in. ...ii iniin. -.(lately following
tin- aiHimiii.il .-i|UiMi'\. tli.it i, KI t!..- ii.i.ntli ..t
entmbcr.

'1 lie same diversity of practice which rre obaerre
among (hr ancient* existed nU. in tin- middle
ages. The Frank*, under tin- Merovingian kinir*.
began (he year with the month of March. '1 he
- began it sometimes at Christmas, or (he
> c.-ml>-r ; sometimes on the 1st of
January ; and sometimes on tin* V >th of March,
called indiscriminately the day of thr Annuncia-
tion, or Incantation. I'nder the Carlovingiau
prince*, two method* of beginning the year were
generally prevalent in France, the one fixed ita
commencemen( at Christmas, or the 25th of De-
cember, and the other at Kaater; that in, at the
day on which that moveable feast happened to
fall. Thin latter custom prevailed a No under the
Capetian kinir*, and it was not suppressed until
>ic miilille of the sixteenth century. Charles
\ an edict published in 1564, ordered, that
in Franre the year should henceforth commence
on the 1st of Janu.iry. Previously to this edict,
it sometimes happened, frrm the variable date of
Easter, that the same month was found to occur
twice iii one and the same year. For example,
the year 135H having begun on the Iwt of April,
on which Easter day happem-d to I'.ill, diil not ter-
minate until the 2<)th of April following, that is,
on the eve preceding Easter. There were conse-
i|iii-ntly in this year nearly two complete months
of April. Since tin- n-iini of Charles IX., it has
continued th- invariable practice in France to be-
frin the year on the 1st of January.

In England the year used to commence on the
25th of March, and the old style was there ob-
served until 1753 ; when, l>\ virtue of an act of
Parliament, passed in 17.">2. tin- In-winning of the
year was transferred to the 1st of January. It
was decreed also, at the same time, that, in onl.-r
to accommodate the English chronoloiry to tin-
new style, th.- :t.l of s. ptember 1752 should be
:<-i\ the 14th of the name month.

It is easy to conceive tin- perplexity and con-
fasion that must have been introduced into chro-
nology, as much by the difference of style* as by
the different methods of commencing tin-
Nothing is mure prohahle, than that we should
h. r.- tind mistakes and contradictions which, in
>, have no existence ; and the more so, as the
writers or recorders of pn' -ho employ

these different -tyles, or date the he k 'innin^ of the
year variously, never give us any intimation on the
subject ; anil all reckon pr M the

n.itiMt\, without informing M

whither they f.'ll..\v t!:e old or the new style
whether they commence the yrar in the month

or March, at Easter or at Christmas.
I rn chronologist* have fotuid much embar-
rassment in calculating the number of years that
elapsed between (be creation and (he birth of

. one of the most learned

m. n in tin* MI i that (hi* point of chro-

nology is (o be established rather bv probable
lecture* than olid anruincnts. Tnerr have even
been reckoned, according to Fabricins, about a

lniii.lr.il and forty different oyfalMI r. p-rtui|f the
epoch of ( hrnt'i nuiniiy. Home fix tht* era in
the Mar of the world 34>lfi, while others carry it
back to th. Tins -p-nt iliwordaoee of

opinions arises from the eontradictiotm ! >.
exist betwet'ii tin- thn p m ,. ip.,1 t.\t. of t!

:. lit. 'I he HI In- u text, for ilmtnll-

which most chronolotrists give the preference, fixes
the delude in the year of the world 1 1 1."*! ; while,

lintr to the Samaritan text, it happ-n
i:>7 ; and, according to th

The system at present most accredited is that of
Archbishop t slier, an Irish prelate, who, founding
Iculation on the Hebrew text, tixet the date
of ( hrist's nativity in the year of the world 4000.

A variety of epochs prevailed at different times ;
as most nations, both ancient and modern, who
had governments and laws of their own, adopted
chronological eras that were peculiar to them-
selves. The ancient (i reeks had their Olympiads,
and the Ryro-Macedonians the era of the Seleu-
.-!!::. The Romans calculated by consulship*.
which became the era of their public acts ; and
l>. --ides theie, their historian* used to reckon from
the foundation of the city, which goes back
yean before Christ, or 3249 after the creation.
The era of Dioclesian, introduced in honour of
that emperor, and sometimes also called the era
of the martyrs, bc-jan in the year 2K4 after Christ,
and was for a long time used in the West. Hut,
w ithout stopping here to enumerate the different
eras of antiquity, we shall rather restrict ourselves
at present to the pointing out of those that belong
more properly to modern hi-t..r\, \i/. 1. The era
of the modern Greeks. 2. Of the modern Jews.
3. Of the Spaniards. 4. The Hegira, or Maho-
metan era. 5. The Dionysian, or Christian era.

The era of the modem Greeks is known by the
name of the Mundane era of Constantinople. It
t.eu'ins 550K years before the birth of Chri-t. The
tirvt M-ar of the incarnation thus falls in the year
of the world 5509; and, consequently, th-
I s '- 1 :! of the Christian era answers to th'
of the Mundane era of Constantino)
this system, two kinds of years are in use, the ciul
and the ecclesiastical. The former commences
with the month of September, the other has begun
-mi. -limes on the 21st of March, and sometimes
on the 1st of April. This era is followed, even at
this day, by the (Jreek church. The K'KMaiK,
who ad'opted it from the <.r.-,k, almi? with the
Christian religion, made use of it even in
ciul acts, until the reign of IVter the Great.
That emperor, in 1700, abolished the Mundane
era of Constantinople, and substituted in its place
the Christian era, and the Julian calendar or old

style.

The modern Jews have likewise a mundane
era ; as they reckon from the creation of the
world. It c.immenccs on the 7th of October of
and reckons 3761 yean before
' year 3762 of the world is the first of
the ( !:n-!i in era, according to the Jews : and the
1 s23 answers to the year 5593 of their mun-
dane era.

The Hf^'ir

Juli.in Period.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Solar and Lunar Cycles.
Cycle of Indictionsl
Batter.

In Spain, the era began with the year of Rome
714. .".*> \ears hefore the birth of Christ ; being the
time when the triumvirate was renew eil between
Caesar Octavianus, Mark Antony, and Lepidus.
The Spaniards, wishing to give Octaviaiius some
testimony of their satisfaction on being compre-
hended within his province, began a new era with
this event,* which prevailed not only in Spain and
Portugal, but also in Africa, and those parts of
France which were subject to the dominion of the
'ths. It is of great importance to know
that the Spaniards and Portuguese constantly em-
ployed this era in their annals and public acts, so
late as the 14th and 15th centuries, when they
substituted the Christian era in its place.

The era which the Mussulman nations follow is
that of Mahomet, called the Hegira, or the Flight
of the Prophet. It began on the 16th of July
(VJ2 A. ('., and is composed of lunar years. In
order to find out in what year of the vulgar era any
given year of the Hegira falls, it is necessary first
to reduce the lunar into solar years, and then add
the number (522. For example, the year 1238 of
the Hegira answers to the year 1823 of the vulgar,
or Christian era. It began on the 18th of Sep-
tember 1822, and ended on the 7th of the follow-
ing September.

Dionysius, or Denys the Little, a Roman Abbe,
who lived in the time of the Emperor Justinian,
about the year of Christ 530, was the author of
the vulgar era, which afterwards received a more
perfect form from the hands of the venerable Bede,
an English monk, about the year 720. Before
that time, the Latins, or Christians of the West,
employed the era of the Consuls, or that of Dio-
11. Dcnys the Little, imagining it would be
more convenient for the Christians to reckon their
time from the birth of Christ, applied himself with
great industry to calculate the mimber of years
that had elapsed from the Incarnation to his own
times. Modern chronologists have remarked, that
both Denys and Bede were mistaken in their cal-
culations ; but a difference of opinion prevails on
this subject, as may be seen in the learned work
of Fabricius. There are some of these chronolo-
.\ho date the birth of Christ thirty-four years
earlier, while others find a difference of but one
y-ar, or at most four, between the true epoch of
the nativity, and that adopted by Denys. This
dU-iL'p-i i>,ent of the modern chronologists has given
the distinction between the true era of the
birth of Christ, and the V 'ulyar or Dionysian era,
which the general usage has now consecrated and
evtablitfaed.

In France, this era was not introduced until the
eighth century. We find it employed, for the first
time, in the acts of the Councils of Germany,
Liptines, and Soissons, h-ld in the years 742-3-4,
under Pepin, surnamcd the Short. The Kings of
France never used it in their public acts, until the
end of the ninth century; and the Popes only
since tin- eleventh.

In order to compare the different eras, and to
faeilitate the process of reducing the years of one
into those of another, a scheme has been proposed
called the Julian period. The invention of" this is
due to Joseph Scaliger, a professor at Leyden, ami
well known by his chronological works. He gave
it the name of Julian, because the Julian
served as the basis of it. It is composed of the

several products of the cycles of the sun, the moon,
and the indictions multiplied by each other.

The cycle of the sun is a period, or revolution
of twenty-eight solar years ; at the end of which
the same order of years returns, by a kind of cir-
cle or cycle. Its use is to indicate the days on
which each year commences, and the Dominical
Letters. These are the first seven letters of the
alphabet, A, B, c, D, E, F, o, which are employed
to indicate the seven days of the week, more par-
ticularly the Sabbath (dies Dominica). At the
end of twenty-eight years, of which this cycle is
composed, there returns a new order or series of
yars, so similar to the preceding, that the Domi-
nical letters again answer exactly to the same
days.

The cycle of the moon comprises nineteen lunar
years, twelve of which are called common, and the
remaining seven intercalary ; these yield a product
of 6939 days 18 hours, according to the calculation
of the ancients ; 6 and are equal to nineteen Julian or
solar years. By means of this cycle always recur-
ring, the new moons fall again on the same days
and the same hours on which they had happened
nineteen years before ; so that, for all the new
moons, the cycle which is to come is entirely si-
milar to the preceding. The cipher which indi-
cates the year of the cycle is called the golden
number, because they used to write it in characters
of gold in the ancient calendars, where it was i in-
ployed to mark the times of the new moons.

The cycle of indictions is a cycle which recurs
every fifteen years ; and which, like those already
mentioned, was frequently employed in charters
and public records. The origin of these indictions
is generally referred to a contribution or cess ap-
pointed, for fifteen years, by the Romans, and after-
wards renewed for the same period. They began
in the reign of Constantino the Great, that is, about
the year of Christ 313, and are distinguished into
three kinds; 1. that of Constantinople, which
was employed by the Greek Emperors, and be-
gan on the 1st of September ; 2. that which
was termed the Imperial, or Ca^sarean indict ion,
the use of which was limited to the West, and
which began on the 25th of September; and,
3. the Roman or Pontifical indiction, which the
Popes employed in their bulls. This last began
on the 25th of December, or the 1st of January,
according as the one or the other of these days
was reckoned by the Romans the first of the new
year.

The cycle of the sun, comprising twenty-eiflhl
. and that of the moon nineteen, when multi-
plied together, give a product of 532,whieh is called
the Paschal cyle, because it serves to ascertain the
feast of Easter. The product of 532, multiplied h\
15, the cyle of indictions, amounts to the number
7980, which constitutes the Julian period. With-
in the compass of this period may be placed, as it
were, under one view, these different eras and
epochs, in order to compare and reconcile them
with each other; adopting, as their common term,
the nativity of Christ, fixed to the year 171 t of the
Julian period.

History has been divided, according to the dif-
ferent subjects of which it treat-, into ( 'ml. Krcl.--
siastical, Literary, and Philosophical Hi-tory.
Civil and political history is occupied entirely with
events that relate to mankind, as distributed into

tarcU Hilary.
Th. MU41. *.

IN I KI>IM CTION.

societies, and united together by gofenunna.
laws, and manners. Tfrrfcieiastifal history i* eon-
fined to those events that properly belong to re-
ligion. Literary history treaU more particularly
of the origin, progress, and vicissitudes of the arts
and sciences. Lastly, philosophical hutory, v
is but a branch or sub-division of literary history,
illustrates the different systems of philosophy that
hare flouriahed in the world, both m ancient and
modern lime*.

Another division of bUtory, according to ita ex-

rnal, General, and Particular

ml hutory give* kind of outline

or summary of the events of all the nations that

have figured on the earth, from tho remotest ages

to the present time.

By general history, it understood that which
treats of the revolutions that have happened in
the world, whether of great states or confederate
powers, or of several nations combined together,
by various and complicated interests. Thus, there
may be a general history of France, or of Great
Britain, a general history of the I mces,

a general history of Europe, &c. Particular his-
tory embraces, in detail, the events of a particular
people, or province, or city, or illustrious indi-
vidual.

Finally, in regard to the time of which it treats,
history is distinguished into Ancient and Modern,
and that of the Middle Ages. Ancient history is
that of the nations who flourished from the time
of the creation to the fifth century ; while the his-
tory of the middle ages has, for its object, the re-
solutions that took place from the fifth to the i ml
of the fifteenth century. What is now termed
modern hi which retraces the events

of the last thn-e o siim !-.

This division, which applies more particularly
to the history of Europe, is founded on the great
revolutions which this part of the world ex|-ri-
enced in the fifth and fifteenth centuries. The
revolution of the fifth century ended in the sub-
version of the Roman empire in the West, and
gave birth to the principal state* in mode:
!! ; while that of the fifteenth century, which
dates its commencement from the destruction of
the Eastern empire, brought along with it the re-
vival of literature and the fine arts, and the reno-
vation of civil society in Europe.

:iouirh ancient history does not enter into the
plan of the following work, nevertheless it appear-
ed necessary to give here a brief sketch of it to
ader, with the view of connecting the order
of time, and the chain of the great events that
have occurred from the remotest ages to the pre-
sent day. We have divided it into three periods,
the tint of which embrace* 9000, the second 10UO,
and the third 900 yean.

The first period, which comprises thirty centu-
ries, is almost wholly fabulous. The notices of it
that have been transmitted to us are very imperfect.
The order of time cannot be established on any
solid foundation. Even the anthenti. iu of the
famous Parian marbles has been called in ques-
tion as spurious ; and there is no othrr chronology
that can guide our uteps through thi dark labyrinth
of profane history. The only literary monuments
i us of these remote and obscure ages,
are the books of Moses and the Jews. Herodotus,
the earliest profane historian, wrote more than

a thousand )ears after Moses, and about 440 be-
fore Christ. He had been preceded several cen-
turies by Sanchoniathoit the Phoenician ; but the
work of this latter historian is lost, and there exist
only a few scattered fragments of it in Porphyry
and Eusebius.

It appears, therefore, that of the 43OO yean that
fall within the compass of ancient history, the Ant
thirtj centuries may, without inconvenience, be
retrenched. Amidst the dsrhnes* of those ages,
we discover nothing but the germs of tmriatiee.

; i menta, sciences, and arts. The .
the Israelites, the Phoenicians, the Assyrians, the
Babylonians, or Chaldeans, made then the moat
conspicuous figure among the nation* of Asia and
Africa.

Egyptians and Chaldeans were the first
who cultivated astronomy. Egypt was long the
nursery of arts and sciences. The Phoenicians,
without any other guide than the stars, boldly
traversed unknown seas, and gave a vast extent of
intercourse to their commerce and na\i

founded many celebrated colonies, such as
Carthage in Africa, and Malaga, and Cadiz on the
bores of Spain.

The history of Europe, which is utterly un-
known during the first two thousand years, begins
to exhibit in tin- third millenary a few slight no-
tices of ancient Greece. A multitude of petty
states had then taken root ; most of which, as
Argos, Athens, and Thebes, had been founded by
colonies from l'._'\|>t. The Greeks, in imitation of
the Plurnicians, applied themselves to art*, navi-
gation, and commerce. They established nume-
rous colonies, not only on the coasts of Asia
Minor, but on those of Italy and Sicily. That in
Italy, or Calabria, was known by the name
of Magna Gnecia.

It was during the second period of ancient his-
tory, or in the fourth millenary, that great and
powerful monarchies arose ; which contributed to
the progress of arts and civilisation, and the per-
fection of society. These are commonly reckoned
five, viz., the Egyptian, the Assyrian, the Persian,
the Macedonian, and the Roman ; all of which
successively established themselves on the ruins of
each other.

The history of the first two monarchies is en-
M'li.ped in mystery and doubt. Of the ancient
Egyptians, nothing now remains but their pyra-
mids, their temples, and obelisks, monuments
which can only attest the power and grandeur of
the ancient sovereigns of Egypt.

As to the Assyrian antiquities, the contradic-
tions that we find between the narratives of 1 '
dotus and Ctosias, cannot fail to make us reject,
as fabulous, the details of the latter, negating the
magnificence of Niuus, Bemiramis, and Sarda-
napalus, the supposed monarch* of Assyria and
Babylon. Nothing certain is known of this em-
pin-, or the conquests of these- king*, beyond what
we find recorded in the annals of the Jew*. 8hal-
maneeer, King of Assyria, subdued the kingdom
of Samaria or Israel, about the year of the world
3370 ; and Nebuchadnetsar. one of hi* successor*,
conquered that of Judah and Jerusalem, about the
year :t i

The Persian monarchy we* founded by Cyras,
who put an end to the dominion of the Assyrian*
and Babylonians, by taking the city of Babylon,

i'mjiire.

(\.ii()U.->t.- ui Alexander.
Greece Subdued.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Kings of Rome.
Republic of Home.

Augustus.

about the year of the world 3463. The Persian
empire, when at i:s greatest height, under Darius
. comprehended all that jiart of Asia
which stretches from the Iiidus to the Caspian
.slid from the Kuxiiie to the shores of the
Mediterranean. Egypt in Africa, and Thrace in
Europe, were subject to its laws. After a dura-
tion of nearly two centuries, it was finally de-
stroyed by the Macedonians in the year 3672.

Greece, which was at first divided into several
petty kingdoms, changed its condition towards the
commencement of the fourth millenary ; when its
principal cities, till then governed by kings, formed
themselves into detached republics. An enthu-
siasm for liberty spread over all Greece, and in-
spired every bosom with the love of glory. Mili-
tary bravery, as well as arts, and talents of all
kinds, were fostered and encouraged by public
games, the principal of which were the Olympic.
Two cities, Athens and Lacedsemon, fixed upon
themselves for a time the eyes of all Greece. So-
lon was the legislator of the former, and Lycurgus
of the latter. To these two republics all the rest
succumbed, either as allies, or by right of conquest.
Athens has rendered herself immortal by the vic-
tories which she pained over the Persians, at the
famous battles of Marathon, Salamis, and Plataa ;
fought A. M. 3512, 3522, and 3523.

The ascendancy which these victories procured
the Athenians over the rest of the Greek states,
excited the jealousy of the Lacedaemonians, and
became the principal cause of the famous civil war
which arose in 3572, between these two republics,
and which is known by the name of the Pelopon-
iit-i;m war. This was followed by various other
civil wars ; and these disasters contributed greatly
to exhaust the Greeks, and to break that union
which had been the true source of their prosperity
and their glory. Philip, King of Macedon, had
the address to turn these unhappy divisions to his
own advantage, and soon made himself master of
all Greece. The battle of Chseronea, which he
4 over the Athenians about the year of the
world 3646, completed the conquest of that coun-
try.

Alexander the Great, son of Philip, afterwards
attacked the Persian empire, which he utterly
OM rthrew, in consequence of the three victories
which he gained over Darius Codomannus, the last
of the Persian kings, at the passage of the Granicus
in :H;I;S, at Issus in 3669, and near Arbela in
8672.

The monarchy founded by Alexander fell to pieces
after his death. From its wreck were formed,
: lining others, by three of his generals, the three
kingdoms of Macedon, Syria, and Egypt ; all of
which were conquered in succession by the Ro-
mans, A. M. 3835, 3936, and 3972. Greece itself
had been reduced to a Roman province, after the
famous sack of Corinth, and the destruction of the
AHia-an league, A. M. 3856, or 144 years before
Chita.

mpire of the Greeks was succeeded by
that of the Romans, which is distinguished from
all its predecessors, not more by its extent and
duration, than by the wisdom with which it was
administered, and the fine monuments of all kimls
which it has transmitted to posterity. The great-
of this empire was not, however, tin- acliicM-
ment of a single conqueror, but the work of ages.

Its prosperity must be chiefly ascribed to the pri-
mitive constitution of the Republic, which inspired
the Romans with the love of liberty, and the spirit
of patriotism, which animated them to glory and
perseverance, and taught them to despise danut is
and death. Their religion, likewise, served as a
powerful engine to restrain and direct the multi-
tude, according to the views and designs of the
government.

The earlier part of the Roman history may be
divided into three periods. The first of these re-
presents Rome under the government of kings ;
from the time of its foundation, about the year of
the world 3249, to the expulsion of Tarquin the
Proud, and the establishment of the Republic, in
3493. The second extends from the establishment
of the Republic, in the year of Rome 245, to the
first Punic war, in the year of the City -490, and
of the world 3738. The third commences with
the first Punic war, and terminates at the battle
of Actium, which put an end to the Republican
goveniment, and re-established monarchy under
Augustus, in the year of Rome 723.

During the first of these periods, the Romans
had to sustain incessant wars with their neighbours,
the petty states of Italy. They subdued the whole
of that peninsula in course of the second period ;
and it was not till the third, that they carried
their arms beyond their own country, to conquer
the greater portion of the then known world. The
first two periods of the Roman history are full of
obscure and uncertain traditions. In those remote
ages, the Romans paid no attention to the study
of letters. Immersed entirely in the business of
war, they had no other historical records than the
annals of their pontiffs, which perished in the sack
of Rome, at the time of its invasion by the Gauls,
in the year of the City 365.

The most ancient of their historians was Fabius
Pictor, who wrote his Annals in the sixth century
after the foundation of Rome, or about the time of
the second Punic war. These Annals, in which
Fabius had consulted both tradition and foreign
authors, are lost ; and we possess no information
on these two periods of Roman history, except
what has been left us by Dionysius of Halicar-
nassus, and Titus Livius, who both wrote in the
reign of Augustus, and whose narratives often
resemble a romance rather than a true history.

The cultivation of letters and arts among the
Romans did not, properly speaking, commence
until the third period ; and after they had had in-
tercourse with civilized nations, as the Carthagi-
niaus and Greeks. It was not until 484 jenrs
after the building of the city that they struck their
first silver coinage ; and ten years afterwards, they
equipped their first fleet against the Carthaginians.
It is at this period, also, that truth begins to dawn
upon their history, and to occupy the place of
fable and tradition. Besides their native histo-
rians, Titus Livius, Florus, and Velleius Patercu-
lus, several Greek authors, as Polybius, Plutarch,
Appian of Alexandria, Dion Cassius, &c. have
furnished useful memorials on this period. The
history of Polybius, especially, i* a work of the
highest merit. The statesman will there find les-
sons on politics and goveniment, and the soldier
instructions in the art of war.

A long scries of foreign wars put the Romans
in possession of the Isles of the Mediterranean,

I! .,:.:, I. ,.,,-..

Essssr..

H .. ...i

Spain, Northern Africa, Egypt, Caul. Illyria, Ma-
' reece, Thrace, and all Asia, as far as

!iage was the grand ca'
that decided the empire of the world in favour of

thagr was a colony which the ancient Phe-
nicians had founded on the coast of Africa, near

.di-rii city ( Tunis, in (he year of the World
. and 180 b*for the founding of Rome. In
:on of their mother country, the Carthagi-
nians rendered themselves famous by thru
chandise nnd their marine. The extent to win. h

irrn-d their commerce, nnd the force neces-
sary for its protection, rendered their arms
where victorious. They irrndually extended their

conquests aloni: the shores of Africa, in Spain, and
iiidsofthe Mediterranean.

The attempts which they had made to get pos-
session of Sicily was the occasion of embroiling
them in a war with the Romans. For nearly two
hundred years, Rome and Carthage disputed be-
tween them the empire of the world ; and it was
not until these two mighty rivals had, more than
once, made each other tremble for their independ-
ence, that the Carthaginians yielded to the yoke
of the conqueror. Their capital, after a siege
vvhieh lasted nearly three years, was completely
laid in ruins by the famous Scipio .ICmilianus, tin-
scholar of Polybius. No monument of the Car-
thaginians now remains to point out the ancient
splendour of that republic. Their national ar-
-. and all the literary treasures they contained,
perished with the city, or were destroyed by the
Romans. The destruction of Carthage happened
in the year of Rome 608, and of the world
the same year that witnessed the sack of Corinth.

The fall of Carthage, and more especially the
conquest -M'N an l tnc Asiatic king-

doms, occasioned a wonderful revolution in tin-
manners and government of the Unmans. The
riches of the Hast, the arts and institutions of the
vanquished nations, brought them acquainted with
luxuries they had never known, which soon proved
the fatal harbingers of vice. Their patriotism and
IOM- of lib.-rty insensibly declined, and became
'vverful and ambitious citizens foment. -d
insurrections and civil wars, which ended in the
subversion of the republican government, and the
establishment of monarchy .

i Two triumvirates appeared in succession. The
first consisted of Pompey, Cs?sar, and Crassus,
and was dissolved in consequence of the civil war
that arose among the triumvirs. Ctrsar, having
conquered Pmupcy at the battle of Pharsalia, in
the year ' . became master of the eiu-

utider the title of perpetual dictator. This
new elevation of fortune In- did not long enjoy ;
he was assassinated in the senati* by a band of con-
spirators, at the head of whom was Brutus, in the
>f Rome 710, .. re the birth of

t hrist.

A second triumvirate was formed between Mark

Antony, Crsar Octavianus, and Lepidus. Many

aids of illustrious Romans, and among others

this time proscribed, and put to

t the triumvirs. Jealousy having

at length disunited these new tyrants, Octavianus

stript l.cpidus <.f his power, and defeated Mark

Antony ui the famous naval battle which took

place near the promontory of Actium, in the year

, hsTffasj been rinilid

vpl. immediately after hi* defeat, ('

tariainis 1 . >tbich

he afterwards rulel with sovereifn authority under

'Ins tune t!.. Unman empire comprehended
tin- finest countries i : with

and all the northern part of Africa. It
was bounded on the west by the Ithine and the
Danube, and on the east by the Euphrates. The
QMwaors of Augustus added the greater part of
Britain to the empire. Trajan carried his \ ;
ous arms beynml the I):muh<- ; In- conquiTi-d the
Dacians, who inhabited those countries known at
present under the name of llunirary , Transylvania,
Moldavia, Walachia, and Bessarabia. In the East
this prince extended the limits of the empire be-
yond the Kuphrates, having subdued Mesopotamia,
Assyria, Armenia, Colchis and Iberia (or <
gia) ; but the conquests of Trajan were aban-
doned hy his successors, and the empire again
shrunk within the bounds prescribed by Augustas.

This empire, which extended from north to
south nearly six hundred leagues, and more than
a thousand from east to west, rix. from the I
the 50 of latitude, comprised a total of 180,000
square leagues. The population, during its most
flourishing state, may be estimated at about
120,000,000, a population which equals that of
modern Kurope, with the exception of Great Bri-
tain, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, and Turkey.

The government which had been introduced
was. an absolute monarchy, only clothed with the
forms of the ancient republic. I'nder the popular
titles of consul, tribune of the people, general,
grand pontiff, censor, &c., the prince united in
himself all the various attributes of supreme p<
The senate indeed enjoyed extensive prerogatives;
the legislative power, which had been feserved at
first for the people, was afterwards transferred to
this body ; but as the military were wholly sub-,
ordinate to the prince, and as he had also at his
command a numerous guard, it is easy to per
that the authority of the senate was but precari-
ous, and by no means a counterpoise to that of the

A government so constructed could not insure
the welfare and happiness of the people. .
under princes as humane as Titus, as just and en-
lightened as Trajan and the Antonines; or so long
as the forms introduced hy Augustus should be
respected. It could not fail to degenerate into ar-
bitrary power, under tyrants such as Til"
Caligula, Nero, nnd Domitian ; and the senate
must then have been but a servile instrument in
the hands of the prince, employed by him to faci-
litate the means of satiating his passions and his
tyranny .

maxims of absolute power soon became the
fashionable and favourite doctriix . be-

gan to teach publicly that all the authority of the
senate nnd the people was transferred t"
prince ; that he was superior to the laws ; that his
p..\\.r i xti'iulcd to the li\es and fortunes of the
. iti/i-ns; and tint he might dispose of the state
as his own patrimony. These encroachmr:
despotism, joined to the instability of the imperial
throne, the decay of military discipline, the un-
bridled licence of the troops, the employing whole

Constnutiiif.

10 Christianity Established.
Arcadiiis. Honorius.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

The Nine Periods
tn-atcd of in this
History.

corps of barbarians in their wars, must all be reck-
om-il among the number of causes that hastened
the downfall of the Roman empire.

Coiistantine the Grear was the first of the em-
perors that embraced Christianity, and made it
the established religion of the state in 324. He
quitted the city of Rome, the ancient residence
of the Ca?sars, and fixed his capital at Byzantium,
in 330, which took from him the name of Con-
stantinople. Anxious to provide for the security
of his new capital, he stationed the rlower of his
legions in the East, dismantled the frontiers on the
Kliine and the Danube, and dispersed into the
provinces and towns the troops who had hereto-
fore encamped on the borders of these great rivers.
In this waj he secured the peace and tranquillity
of the interior, and infused, for a time, a new vi-
gour into the government ; but he committed a
great mistake in giving the first example of mak-
ing a formal division of the state between his sons,
without regard to the principle of unity and indi-
visibility which his predecessors had held sacred.
It is true, this separation was not of long continu-
ance ; but it was renewed afterwards by Theodo-
stu-- tin Great, who finally divided the empire be-
tween his two sons in the year 395 ; Arcadius
had the eastern, and Honorius the western part of
the empire. This latter comprehended Italy,
Gaul, Britain, Spain, Northern Africa, Rhetia,
Yindelicia, Noricum, Pannonia, and Illyria. It
was during the reign of Honorius, and under the
administration of his minister Stilico, that the
memorable invasion of the barbarians happened,
which was followed shortly after by the destruc-
tion of the Western Empire.

It is with this great event, which gave birth to
a variety of new states and kingdoms, that the fol-
lowing History of the Revolutions of Europe com-
mences. It is divided into nine sections or pe-
riods of time, according to the successive changes
which the political system of Europe experienced
from the fifth to the nineteenth century.

In the first, which extends to the year 800, the
barbarians, who invaded the Western Empire,
formed new states in Spain, Gaul, and Italy ; and
produced a complete revolution in the govern-
ment, laws, manners, letters, and arts of Europe.
It was during this period that the Franks gained
the ascendancy over the other European nations ;
that the Popes laid the groundwork of their secu-
lar power ; that Mahomet founded a new religion
in Asia, and ;in empire which extended through
Africa into Sp;iin.

In the second period, which extends from 800
to 962, a vast empire was erected, and again dis-
membered, after enjoying a short-lived splendour.
From its wreck were formed new kingdoms, which
have served as the basis for several states of mo-
dern times. Ol: stablished by the Nor-
mans, Russians, and Hungarians.

In the third period, which terminates with the
1072, Germany became the preponderating
power, and began to decline, through the abuse of
tin- feudal -Astern. The House of Capet mounted
the throne of France ; :ui<l the Normans achieved
the conquest of England. The Northern nations,
converted to Christianity, began to make some

figure in history : the monarchy of Russia became
great and powerful ; while the Greek empire, or
that of the Remans, fell into decay.

During the fourth period, which ends with the
Mar 1300, the Roman Pontiffs acquired an im-
mense sway. This is also the epoch of the Cru-
sades, which had a powerful influence on the
social and political state of the European nations :
The darkness of the middle ages began gradually
to disappear ; the establishment of communities,
and the enfranchisement of the serfs, gave birth
to new ideas of liberty. The Roman jurispru-
dence was restored from the neglect and oblh ion
into which it had fallen, and taught in the unhcr-
sities : Italy was covered with a multitude of re-
publics, and the kingdoms of the Two Sicilies, and
of Portugal were founded : The inquisition was
established in France, and Magna Charta in Eng-
land : The Moguls in the East raised, by their
conquests, a powerful and extensive empire.

The fifth period, which ends at the taking of
Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, witnessed
the decline of the Pontifical jurisdiction : Learning
and science made some progress, and various im-
portant discoveries prepared the way for still
greater improvements : Commerce began to nou-
rish, and extend its intercourse more widely : the
European states assumed their present form ; while
the Turks, an Asiatic race, established their do-
minion in Europe.

The sixth period, from 1453 to 164, is the
epoch of the revival of the belles lettres, and the fine
arts ; and of the discovery of America : It is also
that of the Reformation of religion accomplished
in Germany ; the influence of which has extended
over all the countries in the world. It was like-
wise during this period that Europe was desolated
by religious wars, which eventually must have
plunged it again into a state of barbarism. The
peace of Westphalia became the basis of the poli-
tical system of Europe.

In the seventh period, from 1648 to 1713, this
federal system was turned against France, whose
power threatened to overturn the political balance
of Europe. The peace of Utrecht set bounds to
the ambition of its aspiring monarclis, while that
of Oliva adjusted the contending claims of the
North.

The European states, delivered from the terror
of universal dominion, began to think the
blishment of it an impossibility ; and losing con-
ceit of the system of political equipoise, thoj sub-
stituted in its place maxims of injustice and
violence.

The eiyhtk period, which comes down to I
is an epoch of weakness and corruption, during
which the doctrines of a libertine and impious phi-
losophy led the way to the downfall of thrones and
the subversion of social order.

[The consequences of this new philosophy bring
us to the ninth period, during which Europe was
almost entirely rcu>lutmni/cd. The present his-
tor\ terminates with the year 1S15, which forms
a natural division in this revolutionary epoch ; the
final results of which can be known only to pos-
terity.]

; v ,.,,.n ,,f I),.- II. .!.,,:

Kmnin. by Northern

I) I. A.D. 405800.

Th.- %

101) I.

SVVSION HI mi K"MAN KMIMKI: IN TIN: \\EST BY THE BAU-

1 IN. TIME OP CHAItl.l.M \i,M.. A.D.

Iloman empire had, for many years, been
gradually tending towards its downfall.
gin were exhausted ; and it required no great
efforts to lay prostrate that gigantic power v
y lost its strength and n< '

of the government, the rclaxati,
pline, the animosities of faction, and the miseries
of the people, all announced the approaching ruin
of the empire. Divided by mutual jealousies,
enervated by luxury, and oppressed by desp,
the Romans were in no condition to withstand the
numerous swarms of barbarians from the North,
who, unacquainted with luxury, and despising
danger and death, had learned to conquer in the
t' the Imperial armies.

, ml of the Kmperors, guided by a short-
sighted policy, had received into their pay entire
battalions of foreigners; and, to recompense their
services, had assigned them settlements in the
frontier provinces of the empire. Thus the Franks
obtained, by way of compensation, territories in

Gaul ; while similar grants were made in

iiia and in Thrace to the Vandals, Alans,

, and other barbarians. This liberality of
the Romans, which was a true mark of weakness,
ith the vast numbers of these troops
which they employed in their wars, at length ac-
ted the barbarians to regard the empire as
their prey. Towards the close of the year 406,
the Vmdal-, the Suevi, and the Alans, sounded
the tocsin of that famous invasion which a.
rated the downfall of the Western empire. The
example of these nations was soon followed by the
he l!ur_'imdians, the Alemanns,' the
Franks, the Huns, the Angles, the Saxons, the

*, the Ostrogoths, and the Lombards. All

nations, with the exception of the Huns,

man origin.

Tin: VANDALS, it appears, were originally set-
tled in that part of northern Germany which lies
between the I'.lbe and the Vistula. They formed
a branch of the ancient Suevi, as did also the Bur-
gundians and the Lombards. After the third cen-

tnl under the reiirn of the Kmperor Probus,
'h the Iturj'iiidinns, engaged in
warring against the Romans on the Khinc. In
the time of Am. they established them-

selves in the Western part of Dacia, that i*, in
Transylvania, and a part of modem Hungary.
Oppressed in these districts by the Goths, they
nstantine the Great settlement's
, condition of rendem

ervi. 'iey remained in Pan-

nonia until the commencement of the fifth century,
when they set out on their emigration towards
Gaul. It was on this occasion that they associated
-Ives with the Alans, a people originally
from Mount Caucasus and an- i; a

branch of which, settled in Sarmatia near the

I "nieper, had ad-
vanced as far as the Danube, and there made a

formidable stand against the Romans. In
passage through Germany, the Vandals and the
Alans joined a body of the Suevi, who al-
habited the banks of the Danube, eastward of the
powerful nation of the Alemann*. ( Mt. I in this
rude confederacy, thi-y enter- d (ianl, plundering
and destroying wherever they went. Msyenee,
ire, Strasbourg, and many flourishing
of Gaul, were pillaged by these barbarians.

THE GOTHS,* the most powerful of these de-
structive nations, began to rise into notire in the
third century, after the time of the Kmpemr
Caracalla. They then inhabited the country
between the Vistula, the Dniester, the Borys-
th> DC*, and the Tanais or Don. It is not certain
whether they were originally from these region*,
or whether, in more remote times, they inhabited
naxia, from which, accordingly Jornandes,
a Gothic author, they emigrated at an early |v
It is howi-M-r certain that they were of Oermn:
traction ; and that, in the third and fourth
they made the Csjsars tremble on their th:
The Kinjieror Aurelian was compelled (274) to
abandon the province of Daciu to their dominion.

This nation, the first of the German tribes that
embraced the Christian religion, 1 was divided, in
their ancient settlements beyond the Danube, into
two principal branches. They who inhabited the
districts towards the east and the F.uxine Sea,
between the Dniester, the Borysthenes, and the
Tanais, were called Ostrogoths ; the Visigoths were
the branch which extended westward, and occupied
ancient Dacia, and the regions situated between
the Dniester, the Danube, and the Vistula. At-
tacked in these vast countries by the Huns
some were subjugated, and others compel
abandon their habitations. A part of the
goths then fixed their abode in Thrace, in Mcesia,
and the frontiers of Dacia, with consent of the
emperors; who granted also to the
settlements in Pannonia. At length the V!M
after having twice ravaged Italy, sacked and plun-
dered Rome, ended their conquests by establi-
themselves in Gaul and in Spain. One branch of
these Goths appears to have been the Thuringiana,
whom we find in the tilth century established in
the heart of Germany, where they erected a very
powerful kingdom.

TH -A ere probably a confederacy which

rman tribes, situated between the Rhine,

>\ eaer, and the Elbe, had !"

among themselves, in order to maintain their
liberty and independence against the Romans.
Tacitus, who wrote about the commencement of
the second century, did not know them under this
new name, which occurs for tho first time in the
historians of the thin! century. Among the i
man tribes who composed this association we find
. the Sicambri, the Chamnvi. the Che-
rusci, the Bructeri, th Ampsivarii, the

BJpoarii, the Salii, &c.* These tribes, though com-

The Germans.
The Alfmauui.
Tin- II, ins.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Tho Buigundians.

Supvi imadc Gaul.
Attila. Theodoric.

bined for the purposes of common defence, under
the general name of Franks, preserved, neverthe-
less, cadi their laws and form of government, as
well as their particular chiefs, anil the names of
their aboriginal tribes. In the fourth, and towards
the beginning of the fifth century, the whole
country lying within the Rhine, the Weser, the
Maine, and the Elbe, was called Francia.

Another confederation of the German tribes was
that of the A LI: MANNS ; unknown also to Tacitus.
It took its origin about the commencement of the
third century. Their territories extended between
the Danube, the Rhine, the Necker, the Maine,
and the Lahn. On the east, in a part of Fraiiconia
and modern Suabia, they had for their neighbours
and allies the SUEVI, who, after having longformed
a distinct nation, were at length blended with the
Alemanns and gave their country the name of
Suabia. The Alemanns rendered themselves formi-
dable to the Romans, by their frequent inroads into
Gaul and Italy, in the third and fourth centuries.

THE SAXONS, unknown also to Tacitus, began
to make a figure in history about the second cen-
tury, when we find them settled beyond the Elbe,
in modern Holstein, having for their neighbours
the ANGLES, or English, inhabiting Sleswick Pro-
per. These nations were early distinguished as
pirates and freebooters ; and, while the Franks
and the Alemanns spread themselves over the
interior of Gaul, the Saxons infested the coasts,
and even extended their incursions into Britain.
The Franks having penetrated into Gaul with
their main forces, the Saxons passed the Elbe, and
in course of time occupied, or united in alliance
with them, the greater part of ancient France,
which took from them the name of Saxony. There
they subdivided themselves into three principal
branches, the Ostphalians to the east, the West-
phalians to the west, and the Angrians or Angri-
varians, whose territories lay between the other
two, along the Weser, and as far as the confines of
Hesse.

THE HUNS, the most fierce and sanguinary of
all the nations which overran the Roman empire in
the fifth century, came from the remote districts of
northern Asia, which were altogether unknown to
the ancient Greeks and Romans. From the de-
scriptions which the historians of the fifth and
sixth centuries have given us of them, we are led
to believe that they were Kalmucks or Monguls
originally. The fame of their arms had begun to
spread over Europe so early as the year 375 of the
Christian era. Having subdued the Alans, and
crossed the Tanais, they subverted the powerful
monarchy of the Goths, and gave the first impulse
to the great revolution of the fifth century, which
changed the face of all Europe. The Eastern
empire first felt the fury of these barbarians, who
carried lire and sword wherever they went, ren-
dered the emperors their tributaries, and then
precipitated themselves on the West under the
conduct of the famous Attila.*

Several of the nations we have now enumerated
divided among themselves the territories of Gaul.
This province, one of the richest and most im-
portant in the Western empire, was repeatedly
in and devastated by the barbarous hordes of
th<- fifth century. The Visigoths were the first
that formed settlements in it. On their arrival,
under the command of King Atulf, or Adoljihus

(412), they took possession of the whole country
lying within the Loire, the Rhine, the Durance,
the Mediterranean, and the Alps. Toulouse be-
came their capital and the residence of their kings.

THE BURGUNDIANS, a people, it would appear,
originally from the countries situated between the
Oder and the Vistula, followed nearly in the track
of the Visigoths ; as we find them, about the y\ir
413, established on the Upper Rhine and in Swit-
zerland. After the dissolution of the empire they
succeeded in establishing themselves in those parts
of Gaul known by the names of the Sequanois,
Lyonnois, Viennois, and Narbonnois, viz. in those
districts which formed, in course of time, the two
Burgundies, the provinces of Lyonnois, Dauphiny,
and Provence on this side of the Durance, Savoy,
the Pays de Vaud, the Valais, and Switzerland. 6
These countries then assumed the name of the
Kingdom of the Burgundians.

THE ALEMANNI and the SUEVI became flourish-
ing nations on the banks of the Upper Rhine and
the Danube. They invaded those countries in
Gaul, or the Germania Prima of the Romans,
known since under the names of Alsace, the Pa-
latinate, Mayence, &c. ; and extended their con-
quests also over a considerable part of Rhetia and
Vindelicia.

At length the Franks, having been repulsed in
different rencounters by the Romans, again passed
the Rhine (430), under the conduct of Clodion,
their chief; made themselves masters of the greater
part of Belgic Gaul, took possession of Tournay,
Cambray, and Amiens ; and thus laid the foun-
dation of the new kingdom of France in Gaul. The
Romans, however, still maintained their authority
in the interior of that province, and the brave
JEtius, their general, made head against all those
hordes of barbarians who disputed with him the
dominion of Gaul.

It was at this crisis that the HUNS made their
appearance on the theatre of war. The fierce
Attila, a man of great military talents, after having
overthrown various states, conquered Pannonia
and different provinces of the Eastern empire on
the right bank of the Danube, undertook his
famous expedition into Gaul. Marching along the
Danube from Pannonia, at the head of an innu-
merable army, 7 he passed the Rhine near the
Lake of Constance, pillaged and ravaged several
places, and spread the terror of his arms over all
Gaul. The Franks and the Visigoths united their
forces with those of the Roman general, to arrest
the progress of the barbarian. A bloody and ob-
stinate encounter took place (451) on the plains
of Chalons-sur-Marne, or Mery-sur-Seine, accord-
ing to others. Thierry King of the Visigoths,
and more than a hundred and sixty thousand men,
perished on the field of battle. lS"i;;ht separated
the combatants ; and Attila, who found his troops
too much exhausted to renew the combat, resolved
to retreat. The following year he made :i descent
on Italy, and committed great devastations. This
proved his last expedition; for he died suddenly
on his return, and the monarchy of the Huns ex-
pired with him.

The defeat of the Huns did not re-establish the
shattered and ruinous affairs of the Romans in
Gaul. The Salian Franks, 8 under their kings
Meroveus and Childeric I., the successors of
Clodiou, extended their conquests more and more ;

\ MS* ,,,.1 \.,..

,,<>,, hi Ipifi

A.D. 406-400.

Tbr BriU*.

till at length I'lovis, ton of Childcric I., put an
i ml to r..- dominion : u m thai

.ry which he K . *>\, at

Soisaon*, over Syagriu*, the last of the It
general*, who died of a broken heirt in COOM-

<(ll :i. . ,il' til- il'-l- it. '1 :..' Al. ... '.: - ill i .:,!,

h.iMiig ditpoted with him tin- . :i,|.i . .if the (.aul,

he routed them completely i t ".. j..,. uinous

battl. <>r /ulpieh ;' s. u. .1 tin ir cttales,

and toon after embraced Christianity, l.mbold-

ened by hi* new creed, and backed by the orthodox

,>, he atia> \ utigothn, who \*.

.-retical tert <>t 4ted and killed

VUri.- II., in the plain* of VougK, near

'7 i, .iu. I stripped tin -in nt* all tin ir pos-

aaaions between the Loire and the Pyrenees. '

became thus, by degrees, the uiulisputi-il

MMMtaion of the Franks. The descendant* of

( I..M- .i.l ;.-c| to their conquests the kingdom of the

Burgundiana (534), which they totally overthrew.

These same prince* increased their possessions
in the interior of Germany, by the destruction of
the powerful kingdom of the Thuringiaus (531),
comprisin.; those vast countries betw eeii tin- V.
th.- All. r, th.- Kll.i-. the Saal, the Mulda, and th.-
Danube ; and which are now known under the
name* of Saxony, Thuringia, Franconia, the ( ]>|-r
Palatinate, " &c. Thukingduin they .Im.l.-d with
their allic* the Saxons, who obtained the northern
part of it, situated between the L nstrut and the Saul.

U In!.- the Visigoths, the Burgundians, the
Franks and the Alemanns, were disputing with
each other the conquest of Gaul, the Vandals, the
Sue\i, :iu<l the Alans, turned their ambitious views
toward* Spain. After having settled some yean
ml. these tribes passed the Pyrenees (4O9)
to establish themselves in the most fertile re-
gions of Spain. The Vandals seized Boetica, and
a part of Ualliria ; the Suevi seized the rest of
Gallicia ; while the Alans took possession of
1.11-11.1111:1 uiul the pn>\inee of Carthagena. The
A Una afterward* Mihmittcd to the sway ofGon-
tlerie. King of the Vandals (420), while the Sue\i
preserved their native princes, who reigned in
Gallicia and l.tiMtauia; thi.i latter province* having
been abandoned by the Vaudah) (427) when they
passed into Africa.

Meanwhile new conquerors began to make their
appearance in Spain. The Visigoths, pressed by
the Romans in Gaul, took the resolution of carry-
ing their arms beyond the Pyrenees. Under the
conduct of their Knur, Adolphus, they made them-
selves masters of the city of Barcelona (in 415).
Kurie, one of the successors of this prince, took
from the Romans (472) all that yet remained ,,t
their posMssaons in Spain ; and LeovigUd, another
of their kinK*, completed the conquest of all that
count > reducing the kingdom of the

Sue\i. The monarchy <il' the Vi-i^utliH, \\ hich in
it- !!..nri-!iiiu' -t ite compiined, besides the conti-
iH-nt <>f Spam. Septimania L: . iii Gaul,

and Mauritania Tingitana in Africa, maintained
it* existence until the <.< .-nt of the

ei-hth century ; \\ln-n, as we shall afterwards see,
it was tin. illy <>\iTthri>\vn l.y the Arabs.

i, one of the finest posaeaaions of
the Romans was wrested from them by the Van-
dals. Count Boniface, who had the government
of that country, ha\ing been falsely accused at the
court of the ilmperor Valentiuian HI., and be-

in the esteem of that p.-

> the \ .,ii,| ,N ..-. ng to

th* suiTOudcr ..f the pn.Mi

' letiM-ric was at that tin,. L
.nduli. Tho prepomli
goths had ac<|iiiri-d in Sp.un induced that prince

. |.t the offer of the Roman General ; li.
barked at the port of Andaluiia (427). and pasaed
uith the Vandal* and the Alan* into Africa.
Meantime liunii.icc, h.ium; mude up matters
amicably with the lm|> 1 to retract

tin- . n-a^i-ini nit which he had made with the
Vandals. Genseric nevertheleaa persisted in his
enterpn--. lie carried on a long and obstinate
war with the Romans ; the result of which turned
to the advantage of the barbarians. Genseric con*
quered in succession ail that part of Africa per-
taining to the Western empire, from the Straits of
Cadiz as far as Cyrcnaica, which was dependent
tut tin- empire of the East. He subdued likewise
the Balearic Isles, with Sardinia, Corsica, and a
part of Sicily.

The \\riters of that age who speak of this in-
vasion agree in painting, in the most lively colours,
the horrors with which it wan accompanied. It
appears that (ien-eric, whose whole subject-, in-
cluding old men and slaves, did not exceed eighty
thousand persons, being resolved to maintain his
authority by terror, caused, for this purpose, a
general massacre to be made of the ancient in-
habitants of Africa. To these political severities
\\en- added others on the s.core of religion ; being
devoted with all hi* subjects to the Arian heresy,
he aa well as his successors became the constant
and implacable persecutors of the orthodox
Christian*.

This prince signalized himself by his maritime
exploits, and by the piracies which he committed
on the coasts of Italy and the whole Roman
empire. Encouraged, as is supposed, by the
KmpreHS Eudoxia, \vln.\vi.sln-d to avenge the death
<>f her husband Valentinian III., he undertook an
\ji. liitiun into Italy (4.">.">). in wlu.h he made
himself muster of Rome. This city waa pillaged
during nftcen days l.y the Vandals, spoiled of all
it.s riches and it- finest monuments. Innumerable
statues, ornament* of temples, and the gilded
cupola of the temple of Jupiter C'apitolinu-.
removed in order to be transported to Africa;
together with many thousands! of illustrious cap-
tives. A vessel laden with the most precious monu-
of Rome perished in the paaaage.

The dominion of the Vandals in Africa lasted
about a hundred years. Their kingdom was de-
stroyed by the Emperor Justinian, who reunited
Africa to tlie empire of the East. Gilimcr, the last
king of the Vandals, waa conquered by Bclisariu*

and conducted by him in triumph to <
tttantinople.

BRITAIN, inaccessible by its situation to moat of
the in\ aden that overran the Western empire, waa
infested in the fifth century by the northern in-
habitants of that island the free Britons, known
hy tin* name of Caledonians or Picts, and Scots,
i tomans having withdrawn their legions from
the inland (410). to employ them in Gaul, the
Britons abandoned to their own strength, thought
proper to elect a kinu of their own nation, named
Northern; hut, finding themselves still too weak
to resist the incursions of the Picts and Scots,

Anglo- Saxons.
The Hr),t;iri-hy.
. belt. "

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Tlicodoric.

Justinian and Ifelisarius.

Lombards. COIU|IUT Italy.

who, breaking over the wall of Severus, pillaged
and laid wa>te the Roman province, they took
the imprudent resolution, of calling in to their
succour the Angles, Saxons, and Jut landers, who
were already distinguished for their maritime in-
cursions. A body of these .us, arrived
in Britain (450) in the first year of the reign of
the Emperor Marcian, under the command of
Hengist and Horsa. From being friends and
allies, they soon became enemies of the Britons ;
and ended by establishing their own dominion in
the island. The native islanders, after a protracted
struggle, were driven into the province of "Wales,
where they succeeded in maintaining their inde-
pendence against their new conquerors. A num-
ber of these fugitive Britons, to escape from the
yoke of the invaders, took refuge in Gaul. There
they wen- received by the Franks into Annorica
and part of Lyonnois, to which they gave the
name of Brittany.

The Anglo-Saxons founded successively seven
petty kingdoms in Britain, viz., Kent, Sussex,
ex, Essex, Northumberland, East Anglia,
and Mercia. Each of these kingdoms had se-
verally their own kings ; but they were all united
in a political association, known by the name of
the Heptarchy. One of the seven kings was the
common chief of the confederacy ; and there was
a general convention of the whole, called wittena-
geniot, or the assembly of the wise men. Each
kingdom was likewise govemed by its own laws,
and had its separate assemblies, whose power
limited the royal authority. This federal system
continued till the ninth century, when Egbert the
Great succeeded in abolishing the Heptarchy (S27),
and raised himself to be king over all England.

Jn the midst of this general overthrow there
were still to be seen in Italy the phantoms of the
Roman emperors, feebly supporting a dignity which
had long since lost its splendour. This fine
country had been desolated by the Visigoths, the
Huns, and the Vandals, in succession, without be-
coming the fixed residence of any one of these
nations. The conquest of that ancient seat of the
first empire in the world was reserved for the
Heruls and the Rugians. Fora longtime these
German nations, who are generally supposed to
ha\.- emigrated from the coasts of the Baltic Sea,
had been approaching towards the Danube. They
served as auxiliaries to the Romans in Italy, after
.ample of various other tribes of their coun-
trvuien. Being resolved to usurp the dominion of
that country, they chose for their king Odoacer,
under whose conduct they seized Ravenna and
Home, dethroned Romulus Momyllus Augustulus,
the last of the Roman emperors (476), and put an
entire end to the empire of the AYest.

The Heruls did not enjoy these conquests more
than M". enteen \ears, when the) were deprived of
them in their turn by the Ostrogoths. This
nation then occupied those extensive countries on
tin* right bank of the Danube, in Pannonia,
Ilhria, and Thrace, within the limits of the
Eastern empire. They had rendered theiu-
formidatde to the Romans in that quarter by their
frequent incursions into the very heart of the
empire. The F.mpi ror /eno, in order to withdraw
these dangerous neighbours from his frontier*,
encouraged their king, Theodoric, as is alleged, to
undertake the conquest of Italy from the Heruls.

This prince immediately penetrated into the coun-
try : he defeated the Heruls in several actions ;
and at length forced Odoacer to shut himself up in
the citv of Ravenna (4S<)), where, after a siege of
three years, he fell into the hands of the con-
queror, who deprived him at once of his throne
and his life.

Theodorii not to be confounded with

the other barbarous kings of the fifth century.
Educated at the court of Constantinople, where he
passed the years of his youth, he had learned to
establish his authority by the equity of his laws,
and the wisdom of his administrations. He ruled
an empire which, besides Italy, embraced a great
part of Pannonia, Rhetia, Noricum, and Illyria.

This monarchy, formidable as it was, did not
exist beyond the space of sixty years : after a san-
guinary warfare of eighteen years, it was totally
subverted by the Greeks. The Emperor Justinian
employed his generals, Belisarius ls and N arses, in
recovering Italy and Sicily from the hands of the
Goths. This nation defended their possession*
with determined obstinacy. Encouraged by Totila,
one of their last kings, they maintained a pro-
tracted struggle against the Greeks, and with con-
siderable success. It was during this war that the
city of Rome was pillaged afresh, and at length
(547) dismantled by the Goths. Totila sustained
a complete defeat at the foot of the Apennines in
Umbria (552), and died of the wounds which he
had received in the action. His successjr Teias
was by no means so fortunate in military affairs.
Ilia bloody battle which he fought with >x
in Campania (553), he was vanquished and slain.
His dominions passed into the hands of the
Greeks, with the exception of that part of Rhetia
and Noricum which the Alemanns occupied, and
which, during the war between the Greeks and the
Goths, had become the possession of the Franks. 13

Anew revolution happened in Italy (">< is), by
the invasion of the*Lombards. This people, who
originally inhabited the northern part of Germany
011 the Elbe, and formed a branch of the
nation of the Suevi, had at length fixed them-
in Paunonia (527), after several times chanying
their abode. They then joined with the Avars, an
Asiatic people, against the Gepida-, W!M p"esM'<l
a formidable dominion in ancient Dacia, on tin-
left bank of the Danube. This state \\a-
overturned by the combined forces of the two
nations, ami the whole territories of the Gepidaj
passed (olio) under the dominion of the A
The Lombards -also abandoned to them their pos-
sessions in Pannonia, and went in quest of
settlements into Italy. It was in the spring ot'.~><;s
that they began their route, under the conduct of
their King Alhoin, who, without coining to regular
combat with the Greeks, took from them, in suc-
cession, a great number of cities and province*.
Pavia, which the Goths had fortified with
was the only town that opposed him with vi-
gorous resistance ; and it did not surrender till
after a siege of three years, in .">72. The Lombard
kings made this town the capital of their new
dominions, which, besides I ppcr Italy, known
more especially by the name of Lombardy, com-
prehended also a considerable part of the middle
and lower di-triets, which the Lombards gradually
\\ rested from the Greeks.

The revolution, of which we have just now

OwwMle Nation*.

ID I. V.I). 400-800.

i a summary view, changed the (ace of all

| Europe ; but it had a more particular influence on

tale of an < any. The Germanic

-. whose former boundaries were the Rhine

and the Danube, now extended their ten

beyond these m MIC* of thoae

TtfrlT. IMOrdfd l>\ l.intus, fell into ohlixion,

and were replaced by those of five or six grand

. '.ilited. 1 ill I.-, \ .. . I 'I. 1 ' .1.'* -, - .\ : . 1 i I n. ..

amis, Suabiana, and Bavarians 14 , which em-
braced all the regions afterwards comprehended
the name of Germany.

Alemanns, and their neighbour* the Sua-
bians, occupied, along with the Bavarian*, the
greater part of what i* called I ;<;: < ierm
both sides of the Danube as tar as the Alps.
Franks, masters of a powerful monarchy it *
preserved, under their immediate dominion l>

a part of ancient Fru; > with

the territories of which they hud deprived the

inns'* and the Thurinifiuns. In short, in all
Lower Germany, no other namea were to be found
than thoae of the Thuringians, Saxons.

LIU ; and a* to the eastern part, situated
beyond the Saal and the 1.1 lie, as it had !, -n
deserted of inhabitant ,iicnt emigrations

man tribes, and hy the total destnu -lion
of the kingdom of the Thnringians, it was ad and
in turn by the Slavi, or Slavonian*, a race dis-
tinguished from the Germans hy their language
and their manners.

This nation, different colonies of which still
occupy a great part of Europe, did not begin to
figure in history until the fourth century of tin-
era. Jornandes, a Gothic writer of the
sixth century, is the first author who mentions
them. He call* them Slari, or Xlarini ; and dis-
tiniruishes them into three principal branches, the

Ii, the Slavi, and the Antes, whose nut
tribes occupied the vast countries on the north of
the l.uxine Sea, between the Vistula, the \
the N'ieper, &c. It was after the commencement
of the sixth century that these i. .'rated

(mm their ancient habitations, and spread them-
aehrea over the east and south of F.urope. On the

-i'l,' they ,-XteMde.! tl'.'ir r<.|.. I,,. > H I'll' BJ Ii.

Eft* and the Saal ; on the other they crossed the
Danube, and penetrated into Noricum, Pannonia,
and Illyria ; occupying all those countries known
at this d ; names of Hungary, Scln-

f, via, Boania, Croatia, Dalmatia, Carniola,

Carinthia, Stiria, and the march of t

:itury preent nothing

more memorable than tlie !,l...,dy wars which the
.>i of the l-.ast had to maintain against the
Slavians of the Dann

sc colonies of them who first distinguished
1. the Oder, and

in the countries situated to the north of the
.';>e, were I - ,\i of ltol>.

rabiatiH inhabit.
between the Saal ami

kuown under the names of Miania, S:>

. >wer Luaaee ; the ^\

tabes, and the Ah., trite*, spread over Bran-
denburg, Pomerania, and Mecklenburg proper;
and, lastly, the Monvi, ,, r Moravians, settled in

ia. and in a part of m ' I

til..!, iii the seventh century, a chief named Samo,
who ruled over many of these nation*. He fought

uccessfully againat the armies of King Dagobert.

ii|>po-d that thin man wa* a Frank
chant, whom M v ." HUrian tribe* had

elected as their chief.

iing which, at this period, ought
above all to Hx our attention, and that u the in-
fluence Whieli tin-

i the government*, law*, mannei

t* of Europe. The German trib--
hlitthinir t)iein>el\e^ in the |iii.\iiii-e< of the Western
empire, iiitrodtin-d :ilon- with them the pt,\,
institutions l>y whn-h tliey had been governed In
their native country . '1 he governments of andent

my were a kind of military democracies,
under ganermh <>r chief*, with the prerogativea of
All matters of importance were decided
in tlieir -> neral assemblies, composed of freemen,
li:i\in.' the pri\ilcge of carrying arms and going
to war." The succession to the throne WD~
hereditary ; and, though it became so in fact in
most of the new German states, still, on the ac-
ceaaion of their princes, they were attentive t
serve the ancient tornis which evinced the primi-
tive riu'ht of election that the nation had reserved

t.) itM-lf.

I he political (livi-ion into canton* (gate),
used in ancient Germany, was introi!
all the new conquests of the German tribe*, to
facilitate the administration of juMii-c. At the
head of every canton was a justiciary officer, called
Gran, in Latin Comet, who held his court in the
open air, assisted by a certain number of assessors
or sheriffs. This new division caused a total
change in the geography of Europe. The ancient
names of the countries wan every where, replaced
by new ones ; and the alterations which the no-
menclature of these divisions underwent in course
of time crentid no small embarrassment in the
study of the history and geography of the middle

Among the freemen who composed the armies
of the German nation* we find the gi iitiime and
nolile-i, who were distinguished by the mini!

'.t-arnw, or freemen, whom they carried in
their train. ' T They all followed the kimr. or com-
mon chief, of the expedition, not as mercenaries or
r soldiers, but as volunteers who had come,
of their own accord, to accompany him.
booty and the conquests which they made in war
they regarded a* a common pi which

they had all an equal rijrht. The kind's, chiefs, and
grandees, in the division of their territories, lecetved
larger portions than the other military and free-
men, on account of the greater efforts they had
| made, and the greater number of warrior* who had
followed them to the- field. These lands were
them as property in every respect free ; and,
although an obligation was implied of their con-
curring in defence of the common cause, yet it was
rather a sort of consequence O f the territorial grant,
and not imposed upon them as a clause or eaaen-
tial condition of the tenure.

It is therefore wrong to regard this division of
lands as having given ri*e to fiefc. War w
favourite occupation, the only honourable rank,
and the inalienable prerogative of a German. 1
were soldiers, not of neceaairjr or constraint, but of
their own free will, and because they despised
every other employment, sad every other mode of
life. Despotism wa, therefore, never to be ap-

Customs of the
16 (Jermuns.

Fiefs <T Ik-noficcs.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Puel-i mid Judgements
of God.

State of Literature.

prehended in a government like this, where the
great body of the nation -\vore in arms, sat in their
sreneral assemblies, and marched to the field of war.
.Their kings, however, soon invented an expedient
calculated to shackle the national liberty, and to
augment their own influence in the public assem-
blies, by the number of retainers which they found
means to support. This expedient, founded on the
primitive manners of the Germans, was the institu-
tion of fiefs.

It was long a custom among the ancient Ger-
mans, that their chiefs should have, in peace as
well as in war, a numerous suite of the bravest
youths attached to their person. Besides provi-
sions, they supplied them with horses and arms,
and shared with them the spoil which they took
in war. This practice subsisted even after the
Germans had established themselves in the pro-
duces of the Western empire. The kings, and,
after their example, the nobles, continued to enter-
tain a vast number of companions and followers ;
and, the better to secure their allegiance, they
granted them, instead of horses and arms, the
enjoyment of certain portions of land, which they
dismembered from their own territories.

These grants, known at first by the name of be-
nejires, and afterwards otjiefs, subjected those who
received them to personal services, and allegiance
to the superiors of whom they held them. As
they were bestowed on the individual possessor,
and on the express condition of personal service,
it is obvious that originally fiefs or benefices were
not hereditary, and that they returned to the su-
perior when the reason for which they had been
given no longer existed.

The laws and jurisprudence of the Romans were
in full practice through all the provinces of the
Western empire when the German nations esta-
blished themselves there. Far from superseding
or abolishing them, the invaders permitted the
ancient inhabitants, and such of their new subjects
as desired it, to live conformably to these laws,
and to retain them in their courts of justice. Ne-
vertheless, without adopting this system of juris-
prudence, which accorded neither with the rude-
ness of their manners, nor the imperfection of their
ideas, they took great care, after their settlement
in the Human provinces, to have their ancient cus-
toms, to which they were so peculiarly attached,
<iii:e-ied and reduced to writing.

The Codes of the Salian and Ripuarian Franks,
thus" of the Visigoths, the Burgundiaus, the Ba-
varians, the Anglo-Saxons, the Frisians, the Ale-
inanns, and the Lombards, were collected into one
body, and liberty given to every citizen to be go-
verned according to that code of laws which he
himself might choose. All these laws wore the
impress of the military spirit of the Germans, as
well as of their attachment to that personal lilierty
and independence which is the true characte-
ristic of human nature in its primitive state. Ac-
cording to these laws, every person was judged by
his peers ; and the right of vengeance was reserved
to the individuals, or the whole family, of those
who had received injuries. Feuds, which thus be-
came hereditary, were not however irreconcilable.
Compromise was allowed for all private delin-
quencies, which could be expiated, by paying to
tlie injured party a specified sum, or a certain
number of cattle. Murder itself might be expiated

in this manner ; and every part of the body had a
tax or equivalent, which was more or less se\ere,
according to the different rank or condition of the
offenders.

Every freeman was exempt from corporal pu-
nishment ; and, in doubtful cases, the law obliged
the judge t > refer the parties to single combat,
enjoining them to decide their quarrel sword in
hand. Hence, we have the origin of the Judge-
ments of God, as well as of Challenges and Duels. 18
These customs of the German nations, and their
singular resolution in persisting in them, could not
but interrupt the good order of society, encourage
barbarism, and stamp the same character of rude-
ness on all their conquests. New wants sprung
from new enjoyments ; while opulence, and the
contagion of example, taught them to contract
vices of which they had been ignorant, and which
they did not redeem by new virtues. Murders,
oppressions, and robberies, multiplied every day ;
the sword was made the standard of honour, the
rule of justice and injustice ; cruelty and perfidy
became everywhere the reigning character of the
court, the nobility, and the people.

Literature, with the arts and sciences, felt above
all the baneful effects of this revolution. In less
than a century after the first invasion of the bar-
barians there scarcely remained a single trace of
the literature and fine arts of the Romans. Learn-
ing, it is true, had for a long time been gradually
falling into decay, and a corrupt taste had begun
to appear among the Romans in works of genius
and imagination ; but no comparison can be made
between the state of literature, such as it was in
the West anterior to the revolution of the fifth
century, and that which we find there after the
conquests of the German nations.

These barbarians, addicted solely to war and
the chase, despised the arts and sciences. Un-
der their destructive hands, the finest monuments
of the Romans were levelled to the ground ; their
libraries were reduced to ashes ; their schools and
seminaries of instruction annihilated. The feeble
rays of learning that remained to the vanquished
were unable to enlighten or civilize those enemies
to knowledge and mental cultivation. The sci-
ences, unpatronised and unprotected by those
ferocious conquerors, soon fell into total contempt.

It is to the Christian religion alone, which was
embraced, in succession, by the barbarous destroy-
ers of the empire, that we owe the preservation of
the mutilated and venerable remains which we
possess of Greek and Roman literature. ' 9 The
clergy, being the authorized teachers of religion,
and the only interpreters of the sacred writings,
were obliged by their office to have sunn 1 tincture
of letters. They thus became, over all the F.a-*t,
the sole depositaries of learning ; and for a lung
series of ages there were none in any other rank
or profession of life that occupied themselves with
science, or had the slightest acquaintance' even
with the art of writing. These advantages, which
the clergy enjoyed, contributed in no small degree
to augment their credit and their influence. Every-
where they were intrusted with the management
of state affairs ; and the offices of chancellor, minis-
ters, public notaries, and in general all situations
\\here knowledge of the art of writing was indis-
pensable, were reserved for them ; and in this way
their very name (cluricus) became as it were the

1) 1. A.I). 400 00.

I., :, . !. .

i ;

synonym fur a man uf ! tt. >-, ur any

nil in war mai. i. l.l in j

s their vassals.

:aitance that contributed to raise
''ler^'y was, that

111.- l..ilin language continued t l>i- empliij
'i hud been sul'
:in:in nation*. !
tliini; was w riltcn cxclu-ivclv in tin- Human 1

-Tuatfe of tin- church, and of

all |i ind it was long l> ruian

Inch hail become univcrMilly prevalent,

could he reduced to writing. 'I he corrupt pronnn-

:i uf tin- l,:itlll, :ilnl its mixture \\lth !

iili-Mii- ami coiiNtnictioiis, gave birth, in course of
v language*, win. h -till retain evidence
uf their It. <m in origin, such as the Italian, Spanish,
Portuguese, French anil r.nulish language. In
the fifth and following centuries, the Teutonic
language, or that spoken h\ the c<ini|iirn>ra of
Haul, wa* called liny net Francica : this was dis-
-hcd from tin- Imi/ua Romano, or the lan-
guage spokt-n by tin- people ; ami which after-
wards gave rise to the modern Freiu-li. It appears,
therefore, from what we have just stated, tli.it the
incursion of the tierinan tribes into the provinces
of the West waa the true source of all the bar-
baritj, ignorance, anil superstition, in which that
part was so long and so universally

luirieil.

There would have been, therefore, every reason
to deplore a revolution, not less sanguinary in
itself than disastrous in its consequences, if, on tin-
one hand, it hail not heeii the instrument of de-
livering l-'.uro|ie from the terrihle despotism of the
Romans ; anil, on the other, if we iliil not lind. in
the rude institutions of the (icrman conqu
some germ* of lihcrtv, which, sooner or later, wen-
: the nations of Europe to wiser laws,
and better organised government-.

in; the state-, which rose on the ruins of the

Roman empire, that of the Franks acquired the

preponderance ; and, f..r several ages, it sustained

the character of liein^ the most powerful kingdom

ope. This monarchy, founded by Clovis,

and extended still more by his successors, cm-

1 the whole of Caul except Languedoc, which

Iicloiijjcd to the Visigoths.* The greater part of

my ahto was subject to it, with the exception

i itorics of the Slavi. After

it had fallen int.. deeaj, li\ the partitions and ci\il
wars of t: .uts nf ( |,.\i-, it rose again,

solely however bj the wisdom and ability of the
rs of the palace, who restored it once more
to its original pplemlour.

These mayors, from being originally merely
grand-master* of the court, rose by degrees

.ore of the state, and ulti-

mati-U to ; Hie founder of their urcat-

ncm was Pepin .I'll, ristal, a cadet of the dynasty

of the Carlo* injfiant, which stu-ceeded that of the

. ingiaiu, townnls the middle of the eighth

centnrj. I'n.lc; t 1 ..- Merovingian pr.

soTerfignty was divided > . principal

kin-''. ;at of Austrasia, which compn-

..U' nil that part of

d:iul situ.itc.l I,. : the Schclil, and

the llhine ; as Well as the ti.-rman

beyond the Ithtue, wldch also made a part of that

The whole of Wroteni liaul.
b-t 1.1. the Meuw and t!..

-tria. Bur.
. weru considered a . of this

DaKoli.it II., Kn..' <.f Australia, having ''
MMUsinatcd (in r.>;. t. i. .-tria,

\ 111., \\ould in all ]ir..li.it.ili-
uniti-d the t\w> miinarchics ; hut tin- Aitstraoiaus,
\\lio dreaded and detested Lliroui, Major ol .'
tria, elected a mayor of their <>un, under the
nominal authority of Thierry. This gave rise to a

Sort of Civil War between the AustriM

trians, headed by 1'epin d'Heristal, Major of
Austrasia, and liertain-, Majr of Neiutrin, \\lio

SUCCe. ! in. The haUle which 1'epin

gained at Testry, near St. Quentiu (6M7), d

tit.- fate of the empire ; Uertairc was shun, and
Thierry III. fell into the power of the coni[
I'cpin afUrwsrds confirmed to Thierry the honours
of rojaltj, and colit.-ntcd himself with the <i.

. .[, and tin- title of Duke and l'i.
Franks; hut re^ardini; the throne an his own by
ri^ht of conquest, he tented in himself the sove-
reign authority, and granted to the Merovingian
1'rince nothing more than the m. : externals of
majesty, and the simple title of king. Such waa
the revolution that transferred the supreme autho-
rity of the Franks to a new d\:. .-t\, \i/.. that of
the Carlovingians, who, with jrreat moderation,
still preserved, during a period of sixty-five yean,
the royal dignity to the Merovingian princes,
whom they had stripped of all their power.* 1

Pepin d'Heristal being dead (714), the partisans
of the ancient dv nasty made a last effort to h
the Merovingian kind's from that dependence under
which 1'epin had held them KO long. This prince,
in transferrini,' the sovereign authority to his ffrund-
sonTheodwald, onlj six years of age, had devolved
on his widow, whose name was I'lectrude, the
regency and guardianship of the \..un- major.

A government no extraordinary einholdened the
factious t<> attempt a revolution. The regent, as
well an her grandson, were divested of the
reignty, and the Neustrian grandees chose a
mayor of their own party named Kainfroy ; but
their triumph was only of short duration. Charles
Martel, natural son of Pepin as is supposed, hav-
ing escaped from the prison where he had been
detained l.j the recent, passed into Australia, and
then caused himself to be proclaimed dulve, after
the example of his father. He engaged hi a war
against Ohilpcric II. and his major Ituinfroy ;
three successive victories which he gained, vi*. at
Stavelo, Vinci near Cainbrav, and Soi-son,. in
710 17 IN, made him once more master of the
throne and the sovereign authoritv. The duke of
Aquitain having delivered up Kin/ Clitlp. : .
him, he continued anew the title of rojaltj to that
prince ; and shortly after raised his glory '
highest pitch, by the brilliant v . 'i he

gained over the Arabs (733 737), in the plains of
Poitiers and Narbonue.

in le Href (or the Short), son and ucrewor
of Charles Martel, tin. Inn; hi* authority established
both w ithin and without his dominions, judged
this a favourable opportunity for reuniting the title
..t" p'j.dtv to the power of the sovereign. H.
managed to have himself elected King in the Oe-

Lfl

Rome a Republic.
Tin- Ironm-laMs.
Luiulxirel Kniijs.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Stephen II., Pope.
Arabs and Sarac-rn s .
Maliomot, Prophet.

neral Assembly of the Franks, which Mas convened
in tin- Champ-dc-Mars, in the 'neighbeiurhood of
Soissons. Childeric III. the last of tin- Merovin-
gian kin-s. \\as there de-pose-d (7.";1 ), ami shut up
ill a convent. Pepin, with the intention of ren-
ili-riiiLT his jierson sacred and inviolable, had rc-

to the ceremony of coronation ; and \\>- WHS
the tirst king who caused himself to be solemnly

rated and crowned in the cathedral of Sois-
sons, b\ St. Boniface, first archbishop of Majence. 88
The example of Pepin was followed soon after by

.1 princes and sovereigns of Europe. The
la-t comiuest he added to his dominion Mas the
province of Languedoc, which he took (759) from
the Arabs.

The origin of the secular power of the Roman
pontiffs commences M ith the reign of Pepin. This
event, which had so peculiar an influence on the
religion and government of the European nations,
requires to be detailed at some length.

At the period of which M~C write, there existed
a \iolent controversy between the churches in the
Kast, and those in the West, respecting the wor-
ship of images. The Emperor Leo, the Isaurian,
had declared himself against this worship, and had
proscribed it by an imperial edict (72G). He and
iiis successors persisted in destroying these objects
of idolatry, as well as in persecuting those who
. d themselves devotees to this heresy. This
extravagant zeal, which the Roman pontiffs blamed
as excessive, excited the indignation of the people
against the Grecian Emperors.* 8 In Italy, there
were frequent rebellions against the imperial offi-
cers that were charged with the execution of their
orders. The Romans especially took occasion,
from this, to expel the duke or governor, who re-
sided in their city on the part of the emperor ;
and they formally erected themselves into a re-
public (730), under the pontificate of Gregory II.,
l>\ usurping all the rights of sovereignty, and, at
the same time, reviving the ancient names of the
senate and the Roman people. The Pope was
recognised as chief or head of this new republic,
and had the general direction of all affairs, both at
home and abroad. The territory of this republic,
formed of the duchy of Rome, extended, from
north to south, from Viterbo as far as Terracina ;
and from e-ast t'> west, from Nami to the mouth of
the Tiber. Such was the M'eakness of the Eastern
empire, that all the efforts of the emperors to re-
iluce the Romans to subjection proved unavailing.
The Greek viceroy the Duke of Naples, who had
marched to besiege Rome, was killed in battle,
together with his son ; and the exarch himself
\\as compelled to make peace with the republi-

> which the- Grecian em-
pire was reduced afforded the Lombards an op-
portunity of extending their possessions in Italy.
Ai-tolphus the-ir king attacked the cit\ of EUvenaa
(7.~>1), where the exarchs or governors-gene-nd of
the Greeks had fixed their residence; and soon
made- himself master of it, as well as the province
of the exarchate,* 4 and the Pentapolis. The exarch
KutychiiM was obliged to fly, ami took shelti r in
Naples.

'. urrcnder of the capital e)f Grecian Italy

iijhe.ldene-d the Lombard king to extend his
^e\ss still farther: lie demanded the' submission e>f
the city and duchy of Rome, which he considered

as a dependency of the exarchate. Pope Stephen
II. became alarme-d, and be'gan to solicit an alliance
with the Greek empire, \vhe>se distant power seemed
to him less formidable than that of the Lombards,
his neighbours ; but being closeh -pressed b\ Ai>-
tolphus, and finding that he had no succour to
expect from Constantinople, he determined to
apply for protection to the Franks and their king,
Pepin.

The Franks, at that time, held the first rank
among the nations of Europe; their exploits
against the Arabians had gained them a high re-
putation for valour over all the West. Stephen
repaired in person to France, and in an interview
which he had with Pepin, he found means to in-
terest that prince in his cause. Pepin did not yet
regard himself as securely established on a throne
which he had so recently usurped from the Mero-
vingian princes ; more especially as there still ex-
isted a son of Childeric III., named Thierry, anil
a formidable rivalry in the puissant dukes of Aqui-
tain, who were cadets of the same family. Hi 1
had no other right to the crown than that of elec-
tion ; and this title, instead of descending to his
sons, might perhaps serve as a pretext for de-
priving them of the sovereignty. Anxious to ren-
der the crown hereditary, he induced the Pope to
renew the ceremony of his coronation in the
Church of St. Denis ; and at the same time, to
consecrate his two sons, Charles and Carloman.
The Pope did more ; he disengaged the King from
the oath which he had taken to Childe rie-, anel
bound all the nobility of the Franks, that Mere-
present on the occasion, in the name of Jesus
Christ and St. Peter, to preserve the royal dignity
in the right of Pepin and his descendants ; anel
lastly, that he might the more effectually secure
the attachment of Pepin and his sons, and procure
for himself the title of being their protector, he
publicly conferred on them the honour of be'ing
patricians of Rome.

So great comlescension on the part of the Pope
could not but excite the gratitude of Pepin. He
not only promised him succour against the Lom-
bards, he engaged to recover the exarchate from
their hands, and make a present of it to the 1 1 oly
See ; he even made him a grant of it l<y anticipa-
tion, which he signed at the- Castle e>f ('hie rsi-siir-
1'Oise, and which he like-wise cau--c d to lie si^-ncel
b\ the princes his sons.** It was in fulfilment of
these stipulations that Pepin undertook (',:>:<
two successive expe-elitions into Italy. He- com-
pelleel Aistolphus to acknowledge himse-lf his
vassal, and deliver up to him the exarchate with
the Pentapolis, of which he immediate'ly put his
Holiness in possession. This elematioii eif JVpin
serve-el to confirm anel to extend the secular po\ve-r
of the Popes, M'hich had already been augim-nte-d
b\ \:iriems grants of a similar kind. The- original
document of this singular contract ne> longer
e-xi-ts ; but the- names of the place-s are- prc-i r\ed
which M-e-re- cedeel to the pemtitie-al hierarchy.-* 1

In the conclusion of this period, it may he pro-
per to take some notice of the Arabs, commonly
calh-d Saracens, 8 ? and of their irruption into Ku-
rope. Mahomet, an Arab of noble- birth, and a
native <if Mecca, bad coustitute-el himself a pro-
phi t, a legislator, and a conqueror, about the be-
ginning of the seventh century of the Cl.ristian
era. He had been expelled from Mcee-a '

\\ ,:..; ..,-... i. . i: m -.
..,... ,. J

I) 1. \.l>. 406800.

AUUlralMM* or Cavern.
lUtuuo AlmeUA.

OB account of hi* predictions, but afterwards re-

UMde

him< If master of the citj, he succeeded, by de-
ting to his yoke the nun

tribe* of Arabia. Hi* successor*, known I.) the
i.ari njnrilual ami temporal

i>t the prophet, followed the Mtnv tnuiii|.li.4iit
1 hey proposal' .1 ilnu religion whcrerer
Iht-v extended tin ir empire, uinl <.\. M..II wit!.

, tests the vast regions both of Aia and Africa.
Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Barn., Tri,H,li, and the
wnoli , were won trm

in l>> tin- ( uli|ih> ; who at the
same time (;"> I) oMithrew tin- powerful monarchy
of tin- IViM.nis ; conquered ( hariMn, I rannoxiaaa,
and the laities, and founded an empire more ex-
th.mili.it nt' tin- Romans had been. '1 In
capital of tin- l .ili|iK-, which had originally been
at Medina, and afterward* at Cufa, was Iran-:

b\ tli.- ( 'uliph Moavia I. to Damascus in

; and by tin- C 'aliph Almanzor, to Bagdad in

Irak-Arabia, (760) which was founded by that

It was umler the Caliphate of Walid (711), that
the Arabs first invaded Europe, and attai kcd the
monarchy of the Visigoths in Spain. Tin-, mo-
narchy hod already sunk under tin- feebleness of
its kings, and the despotic prerogatives which the
grandees, and especially the bishops, had arrogated
inselves. These latter disposed of tin- llnoin
at their pleasure, having declared it to IK- cli -cti\e.
li-inl.il \\ith supreme authority in the coun-
eiU i>t the nation, and in all affaire of state. Musa
at that time commanded in northern Africa, in
name of the Caliph Walid. By the authority of
that sovereign, he sent into Spain one of hi.- .
rals, named Taric, or Tarcc-Abeuzara, who, having
made a descent on the coasts of AudaliiMa, took
his station on the hill which the ancients called
Calpe, and which has since been kno\vu b\ tin-
name of Gibraltar (Gibcl-Toric), or the hill of
Taric, in commemoration of the Arabian general.

It wa.t in the neighbourhood of the city Xerea
de la Frontera, in Andalusia, that Taric encoun-
tered the army of the Visigoth*, commanded l>\
their kiin; Hoderic. The battle was decisive, as
the \ iM.-oth* sustained a total defeat, lloderic
perished in the Bight ; and Muia, the Arabian
..'I. h.i\in_' armed to second the efforts of
. the conquest of all Spain followed as a
consequence of this \ictory. "" Scptimania, or
Languedoc, which then made a purl of the \ 1-1-
. monarchy, paased at the same time under
tin dominion of the Arabs.

These fierce invaders did not limit their con-
quests in Europe to Spain and Languedoc ; tin-
Balearic Isles, Sardinia, Corsica, part of Apulia
and Calabria, fell likewise under tlu-ir dominion :
tin) infested the sea with (Inir tlrcN, and more
than once carried terror and desolation to tin-
.fates of Koine. It is probable even that all
|> would have nul.milt.-d to tln-ir j.ikr, it
Charles Martel had not arrested the career of their
He defeated their numerous and war-
like armies in the bloody battle* which were fought
near Poitiers and Narbonne (7:tv-":{7), and at
length compelled them to shut themselves up with-
in the province of Languedoc.

:.it\ of the empire and the religion of
Mahomet did not long remain undivided.

tint dynasty of the Csliph*. that of the Ommiadrs,
was subverted ; and all the prince* of that fan.il>
flMaMcred by the Aba-idr. (74U), who seised
the caliphate.** A solitary descendant of the Om-
miadea, named Abdalrahmaii, grandaon of UM tif-
( 'nliph MuM-hrm, wa* Mvrd in Hpain, and
his residence a' . and bein.

knowledged as Caliph by the Mussulmans there,
In detached that province from the great empire
of tin- Arabians (',

This revolution, and the confuMon with which
it was accompanied, gave fremh couragtr to the
small number : . :.,, to escape the

Mahometan yoke, had i!n- mountains of

Asturias. I<-u:i._- ti-.m their retreat*, tln-j .
atcd on the InHdcla; and towardw the mid..
the eighth centun, they laid the foundation
ne\s Christian state, called afterwards the kingdom
i.f ()>ii-do nr I, .-(in. M|.l;..i. i. I., Huniamed tin-
Catholic, must be regarded as the tint found
thi* new monarchy.**

Frank*, likewise, took advantage of these
events to expel the Arabs from Languedoc. 1
took p..s! s.ii.n of the riti.-s of .N i-mes, Mague-
lonne, Au'de, and Betiera (~->~), which were deli-
M n d uji to him by a noble Uotli, named Osmond.
The reduction of Narbonue was by no means so
easy a task. For seven years he continued to
blockade it ; and it was not until 7-VJ that i.
came master of the city, and the whole of Lan-
guedoc.

The loss of Spain, on the part of the Abassides,
was soon after followed by that of Northern Africa.
Ibrahim-Bcn-Aglab, having been sent thither a
governor by the Caliph of Bagdad, Uaroun
Alrashid (KOO), be found means to constitute
himself sovereign prince over the countries then
properly termed Africa; of which TrijKjli, Cairoau,
Tu:.i, and Al^irrs, funm-d a part. He was the
founder of the dynasty of the Aglabites ;" while
another usurper, named Edris, having conquered
Numidiu anil Mauritania, culled by the Arab.*
Muyreb, founded that of the Edrissites. Theee
two dynasties were overturned (about UOK) by
Aboul Cassem Mohammed, son of Obeidallah,
who claimed to be descended from Ali, by Fatima
daughter of the prophet; he subjected tin- whole
of Northern Africa to his yoke, and took the titles
of Mahadi and Caliph. From him were descended
the Caliphs, called Fatimites, who extended their
ciiiii|iiest* to Egypt, and laid tin-re the foundation
nt Kaln-nih, <>r (.land Ian.. ('.H'.*). where they
established the seat of their caliphate, which, in
the twelfth century, was destroyed by tin AJ.HI-
bides.

The irruption of the Arabs into Spain.disastrooa
as it was, did not fail to produce effect* beneficial

irope, which owe* its civilisation part
this i in ninstauce. The Abamidian Caliphs, as-
piring to be the protectors of letters and arts,
began to found schools, and to encourage transla-
tion* of the most eminent Greek author* into tin-
Arabic language. '1 In ir example was followed l>\
tin ( aliphs of Cordova, and even by the Fatimites,
who held the sovereignty of Egypt and Northern
Africa. In thi* manner a taste for learning was
unicated to all the Mahometan state*. From
Bagdad it passed to Cairo ; and from the banks of
the Euphrates and th- read itself as far

as the Tagus. Mathematics," Astronomy, '

Ar.ibian Li'iming.
Si-lioolsof Cordova.

IllM'lltiollS.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Araluc futures.

mistry, Medicine, Botany, and Materia Mcdica,
we're' the sciences which the Arabians affected
chierly to cultivate. They excelled also in poetry,
and iu the art of embodying the ti lions of imagi-
nation in the most agreeable narratives, Rha/.os,
Averroes, Avicenna, are union;,' the number of
their celebrated philosophers and physicians.
Klmacin, Abulfeda, Abiilpharagius, and Bohadin,
;is liistorians, have become famous to all posterity.
Thus Spain, under the Mahometans, by culti-
vating many >eiences little known to the rest of
F.uropc, became the seminary of the' Christians ill
the West, who resorted thither in crowds, to pro-
secute iu the schools of Cordova the study of

learning and the liberal arts. 83 The use of the
numerical characters, the manufacture of paper,
cotton, and gunpowder, were derived to us from
the Arabians, and especially from the Arabians of
Spain. Agriculture, manufactures, and navigation,
are all equally indebted to the Arabians. They
gave a new impulse to the commerce of the Indies;
from the Persian Gulf they extended their track-
along the shores of the Mediterranean, and to the
borders of the Black Sea. Their carpets, and
embroideries in gold and silver, their cloths of
silk, and their manufactures in steel and leather,
maintained for years a celebrity and a perfection
unknown to the other nations of Europe.

PERIOD II.

FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO OTHO THE GREAT. A.D. 800962.

THE reign of Charles the Great forms a remark-
able epoch in the history of Europe. That prince,
who succeeded his lather Pepin (768), eclipsed
all his predecessors, by the superiority of his ge-
nius, as well as by the wisdom and vigour of his
administration. Under him the monarchy of the
Franks was raised to the highest pinnacle of glory,
lie would havc'been an accomplished prince, and
worthy of being commemorated as the benefactor
of mankind, had he known how to restrain his
immoderate thirst for conquest.

He carried his victorious arms into the centre
of Germany ; and subdued the warlike nation of
the Saxons, whose territories extended from the
Lower Rhine, to the Elbe and the Baltic sea.
After a sanguinary war of thirty-three years, he
compelled them to receive his yoke, and to embrace
Christianity, by the peace which he concluded with
them (808) at'Saltz on the Saal. The bishoprics
of Minister, Osnaburg, Minden, Paderborn, Ver-
den, Bremen, Hildesheim, and Halberstadt, owe
their origin to this prince. Several of the Sla-
vonian nations, the Abotrites (789), the \Vil/ians
(HO.-)), the Sorabians (80), the Bohemians (811),
&c., acknowledged themselves his tributaries ; and
by a treaty of peace which he concluded with
Hemming, King of Jutland, he fixed the river
F.vder, a< the northern limit of his empire against
the Danes. Besides these, the powerful monarchy
of the Avars,' which comprehended all tin- coun-
tries known in modern times by the names of
Austria, Hungary, Transylvania, Sclavonia, Dal-
matia, and Croatia, was completely subverted by
him (791) ; and he likewise despoiled the Arabians
of all that part of Spain which is situated between
the Pyrenees and the Kbro (7!>), as also of Cor-
sica. Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles. In Spain
hf established military commander;., under the
title of Margraves.

Of these conquests, the one that deserves the
most particular attention is that of Italy, and the
kingdom of the Lombards. At the solicitation of
1'opc Adrian I ., Charles undertook an expedition
nsrainst the la-t of the Lombard kin-s. He be-
-ie-irrd that prince in his capital at. J'avia ; and
having made him prisoner, after a long siege, he

shut him up in confinement for the rest of his
days, and incorporated his dominions with the
monarchy of the Franks. The Dukes of Bene-
vento, who, as vassals of the Lombard kings, then
occupied the greater part of Lower Italy, were at
the same time compelled to acknowledge the sove-
reignty of the conquerors, who allowed them to
exercise their hereditary rights, on condition of
their paying an annual tribute. The only places
in this part of Italy that remained unsubdued,
were the maritime towns, of which the Greeks
still found means to maintain the possession.

In order to secure the conquest of this country,
as well as to protect it against the incursions of
the Arabians, Charles established several marches
and military stations, such as the marches of Fri-
uli, Tareuto, Turin, Liguria, Teti, &c. The down-
fall of the Lombards put an end to the republican
government of the Romans. During the blockade
of Pavia, Charles having gone to Home to be pre-
sent at the feast of Easter (774), was received
there with all the honours due to an Exarch and
Patrician; and there is incontestable proof that
he afterwards received, under that title-, the rights
of sovereignty over Rome and the Ecclesiastic al
States.

The Patrician dignity, instituted by Constan-
tino the' Great, ranked, in the Greek empire, next
after that of emperor. It was of such considera-
tion, that even barbarian kings, the destroyers of
the ancient lloman empire in the West, became
candidate's for this honour at the Court of Con-
stant inople. The- exarchs of Ravenna we're gem--
rally invested with it, and exercised under this
title, rather than that of exarch or governor, the
authority which they enjoyed at Rome. Pope
Stephen II. had, twenty \ears before, conferred
the patriciate on Pepin and his sons ; although
these princes appear never to have- exercised the
right, regarding it mereh as an honorary title, so
long at least a* the kingdom of the Lombards se-
parated them from Rome 1 and the- State-s of the
Church. Charles no sooner saw himself master of
that kingdom, than he affected to add to his titles
of King of the Franks and Lombard* that of Pa-
trician of the Romans; and began to exercise over

BOMB Bpif* Of
the Wt rrMtca

i. Qbaitri

MI \ I). 800-063.

- .

Rome mud the Ecclesiastical States those right* of
MI|.|. - emperor* mod exarchs

had i IIJ..M il before him.

'lln- prince n-turoed to Rome toward* the end
of the year HOO, in onlrr to inquire into a con-
spiracy which some of the Kom.m nobility had

rted again*! the lift- <>f I'.'p. I.... 111. The
' affair having been diacussed in hi* presence,
and the innocence of the Pope clearly estahl

> H went In assist at the solemn maaa which
was celebrated ii , Church mi ( hriatmas

day (NX). ) The Tope, niixi.u- ti> show him some
public testimony of his gratitude, rhme the mo-
inent when the prince was on his knee* at the
foot of the grand altar, to put the imperial crown
on Ins head, and caused him to he proclaimed to
the people Emperor of the Roman*.

From thia affair imi-t !> dated the reriTal of the
Roman Kmpire in the West, a title which had
been extinct for three hundred year*. The em-
perors of the Ka-t who. dnrtiii; that inter* al, had
continued cvlusm ly in the enjoyment of that
title, appeared to have some reason for opposing
an innoMition which might c\. ntu.iliy become pre-
judicial to them. The content which arose on this

; hctwci-n tin- t\\o emperors, waa at length

terminated by treaty. The (i reek emperors

lised tin- new diirnity of Charles (S1'J) ; and
on these conditions they wire allowed to retain
those possessions, wliirh they still held by a feeble
tenure in Italy.

In thus maintaining the imperial diiniity against
the Creek emperor*, Charles added nothing t<> his
real power; he acquired from it no new ri:;ht \>T
the dismembered pro\inces of the Western em-
pire, the stati- of \\iiiert had, for a long time pant,
been fixed by specific regulation*. He did not

mgment bin authority over Home, where he
continued r -in- same rights of superiority

under tin- title of emperor, which he had formerly
dour under that of patrician.

Thi prince, whose ire n ins soared beyond his
ge, did not figure merely a- a warrior and a con-
queror ; he waa also a legislator, and a xealous pa-
tron of letter*. Ky the laws which he puhlisheil
under the title of Cajiitularirx, he reformed -
ral abuses, and introduced new ideas of order and
justice. Commissioner^, nominated by himself,

cbarired to travel through the prn\inre, to

uperilltend the execution of the law*, listen to the

.-niiiplaints of the people, and render justice to

without distinction nnd without partiality.

niched likewise the idea of establishing' a

uniformity of weights and measures throughout

the impip-. ''! la\\s .if that great man,

howcxcr, indicate a disposition tinctureil with the

barbarism and upentition of his age. The Judy-

mrntu qf God are expressly held by him i

legal tests of rijrht and wronir, and the greater part

-lies expiahli- by money. Hy :i _-.-n. Till law,

which he passed in 77l, introducing tit.- payment

'ical tithes, nnd which he extended to

-lied Saxons (791), he alienated the

f that people ; and the code which he

d on this occasion, is remarkable for its

atrocity; which their rc|* . and fre-

to paganism, caii:

> his patronage and love of letters* this is at-

!>y the numerous schools which he founded,

and the encouragements he held out to them ; ma

well as the attention ha showed r la his

court, the moi celebrated learned men from

them into a kind

of a. literary nociciy, of wlm-h he was

himself a member. \N hen at an advanced age, be
receive I instruction in th- nd astro-

nomy, tr. n. the !:u;. i;- Alt nil), an l.ii'.'lishman, to
whom he waa much attacln-.i. II. i mlearourcd
also to improM- bis M rn:i ulnr tongue, which
was the Teutonic, or linyua Frattcica, by draw
:> a grammar of that language, giving German
named to the months and tin- wiu<U, winch had
not yet n-cehcd them; and in making a rnllectinn
of the military songs of the .ia:>-. 1).-

(tended an e<ninl protection to the arts more ea-
!ly architecture, a taste for which he had im-
bibed in Italy and Home. \Vritersof those times
peak with admiration of the palaces and edifices
constructed by his orders, at Ini'i-llii.-ni, near
Mei. t/, at Ninieifucn, mi tin- left hank of the
Waal, and at Aix-la-Chapelle. Tins, buildings
tdornei! with numerous paintii:^, aa well as
marble and mosaic work, which he had brought
from Home and Ha\cnna.

The empire of Charlemagne, which may bear a
comparison as to its extent with the ancient Km-
pire of the West, embraced the principal part of
Kurope. All Caul, Germany, and Spain as far
as the Khro, Italy to Ueiievento, several islands in
the Mediterranean, with a considerable part of
1'annonia, compo^-d this vast empire, which, from
west to east, extended from the Kbro to the l.lbe
and the Raab ; and from south to north, from the
duchy of HeiH-M-nto and the Adriatic Sea to the
Kher I-'.yder, which formed the boundary between
(lei-many and Denmark.

In detiiiini; the limits of the empire of Charle-
majftie, care must be taken not to confound the
provinces and states incorporated with the empire
with those that were merely tributary. The for-
mer were jfoierncd by officers who might 1^
called at the will of the prince ; while the latter
were free states, whose only tenure on the empire
was by alliance, and tin- contributions th<
'.> jiny. Such was the |>oliey of this pt
that, besides the marches or military stations which
he had established on the frontiers of (ierinany.
Spain, and Italy, he chose to retain, on different
points of his dominions, nations who, under the
name of tributaries, nijoyrd the protection of tin-
Franks, and might act as a guard or barrier acainst
the barbarous tribe* of the east and north, who had
long been in the habit of making incursions into
the western and southern countries of Kurope.

Thus the dukes of H.n. -\eiito in Italy, who were
simply vassals and tributaries of the empire, sup-
plied, as it were, a rampart or bulwark againot the
Creeks and Arabian*; while the Sclavonian na-
tions of Cennany, I'annonia, Dalmatia, and '
alia, though feudatories or tassals of France, were
:ieil, ne\ertheles, by their own laws, and in
.1 did not even profess the Christian religion.

From this brief sketch of the r. km of ( >.
magne, it is easy to perceive that there was then
no sjnsrlc power' in Kurope formidable enough to
enter into eomjM-tition with the empin* of the
Franks. The monarchies of the north, Denmark,
Norway, and Sweden, and those of Poland and
Russia, were not then in r had not

emerged from the thick darkness that still covered

Egbert. King of
22 England.

Louis le Dcbonnaire.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Roman, or Romance.
Origin of French.
Kingdom of Lorraine.

those parts of continental Europe. England then
presented a heptarchy of seven confederate govern-
ments, the union of which was far from being well
consolidated. The kings of this confederacy were
incessantly engaged in war with each other ; and
it was not until several years after Charlemagne,
that Egbert the Great, king of Wessex, prevailing
in the contest, constituted himself king of all Eng-
land in 887.

The Mahometan part of Spain, after it was
separated from the great empire of the Caliphs,
was engaged in. perpetual warfare with the East.
The Ommiades, sovereigns of Cordova, far from
provoking their western neighbours, whose valour
they had already experienced, showed themselves,
on the contrary, attentive to preserve peace and
good understanding with them. The Greek em-
perors, who were continually quarrelling with the
Arabs and Bulgarians, and agitated by factions
and intestine commotions, could no longer be an
object of suspicion or rivalry to the monarchy of
the Franks.

Thus did the empire of Charlemagne enjoy the
glory of being the ascendant power in Europe ;
but it did not long sustain its original splendour.
It would have required a man of extraordinary
talents to manage the reins of a government so ex-
tensive and so complicated. Louis-le-Debonnaire,
or the Gentle, the son and successor of Charles,
did not possess a single qualification proper to
govern the vast dominions which his father had
bequeathed to him. As impolitic as he was weak
and superstitious, he had not the art of making
himself either loved or feared by his subjects. By
the imprudent partition of his dominions between
his sons, which he made even in his lifetime, he
planted with his own hand those seeds of discord
in his family which accelerated the downfall of the
empire. The civil wars which had commenced in
his reign continued after his death. Louis, sur-
named the German, and Charles the Bald, com-
bined against their elder brother Lothaire, and
defeated him at the famous battle of Fontenay in
Burgundy (841), where all the flower of the
ancient nobility perished. Louis and Charles,
victorious in this engagement, obliged their brother
to take refuge in Italy. They next marched to
Strasbourg, where they renewed their alliance
i, and confirmed it by oath at the head of
their troops.*

These princes were on the point of dividing the
whole monarchy between them, when, by the in-
terference of the nobility, they became reconciled
to their elder brother, and concluded a treaty with
"iim at Verdun (x-M), which finally completed the
division of the empire. By this formal distribu-
tion, Lothaire retained the imperial dignity, with
the kingdom of Italy, and the provinces situated
between the Rhone, the Saoiie, the Meuse, the
Scheld, the Rhine, and the Alps. Louis had all
Germany beyond the Rhine, and on this side of
the river, the cantons of Mayeuce, Spire, and
Worms ; and, lastly, all that part of Gaul which
ids from the Scheld, the Meuse, the Saone,
and the Rhone, to the Pyrenees, fell to the lot of
Charles, whose division also comprehended the
March of Spain, consisting of the province of
Barcelona, and the territories which Charlemagne
had conquered beyond the Pyrenees.

It is with this treaty, properly speaking, that

modern France commences, which is but a de-
partment of the ancient empire of the Franks, or
monarchy of Charlemagne. For a long time it
retained the boundaries which the conference at
Verdun had assigned it; and whatever it now
possesses beyond these limits, was the acquisition
of conquests which it has made since the four-
teenth century. Charles the Bald was in fact
then the first King of France, and it is from him
that the series of her kings commences. It \vu-,
moreover, under this prince that the government
of the Neustrians, or Western Franks, assumed a
new aspect. Before his time it was entirely of a
Frankish or German constitution ; the manners
and customs of the conquerors of Gaul everywhere
predominated; their language (the lingua Franca)
was that of the court and the government. But
after the dismemberment of which we have spoken,
the Gauls imported it into Neustria, or Western
France ; the customs and popular language were
adopted by the court, and had no small influence
on the government. This language, which was
then known by the name of the Roman or Ro-
mance, polished by the refinements of the court,
assumed by degrees a new and purer form, and, in
course of time, became the parent of the modern
French. It was, therefore, at this period, viz., the
reign of Charles the Bald, that the Western Franks
began, properly speaking, to be a distinct nation,
and exchanged their more ancient appellation for
that of French, the name by which they are still
known.

At this same period Germany was, for the first
time, embodied into a monarchy, having its own
particular kings. Louis the German was the first
monarch of Germany, as Charles the Bald was of
France. The kingdom of Louis for a long time
was called Eastern France, to distinguish it from
the western kingdom of that name, which hence-
forth exclusively retained the name of France.

The empire of Charlemagne, which the treaty
of Verdun had divided, was for a short space re-
united (884) under Charles, surnamed the Fat,
younger son of Louis the German, and King of
Germany ; but that prince, too feeble to support
so great a weight, was deposed by his German
subjects (887), and their example was speedily
followed by the French and the Italians. The
vast empire of the Franks was thus dismembered
for ever (S88), and besides the kingdoms of
France, Germany, and Italy, it gave birth to three
new states the kingdoms of Lorraine, Burgundy,
and Navarre.

The kingdom of Lorraine took its name from
Lothaire II., younger son of the Emperor Lothaire.
1., who, in the division which he made of his
< -tales among his sons (855), gave to this Lothaire
the provinces situated between the Rhine, the
MeiiM 1 , and the Scheld, known since under the
name of Lorraine, Alsace, Treves, Cologne, Juliers,
Liege, and the Low Countries. At the death of
Lothaire II., who left no male or legitimate heirs,
his kinirdoiu was divided by the treaty of Procaspis
(870) into two equal portions, one of which was
assigned to Louis the German, and the other to
Charles the Bald. 8 By a subsequent treaty, con-
cluded (*"!)) between the sons of Louis, Minnunrd
the Stammerer, King of France, and Louis the
Young, King of Germany, the French division of
Lorraine was ceded to this latter prince, who thus

li. \.i> MQ Mf.

K mif.U.tu of .N\ne.
i'uasjti of

I i

united thu whole of that kingdom. Arnulph,

'ermany, and successor <>f (
I the kingdom of Lorrain ibald,

hi* natural ton, who, after a reign of five yean,
was deposed by Louis, surnamed (he Infai
and successor of Arnulph. Lorn* .Urn.- without
wane (M12), Charles the Simple. King of France,

commotions 111 < MTfliany to

put liniiHill in |i<><fiioii of that kingdom, which
WM at length finally reunited t tin- << nuanic
crown by Henry, surnamed the Fov\ fer.

Two new kingdoms appeared under tin- name

.rgundy, M: i e, cir Cisjurinc Bur-

gundy, and rransjurane Burgundy. The fnuii<l<T
icrwasa nobleman named Bunon, whose
sister Charles) the Bald had espoused, h'lcvated
b\ the king, bin brother-in-law, to tin* highest
dignities in the state, he wax cn-ati ,l, iit succession,

of \ niiiiii, Duke of Provence, Duke of
Italy, and Prime Minister, and even obtained in
marriage the Prim-ess Irmengarde, daughter <'.
Louis 11., Emperor and King of Italy. Instigated
l>> this princess, he did not -temple to raise his
ambitious views to tin- throne. The death of
Loots the Stammerer, and the troubles tint en-
sued, afforded him an opportunity of attaching to
his interest most of the bishops in those countries
intrusted to his government. In an assembly
which he held at Mantaille in Dauphin6 (870), hi-
engaged them by oath to confer on him the royal
I he schedule of this election, with the
signature* of the bishop* affixed, informs us dis-
tmetly of the extent of this new kingdom, which
comprehended Franche-Comte, Macron, Chalons-

. >ne, I.\ons, Vienne and its dependencies,

. N i \iers, Use*, with their dependencies in
Languedoc, Provence, and a part of Savoy. Bo-
son caused himself to be anointed king at Lyons,
by the archbishop of that city. Me maintained
possession of his usurped dominions, in spite of
the combined effort* which were made by the kings
of France and Germany to reduce him to subjec-
tion.

The example of Boson was followed soon after
l'\ K'idolph, governor of Traiisjunuie Burgundy,
mil rel.tt' .I by the female side to the Cailovin-
gians. He was proclaimed km,', and crowned at
M. Maurice in the Valais; ami his new kingdom,
situated between Mount Jura and the lVnin<-

contained Switxerland, as far as the Hiver
llcuM, the Yalais, and a part of Savoy. The death
<>t II. -.on happening about this time, furnishe 1
Kllph with a favourable opportunity of ex-
tending his frontiers, and seizing a part of the
country of Hnrc'

These two kingdoms were afterwards (930)

1 into one. Hugo, king of Italy.
at that time the guardianship of the young Con-
stantine, his relation, the son of Louis, and grand-
son of Boson. The Italians, di- under
the government of Hugo, and having devolved
their crown on H-Hloloh IL, ki:._- of I'ransjurauo
:i.ly. Hugo, in order to m-iintain himself on
the throne of Italy, and exclude Kodolph, ceded
to him the district <>f 1'roiencc, and the kingdom
of hi.H royal ward. Thus united in the person of

t<h, these two kingdoms passed to 1;
acendants, viz. Conrad, his son, and Rodolph 111..

indflon. These princes are styled, in their

sometimes Kuu/9 qf Burytatdy; sometimes

Kitty* o/ yiftnui or Ariel ; sometimes Kt*y* o/
PTVIMHM and Aiiemtmia. They I re of

>'n possrssious beyond th< i.
Saone; and in : Ko<lolph II L.

kingdom hail for it* liouiidaries) the Ilhine, the
Khone, th. IleuM, and the A

Ninurn , the kiiik'dom next to I,, mentioned,
kiiM\\n n-uiiii.' the ancients uinl .n- of

y<uconia, was one of the prmim < In \.>nd UM

is wliieh Charlemagne had conquered from
the \r:il.-. Among the counts or wardrns of the

ins Margrave*)

\\lliehhe eil:itilished, the inrml :

those of li ue.-|.iii.i in Catalonia, Jaccain Arragon,
and rampeluni i;i N.I-..UI.-. All tliese Spanish
Marches were comprised within Western France,
and within the dhisn>a which tell to the si
Charles the Bald, on the dismemberment of thai
monarchy among the sons of Louis the < ntl. .
The extreme imbecility of that prince, and the
calamities of his LUM, u...- the causes why the
Navarresc revolt' ...I .. !.,! them-

selves into a free and independent st ,t. . It ap-
pears also, th.it t!i -y were iiupli. .it. <l in the dcfec-
tioii of Aiiuitain ( S .">^1). "hen it threw off tin-

.rl.-s the li.vM. i)on Garcia*, son of the
t i. nut Don < i.ireias, and grandson of Don Sancho,
is generally reckoned the lirst of their mm.
that usurped the title of King of Pampeluna (
He and his successors in the kingdom
possessed, at the same time, the pnnincc f Jacca
in Arragon. The Counts of Barcelona were tin-
only Spanish dependencies that, for many cen-
turies, continued to acknowledge the severe
of tin- Kings of France.

On this part of our subject, it only remains for
us to point out the causes that conspired to acce-
lerate the downfall of the empire of the Franks.
Amoni; these we may reckon the ineonvenieneM
of the feudal system, a system as unfitted for the
purposes of internal administration, a-
compatible with the maxims that ought to rule
a great empire. The abuse of fiefs was ca
so far by the Franks, that almost all property had
l..-ei.me feudal ; and not only grants of land, and
portions of large estates, but governments, duke-
doms, and counties, were contern d and held under

the title of fiefs. The conseipie: - was,

that the great, by the allurements of fiefs or bene-
fices, became devoted followers of the kings, while
the body of the nation sold themselves as retainers
of the great. Who. \er refused this vassalage was
despised, and had neither favour nor honour to
'.* By this practice, the libe .joct

was abridged without augmenting the royal autho-
rity. The nobles soon became so powerful, by the
liberality of their kings, and the number of their
vassals they found means to procure, that tin
at length the presumption to dictate laws to the
sovereign himself. By degrees, the obligations
which they owed to the state were forgotten, and
those only recognised which the feudal con:
imposed. This new bond of alliance was not
in opening a door to lieent:ounncs,aa,bya natural
consequence, it was imagined, that the feudal
>r inu-lii l.e changed, whenever there was a
possibility of charging him with a violation
engagements or of that reciprocal fide!.
he owed to his vassal*.

A system like this, not only overturned public

The new Emyire

separated.
Power of Niililt-s.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Charles 1e Oh:iuve.
Irruption of the
Normans.

order, by planting the perms of corruption in
every part of the internal administration ; it was
still more defective with regard to the external
operations of government, and directly at variance
with all plans of aggrandisement or of conquest.
As war was carried on by means of slaves or
vassals only, it is easy to perceive that such armies
not being kept constantly on foot, were with diffi-
culty put in motion ; that they could neither pre-
vent intestine rebellion, nor be a protection against
hostile invasion ; and that conquests made by
means of such troops must be lost with the same
facility that they are won. A permanent military,
fortresses and garrisons, such as we find in modern
tactics, were altogether xmknown among the
Franks. These politic institutions, indispensable
in great empires, were totally repugnant to the
genius of the German nations. They did not even
know what is meant by h'nances, or regular sys-
tems of taxation. Their kings had no other pe-
cuniary resource than the simple revenues of their
demesnes, which served for the maintenance of
their court. Gratuitous donations, the perquisites
of bed and lodging, fines, the tierce of which be-
longed to the king, rights of custom and toll,
added but little to their wealth, and could not be
reckoned among the number of state resources.
None but tributaries, or conquered nations, were
subjected to the payment of certain imposts or
-ments ; from these the Franks were ex-
empted ; they would have even regarded it as an
insult and a blow struck at their national liberty,
had they been burdened with a single imposition.

It is obvious, that a government like this, so
disjointed and incoherent in all its parts, in spite
of the advantages which accrued to it from nour-
ishing a spirit of liberty, and opposing a sort of
barrier against despotism, was nevertheless far
from beinir suitable to an empire of such prodi-
gious extent as that of the Franks. Charlemagne
had tried to infuse a new vigour into the state
by the wise laws which he published, and the
military stations which he planted on the frontiers
of his empire. Raised, by the innate force of his
genius, above the prejudices of the age in which he
lived, that prince had formed a system capable of
triving unity and consistency to the state, had it
been of lonirer duration. Hut this system fell to
jiii-ei s and vanished, when no longer animated and
put in execution by its author. Disorder and
ainrehy speedily paralw.ed every branch of the
Lrovernment, and ultimately brought on the dis-
'nnent of the empire.

Another cause which accelerated the fall of this
mpire, was the territorial divisions, practised
by the kings, both of the Merovingian and the
Carlovinijian rare. Charlemagne and Louis the
Gi title, when they ordered the empire to be
divided amon^' their sons, never imagined this
partition would terminate in a formal dismember-
ment of the monarchy. Their intention was rather
to preserve union and amity, by means of certain
rights of superiority, which they granted to their
eldest sons, whom they had invested with the
Imperial dignity. Hut this subordination of the
younger to their elder brothers was not of long
continuance ; and these divisions, besides natu-
rally weakening the state, became a source of
perpetual discord, and reduced the Carlovininun
princes to the necessity of courting the grandees

on every emergency, and gaining their interest
by new gifts, or by concessions which went to sup
the foundation of the throne.

This exorbitant power of the nobles must also
be reckoned among the number of causes that
hastened the decline of the empire. Dukes and
Counts, besides being intrusted with the justice
and police of their respective governments, exer-
cised, at the same time, a military power, and
collected the revenues of the Exchequer. So
many and so different jurisdictions, united in one
and the same power, could not but become dan-
gerous to the royal authority ; while it facilitated
to the nobles the means of fortifying themselves in
their governments, and breaking, b\ degrees, the
unity of the state. Charlemagne had felt this in-
convenience ; and he thought to remedy the evil,
by successively abolishing the great duchies, and
dividing them into several counties. Unfortu-
nately this policy was not followed out by his
successors, who returned to the ancient practice of
creating dukes ; and besides, being educated and
nurtured in superstition by the priests, they put
themselves wholly under dependence to bishops
and ecclesiastics, who thus disposed of the state at
their pleasure. The consequence was, that go^ ern-
meiits, at first alterable only by the will of the
King, passed eventually to the children, or heirs,
of those who were merely administrators, or super-
intendants, of them.

Charles the Bald, first King of France, had the
weakness to constitute this dangerous principle
into a standing law, in the parliament which he
held at Chiersi (877), towards the close of his
reign. He even extended this principle generally
to all fiefs ; to those that held immediately of the
crown, as well as to those which held of laic, or
ecclesiastical superiors.

This new and exorbitant power of the nobles,
joined to the injudicious partitions already men-
tioned, tended to sow fresh discord among the
different members of the state, by exciting a mul-
titude of civil wars and domestic feuds, which, by
a necessary consequence, brought the whole body-
politic into a state of decay and dissolution. The
history of the successors of Charlcmainie presents
a sad picture, humiliating and distressing to hu-
manity. Every page of it is filled with insurrec-
tions, devastations, and carnage: princes, sprung
from the same blood, armed against each other,
breathing unnatural vengeance, and bent on
mutual destruction: the royal authority insulted
and despised by the nobles, who were perpetually
at war with each other, either to decide their
private quarrels, or aggrandize themselves :it tlie
expense of their neighbours; and, finally, the
citizens exposed to all kinds of oppression, reduced
to misery and servitude, without the hope or
possibility of redress from the government. Such
was the melancholy situation of the States that
composed the Kmpire of Charlemagne, \\ hen tin-
irruption of new barbarians, the Normans from the
extremities of the North, and the Hungarians from
the back settlements of Asia, exposed it afresh to
the terrible scourge of foreign invision. i

The Normans, of German origin, and inhabiting
ancient Scandinavia, that i< to say, Sweden, Den-
mark, and modern Norway, be^an, towards tin-
end of the eighth century, to cover the sea with
their ships, and to infest successively all the ma-

itsrins of Wm.

N I ! "

I-'., .".,! /,i

FKBIOD II. A.D. 800-063.

coasts of Europe. During the upace of two

liutiilrrtl '...i;-., ill. \ continued their incursions
and dc\ ast .itr !:. w ill) .1 ticrceiies* anil perevrranre
that turpassrs all imau his phrnom

I, if we iilti-nil i

late of barbariiin in \\liirh the inhahitn:
Scandinavia, in general, wen- at that time plun^i d.
sing agriculture and tin- art*. tl.cy :

unable to draw from tMiiug ixnil the

th<- urceiwary mrans even for (hrir scanty

subsistence. The comfortable circumstance* of

ili' i: i.i lu'hhours, who cultM.itcd their lands, ex-

:nl united tin-in to .

liiiiili-r, \\lial thi-j hail not

uAcicnt -kill to procure by thrir own unln-t i ;. .
. moreover, animated lij a >rt of rcli-
cioua fanaticism, v. Inch inspired them u
lor the moat |H-rtl.'iis enterprise. This recklew
superstition they ilrrw from tin- doctrines of Oilin,
who waa the god of their armies, the revvardcr of
v il'.ur mill intrepidity in war, n-rmin- into hi*
paradise of I'alAaKa the brave who fell beneath
tin- nwords of tin- rnriny ; while, on tin- other
hand, the abode of the wretched, called by thrin
Hrlrrte, waa prepared for those who, abandoned
to eaae and effeminacy, prrfi-n.il .1 lifi- of tranquil-
lit) in the _!.:% of arms, and the perils of warlike

Thin ilurtriiie, generally diffused over all the
north, inspired the Scandinavian yuth with an
intrepiil and ferocious courage, which made them
hr.i\e all dangers, and consider the sanguinary
death of warriors as the surest path to immortality.
Often did it happen that the sons of kinirs even
those who were already destined as successors to
their father's throne, volunteered as chiefs of
pirates and brigands, under the name <:
A."i;s solely for the purpose of obtaining a name,
and signalizing t liy their maritime ex-

ploits.

Tin I of the Normans, which at HIM

limited to the seas and countries hoi. 1
<>n Scandinavia, soon extended over all tin- w
and southern coasts of l.urope. (n-nnain, the
kingdoms of Lorraine, France, Kngland, Scotland,
Ireland, Sp-iin, the Balearic Isles, Italy, (i recce,
and even the shores of Afric.i, were exposed in
their lurn to the insults and the ravages of these

' i: 01 i:.O

France more especially suffered from their in-

n, under the fcehle n i-ns of Charles the

lialil, and Charl.-s the lat. Not content with

the havoc which they made on the coasts, they

ascended the Seine, the Loire, the Garomic, and

the Rhone, earning tire and sword to the \er\

centre of the kingdom. Nantes, Angrm, Tours,

IMois, Orleai.s, M :*, Dourdeaux, Rouen,

^ois5iotu, and various other

these invaders.

Paris was three times sacked and pillaged l>\ them.
KolMTt the Stri-n-, a scion of the n>\al II

f. whom ( liu'.es the Hald had c'reuted (HOI)

!><ik. ' ' 'ria, was killed in hat tie

'.a t i nir with SUCCCM against the

ans. At Icnirth. the terror which they had

; \where Was stich, that the French, who

trcmMed at (lie M i\ name of the Normans, had
eiKi.iintcr them in arms;
and in order to i id t! ' uch forn .

enem d to purchase their retreat

by a um of money ; a wrrtrnrd and feeble re-
incih, which only agKrawl 74 ' '"'' ' %1 '. by inching
the invaders, by the hope of gain, to rrturn to the
charge.

It i not however at all astonishing, that France
shi.nld have been exposed so long to thM incur-
since, bmidi s the inemcient state of that
monarch), she had no vcMwls of her own to pro*
r coasts. The unities, occupied w.li-ly with
the care of augmenting or confirming their grow*

ing power, ottered hut a feehle opposition to the

ins, whose presence in the kingdom caused
a diM-fsioii fuMitirahle to their \ii\\s. Some of
them e\en had no hesitation in joiniiu; the bar-
barians, when they happened to be in digra<
whi-n they thought they had reason to comp'
the government.

It was in consequence of these numerous expe-
ditious over all the seas of F.uropc, that the mo-
narchies of the North were formed, and that the
Normans succeeded also in founding several other
states. It is to them that the powerful monarchy
f tli- Russians owes its origin ; Ruric the Norman
in allowed to have been its founder, toward-
middle of the ninth century. 7 He and the grand
dukes, his successors, extended their conquests
from the Baltic and the White Sea, to the
Kuxine ; and during the tenth century they made
the emperors of the F.ast to tremble on their
thrones. In their native style of piratical warfare,
they emharked on the Dnieper or l<i>r\-thenea,
infested with their fleets the coasts of the Black
Sea, carried terror and dismay to the gates of
Constantinople, and obliged the drcek emperor*
to pay them large sums to redeem their capital
from pillage.

Ireland was more than once on the point of
1'cin.r suhdued by the Normans, during these pi-
rutieal excursions. Their tir-t invasion of this
i-land is stated to ha\e been in the vear T'.'.'t.
(neat ravages. were committed by the barbarians,
who conquered or founded the cities of AVaterford,
Dublin, and Limerick, which they formed into
separate petty kingdoms. Christianity was intro-
ilueed among them towards the middle of the
tenth century ; and it was not till the twelfth, the
time of its invasion by the English, that they
cucceeded in expellin? them from the island, when
they were dispossessed of the cities of Waterford
Bd Dublin (ll"0) by Henry II. of F.ii-rland.

Orkney, the Hebrides, the Shetland and Faroe

Islands, and the Isle of Man, were also dio >\

and peopled by the Normans.' Another colony

if these Normans peopled Iceland, where they

founded a republic (X"4), which preserved iU

ndenee till nearly the middle of the thir-

ccntury. when that inland was conquered

by the Kinipi of Norway." Normandy, in France,

also recei\ed its name from this people. Charles

rnple. wishing to put a check oil their
linual incursions, concluded, at St. Clair-sur

, a treaty with Rollo or Rolf, chief of the
ans, by which he abandoned to them all
that part of N'custria which reaches from the
river* Audi-lie and Aure to the ocean. To this he
added a part : tuated between the

rivers Andelle and F.pte ; asalsothe territory of Bre-
tni'ne. Rollo embraced Christianity, a ml re.

1 aptismal name of Robert. He submitted to
lecome a vassal of the crown of France, under the

Hungarian inroads.
Henry I. of Germany.
OUio the Great.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Alfred the Grrat.
State of learning. Sec.
in Kiuland.

title of Duke of Normandy ; and obtained in mar-
riage the princess Gisele, daughter of Charlc.- the
Simple. In the following century, we shall meet
with these Normans of France as the conquerors of
England, and the founders of the kingdom of the
two Sicilies.

The Hungarians, a people of Turkish or Finnish
origin, emigrated, as is generally supposed, from
Baschiria, a country lying to the north of the
Caspian Sea, between the \Y"lira, the Kama, and
Mount I" nil, near the source of the Tobol and the
Jaik, or modern Ural. The Orientals designate
them by the generic name of Turks, while they
deiic.niinate themsehes Mayiars, from the name of
one of their tribes. After having been long de-
pendent on the Chazare, 10 a Turkish tribe to the
north of the Palus Ma>otis, they retired towards
the Danube, to avoid the oppressions of the
Patzinacites; 11 and established themselves (887) in
ancient Daeia, under the auspices of a chief named
Arpad, from whom the ancient sovereigns of
Hungary derhe their origin. Aniulph, King of
Germany, employed these Hungarians (892)
against the Slave-Moravians, who possessed a
flourishing state 011 the banks of the Danube, the
Morau and the Elbe. 1 * "While engaged in this
expedition, they were attacked again in their
Dacian possessions by the Patzinacites, who suc-
ceeded at length in expelling them from these
territories. 13 Taking advantage afterwards of the
death of Swiatopolk, king of the Moravians, and
the troubles consequent on that event, they dis-
severed from Moravia all the country which ex-
tends from the frontiers of Moldavia, 'VYallachia,
and Transylvania, to the Danube and the Morau.
They conquered, about the same time, Pannonia,
with a part of Noricum, which they had wrested
from the Germans ; and thus laid the foundation
of a new state, known since by the name of Hun-
No sooner had the Hungarians established
themselves in Pannonia, than they commenced
their incursions into the principal states of Europe.
Germany, Italy, and Gaul, agitated by faction and
anarchy, and even the Grecian empire in the East,
became, all in their turn, the bloody scene of their
ravages and devastations. Germany, in particular,
for a lonir time felt the effects of their fury. All
it-, provinces in succession were laid waste by
these barbarians, and compelled to pay them
tribute. Henry I., King of Germany, and his
son Otho the (ireat, at length succeeded in ar-
restinir their destructive career, and delivered
Kurope from this new yoke which threatened its

illdepeli'leliee.

It was iii ronsequence of these incursions of
the Hiinirariaiis and Normans, to which may be
added those of the Arabs and Slavonians, that the

kingdoms which sprang from the empire of the
Franks lost once more the advantages which the
political institutions of Charlemagne had procured
them. Learning, which that prince had encou-
raged, fell into a state of absolute languor ; an end
was put both to civil and literary improvement, by
the destruction of convents, schools, and libraries ;
the polity and internal security of the states were
destroyed, and commerce reduced to nothing.
England was the only exception, which then en-
joyed a transient glory under the memorable reign
of Alfred the Great, who succeeded Ethelred in
872. That prince, grandson of king Egbert,
expelled the Normans from the island (S7), and
restored peace and tranquillity to his kingdom.
After the example of Charlemagne, he culthated
and protected learning and the arts, by restoring
the convents and schools which the barbarians had
destroyed; inviting philosophers and artists to his
court, and civilizing his subjects by literary in-
stitutions and wise regulations. 14 It is to be re-
gretted, that a reign so glorious was so soon
followed by new misfortunes. After the Normans,
the Danes reappeared in England, and overspread
it oiice'more with turbulence and desolation.

During these unenlightened and calamitous
times, we find the art of navigation making con-
siderable progress. The Normans, traversing the
seas perpetually with their fleets, learned to con-
struct their vessels with greater perfection, to be-
come better skilled in wind and weathe-, and to
use their oars and sails with more address. It
was, moreover, in consequence of these invasions,
that more correct information was obtained re-
garding Scandinavia, and the remote regions of
the North. Two Normans, Wolfstane and Other,
the one from Jutland, and the other from Norway,
undertook separate voyages, in course of the ninth
century, principally with the view of making ma-
ritime discoveries. Wolfetane proceeded to \isit
that part of Prussia, or the Estonia of the ancients,
which was renowned for its produce of yellow
amber. Other did not confine his adventures to
the coasts of the Baltic ; setting out from the port
of Heligoland, his native country, he doubled
Cape North, and advanced as far as Biarmia, at
the mouth of the Dwina. in the province of Arch-
angel. Both he and Wolfstane communicated the
details of their voyages to Alfred the Great, who
made use of them in his Anglo-Saxon translation
of Orosins.

Besides Iceland and the Northern Isles, of which
we have already spoken, we find, in the tenth
century, some of the fugitnc Normans peopling
Greenland; and others forming settlements in
Finland, which some suppose to be the island of
Newfoundland, in North America. 15

!..;.!- ..? I..-TM. .in

PERIOD III. A l

1074.

101) HI.

M oiTio i in. (,i;i \ i .,,iu\ i in. i.it! \ i. \. i,.

: R matt of the states that sprang from the

llisaslimlM 1 1 il empire of tin- Frmks continued lii
be the prey of disorder and anarchy, tin- kingdom

;. assumed a new form, and for
ages maintain- <1 tin character of living the ruling
power in Europe. It was erected into a monarchy
at the pc . >), and Imcl for its tint

1 iiil -on of Louis the

. At tlmt tun.- it comprised, besides the
inn, and Mayence, on
, le tin- Hhinr, .ill thr countries and pro\

'. thai in IT, which had belonged to the
empire of thr Franks, from I lie Kyd>-r ami the
H.iltic, to tin- Alps and the confines of 1'unnonia.
Several of the Slavian tribes, also, were iu tri-
butaries.

in thr tint formation of thin kingdom, the
royal authority was limited ; and Louis the
(uTiiian, in an assembly held at Manne (H51),
had formally engaged to maintain thr states in their
rtyhts and pririlryi:i ; to follow their counsel and
adricr ; and to consider thrm as his true coUrayues
and coadjutors in all the qffaira of government.
The states, however, toon found mean* to vest in
themselves the right of choosing their kings. Tin-
1 arlovingian monarch* of (iermany were he-
reditary. Louis the German even divided his
kiiu'doin among his three sons, viz., Carloman,
l.'niis tlir Y'lumj, and Chillies the Fat; but
Charles having been deposed in an assembly held
at Frankfort (HH7), the states of Germany elected
in hi* place Arnulph, a natural son of Carloman.
This prinee added to his crown both Italy and tae
Imperial dignity.

The custom of election has continued in Ger-
many down to modern times. Louis I'l'.nfant, or
the Infant, son of Arnulph, succeeded to the
throne hy election; and that prince having died
very young ('.HI ), the states bestowed the crown
on a French nobleman, named Conrad, who was
duke or governor of France on the Rhine, and
'1 by the female nidi- to (lie Carlovingian line.
1 mounted the throne, to the exclusion of
Charles the Simple, King of France, the only
male and legitimate heir f the Carloviugian line.
This latter prince, however, found means to sehte
the kingdom of Ixnraine, which Louis the Young
bad annexed to the crown of (ieimanv. On the
death of Conrad I. (!MH). the choice of the state*
fell on Henry L, uniamcd the Fowler, a scion of
9 txon dynasty of the kings and emperors of
Germany.

It was to the valour and the wisdom >f Henry

I., and to his institutions, civil and military, that

in\ was indelited for its renewed grandeur.

That monarch, taking advantage of the intestine

trundles which had arisen in Fr.mcc under Charles

tin- Simple, recovered possession of the kingdom

raine, the nobility of which made their sub-

mission t<> him in the vcsrs '.''.'.'I and 92ft. By

thi union he extended the tin many

west, as far as the Mease and the

my afterwards divided

(ho territory of Lorraine into two governments or

duchies, called I'pper and Ixiwer Lorraine,
former, situated on the Mo., u,., was called the
duchy of the Moselle ; the other, houndrd I
Rhine, the Mi-use, and the Scheld, was kn<"
the naiii.- <>!' l.othiem or Brabant. The** two
In. -lues comprised all the province* of the king-
dom of Lorraine, except tlios. which t: .
judged proper to exempt from the authority and
iiclion of the dukes. The duchy o^ the
Moselle, alone, finally retained the nan..' of Lor-
raine ; and pasted (1U4M) to derard of Alsace,
descended from the duke* of that name, tv
the eighteenth centur), succeeded to the Imperial
throne. As to the duchy of Lower Lorraine, the
Lmperor Henry V. contern-d it on (iixlfrev. Count
nvain (11U6), whose male descendants kept
possession of it, under the title of I)iik.- of
Brabant, till 1355, when it passed by female
succession to the Dukes of Burgundy, who found
means also to acquire, by degrees, the greater part
of Lower Lorraine, commonly called the Low
Countries.

Henry I., a prince of extraordinary genius,
proved himself the true restorer of the fierman
kingdom. The Slavonian tribes who inhabited
the banks of the Saal, and the country d.-tw.-. n
the Elbe and the Baltic, committed incessant
ravages on the frontier provinces of the kingdom.
With these he waged a successful war, and re-
duced them once more to the condition of tribu-
taries. But his policy was turned rhietlv against
the Hungarians, who, since the reign of Lonis II.,
had repeatedly renewed their incursions, and
threatened to subject all Germany to their yoke.
Desirous to repress effectually that ferocious nation,
he took the opportunity of a nine years' truer,
which he had obtained w itli them, to construe)
new towns, and fortify places of strength. 1 1
instructed his troops in a new kind of tactics,
accustomed them to military evolutions, and,
all, he formed and equipped a cavalry sufficient to
cope with those of the Hungarians, who par-
ticularly excelled iii the art of managing bones.
These depredators having returned with fn-sh
forces at the expiry of the truce, he completely
d them in two bloody battles, which be
fought with them ('.CW) near Sondershmiscn rind
Hamburg ; and thus exonerated (iennany from
the tribute which it had formerly paid them.'

This victorious prince extended his conquests
beyond the F.yder, the ancient frontier of Den-
mark. After a prosperous war with the Danes
. he founded the margravate of >:.-wick,
which the Km peror Conrad II. afterward* ceded
back ( loa:) to Canute the Great, King of Den-
mark.

Otho the Great, son and successor of Henry I.,
added the kingdom of Italy to the conqu.
his father, and procured also tin- Imperial <!
for himself, and his successors in Germany .
had become a distinct kingdom since the revolu-
tion, which happened (HHH) at the death of th-
<>r i buries the prince* in sac-

cession occupied the throne during the space of

Knijit'ror of (ii-rmany.
28 Jlm XI. ami XII. ftj

IVTCIIL'IT. HllL'O.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Otho crowned Emperor

in Home.
German dominion.

se\ cut \-three \ears. Several of these princes,
such as Guy, Lambert, Arnulf, Louis of Bur-
gundj, and Bcrenger I., were invested, at the
same time, with the Imperial dignity. Berenger

I. having been assassinated (924), this latter dig-
nity erased entirely, and the city of Rome was
even dismembered from the kingdom of Italy.

The sovereignty of that city was seized by the
famous Marozia, widow of a nobleman named
Alberic. She raised her son to the pontificate by
the title of John XI. ; and the better to establish
her dominion, she espoused Hugo King of Italy
(932), who became, in consequence of this mar-
riage, master of Rome. But Alberic, another son
of Marozia, soon stirred up the people against
tliis aspiring princess and her husband Hugo.
Having driven Hugo from the throne, and shut up
his mother in prison, he assumed to himself the
sovereign authority, under the title of Patrician
of the Romans. At his death (954), he trans-
mitted the sovereignty to his son Octavian, who,
though only nineteen years of age, caused himself
to be elected pope, by the title of John XII.

This epoch was one most disastrous for Italy.
The weakness of the government excited factions
among the nobility, gave birth to anarchy, and
fresh opportunity for the depredations of the Hun-
garians and Arabs, who, at this period, were the
scourge of Italy, which they ravaged with impu-
nitj. 1'avia, the capital of the kingdom, was
taken, and burnt by the Hungarians. These
troubles increased on the accession of Berenger

II. (950). grandson of Berenger I. That prince
associated his son Adelbert with him in the royal
dignity ; and the public voice accused them of
having caused the death of King Lothaire, son and
successor of Hugo.

Lothaire left a young widow, named Adelaide,
daughter of Rodol'ph II., King of Burgundy and
Italy. To avoid the importunities of Berenger
II., who wished to compel her to marry his son
Adelbert, this princess called in the King of
Germany to her aid. Otho complied with the
solicitations of the distressed queen; and, on this
occasion, undertook his first expedition into Italy
('.)."> 1 ). The cit\ of Pa\ia, and several other places,
having fallen into his hands, he made himself be
proclaimed King of Italy, and married the young
queen, his protegee. Berenger and his son, being
dm en for shelter to their strongholds, had recourse
to intonation. They succeeded in obtaining for
thcmsches a confirmation of the royal title of
Italy, on condition of doing homage for it to the
Kin;,' of Germany; and for this purpose, they
repaired in person to the diet assembled at Augs-
Inirij (952), where they took the oath of vassalage
under the hands of ()thi>, who solemnly invested
them with the royalty of Italy ; resetting to him-
self the towns and marches of Aquileia and Verona,
the command of which he bestowed on his brother
the Duke of Bavaria.

In examining more nearly all that passed in this
atlair, it appears that it was not without the
t, and even contrary to the wish of Adelaide,
that Otho agreed to enter into terms of accommo-
dation with Berenger, and to ratify the compact
which Conrad, Duke of Lorraine, and son-in-law
of the Emperor, had made with that prince.
Afterwards, however, he lent a favourable ear to
the complaints which Pope John XII., and some

Italian noblemen had addressed to him against
Uerenger and his son ; and took occasion, on their
account, to conduct a new army into Italy (961).
Berenger, too feeble to oppose him, retired a
second time within his fortifications. Otho marched
from Pavia to Milan, and there made himself be
crowned King of Italy ; from thence he passed to
Rome, about the commencement of the following
year. Pope John XII., who had himself invited
him, and again implored his protection against
Berenger, gave him, at first, a very brilliant re-
ception ; and revived the Imperial dignity in his
favour, which had been dormant for thirty-eight
years. ~n

It was on the 2d of February, 962, that the
Pope consecrated and crowned him Emperor ; but
he had soon cause to repent of this proceeding.
Otho, immediately after his coronation at Rome,
undertook the siege of St. Leon, a fortress in
Umbria, where Berenger and his Queen had taken
refuge. While engaged in the siege, he received
frequent intimations from Rome, of the misconduct
and immoralities of the Pope. The remonstrances
which he thought it his duty to make on this
subject, offended the young Pontiff, who resolved,
in consequence, to break off union with the
Emperor. Hurried on by the impetuosity of hie
character, he entered into a negociation with
Adelbert ; and even persuaded him to come to
Rome, in order to concert with him me-isures of
defence. On the first news of this event, Otho
put himself at the head of a large detachment, with
which he marched directly to Rome. The Pope,
however, did not think it advisable to wait his
approach, but fled with the King, his new ally.
Otho, on arriving at the capital, exacted a solemn
oath from the clergy arid the people, that hence-
forth they would elect no pope without his counsel,
and that of the Emperor and his successors.* Hav-
ing then assembled a council, he caused Pope John
XII. to be deposed ; and Leo VIII. was elected in
his place. This latter Pontiff was maintained in
the papacy, in spite of all the efforts which his
adversary made to regain it. Berenger II., after
having sustained a long sie<,'e at St. I. eon, fell at
length (964) into the hands of the conqueror, who
sent him into exile at Uamberg, and compelled his
son, Adelbert, to take refuge in the court of Con-
stantinople.

All Italy, to the extent of the ancient kingdom
of the Lombards, fell under the dominion of the
Germans ; only a few maritime towns in Lower
Italy, with the greater part of Apulia and Ca-
labria, still remained in the power of the Greek*.
This kingdom, together with the Imperial dignify,
Otlio transmitted to his successors on the throne
of Germany. From this time the Germans held it
to be an imiolahle principle, that as the Imperial
dignity was strictly united with the royalty of
Italy, kings elected by the German nation should,
at the same time, in virtue of that election, become
Kings of Italy and Emperors. The practice of this
triple coronation, viz., of Germany, Italy, and
Rome, continued for main centuries; and from
Otho the Great, till Maximilian l.(l')OS), no king
of Germany took the title of Kmperor, until after
he had been formally crowned by the Pope.

The kings and emperors of the house of
Saxony did not terminate their conquests with the
dominions of Lorraine and Italy. Towards the cast

v.v,., .:-..,..-. r, ......

Kr. :..,.n, ,.., Mil

M III. A.D. 002-1074.

K . . .- I .
I' /..'..-.

ml tin- i, -ill., ihey extended them beyond the
BM! ami i. \ 1 ()> M...

tweei. . r ; the Aholril.

Rhedariativ .:>-, (In- Slavonians 01

.. the Sorsbians, the Dalemlncians, the '
tan*ns,tAe Milaians,an< -him; the dukes

also of Bohemia and Poland, although they often
look up anna in defence of their liberty ami .
pendence, were all reduced to subjection, and again
compelled to pay trihutc. In unli-r ! . un- their
tuba lesion, the Saxon kings iiitrt>duri*<l German
..Liu. - mt. 1 1 hi- .-..11.111. r.-.l countries; ind founded
there several margravates, such a that of the North,
on this aide of the Elbe, afterward* called Bran-
dcnhuri; ; ..n. 1 in the East, those of Miania and
Losat 'In- (treat adopted measures for

promulgating Christianity among Minn. Tin- l>i-
nhopri. of Oldenburg in Wagria, of Havelburg,
Brandenburg, Meissen, Meraebuix, /i-itz ; those

mania or Poscn, in Poland, of Prague in
It li.-mia; and la.Htly, the mclro|Miliii of Magdeberg,
all owe their origin to this monarch. HU grand-
son, the Kmperor Otho III., founded (in 1000)
tin- Archbishopric of Cinemta, in Poland, to whirl)
. 'ijectcd the l>ishoprica of Colbcrif, Cracow,
and Brealau, resenring Posen to the metropolitan
Magdeburg.

- ixon dynasty became extinct (1024) with

the emperor Hrnry II. It was succeeded by th.it

i,. "ininonl) railed the Salic. Conrad

II., the first emperor of this house, united to the

in crown the kingdom of Burgundy; or, as

sometimes culled, the kingdom of Aries.
This monarchy, situate between the Rhine, the
Reuss, Mount Jura, the Saone, the Uhone, and
Mi.- Alps, had been divided among a certain num-
ber of counts, or governors of provinces, who, in
consequence of the weakness of their last kings,
Conrad and Rudolph III., had converted their
temporary jurisdictions into hereditary and patri-
monial offices, after the example of the French
noSilii), who had already usurped the same power.
The principal and most puissant of these Burgun-
diaii the counts of Provence, Vienne,

: wards called Dauphins of Vicnnc), Savoy,

.nd), and Monthclliard ; the Archbishop of
l.\"iis, Besanyon, and Aries, and the Bishop of
Basle, &c. The contempt in which these power-
ful vassal* held the royal authority, inductd Ro-
dlph to .ippl\ lor protection to his kinsmen the
l-'.mpcrors Henry II. and Conrad II., and to ac-
knowledge them, by several treaties, his heirs and
successor* to the crown. It was in virtue of these
treaties, that Conrad II. took possession of the
kingdom of Burirnndv (lux') on the death of

Ko.lolph III. lit- maint.ii I his rights bv

of arms against Eudes, Count of Champagne,
who claimed to be the legitimate successor, as
being nephew to the hut king.

This reunion was but a feeble addition to the
power of the German emperors. The bishops,
counts, and great vassal* of the kingdom they had
newly acquired, still retained the authority which
they had usurped in their several departments ;
and nothing was left to the emperors, but the
exercize of their feudal and proprietor)- rights.
together with the slender remains <>f the demesne
lands bflon^ini; to the last kings. It is even pro-
bable, that the high rank which the Burgundian
nobles enjoyed excited the ambition of those in

.ny, and emboldened then to usurp the

name picroir

ron Conrad II. (1033) and Henry
III. (lo:i), were both crowned Kings of Bur.
gund}. 1 l ,.. : : l.othaire conferred the
Ticeroyaity or regency on Conrad Duke of Zah-

it, who thiii t....k the litli- '
Regent of Burxuiid). li.-ithold IV., ...n ot '
rad, resigned (I I. ">'), in fuM>ur of the Kinprror
11- I., hit rights of Ticcrovalty over that pert
of the kingdom situate beyond .Mount Jura. Sw it -
I, at that time, was subject to the Dukes of
Zahringvn, who, in order to retain it in Tassalafe
to their got eminent, fortified Morges, Mouden,
'i Inn, and Berthoud ; and built the cities of
Frihourg and Berne. On tin- extinction of the
./tan dukes ( ll'.H ), Switzerland became an
immediate province of the empire. It was after-
wards (121H) formed into a republic; and the
other parts of the kingdom of Burgundy or Aries
were gradually united to France, as we shall see
in course of our narrative.

The Hungarians, since their first invasion under
I. oiii- rr.nfant, had wrested from the (ierman
crown all its possessions in Panuonia, with a part
of ancient Noricum ; and the boundaries of '
many had been contracted within the river I
Bavaria. Their growing preponderance after-
wards enabled the Germans to recover from the
Hungarians a part of their conquests. They suc-
ceeded in expelling them, not only from Noricum,
but even from that part of Upper 1'annonia which
lies between Mount Cetius, or Kahlenberg ax it it
called, and the river Leila. Henrj III. secured
the possession of these territories by the treaty of
peace which he concluded (1043) with Samuel,
surnamed Aba, King of Hungary. This part of
Hungary was annexed to the Eastern Margin vale,
or Austria, which then began to assume nearly its
present form.

Such then was the progressive aggrandisement
of the German empire, from the rcu'n of Henry I.
to the year 104U. I'mler its most nourishing
state, that is, under the F.mperor Henn 11 i
embraced nearly two-thirds of the monarch) of
Charlemagne. All Germany between the Rhine,
the Eyder, the Oder, the Leita, and the Alps ; all
Italy, as far as the confines of the Greeks in Apu-
lia and Calabria ; Gaul, from the Hhine to the
Scheldt, the MI-US.-, and the Rhone, acknowledged
the supremacy of the emperors. The Dukes of
II. .hernia and Poland were their tributaries ; a de-
pendence which continued until the commotions
which agitated Germany put an cud to it in the
thirteenth century.

nan), at this period, ranked as the ruling
power in F.urope ; and this preponderance was
not owing so much to the extent of her posses-
. as to the vigour of her government, which
si ill maintained a kind of system of political >.
The emperors may be regarded as true mon:.
ill-;., using, at their pleasure, all di-.niities, civil
and ecclesiastical possessing very huge domains
in all parts of the empire and exercising, indi-
vidually, various branches of the sovereign power ;
only, in affairs of great importance, asking the
advice or consent of the grandees. This great-
ness of the German emperors gave rise to a sys-
tem of poll!) which the 1'opes took great care to
support with all tin ir credit and authority. Ac-

Schism at Rome.
30 Henry III. and IV.
: Italy.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Feudal t-ystt-m.
Power of the Clergy.

Ittshuyrirs. Kiiyai Cities.

cording to this system, the whole of Christendom
composed, as it were, a single and individual re-
public, of which the Pope was the spiritual head,
and the Emperor the secular. The duty of the
latter, as head and patron of the Church, was to
take eogni/ance that nothing should be done con-
trary to the general welfare of Christianity. It
was his part to protect the Catholic Church, to be
the guardian of its preservation, to convocate its
general councils, and exercise such rights as the
nature of his office and the interests of Christianity
seemed to demand.

It was in virtue of this ideal system that the
emperors enjoyed a precedency over other mo-
uarchs, with the exclusive right of electing kings ;
and that they had bestowed on them the title of
masters of the world, and sovereign of sovereigns.
A more important prerogative was that which they
eel in the election of the Popes. From
Otlio the Great to Henry IV., all the Roman
pontiffs were chosen, or at least confirmed, by the
emperors. Henry III. deposed three schismatical
popes (104(5), and substituted in their place a
German, who took the name of Clement II. The
same emperor afterwards nominated various other
popes of his own nation.

However vast and formidable the power of these
monarchs seemed to be, it was nevertheless far
from being a solid and durable fabric ; and it was
easy to foresee that, in a short time, it would
crumble and disappear. Various causes conspired
to accelerate its downfall ; the first and principal of
which necessarily sprang from the constitution of
the empire, which was faulty in itself, and incom-
patible with any scheme of aggrandisement or
conquest. A great empire, to prolong its dura-
bility, requires a perfect unity of power, which
can act with despatch, and communicate with faci-
lity from one extremity to the other ; an armed
force constantly on foot, and capable of maintain-
inir the public tranquillity ; frontiers well defended
against hostile invasion ; and revenues propor-
l to the exigencies of the state. All these
characteristics of political greatness were want-
ing in the German empire.

That empire was elective ; the states co-operated
jointly with the emperors in the exercise of the
legislative power. There were neither permanent
armies, nor fortresses, nor taxation, nor any regu-
\ stem of finance. The government was with-
out vigour, incapable of protecting or punishing,
or even keeping in subjection, its remote provinces,
consisting of nations who differed in language,
manner*, and legislation. One insurrection, though
(Hii-lli .I. was only the forerunner of others ; and
the conquered nations shook off the- joke with the
name facility as they received it. The perpetual
wars of the emperont in Italy, from the tirst con-
quest of that count rj by (Mho the Great, prove,
in a manner most evident, the strange imbecility
of the government. At every change of reign, and
little revolution which happened in Ger-
many, the Italians rose in arms, and put the em-
perors again to the necessity of reconquering that
Kingdom ; which undoubtedly it was their interest
to have abandoned entirely, rather than to lavish
for so many centuries their treasures and the blood
of their people to no purpose. The climate of
Italy wax also disastrous to the Imperial armies ;
and many successions of noble German families
found there a foreign grave.

An inevitable consequence of this vitiated con-
stitution, was the decliiie of the royal authority,
and the gradual increase of the power of the no-
bility. It is important, however, to remark, that
in Germany the progress of the feudal system had
been much less rapid than in France. The dukes,
counts, and margraves, that is, the governors of
provinces, and wardens of the marches, continued
for long to be regarded merely as imperial officers,
without any pretensions to consider their govern-
ments as hereditary, or exercise the rights of sove-
reignty. Even fiefs remained for many ages in
their primitive state, without being perpetuated in
the families of those to whom they had been ori-
ginally granted.

A total change, however, took place towards
the end of the eleventh century. The dukes and
counts, become formidable by the extent of their
power and their vast possessions, by degrees, con-
stituted themselves hereditary officers ; and not
content with the appropriation of their duchies and
counties, they took advantage of the weakness of
the emperors, and their quarrels with the popes,
to extort from them new privileges, or usurp the
prerogatives of .royalty, formerly reserved for the
emperors alone. The aristocracy, or landed pro-
prietors, followed the example of the dukes and
counts, and after the eleventh century they all
began to play the part of sovereigns, styling them-
selves, in their public acts, By the Grace of God.
At length fiefs became also hereditary. Conrad
II. was the first emperor that permitted tae trans-
mission of fiefs to sons and grandsons ; the suc-
cession of collateral branches was subsequently
introduced. The system of hereditary feudalism
became thus firmly established in Germany, and,
by a natural consequence, it brought on the de-
struction of the imperial authority, and the ruin of
the empire.

Nothing, however, was more injurious to this
authority than the extravagant power of the clergy,
whom the emperors of the Saxon line had loaded
with honours and benefactions, either from a zeal
for religion, or with the intention of using them as
a counterpoise to the ambition of the dukes anil
secular nobility. It was chiefly to Otho the Great
that the bishops of Germany were indebted for
their temporal power. That prince bestowed on
them large grants of land from the imperial do-
mains ; he gave them towns, counties, and entire
dukedoms, with the prerogatives of royalty, such
as justiciary powers, the right of coining money,
of levying tolls and other public revenues, &c.
These rights and privileges lie granted them un-
der the feudal law, and on condition of rendering
him military servitude. Nevertheless, as the dis-
posal of ecclesiastical dignities belonged then to
the crown, and fiefs had not, in general, become
Hereditary, the Emperor still retained possession of
tlio-.e which he conferred on the clergy: these he
bestowed on whomsoever he judged proper, using
them, however, alwaj-s in conformity with his own
views ami inter, -ts.

The same policy that induced Otho to transfer
to the bishops a large portion of his domains,
led him also to intrust them with the government
of cities. At that time, there was a distinction
of towns into royal and jirrfectoridl. The latter
were dependent on the dukes, while the former,
subject immediately to the king, gave iKe to \\lut

Onfsry VII.. Ftope.

k] ' i

ri.KHMJ 111. A.H. 0621074.

i-. . i. .-

I, ,- MI.. IT. II . ill, ,1 I,,!/,, -:,(/ ...'.,. ! .,.-:;.

these royal cities that thr (ii-nimn king* w .

the practice of establishing roanU nd burgomas-

r >sj*titS| to exercise in their name the
rifhts of justice, civil and rriminal, the levying
of money, customs, Ac. M well M other pre-
rogative* usual I > t<> t! km.-. (Mho
oufcrrad the counties, or goven.o,,!,,],, "'
where bishop resided, on toe hUh>|M themselves,
who, in process . ul<- use of this new
powci - to their own a

.ml rv-uder them mediate and episcopal, in-
tead of bring immediate and royal as they were
originally.

The successor* of < Mho, a impolitic an himself,

- example. Ill ciuiscipiciicc of this, the

possessions of tin- i P.UM \\i-n-. I \ .(_:.>, reduced

liintf, niul the authority nl tin- cmjM-rors de-

tttaed uith the diminution of their wealth.

bishop*, at first .(.voted to tin- emperors, both

necessity and gratitude, no sooner perceived

their nun strength, than they were tempted t

ii-.,- of n. ami in ji.in the secular princes, in

order to tap the imperial authority, M well as to

WUtolidate their own power. To these M-veml

cause* of the downfall <>t' theemjiire must be added

the new power of the K...U.HI pontiffs, the origin

of \vlin-h i ascribed to l'.,pi- dnirory VII. In

the following 1'eriod, this matter will be treated

ore in detail ; meantime, we shall proceed to

i:iet view of the other states that figured

during this epoch on the theatre of Kurope.

The dynasty of the Oiniiii'iiles in Spain, founded
about the middle of the eighth century, wax over-
turned in the eleventh. An insurrection having
happened at Cordova again.-.! the Caliph Husehein,
that prinee wus ilethroneil (1005), and the caliph-
ale ended ill 10'.'". The governors of rities and

province*, and the principal nubility of the Arabs,
formed thi-ni-i-lves into independent -
under the title of king*; and a* many pet?
hometan State* roue in Spain n.s there 1ml heen
principal cities. The most i-onsiilerable of these
were the kingdom* of C'onlova, Seville, Toledo,
I.tahon, Sangosaa, Tortosa, N 'ah -ncia, Murcia, &c.
This partition of the caliphate of Cordova enabled
the princes of Christendom to aggrandise their
own power at the expense of the Mahometans.
Besul l.ims ,,| I., ,., u . there

i-\l--ted in Spaiii. .it the eonillieneement of the
eleventh rentlirv, the eoiinty of Custille, which

had been dismembered from the kingdom of Leon,
and th. .ountv of Barcelona, which acknowledged
the sovereignty of the Kinir* of r ranee.

8' ire, had the for-

tune to unite in hi< own fainilj all these different
sovereignties, with the exception of Barcelona;
and as thin occur :it the name time with

the destruction of the caliphate of Cordovi, it
would hive he.-n easy for the ( d l,t ,in

inplete avendency over the Mahometans, if
their had kept their forre* united. Hut th.

N tvarre fell into the name mistake that had

been so fatal to the Mahometans; he divided hi*

dominion* anmng lu sons (1036). Don Uarcias,

the eldest, h:id Navarre, and was the ancestor of a

line of Navarre- ,, !,

d'Alhret. was deposit (1512) by Ferdinand

I .-nliti u:il. the younger son,

King of Leon and Castille, were descended all the

sovereigns of Cu-nlle and Leon down to <J
Isabella, who tr^ e kingdoms (1474).

by marriau .and the Catholic. Lastly,

Da lUmira. natural son of Sancho, was the stem

from whom sprung all !). king* of Arragon, down

dinand, who, h\ hi- marriage with Isabella,

happened to unite all the different Christian State*

in Spain; and put an end also to the dominion of

ri in that p. iim-.ul:i.

In France the royal authority declined more and
more, from the rapid pro^n-sn which the feudal
i made in th.it kingdom, after the !

' the Buld. The Duke* and the

Counts, usurping the right* of royalty, made war
on each cither, and raised on every occasion tin-
standard of revolt. Tin- kings, in order to gain
IIH-, and maintain others in their allegiance,
were obliged to u'ive up to them in succession
iirnnch of the royal revenue ; so that the last
.re reduced to such a state

of di- tress, that, far from being able to counter-
balance the power of the nobility, they had hardly
left wherewithal to furnish a scanty subsistence
for their court. A change of dynasty became
then indispensable ; and the throne, it was evident,
must fell to the share of the most powerful and
daring of it* vassals. This event, which had Ion-
been foreseen, happened on the death of Louis
.i-named the Slothful (!M7), the last of the
Carlovingians, who died childless at the age of
twenty.

Hugh Capet, great-grandson of Robert the
Strong, possessed at that time the central parts of
the kingdom. He was Count of Pan*, Duke of
France and Neustria ; and his brother Henry was
master of the duchy of Burgundy. It was not
difficult for Hugh to form a party; and under
their auspices he got himself proclaimed k
Noyon, and crowned at llheim*. Charles Duke
<>f Lorrain, paternal uncle of the last king, and
sole leu'itimate heir to the Carlovincian line,* ad-
vanced his claims to the crown : he seized b\
of arms on Laon and Rheims ; but being betrayed
by the Bishop of Laon, and delivered up to his
: iv .1. he was confined in a prison at Orleans, where

he ended his days ,

Hugh, on mounting the throne, restored to the
possession of the crown the lands and dominion*
which had belonged to it between the Loire, the
Seine, and the Meuse. His power gave a n. w
lustre to the royal dignity, which he found means
( render hereditary in his family; while at the
same time he permitted the grandees to transmit
to their descendants, male and female, the duchies
and counties which they held of the crown, re-
it merely the feudal superiority. Thus
the feudal government was firmly establish.
France, by the hereditary tenure of the great
and that kingdom was in coim-quc:
among a certain mini er of powerful va**als, who
tendered fealty and homagv to their kings, and
marched at their command on military expeditions ;
but who nevertheless were nearly absolute masters
in their own dominion*, and often dictated the
law to the sovereign himself. H'jgh was the pro-
genitor of the Capetian dynasty of French kings,
I from hi* own surnan

Kngland, during the feeble reigns of the Anglo-
Saxon princes, successors to Alfred the Great, had
sunk under the dominion of priests and monks.

Dunes, Kings of Kngland.
HanilJ II.. S.ixon Kiii^'.
William tin? l'oni|iUTor.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Nurnian coui|ur>t-, in
Italy and Sicily,
monarchy.

The consequence was, the utter ruin of its finances,
and its naval ami military power. This exposed
tlic kingdom afresh in the attacks of the Dunes
(991), who imposed on the English a tribute or
tax, known by the name of Danegelt. Under the
command of their kings Sueno or Sweyn I., and
Canute the Great, they at length drove the Anglo-
Saxon kings from their thrones, and made them-
selves masters of all England (1017). But the
dominion of the Danes was only of short continu-
ance. Tlie English shook otf their yoke, and
conferred their crown on Edward the Confessor
( 1042), a prince of the royal blood of their ancient
kings. On the death of Edward, Harold, Earl of
Kent, was acknowledged King of England (106G) ;
but he met with a formidable competitor in the
prison of William Duke of Normandy.

This prince had no other right to the crown
than that founded on a verbal promise of Edward
the Confessor, and confirmed by an oath which
Harold had given him while Earl of Kent. Wil-
liam landed in England (October 14th, 1066), at
the head of a considerable army, and having offered
battle to Harold, near Hastings in Sussex, he
gained a complete victory. Harold was killed in
the action, and the conquest of all England was
the reward of the victor. To secure himself in
his new dominions, William constructed a vast
number of castles and fortresses throughout all
parts of the kingdom, which he took care to fill
with Norman garrisons. The lands and places
of trust, of which he had deprived the English,
were distributed among the Normans, and other
foreigners who were attached to his fortunes. He
introduced the feudal law, and rendered fiefs
hereditary ; he ordered the English to be dis-
armed, and forbade them to have light in their
houses after eight o'clock in the evening. He
even attempted to abolish the language of the
country, by establishing numerous schools for
teaching the Norman-French ; by publishing the
laws, and ordering the pleadings in the courts of
justice to be made in that language ; hence it
happened that the ancient British, combined with
the Norman, formed a new sort of language, which
still exists in the modern English. NVilham thus
became the common ancestor of the kings of Eng-
land, whose right to the crown is derived from him,
and founded on the Conquest.

About the time that William conquered Eng-
land, another colony of the same Normans founded
the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The several
prounces of which this kingdom was composed
were, about the beginning of the eleventh century,
dixided among the Germans, Greeks, and Ara-
bians, 4 who -wire incessantly waging war with
each other. A band of nearly a hundred Nor-
mans, equally covetous of war and glory, landed
in that country (101G), and tendered thrir s -ruees
to the Lombard princes, vassals of the German
empire. The bravery which they displayed on
vaiious occasions made these princes desirous of
retaining them in their pay, to serve as guardians
of their frontiers against the Greeks, and Arabians.
The Greek princes very soon were no less eager
to gain their services ; and the Duke of Naples,
with tin- view of attaching them to his interest,
ceiled to them a large territory, where they built
the city of Aversa, three leagues from Capua. The
Emperor Conrad II. erected it into a county

(1038), the investiture of which he granted to
Raiuulph, one of their chiefs.

At this same period the sons of Tancred con-
ducted a new colony from Normandy into Lower
Italy. Their arrival is generally referred to the
year 1033 ; and tradition has assigned to Tancred
a descent from Hollo or Robert 1. Duke of Nor-
mandy. These new adventurers undertook the
conquest of Apulia (1041), which they formed
into a comity, the investiture of which they ob-
tained from Henry III. Robert Guiseard, ;ie
of the sons of Taucred, afterwards (1047) com-
pleted the conquest of that province ; he added to
it that of Calabria, of which he had also deprived
the Greeks (1059), and assumed the title of Duke
of Apulia and Calabria.

To secure himself in his new conquests, as well
as in those which he yet meditated from the t\\o
empires, Robert concluded a treaty the same year
with Pope Nicholas II., by which that Pontiff con-
firmed him in the possession of the duchies of
Apulia and Calabria; granting him not only the
investiture of these, but promising him also that
of Sicily, whenever he should expel the Greeks
and Arabians from it. Robert, in his turn, ac-
knowledged himself a vassal of the Pope, and en-
gaged to pay him an annual tribute of twelve
pence, money of Pavia, for every pair of oxen in
the two duchies.* Immediately after this treaty,
Robert called in the assistance of his brother
Roger, to rescue Sicily from the hands of the
Greeks and Arabs. 6 No sooner had he accom-
plished this object, than he conquered in succes-
sion the principalities of Bari, Salerno, Amain',
Sorrento, and Benevento ; this latter city he sur-
rendered to the Pope.

Such is the origin of the duchies of Apulia and
Calabria ; which, after a lapse of some years, were
formed into a kingdom under the name of the
Two Sicilies.

As to the kingdoms of the North, the light of
history scarcely began to dawn there until the
introduction of Christianity, which happened about
the end of the tenth or beginning of the eleventh
century. 7 The promulgation of the Gospel opened
a way into the North for the diffusion of arts
and letters. The Scandinavian states, Denmark,
Sweden, and Norway, which before that time
were parcelled out among independent chiefs.
began then to form plans of civil government, and
to combine into settled monarchies. Their new
religion, however, did not inspire these nations
with its meek and peaceable virtues, nor overcome
their invincible propensity to wars and rapine.
Their heroism was a wild and savage braver},
which emboldened them to face all dangers, to
undertake desperate adventures, and to achieve
sudden conquests, which were lost and won with
the same rapidity.

Harold, surnamed Blaatand, or Blue teeth, was
the tirst sole monarch of the Danes, who with his
son Sweyn received baptism, after being van-
quished by Otho the Great (905). Sweyn relapsed
to paganism; but his son Canute the Great, on
his accession to the throne (1014), made Christi-
anity the established religion of his kingdom. He
sent for monks from other countries, founded
churches, and divided the kingdom into dio'
Ambitious to distinguish himself as a conqueror,
he afterwards subdued England and Norway

mm M >.;..<

,', ,..!:,:,.,. I

ol) HI. A.I). WW.-HI74.

Kimc oT IW VMM41

8). To UMM be added a part of Scotland

ml Sweden; and conferred in lui own h:
no of lii sous, named Swejn. tin- kn.
. and ou the other, named 1 Unlit
i 1), inn uk.. These acquisition*, hou
were merely temporary. Sweyn WM dnvi n from

:.lflund an.!

also shook <r tin- Danish \..' K .- , !MM, .., the
death of llardicanuti- ; and Magnus, Km_-.

. even made himself master <if Denmark, which
tlid nut r. .tire indcp' . t \ the

death of that prince ( 1047). -^

The ancient il\n i-t\ <>f King* who occupied the
tlirniii- .-i 1). iiin.iik from the mot remote ages
it know n ti v the name of Skiuldtutgt, because,
u I'.i'.ulous tradition, tin-j were de-
kccmlcd from Sktalit, a pretended aou of the
t'lm.nis Oilin, win), from heing the conqueror, was
.\;ilii-il int.. the dcitv of tin- North. Tin- king*
who reigned after Sweyn II. were called Eitrt-
t/tiilrs, from that monarch, who WM the on of
I'lf :i Danish nobleman, and E.ilnt/i, sinter to
Canute the Great. It was this Swevn that raised
tin- stand ml of revolt against Magnus, King of
Nor A . mil kept possession of the throne

until hit death.

In s \vi-ili-n, the kings of the reigning family,
descended, as is allege*!, from Rcgner Lodbrok,
took the title of Kinifs of t'psal, tin- place of tlii-ir
ri sideii, .-. Olaus Skotkonung changed this title
into tint of King of Sweden. He was the Knit
.irh of his nation that embraced Christianity,
ami evrtcd himself to propagate it in his king-
iloin. Sijjefroy, Archbishop of York., who was
-.cut into Swi-ili-n liy Kthclrcd, Kiinj of England,
I. iptized Olaus and his w holt- family (1001). The
roiiM-rxion of the Swedes would haw- l>< m more
.nuns, hail not the zeal of Olaus been n--
traiiu-il l>\ tin- Swedish Diet, who decided for full
liln-rty <>f oon-M-iriiri-. Hi-nce the strange mixture,
hoth of ilix-triiie and worship, that long prevail<-<l
in Swi-ili-n, whi-n- Jrsu^ Cliri-t was profanely as-
sociated with Odin, and the Pagan goddess Freya
confounded with the Virgin. Anund J:ii-i|iii-,
son of Olaus, contributed much to the progress of
utility; and his zeal procured him the title

Christian King.

In Norway, Olaus I., surnamed Trygyuetom,
towards the end of the tenth century, constituted
himself the apostle and missionary of his people,
and undertook to convert them to Christianity by
torture and punishment. Iceland and Greenland*
were likew i-.e converted by his efforts, and after-
wards became his tributaries (1020). One of his
-ors, Olaus II.,. ... .1 the Fat, and also the
. succeeded in extirp.iiin^ paganism from
Norway (1020); but he used the cloak of religion
to establish his own authority, by destroying seve-
ral petty king*, who before this time possessed

-.eir own dominions.

Christianity was likewise instrumental in throw-
ing some rays of light on the history of the Scla-
!>y imparting to them the know-
ledge of letters, and i i in the scale of
taiu-e amoti the civilized nations of Europe.
1 1 tans, who were settled north of the
ih.lucil by the Germans, and com-
! to emhr.u-c Christianity. The haughtiness)
of Thierry, Margrave of the North, in-
: them to shake otf the joke, and to concert

a general insurrection, which broke out in the
t otlio 1! i lie episcopal palace*.

,.--. i:,.| . ,.n. nt, were destroyed; and the
people returned ooee more to the Mperslition* of
paganism. Tboae tribes that Inhabited Brauden-
l.ui k '. part of 1'om.T.inia and Mrcklrnburg, known

ly iind.-r the name of \\diiam and We-
laUbe*. formed lhemelves into a rrpublinui or

. l.od v. and took the name of LiulittanM.

\hoiritcs, on the contrary, the Polabes, and
the \Vagrians,* were decidedly for a monan
goTcrnineiit, the capital of which was Hxed at
Sleckleuhurg. Some of the prince* or sovereign*
of these Utter |M-ople were stvleil Kinya of the
FeiMttf. The result of this general revolt was a
series of long and bloody wars between (he
(ermans and Sclavonians. The latter defended
their civil and religious liberties with a remark-
able courage and perseverance ; and it was not till
after the twelfth century that they were milxlued
and reduced to Christianity by the continued
efforts of the Dukes of Saxony, and the Mar-
grave* of the North, ami by means of the crusades
and colonies which the Germans despatched into
their country. '

The first duke of Bohemia that received bap-
tism from the hands, as is supposed, of Metho-
dins, bishop of Moravia (894), was Borzivo\.
His successors, however, returned to idolatry;
and it was not till near the end of the tenth
century, properly speaking, and in the reign of
Boleslaus II., tturnamed the 1'ious, that ChrUti-
anitv became the established religion of Holienu.i
(91)9). Tlie^e duke, wep- \asvils and the tribu-
taries of the German empire; and their tribute
consisted of 500 silver marks, and 1*20 oxen.
They exercised, however, all the rights of sove-
reignty over the people ; their reign was a system
of terror, and they seldom took the opinion or
advice of their nobles and grandees. The suc-
cession was hereditary in the rei^nin.' dv nasty;
and the system of partition was in use, otherwise
the order of succession would have been fixed and
permanent. Over a number of these partitionary
princes, one was vested with certain rights of
superiority, under the title of Grand 1'
according to a custom found very prevalent among
the half-civilized nations of the north and cast of
llurope. 11 The greater proportion of the inhabi-
tants, the labouring classes, artisans, and domes-
tics, were serfs, and oppressed by the tyrannical
yoke of their master*. The public sale of men
was even practised in Bohemia ; the tit!
tenth part of which, belonged to the sovereign.
The descendants of Horxivoy possessed the throne
of Bohemia until 1306, when the male line became
extinct.

The Poles were a nation whose name doe* not
occur in history before the middle of the t
century; and we owe to Christianity the first in-
timations that we have regarding this people.

;slaus I., the first duke or prince of the
Pole* of whom we posses* any authentic accounts,
embraced Christianity (000), at the solicitation of
his spouse Dambrowka, sister of Boleslaus II..
duke of Bohemia. Shortly after, the first bishopric
in Poland, that of Poscn, was founded by Otho
the (in-at. Christianity did not, however, tame
the ferocious habits of the Poles, who remained
for a long time without the least progress in men-

i dominion.
34 Vladimir tin- Ur.Mt.

Grand Pukes i>i Kiu\v.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Christianity introduced in

1 liniu'ary.
Schism of Greek church.

tal cultivation. 18 Their government, as wretched
as that of Bohemia, subjected the great body of
the nation to the most debasing sen itude. Tin-
ancient sovereigns of Poland were hereditary.
They ruled most de-pot it-ally, and with a rod of
iron; and, although they acknowledged them-
selves vassals and tributaries of the German em-
perors, they repeatedly broke out into open re-
lielliou, asserted their absolute independence, and
! a successful war against their masters.
Boleslaus, sun of Mierzislaus I., took advantage
<>f the troubles whieh rose in Germany on the
de-ith of Otlio III., to possess himself of the
Man-lies of Lusatia and Budissin, or Bautzen,
which the emperor Henry II. afterwards granted
him as fiefs. This same prince, in despite of the
Germans, on the death of Henry II. (1025), as-

su (1 the royal dignity. Mieczislaus II., son

of Boleslatis. after having cruelly ravaged the
country situate between the Oder, the Elbe, and
the Saal, was compelled to abdicate the throne,
and also to restore those provinces which his father
bad wrested from the Empire. The male descend-
ants of Mieczislaus I. reigned in Poland until the
death of Casimir the Great (1370). This dynasty
of kings is known by the name of the Piasts, or
Piasses, so called from one Piast, alleged to- have
been its founder.

Silesia, which was then a province of Poland,
received the light of the Gospel when it first
visited that kingdom ; and had for its apostle,
as is supposed, a Romish priest named Geoffry,
who is reckoned the first bishop of Smogra (966).

In Russia, Vladimir the Great, great-grandson
of Ruric, was the first grand duke that embraced
Christianity (988). He was baptized at Cherson
in Taurida, on the occasion of his marriage with
Anne Romanowna, sister of Basil II. and Constan-
tine VIII., Emperors of Constantinople. It was
this prince that introduced the Greek ritual into
Kn->ia, and founded several schools and convents.
The alphabet of the Greeks was imported into
a along with their religion ; and from the
reign of Vladimir, that nation, more powerful and
united than most of the other European states,
carried on a lucrative commerce with the Greek
empire, of which it became at length a formidable
rhnl.

At the death of that prince (1015), Russia
comprehended those vast regions which, from east
to west, extend from the Icy Sea and the mouth
of the Uwina, to the Nit-men, the Dniester, and
the But;-; and southward of this last river, to the
Carpathian Mountains, and the confines of Hun-
and Moldavia. The city of Kiow, on the
Dnieper, was the capital of the empire, and tin-
residence of the Grand Dukes. This period also
^ave rise to those unfortunate territorial partitions
whieh, by dividing the Russian monarchy, exposed
it to the insults and ravages of the neighbouring
nations. Jaroslaus, one of the sons of Vladimir,
made himself famous as a legislator, and supplied
the Novogorodians with la\vs to regulate their
courts of justice. IS'o less the friend and protector
of letters, be em ploy ctl himself in translating M eek
books into tin- Sclavonian language. He foiinth d
a public school at Novo^orod, in whieh three
hundred children were educated at bis sole ex-
pense. His daughter Anne married Henry I.,
King of France ; and this princess was the com-

mon mother of all the kings and princes of the Ca-
pet ian dynasty. )?

Hungary was divided, in the tenth century,
among several petty princes, who acknowledged a
common chief, styled the Grand 1'rinee, whose
limited authority was reduced to a simple pre-emi-
nence in rank and dignity. Each of these princes
assembled armies, and made predatory excursions,
plundering and ravaging the neighbouring coun-
tries at their pleasure. The East and West
suffered long under the scourge of these atrocious
pillagers. Christianity, which was introduced
among them about the end of the tenth century,
was alone capable of softening the manners, and
tempering the ferocity of this nation. Peregrine,
bishop of Passau, encouraged by Otho the Great,
and patronised by the Grand Prince Geisa, sent
the first missionaries into Hungary (1)7^). St.
Adelbert, bishop of Prague, had the honour to
baptize the son of Geisa, called Waic (994), but
who received then the baptismal name of Stephen.

This latter prince, having succeeded his father
(997), changed entirely the aspect of Hungary.
He assumed the royal dignity, with the consent of
Pope Sylvester II., who sent him on this occasion
the Angelic Crown, 13 as it is called ; the same,
according to tradition, which the Hungarians use
to this day in the coronation of their kings. At
once the apostle and the lawgiver of his country,
Stephen I. combined politics with justice, and
employed both severity and clemency in reforming
his subjects. He founded several bishoprics, ex-
tirpated idolatry, banished anarchy, and gave to
the authority of the sovereign a vigour and effi-
ciency which it never before possessed. To him
likewise is generally ascribed the political divisions
of Hungary into counties, as also the institution
of palatines, and great officers of the crown. He
conquered Transylvania, about 10023, according
to the opinion of most modem Hungarian authors,
and formed it into a distinct government, the chiefs
of which, called Vaivodes, held immediately of his
crown.

The history of the Greek empire presents, at
this time, nothing but a tissue of corruption, fa-
naticism and perfidy. The throne, as insecure as
that of the Western empire had been, was filled
alternately by a succession of usurpers ; most of
whom rose from the lowest conditions of life, ami
owed their elevation solely to the perpetration of
crime and parricide. A superstition gross in its
nature bound as with a spell the minds of the
Greeks, and paralysed their courage. It \\;;-<
carefully cherished by the monks, who had found
means to possess themselves of the- government,
by procuring the exclusion of the secular el
from the episcopate; and directing the attention
of princes to those theological controversies often
exceedingly frivolous, which were produced and
reproduced almost without intermission. 14 Hence
originated those internal commotions and distrac-
tions, those schisms and sects, which more than
once divided the empire, and shook the throne it-
self.

These theological disputes, the rivalry between
the two patriarchs of Koine and Constantinople,' 1
and tlie contests respecting the Unitarian converts,
led to an irreparable schism between the churches
of the Hast and the West. This controversy was
most keenly agitated under the pontificate of John

I) III. A.D. 9021074.

I :. ..c

.U.

N III., ft] 'MIS was pa-

triai.

effort* which ervnl k cmpcrori ami

patriarch* afterward* made in !' . t : unu.i, with

the KooiMi we, the .< , grew

more implacable, and ended ( ta.it in a tin.il rup-

Sctwecn tin- two churches. A icovcrnr

weak and > capricious M t
r.ul.l 11. .t I. ut be perpetually exposed t,. t
road* of foreign gotha,

Avar*. Bulgarians, lluwiaiis. Hungarian!*, Chaxars,
ami I , harassed the . M.J.H. <>n tl..

f tl. ; while tin- 1'ei-: ins"

santly exhausting it* strength in tin- Kant, and >>i,
ule of the Kuphrate*. All these nations,
however, were content with mcrclv desolating the
frontier- .if the empire, and imposing frequent rmi-
trihiiti.tii- ..ii t In- ( reeks. It was a Uak raenrwl
t'-r the Lombard*, the Arab-, the Normans, and
tin- Turk-, to detach from it whole provinces, and
by degrees to hasten its downfall.

(In Lombard* were the first that conquered

from the Greeks the greater part of Italy. Pales-

tin. , svria, and the whole possessions .V th>- Iliu-

111 (Jreatcr Asia, an well as V.\ |>t. Northern

Africa, and the Isle "of Cyprus, v in the

sercnth century by tin- Arabs, who made them-

- masters of Sicily, and three times laid siege

ustantinople (669, 717, 719). They would

have even oceeeded in taking this Eastern capital,

and annihilating the (ire,-k empire, had not the

courage of Leo the Isaurian, and the siirj.

ta of the Grryeoit, or Greek Fire, 17 rendered
their effort* useless. At length, in the eleventh
centurv, the Normans conquered all that remained
to the Greeks in Italy ; while the Seljuk Turks
who must not be confounded with the Ottoman
-, deprived them of the greater part of Asia
M

Turk is the generic appellation for all the Tar-
tar nations, 1 * mentioned !>\ the ancient* under the
name m. Their original country was

in those vast regions situate t<> the north of Slount
Caucasus, and eastward of the Caspian SIM.

'lie Jilloll, or OxtlS of the aiieients, especially

in < harusm, Transoxiana, Turkestan, &c. About
the . i-hth eentiirv, the Aralx had passed the <
and rendered the Turks of Charasm and Trai,
ana tlu-ir tributaries. The) in-trneied them in the
n-liirinii and laws of Mahomet ; mil, 1>\ a tramii-
tion rather extraordinary, it afterwards happened,
tint the tammi-hed impo-i-d the y.>k<- "n their
new masters.

empire of the Arabs, already enfeebled by
ritorial losses whieh I. mentioned^

deelined n'.-re and more, from a I t the middle

of the ninth eentury. The Caliph- of It ,.-,| ,.| had
eniiimiMed thr ini-taki- of truitilitf their p.-i^.iii- to

a military guard of foreigners, 1 * MZ. the Tmk-.
who, taking advantage of the etremin.,

S noon arrogated to th.m,,h,- the whole

authority, and abuned it so fcr, as to leave the

lent on their will, and to

res the hereditary succession of

Tim-, ill the verj eelitie of the

I" Bagdad, then- rows a multitn.:
:ntiei or d\n.i-tie-, the heads of whieh.
the title .,(' l-:>,i 1 1- 01 I Omm nnl. r. \. r. -i-e.l

preme |HI\VIT; ! iMiii: nothing more to the
than :i pre-.-uunenri- of dignity, and that

rather of a ipiritual than a temporal nature. Be-
i homage and respect
< paid him, hi* name continued
HIM-,! in the mosques, and inscribed
.in were granted all l>

'. -i-iii'l IM!-,

from mal-

lltlll^ till !

son, or e\. n attempting their lives, whenever It
might nerve to promote their interest.

ral revolution broke out under
liph Hahdi. That prinee, wishing to am

es of usurpation, thought <>f creating a new
mini-ter, whom he inrested with the title of Kmir-
al-Otnra, or Commander :..! r- ; and

ml .in him powers mnrh more timple than
those of his vizier. Tin- mini-ter, whom he se-
leeted from the Emirs, officiated even in tin- grand
mosque of Bagdad, instead of the caliph ; and hi-
name was pronouneed with equal honour- in the
divine kervice throughout the empire. Tin

.tin h the i-aliph employed to re-establish his
authority, onlj tended to accelerate its de-true-
tion. The Hiivvides, the- most powerful dynasty
among the Kmini, arrogated to then,.. .
nity of Chief Commander (945), and seixed both
the rit) ami the sovereignty of Bagdad. The Ca-
liph, stript of all temporal power, was then onlv
grand Iman, or sovereign-pontiff of the Mussul-
man religion, under the protection of the Bowidian
prince, who kept him a- his pri-oner at Bagdad.

Such waa the sad situation of the Arabian em-
pire, fallen from its ancient glory, when a nume-
rous Turkish tribe, from the centre of Turkestan,
appeared on the stage, overthrew the dominions of
the How ides; and, after imposing new fetters on
the caliphs, laid the foundation Of a powerful em-
pire, known b\ the name of the Seljnkides. This
roving tribe, whieh took its name from Seljuk a

ilman Turk, after having wandered for -
time with their nocks in Transoxiana, passed tin-
Jihon to seek pasturage in the province of Chora-
nan. Reinforced by new Turkish c,>|oiiie- from
Transoxiana, this coalition became in a little time
so powerful, that To^rul Heg, grandson of Seljuk,
DM the boldness to make him-elf be proclaimed
Sultan in the < it v "t N ie-abur,* the capital of ( 'ho-
rasan, ami formally announced him-elf a- a con-
qncror ( lolts). '1'hi- prinee, and the sultai.
nuccessore, subdued by degrees most of the pro-

in Asia, which formed the caliph r
Bagdad.* 1 Thev annihilated the power oftli
wide*, reduced the Caliphs to the condition of
dependents, ami at length attacked also the po-
setwions ot tin (in-ck empire.

Alp-Arslan, the nephew and immediate suc-
cessor of Togrul Beg. gained a fiiirn.il
Armenia, over t! ' r Romania Diogenes

I M71 ), who was then- taken pri-mcr. i

which thi- ev. nt caused in the
\:m favourable to the Turks, who sobcd nut
onlv what remainel to the < . but

also several provinces .
licia, Isauria, Pamphylia, 1
onia, Cappadocia, Cialatia, Pontus, and Bithynia.

the Seljiikides was in it-

rioiiri-hing -Lite under the sultan Mai- k Shah.
: successor of Alp-Andan. The caliph
Caycm, in confirming to this prince the tit

D 2

Soljuckiau Pyn.-isty.
36 Power of H> 1:11:111 Pou-
tiffs.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Romo subject to Kings

of Germany.
Hildebruml, Cardinal.

Sultan and Chief Commander, added also that of
Commander of the Faithful, which before that time
hud never been conferred but on the caliphs alone.
On the death of Malek (1092), the disputes that
rose among his sons occasioned a civil war, and
the partition of the empire. These vast territories
were divided among three principal dynasties de-
scended from Seljuk, those of Iran, Kerman, and
Ruitm or Rome. This latter branch, which ascribes
its origin to Soliman, great grandson of Seljuk,
obtained the provinces of Asia Minor, which the
Seljukides had conquered from the Greeks. The
princes of this dynasty are known in the history of
the Crusades by the name of Sultans of Iconium
or Cogni, a city of Lycaonia, where the sultans

established their residence after being deprived by
the crusaders of the city of Nice in Bithyiiia.
The most powerful of the three dynasties was that
of the Seljukides of Iran, whose sway extended
over the greater part of Upper Asia. It soon,
however, fell from its grandeur, and its states
were divided into a number of petty sovereignties,
over which the Emirs or governors of cities and
provinces usurped the supreme power.** These
divisions prepared the way for the conquests of
the crusaders in Syria and Palestine ; and fur-
nished also to the Caliphs of Bagdad the means
of shaking off the yoke of the Seljukides (1152),
and recovering the sovereignty of Irak- Arabia, or
Bagdad.

PERIOD IV.

FROM POPE GREGORY VII. TO BONIFACE VIII. A.D. 10741300.

A NEW and powerful monarchy rose on the ruins
of the German empire, that of the Roman Pon-
titl"-; which monopolized both spiritual and tem-
poral dominion, and extended its influence over all
the kingdoms of Christendom. This supremacy,
whose artful and complicated mechanism is still
an object of astonishment to the most subtle poli-
ticians, was the work of Pope Gregory VII., a
man born for great undertakings, as remarkable
for his genius, which raised him above his times,
as for the austerity of his manners and the bound-
less reach of his ambition. Indignant at the de-
pravity of the age, which was immersed in igno-
rance and vice, and at the gross immorality which
pervaded all classes of society, both laymen and
ecclesiastics, Gregory resolved to become the re-
former of morals, and the restorer of religion. To
succeed in this project, it was necessary to replace
the government of kings, which had totally lost its
power and efficiency, by a new authority, whose
salutary restraints, imposed alike on the high and
the low, might restore vigour to the laws, put a
stop to licentiousness, and impose a reverence on
all by the sanctity of its origin. This authority
was the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, of which
Gregory was at once the creator and inventor.

This extraordinary person, who was the son of
a carpenter at Saona in Tuscany, named Boni-
zone, or, according to others, descended of a Ro-
man family, had paved the way to his future great-
ness under the preceding pontiffs, whose counsels
he had directed under the title of Cardinal Hilde-
brand. While Cardinal, he engaged Pope Nicolas
II. to enter into a treaty with Robert Guiscard
(1059), for procuring that brave Norman as an ally
and a vassal of the Holy See. Taking advantage,
likewise, of the minority of Henry IV ., lie caused,
thi> same year, in a council held at Rome, the
famous decree to be passed, which, by renewing
the election of the pontiffs principally to the car-
dinals, converted the elective privileges which the
emperors formerly enjoyed in virtue of their crown
riirlit'v into a ]>er>onal favour granted by the Pope,
and emanating from the court of Rome.

On the death of Pope Nicolas II., Cardinal Hil-
debrand procured the election of Alexander II.,
without waiting for the order or concurrence of
the Imperial court ; and he succeeded in maintain-
ing him in the apostolical chair against Pope Ho-
norius II., whom the reigning empress had des-
tined for that honour. At length, being raised
himself to the pontifical throne, scarcely had he
obtained the Imperial confirmation, when he put
in execution the project which he had so long been
concerting and preparing, viz. the erecting of a
spiritual despotism, 1 extending to priests as well
as kings ; making the supreme pontiff the arbiter
in all affairs, both civil and ecclesiastical the
bestower of favours, and the dispenser of crowns.
The basis of this dominion was, that the Vicar of
Jesus Christ ought to be superior to all human
power. The better to attain his object, he began
by withdrawing himself and his clergy from the
authority of the secular princes.

At that time the city of Rome, and the whole
ecclesiastical states, as well as the greater part of
Italy, were subject to the kings of Germany, who,
in virtue of their being kings of Italy and Roman
emperors, nominated or confirmed the popes, and
installed the prefects of Rome, who there received
the power of the sword in their name. They
sent also every year commissioners to Rome, to
levy the money due to the royal treasury. The
popes used to date their acts from the years of
the emperor's reign, and to stamp their coin with
his name; and all the higher clergy were Mrtually
bound and subject to the secular power, by the
solemn investiture of the ring and the crosier.
This investiture gave to the emperors and the other
sovereigns the right of nominating and confirming
bishops, and even of deposing them if thcj s;iw
cause. It gave them, moreover, the right of con-
ferring, at their pleasure, those fiefs and royal pre-
rogatives which the munificence of princes had
vested in the Church. The emperors, in putting
bishops and prelates in possession of tlieM- tirfs,
iiM-d the symbols of the riiii,' and the crosier,
which were badges of honour belonging to bishops

IM.IIIOI) IN. A.I). 10741300.

I),.- I'.! - l> .,,t.:.
"Hb.

ml abbots. They made them, at the same time,
take the oath of ti-l--lit\ uml allegiance; ami i!i:
Was III- origin of then their ..hll-

gation In furnih (hi-ir princes With troojw, and to
pSJCfbrm in

Nil. |. r-.liil.it. .1, unilt-r p:iii.

muiur.iliMii. all - rights of

investiture, by a fnrtnal decree which he puL
in a council assembled at Rome in 1074. There
was more than the simple ceremony ( th.
and the crosier implied in this int. -r-i t. H.
aimed at depriving princes nl" tin- ru'lil I'l n-'ini-
nating, coi.: -(--posing prelates, as well

M of receiving their fealty and homage, and exact-
ing military service. He thu br-.k. all those tie
t'\ winch tin- l>ihop* were hrlil in allegiance and
subordination In princes ; making them, in thin
respect, entirely independent. In suppressing
investitures, the pontiff had yet a more important
hjcct in view. It wma his policy to withdraw
both himself and hit successors, M well as the
whole ecclesiastical state, fn>in tin- power of the
German king* ; especially by abolishing the right
which these prince* had to long exercised of no-
minating and continuing the I'opes. He saw, in
fact, that if he could succeed in rendering the
clergy independent of the secular power, it would
follow, by a natural consequence, that the Pope,
M being supreme head of the clergy, would no
longer be dependent on the emperors ; while the
emperor, excluded from the nomination and in-
ire of Li-hops, would have still less right to
interfere in the election of pontiff*.

Thin affair, equally interesting to all sovereigns,
was of the utmost importance to the kings of
Germany, who had committed the unfortunate
error of putting the greater part of their domains
into the hands of ecclesiastics; so that to divest
those princes of the right to dispose of ecclesias-
tical ttefc, was in fact to deprive them of nearly
the half of their empire. The bishops, vainly
flattering themselves with the prospect of an ima-
ginary liberty, forgot the valuable gifts with which
the emperors had loaded them, and enlisted under
the banners of the Pope. They turned against
the secular princes those arms which the latter had
imprudently trusted in their hands.

There yet subsisted another bond of union
which connected the clergy with the civil and
political orders of society, and gave them an inte-
rest in the protection of the secular authority, and
that was, the marriages of the priests ; a custom
in use at that time over a great part of the NVrst,
as it still is in the Greek and Kasteni Churches.
It it true, that the law of celibacy, already recom-
mended strongly by St. Augustine, had 1 n

adopted by tin- K<>mih church, which neglect. -d
no means of introducing it by degrees into all the
chiin IICH of the Catholic communion. It hail met
with better success in Italy and the south of
l>e than in the northern countries; and the
priests continued to marry, not only in Germany,
England, and the kingdoms of the North, but
even in Fr.ir.ce. Spain. :ind Italy, notwithstanding
the l;iw of celibacy, which had been sanctioned in
vain by a multitude of council*.

,-orv Nil., perceiving that, to render the

completely dependent on the Pnpe.it wnuld

be necessary to break this powerful connexion,

renewed the law of celibacy, in a council held at

P. ining the married priest* either
to ijuit th. ir ui%. -, or renounce the Hrrrdotal

The wli.-le -lergy murmured again-'
unfeeling rigour of this decree, which even ex
tumult and insurrection in sererml countries of
nv , ,...'. it required all the firmnesa* of Gre-
gory and his successors to abolish clerical mar-
riage*, and establish the law of celibacy through-
out the Western churches.* In thus dbwmng

ular ties of the clergy, it was far fror
intention of Gregory VII. to render them inde-
pendent. His designs were more politic, and
more suitable to his ambition. Hr wished to
make the clergy entirely subservient to his own
elevation, and even to employ them as an instru-
ment to humble and subdue the power of the
princes.

The path had already been opened up to him
by the FaUte Decretals, as they were called, forged
about the beginning of the ninth century, by the
famous impostor Isidore, who, with the view of
diminishing the authority of the metropolitans,
advanced in these letters, which he attributed to
tin- early bishops of Rome, a principle whose
main object was to extend the rights of the Romish
See, and to vest in the popes a jurisdiction till
then unknown in the church. Several Popes be-
fore Gregory VII. had already availed themselvei
of these False Decretals ;* and they had even
been admitted as true into different collections of
canons. Gregory did not content himself with
rigidly enforcing the principles of the impostor
Isidore. He went even farther ; he pretended to
unite, in himself, the plenary exercise both of the
ecclesiastical and episcopal power; leaving nothing
to the archbishops and bishops but the simple title
of his lieutenants or vicars. He completely un-
dermined the jurisdiction of the metropolitans and
ln-h.>ps, by authorising in all cases an appeal to
the Court of Rome; reserving to himself exclu-
sively the cognizance of all causes termed major
including more especially the privilege of judging
and deposing of bishops. This Utter privilege
had always been vested in the provincial councils,
who exercised it under the authority, and with
the consent of the secular powers. Gregory abo-
lish- d this usage ; and claimed for himself the
power of judging the bishops, either in person or
by his legates, to the exclusion of the Synodal
Assemblies. He made himself master of these
assemblies, and even arrogated the exclusive right
of convocating General Councils.

This ]M>ntitr, in a council which beheld at Rome
(107H), at length prescribed a new oath, which
the bishops were obliged to take; the main object
of which was not merely canonical obedi
hut even fealty and homage, such as the prelates,
as lieges, vowed to their sovereign* ; and
the pontiff* claimed for himself alone, bearing that
tli. > should aid and defend, against the whole
world, his new supremacy, and what he called the
r, mil right* qf St. Peter. Although various so-
vereigns maintained possession of the homag.

v-il from their bishops, the oath imposed by

rv nevertheless retained its full force; it was

tiled hv his successors, and extended

to all bishops without distinction, in spite of its

inconistency with that which the bishops swore to

their princes.

Another very effectual means which Gregory

Gregory VII. excom-
38 inuiiii- lies tin- KIH-

peror Henry IV.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Emperor Henry IV.

does pemmce.
Church censures.

VII. made use of to confirm his now authority,
send, more frequently than his predecessors
hud done, legates into the different states and
kingdoms of Christendom* He made them a kind
\ernors of provinces, and invested them with
the most ample powers. These legates soon ob-
tained a knowledge of all the affairs of the pro-
duces delegated to their care; which great 1\
impaired the authority of the metropolitans and
provincial councils, as well as the jurisdiction of
the bishops. A clause was also inserted, in the
form of the oath imposed on the bishops, which
obliged them to furnish maintenance and support
tor these legates; a pnictiee which subsequently
gave place to frequent exactions and impositions
on their part.

While occupied with the means of extending
his power over the clergy, Gregory did not let
slip any opportunity of making encroachments on
the authority of princes and sovereigns, which he
represented as subordinate to that of the Church
and the Pope. As supreme head of the Church,
he claimed a right of inspecting over all kings and
their governments. He deemed himself authorized
to address admonitions to them, as to the method
of ruling their kingdoms ; and to demand of them
an account of their conduct. By and by, he
presumed to listen to the complaints of subjects
against their princes, and claimed the right of
being a judge or arbiter between them. In this
capacity he acted towards Henry IV., emperor of
Germany, who enjoyed the rights of sovereignty
OUT Rome and the Pope. He summoned him to
Rome (1076), for the purpose of answering before
the synod to the principal accusations which the
nobles of Saxony, engaged in disputes with that
prince, had referred to the Pope. The emperor,
burning with indignation, and hurried on by
the impetuosity of youth, instantly convoked an
a-M-mbly of bishops at Worms, and there caused
the pontiff to be deposed. No sooner was this
sentence conveyed to Rome, and read in presence
of the Pope in a council which he had assembled,
than Gregory ventured on a step till then quite
unheard of. He immediately thundered a sentence
of excommunication and deposition against the
Emperor, which was addressed to St. Peter, and
couched in the following terms :

" In the name of Almighty God, I suspend and
interdict from governing the kingdom of Germany
and Ital\, Henry, son of the Emperor Henry, who,
witli a haughtiness unexampled, has dared to rebel
against thy church. I absolve all Christians what-
ever from the oath which they have taken, or shall
hereafter take, to him ; and henceforth none shall
b permitted to do him homage or service as king ;
1'ir he who would disobey the authority of thy
Church, deserves to lose the dignity with which
he is invested. And seeing this prince has refused
to submit as a Christian, and has not returned to
the Lord whom he hath forsaken, holding com-
munion with the excommunicated, and despising
the advice which I tendered him for the safety of
'ill, I load him with curses in thy name, to
the end that people may know, even by experi-
. that thou art Peter, and that on this rock
the Son of the living (iod lias built his church ;
Hid that the gates of hell shall HCUT prevail
against it.''

This measure, which seemed at first to have

been merely the effect of the pontiff's impetuosity,
soon discovered of what importance it was for
him to persevere, and what advantage he might
derive from it. In humbling the Emperor, the
most powerful monarch in Europe, he might hope
that all the other sovereigns would bend before
him. He omitted nothing, therefore, that might
serve to justify his conduct, and endeavoured to
prove, by sophistries, that if he had authority to
excommunicate the Emperor, he might likewise
deprive him of his dignity ; and that the right to
release subjects from their oath of allegiance was
an emanation and a natural consequence of the
power of the Keys. The same equivocal inter-
pretation he afterwards made use of in a sentence
which he published against the same prince (1080),
and which he addressed to the Apostles St. Peter
and St. Paul, in these terms : " You, fathers and
princes of the apostles, hereby make known to the
whole world, that if you can bind and unbind in
heaven, you can much more, on earth, take from
all men empires, kingdoms, principalities, duchies,
marquisates, counties, and possessions, of whatso-
ever nature they may be. You have often de-
prived the unworthy of patriarchates, primacies,
archbishoprics, and bishoprics, to give them to
persons truly religious. Hence, if you preside
over spiritual affairs, does not your jurisdiction
extend a fortiori to temporal and secular dignities ?
and if you judge the angels who rule over princes
and potentates, even the haughtiest, will you not
also judge their slaves' Let then the kinus and
princes of the earth learn how great and irresistible
is your power ! Let them tremble to contemn the
commands of your church ! And do you, blessed
Peter, and blessed Paul, exercise, from this time
forward, your judgment on Henry, that the whole
earth may know that he has been humbled, not by
any human contingencies, but solely by your
power." Until that time, the emperors had exer-
cised the right of confirming the Popes, and even
of deposing them, should there be occasion ; but,
by a strange reverse of prerogatives, the popes
now arrogated to themselves the confirmation of
the emperors, and even usurped the right of de-
throning them.

However irregular this step of the pontiff might
be, it did not fail to produce the intended effect.
In an assembly of the Imperial States, held at
Tribur (1076), the Emperor could only obtain
their consent to postpone their proceeding to a
new election, and that on the express condition of
his submitting himself to the judgment of the
Pope, and being absolved immediately from the
excommunication he had incurred. In conse-
quence of this decision of the States, Henry crossed
the Alps in the middle of winter, to obtain recon-
ciliation with the Pope, who then resided \\ith the
famous Countess Matilda, at her Castle of Canossa,
in the Modencse territory. Absolution was not
granted him, however, except under conditions
the most humiliating. He was compelled to do
penance in an outer court of the castle, in a woollen
shirt and barefooted, for three successive days, and
afterwards to sign whatever terms the pontiff
chose to prescribe. This extraordinary spectacle
must have spread consternation among the sove-
reigns of Europe, and made them tremble at the
crnsurt's of the Church.

After this, Gregory VII. exerted his utmost

VII.'. m

t tatfeMl

I'EIUOI) IV. N.I). 1-.7 | -1JOO.

influence to engage all sovereigns, without dis-
n, to acknowledge themselves hi* vaesats
mml tributaries, (he Emperor Unas.

say be, lu a letter which he wrote to

II M

slave, hut let him know Ihut she u art over him M
sovereign." From that time thr pout iff regarded
the empire as a nef of hU church ; and afterwards
whan letting up a riral emperor to 11 rj IV,
in the penon of Hermann of Luxemburg, he
exacted from him a formal oath of vamtalage.
Gregory punoed the aamr condm t in regard to
thrr sovereigns of !.>;> .p. . Holclaus II.,
I'oland, having killed Stanislaus Bishop
icow, who had ventured to excommunicate
him, the pontiff took occasion from this to depose
that priii. . ; releasing all his suhje. N from tin ir
oaths of fidelity, ;in.l oven prohibiting the Polmh
bishops henceforth to crown any king without the
express consent <>f tin- 1'ope.

This aspiring pontiff stuck at nothing ; he re-
garded nothing, provided he could obtain his
object. However contrary the customs of former
time* were to his pretensions, hi* quoted them as
examples of authority, and with a boldness capable
posing anything on weak and ignorant mind*.
It was thus that, in order to oblige the French
nation to pay him the tax of one penny each
house, he alleged the example of Charlemagne,
and pretended that that prince had not merely
paid this tribute, but even granted Saxony as a
fief to St. Peter ; as he had conquered it \\ith the
assists nee of that apostle. In writing to 1'hilip I.
mce, he expressed himself in these terms :
ve to please St. Peter, who has thy kingdom
as well as thy mini in his power ; and who can
bind thee, and absolre in heaven as well as on
earth." And in a letter which he addressed to
the 1'rinces of Spain, he attempted to persuade
them, that the kingdom of Spain, being originally
the property of the Holy >> >ild not ex-

onerate themselves from paying him a tax on all
the lands they had conquered from the Infidels.

!! :itfirmed to Solomon, King of Hungary,
that Stephen I., on receiving his crown at the
hands of Pope Silvester II., had surrendered his
kingdom as free property t< the Holy See; and
.11 virtue of this donation, hi* kingdom was
to be considered as a part of the domain of the
church. He wrote in exactly the same st\
Gey*a hi* im mediate successor. In one of his
letters to Sueno, King of Denmark, he enjoins him
to delh-T up his kn, _.!. m to the power of the
Komish See. He refused ( 1076) to grant the royal
eUgBttl to Demetrius Swinimir. Duke <>f Croatia
and Dalm i .n the express condition

that he should do him homage lor hi* kingdom,
and engage to pay the Pope an annual tribute <>f
two hundred golden piece* of Ityzantium. This
pontiff hi. I th>- art of disguising his ambition so
dexterously, under the mask of justice and piety,
I hat he prevailed with various other sorereL-

w ledge themselves his vassals.
<"!:. i inferred to him hi* '

and h..m:i.,'e. ?.. the prejudice of those (puds I

- he owed to the En. - ml princes

i any, influenced by artifice or in-

. ibandoaed the emperor, and put i!>. m-

sclves under submission to 1 1 l (Forts

were not equally successful with William the Con-

queror, King of England, whom be had p.

him homage tar his king-
dom, after the manner of his rani predecessors.
That prince, too wise to be duped by papal impo-
liut be was not in a humour to
m homage which he bad never promised, and
which he was not aware bad ever been performed
by any of his predecessors. ")

The successors of Gregory VII. followed in the
path he had opened op, giving their utmost sup-

port to all his maxims and pretensions. In
sequence, a very great number of the prince* of
Christendom, some intimidated by the thunders
of ecclesiastical anathemas, others with a view to
secure for themselves the protection of the Holy
See, acknowledged these usurped powers of tin-
Popes. The Kings of Portugal, Arragon, England,
Scotland, Sardinia, the two Sicilies, and several
others, became, in course of time, vassals and tri-
butaries to the Papal See; and there is not a
doubt that the universal monarchy, the scheme of
which Gregory VII. had conceived, would have
been completely established, if some of his suc-
cessors had been endowed with his vast ambition,
and his superior genius.

In every other respect, circumstances were such
as to hasten and facilitate the progress of this new
pontifical supremacy. It had commenced in a
barbarous age, when the whole of the Western
world was covered with the darkness of ignorance;
and when mankind knew neither the just rights of
sovereignty, nor the bounds which reason and
equity should have set to the authority of the
priesthood. The court of Rome was then the
only school where politics were studied, and the
Popes the only monarchs that put them in prac-
tice. An extravagant superstition, the in-, parable
companion of ignorance, held all Europe in subjec-
tion ; the Popes were reverenced with a veneration
resembling that which belongs only to the Deity ;
and the whole world trembled at the utterance of
the single word Excommunication. Kings were
not sufficiently powerful to oppose any successful
resistance to the encroachments of Home ; their
authority was curtailed and counteracted by that
of their vassals, who seized with eagerness every
occasion which the- Popes offered them to aggran-
dize their own prerogatives at the expense of the
sovereign authority.

The KmpiTor of Germany, who was alone able
to coiintei \-u! tliis new spiritual tyranny, was at
open war with hi* grand vassals, whose usurpa-
tions be was anxious to repress ; while they .
respecting the majesty of the throne, and consult-
ing only their own animosity against the en.
blindly seconded the pretension* of the pontiff.
The emperor, however, did all in hi power to
oppose a barrier to thin torrent of
despotism ; but the insolence of Gregory
so extravagant, that, not content to attack
with spiritual weapons, he net up rival emperors,
and excited intestine wars against him ; ami hi*
successors even went so nv as to arm the sons
against their own father. Such was the origin of

.tef- which arose between the Empire and

the Papacy, under the reign of Henry IV., and

which agitated both (iermany and Italy for a

1 hey gave birth,

nlo. to the two factions of the (itielphs and the

Mines, the former Imperial, and the other

Concordat of Worms.
Decay of the Uerm.iu
empire.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

The Ecclesiastical states.
Tin- Mendicant orders.
Pope Innocent III.

Papal, who for a long course of time tore each
other to pieces with inconceivable fury.

Henry V., son and successor of Henry IV.,
terminated the grand dispute about the imestitnres
of the ring and the crosier. By the Concordat,
which he concluded at Worms (1122) with Pope
Calixtus II., he renounced tin- ceremony of the
ring and the cross ; and granting to the churches
free liberty of election, he reserved nothing to
himself, except the privilege of sending commis-
sioners to the elections, and giving to the newly
elected prelates, after consecration, the investiture
of the regalian rights, by means of the sceptre, in-
stead of the ring and crosier. The ties of vassal-
age which connected the bishops with the empe-
rors, were still preserved by this transaction, con-
trary to the intentions of Gregory VII. ; but the
emperors being obliged to approve of the persons
whom the Church should hereafter present, lost
their chief influence in the elections, and were no
longer entitled, as formerly, to grant or refuse in-
v.-titure.

These broils with the court of Rome, the check
which they gave to the Imperial authority, joined
to the increasing abuses of the feudal system,
afforded the princes and states of the Empire the
means of usurping the heritable succession of their
duchies, counties, and fiefs ; and of laying the
foundations of a new power, which they after-
wards exercised under the name of territorial
superiority. Frederic II., compelled by the pres-
sure of events, was the first emperor that sanc-
tioned the territorial rights of the states by char-
ters, which he delivered to several princes, secular
and ecclesiastic, in the years 1220 and 1232. The
Imperial dignity thus lost its splendour with the
power of the emperors ; and the constitution of
the Empire was totally changed. That vast mo-
narchy degenerated by degrees into a kind of fe-
deral system; and the Emperor, in course of time,
became only the common chief, and superior over
the numerous vassals of which that association
was composed. The extraordinary efforts made
by the Emperors Frederic I. and II. of the house
of Hohenstaufen, 4 to re-establish the tottering
throne of the empire, ended in nothing ; and that
house, one of the most powerful in Europe, was
deprived of all its crowns, and persecuted even to
the scaffold.

The empire thus fell into gradual decay, while
the pontifical power, rising on its ruins, gained,
d;iy by day, new accessions of strength. The suc-
cessors of Gregory VII. omitted nothing that
policy could suggest to them, in order to humble
more and more the dignity of the Emperors, and
to briii:,' them into a state of absolute dependence,
1>\ arrogating to themselves the express right of
confirming, and even of deposing, them ; s and
compelling them to acknowledge their feudal su-
periority. Being thus no longer obliged to submit
their election to the arbitration of the Imperial
court, the ambitious pontiffs soon aspired to abso-
lute sovereignty.

The cuutom of dating their acts, and coining
their money with the stamp and name of the em-
peror, disappeared after the time of Gregory VII.;
and the authority which the emperors had exer-
cised at Rome ceased entirely with the loss of t lie
prefecture or government of that city; which Pope
Innocent III. took into his own hands

obliging the prefect of Rome to swear the usual
oath of homage to the Apostolic See, which that
magistrate owed to the Emperor, from whom he
received the prefecture. Hence it happened, that
the chiefs of the Empire, obliged to compromise
with a power which they had learned to dread,
had no longer any difficulty in recognising the
entire independence of the Popes ; even formally
renouncing the rights of high sovereignty which
their predecessors had enjoyed, not only over
Rome, but over the Ecclesiastical States. The
domains of the church were likewise considerably
increased by the acquisitions which Innocent III.
made of the March of Ancona, and the duchy of
Spoleto ; as well as by the personal property or
Patrimony of the Conn tens Matilda,*' which the
Emperor Frederic II. ceded to Honorius III.
(1220), and which his successors in the Apostolic
chair formed into the province known by the name
of the Patrimony of St. Peter.

One of the grand means which the Popes em-
ployed for the advancement of their new autho-
rity, was the multiplication of Religious Orders,
and the way in which they took care to manure
these corporations. Before the time of Gn
VII., the only order known in the "West was that
of the Benedictines, divided into several families
or congregations. The rule of St. Benedict, pre-
scribed at the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle (S17) to
all monks within the empire of the Franks, was
the only one allowed by the Romish Church ; just
as that of St. Basil was, and still is, the only one
practised in the East by the Greek church. The
first of these newly invented orders was that of
Grammont in Limosin (1073), authorized by Pope
Gregory VII. This was followed, in the same
century, by the order of Chartreux, and that of St.
Antony. 7 The Mendicant orders took their rise
under Innocent III., near the end of the twelfth,
and beginning of the thirteenth century. Their
number increased in a short time so prodigiously,
that, in 1274, they could reckon twenty-three
orders. The complaints which were raised on
this subject from all parts of Christendom, obliged
Pope Gregory to reduce them, at the Council of
Lyons, to four orders, viz., the Hermits of St.
William or Augustines, Carmelites, the Minor or
Franciscan friars, and the Preaching or Dominican
friars. The Popes, perceiving that they might
convert the monastic orders, and more particu-
larly the mendicants, into a powerful engine for
strengthening their own authority, and keeping
the secular clergy in subjection, granted by dt
to these fraternities, immunities and exemptions
tending to withdraw them from the jurisdiction of
the bishops, and to emancipate them from e-u'ry
other authority, except that of their Heads, and
the Popes. They even conferred on them various
privileges, such as those of preaching, confession,
and instructing the young, as being the most
likely means to augment their credit and their in-
fluence. The consequence was, that the monks
were frequently employed by the Popes in quality
of legates and missionaries ; they were feared anil
respected by sovereigns, singularly revered hj the
people, and let slip no occasion of exalting a
power to which alone they owed their promotion,
their respectability, and all the advantages they
enjoyed.

Of all the successors of Gregory VII., he who

. MM .. .. r. -, It

SB* : i

,, ,..,...

R0v0ftoMnr *

i i Kion iv. A.I). 1074 laoo. -.--.

nbled him moat in the superiority of hU
reniu*. mini (In- extent of his knowledge, was
Inno i i 111., who was of tin- famih <

i* of Segni, and elevated 1.1 tin- pontificate
t the age ..! .17. !! WM M ambitious M I hut
poMift", and equally fertile in resources ; m
even surpassed him in tin- I... I. In.--, of hi< plans,
and the Mcces* rprises. Innocent an-

nounced himself M tke tnoetttar oj Si. Pet.
tip by God to govern mot only tke fhurck, but the
whole world. It was this 1'<>|H- \\li.i tint made
ate of the iunoiu comparison ahnut tin- mm and
the moon : A God (says he) has placed hro grrat
luminaries m tkr firmammt, the out to rule the
day, ami tke offer to give light by ntyht, so has ke
tttmbtiukem 1 two grand potrrrt, tke pontifical and
tke royal ; and at tke moon reeeifr* ker light from
tke ma, to don royalty borrow its splendour from
tke Papal authority.

N content to exercise the legislative power as
In- pleased, by means of the miim-rous decrrtals
which hi- di>p<T-nl IIXIT all Christendom, thin
pontiff was tht- tint that arrogated to himself the
prr motive of di*|>ensing with the laws themselves,
in \irtueofwhat hi- termed the plrnitudr of his
futtrrr. It is t<> him also that the origin of the
Inquisition i< a<K-riht>d, that terrible trilmn:il which
afterward* became the firmest prop of sacerdotal
dcwpotism ; but what is of more importance to
remark, in, that he laid the foundation* of that
exorbitant power, which hi* successor* have since

:~cd in colhtinir <>r presenting to ecclesiastical
dignities and benefices.

secular princes having hern deprived of
their rights of nomination and confirmation, l>\
tin- decrees of tiri-_'"r\ VII. and hi* successors,
the privilege of electing bishop* was restored to
tin- clergy and congregation of each church, and
to the chapter* of convents ; the confirmation of
the elected prelates belonged to their immediate
superiors; and collation to the other ecclesiastical
benefice* was referred for the bishops and ordi-
\!1 these regulation* were changed to-
wards the end of the twelfth century. The canon*
of cathedral churches, authori/cd hy the Court of
Koine, claimed to themselves the right of election,
t the exclusion of the clergy and the people;
while the Popes, gradually interfering with eler.
and collations, found means to usurp the
nomination and collation to almost all ecclesiastical
benefice*. The principle of these usurpations waa
founded on the fmlso decretals; according to which
all ecclesiastical jurisdiction emanates from the
court of Rome, as a river flows from its source.
It i* from the Pope that archbishops and bishop-
hold that portion of authority with which they are
endowed; and of which he does not di\est him-
self, by the act of communicating it to them ; but
is rather the more entitled to r<>-i>pcr.itc with them
in the exercise of that jurisdiction as often as he
may judgi- |>

This principle of a conjunct authority, furnished

y plausible pretext fur the Pope* to interfere
in collation to benefices. This collation, according
to the canon law, being essential to the jurisdiction
of bishops, it seemed natural that the Pope, who

irrt-d in the jurisdiction, should also concur
in the privilege* derived from it, namely, induc-
tion or coll.iti.in to l>ci>. ;i. .-. I'mm the right of
concurrence, therefore, Innocent III. proceeded

to that <>f /<

tfot*, brio* the fint pontiff that
made ue i,f it. M. . M rri.ed that right, especially
with regard to benefice* which bad newly Detoma
vacant by the death of their incumbent*, when at
in <>f It .n,. ; in u bi'-h ca*r* it WM easy to

l>ate or gt-t the start of thr hbnopa. In the
same manner, this right wa* exrr mote

, by means of legate* a latrrr, whkh be
ilisj.. rs.-d OMT the diflerent province* of Christen*
Mum.

MI the right of prevention were derived the
provisional mandates, and the Gracra Rrpectotne*
(reversionary grant* or Hulls), letters granting
promise of church livings before they became
vacant. The l'..p.-, nut having legate* every-
where, and wishing, besides, to treat the bishops
with some respect, began by addressing to them
l.-tti-rs of recommendation in favour of those per-
sons for whom they were anxious to procure

These l.-tters becoming t

and importunate, the bishops ventured to refuse
their compliance ; on which the Popes began to
change their recommendations into orders or
mandates ; and appointed commissioner* to en-
force tlx-ir execution l>\ means of ecclesiastical
censures. These mandates were succeeded by the
Graces Expectatives, which, properly SJM- >
were nothing else than mandates issued for '
tiees, whose titulars or incumbents were yet alive.
Lastly appeared the Rcxrrratiun*, which wen-
distinguished into general and special. Tl
general reservation was that of benefices becoming
vacant by the incumbent* dying at the court of
Rome. This was introduced by Pope Clement
IN. in 17(55, in order to exclude for e>er the
bishops from the right of concurrence and preven-
tion in benefices of that kind.

This first reservation was the forerunner of
several others, such as the reservation of all ca-
thedral churches, abbey*, and priories ; as also of
the highest dignities in cathedral and collegiate
churches ; and of all collective benefices, becoaa
ing vacant during eight months in the year, called
the Pope's months, so that only four months re-
mained for the ordinary collators ; and these, too,
encroached upon by mandates, expectative*, and
reservations. The Popes having thus seized til--
domination to episcopal dignities, it followed, by
a simple and natural process, that the confirmation
of all prelate*, without distinction, wa* in like
manner reserved for them. It would have even
been reckoned a breach of decorum to address an
archbishop, demanding from him the confirmation
of a bishop nominated by the PO|K> ; so that this
point of common right, which \cMcd the confirm-
ation of c\cr\ prelate in his imnicdiute sii]
waa also annihilated; and the Homish See waa at
length acknowledged over the whole Western
..i III. as the onl\ source of all jurisdiction, and
all ecclesiastical power.

An extraordinary rtcnt. the offspring of that
superstitious age. served still more to increase the
poucr of the I'oprs ; and that was the Crusades,
which the nations of Kuropc undertook, at their
reipiest and hy their orders, for the conquest of
Palestine or the Holy Land. These expeditions,
known by the iiume of Holy Wars, because re-
ligion was made the pretext or occasion of them,
require a somewhat particular detail, not me;
the circumstances that accompanied them, but also

lllgrimagc* to Je-
rusalem.
Crusadf preached.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Godfrey of liouillon.
C'aj'turc of Nice-.
Tukiufrof Jerusalem.

of the changes which they introduced into the mo-
ral and political condition of society. Pilgrimages
to Jerusalem, which were in use from the earliest
ages of Christianity, had become very frequent
about the beginning of the eleventh century. The
opinion which then very generally prevailed, that
the end of the world was at hand, induced vast
numbers of Christians to sell their possessions in
Europe, in order that they might set out for the
IIol\ Laud, there to await the coming of the Lord.
So long as the Arabs were masters of Palestine,
they protected these pilgrimages, from which they
derived no small emoluments. But when the
Seljukian Turks, a barbarous and ferocious people,
had conquered that country (1075), under the
Caliphs of Egypt, the pilgrims saw themselves
exposed to e\ery kind of insult and oppression. 8
The hmentable accounts which they gave of these
outrages on their return to Europe, excited the
L.'1-inT.il indignation, and gave birth to the roman-
tic notion of expelling these Infidels from the Holy
Land.

Gregory VII. was the projector of this grand
scheme. He addressed circular letters to all the
sovereigns of Europe, and invited them to make a
general crusade against the Turks. Meantime,
however, more pressing interests, and his quarrels
with the Emperor Henry IV., obliged him to
defer the projected enterprise ; but his attention
was soon recalled to it by the representation of a
pilgrim, called Peter the Hermit, a native of
Amiens in Picardy. Furnished with letters from
the Patriarch of Jerusalem to the Pope and the
princes of the West, this ardent fanatic traversed
the whole of Italy, France, and Germany ; preach-
ing everywhere, and representing, in the liveliest
colours, the profanation of the sacred places, and
the miserable condition of the Christians and poor
pilgrims in the Holy Land. It proved no difficult
task for him to impart to others the fanaticism
with which he was himself animated. His zeal
was powerfully seconded by Pope Urban II., who
repaired in person to France, where he convoked
the council of Clermont (1095), and pronounced,
in full assembly, a pathetic harangue, at the close
of which they unanimously resolved on the Holy
War. It was decreed, that all who should enrol
their names in this sacred militia, should wear a
n-d cross on their right shoulder: that they should
enjoy plenary indulgence, and obtain remission of
all tin i

From that time the pulpits of Europe resounded
with exhortations to the crusades. People of every
rank and condition were seen flocking in crowds
to assume the signal of the cross; and, in the fol-
.owiiiL' jear, innumerable bands of crusaders, from
the different countries of Europe, set out, one
after another, on this expedition to the East. 9 The
only exception was the Germans, who partook but
feebly of this uni\ers:il enthusiasm, on account of
the disputes which then subsisted between the
Emperor and the court of Rome. 10 The three or
four first divisions of the crusaders, under the
conduct of chiefs, who had neither name n>
perienee, man-bed without order and without
discipline; pillaging, burning, and wasting the
countries through which they passed. Most of
them perished from fatigue, hunger, or sickness,
or by the sword of the exasperated nations, whose
territories they had laid desolate. 11

To these unwarlike and undisciplined troops,
succeeded regular armies, commanded by experi-
enced officers, and powerful princes. Godfrey of
Bouillon (1096), Duke of Lorrain, accompanied
by his brother Baldwin, and his cousin Baldwin
of Bourg, with a vast retinue of noblemen, put
himself at the head of the first body of crusaders.
He directed his inarch through Germany, Hun-
gary, and Bulgaria, towards Constantinople, and
was soon followed by several French princes, such
as Hugh the Great, brother of Philip I., King
of France ; Robert, Duke of Normandy, son of
William the Conqueror ; Stephen VI., Count of
Blois ; Eustace of Boulogne, brother to Godfrey
de Bouillon ; and Robert, Count of Flanders ; who
all preferred the route by Italy. They passed the
winter in the environs of Bari, Brindisi, and
Otranto ; and did not embark for Greece until the
following spring. Boemond, Prince of Tarentum,
son to Roger, Earl of Sicily, at the instigation of
the French grandees, took the cross, after their
example, and carried with him into the East the
flower of the Normans, and the noblesse of Sicily,
Apulia, and Calabria. Lastly, Raymond IV.,
Count of Toulouse, accompanied by the Bishop of
Puy, traversed Lombardy, Friuli, and Dalmatia,
on his passage to the Holy Land.

The general rendezvous of the crusaders was
at Chalcedon in Bithynia. It is supposed that
their forces, united, amounted to six hundred thou-
sand combatants. They commenced their exploits
with the siege of Nice, capital of the empire of
Roum, of which they made themselves masters,
after having repulsed the Turks, who had ad-
vanced under the command of the Sultan Kili-
Arslan, the son of Soliman, premier sultan of
Roum. Another victory, gained over the same
sultan (1097) in the Gorgonian valley in Bithynia,
opened for the crusaders a passage into Syria.
There they undertook the siege of the strong city
of Antioch, which they carried after an immense
loss of lives (1098). Having at length arrived in
Palestine, the.y planned the attack of Jerusalem,
which the Caliph of Egypt had just recovered
from the Turks; and which the crusaders, in their
turn, carried by assault from the Egyptians (1099).
This city was declared the capital of a new king-
dom, the sovereignty of which was bestowed on
Godfrey of Bouillon, though he refused to take
the title of king. This famous prince extended
his conquests by a splendid victory, which he
gained that same year near Ascalon, over the
Caliph of Egypt. On his death, his brother
Baldwin succeeded him, and transmitted the
throne to his cousin Baldwin of Bourg, \v
posterity reigned in Jerusalem until the destruc-
tion of that kingdom by Saladin (1187).

Besides the kingdom of Jerusalem, which
comprehended Palestine, with the cities of Sidon,
Tyre, and Ptolemais, the crusaders founde
veral other states in the East. The earldom of
Edessa, first conquered by Baldwin, brother of
Godfrey, passed to several French princes in suc-
cession until the year 1144, when it was Mihdiied
by Atabek-Zenghi, commonly called San^nin.
The principality of Antioch fell to the share of
Boemond, Prince of Tarentum, whose heirs and
descendants added to it, in llss, the ('nnnu ,,f
Tripoli, which had been founded (1110) by Ray-
mond, Count of Toulouse, one of the crusaders.

era-

\ I). I.H4 1300.

1 !

!icv wen deprived b- ne and the

oiliiT of those sovereignties by the Mameluke* in

Lastly, tin- kingdom of Cyprus, which

ug of England, took

I ), WM urrriidrn-.l l>y that

JTUH nil the year I t-1. u ',. that iw .nd was
i ik-ii jHMHewuon of by the n-|-

The transient duration of these dim-rent ttates
presents nothing surprising. I < hrutians of

: ist, disunited among them-
on ill h.md.s, and incessantly attacked by powerful

.-, found themselves too remote l~riu Kurope
d> olitiiin from tlmt quarter any prompt or effective

ir. It wiit, theictore. impomiblc for them
l"ii,- to withstand the efforts of the Mahometan*,
\\li.i were animated, an well as the Christians, by
a sectarian semi, which led them (41 combine their
against tt ..f thrir religion and

thi-ir prophet. The enthusiasm of religious wan
iliil not, however, become extinct until nearly two
centuries. It was encouraged and supported by
the numerous privilege* which popts and sove-
reigns oonferrcd on the invader*, and by the rich
endowments that were made in their favour. All
Europe continued to be in motion, and all its
principal sovereigns marched in their turn to the
East, either to attempt new conquests, or maintain
those which the first crusaders had achieved.

grand crusades succeeded to the first ; all
of which were cither fruitless, or at least without
any important and durable success. Conrad III.,
Emperor of Germany, and Louis VII., King of
France, undertook the second (1147), on account
of the conquests of Atabck-'/.eiiirhi, who, three
Tears before, had made himself master of Edessa.
The third (I I*'.)) was headed by the Emperor
Frederic I., surnanied Barbarossa ; Philip Augus-
King of France; and Richard Creur -de- 1. ion
of England ; and the occasion of it, was the tak-
ing of Jerusalem by the famous Saladin (11S7).

urth was undertaken (1202), at the pressing
in-tiifatinn of Innocent III. Se\eral of thr French
and German nobility uniting with the
assumed the cross under the command of Boniface,
Marquis of Montferrat ; hut m-i. ,id of marchiin;
to P:> ended their expeilition by taking

iiitinople I'IOMI the Greeks. The fifth cru-
sade (1217) wan conducted by Andrew, King of

iiy. :itteniled hy many of the princes and
nubility of Germany, who had enlisted under the
banner of the Cross in consequence of the decrees
of the council of Lateral! (121">). The Emperor

Tic II. undertook the sixth ( 122*).- By a
treaty Inch he concluded with the Sultan of

, he obtained the restoration of Jerusalem
and several other cities of Palestine; although they
ih. I not long continue in his possession. The

.i.in Turk-, oppressed by the Moguls, seised
on ih- Holy Land (1244), and pillaged and burnt
Jem-alem. That famous < : \\it\i the

greater part of Pale-tine, fell afterwards under the
(loin. in. .11 of the Sultans of Egypt.

The -. -\enth and last grand crusade, was under-
taken hy Loafa l\. King of France (1248). He
it necessary to begin his conquests by
that l>ut his design completely mis-

made prisoner with his army after
lion at Mansoura (1250), he only obtained

hi- lihertN \,\ restoring Damietta, and paying a
large ransom to the >iltaii of Egypt. Th
ite is-.il.- of tbi< Ust e&pedition shirk
d of the I.uL.p. :UIH for crusading. Still,
however, they retained two important places on
the coast of >\m, i(. I'yre and Ptole-

Itut th> conquered

hy the Mamelukes (l'.".'l), there was no lunger

any talk about crusades to the East ; and all the

- i ' ( .:i of Home to revive them
ineffectual.

It now remaiiiM for us brietly to notice the ef-
fects which reunited from the crusades, WH
gard to the social and political tate of the n

Europe. One coliHequeii"
Was the aggrandisement of the K<>man P
who, iluring the u hoh- period of the crusades,
pla\ed the part of supreme chiefs and sovereign
:- of Christendom. It was at their request,
as we have seen, that th-c religious wars were
undertaken ; it was they who directed them by
means of their legates, who compelled em|>rrors
and kin;:-, by the terror of their spiritual arms, to
march under the banner of the Cross who taxed
the clergy at their pleasure, to defray the expenses
of these distant expeditions, who took under their
immediate protection the person.- and effect- of the
Crusaders, and emancipated them, by means of
i! pn\il._'es, from all dependence on any
po\\cr, ci\il or judiciary. The wealth of the
clergy was considerably increased during the time
of which we speak, both by the numerous endow-
ments which took place, ami by the acquisition
which the Church made of the immense landed
property which the pious owners sold them on
assuming the badge of the Cross.

These advantages which the See of Borne drew
from the Crusade* in the I'.a-t. were inducement*
to undertake similar expeditions in the West and
North of Europe. In these quarters we find
that the wars of the cross were carried on. 1.
Against the Mahometans of Spain and A
2. Against the Emperors and Kings who re-
fused obedience to the orders of the Popes." 3.
-' h(T'-ti<al or schismatic princes, such as
the Greeks and Russians. 4. Against the Sla-
vonians and other Pagan nations, on the coasts of
the Baltic. 5. Against the Waldenses, Albi-
genses, and Hussites, who were regarded as ban-
tics. 6. Against the Turks.

If the result of the crusades was advanta.
to the hierarchy, if it served to aggrandi/-
power of the Unman Pontiffs it must, on the con-
trary, have proved ol^iously prejudicial to the au-
thority of the secular princes. It was in fact dur-
ing this period that the power of the i-mp
both in (iermany and Italy, was sapped to tin-
very foundation ; that the royal house of II
staufen sunk under the determined etforls of the
Court of Uome ; and that the federal ijt.
the Umpire gained gradual accessions of strength.
In r.ngland and Hungary, we observe how the
grandees seized on the opportunity to increase
their own power. The former took advantage of
their sovereign's absence in the Holy Land, and
the latter of the protection which they re
from the P..p.-, to claim new privileges and
extort charters, such as they did from John of
England, and Henry II. of Hungary, tending to
cripple and circumscribe the royal authority.

Tin- Krlii-ious anil Military
44 Orders.

Surnames and coat* of arms.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Order of St. John of Jerusalem.
Knights Hospitallers.
C'\ pms and Rhodes.

In France, however, the result was different.
There, the kings being freed, by moans of the
crusades, from a crowd of restless and turbulent
Ja who often threw the kingdom into a state
of faction and discord, were left at liberty to ex-
tend their prerogatives, and turn the scale of power
in their own favour. They even considerably aug-
mented their royal and territorial revenues, either
by purchasing lands and fiefs from the proprietors
who had armed in the cause of the cross ; or by an-
nexing to the crown the estates of those who died
in the Holy Land, without leaving feudal heirs ;
in- by seizing the forfeitures of others who were
persecuted by religious fanaticism, as heretics or
abettors of heresy. Finally, the Christian kings of
Spain, the sovereigns of the North, the Knights of
the Teutonic order, and of Livonia, joined the
crusades recommended by the Popes, from the
desire of conquest ; the former, to subdue the
Mahometans in Spain, and the others to vanquish
the Pagan nations of the North, the Slavonians,
Finns, Livonians, Prussians, Lithuanians, and
Courlanders.

It is to the crusades, in like manner, that
Europe owes the use of surnames, as well as of
armorial bearings, and heraldry. 13 It. is easy to
pen-t ive. that among these innumerable armies of
crusaders, composed of different nations and lan-
guages, some mark or symbol was necessary, in
order to distinguish particular nations, or signalize
their commanders. Surnames and coats of arms
were employed as these distinctive badges ; the
latter especially were invented to serve as rallying
points, for the vassals and troops of the crusading
chiefs. Necessity first introduced them, and va-
nity afterwards caused them to be retained. These
coats of arms were hoisted on their standards, the
knights got them emblazoned on their shields, and
appeared with them at tournaments. Even those
who had never been at the crusades became ambi-
tious of these distinctions ; which may be consi-
dered as permanently established in families, from
al'-mt the middle of the thirteenth century.

The same enthusiasm that inspired the Euro-
peans for the crusades, contributed in like manner
to bring tournaments into vogue. In these solemn
and military sports, the young noblesse were train-
ed to violent exercises, and to the management of
ln-:i\y arms ; so as to gain them some reputation
for valour, and to insure their superiority in war.
In order to be admitted to these tournaments it
j to be of noble blood, and to show

proofs of their nobility. The origin of these feats
i- ^em-rally traced back to the end of the tenth, or
I'l-irinning of the eleventh century. Geoffrey of
I'reuilly, whom the writers of the middle ages
cite as being the inventor of them, did no more,
properly speaking, than draw up their code of re-
gulations. France was the country from which
the practice of tournaments diffused itself over all
the other nations of Europe. They were very
frequent, during all the time that the crusading
mania lasted.

To this same epoch belongs the institution of
Hflii/iaus and Military Orders. These were ori-
irinally established for the purpose of defending
tin' in w Christian States in the Hast, for protect-
ing pilgrims on their journey, taking care of them
vsheti sick, &c. ; and (lie vast wealth which they
acquired in most of the kingdoms of Europe, pre-

served their existence long after the loss of the
Holy Land ; and some of these orders even made
a conspicuous figure in the political history of
the AVestern nations.

Of all these, the first and most distinguished
was the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, called
afterwards the Order of Malta. Prior to the first
crusade, there had existed at Jerusalem a church
of the Latin or Romish liturgy, dedicated to St.
Mary, and founded by some merchants of Amalfi
in the kingdom of Naples. There was also a
monastery of the Order of St. Benedict, and an
hospital for the relief of poor or afflicted pilgrims.
This hospital, the directors of which were ap-
pointed by the Abbot of St. Mary's, having in a
very short time become immensely rich by nu-
merous donations of lands and seignories, both in
Europe and Palestine, one of its governors named
Gerard, a native of Martigues in Provence, as is
alleged, took the regular habit (1100), and formed
with his brethren a distinct, congregation, under
the name and protection of St. John the Baptist.
Pope Pascal II., by a bull issued in 1114, approved
of this new establishment, and ordained, that after
the death of Gerard, the Hospitallers alone should
have the election of their superintendent. Ray-
mond du Puy, a gentleman from Dauphine, and
successor to Gerard, was the first that took the
title of Grand Master. He prescribed a rule for
the Hospitallers ; and Pope Calixtus II., in ap-
proving of this rule (1120), divided the members
of the order into three classes. The nobles, called
Knights of Justice, were destined for the profes-
sion of arms, making war on the Infidels, and pro-
tecting pilgrims. The priests and chaplains, se-
lected from the respectable citizens, were intrusted
with functions purely ecclesiastical ; while the
serving brethren, who formed the third class, were
charged with the care of sick pilgrims, and like-
wise to act in the capacity of soldiers. These
new knights were known by the name of Knights
of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem, and
were distinguished by wearing a white octagon
cross on a black habit.

After the final loss of the Holy Land, this or-
der established themselves in the Isle of Cyprus.
From this they passed into Rhodes, which they
had conquered from the Infidels (1310). This
latter island they kept possession of till l.V2'-> ; and
being then expelled by Soliman the Great, they
obtained (1530) from Charles V., the munificent
grant of the Isle of Malta, under the express terms
of making war against the Infidels. Of this place
they were at length deprived by Buonaparte in
1798.

The order of Templars followed nearly that of
St. John. Its first founders (1119) were some
French gentlemen; the chief of whom were llii-.ro
de ravens, and Geoffrey de St. Onicr. Having
made a declaration of their MI\\S before the Patri-
arch of Jerusalem, they took upon themselves the
special charge of maintaining free passage and safe
conduct for the pilgrims to the H<>1\ Land. Hald-
win, king of Jerusalem, assigned them an apart-
ment in his palace, near the temple, whence they
took the name of Knights of thr Tt >/>/<, and
Templars. They obtained from Tope llonorins
II. (1120) a rule, with a white habit; to which
Kugene III. added a red cross octagon. This
order, after accumulating vast wealth and riches,

emplar*.

Tl,- T.-..t : .l,r.

<>I) IV. A.D. 10741300.

of lul) .

PWa.

specially in France, and distinguishing themselves
l'\ tlu-ir military f\iili>i[t for in-.irU < .. . ,turies,
at length suppressed by Uic <

. according to the most pro*

bsble opinion, took iU origin in the camp before
Acre or Ptolemai*. The honour of it is ascribed
to some charitable citizens of Itrcmrii and Lubec,
who erected a hospital ur trut with the ..
tlu-ir \cssrl*. t"r tin- n-ln-f of tin* mimrroi;
and wounded of th.-ir n.iti..n. Several German
iix-it h-mug j -H...I in thin establishment,
tin-) il<-\iit.-il themselves by a TOW to the service of
the sick ; u also to tin i . . I^and

against the Infidels. This order, known by tin-
name of the Teutonic Knight.* of St. Mary of Je-
rusalem, received continuation from Pope Calixtus
III. (ll!''.'), who prescribed for them tin- rule of
the Hospital of St. John, with regard to their
attendance on the sick ; and with regard to chi-
valry or knighthood, that of the order of Templars.
Il.-nry Walpott de Pasnenheim was the first grand
master of the order ; and the new knights assumed
the white habit, with a red cross, to distinguish
them from the other orders. It was uu<l<-r thrir
fourth grand master, Hermann de Saltza (1230),
that they passed into 1'russin, which they con-
quered (1309). They fixed their chief residence
at Marienburg; but having lost Prussia in con-
sequence of a change in the religious sentiments
of their grand master, Albert de Brandenburg

- i, they transferred their capital to Mergen-
theiui. in Franconia.

I urth order of Hospitallers founded in the
I Inly Land, was that of St. Lazarus of Jerusalem,
who had for their principal object the treatment
of lepers ; u and who, in process of time, from a
medical, became a military order. After li:i\m_r
long resided in the East, where they distiuguUhed
themselves in the Holy Wars, they followed St.
Louis into France (1254), and fixed their chief
seat at Boigny, near Orleans. Pope Gregory
XIII. united them with the order of St. Maurice,

w>y ; and Henry IV. with that of Our Lady

nut Ciinni-l, in France. On the model, and
after the example of these four military orders,
several others were founded in succession, in vari-
ous kingdoms of Europe. 11 All these institutions
contritmtcil greatly to the renown of chivalry, so
famous in the Middle Ages. The origin of this
latter institution i earlier than the times of which
we now speak, and seems to belong to the tenth,
or the beginning of the eleventh century. The
anarchy of feudalism ln-imr then at it.s height, and
robberies ami private quurrels everywhere ptevail-

neveral noble and distinguished individuals
devoted themselves, by a solemn vow, according
to the genius of the times, to the defence of reli-
gion and its ministers; u also of the fair sex, and
of every person suffering from distress or oppres-
:u the end of the eleventh century, to
the time when the crusades began, we find chi-

. with its pomp and its cerem-

.1 in all the principal states of Europe. This
salutary institution, !>\ inspiring the minds of men
with new energy, gate hirtli to many illustrious
characters. It tended to repress the disorders of
auan li\. to i-.-\ivc order and law, and establish a

r. -I. it i. m-hip among the nations of Europe.
In general, it may be said, that these ultra-

marine expeditions, prosecuted with obstinacy for
nearly two hundred yean, hastened the progress)
of arts and civilization in Kurope. The cru .
jom in -sing through kingdoms better organised than
il.- ir own, and observing greater refinement in ih< -ir
Uws and manners, were necessarily led to form
new ideas, and acquire new information with re.
gard to science and politics. Some vestiges of
learning and good taste had been preserved m
Greece, and even in the extremities of Asia,
where letters had been encouraged by the pu-
age of the Caliphs. I ;.!.

which had not yet suffered from the ravages of the
barbarians, abounded in the finest monuments of
art. It presented to the eyes of the crusaders
a spectacle of grandeur and magnificence that
could not but excite their admiration, and call
forth a strong desire to imitate those models, the
sight of which at once pleased and astonished them.
To the Italians especially, it must have proved of
great advantage. The continued intercourse which
they maintained with the East and the- city of
Constantinople afforded them the means of be-
coming familiar with the language and literature
of the Greeks, of communicating the same taste to
their own countrymen, and in this way advancing
the glorious epoch of the revival of letters.

About the same time, commerce and navigation
were making considerable progress. The cities of
Italy, such as Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and others, in
assisting the Crusaders in their operations, by-
means of the transports, provisions, and warlike
Stores with which they furnished them, continued
to secure for themselves important privileges and
establishments in the seaports of the Levant, and
other ports in the Greek empire. Their exam-
ple excited the industry of several maritime towns
in France, and taught them the advantage of ap-
plying their attention to F.a.stern commerce. In
the North, the cities of Hamburgh and Lubec
formed, about the year I'.Ml, as is generally sup-
posed, their first commercial association, which
afterwards became so formidable under the name
of the Harueatic League. 1 * The staple articles of
these latter cities consisted in marine stores, and
other productions of the North, which they ex-
changed for the spiceries of the East, and the
manufactures of Italy and the Low Countries.

The progress of industry, the protection which
sovereigns extended to it, and the pains they took
to check the disorders of feudalism, contributed to
the prosperity of towns, by daily augmenting their
population and their wealth. This produced,
about the times we are speaking of, an advan-
tageous change in the civil and social condition of
the people. Throughout the principal states of
Europe, cities began, after the twelfth century, to
erect themselves into political bodies, ami to form,
by degrees, a third order, distinct from that of the
clergy and nobility. Before this period, the inha-
bitants of towns enjoyed neither ci\il nor political
liberty. Their condition was very little better
than that of the peasantry, who were all serfs, at-
tached to the soil. The rights of citizenship, and
the privileges derived from it, were reserved for
the clergy and the noblesse. The Counts, or
governors of cities, by rendering their power hcre-
ditary, had appropriated to themselves the rights
that were originally attached to their functions.
They used them in the most arbitrary way, and

I'n-i- Corporations.

I Lilian Ki-jmblics.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Kiiulish House of Commons.
Edward III. Hi-ury III.
French Parliaments.

loaded the inhabitants with every kind of oppres-
sion that avarice or caprice could suggest.

At length, the cities which were either the most
oppressed, or the most powerful, rose in ivbelliou
against this intolerable yoke. The inhabitants
formed themselves into confederations, to which
they gave the name of Communes or Free Corpo-
rations. Either of their own accord, or by char-
ters, obtained very often on burdensome terms,
they procured for themselves a free government,
which, by relieving them from servitude, and all
impositions and arbitrary exactions, secured them
personal liberty and the possession of their effects,
under the protection of their own magistrates, and
the institution of a militia, or city guard. This
revolution, one of the most important in Europe,
tir-t took place in Italy, where it was occasioned
by the frequent interregnums that occurred in
(iermam, as well as by the disturbances that rose
between the Empire and the priesthood, in the
ele\enth century. The anathemas thundered
against Henry IV., by absolving the subjects from
the obedience they owed their sovereign, served
as a pretext to the cities of Italy for shaking off
the authority of the Imperial viceroys, or bailiffs,
who had become tyrants instead of rulers, and for
establishing free and republican governments. In.
this, they were encouraged and supported by the
protection of the Roman pontiffs, whose sole aim
and policy was the abasement of the Imperial
authority.

Before this period, several maritime cities of
Italy, such as Naples, Amain 1 , Venice, Pisa, and
Genoa, emboldened by the advantages of their
situation, by the increase of their population and
their commerce, had already emancipated them-
selves from the Imperial yoke, and erected them-
selves into republics. Their example was followed
by the cities of Lombardy and the Venetian terri-
tory, especially Milan, Pavia, Asti, Cremona, Lodi,
Como, Parma, Placentia, Verona, Padua, &c. All
these cities, animated with the enthusiasm of li-
berty, adopted, about the beginning of the twelfth
century, consuls and popular forms of government.
They formed a kind of military force, or city
guard, and -vested in themselves the rights of
royalty, and the power of making, in their own
name- and authority, alliances, wars, and treaties
of peace. From Italy, this revolution extended
to France and Germany, the Low Countries, and
Knj,'hnd. In all these different states, the use of
Communes, or boroughs, was established, and
protected b\ the sovereigns, who employed these
new institutions us a powerful check against the
i ncroachments and t \ranny of the feudal lords.

In France, Louis the Fat, who began his reign
in 110S, was the first kin;,' that granted rights, or
('institutional charters, to certain cities within his
domain, either from political moti\es, or the allure-
ment of money. The nobilitj, after his example,
eagerly sold libtrtj, to their subjects. The revolu-
tion became general; (lie crj for liberty was raised
everywhere, and interested even mind. Through-
out all the provinces, the inhabitants of cities soli-
cited charier-;, and sometimes without waiting for
them, they formed themsehes voluntarily into
communities, electing magistrate-, of their own
choice, establishing companies of militia, and taL-
ing charge themselves of the fortifications and
wardenship of their cities. The magistrates of

free cities in northern France were usually called
mayors, sheriffs, and liverymen ; while, in the
south of France, they were called syndics and
consuls. It soon became an established principle,
that kings alone had the power to authorize tin-
erection of corporate towns. Louis VIII. declared
that he regarded all cities in which these corpo-
rations were established as belonging to his do-
main. They owed military service directly and
personally to the king; while such cities as had
not these rights or charters were obliged to follow
their chiefs to the war.

In Germany, we find the emperors adopting the
same policy as the kings of France. The resources
which the progress of commerce and manufactures
opened up to the industry of the inhabitants of
cities, and the important succours which the em-
perors Henry IV. and V. had received from them
in their quarrels with the Pope and the princes of
the Empire, induced them to take these cities un-
der their protection, to augment their number, and
multiply their privileges. Henry V. was the first
emperor that adopted this line of policy. He
granted freedom to the inhabitants of several cities,
even to artizans and tradesmen; whose condition,
at that time, was as degraded and debased as that
of serfs. He extended to them the rank and pri-
vileges of citizens, and thus gave rise to the divi-
sion of cities into classes and corporations of trades.
This same prince set about repairing tl e fault
which the emperors of the house of Saxony had
committed, of giving up to the bishops the temporal
jurisdiction in all the cities wherein they resided.
He gradually superseded these rights, by the new
privileges which he granted to the inhabitants of
cities. The emperors, his successors, followed his
example: in a little time, several of these cities
threw off the yoke of their bishops, while others
extricated themselves from the jurisdiction of their
superiors, or provosts, whether imperial or feudal,
and adopted, in imitation of the cities in Italy
and France, magistrates of their own choosing, a
republican form of government, and a municipal
polity.

This liberty in cities gave new vigour to in-
dustry, multiplied the sources of labour, and cre-
ated means of opulence and power, till then un-
known in Europe. The population of these cities
increased with their wealth. Communities rose
into political consequence; and we find them suc-
cessivch admitted to the diets and national assem-
blies, in all the principal state-, of Knrope. Eng-
land set an example of this; and though Knglisli
authors are not agreed as to the precise time \\ben
the Commons of that kingdom were called into
Parliament, it is at least certain that their first
admission belongs to the reign of llenrv III.
(about 1205 or 1266), and that the formal dm-
sioii of the Parliament into two houses is as Lite
as the reign of Edward III. 1 ' France followed the
example of England; the convocation of the slate-,
h\ Philip the Fair (!:{():{), on the Mibject of his
disputes with Pope Boniface VI I I., is considered
as the first assembly of the States-general, com-
pOMd of the three orders of the kingdom. As to
Germany, the first diet in which the cities of the
Empire appeared in the form of a third order, was
that of Spire ( I HO!) ), convoked by the Kmperor
lleur\ VII., of the house of Luxemburg. After-
wards, we find these cities exercising a decisive or

...:n.,:, I'. -

ri in.i) iv. A.I). 10741800.

Look VII. LMJX.

Tw IbMM* t*.

I . ...

delib.

In all these t

U IIIOSC l!

imt-
tiog a stop ' ; itiTc.tiiie war*.
I l.ii k '
> in ft capacity to def. ml thcm-

selves, became less* enterprising In their ambition ;
ami even rank lean

impact the power ,,;
royal authority was t :,.-r!., ,, ! ; ami

lll\ inclilllli;.' I" tl:.

: as a com.-
the general assemblies, to the }><

' '! noblesse, and were tin- means nl

liiry supplic, nee, ,.:u y I'm- thf \

tin- state.

liberty which tin- inhabitants of cities had
thus procured by tin- . >t.i'.li-hmenl of '
11:111. itn--, or mi -por id- ti.nlii-s, extended itself to the
inhabitants of the country, (IN way of enfranchise-
ments. Various circumstances, concurred In ren-
der the use of these more frequent, after the twelfth

century. Tin- sovereigns, guided by tlir in
of sound policy, set tlii' tii -i example <>f this within
their own demesnes; ami they were speedily imi-
tated by the feudal lords and nobles, who, cither
i>ut of courtesy to their sovereigns, or to prevent
the desertion of their vassals, or acquire new
pelled to grant liberty to the

one, and mitigate tin- servitude of the other. The
communities, or chartered cities, likewise seconded
and promoted these enfnuichisenientM, by the pro-
i which they granted to the serfs against
their feudal superiors. *

In Italy, we perceive these enfranchisements
following as an immediate consequence of the in-
stitution of communities. The continual feuds
that arose among the numerous republics which
had lately thrown off the yoke of authority, made
the liberty of the serfs a measure absolutely nc-
cewary, in order to augment the number of cities
qualified to bear arms, .and hold places of trust.
Bonacurso, Captain of Bologna (l'J'>*>), proposed

! the law of en-

ut. All those who had serfs wore ob-
to present them before the 1'oJ.esta, or Cap-
tain of the people, w ho affranchised them for a
certain sum or tax, which the republic paid to
the owner. The feudal superiors, finding that
these enfr.inchiseinenU had a powerful support in
the liberty of the three cities, were obliged either
to meliorate the condition of their serfs, or grant

them lib. :

In 1'Vmrc, after the twelfth centurj, and the
reign of Louis the Fat, these enfranchisements be-
X 'ii to I- : , . :.:. 'I !;' - ;> :n,d -;. . . SJQI of '(. ,'
: letter (1180), afiVan-
n-h the crown possessed at
Orleans, and within fire leagues of it. I.<
passed a general law (1315), for the enfrai.

- b.-loii-i: . .-.. : . II

made a p.

nry to natun, uhi.lt intrndrd that all mm by
hirtfl *hnt,M f* fr, t awl rtjun!
kmyditm i/-* (irnomiiuit'tt the ktnydoin of the
mat, it appraf ' right

that tttr /art should carrt*pa*<t

%:t,,l, at the same time, all the nob:.

imitate his example, by mating

serfs. That ptii.

magr he piid to natuie, if the gift of liberty hail

II his pa:' it a

thoe only

who i mid alfoid |.. p.i\ f..r it; M In-nee it hap-

'- advancc<l but

nlo\l; . '..pies of il an- ! be found ill lli-

In (ierii.any, the number of si-it's dii
like manner, after tin- twi-lfth century .
sades, and the dc-tructhe wars which the Dukes

,..n\ and the Mar^M-. North Caf-

.11 with the Sl.iM.in tribes on the Kibe and

the Haltic, having depopulated the northern and

1 . ermaiiy , numei. from

Brabant, the Netherl -inds, Holland and I'riesl.nid,

wen- introduced into these countries, w here tln-y

formrd themsi-Ues into establishnic-nts, or associa-

..f free culli\:il.,. !. 1'iom I.

(iermany the custom of etifr..iicliisetnents extended
to the I pper provinces, and aloii^ the banks of
the Khine. This w:is encoiiia^ed b\ th-

. which not only gare a welcome reception
to the serfs who had lied to shelter then.-
from op|iression within their walls, but the;,
granted protection, and the rights of citizenship,
to those who had settled within the |
liberties of the town ; 1 or who continued, without
chanicinij their habitation, to reside on the lands
of their feudal superiors. This spirited conduct
of the free cities put the nobles of (iermany to the
necessity of aiding and abetting, by degrees, either
the suppression or the mitigation of sla\ery .
reimbursed themselves for the loss of the fine or
tax which they had been in the habit of b,
on the death of their serfs, by an augmentation of
the quit-rent, or annual cess which they exacted
from them on their being affranch:

In the Low Countries, Henry II., duke of Bra-
bant (121S), in his last will, granted liberty to all
cultivators of the soil; he affranchised them on
the ri^'ht of mortmain, and ordained, that, lik
inhabitants of free cities, they should be ji
by no other than their own magistrates. In this
manner, liberty by degrees rec,,verid its j
rights. It assisted in dispelling the clouds of
.nee ami superstition, and spread a new lustre
I. mope. One event which contributed ea-
men more exact notions on go-
vernment and jurisprudence, was the revival of the
Roman law, which happened about the tin.
now speak of. The German tribes th.it
the Western Kmpire in the fifth century, would
naturally despise a system of legislation, such a*
that of the Romans, which neither accorded with
the ferocity of their manners, nor the rudeness of
their idea*. In consequence, the revolution which
occasioned the downfall of that empire brought at
the same time the Homan jurisprudcn.
suetude o>cr all the West.-rn world. 1 *

A lapse of several centuries, however, waa re-
quired, to rectify men's ideas on the nature of so-
ciety, and to prepare them !
and institutions of a civdixed and refit.
inent. Such was the general Mate and condition
of political kni.-.v

! civilian. ( died Irnerius, who taught the law
lini.in publicly at Itologna, about the
me nt of the twelfth century, attracted tu

Tin- l'iiiiu:i I^iw.
IVerftals of tin 1
(Jrrj-ory IX.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Judgments of God.
I'liivor.-itii-s (bunded.
1'irdi-rk- Harbarossa, Emperor.

that academy the youth of the greater part of Eu-
rope. There they devoted themselves with ardour
to the study of this new science. The pupils, in-
structed by Irnerius and his successors, on return-
in^ home, and being employed in the tribunals and
public offices of their native country, gradually
carried into practice the principles which they had
imbibed in the school of Bologna. Hence, in a
short time, and without the direct interference of
the legislative authority, the law of Justinian was
adopted by degrees, as a subsidiary law in all the
principal states of Europe. Various circumstances
contributed to accelerate the progress of this revo-
lution. People had felt for a long time the neces-
sity of a new legislature, and the insufficiency of
their national laws. The novelty of the Roman
laws, as well as their equity and precision, arrested
the attention of all Europe ; and sovereigns found
it their interest to protect a jurisprudence, whose
maxims were so favourable to royalty and mo-
narchical power, and which served at once to
strengthen and extend their authority.

The introduction of the Roman jurisprudence
was soon followed by that of the Canon law. The
Popes, perceiving the rapid propagation of this new
science, and eager to arrest its progress, immedi-
ately set themselves to the work of raising that
vast and astonishing edifice the Canon law, as an
engine to promote the accomplishment of their
own greatness. Gratian, a monk of Bologna, en-
couraged by Pope Eugenius III., compiled a col-
lection of Canons, under the title of the Decret,
which he arranged in systematic order, to serve as
an introduction to the study of that law. This
compilation, extracted from different authors who
had preceded him, recommended itself to the
world by its popular method, which was adapted
to the genius of the times. Pope Eugeuius III.
it his approval in 1152, and ordained that it
should be read and explained in the schools. This
collection of Gratian soon obtained a wide and
most successful reception ; from the schools it
'1 to the public tribunals, both civil and eccle-
siastical. At length, Pope Gregory IX., in imita-
tion of the Emperor Justinian, who had caused a
collection of his own statutes, and those of his pre-
decessora, to be made by Tribonian, ordered his
chaplain Raymond de Pennafort to compile and
dii,"-t, in their proper order, all the decisions of
his predecessors, as well as his own ; thus extend-
ing to common practice, what had been originally
established but for one place, and for particular
cases. He published his collection (1235) under
the name of Decretals, with an injunction, that it
should be employed both in the tribunals and in
the schools.

If this new system of jurisprudence served to
extend tlie jurisdiction, and strengthen the tempo-
ral power of the Popes, it did not fail at the same
time to produce salutary effects on the governments
and manners of Europe. The peace, or truce of
God, which some bishops of France, in the ele-
\enth century, had instituted as a check on the un-
bridled fury of private quarrels and civil discord,
was established, by the Decretals, into a general
law of the church.* The judgments of God, till
then used in the tribunals of justice, trial by single
combat, liy hot iron, hot and cold water, the cross,
\c. were gradually abolished. The restraints of
the Canon law, added to the new information

which had diffused its light over the human mind,
were instrumental in rooting out practices which
served only to cherish and protract the ancient
ferocity of manners. The spirit of order and me-
thod which prevailed in the new jurisprudence,
soon communicated itself to every branch of legis-
lation among the nations of Europe. The feudal
law was reduced to systematic order ; and the
usages and customs of the provinces, till then local
and uncertain, were collected and organised into a
regular form. 1 "

Jurisprudence, having now become a complicated
science, demanded a long and laborious course of
study, which could no longer be associated with
the profession of arms. The sword was then ob-
liged by degrees to abandon the courts of justice,
and give place to the gown. A new class of men
thus arose, that of the law, who contributed by
their influence to repress the overgrown power of
the nobility.

The rapid progress which the new jurisprudence
made, must be ascribed to the recent foundation
of universities, and the encouragements which
sovereigns granted these literary corporations.
Before their establishment, the principal public
schools were those which were attached either to
monasteries, or cathedral and collegiate churches.
There were, however, only a few colleges insti-
tuted ; and these in large cities, such as Rome,
Paris, Angers, Oxford, Salamanca, &c. The sci-
ences there taught were comprised under ttie seven
liberal arts, viz. Grammar, Rhetoric, Dialectics or
Logic, Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and Astro-
nomy. The first three were known by the name
of Trivium ; and the other four, which make part
of mathematics, by that of Qiiadrivium. As for
Theology and Jurisprudence, they did not as \<t
figure among the academic sciences ; and there
was no school of medicine prior to that of Salerno
the only one of which any traces are discovered,
towards the end of the eleventh century.

These schools and academies cannot, by any
means, be put in comparison with modern univer-
sities ; which differ from them essentially, both as
to the variety of sciences which are professed, and
by their institutions as privileged bodies, enjoying
a system of government and jurisdiction peculiarly
then- own. The origin of these Universities is
coeval with the revival of the Roman law in Italy
and the invention of academic degrees. The same
Irnerius, who is generally acknowledged as tin-
restorer of the Roman law at Bologna, was also
the first that conceived the idea of conferring, with
certain solemnities, doctorial degrees; and granting
license or diplomas to those who excelled hi the
study of jurisprudence. Pope Eugenius III.
(1153), when he introduced the Code of Gratiau
into the academy of Bologna, gave permission to
confer the same degrees in the Canon law, as had
been customary in the Civil law. These degrees
were much coveted and esteemed on account of
the honours, immunities, and prerogatives which
the sovereign had attached to them. -Nothing,
however, contributed more to bring universities
into favour, than the privileges and immunities
which the F.mperor Frederic Harharossa conferred
on them (1158), by his Authentic, (or rescript,
called Habita). The example of this prince
-pccdily followed by the other sovereigns of
Europe.

rW ll..i.M-ali.- (**#

pi |;i \. \ [>. 10741300.

The teaching of jurisprudence passed from the
school of Bologna to the different academies of
Europe. Theology also was soon admitted, as

is medicine ; sad these completed th
fctsjltiss, M they were called, of which the on
sities were composed. That of Paris was the first
which combined all the faculties. It was com-
pleted under the- reign of Philip Augustus,
whom U obtsined its earliest charter, about the
year 1200. ire only the uni-

versities of Bologna, Padua, Naples, Toulon*
lamauca, Coimbra, Cambridge, nnd Oxford, that
date their origin in the thirteenth century."

The downfall of the Imperial authority, and of
the house ot llohcintaufen, and the new power
usurped by the princes and states of the Empire,
occasioned a long series of troubles in Germany,
and that frightful state of anarchy, known by tin-
name of the Grand Interregnum. Strength then
triumphed over law and right ; the government
was altered from its basis ; and no other nvtsns
were found to remedy this want of public security,
than by forming alliances and confederations, such
as that* of the Rhine." and the Hanseatic League,
which began to appear about this time (1

election of the emperors, in which all the
princes and states of the Empire had formerly con-
curred, became then the privilege solely of the
great officers of the crown, who, towards the mid-
dle of the thirteenth century, claimed for them-
selves exclusively the right of electing, and the
title of Electors.* 4 The princes and states of the
F.mpire, anxious to confirm their growing power,
sought to promote only the feeblest emperors, who
were incapable of supporting the rights and prero-
gatives of the crown. The electors, in particular,
had no other object in view, than to derive a lucra-
tive traffic from elections; bargaining every time
with the candidates for large sums, and obtaining
grants or mortgages of such portions of the Impe-
rial demesnes as suited their convenience. One
only of these weak emperors, Rodolph, Count of
Hapsburg in Switzerland (IV7::). disappointed
the expectations of his electors. He repressed by
>f arms the disorders of anarchy, restored the
laws and tribunals to their pristine vigour, and re-
, icred several of the Imperial domains from
the usurpers who had seized them.

In consequence of the revolutions which we
have no\v detailed, we find very important and
memorable changes accomplished in the different
provinces of the Empire. The princes and states
of the Germanic body, regarding as their own pa-
trimony the province* and fiefs with which they
were invested, thought themselves further autho-
rised to portion them out among their sons. The
usage of these partitions became general after the
thirteenth century ; and this wrought the downfall
of some of the most powerful families, and tended
to multiply almost to infinity the duchies, princi-
palities, and earldoms of the F.mpire. The em-
per.irs, far from condemning this practice, which
by no means accorded with the maxims of the
feudal law, on the contrary gave it their counte-
nance, as appearing to them a proper instrument
for humbling the power of the grandees, and ac-
quiring for themselves a preponderating authority
in the Empire.

The ancient duchies of Bavaria and Saxony ex-
perienced a new revolution ou the fall of the pow-

erful house of the Guelphs. which wss deprived of
hotli i . by the sentence of prox-n

the l.ni|..-n.i I rrdrric 1. pronounced against

| the I.i 1 1 -" . !>.. ! Uavaria and

< duchies, which had

.\ I... ii .I. . thr Margravate

of Austria by Frederic I. ( 1 1 :.; i. and rected mi-.
a duchy and li.-f holding immediately of th<
pire, was exposed to new partition* at the time of
ii we now speak. The bishoprics of Bavaria,
Stiria, r.imitlii i, Carniola, and the Tyrol, broke
their .illi u.c. \vith Bavaria; and the city of I:
bonne, which h:id been the residence of the m.
dukes, wan declared immediatr, or holding of the
crown. It was when contracted within the-.
limit* that Bavaria was conferred, by Fred, n.- I.
i 1 IMI), on Otho, Count of WitteUbach, a scion of
the original house of Bavaria. This house after-
wards acquired by marriage (1215) the Palat:
of the Rhine. It was subsequently divided into
various branches, of which the two principal were
the Palatine and the Bavarian.

As to the duchy of Saxony, which embraced,
under the (imlphs, the greater part of Lower
iernruiN, it completely changed its circumstances
on the decline of that house. Bernard of Aschen-
leben, younger son of Albert named the Bear, first
Margrave of Brandenburg, a descendant of the
Ascaniau line, had been invested in the duchy of
Saxony by Frederic I. ( 1 IHO), but was found much
too feeble to support the high rank to which he
had been elevated. In consequence, the title, or
qualification to the duchy of Saxony and the Elec-
torate, was restricted, under the successors and de-
scendants of that prince, to an inconsiderable dis-
trict, situated on both sides of the Elbe; called
since the Electoral Circle, of which Wittenberg
was the capital. The princes of Pomerania and
Mecklenburg, the Counts of HoUtein and West-
phalia, and the city of Lubeck, took advantage
of this circumstance to revolt from the autho-
rity <>f the Duke of Saxony, and render themselves
immediate. A part of Westphalia was er.
into a distinct duchy, in favour of the Archbishop
of Cologne, who had seconded the F.mp. ror in his
schemes of vengeance against the Guelphic princes.
This latter house, whose vast possessions had ex-
tended from the Adriatic Sea to the Baltic and the
Northern Ocean, retained nothing more of its an-
cient splendour than the free lands which it pos-
sessed in Lower Saxony, and which the Emperor
Frederic II. ( r.*:i5) converted into a duchy, and
immediate fief of the Empire, in favour of Otho
the Infant, grandson of Henry the Lion, and the
new founder of the House of Brunswick.

The extinction of the House of Hohenstaufen
having occasioned a vacancy in the duchies of
Suabia and Franconia, the different states of these
provinces, both secular and ecclesiastical, found
means to render themselves also immediate ( 1968).
A number of cities which had belonged to the do-
mains of the ancient dukes, were raised to the
rank of free and imperial cities; and the Houses
of Baden, Wurtemberg. llohi n-/ollern, and Fur-
stenberg. date their celebrity from this period.
Tin death of the anti-emperor, Henry le Kaspon
(1247), last Landgrave of Thuringia, gave rise to a
\var between the Margraves of Misnia and
the Dukes of Brabant, who mutually contested
that succession. The former advanced au Expec-

Duchy of Austria.
The KmptTor Albert.
Kodolpli of Hapsburg.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Italian republics.
Frederic II. oppressed by
Gregory IX. & luuocnit IV.

tative, or Deed of Reversion of the Emperor Fre-
deric II., as well as the claims of Jutta, sister of
the last landgrave ; and the other? maintained those
of Sophia, daughter of the Landgrave Louis, elder
brother and predecessor of Henry le Raspon. At
length, by a partition which took place (1264),
Thuringia, properly so called, was made over to
the House of Misnia ; and Henry of Brabant, sur-
named the Infant, son of Henry II. Duke of Bra-
bant, and Sophia of Thuringia, was secured in the
possession of Hesse, and became the founder of a
new dynasty of landgraves those of the House of
Hesse.

The ancient dukes of Austria, of the House of
Bamberg, having become extinct with Frederic
tin- Valiant (1246), the succession of that duchy
was keenly contested between the niece and the
sisters of the last duke ; who, though females, could
lay claim to it, in virtue of the privilege granted
by the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa. Ottocar II.
son of Wenceslaus, King of Bohemia, took advan-
tage of these troubles in Austria, to possess him-
self of that province (1251). He obtained the in-
M'stiture of it (1262) from Richard, son of John,
King of England, who had purchased the title of
emperor at a vast expense ; but Rodolph of
Hapsburg, treating him as a usurper, made war
upon him, defeated and slew him in a battle which
was fought (1278) at Marchfield, in the neighbour-
hood of Vienna. The duchies of Austria, Stiria,
Carinthia, and Carniola, being then detached from
the kingdom of Bohemia, were declared vacant,
and devolved to the Empire. The investiture of
these the Emperor conferred (1282) on Albert and
Rodolph, his own sons. Albert, the eldest of these
princes, who was afterwards emperor, became the
founder of the Hapsburg dynasty of Austria.

In Italy, a great number of republics rose about
the end of the eleventh, or beginning of the twelfth
century. These republics, though they had cast
off the Imperial authority, and claimed to them-
- the rights of sovereignty, protested, never-
^, their fealty to the Emperor, whom they
agreed to recognise as their supreme head. The
Emperors Henry V., Lothaire the Saxon, and
Conrad III., saw themselves compelled to tolerate
an usurpation which they were too feeble to re-
Kut I'n-deric Barbarossa being determined
tore the royalty of Italy to its ancient splen-
dour, led a powerful army into that kingdom
( 1 l.Ys) ; and in a diet which he assembled on the.
plains of Uoncaglia, in the territory of Placentia,
he caused a strict in \estigation to be made by the
lawyers of Bologna into the rights on which he
founded his pretensions to the title of King of
Italy. The opposition which the execution of the
d< erees of that diet met with on the p;irt ol' the
Milanese, induced tin- Kmperor to undertake the
siege of their city. He made himself master of it
in I HIV, ne/.ed it to the foundation, and dispersed
the inhabitants.

This chastisement of the Milanese astonished
the Italians, but without abating their courage.
Thej afterwards took advantage of the rexerses of
the Kmperor, and the schism which had arisen in
tin- Uouiish Church, to form a league ujth the
principal cities of Lombardy ( 1 K',7), into which
they drew the Kinsj of the Two Sicilies, as well as
Pope Alexander 111., whom the Emperor treated
as a schismatic. The city of Milan was rebuilt in

consequence of this league ; as also that of Alex-
andria, called della Paglia. The war was long
protracted ; but the Emperor being abandoned by
Henry the Lion, Duke of Bavaria and Saxony, the
most powerful of his vassals, received a defeat at
Lignano, which obliged him to make an accommo-
dation with Pope Alexander III., and to sign, at
Venice, a treaty of six years with the confederate
cities (1177). This treaty was afterwards con-
verted, at Constance, into a definitive peace
(1183) ; by virtue of which, the cities of Italy were
guaranteed in the forms of government they had
adopted, as well as in the exercise of the regalian
rights which they hud acquired, whether by usage
or prescription. The Emperor reserved for himself
the investiture of the consuls, the oath of allegiance,
which was to be renewed every ten years, and all
appeals, in civil cases, where the sum exceeded the
value of twenty -five imperial livres (about 1500
francs).

The Emperor Frederic II., grandson of Frederic
I., and heir, in right of his mother, to the kingdom
of the Two Sicilies, made new efforts to restore
the prerogatives of the Empire in Italy. But the
cities of Lombardy renewed their league, into
which they drew Pope Gregory IX. (12'JG), whose
dignity and power would be endangered if the
Emperor, being possessor of the Two Sicilies,
should succeed in conquering the cities of Lom-
bardy. The war which ensued (1236), vus long
and severe. Popes Gregory IX. and Innocent
IV. went so far as to preach up a crusade against
the Emperor, as if he had been an infidel ; while
that unfortunate prince, after the most coura L
and indefatigable efforts, had the mortification to
see his troops once more discomfited by the forces
of the League.

The, cities of Italy were no sooner deli\
from the terror of the Emperors, than they let
loose their fury against each other; impelled by
the rage of conquest, and torn by the internal
factions of the Guelphs and the Ghibellim^, aswell
as by the contests which had arisen between the
noblesse and theft-cecities. The partisans of the
nobles in these cities were strengthened by the
very measures which had been taken to humble
them. The chartered towns, by destroying that
midtitude of seignories, earldoms, and marquisates
with which Lombardy swarmed before the twelfth
century, and by incorporating them with their own
territories, obliged the deserted nobles and gran-
dees to seek :;u establishment within their walls.
These latter, findim; their partisans united and
powerful, soon attempted to seize the government ;
and hence arose an interminable source of civil
discord, which ended with the loss of liberty in
the irrcatcr part of these communil

To arrest these e\i|s, and put a check to the
ambition of the powerful eiti/ens, they adopted
the plan of intrusting the government to a single
magistrate, to be called the Podestu, who should
be chosen in the neighbouring cities. This M-heme
was but a palliative rather than a remedy ; and in
order to guarantee themselves from the oppre^ioii
of the nobles, the corporations of -r\nal cities
gradually adopted the plan of conferring a sort of
dictatorship on one of the powerful citi/.ens, or on
some prince or nobleman, even though he w
stranger, under the title of (.'a/itu/ii ; hoping, in
this way, to succeed in re-establishing peace and

PERIOD IV. A.D. 10741300.

order. Thrc chief* or captains contrived, in pro-
MM of tune, to render absolute uml perpetual an
unili.. Mt) which at Ant was tem|M>nu\, ,i,.| only
granted on certain "*" > iMtfflTir note* the origin

vend new independent sovrreit:
were farmed in Italy during the ruune
fourteenth century.

Venice and Genoa at that time eclipsed all the
republics of Italy, l.y tin- fionrlahing slulc <>l their
navigation and commerce. The origin of the
former of theee cities la generally dated an fat hack
as the invasion of the linn* under Attil-.i

: : ' -se barbarians having spread terror
niul tliifht orer the whole country, many of tin

illli:ili|t:ilils of :il,r ; , nt \ . I. .:,,!, r, fl Rajt III !'.<

ialea and lagoons on the border* of the Adriatic

(mil ; :iinl there I ml the foundation of the city !
'* -, which, whether we regard the singularity
of it* construction, or tin- splendour to which it
rose, deserves to be numbered among the wonden
of the world. At first its government was popular,
and administered by a bench of tribunes whose
power was annual. The division* which rose
among these yearly administrators, occasioned tin-
election of a* chief (007), who took the title of
Hulk.- or Doge. This dignity was for life, and
depended on the suffrages of the community ; but
he <-\erci*ed nevertheless the right* of sovereignty,
and it was not till after a lon^ course of time that
his authority was gradually abridged ; and the go-
vernment, which had been monarchical, became
again democrat ical.

Venice, which from its birth was a commercial
city, enjoyed in the middle ages nearly the same
renown which Tyre had among the trading citi, -
of antiquity. The commencement of its grandeur
may be dated from the end of the tenth century,
and under the magistracy of the Doge Peter I i -
seolo II., whom the Venetians regard as the true
founder of their state (092). From the Cn-.-k
emperor* he obtained for them an entire liberty
ami immunity of commerce in all the ports of that
empire; and he procured them, at the same time,
several very important advantages, by the treaties
wlm h he concluded with the Emperor Otho III.
and with the Caliphs of Egypt. '1 lie vast increase
of their commerce inspired these republican
with a desire to extend the contracted bounds of
their territory. One <>f their first conquests was
the maritime ci: i, as well an those of

Dalmntia ; both of which occurred under the ma-
gistracy of Peter Urseolo II., and in the year 097.
,-.-d to make a surrender of the
1 ilmatia by the Emperors of the East,
win. regarded these cities as ile|.emleneies of their
empire; while the Kinirx of Croatia and Dalmatia

iid claim to tin m. Croatia having passed
into the hands of the K "jrary, about the

tod of die eleventh century, these same cities be-
came a perpetual source of troubles and wars be-
tween the Kings of Hungary and the Republic of
I it w:m not till the fifteenth century
e Republic found means to confirm its au-
thority in Dalmatia.

Venetians having become parties in the
famous League of Lombardy, in the eleventh cen-

"!itri!>titeil by their effort* to render abortive
thev.i f the F.mpenir Frederick I. 1

Alexander III., as a testimony of his gratitude.
granted them the sovereignty of the Hadriatic

ill77).and this cimanstance faro rise to the

singular ceremony of anaually marrying thte sea to

I i<>ge of Venice. The ! iHnsjsiH of thi.

republic was greatly accelerated by the crusades,

,,rth ( r.'M), which was followed

' dismemberment of the Greek empire. The

Venetians, who had joined this crusade, obtained

for their portion several cities and ports in Dl-

matia, Albania, Greece, and the Morea ; as also

the l-l.n.iU ..i Corfu, Cephalonia, and Candia or

Crete. At length, towards the end of the thirteenth

century, tin- republic assumed the peculiar form of

government which it retained till the day of its

il. -In;, tion. In l!.e HSjtsI '- - !'-<:. MMl :

was democratic, and the power of the Doge limited
by a grand council, which was chosen annually
from among the different classes of the citizens, by
electors named by the people. As these forms
gave occasion to troubles and intestine commotions,
the Doge Pietro Gradenigo, to remove all cause of
discontent in future, passed a law (1298), which
abrogated the custom of annual elections, and fixed
irrevocably in their office all those who then Kit
in the grand council, and this to descend to their
posterity for ever. The hereditary aristocracy thus
introduced at Venice did not fail to excite the
discontent of those whose families this new law-
had excluded from the government ; and it was
this which afterwards occasioned various insurrec-
tions, of which that of Tiepolo (1310) is the most
remarkable. The partisans of the ancient govern-
ment, and those of the new, attempted to decide
the matter by a battle in the city of Venice.
Tiepolo and his party were defeated, and Querini,
one of the chiefs, was killed in the action. A can-
mission of ten members was nominated to inform
against the accomplices of this secret conspiracy.
This commission, which was meant to be but tem-
porary, was afterwards declared perpetual ; and,
under the name of thf Ci.timtl of Ten, became
one of the most formidable supports of the aristo-
cracy.

I he city of Genoa, like that of Venice, owed her
prosperity to the progress of her commerce, which
she extended to the Levant, Constantinople, s
and Egypt. Governed at first by consuls, like tin-
rest of the Italian states, she afterwards (1100)
chose a foreign Podetta, or governor, to repress the
violence of faction, and put a check on the ambition
of the nobles. This governor was afterwards made
subordinate, to a Captain of the people, whom the
Genoese chose for the first time in 1V">7. without
being able yet to fix their government, which ex-
.iced frequent variations before assuming a
-tried and permanent form. These intenial di-
visions of the Genoese did not impede the progress
>f their commerce and their marine. The crusade* .
>f the 12th and 13th centuries the powerful

eours which these republicans gave to the
crusaders, and to the Greeks, as well as the treaties
which they concluded with the Moorish and
African princes, procured them considerable es-
ahlishments in the Levant, and also in Asia and
Africa. Caffa, a famous sea-port on the Black Sea,
and the port of Axoph, the ancient Tanais, at the
notith <>f the Don. belonged to them ; and served
- for their commerce with China and
he liidie. Smyrna in Asia Minor, as also the
iihui-U of Ten and (ialata at Constantinople, and
he isles of Scio, MeU-lin and Tenedon, in the Ar-

I'uwrr of tin 1 (lonoesc.
52 Kepublic of Pisn.

Norman coneiuest of Naples.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

The usurper Muinfroi.
Cli:irles of Aujou.
The Sicilian Vfs\H-rs.

chipelago, were ceded to them by the Greek em-
perors. The Kings of Cyprus were their tributaries.
Tin- Greek and German emperors, the Kings of
Sicily, Castillo and Arragon, and the Sultans of
Egypt, zealously sought their alliance, and the pro-
tection of their marine. Encouraged by these
successes, they formed a considerable territory on
the continent of Italy, after the 12th century, of
which nothing but a fragment now remains to
them.

Genoa had at that time, in its immediate neigh-
bourhood, a dangerous rival of its power and
greatness. This rival was Pisa, a flourishing re-
public on the coast of Tuscany, which owed its
prosperity entirely to the increase of its commerce
and marine. The proximity of these two states
the similarity of their views and their interests
the desire of conquest and the command of the
sea, which both of them affected, created a marked
jealousy between them, and made them the natural
and implacable enemies of each other. One of the
principal subjects of dispute was the possession of
Corsica and Sardinia,* 8 which the two republics con-
tested at the point of the sword, after having, by
means of their combined force, expelled the Moors,
toward the middle of the eleventh century. Pisa,
originally superior to Genoa in maritime strength,
disputed with her the empire of the Mediterranean,
and haughtily forbade the Genoese to appear within
those seas with their ships of war. This rivalry
nourished the animosity of the two republics, and
rendered it implacable. Hence a continual source
of mutual hostilities, which were renewed inces-
santly for the space of 200 years, and only ter-
minated in 1290 ; when, by the conquest of Elba,
and the destruction of the ports of Pisa and Leg-
horn, the Genoese effected the ruin of the shipping
and commerce of the Pisan republic.

Lower Italy, possessed by the Norman princes,
under the title of Duchy and Comte, became the
seat of a new kingdom in the eleventh century
that of the Two Sicilies. On the extinction of the
Dukes of Apulia and Calabria, descendants of
Robert Guiscard, Roger, son of Roger, Count of
Sicily, and sovereign of that island, xmited the do-
minions of the two branches of the Norman dy-
nasty (1127) ; and, being desirous of procuring
for himself the royal dignity, he attached to his
interest the Anti-Pope Anacletus II., who invested
him with royalty by a bull (1130), in which, how-
CMI, he took care to reserve the territorial right
and an annual tribute to the church of Rome.
This prince received the crown of Palermo from
the hands of a cardinal, whom the Pope had de-
puted for the express purpose. On the death of
the Emperor Lothaire, he succeeded in dispossess-
ing the Prince of Capua, and subduing the duchy
of Naples (1139) ; thus completing the conquest
of nil that is now denominated the kingdom of
Naples. William II., grandson of Roger, was the
principal support of Pope Alexander III. ; and of
the famous League of Lombardy formed against
the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa. The male line
of the Norman princes having become extinct in
AVilliam II., the kingdom of the Two Sicilies
passed (1189) to the House of Hohenstaufen, by
the marriage which the Emperor HenrjrW., son
of Frederic Barbarossa, contracted with the Prin-
cess Constance, aunt and heretrix of the last king.
Henry maintained the rights of his wife against

the usurper Tancred, and transmitted this kingdom
to his son Frederic II., who acquired by his mar-
riage with Jolande, (laughter of John de Brienne,
titular King of Jerusalem, the titles and arms of
this latter kingdom. The efforts which Frederic
made to annihilate the League of Lombardy, and
confirm his own authority in Italy, drew down
upon him the persecution of the court of Rome,
who, taking advantage of the minority of the
young Conradin, grandson of Frederic II., wrested
the crown of the Two Sicilies from this rival house,
which alone was able to check its ambitious pro-
jects. Mainfroi, natural son of Frederic II., dis-
gusted with playing the part of tutor to the young
Conradin, in which capacity he at first acted,
caused himself to be proclaimed and crowned, at
Palermo, King of the Two Sicilies (1258). The
Popes, Urban IV. and Clement IV., dreading the
genius and talents of this prince, made an offer of
that kingdom to Charles of Anjou, Count of
Provence, and brother of St. Louis. Clement IV.
granted the investiture of it (1265) to him and his
descendants, male and female, 011 condition of his
doing fealty and homage to the Holy See, and
presenting him annually with a w : hite riding horse,
and a tribute of eight million ounces of gold.
Charles, after being crowned at Rome, marched
against Mainfroi, with an army chiefly composed
of crusaders. He defeated that prince, who was
slain at the battle of Benevento (1266), which was
soon after followed by the reduction of the two
kingdoms. One rival to Charles still survived,
the young Conradin, the lawful heir to the throne
of his ancestors. Charles vanquished him also,
two years afterwards, in the plains of Tagliacozzo ;
and having made him prisoner, together with his
young friend Frederic of Austria, he caused both
of these princes to be beheaded at Naples, 29th
October, 1268.

Charles did not long enjoy his new dignity.
While he was preparing to undertake a crusade
against Michael Paleologus, a schismatic prince
who had expelled the Latins from Constantinople,
he had the mortification to see himself dispossessed
of Sicily, on the occasion of the famous Sicilian
Vespers (1282). This event, which is generally
regarded as the result of a conspiracy, planned
with great address by a gentleman of Salerno,
named John de Procida, appears to have been
but the sudden effect of an insurrection, occa-
sioned by the aversion of the Sicilians to the
French yoke. During the hour of vespers, on the
second day of Easter (30th March), when the in-
habitants of Palermo were on their way to the
church of the Holy Ghost, situated at some dis-
tance from the town, it happened that a French-
man, named Drouette, had offered a private in-
sult to a Sicilian woman : hence a quarrel arose,
which drew on a general insurrection at Palermo.
All the French who were in the city or the neigh-
bourhood were massacred, with the exception of
one gentleman from Provence, called William
Porcellet, who had conciliated all hearts by his
virtues. This revolt gradually extended to the
other Sicilian cities. Kvcr\ where the French
were put to death on the spot. Messina was the
last that caught the infection ; but there the revo-
lution did not take place till thirty days after the
same event at Palermo (29th April, 12K2)- It is,
therefore, not true that this massacre of the French

ivi.r ( \i: mpm

.,,,!>
N v\ ir * .' r.-l \rr _"'

I) IV. A.I). 1074 1900.

happened at the Mine hour, and at the tor
tin- >r;<. r I.. IN, over all parts of tin- iland. Nor
uore probable that the plot had been
t" Arragon ; sin<
Palermitans displayed at first thr bn:

-tirrend.-r t" the 1

but bring driven from thin revolution, and dread*
ing the vengeance of Charles, they despatched
. the King of Amgon, who wan then
!i a rl.-ct <>tr the African coast, and
made him nn offer of their crown. Thin ;
yielded to the imitation of tin- I'alerniitaiis ; ):
landed at Trapani, and thence passed to PH!>-I m>>.
where he was crowned King <( Sn-il\. The wlm!.-
inland nubmitte<l t<> him ; ntul ChnrleK of AHJ.MI
was obliged to raise the iiiege of Messina, which
he had undertaken. Peter entered, and took pos-
naion of the place, and from that time Si< il\
remained under the power of the King* of Arra-
gon; it became the inheritance of a particular
branch of the Arragoneae prince*; and the House
of Anjou were reduced to the single kingdom of
Naples.

Spain, which was divided into several sove-
reignties, both Christian and Mahometan, pre-
sented a continual spectacle of commotion and
carnage. The Christian states of CastiUe and
Arragon were gradually increased by the con-
quests made over the Mahometans ; while the
kingdom of Navarre, less exposed to conquest by
its local situation, remained nearly in its original
state of mediocrity. This latter kingdom passed
in -ureession to female heirs of different houses.
Blanche of Navarre, daughter of Sancho \ 1.,
transferred it to the Counts of Champagne ( I
On the extinction of the male line of that hou-i-. in
Henry I. of Navarre (1274), Joan I., his daughter
and heiress, conveyed that kingdom, together with
the Comtes of Champagne and Brie, to the crown
of France. Philip the Fair, husband of that prin-
cess, and his three sons Louis le Hutin, IMiilip
the Long, and Charles the Fair, were, at the same
time, king* both of France and Navarre. Fin::ll\,
it was Queen Joan II., daughter of Louis le
Hntin, and herrtrix of Navarre, who transferred
that kingdom to the family of the Counts d'Kvreux,
snd relinquished the Comic's of Champagne and
Brie to Philip of Valois, successor of Charles the
Fair to the throne of Franco (1336).

The family of the Counts of Barcelona ascended
the throne of Arragon (li:7), by the marriage
nit Raymond- Bcrcnguicr IV. with Donna
nilla, daughter and heiress of Uamira II.,
King of Arragon. Don Pedro II., grandson of
Raymond-Berenguier, happening to be at Rome
wneil King of Arragon l.\
I fin-went III. On this occasion he did ho-
mage for his kingdom to that pontiff, and engaged,
for himself and successors, to pay an annual tri-
bute to the H"h See. Don James I., Mirnanicd
nqucror, son of Don Pedro II., gained some
important victories mer the Mahometans from
whom he took the Balearic Isles (1230), and the
kingdom of Valentia.- Don Pedro II.,

eldest *nn of Don J.i..., I., had dispossessed
Charles I. of Anjoii ami SiciU. which drew down
upon him a violent persecution on the part of
D IV., who was on the eve of publish-
ing a crusade against him, and aujgnhig over his
estatca to Charles of Valois, a younger brother of

Philip called the Hardy, king of France. Don
JamcM II., younger son <>f Don I'.dr., Ill . *. .
eeeded in making his prace *ith the court of Rone,
and even ohtain.-d from Pope Boniface \ 1 1 1 .
(1207) the - irdinia, on

! acknowledging himself the vaaaal and
tiibnlarj of the II. -l\ See for that kingdom, which
he afterwards obtained by conquest from t!
pnhlic of Pisa.

The principal victories of the Christians over the
in tan- in Spain, were reserved for the kings
of CastiUe, whose history is extremely fertile in
great events. Alphonso VI., whom some call
Alphons.1 I., after having taken Madrid and
Toledo (10X5), and subdued tin- whole kingdom of
Toledo, was on the point of altogether expelling
the Mahometan* from Spain, when a revolution
which happened in Africa augmented their forces
by fresh numbers, and thus arrested the progress of
the Ca.stitian prince.

The Zeiridcs, an Arab dynasty, descended from
nad, reigned then over that part
of Africa which comprehends Africa properly so
called (%i7.. Tripoli, Tunis, nnd Algiers), and the
Mogreh (comprehending Fex and Morocco), which
the) had conquered frotu the Fatamite caliphs of
Egypt. It happened that a new apostle and con-
queror, named Aboubekcr, son ofOmer, collected
some tribes of Arabs in the vicinity of Sugulmesaa,
a city in the kingdom of Fez, and got himself pro-
claimed Commander of the Faithful. His ad-
herents took the name of MorabetAin, a term which
signifies zealously devoted to religion; and v.
the Spaniards have formed the names Almoraride*
and Marabouths. Having made himself master of
the city of Sngulmessa, this warlike Emir extended
his conquests in the Mogreb, as well as in Africa
Proper, whence he expelled the Zeirides. HU
successor, Yousuff, or Joseph, the son of Taschefin,
completed* the conquest of these countries ; and
built the city of Morocco (1069), which he made
the capital of the Mogreh, and the seat of his new
empire. This prince joined the Mahomet.;
Se\ ille, to whose aid he marched with his v ictorioua
troops, defeated the King of CastiUe at the battle
of Badajos (1090), and subdued the princip;
hometaii states of Spain, such as Grenada and
Seville, &c.

The empire of the Almoravides was subverted in
the twelfth century bj another Mahometan sect,
called the Mnakcdint, or Alnwhadf9, a word signify-
ing Unitarians. An upstart fanatic, named Aixtal-
monmcn, was the founder of this sect. He was edu-
cated among the mountains of Sous, in Mauritania,
and assumed the quality of Emir (11 -')). and the
surname of Mohadi, that is, Ike CHrf the leader
and director of the Faithful. Having subdued
Morocco, Africa, and the whole of the M.-grrb. he
annihilated the dynasty of the Almora\ide (1146),
and at the same time vanquished the Mahometan
states in Spain. He took also (1160) from the
Normans, Tunis. M..hadie, and Tripoli, of which
they had taken possession. One of his successors,
mated Naaer-Mohammed, formed the j<rj
reconquering the whole continent of Spain. The
immense preparation!) which he made for this pur-
pose alarmed Alphonso MIL. King of ( aaUU*.
who immediately formed an alliance with the Kings
of Arragon and Navarre, and even engaged Pope
Innocent III. to proclaim a crusade against the

Ferdinand III. takes Cordova
54 and Seville.

Orders of Alc<ontara & Calatrava.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Kingdom of Portugal.
Diirhifs of France.
William the Conqueror.

Mahometans. The armies of Europe and Africa
met on the confines of Castille and Andalusia
(1212); and in the environs of the city Ubeda
was fought a bloody battle, which so crippled the
power of the Alinohades, as to occasion in a short
time the downfal and dismemberment of their
empire. 88

About this period (1269), the Mahometans of
Spain revolted afresh from Africa, and divided
themselves into several petty states, of which the
principal and the only one that existed for several
centuries was that of the descendants of >
Kings of Grenada. Ferdinand III., King of Cas-
tille and Leon, took advantage of this event to
renew his conquests over the Mahometans. He
took from them the kingdoms of Cordova, Murcia,
and Seville (1236, et seq.), and left them only the
single kingdom of Grenada.

These wars against the Mahometans were the
occasion of several religious and military orders
being founded in Spain. Of these, the most ancient
was that founded and fixed at Alcantara (1156),
whence it took its name ; having for its badge or
decoration a green cross, in form of the lily, or
fleur-de-lis. The order of Calatrava was instituted
in 1158; it was confirmed by Pope Alexander III.
(1164), and assumed as its distinctive mark the
red cross, also in form of the lily. The order of
St. James of Campostella, founded in 1161, and
confirmed by the same Pope (1175), was distin-
guished by a red cross, in form of a sword.
Finally, the order of Montesa (1317), supplanted
that of the Templars in the kingdom of Arragon.

The Kings of Castille and Arragon having con-
quered from the Arabs a part of what is properly
called Portugal, formed it into a distinct government,
under the name of Portocalo, or Portugal. Henry
of Burgundy, a French prince, grandson of Robert,
called the Old, Duke of Burgundy, and great-
grandson of Robert II., King of France, having
distinguished himself by his bravery in the wars
between the Castillians and the Mahometans,
Alphonso VI., King of Castille, wished to attach
the young prince to him by the ties of blood ; and,
for this purpose, gave him in marriage his daugh-
ter the Infant Donna Theresa; and created him
Count of Portugal (1090). This state, including
at first merely the cities of Oporto, Braga, Mi-
randa, Lamego, Viseo, and Coimbra, began to as-
sume its present form in the reign of Alphonso I.,
son of Count Henry. The Mahometans, alarmed
at the warlike propensities of the young Alphonso,
had marched with a superior force to attack him
by surprise. Far from being intimidated by the
danger, this prince, to animate the courage of his
troops, pretended that an apparition from heaven
had authorized him to proclaim himself king in
the face of the army, in virtue of an express order
which he said he had received from Christ. 89 He
then marched against the enemy, and totally routed
them in the plains of Ourique (1139). This vic-
tory, famous in the annals of Portugal, paved the
way for the conquest of the cities Leiria, Santarem,
Lisbon, Cintra, Alcazar do Sal, Evora, and Elvas,
situated on the banks of the Tagus. Moreover, to
secure the protection of the court of Rome against
the Kings of Leon, who disputed with him the in-
dependence of his new state, Alphonso took tin-
resolution of acknowledging himself vassal and
tributary to the Holy See (1142). He afterwards

convoked the estates of his kingdom at Lamego,
and there declared his independence by a funda-
mental law, which also regulated the order of suc-
cession to the throne. Sancho I., son and suc-
cessor of Alphonso, took from the Mahometans the
town of Silves in Algarve ; and Alphonso III.
soon after (1249) completed the conquest of that
province.

The first Kings of Portugal, in order to pain
the protection of the court of Rome, were obliged
to grant extensive benefices to the ecclesiastics,
with regalian rights, and the exemption of the
clergy from the secular jurisdiction. Their suc-
cessors, however, finding themselves firmly esta-
blished on the throne, soon changed their policy,
and manifested as much of indiiference for the
clergy as Alphonso I. had testified of kindness and
attachment to them. Hence originated a long
series of broils and quarrels with the court of
Rome. Pope Innocent IV. deposed Sancho II.
(1245), and appointed Alphonso III. in his place.
Denys, son and successor of this latter prince, A\ as
excommunicated for the same reason, and com-
pelled to sign a treaty (1289), by which the clergy
were re-established in all their former rights.

In France, the whole policy of the kings was
directed against their powerful vassals, who shared
among them the finest provinces of that kingdom.
The Dukes of Burgundy, Normandy and Acqui-
taine ; the Counts of Flanders, Champagne, and
Toulouse ; the Dukes of Bretagne, the Counts of
Poitiers, Bar, Blois, Anjou and Maine, Aleiicmi,
Auvergne, Angouleme, Perigord, Carcassonne, 30
&c. formed so many petty sovereigns, equal in
some respects to the electors and princes of the
Germanic empire. Several circumstances, how-
ever, contributed to maintain the balance in favour
of royalty. The crown was hereditary, and the
demesne lands belonging to the king, which, being
very extensive, gave him a power which far out-
weighed that of any individual vassal. Besides,
these same demesnes being situate in the centre of
the kingdom, enabled the sovereign to observe the
conduct of his vassals, to divide their forces, and
prevent any one from preponderating over another.
The perpetual wars which they waged \\-\\\\ each
other, the tyranny which they exercised over their
dependants, and the enlightened policy of se\eral
of the French kings, by degrees re-established the
royal authority, which had been almost annihilate (!
under the last princes of the Cariovingian dynasty.

It was at this period that the rivalry between
France and England had its origin. The fault
that Philip I. committed, in making no opposition
to the conquest of England, by "William Duke of
Normandy, his vassal, served to kindle the flame of
Avar between these princes. The war which took
place in 1087, was the first that happened hetween
tin- two nations; it was renewed under the subse-
quent reigns, and this rivalry was still more in-
creased, on occasion of the unfortunate divorce l>e-
tween Louis VII. and Eleanor of Poitou, heiress
of Guienne, Poitou, and Gascogne. This divorced
princess married (1152) Henry, surnamed 1'lan-
tagenet, Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou and
Maine, and afterwards King of England ; and
brought him, in dowry, the whole of her vast pos-
sessions. But it was reserved for Philip Augustus
to repair the faults of his predecessors. This great
monarch, whose courage was equal to his prudence

, . h

HJ II

II .,

-.!.,( S .

PI KliMl |N. A.D. 1074-1300.

King John.

M."... |

md liu policy, rccorrrrd hi*

i M 1 : i - -
'""''

uade to the

i, ..i .:;-. M in l D ;i iin i igainal K .1 ., to dk*

| 1 | . !>.. I ':._-..- . I N : :,. LUll . \ , M ill*',

) ; .in.) i..- maintained

these conqurtU by lli>- l-u. . which be

gained at i r.'lti, >. r tin- con

.pei,.r iitlm, and the
[>.*
Several uf the French kings were excln

uuli thi> crusades in id.- Hast. Louu
\ 11., Philip Augustus, and L<>< k. the

crow, and man h> >1 in IMTMHI t the 1 !

ultra-marine expeditions (1147, 1
v. inch required great ami powerful resource*.
not but exhaust 1 .iiilc, on the contrary,

the cruaadea which Louin VIII. undertook against
the Albigenitcs and their protectors, il> ('..tints of
I onlousr and Carcassonne, considerably aug-
racuted the royal power. !';' Innocfiit III., by
. this crusade ( I vn- i. raised a tedious
and bloody war, which desolated Languedoc ; and
during which, fanati. (rated atr<>

which make humanity to shudder. Simon, Count
it, tin- chief or general of these crusaders,
hail the whole estates of the Counts of Toulouse
adjudp-d him by the Pope. Amauri, the sou and
heir of Simon, surrendered his claims o\cr these
forfeitures to l,<niis N III. Kinu of France (IV'Jii);
and it win this circumstance that induced Louis to
march in person ml the head of the crusaders,
against the Count of Toulouse, his vassal and
"ii, in. He died at the close of this expedition,
leaving to his son and successor, Louis IX., the
taak of finishing this disastrous war. By the peace
which was concluded at Paris (1229), between the
King and the Count, the greater part of Languedoc
was allowed to remain in the possession of Louis.
One arrangement of this treaty was the marriage
t' the Count's daughter with Alphonso, brother to
the km.;: with this express clause, that failing
heint of this marriage, the whole territory of
Toulouse should ri-M it to the crown. The game
treaty adjudged to the Pope the county of Yenaissin,
as an escheat of the Counts of Toulouse ; and the
'. of Carcassonne, implicated also In the cause
of the Albigenses, was compelled to cede to the
T the viscounties of Beziera, Car-
cassonne, Agde, Rodex, Albi, and Nismes. One
consequence of thin bloody war was the establish-
ment of the terrible tribunal of the Inquisition,* 3
ami the founding of the order of Dominicans.* 4

1 1 nry 1 1., a descendant of the house of Planta-
genet, having mounted the throne of England, in
I" his mother Matilda, annexed to that crown
the d rmandy, the counties of Anjou,

Touraine, and Maine, together with (itiicnne,
Gaacogne and Poitou. lie afterwards added Ire-
l IT..!, which he subdued in II"'.'. This island,
which had never been conquered, either by the
Romans or the barbarians who had desolated
e, was, at that time, divided into five prin-
cipal sovereignties, vii. Monster, Ulster, <
naught, Leinster, and Meath, whose several chiefs
all assumed the title of kings. One of these princes

he ha,l

tcrnal tnuujmllity, nor pow

' i !...-:.' ! '

the conqui

. Adriai

ugh u> rvpcl with
-orn without. It

.1. II
by a

and iinil.-M nnal rngag.

tin- Irisli In (he jnrls.l:

the payment of I'etcr't pence.** The expu!
HIT:; . I ho hail tendered him-

self odious hy his pri<lc and hi* tyranny, furnished
ll.-nry with :t | liin.- ir.M.j, into that

.'I, to assist the .1. llii..:

his dominions. The nuccess of the English, and

the M. t..ii.-s which they gained ov

of Connaught, who at that time was chief monarch

of the island, determined Henry to undertak

ii, an expedition into Ireland (in (>
117Vj. He soon n-iliii -ed ih- provinces of Lein-
ster and Minister to submission ; and after baring

: n< ted several forts, and nominated a viceroy
and other crown otHccr-, he took bis departure
without completing the conquet of the island.
Roderic, King of Conuaught, submitted in 11");
hut it was not till th- reign of Queen Elizabeth
that the entire reduction of Ireland was accom-

In Ku-laMil, the rashness and rapacity of John,
) Henry 1 1., occasioned a mighty revolution
in the government. The discontented nobles, with
tin- Archbishop of Canterbury at their head, j.
in a league against the King. Pope Innocent III.
formally deposed him, made over bis kingdom to
the Crown of France, and proclaimed a crusade
against him in every country of Europe. John
obtained an accommodation with the rope; and
in order to secure his protection, he consented to
become a vassal of the Church, both for England
and Ireland ; engaging to pay his 1 1 olinens, besides
s pence, an annual tribute of a thousand
marks. But all in rain ; the nobles persisted in
their revolt, and forced the King to grant them the
grand charter of .\fayna Cfiarta, I'.Hh June, IJI'i,
by which he and his successors w r de.

;.: n.'d of the power of exacting subsidies without
the counsel and advice of Parliament ; which did
not then include the Commons. He grant<
the city- of London, and to all cities and burghs in
the kingdom, a renewal of their ancient liberties
and privileges, and the right of not being taxed
except with the advice and consent of the common
council. Moreover, the lives and properties of
the citizens were secured by this charter; one
clause of which expressly provided, that no subject
could be either arrested, imprisoned, dispossessed
of his fortune, or deprived of his life, except by a
legal sentence of his peers, conform to the ancient
law of the country. This charter, which was re-
newed in various subsequent reigns, forms, at this
day, the basis of the English Constitution.

King John, meantime, rebelled against this
charter, and caused it to be rescinded by Pope In-
t III., who even issued a bull of excommu-
nication against the barons; but they, far from
being disconcerted or intimidated, made an offer
of their crown to Louis, son of Philip Augustus
King of France. This prince repaired to England,
ami then received the fealty and homage of the
grandees of the nation. John, abandoned by all

Fall of Llrwrllyn.
r<ir>i|iu->t nf "Wales by
K<iard I.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

1'ir.ites of the North.
AITairs of Denmark.
SwcilUh kiugs.

his subjects, attempted to take refuge in Scotland ;
but he died in his flight at the Castle of Newark.
His death made a sudden change iu the minds
and sentiments of the English. The barons for-
sook the standard of the French prince, and rallied
round that of young Henry, son of King John,
whose long and unfortunate reign was a succession
of troubles and intestine wars. Edward I., son
and successor of Henry III., as determined and
courageous as his father had been weak and in-
dolent, restored tranquillity to England, and made
his name illustrious by the conquest which he
made of the principality of Wales.

This district, from the most remote antiquity,
was ruled by its own native princes, descended
from the ancient British kings. Although they
had been vassals and tributaries of the Kings of
England, they exercised, nevertheless, the rights
of sovereignty in their own country. Lewellyn,
Prince of Wales, having espoused the cause of the
insurgents in the reign of Henry III., and made
some attempts to withdraw from the vassalage of
the English crown, Edward I. declared war against
him (1282) ; and in a battle fought near the
Menau, Lewellyn was defeated and slain, with
2000 of his followers. David, his brother and
successor, met with a fate still more melancholy.
Having been taken prisoner by Edward, he was
condemned to death, and executed like a traitor
(12S3). The territory of Wales was annexed to
the crown ; the king created his eldest son Ed-
ward, Prince of Wales ; a title which has since
been borne by the eldest sons of the Kings of Eng-
land.

At this period, the kingdoms of the North pre-
sented, in general, little else than a spectacle of
horror and carnage. The warlike and ferocious
temper of the Northern nations, the want of fixed
and specific laws in the succession of their kings, 3 '
gave rise to innumerable factions, encouraged in-
solence, and fomented troubles and intestine wars.
An extravagant and superstitious devotion, by
loading the church with wealth, aggravated still
more the evils with which these kingdoms were
distracted. The bishops and the new metropo-
litans, 3 ? enriched at the expense of the crown
lands, and rendered bold by their power, and the
strength of their castles, domineered in the senate
and tin 1 assemblies of the states, and neglected no
opportunity of encroaching on the sovereign's
authority. They obtained, by compulsion, the
introduction of tithes, and the immunity of the cc-
clesiaMic- ; and thus more and more increased and
cemented the sacerdotal power. 38 This state of
trouble and internal commotion tended to abate
that ardour for maritime incursions which had so
long agitated the Scandinavian nations. It did
not, however, prevent the kings of Denmark and
Sweden from undertaking, from time to time, ex-
peditions by sea, under the name of Crusades, for
the conversion of the Pagan nations of the North,
whose territories they were ambitious to conquer.

The Slavians, who inhabited the coasts of the
Baltic, were then constantly committing piracies,
in imitation of the ancient Normans, plundering
and ravaging the provinces and islands of Den-
mark. Valdemar I., wishing to put an end to
these devastations, and thirsting moreover for the
glory of converting to Christianity those nations
against whom all the efforts of the Germans had

failed, attacked fthem at different times with his
numerous flotillas. He took and pillaged several
of their towns, such as Arcona and Carentz or
Gartz, in the isle of Rugen (1168), Julin, now-
called Wollin, and Stettin, two sea-ports in Pome-
rania (1175-6). He made the princes of Rugen
his vassals and tributaries, and is generally re-
garded as the founder of Dantzic (1165), which
originally was merely a fort constructed by the
Danes. Canute VI., son and successor of Valde-
mar I., followed the example of his father ; he re-
duced the princes of Pomerania (1183) and Meck-
lenburg (1186), and the Counts of Schwerin
(1201), '[to a state of dependence ; he made himself
master of Hamburg and Lubec, and subdued the
whole of Holstein. Valdemar II. assumed the
title of King of the Slaviaus, and Lord of Nordal-
bingia. He added Lauenburg, a part of Prussia,
Estonia, and the Isle of Oesel, to the conquests of
his predecessors, and became the founder of the
cities of Stralsund and Revel (1209 and 1222).

This prince, master of nearly the whole southern
coast of the Baltic, and raised to the summit of
prosperity by the superiority of his commercial
and maritime power, commanded for a time the
attention of all Europe ; but an unforeseen event
eclipsed his glory, and deprived him of all the ad-
vantages of his victories and his conquests. Henry,
Count of Schwerin, one of the vassals of Valdemar,
wishing to avenge an outrage which he pretended
to have received from him, seized that prince by
surprise (1223), and detained him for three years
prisoner in the castle of Schwerin. This circum-
stance aroused the courage of the other vanquished
nations, who instantly took to arms. Adolphus,
Count of Schauenburg, penetrated into Holstein,
and subdued the princes of Mecklenburg and
Pomerania, with the cities of Hamburg and Lubec.
Valdemar, restored to liberty, made several efforts
to reconquer his revolted provinces ; but a power-
ful confederacy being formed against him, he was
defeated in a battle fought (1227) at Bornhoevet,
near Segeberg, in Holstein. Of all his conquests,
he retained only the Isle of Rugen, Estonia, and
the town of Revel, which, in course of time, were
lost or abandoned by his successors.

Sweden, which had been governed in succession
by the dynasties of StenkU, Swerknr, and ,S7. Eric,
was long a prey to internal dissensions, which
arose principally from the two different forms of
worship professed and authorized by the state.
The whole nation, divided in their religious senti-
ments, ?aw themselves arranged into two factions,
and under two reigning families, mutually hating
and exasperated against each other, for nearly half
a century. Two, ai:d sometimes more, princes were
srcn reigning at once from 10HO till 1133, when
the thione began to be occupied ultimately by the
descendants of Sweyn and St. Eric. During all
this time, violence usurped the place of right, and
the crown of Sweden was more than once the
pri/c of assassination and treason.

In the midst of these intestine disorders, \\ e I'md
the Swedes even attempting foreign conquers. To
these they were instigated both by the genius of
the age, which encouraged cmsades and military
missions, as well as by the desire of aven^im: the
piracies which the ^'inlanders, and other J'sigan
tribes of the North, committed from time to time
on the coasts of Sweden. St. Eric became at once

i . i tm ksJsjMi

PERIOD IV. A.D. 1074 1JOO. . , i

. ..::., . ,.- ,/ !, IV,!;.

I 1 !;.'.,, MB] (Mai

;>ostlc and the conqueror of Finland (1157);

h-d also Swrduh c..l..i,j

and *ubdued lh province of HekiofluM and
Jamptland. Charles I., ton nf Mwcrkar, united
tin- itafiom "i tiothliind ID Sweden, and wi the
Ant that took the tit. t\\.. kiti/ilnrno.

/.apr, or the Lispcr, resumed thr
crusading system of warfare ; and, in the character
of a missionary, conquered Tavatland and the
stern put of Bothnia. Birgrr, a prince of the
Folkungian dynasty, who ascended the thmne of
Sweden in 1260, conquered, under thr -an

Carrlia and Savolax, and fortified Yiburg.
mpcllod th<- inhabitants of thme countries to
embrace tin- ChrUiian n liirion (1293), and an-
nexed them to Finland. We find, also, several of
-n-.li-.li kiiii,"* undertaking missionary expedi-
tions airninsi thrir Pagan neighbour* the Estonians,
who, from time <> tun.-, rmnmitti-d dreadful ra-
vages on the coasts of Sweden. These exped .

i were always esteemed sacred, served as an
excuse for the sovereigns of the North in avoiding
(li.- crusades to the Holy Land, in which they took
no part."

Prussia and the Prussian* are totally unknown
in history before the end of the truth century. 4 *
The author of the Life of St. Adelbert, of Prague,
who suffered martyrdom in Prussia in the reign of
Otho III., is the tir>t that mentions them under
this new name (997). Two hundred years after,
the Abbot of Oliva, sumamed the Christian, be-
came the apostle of the Prussians, and was ap-
pointed by Pope Innocent III. the first bishop of
Prussia (I2l.i). This idolatrous nation, haughty
and independent, and attached to the reigning su-
perstition, having repulsed nil the efforts that were
repeatedly made to convert them to Christianity,
Pope Honorius III., in the true spirit of his age,
published a crusade again*t them (1218), to pro-
nelytiie them by force. Armies of crusaders were
poured into Prussia, and overran the whole country
with fire and sword. The Prussian* took cruel

\. !!_ II1C.' ..II til'" I'"!' -III'-!' of M l-..\ i I, U ho (rid

made common cause against them with tin- cru-
sader* of the East. At length Conrad, Duke of
Masovia, findint; himself too weak to withstand
tho fury of tin- Prussians, called in the Teutonic
ktii.'lit- to his aid ; and, anxious to secure for ever

sistance and protection of that order, he made
them a grant <>f the territory of Culm ; and more-
ox r tin-in whatever lands he might
conquer from the common enemy (122>). This
contract having been Kanrtiom-ri by tin- Kinperor

ric II.. the knights <.|n->-iiil\ rum- into pos-
session of tlieir new dominions ( P.'.'JO). Tli--\

Inl tin mv-Ucs by degrees over all Prussia,
after a long and munlerons war, which they had
carried on nifain*t tin- idolatrous natives. That

try, which had been peopled by numerous

in colonies in succession, <li<l nl>t submit to
the joke of the Teutonic order, until the greater
part of its ancient inhabitant* had hen.

knights took care to confirm their authority
:'-liiri<>n in Pru*ia, by constructing cities
and fort, and founding bishoprics nml cm.

,', 4 ' on the Pmrel, was built

in PA5; and I Nognt,

which becnme the capital of the Order, is suppoaed
iv e been founded in 12W.

>ic knights completed the conquest

of that country (12K3), by the redaction of Suda-
vla, the la- province* which com-

posed ancient Prussia. We can scarcely conceive
how a handful of tbete knights should have been
able, in m nhort a time, to vanquish a warlike and
powerful nation, inspired with the love of liberty,
and emboldened by fanaticism, to make the most
intrepid and obstinate defem-.-. But we ought i<>
take into consideration, that the indulgence* of the
court of Rome allured continually into Prussia a
multitude of crusaders from all the |>r\inces of
pire ; and that the knight* gained these over
to their ranks, by distributing among them the
lands which they had won by conquest. In Mm
way, their numbers were incessant K recruited by
new colonies of crusaders, and the nobles r!
in crowds to their standard, to seek territorial ac-
i|in-ition in Prussia.

The increase of commerce on the Baltic, in the
twelfth century, led the Germans to discover the
coasts of Livonia. Some merchants from Bremen,
on their way to Wisby, in the Island of Gothland,
a sea-port on the Baltic very much frequented at
that time, were thrown by a tempest on the coast
near the mouth of the Dwina (1158). The desire
of gain induced them to enter into a correspondence
\\iih the natives of the country ; and, from a wish
to give stability to a branch of commerce which
might become very lucrative, they attempted to
introduce the Christian religion into Livonia. A
monk of Segeberg, in HoUtein, named Mainard,
undertook this mission. He was the first bishop
of Livonia (1192), and fixed his residence at the
castle of Uxkull, which he strengthened by forti-
fications. Berthold, his successor, wishing to ac-
celerate the progress of Christianity, as well as to
avoid the dangers to which his mission exposed
him, caused the Pope to publish a crusade against
'the Livonians. This zealous prelate perished,
sword in hand, fighting against the people whom
he intended to convert. The priests, after thi,
were either massacred or expelled from Livonia ;
but, in a short time, a new army of crusaders
marched into the country, under the banner of Al-
bert, the third bishop, who liuilt the city of Riga
(1200), which became the seat of his bishopric, and
afterwards the metropolitan see of all Prussia and
I.iviii:i. The same prelate founded a military
order of the Knights of Chriat or Svord-bearers,
to whom he ceded the third of all the countries he
ha<l conquered. This'Ordcr, confirmed by Pope
Innocent HI. (1204), finding themselves too weak
to oppose the Pagans of Livonia, agreed to unite
uiili the Teutonic order (1237), who, at that time,
nominated the generals or provincial master* in
Livonia, known by the names of Hrrrmritter and
I.antimcinttr. Pope Gregory IX., in confirming
the union of these two Orders, exacted th-
render of the districts of Revel, Wesembenr.
senstcin, and Hapsal, to Valdemar II., which the
kni.-ht-. u ith consent of the Bishop of Dorpat, had
taken from him during his captivity. This retro-
cession was made by an act passed >'

^veral documents which still i \
the pri\Mc archm-i of the Teutonic order ;
niiiK*berg, and especially two, dated 1249 and 1

that, at this period, the bishop* of Riga still

MierioriU. both temporal and spiritual,

over these knights *word-beareni, although they

were united with the Teutonic order, which was

Tartary.
The Moguls.
Zinghis Khan.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Moguls conquer Chiuu.
Death of Cublai.
Horde of

independent of these bishops. The combination
of these two Orders rendered them so powerful,
that they gradually extended their conquests over
all Prussia, Livonia, Courland, and Semigallia ;
but they could never succeed farther than to sub-
ject these nations to a rigorous servitude, under
pretence of conversion.

Before we speak of Russia and the other Eastern
countries of Europe, it will be necessary to turn
our attention for a little to the Moguls, whose con-
quests and depredations extended, in the thirteenth
century, from the extremity of Northern Asia, over
Russia and the greater part of Europe. The
native country of this people is found to be those
same regions which they still inhabit in our day,
and which are situated to the north of the great
wall of China, between Eastern Tartary and mo-
dern Bukharia. They are generally confounded
with the Tartars, from whom they differ essen-
tially, both in their appearance and manners, as
well as in their religion and political institutions.
This nation is divided into two principal branches,
the Eluths or Oelots, better known by the name
of Calmucs, and the Moguls, properly so called.
These latter, separated from the Calmucs by the
mountains of Altai, are now subject to the domi-
nion of China.

The Moguls, scarcely known at present in the
history of Europe, owe their greatness to the
irenius of one man the famous Zinghis Khan.
This extraordinary person, whose real name was
Tcmudgin, or, according to Pallas, Deemutchin,
was born in the year 1163, and originally nothing
more than the chief of a particular horde of Mo-
guls, who had settled on the banks of the rivers
Onon and Kerlon, and were tributary to the em-
pire of Kin. His first exploits were against the
other hordes of Moguls, whom he compelled to
acknowledge his authority. Emboldened by suc-
cess, he conceived the romantic idea of aspiring to
be the conqueror of the world. For this purpose,
he assembled near the source of the river Onon,
in 1206, all the chiefs of the Mogul hordes, and
the generals of his armies. A certain pretender to
inspiration, whom the people regarded as a holy
man, appeared in the assembly, and declared that
it was the will of God that Temudgin should rule
over the whole earth, that all nations should sub-
mit to him, and that henceforth he should bear
the title* of Tschinghis-Khan, or Most Great
Emperor. 4 *

In a short time, this new conqueror subdued the
two great empires of the Tartars ; one of which,
called also the empire of Kin, embraced the whole
of Eastern Tartary, and the northern part of
China; the other, that of Kara-Kitai, or the Klii-
tans, extended over Western Tartary, and had its
capital at Kaschgar in Bukharia. 48 He afterwards
attacked the Carismian Sultans, who ruled over
Turkestan, Transoxiana, Charasm, Chorasan, and
all Persia, from Derbent to Irak-Arabia and the
Indies. This powerful monarchy was overturned
by Zinghis-Khan, in the course of six campaigns ;
and it was during this war that the Moguls, while
marching under the conduct of Toushi, the <:l<l> -(
son of Zinghis-Khan, against the Kipzacs or Cap-
chacs, to the north of the Caspian Sea, made their
first inroad into the Russian empire. Zinghis, after
having subdued the whole of Tangout, died in
the sixty-tilth year of his age (1227). Historians

have remarked in him the traits of a great man,
born to command others, but whose noble qualities
were tarnished by the ferocity of his nature, which
took delight in carnage, plunder, and devastation.
Humanity shudders at the recital of the inexpres-
sible horrors exercised by this barbarian, whose
maxim was to exterminate, without mercy, all who
offered the least resistance to his victorious arms.

The successors of this Mogul conqueror i'ol-
lowed him in his career of victory. They achieved
the conquest of all China, overturned the caliphate
of Bagdat, and rendered the sultans of Iconium
their tributaries. 44 Octai-Khan, the immediate
successor of Zinghis, despatched from the centre of
China two powerful armies, the one against Con-a,
and the other against the nations that lie to the
north and north-west of the Caspian Sea. This
latter expedition, which had for its chiefs Gayouk,
son of Octai, and Batou, eldest son of Toushi, and
grandson of Zinghis-Khan, after having subdued all
Kipzac, penetrated into Russia, which they con-
quered in 1237. Hence they spread over Poland,
Silesia, Moravia, Hungary, and the countries bor-
dering on the Adriatic Sea; they plundered cities,
laid waste the country, and carried terror and de-
struction wherever they went. 45 All Europe trem-
bled at the sight of these barbarians, who seemed
as if they wished to make the whole earth one \asl
empire of desolation. The empire of the Moguls
attained its highest point of elevation under Cublai,
grandson of Zingbis, towards the end of the tenth
century. From south to north, it extended from
the Chinese Sea and the Indies, to the extremity
of Siberia ; and from east to west, from Japan to
Asia Minor, and the frontiers of Poland in Europe.
China and Chinese Tartary formed the seat of the
empire, and the residence of the Great Khan ;
while the other parts of the dominions were go-
verned by princes of the family of Zinghis Khan,
who either acknowledged the Great Khan as their
supreme master, or had their own particular kings
and chiefs that paid him tribute. The principal
subordinate Khans of the race of Zinghis were
those of Persia, Zagatai, and Kipzac. Their de-
pendence on the Great Khan, or emperor of China,
ceased entirely on the death of Cublui (1294), and
the power of the Moguls soon became extinct in
China. 48

As for the Moguls of Kipzac, their dominion
extended over all the Tartar countries situated to
the north of the Caspian and the Euxine, as also
over Russia and the Crimea. Batou-Khan, eldest
son of Toushi, was the founder of this d\nn--t\.
Being addicted to a wandering life, the Khans of
Kipzac encamped on the banks of the "Wolira,
passing from one place to another with their tents
and nocks, according to the custom of the Moifid
and Tartar nations. 47 The principal sect of these
Khans was called the (iriind or Golden ll<>ri{<; or
the Horde of Kipzac, which was long an object of
the greatest terror to the Russians, Poles, Lithu-
anians, and Hungarians. Its glory declined to-
wards the end of the fourteenth century, and en-
tirely disappeared under the last Khan Aclnnet,
in I 1*1. A few separate hordes were all that
remained, detached from the grand horde, such as
those of Casan, Astraoan, Siberia, and the Crimea;
all of which were, in their turn, subdued or ex-
tirpated by the Russians. 48

A crowd of princes, descendants of Vlademir

Uraad-4uk~ rf Klow.

. n,x . ... , It,-..

PERIOD IV. A.D. 10741900.

the Great, had tared among them the vast do-

':>< of these princes, invested

uiti, t!>. < nd Dukr, exercised c<

right* of .u|K-rn>ritj orer the rest, who, ne*<

less, acted the part of petty sovereigns, and made

war on m< The capital of these grand

duke* WM Kiow, which was also regarded at the

metropolis of the empire. Andrew I.. Prince of

Susdai, having assumed the title of grand duke

.1 hi* residence at Vlademir, on the

ma, and thua gave rite to a kiml >(

political Khiam, the consequences of which were

meet fetal to the Russians. The Grand Duchy of

\\uli its .It-pendent principal itim, detached

themselves by degree* from the rest of the empire,

.IM.I finally became a prey to the Lithuanians and

Pole*.

In the midst of theae divisions and intestine
broiU, and when Ruaaia was struggling with diffi-
cult) against the Bulgarians, Polowaian*, 4 * and
otli.T barbarous tribes in the neighbourhood, *he
had the iniiifortune to be attacked by the Moguls,
under /iiu'ln- Khan. Toushi, eldest son of that
conqueror, having marched round the Caspian, in
order to attack tin- I'olowxians, encounteied, on his
passage, the princes of Kiow, who were allies of
that people. The battle which he fought ( I-''.':! ),
on the banks of tin- rm-r Kalka, was one of the
most sanguinary recorded in history. The Russians
were totally defeated ; six of their prince* perished
..n the field of battle; and the whole of \\i-ti -in
Russia was laid open to the conqueror. The M -
guls penetrated as far aa Novogorod, wasting the
whole country on their march with fire and sword .
returned by the same route, but without ex-
tending their ravages farther. In 1*237 they made
a second invasion, under the conduct of Batou,
son of Touahi, and governor of the northern parts
of the Mogul empire. This prince, after having
vanquished the Polowxians and Bulgarians, that is,
the whole country of Kipzac, entered the north of
Russia, where he took Rugen and Moscow, and
rut to pieces an army of the Russians near Ko-
lomna. Several other towns in this part of Ruaaia
were sacked by the Moguls, in the commencement
of tin- following year. The family of the Grand
Duke, Jnri II.. perished in the sack of Ylademir;
and he himself fell in the Irnttle which he fought
with the Mogul* near the river Sita. Batou ex-
truded hi* conquests in northern Russia as far as
the dty Torshok, in the territory of Novogorod.
For some years he continued his ravages over the
whole of Western Russia ; where, among others,
be took Kiow, Kaminiec in Podolia, Vlademir,
and Halitsch. From this we may date the fall of
the Grand Duchy of Kiow, or Western Ruaaia,
which, with its dependent principalities, in the
following century, came into the possession of tin-
Lithuanians and Poles. As for the Grand Durhy
!' N lademir, which comprehended Eastern and
Northern Russia, it was subdued by the Moguls or
Tartars, whose terrible yoke it wore for more than
two hundred years. M

An extraordinary person who appeared at this
disastrous crisis, pi emu red that part of Russia
-..' into total ruin. This was Prince
Alexander, son of the Grand Duke, Jaroslaus II.,
who obtained the epithet or surname of Afev*i,
from a victor}- which he gained over the Knights
of Livonia, near the Neva (1241). Elevated by

v :.an flatou to the dignity of Grand Duke

lality in paving tribute, and preserving his
allegiance to the Mogul emperors, the good Hill
of these new masters of Russia, during bis whole
reign. When this great prince died in IOTI, his
name was enrolled in their calendar of saints.
Peter the Great built, in honour of bis memory, a
convent on the hanks of the Neva, to which he
am the name of Alexander Newski ; and the

-s Catherine I

knighthood that was also called after the name of
luce.

I'oland, which was divided among several princes
<>f the 1'iast d \uasty, had become, at the time of
which we speak, a prey to intestine factions, and
exposed to the incuntions of the neighbouring
barbarians. Theee divisions, the principal source
of all the evils that afflicted Poland, continued
down to the death of Boleslaus II. (I !'<*), who,
having portioned his estates among his sons, or-
dered that the eldest should retain the district of
Cracow, under the title of Monarch, and that he
should exercise the rights of superiority over the
provincial dukes and princes, his brothers. This
clause, which might have prevented the dismem-
berment of the state, served only to kindle the
flame of discord among these collegatory princes.
UladislaiiR, who is generally considered as the
eldest of these sons, having attempted to dispos-
sess his brothers (114<>), they rose in arms, ex-
pelled him from Poland, and obliged his descend-
ants to content themselves with Silesia. Ilis sons
founded, in that country, numerous families of
dukes and princes, who introduced German colo-
nies into Silesia ; all of which, in course of time,
became subject to the kings of Bohemia. Conrad,
son of Casimir the Just, and grandson of Boles-
laus III., was the ancestor of the dukes of Cujavia
and Masovia. It was this prince who called in
the assistance of the Teutonic knights against the
pagans of Prussia, and established that Order in
the territory of Culm (1230).

The Moguls, after having vanquished Russia,
took possession of Poland (1240). Having gained
the \ietory at the battle of Schiedlow, they set fire
to Cracow, and then marched to Lignitx in Silesia,
where a numerous army of crusaders were assem-
bled under the command of H.nr\. Duke of
Hrcslau. This prince was defeated, and slain in
the action. The whole of Silesia, as well as
Moravia, was cruelly pillaged and desolated by
the Moguls.

I i ungary, at this period, presented the spectacle
of a warlike and barbarous nation, the fenx-itv of
whose manners cannot be better
the laws passed in the reign* of Ladulau* and
( .'!<>man. about the end <>t :h ami be-

innning of the tv* elfth century. Crimes were then
punished either with the !<>
member of the body, such as t! nose,

the tongue, Ac. These laws were psjbiisbed in
their general assemblies, which were composed of
the king, the great officers of the crown, ai
representatives of the clergy an
All the other branches of the ower

pertained to the kings, who made war and peace
at their pleasure ; while the counts, or governors
of provinces, *'' no power either personal or
hereditary.* 1

K:n_-> nf 11

60 Crusade under Andrew II.
The Golden Bull.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Uutou conquers Hungary,
(ireek or Kastcrn Empire.
The Crusades.

Under a government so despotic, it was easy
for the kings of Hungary to enlarge the boundaries
of their states. Ladislaus took from the Greeks
the duchy of Sirmium (1080), comprising the
lower part of Sclavonia. This same prince ex-
tended his conquests into Croatia, a country which
was governed for several ages by the Slavian
princes, who possessed Upper Sclavonia, and ruled
over a great part of ancient Illyria and Dalmatia,
to which they gave the name of Croatia. Dircis-
laus was the first of these princes that took the
title of king (in 984). Demetrius Swinimir, one
of his successors, did homage to the Pope, in order
to obtain the protection of the Holy See (1076).
The line of these kings having become extinct some
time after, Ladislaus, whose sister had been mar-
ried to Demetrius Swinimir, took advantage of the
commotion that had arisen in Croatia, and con-
quered a great part of that kingdom (1091), and
especially Upper Sclavonia, which was one of its
dependencies. Coloman completed their conquest
in 1102, and the same year he was crowned at Bel-
grade King of Croatia and Dalmatia. In the course
of a few years he subdued the maritime cities of
Dalmatia, such as Spalatro, Trau, and Zara, which
he took from the republic of Venice . M The king-
dom of Rama, or Bosnia, fell at the same time
under his power. He took the title of King of
Rama (1103); and Bela II., his successor, made
over the duchy of Bosnia to Ladislaus, his younger
son. The sovereignty of the kings of Hungary
was also occasionally acknowledged by the princes
and kings of Bulgaria and Servia, and even by the
Russian princes of Halitsch and Wolodimir.

These conquests gave rise to an abuse w : hich
soon proved fatal to Hungary. The kings claimed
for themselves the right of disposing of the newly
conquered provinces in favour of their younger
sons, to whom they granted them under the title
of duchies, and with the rights of sovereignty.
These latter made use of their supreme power to
excite factions and stir up civil wars.

The reign of King Andrew II. was rendered
remarkable by a revolution which happened in the
government (1217). This prince having under-
taken an expedition to the Holy Land, which he
equipped at an extravagant and ruinous expense,
the nobles availed themselves of his absence to
augment their own power, and usurp the estates
and revenues of the crown. Corruption had per-
vaded every branch of the administration ; and the
king, after his return, made several ineffectual
efforts to remedy the disorders of the government,
and recruit his exhausted finances. At length he
adopted the plan of assembling a general Diet
(1222), in which was passed the famous decree,
or Golden Bull, which forms the basis of that de-
tccthe constitution which prevails in Hungary at
this day. The property of the clergy and the
noblesse were there declared exempt from taxes
and military cess ; the nobles acquired hereditary
possession of the royal grants which they had re-
cehed in recompense for their sen-ices ; they were
freed from the obligation of marching at their own
expense on any expedition out of tli<- kingdom ;
and even the right of resistance was allowed them,
in case the king should infringe any article of the
decree. It was this king also (Andrew II.) that
conferred several important privileges and immu-
nities on t^e SmxoiiH, or Germans of Transylvania,

who had been invited thither by Geisa II. about
the year 1142.

Under the reign of Bela IV. (1241) Hungary
was suddenly inundated with an army of Moguls,
commanded by several chiefs, the principal of
whom were Batou, the son of Toushi, and Gayouk,
son of the great Khan Octai. The Hungaiiaiis,
sunk in effeminacy and living in perfect security,
had neglected to provide in time for their defence.
Having at length rallied round the banner of their
king, they pitched their camp very negligently on
the banks of the Sajo, where they were surprised
by the Moguls, who made terrible havoc of them.
Coloman, the king's brother, was slain in the
action ; and the king himself succeeded with diffi-
culty in saving himself among the isles of Dalmatia.
The whole of Hungary was now at the mercy of
the conqueror, who penetrated with his victorious
troops into Sclavonia, Croatia, Dalmatia, Bosnia,
Servia, and Bulgaria ; everywhere glutting his fury
with the blood of the people, which he shed in
torrents. These barbarians seemed determined to
fix their residence in Hungary, when the news of
the death of the Khan Octai, and the accession of
his son Gayouk to the throne of China, induced
them to abandon their conquest in less than three
years, and return to the East loaded with immense
booty. On hearing this intelligence, Bela ven-
tured from his place of retreat, and repaired to
Hungary, where he assembled the remains of his
subjects, who were wandering in the forests, or
concealed among the mountains. He rebuilt the
cities that were laid in ashes, imported new colo-
nies from Croatia, Bohemia, Moravia, and Saxony ;
and, by degrees, restored life and vigour to the
state, which had been almost annihilated by the
Moguls.

The Empire of the Greeks, at this time, was
gradually verging towards its downfal. Harassed
on the east by the Seljukian Turks, infested on the
side of the Danube by the Hungarians, the Patzi-
nacites, the Uzes, and the Cumans ; 53 and torn to
pieces by factious and intestine wars, that Empire
was making but a feeble resistance to the inces-
sant attacks of its enemies, when it was suddenly
threatened with entire destruction by the effects
of the fourth crusade. The Emperor Isaac Angelus
had been dethroned by his brother, Alexius III.
(1195), who had cruelly caused his eyes to be put
out. The son of Isaac, called also Alexius, found
means to save his life ; he repaired to Zara, in
Dalmatia (1203), to implore the aid of the Cru-
sader*, who, after having assisted the Venetians to
recover that rebellious city, were on the point of
setting sail for Palestine. The young Alexius
offered to indemnify the Crusaders for the expenses
of any expedition which they might undertake in
his favour ; he gave them reason to expect a re-
union of the two churches, and considerable sup-
plies, both in men and money, to assist them in
reconquering the Holy Land. Yielding to these
solicitation-, the allied chiefs, instead of passing
directly to Syria, set sail for Constantinople.
They immediately laid siege to the city, expelled
the usurper, and restored Isaac to the throne, in
conjunction with his son Alexius.

Scarcely had the Crusaders quitted Constanti-
nople, when a new revolution happened there.
Another Alexius, suniamed Mourzoufle, excited
an insurrection among the Greeks ; and having

Uitin. Ukr
K.ll u< v Ulm

PERIOD IV. AD l"Tl 1*00,

llM-^l, ,k...,

-.!.h-.!. 1..-,,

Dm* * Malta

procured the death of the Emperor* Isaac and
is he made himself master of the throne.
The Crusaders immediately r<-turn..|, again laid
siege to Constantinople, which they took by as-
sault ; and. after having slain the usurper, they
Uatsd a new emperor in the perwui of Baldwin,
f Flanders, and one of the noble rrusaden.* 4
Tent traunfrrred the Greek Umpire to the
l.atun ( 12O4). It was followed by a union of the
,urche, which, however, was neither general
nor permanent, as it terminated with the reign of
the Latiut at Coiutantinopl.-.

Meantime the Crusaders divided among them-
selves the provinces of the Greek Umpire, both
thoee which they had already seized, and those
which yet remained to be conquered. The greater
part of the maritime coasts of the Adriatic, Greece,
the Archipelago, the Propontis, ami tl.
tli<- inlands of the Cj elides and Sporade*, and
those of the Adriatic, were adjudged to the re-
public of \iiin.-. Boniface, Marqui* of Mont-
. and commander-iii-chief of the crusade, ob-
tained for his share the island of Crete or Candia,
and all that belonged to the Empire beyond the
Uosphoru*. He afterwards sold Candia to the
Venetian*, who took possession of it in I'.'oT.
'1'ln- other chief* of the Crusaders had also tin ir
portions of the dismembered provinces. None of
them, however, were to possess the countries thut
were assigned them, except under the title of
vassals to the Empire, and by acknowledging the

,-nty of Hahhvin.

In the midst of this general overthrow, several
of the Greek princes attempted to preserve the
feeble remains of their Kinpire. Theodore Las-
carU, son-in-law of the Emperor Alexius III., n--
aolved on the conquest of the Greek provinces
in .Vita. He made himself master of Bithynia,
1. \ilia, pan of the coasts of the Archipelago, and
Phrygia, and was crowned emperor at Nin> in
<>ut the same period, Alexius and David
Commenus, grandsons of the Emperor Andm-
nicus I., having taken shelter in Pontus, laid there
thi- fouiulation of a new Empire, which had for its
capital the city of Trebixond.

At length Michael Angelus Commenus took
possession of Durazzo, which he erected into a
considerable state, extending from Durazzo to the
Gulf of Lepanto, and comprehending Epirus,
Acarnania, Etolia, and part of Thesaaly. All
these princes assumed the rank and dignity of
emperor*. The most powerful among them was
Tlu-odora Lascaris, Emperor of Nice. His suc-
cessors found littlr difficulty in resuming, by de-
grees, their superiority over the Latin emperors,
reduced them at hut to the single cit\ t
Constantinople, of which Michael Paleologun,
I:II<IT..: ..! Ni. e, undertook the siege ; and, with
the assistance of the Genoese vessels, he made
himself master of it in 1261. Baldwin II., the
last of the I<atin emperors, fled to the Isle of
pout, whence he passed into Italy ; and his
conqueror became the ancestor of all the emperors
of the House of Paleologus, that reigned at Con-
stantinople until the taking of that capital by the
Turks m I i

It now remains for us to cast a glance at the

re\oliitinn lit" AM:I, r|..-.!\ ci.mii-clrd with tli'-i-

;m|.c. mi nrouim <>t the crusades and expe-
ditious to Uic Holy Land. The Empire of the

Seljukian Turks had heen divided into several
dynasties, or distinct sormlgsjtsM ; the Alaheks
of Irak, and a number of petty princes, reigned la
Syria and the neighbouring countries ; the Fata*
I -irypt were masters of Jerusalem,
and pan of Palestine, when the mania of the
crusades convened that region of the East into
a theatre of carnage and devastation. For two
Immlred years Asia was seen contending with
Europe, and the Chrutian nations making the
most extraordinary efforts to maintain the con-
quest of Palestine and the neighbouring states,
against the arms of the Mahometans.

At length there arose among the Mussulmans
a man of superior genius, who rendered himself
formidable by his warlike prowess to the Christians
in tin- East, and deprived them of the fruits of
tlii-ir numerous victories. This conqueror was the
famous Saladin, or Salaheddin, the son of Ayoub,
or Job, and founder of the dynasty of the Ayou-
bites. The Atabek Nourvddin, son of Amadoddin
/inr'n. ti.id sent him int I ^), to assist

thi- 1'iitumite Caliph against the Franks, or Cru-
saders of the West. While there, he was declared
vizier and general of the armies of the Caliph ;
and so well had he established his power in that
country, that he effected the substitution of tin-
Abassidian Caliphs in place of the Fatamites ; and
ultimately caused himself to be proclaimed sultan
on the death of Nouraldin (1171), under whom
he had served in tin* quality of lieutenant. Having
vanquished l._r\|>t. In- next subdued the dominions
of Noureddin in Syria; and, after having extended
his victories over this province, as well as Mesopo-
tamia, Assyria, Armenia, and Arabia, he turned
his arms against the Christians in Palestine, whom
he had hemmed in, as it were, with his conquests.
These princes, separated into petty sovereignties,
divided by mutual jealousy, and a prey to the dis-
tractions of anarchy, soon yielded to the valour of
the heroic Mussulman. The battle which they
fought (1187) at Hittin, near Tiberias (or Ta-
baria), was decisive. The Christians sustained a
total defeat ; and Guy of Lusignan, * weak prince
without talents, and the last King of Jerusalem,
fell into the hands of the conqueror. All the
cities of Palestine opened their gates to Saladin,
either voluntarily or at the point of the sword.
Jerusalem surrendered after a siege of fourteen
days. This defeat rekindled the zeal of the Chris-
tians in the West ; and the most powerful sove-
reigns in Europe were again seen conducting
innumerable armies to the relief of the H.. I \
Land. But the talents and bravery of Saladin
rendered all their efforts unavailing ; and it was
not till after a murderous siege of three Years, that
they succeeded in retaking the city of Ptolemais,
or Acre ; and thus arresting, for a short space, the
total extermination of the Christians in the East.

On the death of Saladin, whose heroism is ex-
tolled by Christian as well as Mahometan authors,
Mpire was divided among his sons. Several
princes, his dependants, and known by the name
of Ayoubites, reigned afterwards in Egypt, Syria,
Armenia, and Yemen, or Arabia the Happy.
These princes quarrelling and making war with
each other, their territon- fell, in the thirteenth
century, under the dominion of the Mamelukes.
These Mamelukes (an Arabic word which signifies
a slave) were Turkish or Tartar captives, whom

Dominion of the Mamelukes.
62 Their conqu.

Franks expelled from Syria.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Power of the Pontiffs.
Arrogance of Boniface VIII.
Temporal dominion of Home.

the Syrian merchants purchased from the Moguls,
and sent into Egypt under the reign of the Sultan
Saleh, of the Ayoubite dynasty. That prince
bought them in vast numbers, and ordered them to
be trained to the exercise of arms in one of the
maritime cities of Egypt." From this school he
raised them to the highest offices of trust in the
state, and even selected from them liis own body-
guard. In a very short time these slaves became
so numerous and so powerful, that, in the end,
they seized the government, after having assas-
sinated the Sultan Tourau Shah (son and successor
of Saleh), who had in vain attempted to disen-
tangle himself of their chains, and recover the
authority which they had usurped over him. This
revolution (1250) happened in the very presence
of St. Louis, who, having been taken prisoner at
the battle of Mansoura, had just concluded a truce
of ten years with the Sultan of Egypt. The
Mameluke Ibeg, who was at first appointed regent,
or Atabek, was soon after proclaimed Sultan of

Egypt-

The dominion of the Mamelukes existed in
Egypt for the space of 263 years. Their numbers
being constantly recruited by Turkish or Circas-

sian slaves, they disposed of the throne of Egypt
at their pleasure ; and the crown generally fell to
the share of the most audacious of the gang, pro-
vided he was a native of Turkistan. These Ma-
melukes had even the courage to attack tin-
Moguls, and took from them the kingdoms of
Damascus and Aleppo in Syria (1210), of which
the latter had dispossessed the Ayoubite princes.
All the princes of this latter dynasty, with those
of Syria and Yemen, adopted the expedient of
submitting to the Mamelukes ; who, in order to
become masters of all Syria, had only to reduce
the cities and territories which the Franks, or
Christians of the West, still retained in their pos-
session. They first attacked the principality of
Aiitioch, which they soon conquered (12<>S).
They next turned their arms against the county of
Tripoli, the capital of which they took by assault
(1289). The city of Ptolemais shared the same
fete ; after an obstinate and murderous siege, it
was carried SAVord in hand. Tyre surrendered
on capitulation ; and the Franks were entirely-
expelled from Syria and the East in the year
1291.

PERIOD V.

FROM POPE BONIFACE VIII. TO THE TAKING OF CONSTANTINOPLE BY THE

TURKS. A.D. 13001453.

AT the commencement of this period the Ponti-
fical power was in the zenith of its grandeur. The
Popes proudly assumed the title of Masters of the
World; and asserted that their authority, by divine
right, comprehended every other, both spiritual
and temporal. Boniface VIII. went even farther
than his predecessors had done. According to
him, the secular power was nothing else than a
mere emanation from the ecclesiastical ; and this
double power of the Pope was even made an
article of belief, and founded on the sacred Scrip-
tures. " God has intrusted" (said he) " to St.
Peter and his successors, two swords, the one
spiritual, and the other temporal. The former
can he exercised by the church alone ; the other,
by the secular princes, for the service of the
church, and in submission to the will of the Pope.
This latter, that is, the temporal sword, is subor-
dinate to the former ; and all temporal authority
necessarily depends on the spiritual, which judges
it ; whereas God alone can judge the spiritual
power. Finally, (added he,) it is absolutely in-
dispensable to salvation, that every human crea-
ture be subject to the Pope of Rome." This
same Pope published the first Jubilee (1300), with
plenary indulgence for all who should visit the
churches of St. Peter and St. Paul at Rome. An
immense crowd from all parts of Christendom
flocked to this capital of the Western world, and
filled its treasury with their pious contributions. *

The spiritual power of the Popes, and their
jurisdiction over the clergy, was moreover increased
every day, by means of dispensations and appeals,
which had multiplied exceedingly since the in-
troduction of the Decretals of Gregory IX. They

disposed, in the most absolute manner, of the
dignities and benefices of the Church, and imposed
taxes at their pleasure on all the clergy in Christen-
dom. Collectors or treasurers were established
by them, who superintended the levying of the
dues they had found means to exact, under a mul-
titude of different denominations. These collectors
were empowered, by means of ecclesiastical cen-
sure, to proceed against those who should refuse to
pay. They were supported by the authority of the
legates who reside in the ecclesiastical produces,
and seized with avidity every occasion to extend
the usurpation of the Pope. Moreover, in sup-
port of these legates appeared a vast number of
Religious and Mendicant Orders, founded in those
ages of ignorance ; besides legions of monks dis-
persed over all the states of Christendom.

Nothing is more remarkable than the influence of
the papal authority over the temporalities of princes.
We find them interfering in all their quarrels
addressing their commands to all without distinc-
tion enjoining some to lay down their arms re-
ceiving others under their protection rescinding
and annulling their acts and proceedings summon-
ing them to their court, and acting as arbiters in
their disputes. The history of the Popes is the
history of all Europe. They assumed the privilege
of legitimating the sons of kings, in order to quality
them for the succession ; they forbade sovereigns
to tax the clergy ; they claimed a feudal superiority
over all, and exercised it over a very great number ;
they conferred royalty on those who \\> re ambi-
tious of power ; they released subjects from their
oath of allegiance ; dethroned sovereigns at their
pleasure ; and laid kingdoms and empires under

I';..:,,, ..-. \
II,. j ,,.-.-

.1 | I * .-!

PERIOD V. A.D. 1100-1453.

I . ... :, . ,'.. , <

: r.a \ u . i
r,,., i ... ,- \ -..-. i

i!. i . ' , : ,\ -..' v, . U :

*, as well as those of heretics and their fol-
lowers ; of tshmde and kingdom* newly discovered ;
of the property of infidels or schismatic*; and
even of Catholics who refused to bow befoie the
insolent tyranny of the Pope*. 1

is obvious that the court of Rome, at
the time of which we speak, enjoyed a conspicuous

iderauco in the political system of Europe.
Kut in the ordinary course of human affair*, this
power, vast and formidable as it was, began,
from the fourteenth century, gradually to din.

lightiest empires have their appointed term ;
and the highest stage of their elevation is often the
first step of their decline. Kings, becoming more
and more enlightened as to their true interests,
learned to support the rights and the majesty of
their crowns against the encroachments of the

-. Those who were vassals and tributaries
of the Holy See gradually shook off the yoke ;

the clergy, who groaned under the weight
of this spiritual despotism, joined the secular
princes in repressing these abuses, and restraining'
within proper bounds a power which was making
incessant encroachments on their just prerogatives.
Among the causes which operated the downfal
of the pontifical power may be ranked the excess
of the power itself, and the abuses of it made by
tin Popes. H\ issuing too often their anathemas
and interdicts, they rendered them useless and con-
temptible ; and by their haughty treatment of the
greatest princes, they learned to become inflexible
and boundless in their own pretensions. An in-
stance of this may be recorded, in the famous dis-
pute which arose between Boniface VIII. and
Philip the Fair, Kin,' of France. Not content with
constituting himself judge between the King and
his vassal, the ('< -.1' I'i in.!.-:--, that p.uilili
maintained, that the Kin j could not exact subsidies
from! -...thout Ins permission; and that

the right of Regale (or the revenues of vacant
bishoprics) whi rh the Crown enjoyed, was an abuse
which should not be tolerated.* He treated as a
piece of in:uut\ the prohibition of Philip against
exporting either gold or silver out of the kingdom ;
and sent an order to all the prelates in Fr.i
repair in person to Rome on the 1st of November,
th.-re t.> advise measures for corn-dim; the

forming the state. He declared, formalU,
that the King was subject to the Pope, as well in
temp.ir 1 :i ' matter- ; and that it was

a foolish persuasion to suppose that the King had
no superior on earth, and was not dependent on

t).' - -,). . !'. I' ' 'ill'.

ip ordered the papal hull which contained
these extravagant assertions to be burnt ; I -
bade his ecclesiastic* to leave the realm ; and
having twice assembled the States-General of the
kingdom (1302-3), he adopted, with their ad\ie.
and approbation, measures against these dangerous
pretensions of the court of Home. The I
Estates, who appeared for the first time in
Assemblies, declared themselves strongly in favour
of the King, and the independence of the crown.
; sequence, the excommunication which tin-
Pope had threatened against the I. .1 in-
effectual. Philip made bis appeal to a future
assembly, to which the three orders of the State

The Emperor Louis of Bavaria, a
superior merit, having Incurred the
Church for defending the right* and prerogative*
of bis crown, could not obtain absolution, not-
withstanding the

to resign the Impe-
ls* mm M mi

and the offer which he
rial dignity, and surrender himself, !
his property, to the discretion of the Pope. 1 1
was loaded with curses and anathemas, after a
aeries of various proceedings which had been in-
stituted againtt him. The bull of Pope Cl
\ 1.. ;. IMS occasion, far surpassed all those of his
predecessors. " May God (said he, in speaking
of the Emperor) -nut. him with madness an<l
ease; may heaven crush him with its tin.
bolts ; may the wrath of God, and that of St.
Peter and St. Paul, fall on him in this world and
the next; may the whole universe combine against
him; may the earth swallow him up alive; may
his name perish in the first generation, and his
memory disappear from the earth ; may all tin-
elements conspire against him ; may his children,
delivered into the hands of his enemies, be mas-
sacred before the eyes of their father." The
iniliimity of such proceedings roused the attention
of the princes and states of the Empire ; and on
the representation of the Electoral College, they
thought proper to check these boundless preten-
sions of the Popes, by a decree which was passed
at the Diet of Frankfort in 1338. This decree,
regarded as the fundamental law of the Ki
declared, in substance, that the Imperial dignity
was held only of God ; that he whom the* Electors
had chosen emperor by a plurality of suffrages,
was, in virtue of that election, a true king and
emperor, and needed neither confirmation nor
coronation from the hands of the Pope ; and that
all persons who should maintain the contrary,
should be treated as guilty of hi^h treason.

Among other events preju.lii-i-.il to the authority
of the Popes, one was, the translation of the pon-
tifical sec from Rome to Avignon. Clenn:
archbishop of Bourdeaux, having been advanced to
the papacy ( 1305), instead of repairing to Rome,
had his coronation celebrated at Lyons; and thence
he transferred his residence to Aviirnon (13O9),
out of complaisance to Philip the Fair, to whom
In- owed his elevation. The successors of ihis
Pope continued their court at Avignon until 1
when Gregory XI. again it-moved the see to Rome.
This sojourn at Aviirnon tended to weaken the
authority of the Popes, and diminish the respect
and veneration which till then had been paid them.
Tin- pretailinir opinion beyond the Alps admitted
DO other city than that of Rome for the true capital
of St. Peter; and they despised the Popes of
Avignon as aliens, who, besides, were there sur-
rounded with powerful princes, to whose caprice
they were often obliged to yield, and to make con-
descensions prejudicial to the authority they had
usurped. This circumstance, joined to the lapse
of nearly seventy years, made the residence at
Avignon be stigmatised by the Italians, under
the name of the HalrylonuM Captinty. It occa-
sioned also the diminution of the papal autl.
at Rome, and in the Ecclesiastical Slates.
Italian*, no longer restrained by the presence of
the sovereign pout ins, yielded but a reluctant
obedience to their rspreeeotstivti ; while t)
metnbrance of their ancient republicanism induced

Itionzi tribune of Rome.
64 Schism of the church.

Urban VI. JohuXXIIl.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Council of Constance.
Him, and Jerome of Prague.
Council of Basil.

them to lend a docile ear to those who preached up
insurrection and revolt. Historians inform us,
that Nicolas Gabrini de Rienzo, or Cola di Rienzi,
a man of great eloquence, and whose audacity was
equal to his ambition, took advantage of these re-
publican propensities of the Romans, to constitute
himself master of the city, under the popular title of
Tribune (1347). He projected the scheme of a new
government, called the Good Estate, which he
pretended would obtain the acceptation of all the
princes and republics of Italy; but the despotic
power which he exercised over the citizens, whose
liberator and lawgiver he affected to be, soon re-
duced him to his original insignificance ; and the
city of Rome again assumed its ancient form of
government. Meantime the Popes did not re-
cover their former authority ; most of the cities
and states of the Ecclesiastical dominions, after
having been long a prey to faction and discord,
fell under the power of the nobles, who made an
easy conquest of them ; scarcely leaving to the
Pope a vestige of the sovereign authority. It re-
quired all the insidious policy of Alexander VI.,
and the vigilant activity of Julius II., to repair
the injury which the territorial influence of the
pontiffs had suffered from their residence at
Avignon.

Another circumstance that contributed to
humble the papal authority was the schisms which
rent the Church, towards the end of the fourteenth,
and beginning of the fifteenth century. Gregory
XL, who had abandoned Avignon for Rome, being
dead (1378), the Italians elected a Pope of their
own nation, who took the name of Urban VI.,
and fixed his residence at Rome. The French
cardinals, on the other hand, declared in favour of
the Cardinal Robert of Geneva, known by the
name of Clement VII., who fixed his capital at
Arignon. The whole of Christendom was divided
between these two Popes ; and this grand schism
continued from 1378 till 1417. At Rome, Urban
VI. was succeeded by Boniface IX., Innocent
VII., and Gregory XII. ; while Clement VII. had
Benedict XIII. for his successor at Avignon. In
order to terminate this schism, every expedient
was tried to induce the rival Popes to give in
their abdication ; but both having refused, several
of the Cardinals withdrew their allegiance, and
assembled a council at Pisa (1409), where the
two refractory Popes were deposed, and the ponti-
fical dignity conferred on Alexander V., who was
afterwards succeeded by John XXIII. This
election of the council only tended to increase
the schism. Instead of two Popes, there arose
three ; and if his Pisan Holiness gained partisans,
the Popes of Rome and Avignon contrived also to
maintain each a number of supporters. All these
Popes, wishing to maintain their rank and dignity
with that splendour and magnificence which their
predecessors had displayed before the schism, set
themselves to invent new means of oppressing tin-
people ; hence the immense number of abuses and
exactions, which subverted the discipline of the
church, and roused the exasperated nations against
the court of Rome.

A new General Council was convoked at Con-
stance (1414) by order of the Emperor Sigismund ;
and it was there that the maxim of the unity
and permanency of Councils was established, as
well as of its superiority over the Pope, in all that

pertains to matters of faith, to the extirpation of
schism, and the reformation of the Church, both in
its supreme head, and in its subordinate members.
The grand schism was here terminated by the
abdication of the Roman pontiff, and the deposi-
tion of those of Pisa and Avignon. It was this
famous Council that gave their decision against John
Huss, the Reformer of Bohemia, and a follower of
the celebrated Wicklitf. His doctrines were con-
demned, and he himself burnt at Constance; as
was Jerome of Prague, one of his most zealous
partizans. As to the measures that were taken at
Constance for effecting the reformation of the
Church, they practically ended in nothing. As
their main object was to reform the court of
Rome, by suppressing or limiting the new prero-
gatives which the Popes for several centuries had
usurped, and which referred, among other things,
to the subject of benefices and pecuniary exactions,
all those who had an interest in maintaining these
abuses, instantly set themselves to defeat the pro-
posed amendments, and elude redress. The
Council had formed a committee, composed of the
deputies of different nations, to advise means for
accomplishing this reformation, which the whole
world so ardently desired. This committee, known
by the name of the College of Reformers, had
already made considerable progress in their task,
when a question was started, Whether it was pro-
per to proceed to any reformation without the
consent and co-operation of the visible Head of the
Church 1 It was carried in the negative, through
the intrigues of the cardinals ; and, before they
could accomplish this salutary work of reforma-
tion, the election of a new Pope had taken place
(1417). The choice fell on Otho de Colonna,
who assumed the name of Martin V., and in
conformity with a previous decision of the Council,
he then laid before them a scheme of reform.
This proceeding having been disapproved by the
different nations of Europe, the whole matter was
remitted to the next Council ; and in the mean-
while, they did nothing more than pass some con-
cordats, with the new Pope, as to what steps they
should take until the decision of the approaching
Council.

This new Council, which was assembled at Basle
(1431) by Martin V., resumed the suspended work
of reformation. The former decrees, that a Gene-
ral Council was superior to the Pope, and could
not be dissolved or prorogued except by their own
free consent, were here renewed ; and the greater
part of the reserves, reversions, annats, and other
exactions of the Popes, were regularly abolished.
The liberty of appeals to the court of Roni
also circumscribed. Eugeuius IV., successor to
Martin V., alarmed at the destruction thus aimed
at his authority, twice proclaimed the dissolution
of the Council. The first dissolution, which oc-
curred on the 17th of December, 1431, was re-
voked, at the urgent application of the Emperor
Sigismund, by a bull of the same Pope, issued on
the 15th of December, 1433. In this he acknow-
ledged the validity of the Council, and annulled
all that he had formerly done to invalidate its au-
thority. The second dissolution took place on the
1st of October, 1437. Eugenius then transferred
the Council to Ferrara, and from Fcrrara to Flo-
rence, on pretext of his negociating a union with
the Greek church. This conduct of the Pope oc-

The PrafSMtie

l.r.-M.,-. ..>;: .,.. ;.,:.;

M* 4 i-..-..

PERIOD V. A.I), l :!. i

casioned a new Khiim. The prelates who re-

d at Basle instituted a procedure n
htm ; tin-) first suspended luiu f..r COBtOBMI

tin ally drpoed him. Ainadriu VIII., \.|>uke of

Saxony, wu riveted in hi* plan-, under (ho name

. and reeofniMd by all the parti-

I u the li .uti-r

schism bated ten yean. Felix V. at length gave

in hU demission ; and the Council, which bad

withdrawn from Basle to Lausanne, terminated its

>ii adopted neveral of the de-
cree* of tin* Council of Ha-lc in the famous Prag-
tion, which ( I. nl. - \ II. caused to be
drawn up at llnin,-! s , 1 i:tS) ; and who*)- stipula-
-erved at the basis of what i* called tin- /./'-
brrtift o/ the Gallican Church. The example of
i >i<- French wu speedily followed by tin- Germans,
who acceded to these decrees, at tli<- DP i >!' May-
ence, in 1439. The court of Rome at length n--
gaiued a part of those honourable and lucrative
lights of which the Council of Basle had deprived
tin-in, by the concordat- which the Germans con-
rludi-d (1448) with Nicholas V., and the French
(1516) with Leo X. The Councils of which we
have now spoken tended materially to limit the
exorbitant power of the Roman pontiffs, by giving
sanction ! the principle which established the su-
periority of (ieiu-ral Councils over the Popes. This
maxim put a check to the enterprising ambition of
the court of Rome ; and kings availed themselves
of it to recover by degrees the prerogatives of their
crowns. The Popes, moreover, sensible of their
weakness, and of the need they had for the protec-
tiou of the sovereigns, learned to treat them with
more attention and respect.

At length the new light which began to dawn
about the fourteenth century, hastened on the pro-
gress of this revolution, by gradually dissipating
the darkness of superstition into which the nations
.rope were almost universally sunk. In the
midst of the distractions which agitated the I'.m-
pire and the Church, and during the papal schism,
several learned and intrepid men made their ap-
pearance, who, while investigating the origin and
abase of the new power of the Popes, had the cou-
rage to revive the doctrine of the ancient canons,
to enlighten the minds of sovereigns as to their
true rights, and to examine with care into the just
limits of the sacerdotal authority. Among the first
>f these reformers was John of Paris, a famous
Dominican, who undertook the defence of Philip
tin- Fair, King of France, against Pope Bo:
N 1 1 1 . II is example was followed by the cele-
brated poet, Dante Alighieri, who took the part of
r Louis of Bavaria against the court of
Rome. Marsilo de Padua, John de Janduno,
William Ockam, Leopold de Babenberg, &c.,
marched in the track of the Italian poet ; and
among the crowd of writers that signalized them-
selves after the grand schism, three French authors
particularly distinguished themselves, Peter d'Ailly,
..i- d<- (1.- mature, and John (ierson, whose
writing met with >. neral applause. Most of these
literary productions, however, were characterized
by bad taste. The philosophy of Aristotle, studied
: ibic translations, and disfigured by scholastic
subtleties, reigned in all the schools, imposed its

* on the human mind, and nearly extingui-! . I
; vestige of useful knowledge. The belles

neglected, and u yet had died
no lustre on the sciences. Sometimes, however,
genius broke with a transient splendour through
tin- ilurkm-M of thi* moral horizon; and several
extraordinary persons, despising the rain ~\\i\+ >(
the schools, began to study truth in tin- M>!U
nature, and to copy after the beautiful mod*
antiquity. Such was Roger Bacon (*)>> !.! in
1204), an Englishman, and a Franciscan friar, who
has become so famous by his discover i
mistry and mechanical philosophy. Dante, nur-
tured in the spirit of the ancients, was the first
that undertook to refine the Italian language
I" "-try, and gave it the polish of elegance ana grace
in hi-. compo-ition* (he died in I.T.Mj. He was
succeeded by two other celebrated author-, Pe-
trarca (who died in 1S74), and Boccacio (1375).

The period of which we speak gave birth to se-
veral new inventions, which proved useful auxili-
aries to men of genius, and tended to accelerate
the progress of knowledge, letters, and arts. Ai
the principal of these may be mentioned the i.
tiou of writing paper, oil-painting, printing, gun-
powder, and the mariner's compass ; to the effects
of which F.urope, in a great measure, owes its
Hzation, and the new order of things which ap-
peared in the fifteenth century.

Before the invention of paper from linen, parch-
ment was generally used in Europe for the tran-
scribing of books, or the drawing out of public
deeds. Cotton paper, which the Arabs brought
from the East, was but a poor remedy for the
scarceness and dearth of parchment. It would
appear, that the invention of paper from linen, and
the custom of using it in Europe, U not of older
date than the thirteenth century. The famous
Montfaucon acknowledges, that, in spite of all his
researches, both in France and Italy, he could
never find any manuscript or charter, written on
our ordinary paper, older than the year 1270, the
time when St. Louis died. The truth is, we know
neither the exact date of the invention of this sort
of paper, nor the name of the inventor. 3 It is
certain, however, that the manufacture of paper
from cotton must have introduced that of paper
from linen ; and the only question is, to determine
at what time the use of linen became so common
in Europe, as to lead us to suppose they might
convert its rags into paper. The cultivation of
hemp and flax being originally peculiar to the
northern countries, it is probable that the first at-
tempts at making paper of linen rags were made
in Germany, and the countries abounding in flax
and hemp, rather than in the southern provinces
of Europe. The most ancient manufactory of
paper from linen to he met with in Germany was
established at Nuremberg (1390).

The invention of oil-painting U generally
ascribed to the two brothers Van-Kick, the younger
of whom, known by the name of John of Bruce*,
had gained considerable celebrity about the end of
the fourteenth century. There is, however, reason
to believe that this invention is of an older date.
There are two authors who have carried it back to
the i-leM-nth lentury, vu.,Theophilusand Eraclius,
whose works in manuscript have been preserved in
the library at Wolffenbuttel, and in that of T<
College, Cambridge ; and who speak of this art as
already known in their times. According to them,
all sorts of colours could be mixed up with linseed

The Hanseatic League.
68 The Baltic tr.ide.

Flemish commercial cities.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Knylish commerce.
The ILmse towns.
Woclloiis and Silks.

ters of the commerce and the curreiit money of
ever)- country where they established themselves ;
and, in all probability, they were the first that
adopted the practice of letters or bills of exchange,
of which we may discover traces towards the
middle of the thirteenth century.

The Hanseatic League, which the maritime
cities on the Baltic had formed in the thirteenth
century, for the protection of their commerce
against pirates and brigands, gained very consi-
derable accessions of strength in the following
century, and even became a very formidable mari-
time power. A great number of the commercial
cities of the Empire, from the Scheld and the isles
of Zealand, to the confines of Livonia, entered
successively into this League ; and many towns in
the interior, in order to enjoy their protection,
solicited the favour of being admitted under its
flag. The first public act of a general confedera-
tion among these cities was drawn up at the as-
sembly of their deputies, held at Cologne, in 1364.
The whole of the allied towns were subdivided
into quarters or circles ; the most ancient of which
were the Venedian quarter, containing the south-
ern and eastern coasts of the Baltic ; the Westpha-
lian, for the towns on the western side ; and the
Saxon, comprehending the inland and intermediate
towns. A fourth circle or quarter was afterwards
added, that of the cities of Prussia and Livonia.
The boundaries of these different circles and their
capital towns varied from time to time. The
general assemblies of the League were held regu-
larly every three years, in the city of Lubec, which
was considered as the capital of the whole League ;
while each of the three or four circles had also their
particular or provincial assemblies.

The most flourishing epoch of this League was
about the end of the fourteenth and the early part
of the fifteenth century. At that time, the deputies
of more than fourscore cities appeared at its as-
semblies ; and even some towns who had not the
privilege of sending deputies were, nevertheless,
regarded as allies of the League. Having the com-
mand of the whole commerce of the Baltic, their
cities exercised at their pleasure the rights of peace
and war, and even of forming alliances. They
equipped numerous and powerful fleets, and offered
battle to the sovereigns of the North, whenever
they presumed to interfere with their monopoly,
or to restrict the privileges and exemptions which
they had had the weakness to grant them. The
productions of the North, such as hemp, flax, tim-
ber, potash, tar, corn, hides, furs, and copper, with
the produce of the large and small fisheries on the
- of Schonen, Norway, Lapland, and Iceland, 15
formed the staple of the Hanseatic commerce.
They exchanged these commodities, in the western
parts of Europe, for wines, fruits, drugs, and all
sorts of cloths, which they carried back to the
Ninth in return. Their principal fac'ories and
warehouses were at Bruges for Flanders, at Lon-
don for England, at Novogorod for Russia, and at
Bergen for Norway. The merchandise of Italy and
the East was imported into Flanders, in Genoese
or Venetian bottoms, which, at that time, carried
on most, of the commerce of the Levant and the
Mediterranean.

Extensive aa the trade of the Hanseatic cities
was, it proved neither solid nor durable. As tin \
were themselves deficient in the articles of raw

materials and large manufactories, and entirely
dependent on foreign traffic, the industry of other
nations, especially of those skilled in the arts, had
a ruinous effect on their commerce ; and, in course
of time, turned the current of merchandise into
other channels. Besides, the want of union among
these cities, their factions and intestine divisions,
and their distance from each other, prevented them
from ever forming a territorial or colonial power,
or obtaining possession of the Sound, which alone
was able to secure them the exclusive commerce of
the Baltic. The sovereigns of Europe, perceiving
at length more clearly their true interests, and
sensible of the mistake they had committed in
surrendering the whole commerce of their kingdom
to the Hanseatic merchants, used every means to
limit and abridge their privileges more and more.
This, in consequence, involved the confederate
towns in several destructive wars witli the Kings
of the North, which exhausted their finances, and
induced one city after another to abandon the
League. The English and the Dutch, encouraged
by the Danish kings, took advantage of this
favourable opportunity to send their vessels to the
Baltic ; and by degrees they appropriated to them-
selves the greater part of the trade that had been
engrossed by the Hanseatic Union. But what is
of more importance to remark, is, that this League,
as well as that of Lombardy, having been formed
in consequence of the state of anarchy into which
the Empire had fallen in the middle ages, the na-
tural result was, that it should lose its credit and
its influence in proportion as the feudal anarchy
declined, and when the administration of the Em-
pire had assumed a new form, and the landed
nobility, emboldened by the accessions which the
seventeenth century had made to their power, had
found means to compel their dependent cities to
return to their allegiance, after having made re-
peated efforts to throw off their authority, en-
couraged as they were by the protection which the
League held out to them.

In this manner did the famous Hanseatic League,
so formidable at the time of which we now speak,
decline by degrees during the course of the seven-
teenth century, and in the early part of the
eighteenth ; and during the thirty years war it
became entirely extinct. The cities of Lubec,
Hamburg and Bremen, abandoned by all their
confederates, entered into a new union for the in-
terests of their commerce, and preserved the ancient
custom of treating in common with foreign powers,
under the name of the Hanse Towns.

The cities of Italy and the North were not the
only ones that made commerce their pursuit in
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Ghent,
Bruges, Antwerp, and other towns in the Nether-
lands, contributed greatly to the prosperity of trade
by their manufactures of cloth, cotton, camlets, and
tapestry ; articles with which they supplied the
greater part of Europe. The English exchanged
their raw wool with the Belgians, for the finished
manufactures of their looms, while the It:ili;m>
furnished them with the productions of the Levant,
and the silk stuffs of India. Noihinir is more sur-
prising than the immense population <if these cities,
whose wealth and affluence raised their rulers to
the rank of the most powerful princes in Europe.
The city of Bruges was, as it \\i-n-, the centre and
principal repository for the merchandise of the

.t,, . . ,

Ibrir

1M1KIOU \. A.M. 1300-1443.

rasl Mtutlmw

i and the Sooth. Such an entrepot was ne-
cessary, at a lima when navigation was vet i.
infanc \ . For tin* purpose, Flanders and Brabant
were extremely proper, M thes* province* bad an
easv commnnloUion with all (In- principal nations
of the continent ; and M the great number :

i factories, together with tin- abundance of fish
win. ii their rn.-r- .iil'-nl.-.!. naturally attracted a
vast eoneoone of foreign trader*. This mi per.
as the commercial capital uf the Low
Hrugv* retained till nearly the end of the fifteenth
cntur\. u In ii it !<>( (Ins preponderance, which
wan then transferred to tin- citj ,.t

'I'll.- intestine dissensions with which the cities
of Handep. and Brabant were agitated, the
restraint* which wen incessantly imposed on their
commerce, ami tin- fn-i|uent wan* which desolated
tin- Low Countric*, induced, from time to time, a
great many riemish operatives about the four-
t-uth century, and the reign of Edward III., to
take refuge in England, where they established
their cloth manufactories under the immediate pro*
. of the crown. One circumstance which
more particularly contributed to the prosperity of
the Dutch coimiirrce, was the new method of
salting and barrelling herring, which was disco-
vered in the fourteenth century by a man named
William Beukelasoon, a native of Biervliet, near
Sluys. The new passage of the Tcxcl, which the
sea opened up about the same time, proved a most
favourable accident for the city of Amsterdam,
which immediately monopolized the principal
commerce of the fisheries, and began to be fre-
quented by the Hanscatic traders.

now return to the history of Germany. The
Imperial throne, always elective, was conferred, in
- . on the princes of the House of Luxembourg,
who occupied it till 1438, when the House of
Hapsburg obtained the Imperial dignity. It was
under tin- r- i.-n of these two dynasties that the
government of tin- Km pi re, which till then had
been vacillating and uncertain, began to assume a
constitutional form, and a new and settled code of
laws. That which was published at the Diet of
Frankfort in 1338, secured the independence of
the Empire against the Popes. It was preceded
by a League, ratified at Reuse by the Electors,
and known by the name of the General Union of
the Electors. The Golden Bull, drawn up by the
Emperor Charles IV. (1356), in the Diets of Nu-
reuiheri: inil Metz, fixed the order and the form of
nlorring the Emperors, and the ceremonial of their
coronation. It ordained that this election should
be determined by a majority of the suffrages of the
i-lecturs and that the vote of the elector
who might happen to be chosen should also be
included. Mori-liver, to prevent those electoral
di\iioin, which had more than once excited fac-
t !!!- :>n<l eivil wars in the empire, this law fixed
irrevocably the right of suffrage in the Princi-
palitic... then entitled Electorates. It forbade any
di\i-ion ofth. e principalities, and f>r this end it
introduced the principle of birth-right, and the
order of succession, called agnate, or direct male
line from the same fattier. Finally, the Golden
Bull determined more particularly the rights and
privileges of the electors, and continued to the

>rs of the Palatinate and Saxony the
royalty or government of the empire during any
interregnum.

efforts which the Council of Basle made for

1 nnarioi, . i excited the attention

of the Estates of the empire. In a dirt held at
Mayei . d several decree* of

that Council, by a solemn act drawn up in preseoco
of the ambassadors of the Council, and of the
Kings of France, Castile, Arragon, and Portugal.
Among these adopted decrees, which were not
afterwards altered, we observe those which e*U
lihli (he hiip.-noniy of Councils above the Popes,
which prohibited those appeals called omtuo
media, or immediate, and enjoined the Pope to
settle all appeals referred to his court, by commis-
sioners appointed by him upon the spot. Two
concordats, concluded at Rome and Vienna
l 1 17-4H), between the Papal court and the Ger-
man nation, confirmed these stipulations. The
Utter of these concordats, however, restored to the
Pope several of the reserves, of which the Prag-
matic Sanction had deprived him. He was also
allowed to retain the right of confirm ing the prelates,
and enjoying the annats and the alternate months.
The ties which united the numerous states of
the German empire having been relaxed by the
introduction of hereditary feudalism, and the
downfal of the imperial authority, the consequence
was, that those states which were more remote
ftom the seat of authority by degrees asserted their
independence, or were reduced to subjection by
tin ir more powerful neighbours. It was in this
manner that several provinces of the ancient king-
dom of Burgundy, or Aries, passed in succession to
the crown of France. Philip the Fair, taking ad-
vantage of the disputes which had arisen between
the archbishop and the citizens of Lyons, obliged
the archbishop, Peter de Savoy, to surrender to
him, by treaty (1312), the sovereignty of the city
and its dependencies. The same kingdom acquired
the province of Dauphin y, in virtue of the grant
which the last dauphin, Humbert II., made (1340)
of his estates to Charles, grandson of Philip de
Valois, and first dauphin of France. Provence was
likewise added (14H1) to the dominions of that
crown, by the testament of Charles, last Count of
Provence, of the House of Anjou. As to the city
of Avignon, it was sold (1348) by Joan I., Queen
iples, and Countess of Provence, to Pope
Clement VI., who at the same time obtained let-
ti rs-patcnt from the Emperor Charles IV., re-
nouncing the claims of the Empire to the sovereignty
of that city, as well as to all lauds belonging to the
church.

A most important revolution happened about
this time in Switzerland. That country, formerly
dependent upon the kingdom of Burgundy, had
become an immediate province of the Empire
(1218), on the extinction of the Dukes of Zahrin-
gen, who had governed it under the title of regents.
About the beginning of the fourteenth century,
Switzerland was divided into a number of petty
states, both secular and ecclesiastical. Among
these, we find the Bishop of Basle, the Abbe of
all, the Counts of Hapsburg, Toggenburg,
Savoy, Gruyeres, Neufcha- iberir, Hu-

check, &c. The towns of Zurich, Soleure, Basle,
It. me, and others, had the rank of free and ira-
p. ml cities. A part of the inhabitants of I'ri,
Srhweitz, and Underwalden, who held imme-
diately of the Empire, were governed by their own
magistrates, under the name of Cantons. They

The Hanseatic League.
68 The Baltic trade.

Flemish commercial cities.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Knglish commerce.
The Ilanse towns.
Woollens and Silks.

ters of the commerce and the current money of
every country where they established themselves ;
and, in all probability, they were the first that
adopted the practice of letters or bills of exchange,
of which we may discover traces towards the
middle of the thirteenth century.

The most flourishing epoch of this League was
about the end of the fourteenth and the early part
of the fifteenth century. At that time, the deputies
of more than fourscore cities appeared at its as-
semblies ; and even some towns who had not the
privilege of sending deputies were, nevertheless,
regarded as allies of the League. Having the com-
mand of the whole commerce of the Baltic, their
cities exercised at their pleasure the rights of peace
and war, and even of forming alliances. They
equipped numerous and powerful fleets, and offered
battle to the sovereigns of the North, whenever
they presumed to interfere with their monopoly,
or to restrict the privileges and exemptions which
they had had the weakness to grant them. The
productions of the North, such as hemp, flax, tim-
ber, potash, tar, corn, hides, furs, and copper, with
the produce of the large and small fisheries on the
coasts of Schonen, Norway, Lapland, and Iceland, 1 *
formed the staple of the Hanseatic commerce.
They exchanged these commodities, in the western
parts of Europe, for wines, fruits, drugs, and all
sorts of cloths, which they carried back to the
North in return. Their principal fac'orics and
warehouses were at Bruges for Flanders, at Lon-
don for England, at Novogorod for Russia, and at
Bergen for Norway. The merchandise <>f ltal\ and
the East was imported into Flanders, in Genoese
or Venetian bottoms, which, at that time, carried
on most of the commerce of the Levant and the
Mediterranean.

Extensive an the trade of the Hanseatic cities
was, it proved neither solid nor durable. As thoy
were themselves deficient in the articles of raw

materials and large manufactories, and entirely-
dependent on foreign traffic, the industry of other
nations, especially of those skilled in the arts, had
a ruinous effect on their commerce ; and, in course
of time, turned the current of merchandise into
other channels. Besides, the want of union among
these cities, their factions and intestine divisions,
and their distance from each other, prevented them
from ever forming a territorial or colonial power,
or obtaining possession of the Sound, which alone
was able to secure them the exclusive commerce of
the Baltic. The sovereigns of Europe, perceiving
at length more clearly their true interests, and
sensible of the mistake they had committed in
surrendering the whole commerce of their kingdom
to the Hanseatic merchants, used every means to
limit and abridge their privileges more and more.
This, in consequence, involved the confederate
towns in several destructive wars with the Kiii;_ r -;
of the North, which exhausted their finances, and
induced one city after another to abandon the
League. The English and the Dutch, encouraged
by the Danish kings, took advantage of this
favourable opportunity to send their vessels to the
Baltic ; and by degrees they appropriated to them-
selves the greater part of the trade that had been
engrossed by the Hanseatic Union. But what is
of more importance to remark, is, that this League,
as well as that of Lombardy, having been formed
in consequence of the state of anarchy into which
the Empire had fallen in the middle ages, the na-
tural result was, that it should lose its credit and
its influence in proportion as the feudal anarchy
declined, and when the administration of the Em-
pire had assumed a new form, and the landed
nobility, emboldened by the accessions which the
seventeenth century had made to their power, had
found means to compel their dependent cities to
return to their allegiance, after having made re-
peated efforts to throw off their authority, en-
couraged as they were by the protection which the
League held out to them.

In this manner did the famous Hanseatic League,
so formidable at the time of which we now spe:ik,
decline by degrees during the course of the sc\cn-
teenth century, and in the early part of the
eighteenth ; and during the thirty years war it
became entirely extinct. The cities of Lubec,
Hamburg and Bremen, abandoned by all their
confederates, entered into a new union for the in-
terests of their commerce, and preserved the ancient
custom of treating in common with foreign powers,
under the name of the Hanse Towns.

The cities of Italy and the North were not the
only ones that made commerce their pursuit in
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Ghent,
Bruges, Antwerp, and other towns in the Nether-
lands, contributed greatly to the prosperity of trade
by their manufactures of cloth, cotton, camlets, and
tapestry; articles -\\ith which they supplied tlip
greater part of Europe. The English exchanged
their raw wool with the Belgians tor the finished
manufactures of their looms while the Italians
furnished them with the productions of the Levant,
and the silk stalls of India. Nothing is more sur-
prising than the immense population nf these cities,
whose wealth and affluence raised their rulers to
the nink of the most powerful prinres in Kumpe.
The cit\ of Bruges was, as it were, the centre and
principal repository for the merchandise of the

I :. -.in .- Mi -I i - H.. r

.Uplcln P

PERIOD V. A.D. 18001463.

I, .:', I!

>. .1-1

i and the Sooth. Such an entrepot WM ne-
eewary, nt inn- Cation wa-

infm. i* purpoae, Flanders and Brabant

were extm . a* these province* had an

easy coinnr. -ili ult tin- |.i im-ipal nation*

of the continent; and M the great nun.'

.factories, together \\nli tin- abundance of fiah
I-H uir<>nli-il. naturally attracted a
vast concourse of foreign traders. This u;.. .
u the commercial ..i|.it.il i>f the Low <
Brugr* retained till nearly the end of the fifteenth
eentur\ . I., i. it i -( tin-* pi. IM.M.'.I-I.IIH c, which
wan then traiifcrn-d in tin- . -it\ n|" Antu

'II. lissensions with which the cities

..indent and Brabant were agitated, the
restraint* which were incessantly imposed on their
commerce, and the frequent wan which desolated
the Low Countries, induced, from time to time, a
great many ri'-iiu-li operatives about the four-
teenth century, and the reign of Kdward III., to
take refuge in England, where they established
tin 11 cloth manufactories under the immediate pro-

ii of the crown. One circumstance which
more particularly contributed to the prosperity of
the Dutch commerce, was the new method of
Baiting and barn-llim; herring, which was disco-

; in tin- foiirtrriiih ci-niui \ by a man named
William Beukelsxoon, a native of Biervliet, near
Sluys. The new passage of the Tcxel, which the
sea opened up about the same time, proved a most
favourable accident fur the city of Amsterdam,
which Immediately monopolized the principal
commerce of the fisheries, and began to be fre-
quented by the Hanseatic traders.

now return to the history of Germany. The
Imperial throne, always elective, was conferred, in

. on the princes of the House of Luxembourg,
who occupied it till 1438, when the House of
Hapsburg obtained the Imperial dignity. It was
under the rei^n of thc-.e two dynasties that the
govern mi nt of tin- Kmpirc, which till then had
been vacillating and uncertain, began to assume a
constitutional form, and a new and settled code of
laws. That which was published at the Diet of
Frankfort in 1338, secured the independence of
the Empire against the Popes. It was preceded
by a League, ratified at Rens by the Electors,
u id known by the name of the General Union of
the Electors. Tin- (ioldcn Hull, drawn up by the
Emperor Charles IV. (1350), in the Diets of Nu-
remberg ami Met*, fixed the order and the form of
electing the Emperors, and the ceremonial of their
coronation. It ordained that this election should
be determined by a majority of the suffrages of the
electors and that the vote of the elector
who might happen to be chosen should also be
included. Moreover, to prevent those electoral
di\i-io!i., which had more than once excited fac-
tion- ami riul wars in the empire, thi< l:iw tivd

cably the ri^ht of miflragv in the Piinci-
palitie-. tli. n entitled ! . It forbade any

diiiMon of th.--e princip.ilitie, and for this end it
introduced the principle of birth-right, and the
order of succession, culled agnate, ..r direct male
In..- from the same father. Finally, tin- dolden
Hull determined more particularly the rights and
prhil-scs of the electors, and continued to the

>rs of the Palatinate and Saxony the vice-
royalty or government of the empire during any
interregnum.

The efforts which the Council of Basle made for

formation of the church excited the attention
of the Estates of the empire. In a diet held at
Mayei they adopted several decrees of

that Council, by a solemn act drawn up in presence
of the ambassador* of I'M- Council, and of the
King* of France, Castile, Arragon, and Portugal.
Among these adopted decrees, which were not
afterward* altered, we observe those which eeU
bli*h the iup<Tiorit\ of Councils above the Popes,
which prohibited those appeals called omtMO
media, or immediate, and enjoined the Pope to

all appeals referred to bis court, by commis-
sioners appoint,-. | l,\ him upon the spot. Two
concordats, concluded at Rome and Vienna
(1447-48), between the Papal court and the <
man nation, confirmed these stipulation*. The
latter of these concordat*, however, restored to the
Pope several of the reserves, of which the Prag-
matic Sanction had deprived him. He was also
allowed to retain the right of confirming the prelate*,
and enjoying the annats and the alternate month*.
The tie* which united the numerous state* of
the German empire having been relaxed by the
introduction of hereditary feudalism, and the
downfal of the imperial authority, the consequence
was, that those states which were more remote
fiom the seat of authority by degree* asserted their
independence, or were reduced to subjection by
their more powerful neighbours. It was in this
manner that several provinces of the ancient king-
dom of Burgundy, or Aries, passed in succession to
the crown of France. Philip the Fair, taking ad-
vantage of the disputes which had arisen between
the archbishop and the citizens of Lyons, obliged
the archbishop, Peter de Savoy, to surrender to
him, by treaty (1312), the sovereignty of the city
and its dependencies. The same kingdom acquired
the province of Dauphiny, in virtue of the grant
which the last dauphin, Humbert II., made (1340)
of his estates to Charier, grandson of Philip de
Valois, and first dauphin of France. Provence was
likewise added (1481) to the dominion* of that
crown, by the testament of Charles, but Count of
Provence, of the House of Anjou. As to the city
of Avignon, it was sold (1348) by Joan I., Queen

- iples, and Countess of Provence, to Pope
Clement VI., who at the same time obtained let-
tcrx-patent from the Emperor Charles IV., re-
nouncing the claims of the Empire to the sovereignty
of that city, as well as to all lands belonging to the
church.

.all, the Counts of Hapsburg, Toggenburg,
Savoy, Gruyere*, Neufchatel, Werdenberg. H<i-
check, &c. The towns of Zurich, Solcurr, Basle,
Herne. and others, had the rank of free and im-
perial cities. A part of the inhabitants <
Schweiu, ami I'nderwalden, who held imme-
diately of the Empire, were governed by their own
magistrates, under the name of Cantons. They

Emperor Albert I.
70 Battle of Morgart.-n.
Swiss confederation.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Duchy of Burgundy.
Kiii<.'ilom of Bolu-nm.
The Hussite war.

were placed by the Emperor under the jurisdiction
of governors, who exercised, in his name and that
of the Empire, the power of the sword in all those
cantons. Such was the constitution of Switzer-
land, when the Emperor Albert I., of Austria, son
of Rodolph of Hapsburg, conceived the project of
extending his dominion in that country, where he
already had considerable possessions, in his capa-
city of Count of Hapsburg, Kyburg, Baden, and
Lentzburg. Being desirous of forming Switzer-
land into a principality in favour of one of his
sons, he made, in course of time, several new ac-
quisitions of territory, with the view of enlarging
hi* estate*. The Abbeys of Murbach, Einsiedel,
Interlaken, and Disentis, and the Canons of Lu-
cerne, sold him their rights and possessions in
Claris, Lucerne, Schweitz, and Underwalden. He
next directed his policy against the three imme-
diate cantons of Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden ;
and endeavoured to make them acknowledge the
superiority of Austria, by tolerating the oppres-
sions which the governors exercised, whom he had
appointed to rule them in the name of the Em-
pire. It was under these circumstances that three
intrepid individuals, Werner de StaufFach, a native
of the canton of Schweitz, Walter Fttrst, of Uri,
and Arnold de Melchthal, of Underwalden, took
the resolution of delivering their country- from the
tyranny of a foreign yoke. 16 The conspiracy which
they formed for this purpose, broke out on the 1st
of January, 1308. The governors, surprised in
their castles by the conspirators, were banished
the country, and their castles razed to the ground.
The deputies of the three cantons assembled, and
entered into a league of ten years for the main-
tenance of their liberties and their privileges ; re-
serving, however, to the Empire its proper rights,
as also those claimed by the superiors, whether lay
or ecclesiastical. Thus a conspiracy, which was ori-
ginally turned only against Austria, terminated in
withdrawing Switzerland from the sovereignty of
the German Empire. The victory which the con-
federates gained over the Austrians at Morgarten,
on the borders of the canton of Schweitz, encou-
raged them to renew their league at Brunnen
(1315) ; and to render it perpetual. As it was
confirmed by oath, the confederates, from this
circumstance, got the name of Eidgenossen, which
means, bound by oath. This league became hence-
forth the basis of the federal system of the Swiss,
who were not long in strengthening their cause by
the accession of other cantons. The city of Lu-
cerne, having shaken off the yoke of Hapsburg,
i >incd the league of Brunnen in 1332, Zurich in
1351, Claris and Zug in 1353, and Berne in 1355.
These formed the eight ancient cantons.

The situation of the confederates, however, could
not fail to be very embarrassing, so long as the
Austrians retained the vast possessions which they
had in the very centre of Switzerland. The pro-
scription which the Emperor Sigismund and the
Council of Constance issued against Frederic, Duke
of Austria (1415), as an adherent and protector of
John XXIII., at length furnished the Swiss with
a favourable occasion for depriving the house of
Austria of their possessions. The Bernese were
the first to set the example ; they took from the
Austrian dukes, the towns of Zoffiugen, Arau, and
Brack, with the counties of Hapsburg and Lentz-
burg, and the greater part of Aargau. Kyburg

fell into the hands of the Zurichers ; theLucernese
made themselves masters of Sursee ; and the free
bailiwicks, with the county of Baden, the towns
of Mellingen and Bremgarten, were subdued by
the combined forces of the ancient cantons, who,
since then, have possessed them in common.

In the kingdom of Lorraine a new power rose
about this time (1363), that of the dukes of Bur-
gundy. Philip the Hardy, younger son of John
the Good, King of France, having been created
Duke of Burgundy by the king his father, mar-
ried Margaret, daughter and heiress of Louis III.,
last Count of Flanders. By this marriage he ob-
tained Flanders, Artois, Franche-Comte, Nevers,
Rethel, Malines, and Antwerp, and transmitted
these estates to his son John the Fearless, and his
grandson, Philip the Good. This latter prince
increased them still more by several new acquisi-
tions. The Count of Namur sold him his whole
patrimony (1428). He inherited from his cousin,
Philip of Burgundy, the duchies of Brabant and
Limbourg (1430). Another cousin, the famous
Jaqueline de Bavaria, made over to him by treaty
(1433) the counties of Hainault, Holland, Zealand,
and Friesland. Finally, he acquired also the duchy
of Luxembourg and the county of Chiny, by a
compact which he made with the Princess Elizabeth
(1443), niece of the Emperor Sigismund. These
different accessions were so much the more im-
portant, as the Low Countries, especially F.'anders
and Brabant, were at that time the seat of the most
flourishing manufactories, and the principal mart
of European commerce. Hence it happened, that
the Dukes of Burgundy began to compete with the
first powers in Europe, and even to rival the Kings
of France.

Among the principal reigning families of the
Empire, several revolutions took place. The an-
cient Slavonic dynasty of the Dukes and Kings of
Bohemia became extinct with Wenceslaus V., who
was assassinated in 1306. The Emperor Henry
VII., of the House of Luxembourg, seized this
opportunity of transferring to his own family the
kingdom of Bohemia, in which he invested his son
John (1309), who had married the Princess Eliza-
beth, sister to the last King of Bohemia. John,
having made considerable acquisitions in Bohemia,
was induced to cede, by treaty with Poland, the
sovereignty of that province. The Emperor Charles
IV., son of John, incorporated Silesia, as also
Lusatia, with the kingdom of Bohemia, by the
Pragmatics which he published in 1355 and i:!7<>.
The war with the Hussites broke out on the death
of the Emperor Wenceslaus, King of Bohemia
(1418), because the followers of John Huss, and
Jerome of Prague, had refused to acknowled-
successor of that prince, the Emperor Sigismund,
his brother and heir, whom they blamed for the
martyrdom of their leaders. This war, one of the
most sanguinary which the spirit of intolerance and
fanaticism ever excited, continued for a long scries
of years. John de Trocznova, surnamed /iska,
general-in-chief of the Hussites, defeated several
times those numerous armies of crusaders, which
were Bent against him into Bohemia; and it
not till long after the death of that extraordinary
man, that Sigismund succeeded in allaying the
tempest, and re-establishing his own anthori'y in
that kingdom.

The house of Wittelsback, which possessed at

of Stuay.

i ..t.-, .11- t
Kunuly ./&*

' .: .'

PI HI. l> V. A.D. 1300-145.1.

of ITownr..

:ime time the Palatinate ami Havana, was

I into two principal bran' "iat of

the Klectora Palatine ami the l)ukrs of Bavaria.

. PII which \VM enters!

at Pavia ( I agreed on a reciprocal soc-

rnwion of the two branches, in rase the one
other nhoulil happen to fail <>f heio-m:tl>-.
direct line of the elector* of Saxony, of the Asca-
; , happening to become extin>

it paying any regard to
lima of the younger branchei of Saxon; .
! that Electorate (1423), as a vacant fief of
it-, the Warlike, Margrave of
Misnia, who hail !.<.

var against the Hussites. Thin prince had
two grandson*, Ernest and Albert, from whom are
descended tin- two principal branches, which still

I louse of Sn\

The Ascaniau dynasty did not lose merely tin-
rate of Saxony, as we have just stated; it
was also deprived, in the preceding rent MM, ( tin-
electorate of Brandenburg. Allu-rt, stirnamed the
Bear, a scion of this house, had transmitted thin
l.itti-r electorate, of which he was the founder, to
his descendants in direct line, the male-heirs of
hieh failed about the beginning of tin- fourteenth
century. The Emperor Louis, of Bav:iri:i, then
wed it on his eldest son, Louis (l^'.M), to the
vision nf the collateral branches of Saxony and
A n ha It. The Bavarian princes, however, did not
long preserve this electorate ; they surrendered it
i mperor Charles IV., whose son,
1 it to Frederic, Hurgrave of Nu-
remberg, of the House of Hohenzolleru, who had
advain. I him considerable sums to defray his cx-
pedit. ! in^;ii\. This jirinei \v:is solemn!}

invested \\ith the electoral dignity by the Kmpcror,
at the Council of Constance (1417), and become
the ancestor of all the Electors and Margraves of
Brandenburg, as well as of the Kings of Prussia.

The numerous republic* which hud sprung up
in Italv, in the twelfth ami thirteenth centuries,
were torn to pieces by contending factions, and a
prey to mutual and incessant hostilities. What
e.intri'iMtcil to augment the trouble and confusion
in that unhappy country was, that, during a long
series of yean, no emperor had repaired thither in
person, or made the smallest attempt to restore the
imperial authority in those states. The feeble
II'!ir\ \II., Louis of Bavaria, and
Charles IV., only served to prove, that in Italy the
royal prerogative was without vigour or effect.
Anarchy everywhere prevailed; and that spirit of
libertj and republicanism which had once ani-
mated the Italians gradually disappeared. Dis-
gusted at length with privileges which had !>
so fatal to them, some of these republics adopted
in of choosing new masters; while others
were subjected, against their inclination)!, by the
more powerful of the nobles. The Marquises of

i, and ob-

iueal diijnr ;>eror

Frederic III. Mantua' >ueof Goiuaga,

who possessed that sovereignty fint under the title

rgraves, and afterward - ' > nkes,

was conferred on them t >.Tor

Hut the greater part of these

fell to the share of the Visconti of

> person who founded the pros)

of their house was Matthew Visconti, nephew of

Otho Vi< ishop of Milan. Invested

with tin- title* of Captain and Imperial Viceroy In
Lombmrdy, be contrived to make himself be ac-
knowledged as sovereign of Milan (1315), and
lercd in succession all the principal towns
and republics of Lombardy. His successor
lowed his example : they enlarged their territories
by several now conquests, till at \> nth J..I
leas, great grandson of Matthew Vuwonti, ob-
tained, from tin- Kmperor Wenceslaus (13.'>
a sum of one hundred thousand H<>r.
which he paid him. the tide of Duke ot
himself and all his descendant*. T
family reigned at Milan till 1447, when they were
replaced by that of Sforza.

.Vinous the republics of Italy who cscap*
catastrophe of the fourteenth century, tin: most
conspicuous were those of Flop-nee, (idiom, and
Venire. The <-it\ of Florence, like all the ol
in Tuscany, formed itself into a republic alx. .
end of the twelfth century. Itx t un-

derwent frequent changes, after the introduction ,,t
a democracy about the middle of the thirteenth
ccntiiM. The various factions which had agitated
the republic induced the Florentines to elect a
magistrate (129J), called Gaitfaluntere de Justice,
or Captain of Justice: invested with power to as-
semble the inhabitants under his standard, when-
ever the means for conciliation were insufficient to
suppress faction and restore peace. These internal
agitations, however, did not pre\ent the Florentines
from enriching themselves by means of their com-
merce and manufactures. They succeeded, in
course of time, in subjecting the greater part of the
free cities of Tuscany, and especially that of Pisa,
which they conquered in 14(Hi. The republic of
Lucca was the only one that maintained its .
pendenee, in .spite of all the efforts which the Flo-
rentines made to subdue it. The republican form
of government continued in Florence till the year
1530, when the family of the Medici usurped the
sovereignty, under the protection of the Emperor
Charles V.

The same rivalry which had set the Genoese to
quarrel with the Pisans excited their jealousy
against the Venetians. The interests of these two
republics thwarted each other, both in the Levant
and the Mediterranean. This gave rise to a long
and disastrous series of wars, the last and most me-
morable of which was that of Chioggia
The Genoese, after a signal victory which they
obtained over the Venetians, before Pola, in the
Adriatic Gulf, penetrated to the very midst of the
lagoons of Venice, and attacked the port of Chi-
oggia. Peter Doria made himself master of this
port ; he would hare even surprised Venice, had
he taken advantage of the first consternation of the
Venetians, who were already deliberating whether
they should abandon their city and take refuge in
the isle of Candia. The tardiness of the Genoese
admiral gave them time to recover themselves.
Impelled by a noble despair, they made extraor-
dinary efforts to equip a new fleet, with which
they attacked the Genoese near Chioggia. This
place was retaken (24th June, 1380), and the se-
vere check which the Genoese there received, may
be said to have decided the command of the sea
in favour of the Venetians. But what contributed
still more to the downfal of the Genoese, was the
instability of their government, and the internal

The Levant trade.
Venetian conquests.
Joan I. of Naples.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

House of Anjou

Costilian

Catalonia.

commotions of the republic. Agitated by conti-
nual divisions between the nobles and the common
citizens, and incapable of managing their own
alF;iirs, they at length surrendered themselves to
the power of strangers. Volatile and inconstant,
and equally impatient of liberty as of servitude,
those fickle republicans underwent a frequent
change of masters. Twice (1396-1458) they put
themselves under the protection of the Kings of
France. At length they discarded the French, and
chose for their protector either the Marquis of
Montferrat or the Duke of Milan. Finally, from
the year 1404, the city of Genoa was constantly
regarded as ;i dependency of the duchy of Milan,
until l.VJS. when it recovered once more its ancient
state of independence.

"While the republic of Genoa was gradually
declining, that of Venice was every day acquiring
new accessions of power. The numerous esta-
blishments which they had formed in the Adriatic
Gulf and the Eastern Seas, together with the ad-
ditional vigour which they derived from the intro-
duction of the hereditary aristocracy, were highly
advantageous to the progress of their commerce
and marine. The treaty which they concluded
with the Sultan of Egypt (1343), by guaranteeing
to their republic an entire liberty of commerce in
the ports of Syria and Egypt, as also the privilege
of having consuls at Alexandria and Damascus,
put it in their power gradually to appropriate to
themselves the whole trade of India, and to main-
tain it against the Genoese, who had disputed
with them the commerce of the East, as well as
the command of the sea. These successes en-
couraged the Venetians to make new acquisitions ;
the turbulent state of Lombardy having afforded
them an opportunity of enlarging their dominions
on the continent of Italy, where at first they had
^sed only the single dogeship of Venice, and
the small province of Istria. They seized on
Treviso, and the whole Trevisan March (1388),
which they took from the powerful house of Car-
rara. In 1420 they again got possession of Dal-
matia, which they conquered from Sigismund,
Kintr of Hungary. This conquest paved the way
for that of Friuli, which they took about the same
time from the Patriarch of Aquileia, an ally of the
King of Hungary. At length, by a succession of
L"""l fortune, they detached from the duchy of
.Milan (1404) the cities and territories of Vicenza,
Belluno, Verona, Padua, Brescia, Bergamo, and
Cremona (14.">4), and thus formed a considerable
estate on the mainland.

Naples, during the course of this period, was
ned by a descendant of Charles, of the first
House of Anjou, and younger brother of St. Louis.
Queen Joan I., daughter of Robert, King of
Naples, having no children of her own, adopted a
younger prince of the Angevine family, Charles of
Durazzo, whom she destined as her successor,
after having given him her niece in marriage.
This ungrateful prince, in his eagerness to possess
the crown, took arms against the Queen his bene-
factress, and compelled her to solicit the aid of
foreign powers. It was on this occasion that
Joan, after rescinding and annulling her former
deed of adoption, made another in favour of
Louis I., younger brother of Charles V., King of
France, and founder of the second House of
Anjou. But the succours of that prince came too

late to save the Queen from the hands of her cruel
enemy. Charles, having made himself master of
Naples and of the Queen's person (1382), imme-
diately put her to death, and maintained himself
on the throne, in spite of his adversary, Louis of
Anjou, who obtained nothing more of the Queen's
estates than the single county of Provence, which
he transmitted to his descendants, together with
his claim on the kingdom of Naples. Joan II.,
daughter and heiress of Charles of Durazzo, having
been attacked by Louis III. of Anjou, who wished
to enforce the rights of adoption which had de-
scended to him from his grandfather Louis I., she
implored the protection of Alphonso V., King of
Arragon, whom she adopted and declared her heir
(1421) ; but afterwards, having quarrelled with
that prince, she changed her resolution, and passed
a new act of adoption (1423) in favour of that
same Louis of Anjou who had just made war
against her. Rene of Anjou, the brother and suc-
cessor of that prince, took possession of the king-
dom of Naples on the death of Joan II. (1435) ;
but he was expelled by the King of Arragon
(1445) ; who had procured from Pope Eugeuius
rV. the investiture of that kingdom, which he
transmitted to his natural son Ferdinand, de-
scended from a particular branch of the Kings of
Naples. The rights of the second race of Angevine
princes were transferred to the Kings of France,
along with the county of Provence (1481).

Spain, which was divided into a varietj of so-
vereignties, both Christian and Mahometan, pre-
sented at this time a kind of separate or distinct
continent, whose interests had almost nothing in
common with the rest of Europe. The Kings of
Navarre, Castile, and Arragon, disagreeing among
themselves, and occupied with the internal affairs
of their own kingdoms, had but little leisure to
attempt or accomplish any foreign enterprise. Of
all the Kings of Castile at this period, the most
famous, in the wars against the Moors, was
Alphonso XI. The Mahometan Kings of Morocco
and Grenada having united their forces, laid si.--''
to the city of Tariffa in Andalusia, where Al-
phonso, assisted by the King of Portugal, ventured
to attack them ill the neighbourhood of that place.
He gained a complete victory over the Moors
(1340) ; and this was followed by the conquest of
various other cities and districts ; among others,
Alcala-Real, and Algeziras.

AVhile the Kings of Castile were extending their
conquests in the interior of Spain, those of Arra-
gon, hemmed in by the Castilians, were obliged
to look for aggrandisement abroad. They pos-
sessed the country of Barcelona, or Catalonia, in
virtue of the marriage of Count Raymond Be-
renger IV. with Donna Petronilla, heiress of the
kingdom of Arragon. To this they added the
county of Reusillon, and the seignory or lordship
of Montpellier, both of which, as well as C'at-i-
lonia, belonged to the sovereignty of Trance. Don
James I., who conquered the kingdom of Valencia
and the Balearic Isles, gave these, with Rousillon
and Montpellier, to Don James, his younircr son,
and who was a descendant of the Kinir* of Majorca,
the last of whom, Don James III., sold Montpellier
to France (1349). Don Pedro III., King of Arra-
gon, and eldest son of Don James I., took Sicily,
as we have already seen, from Charles I. of Anjou.
Ferdinand II., a younger son of Don Pedro,

dh mi -:;.:.,..
M -

\. \.D. 1300145.1.

\.. .... , ...- ii.,,., v

d a separate bnux h of the Km-'. ,,f S

t kingdom
irdmia was

Incorporated with tin- kin-dMin <>f Ar.agon by Don
. n In > had conquered it from the 1'iuiui.

iving

'^ed the Angevlnes of the kingdom of Naples,
eetabltohed a distinct line of Neapolitan kings.
Thi kingdom WM at length united with the
monarchy of Arrmgon by Ferdinand the Catholic.

In r..itu.-.il, tin- legitimate line of king*, de-
eeeadaato of Henry . : i .\, had failed in

uand, son uid successor of Don Pedro
III. 'I his jirinre had an only daughter, named
Beatrix, burn in criminal intercoms, with Elea-
nora Telles dc Meneaes, whom he had taken from
her lawful huaband. Being desirous to make this
princess his successor, he married her, at the age

.11 I., King ot" Casldi- ; ,-,

the throne to the son who should be born f tin-.
union, ami failing him, to tin- Kmu' of Casti
son-in-law. Ferdinand dying soon after this mar-
riage, Don Juan, his natural brother, and grand-
master of the order of Aries, knowing the aversion
of the Portuguese for the Caatilian sway, turned
this to his own advantage, by seizing the re-
of which he had deprived the Queen-dowager.
- of Castile immediately hud siege to
ii ; but having miscarried in this enterprise,
the StatcN of Portugal assembled at Coimbra, and
conferred the crown on Don Juan, known in
hist-.i-y l>\ the name of John the Bastard. This
prince, aided with troops from England, engaged
tin Caatiliaus and their allies, the French, at the
famous battle fought on the plains of Aljubarota
(14th August, l.'JHS). The Portuguese remained
masters of the field, and John the Dastard suc-
ceeded in maintaining himself on the throne of
Portugal. The war, however, continued several
years between the Portuguese and the CaHtilians,
and did not terminate till 1411. My the peace
which was then concluded, Henry III., son of
John I., Kin- of Castile, agreed never to urge the
claim* of ljuccn Beatrix, his mother-in-law, who
hail no children. John the Bastard founded a
new dynasty of kings, who occupied the throne
of Portugal from 1385 to 15KO.

In France, tin- direct line of kings, descendants
of Hugh Capet, having become extinct in the
sons of Philip the Fair, the crown passed to the
collateral branch of Valois (IIJ'.'M), which furnished
a series of thirteen kings, during a peiiod of 'Jill
yean.

The rivalry between France and England,
which had sprung up during the preceding period,
assumed a more hostile character on the accession
of the family of Valoi*. Till then, the quarrels
of the two natioii!i had been limited to some par-
r territory, or province; hut now they dis-
pnt. -.'. i'-ccssion to the throne of 1

which the king* of England claimed as their right.
<d III., l>y his mother, Isabella of France,
phew to Charles IV., the last of the- Caprtian
in a direct hi.<-. lie claimed the
ii to Phiiip VI., surnameil
\\ ho, being cousin-germau to Charles, was on
gree more remote than the King of England. The
! dward waa opposed by the Salic law,
.uded females from the succession to the
throne ; but, according to the interpretation of th.tt

prince, the law admitted his right, and must be
understood as referring to female* personally, who
were excluded on account of the wemkneea of their
aex, ami not to their male descendants, Granting
that his mother, Isabella, could not herself aspire
to the crown, he maintained that she gave him the
right of proximity, which qualified him for the
accession. The States of France, however, hav-
ing decided in favour of I 'I. dip, the King of
England did fealty and homage to that prin-
the duchy o| (.111- -line ; hut he laid no claim to the
crown until i:i:i7, when he assumed the title and
arms of the King of France. The war which be-
gan in 1338 waa renewed during several reigns,
for the space of a hundred years, and ended with
the entire expulsion "I" the English from France.

Nothing could be more wretched than the situa-
tion of this kingdom during the reign of Charles
\ 1. That prince having fallen into a state of in-
sanity in the flower of his age, two parties, those
of Burgundy and Orleans, who had disputed with
each other about the regency, dixided the Court
into factions, and kindled the flame* of civil war
in the four corners of the kingdom. John the
Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, and uncle to the
king, caused Louis, Duke of Orleans, the king's
own brother, to be assassinated at Paris (1
He himself was assassinated in his turn (1 >!'.<)
on the hridge of Montereau, in the very presence
of the Dauphin, who was afterwards king, under
the name of Charles VII. These dissensions gave
the English an opportunity for renewing the war.
Henry V. of England gained the famous battle
of Agincourt (141.">), which waa followed by the
conquest of all Normandy. Isabella of Bavaria
then abandoned the faction of Orleans, and the
party of her son, the Dauphin, and joined that of
Burgundy. Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy,
and son of John the Fearless, being determined to
revenge the death of his father, which he laid to
the charge of the Dauphin, entered into a negocia-
tion with England, into which he contrived to
draw Queen Isabella and the imbecile Charles VI.
My the treaty of ponce concluded at Troyes in
Champagne (1420), it was agreed that Catharine
of France, daughter of Charles VI. and Isabella of
Bavaria, should espouse Henry V., and that, on
the death of the King, the crown should pass to
Henry, and the children of his marriage with the
Princess of France ; to the exclusion of the
Dauphin, who, as an accomplice in the murder of
the Duke of Burgundy, was declared to have lost
his rights to the crown, and was banished from
the kingdom. Henry V. died in the flower of his
age, and his death was followed soon after by that
of Charles VI. Henry \ I., son and

Catharine of France, hcing then proclaimed King
igland and France, fixed Ins residence at
Paris, and had for his regents his two uncles, the
Dukes of Bedford and t.I.-n,

!i was the preponderance of the English and
Hiirgundian party in France at this period, that
Char!' .monly called the Dauphin, more

than once saw himself upon the point of being ex-
pelled the kingdom. He owed his safety entirely
t the appearance of the famous Joan of Arc,
called the Maid of Orleans. This extraordinary
woman revived the .trooping courage of the French.
inpelled the English to raise the siege of
Orleans, and brought the king to be crowned at

English expelled

from Prance.
House of Plantagenet.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Knglisli civil war.
Houso of Stuart.

<'t of Norway.

Rheims (1429). But what contributed still more
to retrieve the party of Charles VII. was the re-
conciliation of that prince with f he Duke of Bur-
gundy, which took place at the peace of Arras
(1435). The duke having then united his forces
with those of the king, the English were in their
turn expelled from France (1453), the single city
of Calais being all that remained to them of their
former conquests.

An important revolution happened in the go-
vernment of France under the reign of Charles VII.
The royal authority gained fresh -vigour by the
expulsion of the English, and the reconciliation of
various parties that took place in consequence.
The feudal system, which till then had prevailed
in France, fell by degrees into disuse. Charles
was the first king who established a permanent
militia, and taught his successors to abandon the
feudal mode of warfare. This prince also insti-
tuted Companies of ordonnance (1445) ; and, to
defray the expense of their maintenance, he or-
dered, of his own authority, a certain impost to
be levied, called the Tax of the Gens -(formes.
This standing army, which at first amounted only
to 0000 men, was augmented in course of time,
while the royal finances increased in proportion.
By means of these establishments, the kings ob-
tained such an ascendancy over their vassals that
they soon found themselves in a condition to pre-
scribe laws to them, and thus gradually to abolish
the feudal system. The most powerful of the
nobles could make little resistance against a sove-
reign who was alwajs armed; while the kings,
imposing taxes at their pleasure, by degrees dis-
pensed with the necessity of assembling the States-
general. The same prince secured the liberties of
the (iallican church against the encroachments of
the court of Rome, by solemnly adopting several
of the decrees of the Council of Basle, which he
caused to be passed in the National Council held
at Bourges, and published under the title of the
Pragmatic Sanction (1438).

In England, two branches of the reigning family
of the Plantagenets, those of Lancaster and York,
contested for a long time the right to the crown.
Henry IV., the first king of the House of Lan-
caster, was the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of
Lancaster, and grandson of Edward III., King
of England. He usurped the crown from Richard
II., whom he deposed by act of Parliament (1399).
But instead of enforcing the rights which he in-
herited from his father and grandfather, he rested
his claims entirely upon those which he alleged
had devolved to him in right of his mother, Blanch
of Lancaster, great grand-daughter of Ed\\anl,
sumamed Hunchback, Earl of Lancaster. This
prince, according to a popular tradition, was the
eldest son of Henry III., who, it was said, had
been excluded from the throne by his younger
brother, Edward I., on account of his deformity.
This tradition proved useful to Henry IV. in ex-
cluding the rights of the House of Clarence, who
preceded him in the order of succession. This
latter family was descended from Lionel, Duke
of Clarence, and elder brother of John of Gaunt.
Philippine, daughter of Lionel, was married to
Edward .Mortimer, by whom she had a son,
Roger, whom the Parliament, by an act passed in
. declared presumptive heir to the crown.
Ann Mortimer, the daughter of Roger, married

Richard, Duke of York, son of Edward Langley,
who was the younger brother of John of Gaunt,
and thus transferred the right of Lionel to the
royal House of York.

The princes of the House of Lancaster are
known in English history by the name of the Red
Rose, while those of York were designated by that
of the White Rose. The former of the-~< 11
occupied the throne for a period of sixty -three
years, during the reigns of Henry IV., V., VI. It
was under the feeble reign of Henry VI. that the
House of York began to advance their right to the
crown, and that the civil war broke out between
the two Roses. Richard, Duke of York, and heir
to the claims of Lionel and Mortimer, was the
first to raise the standard in this war of competi-
tion (1452), which continued more than thirty
years, and was one of the most cruel and sangui-
nary recorded in history. Twelve pitched battles
were fought between the two Roses, eighty princes
of the blood perished in the contest, and England,
during the whole time, presented a tra;_ r i<"il -
tacle of horror and carnage. Edward IV., sou of
Richard, Duke of York, and grandson of Ann
Mortimer, ascended the throne (1461), which he
had stained with the blood of Henry VI., and of
several other princes of the House of Lancaster.

In Scotland, the male line of the ancient kings
having become extinct in Alexander III., a crowd
of claimants appeared on the field, who disputed
with each other the succession of the throne. The
chief of these competitors were the two Scottish
families of Baliol and Bruce, both descended by
the mother's side from the Royal Family. Four
princes of these contending families reigned in
Scotland until the year 1371, when the crown
passed from the House of Bruce to that of Stuart.
Robert II., son of Walter Stuart and Marjory
Bruce, succeeded his uncle, David II., and in his
family the throne remained until the Union, when
Scotland was united to England about the begin-
ning of the seventeenth century. Under the go-
vernment of the Stuarts, the royal authority ac-
quired fresh energy after being long restrained and
circumscribed by a turbulent nobility. Towards
the middle of the fifteenth century, James I., a
very accomplished prince, gave the first blow to
the feudal system and the exorbitant power of the
grandees. He deprived them of several of the
crown-lands which they had usurped, and confis-
cated the property of some of the most audacious
whom he had condemned to execution. James II.
followed the example of his father. He strength-
ened the royal authority, by humbling the power-
ful family of Douglas, as well as by the wise laws
which he" prevailed with his Parliament to adopt.

The three kingdoms of the North, after having
been long agitated by internal dissensions, were
at length united into a single monarchy by M ar-
iraret. c-tlled the Semiramis of the North. This
princess \\ as daughter of Vmldemar III., the last
Kini: of Denmark of the ancient reigning family,
and widow of Haco VII., King of Norway. She
was fiixt elected Queen of Denmark, and then of
Norway, after the death of her sen, Oluus V.,
whom she had by her marriage with Haeo, and
who died without leaving any posterity (i:?S7).
The Swedes, discontented with their Kin-, Alhert
of Mecklenburg, likewise hrstowed their crown
upon this princess. Albert was vanquished and

lluulr* VI 1 1.

KhMM Of KtfMC.

PERIOD \. \.i>.

made prisoner at th battle of Fahlekoeping ( 1 3H9).
Nveden, from that time, acknow-
ledged thr ii. if I Heing
deatrou* of uniting the three kingdoiM into one
hud;. politic, -he assembled their respective
Estate* at Calmar (1397), and there cauMd her
grand-nephew I t Wratialaus, Duka of
Mary of Mecklenburg, daughter
T own slater, to be received and
crowned an her successor. The act which ratified
nil and irrevocable union of the three
vras approved in that assembly. It
!<<!, that the united states should, in future,
have but one and the game king, who should be
chosen with the common consent of the Senator*
:m.| 1' tli.- three kingdom*; that they
id always give the preference to the descend-
there were any; that the three
kingdom* should assist each other with their com-
bined t'. :.-es against all foreign enemies ; that each
km.'doin should preserve ita own constitution, it*
. imd 11 iiional legislature, and be governed
conformably to its own law*.

This union, how formidable soever it might
appear at first sight, was by no means firmly con-
solidated. A federal system of three monarchies,
.!m.!,-c| by mutual jealousies, and by dissimilarity
in their laws, manners, and institutions, could pre-
sent nothin lid or durnhlf. The predi-
|.-i-ti,.ii, l>. -ide, which the kings of the union who
ded Margaret showed for the Danes; tin-
preference which they gave them in the distribu-
tion of favours and places of trust, and the tone
Apriority which they affected towards their
allies, tended naturally to foster animosity and
hatred, and, above nil, to exasperate the Swedes
against the union. Eric, after a very turbulent
r. i.-u, was deposed, and his nephew, Christopher
the Bavarian, was elected king of the union in
his place. This latter prince having died without
tone, the Swedes took this opportunity of break -
.< union, and choosing a king of their own,
Honde, known by the title of
Charles VIII. It was he who induced the Danes
to venture likewise on a new election ; and this
same year they transferred their crown to Christian,
unt of Oldenburg, descended

by the female side from the race of their ancient

. This prince had the good fortune to renew

the union with Norway (1480) ; he likewise go-

from the year 1457, vrl

\ 1 1 1. w-is \;i. ll.-d by his subjects till 1464, when
he was recalled. But what deserves more particu-
larly to be remarked, is the acquisition which
Christian made of th H.-swic anil

which he succeeded ( 1 l.V.i), by a dis-
- province*, after the

drat! '. 'lolphus, the maternal uncle of the

new Kim: "t" Denmark, and last male heir of the

in, of the ancient Mouse of Schau-

.- . Christian I. was f rofallthe

in Denmark and

ay. His grandson lost Sweden ; but, in the
last century, the thrones l>oth of Russia and 8we-
.\ ere occupied by princes of his family.

f this period, groaned

the degrading yoke of the Moguls and the
Tartan. The grand dukes, as well a* the other
Russian princes, I to solicit the con-

firmation of their dignity from the Khan of Kip-

Mr, who granted or refused h at hi. pleasure.

prince* were in like manner ahaHUd to hi de-
cision. Whra summoned to appear at hi* horde,
thej- were obliged to repair thither without delay,

UHi Often ttflvT9d tfl6 pWiistnilUfflt Of tOOHUDT ftlui

death. 17 The contributions which the khan* at
ftrat exacted from the Russians in the shape of
gratuitous donations were converted, in course of
into regular tribute. Bereke Khan, the toe.
cessor of Baton, was the first who lcvi<
bute by officers of his own nation. Mb successors
increased still more the load of these taxes ; they
even subjected the Russian princes to the perform-
inilitary e!

The grand ducal dignity, which for a
time belonged exclusiv chiefs

principalities of Vladimir and Kiaso, became com-
mon, about the end of the fourteenth century, to
several of the other principalities, who shared
among them the dominion of Russia. The princes
of Retan, Twer, Smolensko, and several others,
took the title of grand duke-, to distinguish
themselves from the petty prin'-<-s who were esta-
blished within their principalities. These divi-
sions, together with the internal broils to which
they gave rise, emboldened the Lithuanians and
1'olei to carry their victorious arms into Russia;
and by degrees they dismembered the whole wee-
tern part of the ancient i inpire.

The Lithuanians, 18 who are supposed to nave
been of the same race with the ancient Prussians,
Lethonians, Livonians, and Estonians, inh
originally the banks of the riven Niemen and
\Vilia ; an inconsiderable state, comprehending
Samogitia and a part of the ancient Palatinates of
Troki and AVilna. After having been tributaries
to the Russians for a long time, the princes of
Lithuania shook off their yoke, and began to ag-
grandise themselves at the expense of the grand
dukes, their former masters. Towards the middle
of the eleventh century, they passed the Wilia,
founded the town of Kiernow, and took from the
Russians Braclaw, Novgorodek, Grodno, Borxeec,
Bielsk, Pinsk, Mozyr, Polotsk, Minsk, Witepsk,
Oraa, and Mscislaw, with their extensive depend-
encies. Ringold was the first of these princes that
assumed the dignity of grand duke, about tin-
middle of the thirteenth century. I r*8or,
Mendog or Mindow, harassed by the Teutonic
knights, embraced Christianity about the year

md was declared King of Lithuania 1
I'ope ; though he afterwards returned to Paganism,
and became one of the most cruel enemies of the
Christian name. Gcdimin, who ascended the
throne of the grand duke (1315), tendered him-
self famous hy his new conquests. After a series
of victories which he gained over the Russian
princes, who were supported by the Tartan, he
took possession of the city and principality of
i). The whole of the grand duchy of
Kiow, and its dependant principalities on thi
.ieper, were conquered in succession,
(imnd Dukes of Lithuania, who had become for-
midable to all their neighbours, weakened their
power by partitioning their estate* among
son* ; reserving to one, under the title of grand
duke, the right of superiority over tin-
civil dissensions which resulted from these divi-
sions, gave the Poles an opportunity of seizing the

Demetrius Iwanovitsh.
76 C'.mc|Mi'-.is I iy the. Teutonic
knights.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Lithuania.

riadUaus IV. of Poland.

(.'ii.ximir tlie Great.

principalities of Leopold, Przemysl, and Halitsch
(i;i40), and of taking from the Lithuanians and
their grand duke, Olgerd, the whole of Volhynia
and Podolia, of which they had depffced the Rus-
sians (1349).

Nothing more then remained of the ancient
Russian Empire except the grand duchy of
"Wolodimir, so called from the town of that name
on the river Kliarma, where the Grand Dukes of
Eastern and Northern Russia had their residence,
before they had fixed their capital at Moscow ;
which happened about the end of the thirteenth or
the beginning of the fourteenth century. This
grand duchy, which had several dependant and
subordinate principalities, was conferred by the
Khan of Kipzac (1320) on Iwan or John Danilo-
vitsh, Prince of Moscow, who transmitted it to his
descendants. Demetrius Iwanovitsh, grandson of
Iwan, took advantage of the turbulence which dis-
tracted the grand horde, and turned his arms
against the Tartars. Assisted by several of the
Russian princes his vassals, he gained a signal vic-
tory near the Don (1380), over the Khan Temric-
Mamai, the first which gained the Russians any
celebrity, and which procured Demetrius the proud
epithet of Donski, or conqueror of the Don. This
prince, however, gained little advantage by his vic-
tory ; and for a long time after, the Tartars gave
law to the Russians and made them their tributa-
ries. Toktamish Khan, after having vanquished
and humbled Mamai, penetrated as far as Moscow,
sacked the city, and massacred a great number of
the inhabitants. Demetrius was forced to implore
the mercy of the conqueror, and to send his son a
hostage to the horde in security for his allegiance.

The chief residence of the Teutonic order,
which had formerly been at Verden, was fixed at
Marienburg, a city newly built, which from that
time became the capital of all Prussia. The Teu-
tonic knights did not limit their conquests to
Prussia ; they took from the .Poles Dantzic or
Eastern Pomerania (1311), situated between the
Netze, the Vistula, and the Baltic Sea, and known
since by the name of Pomerelia. This province
was definitely ceded to them, with the territory of
Culm, and Michelau, by a treaty of peace which
was signed at Kalitz (1343). The city of Dantzic,
which was their capital, increased considerably
under the dominion of the Order, and became one
of the principal entrep&ts for the commerce of the
Baltic. Of all the exploits of these knights, the
most enterprising was that which had for its object
the conquest of Lithuania. Religion, and a pre-
tended gift of the Emperor Louis of Bavaria,
served them as a pretext for attacking the Lithu-
anians, who were Pagans, in a murderous war,
which continued almost without interruption for
the space of a century. The Grand Dukes of
Lithuania, always more formidable after their de-
feat, defended their liberties and independence
with a courage and perseverance almost miracu-
lous ; and it was only by taking ad\antage of the
dissensions which had arisen in the family of the
grand duke, that they succeeded in obtaining
possession of Samogitia, by the treaty of peace
which was concluded at Racianz (1404).

The Knights of Livonia, united to the Teutonic
order under the authority of one and the same
Grand Master, added to their former conquests
the province of Estonia, which was sold to them

by Valdemar IV., King of Denmark. 1 * The Teu-
tonic knights were at the zenith of their greatness
about the beginning of the fifteenth century. At
that time they were become a formidable power
in the North, having under their dominion the
whole of Prussia, comprehending Pomerania and
the New March, as also Samogitia, Courland,
Livonia and Estonia. 40 A population proportioned
to the extent of their dominions, a well regulated
treasury, and a flourishing commerce, seemed to
guarantee them a solid and durable Empire. Ne-
vertheless, the jealousy of their neighbours, the
union of Lithuania with Poland, and the conver-
sion of the Lithuanians to Christianity, which de-
prived the knights of the assistance of the cru-
saders, soon became fatal to their order, and ac-
celerated their downfal. The Lithuanians again
obtained possession of Samogitia, which, with Su-
davia, was ceded to them by the various treaties
which they concluded with that Order, between
14111436.

The oppressive government of the Teutonic
knights their own private dissensions, and the
intolerable burden of taxation the fatal conse-
quence of incessant war induced the nobles and
cities of Prussia and Pomerania to form a confe-
deracy against the Order, and to solicit the pro-
tection of the Kings of Poland. This was granter 1
to them, on their signing a deed of submission to
that kingdom (1454). The result was a long and
bloody war with Poland, which did not terminate
till the peace of Thorn (1466). Poland then ob-
tained the cession of Culm, Michelau, and Dantzic ;
that is to say, all the countries now comprehended
under the name of Polish Prussia. The rest of
Prussia was retained by the Teutonic order, who
promised, by means of their Grand Master, to do
fealty and homage for it to the Kings of Poland.
The chief residence of the Order was then trans-
ferred to Koningsberg, where it continued until
the time when the knights were deprived of
Prussia by the House of Brandenburg.

At length, however, Poland recovered from this
state of weakness into which the unfortunate divi-
sions of Boleslaus III. and his descendants had
plunged it. Uladislaus IV., surnamcd the Dwarf,
having combined several of these principalities,
was crowned King of Poland at Cracow (1320).
From that time the royal dignity became perma-
nent in Poland, and was transmitted to all the
successors of Uladislaus.* 1 The immediate suc-
cessor of that prince was his son Casimir the
Great, who renounced his rights of sovereignty
over Silesia in favour of the King of Bohemia, and
afterwards compensated this loss by the acquisition
of several of the provinces of ancient Russia. He
likewise took possession of Red Russia (1IUO), as
also of the provinces of Volhynia, Podolia, Chelrn,
and lU'lz, which he conquered from the Grand
Dukes of Lithuania (1349), who had formerly dis-
membered them from the Russian Empire.

Under Casimir the Great, another revolution
happened in the government of Poland. That
Prince, having no children of his own, and will-
ing to bequeath the crown to his nephew Louis,
his sister's son, by Charles Robert, King of Hun-
gary, convoked a general assembly of the nation
at Cracow (1339), and there got the succession of
the Hungarian Prince ratified, in opposition to the
legitimate lights of the Piast dynasty, who reigned

uJ^frlb,.

rasMMtr.

.! I..,,..:,.. >!,,

PERIOD V. A.D. 1300-1443.

I... ... ,:.. .,f II

U ,.,,. V..

,.>.,..< I..,.- ] .:...

fal MMorU mud Silesia. This subversion of the
hereditary right of the different branches of the
Piast*, gave the Polish nobles a pretext for

lie election of thrir king*, until at hut
the throne became completely elective. It also
afforded them an opportunity for limiting the power
<>f their king*, and laying the found ition of a re-
publican and arintocretic goTernmrnt. Deputies
were * ut into llumranr (1355), even during the
life of Catimir, who obliged King Louis I

I uccesaor, to subscribe an art which pro*
that, mi his accession to the crown, he hould
hind himself, and hi* tucccMorn, to <libunl. n the
of all taxes and contribution* ;
that he should never, under any pretext, exact
subsidies from them ; and that, in travelling, he
should el-inn nothing for the support of hit court,
in any place durini; hit journc) . The ancient race
of tin- 1'iast sovereign* of Poland ended with Ca-
simir ( i:70), after having occupied the throne of
that kingdom for several centuries.

1 1 u successor in Poland and Hungary was I
sumamed the Great. In a Diet assembled it
he obtained the concurrence of the Pole*, in tin-
choice which he had made of Sigismund of Luxem-
bourg, u hi* son-in-law and successor in both
kingdom*. But on the death of Louis, which
happened immediately after, the Poles broke their
engagement, and conferred the crown on Hedwiga,
a younger daughter of that prince. It waa
stipulated, that she should marry Jagello, Grand
Duke of Lithuania, who agreed to incorporate
Lithuania with Poland, to renounce Paganism,
and embrace Christianity, himself and all his sub-
jects. Jagello was baptized, when he received the
name of Uladislau*, and was crowned King of
Poland at Cracow (1386).** It was on the acces-
sion of Jagello, that Poland and Lithuania, long
opposed in their interests, and implacable enemies
Pleach other, were united into one body politic
under the authority of one and the same king.
Nevertheless, for nearly two centuries, Lithuania
-till preserved its own grand dukes, who acknow-
ledged the sovereignty of Poland ; and it was not,
properly speaking, till the reign of Sigismund
Augustus, that the union of the two states waa
tiii ill) accomplinhed (1569). This important union
rendered Poland the preponderating power of the
North. It became fatal to the influence of the
Teutonic order, who soon yielded to the united
Awt* of the Poles and Lithuanians.

I ladislaus Jagello did not obtain the assent of
thi- 1'oliah nobility to the succession of his son,
except by adding new privileges to those which
tli> \ had obtained from his predecessor. He was
the first of tin- l'"li-h kings who, for the purpose
of imposing an extraordinary taxation, called in
tin- Nuncios or Deputies of the Nobility to the
"4 ). and established the use of the
' j or provincial diets. His descendant* en-
joyed the crown until they became extinct, in the
ith century. The succession, however, wa*
! ; and although the prince* of the House of
Jagello might regard themselves a* hereditary pos-
sessors of the kingdom, nevertheless, on every
it wa* necessary that the crown
should be conferred by the choice and consent of
theaobilit).

i,'nn,, the male race of the ancient
descendants of Duke Arpad, had become extinct

in Andrew III. (rMt). The crown was then
contested by several competitors, and at UiBflh
Ml into the hands of the House of Anji
reigning family of Nanlr*.
son of Charles II. Km- <,f Naples, by Mary of
;u-y, outstripped hi* rival*, and transmitted

niwn to hi* son Louis, surnaned the Great
(UUH). Thi* prince, characterized by hi* emi-

'lualities, made a distinguished figure among

. :._ i Hungary. He conquered from the
Venetians the whole of Dalmatia, from the frontier*
of Istria, a* fiur a* Duraxxo ; he reduced the
i'rmces of Moldavia, Walachia, Bosnia and Hi. I-
garia, to a state of dependence ; and at length
mounted the throne of Poland on the death
uncle Casimir the Great.** Mary hi* eldest daugh-
ter succeeded him in the kingdom of Hungary

. i . Thi* prince** married Sigismutid of
embourg, who thus united the monarchy of Hun-
gary to the Imperial crown.

The reign of Sigismund in Hungary wa* meet
unfortunate, and a prey to continual disturbance*.
Mi- had to sustain the first war against the '
man Turks ; and, with the Emperor of Constanti-
nople a* hi* ally, he assembled a formidable army,
with which he undertook the siege of Nicopolis in
Bulgaria. Here he sustained a complete defeat by
the Turks. In his retreat he was compelled to
embark on the Danube, and directed hi* Might
towards Constantinople. This disaster wa* fol-
lowed by new misfortunes. The malecoutent*
of Hungary offered their crown to Ladislaus, called
the Magnanimous, King of Naples, who took pos-
session of Dalmatia, which he afterwards surren-
dered to the Venetians. Desirous to provide for
the defence and security of bin kingdom, Sigismund
acquired, by treaty with the Prince of Senia, the
fortress of Belgrade (1425), which, by its situation
at the confluence of the Danube and the Save,
seemed to him a proper bulwark to protect Hun-
gary against the Turks. He transmitted the crown
of Hungary to his son-in-law, Albert of Austria,
who reigned only two year*. The war with the
Turks was renewed under U ladislaus of Poland,
son of Jagello, and successor to Albert. That
prince fought a bloody battle with them near Varna
in Bulgaria (1444). The Hungarians again sus-
tained a total defeat, and the King himself lost hi*
life in the action.* 4 The safet\ of Hungary then
depended entirely on the bravery of the celebrated
John Hunniades, governor of the kingdom during
tin- minority of Ladislaus, the posthumous son of
Albert of Austria. That general signalized him-
self in various actions against the Turks, and
obliged Mahomet II. to raise the siege of Belgrade
(1466), where he lost above twi nt\-tive thousand
men, and wa* himself severely wounded.

The Greek Empire wa* gradually approaching
it* downfs.1, under the feeble administration of the
Howe of Paleologus, who had occupied the throne
of Constantinople since the year 1261. The same
vice* of which we have already spoken, the gnat
power of the patriarch* and the monk*, the ran-
cour of theological disputes, the fury of sectaries
and schismatics, and the internal dissension to
which they gave rue, aggravated the misfortunes
and disorders of th- state, and were instrumental
in hastening on it* final destruction. John I. and
hi* successor*, the last Emperor* of Constanti-
nople, being reduced to the sad necessity of pay-

The- Ottoman Turks.
Osman. Orcluin.
Timour, or Tamerlane.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Defeat of Bajazet.
Babour conquers India.
Huiiniudes. Scanderbeg.

ing tribute to the Turks, and marching on military
expeditious, at the command of the sultans, o\\i-cl
the preservation of their shattered and declining
Empire, for some time, entirely to the reverses of
fortune which had befallen the Ottomans ; and to
the difficulties which the siege of their capital pre-
sented to a barbarous nation unacquainted with the
arts of blockade.

The power of the Ottoman Turks took its rise
about the end of the thirteenth century. A
Turkish emir, called Ottoman, or Osman, was its
original founder in Asia Minor. He was one of
the number of those emirs, who, after the subver-
MOH of the Seljukiaus of Itoum or Iconium, by the
Moguls, shared among them the spoils of their an-
cient masters. A part of Bithynia, and the whole
country lying round Mount Olympus, fell to the
share of Ottoman, who afterwards formed an
alliance with the other emirs, and invaded the pos-
sessions of the Greek Empire, under the feeble
reign of the Emperor Audronicus II. Prusa, or
Bursa, the principal city of Bithynia, was con-
quered by Ottoman (1327). He and his successors
made it the capital of their new state, which, in
course of time, gained the ascendency over all
the other Turkish sovereignties, formed, like that
of Ottoman, from the ruins of Iconium and the
Greek Empire.

Orchan, the son and successor of Ottoman, in-
stituted the famous Order of the Janissaries, to
which in a great measure the Turks owed their
success. He took from the Greeks the cities of
Nice and Nicomedia in Bithynia ; and, after having
subdued most of the Turkish emirs in Asia Minor,
he took the title of sultan or king, as well as that
of pacha, which is equivalent to the title of em-
peror. His son Soliman crossed the Hellespont,
by his orders, near the ruins of ancient Troy, and
took the city of Gallipoli, in the Thracian Cher-
sonesus (1358). The conquest of this place opened
a passage for the Turks into Europe, when Thrace
and the whole of Greece was soon inundated by
these new invaders. Amurath I., the son and suc-
cessor of Orchan, made himself master of Adria-
nople and the whole of Thrace (1360) ; he next
attacked Macedonia, Servia and Bulgaria, and ap-
pointed the first Beglerbcy, or Governor-General of
lioumclia. Several Turkish princes of Asia Minor
were obliged to acknowledge his authority; he
made himself master of Kiutaja, the metropolis
of Phrygia, which afterwards became the capital
of Anatolia, and the residence of the governor of
that province (1389). Amurath was slain at the
battle of Cassova, which he fought with the despot
of Servia, assisted by his numerous allies. In t his
bloody bat tli- the despot himself was slain, and
both sides equally claimed the victory. Bajazet
I., the successor of Amurath, put an end to all
the Turkish sovereignties which still subsisted in
Asia Minor. He completed the reduction of Bul-
garia, and maintained the possession of it by the
signal victory which he gained at Nicopolis (1396)
over Sigismund, King of Hungary. The Greek
Empire would have yielded to the persevering
" ti'nils of that prince, who had maintained, for ten
. the siege of Constantinople, had he not been
attacked, in the midst of these enterprises, by tin
famous Timour, the new conqueror of Asia.

Timour, commonly called Tamerlane, was one
of those Mogul Emirs who had divided amongst

them the sovereignty of Transoxiana, after the ex-
tinction of the Mogul dynasty of Zagatai. Trans-
oxiana was the theatre of his iirst exploits ; there
he usurped the whole power of the Khans, or Em-
perors of Zagatai, and fixed the capital of his new
dominions at the city of Samarcand (13G9). Persia,
the whole of Upper Asia, Kipzac, and llin-
dostan, were vanquished by him in succession ;
wherever he marched, he renewed the same scenes
of horror, bloodshed, and carnage, which had
marked the footsteps of the first Mogul conqueror. 45
Timour at length attacked the dominions of Bajazet
in Anatolia (1400). He fought a bloody and deci-
si\e battle near Angora, in the ancient Gallogre-
cia, which proved fatal to the Ottoman Empire.
Bajazet sustained an entire defeat, and fell himself
into the hands of the conqueror. All Anatolia was
then conquered and pillaged by the Moguls, and
there Timour fixed his winter quarters. Moan-
time he treated his captive Bajazet with kindness
and generosity ; and the anecdote of the iron cage,
in which he is said to have confined his prisoner,
merits no credit. Sherefeddin Ali, who accom-
panied Timour in his expedition against Bajazet,
makes no mention of it ; on the contrary, he avers
that Timour consented to leave him the Empire,
and that he granted the investiture of it to him
and two of his sons. Bajazet did not long survive
his misfortune ; he died of an attack of apoplexy
(1403) with which he was struck in the camp of
Timour in Caramania.

Timour, a short time after, formed the project
of an expedition into China ; but he died on the
route in (1405), at the age of sixty-nine. His vast
dominions were dismembered after his death.
One of his descendants, named Babour, founded a
powerful Empire in India, the remains of which
are still preserved under the name of the Empire
of the Great Mogul. The invasion of Timour
retarded for some time the progress of the Turkish
Empire. The fatal dissensions, which arose among
the sons of Bajazet, set them at open war with
each other. At lezigth Amurath II., the son of
Mahomet I., and grandson of Bajazet, succeeded
in putting a stop to these divisions, and restored
the Empire to its primitive splendour. He de-
prived the Greeks of all the places which still re-
mained in their hands 011 the Black Sea, aloi:
coast of Thrace, in Macedonia and Thessaly.
He even took, by assault, the wall and forts which
they had constructed at the entrance of the isthmus
of Corinth, and carried his ravages to the very
centre of the Peloponnesus.

The two heroes of the Christians, John Hun-
niudes and Scanderbeg, arrested the progress of the
Ottoman Sultan. The former, who was general
of the Hungarians, boldly repulsed the Sultan <>!'
Servia, whom he was ambitious to conquer. The
other, a Greek prince, who possessed one of the
petty states of Albania of which Croja was the
capital, resisted with success the repeated attack*
of tin- Turks. Supported by a small but well dis-
ciplined army, and favoured by the mountains
with which his territorj v\as surrounded, lie (\vice
compelled Amurath to raise the siege of Croja.
At length appeared Mahomet II., the son and -u<--
cessor of Amurath (14.")1). This prince, who
was raised to the Ottoman throne in the twentieth
year of lu's age, conceived the design of ac)iie\in^
the conquest of the Gicck Kmpire, by the taking

..U.I

I .... ., .

,. . ... .

., I,

lutuntinoplo. He succeeded in overcoming

.ill i. h obstruct, prise,

in win- li -.-M-r-il uf hi* predecessors hud failed,
id of an army of 3W,> unU,

rli.l l.y .1 tint of 300 siill. i..- appeared
that capital, ami commenced the liege
on the iltl. Apnl, 1 I.. I

.mis . to oppose the

rce of the enemy, yielded to the power-
ful uini r. il"ul.|. .1 it

> us defence of fifty -three day*. '1

I by u.-sault, '.".'til M.iy, iinl delivered up to

i restrained pillage of the soldier*. Coustan-
turuamed Dragases, the Ut of the <

.I in tin hi-t .!.-. t; and all the
inhabitant* of that great and opulent < ity were car-
>nto slavery.** Hahooift, u cut. ring the very
sack, nw nothing but one* vast and dis-
mal solitude. Wishing afterwards to attract new
inhabitants to tin- city , \% hichhe proposed to make
the seat of his l.mpirc, lit- guaranteed an entire
libci t. ( reek* who might come

to settle there ; and authorized them to proceed to
tin- election of a new patriarch, whote dignity he
enhanced by tin- honours and privilege* which he
attached to it. II. restored also the fortifications
and, by way of precaution against the
armaments of t .us and other western

nations, which he had some reason to dread, he

constructed the famous castle of the Dardanelles, at
the entrance uf the II. llc|>

- conquest was followed by that of Scrria,
Bosnia, Albania, Greece, and the whole Pelopon-
nesus or Morca, as well as most of the islands of the

B coast of Aia Minor, ubn, , man-

. tin- law oJ" the conimcror (\4M). David
('oiiincnus, tin- last rn.p. i..i, fell li) the sword*
Mahometans, and with him p< u.hed many
of his children and relations. Such a i
lion of coi. .ted an alarm ..

powers of ( . In an assembly,

Pope Pius II. hel.l at M;.:,n. . | I I. '.' , ':. i ...p.*.d

a general association among th.

West against the Turks. A crusade was put

by hi* orders, and he was on the point of setting

out in person at the head of this exped

when lie was suddenly cut olf by death at Ancona

I 1 f.i i. when in- hud appointed the general r. n-

'is of the > troops. 'J

added to the terror which the arms of Mahomet
had created among the nations of the West, dis-

: ted the plans of the crusaders, and was the
means of dissolving their confederacy. The
Turkish Umpire thus became firmly establish. . I m
Europe, and the Tartars of the Crimea put t
selves at the same time under the protection of the
Porte.

PERIOD VI.

FROM THE TAKING OF CONSTANTINOPLE BY Till 1 I I!KS TO THE PEACE
OF WEST I' HA LI A. A.D. 14531648.

TUB revolution which happened in the fifteenth

century entirely chunked the (ace of Kuropc, and

:ucrd a new system of politics. This re\olu-

tion was not achieved by any combinations of

nor by the operation of that phy-

which generally subverts thrones and

governin. UN. It was the result of those pn>-

gressJTe changes which had been produced in tin-

ideas and understandings of the nations of Hu-

nts and institutions of pre-

- ; a-, well as b\ the imeutiuii of paper

and printing, of gunpowder, and the mat .

' >-ans of these, the empire of let-

d arts was greatly extended, and various

salutary improvements made in the religion, raan-

i.'irope. The people by

degrees shook off the yoke of barbarism, supersti-

-m, which the revolution of the

iiitii century had imposed on them ; and from that

:r principal states of Europe began to acquire

the strength, and gradually to assume the form,

Several extraordinary events, however, con-
spired to accelerate these happy changes. The
belles lettrrs and the fine arts broke out with new

that

lite-

rature, as the true source and standard of good
taste. '1 'hey prepared the way for a vast number
of the (li.i-km lit. rati, who, to escape the barbarity
of the Turks, had fled into Italy, wh< re they
opened schools, and brought the study of <

,re into coiiMii .U-. Tin- most

celebrated of tin WCflfcj ^lanuel

linal Hessarion, Theodore Gasa,
1 rebi/ond, John Ai_r\rophilus, and De-
is Chalcondyles. Protected by the family of
the Mcdicis at Florence, they assisted in forming
those fine genius. , u Inch arose in Italy during the
titt.enth e.ntury, such as Leonardo Aretiuo, the

\neli> 1'olitian,
and many others. Academies, or free soci

Rome, Naples, Venice, Milan.
Ferrara and Florence, for the encouragement of
ancient literature.

:n Italy the study of the ancient arts paeeed
to the oth. : ' ir..|>e. They soon diffused

their intlii. me <. r .very department of literature
and science, \\hi.-h by degrees aumcd an aspect
totall 'mlastic y - h till

then had been in vogue in the pulpits and m
sities, lost its credit, and gave pla-
nned philosophy. Men learned to diw-rin

udal system, and sought out the
means of correcting them. The sources of disorder
and anarchy were gradually dried up, and gave

Pis.Mvrry of America.
80 Christoj>iifr Columbus.
Amerigo Vi-sjiutio.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

TVrcliimml the Catholic.
Cortes conquers Mfxit-o.
Mines of Potosi.

place to better organized governments. Painting,
sculpture, and the arts in general, cleared from
the Gothic rust which they had contracted during
the barbarous ages, and finished alter the models
of the ancients, shone forth with renewed lustre.
Navigation, under the direction of the compass,
reached a degree of perfection which attracted
universal attention ; and while the ancients merely
coasted along their own shores in the pursuit of
commerce or maritime exploits, we find the modern
Europeans extending their navigation over the
whole globe, and bringing both hemispheres under
their dominion.

America, unknown to the ancients, was disco-
vered during this period ; as well as the route to
India and the East, round the continent of Africa.
The notion of a fourth quarter of the world had
long been prevalent among the ancients. We all
recollect the Atlantides of Plato, which, according
to the assertion of that philosopher, was larger
than Asia and Africa ; and we know that JElian
the historian, who lived in the reign of Adrian,
affirmed in like manner the existence of a fourth
continent of immense extent. This opinion had
got so much into fashion, during the fourth and
fifth centuries of the Christian era, that Lactantius
and St. Augustine thought themselves bound in
duty to combat it in their writings ; inveighing
against the antipodes by reasons and arguments,
the frivolousness of which is now very generally
admitted; but, whatever were the notions which
the ancients might have entertained as to a fourth
quarter of the globe, it is very certain that they
knew it only from conjecture, and that their navi-
gation never extended so far.

The honour of this important discovery belongs
to modern navigators, more especially to Chris-
topher Columbus, a native of Genoa. From the
knowledge which this celebrated man had acquired
in the sciences of navigation, astronomy, and
geography, he was persuaded that there must be
another hemisphere lying to the westward, and
unknown to Europeans, but necessary to the equi-
librium of the globe. These conjectures he com-
municated to several of the courts of Europe, who
all regarded him as a visionary; and it was not till
after many solicitations, that Isabella, Queen of
Castile, granted him three vessels, with which he
eet sail in quest of the new continent, 3rd August,
1492. After a perilous navigation of some months,
he reached the Island Guanahani or Cat Island,
one of the Lucayos or Bahamas, to which he gave
the name of St. Salvador. This discovery was
followed soon after by that of the Islands of St.
Domingo and Cuba ; and in the second and third
voyages which that navigator undertook to Ame-
rica (1493-1498), he discovered the mainland or
continent of the New World ; especially the coast
of Paria, as far as the point of Araya, making part
of the province known at present by the name of
Cumana.

The track of the Genoese navigator was followed
by a Florentine merchant, named Amerigo Ve-
sputio. Under the conduct of a Spanish captain,
called Alfonso de Ojeda, he made several voyages
to the New World after the year 1497. Different
ni:i-its of the continent of South America \\en-
\Uited by him ; and in the maps of his <lisco\ cries
which he drew up, he usurped a glory which did
not belong to him, by applying his own name

to the new continent; which it has since re-
tained.

The Spaniards conquered the islands, and a
great part of the continent of America ; extending
their victories along with their discoveries. Stimu-
lated by the thirst of gold, which the New World
offered to them in abundance, they committed
crimes and barbarities which make humanity
shudder. Millions of the unfortunate natives were
either massacred or buried in the sea, in spite of
the efforts which the Spanish bishop, Barthelemi
de Las Casas, vainly made to arrest the fury of his
countrymen. 1 In the year after the first discovery
of Columbus, Ferdinand the Catholic, King of
Spain, obtained a bull from Pope Alexander VI.,
by which that pontiff made him a gift of all the
countries discovered, or to be discovered, towards
the west and the south ; drawing an imaginary line
from one pole to the other, at the distance of a
hundred leagues westward of Cape Verd and the
Azores. This decision having given offence to the
King of Portugal, who deemed it prejudicial to his
discoveries in the East, an accommodation was
contrived between the two courts, in virtue of
which the same Pope, by another bull, removed
the line in question further west, to the distance
of four hundred and seventy leagues ; so that all
the countries lying to the westward of this line
should belong to the King of Spain, while those
which might be discovered to the eastward, should
fall to the possession of the King of Portugal. 8 It
was on this pretended title that the Spaniards
founded their right to demand the submission of
the American nations to the Spanish crown. Their
principal conquests in the New World commence
from the reign of the Emperor Charles V. It was in
his name that Ferdinand Cortes, with a mere hand-
ful of troops, overthrew the vast Empire of Mexico
(1521) ; the last emperors of which, Montezuma
and Guatimozin, were slain, and a prodigious
number of the Mexicans put to the sword. The
conqueror of Peru was Francis Pizarro (1533).
He entered the country, at the head of 300 men,
at the very time when Atabalipa was commencing
his reign as Inca, or sovereign, of Peru. That
prince was slain, and the whole of Peru subdued
by the Spaniards.

[The Spaniards founded various colonies and
establishments in that part of America which they
had subjected to their dominion. The character
of these colonies differed from that of the establish-
ments which the Portuguese had founded in India,
and the Dutch, the English, and the French, in
different parts of the world. As the Spaniards
were by no means a commercial nation, the pre-
cious metals alone were the object of their cupidity.
They applied themselves, in consequence, to the
working of mines ; they imported negroes to labour
in them, and made slaves of the natives. In pro-
cess of time, when the number of Europeans had
increased in these countries, and the precious
metals became less abundant, the Spanish colonists
were obliged to employ themselves in agriculture,
and in raising what is commonly called colonial
produce. What we have now said, accounts for
the limitations and restrictions which were imposed
on the trade of these colonies by the Spanish go-
vernment ; they wished to reserve to themselves
exclusively the profits of the mines. Commerce,
which at first had been confined to the single en-

Hnuil dlwotnvd.
" '"

PERIOD VI. A .!>. 14M 14H.

trepol of Seville, fell Into the hands of a mall
number of merchant*, to the entire exclusion of
foreigner*. At for the Spanish posMaaions in
America, they were planted with Episcopal and
metropolitan MM, missions, convents, and univer-
sities. Mi.- In.|uiaiUon was also Introduced ; l>ut
the hierarchy which was founded there, instead of
augmenting the power of the pope*, remained in a
state of complete dependence upon the sovc-

"ft

iscovery of Brazil belongs to the Portu-
guese. Alvares Cabral, the commander of tlu-ir

.\hil. i.u hi route to India, was driven, by
contrary winds, on the coast of Brazil (1300), and
took possession of the country in the name of the

of Portugal. This colony, in the course
f tune, became highly important, from the rich
mines of diamonds and gold which were discovered

t!., !,-.

The Spaniards and Portuguese were at first the
only masters of America ; but in a short (inn-,
establishments were formed there by some of the
othiT maritime nations of Europe. The first
English colony was that of Virginia, which was
conducted to North America by Sir Walter Ra-
leigh (1584-1016), but it did not gain a perma-
nent settlement till the reign of James I. This
was afterwards followed by seteral other colonies
\\ lui-h had settled in that part of the American
continent, on account of the persecution carried
on by the Stuart kings against the nonconformists.
The tint settlements of the English in the Antilles
were those which they formed in the islands of
Barbadoes and St. Christopher (1629); to these
they added the island of Jamaica, which they took
from the Spaniards (1655). The date of the French
establishments in Canada is as old as the reigns
of Francis I. and Henry IV., in the years 1534
and 1004. The city of Quebec was founded in
1608. It was at a later period when the French
established themselves in the Antilles. The ori/in
of their colonies in Martinique and Guadeloupe is
generally tttemd to the year 1635. They gained
a footing in St. Domingo as early as 1630, but the
flourishing state of that remarkable colony did not
begin, properly speaking, till 1722. All the esta-
blishments which the English and French had
formed in America were purely agricultural ; and
in this respect they were distinguished from the
Spanish colonies.

The discovery of a passage by sea to the East
Indies round Africa belongs also to the Portu-
guese. It forms one of those great events which
often take their first impulse from very slender
causes. John I., surnamcd the Bastard, the new
founder of the kingdom of Portugal, being desirous
of affording to his sons an opportunity of signnli/.ini;
themselves, and earning the honour of knighthood,
planned an expedition against the Moors in Africa ;
he equipped a fleet, with which he landed in the
neighbourhood of Ceuta (1415), of which he soon
made himself master, and created his sons knights
in the grand mosque of that nt\ . After this event,
the Portuguese began to hare a taste for naviga-
tion and maritime discoveries. In this they were
encouraged by the Infant Don Henry, Duke ,,f
Viseau, and one of the sons of King John, who
had particularly distinguished himself in the expe-
dition of which we have just spoken. That prince,
who was well (killed in mathematics and the art

nation, established his residence at Cape St.
Vincent, on the western extremity of Algarva.
There he ordered vesassi to be coaetmcted at his
own expense, and sent them to reconnoitre the
coasts of Africa. From that time the Portuguese
discovered, in succession, the islands of Madeira

i, the Canaries (1424), the Azores (It
and Cape Verd (I4O). There t!,.-> founded
colonies; and, advancing by degrees along the
southern shores of Africa, they extended their na-
vigation as far as the coasts of Guinea and N igritia.
The islands which they had newly discovered,
were confirmed to the kings of Portugal by several
of the Popes. The Canaries, however, having
been claimed by the Spaniards, a treaty was nego-
ciated between the two kingdoms, in virtue of
which these islands were abandoned to Spain
(Mfl).

It was under the reign of John II. that the Por-
tuguese extended their navigation as tar a* the
most southerly point of Africa. Barthelemi Diaz,
their admiral, was the first who doubled the Cape,
which he called the Stormy Cape ; a name which
King John changed into that of Good Hope. At
length, after twelve years of toils, Vasco di Gama,
another Portuguese admiral, hod the glory of car-
r\invr his national flag as far as India. He landi-d
at the Port of Calicut (14UH), on the Malabar
coast, in the third year of the reign of Emmanuel.

d other celebrated Portuguese navigators,
such as Almeida, Albuquerque, Acunga, Silveira,
and de Castro, following the track of Vasco di
Gama, laid the foundation of the power of the
Portuguese in India. Francis Almeida defeated
the fleet of the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt, i.
junction with that of the kings of India (15O9).
A Ifonzo Albuquerque conquered Goa (1511), and
made it the capital of all the Portuguese settle-
ments in that port of the world. About the same
time, the Portuguese established themselves in the
Molucca Islands, with some opposition on the part
of the Spaniards. Anthony Silveira sign:
himself by bio able defence of Diu (15HH).
repulsed the Turks, and ruined the fleet which
Soliman the Great had sent to the niege of that
place (1547). The Kim; of Cambay having re-
sumed the siege, he experienced likewise a total
defeat from John de Castro, who then conquered
the whole kingdom of Diu.

The Portuguese found powerful kingdoms in
India, and nations rich and civilized. There, na-
ture and the industry of the natives, produced or
fabricated thone articles of commerce and mer-
chandize which have since become an ot>j
luxury to Europeans; at least until the activity <>f
the Venetians had furnished the inhabitants of this
part of the world with them in such abundance, as
to make them be regarded as articles of absolute
necessity. This circumstance was the reason why
the Portuguese never formed any other than mer-
cantile establishments in India, which they erected
on the coasts, without extending them into the
interior. The working of the mines, and the cares
of agriculture, were abandoned entirely to the
native*.

This era produced a total change in the com-
merce of the Eat. Formerly the Venetians were
the people that carried on the principal traffic to
India. The Jewish or Mahometan merchants pur-
chased, at Goa, Calicut, and Cochin, those spiceries

Tr.ule with tl.

S2 Wealth of the Yeuetians.
Lettor carriers.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Leo X., Pope

Sale of Indulgences.

Luther und Zuiuglc.

and other productions of the East, which they
imported into Syria by the Persian gulf, und into
l^\pt by the Red Sea. They were then conveyed
by a laborious and expensive land-carriage, either
10 the port of Alexandria, or that of Bairout in
Syria. Thither the Venetians repaired in quest of
the luxuries of India; they Jixeii their price, and
distributed them over all Europe. This commerce
proved a source of vast wealth to these republi-
cans ; it furnished them with the means of main-
taining a formidable marine, and of very often
dictating the law to the other European powers ;
but after the discovery of the new passage round
the Cape, and the conquests of the Portuguese in
India, the Venetians saw themselves compelled to
abandon a traffic in which they could not compete
with the Portuguese. This was a terrible blow to
that republic, and the principal cause of its dovvn-
fal. The Portuguese, however, did not profit by
this exclusive commerce as they might have done.
They did not, like other nations, constitute com-
panies, with exclusive commercial privileges ; they
carried it on by means of fleets, which the govern-
ment regularly despatched at fixed periods. In
this manner, the commodities of the East were
imported to Lisbon ; but the indolence of the
native merchants left to other nations the care of
distributing them through the markets of Europe.
The Dutch were the people that profited most by
this branch of industry ; they cultivated it with so
much success, and under such favourable circum-
stances, that they at length succeeded in excluding
the Portuguese themselves from this lucrative
traffic, by dispossessing them of their colonies in
the East.

If the events which we have now briefly de-
tailed proved fatal to the Venetians, and afflicting
to humanity, by the wars and misfortunes which
they occasioned, it is nevertheless certain, that
commerce and navigation gained prodigiously by
these new discoveries. The Portuguese, after hav-
ing maintained for some time the exclusive posses-
sion of the navigation and trade of the East, found
afterwards powerful competitors in the Spaniards,
the Dutch, English, French, and Danes, who all
established mercantile connexions both in India and
America. 8 Hence innumerable sources of wealth
were opened up to the industry of the Europeans ;
and their commerce, formerly limited to the Me-
diterranean, the Baltic, and the Northern Seas,
and confined to a few cities in Italy, Flanders, and
Germany, was now, by means of their colonies in
Africa, and the East and West Indies, extended to
all parts of the globe. 4 The intercourse of the
Portuguese with China was as early as the year
1517, and with Japan it began in 1542. Ferdinand
Magellan undertook the first voyage round the
world (1 '>!)) and his example found afterwards a
number of imitators.* By decrees the maritime
power of Europe assumed u formidable aspect;
arU and manufactures were multiplied ; the states,
formerly poor, became rich and nourishing. King-
doms at length found, in their commerce, resources
for augmenting their strength and their influence,
and carrying into execution their projects of ag-
grandisement and conquest.

[Among the causes of this revolution, which
took place in commerce, it is necessary to take into
account a discover;, apparently of trivial import-
ance, but which exercised a most extraordinary in-

fluence over the civilization of Europe, viz., that of
horse-posts for the conveyance of letters. Before
the sixteenth century, the communications between
distant countries were few and difficult. Messen-
gers, travelling on short journeys, on foot or on
horseback, were their only couriers. About the
beginning of the seventeenth century, and during
the reign of Maximilian I., an Italian gentleman,
of the name, of Francis de la Tour et Taxis, esta-
blished the first posts in the Low Countries. Their
object at first was merely for the conveyance of
letters, for which he provided regular relays. By
and by, for the sake of despatch, the use of horses
was introduced, placed at certain distances. From
the Low Countries this system found its way into
Germany, where it was conferred on the family of
Taxis as a regalian right; and from thence it spread
over every civilized country in the world.]

A revolution, not less important, is that which
took place in religion about the beginning of the
sixteenth century. The abuses which disgraced
the court of Rome, the excess of the power, and
the depravity of the morals of the clergy, had ex-
cited a very general discontent. A reformation
had for a long time been deemed necessary, but
there was a difference of opinion as to the method
of effecting it. The common notion was, that this
task could be legally accomplished only by Ge-
neral Councils, convoked under the authority of
the popes. It was easy, however, to perceive the
iuefficacy of any remedy left at the disposal of
those very persons from whom the evil proceeded ;
and the unsuccessful results of the Councils of
Constance and Basle had taught the people, that,
in order to obtain redress for the abuses of which
they complained, it was necessary to have recourse
to some other scheme than that of general coun-
cils. This scheme was attempted by the Re-
formers of the sixteenth century, who were per-
suaded, that, in order to restrain the exorbitant
power of the clergy, they ought to reject the
infallibility of the pope, as well as that of general
councils ; admitting no other authority in ecclesi-
astical matters, than that, of the sacred Scriptures,
interpreted by the lights of reason and sound
criticism.

The immediate and incidental cause of this
change in religion was the enormous abuse of in-
dulgences. Pope Leo X., who was of the t'amih
of the Medicis, and well known for his extenshe
patronage of literature and the tine arts, having
exhausted the treasury of the church by his luxury
and his munificence, had recourse to the expedient
of indulgences, which several of his predecessors
had already adopted as a means of recruiting their
finances. The ostensible reason was, the liasilicon
of St. Peter's at Rome, the completion of which
was equally interesting to the whole of Christen-
dom. Offices for the sale of indulgences were es-
tablished in all the different states of I'.urope. The
purchasers of these indulgences obtained absolution
of their sins, and exemption from the pains of
purgatory after death. The excesses committed
by the emissaries who had the charge of those in-
dulgences, and the scandalous means which tiny
practised to extort money, brought on the schism to
which we are about to advert.

Two theologians, Martin Luther and I hie
/uillgle, opposed these indulgences, and in\ ci^lied
;i-.iinst them in their sermons and their writings;

The

OD M. \.!>. 1448164*.

..f '.:..

the former at Wlttemberg, in S <>U*r,

flnt at Einsiedeln, and afterward* at /ur.
Switseriand. Leo X. at flnt held these adversa-
ries in cont.-mpt. lie did not attempt to allajr
the storm, until the mind* of mm, cxaspcnr
the heat of dispute, were no I
listen to the voice of calmneM and tonriliation.
mean* which he subsequent!) trii-il t.> indue*
Luther t<> retruct having proved at
launched a thundering Bull against him (1520),
which, so far from abating the courage of the Re-
former, tended, on the contrary, to embolden him
-till publicly burnt the pope's hull,

together with the canon law, at Wittembcrg (10th
December), in presence of a vast concourse of doc-
tors and student* from different nation*, whom he
had assembled for the purpose. From that moment
Luther and 7uint;le nr\er erased to preach against
the abuses of the indulgences. They completely
umlermiued this system of abomination, and even
attacked various other dogmas and institutions of
the Romish church, such as monastic TOWS, the
celibacy of the priests, the supremacy of the pope,
and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. These two
brated men, who agreed in the greater part of their
opinions, soon attracted a number of followers.
The people, long ago prepared to shake off a yoke
which had been so oppressive, applauded the seal
of the Reformers; and the new opinions, promptly
and easily diffused by means of the press, \\--r--
received with enthusiasm throughout a great part
of Europe.

John Calvin, another Reformer, trod nearly in
the footsteps of Zuingle. He was a native of
Novon in ricardy, and began to distinguish him-
self at Paris in 1532. Being compelled to leave
that city on account of his opinions, he withdrew
to Switzerland (153H) ; tin-lire he passed to Stras-
bourg, whete he was nominated to the office of
French preacher. His erudition and his pulpit-
talents gained him disciples, and gave the name of
Calvinists to those who had at first been called
Hans. The Lotnerans, as well as the
.-liana orC'ahinit. in (iermam, were compre-
hended under the common appellation of Protest-
ants, on account of the Protrtt \\hich they took
against the decrees of the Diet of Spire (1529),
which forbade them to make any innovations in
religion, or to abolish the mats, until the meeting
of a general counril. The name of Lutherans was
1 more particularly to those who adhered to
the Confe-Mon of Augsburg, that is, the Confession
of Faith, which they presented to the Emperor
Charles V., at the famous Diet of Augsburg, held
in 1530.

In this manner a great part of Europe revolted
from the pope and the Romish church, and em-
braced either the doctrines of Luther, or those of
le and Calvin. The half of <;.-rm:nn. Den-
mark, Norway, Sweden, Prussia, and l.i\..:.n,
adopted the Confession of Augsburg ; while Eng-
land, Scotland, the Tinted Provinces, ami ti
principal part of Switzerland, declared then.
in favour of the opinions of Zuingle and Cahin.
ew doctrines made likewise great progress in
France, Hungary, Transylvania, Bohemia, Silesia,
and Poland.

This revolution did not contulse merely the
church; it influenced the politics, and changed
the form of government, in manj of the states of

Europe. The same men who belfc

authorUed to correct abates and imperfections in
religion, undertook to reform political abuses with
the same freedom. New states sprang up; and
took advantage of these commotions to
augment their own power and authority. Const i-
themselves heads of the church and of the
religion of their country, they shook off the fetters
of priestly influence ; while the clergy ceased to form
a counteracting or controlling power in the state.
The freedom of opinion whieh characterised the
Protestant faith awoke the human mind from its
intellectual lethargy, infused new energy it/
and thus contributed to the progress of civilization
and science in Europe. Even the systems of pub-
lic instruction underwent a considerable change.
Tin- schools were reformed, and rendered more
perfect. A multitude of new seminaries of edu-
cation, academies, and universities, were founded
in all the Protestant states. This revolution, how-
ever, was not accomplished without great and
various calamities. A hierarchy, such as that of
the Church of Rome, supported by all that was
dignified and venerable, could not be attacked, or
shaken to its foundation, without involving Europe
in the convulsion. Hence we find that wars and
factions arose in Germany, France, the Low Coun-
tries, Switzerland, Hungary, and Poland. The
march of reformation was every where stained with
blood.

[This, however, was not always shed on account
of religion, which was made the prctdkt for the
greater part of the wan that raged for two hundred
years. All the passions of the human breast the
ambition of the great and the turbulent spirits of
the disaffected assumed that mask. If the Re-
formation contributed ultimately to the progress of
learning in the Protestant states, it arrested these
improvements in the Catholic countries, and gave
birth to a headlong fanaticism which shut men's
eyes to the truth. Even in the Protestant states,
it occupied the attention with the study of a theo-
logy full of scholastic subtleties, instead of directing
the mind to the pursuit of more useful sciences.
If this liberty of opinion, and the absence of all
authority in matters of faith, gave new energy to
human thought, it also led men into errors of which
the preceding ages had seen no example. The re-
publicanism which desolated France in the sixteenth
century, the rebellions which distracted England
in the seventeenth, the pestilent doctrines that
were broached in the eighteenth, and the revolu-
tionary spirit which overturned all Europe in the
nineteenth, may justly be regarded as the conse-
quences of the Reformation, whose evils have, in a
great measure, counterbalanced its advantages.*]

The means that were employed to bring the
quarrels of the church to an amicable conclusion,
tended rather to exasperate than allay the mischief;
and if the conferences among the clergy of dit!
persuasions failed, it was not to be expected that
a better agreement, or a re-union of parties, could
be founded on the basis of a General Council.
Protestants demanded an uncontrolled lihertt for
the council. They wished it to be assembled b\
order of the Emperor, in one of the cities of the
Empire; and that their div ines should have a voice
and a seat in its meetings. The pope was to sub-

Council of Trent.
Maurice of Saxony.
Ignatius I-oyola.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Jesuit missions.
Fi'cid.-il system.
Halaiice of power.

mit to its authority, and all matters should there
be decided according to the rule of the sacred
Scriptures. These terms were by r>o means agree-
able to the Catholics. Paul III. summoned a
council at Mantua (1557), and another at Yicenza
( l.'i.'jS) ;"but both of these convocations were inef-
fectual, as was also the proposed reform in. the
court of Rome, made by the same pontiff. It was
resolved at last, at the instance of the Catholic
princes (1542), to convoke the Council of Trent,
though the opening of it was deferred till 1545.

This famous council met with two interruptions;
the first took place in 1547, when the pope, who
had become alarmed at the success of the imperial
arms, transferred the council to Bologna, on pre-
tence that an epidemic distemper had broken out
at Trent. All the prelates of the emperor's party
remained at Trent, in obedience to the command
of their master, who protested loudly against the
assembly at Bologna, which, nevertheless, held its
ninth and tenth sessions at that city. This latter
council having been dissolved by Paul III. (1548),
its affairs continued in a languid state for the next
two years, when Pope Julius III., the successor of
Paul, revived it, and transferred it once more to
Trent (1551). Another interruption took place at
the time when Maurice, Elector of Saxony, had
made himself master of Augsburg, and was march-
ing against the emperor towards Inspruck. It was
then agreed to prorogue the council, now in its
sixteenth session, for two years ; and to assemble
again at the end of that period, if peace should
happen in the mean time to be established. At
length, in 1560, Pius IV. summoned the council,
for the third and last time, to meet at Trent. The
session, however, did not commence till 1552, and
next year its sittings were finally terminated.

In this council, matters were not treated in the
same way as they had been at Constance and Basle,
where each nation deliberated separately, and then
gave their suffrage in common, so that the general
decision was taken according to the votes of the
different nations. This form of deliberation was
not at all palatable to the court of Rome, who, in
order to gain a preponderance in the assembly,
thought proper to decide by a majority of the votes
of every individual member of the council. The
Protestant princes rejected entirely the authority
of this council ; which, far from terminating the
dispute, made the schism wider than ever. Its
decisions were even condemned by several of the
Catholic sovereigns. In France, more especially,
it was never formally published, and they ex-
1 y excluded such of its acts of discipline as they
eonmwrad contrary to the laws of the kingdom, to
the authority of the sovereign, and the maxims of
the Gallican church.

It is, nevertheless, certain that this council was
instrumental in restoring the tottering power of
the Roman pontiffs ; which received at the same
time a new support by the institution of the Order
of the Jesuits. The founder of this order was
Ignatius Loyola, who was born at the castle of
Loyola in Guipuscoa. He mode the declaration
of his vows in the church of Montmartre, at Paris
(1534), and obtained from Paul III. the confirma-
tion of his new society. This Order was bound,
by a particular vow of obedience, more intimately
to the court of Rome, and became one of the main
instruments of its enormous power. From Spain

the society was speedily propagated in all the
other Catholic states ; they tilled cities and courts
with their emissaries ; undertook missions to
China, Japan, and the Indies ; and, under the spe-
cial protection of the see of Rome, they soon sur-
passed in credit and wealth every other religious
order.

In the midst of these changes which took place
ill civil and ecclesiastical matters, we find a new
system arising in the political government of
Europe; the consequence of those new ties and
relations which had been established amongst the
different powers since the close of the fifteenth
century. Prior to this date, most of the European
states were feeble, because insulated and detached.
Occupied with their own particular interests and
quarrels, the nations were little acquainted with
each other, and seldom had any influence on their
mutual destinies. The faults and imperfections
inherent in the feudal system had pervaded all
Europe, and crippled the power and energies of
government. The sovereigns, continually at war
with their factious and powerful vassals, could
neither form plans of foreign conquest, nor carry
them into execution ; and their military operations
were in general without unity or effect. [Hence
it happened, that in the middle ages, changes were
produced in the different states, which so little
alarmed their neighbours, that it may be said they
were scarcely conscious of their existence. Such
were the conquests of the English in France, which
might certainly have compromised the independ-
ence of Europe.]

A combination of causes and circumstances,
both physical and moral, produced a revolution in
the manners and governments of most of the Con-
tinental states. The disorders of feudal anarchy
gradually disappeared ; constitutions better organ-
ised were introduced ; the temporary levies of
vassals were succeeded by regular and permanent
armies ; which contributed to humble the exorbitant
power of the nobles and feudal barons. The con-
sequence was, that states formerly weak and ex-
hausted acquired strength ; while their sovereigns,
freed from the turbulence and intimidation of their
vassals, began to extend their political views, and
to form projects of aggrandisement and conquest.

From this period the reciprocal influence of the
European States on each other began to be mani-
fest. Those who were afraid for their independ-
ence would naturally conceive the idea of a
balance of power capable of protecting them against
the inroads of ambitious and warlike princes.
Hence those frequent embassies and uegociations ;
those treaties of alliance, subsidies, and guarantees ;
those wars carried on by a general combination of
powers, who deemed themselves obliged to bear a
part in the common cause ; and hence too those
projects for establishing checks and barriers on
each other, which occupied the different courts of
Europe.

[The system of equilibrium, or the balance of
power, originated in Italy. That peninsula, sepa-
rated from the rest of the continent by the sea and
the Alps, had outstripped the other countries in
the career of civilization. There a multitude of
independent states had been formed, unequal in
point of power and extent ; but none of them had
sufficient strength to resist the united power of the
rest, or usurp dominion over them ; while at the

II. > (

PKUIOD VI. A.I). ll.Vi K.IV

:,- <!,!,. -.

same time, none of then were stiff

-.'I- in pointof weakness, a* not to beof MMBO
weight in the scale. Hence that rivalry and jea-
lousy among them, wln.-h was incessantly watch-
ing over the piogiBas of their neighbours ; and
f wan and confederaeka,

wboae object was to maintain some decree of
equality aiming thorn; or at leant a r<
portion, which iiiiuhl inspire the weaker with
courage and confidence. The pope*, who were
. in these transaction*, employed
all thrir jMilir\ to prevent any foreign power from
interfering, or entabl : in Italy. The

doctrine of political equilibrium paused the Alps
about tin- end of thf fifteenth centurv. The
I (HOC of Austria, which had suddenly risen to a
hii;h jiit.-h of grandeur, vva* the Hrt against which
its effort* were, directed.]

Tliis House, which derived its origin from
I'll of Haphurg, who was elected Emperor
of Germany towards the end of the thirteentb cen-
tury, owed its greatness and ele\:itiu r!u.-tl\ to
t lie Imperial dignity, and the different marriage-
allianceii which tins same dignity procured it.
Maximilian of Austria, son of the emperor
Frederic III., married Mary of Burgundy (1477),
daughter and heiress of Charles the Rash, last
Puke of Burgundy. This alliance secured to
Austria the whole of the Low Countries, in-
cluding Frmche-Comte, Flanders and Artoio.
Philip the Fair, the son of this marriage, espoused
the Infanta of Spain, daughter of Ferdinand and
Isabella of Castille. They had two sons, Charles
and Ferdinand, the former of whom, known in his-
tory by the name of Charles V., inherited the Low
( 'outlines in right of his father Philip (1.506). On
the death of Ferdinand, his maternal grandfather
(1516), he became heir to the whole Spanish suc-
cession, which comprehended the kingdoms of
. Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, together with
Spanish America. To these vast possessions were
added his patrimonial dominions in Austria, which
were transmitted to him by his paternal grand-
father the Emperor Maximilian I. About the
same time (151!)), the Imperial dignity was con-
ferred on this prince by the electors ; so that
Europe had not seen, since the time of Charle-
magne, a monarchy so powerful as that of

s V.

This emperor concluded a treaty with his bro-
ther Ferdinand, by which he ceded to him all his
hereditary possessions in Germany. The two
brothers thus became the founders of the two prin-
cipal branches of the House of Austria, viz. that of
Spain, which began with Charles V. (called
Charles I. of Spain), and ended with Charles II.
(1700) ; and that of Germany, of which Ferdinand
I. was the ancestor, and which became extinct
in the male line in the Emperor Charles \ I.
( 1740). These two br . ly allied to each

I her, acted in concert for the advancement of their
'cal interests; moreover they gained each
their own separate advantages by the marriage
\ions which they formed. Ferdinand I. (
th.-derman line, married Anne (l.V.M), Mister of
Louis King of Hungary and Bohemia, who having
been slain by the Turks at the battle of Mohacs
so two kingdom : rdi-

nandofthe House of Austria. Finally, the mar-
riage which Charles V. contracted with* the Infant

Isabella, daughter of Emmanuel, King of Portugal,
procured I'hilip II. of Spain, the sou of that mar-
riage, the whole Portuguese monarchy, to which
ha succeeded on the death ..f Henrj, railed the
Cardinal ( I vast an aggrmndUeni

power alarmed the sovereigns of Europe, who be-
gan to sunpert that thi- Austrian 1'rinrm, of the
Spanish and (iennan line, aimed at the universal
monarchy. Tin- un hounded am' haries

V., and his son Philip II., as well as that of
diiund II., grandson of Ferdinand I., tended to
roiiKrm tin's,- suspicions, and all felt the necessity
of uniting to oppose a barrier to this overwhelming
power. For a long time the whole p<.l'
Kuropo, its wars and alliances, had no other object
than to humble the ambition of one nation, whose
preponderance seemed to threaten the liberty and
independence of the rest.

[The system of political equilibrium, which from
this period became the leading object of every
European cabinet, until it was undermined by
unjust and arbitrary interferences, and threatened
to bury the independence of Europe in its ruins,
did not aim at maintaining among the .In-
states an equality of power or territorial possession.
This would have been chimerical. The object of
this system was to maintain a perfect equality of
rights, in virtue of which the weaker might enjoy
in security all that they held by a just claim. It
was purely a defensive and preservative system ;
nor did it affect to put an end to all wan ; it was
directed solely against the ambition and usurpa-
tion of conquerors. Its fundamental principle
was to prevent any one state from acquiring suffi-
cient power to resist the united efforts of the others.]

France was the leading power that undertook
the task of regulating the balance against the
House of Austria. Francis I. and Henry II. used
every effort to excite combinations against Charles
V . Francis was the first sovereign in Europe
that entered into treaties of alliance with the Turks
against Austria ; and in this way the Porte was,
to a certain extent, amalgamated with the political
system of Europe. So long as their object waa to
subvert the feudal aristocracy, and the Protestant
religion in France, Francis and Henry were
strenuous defenders of the Germanic system, and
extended their protection to the sovereigns of the
Protestant states of the empire, under the per-
suasion that all Europe would l>cnd to the Austrian
yoke, if the emperors of that house should su>
in rendering their power absolute and hereditary
in the Empire. Henry IV., Louis XIII., and
the Cardinals Richelieu and Masarin, adopted
the same line of policy.* They joined in league
with the Protestant Princes, and armed by turns
the greater part of Europe against Austria, and
the F.uiperor Ferdinand II., whose ambitious
designs threatened to subvert the constitution of the
Umpire. This was the grand motive for the
famous thirty yean' war, which was put an end to
!> the treaties of Westphalia (I04M), and of the
Pyrenees (in.MI). France succeeded, not how-
ever without prodigiom efforts, in supporting the
balance against Austria ; while the federative
of the Empir^, consolidated by the former
<>t these treaties, and guaranteed by France and
Sweden, became a sort of artificial barrier, for
preserving the equilibrium and the general tran-
quillity of Europe.

Anarchy of Germany.
86 The 'Public lV;i. ...''

Aulic Council iustitutoil.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

War of Smalcaldc.
Union of Protestants.
The Catholic Lr:ii;ui'.

It was during this period that almost every
kingdom in Europe changed their condition, and
assumed by degrees, the form which they have still
retained. The German Empire continued to ex-
perience those calamities to which every govern-
ment is exposed, when its internal springs have
lost their vigour and activity. Private wars and
feuds, which the laws authorized, were then re-
garded as the chief bulwark of the national liberty ;
the noblesse and the petty states in general,
knew no other justice than what the sword dis-
pensed. Oppression, rapine and violence, were
become universal ; commerce languished ; and the
different provinces of the empire presented one
melancholy scene of ruin and desolation. The
expedients that were tried to remedy these dis-
orders, the truces, the treaties (called the Peace of
God), and the different confederacies of the Im-
perial states, served only to palliate, but not to
cure the evil. The efforts which some of the
Emperors made to establish the public tranquillity
on some solid basis, proved equally abortive.

It was not until near the end of the fifteenth
century that the states of the Empire, impressed
with juster notions of government and civil subor-
dination, consented to the total and entire aboli-
tion of feuds and intestine wars. This was accom-
plished under the reign of Maximilian I., by
the Perpetual Public Peace, drawn up at the Diet
of Worms in 1495. All violent means of redress
among the members of the Germanic Body were
rigorously interdicted ; and all who had any com-
plaint to make against each other, were enjoined
to apply to the regular courts of justice. This
ordinance of the public peace, which was after-
wards renewed and enlarged in several diets, has
been regarded, since that time, as one of the prin-
cipal and fundamental laws of the Empire.

The establishment of the public peace rendered
a reformation necessary in the administration
of justice, which had long been in a languid and
disordered state. For this purpose, the Imperial
Chamber, which sat at first at Spire, and was
afterwards transferred to Wetzlar, was instituted at
the Diet of Worms (1495). Its object was to judge
of any differences that might arise among the im-
mediate members of the Germanic body ; as also
to receive any appeals that might be referred to
them from the subordinate tribunals. It was com-
posed of a chief or head, called the Judge of the
Chamber, and of a certain number of assessors,
chosen from among the electors and independent
nobility. The institution of the Aulic Council,
another sovereign court of the Empire, followed
soon after that of the Imperial Chamber. Its
origin is generally referred to the Diet of Cologne
(1512). Of the same date also is the plan which
they adopted of dividing the Empire into ten
Circles, as a proper expedient for maintaining the
public peace, and facilitating the execution of the
sentences of the two Imperial Courts. Over each
of these circles were placed conveners, directors,
and colonels, whose duty it was to superintend
and command the troops of their respective dis-
trict*.

Tin- custom of imperial capitulations was intro-
duced at the time of the accession of Charles V.
to the imperial throne (151!)). The electors,
apprehensive of the formidable power of that
prince, thought proper to limit it by a capitulation,

which they made him sign and solemnly swear
to observe. This compact between the new
emperor and the electors, renewed under every
subsequent reign, has been always considered as
the grand charter of the liberties of the Germanic
body.

The dissensions on the score of religion that
happened about the beginning of the sixteenth
century, gave rise to a long series of troubles and
civil wars, which proved of advantage to the
House of Austria, by the confirmation of their
power in the Empire. The first of these is known
by the name of the war of Smalcalde, of which
the following is a brief sketch. The Emperor
Charles V., in the first diet which he held at
Worms (1521), had issued an edict of proscription
against Luther and his adherents, ordaining that
they should be treated as enemies of the Empire,
and prosecuted to the utmost rigour of the law.
The execution of this edict was incessantly urged
by the emperor and the pope's legates, until the
whole Empire was in a state of combustion.
The Catholic princes, at the instigation of Cardinal
Campeggio, assembled at Ratisbon (1524), and
there adopted measures of extreme rigour, for
putting the edict into execution within their
respective states. The case was by no means the
same with the princes and states who adhered to
the reformation, or who gave it their protection.
To apply the conditions of the edict to them, it
would have been necessary to come to a civil
war, which the more prudent members of the
Germanic body sought to avoid. This religious
schism was still more aggravated at the Diet of
Augsburg, where the emperor issued a decree,
condemning the Confession of Faith which the
Protestant princes had presented to him. This
decree limited a time within which they were
commanded, in so far as regarded the articles in
dispute, to conform to the doctrines of the Catholic
Church. Thus urged to extremities, the Protes-
tant leaders determined to assemble at Smalcalde
before the end of this very year (1530), where
they laid the foundation of a Union, or defensive
alliance, which was afterwards renewed at different
times. John Frederic, Elector of Saxony, and
Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, declared themselves
chiefs of this union. In opposition to this confe-
deracy, the Catholic princes instituted the Holy
League; so called because its object was the
defence of the Catholic religion.

Everything seemed to announce a civil war,
when a new irruption of the Turks into Hungary
and Austria induced the Catholics to sign, at
Nuremberg (1530), a truce, or accommodation,
with the princes of the union ; in virtue of which,
a peace between the states of the two religions
was concluded, and approved by the emperor ; to
continue till a general council, or some new as-
sembly, should decide otherwise. This peace was
renewed in various subsequent assemblies. The
Protestant princes, however, still persisted in their
refusal to acknowledge the authority of councils
convoked by the popes ; and their confederacy
daily receiving new accessions, the emperor, after
having made peace with France, at Crepy (1544),
and concluded an armistice of five years with tin-
Turks, resolved to declare war against these schis-
matics, who, presuming on their union and their
amicable relations with foreign powers, thought

IM.HIOD M. \ n.

themselves capable of dictating mwa to the

MMW| Ml edict of proscription (1546) aceinet

I lector of Saxony and the l.andirrateof Hew*,

tin- two chiefs of the union ; and having entered

into a eerrvt allianr.- with Duke Maurice,

..IT branch of the fmmily of Saxony, and a

near rrlatinn uf th elector, he succeeded in tnum-

ferrinf the theatre of war from the Danube t<> tin-

I elector being defeated by the emperor,

in an :i. M..;I which took place at Mecklenburg

I into the hands of the romp
and the Landgrave of HI-MO met with the aame
late two month* after. The union of Smalcalde
was then dissolved, and the emperor, who now
aaw himself maater of Germany, mem bird a diet
at Augaburg in which he acted the part of a
dictator. A large detachment of hi* troops, billeted
mi t In- city, served aa his body guard, while the
reat of bia army was encamped in the neighbour-
hnixl. At thit dirt he conferred on Duke Maurice
tin- l.lectormle of Saxony, of which he had deprived
his prisoner, John Frederick. Tin- investiture
uf the new elector took place at Augiburg (1548) ;
and what deserves to be particularly remarked
in this dirt ia, that the emperor entered into a
acfaene for the entire ruin and extirpation of Pro-
testantism, by compelling the prince* and states
of the reformation t rejoin the Catholic Church,
l>\ means of a formula which he made them adopt,
known by the name of the Interim; and which, hy
ita preliminary arrangement, allowed them only
the IMC of the communion in both kinds, and tin-
marriage of their priests, until the whole matter
should be decided by a council.

Tin- victories of Charles V., which seemed to
have made him abaolute maater of the Empire,
were soon followed by reverses, which eclipsed all
the former glory of his reign. The Elector Muu-
rirr, though indebted to him for his new dignity,
thought he might take advantage of the distressed
condition to which that prince was reduced by
tin- low state of his finances, to make a new at-
tempt to limit his authority, and restore the Pro-
testant religion. With this view, having enlisted
some of the princes of the Kmuin- in his cause,
and concluded a secret treaty with Henry II. of
France, at Charabord, he marched with such
rapidity against the Emperor, that he nearly sur-
prised him at Inspruck, and obliged him to have
recourse to the mediation of his brother Ferdinand,
when a treaty was concluded with Maurice, which
was signed at Paaaau ( 1552). There the liberty
of the Protestant worship was sanctioned ; and it
waa agreed that a General Council should be
manned * draw up the articles of a solid and
permanent peace between the states of both
religions.

This dint, which waa long retarded by political
, did not assemble at Augsburg till the year
1555. There a definitive peace waa concluded
on the subject of religion, and it was ordained that
both Protestant and Catholic states should enjoy a
perfect liberty of worship ; and that no reunion
should ever be attempted by any other than ami-
cable means. The eculariiing of to* ecclesiastic-mi
revenues, which the Protestant princes had intro-
duced into their states, waa ratified ; bat there waa
one of the articles of the treaty which expressly
provided, that every prelate or churchman, who
renounced his ancient faith to embrace the Con-

feasion of Augsburg, should lose his benefice.
latter rUusr, known by the name of JtrWeWeeKpef
Reterrr, did not pass but with the moat determined
opposition.

'renew of more kind* than one eprang from
thia treaty of peace, the articles of which each
party interpreted to their own advantage. Henee
those stratagems which at length occasioned a
new war (1618) that of the Thirty Years. The
Protestant Princes and States, wishing to provide
for their own security, and to put an end to those
arbitrary measures, of which they thought they
had reaiMin to complain, assembled at Hrilbronn
(1504), and there laid the foundation of a new
tini' m, -which was confirmed in the assemblies held
at Halle, in Suabia, in the yean 160H and l'.l.
The chief promoter of thia union wa* Henry IV.
of France, who designed to use it as a check on
the ambition of tin- House of Austria; and as a
means for earning into execution tin- grand pro-
ject which he meditated with regard to the pacifi-
cation of Europe. He concluded an alliance with
tin- princes of the Union, and determined the
number of troops to be furnished by each of the
contracting panics. The Catholic princes and
States, afraid of being taken unawares, renewed
their League, which tln-y signed at Wurtzburg
(1609). The rich duchy of Julier*. which had
become vacant this same year, was contested by
several claimants ; and as Austria was equally de-
sirous of possessing it, this waa made the occasion
of raising powerful armies in France, Germany,
Italy, and the Low Countries. A considerable
number of troops had already taken the field
about the beginning of the year 1610, when the
unexpected death of Henry IV. disconcerted all
their measures. This changed the politics of the
French court, and also induced the princes of the
I moii to conclude a treaty with the League,
the articles of which were signed at Munich and
WUnatt (1610).

In this manner the resentment of both parties
was suspended for the moment ; but the cause
of their disunion still remained, which at length
(1618) kindled a war that extended from Bohemia
over all Germany, and involved, in course of time,
a great part of Kuropc. Tin- ln-tory <>f thia tedious
war, in which politics had aa great a share aa xeal
for religion, may be divided into four principal
periods, namely, the Palatine, the Danish, t til-
Swedish, and the French war. Frederick N .

r Palatine, and head of the Protestant
Union, having been raised to the throne by the
Bohemian States (1619), which had rebelled
against the Emperor Ferdinand II.. engaged la a
war with that prince ; but being deserted by hie
allies, and defeated at the battle of Prague (1620),
he was driven from Bohemia, and stripped of all
his dominions. The victorious anna uf Austria
soon extended tin ir conquests over a great part
of the Empire.

Christian IV., King of Denmark, who was in
alliance with most of the Protestant princes, next
undertook the defence of the federal system ; but
he was not more fortunate than the Elector Pala-
tine had been. Being defeated by Tilly, at the
famous battle of Lutaen ( 1638), he was compelled
to abandon the cause of his allies, and to sign a
separate peace with the Emperor at Lubeck
(1639). Gustavue Adolphus, King of Sweden,

< iiL-t.-i\ us Adolplius slain,
gg Swedish wars.

Peace of MunstT.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

State of Religion.

The Germanic sovereignties.

The Low Countries.

pursued the career of the Danish monarch. En-
couraged by France, he put himself at the head of
the Protestant princes, with the view of checking
the ambitious projects of Ferdinand II., who, by
means of his general, "\Yallenstein, whom he had
(rented Duke of Friedland, and invested in the
duchy of Mecklenburg, was dictating the law to
the whole Empire, and even threatening the king-
doms of the North. Nothing could be more
splendid than the campaigns of the Swedish hero
in Germany, and the victories which he obtained
at Leipsic (1631), and Lutzen (1632) ; but having
been slain in the hitter action, the affairs of the
Swedes began to decline ; and they were totally
ruined by the defeat which they sustained at
Nordlingen (1634). From that time the Elector
of Saxony, John George I., renounced the alliance
of Sweden ; and in yielding up Lusace to the
Emperor, he consented to a separate treaty of
peace, which was signed at Prague (1635).

It was at this period that France, which till
then had but feebly supported the Swedes and the
Protestant princes, thought it of advantage to her
interests to undertake their defence against Aus-
tria. Having declared war against Spain, she
marched numerous armies at once into Italy,
Spain, Germany, and the Low Countries. Ber-
nard, Prince of Saxe "Weimar, and the three
French generals, Guebriant, Tureune, and the
Duke d'Enghien, signalized themselves by their
exploits in the Imperial war ; while the disciples
of Gustavus Adolplius, Banier, Torstenston, and
"Wntngel, distinguished themselves at the head of
the Swedish armies, in the various campaigns
which took place, from the year 1635 till the con-
clusion of the peace. Never were negociations
more tedious or more complicated than those
which preceded the treaty of Westphalia. The
preliminaries were signed at Hamburgh in 1641 ;
but the opening of the Congress at Munster and
Osnaburg did not take place till 1644. The
CounU D'Avaux and Servien, the plenipotentiaries
of France, shared with Oxenstiern and Salvius,
the Swedish envoys, the principal glory of this
negociation, which was protracted on purpose, as
the belligerent powers were daily expecting to see
the events of the war change in their favour. It
v\ as not until the 24th of October, 1648, that the
peace was finally signed at Munster and Osnaburg.

This peace, which was renewed in every subse-
quent treaty, and made a fundamental law of the
Empire, fixed definitively the constitution of the
Germanic body. The territorial rights of the
states, known by the name of superiority the
j/rivilege of making alliances with each other, and
with foreign powers and advising with the Em-
peror at the DieU, in everything that concerned
the general administration of the Empire, were
confirmed to them in the most authentic manner,
and guaranteed by the consent of foreign powers.
As to ecclesiastical affaire, the Religious Peace of
1555 was confirmed anew, and extended to those
who were known by the name of the Reformed,
or CaMnists. The state of religion, the forms of
public worship, and the enjoyment of ecclesiastical
l-i -in fices, throughout the whole Empire, were re-
gulated according to the decree, called Uti possi-
dctis, of the 1st of January, 1624, which was termed
the normal, or decretory year. In this treaty,
France obtained, by way of indemnity, the sove-

reignty of the three bishoprics, Metz, Toul, and
Verdun, as well as that of Alsace. The compensa-
tion of the other parties interested was settled in a
great measure at the expense of the Church, and
by means of secularizing several bishoprics and
ecclesiastical benefices.

Besides Pomerania and the city of Wismar,
Sweden got the archbishopric of Bremen and the
bishopric of Verdun. To the House of Branden-
burg they assigned Upper Pomerania, the arch-
bishopric of Magdeburg, the bishoprics of Halber-
stadt, Minden, and Camin. The House of Meck-
lenburg received, in lieu of the city of "Wismar,
the bishoprics of Schwerin and Ratzeburg. The
princely abbey of Hirschfeld was adjudged to the
Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, and the alternity of
the bishopric of Osnaburg to the House of Bruns-
wick-Luneburg. An eighth Electorate was insti-
tuted in favour of the Elector Palatine, whom the
Emperor, during the war, had divested of his
dignity, which, with the Upper Palatinate, he had
conferred on the Duke of Bavaria.

The greater part of the provinces known by
the name of the Low Countries, made part of the
ancient kingdom of Lorraine, which had been
united to the German Empire since the tenth
century. The principal of these had been acquired
by the dukes of Burgundy, who made them over,
with other estates, to the House of Austria (1477).
Charles V. added the provinces of Friesland, Gro-
ningen, and Gueldres, to the states to which he
had succeeded in Burgundy. He united the se-
venteen provinces of the Low Countries into one
and the same government ; and ordered, by the
Pragmatic w'hich he published (1549), that they
should never henceforth be disunited. This same
prince, at the diet of Augsburg (1548), entered
into a iiegociation with the Germanic body, in
virtue of which he consented to put these provinces
under their protection ; under condition of their
observing the public peace, and paying into the
exchequer of the Empire double the contribution
of an electorate. He guaranteed to the princes
of the Low Countries a vote and a seat at the
Diet, as chiefs of the circle of Burgundy. These
provinces, moreover, were to be considered as free
and independent sovereignties, without being sub-
ject to the jurisdiction either of the Empire or of
the Imperial Chamber, who were not authorized
to proceed against them, except when they were
found in arrears with the payment of their con-
tingent, or when they infringed the law of the
public peace.

Charles V. having transferred these countries to
his son, Philip II. of Spain, they were then incor-
porated with the Spanish monarchy ; and it was
under the reign of this latter prince that those
troubles began which gave rise to the republic of
the United Provinces of the Low Countries. Tin'
true origin of these troubles is to be found in the
despotism of Philip II., and in his extravagant
and fanatical zeal for the Catholic religion. This
prince, the declared enemy of the rights and liber-
ties of the Belgic provinces, was mortified to wit-
ness the religious privileges which they enjo\ed ;
under favour of which the doctrines of the Re-
formation were daily making new progress. Be-
ing resolved to extirpate this new faith, together
with the political liberties which served to protect
it, he introduced the tribunal of the Inquisition

T)H> <Jur ue

Deftest Abe.

rr.UIOI) M. \.l>. 1453 1.

(1559), M the most mure and iiif.illii.lt- support of

deep 'It the consent ami authority of

1' .'. IV. he suppressed, fur this puqiose,

an right* which the

archl>ihi>ps and bishop* of the Empire ami <>f
Frai>< :.-isfl in t nitric* ; he

instil ti i < I three new buhoprics at I i:

: < ; and uinlrr tln-ir jurisdiction

!;.- put tliirteeu new bishoprics which hr had

!. Ill-tide* theme of Arras and Tournajr.

_ in this way augmented tin- IIIMII|>IT of hi*

; tin- nsM-mtily <>f tin- stati-General,

he suppressed a great multitude of abbey* and

monasteries, the revenues of wlm-li h- applied to

iowment of hi* newly made bishop

These innovations, added in tin- publication of
the decree* of the Council of Trent, accord i:
hia orders, excited a very general discontent. The
repeated remonstrance* on tin- purt of the State*,
having produced no effect on the inHexible mind
of Philip, the nobility took the resolution of form-
ing a confederacy at Breda, known by the name
of the Ctmtpromitr. The confederates drew up
a request, which was addressed to Margaret of
Austria, the natural daughter of Charles V., and
Regent of the Low Countries under the King of
Spain. Four hundred gentlemen, headed by
M.-nry .I.- Hieilerode', m descendant uf the uncit-ut
Counts of Holland, and Louis of Nassau, brother
to the Prince of Orange, repaired to Brussels
(1566), and there presented this request, which
may be considered as the commencement of the
troubles in the Low Countries. It was on this
account that the name of Gumx, or Beggars, was
given to the Confederate*, which has become so
famous in the history of these wars.

About this same time, the populace collected in
mobs in several towns of the Low Countries, and
fell upon the churches and monasteries ; and hav-
ing broken down their altars and images, they
introduced the exercise of the Protestant religion
liy force. The storm, however, wa calmed ; the
Catholic worship was re-established every w here ;
and the confederacy of the nobles dissolved, several
of whom, distrustful of this apparent tranquillity,
retired to foreign countries. William Prince of
Orange, Louis of Nassau, the Counts de Culcm-
burg and Berg, and the Count de Brederodl, \v> re
in the number of these emigrants. Philip II.,
instead of adopting measures of moderation and
clemency, according to the advice of the Regent,
was determined to avenge, in tin- most signal
manner, this outrage against his religion anil tin-
majesty of his throne. He sent the famous Duke
i.t' Alba, or Alvn, into the Low Countries, at the
head of an army of 20,000 men (!..IM). The
Regent then gave in her resignation. A general
terror overspread the country. Vast numbers of
manufacturers and merchants took refuge in i
land, carrying along with them their arts and their
industry. Hence the commerce and manufactures
of the Low Countries, which had formerly been
the most flourishing in Europe, fell entirely into
decay.

The Duke of Aim, immediately on his arrival,
established a tribunal or court, for inv->
excesses that had been committed durtiiir
i oimi:' t : , : ,. i! . council, which the Flemings
> ncil ot~ Hlo.'d," informed against
all those who had been in any way concerned with

jgart (a sort of Httymemotf) ; who bad fre-
quented thru preachings, c<>: '< the sup-
ine building of their

lies ; or harboured and protected these here-
. :th. r directly or indirectly. Before thu
.1, whose only judges were the Duke of Alva
and hi* confidant John d>- Vargas, were cited high
and low, without diMinrtion ; and all those nbuee
wealth excited th.-ir rtipidity. I insti-

tuted proceedings against the absent and th>
sent, the dead and the living, and confiscated
good". M thousand persons perished by

tin- hand* of tin- e\i-eutioner, and more than
3O.OOO others were entirely ruined. Among the
iiiimlirr of those illustrious victims ofAUa'-
elty, were the < :ont and Horn, who

were both beheaded. Their execution excited a
general indignation, and was the signal of revolt
and ei\il war throughout tin- Low Couii'

The Beggars, who seemed almost forgotten, be-
gan to revive ; and were afterwards distinguished
into thn-i- kinds. All the malccontents, as well as
the adherents of Luther and Calvin, were called
simply l>y this name. Those were called Beyyart
of the Woodt, who concealed themselves in the
forests and marshes ; never sallying forth but in
the ni-,'ht, to commit all sorts of excesses. Lastly,
the Maritime or Marine Beyyara, were those who
employ rd themselves in piracy ; infesting the
coasts, and making descents on the country.

It was in this situation of affairs that the Prince
of Orange, one of the richest proprietors in the
Low Countries, assisted by his brother, the Count
of Nassau, assembled different bodies of troops in
the Empire, with which he attacked the Low
Countries in several places at once (1568). Fail-
ing in these tii-t attempts, he soon changed his
plan; and associating the Marine Beggars in the
cause, he ventured to attack the Spaniards by sea.
The Beggars, encouraged by that 1'rinre, and \\ il-
liam Count de la Mark, eurnamed the Boar of
Ardennes, took the city of Brille by surprise ( 1
situated in the Isle ot Vooni, and regarded as the
stronghold of the new republic of the Belgic pm-
Miires. The capture ot" the port of Brille caused a
revolution in Zealand. All the cities of that pro-
vince, except Middleburg, opened their gates to
the Beggars ; and their example wa followed by
most of the towns in Holland. An assembly of
the states of this latter province met this same year
at Dort, where they laid the foundation of their
new republic. The Prince of Orange was there
declared Stadtholder or governor of the provinces
of Holland, Zealand, Friesland, and Utrecht ; and
they agreed never to treat with the Spaniards, ex-
cept by common consent. The public exercise
of the reformed religion was introduced, according
to the form of Geneva.

This rising republic became more firmly esta-
blished in consequence of several advantages w
the Confederates had gained o\cr the Spaniards,
whose troops being badly paid, at length muti:
and breaking out into tin- irreatest disorders, they
pillaged sever.il cities, among others Antwerp, and
laid waste the whole of the Low Countries. The
States General, then nscniblcd at Brussels, im-
plored the assistance of the Prince of Orange and
the Confederates. A negociation was then opened
at Ghent ( l.)1), between the states of Brussels and
those of Holland and Zealand; where a general

I'arifiiMtiim of Client.
90 Seven X'nited Provinces.
Union of I'treclit.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Dutch K. I. Company.

War of Spain and Hol-
land.

union, known by the name of the Pacification of
Ghtiit, was signed. They engaged mutually to
as-ist each other, with the view of expelling the
Spanish troops, and never more permitting them
to enter the Low Countries. The Confederates,
who were in alliance with Queen Elizabeth of
England, pursued the Spaniards every where, who
soon saw themselves reduced to the single provinces
of Luxemburg, Limburg, and Namur.

They were on the point of being expelled from
these also, when the government of the Low Coun-
tries was intrusted to Alexander Farnese, Prince
of Parma. Equally distinguished as a politician
and a warrior, this prince revived the Spanish in-
terests. Taking advantage of the dissensions
which had arisen among the Confederates from
the diversity of their religious opinions, he again
reduced the provinces of Flanders, Artois, and
Hainault, under the Spanish dominion. He took
the city of Maestricht by assault, and entered into
a negociation with the States-General of the Low
Countries at Cologne, under the mediation of the
Emperor Rodolph II., the Pope, and some of the
princes of the Empire. This negociation proved
unsuccessful ; but the Prince of Orange, foreseeing
that the general confederacy could not last, con-
ceived the plan of a more intimate union among
the provinces ; which he regarded as the most fit
to make head against the Spaniards. He fixed on
the maritime provinces, such as Holland, Zealand,
and Friesland ; and above all, on those whom the
same religious creed, viz., the Calvinistic, had at-
tached to the same interests. The commerce of
Holland, and Zealand, and Friesland, began to
make new progress daily. Amsterdam was rising
on the ruins of Antwerp. The flourishing state of
their marine rendered these provinces formidable
by sea ; and gave them the means not only of re-
pelling the efforts of the Spaniards, but even of
protecting the neighbouring provinces which might
join this union. Such were the motives which in-
duced the Prince of Orange to form the special
confederacy of the Seven Provinces, the basis of
which he laid by the famous treaty of union con-
cluded at Utrecht (1579). That union was there
declared perpetual and indissoluble ; and it was
agreed that the Seven Provinces, viz., those of
(iiicldren, Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Overyssel,
Kreisland, and Groningen, should henceforth be
considered as one and the same province. Each
of these, nevertheless, was guaranteed in the pos-
session of their rights and privileges that is, their
absolute superiority in everything regarding their
iwn internal administration.

[We may remark, however, that these insurrec-
tionary provinces had not originally the design of
forming a republic. Their intention, at first, was
only to maintain their political privileges ; and
they did not absolutely shake off the Spanish
authority until they despaired of reconciliation.
Mori-over, they repeatedly offered the sovereignty
of their states to different foreign princes; and it
was not till the union of Utrecht that the Seven
Provinces became a federal republic. Conse-
quently everything remained on its ancient foot-
ing ; an-l some of the provinces even retained
their Stallholders or governors at the head of their
administration. Hence that mixture of monarchy,
ari-tinT.iey, and democracy, which prevailed in
these countries ; and hence, too, the feeble tie

which united them with each other, and which
would probably have speedily broken, if Holland
had not, by its riches and its power, obtained an
influence and a preponderance which maintained
the union.]

The declaration of the independence of the
United Provinces did not take place till 15s l ;
when the Prince of Orange induced the States-
General to make a formal proclamation of it, out
of revenge for the furious edicts of proscription
which the court of Spain had issued against him.
The prince, however, was assassinated at Delft in
1664 \> and the Spaniards took advantage of the
constemation which this event had spread among
the Confederates, to reconquer most of the pro-
vinces of the Low Countries. The general Con-
federacy languished away by degrees ; and the
union of Utrecht was the only one maintained
among the Seven Provinces. This new republic,
which was in strict alliance with England, not
only made head against the Spaniards, but gained
a considerable increase of strength by the vast
numbers of refugees from the different Belgic pro-
vinces, who took shelter there ; as well as from
France, where the persecution still raged violently
against the Protestants. It is calculated that after
the taking of Antwerp by the Prince of Parma in
1585, above a hundred thousand of these fugitives
transported themselves to Holland and Amster-
dam, carrying with them their wealth aid thtir
industry.

From this date the commerce of the Confederate
States increased every day ; and in 1595 they ex-
tended it as far as India and the Eastern Seas.
The Dutch India Company was established in
1602. Besides the exclusive commerce of India,
which was guaranteed to them by their charter,
they became likewise a political body, under the
sovereignty of the States-General of the United
Provinces. Supported by a formidable marine,
they acquired vast influence in the East by their
conquests over the Portuguese, whom they dis-
possessed, by degrees, of all their principal esta-
blishments in India. The Spaniards, finding their
efforts to reduce the Confederates by force of arms
ineffectual, set on foot a negociation at Antwerp
(1G09), under the mediation of France and Eng-
land ; in consequence of which, a truce of twelve
years was concluded between Spain and the United
Provinces. It was chiefly during this time that
the Confederates extended their commerce over all
parts of the globe, while their marine daily in-
creased in strength and importance ; which soon
raised them to the rank of being the second mari-
time power, and gave them a decisive influence
over the political affairs of Europe.

At the expiry of this truce hostilities were r. -
newed with Spain. The Dutch carried on the
war for twenty-five yenrs with great glory, under
the auspices of their Stadtholders, Maurice and
Henry Frederic, Princes of Orange, who disco-
vered great military talents. One event, which
proved favourable for the republicans, was tin- war
that broke out between France and Spain, and
which was followed by a strict alliance between
France and the States-General. The partition of
the Spanish Netherlands was settled by this treaty ;
ami the allied powers entered into an eniraireinent
never to make peace or truce with Spain, except
by common consent. This latter clause, however,

.TM UBiW IWUMT*

PERIOD vi. \.i) uas HUM.

li< I not prevent the States-General from conclud-
ing at Munster a separate peace with Spain, to
the exclusion of France (1048). By this peace
the King of Spain acknowledged the United Pro-
vinees as free and independent Stale* ; he ga>e up
t<> tli. in all the places which they had M-ited in
Brabant, Flandrrs, and LimhurK. >., Bois-le-Duc,
Berftn-op-Zoom, Breda, and Maestricht ; M alao
iMMeessions in the East and West Indie*, in
Aiia, Africa, and America. Tin- cloning of the
Beheld, which was granted in favour of the I mt.-i
l> ruined the city of Antwerp,
and shut out the Spanish Netherlands from all
maritime commerce.

The feudal system of the Swim, which had ori-
ginated in the fourteenth century, acquired a new
importance towards the end of the fifteenth, by
reason of the success of the confederates in their
war with Charles, Duke of Burgundy. This
prince, who was of a hot and turbulent spirit, was
constantly occupied with projects of conquest.
Taking advantage of the ruinous state of the
finances of the Archduke Sigismund of AuNtria,
he induced him to sell him tin- territories of Hrix-
trau and Alsace, with the right of repurchase.
1 1 agenbach, a gentleman of Alsace, who
had liei-n appointed governor of these countries by
the Duke, had oppressed the Austrian subjects,
and harassed the whole neighbouring ctates ; espe-
cially tin- Swiss. The complaints which were
iiri.!.- ..a this score to the Duke having only ren-
dered Hagenbach still more insolent, the Swiss,
with the concurrence of several states of the Em-
pire, paid down, at Basle, the sums stipulated in
the contract for repurchasing the two provinces ;
and, by force of arms, they re-established the Aus-
trian prince in the possession of Alsace and Bris-
gau. They even went so far as to institute legal
proceedings against Hagenbach, who was in con-
sequence beheaded at Brisach in 1474.

The Duke, determined to avenge this insult,
assembled an army of 100,000 men, with which
In- penetrated through Franche-Comte into Swit-
zerland. He was defeated in the first action,
\\ lin-h took place at Uranaon (1476) ; after which
he reinforced his troops, and laid siege to Moral.
Here he was again attacked by the Swiss, who
killed 18,000 of his men, and seised the whole of
hi* camp and baggage. The Duke of Lorrain, an
nlly of the Swiss, was then restored to those states
of hich the Duke of Burgundy had deprived him.
This latter prince, in a great fury, came and laid
siege to Nancy. The Swiss marched to the relief
l this place, where they fought a third and last
liuitle wtth the Duke, who was here defeated and
slain (1477).

'1 hcse victories of the Swiss over the Duke of
Hnr.'iiii.u, one of the most powerful princes of
his time, raised the fame of their arms ; and made
their friendnhip and alliance be courted by the first
igua in Europe, especially by France. Their
confederacy, which had formerly been composed
of only eight cantons, was augmented by the ac-
cession of two new states, Friburg and Soleure,
xvhi'-h were enrolled in the number of cantons.

:u this time the Swiss were no longer afraid

to break the ties that bound them to the Germanic

body, as members of the ancient kingdom of Aries.

in, in 1495, having granted the

Kni|>rrnr Maximilian soceoun against the French

and the Turk*, the 8wto sllafrf their
and their alliance with Fnnce, as a ptnUrt for
refusing their contingent of supplies. This de-
mand, however, was renewed at the Diet of Lin-
dan, in 141W, which required them to renounce
their alliance with France, and accede to the
League of Swabia ; aa also to submit themselves to
the Imperial Chamber, and the law of the public
peace ; and to furnish their quota for the support
>t Chamber, and the other contributions of
npire. All thc*e demands were resisted by
the llelvetic body, who regarded them as contrary
to their riirhts and privilege*. Meantime the ( >ri-
sons had allied themselves with the Swiss, in order
to obtain their protection under the existing differ-
ence* between them and the Tyrolcse.

The Emperor Maximilian seised this pretext for
making war against the Cantons. Being desirous
of vindicating the dignity of the Empire, which
had been outraged by the Swiss, and of avenging
the insult* offered to his own family, he stirred up
the League of Swabia to oppose them ; and at-
tacked them in different points at on i
battles were fought in Huccession, in course of that
campaign ; all of which, with one solitary excep-
tion, were in favour of the Swiss, while the Im-
perialists lost more than 20,000 men. Maximilian
and his allies, the Swabian League, then came to
the resolution of making their peace with the
Cantons, which was concluded at Basle (1409).
Both parties made a mutual restitution of what
they had wrested from each other ; and it was
agreed, that the differences between the Emperor,
as Count of Tyrol, and the Orisons, should be
brought to an amicable termination. This peace
forms a memorable era in the history of the Hel-
vetic Confederacy, whose independence, with re-
gard to the German emperor, was from that time
considered as decided ; although no mention of
this was made in the treaty, and although the
Swiss still continued for some time to request from
the emperors the confirmation of their immunities.
Two immediate cities of the Empire, those of
Banle and Schauffliausen, took occasion, from these
latter events, to solicit their admission into the
Confederacy. They wen- received as allies, under
tin- title of Cantons (1501); and the territory of
Appensel, which was admitted in like manner
(1513), formed the thirteenth and last canton.

The alliance which the Swiss had kept up with
France, since the reigns of Charles VII. and
Louis XL, tended greatly to secure the independ-
ence of the Helvetic body.' ThU alliance, which
Louis XL had made an instrument for humbling
the power of the Duke of Burgundy, was never
but once broken, in the reign of Louis XII
account of the Holy League, into which the Swiss
were drawn t>y the intrigues of the HUhop of Sion
(1512). Th' French were then expelled from the
Milanese territory by the Swiss, who placed there
''ike Maximilian Sfonta. It was in gratitude
for this service, that the duke ceded to the 8 win,
by a treaty which was concluded at Basle, the
four bailiwicks of Lugano, Locarno, ^
and Val-Matrgio, which he dismembered from the
Milanais.' Though conquerors at the battle of
Novara, the Swiss experienced a sanguinary defeat
at Marignaiio ; when they Judged it for their in-
ee with Fn

tercet to renew theii

France (1515).

A treaty of perpetual peace was signed at Friburg

Religious disputes of Switz-
92 erland.

Dukes of Savov.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Emperors of Germany.
Affairs of Naples.
Family of Medici.

between these two states (1516), which was soon
after followed by a new treaty of alliance, con-
cluded with Francis I. at Lucerne (1521), and
regularly renewed under the subsequent reigns.

The change which took place in religion, at the
beginning of the sixteenth century, extended its
influence to Switzerland, where it kindled the flame
of civil discord. Four cantons, those of /urich,
Berne, Schauifhausen, and Basle, renouncing en-
tirely the Romish faith, had embraced the doc-
trines of Zuingle and Calvin ; while two others, viz.,
Glaris and Appenzel, were divided between the
old and the new opinions. The Reformation having
likewise found its way into the common bailiwicks,
the Catholic Cantons rose in opposition to it (1531);
denying liberty of conscience to the inhabitants.
Hence, a war arose between the Cantons of the
two religions ; which, however, was terminated the
same year by a treaty of peace, guaranteeing to
such parishes within the bailiwicks as had em-
braced the new doctrines, the liberty of .still ad-
hering to them. The same revolution extended to
Geneva, whose inhabitants had declared solemnly
in favour of the reformed worship, and erected
themselves into a free and independent republic
(1534). The church of Geneva, under the direc-
tion of Calvin, became the centre and citadel of the
Reformation ; while the academy founded in that
city, produced a vast number of theologians and
celebrated scholars. It was at this time that the
Duke of Savoy planned the blockade of Geneva,
to enforce certain ancient rights which he claimed
over that city ; but the Bernese espoused the cause
of the Genevans, in virtue of the treaties of com-
mon citizenship which subsisted between them.
This Canton having entered into alliance with
Francis I., declared war against the Duke of Savoy
(1536) ; and in less than three months took from
him the Pays de Vaud. Being desirous of inter-
esting their neighbours the Friburgers in their
cause, they invited them to take possession of all
those places that might suit their convenience ; and
it was on this occasion that the city of Friburg
acquired the principal part of its territory. These
acquisitions were confirmed to the two Cantons,
by the treaty which the Bernese concluded at Lau-
sanne with the Duke of Savoy (15G4).

The German Empire from time to time renewed
its pretensions on Switzerland, and the Imperial
Chamber usurped an occasional jurisdiction over
one or other of the Cantons. Negociations for a
general peace having commenced at Munster and
Osnaburg, the thirteen Cantons sent their minister
or envoy to watch over the interests of the Hel-
Mtir Body at that congress; and they obtained,
through the intervention of France and Sweden,
that in one of the articles of the treaty it should be
declared, that the city of Basle, and the other Swiss
Cantons, were in possession of full liberty, and
independent of the Empire, and in no respect
subject to its tribunal*.

In Italy, the authority of the Emperor of Ger-
many, which had silently declined during the pre-
ceding centuries, languished more and more under
die long and feeble reign of Frederic III. At
length it was reduced to the mere ceremony of
coronation, and the simple exercise of Home hono-
rary and feudal rights, such as the investitures
which the Imperial Court continued to grant to
the vassals of Lombardy. Although the Imperial

dignity implied the royalty of Italy, which was
considered as indissolubly united to it, nevertheless
it was the custom that the kings of Germany should
have themselves crowned separately, kings of Italy
at Milan, and emperors at Rome. Frederic III.,
having had certain reasons for avoiding his coro-
nation at Milan, received from the hands of Pope
Nicholas V., in his own capital, the two crowns
of Italy and Rome. Maximilian I., being pre-
vented by the Venetians from repairing to Italy
for his coronation (1508), was content to take the
title of Emperor Elect, which his successors in the
Empire have retained till the present time.
Charles V. was the last emperor to whom the
Pope, Clement VII., administered this doxible
coronation of king of Italy and emperor, at Bologna,
in 1530.

The popes, the kings of Naples, the dukes of
Milan, and the republics of Venice and Florence,
were the principal powers that shared among them
the dominion of Italy towards the end of the
fifteenth century. The continual wars which these
states waged with each other, added to the weak-
ness of the German emperors, encouraged foreign
powers to form plans of aggrandisement and con-
quest over these countries. The kings of France,
Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I., led
away by a mania for conquest, undertook several
expeditions into Italy, for enforcing their claims
either oil the kingdom of Naples, or the duchy of
Milan. They were thwarted in their schemes by
the kings of Spain, who, being already masters of
Sicily and Sardinia, thought they behoved also to
extend their views to the continent of Italy. Fer-
dinand the Catholic deprived the French of the
kingdom of Naples (1500). His successor, Charles
V., expelled them from the Milanais, and obliged
Francis I., by the treaties of Madrid (1526), Cam-
bray (1529), and Crepy (1544), to give up his pre-
tensions on the kingdom of Naples, and the duchy
of Milan. From this time the Spaniards were the
predominating power in Italy for more thau a
hundred years.

In the midst of- these revolutions, there arose
three new principalities within that kingdom ; those
of Florence, Parma, and Malta. The republic of
Florence held a distinguished rank in Italy during
the fifteenth century, both on account of the flou-
rishing state of its commerce, and the large extent
of its territory, which comprehended the greater
part of Tuscany, and gave to this republic the
means of holding the balance between the other
powers of Italy. The opulent family of the Medici
here exercised a high degree of influence ; they
ruled not by force but by their munificence, and
the judicious use which they made of their great
riches. The credit and popularity of the Medici
excited envy and persecution against them, and
caused them to be several times banished from
Florence. They were expelled from this latter
place at the same time that Pope Clement VII.,
who was of this family, was besieged by the Impe-
rialists in Rome (1527). That pontiff, in making
his peace with Charles V., obtained his consent
that the Medici should be re-established at Flo-
rence, in the state in which they were before their
last banishment. The Emperor even promised the
Pope to give Alexander de' Medici his natural
daughter in marriage, with a considerable dowry.
The Florentines, however, having shown some re-

I. .,..,.., I- M.-.U,
llrma.) .Uit

Th.. \,-. ,.,( M,U,,

PERIOD vi. v.D. 1 1

Family of Vt

luctanre to receive the Mrd i ity was be-

iefsd by the Imperial army, and compelled to
onvnder by capitulation ( 1530).

The Emperor, by a charter dated at Augsburg
,.- 38th of August following, preserved to the
i lorence its ancient republican forms.
mder de' Medici waa declared goveroor-in-
chief of the state ; but tliii dignity waa vesto! m
hiaaelf ami tun mule descendants, who could only
enjoy it according to the order of primogeniture.
i 1 wa authorized, moreoTer, to construct a
citadel at Florence, by means of which he after-
wards exercised an absolute power >\ <T hi* fellow-
ettbens. As for the ducal dignity with which the
new prince of Florence was vested, it properly
belonged to the duchy of Parma, in tin- kingdom
. i pies, which the Emperor had conferred on
him.

Alexander dc* Medici did not long enjoy his new
honour*. He was universally abhorred for his
cruelties, and assassinated by Laurentio de' M
one i.f his own near relations (1537). His suc-
ceasor in the duchy was Cosmo de' Medici, who
annexed to tin- territory of Florence that of the
ancient republic of Sienna, which the Emperor,
Charles V., had conquered, and conferred on his
son 1'hilip II. in name of the Empire (1554). Thin
latter prince being desirous of seducing Cosmo
from his alliance with the Pope and the King of
France, with whom the Spaniards were at war,
granted him the investiture of the territory of Sienna,
as a mesne-tenure holding of the crown of Spain,
by way of equivalent for the considerable sums
which he had advanced to Charles V. while he was
carrying on the siege of Sienna. In transferring
tin- Sicnnois to the Duke, Philip reserved for him-
self the ports of Tuscany, such as Porto Krcole,
Orhitello, Tclamone, Moute-Argentaro, St.Stefano,
Longone, Piumbino, and the whole island of Elba,
with the exception of Porto Ferrajo. By the
same treaty, Cosmo engaged to furnish iiupplies to
the Spaniards, for the defence of Milan and the
kiiu'iloin of Naples.

At length the Medici obtained the dignity of
grand dukes, on occasion of the difference that
hail risen between them and the dukes of Ferrari,
on the subject of precedency. The Pope termi-
nated this dispute, by granting to Cosmo the title
<>f (irand Duke of Tuscany, with the royal honours
(1509). The Emperor, however, took it amiss
that the Pope should undertake to confer secular
dignities in Italy ; thus encroaching on a right
which he alleged belonged only to himself in viilue
i>f his Ix'ing king of Italy. The quarrels which
this affair had occasioned between the court of
Rome and the Empire, were adjusted in 1576,
when the Empcr<>r Maximilian II. granted to
Francis de' Medici, the brother and successor of
Cosmo, the dii^uit) of (irand Duke, on condition
that he should acknowledge it aa a tenure of the
. and not of the Pope.

Among the number of those republics which the
Visconti of Milan had subdued and overthrown in
ih.- fourteenth century-, were those of Parma and
Plarentia. They had formed a dependency of the
duchy of Milan* until I.')!'.', wh.-n Ixmis XII.
li.iMu- l.r.-n I-\|H ii.-i from the Milanais by the
allies of the Holy League, these cities wete sur-
rendered by the Swiss to l'"pe Julius II. .who laid
some claim to them, as making part of the dowry

of the fiuaous Countess Matilda. The Emperor
Maximilian ceded them to the Pope by the treaty
of peace which he made with him m 1512. Francis
I. took these cities again from the court of Rome,
when he reconquered the duchy of Milan (1515) ;
but this prince having also been expelled from the
Milanais (1521), the Pope again got possession of
Parma ami . the treaty which

he had concluded with Charlm V., fur the ru teU
hlishment of Francis Sforza in the duchy of Milan.
These cities continued to form part of the ecclesi-
astical states until 1545, when th.-\ were dismem-
bered from it by Paul III., who erected them into
duchies, and conferred them on his son Peter
Louis Farnese, and his heirs-male in the order of
primogeniture ; to be held under the title of fiefs
<>f the holy see, and on condition of paying an
annual tribute of 9000 ducats.

This rlevitinti of a man, whose very birth seemed
a disgrace to the pontiff, gave universal offence.
The new Duke of Parma soon rendered liimself so
odious by his dissolute life, his crimes and scan-
dalous excesses, that a conspiracy was formed
against him ; and he was assassinated in the citadel
nf TUcentia in 1547. Ferdinand Goniaga, who
was implicated, as is alleged, in this assassination,
then took possession of Placentia in name of the
Emperor; and it was .not till 1557 that 1'hilip 11.
of Spain restored that city, with its dependencies,
to Uctaviu* Farnese, son and successor of the
murdered Prince. The house of Farnese held the
duchy of Parma as a fief of the ecclesiastical
states, until the extinction of the male line in
1731.

The Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, after
their expulsion from the Hl\ Land, had retired
to the Isle of Cyprus, and from thence to Rhodes,
in 1310, of which they had dispossessed the Greeks.
They did not maintain possession of this place
longer than 1523, when Soliman the Great under-
took the siege of Rhodes, with an army of 200,000
men, and a fleet of 400 sail. The knights boldly
repulsed the different attacks of the Turks ; hut
being entirely dependent on their own forces, and
receiving no succour from the powers of Christen-
dom, they were compelled to capitulate, after an
obstinate defence of six months. I^eaving Rhodes,
these knights took shelter in Viterbo, belonging to
the states of the church, where they were cordially-
received by Pope Clement VII. There they re-
mained until the Emperor Charles V. granted
them the Isle of Malta, which became their prin-
cipal residence ( 1530). That prince ceded to them
the islands of Malta and Goxso, with the city of
Tripoli in Africa, on condition of holding them
from him and his successors in the kingdom of
Sii -ily, as noble fiefe, frank and free, without any
other obligation than the annual gift of a falcon,
in token of their domanial tenure, and presenting
to the King of Sicily three of their subfects, of
whom he was to choose one, on each vacancy of
the bishopric of Malta. Charles V. added another
clause, th.it it c\er the Order should leave Malta
and fix their residence elsewhere, that island
should revert to the King of Sicily. The Knights
of St. John continued in the sovereignty of Malta
and Goxxo till 17UM ; but they lost Tripoli in 1551,
which was taken from them by the Turks.

A memorable revolution happened at Genoa,
about the beginning of the sixteenth century.

Independence of Genoa.
94 Andruw Doria.

Venetian power.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Affairs of Italy.
Kings of Cyprus.
Now passage to India

That republic, after having for a long time formed
part of the duchy of Mihm, recovered its ancient
independence about the time when the French
and Spaniards disputed the sovereignty of Italy,
and the conquest of the Milanais. Expelled by the
Imperialists from the city of Genoa in 1522, the
French had found means to repossess it (1527),
with the assistance of the celebrated Andrew
Doria, a noble Genoese, who had been in the
service of Francis I. This distinguished admiral,
supplanted by favourites, and maltreated by the
court, abandoned the cause of France in the fol-
lowing year, and espoused that of the Emperor
Charles V.

The French then laid siege to the city of Naples,
which was reduced to the last extremity and on
the point of surrendering, when Doria, having
hoisted the Imperial flag, set sail for Naples, with
the galleys under his command, and threw abund-
ance of provisions into the besieged city. The
French army, now cut off from all communication
by sea, soon began to experience those calamities
from which the Imperialists had just been deli-
vered. Their whole troops being destroyed by
famine and contagious disease, the expedition to
Naples fell to the ground, and the affairs of the
French in Italy were totally ruined. It is alleged
that Charles V., to recompense Doria for this im-
portant sen-ice, offered him the sovereignty of
Genoa ; and that, instead of accepting this honour,
that great man stipulated for the liberty of his
country, whenever it should be delivered from the
yoke of France. Courting the glory of being the
liberator of his native city, he sailed directly for
Genoa, of which he made himself master, in a
single night, without shedding one drop of blood
(1.V28). The French garrison retired to the
citadel and were obliged to capitulate for want of
provisions.

This expedition procured Doria the title of
Father of his Country, which was conferred on
him by a decree of the senate. It was by his
advice that a committee of twelve persons was
chosen to organize a new scheme of government
for the republic. A register was drawn up of all those
families who were to compose the grand council,
which was destined to exercise the supreme power.
The doge was to continue in office ten years ; and
great care was taken to remove those causes which
had previously excited factions and intestine dis-
order*. Hence the establishment of the Genoese
aristocracy, whose forms have since been pre-
s.-r\r(l, with some few modifications which were
introduced afterwards, in consequence of certain
dissensions which had arisen between the ancient
and the new nobility.

Venice, the eldest of the European republics,
had reached the zenith of its greatness about the
end of the fifteenth century. The vast extent of
its commerce, supported by a powerful marine,
the multiplied sources of its industry', and the
monopoly of the trade in the East, had made it
one of the richest and most formidable states in
Europe. Besides several ports on the Adriatic,
and numerous settlements which they had in the
Archipelago, and the trading towns on the Le\ant,
they Alined ground more and more on the conti-
nent of Italy, where they formed a considerable
territory. Guided by an artful and enterprising
policy, this republic seized with marvellous avidity

every circumstance which favoured its views of ag-
grandisement. On the occasion of their quarrels
with the Duke of Ferrara, they obtained posses-
sion of the province of Polesino de Rovigo, by a
treaty which they concluded with that prince in
1484.

Afterwards, having joined the league which the
powers of Italy had opposed to Charles VIII. and
his projects of conquest, they refused to grant
supplies to the King of Naples for the recovery of
his kingdom, except by his consenting to yield up
the cities of Trani, Otranto, Brindisi, and Galli-
poli. Louis XII., being resolved to enforce his
claims on the duchy of Milan, and wishing to gain
over this republic to his interest, gave up to them,
by the treaty of Blois (1499), the town of Cre-
mona, and the whole country lying between the
Oglio, the Adda, and the Po. Cyi the death of
Pope Alexander VI. (1503), they took that favour-
able opportunity of wresting from the ecclesias-
tical states several towns of the Romagna ; among
others, Rimini and Faenza.

Of all the acquisitions which the Venetians made,
the most important was that of Cyprus. That
island, one of the most considerable in the Me-
diterranean, had been conquered from the Greeks,
by Richard Cceur de Lion, King of England, who
surrendered it to Guy of Lusignan (1192), the last
king of Jerusalem, in compensation for the loss of
his kingdom. From Guy de Lusignan descended
a long line of Cypriot kings ; the last of whom,
John III., left an only daughter, named Charlotte,
who succeeded him in that kingdom, and caused
her husband, Louis of Savoy, to be also crowned
king. There still remained a bastard son of John
III., called James, who was protected by the
Sultan of Egypt, to whom the kings of Cyprus
were tributaries, and who succeeded in expelling
Charlotte and her husband, the prince of Savoy,
from the throne (1460). James, who was desirous
of putting himself under the protection of the
Venetians, married Catherine Cornaro, daughter of
Marco Cornaro, or Cornelio, a patrician of Venice.
The Senate, in honour of this marriage, adopted
Catherine, and declared her daughter of St. Mark,
or the Republic. James died in 1473, leaving a
posthumous son, who died also in the second year
of his age. The republic then, considering the
kingdom of Cyprus as their own inheritance, took
possession of the natural children of James, and
induced Queen Catherine, by various means, to
retire to Venice, and there to resign her crown
into the hands of the Senate, who assigned her a
pension, with the castle of Azolo, in Trevisano,
for her residence ; and obtained for themselves the
investiture of that island from the Sultan of Egjpt
(1490).

A career so prosperous was eventually followed
by a reverse of fortune ; and several circumstances
concurred to accelerate the decline of this flourish-
ing republic. They received a terrible blow by the
di-iovery of the new passage to India round the
Cape, which deprived them of the commerce of
the Ka-t ; thus drying up the principal source of
their wealth, as well as of their revenue and their
marine. In vain did they put in practice all the
arts of their policy to defeat the commercial enter-
prises of the Portuguese in India; exciting airainst
them, first the sultans of Ejrypt, and afterwards
the Turkish Emperors, and i'viniishiutr these Ma-

i M

\: ....' I..,.. Ml

Tut*. J*ftl-<i .1 Ls-nta.

PERIOD VI. A.D. 14M-104S.

I.. .:.,, \
Rtlry rf

I \ ..

bometan powers with supplies. Tin- activity of the

^ucse surmounted all these obstacle*. They
obtained a firm settlement in the East, where, in
course of i became m wry formidable

power. Lisbon, .ice, became the

emporium for the productions of India ; and the
compete with them in

thin Hi-id of Kiuttrn commerce. Beside*, the good
fortune ,- nil. ml.. 1 the undertaking!

nf the rcpul.lic, had inspired them with a passion
for conquest. They took every opportunity uf
making encroachim-nti on thrir neighbours; and,
sometimes forgetting the counsel* of prudence,
the\ drew down up>n tli.-m-clve- the jealousy and
resentment f tin JH ineiji:il state* of Italy.

To this jealousy must be attributed the famous
league, which Pope Julius II., the Emperor Maxi-
milian, l.om- \ II., Ferdinand of Spain, and se-
veral of the Italian states, concluded at Cambray
(1508), fortlie partition of the Venetian territory
on Terra f'irma. Louis XII. gained a signal M. -
tory over the republicans near Agnadello, which
was followed by such a rapid succession of .oil-
quests, that the senate of Venice wore struck with
consternation ; and the republic must have been
infallibly loot, had Louis been supported by his
allies. But the pope and the Kin/ of Spain, who
dreaded the preponderance of the French in Italy,
suddenly abandoned the league, and concluded
separate treaties of pence with the republicans; nor
was the F,ni|)cror Maximilian long in following
their example. In consequence of this, the Venc-

;ifter having been menaced with a total over*
throw, lost only, in the course of the war, the trr-
rilorj of Cremona and Ghiera d'Ada, with the

and ports of Romagna and Apulia. But this
loss was far surpassed by that which they expe-
ri.-nce.l in their finances, their commerce, and
manufactures, on account of the expensive efforts
which they were obliged to make in resisting their
numerous enrn.

The ruin of this republic was at length com-
plete.) liy the prodigious increase of the power of
1 1 1 tomans, who took from them, by degrees,
their best possessions in the Archipelago and the
Mediterranean. Dragged, as it were, in spite of
themselves, into the war of Charles V. against the
Turks, they lost fourteen islands in the Archipe-
lago ; among others Chios, Patmos, . 1
Stampalia, and Paros ; and were obliged, by the
peace of Con-tantinople (1540), to surrender to
the Turks Malvasia and Napoli di Romagna, the

two places which remained to them in the
Morea.

The Turks also took from them the isle of Cy-
prus the finest of their possession* in the Mediter-
ranean. The Sultan, Selim II., being determined
to conquer that island, attacked it with a superior

i |."7<>). although the Venetians had given him
no ground for hostilities. He made himself master
of the cities of Nicosia and Famagusta ; and com-
pleted the conquest of the whole Uland, before the

in which the Kim; of Spain and the pope

had granted to the Venetians, could join their Meet.

On the approach of the Christian army, the TurkUh

fleet retired within tin tiulf of I.cpanto, where

they were attacked by the allies under the

maiul of Don Juan t \t:jri:i, a natural son of

- u'luncd a complete

ie Turkish fleet was

destroyed, and the confederate* took immense
booty. The news of this defeat struck terror
the city of Constantinople, and made the Grand
Bignior transfer hi* court to Adrianople. The
Christians, however, reaped no advantage from
their victory. A misunderstanding arose anioag
the confederate*, and their fleets dispersed without
accomplishing anything. The Venetian* did not
return to the isle of Cyprus ; and knowing well
that they could not MMM on any effectual aid on
the part of their allies, they determined to make
peace with tin- Turks (1573). By this treaty they
left the Porte in possession of Cyprus, and con-
sented to pay it a sum of 300,000 ducats, to obtain
the restitution of their ancient boundaries in Dal-
matia. From this epoch, the republic of Venice
dates it* entire decay. It was evident, that it must
thenceforth resign it* pretensions a* a leading
power, and adopt a system of neutrality which
might put it in condition to maintain peace with
/hbours.

Kngland, as we have mentioned above, had been
the rival of France, while the Utter now became
the rival of Austria. This rivalry commenced with
the marriage of Maximilian of Austria, to Mary,
daughter and heiress of Charles, last Duke of Bur-
gundy, l.y which the House of Austria succeeded
to the whole dominions of that prince. The Low
Countries, which at that time were the principal
emporium for the manufactures and commerce of
Europe, formed a part of that opulent succession.
Louis XI., King of France, was unable to prevent
the marriage of the Austrian prince with the heiress
of Burgundy, but he took advantage of that event
to detach from the territories of that princes* what-
e\i r he found convenient. He seised on the duchy
of Burgundy as a vacant fief of his crown, as well
as the seigniories of Auxerrois, Maconnois, Bar-
sur-Seinc, and the towns of the Somme ; and these
different countries were preserved to France by
the treaties of peace concluded at Arras (1
and Senlis (1493). Such was the origin of the ri-
valry and bloody wars between France and Austria.
The theatre of hostilities, which, under Louis \ I.,
had been in the Low Countries, was transferred
to Italy, under Charles VIII., Louis XII., and
Francis I. From thence it was changed to Ger-
many, in the r.-i-n of Henry II.

In Italy, besides this rivalry between the two
powers, there was another motive, or pretext, for
war, vit., the claims of France on the kingdom of
Naples and the duchy of Milan. The claim f
Louis XI. on the kinirdom of Naples hsd devolved
to him with the county of Provence, which he in-
herited in virtue of the will of Charles, Count of
Provence, and the last male descendant of the
House of Anjou (14*1). Charles VIII., the son
and successor of I...u> XI., urged on by youthful
ambition, was determined to enforce this claim.
II undertook an expedition into Italy (1494). and
took possession of the kingdom of Naples without
striking a blow. But bring opposed by a t
dable confederacy of the Italian prince*, with Maxi-
milian at their head, he was obliged to abandon
his conquest* with the same facility he had made
them ; and he was fortunate in being able to effect
hU retn at. l\ the famous victory which he gained
over the allies, near Foronuovo, in the duchy of
Parma.

The claim to the duchy of Milan was founded

Duchy of Milan.
96 Wars of Italy.

Civil wars oi' France.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Kind's of Navarre.

HoUM' ot'GuiM 1 .

Henrv 1 1 1. of France.

on the contract of marriage between Louis, Duke
of Orleans, the grandfather of Louis XII., and
Valentine of Milan. That contract provided, that
failing heirs-male of John Galeas, Duke of Milan,
the duchy should fall to Valentine, and the chil-
dren of her marriage with the Duke of Orleans.
Louis XII. claimed the rights of Valentine, his
grandmother, in opposition to the princes of the
family of Sforza, who had taken possession of the
duchy of Milan, on the extinction of the male
heirs of the Visconti, which happened in 1447.
The different expeditions which he undertook into
Italy, both for the conquest of Milan and the
kingdom of Naples, met with no better success
than that of his predecessor had done, in conse-
quence of a new league, called the Holy League,
which Pope Julius II. raised against him, and into
which he drew the Emperor Maximilian, the Kings
of Arragon and England, with the Venetians and
the Swiss. Louis XII. lost all the advantages of
his conquests. The kingdom of Naples fell under
the power of Ferdinand the Catholic, and the family
of Sforza were reinstated in the duchy of Milan.

These Italian wars, which were renewed at
different times under the reign of Francis I., cost
France much blood and immense sums. In this
struggle she was forced to succumb, and Francis I.
bound himself, by the treaty of Crepy, to abandon
his claims on Italy in favour of Charles V. The
kingdom of Naples and the duchy of Milan re-
mained incorporated with the Spanish monarchies.
Francis I., nevertheless, had the glory of arresting
the progress of his rival, and effectually counter-
balancing a power which, at that time, made all
Europe to tremble.

Henry II., the son and successor of Francis I.,
adopted a new line of policy. He attacked the
House of Austria, in Germany, having entered
into a league with Maurice, Elector of Saxony, and
the Protestant princes of the Empire, to oppose
Charles V. That league, which was ratified at
Chambord (1552), procured for Henry II. posses-
sion of the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun ;
and he even succeeded in forcing the Emperor to
raise the siege of Metz, which that prince had un-
dertaken about the end of the year 1552. A truce
of five years was agreed on between these two
sovereigns at Vaucelles ; but, in the course of a
few months, the war was renewed, and Philip II.,
who had succeeded his father, Charles V., induced
his Queen, Mary of England, to join in it. Among
the events of this war, the most remarkable are the
victory of St. Quentin, gained by the Spaniards
(1557), and the conquest of the city of Calais, by
Francis, Duke of Guise, the last possession of the
English in France (1558). The death of Queen
Mary prepared the way for a peace, which was
signed at Chateau -Cambresis (1559), between
France, England, and Spain. The Duke of Savoy
obtained there the restitution of his estates, of
which Francis I. had deprived him in 1536. Calais
remained annexed to France.

A series of ware, both civil and religious, broke
out under the feeble reigns of the three sons and
successors of Henry II. The great influence of
the Guises, and the factions which distracted the
court and the state, were the true source of hosti-
lities, though religion was made the pretext.
Francis II. having espoused Mary Stuart, Queen !
of Scotland, the whole power and authority of the I

government passed into the hands of Francis, Duke
of Guise, and the Cardinal de Lorraine, his bro-
ther, who were the queen's maternal uncles. The
power which these noblemen enjoyed excited the
jealousy of Anthony, King of Navarre, and his
brother Louis, Prince of Conde, who imagined
that the precedency in this respect was due to
them as princes of the blood, in preference to the
Lorraine family, who might be considered as
strangers in France. The former being Calvinists,
and having enlisted all the leaders of that party in
their cause, it was not difficult for the Lorraine
princes to secure the interest of all the most zealous
Catholics.

The first spark that kindled these civil wars was
the conspiracy of Amboise. The intention of the
conspirators was to seize the Guises, to bring them
to trial, and throw the management of affairs into
the hands of the princes of the blood. The con-
spiracy having been discovered, the Prince of
Conde, who was suspected of being at its head,
was arrested ; and he would have been executed,
had not the premature death of Francis II. hap-
pened in the meantime. The queen-mother, Ca-
therine de' Medici, who was intrusted with the
regency during the minority of Charles IX., and
desirous of holding the balance between the two
parties, set Conde at liberty, and granted the Cal-
vinists the free exercise of their religion, in the
suburbs and parts lying out of the towns. This
famous edict (January 1562) occasioned the first
civil war, the signal of which was the massacre of
Vassy of Champagne.

Of these wars, there have been commonly
reckoned eight under the family of Valois, viz.,
four in the reign of Charles IX., and four in that
of Henry III. The fourth, under Charles IX.,
began with the famous massacre of St. Bartholo-
mew, authorized and directed by the king (157'2).

It is of some importance to notice here the Edict
of Pacification of Henry III., of the month of
May, 1576. The new privileges which this edict
granted to the Calvinists, encouraged the Guises
to concoct a league this same year, ostensibly for
the maintenance of the Catholic religion, but whose
real object was the dethronement of the reigning
dynasty, and the elevation of the Guises. The
Duke of Alenqon, only brother of Henry 111.,
being dead, and the King of Navarre, who pro-
fessed the Calvinistic faith, having become pre-
sumptive heir to the crown, the chiefs of the Ca-
tholic League no longer made a secret of their mea-
sures. They concluded a formal alliance (ir>84),
with Philip II. of Spain, for excluding the Bour-
bons from the throne of France. Henry III. -was
obliged, by the Leaguers, to recommence the war
against the Calvinists ; but perceiving that the
Duke of Guise, and the Cardinal his brother, took
every occasion to render his government odious,
he caused them both to he assassinated at Hlois
d~> x *), and threw himself on the protection of the
King of Navarre. In conjunction with that Prince,
he undertook the siege of Paris during which he
was himself assassinated at St. Cloud, by a Jacobin
of the name of James Clement (1.">S!)).

The dynasty of Valois ended with Henry III.,
after having occupied the throne lor '.Ml years.
Under this dynasty the royal authority had gained
considerably, both by the annexation of the great
fiefs to the crown-lands, aUd by the introduction of

: ^

I..... .' N

\.I). 14531048.

I..

at UU XIV.

regular armlet, which put an <-n<l to tin-
power. 1. \ M I* cln.-iU iiikirumental in

briiuring the grander under subjection, an. I put-

the cruelties and o|ipn-<uii. .
anarchy. If these ohugM, however, contributed
tn pulilir order, it U neverthclcM true tin'
Mttonal liberty suffered |.\ them; th:it the
Authority daily received new augmentations ; and
that, M> early M the reign . II., it was

considered aa high treaaou to iipeak <>)' the necessity
of aaaemblinf the States-General. The prar i .
thaw assemblies, however, was renewed under the
raecesaors of that prince; t!..-\ .-\.-u hcean

i|iient under tin- last kings ,it 'the : \alois,

who convoked them chiefly with the view of <le-
manding supplies. Francis I. augmented hit in-
fluence over the clergy l>y the concordat which he
...ill-hided witli 1.. \. i l.'ih:), i,, virtue of which
he "U. in.. . I the ii'.niisi ition to all vacant pre-
laturvs; leaving to the 1'opo the continuation
of the prelates, and tin- liberty of receiving the

The race of Valois was succeeded by that of the
Hourbons, who were descended from Robert, Court
of Clcrmont, youngcrson of St. Louis. II. m\ \\ .,
the tir-t kin- of this dynasty, wxs related in the
twenty-first degree to Henry III., his immediate
predecessor. This prince, who was a Calvinist,
tlie more easily reduced the party of the League,
hy publicly abjuring his religion at St. !> ni-. He
concluded a peace with the Spaniards, who were
allies of the League, at Vcrvins ; and completely
tranquillized the kingdom by the famous edict of
S which he published in favour of the re-
formed religion. By that edict he guaranteed to
tin- Protestants perfect liberty of conscience, and
the public exercise of their worship, with the
privilege of tilling all offices of trust ; but he ren-
dered them, at the same time, a piece of disservice,
by granting them fortified places, under the name
of places of security. By thus fostering a spirit of
party and intestine faction, he furnished a plausible
. t to their adversaries for gradually under-
mining the edict, ami finally proscribing the exer-
cise of the reformed religion in France.

This great prince, after having established the
tranquillity of his kingdom at home and abroad,
encouraged arts and manufactures, and put the
administration of his finances into admirable order,
was assassinated by RavaiUac (1610), at the very
moment when he was employed in executing (lie
grand scheme which he had projected for the paci-
fication of Europe. Cardinal Hichclieu, when he
mimed the reins of government under Louis
XIII., had not Inn-,' so much at heart as the ex-
pulsion of the Calvinista from their strongholds.
This he accomplished by means of the three wars
which he waged against them, and by the famous
siege of Rochelle, which he reduced in
That great statesman next employed his policy
against the House of Austria, whose preponder-
ance gave umbrage to all Europe. He took the
opportunity of the vacant succession of Mantua to
espouse the cause of the Duke of Never* against
the Courts of Vienna and Madrid, who supported
the Duke of (uiostalla; and maintained his pro-
tege in the duchy of Mantua, by the treaties of

: were concluded at Katisbon an.l
rnsque (1031 ). Ha\ing afterwards joined Su
he made war against the two branches of Austria,

: (hi occasion got possession of the places
whi.-h the swedes had Mind in Alsac*.

LIT, wai only four years and seven
nafititt old when he succeeded his father (1>
Tin- i|ueeii-iiioth.T, Aniicof Austria, assume.:
regency. She a,

prime minister, whose administration, during the
minority of the King, was a scene of lurbu,
and distraction. The sam.- . vt. rnal policy which
had directed the ministry of Itichelicu wax fU
lowed by his successor. He prosecuted the war
against Austria with \i/ ir. in < .injunction with
Sweden and their confederates in Germany. Hy
the peace which was concluded with the KiiijMTor
at Minister, besides the three bishoprics of Lor-
raine, France obtained the LandgraviaU? of Ixnver
and I pper Alsace, Sungaw, and the prefecture of
the ten Imperial cities of Alsace. Spain was ex-
cluded from this treaty ; and the war continued be-
tween that kingdom and France until the pea
the 1'yrenees, by which the counties of Rousiillon
and Conflans were ceded to France, as well as
several cities in Flanders, Hainault, and Luxem-
bourg.

Spain, which had long been divided into several
states, and a stranger, as it were, to the rest of I'.u-
rope, became all of a sudden a formidable power,
turning the political balance in her own favour.
This elevation was the work of Ferdinand the Ca-
tholic, a prince born for great exploits; of a pro-
found and fertile genius ; but tarnishing his bright
qualities by perfidy and unbounded ambition. II.-
was heir to the throne of Arragon, and laid the
foundation of his greatness by his marriage with
Isabella (1469), sister to Henry VI. last Kinir of
Castile. That match united the kingdon
and Arragon. which were the two principal Chris-
tian states in Spain. Henry of Castile had left a
daughter, named Jane, but she being considered as
illegitimate by the Castilians, the throne was con-
ferred on Isabella and her husband Ferdinand
(1474). The Infanta Jane, in order to enforce her
claims, betrothed herself to Alphonso V. King of
Portugal ; but that prince, being defeated b\
dinand at the battle of Toro (1476), was obliged
to renounce Castile and his marriage with the
Infanta.

At the accession of Isabella to the throne of
Castile, that kingdom was a prey to all the miseries
of anarchy. The abuses of the feudal system were
there maintained by violence and injustice,
dinand demolished the fortresses of the nobles who
infested the country ; he gave new vigour to the
laws; liberated the people from the oppression of
the great; and, under pretence of extirpating the
Jews and Mahometans, he established the tribunal
of the Inquisition (147H), which spread universal
terror by its unheard of cruelties. Toruueruada,
a Dominican, who was appointed grand Imp
( 1483), burnt in the space of four years near 6000
individuals.

The Moors still retained the kingdom of Gre-
nada. Ferdinand took advantage of their dissen-
sions to attempt the conquest of it, in which he
succeeded, after a vigorous war of eighteen years.
Abo Abdeli, the last King of Grenada, tlrd to
Africa. An edict, which was published immedi-
ately after, ordered the expulsion of all the Jews ;
about 100,000 of w h<>m fled from Spain, and took
halter, some in Portugal and others in Africa.

Ferdinand the Catholic.

.1 in all'.ir>.
Ch.irl.-s V. Philip II.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Kli/.ahrth of England.
Philip IV. D*Olivare.

John II. of Portugal.

Ferdinand did not include the Moors in this pro-
scription, whom he thought to gain over to Chris-
tianity hy means of persecution ; but having re-
volted m the year 1500, he then allowed them to
emigrate. It was this blind and headlong zeal that
procured Ferdinand the title of the Catholic A'l/it/,
which Pope Alexander III. conferred on him and
his successors (1493). This prince also augmented
his power by annexing to his crown the Grand
Mastership of the Military Orders of Calatrava, Al-
cantara, and St. James of Compostella.

Everything conspired to aggrandize Ferdinand ;
and, as if the Old World had not been sufficient, a
New one was opened up to him by the discovery
of America. He was heir, by the father's side, to
the kingdoms of Arragou, Sicily, and Sardinia.
He got possession of Castile by his marriage, and
of Grenada by force of arms ; so that nothing was
wanting except Navarre to unite all Spain under
his dominion. The Holy League, which Pope Ju-
lius II. had organized against Louis XII. (1511),
furnished him with a pretext for seizing that king-
dom. Entering into an alliance with the Pope,
he concerted with the King of England to invade
Guienne, on which the English had some ancient
claims. They demanded of the King of Navarre
that he should make common cause with the allies
of the Holy League against Louis XII. That
prince, however, wishing to preserve neutrality,
they prescribed conditions so severe, that he had
no other alternative left than to seek protection in
France. Ferdinand then obtained possession of
all that part of Navarre which lay beyond the Py-
renees. Twelve years before that time Ferdinand
had, by the treaty of Grenada, planned with
Louis XII. the conquest of the kingdom of Naples.
Frederic of Arragon was then deprived of that
kingdom, and his states were divided between the
two allied kings ; but Ferdinand having soon
quarrelled with Louis XII. as to their respective
boundaries, this was made a pretext for expelling
the French from Naples, which was again united
to the Spanish monarchy, in the years 1503 and
1505.

Charles V. of Austria, grandson of Ferdinand,
and his successor in the Spanish monarchy, added
to that crown the Low Countries and Franehe-
Comtc., which he inherited in right of his father,
I'hilip of Austria, and his grandmother .Mary of
Burgundy. He added likewise the kingdoms of
Mexico and Peru, on the continent of America,
and the duchy of .Milan in Italy, in which he in-
vested his son Philip, after having repeatedly ex-
pelled the French in the years 1522 and 152.").

These were all the advantages he derived from
his wars against Francis I., which occupied tin-
greater part of his ruign. lilindtd by his animosity
against that prince, and hy Ids riding p.i -MOM for
war, he only exhausted his kingdom and impaired
his true greatness. Charles resigned the Spanish
monarchy to his son Philip II., which then com-
prehended the Low Countries, the kingdoms of
.Naples, Sicily and Sardinia, the duchy of .Milan,
and the Spanish possessions in America. The
peace of Chateau Cambresis, which Philip II.
signed in 15511, after a long war against l-'iance, may
he regarded an the era of SpanM: . To

the Mates which wen- left him hy his father, I'hilip
added the kingdom of Portugal, with the Portu-
guese possessions in Africa, Asia, and America ;

but this was the termination of his prosperity.
His reign after that was only a succession of
misfortunes. His revolt ing despotism excited the
Belgians to insurrection, and gave birth to the
republic of the United Provinces. Elizabeth of
England having joined with the confederates of the
Low Countries, Philip, out of revenge, equipped a
formidable fleet, known hy the name of the lii-
riiirihlv Arntiidu, which was composed of 130
vessels of enormous size, manned with 20,000
soldiers, exclusive of sailors, and armed with 1360
pieces of cannon. On entering the channel they
were defeated by the English (21st of July, 15HS),
and the greater part of them destroyed hy a storm.

From this calamity may be dated the decline of
the Spanish monarchy, which was exhausted hy
its expensive w r ars. Philip, at his death, left an
enormous debt, and the whole glory of the Spa-
nish nation perished with him. The reigns of his
feeble successors are only remarkable for their
disasters. Philip III. did irreparable injury to his
crown by the expulsion of the Moors or .More-
(1610), which lost Spain nearly a million of her
industrious subjects. Nothing can equal the mis-
fortunes which she experienced under the reign of
Philip IV. During the war which he had to sup-
port against France, the Catalans revolted, and
put themselves under the protection of that crown
(1640). Encouraged by their example, the Por-
tuguese likewise shook off the yoke, and replaced
the House of Braganza on their throne. Lastly,
the Neapolitans, harassed by the Duke d'Olnarez,
prime minister of Philip IV., revolted, and at-
tempted to form themselves into a republic (1647).
These reverses on the part of Spain added to the
number of her enemies. The famous Cromwell,
having entered into an alliance with France (1655),
dispossessed the Spaniards of Jamaica, one of their
richest settlements in America.

Towards the end of the fifteenth century, Por-
tugal had reached a high pitch of elevation, which
she owed to the astonishing progress of her navi-
gation and her commerce. John II., who>e llects
first doubled the Cape of Good Hope, augmented
the royal authority, by humbling the cxorhitant
and tyrannical power of the grandees. In the diet
which was assembled at Evora, he retracted the
concessions which his predecessors had made to
the nobles, to the prejudice of the- crown, lie
abolished the power of life and death, which the
lords exercised over their \assals, and subjected
their towns and their territories to the jurisdiction
of ollicers appointed hy the king. 'The nobles,
who were displeased at these innovations, having
combined in defence of their privileges, and chosen
the Duke of Ur:igan/a for their leader, John,
without being disconcerted by this opposition, had
the Duke brought to a trial, and his head cut oil',
while his brother was banged in ciligy. This ex-
ample of severity intimidated the grandees, and
made them submit to his authority. The most
brilliant era of Portugal was that of Kmanuel and
John III., who reigned between the years I I!).")
and 1557. It was underthe.se two princes that the
Porliiu'iK-M- formed their powerful empire ill India,
of which nothing now remains but the ruins.

The glory of Portugal sutl'ered an eclipse under
the feeble reiirn of Sebastian, urainUon and imme-
diate successor of John. That prince, who came
to the throne at the age of three years, had been

S.bMltea of IWtupl.
II. eooqu.

ill) \ I.

| i. i, ,

... i\

.(.suits, who, instead of in-
Mnotfl | '..i . In '! important art . MM M,
had given hint the education of a n
luitl m.pirrd him with a dislike for malm
1'i.t with decided attachment for the crusade*.
Haley Mahomet, King of Morocco, having re-
quested hie assistance against hi* uncle Molu< .
had dethroned bin, Sebastian undertook sn expe-
dition into Africa in prnon, carrying with him the
dower of his nobility. A great battle was fought
new Alcacar, in the kingdom of Fez (157H), where
the Portuguese sustained a complete <i
bastian was ilain ; and, what is sufficiently remark-
able, his enemy Molue died a natural death during
the action, while Muley Mahomet WM drowned
in the t

( During tin- reign ..I this knur, every thing had
fallen into decay; even the character of tin-
had I ,'euerate. The spirit uf chivalry

which had distinguished them was exchanged for
mercantile adventures which fveii infected the
higher classes; while avarice, luxury, and . i!'. t..i-
nacy brought on it univenal rorruption. The
governor* of their colonies indulged in all sort* of
.i-e and injuntice. They seized the mon- lu-
crative brunches of coiiiin. re . . Tin- military
which Kmuuuel and John III. h:ul kept up in
India, was in -In tnl. Tl .:rp.-d ih.-

whole \M alth of tin- !. .!-. :n.il exercised an ab-
solute power by means of the Inquisition, which
was no where more t. rribl. than at Goa.l

As Sebastian had never been married, the throne
passed, at his death, to Henry the Cardinal, his
grand uncle !% th>. father's side, who was already
far advanced in life. Perceiving hi-* end approach,
and that his death would involve the kingdom in
.tunned an assembly of the States
at Lisbon (1570), in order to tix the succession.
The states appointed i<>ncr*, who

weie to investigate the claims of the diHVrent can-
didates for the t row a. 1'hilip II. of Spain, who
was one of thii nuinher, did not pay the lea-t n--
ganl to the decision of the State*. No sooner
e learned the death of Henry (1;>HO), than
be aent the Duke of Alva, at the head of an army,
to take poeaeasion of Portugal. The duke d. .
the troops of his opponent, Anthony, Prior of
Onto, one of the claimant-, who had proclaimed
himself king, prctcndini; that he was the legitimate
son of the Infant Don Louis, -on of Kmanucl.
Anthony had n<> other alternative left than to take
shelter in France, an. I the whole of Portugal
yielded to the yoke of the Spaniards.

AD mtipathy, however, subsisted be-

tween the two nations, whi< ' Portuguese

detest their Spanish masters. This hatred was
till more increased, on account of the losses which
the Portuguese sustained, in the mean time, in
their commerce and possession" in the East Indies.
irrative traffic which the con ;n the

Low Countries, called the Dutch, carried on by
he merchandise of the East from Por-
tugal, and hawking them over the north of Europe,
!! them to support the war against
. Philip II. thought to strike a fatal blow at
their pros; 'lidding them all commerce

with Portugal, That prince, however, was deceived
in hi* expectation. The confederate*, deprived of
tin* lucrative branch of their industry, and after
having made some unsuccessful attempt! to find a

north-west passage to India, took the resolution of
sailing die (IMA), tinder the conduct

Helms lioutmanand Molinaar, in order to
serk, at the fount ainhead, those commodities which
were refused them in Portugal. Mo sooner had
they attempted to form settlements in India them
tctermined to prevent them, and
fought with them, near Bantam, a town in Java, t
naval battle, which ended in favour of the con-
federates.

Encouraged by this first success, the Dutch un-
dertook to deprive the Portuguese of their principal
possessions in India. The conquest which they
made of the Moluccas procuied them the spice
trade. They likewise formed settlements in the
island of Java, where they founded the city of Ba-
tavia, which became the capital and emporium of
iheir settlements in India. At length Goa and Din
were the only places that remained to the Portu-
guese of their numerous possessions in India.
These important losses greatly exasperated the
1'ortugneee against the Spaniards. What added
still more to their resentment was, that hi the
court of Madrid they saw a premeditated design to
make vassals of the Portuguese ; and to cut off the
most likely means of enabling them, sooner or
later, to recover their ancient independence. It
was with this view that their army and their
marine were disorganized, their crown revenues
dissipated, their nobility precluded from the ma-
nagement of affairs, and the nation exhausted by
exorbitant assessments.

The revolt of the Catalans, which happened in
1640, at length determined the Portuguese to
shake off the Spanish yoke. A conspiracy waa
entered into by some of the grandees, in concert
with the Duke of Braganza, which broke out on
the 1st December that same year. On that day, at
eight o'i lock in the morning, the conspirators, to
the number of about 400, repaired by dit!
routes to the palace of Lisbon, where the vice-
i|ueen, M:irguret of Savoy, and dowager of Mantua,
resided, with Vosconcellos the secretary of state,
who exercised the functions of prime minister of
the kingdom. Part of them disarmed the guard
of the palace, while others seized Vasconcelloe,
who was the only victim that fell a sacrifice to
the public vengeance. They secured the person
of the vice-queen, and took measures to protect
her from insult or violence. The conspirator* then
proclaimed the Duke of Braganza king, under the
title of John IV. That prince arrived at Lisbon
on the 6th December, and his inauguration took
place on the 15th. It is not a little surprising that
this revolution became general in eight days time,
and that it was not confined merely to Portugal,
but extended even to India and Afric
where the Portuguese expelled the Spaniards, and
proclaimed the Duke of Braganza. The city of
Ceuta in Africa was the only town which the
Spaniards found means to retain possession of.

John IV. was descended in a dii> < t line from
Alphouso, natural son of John the Bastard, who
was created Duke of Braganza. The first care of
this new king of Portugal, on his accession to the
throne, was to convene an assembly of the states
at Lisbon, in order to make them acknowledge his
right to the crown. The states, conformably to
uidamental laws of the kingdom, declared
that Catherine, daughter of the infant Don Edward,

u 2

M.MiryVII. IleuryVIlI.
100 'f' 11 ' Deformation.

('runnier archbishop.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

The Six Articles.

Edward VI.

M;irv I. Persecution.

and grandmother of King John, having become
the true and legitimate heiress to the throue on
the death of Henry the Cardinal, her grandson
John IV. was entitled to the repossession of those
rights of which that princess had been unjustly de-
prived by the Spaniards. The better to establish
himself on the throne, John concluded treaties of
peue.' with France, the United Provinces, the
Netherlands, and Sweden ; but confining his whole
ambition to the maintaining the ancient limits of
the kingdom, he remained completely inactive with
regard to Spain, which being overpowered by nu-
merous enemies, was quite incapable of carrying
011 the war with vigour against Portugal. The
truce and alliance which that prince had entered
into with the Dutch, did not prevent these repub-
licans from continuing their conquests in India ;
where, in process of time, they stript the Portuguese
of their finest settlements.

England, long before this time, had emerged
from the state of turbulence and desolation into
which she had been plunged by the destructive
wars of the two Hoses. A new family, that of the
Tudors, had mounted the throne ; Henry VII.,
who was its founder, claimed the crown in right
of his mother Margaret Beaufort, alleged heiress
of the house of Lancaster, or the Red Rose ; and
raised an insurrection against Richard III., the last
king of the house of York. This prince being de-
feated and slain at the battle of Bosworth (1485),
Henry, who was then proclaimed King of Eng-
land, united the titles or claims of the two Roses,
by his marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of Ed-
ward IV., and heiress of York, or the "White
Rose. The country being thus restored to tran-
quillity after thirty years of civil war, everything
assumed a more prosperous appearance. Agricul-
ture and commerce began to flourish anew. Henry
applied himself to the restoration of order and in-
dustry. He humbled the factious nobles, and
raised the royal authority almost to a state of abso-
lute despotism.

The reformation of religion in England began
in the reign of his son Henry VIII. That prince,
who was of a very capricious character, vacillating
continually between virtue and vice, appeared at
first as the champion of popery, and published a
tri-ative against Luther, which procured him, from
the court of Rome, the title of Defender of the
Faith. But a violent passion, which he had con-
ceived for Anne Boleyn, having induced him to
attempt a divorce from Catherine of Arragon,
daughter of Ferdinand the Catholic, he addressed
him-elf fur this purpose to Pope Clement VII.,
alleging certain scruples of conscience which he
felt on account of his marriage with Catherine,
who was within the degrees of affinity prohibited
in the sacred Scriptures. The Pope being afraid
to displease the Emperor Charles V., who was the
nephew of Catherine, thought proper to defer
judgment in this matter; but the King, impatient
of delay, caused his divorce to be pronounced by
Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury
(I.">:i2), and immediately married Anne Bolevn.
'J'hc sentence of the Archbishop was annulled by
tin- Pope, who published a threatening bull against
Henry. This incensed the King, who caused the
Pupal authority in England to be abrogated by the
parliament, and installed himself in the capacity of
supreme head of the English church (1534) ; a title

which was conferred on him by the clergy, and
confirmed by the parliament. He also introduced
the oath of supremacy, in virtue of which all who
were employed in offices of trust, were obliged to
acknowledge him as head of the church. A court
of high commission was established, to judge
ecclesiastical causes in name of the kin:;, and from
whose sentence there was no appeal. The con-
vents or monasteries were suppressed, and their
revenues confiscated to the crown (1536-1539).
Henry even became a dogmatist in theology ; and
discarding the principles of Luther, as well as those
of Calvin and Rome, he framed a religion according
to his own fancy. Rejecting the worship of
images, relics, purgatory, monastic vows, and the
supremacy of the Pope, he gave his sanction, by
the law of the Six Articles, to the doctrine of the
real presence, the communion in one kind, the vow
of chastity, the celibacy of the priests, the mass,
and auricular confession ; inflicting very severe
penalties on all who should deny or disobey one or
other of these articles.

This monarch, who was the first of the English
kings that took the title of King of Ireland (1542),
was involved in the disputes which then embroiled
the continental powers ; but instead of holding the
balance between France and Austria, he adhered
in general to his friend and ally Charles V. against
France. This conduct was regulated less by
politics than by passion, and the personal interest
of his minister Cardinal Wolsey, whom the em-
peror had attached to his cause, by the hope of the
papal tiara.

The religion which Henry had planted in Eng-
land did not continue after his death. Edward
VI., his son and immediate successor, introduced
pure Calvinism or Presbyterianism. Mary, daugh-
ter of Henry VIII., by Catherine of Arragon, OH
her accession to the throne, restored the Catholic
religion (1553), and likewise received the new
legate of the Pope into England. She inflicted
great cruelties on. the Protestants, many of whom
were burnt at the stake ; among others, Cranmer,
Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Bishops of Lon-
don and Worcester. "With the view of more firmly
establishing the Catholic religion in her domi-
nions, she espoused Philip, presumptive heir to the
Spanish monarchy (1554). The restrictions with
which the English parliament fettered his contract
of marriage with the Queen, so displeased that
prince, that, finding himself without power or
authority, he speedily withdrew from England.
Mary's reign lasted only five \ears; she was suc-
ceeded by her sister Elizabeth (1558), daughter of
Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn. This princess
once more abrogated the authority of the Pope,
and claimed to herself the supreme administration,
both spiritual and temporal, within her kingdom.
Though she adopted the Calvinistic principles in
everything regarding the doctrines of the church,
she retained many of the Romish ceremonies,
and the government of bishops. It was this that
gave rise to the distinction between the Knylish or
High Church, and the Calvinistic or Presby-
terian.

About the time when the High Church party
rose in England, a change of religion took place in
Scotland, protected by Queen Elizabeth. The
regency of that kingdom was then \estnl in the
Queen-dowager, Mary of Lorraine, the widow of

M '.V... ' .'.'

i. ,,, Is M

\ I). H63 IA4K.

: m

Ta toft*!* KaVy.

- . i . ,....,

101

James V., and mother <>f Mary Stuart, Queen of

tul ami France. Th:il 'p r '"" --. ^ho WM

aided soU-U by ili<- conn. I > rot hers of

'ruilured a body troops

jimw the follower* of the new doctrines, who
bad formed a new league, under tin- name <
1'imyrryation. The< . ' by the Catholic

malecontent*. who were apprehensive .,f

r a foreign yoke, tiHk thr resolution of apply -

.-Itsli i|iiern, \\hich it

was by no mean* difficult t<> obtain. Elisabeth

:\ foresaw, that to toon an Franci* became
master of Scotland! he would Httempt to enforce
Mar}-'* claim* to tho thrum- of F.nirhnd, grounded
partly on tin- asauniption of her hi -ing illegitimate,
risiderahle number nf Fnglish troops were
then marched ti> Scotland, and having fnrmcil a
junction with the Scottish maler y be-

deged thr French in the town of l.cith, m -ar
l.'linhurirh. The latter were noon obliged tn
Lit.-. By the article* signed at Leith (1560),
th<- French and English troops were to e\

'md; Francis II., King of France, and his
wife Mary Stuart, were to rcn<>uncr thr titles and
arms of the sovereigns of England, which they li:ul
assumed ; while a parliament was to be assembled
at Edinburgh for th<- pacification of the kingdom.
The parliament which met FOOH after, ratified
thi- Confession of Faith, drawn ii]> and presented
liy the Presbyterian ministers. Thr Presbyterian
worship wa introducc-d into Scotland ; and the
parliament even went so far as to prohibit the ex-
ercise of the Catholic religion. Mar}* Stuart, on
hern-turn to Scotland (1561), after the death of
her husband Francis, was obliged to acquiesce in
all these change* ; ami it wan with difficulty she
WM allowed the liberty of baring a Catholic chapel
attached to her court. This unfortunate princess
was afterwards accused of having caused the assas-
sination of Henry Darnlry, her second husband ;
and lii-iii-,' obliged to tly thr country, she took
shelter in England (1568), when* she was arrr-t<->l
and imprisoned by onlrr of (jun-n Klirabeth.
After a captivity of ninrteen years she was sen-

! to di-ath, and Wheaded (isth Febnmry,

. aa an accomplice in thr different plots which
had been formed against the life of her royal
rclatire.

The troubles which the reformation of religion
had r\citi-d in Scotland, extended also to Ireland.
A kind nf corrupt feudal system had prevailed
originally in that island, which Henry II. had not
been able to extirpate. The KnglUh proprietors,
who were vassals of the crown, and governed by
the laws of England, posacoed nearly one-third of
the whole country ; while the rest of the island
was in the hand* of the Irish proprietors, who,
although they acknowledged the sovereignty of the
English kings, preserved nevertheless] the language
and manner* of their native land ; and were in-
clined to seize CACM opportunity of shaking off

ngliah yoke, which the\ ib-testeil. 1 1 '-nee, a
continued aeries of wars and feuds, both among
the Irish themselves, and against the English, uho
on their part had no other object than to extend
their possessions at the expense of the native*.
t l.ii'/la:nl, (glided by an injudicious
policy, fur several centuries exhausted their re.

s in perpetual wars, sometimes against
France, sometimes against Scotland, and some-

times against their own subject*, without paying
(In least attention to Ireland, of which U.cy ap-
pear in )>.-i\r known neither the Importance nor
the effectual advantages which thi-% might hare
reaped from it l< a wise administration.

< >* nf agriculture and industry became
thus coinpli-trly impracticable; a deep...

I Was established between the i .
the English, who in fact .mcd tv
nations, enemies of each other, and formii.
alliances either by marriage or reciprocal inter-
course.

Tin- resentment of the Irish against the
government was aggravated still more, at the tim>-
of the Reformation, by the vigorous measures that
were taken, subsequently to the reiirn of Henry
VIII.. tn extend to Ireland the laws framed in

md against the court of Home and tin- Catholic
clergy. A general insurrection broke out in the
reign of Elizabeth (I.V.is), the chief instigator of
which wan ilu^h O'Neal, head of a clan in the
pnnince of I Uter, and Earl of Tyrone. Having
gained over the whole Irish Catholic-* to his cause,
he plannei! w- conspiracy, with the de-

sign of effecting the entire expulsion of the Knglish
from the Uland. Philip II., King of Spain, sup-
plied the insurgents with troops and ammunition ;
and Pope Clement VIII. held out ample indul-
gences in favour of those who should enlist under
the banners of O'Neal, to combat thr F.n-_'IUh
heretics. This insurgent chief met at first with
considerable success ; he defented the Knglish in a
pitched battle, and maintained his ground agninst
the F,arl of Essex, whom Elizabeth had despatched
to thr island with a formidable army. The rebels,
however, ultimately failed in their enterprise, after
a sanguinary war which lasted seven years.
Charles, Lord Mountjoy, governor of Ireland,
drove the insurgents to their last recesses, and had
the glory of achieving the entire reduction of the
island. 9

The maritime greatness of F.ngland begnn in the
reign of Elizabeth. That princess gave new vigour
to industry and commerce ; and her efforts
seconded by the persecuting real of the French
and Spanish governments. The numerous re-
fugees from France and the Netherlands found a
ready asylum in England, under the protection of
r.li/:iheth ; and her kingdom became, as it were,
the retreat and principal residence of their arts and
manufactures. She encouraged and protected na-
vigation, which thr English, by degrees, extended
to all parts of the globe. An Englishman, named
Richard Chancellor, haxini: discos-red the route to
\rehaiigel in the Icy Sea (1555), the Car, John
HasiloviU II., granted to an English company the
exclusive pri\ile^e nf trading with Russia (1569).
The commerce of the English with Turkey and the
Levant, which began in 1579, was likewise r..
poliscd by a company of merchants. Sir Francis
Drake, a distinguished navigator, and the rival of
Magellan, was the first Englishman that performed
a voyage round the world, between 1577 and
1580. The intercourse between England and the

indies began in 1 VU ; and the Eart India
Company was instituted in 1600. Attempts were
also made, about the same -n settlr-

ments in North America; and SirAValvr K-V
who had obtained a charter from the Queen < 1
endeavoured to found a colony in that part of the

'mi of .lames I.
102 Krii-n (if I'liiirl. - 1.
SlralVord nml Luud.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

The Parliament.

Ci\il\Vnr.

Dcatli of Charles I.

American continent, now called Virginia, in com-
pliment to Elizabeth. That colony, however, did
not, properly speaking, take root or flourish till
the reigu of James I. The competition with Spain,
and the destruction of the Invincible Armada of
Philip II., by the combined fleets of England and
Holland, gave a new energy to the English marine,
the value of which they had learned to appreciate,
not merely in guarding the independence of the
kingdom, but in securing the prosperity of their
commerce and navigation.

The House of Tudor ended with Queen Eliza-
beth (1603), after having occupied the throne of
England about 118 years. It was replaced by that
of Stuart. James VI., King of Scotland, son of
Mary Stuart and Henry Darnley, succeeded to the
throne of England, and took the title of King of
Great Britain, which his successors still retain.
This prince derived his right to the crown from
the marriage of his great grandmother, Margaret
Tudor, daughter of Henry VII., with James IV.
of Scotland. Vain of his new elevation, and fond
of prerogative, James constantly occupied himself
with projects for augmenting his royal power and
authority in England ; and by instilling these prin-
ciples into his son, he became the true architect of
all the subsequent misfortunes of his house.

Charles I., the son and successor of James
(1 '>->), seldom convened the Parliament; and
when they did assemble, he provoked them by the
measures he proposed, and was then obliged to
dissolve them. Being entirely guided by his
ministers, Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, the
Earls of Strafford and Hamilton, and his queen,
Henrietta of France, he ventured to levy taxes
and impositions without the advice of Parliament.
This conduct on the part of the king produced a
general discontent. The flames of civil war began
to kindle in Scotland, where Charles had intro-
duced Episcopacy, as more favourable than Presby-
terianism to royalty. But the Scottish nobility
ha\!rig formed a confederacy, known by the name
of the Covenant, for the maintenance of their eccle-
siastical liberties, abolished Episcopacy (1638), and
subsequently took up arms against the king. The
Parliament of England, under such circumstances,
rose also against Charles (1641), and passed an
act that they should not be dissolved without pre-
uously obtaining redress for the complaints of the
nation. This act, which deprived the king of his
principal prerogative, proved fatal to the royal
dignity. A trial was instituted by the Parliament
against the king's ministers. The Earl of Strafford
and Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, were be-
headed (16401642) ; and Charles had the weak-
ness to sign the death-warrant of his faithful
servants.

The Presbyterians soon became the prevailing
party, and excluded the bishops from the Upper
House. The management of affairs fell then into
the hands of the House of Commons ; Episcopacy
wen- abolished; and the Parliament of Knglaml
acceded to the Scottish Covenant. War now
broke out between the king and the Parliament;
a battle was fought near York, in which the latter
was victorious (1644). Charles, seeing his affairs
ruined, took the determination to throw himself
into the arms of the Scots (1646), who, he sup-
posed, might still retain an affection for the race
of their ancient kings. He soon found reason,

however, to repent of this step ; the Scots did not
hesitate to sell him to the English Parliament for
a sum of 400,000 sterling, which they found
necessary for the payment of their troops.

A new revolution, which soon after happened
in the Parliament, completed the ruin of the kin:;.
The Presbyterians, or Puritans, who had sup-
pressed the Episcopalians, were crushed, in their
turn, by the Independents. These latter were a
sort of fanatics, who admitted no subordination
whatever in the church, entertained a perfect
horror for royalty, and were inclined for a repub-
lican or democratic form of government. The
head and soul of this faction was the famous Oliver
Cromwell, who, with great dexterity, made it an
engine, for raising himself to the sovereign au-
thority. The whole power of the Legislature fell
entirely into the hands of the Independent party ;
who, by one act, expelled sixty members from the
House of Commons. The Parliament, now com-
pletely under their dominion, appointed a com-
mission of 150 persons, whom they vested with
power to try the king. In vain did the Upper
House oppose this resolution; in vain did the
king object to the judges named by the House ;
the commission proceeded, and pronounced the
famous sentence, by virtue of which Charles was
beheaded on the 30th of January, 1649. His
family were dispersed, and saved themselves by
flight.

The revolutions in the North of Europe, about
the period of which we now speak, were not less
important than those which agitated the West and
the South. These arose chiefly from the dissolu-
tion of the Union of Calmar, and the reformation
in religion ; both of which happened about the
beginning of the sixteenth century. The Union
of Calmar, between the three kingdoms of the
North, had been renewed several times; but, being
badly cemented from the first, it was at length
irreparably broken by Sweden. This latter king-
dom had been distracted by intestine feuds, occa-
sioned by the ambition and jealousy of the nobles,
which continued during the whole reign of Charles
VIII., of the House of Bonde. After the death
of that prince (1470), the Swedes, without re-
nouncing the Union, had regularly appointed as
administrators of the kingdom, from the year 1471
till 1520, three individuals of the family of Stnre,
vi/.. Steno Sture, called the Old, Suante Sture and
Steno Sture, called the Youny.

Meantime John, King of Denmark, and son of
Christian I., had governed the three kingdoms
since 1497, when Steno Sture the elder had re-
signed, until 1501, when he resumed the admini-
stration. At length, however, Christian II., son
of John, made war on Steuo Stnre, surnamed the
Young, with a view to enforce the claims which
he derived from the act of union. Being victorious
at the battle of Bogesund, where Sture lust his life,
he succeeded in making himself acknowledged l>y
the Swedes as king, and was crowned at Stock-
holm (1520). Within a short time after this cere-
mony, he violated the amnesty which he had
publicly announced; and to gratify the revenue of
Gustavus Trolle, Archbishop of Upsal, whom the
Suedes had deposed, he caused nineu -four of the
most distinguished personages in the kingdom to
be arrested, and publicly beheaded at Stockholm.

This massacre caused a revolution, by which

tap

PERIOD VI. \.D. 145S164H.

II ... .,,,.:... ,.,
AaMnsfDsaMsra.

I-.

Sweden r*oovred Hi ancient state of indepewd*
enee. (iiiiaviM Yarn put himself at thn brad of
' i.dccarliaiM, uinluf I..M. to become the iihrnitor
of hi* country ( i was declared Hug ant,

and tm> yean after. King of Sweden ( 1523). The
example of th* Swede* waa aoon followed by UM
Dane*, who, iinliiniant at the excesses and craelUm
. deposed him, and conferred their
rmwn on Frederic, Duke of HoUtein, and paternal
unde to that pm -nan, after having Ion*

wandered about the Low Countries, wan made
priaonrr \>\ the Dane*, and remained in captivity
the rest of hi* day". The Kings of Denmark
bavin*; renewed, from time to time, their preten-
ions to UM Swedish throne, anil mill continued
the three crown* on their escutcheon, several war*
broke out on this subject between the two nai
and it waa not till the peace of Stettin (1670),
that the Dane* acknowledged the entire independ-
ence of Sweden.

Denmark then loat the ascendancy which aho
had ao long maintainetl in the North. The go-
vernment of the kingdom underwent a radical
change. A corrupt aristocracy roae on the ruins
f the national liberty. The senate, composed
wholh of tin- nobles, usurped all authority; they
overruled the election of the kings, and appro-
priated to themselves the powers of the States-
general, which they had not convoked since l.Vtil ;
tin -\ encroached even on the royal authority, which
waa curtailed more and more every day ; while the
prerogative* of the nobility were extended by the
"inliiions which the senate prescribed to the kings
on their accession to the crown. The reformation
of religion took place in Denmark, in the reign of
Frederic I., the successor of Christian II. That
prince employed an eloquent preacher, named John
Tausen, and several other disciples of Luther, to
promulgate the Protestant din-trine* in his king,
dom. In a diet held at Odensee (1527), the king
made a public profession of the new faith ; ami, in
-i. Hi- of tin* remonstrance* of the bishops, he passed
a deem-, in virtue of which liUerty of conscience
waa established, and permission granted to the
priests and monks to marry. These articles were
mother diet, assembled at Copenhagen
'i ; where the king ratified the Confession of
Faith presented to him by the Protestant ministers,
simitar to what had taken place the same year at
the Diet of Augsburg.

At length Christian III., who was elected In
'rmiirht these change* in religion to a close.
1h. hbihops, during the hut interregnum, had done
everything to Mop the progress of the Reformation.
The king, desirous of annihilating their temporal
power, colluded with the principal nobility to have
all the bishops in the kingdom arrested ; and
having then assembled a meeting of the States at
ihagrn, he abolished Episcopacy, and sup-
preisnii the public exercise of the Catholic religion.
'I MI- castles, fortresses, and vast domain* of the
prelates were annexed to the crown; and the other
btncflcei and revenues of the clergy were appro-
priated to the support of the ministers of religion,
pnMie schools, and the poor. The monks and
were left at liberty, either to quit their con-
vents, or remain there during their lives. The
were replaced by superintendents, the
. iti.in of whom was vested in the king ;
while each congregation retained the privilege of

choosing Its own pastor*. From Denmark this
revolution passed to Norway, which at that
on account of having joined the party of Christian
II., who was deposed by the Danes, loat iU inde-
pendence, and was declared a province of the
kingdom of Denmark.

The House of Oldenburg, which had occupied
the throne of Denmark diner I-MH, waa separated
in the reign of Christian III. into two powerful
branches, viz. the royal, descended from that
pnn, -,- ; and the family of Holsteln-GotU>r|
scrnded from his brother, tho Duke Adolphus.
This latter branch was afterwards divided into
three others, viz. those of Russia, Sweden, and

iii-olili-nlnirg. As the law of primogei
Was not established ill tin- iln.-hi- . of -leswick and
ll.<Ui. in, which had fallen into the succession of
the House of Oldenburg, the Kings of Denmark
soon found themselves under the necessity of divid-
ing these duchies among the younger princes of
their i:imil\. The treaty of partition, which was
entered into (1544) between Christian III. and
hi* brother, had been preceded by a treaty of per-
petual union, annexing these duchies to the king-
dom, ami intended to preserve the tnrone, which
was electhe, in the House of Oldenburg; as well
as to prevent any portion of these two duchies
from falling into the possession of strangers. The
union was to endure as long as the descendants
of Frederic I. reigned in Denmark. They pro-
mised to Mettle, by arbitration, whatever difference
might arise between the states of the union ; to
afford each other mutual succour against every
external eiii-nn ; and to undertake no war but by

eommiili consent.

The treaty of 1.V14, which regulated this par-
tition, made several exceptions of matters that
were to be managed and administered in common ;
such as the customs, jurisdiction o\er the i,
the bishops, and certain cities. This gave rise to
a sort of copartnership of power, common to all
the princes of the union. Everything regarding
either the general safety as stipulated in the treaty,
or the exercise of these privileges included in the
exceptions, was to be discussed and settled by
unanimous consent ; and for this purpose a coun-
cil of regency, an exchequer, and common courts
were established. This union and community of
rights were followed, as a natural consequence, by
long and destructive feuds between the Kings of
Denmark and the Dukes of Holstein-(iottorj>, in
which the other powers of the North were also
implicated.

Christian IV., grandson of Christian III., was
distinguished not more by the superiority of his
talents, than by the indefatigable seal with which
he applied himself to every department of the
administration (l.VSM). It was in hi* reign that
the Danes extended their commerce as far as India.
in. led the first Danish East India Company
(1616), who fonned a settlement in Tranquebar.
..n the Coromandel coast, which had been ceded
to them by the Rajah of Tanjore. Various manu-
factories of silk stuffs, paper, and anna, were con-
structed, and several towns built under the auspices
of Christian IV. The science* were also much
indebted ! him: he gave a new loatre to the
:.enhagen. and founded the Aca-
of Soroe in Zealand, beside* a number of
colleges. If he was unsuccessful in his wan

Christian IV. of IVumark.

104 Kri'.'ii of Gi^taM.-
I.uthonin religion.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Swedish reforms.
( ;>i<t;ivus Ailolphus.
liattlir of Liitzi-u.

against Sweden and Austria, it must be ascribed
to the narrow limits of his power, to the influence
of the aristocratic spirit, and of the feudal regime ,
which still prevailed in Denmark. He succeeded,
however, in excluding the Swedes from access to
the Icy Sea, which opened them a way to the
coasts of Lapland, by obtaining possession, at the
peace of Siorod (1613), of that part of Lapland
which extends along the Northern and Icy Seas,
from Titisfiord to "\Varanger and "Wardhuys. The
disputes concerning the three crowns were settled
by the same treaty, in such a way that both sove-
reigns were permitted to use them, without author-
izing the King of Denmark to lay any claim to the
Swedish crown.

Sweden, which had long maintained a struggle
against Denmark, at length acquired such a pre-
ponderance over her as to threaten, more than
once, the entire subversion of the throne. This
preponderance was the achievement of two great
men, who rose in the period we now speak of,
viz. Gustavus Vasa, and his grandson, Gustavus
Adolphus. Gustavus Yasa was not merely the
liberator, but the restorer of his country. Elevated
to the throne by the free choice of the nation, he
gave Sweden a power and influence which it never
had before. Everything under him assumed a new
, the government, the religion, the finances,
the commerce, the agriculture, the sciences, and
the morals of the Swedes. Instead of the assem-
blies of the nobles, formerly in use, and destructive
of the national liberty, he substituted diets com-
posed of the different orders of the state, the
nobility, the clergy, the citizens, and the peasantry.
By this means he acquired a new influence, of
which he took advantage to humble the power of
the church and the nobles, which had long been
a source of oppression to Sweden.

The reformation of religion, which then occupied
every mind, appeared to Gustavus a very proper
expedient to second his views, and introduce a
better order of things. On his accession to the
throne, he authorized the two brothers Olaus and
Laurentius Petri to preach publicly at Stockholm
the doctrines of Luther, and did everything in his
power to accelerate the progress of the Reforma-
tion in his kingdom. The bishops, who were
apprehensive for their benefices and their authority,
having drawn the greater part of the nobility over
to their interest, the king, in the presence of a
diet of the four orders assembled at "Westcras,
took the determination of formally abdicating the
crown. This step threw the diet into a state of
consternation, and encouraged the two lower
orders, the citizens and peasants, to declare them-
sel\e- loudly for the king. The bishops and nobles
were obliged to comply ; and the king, resuming
tin- reins of government, succeeded in overruling
the deliberations of the diet. My the authority of
a decree, he annexed tin? strong castles of the
bishops to the demesnes of the rniwn, and re-
trenched from their vast possessions whatever he
j lidded convenient. The prelates at the same time
wen- excluded from the senate ; the ties that
bound them to the court of Rome were broken ;
and they were enjoined henceforth to demand
confirmation from the king, and not from the Pope.
The revenues of the clergy in general, and those
of the convents, were left at the free disposal of
the king, and the nobles were permitted to bring

forward whatever claims they could adduce over
lands granted to these convents by their ancestors.
There was nothing now to retard the march of re-
formation. The Lutheran religion was introduced
universally into Sweden, and that event contri-
buted not a little to exalt the royal authority.

Gustavus secured the hereditary succession of
the crown in favour of his male descendants. The
states, anxious to obviate the troubles and disor-
ders which the demise of their kings had often
produced, regulated the succession by an-act known
by the name of the Hereditary Union. It was
passed at Orebro (1540), and ratified anew by the
states assembled at "\Vesteras. The Union Act
was renewed at the Diet of Nordkoping, in the
reign of Charles IX. (1604), when the succession
was extended to females.

The reign of Gustavus Adolphus, the son of
Charles IX., forms the brightest gem in the glory
of Sweden. The virtues and energies of that
prince, the sagacity of his views, the admirable
order which he introduced into every branch of
the administration, endeared him to his subjects ;
while his military exploits, and his superiority in
the art of war, fixed upon him the admiration of
all Europe.

Gustavus brought the wars, which he had to
sustain against the different powers of the North,
to a most triumphant conclusion. By the peace
which he concluded at Stolbova with Russia <"1617),
he obtained possession of all Ingria, Kexholm, and
Russian Carelia ; and even cut that Empire off
from all communication with Europe by the Gulf
of Finland and the Baltic Sea. His success was
not less brilliant in his campaigns against Sigis-
mund III., King of Poland, who persisted in con-
testing with him his right to the crown of Sweden.
He took from the Poles the whole of Livonia, with
a part of Prussia ; and kept possession of these
conquests by the six years truce which he con-
cluded with the latter at Altmark (1629).

It was about this time that Sweden began to
occupy a distinguished place among the powers of
Europe ; and that she was called on to take the
lead in the league which was to protect the princes
and states of the Empire against the ambition of
Austria. Gustavus, who was in alliance with
France, undertook a task as difficult as it was glo-
rious. In the short space of two years and a half,
he overran two-thirds of Germany with his victo-
rious arms. He vanquished Tilly at the famous
battle of Leipsic (1631), and extended his con-
quests from the shores of the Baltic to the Rhine
and the Danube. Everything yielded before him,
and every place opened its gates to him. This
great prince, who had made war a new art, and
accustomed his army to order, and a system of
tactics never before known, perished at the memo-
rable battle of Lut/en (l<;:<'2), which the Swedes
trained after liis dentil, in consequence of the skilful
dispositions he had formed.

The war was continued under the minority of
Queen Christina, his daughter and heir. It was
still cairied on, although the Swedes hud under-
taken a new war against Denmark, with the view
of disengaging themselves from the mediation
which Christian IV. had undertaken between the
Emperor and Sweden, at the congress which was
to meet at Munster and Osnuhurg. The result of
that war was completely to the advantage of Swe-

1 1...,-- ,.r

VI, \.I>. 145.11048.

K ..'.'.I I

105

den, who gained by the peace of Bromsbro (IMS)

tin- !;... !. -I' ih. Bound, as also the possMsJoa
of tin- pro* ' | tl U..I. II

iluli i I, and Iliitliuiil. LaM!

ilia secured to Sweden eon
able possessions on the southern coast of the !

ns Wimar, Brnncii and \ erdcn, and
put of Pomerania.

The power of the Teutonic knight*, which hail
been greatly reduced tint in.- the preceding \
by (In- . I lection of a part of 1'ruMiia, was eom-
pjcti ly annihilated in the North, in consequence
of llu- changes introduced by the reformation of
religion. Albert of Brandenburg, grandson of the
Elector Albert Achilles, on hit <|c \ntion to the
digniu of <.rnid Muster of thr Ordrr, made an at-
tempt to withdraw from Poland that fealty and ho.
mage to which the knight* had bound themselves
>\ tin- treat) of Thorn in 1406. ThU contest fur-
faked matter for a war between them ; v\ hirh be-
gun in l.'il'.i, and ended in I.VJ1, l.\ a jtruce of
tour )ears; at the expiration of which the grand
master, who saw the doctrine* of Luther di--.-mi-
nated iu Prussia, and who had himself imbibed
principles in Germany, found means to settle
all differences with the Kin-; of Poland, by n b
which he concluded with him at Cracow (1525).
Id- there engaged to do homage and fealty to the
crown of Poland a* usual ; ami Sigisimind I., who
wa* hi* maternal uncle, granted him Teutonic
Prussia, with the title of Duchy, as a hereditary
fief, both for himself and his male heirs, and for
his brothers of the House of Brandenburg and
Franconia, and their feudal heirs ; reserving the
right of reversion in favour of Poland, failing the
ii-sccndants of these princes.

The Teutonic knights thus lost Prussia, after
hating possessed it for nearly three hundred yean.
Retiring to their possessions in Germany, they
established their prineip:il r.-i.i.-n. at Mergen-
theim in Franconia. when- they pmei edeil to the
election of a new grand innstcr, in the person of

Walter de Cr.>nherg. The Poles, ill getting quit

of the Teutonic knights, whom they had regarded
with jealousy, and substitutm- tin- House of Bran-
denburg in their place, never dreamed of adopting
an enemy still more dangerous, who would one
day concert the ruin and annihilation of their
country.

Immediately after the treaty of Cracow, the new
Duke of Prussia made a public profession of the
Lutheran religion, and married a daughter of the
of Denmark. This princess dving without
male issue, he married for his MOOSM wife a prin-
cess of the Brunswick family, l>y whom he had a
\Ihert Frederic, who succeeded him in the
duchy of Prussia. The race of these new dukes
..t I'M>-, i i l.i-'.s), as well as that of Franconia,
which should have succeeded them, appearing to
be nearly extinct, Joachim II., F.lector of Hran-
dcnhurg. obtained from the Kin-/ of Poland the
investiture of Priisnia, in fief, conjunctly with the
fsjgulng dukes. This investiture, which was re-
newed in favour of several of his successors, se-
cured the succession of that duchy in the . l.-etoml
fami'M :.-nhiirir; to whom it devolved on

the li.-ath of Altx-rt Frederic (1018), who left no
male descendants. He was succeeded by the
M Sigismund, who had been coinvested
with him in the duchv. That prince, who had

msrri I rut daughter of Albert Frederic,

obtalmd lik- \\i.. , in ri-.'ht of that princess, part of

Jllliero, \i/., the iliM'ln '

'unties of Marck and Kavensberg, which had
been adjudged to id.- li..i,.. . f Hi n,.'
the provisional act of partition ronrlmlfd at Kan-
( n i li.l n, ruirl roiiverti-d into :i -n-aty

. .-. The grandson of John Bigtsnond, the
!<-ric \N illinm, was a prince of superior
genius, and the true founder of the greatness of
his family. Illustrious in war as in peace, an
perted by all F.iirope, he aci|uired l>y the treaty of

linlin, a part <>f Pomerania, the arehlu>!
of Magdeburg umler the title of a duchy, with the
. : llalbcnitadt, Minden, and Camin,
under the title of principalities. His son Frederic
was the first Kinir of Prussia.

[The Teutonic knights had nearly lost Livonia
at the beginning of the sixteenth century ; but
that province was saved )>v the courage and talents
of the Provincial Master, Walter de Plattenberg.
The Grand Duke I wan, or John III., having
threatened Livonia with an invasion, Plattenberg
concluded a defensive alliance at Walik (1501),
with Alexander II., Grand Duke of Lithuania, and
the hisliops of that country. After having assem-
bled troops to the number of 14,000 men, he de-
feated the Russian army, which was 40,000 strong,
at Maholm ; a second victory, which he gained
with the same number of troops over 100,000 Rus-
sians at Pleskow (1502), is one of the most famous
exploits in the history of the North. Next year
he concluded a truce of six years with the Livoiiian
order, which was afterwards renewed for fifty
years.

It is commonly said that Walter, the provincial
master, taking advantage of the distresses of the
Teutonic knights, and urging the repeated suc-
cours which he had furnished them against the
Poles, purchased from them his own independ-
ence, and that of his Order; but a recent author
(Le Comtc dc Bray) has shown that this was not
exactly the cose. By a first agreement signed at
Koningsberg i I.V.'IM. Albert of Brandenburg, who
was then only drawl Master of the Teutonic Or-
der, confirmed to the knights of Livonia the free
right of electing a chief of their own number, pro-
ini-iii^ to sustain the individual whom they should
nominate. He secured them the possession of the
whole sovereignty of Revel and Narva ; the coun-
tries of Altenkirken, Jerwen, and Wierland; as
also the town and castle of Wesenberg, with their
dependencies. This agreement was revived ami
ritiHed by a second, signed nt G robin ( l.V..">), when
it was formally stipulated, that the relations be-
tween the knights of Livonia and the Teutonic
order should be maintained ns they were, and that
thr Livonians should continue to regard the Grand
r ns their true head, and render him homage
and obedience. They were forbidden to -
from the Kmpcror or the Pope any privilege dero-
gntory of their allegiance. It appears, consequently,
that Walter de Plattenlx-rg did nt purchase the
indcj his Order, but that he regarded

* !iich existed between it and the Teu-
tonic order as broken, when Albert of Branden-
burg was declared Duke of Prussia. He next re-
d those connexions with the German F.mpiro
which had existed since the thirteenth century ;
and was declared by Charles V. (1527) a prince

The Reformed Religion.
106 Duchy of Courland.
Troubles of Livonia.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Peace of Oliva.
Horde of Kiyzac.
Ivan Itiwilovitz 111.

of the Empire, having a vote and a seat in the
diet.

It was during the mastership of Plattenherg
that the Lutheran doctrines penetrated into Livo-
uia, where they made rapid progress, especially in
the cities. Walter dexterously turned the disturb-
ances caused by the opposition of the clergy to the
new tenets, into an occasion for establishing his
authority over all Livonia and Esthonia, which
the Order had formerly shared with the bishops.
The citizens of Riga acknowledged him as their
only sovereign, and expelled the archbishop. The
burgesses of Revel followed their example. The
clergy were so frightened at these movements, that
the archbishop of Riga, and the bishops of Dort'at,
Oesel, Courland, and Revel, formally submitted to
the Order. The clergy themselves soon after em-
braced the reformed religion.]

The dominion of the Knights Sword-bearers
had continued in Livonia until the time of the
famous invasion of that country by the Czar, John
Basilovitz IV. That prince, who had laid open
the Caspian Sea by bis conquest of the Tartar
kingdoms of Casan and Astrachan, meditated also
that of Livonia, to obtain a communication with
Europe by the Baltic. Gotthard Kettler, who
was then Grand Master, finding himself unable to
cope with an enemy so powerful, implored first
the assistance of the Germanic body, of whom he
was a member ; but having got nothing but vague
promises, he next addressed himself to Sigismund
Augustus, King of Poland, and, in concert with
tin.- Archbishop of Riga, he concluded with that
prince a treaty of submission at "Wilna (1561) ;
in virtue of which, the whole of Livonia, with
Esthouia, Courland, and Semigallia, comprising
not only what was still in the possession of the
Order, but those parts which had been seized by
the enemy, were ceded to the crown of Poland and
the Grand Duke of Lithuania, on condition that
the use of the Confession of Augsburg should be
preserved on the same footing as it then was, and
that all orders of the state should be maintained
in their goods, properties, rights, privileges, and
immunities.

By this same treaty, Courland and Semigallia
were reserved to Gotthard Kettler, the last Grand
Master of Livonia, to be enjoyed by himself and
his heirs male, with the title of duchy, and as a
fief of the king and crown of Poland. The new
duke, mi taking the oath of fidelity to the King of
Poland, solemnly laid aside all the badges of his
former dignity. He married Anne, daughter to
the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwcrin, and trans-
mitted the duchy of Courland to his male descend-
ants, who did not become extinct until the eigh-
teenth century. The Order of Livonia was en-
tirely suppressed, aa were also the archbishoprics
of Riga, and the bishoprics under its jurisdiction.

The revolution in Livonia caused a violent com-
motion among the powers of the North, who \\rp-
all eager to share in the plunder. While the
Grand Master of the Order was in treaty with
Poland, the city of Revel, and the nobles of Es-
thonia, left without aid, and oppressed by the Rus-
sians, put themselves under the protection of Kric
XIV., King of Sweden, who obtained possession
of that province. The Isle of Oesel, on tin
trary, and the district of Wjck in Ksthonia, were
sold to Frederic II., King of Denmark, by the last

bishop of the island, who also ceded to him the
bishopric and district of Pilten in Courland. Po-
land at first held the balance, and maintained Li-
vonia against the Russians, by the peace which
she concluded with that power at Kievorova-
Horca (1582). A struggle afterwards ensued be-
tween Poland and Sweden for the same object,
which was not finally terminated until the peace
of Oliva (1660).

Russia, during the period of which we now
treat, assumed an aspect entirely new. She suc-
ceeded in throwing off the yoke of the Moguls, and
began to act a conspicuous part on the theatre of
Europe. The Horde of Kipzac, called also the
Grand, or the Golden Horde, had been greatly
exhausted by its territorial losses, and the intestine
wars which followed ; while the Grand Dukes of
Moscow gained powerful accessions by the reunion
of several of these petty principalities, which had
for a long time divided among them the sovereignty
of Northern Russia. John Basilovitz III., who
filled the grand ducal throne about the end of the
fifteenth century, knew well how to profit by these
circumstances to strengthen his authority at home,
and make it be respected abroad. In course of
several expeditions, he subdued the powerful re-
public of Novogorod, an ancient ally of the Han-
seatic towns, and which had for a long time af-
fected an entire independence. He was also the
first sovereign of Russia that dared to refuse a
humiliating ceremony, according to which the
grand dukes were obliged to walk on foot before
the envoys that came from the Khan of Kipzac.
He even suppressed the residence of Tartar en-
voys at his court ; and at length shook off their
yoke entirely, refusing to pay the tribute which
the grand dukes had owed to the khans for several
centuries. Achmet, Khan of Kipzac, having
despatched certain deputies with an order, under
the great seal, to demand payment of this tribute,
the grand duke trampled the order under his feet,
spit upon it, and then put all the deputies to death
except one, whom he sent back to his master.

The khan, with the view of revenging that in-
sult, invaded Russia several times, but the grand
duke vigorously repulsed all his attacks; and while
he was arresting the progress of his arms on the
borders of the Ugra, he despatched a body of troops
to the centre of the Grand Horde, who laid e\ery
thing desolate (1481). The Nogai Tartars joined
the Russians to finish the destruction of the Grand
Horde, whose different settlements on the Wolga
they laid completely in ruins; so that nothing
more remained of the powerful empire of Kipzac
than a few detached hordes, such as those of Cusan,
Astracan, Siberia, and the Crimea. Iwan ren-
dered himself formidable to the Tartars ; lie sub-
dued the Khans of Casan, and several times dis-
posed of their throne. The entire reduction of
that Tartar state was accomplished by his grand-
son, John Basilovitz IV., who twice undertook
the siege of Casau, and seized and made prisoner
of the last khan (1552). The fall of Casan was
followed by that of Astracan. But John was by
no means so fortunate in his enterprises against
LiMinh, which, as we have already said, IP
obliged to abandon to Poland by the peace of
Kie\orova-Horca.

John IV. was inspired with noble \'u-\
policy. Being anxious to civilize his subjec'

.M , ,. : -.'.. ::>.

I),

107

MBt for workmen and artists from England. He
requeued Charles V. to tend him mn of talents,
well vcned in the different trade* and manufacture*,
itroduced the art of printing at Moeoow, and
established the flnt permanent army in the country,
that of the StrtltlMet, which be employed in keep-
ing the noblee in cheek. The discovery of Siberia
U one of the events that belonged to hu reign. A
certain chief of the Don Cossack*, named Jermak,
who employed himself in robberies on the border*
and the Caspian Sea, being pursued
by a detachment of Russisn troop*, retired to the
confines of Siberia. Ue soon entered these region*
at the head of 7000 Cossacks, and having gained
several victories over the Tartars of Siberia, and
their Klrni Kiiucliein, he got possession of the
:r, which won their principal fortress
I ). Jcnnuk, in order to obtain his pardon
of the csar, made him an offer of all he con-
quered ; which was agreed to by that prince,
and the troops of the Russians then took possession
of Siberia (1583). The total reduction of the
country, however, did not take place until the reign
of the Cur Theodore >r Fedor Iwanovitz, the son
and successor of John, who built the city of Tobolsk
" ), which hassince become the capital of Siberia.

Fedor Iwanovitz, a prince weak both in mind
and body, was entirely under the counsel* of his
>>rother-iii-law Boris Godunow, who, with the
\iew of opening a way for himself to the throne,
caused the young Demetrius, Fedor 1 s only brother,
to be assassinated (151)1). This crime gave rise
to a long series of troubles, which ended in the
death of Fedor (l.VJX). With him, as he left no
children, the reigning family of the ancient sove-
reigns of Russia, the descendants of Ruric, became
'\iiuct ; after having occupied the throne for more
than eight hundred years.

After this, the Russian crown was worn by per-
sons of different houses. Their reigns were dis-
turbed by various pretenders, who assumed the
name of Demetrius, and were supported by the
Poles. Darin,' fifteen years Russia presented a
shocking spectacle of confusion and carnage. At
length, as a remedy for these disaster*, they thought
of bestowing the crown on a foreign prince. Some
chose Charles Philip, the brother of Gustavus
Adolphusof Sweden ; and others voted for liladis-
laus, the son of Sigismund IV., Kim: of 1'oland.
These resolutions tended only to increase the
disorders of the state. The Swedes took advan-
tage of them to seise Ingria and the city of Novo-
: ; while the Poles took possession of Smo-
leusko and its dependencies.

The Russians, now seeing their monarchy on the
edge of a precipice, adopted a plan of electing a
new csar of their own nation. Their choice fell
on Michael who became the founder of

the new dynasty, that of Romanow (1613), under
\\ liom Russia attained to the senith of her great-
ness. That prince, guided by the sage counsels of
bis father Fedor Romanow, Archbishop of Rostow,
soon rectified all the disorders of the state ; he
purchased peace of the Swedes, by surrendering
to them Ingria and Russian Carelia. The sacri-
fices which he made to Poland were not lees
considerable. By the truce of DivUina ( 1
and the peace of Wiasma (1634), he ceded to
them the vast territories of Smolenako, Tscberuigou,
and Novogorod, with their dependencies.

Poland, at this time, presented a corrupt arts,
tocracy, which had insensibly defaneialed into
complete anarchy. The nobles were the only per-
sons that enjoyed the rights of dtisenship; they
alone were represented in the diets, by the nuncio*
or deputies which they elected at the Dietines ;
the honours and dignities both in church and state,
and in general all prerogatives whatever, were re-
served for them ; while thr burgesses and peasantry
alone supported the whole burthen of expenses).
This constitution, at the same time, was under the
1 of a sort of democracy, in as far as the
nobles, without exception, were held to be perfectly
equal in their rights and dignities. Imperfect as
a government must have been, established on such
Basis, it still continued, nevertheless, to preserve
some degree of vigour ; and Poland supported,
though feebly, the character of being the ruling
power of the North, so long as the House of
Jagello occupied the throne. Besides Prussia, of
which she had dispossessed the Teutonic Knights,
she acquired Livonia, and maintained it in spite of

Ku -.:.

The reformation of religion was likewise pro-
mulgated in 1'oland, where it was particularly
patronised by Sigismund II. A great part of the
senate, and the better half of the nobility, made,
with their king, a profession of the new opiii
and if the reformation did not take deep* .
in that kingdom, or if it had not a more conspi-
cuous influence on the civilization of the people, it
was from not being supported by the middle rlsusos,
which were not to be found in that kingdom.

The male line of Jagello, having become extinct
with Sigiftmund II. (1572), the throne became
purely elective ; and it was ordained that, during
the King's life, no successor could be appointed ;
but that the states, on his demise, should enj<>\
for ever a perfect freedom of election on every va-
cancy of the throne. Such was the origin of the
diet* of election, which, from their very constitu-
tion, could not fail to be always tumultuous in their
proceedings. The nobles in a body appealed at
these diets ; thither they repaired in arms and <>n
horseback, ranked according to the order of the
Palatinates, in a camp prepared for the purpose
near Warsaw. The custom of the Pacta Cmtvmta
took its rise about the same time. Henry de
Valois, who was elected king on the death of
Sigismund 1 1., was the first that swore to these
conventional agreements, [by which he engaged,
that no foreigner should be introduced either in a
i\:l <>r military department.] These Pacta, which
had all the force of a fundamental law, specified
those conditions under which the throne was con-
ferred on the new monarch. The royal auth
was thus curtailed more and more, and the prero-
gatives of the nobility exalted in proportion.

1'oland, in consequence, soon lost its influence ;
the government was altered from its basis, and the
kingdom plunged into an abyse of calamities.
Amoni; the elective Wings who succeeded Uenr\
de Valois, the last that supported the dignity of
the crown against Russia, was Uladialaos IV., the
son of Sigismund III., of the House of Vasa. In
an expedition which he undertook into the interior
of Ituvtia (IfilH), he penetrated as far as Moscow;
and in a second which he made (1634), he com-
pelled the Russians to raise the siege of Smo-
Icnsko ; and shut them up so closely in their camp.

Affairs of Hungary.
108 Matthias Corvinus, Kin::.

Sultan Soliinati's victories.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Turks take Hilda.
H;\irot/.i, Protestant Prince
of Transylvania.

that they were obliged to capitulate for want of
provisions. He then made a new attack on the
capital of Russia ; and at the peace of AViasma, lie
obtained conditions most advantageous to Poland.

In the history of Hungary, the most splendid era
\\as the reign of Matthias Corvin, who, at the age
of scarcely sixteen, had been raised to the throne
by the pure choice of the nation (145<S). Like
his father the valorous John Hunniades, he was
the terror of the Turks during his whole reign ;
he took Bosnia from them, and kept Transylvania,
"Walluchia, .Moldavia, Sclavonia, and Servia in
dependence on his crown, in spite of the incessant
efforts which the Turks made to rescue these pro-
cures. He likewise conquered Moravia, Silesia,
and Lusatia ; he even took Austria from the
Emperor Frederic III., and came to fix his resi-
dence at Vienna (14S5). It was in that city that
he terminated his brilliant career, at the early
age of forty-seven (1490). That great prince
added to his military talents, a love for elegant
literature, of which, from the first revival of letters,
he showed himself a zealous protector.

The glory of Hungary suffered an eclipse in the
loss of Matthias. His successors, Uladislaus II.,
the son of Casimir IV., King of Poland, and Louis
the son of Uladislaus, who held at the same time
the crown of Bohemia, were weak and indolent
princes, who saw Hungary torn by factions, and
ravaged with impunity by the Turks. Soliman
the Great, taking advantage of the youth of Louis,
and the distressed state in which Hungary was,
concerted his plans for conquering the kingdom,
lie attacked the fortress of Belgrade (1521), and
made himself master of that important place, be-
fore the Hungarians could march to its relief.
His first success encouraged him to return to the
charge. Having crossed the Danube and the
Drave without meeting with any resistance, he en-
quired the Hungarians near Mohacz (1526), in
that famous battle which cost them the life of their
king and their principal nobility. Twenty-two
thousand Hungarians were left on the field of
battle, and the whole kingdom lay at the mercy
of the conqueror. Soliman now proceeded as far
as the Raab ; but instead of completing the con-
quest of Hungary as he might have done, he con-
tented himself vAith the laying waste all that part of
the country with fire and sword ; and carrying
several hundred thousand prisoners into slavery.

The premature death of the young king, who
left no progeny, occasioned a vacancy in the throne
of Iliitr/ary and Bohemia. Ferdinand of Austria,
uh<. married Anne, sister to Louis, claimed the
succession in virtue of the different treaties signed
in the years 1403, 1408, 14!M, and 1515, between
the Austrian princes and the last kings of Hun-
gary. But though the Bohemian States were
disposed to listen to the pretensions of Ferdinand,
it was not so with those of Hungary, who trans-
ferred the crown to John de 7,apol\a, Count of
/ i | >-, and Palatine of Tram-.\lvania. That prince
lieing hardly pressed by Ferdinand, at length
determined to throw himself under the protection
of the Turks. Soliman marched in person to his
assistance, and laid siege to the city of Vienna
(l.'iV'.l). In this enterprise, however, he failed,
after sacrificing the li\es of nearly H(),(X)0 men.

In 153S, a treaty was agreed on between the
two competitors, in virtue of which the whole

kingdom of Hungary, on the death of John
Zapolya, was to devolve on Ferdinand. This treaty
was never curried into execution. John at his
death having left a son named John Sigismund,
then an infant in his cradle, Bishop George Mar-
timizzi, prime minister of the defunct king, pro-
claimed the young prince, and secured for him the
protection of the Turks. Soliman undertook a new
expedition into Hungary in his favour (1541) ; but
by a piece of signal perfidy, he took this occasion
to seize the city of Buda, the capital of the king-
dom, and several other places ; and banished the
prince with his mother the queen-dowager, to
Transylvania, which he gave up to him, with seve-
ral other districts in Hungary. The city of Buda
with the greater part of Hungary and Sclavonia
remained in the power of the Turks ; and Ferdi-
nand was obliged to pay an annual tribute for the
protection of that kingdom, the possession of which
was guaranteed to him by the truce which he con-
cluded with them in 1562.

In the midst of these unfortunate events, the
Austrian princes had again the imprudence to
alienate the affections of the Hungarians, by the
intolerant spirit they displayed, and the efforts
which they incessantly made to extirpate the Pro-
testant religion in that kingdom. The opinions of
Luther and Calvin had already been propagated in
Hungary during the reign of Louis, the predecessor
of Ferdinand. They had even made grent pro-
gress ; especially in Transylvania, where the Ger-
man language and literature were generally culti-
vated. The oppressions which the partisans of the
new doctrines experienced, added to the attempts
which the Austrian princes madelfromtime to time
to subvert the ancient constitution of the kingdom,
excited fresh troubles, and favoured the designs of
the discontented and ambitious, who were watch-
ing 1 their opportunity to agitate the state, and make
encroachments on the government. Stephen
Botschkai, Bethlem Gabor, and George Ragot/i,
princes of Transylvania, weresuccesshely the chiefs
or leaders of these malecontents in the reigns of
Rodolph II., Ferdinand II., and Ferdinand III.,
Emperors of Germany. According to the pacifica-
tion of Vienna (1606), and that of Lint/ (10 15),
as well as by the decrees of the Diet of Oclenlnirg
(1622), and of Presburg (1047), these princes
were compelled to tolerate the public exercise of
the reformed religion ; and to redress the political
complaints of the Hungarian malecontents.

The same troubles on the score of religion, which
infested Hungary, extended likewise to Bohemia,
where the new doctrines met with a much better
reception, as they were in unison with the reli-
gious system of the Hussites, who had already
numerous partisans in that kingdom. ItwaschielN
under the reign of the mild and tolerant .Maximi-
lian II. that Protestantism made its way in Bo-
hemia. All those who were formerly called t'lrn-
quistx, from their professing the communion in
both kinds, joined the followers either of Luther
or Calvin. Rodolph II., the son and successor of
Maximilian, was obliged, at the Diet of Prague
(lOO'.l), to grant them the free exercise of their
worship, without distinction of place ; and even
to extend this indulgence to the Protestants of
Silesia and Lusatia by letters patent, kno\\ n by the
name Letters of Majesty ; copies of which -
made at Prague on the llth of July and :>i)th of

Thr Thirty Ytmr. 1 V%

i. . r , . i-.....:

\ 1). 14A3 194M.

u(
rf

August 1609. These letters were confirmed by
King Matthias, on hu acceiwioii i.. the tin

uia ; u also by 1 . 1 1 .. \\ hen he WM

acknowledged by the Bohemian Bute* M the
adopted son and succr^ .ia*.

1 he different interpretation* which were put on
the** letter* occaaioned the war, known in I.
by tli lie Thirty Yean* War. Tin

Matthias happening to die in the miilt (
thcae disturbances, the Bohemian States, regard-
ing their crown as elective, annulled the election
.dinaiul 11. (1619), and conferred the crown
mi Frederic, the Elector Palatine. Being in strict
alliance with the states of Silesia, Moravia, and
Lusatia, they declared war against Ferdinand, who
was supported, on the other hand, by Spain, tin-
Catholic princes of the Empire, and the elector of
Saxon \ .

The famous battle of Prague (1620), and the
fall of thi- Elector Palatine, brought about a revo-
lution in Bohemia. The ringleaders of the iusur-
.1 \\ru- executed at Prague, and their goods
confiscated. Ferdinand, who treated that king-
dom as a conquered country, declared that the
states had forfeited their rights and privileges ;
and, in the new constitution which he gave them,
he consented to restore these, only on condition of
-1\ e\i-. pting the rights \\hich they h;ul
l.iiiin-il in the election of their kings, as well as
the Letters of Majesty which granted to the Pro-
testants the free exercise of their worship. But
this prince did not stop with the suppression of
their religious liberties, he deprived them also of
their rights of citixeuship. Laws the most atro-
cious were published against them, and he even
went so far as to deny them the liberty of making
testaments, or contracting legal marriages. All
their minister*, without exception, were banished
the kingdom ; and the most iniquitous mean-
em ployed to bring back the Protestants to the
pale of the Catholic Church. At length it was
enjoined, by an edict in 1607, that all Protestants
who persisted in their opinions should quit tin-
kingdom within six months. Thirty thousand of
the best families in the kingdom, of whom a hun-
dred and eighty-five were nobility, abandoned
!'. iieinia, transporting their talents and their in-
du-try to the neighbouring states, such as Saxony,
Brandenburg, Prussia, &c.

ilinand judged it for his interest to detach
the elector of Saxony from the alliance with
Sweden, which he had joined. lie concluded a
special peace with him at Prague, in virtue of
which he made over to him the two Lusatias,
which he had dismembered from the kingdom of
Bohemia, to reimburse the elector for those sums
which he churned, M having been the ally of
Austria against the Elector Palatine, then King
of Bohemia. That province was ceded to the
^TiH^Ar John George, for himself and his succes-
sors, as a fief <>i the Bohemian crown, under the
express condition, that failing the male line of the
ral branch, it should pass to the female heirs ;
but that it should then be at the option of the King
hernia to use the right of redemption, by repay-
ing to the female heir* the sum for which Lusatia
had been mortgaged to Saxony. This sum
amounted to seventy-two tons of gold, valued at
H K) florins.

irki-h Empire received new accessions of

i y, both in Asia and Europe, under th<
cessor* of Mahomet II., who had fixed their capital
at Constantinople. The conquest of Bessarabia
,11 of Bajazcl II., about the year
That prince had a brother named Jem or
/.mm, who had been hi. c..mp tit., r for the thr
and having tied to llome, lie was imprisoned by

JK! Alexander VI., at the instate
Bajaset, who had engaged to pay the Pope a huge
pension for him. Charlc* VIM. ( Trance, when
he made his expedition into Italy for the ronqueet

of Naples, compelled the Pope to iiirri luler Up

the nnt'ortunute /i/im, whom he designed to em-
ploy iu the expedition which he meditated against
the Turks, but which never took place. Si-Urn I.,
the sou and successor of Bajazet, taking advantage
of a revolution which happened in Persia, and of
the victory which he if.iincd near Tauris over the
Schaw Ismail Sophi I. (1514), conquered tin-
provinces of Diarbekir and Algczira, beyond the
Euphrates,

The same prince overturned the powerful Em-
fthe Mamelukes, who reigned over Egypt,
Syria, Palestine, and part of Arabia. He det
the last Sultans, Cansoul- Algouri, and Toumambey
(1516), and totally annihilated that dynasty.
Cairo, the capital of the Empire of Kirjpt, was
taken by assault (1517), and the whole of the
Mameluke states incorporated with the Ottoman
Empire. The Scheritf of Mecca likewise sub-
mitted to the Porte, with several tribes of the
Arabs.

Soliman the Great, who succeeded his father
Selim, raised the Turkish Empire to the highe&t
pitch of glory. Besides the island of Rhodes,
which he took from the Knights of St. John, and
the greater part of Hungary, he reduced the pro-
vinces of Moldavia and Wallachia to a state of
dependence, and made their princes vassals and
tributaries of his Empire. He likewise conquered
Bagdad and Irak- Arabia, which happened, a>
ing to the Turkish authors, about the year 15.'U.

That prince distinguished his reign by the efforts
which he made to increase the maritime strength
of the Empire, which his predecessors had neg-
lected. He took into his service the famous pirate
Barbarossa, King of Algiers, whom he created
(,':tpitan Pacha, or Gland Admiral. Barbarossa
equipped a fleet of more than a hundred sail, with
which he chased the imperialists from the Archi-
pelago ; and infested the coasts of Spain, Italy and
Sicily (1565). Soliman miscarried, however, in
his enterprise against Malta. The courageous
defence made l.y the knights, together with the
arrival of the fleet from Sicily, obliged the Otto-
mans to retreat.

The decline of the Ottoman Empire began with
the death of Soliman the Great (1566). The sul-
tans, his successors, surrendering themselves to
luxury and effeminacy, and shut up in their sera-
glios and harems, left t<> their grand Miier* the
government of the Empire, and the management
of the army. The sons of these sultans, educated
by women and eunuchs, and secluded from all
eixd and military affair*, contracted from their
earliest infancy all the vices of their fathers, and
no longer brought to the throne that vigorous and
enterprising spirit, which had been the soul of the
Ottoman -.ivriniiient, and the basis of all their
institution*. Selim II., the son of Soliman, was

IMV. er iif France.
110 Richelieu. Mazuriu.
Heii;ii ul I.niii- XIV.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

liakiiifc of Power.
Staii'linir Armies.
Invasion of the Netherlands.

the first who set this fatal example to his successors.
In his time, the Turks took the Isle of Cyprus
from the Venetians (1570), which they maintained

in spite of the terrible defeat which they received
at Lepanto (1571), and which was followed by
the ruin of their marine.

PERIOD VII.

FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THAT OF UTRECHT. A.D. 16481713.

THE political system of Europe underwent a
change at the commencement of this period.
France, after having l<mg struggled for her own
independence against Austria, at length turned the
balance, and berame so formidable as to combine
against herself the whole policy and military power
of Europe. The origin of this extraordinary in-
fluence of France belongs to the reigns of Charles
VII. and Louis XI. Several important accessions
which she made at this epoch, together with the
change which happened in her government, gave
her a power and energy, which might have secured
her a decided preponderance among the conti-
nental states, had not her influence been over-
balanced by Austria, which, by a concurrence of
fortunate events, and several wealthy marriages, had
suddenly risen to a degree of power that excited
the jealousy of all Europe. Hence, for nearly two
hundred years, it required all the political resouices
of France to make head against her rival; and
what added to her misfortunes was, that, though
freed from the distraction of the Italian war, she
was still agitated hy civil wars, which employed
her whole military force.

It was not till near the middle of the seven-
teenth ci ntury that she extricated herself from
this long struggle ; and that, disengaged from the
>haekks of her own factions and internal dissen-
sions, her power assumed a new vigour. The
well regulated condition of her finances, the
prosperity of her commerce and manufactures, anil
the respectable state of her marine, all concurred
to diffuse wealth and abundance over the king-
dom. The abasement of the House of Austria,
effected at once by the treaties of Westphalia and
the Pyrenees, together with the consolidation of
the (ieriiianic body, and the federal system of the
Provinces in the Netherlands, put the last climax
on her glory, and secured to her the preponder-
.1 the political scale of Europe. This change
in her political system was achieved principally
by the two great statesmen, Cardinals Richelieu
and Ma/.arin, who, by drying up the fountains
of chil di>-eii-ions, and concentrating the reins of
authority in the hands of the government, raised
that monarchy to the rank which its position, its
population, and its internal resources, had assigned
it among the powers of the continent.

Ma/a rin left the kingdom in a flourishing state
to Louis XIV., who, aided by the coun^-ls and
assistance of the famous Colbert, became the
patron of letters and the tine arts, and finished the
\\ork which was begun by his prime min

ing could equal the ardour which inspired
that prinec for military fame. France would h:m-
been prosperous under his reign, and rcsp-Ttnl
e\en by all Europe, had he kept nothing else in
view than the true interests and happiness of his

people ; but he was ambitious of that sort of glory
which is the scourge of mankind, the glory of
heroes and conquerors. Hence there resulted a
long series of wars, which exhausted the strength
and resources of the state, and introduced a new
change in its political system. The same states
who had formerly made common cause with
France against Austria, now combined against the
former, to humble that gigantic power which
seemed to threaten thier liberty and Independence.
[In these alliances the maritime powers volun-
tarily took part ; and, having less fear than the
others of falling under the yoke of a unh
monarchy, they joined the confederates merely for
the protection of their commerce the true source
of their influence and their wealth. They under-
took the defence of the equilibrium system, because
they perceived, that a state which could command
the greater part of the continental coasts, might
in many ways embarrass their commerce, and per-
haps become dangerous to their marine. They
soon acquired a very great influence in the a flairs
of this system, by the subsidies with which from
time to time they furnished the states of the conti-
nent. From this period the principal aim of
European policy was their finances and their com-
mercial interests, in place of religion, which had
been the grand motive or pretext for the preceding
wars. With this new system began those abuses
of commercial privileges and monopolies, prohibi-
tions, imposts, and many other regulations, which
acted as restraints on natural liberty, and became
the scourge of future generations. It was then
that treaties of commerce first appeared, by which
every trading nation endeavoured to procure
advantages to itself, at the expense of its rivaK ;
and it was then that the belligerent powers be^an
to lay restraints and interdicts on the commerce
of neutral states.

But the political system of Europe experienced
other changes at this period. Standing armies
were introduced, and augmented to a degree that
proved ruinous both to the agriculture of the in-
habitants, and the finances of the go\ eminent,
which by this means was rendered more and more
dependent on those states, whose principal object
was commerce. The frequent communication
between foreign courts, which the policy of Riche-
lieu had rendered necessary, ga\< invasion for
envoys and resident ministers; whereas formerly
scarcely any other intercourse was known, except
b\ i \traordinary embassies.]

The first war that roused the European powers
was that which Louis XIV. undertook against
Spain, to enforce the claims wlii< h he advanced,
in name of his Queen Maria Theresa, over se\cral
prminces of the Spanish Netherlands, especially
the duchies of Brabant andLimburg, the seigniories

'A I ', -

1) MI. A.I). KMs 111 :.

1..-..U,

of Mali tics, the marquisate of Antwerp, Upper
>uttlie of Namur, lUinault and
-. ('amhray Uid Ctunbresis, which he alleged
, in urtue of the nyht <>J devolu-
tion, according to the wage* of that country. Ac-
cording to that right, the property of goods pseud
to tli.- clui first marriage, when their

parents contracted another. Maria Theresa, Queen
I" France, was the dimwit, r, l.\ the Drat marriage,

h|. l\. King of Spain; whereas Chart,
lii* successor in tlmt monarchy, waa descended ot'
the second marriage, Louis XIV. contended, that
from the moment of Philip'* second marriage, the
property of all th<- countries which were aBlietod
liy tin- right of devolution, lidnm-ed to his queen;
and that, after the death of her father, that princess
*lioulil enjoy the saccession. In opposition to
these claims of France, the Spaniards alleged, that
the riirht nt' <! \olutioii, being founded merely on
custom, and applicable only to particular succes-
sions, rotilil not be opposed to the fundamental
laws of Spain, which maintained tin- indivisibility
of that monarch}, and transferred tin- \\\\<-.
cession to Chatles II. without any partition what-
ever.

In course of the campaign of 1667, the French
made themselves masters of several cities in tin-
Low Countries, such as Bruges, Fumes, Armen-
tieres, Charlcmi, Hindi, Ath, Touniay, Douay,
Courtriy, Oiidenarde, and Lille; and in course of
tli. following winter, they got possession of
Franche-Comte. The Pope and several princes
having volunteered their good offices for the re-
storation of pence, they proposed a congress at
.-('hiipelte ; liut DM principal scene of the
negociation was at the Hague, where Louis sent
the Count d'Estrades to treat separately with the
States-General. This uegociation was greatly ac-
celerated by the famous Triple Alliance, concluded
at the Hague 166M, between Great Britain,

ii, and the States-General. By the
<>f thin treaty, the allied powers offered Louis the
altcn to leave him in possession of the

which he had conquered, during the cam-

of 1067, or to cede t.) him either the duchy
t" Luxemburg, "r Franche-Comte with the
of Cambray, Douay, A ire, St. Otner, unit Fumes,
with their dependencies). The Spaniards having
accepted the former of these alternatives, the
draught of a treaty of peace was agreejl on, and
signed l> \ i ' r* of France, England, and

the States-General ; and this scheme served as the
basis of the treaty which was concluded at \i\-
la-Chapelle, between France :n '!ay2d

10(1*). In consideration of the restitutions which
he hail made to Spain, Fr.i .1, in terms

of this treaty, the towns of Charleroi, Hindi, Ath,
:rnay, Oudenarde, Lille, Armentieres,
;iiicit, with their baili-
wicks and dependencies.

This peace was soon followed by a new war,
which I.OUM XIV. undertook against the republic
..f i In- Seven United Provinces (1872). Wishing
to be avenged on the Dutch, whom be knew to be
the principal authors of the Triple Alliance, and
consulting only his own propensity for war, In-
alleged as a pretext, certain r
which hud )>.-. n struck in Holland, on tin-
peace of Aix-la-Chaprlle, and the Trip).
in vain did the States-General offer him .

satisfaction; be persisted la his purpose .
daring war ; and the better to succeed in his

il ..'. .:..:.... \ ...'.! -t . .!i-, !\. <' 'I .;.;

England, found means to detach Charles II. from
the alliance, and to draw him over to side ith
Louis against the lt<-puMic. The same success at-
tended the negociation which he set on foot with
the Court of Stockholm. !' ll.uiiiir t

.land, the Swedes rciluiinri (I tlie Trip!'

ance,and joined with France. Several princes of the
.re, such as the Elector of Cologne and the
Bishop of Munster, adopted the same line of con-
duct. The war broke out in 1672; and so rapid
were the conquests of Louis, that he subdued in
one single campaign the provinces of Gueldres,
Utrecht, Overyssel, and part of Holland.
would have carried the city of Amsterdam, if the
Dutdi had not cut their dikes and inundated the
country.

Alarmed at these extraordinary successes, and
apprehending the entire subversion of the Re-
putdic, the Emperor Leopold I., the King of Spain,
the elector of Brandenburg, and the Imperial
States, leagued in their favour, and marched to
their relief. The Parliament of England obliged
Charles II. to make peace with the republic, by re-
t'uMiig to grant him supplies (1674). '1
of Cologne and the Bishop of Munstcr did the
same thing. Louis XIV. then thought pr<
abandon his conquests in Holland; and di.
his principal strength against Spain and the
manic states. lit- subdued Franche-Comte. in
the spring <>f ll>74 ; and in course of the same
year, the Prince of Conde gained the battle of
Senef. In the following winter Turcnnc attacked
the quarters of the Imperialists in Alsace, and
chased them from that province, in spite of their
superior numbers. That great general was slain
at Saspach in Ortenau, in the campaign against
Monteeuculi (llth Aug. 1674). Next year Ad-
miral du Quesne gained two naval victories, near
the islands of Lipariand Messina, over DC Uuyu-r,
who dieil of the wounds he had rer<

The Sweden, according to the secret artii '.
their alliance with France, had penetrated, in the
month of December 1674, into the Elector i-
Brandenburg, to cause a diversion against the
Elector Frederic William, who commanded tin-
Imperial army on tin* Rhine ; hut the Klector sur-
pn> d them hy forced marches at Uathenuw, and
completely routed their army near Fehrbellin
. }. Tin- F.inpcror then declared war against
Sweden ; and the F.lector, in concert with the
princes of Brunswick, the Bishop of Munnter, and
the King of Denmark, strip! the Sweden of the
greater part of their possessions in the F.mpirc.

At length, in the year< Ki7M-79, a peace waa
coin-hided at Nimcgucu, under the mediation of

:id. l.ouis \l\. -Mimed |o diude the

allies, and to make a separate treaty with the
Dutch, l>\ which he rcnton-d to them the dtjr of
Maestricht, which he had seized. The exam]
the Dutch was followed by the Spaniards, who in
like manner signed a special treaty with Fr .
in virtue nf which, they irnvr up to her Franchc-
(..ii-. .al citips in Flanders and Hoinault,

such as Valenciennes. Bouchain, C'ondc, Cambray,
Aire, St. Oim-r, Yprus, Warwick, Wani
Poperingcu, Bailleul, Caasel, Bavay, and Man-

Troubles of tho
112 Ke-uuious.

Louis cunqucrs Alsace.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Hi- iKTsocutos the Kivnrh

('alviuUtr.
Edict of Nautes revoked.

bcuge, with their dependencies. The peace of
Minister was renewed by that concluded at
Nimegueu, between France, the Empire, and the
Emperor. France, on renouncing her right to a
garrison in Philipsburg, got possession of the city
of Friburg in Brisgaw, but refused to restore what
she had wrested from the Duke of Lorraine, except
on conditions so burdensome, that the Duke would
not accept them, and preferred to abandon the re-
possession of his duchy. As to the peace which
France and Sweden had negociated with Denmark
and her allies the Princes of the Empire, it was
renewed by different special treaties, concluded in
course of the year 1679.

No sooner was the peace of Nimeguen con-
cluded, than there sprung up new troubles, known
by the name of the Troubles of the Re-unions.
Louis XIV., whose ambition was without bounds,
had instituted a Chamber of Re-union, in the par-
liament of Metz, for the purpose of examining the
nature and extent of the territories ceded to him
by the treaties of Westphalia, the Pyrenees, Aix-
la-Chapelle, and Nimeguen. This Chamber, as
well as the parliament of BesaiKjon, and the Sove-
reign Council of Alsace, adjudged to the King, by
their decree, several towns and seigniories, as
being fiefs or dependencies of Alsace ; as also the
thivt- bishoprics, Franche-Comte, and the terri-
tories which had been ceded to him in the Nether-
lands.

The kind's views were principally directed to
Alsace. He had already tendered his claims on
this province, shortly after the peace of the Pyre-
nees, when the matter had been referred to the
decision of arbiters chosen by the emperor him-
self. The work of arbitration was not far ad-
vanced, when it was interrupted by the Dutch
war, in which the Emperor and the Empire were
both implicated. The peace of Nimeguen having
confirmed the treaty of Munster, he preferred the
method of re-union to that of arbitration, for re-
claiming his alleged rights. Taking advantage of
the general terms in which the cession of Alsace
was announced in the seventy-third and seventy-
fourth articles of the said treaty, he claimed the
absolute sovereignty of the whole province, and
obliged the immediate states, included in it, to
acknowledge his sovereignty, and do him fealty
and homage, notwithstanding the reservations
which the eighty-seventh article of the same treaty
had stipulated in favour of these very States. M.
de Louvois appeared before Strasburg at the head
of the French army, and summoned that city to
submit to the King. Accordingly, it surrendered
by capitulation on the 30th September, 1681.
These re-unions extended also to the Netherlands,
where the French seized, among others, the cities
of Courtrai, Dixmunde, and Luxemburg.

Louis XIV., in thus taking upon himself alone
the interpretation of these treaties of peace, could
not but offend the powers interested in maintaining
them. A new general league was projected against
France, and at the Diet of Ilatisbon they deli-
ln -rated on the means of setting on foot an Impe-
rial army ; but the want of unanimity among the
members of the Germanic body, the troubles in
Hungary, which were immediately succeeded by a
war with the Porte, and the march of a Turkish
army on Vienna, threw them into a state of con-
sternation, and prevented the Imperial Diet from

adopting any vigorous resolution. Spain, ex-
hausted by protracted wars, and abandoned by
England and Holland, was quite incapacitated
from taking arms. Nothing, therefore, remained
for the parties concerned, than to have recourse to
negociation. Conferences were opened at Frank-
fort, which, after having languished for fifteen
mouths in that city, were transferred to Ilatisbon,
where a truce of twenty years was signed (loth
August, 1684) between France and Spain ; as also
between France, the Emperor, and the Empire.
By the former of these treaties, Louis retained
Luxemburg, Bovines, and Chimay, with their de-
pendencies ; restoring back all the places which
he had occupied in the Netherlands prior to the
20th August, 1683. As to the treaty between
France and the Emperor, the former retained,
during the truce, the city of Strasburg, and the
fort of Kehl, besides all the places and seigniories
which they had taken possession of since the com-
mencement of the troubles till the 1st of August,
1681. In all the places that were surrendered to
him, Louis preserved the exercise of his sovereign
rights, leaving to the proprietors or seigniors the
entire enjoyment of the fruits and revenues be-
longing to their territorial rights.

It was nearly about this same time that Louis
XIV. undertook to extirpate Calvinism in France.
Incensed against the Protestants by the old Chan-
cellor Letellier, and his minister Louvois, the
chancellor's son, he circumscribed, by repeated
declarations, the privileges which they enjoyed in
virtue of former edicts. The holding of general
synods was forbidden ; the two Chambers were
suppressed ; and they were all, without exception,
debarred from exercising any public function. At
last, Louis went so far as to send, immediately
after the truce of Ilatisbon (1684), dragoons over
all France, to endeavour, as was said, to convert
the Protestants by gentle compulsion. This mea-
sure was next followed by the famous Edict of
1685, which revoked that of Nantes, published in
1598, and that of Nismes in 1629. AIL exercise of
their religion all assemblies for worship, even in
the house, were forbidden to the Protestants, under
pain of imprisonment and confiscation of goods.
Their churches were ordered to be demolished.
Parents were enjoined to have their children bap-
tized by the Catholic clergy, and to bring them
up in the religion of the state. The ministers were
banished, and the other Protestants were forbidden
to depart the country, under pain of the galle\s
for men, and imprisonment and confiscation for
women. The rigour of these prohibitions, how-
ever, did not prevent a vast multitude of the French
Protestants from removing to foreign countries, and
transferring the scat of their industry to Germany,
England and Holland.

This blindfold zeal for religion, however, did not
hinder Louis from vigorously supporting the rights
of his crown against the encroachments of the court
of Rome. Among the different disputes that arose
between him and the popes, that which regarded
the R(i/nli deM'i-ves to he particularly remarked.
The King, by declarations issued in \t\~,:; and
1675, having extended that, right to all the arch-
bishoprics and bishoprics within the kingdom, the
bishops of Aletli and Pamicrs, who pretended to
be exempt from it, applied to the Pope, claiming
his protection. Innocent XI. interposed, by vehe-

I) VII. A.D. lMft-1713.

WUUaatill

inent brief* which he addressed t<> tin- king in
favour of (In- Inhop4. Tliit 11. 'I

an assembly of the Prrnrh . I.T^M . in < .
bmide the extension of the Regale, he caused
tin-in to draw tip tin- four famous propositions,

i are regmrded the basis of the liberties of
illnMii church. Theee propositions were :
1 . That the power of the pope extends only to
thing* spiritual, mncl has no conreru with temporal
matter*. 2. That the authority of the pope in
spiritual affair* is subordinate to a general council.
:. That it is even limited by tin- < , :i .m, the cus-
toms, and constitution of the kingdom and the
in < hurch. 4. That in matters of faith tin-
pope's authority in not infallible.

Th<- truce which had been concluded for twenty
years at Katisbon rontinuril <>nU four ; at the -ml
of which Louis again took up arm*, lie pret-int>-<l
to hare got information, licit tin- Emperor Leopold
only waited till the conclusion of the peace with
the Turks, to make war upon him ; and he thence
inferred, that prudence required him rather to an-
ticipate hi* t-in-niy, than allow himself to be cir-
cumvented. In proof of this assertion, he cit.-d
the treaty concluded at Augsburg in 1606, between
the emperor, the King of Spain, the States-Ge-
neral, Sweden, the Duke of Savoy, and the prin-
cipal states of the Empire, for the maintenance of
the treaties concluded with France. Louis wished
moreover to enforce the claims which the Duchess
of Orleans, his sister-in-law, alleged to the succes-
sion of the palatinate. That princess was the
sister of Charles, the last elector palatine, of the
family of Simmern, who died in 168.5. She did
not dispute the fiefs with her brother's successor
in the electorate ; she claimed the freeholds, which
comprehended a considerable part of the palati-
nate ; while the new Elector, 1'hilip William, of
the family of Neuburg, maintained that, according
to the laws and usages of Germany, the entire suc-
cession belonged to him, without any partition
whatever.

Besides these motives which Louis XIV. set
forth in a long manifesto, there was another which
he kept concealed, the object of which was, to
prevent the expedition which the 1'rince of Orange,
Stadt holder of the United Provinces, was pre-
paring to send to England, against James II. his
brother-in-law, who had become odious to the
whole English nation. It was of great importance
for France to maintain, on the throne of Great
Britain, a prince whom she protected, and who
would always espouse her interests ; while it was
easy to foresee, that if the Prince of Orange, the
declared enemy of Louis, and the author of the
league of Augsburg, should succeed in uniting the
crown of England to the stadtholdership, he would

il to employ this new influence, and turn the
combined force of both states against France. The
only method of preventing an event so prejudicial
to the tnie interests of that kingdom would (lave
been, doubtless, to equip an expedition, and pitch
his camp on the frontier* of Holland. The court

mce knew this well, and yet they contented
themselves with sending an am .; : .u:.-,

which took possession of Philipvburg, May
and the whole palatinate, as well as a part of the
Electorate of Treves (September and October
16M8). Louvois, the Trench minister wh< di
these operations, had flattered himself that the

.. when they beheld the war breaking out in

then .;,| not dare to take any part in

the trouble**. ,f England. In this opinion he was

lie Prince of Orange, supported by the

. fleet, effected a landing in KngUnd (10th
November, 1668). The revolution there was soon
completed, by the dethronement of James II. ; and
Louis XIV., ending where he should have begun,
then declared war against the Slates-General.
This mistaken policy of the French minister be-
came the true source of all the subsequent icvtaes
that eclipsed the reign of Louis X I \ .

A powerful league was now formed against
France, which was joined successively by the em-
peror, the Kmpire, I.ngland, Holland, Spain, and
Savo\ Look \l\., in order to make

head against these formidable enemies, recalled
his troops from those places which they occupied
in the p:il:itni.iic, and on the banks of the Rhine ;
but in withdrawing them, he ordered a great num-
ber of the towns to be burnt to ashes, and laid
waste the whole country. By this barbarity, which
circumstances by no means called for, he only ag-
gravated the hatred and increased the ard><
his enemies. War was commenced by sea and
l.uid ; in Italy, Spain, Ireland, the Low Countries,
and on the Rhine. Louis supported it nobly
against a great part of Europe, now combined
against him. His armies were victorious every-
where. Marshal Luxembourg signalized himself
in the campaigns of Flanders, by the victories
which he gained over the allies at Fleurus (1st
July, 1690), Steinkirk (3rd August, 1692), and
Landen or Nerwindcn (29th July, 1693). In
Italy, Marshal Catinat gained the battle of Stafarda
(IKth August, 1690), and Marsailles (4th October,
1693), over the Duke of Savoy. The naval glory
of France was well supported by the Count de
Tonrville at the battles of Beachy-head (10th July,
1690), and La Hogue (29th May, 1692).

However brilliant the success of her arms might
be, the prodigious efforts which the war required
could not but exhaust France, and make her
anxious for the return of peace. Besides, Louis
\ 1 V. foresaw the approaching death of Charles II.
of Spain ; and it was of importance for him to
break the grand alliance as soon as possible ; aa
one of its articles secured the succession of the
Spanish monarchy to the emperor and his descend-
ants, to the exclusion of the King of France. In
this case, he wished, for his own interest, to give
every facility for the restoration of peace ; and by
the treaty which he concluded separately with the
Duke of Savoy, he granted that Prince, besides
the fortress of Pignerol, and the marriage of his
daughter with the Duke of Burgundy, the privi-
lege of royal honours for his ambassadors. This
treaty, concluded at Turin (29th August, 1696),
was a preliminary to the general peace, signed at
Ryswick, between France, Spain, England, and
Il'..ll:ind (-JOth September, 1697). Each of the
contracting parties consented to make mutual
restitutions. France even restored to Spain all
the t.win and territories which she had occupied
in the Low Countries, by means of the re-un.
with the exception of eighty-two places, mentioned
in a particular list, as being dependencies of
<'h irlcmont, Maubeuge, and other places ceded
by the preceding treaties. Peace between France,
the emperor, and the Empire was also signed at

Peace of Ryswick.
114 The Spanish Succession.
Claimants and partition.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Archduke Charles.
Philip of Anjou, King
of Spain.

Ryswick. The treaties of Westphalia and Nime-
guen were there renewed ; and the decrees of the
Chamber of Re-union at Metz, and of the sove-
reign courts at Besanijon and Brieach, were re-
scinded and annulled. Louis XIV. engaged to
restore to the Empire all that he had appropriated
to himself, by means of the re-unious, either be-
fore or during the war ; that is to say, all places
situated or acquired beyond the bounds of Alsace.
The city of Strasburg was ceded to France, by a
particular article of the treaty ; but the fortress of
Kehl, the cities of Friburg, Brisach, and Philips-
burg, were surrendered to the emperor. Leopold,
Duke of Lorraine, and son of Charles V., was re-
instated in his duchy, without any other reserva-
tion than that of Saar-Louis, and the city and
prefecture of Longwy. As to the claims of the
Duchess of Orleans on the palatinate, they were
submitted to the arbitration of the emperor and
the King of France ; to be referred to the decision
of the Pope, should these two sovereigns happen
to differ in opinion.

The peace of Ryswick was followed by the war
of the Spanish succession, which embroiled Eu-
rope afresh, and occasioned considerable changes
in its political state. Charles II., King of Spain,
son of Philip IV., and last male descendant of the
Spanish branch of the House of Austria, having
neither son, nor daughter, nor brother, the Spanish
monarchy, according to a fundamental law of the
kingdom, which iixed the succession in the cognate
line, appeared to belong to Maria Theresa, Queen
of France, eldest sister of Charles, and to the
children of her marriage with Louis XIV. To
this title of Maria Theresa was opposed her ex-
press renunciation, inserted in her marriage-con-
tract, and confirmed by the peace of the Pyrenees ;
but the French maintained, that that renunciation
was null, and that it could not prejudice the
children of the queen, who held their right, not
from their mother, but by the fundamental law of
Spain.

Admitting the validity of the queen's renuncia-
tion, the lineal order devolved the Spanish suc-
cession on her younger sister, Margaret Theresa,
who had married the Emperor Leopold I., and
left an only daughter, Maria Antoinette, spouse
to the Elector of Bavaria, and mother of Joseph
Ferdinand, the Electoral Prince of Bavaria.

The Emperor, who wished to preserve the
Spanish monarchy in his own family, availed him-
self of the renunciation which he had exacted from
his daughter, the Archduchess Maria Antoinette,
when she married Maximilian, the Elector of
Bavaria, to appear as a candidate himself, and
advance the claims of his mother, Maria Anne,
daughter of Philip III., King of Spain, and aunt
to Charles II. He alleged, that the Spanish suc-
cession had been secured to this latter princess,
both by her marriage-contract, and by the testa-
ments of the Kings of Spain ; and as he had two
sons, the Archdukes Joseph and Charles, by his
marriage with the Princess Palatine of Neuburg,
he destined the elder for the Imperial throne and
the States of Austria, and the younger for the
Spanish monarchy.

These different claims having excited appre-
hensions of a general war, England and Holland,
from a desire to prevent it, drew up a treaty of
partition, in concert with Louis XIV. (llth Oct.

1G98), in virtue of which the Spanish monarchy
vvas secured to Joseph Ferdinand, in case of the
death of Charles II. ; while the kingdom of the
Two Sicilies, with the ports of Tuscany, the mar-
quisate of Finale, and the province of Guipuscoa,
were reserved to the Dauphin of France. The
Archduke Charles, son to the Emperor, was to
have the duchy of Milan. Although the King of
Spain disapproved of the treaty, in so far as it
admitted a partition, nevertheless, in his will, he
recognised the Prince of Bavaria as his successor
in the Spanish monarchy.

A premature death having frustrated all the high
expectations of that prince, the powers who had
concluded the first treaty of partition drew up a
second, which was signed at London (March 13,
1700). According to this, the Archduke Charles,
eldest son of the Emperor Leopold, was destined
the presumptive heir to the Spanish monarchy.
They awarded to the Dauphin the duchy of Lor-
raine, with the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and
the province of Guipuscoa ; assigning to the Duke
of Lorraine the duchy of Milan in exchange.
Louis XIV. used every effort to have this new
treaty of partition approved by the court of Vienna.
He sent thither the Marquis Villars, who, after
having been long amused with vague promises,
failed entirely in his negociation ; and the Em-
peror, whose main object was to conciliate tin-
court of Madrid, lost the only favourable moment
which might have fixed the succession of the
Spanish monarchy in his family, with the consent
of Louis XIV. and the principal courts of Europe.

At Madrid this affair took a turn diametrically
opposite to the views and interests of the court of
Vienna. Charles II., following the counsels of
his prime minister, Cardinal Portocarrero, and
after having taken the advice of the Pope, and of
the most eminent theologians and lawyers in his
kingdom, determined to make a second will, in
which he recognised the rights of Maria Theresa,
his eldest sister ; and declared, that as the renun-
ciation of that princess had been made solely to
prevent the union of Spain with the kingdom
of France, that motive ceased on transferring the
Spanish monarchy to one of the younger sons of
the Dauphin. Accordingly, he nominated 1'hilip
of Anjou, the Dauphin's second son, heir to his
whole dominions ; failing him, the Duke of Berri,
his younger brother ; next, the Archduke Charles ;
and' lastly, the Duke of Savoy; expressly forbidding
all partition of the monarchy.

Charles II. having died on the 1st of November
following, the Junta, or Council of Regency, which
he had appointed by his will, sent to Louis XIV.,
praying him to accede to the settlement of their
late king, and give up his grandson to the wishes
of the Spanish nation. The same courier had
orders to pass on to Vienna, in case of a refusal on
his part, and make the same oiler to the archduke.
The *OUTt of France then assembled a grand
council, in which they held a deliberation as to
what step it was best to adopt, in an allair \\ liieh
so nearly concerned the general repose of Europe.
The result of this council was, that they on-lit to
accede to the will of Charles II., and reiioimee the
advantages which the second treaty <>f partition
held out to France. It was alleged, as the reason
of this resolution, that by refusing to areept tin-
will, Louis must either abandon altogether his

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II..

pretensions to the SpanUh monarchy, or uiidcrUko
MI expensive war to obUiu by conquest what the
, irtitjuu assigned him ; without being
r case, to reckon ou the ell
ie two maritime court*.

1.. iving there/ore rewired to accede

to the will, 1'hdip f Anjou was proclaimed king
by the Spaniard*, and made hi* *olcnm < ut:
Madrid on the 14th of April, 1701. Most of the

i'cau powers, uch a* the Stat<-* of Italy,
Hand, and the kingdom* of
.red 1'hilii) N . ; th.- King of

.:il ami the Duke of Savoy even concluded
treatie* of alliance with him. Moreover the aitua-

!' political attaint iu German), Hungary, and
the North, wa* such, that it would have been easy
for Loui* XIV., with prudent management, tu
preserve the Spanish crown on the head of hi*
grandson ; but he teemed, as if on purpose, to d
everything to raise all Europe against him. It was
alleged, that he aimed at the chimerical project of
iiimersal monarchy, and the re-union of France
with Spain. Instead of trying to do away this
supposition, he gave it additional force, by issuing
let tent -patent in favour of Philip, at the moment
uli.-u he was departing for Spain, to the
<>f preserving his rights to the throne of France.
The Dutch dreaded nothing so much as to ser tin
French making encroachments on the Spanish
Netherlands, which they regarded as their natural
barrier against France ; the preservation of which
appeared to be equally interesting to England.

It would have been prudent in Louis XIV. to
give these maritime powers some security ou this
l'"iut, who, since the elevation of William, Prince

iUge, to the crown of Great Britain, held as

re in their hands the balance of Europe.
Without being swayed by this consideration, he
obtained authority from the Council of Madrid to
introduce a French army into the Spanish Nether-
lands ; and on this occasion the Dutch troops, who
were quartered in various place* of the Nether-
lands, according to a stipulation with the late King
of Spain, were disarmed. This circumstance be-
came a powerful mothe tor Kim: William to rouse
the States-General against France, lie found
some difficulty, however, in drawing over the
British Parliament to his view*, as a great majority
in that House were averse to mingle in the quar-
rels of the Continent ; but the death of James II.
altered the minds and inclinations of the English.
Loui* XIV. having formerly acknowledged the
son of that prince as King of Great Britain, tin-
English Parliament had no longer any hesitation

uiing the Dutch and the other enemies of
France. A new and powerful league was formed
against Louis. The Emperor, England, the U tiited

i tees, the Empire, the Kings of Portugal and
Prussia, and the Duke of Savoy, all joined it in
accession. The allies engaged to restore to Aus-
tria the Spanish Netherlands, the duchy of Milan,
the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with the ports of
Tuscany; and never to permit the union of Franco

At the commencement of the war, Louis for
some time maintained the glory and superiority of
his arms, notwithstanding the vast num:
adversaries he had to oppose. It was not until
the campaign of 1704 that fortune abandoned him ;
when one reverse was only succeeded by another.

The Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene
defeated Marshal de Tallard at Hochstett, or Blcn-

(Aug. 13), when be lost 30,000 men, and
himself carried prisoner to England.
disaster was followed by the loss of Bavaria, and
all the French possession* beyond the Rhine. The
battle which Marlborough gained (May 23. 1706)

all the French possession* beyond the Rhine. The

battle which Marlborough gained (Ma

at Kamillies, in Brabant, wa* not leas disastrous ;

U secured to the allies the conquest of the greater
part of the Netherlands; and to increase these
misfortunes, Marshal de Marvin lost the famous
battle of Turin against Prince Eugene (Sept. 1),
which obliged the Freuch troops to evacuate Italy.
The battle which was fought at Oudenard
Flanders (July 11, 1708), was not so decisive.
Both side* fought witli equal advantage ; but tin-
Duke of Burgundy, who was commander-in-chief
of the Freuch army, having quitted the field of
liattle during the night, contrary to the advice of
me, Marlborough made this an occasion for
claiming the victory.

At length the dreadful winter of 1709, and the
battle of Mai plaque t, which Marlborough gained
over Villars (Sept. II), reduced France to the
greatest distress, and brought Louis under the
necessity of suing for peace, and even descending
to the most humiliating conditions. M. de '1
his minister for foreign affairs, was despatched to
the Hague ; and, among a number of preliminary
articles, he agreed to make restitution of all the
conquests which the French had made sinr
peace of Munster. He consented to surrender the
cit\ of Strasburg, and henceforth to possess Alsace
according to the literal terms of the treat) of
Munster ; the throne of Spain was reserved for the
archduke ; and Louis consented to abandon the
interests of Philip. But the allies, rei.
haughty by their success, demanded of the king
that he should oblige hi* grandson voluntarily to
surrender his crown, otherwise they would compel
him by force of arms, and that within the short
space of two months. The conferences, which
had been transferred from the Hague to Gertmy-
denberg, were consequently broken off, and the
war continued.

Iu this critical slate of things two unexpected
events happened, which changed the face of affairs;
and Louis XIV., far from being constrained to
submit to the articles of the preliminaries at Gcr-
truydenberg, saw himself even courted by England,
and in a condition to dictate the law to several of
the powers that were leagued against him. The
Emperor Joseph I. died (April 11, 1711) without
leaving any male offspring. His brother, the
Archduke Charles, who took the title of King of
Spain, now obtained the Imperial dignity, and
became heir of all the states belonging to the
man branch of the House of Austria. It appeared,
therefore, that the system of equilibrium could not
possibly admit the same prince to engross likewise
the whole Spanish monarchy. This event was
coupled with another, relative to the change which
had taken place in the ministry and Parliament
of Great Britain. The Whigs, who had been the
ruling party since the Revolution of 1688, were
suddenly supplanted by the Tories. This over-
throw brought the Duke of Marlborough into dis-
grace, who had long stood at the head of affairs in
ad, a* chief of the Whig faction. Queen
Anne, who stood in awe of him, found no other

i 2

116

Wueen Anne.
Kittle of Denain.
Peace of Utrecht.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

House of Hanover.

Gibraltar and Minorca.
Death of Louis XIV.

expedient for depriving him of his influence, than
to make peace with France. L'Abb6 Gualtier,
who resided at London in quality of almoner to
the ambassador of Charles of Austria, was de-
spatched by her Majesty to France, to make the
first overtures of peace to Louis. A secret nego-
ciation was set on foot between the two courts,
the result of which was a preliminary treaty signed
at London (October 8th, 1711).

A congress was opened at Utrecht, with the
view of a general pacification. The conferences
which took place there after the month of February,
1712, met with long interruptions ; both on ac-
count of the disinclination of several of the allied
powers for peace, and because of the matters to be
separately treated between France and England,
which retarded the progress of the general nego-
ciatiou. The battle of Deiiain, which Marshal
Yillars gained over the Earl of Albemarle (July
24), helped to render the allies more tractable.
Peace was at length signed at Utrecht in the
month of April, 1713, between France and the
chief belligerent powers. The Emperor alone re-
fused to take part in it, as he could not resolve to
abandon his claims to the Spanish monarchy.

The grand aim of England in that transaction
was to limit the overwhelming power of France ;
for this purpose she took care, in, that treaty, to
establish as a fundamental and inviolable law, the
clause which ordained that the kingdoms of France
and Spain never should be united. To effect this,
it was necessary that Philip of Anjou should for-
mally renounce his right to the crown of France ;
while his brother, the Duke de Berri, as well as
the Duke of Orleans, should do the same in regard
to the claims which they might advance to the
Spanish monarchy. The deeds of these renuncia-
tions, drawn up and signed in France and in
Spain, in presence of the English ambassadors,
were inserted in the treaty of Utrecht ; as were
also the letters-patent which revoked and annulled
those that Louis had given for preserving the right
of the Duke of Anjou to the succession of the
French crown. Louis XIV. promised for himself,
his heirs and successors, never to attempt either
to prevent or elude the effect of these renuncia-
tions ; and failing the descendants of Philip, the
Spanish succession was secured to the Duke of
Savoy, his male descendants, and the other princes
of his family, to the exclusion of the French
princes.

Another fundamental clause of the treaty of
Utrecht bore, that no province, city, fortress, or
place, in the Spanish Netherlands, should ever be
ceded, transferred, or granted to the crown of
France ; nor to any prince or princess of French
extraction, under any title whatever. These pro-
vinces, designed to serve as a barrier for the Low
Countries against France, were adjudged to the
Emperor and the House of Austria, together with
the kingdom of Naples, the ports of Tuscany, and
the duchy of Milan ; and as the Emperor was not
a party to the treaty, it was agreed that the Spanish
Netherlands should remain as a deposit in the
hands of the States-General, until that prince
should arrange with them respecting the barrier-
towns. The same stipulation was made in regard
to that part of the French Netherlands which
Louis had ceded in favour of the Emperor ; such
as Menin, Tournay, Fumes, and Furnes-Ambacht,

the fortress of Kenock, Ypres, and their depend-
encies.

England, in particular, obtained by this treaty
various and considerable advantages. Louis XIV.
withdrew his protection from the Pretender, and
engaged never to give him harbour in France.
The succession to the throne of Great Britain was
guaranteed to the House of Hanover. They
agreed to raze the fortifications of the port of Dun-
kirk, which had so much excited the jealousy of
England ; while France likewise ceded to her
Hudson's Bay and Straits, the Island of St.
Christopher, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland in
America. Spain gave up Gibraltar and Minorca,
both of which had been conquered by the English
during the war ; they secured to her, besides, for
thirty years, the privilege of furnishing negroes for
the Spanish American colonies.

The King of Prussia obtained the Spanish part
of Gueldres, with the city of that name, and the
district of Kessel, in lieu of the principality of
Orange, which was given to France ; though he
had claims to it as the heir of "William III., King
of England. The kingdom of Sicily was adjudged
to the Duke of Savoy, to be possessed by him and
his male descendants ; and they confirmed to him
the grants which the Emperor had made him, of
that part of the duchy of Milan which had be-
longed to the Duke of Mantua, as also Alexandria,
Valencia, the Lumelline, and the Valley of Sessia.
Finally, Sardinia was reserved for the Elector of
Bavaria, the ally of France in that war.

As the Emperor had not acceded to the treaty
of Utrecht, the war was continued between him
and France. Marshal Villars took Landau and
Friburg in Brisgaw ; afterwards a conference took
place between him and Prince Eugene at llad-
stadt ; new preliminaries were there drawn up ;
and a congress was opened at Baden in Switzer-
land, where the peace was signed (September 7th,
1714). The former treaties, since the peace of
Westphalia, were there renewed. The Electors
of Cologne and Bavaria, who had been put to the
ban of the Empire, and deprived of their estates,
were there fully re-established. Sardinia, which
had been assigned to the Elector of Bavaria by
the treaty of UtrechJ, remained in possession of
the Emperor, who likewise recovered Brisach and
Friburg in Brisgaw, instead of Landau, which had
been ceded to France.

Louis XIV. did not long survive this latter
treaty. Never did any sovereign patronize litera-
ture and the fine arts like him. Many celebrated
academies owe their origin to his auspices, such
as the Academy of Inscriptions, Belles-Lettres,
Sciences, Painting, and Architecture. His reign
was illustrious for eminent men, and talents of
every description, which were honoured and en-
couraged by him. He even extended his favour
to the philosophers and literati of foreign coun-
tries. This prince has been reproached for his too
great partiality to the Jesuits, his confessors, and
for the high importance which he attached to the
dispute between the Janseuists and the Molinists,
which gave rise to the famous bull Unigenitus,*
approved by the clergy, and published by the king
as a law of the state over all France. This illus-
trious prince ended his days after a reign of se-
venty-two years, fertile in great events ; he trans-
mitted the crown to his great grandson, Louis XV.,

Ml.

I,. ,.: .I.',;.,, ...........

>1> VII. A.D. 1MH 1713.

K ...,.,!

UMOf

I':....,

117

who was only five yean of age when he mounted

til.- Jim. Mr I"*. pt I. I".

Iii tli' our,.- u>d, several memorable

event* happened in (urmany. Tbe emperor,
Leopold I., bavin* assembled a diet at KaUsbon,
to demand subsidies against the Turks, an<l (
settle certain matters which the \ t had

1< ti undecided, the sittings of that aMvnibly wen
.uued to the piesvnt tun.-, \\ ithut ever having
been declared permanent by any formal law of the
Kmpire. The peace of Wntphalia had instituted
an eighth electorate for Uie palatine braurh of
Wittlri-Jiarh ; the emperor, Leopold I., erected a
ninth, in favour of the younger branch of the
House of 1! run* wick. The first elector of this
family, known by the name of Bnmswick-Lunen-
burg, or Hanover, was tht> Duke Ernest Augustus,
whom the emperor imcMled in his new di<nil\, to
descend to his heirs male, on account of his en-
gaging to furnish Austria with supplies in money
mi troops for carrying un the war against the
Turks. This innovation met with decided oppo-
sition in the Empire. Several of the electors were
hostile to it ; and the whole body of princes de-
clared, that the new electorate was prejudicial to
their dignity, and tended to introduce an electoral
oligarchy. The Duke of Bmnswick-Wolffcnlnittcl
specially protested against the preference \\hi.-h
was given to t!i'- \nunger branch of his house over
thr elder, in spite of family compacts, and the right
of primogeniture established in the House of
Brunswick.

A confederacy was thus formed against the ninth
electorate. The allied princes resolved, in an as-
sembly held at Nuremberg, to raise an army, and
apply to the powers that had guaranteed the treaty
' stphalia. France espoused the quarrel of
these princes; she concluded with the King of
Denmark, a treaty of alliance and subsidy against
the ninth electorate, and declared, before th<- diet
of the Empire, that she regarded this innovation
as a blow aimed at the treaty of Westphalia. In
course of time, however, these animosities were
allayed. The princes recognized the ninth elec-
torate, and the introduction of the new elector
took place in 1708. A decree was passed at the
ili. t, which annexed a clause to his admission, that
the Catholic electors should have the privilege of a
casting vote, in cases where the number of Pro-
testant electors should happen to equal that of the
Catholics. By the same decree, the King of Bo-
hemia, who had formerly never been admitted but
at the election of the emperors, obtained a voice in
all the deliberations of the Empire and the Elcc-
toral College, on condition of his paying, in time
coming, an electoral quota for the kingdom of Bo-

The imperial capitulations assumed a form en-
tirely new, about the beginning of the eighteenth
century. A difference had formerly existed among
the members of the Germanic body on this im-
portant article of public law. They regarded it as
a tiling illegal, that the electors alone should claim
the right of drawing up the capitulations ; and
they maintained, with much reason, that before
these compacts should have the force of a funda-
mental law of the Empire, it was necessary that
they nhould have the deliberation and consent of
the whole diet. The princes, therefore, demanded,
that there should be laid before the diet a scheme

: I'ctual capitulation, to sene as a rule for the
electors on every new election. That question
bad already been debated at the Congress of West-
phalia, and sent back h\ it for the decision of the
ili.-t. '1 here it became the subject of long discus-
sion ; and it was not till tho interregnum, which
followed the death of the Emperor Joseph I., that
the principal points of the perpetual capitulation
were finally settled. The plan then agreed to WM
adopted as the basis of the capitulation, which they
prescribed to Charles VI. and his successors.
Among other articles, a clause was inserted re-
garding the election of a king of the Romans.
This, it was agreed, should never take place during
the emperor's life, except in a case of urgei
cessity ; and that the proscription of an elector,
prince, or state of the Empire, should never take
pl.t.-.-, without the consent of the diet, and observ-
ing the formalities enjoined by the new capitula-
tion.

There were three electoral families of the Em-
pire who were raised to the royal dignity ; viz.,
those of Saxony, Brandenburg, and Brunnwick-
Luncnburg. Augustus II., Elector of Saxony,
after having made a profession of the Catholic re-
ligion, was elected to the throne of Poland ; a dig-
nity which was afterwards conferred, also by elec-
tion, on his son Augustus III. That change of
religion did not prevent the Electors of Saxony
from remaining at the head of the Protestant in-
terest in the Diet of the Empire, as they had given
them assurance that they would make no innova-
tions in the religion of their country, and that they
would appoint a council entirely composed of Pro-
testant members, for administering the affairs of
the Empire. These princes, However, lost part of
their influence ; and so far was the crown of Po-
land, which was purely elective, from augmenting
the greatness and real power of their house, that,
on the contrary, it served to exhaust and enfeeble
Saxony, by involving it in ruinous wars, which
ended in the desolation of that fine country, the
alienation of the electoral domains, and the in-
crease of the debts and burdens of the state.

If the royal dignity of Poland was prejudicial
to the House of Saxony, it was by no means so to
Prussia, which the House of Brandenburg ac-
quired soon after. The elector, John Sigismund,
on succeeding to the duchy of Prussia, had ac-
knowledged himself a vassal and tributary of the
crown of Poland. His grandson, Frederic Wil-
liam, took advantage of the turbulent situation in
which Poland was placed at the time of the inva-
sion of Charles X. of Sweden, to obtain a grant of
the sovereignty of Prussia, by a treaty which he
concluded with that republic at Welau (19th Sep-
tember, 1657). Poland, in renouncing the terri-
torial rights which she exercised over Ducal Prus-
sia, stipulated for the reversion of these same rights,
on the extinction of the male line of the electoral
House of Brandenburg.

leric I., the son and successor of Frederic
\Viiii ITU. h IMIU" become sovereign of Ducal Prussia,
thought himself authorised to assume the royal
ili.'uity. The elevation of his cousin gfrinsn, the
I'mirc of Orange, to the throne of Great Britain,
and of his next neighbour, the Elector of Saxony,
to the sovereignty of Poland, tempted his ambi-
tion, and induced him to enter into a negociation
on the subject with the court of Vienna. The

118

Frederic William of Prussia.
English royal family.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

George I.
Changes in Italy.
Dukes of Savoy".

Emperor Leopold promised to acknowledge him
as King of Prussia, on account of a supply of 10,000
men which Frederic promised to furnish him in
the war of the Spanish succession, which was then I
commencing. To remove all apprehensions on the |
part of Poland, who might perhaps offer some op-
position, the elector signed a reversal, bearing, that
the royal dignity of Prussia should in no way pre-
judice the right* and possessions of the king and
states of Poland over Polish Prussia ; that neither
he nor his successors should attempt to found
claims on that part of Prussia ; and that the clause
in the treaty of Welau, which secured the rever-
sion of the territorial right of Ducal Prussia, on
the extinction of the heirs male of Frederic "Wil-
liam, should remain in full force and vigour, never
to be infringed by the new king or any of his suc-
cessors. After these different conventions, the
elector repaired to Koningsberg, where he was
proclaimed King of Prussia (18th January, 1701).
It is worthy of remark, that on the ceremony of
his coronation, he put the crown on his own head.

All the European powers acknowledged the new
king, with the exception of France and Spain, with
whom he soon engaged in war. The Teutonic
knights, bearing in mind their ancient claims over
Prussia, deemed it their duty to support them by
a protest, and their example was followed by the
Court of Rome. Nothing is so remarkable as the
opinion which the author of the Memoirs of Bran-
denburg delivers on this event. " Frederic," says
he, " was flattered with nothing so much, as the
externals of royalty, the pomp of ostentation, and a
certain whimsical self-conceit, which was pleased
with making others feel their inferiority. What at
first was the mere offspring of vanity, turned out in
the end to be a masterpiece of policy. The royal
dignity liberated the House of Brandenburg from
that yoke of servitude under which Austria had,
till then, held all the princes of Germany. It was
a kind of bait which Frederic held out to all his
posterity, and by which he seemed to say, I have
acquired for you a title, render yourselves worthy
of it ; I have laid the foundation of your greatness,
yours is the task of completing the structure." In
fact, Austria, by promoting the House of Branden-
burg, seemed to have injured her own greatness.
In the very bosom of the Empire, she raised up a
new power, which afterwards became her rival,
and seized every opportunity of aggrandizement at
her expense.

As for the electoral House of Brunswick-Lunen-
burg, it succeeded, as we have observed, to the
throne of Great Britain, in virtue of a fundamental
law of that monarchy, which admitted females to
the succession of the crown. Ernest Augustus,
the first elector of the Hanoverian line, had mar-
ried Sophia, daughter of the Elector Palatine Fre-
deric V., by the Princess Elizabeth of England,
daughter of James I., King of Great Britain. An
act of the British Parliament in 1701, extended
the succession to that princess, then Electress-
Dowager of Hanover, and to her descendants, as
being nearest heirs to the throne, according to the
order established by former acts of parliament,
limiting the succession to princes and princesses
of the Protestant line only. The Electress Sophia,
by that act, was called to the succession, in case
William III., and Anne, the youngest daughter of
James II., left no issue; an event which took place

on the death of Anne, in 1714, Queen of Great
Britain. The Electress Sophia was not alive at
that time, having died two months before that
princess. George, Elector of Hanover, and son
of Sophia by Ernest Augustus, then mounted the
British throne (Aug. 12, 1714), to the exclusion of
all the other descendants of the Princess Elizabeth,
who, though they had the right of precedence, were
excluded by being Catholics, in virtue of the acts
of parliament 1689, 1701, 1705.

The war of the Spanish succession had occa-
sioned great changes in Italy. Spain, after having
been long the leading power in that country, gave
place to Austria, to whom the treaties of Utrecht
and Baden had adjudged the duchy of Milan, the
kingdoms of Naples and Sardinia, and the ports of
Tuscany. To these she added the duchy of Man-
tua, of which the Emperor Joseph I. had dispos-
sessed Duke Charles IV. of the House of Gouzaga,
for having espoused the cause of France in the
War of the Succession. The Duke of Mirandola
met with a similar fate, as the ally of the French
in that war. His duchy was confiscated by the
emperor, and sold to the Duke of Modena. This
new aggrandizement of Austria in Italy excited
the jealousy of England, lest the princes of that
house should take occasion to revive their obsolete
claims to the royalty of Italy and the imperial dig-
nity ; and it was this which induced the court of
London to favour the elevation of the aukes of
Savoy, in order to counterbalance the power of
Austria in Italy.

The origin of the House of Savoy is as old as
the beginning of the eleventh century, when we
find a person named Berthold in possession of Sa-
voy, at that time a province of the kingdom of Bur-
gundy or Aries. The grandson of Berthold mar-
ried Adelaide de Suza, daughter and heiress of
Mainfroi, Marquis of Italy and Lord of Suza. This
marriage brought the House of Savoy considerable
possessions in Italy, such as the marquisate of Suza,
the duchy of Turin, Piedmont, and Val d'Aoste
(1097). Humbert II., Count of Savoy, conquered
the province of Tarentum. Thomas, one of his
successors, acquired by marriage the barony of
Faucigny. Amadeus V. was invested by the Em-
peror Henry VII. in the city and county of A-ti.
Amadeus VII. received the voluntary submission
of the inhabitants of Nice, which he had dismem-
bered from Provence, together with the counties
of Tenda and Boglio ; having taken advantage of
the intestine dissensions in that country, and the
conflict between the factions of Duras and Anjou,
who disputed the succession of Naples and the
county of Provence. Amadeus VIII. purchased
from Otho de Villars the county of Geneva, and
was created, by the Emperor Sigismund, first Duke
of Savoy (Feb. 19, 141tf).

The rivalry which had subsisted between France
and Austria since the end of the fifteenth century,
placed the House of Savoy in a situation extremely
difficult. Involved in the wars which had arisen
between these two powers in Italy, it became of
necessity more than once the victim of political
ein-umstances. Duke Charles III., having allied
himself with Charles V., was deprived of his es-
tates by France ; and his son Philibert, noted for
his exploits in the campaigns of Flanders, did not
obtain restitution of them until the peace of Chateau
Cambresis. The Dukes Charles Emanuel II., and

PERIOD VII. A.D. 164S-1713.

MwefBsiwtalu

AJfiMS*oVl.afr\taal.

Victor Amadous II., experienced similar indigni-

ties, in the wan which agitated France and Spain
during the seventeenth century, and which wen
terminated by the treaties of the Pyrenees end
i m i ho yean 1609, 1696. In the war of the
Spaniah succession, Victor Amadous II. declared
at first for his son-in-law, IMulip Km* of Spain,
even taking upon himself the chief command of
the French army in Italy ; but afterwards, per-
ceiving the danger of his situation, and seduced by
the advantageous offen which the emperor made
him, he thought proper to alter his plan, and joined
rand alliance against France. Savoy and
.-lit again became the theatre of the war be-
i France and Italy. The French having un-
dertaken the siege of Turin, the duke and Prince
Eugene forced their army in it* entrenchments be-
fore the place, and obliged them to abandon Italy.
The emperor granted the duke the investiture of
the different estates which he had secured to him,
on his accession to the grand alliance; such as
Montferrat, the provinces of Alexandria and Va-
lencia, the country between the Tanaro and the
lie Lumelline, Val Seseia, and the Vigeva-
neeco ; to be possessed by him and his male de-
seendanta, as fiefs holding of the emperor and the
Empire.

The peace of Utrecht confirmed these posses-
sions to the duke ; and England, the better to ee-
i-un- the equilibrium of Italy and Europe, granted
him, by that treaty, the royal dignity, with the
island of Sicily, which she had taken from Spain.
That island was ceded to him under the express
clause, that, on the extinction of the male line of
Savoy, that kingdom should revert to Spain. By
the same treaty they secured to the male descend-
ants of that house, the right of succession to the
Spanish monarchy ; and that clause was confirmed
by a solemn law passed in the cortes of Spain, and
by subsequent treaties concluded between these
powers and Europe. The duke was crowned
Km* of Spain at Palermo (Dec. 21, 1713). by the
archbishop of that city ; and the only persons who
refused to acknowledge him in that new capacity
were the emperor and the pope.

In proportion as France increased, Spain had
declined in power, in consequence of the vices of
her government, the feebleness of her princes, and
the want of qualifications in their ministers and
favourites. At length, under the reign of Charles
II., the weakness of that monarchy was such, that
France despoiled her with impunity, as appears
by those cessions she was obliged to make by the
treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle, Nimeguen, and Rys-
wick. Charles II. was the last prince of the
Spanish line of the house of Austria. At his death
(Nov. 1700), a long and bloody war ensued about
the succession, as we have already related. Two
competitors appeared for the crown. Philip of
Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., had on his side the
will of Charles II., the efforts of his grandfather,
and the wishes of the Spaniah nation. Charles of
Austria, younger eon of the Emperor Leopold I.,
was supported by a formidable league, which poli-
tical considerations and a jealousy of the other
powers had raised against France.

I' lii lip, who had bren placed on the throne by
the Spaniards, had already resided at Madrid for
several years, when the Austrian prince, his rival,
assisted by the allied fleet, took possession of Bar-

capital. The

(Oct. 0. 1706), when be

which France am.

perienced at this period, obliged Philip twice to
abandon his capital and se.
He owed hie restoration for tho first time to Mar-
shal de Berwick, and the victory which that general
gained over the allies near Ahnanta, in New Cas-
\pril2fi, 1707). The archduke having after-
Wards advanced as far as Madrid, the Dame de
irac undertook to rnpnles. him. That general,
^junction with Philip V., defeated the ilM.
who were commanded by General Stahmnberg,
near Villa Viciosa (Dec. 10, 1710). The.* tw,,
victories contributed to establish Philip on his
throne. The death of Joseph I., which happened
soon after, and the elevation of his brother, the
Archduke Charles, to the Imperial throne and the
crowns of Hungary and Bohemia, accelerated tho
conclusion of the peace of Utrecht, by which the
Spanish monarchy was preserved to Philip V. mad
his descendants. They deprived him, however, in
virtue of that treaty, of tho Netherlands and the
Spanish possessions in Italy, such as the Milanais,
the ports of Tuscany, and the kingdoms of Naples,
Sicily, and Sardinia.

The conditions which England bad exacted at
the treaty of Utrecht, to render effectual the re-
nunciation of Philip V. to the crown of France, ae
well as that of the French princes to the monarchy
of Spain, having made it necessary to assemble the
Cortes or States-General, Philip took advantage of
that circumstance to change the order of succes-
sion which till then had subsisted in Spain, and
which was known by the name of the Ctutiltan
Succession. A law was passed at the Cortes
(1713), by which it was ordained that ft males
should never be admitted to the crown, except in
default of the male line of Philip ; that the male
heirs should succeed according to the order of
primogeniture ; that, failing the male line of that
prince, the crown should fall to the eldest daughter
of the last reigning king and her descendants;
and, failing them, to the sister or nearest relation
of the last king ; always keeping in force the right
of primogeniture, and the preference of the male
heirs in the order of succession.

France, by the sixtieth article of the treaty of
the Pyrenees, having renounced the protection of
Portugal, the war between Spain and this latter
power was resumed with new vigour. Alphonso
\ I.. King of Portugal, finding himself abandoned
by his allies, resolved to throw himself on the
favour of England. The English granted him sup-
plies, in virtue of a treaty which he concluded with
them (June 23, 1661), and by which he ceded to
them the city of Tangiers in Africa, and the Isle of
Bombay in India. France, who well knew that it
was her interest not to abandon Portugal entirely,
rendered her likewise all the secret assistance in
her power. The Count Schomberg passed over to
that kingdom with a good number of otBeats, and
several companies of French troops. The Portu-
guese, under the command of that general, gained
two victories over the Spaniards at Almexial, near
Kiitremos (1663), and at Monies Claroa, or Villa
a (1668), which re-estabUfthrd their affairs,
and rontiit ut.d to secure the independence of
Portugal. When the war took place about the
Right of Devolution, the court of Lisbon formed a
new alliance with France. Spain then learned

Revolution in Portugal.
120 The Spanish contest.

South American provinces.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

O. Cromwell, Protector.
War with Holland.
Monk restores Cluirh's II.

that it would be more for her interest to abandon
her projects of conquering Portugal, and accept
the proposals of accommodation tendered to her
by the mediation of England.

It happened, in the meantime, that AlphonBO
"VI., a prince of vicious habits, and of a ferocious
and brutal temper, was dethroned (Nov. 23, 1667),
and the Infant Don Pedro, his brother, was de-
clared regent of the kingdom. The queen of Al-
phonso, Mary of Savoy, who had managed the
whole intrigue, obtained, from the court of Rome,
a dissolution of her marriage with Alphonso, and
espoused the regent, her brother-in-law (April 2,
1668). That prince would willingly have fulfilled
the engagements which his predecessor had con-
tracted with France, but the English ambassador
having drawn over the Cortes of Portugal to his
interests, the regent was obliged to make peace
with Spain, which was signed at Lisbon, February
13th, 1668. The Spaniards there treated with the
Portuguese as a sovereign and independent nation.
They agreed to make mutual restitution of all they
had taken possession of during the war, with the
exception of the city of Ceuta, in Africa, which
remained in the power of Spain. The subjects of
both states obtained the restoration of all property
alienated or confiscated during the war. That
peace was followed by another, which Portugal
concluded at the Hague, with the United Pro-
yinces of the Netherlands (July 31, 1669), who
were permitted to retain the conquests they had
made from the Portuguese in the East Indies.

The court of Lisbon was soon after involved in
the war of the Spanish Succession, which divided
all Europe. Don Pedro II. had at first acknow-
ledged Philip V., and even contracted an alliance
with him ; but yielding afterwards to the influence
of the British minister, as well as of the court of
Vienna, he joined the Grand Alliance against
France. 3 The Portuguese made a distinguished
figure in that war, chiefly during the campaign of
1706, When, with the assistance of the English,
they penetrated as far as Madrid, and there pro-
claimed Charles of Austria.

The Portuguese, by one of the articles of their
treaty of accession to the grand alliance, had been
given to expect, that certain important places in
Spanish Estremadura and Gallicia would be ceded
to them at the general peace. That engagement
was never fulfilled. The treaty of peace, concluded
at Utrecht (6th February, 1715), between Spain
and Portugal, had ordered the mutual restitution
of all conquests made during the war. The treaty
of Lisbon, of 166*, was then renewed, and espe-
cially the articles which stipulated for the restitu-
tion of all confiscated property. The only point
which they yielded to the Portuguese was that
which referred to the colony of St. Sacrament,
which the Portuguese governor of Rio Janeiro had
established (1680) on the northern bank of the
river La Plata, in South America, which was op-
posed by Spain. By the sixth article of her treaty
with Portugal, she renounced all her former claims
aud pretensions over the above colony.

A similar dispute had arisen between France
ami Portugal, relative to the northern bank of the
Amazons river, and the territories about Cape
North, in America, which the French maintained
belonged to them, as making part of French
Guiana. The Portuguese having constructed there

the fort of Macapa, it was taken by the French
governor of Cayenne. By the treaty of Utrecht,
it was agreed, between France and Portugal, that
both banks of the river Amazons should belong
entirely to Portugal ; and that France should re-
nounce all right and pretensions whatever to the
territories of Cape North, lying between the rivers
Amazons and Japoc, or Vincent Pinson, in South
America.

In. England, an interregnum of eleven years fol-
lowed the death of Charles I. Oliver Cromwell,
the leader of the Independent party, passed two
Acts of Parliament, one of which abolished the
House of Lords, and the other the royal dignity.
The kingly office was suppressed, as useless to the
nation, oppressive and dangerous to the interests
and liberties of the people ; and it was decided,
that whoever should speak of the restoration of
the Stuarts should be regarded as a traitor to his
country. The kingdom being thus changed into
a republic, Cromwell took on himself the chief
direction of affairs. This ambitious man was not
long in monopolizing the sovereign authority
(1653). He abolished the parliament called the
Rump, which had conferred on him his power
and military commission. He next assembled a
new parliament of the three kingdoms, to the
number of 144 members ; and he took care to
have it composed of individuals whom he knew to
be devoted to his interests. Accordingly, they
resigned the whole authority into his hands. An
act, called the Act of Government, conferred on
him the supreme authority, under the title of Pro-
tector of the three kingdoms ; with the privilege
of making war and peace, and assembling every
three years a parliament, which should exercise
the legislative power conjunctly with himself.

Cromwell governed England with a more un-
controlled power than that of her own kings had
been. In 1651, he passed the famous Navigation
Act, which contributed to increase the commerce
of Great Britain, and gave her marine a prepon-
derance over that of all other nations. That ex-
traordinary man raised England in the estimation
of foreigners, and made his protectorate be re-
spected by all Europe. After a war which he had
carried on against the Dutch, he obliged them, by
the treaty of Westminster (1G54), to lower their
flag to British vessels, and to abandon the cause
of the Stuarts. Entering into alliance with France
against Spain, he took from the latter the island of
Jamaica (1655) and the port of Dunkirk (1658).

After his death, the generals of the army com-
bined to restore the old parliament, called the
Rump. Richard Cromwell, who succeeded his
father, soon resigned the Protectorate (April 22,
1659). Dissensions having arisen between the
parliament and the generals, Monk, who was go-
vernor of Scotland, marched to the assistance of
the parliament; and, after having defeated the
Independent Generals, he proceeded to assemble a
new parliament composed of both houses. No
sooner was this parliament assembled, than they
decided for the restoration of the Stuarts, in the
person of Charles II. (18th May, 1660).

That prince made his public entry into London,
in the month of May, 1660. His first care was
to take vengeance on those who had been diieily
instrumental in the death of his father. He re-
scinded all Acts of Parliament passed since the

IM..O.I Mir) II.

i) MI. A.n. i4ft ma.

131

TMT 1839, and re-established F.pi*oopacy both in

England and Scotland. Instigated ly hi* pro-

l>ovver, ami following the

maxim* which he had iml>il>l from hi* predeces-
sor*, he adopted nirumirc<i which were opposed by
; and even wrut o far as more
than once to pronounce their dissolution. His
'(ucnce, waa a scene of faction
and agitation, which proved the forerunner* of a
new revolution. 4 The appellation of H'Ai</'and
Toritt, o fiunou* in Kn-li^h hi-tory, took it*
rise about thin time. We rould almost, however,
pardon Charles for hi* fault* and irregularities, in
!! t ion of the benevolence and amiablenen
of hi* character. Hut it wa othenviic with James
II.. who succeeded his brother on the Briti-h
throne (16th F ' That prince alienated

the mind* of hi* aubject* by hi* haughty <!-
meanour, and hi* extravagant teal for the church

me, and the Jeiuit* his confessors. Scarcely
was he raited to the throne, when he undertook
to change the religion of his country, and to go-
vern still more de*potically than his brother had
done. Encouraged by Louis XIV., who offered
him money and troop*, he waa the first King of
l-.M-i.iinl that had kept on foot an army in time of
peace, and caused the legislature to decide, that
the king can dispense with the laws. Availing
himself of this decision, he dispensed with the
several statut< s i tied against the Catholics; he
permitted them the public exercise of their reli-
gion within the three kingdoms, and gradually
gave them a preference in all places of trust. At
l'-i>-'th, he even solicited the pope to send a nuncio
to reside at his court ; and on the arrival of Ferdi-
nand Dada, to whom Innocent XI. had confided
this mission, he gave "him a public and solemn
entry- to Windsor (167). Seven bishops, who had
refused to publish the declaration respecting Ca-
tholir*, were treated as guilty of sedition, and
imprisoned by his order in the Tower.

During these transactions, the Queen, Mary of
Modena, happened to be delivered of a prince
i .'I >il i Junr, H;HH), known in history by the name
of the Pretender. As her Majesty had had no
children for more than six years, it was not difficult
to gain credit to a report, that the young prince
was a spurious child. James II., by his first mar-
riage with Anne Hyde, daughter of the Earl of

don, had two daughters, both Protestants,
and regarded, till then, as heirs to the crown.
Mary, the eldest, was married to William, Prince
of Orange, and Anne, the youngest, to George,
younger son of Frederic III., King of Denmark.
The English Protestants had flattered themselves
that all their wrongs and misfortunes would ter-
minate with the death of James II. and the ac-
cession of the Princess of Orange to the throne.
Being disappointed in these exj>ectations by the
birth of the 1'rinre of Wales, their only plan was
t.. dethrone the king. The Tories even Joined
with t :i offering the crown to the Prince

of Orange. William 111., supported by the Hutch

made a descent on England, and landed
15,000 men at Torbay (5th Nov., 1688), without
ug the smallest resistance on die pan of
James, who, seeing himself abandoned by the mili-
tary, took the resolution of withdrawing to France,
where he had already sent his queen and his son,

in.- 1'rincc of Wales. He afterwards rc-

tunird to Ireland, where he had a strong
party; l>ut deing con<|ii-rrd by William, at the
battle of the Bovne (11th July, 1090), be was
obliged to return to t ranee, where he ended his
days.

Immediately after the flight of Janes, the par-
liament of England declared, by an act, that as be
had violated (In- fundamental law of the coratitn-
tion, and abandoned the kingdom, the throne was
become vacant. They, therefore, unanimously
conferred the crown on William III., I'm.
Orange, and Mary his spouse (February 22, 1B80);
intrusting the administration of affair* to the ].
alone. In redressing the grievances of the n
they et new limits to the royal authority. By an
Act, called the Defloration of /tight*, they decreed,
that the king could neither suspend, nor dispense
with the law*; that he could institute no new
courts, nor levy money under any pretence what-
ever, nor maintain an army in time of peace with-
out the consent of parliament. Episcopacy was
abolished in Scotland (1604), and the liberty of
the press sanctioned. The succession of the crown
was regulated by different Acts of Parliament, one
of which fixed it in the Protestant line, to the ex-
clusion of Catholics. Next, after William and Mary
and their descendants, was the Princess Anne and
her descendants. A subsequent Act conferred
the succession on the House of Hanover (1701),
under the following conditions : That the king
or queen of that family, on their accession to the
throne, should be obliged to conform to the High
Church, and the laws of 1689 ; that, without the
consent of Parliament, they should never engage
the nation in any war for the defence of their
hereditary dominions, nor go out of the kingdom ;
and that they should never appoint foreigners to
offices of trust.

The rivalry between France and England as-
sumed a higher tone under the reign of William
III.; and was increased by the powerful efforts
which France was making to improve her marine,
and extend her navigation and her commerce. The
colonies which she founded in America and the
Indies, by bringing the two nations more into
contact, tended to foment their jealousies, and
multiply subjects of discord and division between
them. From that time England eagerly seised
every occasion for occupying France on the Conti-
nent of Europe ; and the whole policy of William,
as we have seen, had no other aim than to thwart
the ambitious views of Louis XIV. If this rivalry
excited and prolonged wars which inflicted many
calamities on the world, it became, likewise, a
powerful stimulus for the contending nations to
develope their whole faculties ; to make the highest
attainments in the sciences, of which they were
susceptible ; and to carry arts and civilization to
i test countries in the world.

William III. was succeeded by Anne (in 1702).
It was in her reign that the grand union between
England and Scotland was accomplished, which
incorporated them into one kingdom, by means of
the same order of succession, and only one par-
liament. That princess had the honour of main-
taining the balance of Europe against France, by
the clauses which she got inserted into the treaty
cht. At her death (12th August, 1714), the
throne of Great Britain passed to George I., the
Elector of Hanover, whose mother, Sophia, de-

Contest with the Dutch.
122 !>*' Witt. I'.-nsionary.

Louis XIV. invades Holland.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

The Stadtholders.

The Austrian Netherlands.

Tranquillity of Switzerland.

rived her right to the British throne from James I.
her maternal grandfather.

The power and political influence of the United
Provinces of the Netherlands had increased every
day, since Spain acknowledged their independence
by the treaty of Munster (1648). Their extensive
commerce to all parts of the globe, and their flou-
rishing marine, attracted the admiration of all
Europe. Sovereigns courted their alliance ; and
the Hague, the capital of the States-General, be-
came, in course of time, the centre of European
politics. That republic was the rival of England
in all her commercial relations ; and she ventured
also to dispute with her the empire of the sea, by
refusing to lower her flag to British vessels. These
disputes gave rise to bloody wars between the two
states, in which the famous Dutch Admirals, Tromp
and De Ruyter, distinguished themselves by their
maritime exploits. De Ruyter entered the Thames
with the Dutch fleet (1667), advanced to Chatham,
burnt the vessels in the roads there, and threw
the City of London into great consternation.
Nevertheless, by the treaties of Breda (1667) and
Westminster (1674), they agreed that their vessels
and fleets should lower their flag when they met
either one or more ships carrying the British flag,
and that over all the sea, from Cape Finisterre, in
Gallicia, to the centre of Statt in Norway ; but
the States-General preserved Surinam, which they
had conquered during the war ; and at the treaty
of commerce, which was signed at Breda, the
Navigation Act was modified in their favour, in so
far that the produce and merchandise of Germany
were to be considered as productions of the soil of
the republic.

It was during these wars that a change took
place with regard to the Stadtholdership of the
United Provinces. "William II., Prince of Orange,
had alienated the hearts of his subjects by his at-
tempts against their liberties ; and having, at his
death, left his wife, the daughter of Charles I. of
England, pregnant of a son (1650), the States-
General took the opportunity of leaving that office
vacant, and taking upon themselves the direction
of affairs. The suspicions which the House of
Orange had excited in Cromwell by their alliance
with the Stuarts, and the resentment of John de
"Witt, Pensionary of Holland, against the Stadt-
holder, caused a secret article to be added to the
treaty of Westminster, by which the States of
Holland and West Friesland engaged never to elect
William, the posthumous son of William II., to
be Stadtholder ; and never to allow that the office
of captain-general of the republic should be con-
ferred on him. John de Witt likewise framed a
regulation known by the name of the Perpetual
Edict, which separated the Stadtholdership from
the office of captain and admiral -general, and
which enacted, that these functions should never
be discharged by the same individual. Having
failed, however, in his efforts to make the States-
General adopt this regulation, which they con-
sidered as contrary to the union, John de Witt
contented himself with obtaining the approbation
of the States of Holland, who even went so far as
to sanction the entire suppression of the stadt-
holderahip.

: tiers continued in this situation until the
time when Louis XIV. invaded Holland. His
alarming progress caused a revolution in favour of

the Prince of Orange. The ruling faction, at the
head of which was John de Witt, then lost the
good opinion of the people. He was accused of
having neglected military affairs, and left the State
without defence, and a prey to the enemy. The
first signal of revolution was given by the small
town of Veere in Zealand. William was there
proclaimed Stadtholder (June 1672), and the ex-
ample of Veere was soon followed by all the cities
of Holland and Zealand. Everywhere the people
compelled the magistrates to confer the Stadthold-
ership on the young prince. The Perpetual Edict
was abolished, and the Stadtholdership confirmed
to William III. by the Assembly of States. They
even rendered this dignity, as well as the office of
captain-general, hereditary to all the male and
legitimate descendants of the prince. It was on
this occasion that the two brothers, John and
Cornelius de Witt, were massacred by the people
assembled at the Hague.

After William was raised to the throne of Great
Britain, he still retained the Stadtholdership, with
the offices of captain and admiral -general of the
republic. England and Holland, united under the
jurisdiction of the same prince, acted thenceforth
in concert to thwart the ambitious designs of
Louis XIV. ; and he felt the effects of their power
chiefly in the war of the Spanish Succession, when
England and the States-General made extraordi-
nary efforts to maintain the balance of the Con-
tinent, which they thought in danger. It was in
consideration of these efforts that they guaranteed
to the Dutch, by the treaty of the Grand Alliance,
as well as by that of Utrecht, a barrier against
France, which was more amply defined by the
Barrier Treaty, signed at Antwerp (loth No-
vember, 1715), under the mediation and guarantee
of Great Britain. The provinces and towns of the
Netherlands, both those that had been possessed
by Charles II., and those that France had surren-
dered by the treaty of Utrecht, were transferred to
the Emperor and the House of Austria, on con-
dition that they should never be ceded under any
title whatever ; neither to France, nor to any other
prince except the heirs and successors of the House
of Austria in Germany. It was agreed that there
should always be kept, in the Low Countries, a
body of Austrian troops, from 30,000 to :5.~>,<)UU
men, of which the Emperor was to furnish three-
fifths, and the States-General the remainder. Fi-
nally, the States-General were allowed a garrison,
entirely composed of their own troops, in the cities
and castles of Namur, Tournay, Menin, Fumes,
Warneton, and the fortress of Kenock ; while the
Emperor engaged to contribute a certain sum an-
nually for the maintenance of these troops.

Switzerland, since the confirmation of her liberty
and independence by the peace of Westphalia, had
constantly adhered to the system of neutrality
which she had adopted ; and taken no part in the
broils of her neighbours, except by furnishing
troops to those powers with whom she wa* in
alliance. The fortunate inability which was the
natural consequence of her union, pointed out this
line of conduct, and even induced the European
states to respect the Helvetic neutrality.

This profound peace, which Switzerland enjoyed
by means of that neutrality, was never interrupted,
except by occasional domestic quarrels, which arose
from the difference of their religious opinions.

/,r,.h mt -1 I. .11
( -, -V ..t IMS*

Jota CtaisUr. E. sf Mas*.

PERIOD VII. A.I). 14 1713.

U r ..(

DMUM
TrnrtyofC iniijii.

IV:

Certain families, from the canton of Scbweita,
had fled to Zurich on account of their religious
tenets, and had bean protected by that re (
l Htirred up a war (1606) between the Catholic

ti and the Zuricherm, with their allies the
Bernese ; but it was soon terminated by the peace
of Baden, which renewed the clauses of the treaty
lative to these very subject* of dispute.
Borne attempts baring afterwards been made
against liberty of conscience, in the county of
Toggcnburg, by the Abb* of St. Gall, a new war
broke out (1712), between five of the Cathli<
cantons, and the two Protestant cantons of Zurich
and Berne. These latter expelled the Abbe of
ill from his estates, and dispossessed the
Catholics of the county of Baden, with a consider-
able part of the free bailiwicks, which were granted
to them by the treaty concluded at Araw. The
Abb6 then saw himself abandoned by the Catholic
cantons; and it was only in virtue of a treaty,
which he concluded with Zurich and Berne ( 1 T 1 - > ,
that his successor obtained his restoration.

Sweden, during the greater part of this period,
supported the first rank among the powers of the
North. II','' \i_'our of her government, added to
the weakness of her neighbours, and the important
advantages which the treaties of Stolbova, Stums-
dorf, Bromsbro, and Westphalia had procured her,
secured this superiority ; and gave her the same
influence in the North that France held in the
Christina, the daughter of Gustavus
Adolphus, held the reins of government in
Sweden about the middle of the sixteenth century ;
but to gratify her propensity for the fine arts, she
resolved to abdicate the crown (1654). Charles
Gustavus, Count Palatine of Deux-Ponts, her
conain-german, succeeded her, under the title of
Charles X. Being nurtured in the midst of arms,
and ambitious only of wars and battles, he was
anxious to distinguish himself on the throne. John
Casimir, King of Poland, having provoked him,
by protesting against his accession to the crown of
Sweden, Charles made this an occasion of breaking
the treaty of Stumsdorf, which was still in force,
and invaded Poland. Assisted by-Frederic William,
the Elector of Brandenburg, whom he had attached
to his interest*, he gained a splendid victory over

i'oles near Warsaw (July, 1658). At that
crisis, the fate of Poland would have been decided,
if the Csar, Alexis Michaelovitz, who was also at
war with the Poles, had chosen to make common
cause with her new enemies ; but Alexis thought
it more for his advantage to conclude a truce with
the Poles, and attack the Swedes in Livonia, In-
gria, and Carclia. The Emperor Leopold and the
of Denmark followed the example of the
Csar; and the*Elector of Brandenburg, after ob-
taining the sovereignty of the Duchy of Prussia,
by the treaty which he concluded with Poland at
welau, acceded in like maimrr to tins league the
object of which was to secure the preservation
of Poland, and maintain the equilibrium of the
North.

Attacked by so many and such powerful ene-
mies, the King of Sweden determined to withdraw
his troops from Poland, and direct his principal
force against Denmark. Having made himself
max' rein, Sleswick, and Jutland, he

passed the Belts on the ice (January 1658) with
his army and artillery, and advanced towards the

isjasjrtfasi i -,>..

capital of the kingdom. This bold step intimi-
dated the Danes so much, that they sobmttted to

II. MMifts*jij SSTW - I " MWhlrfc < ,.ri.-

made them sign at Hoachild (February I860).
Scarcely was this treaty noshsded, when the King
of Sweden broke it anew ; and, under s-lflhm*
pretexts, laid siege to Copenhagen. His isHsnrlsa
was, if he had carried that place, to rase it to the
ground, to annihilate the kingdom of
and fix his residence in the province of
where he could maintain his domin
North and the Baltic. The hesisged Danes, how-

made a vigorous defence, and they were en-
couraged by the example of Frederic III., who
superintended in person the whole operations of
the siege ; nevertheless, they must certainly have
yielded, had not the Dutch, who were alarmed for
their commerce in the Baltic, sent a Meet to the
assistance of Denmark. These republicans fought
an obstinate naval battle with the Swedes in the
Sound i .".nil October, 165H). The Swedish fleet
was repulsed, and the Dutch succeeded in relieving
c.ip. nhniren. )>> throwing in a supply of provisions
and ammunition.

The King of Sweden persisted, nevertheless, in
his determination to reduce that capital. He was
not even intimidated by the treaties which France,
England, and Holland, had concluded at the Hague,
for maintaining the equilibrium of the North ; but
a premature death, at the age of thirty-eijjht, put
an end to his ambitious projects (23rd February,
1660). The regents who governed the kingdom
during the minority of his son Charles XI., im-
mediately set on foot negociations with all tho
powers that were in league against Sweden. By
the peace which they concluded at Copenhagen
with Denmark (July 3, 1660), they surrendered to
that crown several of their late conquests ; reserv-
ing to themselves only the provinces of Schonen,
Blcckingen, Halland, and Bohns. The Duke of
Holstein-Gottorp, the protegi of Charles X., was
secured by that treaty in the sovereignty of that
part of Sleswick, which had been guaranteed to
him by a former treaty concluded at Copenhagen.
The war with Poland, and her allies
of Brandenburg and the Emperor, was terminated
I.) the peace of Oliva (May 3rd, 1660). The
King of Poland gave up his pretensions to the
crown of Sweden ; while the former ceded to the
latter the provinces of Livonia and Esthnnia, and
the inlands belonging to them ; to be possessed on
the same terms that had been agreed on at tin-
treaty of Stumsdorf in 1635. The duke of Conr-
land was re-established in his duchy, and the
sovereignty of ducal Prussia confirmed to the
House of Brandenburg. Peace between Sweden
and Russia was concluded at Kardis in Esthonia ;
while the latter power surrendered to Sweden all
the places which she had conquered in Livonia.

Sweden was afterwards drawn into the war
against the Dutch by Louis XIV., when she ex-
perienced nothing but disasters. She was deprived
of all her provinces in the Empire, and only re-
gained possession of them in virtue of the tit silts
of Zell, Nimeguen, St. Germain-en-Lajc,
Uineblean, and Lnnden (1679), which she con-
cluded successively with the powers in league
against France. Immediately after that peace, a

ution happened in the government
The abuse which the nobles made of their

124

Charles XI. of Sweden.
Swedish Di--t.
Charles XI I.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Victorious at Narva.
The Polish contest.
PeU-r the Great.

leges, the extravagant authority claimed by the
senate, and the different methods which the
grandees employed for gradually usurping the do-
mains of the crown, had excited the jealousy of the
other orders of the state. It is alleged that Baron
Gillenstiern had suggested to Charles XL the idea
of taking advantage of this discontent to augment
the royal authority, and humble the arrogance of
the senate and the nobility. In compliance with
lu's advice, the king assembled the estates of the
kingdom at Stockholm (1680) ; and having quar-
tered some regiments of his own guards in the
city, he took care to remove such of the nobles as
might give the greatest cause of apprehension. An
accusation was lodged at the Diet against those
ministers who had conducted the administration
during the king's minority. To them were attri-
buted the calamities and losses of the state, and
for these they were made responsible. The senate
was also implicated. They were charged with
abusing their authority ; and it was proposed that
the States should make investigation, whether the
powers which the senate had assumed were con-
formable to the laws of the kingdom. The States
declared that the king was not bound by any other
form of government than that which the constitu-
tion prescribed ; that the senate formed neither a
fifth order, nor an intermediate power between the
king and the States ; and that it ought to be held
simply as a council, with whom the king might
consult and advise.

A College of Re-union was also established at
this Diet, for the purpose of making inquiry as to
the lands granted, sold, mortgaged, or exchanged
by preceding kings, either in Sweden or Livonia ;
with an offer on the part of the crown to reim-
burse the proprietors for such sums as they had
originally paid for them. This proceeding made
a considerable augmentation to the revenues of the
crown ; but a vast number of proprietors were
completely ruined by it. A subsequent diet went
even further than that of 1680. They declared,
by statute, that though the king was enjoined to
govern his dominions according to the laws, this
did not take from him the power of altering these
laws. At length the act of 1693 decreed that the
king was absolute master, and sole depository of
the sovereign power ; without being responsible for
his actions to any power on earth ; and that he
was entitled to govern the kingdom according to
his will and pleasure.

It was in virtue of these different enactments and
concessions, that the absolute power which had
' (!! conferred on Charles XL, was transmitted to
the hands of his son Charles XII., who was only
fifteen years of age when he succeeded his father
(April 1st, 1697). By the abuse which this prince
made of these dangerous prerogatives, he plunged
Sweden into an abyss of troubles ; and brought her
down from that high rank which she had occupied
in the political system of Europe, since the reign
of Gustavus Adolphus. The youth of Charles ap-
peared to his neighbours to afford them a favour-
able opportunity for recovering what they hail lost
by the conquests of his predecessors. Augustus II.,
King of Poland, being desirous to regain Livonia,
and listening to the suggestions of a Livonian gen-
tleman, named John Patkul, who had been pro-
scribed in Sweden, he set on foot a negociation
with the courts of Russia and Copenhagen ; the

result of which was, a secret and offensive alliance
concluded between these three powers against
Sweden (1699). Peter the Great, who had just
conquered Azoff on the Black Sea, and equipped
his first fleet, was desirous also to open up the
coasts of the Baltic, of which his predecessors had
been dispossessed by Sweden. War accordingly
broke out in the course of the year 1700. The
King of Poland invaded Livonia ; the Danes fell
upon Sleswick, where they attacked the Duke
of Holstein-Gottorp, the ally of Sweden ; while
the Czar, at the head of an army of 80,000 men,
laid siege to the city of Narva.

The King of Sweden, attacked by so many ene-
mies at once, directed his first efforts against Den-
mark, where the danger appeared most pressing.
Assisted by the fleets of England and Holland,
who had guaranteed the last peace, he made a
descent on the Isle of Zealand, and advanced ra-
pidly towards Copenhagen. This obliged Fre-
deric IV. to conclude a special peace with him at
Travendahl (August 18, 1700), by which that
prince consented to abandon his allies, and restore
the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp to the same state in
which he had been before the war. Next directing
his march against the Czar in Esthonia, the young
king forced the Russians from their entrenchments
before Narva (November 30), and made prisoners
of all the general and principal officers of the Rus-
sian army; among others, Field-Marshal General
the Duke de Croi.

Having thus got clear of the Russians, the
Swedish Monarch then attacked King Augustus,
who had introduced a Saxon army into Poland,
without being authorized by that republic. Charles
vanquished that prince in the three famous battles
of Riga (1701), Clissau (1702), andPultusk (1703);
and obliged the Poles to depose him, and elect in
his place Stanislaus Lecksinski, Palatine of Posen,
and a protege of his own. Two victories which
were gained over the Saxons, and their allies the
Russians, one at Punie (1704), and the other at
Fraustadt (1706), made Stanislaus be acknow-
ledged by the whole republic of Poland, and
enabled the King of Sweden to transfer the seat of
war to Saxony. Having marched through Silesia,
without the previous authority of the court of
Vienna, he took Leipzic, and compelled Augustus
to sign a treaty of peace at Alt-Ranstadt, by which
that prince renounced his alliance with the Czar,
and acknowledged Stanislaus legitimate King of
Poland. John Patkul, being delivered up to the
King of Sweden, according to an article in that
treaty, was broken on the wheel, as being the
principal instigator of the war.

The prosperity of Charles XII. had now come
to an end. From this time he experienced only a
series of reverses, which were occasioned as much
by his passion for war, as by his indiscretions, and
the unconquerable obstinacy of his character. The
Russians had taken advantage of his long sojourn
in Poland and Saxony, and conquered the greater
part of Ingria and Livonia. The Czar had now
advanced into Poland, where he had demanded of
the Poles to declare an interregnum, and elect a
new king. In this state of matters, the King of
Sweden left Saxony to march against the Czar ;
and compelled him to evacuate Poland, and retire
on Smolensko. Far from listening, however, to
the equitable terms of peace which Peter offered

Charts* XII. tevarfss

!(.... II

I.., ...V.I rf PtJSBSW,

ri:Kioi) MI. \.i>. i. I--1713.

DMlBjarChvU. XII.

r isffMsslBBi

War wttfc *!.

him. he persisted in hU resolution to inarch on to
Moscow, in the hop* of dethroning the cur, M he
had dethroned Augustus. The discontent which
the innovation* of the ar had excited in Russia,
appeared to Chariee a favourable opportunity for
effecting his object ; but on reaching the neigh-
bourhood of Mohilew, he uddenly changed hia
purpoce, and, instead of directing hi* route to-
ward* the capital of Russia, he turned to the right,
and penetrated into the interior of the Ukraine, in
order to meet Maaeppa, lietman of the Comae*,
who had offered to join him with all hi* troop*.
Nothing could hare been more imprudent than
thia determination. By thu* marching into the
Ukraine, he ceparated himself from General Lew-
euhaupt, who had brought him, according to
order*, a powerful reinforcement from Livonia;
and trusted himself among a fickle and incon-
stant people, disposed to break faith on every
opportunity.

Thi* inconsiderate step of Charles did not escape
the penetration of the csar, who knew well how
to profit by it. Putting himself at the bead of a
chosen body, he intercepted General Lewenhaupt,
and joined him at Desna, two miles from Propoisk,
in the Palatinate of Mscislaw. The battle which
he fought with that general (9th October, 1708)
was most obstinate, and, by the confession of
the csar, the first victory which the Russians
had gained over regular troops. The remains of
Lewenhaupt's army having joined the king in the
Ukraine, Charles undertook the siege of Pultowa,
situated on the banks of the Vonklaw, at the ex-
tremity of that province. It was near this place,
that the famous battle was fought (8th July, 1709),
which blasted all the laurels of the King of
Sweden. The czar gained there a complete vic-
tory. Nine thousand Swedes were left on tin-
field of battle; and 14,000, who had retired with
General Lewenhaupt, towards Perevolatschna, be-
tween the Vonklaw and the Nieper, were made pri-
soners of war, three days after the action. Charles,
accompanied by his ally Mazeppa, saved himself
\\ith difficulty at Bender in Turkey.

This disastrous rout revived the courage of the
enemies of Sweden. The alliance was renewed
between the czar, Augustus II., and Frederic II.,
King of Denmark. Stanislaus was abandoned.
All Poland again acknowledged Augustus II. The
Danes made a descent on Schonen ; and the czar
achieved the conquest of Ingria, Livonia, and
Carelia. The states that were leagued against
France in the war of the Spanish Succession,
wishing to prevent Germany from becoming the
theatre of hostilities, concluded a treaty at the
Hague (31st March, 1710), by which they under-
took, under certain conditions, to guarantee the
neutrality of the Swedish provinces in Germany,
as well as that of Sleswick and Jutland ; but the
King of Sweden having constantly declined ac-
ceding to this neutrality, the possessions of the
Swedes in Germany were also seised and con-
quered in succession. The Duke of Holsteiu
torp, the nephew of Charles XII., was involved in
his disgrace, and stript of his estates by the King
of Denmark (17 14).

In the midst of these disasters, the inflexible
King of Sweden persisted in prolonging his sojourn
at Bender, making repeated effort* to rouse tin-
Turks against the Russians. He did not return

from Turkey till 1714, when his aflairs were al-
ready totally ruined. The attempts which be then
made, either to renew the war in Poland, or in-
vade the provinces of the Empire, excited the
jealousy of the neighbouring powers. A formi-
dable league was raised against him; besides the
czar, the Kings of Poland, Denmark, Prussia, and
England, joined it. Stralsund and WUmar, the
only places which Sweden still retained in '
many, fell into the hands of the allies ; while the
csar added to these losses the conquest of Finland
and Savolax. In a situation so desperate, Charles,
by the advice of his minister, Baron Gorta, set on
foot a special and secret negociation with the
csar, which took place in the isle of Aland, in
course of the year 1718. There it was proposed
to reinstate Stanislaus on the throne of Poland ; to
restore to Sweden her possessions in the Empire ;
and even to assist her in conquering Norway ; by
way of compensation for the loss of Ingria, Carelia,
Livonia, and Esthonia, which she was to cede to
the czar.

That negociation was on the point of being
finally cloned, when it waa broken off by the un-
expected death of Charles XII. That unfortunate
prince was slain (December llth, 1718), at the
siege of Fredericshall in Norway, while visiting
the trenches ; being only thirty-seven years of age,
and leaving the affairs of his kingdom in a roost
deplorable state.

The new regency of Sweden, instead of remain-
ing in friendship with the czar, changed their
policy entirely. Baron dc Gortz, the friend of the
late king, fell a sacrifice to the public dupleasure,
and a negociation was opened with the court of
Sweden. A treaty of peace and alliance was con-
cluded at Stockholm (November 20, 1719), be-
tween Great Britain and Sweden. George I., on
obtaining the cession of the duchies of Bremen
and Verden, as Elector of Hanover, engaged to
send a strong squadron to the Baltic, to prevent
any further invasion from the czar, and procure
for Sweden more equitable terms of peace on the
part of that prince. The example of Great Britain
was soon followed by the other allied powers, who
were anxious to accommodate matters with Sweden.
By the treaty concluded at Stockholm (21st Ja-
nuary, 1720), the King of Prussia got the town of
Stettin, and that part of Pomerania, which lies
between the Oder and the Peene. The King of
Denmark consented to restore to Sweden the
towns of Stralsund and Wismar, with the isle of
Rugen, and the part of Pomerania, which extends
from the sea to the river Peene. Sweden, on her
side, renounced, in favour of Denmark, her exemp-
tion from the duties of the Sound and the two
Belts, which had been guaranteed to her by former
treaties. The czar was the only person who, far
from being intimidated by the menaces of England,
persisted in his resolution of not making peace
with Sweden, except on the conditions which he
had dictated to her. The war was, therefore, con-
tinued between Russia and Sweden, during the
two campaigns of 1720 and 1 7 V 1 . Different parts
of the Swedish coast were laid desolate by the
csar, who put all to fire and sword. To stop the
progress of these devastations, the Swedes at length
consented to accept the peace which the csar of-
fered them, which was finally signed at Nystadt
(13th September, 1721). Finland was surren-

126

Frederic III. of Denmark.
States-General of Denmark.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Political Revolution in

Denmark.
Christian V.

dered to Sweden in lieu of her formally ceding to
the czar the provinces of Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria,
and Carelia ; their "limits to be determined accord-
ing to the regulations of the trinity.

The ascendancy which Sweden had gained in
the North since the reign of Gustavus Adolphus,
had become so fetal to Denmark, that she was on
the point of being utterly subverted, and effaced
from the number of European powers. Nor did
she extricate herself from the disastrous wars which
she had to support against Charles X., until she
had sacrificed some of her best provinces ; such as
Schonen, Bleckingen, Halland, and the govern-
ment of Bohus, which Frederic III. ceded to
Sweden by the treaties of Roschild and Copen-
hagen. It was at the close of this war that a re-
volution happened in the government of Denmark.
I util that time, it had been completely under the
aristocracy of the nobles ; the throne was elective ;
and all power was concentrated in the hands of the
senate, and the principal members of the nobility.
The royal prerogative was limited to the command
of the army, and the presidency in the senate.
The king was even obliged, by a special capitula-
tion, in all affairs which did not require the con-
currence of the senate, to take the advice of four
great officers of the crown, viz. the Grand Master,
the Chancellor, the Marshal, and the Admiral ;
who were considered as so many channels or
vehicles of the royal authority.

The state of exhaustion to which Denmark was
reduced at the time she made peace with Sweden,
obliged Frederic III. to convoke an assembly of
the States-General of the kingdom. These, which
were composed of three orders, viz. the nobility,
the clergy, and the burgesses, had never been
summoned together in that form since the year
Io3<>. At their meeting at Copenhagen, the two
inferior orders reproached the nobles with having
been the cause of all the miseries and disorders of
the state, by the exorbitant and tyrannical power
which they had usurped ; and what tended still
more to increase their animosity against them, was
the obstinacy with which they maintained their
privileges and exemptions from the public burdens,
to the prejudice of the lower orders. One subject
of discussion was, to find a tax, the proceeds of
which should be applied to the most pressing
wants of the state. The nobles proposed a duty
on articles of consumption ; but under restrictions
with regard to themselves, that could not but ex-
asperate the lower orders. The latter proposed,
in testimony of their discontent, to let out to the
highest bidder the fiefs of the crown, which the
j.obles held at rents extremely moderate. This
proposal was highly resented by the nobility, who
regarded it as a blow aimed at their rights and
properties ; and they persisted in urging a tax on
articles of consumption, such as they had pro-
posed. Certain unguarded expressions which
escaped some of the members of the nobility, gave
rise to a tumult of indignation, and suggested to
the two leaders of the clergy and the burgesses, viz.
the bishop of Zealand and the burgomaster of
Copenhagen, the idea of framing a declaration for
the purpose of rendering the crown hereditary, both
in the male and female descendants of Frederic III.
It was not difficult for them to recommend this
project to their respective orders, who fiatt>-n <l
themselves that, under a hereditary monarchy,

they would enjoy that equality which was denied
them under an aristocracy of the nobles. The act
of this declaration, having been approved and
signed by the two orders, was presented in their
name to the senate, who rejected it, on the ground
that the States-General then assembled, had no
right to deliberate on that proposition ; but the
clergy and the burgesses, without being discon-
certed, went in a body to the king, carrying with
them the Act which offered to make the crown
hereditary in his family. The nobles having made
a pretence of wishing to quit the city in order to
break up the Diet, care was taken to shut the
doors. The members of the senate and the no-
bility had then no other alternative left than to
agree to the resolution of the two inferior orders ;
and the offer of the crown was made to the king
by the three orders conjunctly (13th October,
1660). They then tendered him the capitulation,
which was annulled ; and at the same time they
liberated him from the oath which he had taken
on the day of his coronation. A sort of dictator-
ship was then conferred on him, to regulate the
new constitutional charter, according to his good
pleasure. All the orders of the state then took a
new oath of fealty and homage to him, while the
king himself was subjected to no oath whatever.
Finally, the three orders separately remitted an
Act to the king, declaring the crown hereditary in
all the descendants of Frederic III., both male
and female ; conferring on him and his successors
an unlimited power ; and granting him the privi-
lege of regulating the order both of the regency
and the succession to the throne.

Thus terminated that important revolution,
without any disorder, and without shedding a
single drop of blood. It was in virtue of those
powers which the states had conferred on him,
that the king published what is called the Royal
Law, regarded as the only fundamental law of
Denmark. The king was there declared absolute
sovereign, above all human laws, acknowledging
110 superior but God, and uniting in his own per-
son all the rights and prerogatives of royalty, with-
out any exception whatever. He could exercise
these prerogatives in virtue of his own authority ;
but he was obliged to respect the Royal Law ; and
he could neither touch the Confession of Augs-
burg, which had been adopted as the national re-
ligion, nor authorize any partition of the kingdom,
which was declared indivisible ; nor change the
order of succession as established by the Royal
Law. That succession was lineal, according to
the right of primogeniture and descent. Females
were only admitted, failing all the male issue of
Frederic III.; and the order in which they were to
succeed was defined with the most scrupulous ex-
actness. The term of majority was fixed at the
age of thirteen ; and it was in the power of the
reigning monarch to regulate, by his will, the tu-
torage and the regency during such minority.

This constitutional 'law gave the Danish govern-
ment a vigour which it never had before ; the
effects of which were manifested in the war which
Christian V. undertook against Sweden ( ItiT.")), in
consequence of his alliance with Frederic William,
Elector of Brandenburg. The Danes had the ad-
vantage of the Swedes both by sea and land. Their
llt-et, under the command of Niels Juel, gained
two naval victories over them, the one near tin;

I!.. .

PERIOD VII. A.D. 164*

171

u.l, nu.l thu <itl.

/mland i M. 77). That war wu
terminated by the rn-ace of Lunden (October 6,

tored matter* bet we.

nations, to Iho same footing in which they had
been before the war. The severe check which
Sweden receivrtl i.> ih,- ,!,. ,i of bartoi

(owa, tended to extricate Denmark from

-iiil'nl situation in which the had been placed
uuh i.--.pc.-t to that power. . '. >iu of the

Sound, which Sweden had maintain. .1 during her
prosperity, wa taken from In r l.\ the treaty of

holm, ami l.\ tin- explanatory article* of
urg, eoucluilr.l I-, [. :. Sweden and
Denmark (14th June, IT.'"). '1 hut kingdom like-
wise retained, in terms of the treat), the possession
of the whole duchy of Sleiiwick, with a claim to
the part belonging to the duke of Holstein

whom Sweden wax obliged to remove from
under her protection.

Poland, at the commencement of this period,
presented an afflicting spectacle, under the unfor-
tunate reign of John Casirair, the brother and suc-
cessor of Uladialaus VII. (1048). Detracted at

by foreign wan and intestine factions, she
seemed every moment on the brink of destruction ;
and while the neighbouring states were aiurt.
ing their forces, and strengthening the hands of
their O>M HIM!, nts Poland grew gradually weaker
and weaker, and at length degenerated into abso-
lute anarch). The origin of the Liberum Veto of
' I.--., which allowed tin- opposition of a single
member to fnMratc the deliberations of the whole
diet, belongs to Uie reign of John L'asimir. The
first that suspended the diet, by the interposition
of his veto, was Schinski, member for I pitu in
Lithuania; his example, though at tint disap-
proYcd, found imitators ; and this foolish pr
which allowed one to usurp the prerogative of a
majority, soon passed into a law, and a maxim of

state.

vards the end of the reign of Uladislaiu VII.
a murderous war had arisen in Poland, that of the
Cossacs. This warlike pi -<>ple, of Russian <
as their language and their religion prove, iuha-

bothbauksof the lior\slhi n.->, bi wind Kiow;
where they were subdivided into regiments, under
the command of a general, called I /it man ; and
erred as a military frontier for Poland against the
Tartars and Turks. Some infringements that had

made on their privileges, added t the efforts
which the Poles had made to induce their
to separate from the Greek Church, and acknow-
ledge the supremacy of the pope, exasperated the
Cossacs, and engendered among them a spirit of
revoi- Vssisted by the Turks of tl.

raea, they invaded Poland, and committed terrible
devastations. The Poles succeeded from time to

in pacifying them, and even concluded a
. with them ; but the minds of both parties

-. always r

with erery new offence. At length, th. .
Chmiruiiski, being hardly pressed by the Poles,
took the resolution of y>Hting the protection of
Russia, anil concluded u Cxar

January 16, 16ft*
K iow and the other towns of t .
under tfcc power of the Cossac*, were occupied
!> Russian garrisons. It was on this occasion
that the czar retook the city of Smolensk"

the Poles, as well as most of the district*, that had
been ccdrd to Poland, by the treaties of Dwilina
and Viasma. That prince made also several other
cats from the Poles ; be took po sussing of
Wilna, and several places In Lithuania, at the very
time when Charles X. was invading Poland, and
threatening that country with entire deatruetioa.
The ciar, however, instead of following up his
conquests, judged it more for his interest to con-
. lu.lc a truce with the Poles (1656), that be might
turn his arms against Sweden.

The peace of Oliva put an and to the war be-
tween Poland and Sweden ; but hostilities wen
renewed between the Russian* and the Poles,
which did not terminate till the treaty of Andrus-
SOT (January, 167). The csar restored to the
Poles a part of his conquests; but he retained
Smolensko, Novogorod-Sieverskoe, Tehernigov,
. and all the country of the Cossacs, beyond
: >rysthencs or Dnieper. The Cossacs on this
side the ri\er were annexed to Poland, and as for
those who dwelt near the mouth of the Dm
called Zaporogi, it was agreed that they should
remain under the common jurisdiction of the two
states ; ready to serve against the Turks whenever
circumstances might require it. The wars of which
we have just spoken were attended with troubles
and dissensions, which reduced Poland to the most
deplorable condition during the reign of John Ca-
simir. That prince at length, disgusted with a
crown which he had found to be composed of
thorns, resolved to abdicate the throne (16th Sep-
tember, Ititis) ; and retiring to France, he there
ended his days.

Michael Wiesnouiski, who succeeded John
Casimir, after a stormy interregnum of seven
months, had no other merit than that of being de-
scended in a direct line from Corihut, the brother
of Jagello, King of Poland. His reign was a
scene of great agitation, and of unbridled anarchy.
Four diets were interrupted in lens than four
years ; the war with the Cossacs was renewed ;
the Turks and the Tartars, the allies of the Cos-
sacs, seised the city of Kamiuiec ( li>72), the only
bulwark of Poland against the Ottomans. Mi-
chael, being thrown into a state of alarm, com .
a disgraceful peace with the Turks ; he gave up to
them Kaminiec and Podolia, with their an
limits ; and even agreed to pay them an annual
tribute of t\v..-nt \-two thousand ducats. The
Ukraine, on this side the Borysthenee, was aban-
doned to the Cossacs, who were to be placed under
the protection of the Turks. This treaty was not
ratified by the republic of Poland, who preferred
to continue the war. John Sobieski, Grand Ge-
neral of the Crown, gained a brilliant victory over
the Turks near Chocsim (November llth, l<

,. pl:uv the next day after the death of Mi-
chael, and determined the Poles to confer their
crown on the victorious general.

Sobieski did ample justice to the choice of his
fellow-citizens. By the peace which he concluded
at Zarowuu with the Turks (26th 70).

he relieved Poland from the tribute lately
raised, and recovered some parts of the Ukraine ;
but the city of Kaminiec was left in the power of
the Ottomans, with a considerable portion of the
Ukraine and Pndlia. Poland then entered
an alliance with the House of Austria, against the
Porte. Sobicski became the deliverer of Vienna ;

128

is to Russia.
Augustus II. of I'olaiul.
Theodore Alexievitz.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Peter the Great.

His travels.

His political Institutions.

he signalized himself in the campaigns of 1683
and 1684 ; and if he did not gain any important
advantages over the Turks, if he had not even the
satisfaction of recovering Kaminiec and Podolia,
it must be ascribed to the incompetence of his
means, and to the disunion and indifference of the
Poles, who refused to make a single sacrifice in
the cause. Sobieski was even forced to have re-
course to the protection of the Russians against
the Turks ; and saw himself reduced to the pain-
ful necessity of setting his hand to the definitive
peace which was concluded with Russia at Mos-
cow (May 6th, 1686), by which Poland, in order
to obtain the alliance of that power against the
Ottomans, consented to give up Smolensko, Be-
laia, Dorogobuz, Tchernigov, Starodub, and Novo-
gorod-Sieverskoe, with their dependencies ; as also
the whole territory known by the name of Little
Russia, situated on the left bank of the Borysthenes,
between that river and the frontier of Putivli, as
far as Perevoloczna. The city of Kiow, with its
territory as determined by the treaty, was also in-
cluded in that cession. Finally, the Cossacs,
called Zaporogs and Kudak, who, according to
the treaty of Audrussov, ought to have been de-
pendencies of these two states, were reserved ex-
clusively to Russia. Sobieski shed tears when he
was obliged to sign that treaty at Leopold (or
Lemberg), in presence of the Russian ambassa-
dors.

The war with the Turks did not terminate until
the reign of Augustus II., the successor of John
Sobieski. The peace of Carlowitz, which that
prince concluded with the Porte (1699), procured
for Poland the restitution of Kaminiec, as well as
that part of the Ukraine, which the peace of Za-
rowno had ceded to the Turks.

Russia became every day more prosperous under
the princes of the House of Romanow. She
gained a decided superiority over Poland, who
had formerly dictated the law to her. Alexis
Michaelovitz not only recovered from the Poles
what they had conquered from Russia during the
disturbances occasioned by the two pretenders of
the name of Demetrius ; we have already observed
that he dispossessed them of Kiow, and all that
part of the Ukraine, or Little Russia, which lies
on the left bank of the Borysthenes.

Theodore Alexievitz, the son and successor of
Alexis Michaelovitz, rendered his reign illustrious
by the wisdom of his administration. Guided by
the advice of his enlightened minister, Prince
Galitzin, he conceived the bold project of abolish-
ing the hereditary orders of the nobility, and the
prerogatives that were attached to them. These
orders were destructive of all subordination in
civil as well as in military affairs, and gave rise to
a multitude of disputes and litigations, of which
a court, named Rozrad, took cognizance. The
czar, in a grand assembly which he convoked at
Moscow (1682), abolished the hereditary rank of
the nobles. He burnt the deeds and registers by
which they were attested, and obliged every noble
family to produce the extracts of these registers
which they had in their possession, that they might
be committed to the flames. That prince having
no children of his own, had destined his younger
brother, Peter Alexievitz, to be his successor, to
the exclusion of John, his elder brother, on ac-
count of his incapacity. But, on the death of

Theodore, both princes were proclaimed at once
by the military, and the government was intrusted
to the Princess Sophia, their elder sister, who as-
sumed the title of Autocratix and Sovereign of all
the Russias. Peter, who was the son of the second
marriage of the czar, was at that time only ten
years of age. It was during the administration of
the Princess Sophia that the peace of Moscow was
concluded (May 6th, 1686) ; one clause of which
contained an alliance, offensive and defensive, be-
tween Russia and Poland against the Porte.

Peter had no sooner attained the age of seven-
teen than he seized the reins of government, and
deposed his sister Sophia, whom he sent to a con-
vent. Endowed with an extraordinary genius,
this prince became the reformer of his Empire,
which, under his reign, assumed an aspect totally
new. By the advice of Le Fort, a native of Ge-
neva, who had entered the Russian service, and
whom he had received into his friendship and con-
fidence, he turned his attention to every branch of
the public administration. The military system
was changed, and modelled after that of the civi-
lized nations of Europe. He founded the mari-
time power of Russia, improved her finances, en-
couraged commerce and manufactures, introduced
letters and arts into his dominions, and applied
himself to reform the laws, to polish and refine the
manners of the people.

Peter, being in alliance with Poland, engaged in
the war against the Porte, and laid open the Black
Sea by his conquest of the city and port of Azoff ;
and it was on this occasion that he equipped his
first fleet at Woronitz. Azoff remained in his
possession, by an article of the peace which was
concluded with the Porte at Constantinople (13th
July, 1700). About the same time, Peter abo-
lished the patriarchal dignity, which ranked the
head of the Russian Church next to the czar, and
gave him a dangerous influence in the affairs of
government. He transferred the authority of the
patriarch to a college of fifteen persons, called the
Most Holy Synod, whose duty it was to take cog-
nizance of ecclesiastical affairs, and, in general, of
all matters which had fallen within the jurisdiction
of the patriarch. The members of this college
were obliged to take the oath at the hands of the
sovereign, and to be appointed by him on the pre-
sentation of the synod.

Being desirous of seeing and examining in person
the manners and customs of other nations, he un-
dertook two different voyages into foreign coun-
tries, divested of that pomp which is the usual ac-
companiment of princes. During these travels, he
cultivated the arts and sciences, especially those
connected with commerce and navigation ; he en-
gaged men of talents in his services, such as naval
officers, engineers, surgeons, artists, and mechanic-;
of all kinds, whom he dispersed over his vast do-
minions, to instruct and improve the Russians.
During his first voyage to Holland and England,
the Strelitzes, the only permanent troops known
in Russia before his time, revolted ; they were
first instituted by the czar, John Basilovitz IV.
They fought after the manner uf the Janissaries,
and enjoyed nearly the same privileges. Peter,
with the intention of disbamliiiir these seditious
and undisciplined troops, had stationed tnem on
the frontiers of Lithuania; he had also removed
them from being his own body-guard, a sen-ice

Owrlw Ml. la Turkrv.

I .,,..:. ( IVt I

1) MI. A.D. 164H 1713.

I ,..,-..:,..( \ X,,

179

he intrusted to the regiments raised by
hinuell. 'I f degradation incen.i

t.iok the opportunity nf tin- czar's
absen .-) directed their roar

Moscow, with the design of deposing
the mar, and replacing Sophia on the throm .

\\trv defeated by the General* Bchein and
ii, who had marched to oppoe them. Pe-
n-turn, caused 2.0OO of them to be
executed, and incorporated the rest among his
troop*. He afterward* employed foreign officer*,
cither Germani or Swedes, to instruct the Russians
in Hi. military art.

It \\.is chte'riy during the war with Sweden that
the Russian army was organised according to the
Kuropcan system. The czar took advantage of
the che.-k he had sustained before Narva ( No\.-m-

'th. 1700) to accomplish thin important cliange
in levjin.', equipping, and training all hi* tnnqn
after the German manner. He taught tin-
sians the art of combating and conquering tin-
Swedes ; and while tin- King of Sweden wan lient
on the ruin !' An,' MM> II., and made but feeble
efforts against the cxar, the latter succeeded in
conquering Ingria from the Swedes, and laid open
the navigation of the Baltic. He took the fortreos
of Noteburg (1702), which he afterwards culled
Schlisselburg ; he next made himself master of
Nyenschantz, Kopori, and Jamu (now Jamburg)
in Ingria. The port of NyenchauU was entir.-ly
rased ; and the cxar laid the foundation of St. IV-
teraburg in one of the neighbouring islands of the
Neva (May 27th, 1703). In the middle of winter
he n instructed the port of Kronschlot to serve as
a defence for the new city, which he intended to
make the capital of hia Empire, and the principal
depot for the commerce and marine of Russia.
The fortune of this new capital was decided by the
famous battle of Pultowa (July Kth, 1709), which
likewise secured the preponderance of Russia in the
North.

Charles XII., who had taken refuge in Turk<-\,
used every effort to instigate the Turks against the
Russians; and he succeeded by dint of intrigue.

1 'orte declared war against the cxar towards
the end of the year 1710; and (Unrips opened the
campaign of 1711 by an expedition which he un-
dertook into Moldavia ; but, having rashly pene-
trated into the interior of that province, he was
surrounded by the Grand Vizier near Falczi on
the Pruth. Besieged in his camp by an army
vastly superior to his own, and reduced to the last
necessity, he found no other means of extricating
himself from this critical situation, than by agreeing
to a treaty, which he signed in the camp of Falczi
Julj, 1711 ); in virtue of which, he consented
to restore to the Turks the fortress of Azoff, with
its territory and its dependencies. This loss was
amply compensated by the important advantages
which the peace with Sweden, signed at Nystadt

. loth, 17 '21), procured the czar. It was on
thi-i occasion that the senate conferred on him the
epithet f Great, the Father of kit Country, and
Emperor of all tke Rituia*. His inauguration
t<> th>- imperial dignity took place, October VVd,
I "VI, the very day of the rejoicing that had I" < n
appointed for the celebration of the peace. Peter
himself put the imperial crown on his own
!.. i.!.
That great prince had the vexation to see

Ctarowitx his son, and presumptive heir

to tii,- l.u.pu. , thwarting all his improvements,
and caballing in secret with hi enemies. Being
at length compelled to declare that he had fnrftHaJ
his right to the throne, he hail him
to death as a traitor (171H). In
this tragical event, ho pui.li.hi-d an
vested in the reigning prince the privilege of nomi-
nating his successor, and even of changing the
.'iii'-nt whenever he might judge it necessary.
Tin* arrangement became fatal to Russia ; the
want of a fixed and permanent order of succession
occasioned troubles and revolutions which
intently distracted the whol.- Kmpirc. This law,
moreover, made no provision in cases where the
reigning prince might neglect to settle the succes-
iring his life ; as happened with P.-t-r him-
self, who died without appointing any successor
i. Catherine 1., his consort, ascended
the throne, which, after a reign of two years, she
transmitted to Peter, sou of the unfortunate
Alexix.

In Hungary, the precautions that had been taken
by the States of Presburg to establish civil and
religious liberty on a solid basis, did not prevent
disturbances from springing up in that kingdom.
The Court of Vienna, perceiving the necessity of
consolidating its vast monarchy, whose incoherent
parts were suffering from the want of unity, eagerly
seized these occasions for extending its power
in Hungary, where it was greatly circumscribed
by the laws and constitution of the country.
Hence those perpetual infringements of which the
Hungarians had to complain, and those
recurring disturbances in which the Ottoman Turks,
who shared with Austria the dominion of Hungary,
were also frequently implicated.

Transylvania, as well as a great part of Hun-
gary, was then dependent on the Turks. The
Emperor Leopold I. having granted his protection
to John Kemeny, Prince of Transylvania, against
.el Abafli, a proteg of the Turks, a war be-
tween the two Empires seemed to be inevitable.
The Diet of Hungary, which the emperor had as-
sembled at Presburg on this subject (1662), was
most outrageous. The states, before they would
give any opinion as to the war against the Turks,
demanded that their own grievances should be re-
dressed ; and the assembly separated without com-
ing to any conclusion. The Turks took advantage
of this dissension, and seized the fortress of
heusel, and several other places. The emperor,
incapable of opposing thorn, and distrustful of the
Hungarian malcontents, had recourse to foreign
aid. This he obtained at the Diet of the Em-
pire; and Louis XIV. sent him a body of 6,000
men, under command of the Count de Coligni .
action took place (1664) near St. Gothard. in
which the French signalized their bravery. The
Turks sustained a total defeat ; hut Montecuculi,
the commander- in-chief of the imperial array,
failed to take advantage of his victory. A truce
of twenty years was soon after concluded at
Temeswar, in virtue of which the Turks retained
Neuheusel, Waradin, and Novigrad. Michael
AbafH, their tributary and protegi, was continued
in Transylvania; and both parties engaged to
withdraw their troops from that province.

This treaty highly displeased the Hungarians,
as it had been concluded without their concur-

Troubles in Hungary.
130 Turks besiege Vicuna.
Sobieski relieves it.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

Kiugs of Hungary.
Kupruli, Grand Vizier.
Eugene defeats M'lstapliu II.

rence. Their complaints against the Court of
Vienna became louder than ever. They complained,
especially, that the emperor should entertain
German troops in the kingdom ; that he should
intrust the principal fortresses to foreigners ; and
impose shackles on their religious liberties. The
Court of Vienna having paid no regard to these
grievances, several of the nobles entered into a
league for the preservation of their rights ; but
they were accused of holding correspondence with
the Turks, and conspiring against the person of
the emperor. The Counts Zrini, Nadaschdi,
Fraugepan, and Tattenbaeh, were condemned as
guilty of high treason (1671), and had their heads
cut off on the scaffold. A vast number of the
Protestant clergy were either banished or con-
demned to the galleys, as implicated in the con-
spiracy ; but this severity, far from abating these
disturbances, tended rather to augment them.
The suppression of the dignity of Palatine of Hun-
gary, which took place about the same time, added
to the cruelties and extortions of all kinds practised
by the German troops, at length raised a general
insurrection, which ended in a civil war (1677).
The insurgents at first chose the Count Francis
AVesselini, as their leader, who was afterwards re-
placed by Count Emeric Tekeli. These noblemen
were encouraged in their enterprise and secretly
abetted by France and the Porte.

The emperor then found it necessary to comply ;
and, in a diet which he assembled at Odenburg,
he granted redress to most of the grievances of
which the Hungarians had to complain; but
Count Tekeli having disapproved of the resolu-
tions of this diet, the civil war was continued,
and the Count soon found means to interest the
Turks and the prince of Transylvania in his quarrel.
The Grand Vizier Kara Mustapha, at the head of
the Ottoman forces, came and laid siege to Vienna
(July 14th, 1(>*3). A Polish army marched to the
relief of that place under their king, John Sobieski,
who was joined by Charles IV., Duke of Lorraine,
General of the Imperial troops ; they attacked the
Turks in their entrenchments before Vienna, and
compelled them to raise the siege (September 12th,
1683). Every thing then succeeded to the em-
peror's wish. Besides Poland, the Russians and
the republic of Venice took part in this war in
favour of Austria. A succession of splendid vic-
tories, gained by the Imperial generals, Charles
Duke of Lorraine, Prince Louis of Baden, and
Prince Eugene, procured for Leopold the conquest
of all that part of H ungary, which had continued
since the reign of Ferdinand I. in the powei of the
Ottomans. The fortress of Neuheusel was taken,
in consequence of the battle which the Duke of
Lorraine gained over the Turks at Strigova ( lli(iH).
The same General took by assault the city of Buda,
the capital of Hungary, which had been in pos-
session of the Turks since 1541. The memorable
victory of Mohacz, gained by the Imperialists
i, a_'ain reduced Transylvania and Sclav onia
nmler the dominion of Austria. These continued
reverses cost the Grand Vizier his life ; he was
strangled by order of the Sultan, Mahomet IV.,
who was himself deposed by his rebellious janis-
saries.

Encouraged by these brilliant victories, the
Emperor Leopold assembled the States of Hungary
at 1'resburg. He there demanded, that, in con-

sideration of the extraordinary efforts he had been
obliged to make against the Ottomans, the king-
dom should be declared hereditary in his family.
The states at first appeared inclined to maintain
their own right of election ; hut, yielding soon to
the influence of authority, they agreed to make
the succession hereditary in favour of the males
of the two Austrian branches ; on the extinction of
which they were to be restored to their ancient
rights. As for the privileges of the states, founded
on the decree of King Andrew II., they were
renewed at that diet ; with the exception of that
clause in the thirty-first article of the decree,
which authorized the states to oppose, by open
force, any prince that should attempt to infringe
the rights and liberties of the country. The Jesuit*,
who were formerly proscribed, were restored, and
their authority established throughout all the
provinces of the kingdom. The Protestants of
both confessions obtained the confirmation of
the churches and prerogatives that had been
secured to them by the articles of the Diet of
Odenburg ; but it was stipulated, that only Ca-
tholics were entitled to possess property within the
kingdoms of Dalmatia, Croatia, and Sclav onia.
The Archduke Joseph, son of Leopold I., was
crowned at this diet (December 19th, 1687), as the
first hereditary King of Hungary.

The arms of Austria were crowned with new
victories during the continuation of the Avar against
the Turks. Albe-Royale, Belgrade, Semendria, and
Gradisca, fell into the hands of the emperor. The
two splendid victories at Nissaand Widdin, which
Louis Prince of Baden gained (1689), secured to the
Austrians the conquest of Servia, Bosnia, and Bul-
garia. The dejected courage of the Ottomans was
for a time revived by their new Grand Vizier Musta-
pha Kupruli, a man of considerable genius. After
gaining several advantages over the Imperialists,
he took from them Nissa, Widdin, Semeudria, and
Belgrade ; and likewise reconquered Bulgaria,
Servia, and Bosnia. The extraordinary efforts
that the Porte made for the campaign of the fol-
lowing year, inspired them with hopes of better
success ; but their expectations were quit* disap-
pointed by the unfortunate issue of the famous"
battle of Salankemen, which the 1'rince of Baden
gained over the Turks (August l!)th, 1691). The
brave Kupruli was slain, and his death decided the
victory in favour of the Imperialists. The war
with France, however, which then occupied the
principal forces of Austria, did not permit the
emperor to reap any advantage from this victory ;
he was even obliged, in the following campaigns,
to act on the defensive in Hungary; audit \\as
not until the conclusion of peace with France
that lie was able to resume the war .gainst the
Turks with fresh vigour. Prince Kii^ene, who
was then commander-in-( hi.'t' of the Imperial
arm\, attacked the Sultan Mustapha II. in person,
near Zenta on the river Teiss (September llth,
lt;!lT), where he gained a decisive victory. The
grand vizier, seventeen pachas, and two -thirds nt
the Ottoman army, were lift, dead on the iield of
battle ; and the sultan was compelled to fall back
in disorder on Belgrade.

This terrible blow made the Porte exceedingly
anxious for peace ; and she had recourse to the
mediation of England and Holland. A negocia-
tion, which proved as tedious as it was intricate,

Psaes or Usrlevte.

I... - .. I'.. :.,....! Tin ..

MI. \.D. I4H 1713.

I | I .:,.,. ( II . ..

WM -i on foot at Constantinople, and thenc* trans-
ferred to , a town of Srlavonia lying
between the two camps, one { \\im-h wu at
Peterwaradin, and the other at IMgra.l
peace waa there concluded (January .
the emperor, by thin treaty, retained Hungary,
Transylvania, and Bclavonia, with the except
the fiauat of Temeawar, which waa rcsert
i'rte. The riven Marosch, Tfiss. Sa%<
Unna, were fixed M the limit* between t)

kcli, who during the

whole of thia war had constantly espoused the
cause of the Porte, waa allowed to remain in the
in territory, with such of the Hungarian*
ami Transylvaniaus an adhered ( him.

The peace of Carlouu/. hail si-cured to the
emperor nearly the whole of Hungary; but, glo-
rious though it wa, it did uot restore the internal
tranquillity of the kingdom, which very so.

uced fresh trouble*. The tame complaint*
that had arisen after the pc > war, were

renewed after that of CariowiU ; to these were even
added several others, occasioned by the introduc-
tion of tin- hi re.litnry succession, at the .!
by the suppression of the clause in tin- thirty-
first article of the decree of Andrew II., by tin
restoration of the Jesuits, and the banishment of
Tekcli and his adherents. Nothing was wanted
but a ringleader for the malcontent* to rekindle the
flames of civil war, and this leader was soon found
in the person of the famous Prince Ragoczi (or
Ragotski), who appeared on the scene about the
beginning of the eighteenth century, and when the
greater part of Europe were involved in the war of
the Spanish succession.

Francis Ragocxi was the grandson of George
Ragocxi II., who had been Prince of Transylvania,
and held a distinguished rank in the Stairs of Hun-
gary, uot more by his illustrious birth than by tin-
great possessions which belonged to his family.
Tin- C'ourt of Vienna, who entertains!
of him on account of his near relationship with
Tekeli, bad kept him in a sort of captivity from his
earliest infancy; and he was not set at lar^i .
restored to the possession of his estates, until !'''.' I,
when he married a princess of Hease-Rheiufels.
From that time he resided quietly on his estates,
holding his court at Sarosch, in the district of the
same name. Being suspected of having con-
certed a conspiracy with the malcontents, he was
arrested by order of the Court of Vienna (1701),
and carried to Neustadt in Austria, whence !.
escaped and retired to Poland. Being condemned
as guilty of high treason, and his estates declared
forfeited, he took the resolution of placing himself
at the head of the rebels, and instigating Hungary
against the emperor. France, who had just
joined in the war with Austria, encouraged him
in that enterprise, which she regarded as I
a favourable event far creating a diversion. Having
arrived in Hungary, Ragocsi published a manifesto
, in which he detailed the motives of his
end act, and exhorted the Hungarians to join him,
and vindicate their ann. ut hl>. rties, which had
been oppressed by the House of Austria. He soon
attracted a crowd of partisans, and made himself
master of a great part of the kingd
y Iranians chose him for Uieir prince (1704) ; and
the States of Hungary, who had united for t!.
establishment of their laws and immunities, de-

clared him their chief, with the title of duke, and

a senate : ; V. -ut In*

. the Marquis DeasaUcura, to congratulate

him on bis elevation ; and the cxar. Peter the

:>sof Poland (1707 >, in

-tmiislaus, who waa protected by

Ml.

The House of Austria being engaged in the
Spanish war, were unable for a long time to reduce
the Hungarian malcontents. The repeated at-

ii which she made to come to an accommo-
dation with them having failed, the war was con-
tiiiu.-il till 1711, when the Austrian*, who had
been victorious, compelled Ragocxi to evacuate
iry, and retire to the frontiers of Poland.
A treaty of pacification was then drawn up. The
emperor promised to grant an amnesty and a gene-
ral restitution of goods in favour of all those who
had been implicated in the insurrection. He came
under an engagement to preserve inviolabi
right*, liberties, and immunitir- of Hungary, and
tin principality of Transylvania ; to reserve all civil
and military offices to the Hungarians; to maintain
the laws of the kingdom respecting religion ; and
as for their other grievances, whether political or
ecclesiastical, he consented to have them discussed
in the approaching diet. These articles were ap-
prised and signed by the greater part of the mal-
contents, who then took a new oath of allegiance
to the emperor. Ragocxi and his principal adhe-
rent* were the only persons that remained pro-
scribed and attainted, having refused to accede to
these articles.

The Turkish Empire, once so formidable, had
gradually fallen from the summit of its grandeur ;
its resources were exhausted, and its history marked
by nothing but misfortunes. The effeminacy and
incapacity of the sultans, their contempt for the
arts cultivated by the Europeans, and the evil* of
a government purely military and despotic, by de-
grew undermined its strength, and eclipsed its
tflory as a conquering and presiding power. We
tin.l the Janissaries, a lawless and undisciplined
militia, usurping over the sovereign and the throne
the same right* which the Pnctorian guards had
arrogated over the ancient Roman emperors.

The hut conquest of any importance which the
Turks made was that of Candia, which they took
from the republic of Venice. The war which ob-
tained them the possession of that island, lasted for

y years. It began under Sultan Ibrahim

), and was continued under hi* successor,
Mahomet IV. The Venetians defended the island
with exemplar)' courage and intrepidity. They
destroyed several of the Turkish fleets ; and, on
ilim-rent occasions, they kept the passage of the
Dardanelles shut against the Ottoman*. At length
the famous Visier Arhmct Kupruli undertook the
siege of the city of Candia (1067), at the head of a
formidable army. This siege was one of the
most sanguinary recorded in history. The Torka
lost above 100,000 men ; and it was not till after a
akge of two yean and four mouths that the place
surrendered to them by a capitulation (September
5th, 1666), which at the same time regulated the
conditions of peace between the Turk* and the

i ana. These latter, on surrendering Candia,
reserved, in the inlands and islets adjoining,
three places, vi., Suda, Sptnalonga, and Gara-
busa. They abo retained Cltasa, and some other

K 2

Mustapha II.. Sultan.
132 Venetians obtain the
Nona.

KOCH'S REVOLUTIONS.

State of Learning aud the
Polite Arts.

IVists.

places in Dalmatia and Albania, which they had
seized during the war. The reign of Mahomet
from that time presented nothing trit a succession
of wars, of which that against Hungary was the
most fatal to the Ottoman Empire. The Turks
were overwhelmed by the powerful league formed
between Austria, Poland, Russia, and the re-
public of Venice. They experienced, as we have
already noticed, a series of fatal disasters during
that war ; and, imputing these misfortunes to the
effeminacy of their Sultan, they resolved to depose
him. Mustapha II., the third in succession from
Mahomet IV., terminated this destructive war by
the peace of Carlowitz, when the Turks lost all their

possessions in Hungary, except Temeswar and
Belgrade. They gave up to Poland the fortress
of Kaminiec, with Podolia, and the part of the
Ukraine on this side the Nieper, which had been
ceded to them by former treaties. The Venetians,
by their treaty with the Porte, obtained possession
of the Morea, which they had conquered during the
war, including the islands of St. Maura and Leu-
cadia, as also the fortresses of Dalmatia, Knin,
Sing, Ciclut, Gabella, Castelnuovo, and Risano.
Finally, the Porte renounced the tribute which
Venice had formerly paid for the isle of Zante ;
and the republic of Ragusa was guaranteed in its
independence, with respect to the Venetians.

PERIOD VIII.

FROM THE PEACE OF UTRECHT TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

A.D. 17131789.

[DURING the wars of the preceding period, arts
and letters had made extraordinary progress ; espe-
cially in France, where they seemed to have reached
the highest degree of perfection to which the
limited genius of man can carry them. The age of
Louis XIV. revived, and in some respects ex-
celled, those masterpieces which Greece had pro-
duced under Pericles, Rome under Augustus, and
Italy under the patronage of the Medici. This
was the classical era of French literature. The
grandeur which reigned at the court of that monarch,
and the glory which his vast exploits had re-
flected on the nation, inspired authors with a
noble enthusiasm ; the public taste was refined by
imitating the models of antiquity ; and this pre-
served the French writers from those extra-
vagances which some other nations have mistaken
for the standard of genius. Their language,
polished by the Academy according to fixed rules,
the first and most fundamental of which condemns
everything that does not tend to unite elegance
with perspicuity, became the general medium of
communication among the different nations in the
civilized world ; and this literary conquest which
France made over the minds of other nations, is
more glorious, and has proved more advantageous
to her, than that universal dominion to which
Louis XIV. is said to have aspired.

In the period on which we are now entering,
men of genius and talents, though they did not
neglect the belles-lettres, devoted themselves
chiefly to those sciences, and that kind of learn-
ing, the study of which has been diffused over all
classes of society. Several branches of mathe-
matics and natural philosophy assumed a form en-
tirely new; the knowledge of the ancient classics,
which till then had been studied chiefly for the
formation of taste, became a branch of common
education, and gave birth to a variety of profound
and useful researches. Geometry, astronomy,
mechanics and navigation, were brought to great
perfection, by the rivalry among the different
academies in Europe. Natural philosophy dis-
covered many of the laws and phenomena of

nature, of which the ancients had entertained no
doubt. Chemistry rose from the rank of an ob-
scure art, and put on the garb of an attractive
science. Natural history, enriched by the dis-
coveries of learned travellers, was divested of those
fables and chimeras which ignorance had attributed
to her. History, supported by the auxiliary
sciences of geography and chronology, became a
branch of general philosophy.

This progress in the various departments of
human learning, gave the name of the intellectual
age to the epoch of which we now speak. This
title it might have justly claimed, had not those
pretended philosophers, who sprouted up in the
eighteenth century, under pretext of infusing ge-
neral knowledge among all classes of people, per-
verted the public mind, by preaching doctrines
which became the root of those calamities that,
for thirty years, distracted all Europe. The ob-
ject of these superficial reasoners was to annihi-
late religion, the basis of all morality ; and to pro-
pagate, among the disciples of atheism, tenets sub-
versive, not only of political government and the
legitimate power of kings, but of the rights and
happiness of the people.

This spirit of irreligion took its rise in England
in the seventeenth century.* Hobbes, who in-
culcated materialism, was one of the champions
of that atheism which Bolingbroke, Shaftesbury,
Collins, Tindal, and others, taught in their works,
in the early part of the eighteenth century ; but
the contemplative character of the English nation,
and the talents of those that undertook to deti-nd
religion, completely neutralised this poison ; and
Christianity, triumphing over all these attempts,
struck deeper root.

In France, however, infidelity found preachers
more able, and pupils more docile. Voltaire,
D'Alembert, Diderot, Helvetius (a man amiable
enough in other respects, but whose good qualities
were obscured by a craving vanity for distinction),
and a foreigner, Baron Holbach, who was sett ltd

This is not true. Italy was the birth-place of the doc-
trines iu question. See Bayle's Diet., Art. Viret.T.

milfta.

I. :.:.. f II

I-.... M ,, I,.,...

ill. \ i< i : 1.11780.

Victor d M

nt I'uri-t, had the audacity to connpirr against
Chrintianity, and resolved to throw olfall tut
whatever in matters of faith. They preached
imi.|.-lir\, sometime* under the name of Debts,
mm-* iimliT the form of Atheism; and
throughout their various writing* thry took every
mean* which appeared to tin m hk. Ij to arcom-

their infamous design. While clamouring
about univenal toleration for religious opinions,
they persecuted those who offered any opp
t<> these new doctrines, and especially the ministers
of the Catholic rhun-h. 'I In- unlimited freedom
f the press, which was one of their favourite
dogmas, enabled tln-m to inlVct ail ages and
classes of society with tin-it- pernicious maxims;
while by dint of ridicule, calumnies, and cabals,
they shut the mouth* of those who offered to com-
bat their theories. A grand work, undertaken
by D'Alembert and Diderot, with the assistance
of other writers, and announced as being the store-
house of all human knowledge, railed the Encycto-
ptrdia, became the arsenal where the enemies
of Christianity forged their arms the school
where youth imbibed the elements of pernicious
instruction.

It ought to be told to the honour of other nations,
that, with the exception of some of the nobles,
and evrn <>f tin- sovereigns, who were Mind to the
i in-'-ijin-ii' i-- nt" \\ii- -\-.ti-:ii, Jew pi-:--mi^ in (u-r-
mauy, Holland, Switicrland, and the countries
of the north, where their education was more solid,
allowed themselves to be duped by these errors,
and impieties. Portugal, Spain, and Italy scarcely
took any notice of them ; but in France they
corrupted several generations in succession, and
prepared them for receiving a new political creed,
\\liieh, by attacking the very basis of social
order, at length overturned it, first in that coun-
try, and afterwards over the greater part of the
globe.

The root of this political mischief, as well as
that of Deism and Infidelity, must he sought for
in I'.nu'hiid. The disputes between the Revolu-
tionist)* and the Stuarts, in the seventeenth cen-
tury, which stained that nation with a crime till
then unheard of, had given birth to a new sort of
public right, if we may so call a system which went
to subvert all subordination. It is remarkable,
that the first who started the hypothesis of an
original social contract which supposed all legiti-
mate power to be delegated, and consequently de-
pendent on the sovereignty of the people, was a
partisan of monarchy. Thomas Hohbes, who, fol-
lowing out the application of his own principle-,
built on this foundation a system of absolute
despotism, James Harrington, author of the Oceana,
and especially Algernon s\.lney, all seized this
noM-1 idea, and drew from it results quite oppo-
site to the views of its author ; though, in fact, tin-
error is a two-edged weapon, and will cut either
way. John Locke pushed it even farther ; in de-
spite of history, he admitted as a fact the existence
of a social contract from which states originated,
and maintained that monarchies were nothing else
than republics degenerated.

ii Kngland these doctrine* passed to France,
where they were greedily received, not only 1>\

lemies of religion, but also by a multitude of
writers, who, without belonging to that party,
allowed themselves to be drawn away by the vanity

of fame, and the Mat of a false philosophy. The
public mind had been already prepared for them
by another invention of the eighteenth centurj,
i was erroneous in principle, though laudable
in its design, and contnl"it.d in t w of

better theories, because it had fallen into the bands
of a sect who were muled by enthusiasm. This
sect was that of the Kcwomiiti, and the invention
that of the Phytiocratic. Sygtrm, an it was called,
whirh, by estimating the wealth of a nation solely
according to the mass of its natural productions,
tended to reduce all public burden* to a single tax
on land, and consequently to introduce a perfect
equality in proper!) . Tin- iim-ntor of this doc-
trine was a physician of Paris, named Francis
Quesnay ; though Victor dc Uiquetti, Marquis de
Mirabeau, was its most zealous propagator.

The first French work on this new right of the
people appeared in 174S, under the title !" // Ktprit
des Lois, or Spirit of Law*. Its author, Baron
Montesquieu, there extolled the representative
system, and the doctrine of the dhi-ion of jiower,
whirh from that moment became two of the arti-
cles of faith in the new philosophy, which none
were allowed to controver