m
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
AT LOS ANGELES
Ui
. 1
REX CHRISTUS
•^
^h^)C^^>^
REX CHRISTUS
AN OUTLINE STUDY OF CHINA
BY
ARTHUR H. SMITH
*•**•**. >J^ 3
' »«rO»3*^'*
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd.
STRATFORD & GREEN
BOOKSELLERS
642-644 SO. MAIN ST.
LOS ANGELES
14
a i i{
COPTBIQHT, 1903,
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up, electrotyped, and published August, 1903. Reprinted
February, 1904.
PUBLISHED FOR THE CENTRAL COMMITTEE
ON THE UNITED STUDY OF MISSIONS.
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KortoooB grtss
J. S. Cnshing & Co. — Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
3V
1^\^ .
STATEMENT
fj" OF THE CENTRAL COMMITTEE ON THE
^ UNITED STUDY OF MISSIONS
^ The plan of the United Study of Missions, which was
•^- inaugurated at the Ecumenical Conference in 1900, is no
C- longer an experiment. The remarkable and increasing suc-
^ cess of the enterprise encourages us in presenting this, the
third text-book of our series. The sales of the first of the
series, "Via Christi," by Louise Manning Hodgkins, have
amounted to forty thousand copies, while the second book,
"Lux Christi, An Outline Study of India," by Caroline
Atwater Mason, has met with even greater success.
Dr. Smith is too well known as our foremost writer on
China to need any introduction. He has been ably assisted
by Miss Frances J. Dyer, who has edited the book and
prepared the supplementary material.
China is in the foreground of the political world to-day,
and the interests of the Kingdom of God in this vast empire
demand the thoughtful, prayerful study of all Christians.
May this little volume help toward that end.
Mrs. NORMAN MATHER WATERBURY, Chairmaw,
Tremont Temple, Boston, Mass.
Miss E. HARRIET STANWOOD,
70k Congi-egational Eouae, Boston, Mass.
Miss ELLEN C. PARSONS,
Presbyterian Building,
166 Fifth Avenue, New York City.
Mrs. J. T. GRACEY,
in Pearl Street, Rochester, K. Y.
Mm. HARRIET L. SCUDDER,
Church Missions Souse,
hth Avenue and 33d Street, New Torh City.
Miss CLEMENTINA BUTLER,
Secretary and Treasurer,
Newton Centre, Mass.
V
PREFACE
The object of this book is by no means to
tell a little of everything that ought to be
known about China, but rather so to present
a few selected topics as to incite to a genuine
study of the subject, by which alone it can be
expected to make upon the mind its due im-
pression. Lack of experience in the prepa-
ration of manuals of this sort, together with
limitations of time and the demands of a large
parish, must be the inadequate apology for the
many sins of omission which the discerning
reader will not fail to discover. Standard
•authorities, such as Dr. Williams's "Middle
Kingdom " and Professor Giles's " Historic
China " have been often cited, sometimes with-
out quotation marks. The reader should have
at hand Mr. Beach's indispensable " Geography
and Atlas of Missions," and make excursions
in whatever direction seems most inviting, for
which helps are abundant.
The vast bulk of the Chinese Empire helps
to disguise the fact that for some years it
has been making rapid progress, even at times
when to the eye nothing was apparent but ret-
vii
viii PBEFACE
rogression. Adequately to treat of the present
transition state of Ciiina would have required
much ampler space than could be given in the
closing chapters.
There has never been a time when a larger
and fuller knowledge of what China is to be
was more necessary than to-day. There is no
reason why every reader of this book should
not contribute something toward the right
settlement of some of the greatest and most
difficult questions confronting the Christian
world at the opening of the twentieth century.
A. H. S.
P'ang Chuang, Shantung, China,
April, 1903.
CONTENTS
PAGK
Statement of the Centkal Committee . . . v
Preface vii
CHAPTER I
A Self-centred Empire
Physical Features and Population — Cultivation of the
Soil — Waterways and Loess — Climate and Food
Products — Minerals — China's Rulers — The Leg-
endary Period — The Chou Dynasty — The Tsin
Dynasty — The Han Dynasty — A Dark Period
— The T'ang Dynasty — Tlie Sung Dynasty — The
Mongol Dynasty — The Ming Dynasty — ■ Th'>, Man-
chu Dynasty 1
The Provinces of China 29
Significant Sentences ...... 39
CHAPTER II
The Religions of China
Teachings of Confucius — Foundation Principles —
Weak Spots in Confucianism — Universality of
Temples — Comparison between Confucianism
and Christianity — Taoism — Modern Taoism —
Root of the Boxer Madness — Chinese Buddhism
— The Dominant Religion — Temples to the Three
Religions — Mohammedanism in China — Secret
Sects 44
Significant Sentences 80
iz
CONTENTS
CHAPTER III
The Pbople of China
PA8E
Solidarity of Cliinese Society — Fixity of Residence —
Unity in Variety — Industry and Poverty — Puz-
zling Problems — Sentiment toward Foreigners
— Patriotism — Conservatism — How a Cliinese
Scholar views Christianity — Race Characteristics
— Talent for Indirection — Suspicion and Distrust
— Untruthfulness and Insincerity — Saving One's
"Face" — Christianity a Solvent . ... 84
Watmarks in the History of Missions in China . Ill
Significant Sentences 116
CHAPTER IV
Christian Missions. Part I. From Earliest
Times till near the Close of the
Nineteenth Century
Nestorian and Roman Catholic Missions — The Situa-
tion To-day — Protestant Missions — The Pioneer
Society — A True Yokefellow — Strong Foimda-
tions Laid — Arrival of Americans — Beginning of
Medical Work — The Second Period, 1842 to 1860
— Splendid Reinforcements — Translation of the
Scriptures — Treachery in Treaties — The Third
Period, 1860 to 1895 — Evidences of a New Era
— The China Inland Mission — Modus of Mission
Work — The Second Step — The Peripatetic
Preacher — Churches in Embryo — The Doctor
and the Dispensary 120
Significant Sbntbnces 162
CHAPTER V
CHRigTiAN Missions. Part II. On the Thresh-
old OF the Twentieth Century
Woman's Work — The Educational Work — Day and
Boarding Schools — Influence on the Community
CONTENTS
PAGF
— A Birthday Gift to the Empress Dowager — Kin-
dergartens— Bible Women and Other Workers —
Medical Work — The First Medical College for
Women — General Summary of the Third Period
— The Great Famine — Two Notable Gatherings
— Bible and Tract Societies — Literary Labors —
Power of the Printing-Press — The Fourth Period,
1895 to 1903 — A Wonderful Awakening — The
Anti-Foot-binding Society — Other Reforms —
China in Convulsion — The Great Boxer Ris-
ing — Effect on the Native Church — The
Aftermath 167
Significant Sentences 216
CHAPTER VI
The Open Door of Opportunity
A Modern Miracle — A United Church — Power of Re-
generated Lives — Educational Reforms — Educa-
tional Needs — The New China .... 221
Significant Sentences 240
APPENDIX
List of Leading Missionary Periodicals . . 245
Additional Articles in Periodicals . . . 246
List of Twenty Books ...... 247
Statistics of Protestant Missions in China . . 249
Index 253
EEX CHRISTUS
CHAPTER I
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE
The country which we call China, but which
its own people designate as the Central Empire,
is one of the oldest and mightiest kingdoms of
the earth. Its hoary antiquity stretches away
into the mists of fable for unknown thousands
of years, but that part of its history which is
well within the bounds of certainty takes it back
to the early dawn of civilization. Its situation,
on the eastern edge of the great continent of
Asia, makes it a natural and an inevitable centre
of influence over many adjacent lands ; and this
has been abundantly illustrated in its history,
which has been that of superiority to all its
neighbors. China lies almost entirely in the
temperate zone, and in what the annals of the
human race have proved to be the belt of power,
within which all the peoples which have made
a deep mark on the tablets of time have had
their habitation.
Physical Features and Population. — China faces
the east. Her mountains rise in height as one
goes west, and it is from them that the great
B 1
2 BEX CHRISTUS
rivers of this part of the globe take their rise,
the Yang-tse, and the Yellow River. One
of them is called China's Girdle, and pours
an enormous stream of water every second
into the Yellow Sea, draining a large portion
of the empire. The other is well styled
China's Sorrow, "bringing from the great
plateaus of the desert of Gobi continents of
sand and yellow mud, which are turned into
the sea to shoal its waters and to make new
land, while the floods burst their banks and
devastate the whole province." In the north-
eastern portion of China Proper, by which is
meant the Eighteen Provinces, stretches one of
the great plains of the earth, which occupies a
large part of several provinces, from the moun-
tains north and west of Peking to the southern
side of the Yang-tse.
Within an area averaging from 200 to 400
miles in width, it is estimated that a popula-
tion is to be found numbering more than
170,000,000, so that parts of this region are the
most densely populated in the world. China's
millions are literally uncounted, and until some
distant day, when western modes of adminis-
tration are adopted, are likely to remain so.
Without entering into the somewhat compli-
cated question of the probable population of
the empire, it may be suggested that since all
censuses are but " a pagoda of guesses," one
must be governed by general probabilities in
A SELF-CENTRED EM I' IRE 3
lieu of relative certainties. Perhaps the total
of 400,000,000 may not be too large, but 360,-
000,000 is perhaps a more reasonable estimate.
The coast line of China is 2000 miles in
length, well furnished with excellent harbors.
The Chinese have never been a maritime people,
but their country has unrivalled facilities for
intercourse with all the rest of mankind. The
area of China Proper is only about one-third
of the whole empire, or about the size of
that part of the United States east of the
Rocky Mountains. It is seven times as large
as France, fifteen times the size of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain, and nearly half
as large as the whole of Europe. Whence
came the stoe\ from which the population of
this land is descended has not yet been deter-
mined, but it is known that they first appeared
at the northwest, along the banks of the Yellow
River, to the vicinity of which the earliest set-
tlements were largely confined. They were a
pastoral people, as is evidenced, among other
ways, in the language. The word signifying
"righteousness," " justice," "rectitude," is com-
posed of the ideographs for me (or my) and
sheep, denoting that the one who was content
with his own cattle and sheep was the standard
of virtue.
Cultivation of the Soil. — The Chinese people
are themselves a conglomerate composed of many
different strains. It was not till the T'ang
4 EEX CHRISTUS
dynasty (620-907 a.d.) that the southern por-
tions of what is now China were incorporated
into the common rule, and this was effected
but gradually. To this day the southerners
call themselves the "Men of T'ang." From
their first experiments in the cultivation of
the soil the Chinese showed great skill in
adapting themselves to the peculiarities of the
particular region in which they settled. What-
ever was once gained as a part of the common
stock of experience was handed down from age
to age, and has become almost a second nature.
Perhaps no people have greater skill as irri-
gators of the soil. They know how to level a
tract of land in such a way that the water will
always run in the desired direction ; how to
divert streams where they are needed ; how to
raise water from lower levels by the Persian
wheel, the screw of Archimedes, by the well-
sweep, the windlass, and by willow baskets slung
on ropes held by two men who, with dextrous
toes, throw the water from the surface of the
river to the cultivated gardens above. Much of
the farming is practically gardening because the
holdings are so small, and the owner is quite
aware of the importance of the rotation of crops,
and is incomparably better acquainted than most
of his Occidental neighbors with wise ways of
fertilization. But for the incessant economy
practised in all parts of the empire in the
preparation and use of " poudrette," China
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 5
would never have been able to raise enough
food for the support of its uncounted millions.
Waterways and Loess= -• Aside from the
two great rivers already mentioned, the empire
is abundantly supplied with large streams,
which, from ancient times, have been avenues
for a great internal commerce. The Chinese
have always shown the greatest skill in the
opening of artificial waterways, and all China
was interpenetrated with canals at a time when
one such existed in Europe. In the central
parts of the eighteen provinces this is espe-
cially the case, the ramifications of these boat
roads being intricate and innumerable. A
large part of the northern area of China is
covered to a greater or less extent with a
peculiar soil named, from an analogous phenom-
enon in the valley of the Rhine, "loess." It
is an extremely porous, brownish-colored earth,
readily pulverized by the fingers, and capable of
becoming an impalpable dust of great penetrat-
ing power. The regions where this peculiar
soil occurs abound in cave dwellings cut out
of the loam, photographs of which are to be
found in many books of travel. The appear-
ance of an extensive loess formation, like that
to be met with in the mountains separating
Shansi from Chihli, with its singularly regular
terrace formation, interspersed with many wide
and deep chasms, is one of the remarkable
sights of China. The occurrence of this soil,
6 REX CHBI8TUS
which was for a long time a geological puzzle,
has much to do with the great population sup-
ported in regions where it occurs, for it is
capable of producing immense crops without
aid of fertilization.
Climate and Food Products. — In a country
stretching through more than twenty-five de-
grees of latitude, it may readily be seen that
there is every variety of climate, from the
dreary cold winters of Manchuria to the damp
chill of the southeast in winter, alternating
with torrid heats in summer. The variations
of temperature in many parts of the Great
Plain amount to a hundred degrees Fahren-
heit for the year, but sudden alternations of
heat and cold are far less common than in
the same belt throughout North America.
In most parts of China there is a rainy season
and a dry, but the confines are not as dis-
tinctly marked as in India. The rains begin
at the southeast of China in March and ex-
tend northward, till by July the whole of the
Great Plain ought to have its share. When-
ever the supply is delayed or is inadequate, the
greatest anxiety is everywhere felt, for drought
is the synonym of famine.
The food supply of the empire is of the
most varied description, including a wide range
of cereals and fruits, from those cultivated
in the extreme north to the tropical treasures
of the south. Rice has always been a staple
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 7
food of the Chinese, although in the northern
portions it is a mere luxury,, and, except
by name, often altogether unknown. Wheat
is almost universal, and is considered the
best food known to man, while millet, va-
rious kinds of sorghum, barley, buckwheat, oats,
and maize are to be found in different regions.
Sugar-cane is raised in the south. The magnifi-
cent grass which we know as the bamboo is
one of nature's best gifts to China, as to many
other lands, and it is a current proverb that no
one should live where it will not thrive. Its
varieties are endless and its uses innumerable.
Its shoots are employed as food, and with a
sweet syrup as a confectionery. Its shafts are
put to countless service in the construction of
dwellings, and in making nearly every article
needed for the use of man or woman. The
character for bamboo written over that of a ruler
means " to govern," showing the conception of
what a magistrate ought to be ; and the verb
" to bamboo " may connote every grade of pun-
ishment, from a slight beating up to the extinc-
tion of life itself. The tallow tree is one of the
eccentricities of China, of which the fullest use
has been made.
The wealth of the provision made for man
in this great empire is well matched by the
almost unequalled talent displayed by man
for discovering ways in which the varied
needs of the race may be met by the illimitable
8 REX CHRISTUS
resources placed at its disposal. The Chinese
are not keen sportsmen, but they greatly excel
in fish culture, and they have long been famous
for their success in making rivers, streams, and
the great ocean tributary to their claims. It is
not without reason, in view of the lavish gifts
bestowed upon them, that the Chinese consider
themselves the most favored people on the earth.
China is, in fact, an empire which might be
practically independent of the rest of the world,
as for so many ages it has been, — a circumstance
which has done much toward fostering that over-
weening national conceit which has often brought
on conflicts with other nations.
Minerals. — The mineral wealth of China is to
a large extent unexplored, but enough is known
to make it probable tliat it is in excess of that
of any other land, except, perhaps, the United
States. The coal deposits in particular, which
are found in immediate contiguity to illimitable
■supplies of the best iron ore, are probably the
largest in the world, and the coal-bearing area
has been estimated at not less than 419,000
square miles, unequally distributed through
every one of the eighteen provinces. Iron and
coal are the basis of our present civilization,
and the apparently inexhaustible supply in the
Chinese Empire must ultimately affect in ways
not yet evident the destiny of the human race.
It is not the so-called useful minerals only
which are to be found, but almost all others,
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 9
with the exception of platinum. Gold, silver,
copper, tin, lead, quicksilver, could be produced
in enormous quantities with the improved
methods used elsewhere. But accompanying
this vast and immeasurable potential wealth
is the blighting superstition of " Feng-shui "
(literally wind-water), which contraindicates
the disturbance of the soil beyond a certain
depth, lest the " earth-dragon " be offended and
nameless ills ensue.
The province of Ssuch'uan has salt wells of
great depth, from which, with rude machinery
and clumsy skill, is extracted the brine which
is afterward evaporated into an article of
commerce. In the province of Shansi there
is a great lake of dry salt which furnishes a
supply for a large region. Along the coast
salt is obtained from the water of the sea,
and, its sale being a government monopoly,
is an important source of revenue. Great
as are the resources of the empire, it is prob-
able that but a fraction of them has as yet
been put to use. They still await that scien-
tific development without which they are largely
useless to their owners, and to mankind at
large.
Into this magnificent inheritance the earliest
colonists came, and in possession of it they
have ever since remained. The Chinese are
the only people who have never left their origi-
nal seats, and who, having once entered upon
10 BEX CHRISTUS
certain lines of race activity, have never been
deflected from them.
China's Rulers
A brief recapitulation in merest outline of
the history of this remarkable people may fitly
accompany a sketch of the empire in miniature.
It is not surprising that the uncritical Chi-
nese annalists have amused themselves, and
flattered the national vanity, with a catalogue
of long ages of mythical monarchs, who reigned
under impossible conditions for fabulous periods.
No actual weight is attached even by Chinese
writers to these tales of prehistoric epochs,
which simply serve to fill in what would other-
wise be blanks, in the manner of the geogra-
phers of whom Swift complained that they
" O'er uninhabitable downs
Place elephants foi* want of towns."
The Legendary Period. — Every Chinese is
ready to talk of the good old days of Yao,
and Shun, his successor, when the morals of
the people were so ideal that doors and win-
dows were not closed at night, and nothing
dropped on the road was picked up by any
one but the owner. According to the notions
of Chinese chronologists, the close of the
legendary period would bring one to the
beginning of the twenty-second century B.C.,
when the Hsai dynasty begins with the great
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 11
Yu, who by his engineering skill drained away
a terrible inundation. The Emperor Shun was
made the head of the state on account of
his filial piety, " in recognition of which, wild
beasts used to come voluntarily and drag his
plough for him, while birds of the air would
guard his grain from the depredations of in-
sects." Even as far back as this period there
was a comparatively advanced state of civili-
zation. The system of knotted cords as a
means of notation of ideas had given place to
notches on wood, and these in turn to rude out-
lines of natural objects. It is from a limited
number of such that the ideographs of the Chi-
nese language in use to-day have sprung, but
not without many intermediate processes of
alteration. There was in the earlier ages a
" tadpole " character which is now illegible, and
survives in but a few examples.
There was at that time no such thing as
paper, the only books being bamboo tablets
inscribed with a sharp stylus, but none are
now extant. This was followed by writing on
silk, but ink in the modern shape (hard blocks
rubbed up with water for the use of the soft
brush used in writing) was introduced much
later.
The Chou Dynasty. — The Chou dynasty,
where we are at last on comparatively firm his-
torical ground, began in the year 1122 B.C.,
and extended until 255 B.C. During these nine
12 REX CHEISTUS
centuries the history of European nations was
in its infancy. The Trojan War had just ended,
and the monarchy of Israel had begun. The
whole brilliant period of Grecian history was
contemporaneous with this dynasty, and in it
the Eternal City was founded. What the
Chinese are to-day has its roots in the ancient
period of the Chous. Their language, their
ideas, their administration of their government,
and above all their elaborate ceremonial, with-
out which China would not be China, all take
their origin here. So, too, with their national
literature and their great sages, Confucius and
Mencius, the one born 551 B.C., and the other
372 B.C., each of them in what is now the prov-
ince of Shantung. Few individuals in the an-
nals of the human race have more powerfully
influenced so large a number of their fellow-men
as these two Chinese, and, what is more re-
markable, their authority once established has
never been disputed.
In these early days war was carried on
with bowmen on the one side and spearmen
on the other. " The centre was occupied by
chariots, each drawn by three or four horses,
harnessed abreast. Swords, daggers, shields,
iron-headed clubs some five or six feet in
length and weighing from twelve to fifteen
pounds, huge iron hooks, drums, cymbals,
gongs, horns, banners and streamers innumer-
able, were also among the equipment of war."
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 13
From this descriptive snatch, the discerning
reader is able to recognize the root of much of
the noisy, showy, and tawdry display which
is the accompaniment of every Chinese public
function to-day.
The Tsin Dynasty. — The Chou dynasty broke
down finally, though it had lasted for almost a
millennium. It was followed by the reign of
one of the greatest men China has ever produced,
who arrogated to himself the title of the First
Emperoi- (Ch'in Shih Huang), and who raised
the state of Ch'in, at the head of which he
had been for twenty-six years, to the sover-
eign place among the various subordinate king-
doms, and then swept away the entire feudal
system, by means of which the Chou emperors
had divested themselves of the cares of govern-
ment, and divided the empire, including vast
tracts which he had annexed on the south, into
thirty-six provinces, " thus effecting a revolu-
tion which, after a lapse of 2000 years, history
has seen repeated in Japan."
This restless Napoleon of China despatched
an expedition to look for some mysterious
islands off the coast. He was the builder of the
Great Wall, which skirts the eighteen provinces
for a distance of nearly 1400 miles, from Shan
Hai Kuan on the present Gulf of Pechili, to
the Great Desert at the western terminus of
the empire. This gigantic work, which was the
continuation of other defences already existing
14 BEX CHBISTUS
against the outer barbarians, was completed by-
means of forced labor and incredible cruelty
in the space of ten years. It is difficult to
understand how such a task could have been
accomplished at all, and the fact that it was so,
has been rightly regarded as an incidental proof
of a large population. The boundless ambition
of the First Emperor was not satisfied with
these great works of statesmanship and of
public utility, but he thirsted to have all liter-
ature recreated with his reign. He issued an
order for the destruction of all books (with cer-
tain exceptions), but finding his literati in-
tractable, he caused many hundreds of them to
be buried in pits, and the books were burned.
The prodigious memories of the Chinese schol-
ars who survived the early fall of the emperor
enabled them to reproduce the greater part of
the works destroyed, but many of them were in
an incomplete condition.
The name of this monarch has been held in
detestation by the scholars of China ever since,
and though his consolidation of the empire re-
mained, the death of his son, after a brief reign
of three years, put an end to the dynasty.
The Han Dynasty. — Under different names
this lasted for a period of about four hundred
years, nearly evenly divided by the opening of
the Christian era. Our Lord was born in the
first year of the Emperor P'ing Ti, " Prince of
Peace," a coincidence often remarked upon.
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 15
During this long period the empire was becom-
ing more settled, and was advancing in civiliza-
tion. There was a general revival of learning,
and the books so precious to scholars were
rescued from the hiding-places to which they
had been banished under the destructive First
Emperor. Ink was invented, and it was used to
compile voluminous commentaries on the recov-
ered classics, which were now printed on paper
made from the bark of trees.
In the latter portion of the second centur}'
B.C. lived the Herodotus of China, Ssu Ma
Ch'ien, who composed the first connected and
comprehensive survey of the records of China,
beginning from the mythical period of the
"Yellow Emperor," and extending to about
a century before the Christian era. A great
lexicographical work called the " Shuo Wen "
also appeared within this period, which shows
that the principle of phonetic formation of char-
acters was the same then as at present. It was
during the Han dynasty that the Buddhist reli-
gion was brought to China, in response to the
request of envoys sent in consequence of an
imperial dream. It is supposed that a Jewish
colony entered China at the same time, but
neither then nor at any subsequent period did
it attract serious attention from the Chinese,
who nicknamed these singular people the
"sinew-plucking sect." It is from the Han
period that literary degrees take their rise, and
16 REX CHBISTUS
perpetual rank was conferred on the descend-
ants of Confucius, whose teachings at this time
made their way to Japan, where they held
undisputed sway until within the past few
decades.
A Dark Period. — The Han was followed by
the epoch of the Three Kingdoms, a time of
bloodshed and civil war, mainly of interest to
us at this day on account of a celebrated histori-
cal novel from which it takes its name, parts of
which are repeated in tea-shops and enacted in
plays all over China. The characters in this
stirring drama are better known by far than
contemporary statesmen, of whom the common
people never hear anything and for whom if
they should hear they would not care. After
the Three Kingdoms ensued a variety of minor
dynasties, the enumeration of which would only
serve to tease the I'eader, the appearance and
the disappearance alike not affecting the gen-
eral progress of events.
The T'ang Dynasty. — The next great period
is the T'ang dynasty, from 620 to 907 A.D., dur-
ing which time, as Dr. Williams remarks, " China
was probably the most civilized country on earth;
the darkest days of the West, when Europe was
wrapped in the ignorance and degradation of
the Middle Ages, formed the brightest era of
the East. They exercised a humanizing effect
on all the surrounding countries, and led their
inhabitants to see the benefits and understand
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 17
the management of a government where the
laws were above the officers." The T'ang is
one of the most brilUant epochs in the history
of the Flowery Land, and its second emperor,
T'ai Tsung " may be regarded as the most
accomplished in the Chinese annals, — famed
alike for his wisdom and nobleness, his con-
quests and good government, his temperance,
cultivated tastes, and patronage of literary
men." He established schools and instituted
a system of literary examinations. He had the
Confucian classics published under the super-
vision of the most learned men in the empire,
and took great pains to prepare and preserve
the historical annals of the recent dynasties.
His broad dominions extended to the borders of
Persia and the Caspian Sea, embracing large
parts of Central Asia.
The reign of his son (Kao Tsung) was as
imbecile as that of his father had been glorious.
His empress obtained control over him, and
after his death, for twenty-one years usurped
the throne, murdering all who opposed her will,
and assuming such titles as Queen of Heaven,
Holy Mother, and Divine Sovereign. By a
palace conspiracy her son at length removed
her, and she died in seclusion at the age of
eighty-one years. About the year 722 a census
of the fifteen provinces is said to have given a
total of more than 52,884,000.
It was in the T'ang period that Buddhism
0
18 BEX CHRISTUS
attained its greatest successes, the whole land
being filled with its temples and its worship, one
of the later emperors determining to receive with
the highest honors a bone of the founder, Shakya-
muna. Against this one of his ablest ministers
made a famous protest, the text of which is
familiar to all scholars even to-day, and is
regarded as a masterpiece of argument and
invective. The result was the banishment of
the remonstrant to the remote and barbarous
regions of the south, near the present port of
Swatow, from which he was, however, recalled
later, and has since been canonized under the
title of Prince of Literature.
Only six years after the Hegira of the Prophet,
the followers of Mohammed are supposed to
have entered China. In the following century
a force of Arab soldiers was sent to China to
assist in quelling an insurrection, and as a
reward they were allowed to settle in the coun-
try. During this dynasty the greatest Chinese
poets flourished, and a complete collection of
the works of the epoch are arranged in 48,900
pieces in 900 books. The use of paper money
dates from this time, and it is thought that the
originals of the Court Circular, or what is now
called the Pekirig Grazette, are here to be found.
Tradition has also assigned to this dynasty the
beginning of the almost universal practice of
binding the feet of girls, but there is no docu-
mentary evidence as to its introduction. Its firm
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 19
grip on the people is one of the most singular
facts in this land of strange phenomena.
The Sung Dynasty. — The Sung dynasty,
which after a few decades of minor rulers suc-
ceeded the T'angs, is divided into the Northern
Sung and the Southern Sung, having its capital
at what is now Hangchou in Chekiang, in order
to be safer from the troublesome Tartars, by
whom the dynasty was at length overthrown,
after a duration of 167 for the former and 153
years for the latter, each branch furnishing nine
emperors.
The period is notable chiefly for its literary
men, not for its rulers, especially for Chu Hsi,
the great commentator on the Chinese classics,
whose interpretations have totally obliterated
those of the scholars of the Han, and have been
the sole and only Confucian orthodoxy ever
since, a literary triumph which for thoroughness
and permanence has few parallels in history.
A historian named Ssu Ma Kuang produced one
of those works which for voluminousness are
typically Chinese, being completed in 294 books.
Another historian called Ma Tuan Lin wrote
a history in 348 books. It is productions of this
description which give point to the Chinese
aphorism that "In order to know the Ancient
and the Modern it is necessary to read five cart
loads of books."
Another noted name in the Sung dynasty
is that of a socialistic statesman who introduced
20 BEX CHRISTUS
plans which were many hundred years in advance
of his time. He wished to have the whole body
of the people liable to military drill and for
service in time of need, and he devised a system
of state loans to farmers, in order to supply them
with more capital. His schemes were disallowed,
and have become way-marks in the Chinese
desert to show where not to go. The little Tri-
metrical Classic which is the first book put into
the hands of schoolboys on entering school, also
dates from this time, as well as the authorized
list of Chinese surnames, now also a part of the
routine instruction of every pupil.
The Mongol Dynasty. — ^The next dynasty was
a relatively short one of about eighty years, and
is of interest because it was the first time that
the outer barbarian had gained the imperial
throne. The new incumbents were Mongols,
under the noted Genghis Khan, who occupied
Peking in the year 1264. The great Kublai
Khan, who held the sway of the empire for
fifteen years, was an enlightened monarch who
did much to consolidate his rule by wise plans,
but the Mongol material upon which he had to
work was incomparably inferior to the Chinese,
and the dynasty came to an end after a few
inglorious reigns, and was supplanted by the
Mings. It was in the Mongol or Yuan dynasty
that Marco Polo came to China, and most of
what we know of the mediaeval potentate, Ku-
blai Khan, comes from the marvellously vivid
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 21
narrative of the great Venetian, whose work had
so little acceptance during his lifetime that
when on his dying bed he was urged to repent
of all his sins, and to confess the falsehoods
which he had told about Cathay ; which, being
an honest reporter, he stoutly refused to do.
He visited large parts of the empire and had
a varied experience both as guest and as an offi-
cial. His patron, Kublai Khan, greatly extended
the work of the dissolute Yang Ti (of the Sui
dynasty, 605 a.d.) and united the Yang-tse and
Yellow Rivers by the Grand Canal, one of the
greatest and most useful of China's internal
improvements.
The Ming Dynasty. — It is a striking fact, well
enunciated by Dr. Williams, that amid all the
revolutions in China none have been based upon
a principle. Each one has been a mere change
of masters, with no better appreciation than
before of the rights of the subject, or of the
powers and duties of the rulers. From the
standpoint of the Chinese this is due to the fact
that the original principles upon which the
empire was founded were ideally perfect, and all
that remained was to put them into practice.
Whenever the Son of Heaven fails to do this,
he has lost " Heaven's decree," and is by a divine
right turned out to make room for another who
has received it.
The founder of the Ming dynasty was a man
named Chu Muan Chang, who had experienced
22 BEX CHBISTUS
the deepest poverty, and had at one time been
a Buddhist priest. His parents and elder
brother had died of starvation, and being too
poor to put them in coffins, he was forced to
bury them in straw. The last emperor of the
Mongols had degenerated into a voluptuary
and was in the hands of his ministers a mere
puppet. The great abilities of Chu enabled him
by rapid stages to seize the sceptre of power,
and in the year 1368 he mounted the Dragon
Throne, taking the title of Hung Wu, by which
name he is best known to foreigners. This, it
will be recollected, was a century and a quarter
before " Columbus crossed the ocean blue," but
to the Chinese of to-day, accustomed to measure
time by millenniums, it appears a period about
as distant as " before the war " to an American.
The new emperor, in addition to his military
genius, showed almost equal skill in the admin-
istration of the empire, and also became a liberal
patron of literature and education. He organ-
ized the present system of examinations, re-
stored the dress of the T'ang dynasty, published
a penal code, abolished punishment by mutila-
tion, regulated taxation, put the coinage upon
a proper basis with government notes and cash
as equal currencj^. The capital was fixed at
Nanking, but the son of Hung Wu wrested the
power from his nephew to whom it had been
given, and removed the seat of government to
the ancient Cambaluc of the Mongols, the mod-
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 23
ern Peking, taking the title of Yung Lo, by far
the best known of the sixteen Ming emperors.
In his progress to seize Peking he committed
enormous excesses, and so devastated all the
regions through Avhich he passed that not a man,
woman or child, not a cat or dog, remained alive.
This is popularly referred to by every one as
his "sweeping the north." As a result it be-
came necessary to bring compulsory immigrants
to Chihli and Sb.antung, in order to repeople
the land, and every family will tell you that
they " came from " some remote place, such as
Hung Tung Hsien in Shansi, or Lai Chou Fu
in Shantung, some nineteen generations ago,
back of which, unfortunately, their family
registers do not go !
The incursions of the Tartars from the north
were incessant, but Yung Lo found time amid
many activities to patronize literature on a scale
hitherto unprecedented. At his behest a gigan-
tic encyclopsedia was prepared, intended to col-
lect in one work the substance of all the classical,
historical, philosopliical, and literary works
hitherto published. The task was intrusted to
a committee of 3 presidents, 5 chief direc-
tors, 20 sub-directors, and 2169 subordinates.
The work was finished in the year 1407, con-
taining in all 22,877 books besides the table of
contents, which occupied sixty books, the whole
being called Yung Lo Ta Tien or the Institutes
of Yung Lo- Only two copies were ever made
24 BEX CHRISTUS
One was destroyed in a great fire in Nanking,
and the other was ruined or captured in the
burning of the Han-lin Yuan in Peking, during
the memorable siege in that city in the summer
of 1900. Several hundred volumes only were
rescued, and are now dispersed all over the
world, a melancholy end to one of the greatest
intellectual labors even of the Chinese.
The sixteen emperors of the Ming period
ended their rule in 1644, having like all their
predecessors lost the " Decree of Heaven." The
feuds with the Tartars were incessant, and dur-
ing one of the insurrections the latter entered
Peking unopposed, and their leader was quite
ready to accept the invitation to ascend the
throne, — which he did. The last Ming emperor
stabbed his daughter and hung himself on a
pine tree on the east side of the " Coal Hill" in
the palace grounds in Peking. During the
foreign occupation of that city this tree was
pointed out to visitors, still flourishing, but
blisfhted on the side where the Son of Heaven
ended his inglorious reign. The leading Chinese
general assented to the occupation of the throne
by the Manchu Tartars, who called themselves
the Ch'ing, or Great Pure Dynasty, on con-
dition that no Chinese woman should be taken
into the imperial seraglio, and that the first
place in literary degrees should never be given
to a Manchu. It was also agreed that while
women should be allowed to retain their former
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 25
style of dress, the men should adopt that of the
Manchus, although suffered to bury their dead
in the Ming costume. A part of the stipulation
as to the dress of the men was the acceptance of
the Manchu queue, which for a long period in the
southeastern portions of the empire was strongly
resisted. Even to this day in those regions a
turban is worn, the survival of an effort to
conceal what was then felt to be a national
disgrace.
The Manchu Dynasty. — It was only a quarter
of a century after the landing of the Pilgrims on
Plymouth Rock that the Manchus began their
long rule over the magnificent possession into
which they had come almost without effort.
The second emperor, whose style is K'ang Hsi,
came to the throne when he was but eight
years of age and took the government into his
own hands at fourteen, making a striking and
instructive parallel with the history of Louis
XIV of France, their two reigns being con-
temporaneous for more than half a century.
K'ang Hsi was undoubtedly one of the com-
paratively few really great monarchs who have
ruled the Celestial Empire. He greatly ex-
tended his frontier on the west, consolidated his
power everywhere, and established regulations
which have contributed to the peace and pros-
perity of China ever since. He was indefatiga-
ble in his devotion to state affairs, liberal in his
expenditure for public ends, and anxious to
26 BEX CHRISTUS
promote the welfare of his people. He has been
termed the most successful patron of literature
the world, has ever seen, causing to be published
four great works of continental scope, any one
of which would have distinguished any ruler,
aside from the great lexicon to which he has
given his name. He governed China for the
almost unprecedented period of sixty-one years,
and was succeeded by his son, Yung Cheng, in
1722.
He in turn was followed by his famous son,
Ch'ien Lung (or Kien Lung), who, after ruling
sixty years, resigned the throne for the very
Chinese reason that it would not be filial to
outdo his grandfather ! tie was also a patron
of literature, and a poet of great merit, his
productions reaching the astonishing total of
33,950, many of which however were very short.
Like K'ang Hsi he extended the boundaries of
the empire, but wasted revenues on the support
of large armies. He received embassies from
the Russians, the Dutch, and the English, which
tended to confirm the Chinese in their inefface-
able conviction that China is the real centre of
the universe, and all under the heavens merely
tributary, — a theory which was to bear bitter
fruits in the ensuing century.
The next emperor, Chia Ch'ing (Kia King),
was dissolute and superstitious, and his reign of
twenty-five years was disturbed by rebellions on
land and pirates by sea. He was followed iu
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 27
1820 by his son Tao Kuang, during whose reign
China had to face unprecedented troubles, — a
rebellion in Turkestan, an insurrection in For-
mosa, and a rising in Kuangtung. But all these
combined were trifling when compared with the
dark cloud rising on the horizon from the pres-
ence of the outer barbarians, who had been for
some centuries trading at Canton, but who now
broke out into what the Chinese considered to
be "open rebellion."
This was the Opium War between Great
Britain and China, in which. Mobile there was
much to regret on the foreign side of the case,
there was abundant reason for the conflict aside
from the special issues on which it was waged.
It was terminated by the Treaty of Nanking in
1842, of which Dr. Williams has justly remarked
that whether regarded from the political, com-
mercial, moral, or intellectual standpoint, it was
" one of the turning-points in the history of
mankind, involving the welfare of all nations in
its wide-reaching consequences." By it, in ad-
dition to Canton, were opened the ports of Amoy,
Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai, — the promise
and potency of the ultimate opening of all China
which has not yet been effected.
Just as this emperor quitted the stage the
great T'ai P'ing Rebellion broke out, which rav-
aged a large part of the empire, and shook the
dynasty to its foundations, resulting in the loss
of perhaps twenty millions of lives. This, after
28 BEX CHBISTUS
fifteen years of ruin, was finally put down by
the aid of foreigners, of whom General Charles
George Gordon was the chief.
In the inglorious reign of the Emperor Hsien
Feng another war with foreign powers took
place, ending in the capture of Peking (October,
1860) by the allied British and French forces,
and the flight of the emperor, who died on a
hunting excursion in his ancestral home in Man-
churia in August, 1860. The next incumbent
was a mere child, the son of an imperial concu-
bine, who took the style of T'ung Chih, but he
had barely attained his majority when he died
of smallpox, January, 1875. The affairs of
state had been in the hands of the empress
mother, and the empress dowager, together
with Prince Kung, a brother of the late
emperor.
Anotlier infant was now set upon the throne
and another regency began, the events of which
are fresh in the memories of those who know
anything of China ; but for those who do not,
it would be difficult to summarize them in the
space at our disposal. There was a sort of
war with France in 1844, in which the Chinese
were not decisively beaten. There was another
far more serious conflict with Japan ten years
later in which China was humbled to the dust;
but her semi-Bourbon leaders learned nothing
and forgot everything, and the country drifted
on. The attempted reforms of the emperor in
10
II
loo
105 Longitude East /~H A I
H
'*>&
rTu-ning
// \ A<S^^i^ ■'''"^^5;?^'':?'""-^ -^i/T Korea
■^/W
\Nan-yang) 1 |^ \
r
^-
^
<5.
^..i.':-a*'W-k'"f ' 1
v^^i^^w "^ CHINA
SCALE OF MILES
I w luu vw 300 iOO
ilissitmarv Stations appear in thta type^ CwIob
8
10
It
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 29
1898 ended in his virtual dethronement and
practical imprisonment. The union of a great
variety of causes brought about a profound dis-
content in the minds of millions of his subjects,
which resulted in 1899-1900 in the outbreak of
the most singular crusade in the annals of man-
kind, ending in the capture of Peking by the
allies, August 14th, 1900. The court fled to
distant Si Ngan Fu, long the capital of the
empire under many dynasties, but returned
nearly a year and a half later, in what was vir-
tually a triumphal progress, to continue the difh-
cult task of confronting the twentieth century
with the ideas and the ideals which would have
been wholly appropriate to the T'ang and the
Sung.
THE PROVINCES OF CHINA
It is convenient to have a general conspectus of the
various provinces of the Chinese Empire, with a note
of the (theoretical) population, and the area. The fig-
ures of the former are taken from the Statesman's Year
Book for 1902, and though mere conjectures in some
instances, and obviously erroneous in others, they answer
very well for a rough approximation to truth. In con-
formity to a common practice the Chinese names have
been translated, with a view to a greater vividness of
impression ; but it is to be remembered that the meaning
is altogether lost sight of in common speech, and that
in the cases where the province is named from some of
its chief cities, the title never had any meaning.
1. Chihli. (Direct Rule, because it contains the capital
of the empire.) Population 17,937,000 ; area 58,949 square
30 BEX CHRISTUS
miles. The metropolis, which is usually termed Peking,
or the Xorthern Capital, is properly designated as
Shun T'ien Eu, "the most interesting and unique city
in Asia," about twenty-one miles in the circuit of its
walls. Since its last occupation by the allies, it enjoys
the distinction of being the only capital in the world
which gives residence to a large number of foreign
ambassadors who live in a separate quarter, protected
by little armies of their own, within fortified legations.
Next to Shanghai, Tientsin is the most important point
in China, situated some thirty-five miles from the sea, at
the junction of the Grand Canal with two other streams
which form the " Sea River," navigable by steamers to
Tientsin only. The population of Peking and of Tientsin
cannot be known with any approximation to accuracy,
but may be three-quarters of a million for the former,
and half a million for the latter. Since the foreign
occupation, the wall of Tientsin has been removed and
great changes of many sorts have taken place. Tientsin
is the commercial emporium of the greater part of Chihli
as well as for considerable portions of Honan, Shantung,
Shansi, and Manchuria. In the immediate future it will
be an even more imi^ortaut distributing centre than at
present. It will also be a railway terminus and junction,
not only for the existing lines to Peking, eighty miles
northwest, and to Newchwang to the east, but also of
the Anglo-German line to Chinkiang on the Yang-tse.
It wiU likewise be a place of educational and of manu-
facturing importance. Pao Ting Fu, one hundred miles
south of Peking, is the provincial capital, though during
the incumbency of Li Hung Chang the seat of govern-
ment was practically removed to Tientsin, to which place
it has again reverted. Most of Chihli is a part of the
Great Plain, but the north and west are mountainous.
The vicinity of the seashore, as well as large tracts inland,
are often covered with a nitrous efflorescence fatal to
cultivation. Much of the plain is subject to inundations,
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 31
in consequence of which the inhabitants are frequently
reduced to great misery.
2. Shantung. (East of the Mountains.) Population,
36,247,000 ; area, 53,762 (or, according to others, 65,104)
square miles. This province has a long and an irregular
coast line which is half the length of the whole circuit.
The larger part of the land belongs to the Great Plain,
but mountains extend from Chi Nan Fu, the capital, to
the Shantung promontory. Tlie true Grand Canal ter-
minates at Lin Ch'ing Cliou, the I'emainder of the route
to Tientsin being by a river called (on the maps) the
Wei. The city of T'ai An Fu is seated at the base of
T'ai Shan (Great Mountain), the oldest historical moun-
tain in the world, still much visited by pilgrims. Con-
fucius and Mencius were natives of Shantung, in what
is now the prefecture of Yen Chou Fu. The port -of
Chiao Chou (Kiao Chou), occupied by the Germans in
1897, is on the southeast. They have built a railway
to Wei Hsien and Ch'ing Chou Fu, which will soon be
extended to the capital, and will connect with the future
Tientsin-Chinkiang trunk line. The principal port is
Chefoo, north of the promontory. Wei Hai Wei, not far
distant, was in 1898 leased to the British as a partial
counterbalance to the Russian occupation of Port Artlmr.
3. Kiangsu. (River Thyme, from the initial syllables
of Kiaug Ning Fu, commonly called Nanking, or Southern
Capital, and Soochow or Su Chou Fu, the principal cities.)
Population, 20,905,000 ; area, 44,500 square miles. This
province is one of the best watered in China, being mainly
plain and marsh with the Yang-tse River running through
it, and the Grand Canal, as well as numerous other
streams, several lakes, and endlessly ramifying smaller
canals. Nanking was the seat of government for China
in the days of the first emperor of the Mings. Soochow,
before it was ruined by the T'ai P'ing Rebellion, was a
splendid city, and was linked with Hangchow as in the
estimation of the Chinese the most desirable spot on
32 REX CHEISTUS
earth, only to be compared with Heaven. Foreigners
have styled Soocliow the Paris of China. Shanghai is the
commercial metropolis of the empii-e. Its foreign settle-
ments are an epitome of the best and the worst that
western civilization has to confer on China, and are grow-
ing with rapid strides. Chinkiang, an important port
on the Yang-tse, was ruined by the T'ai P'ing Rebellion,
but was rebuilt, and is again flourishing.
4. Chekiang. (Tidal-bore River.) Population, 11,-
588,000 ; area, 39,150 square miles. One of the smaller
of the eighteen provinces, largely hilly or mountainous,
with numerous rivers, rich valleys, large cities, and
abundant productions, of which silk and tea are tlie
chief. In the principal river of the province there is
a famous tidal bore, which is one of the sights of China.
Hangchow, the capital, was also the capital of China in
a part of the Sung dynasty, and is the southern terminus
of the Grand Canal. Ningpo, at the junction of three
rivers, is the most important port of the province.
5. Fukien. (Happily Established.) Population, 22,-
190,000 ; area, 38,500 square miles. This is another one
of the smaller provinces, especially since the large island
of Formosa was wrested from China by Japan at the
close of the wJir in 1895. Although almost entirely
hilly or mountainous, Fukien is supposed to have a
large population. The lofty hills are terraced to the
very top, yet the area of arable land is insufficient for
the support of the inhabitants.
Foochow, the capital, thirty -four miles from the sea on
the river Min, is a large (and filthy) city, which was
made a treaty port in 1842. Owing to the strong com-
petition of the Ceylon and India leaf, and the consequent
decline of the tea trade, the importance of Foochow as a
commercial centre has declined. Amoy, another of the
five ports opened by the treaty just mentioned, in the
southeast of the province, is beautifully situated on an
island, with an excellent harbor. It has been the centre
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 33
of a foreign trade for nearly two hundred years. Fiikien
is noted among the provinces of China for the great
number of its local dialects, and for their mutual unintel-
ligibility. The people are turbulent in disposition, and
have been styled the "Irishmen of China." The literati
are peculiarly proud and conceited. The Ku Cli'eng
massacre of 1895 exhibited the unreasoning fury of
the ignorant peasants. According to Professor Warneck,
the number of Protestant Christians in Fukien (25,409)
was, in 1001, larger than that in any other province.
6. Kuangtung. (Broad East.) Population, 29,706,000 ;
area, 79,456 square miles. This is the most southeastern
province, and the one longest known to foreigners, as well
as the one from which come nearly all Chinese immigrants
to the United States. It includes also the large island
of Hainan. The province is watered by three large
streams, the West, North, and East Rivers, which are
estimated to drain 150,000 square miles of territory, and
which combine to form the Pearl River (Chu Kiang), on
which is situated the city of Canton (Kuang Chou Fu),
distant about ninety-five miles from Hongkong. The
population of Canton is supposed to be not less than a
million souls, and is increasing. The Cantonese are very
enterprising and the best merchants in China, but are
endued with an unlimited capacity for exploding in anti-
foreign and anti-dynastic outbreaks. The relation of
Canton to early foreign trade, and to the beginnings of
China missions, has been mentioned elsewhere. The
settlement of Macao, about forty miles from Hongkong,
near the mouth of the estuary of the Pearl River, has
long been occupied by the Portuguese and contains a
considerable population, but its commercial importance
was extinguished by the rise of Hongkong. Swatow, on
he northeast, was made a port by the treaty of 1858, and
Pakhoi, in the southwest, by the Chefoo Convention of
1876.
7. Kuaugsi. (Broad West.) Population, 5,151,000;
+
34 REX CHBISTUS
area, 78,250 square miles. This is probably the most
sparsely settled province in the empire, and has been
pronouncedly anti-foreign. Its principal commercial
city, Wu Chou Fu, has recently been made accessible
to steamboat trafBc. The great T'ai P'ing Rebellion
had its rise in Kuangsi. At present (1903) a large part
of the province is overrun by rebels wliom the impe-
rial troops are unable to put down. There are many
tribes not of the Chinese race within the boundaries of
Kuangsi, who are ruled b}^ the authorities only in an
indirect way.
8. Kueichou. (Noble Region.) Population, 7,669,000;
area, 64,554 square miles. The people of this remote
province are rude, ignorant, and turbulent. It is con-
sidered to be in all respects the poorest of the empire. It
has considerable mineral wealth, especially deposits of
mercury, which have been worked for centuries, and are
said to be of unequalled richness. The provincial capital
is the smallest in China, with walls not more than two
miles in circuit.
9. Yunnan. (Cloudy South.) Population, 11,721,000.
(Tliere is evidently a gross error in this total, which ought
to be reduced by more than one-half.) Area, 107,969
square miles. This is the most extreme southwestern
province of the empire, some of its remoter cities accord-
ing to Chinese reckoning being more than 3000 English
miles from Peking. It -was subdued in the T'ang dy-
nasty, and is therefore one of the more recent additions
to the eighteen provinces, not dating from much more
than ten centuries ago. Yunnan has an extensive central
plateau, with valley-plains at an elevation of from 5000 to
6000 feet. Like the last mentioned provinces, it is largely
occupied by tribes owning but nominal allegiance to the
Chinese government. " The mineral wealth of Yunnan
is greater and more varied than that of any other prov-
ince, certain of its mines having been worked ever since
the Sung dynasty." The French are energetic and
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 35
untiring in their endeavors to exploit this part of China,
which certainly cannot long remain in its present in-
accessible and undeveloped condition.
ID. Ssuch'uan. (Four Streams.) Population, 67,712,-
000 ; area, 166,800 square miles. This, the largest province
of China, takes its name from its principal rivers, which
are all tributary to the mighty Yang-tse. The western
part is mountainous, the eastern fertile and populous, and
for ages has had a high civilization. The productions
are abundant. The seat of government (Ch'eng Tu Fu,
the Completed Capital), in the midst of a large and
thickly populated plain, is supposed to have a million
inhabitants. Since Ch'ung Ch'ing (Chungking) has
been made the residence of foreign consular officials,
and since the upper Yang-tse has been navigated by
steamboats, the vast possibilities of this imperial do-
main are coming to be better understood, and there is
keen competition between the British and the French
for railway and mining concessions. The salt wells of
the province have long been famous. Lolo tribes are
scattered through the western portions of Ssuch'uan.
II. Hunan. (South of the Lakes.) Population, 21,-
002,000 ; area, 74,320 square miles. Like the province last
mentioned, Hunan has four principal rivers, the basin
of which is extremely populous. The capital, Ch'ang
Sha Fu, is a large and an ancient city, supposed to have
a million inhabitants. The people of this province are
high-strung and imperious. Some of the most promi-
nent statesmen of the past generation, notably the Tseng
family, are Hunanese. The province has long been
known as the most obstinately anti-foreign in China.
It was a boast that no missionaries could find lodgment
there, whatever they might be able to do elsewhere.
In the early nineties this bitter feeling exploded in the
anti-Christian " Hunaji Tracts," which showed unparal-
leled venom and depravity. During the reform move-
ments of 1898 Hunan was much stirred, and at length
36 BEX CHRISTUS
greatly enlightened. It may be said to be now really
open, and there are at present more than fifty mission-
aries in its limits. The great trunk railway line from
Hankow to Canton will tai3 the best sections of Hunan,
and cannot fail to be a great benefit to it.
12. Hupeh. (North of the Lakes.) Population, 34,-
244,000; area, 70,450 square miles. The capital, Wu
Ch'ang Fu, with Hankow, a treaty port, and Han Yang,
at tlie mouth of the important Han River, together con-
stitute the most important commercial and industrial gan-
glion in the empire, and an unrivalled missionai'y centre.
Hankow is the southern terminus of the Lu Han rail-
way from that city to Peking, which is nearly half com-
pleted. The wonderful Yang-tse gorges between I
Ch'ang Fu and the Ssuch'uan border, with cliffs rising
to the height of between 1000 and 2000 feet, are among
the chief sights of China.
13. Kiangsi. (West of the River.) Population, 24,-
534,000; area, 72,176 square miles. This province is
drained by the Kang Chiang, and is largely hilly or moun-
tainous. Its treaty port is Kiukiang on the Yang-tse.
The great Sung dynasty philosopher, Chu Hsi, lived at
Nan Kang, west of the Po Yang Lake. Kiangsi has long
been famous for the porcelain which takes its name from
the empire, and which is unrivalled elsewhere.
13. Anhui. (Peace and Excellence, from the names
of two of its chief cities.) Population, 20,596,000 ; area,
48,461 square mUes. This province lies on both sides of
the Yang-tse. Although the population is dense, it is far
less than befoi-e the T'ai P'ing Rebellion. Green tea is
largely exported. The late Li Hung Chang was a native
of Anhui, and many other prominent officials hail from
there. The capital is An Ch'ing, also written Ngan-
king, and Ganking, on the Yang-tse.
15. Honan. (South of the Yellow River.) Population,
22,115,000; area, 66,913 square miles. Much of this
province is a part of the Great Plain, fertile and popu-
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 37
lous. It is au aucient and a historic section of the
empire, which was first settled along the banks of the
Yellow River. The capital, K'ai Feng Fu, was once that
of the empire. The Yellow River has frequently changed
its course near this point, sometimes flowing north to the
Gulf of Pechili, and sometimes southeast to the Yellow
Sea. In 1888 it again broke out toward the southeast,
becoming, as it chronically does, " China's Sorrow," but
was later restored to its former channel to inundate
Shantung instead of the two provinces to the south.
i6. Shansi. (West of the Mountains.) Population,
12,211,000; area, 56,268 square miles. This is one of
the frontier provinces, and is supposed to have been " the
original seat of the Chinese people." It is a series of
elevated table-lands bounded by mountains. The soil
presents many extraordinary phenomena in the loess
deposits, with their deep clefts, the terraces rising in
different levels as far as the eye can reach. The mineral
wealth of Shansi, especially in iron and coal, is appar-
ently inexhaustible, the former being equal to any in the
world and the latter found in quantities estimated to
suffice for the whole world for more than a thousand
years. The entire province, once wealthy, is cursed with
the opium habit. Shansi men are famous all over China
as business factors, and especially as bankers. The
mountain passes from Chihli are great arteries of travel,
and Dr. Williams thinks that these highways " when new,
probably equalled in engineering and construction any-
thing of the kind ever built by the Romans."
17. Shensi. (Western Passes.) Population, 8,432,000 ;
area, 67,400 square miles. The capital of this province
is Si Ngan Fu (also wiitten Singan and Hsi An Fu),
which has been the capital also of the empire for a longer
period than any other city. It was the refuge of the
Chinese court after the occupation of Peking by the
allies in 1900. The Nestorian Tablet is in an old temple
court beyond the west suburb. Si Ngan Fu, a city with
145710
88 REX CHRISTUS
lofty walls and of a far more imposing appearance than
Peking, is a distributing point of the first class, being
the principal back door of China. The basin in which it
is situated is fertile, but owing to the disastrous Moham-
medan rebellion in the sixties, still not thickly populated.
The same is yet more the case in other parts of the prov-
ince. This is one of the most ancient parts of the
empire.
i8. Kansuh. (Willing Reverence, from the names of
two leading cities.) Population, 9,285,000; area, 125,450
square miles. This vast stretch of territory was set off
from Shensi more than a century ago, and its western
part extends to the terminus of the Great Wall, and be-
yond to the desert of Gobi. This insures control of the
important passages toward the provinces to the eastward.
Kansuh was devasted by the great Mohammedan rebellion
just mentioned, and there have been repeated outbreaks
since. The eastern part yields productions similar to
those of the Great Plain. There are mineral deposits of
unknown value mainly undeveloped.
Besides these eighteen provinces there is a vast tract
to the north of them, denoted by the general term Man-
churia, the original home of the present Manchu dynasty.
It is divided into three provinces, Shinking (also written
Sheng Ching), Kirin (or Chi Lin), and Chi Chi Har (or
Tsitsihar). Manchuria has been largely colonized by
immigrants from Shantung, and the inhabitants have
proved far more receptive of Christian truth (presented
to them by the Scotch and Irish Presbyterian Missions),
despite their initial bitter opposition, than almost any
part of the eighteen provinces. Since the cession to
Russia of the right to build through these provinces the
Siberian railway and to guard it, the whole territory has
become Russianized. It was occupied by Japan after her
war with China, but the European Powers would not
allow her to keep it. Its complete absorption, euphemis-
tically styled " painless identification " by Russia, threat-
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 39
ens China, Japan, and incidentally the peace of a large
part of the rest of the world.
SIGNIFICANT SENTENCES
When China is moved it will change the face of the
globe. — Napoleon at St. Helena.
It is a great step toward the Christianization of our
planet if Christianity gain an entrance into China.
— Neander.
A high minister of state in China said to me a little
over a year ago : " If we could only believe that foreigners
were sincere in their friendship to us, we would in an
instant open up the whole of our country and let traders
as well as missionaries go everywhere. It is not that we
are unwilling to advance ; we are afraid." The writer is
confident that there are honorable, large-minded, generous
men in all our Christian nations ready to drive off such
fears, and to unitedly help in bringing about a new and
happy era in China, one of j^rosperity, peace, and social
regeneration. — Gilbert Reid, in The National Review.
■'O^
I love American institutions and believe the instruction
of Chinese youth in America to be the best means of
translating American ideas into China, thus bringing to-
gether the oldest empire of the East and the greatest
republic of the West. — Chentung Liang Cheng, Min-
ister to U. S., at Amherst Commencement, 1903.
Ancient Civilization
When Moses led the Israelites through the wilderness,
Chinese laws and literature and Chinese religious knowl-
edge excelled that of Egypt. A hundred years before the
north wind rippled over the harp of David, Wung Wang,
an emperor of China, composed classics which are com-
40 REX CHRISTUS
mitted to memory at this day by every advanced scholar
of the empire. While Homer was composing and singing
the Iliad, China's blind minstrels were celebrating her
ancient heroes, whose tombs had already been with them
through nearly thirteen centuries. Her literature was
fully developed before England was invaded by the
Norman conquerors. The Chinese invented firearms as
early as the reign of England's first Edward, and the art
of printing five hundred years before Caxton was born.
They made paper a.d. 150, and gunpowder about the
commencement of the Christian era. A thousand years
ago the forefathers of the present Chinese sold silks to the
Romans, and dressed in these fabrics when the inhabit-
ants of the British Isles wore coats of blue paint and
fished in willow canoes. Her great wall was built two
hundred and twenty years before Christ was born in
Bethlehem, and contains material enough to build a wall
five or six feet high around the globe.
— Rev. J. T. Gracey, D.D.
In all my life rolled together I had never seen so many
water-craft as I saw at Shanghai. They anchor in such
myriads that the beholder realizes for the first time what
a farce it is to speak of the " forests of masts " at New
York or Liverpool. They lie together in all but solid
masses for miles and miles on each side of the harbor, and
the channel between the lines is no more clear of them
than Broadway or Charing Cross is free of vehicles at
noonday. Thus we see how large a proportion of the
population is nautical. — Julian Ralph.
Asia is now the field. The coming question will be
Asiatic. It belongs to the next generation. I should
advise my younger friends to bend their thoughts in that
direction. It may come with the youngest and the oldest
civilizations — the United States and China — face to face!
, — Editor London Times.
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 41
O, East is East and West is West, and never the twain
shall meet,
Till earth and sky stand presently at God's great judg-
ment seat;
But there is neither East nor West, border nor breed nor
birth.
When two strong men stand face to face, though they
come from the ends of the earth. — Kipling.
Even the discovery of this continent and its islands,
and the organization of society and government upon
them, grand and important as these events have been,
were but conditional, preliminary, and ancillary to the
more sublime result now in the act of consummation —
the reunion of the two civilizations which, parting on the
plains of Asia four thousand years ago, and travelling
ever aftei'ward in opposite directions around the world,
now meet again on the coasts and islands of the Pacific
Ocean. Certainly no mere human event of equal dignity
and importance has ever occurred upon the earth.
— W. H. Seward.
THEMES FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION
I. China's Limitless Resources.
II. Floods and Famines.
III. Life on the Waterways and in House-Boats.
IV. China at the Time of the Trojan War.
V. Mongols and Manchus.
VI. The Troublesome Tartars. (Read Coleridge's
" Kublai Khan.")
VII. Comparison between the Reigns of K'ang Hsi
and his Contemporary, Louis XIV of France.
VIII. The Great Wall and Other Public Works.
IX. Reasons for Chinese National Conceit.
X. China a Literary Nation.
XL The " Arrested Development" of China.
XII. Home and Child Life in China.
42 BEX CHRISTUS
BOOKS OF REFERENCE
For general reference on this and succeeding chapters : —
Beach's " Dawn on the Hills of T'ang."
Beach's " Geography and Atlas of Protestant Missions."
Bliss's "Encyclopaedia of Missions."
Dennis's " Christian Missions and Social Progress."
Doolittle's " Social Life of the Chinese."
Encyclopaedias, articles on " China."
Martin's " Cycle of Cathay " and " Lore of Cathay."
Smith's " Chinese Characteristics " and " ViUage Life in
China."
Williams's " The Middle Kingdom."
For special reference on above themes : —
Ball's " Things Chinese." IV, VI, VII, VIII.
Bishop's " The Yangtze Valley and Beyond." I, II, III,
XI, XII.
Bryson's " Child Life in Chinese Homes." XII.
Chang Chih-tung's " China's Only Hope." IX, X, XI.
Colquhoun's " China in Transformation." I, V, XI.
Colquhoun's " Overland to China." V.
Curzou's " Problems of the Far East." X.
De Quincey's " Flight of a Tartar Tribe." VI.
Dukes's " Everyday Life in China." XII.
Giles's " Chinese Literature." IV, VII.
Gilmour's " Among the Mongols." V, XII.
Gilmour's " More About the Mongols." V.
Gracey's " China in Outline." I, X.
Guinness's " In the Far East." Ill, XII.
Henry's " Ling-nam, or Interior Views of South China."
Ill, XII.
Headland's "Chinese Boy and Girl." XII.
Holcombe's " The Real Chinese Question." V, IX, X.
A SELF-CENTRED EMPIRE 43
Hue's " Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China." I, II,
III, IV, V, VI.
Lewis's " Educational Conquest of the Far East." X.
Moule's " Chinese Stories for Boys and Girls." XII.
Moule's " New China and Old." X, XL
Nevius's " China and the Chinese." I, II, III, Vin, X.
Phillips's " Peeps into China." Ill, XII.
Ross's " The Manchus." II, V.
Yule's " Cathay and the Way Thither." IV, V, VL
Articles on China in Periodicals: —
Century, Vol. 23, " The Great Wall of China." VIH.
Harper's, Vol. 91, " House-Boating in China." III.
Lippincotfs, Vol. 19, " The Tartar and His Home." VL
Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 21, " The Chinese : Their
Manners and Customs." XII,
CHAPTER II
The Religions of China
Confucia7iism
There is no equivalent in the Chinese lan-
guage for the word " religion," its place being
taken by a term which signifies instruction. It
is for this reason peculiarly important, in speak-
ing of the religions of China, to make clear the
relation of Confucius to the people among whom
he lived and died, and who worship his memory.
As his personality is implicated with his system,
it is desirable to say a few words of the external
facts of his life. He was born, 551 B.C., in what
is now called the county of Ch'u Fu, in the
prefecture of Yen Chou, in the province of
Shantung. His family name was K'ung, and
his designation Chung Ni, but he was called by
his disciples " The Master K'ung " (K'ung Fu-
tzu), a title which, being Latinized by the Jesuit
missionaries, has passed into the languages of
Europe.
His parents, although poor, were respectable.
He showed a taste for books, and became at the
age of twenty-two a teacher, drawing about him
many admiring pupils. He was filled with en-
44
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 45
thusiasm by the study of the ancients, and
mourning over the degeneracy of his own times
endeavored to set them right by setting an ex-
ample of good government, as well as by oral
instruction to his disciples. At the age of
fifty-five he was made a high officer in his native
state and the improvement in public morals was
soon manifest.
But Confucius was not a courtier, he was a
reformer ; and then, as now, reform was not
popular. The prince of the state of Lu was
corrupted by the present from a rival prince of
a band of beautiful dancing girls, and abandoned
the principles with which he had been inspired
by the sage. Disappointed and disgusted, Con-
fucius retired to private life, spending the re-
mainder of his days in the instruction of youth
and in the collection of the wisdom of the past.
His disciples are said to have numbered three
thousand, among whom five hundred became
distinguished, and seventy-two of them are en-
rolled as Sages of the Empire. His own esti-
mate of himself is of moment in an examination
of his influence. He modestly said : " The
sage and the man of perfect virtue — how dare
I rank myself with them? It may simply be
said of me that I strive to become such without
satiety, and to teach others without weariness.
In letters, I am perhaps equal to other men ;
but the character of the Superior Man, carrying
out in his conduct what he professes, is what
46 BEX CHBISTUS
I have not attained to. The leaving virtue
without proper cultivation ; the not thoroughly-
discussing what is learned ; not being able to
move toward righteousness of which knowledge
is gained ; and not being able to change what is
not good, — these are the things which occasion
me solicitude. I am not one who was born in
possession of knowledge ; I am one who is fond
of antiquity, and earnest in seeking it. A trans-
mitter, and not a maker, believing in and loving
the ancients."
Teachings of Confucius. — The first of the
" Four Books " which every Chinese lad studies
as soon as he is able to do so after entering
school, is called in English the " Analects," and
like Xenophon's " Memorabilia of Socrates,"
consists largely of reminiscences gathered by
his disciples. Among these are to be found
the extracts just cited, and many others which
throw much light on the views of the master.
He refused to discuss the future, dismissing the
question with the aj)horism : " Not knowing
life, how can we know death?" — a sentence
which has had a fateful influence over innu-
merable millions of immortals checked in their
search for truth.
The saying most quoted in Christian lands
is the Golden Rule in a negative form : " Do
not do unto others as you would not that others
should do unto you," a dictum which may be
regarded as the high-water mark of Confucian
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 47
morality, as well as of all non-Christian teach-
ings. In another paragraph the positive side
of the same rule is virtuall}^ implied : " When
one cultivates to the utmost the principles of
his nature, and exercises them on the principle
of reciprocity, he is not far from the path." In
the same connection he disclaims having at-
tained unto serving his father as he would have
his son serve him, to serving his prince as he
would require his minister to serve him, to serve
his elder brother as he would require a younger
brother to serve him, and to behave to a friend
as he would require him to behave to himself.
These words suggest the summary of duties
which constitute the essence of Confucianism in
its explanation of the social system, the " Five
Relations " of prince and minister ; father and
son ; husband and wife ; of brother to brother ;
■and of friend to friend. To a Chinese these
categories exhaust the universe. The Five
Constant Virtues are Benevolence, Righteous-
ness, Propriety, Knowledge, and Faith. The
standard of the first is so high that few of the
ancient worthies were held to have attained to
it; and, as we have just seen, Confucius dis-
claimed for himself that merit. Righteousness
is what ought to be done, as interpreted by con-
science. Propriety is an unavoidably infelici-
tous rendering of a term which denotes the
outward manifestation of an inner feeling.
Knowledge is a comprehensive word, embracing
48 BEX CHRISTUS
everything from mere cognition up to wisdom.
It was a pithy saying of Confucius : " To know
what we know, and what we do not know, is
knowledge." Faith, or sincerity, is the last of
the five ; and as we shall have occasion to see,
it is in fact the one of which least is seen and
experienced in Chinese, and among thorough-
going Confucianists. It has been said that
there are six essential elements of Confucianism,
five of which, so far as we know, differentiate it
from any other system of non-Christian thought.
Foundation Principles. — Of these, the first is
its doctrine of the direct responsibility of the
sovereign to Heaven, Shang Ti, or God. This,
which is abundantly illustrated in the classical
writings, is as really a factor of the government
of to-day as it was of that of antiquity. From
this source originates the whole complex theory
of responsibility, which plays so large a part in
the conduct of all Chinese affairs, both private
and public. The worship of Heaven is the pre-
rogative of the emperor alone, and has been
well compared by Dr. Martin, so far as its in-
fluence on the public mind is concerned, to a
ray of the sun falling upon an iceberg. In a
humble and feeble manner the people imitate
this worship by the presentation of offerings on
the first and fifteenth of the moon to -' Old
Father Heaven," an impersonal personality often
associated with " Old Mother Earth " ; or, more
briefly, they worship "Heaven and Earth."
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 49
A second element of Confucian teaching is the
singular proposition that the people are of more
importance than the sovereign. The latter, as
we have previously seen, rules by " Heaven's
Decree," and when it has been lost, he is de facto
no longer the rightful ruler. There is in China
a well-recognized " right of rebellion," and ab-
solute monarcliy is tempered with practical de-
mocracy in a manner elsewhere unexampled, — a
fact without a knowledge of which contempo-
raneous Chinese history cannot be understood.
A third element is that delimitation of the
social relations just mentioned, which, while
appearing to the Chinese all comprehensive, in
reality takes no account of such classes as em-
ployer and employee, nor of such entities as
capital and labor.
A fourth element is the prominence of the
virtues just specified, which form a standard
never lost sight of, but constantly brought be-
fore the eyes of all Chinese. The civil service
examinations, as we have seen, a slow growth
of many ages, have unified the mind of the
Chinese as the mind of no other people was ever
unified, unless the Jews be an exception ; and
the Jews, unlike Confucianists, are divided into
old and new schools. In China there is no in-
tellectual revolt against any part of the teach-
ings of Confucianism. China and Confucianism
are synonymous terms. By means of absolutely
uniform classical text-books, and by written
50 BEX CHRISTUS
mottoes pasted on all the door-posts of the em-
pire and renewed every New Year, Confucian
maxims are kept before the eyes and in the
minds of the people. It is an integral part of
the theory that only the wise and the able should
rule. The object of the elaborate civil service
examinations is to determine who the wise and
able are.
The fifth element is the presentation of an
ideal or Princely Man as a model on which
every Confucianist should form his character.
The influence of this ideal upon the unnum-
bered millions of Chinese Confucianists must
have been measureless. The fact that the
master disclaimed having attained to his own
ideal, places before his followers the ambition to
live up to the high level which Confucius had
not reached. Self-examination is inculcated by
the precepts and by the example of the greatest
rulers and wise men of antiquity. No nation,
no race, was ever better outfitted with admi-
rable moral precepts than the Chinese.
The remaining of the six elements is filial
piety. This includes not only the meaning
naturally suggested to Orientals by the phrase,
but a great deal more, and in especial the wor-
ship of ancestors, which is the real religion of
the Chinese people. It is perhaps the most
potent among several causes which have perpet-
uated the Chinese race as a unit through all
the millenniums of its national history. It is
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 51
•
itself an illustration of the saying of one of the
greatest emperors of the T'ang dynasty, more
than one thousand years ago, that Confucian-
ism is adapted to the Chinese people as water
to the fish.
Weak Spots in Confucianism. — Such, in the
merest outline, is the remarkable system of
social ethics which is called Confucianism. If
human nature were in an ideal condition, Con-
fucianism would be adapted to that ideal, and,
as Dr. Legge remarked, a world ordered by it
would be a beautiful world, but it would still
be deficient in the chief of all the " Relations,"
for it has within it no explanation of that which
is highest, deepest, and most essential in man.
Its view of God is defective, its view of man
inadequate, and it has no explanation of the
relation between the two. God and Heaven
are synonymous. Heaven and Earth constitute
a dualism, " the conjunction of their vital es-
sences brings forth a third, the incandescent
part of which is called a spirit. Heaven unites
its essences with those of the sun, moon, and
stars, and spirits of Heaven result. In a similar
way the spirits of mountains, rivers, and seas
are produced. When any of these spirits in
some special way benefit creation, the national
government canonizes them, and they take their
place by the side of Heaven." The preceding
sentences are taken from the elaborate essay
presented at the Parliament of Religions by
52 REX CHRISTUS
Mr. P'eng Kuang Yu, and may therefore be
regarded as authoritative. They exhibit the
nature worship which, in combination with hero
worship, and the worship of ancestors, charac-
terizes the Confucian cult.
The objects of the state worship are of the
most miscellaneous and incongruous description,
including the heavens, the sky, the earth, the
temples containing the tablets of the deceased
monarchs of the dynasty, the gods of the land
and the grain, the sun, the moon, the spirits of
emperors or kings of previous dynasties, Con-
fucius, the ancient patrons of agriculture and
silk, the gods of heaven, earth, and the cyclic
year. There is also a lower grade of sacrifices
to the spirits of those who in life were distin-
guislied in different ways, as generals, statesmen,
philanthropists, etc. Temples of this sort are
constantly recommended to the emperor for his
approval, and are authorized by imperial decrees,
one of the most recent being to the spirit of the
late Li Hung Chang. There are also temples
to and worship of clouds, rain, wind, thunder,
the five great mountains, the four seas and four
rivers, famous hills, great watercourses, flags,
gods of cannon, gates, the queen goddess of
earth, the north pole, and many other things.
Thus, as Dr. "Williams, from whom the above
summary is quoted, remarks, the ancient sim-
plicity of the state religion has been so far cor-
rupted as to combine in one ritual, gods, ghosts,
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 53
flags, and cannon. It has become at once es-
sentially polytheistic and pantheistic.
Universality of Temples. — Idolatry is directly
connected with the underlying presuppositions
of the Confucian faith, and the building of tem-
ples began shortly after the classical period, its
roots being found in the classics. The present
universality of temples all over China does not,
however, reach back beyond the T'ang dynasty.
The number of such is past computation, espe-
cially to heroes like the present god of war, who
is theoretically worshipped in every city and ham-
let of the empire, although this is not alwa3'S the
case. The waste of wealth in structures of this
description, often heavily endowed and accom-
panied with an expensive service, is incomput-
able. One of the prerogatives of the emperor is
the canonization of the spirits of the dead, who
are appointed to certain positions in the Pan-
theon and from time to time promoted, just as
living civil and military officers are given official
rank, the fact being in each case notified in the
Peking Gazette. Every magistrate is officially
required to perform a great variety of idolatrous
ceremonies at the temples, and for this reason
alone no Christian can hold office in China.
The Mohammedans, many of whom hold public
positions, have compromised the matter with
their somewhat pliable consciences, and if asked
how they can consent to do so, will not improb-
ably reply that although obliged externally to
54 BEX CHRIST us
conform, they do not "worship in their hearts,"
in which respect they probably do not materially
differ from the average Conf ucianists.
There are in the empire 1560 temples dedi-
cated to Confucius, where are annually offered
several tens of thousands of animals, as well as
innumerable pieces of silk. Officials worship
not only at the required temples, but, in times of
special emergency, wherever else and whatever
else may chance to commend itself to them as
beneficial to their public or private interests.
Thus during the great floods at Tientsin during
the early seventies, Li Hung Chang prostrated
himself before a snake which was alleged to be
a " Tai Wang," or god of the waters. Memori-
als frequently appear in the Peking G-azette,
recommending to the emperor's favorable con-
sideration the god of some river which, during
the floods, did not burst its banks, and in
response it is ordered that a certain amount of
expensive Thibetan incense should be burned
before its shrine in recognition of its merit.
Comparison between Confucianism and Chris-
tianity.— Dr. Ernst Faber, who has bestowed
more labor on the thorough examination of the
Chinese classical writings than any Chinese
scholar since Dr. Legge, compiled an instructive
list of the points in which Confucianism and
Christianity resemble one another. Among them
are the acknowledgment of a superintending
Divine Providence, which punishes the evil and
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 66
rewards the good ; the belief in an invisible
world above and around this material life ; a
moral law positively set forth as equally binding
on man and spirits ; prayer believed to be heard
and answered by the spiritual powers ; sacrifices
regarded as necessary to come into closer contact
with the spiritual world. ("Even its deeper
meanings of self-sacrifice and of a vicarious sac-
rifice are touched upon, which are two important
steps toward an understanding of the sacrificial
death of Christ.") Miracles are believed in as
the natural efficacy of spirits. Moral duty is
taught in the five relations already mentioned.
Cultivation of the personal moral character is
regarded as the basis for successfully carrying
out the social duties, and it is insisted that this
self-control should not be abandoned in private
when no mortal being is near to observe it.
Virtue is valued above riches and honor. In
case of failure in political and social life, moral
self -culture is to be even more carefully attended
to than before. ("This is the great moral vic-
tory which Confucius gained, and the same may
be said of his distinguished followers, the great-
est among whom are Mencius and Chu Fu-tze.
None of these pillars of Confucianism turned to
money-making, or sought vain glory in the ser-
vice of the state by sacrificing their principles to
gain official employment, or by a promise to keep
their conviction secret in their bosoms. They
gained greater ultimate success by their failure
56 BEX CHRISTUS
in life.") Sincerity and truth are shown to be
the only basis for self-culture and the reform of
the world. ("This gives to self-culture a high
moral tone. It is not merely fine manners and
good works, but a normal state of the intentions
of the mind, combined with undefiled feelings
and emotions of the heart.") How imperfectly
this ideal is realized will elsewhere appear. The
Golden Rule is proclaimed as the principle of
moral conduct among our fellow-men. Every
ruler should carry out a benevolent government
for the benefit of the people. Every Chinese
official, from the emperor down, is in theory
a "Father and Mother" to the people. It is a
great advantage to have this high ideal explic-
itly stated.
On the other hand there is a wide range of
religious ideas which in Confucianism find but
dim expression, or no expression at all. The
Confucian "Supreme Ruler" is remote, and out
of all connection with mankind. He is not i
Father, and as we have seen, his subjects are
not allowed to worship him. Prayer and its
ethical value find no place in the system of Con-
fucius. So far as there is any such thing in
practice, it is a ceremony by which evils are
avoided and blessings secured. Some men are
said to be born with complete knowledge and
are called sages ; some can acquire thi.^ knowl-
edge and are called worthies, wtiiie others must
forever remain in ignorance and practical de-
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 57
spair, and of this strange circumstance there is
no explanation, and for it no remedy.
There is no comprehension of sin as a fact,
nor is any remedy for its evils suggested. On
the contrary the advice of the master was to
" Worship the gods, but to keep at a distance
from them," but he expressly says that he who
sins against Heaven has no one to whom to
pray. Polytheism, as we have just seen, is an
inevitable accompaniment of the Confucian cult,
and a tangled mass of superstitions based upon
the "Book of Changes" has always been believed
in. The influence of example is inordinately
exaggerated, while the actual history of China
under its many great rulers remains unexplained.
Filial piety is exaggerated into a virtual if not
a conscious, deification of parents. The rewards
and punishments of Confucius are confined to
this world ; immortality is either non-existent or
at best uncertain. Though confidence is insisted
upon, its presupposition, truthfulness in speak-
ing, is never practically urged, but rather the
reverse.
The practiciii eftects of this system of thought
upon the Chinese people are of a mixed character.
Many of them have been in the highest degree
conservative, while others have tended toward
social disintegration which has yet in other ways
been prevented. Without undertaking in any
way to balance the account, let us glance for
a. moment at the disabilities under which the
58 BEX CHBISTUS
ivomen of China have for centuries labored.
Confucianism presupposes and tolerates polyg-
amy, with its illimitable train of inevitable evils.
The infanticide of female infants follows natu-
rally from the inferior position of woman, an
inferiority, be it observed, which is itself a part
of the system. Although the latter does not
interdict the education of woman, it is practi-
cally unknown. She is placed in a position, the
evils of which are not infrequently intolerable,
but from which escape is impossible. The
natural and the constant result is suicide,
against which Confucianism has no remon-
strance, and to prevent which it has no remedy.
Its doctrine of the filial duty of leaving de-
scendants, that the graves of the family may be
properly tended, leads to the propagation of
innumerable human beings who should never
have been born, because under existing condi-
tions there is no means by which they can be
supported. This is of itself sufficient to account
for the universal poverty everywhere witnessed
in this empire, despite its material resources
and the unmatched industry of the people.
There can be no doubt that Confucianism has
exerted a restraining force not elsewhere equalled
in human history. It has kept in social order
the most numerous race for the longest period
ever known. To external influences it owes
absolutely nothing. It is based upon tradition,
and its golden age is in a remote and semi-mythi-
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 59
cal past. Theoretically, it is now all that it
ever was, but in reality it is destitute of any
adaptive or developing force and is unable to
effect anything further for China, That the
present exaggerated reverence for Confucius will
be materially modified is certain. The " Book of
Changes," upon which he laid so much stress and
which he regarded with so much awe, on the
advent of real science will crumble into ruins.
For ages Japan was bound by Confucian fetters,
but her adoption of western civilization has
almost entirely emancipated her. Sooner or
later, although more slowly, like causes must in
China produce like results.
Taoism
One of the most comprehensive characters in
the Chinese language is tao, which means road
or path, the road or path, to speak, words, reason,
having some analogy to the logos of the Greeks.
The name Tao Chiao, or Doctrine of Rationalism,
is applied to the teachings of a sect which claims
as its founder Lao-tze, one of China's most
famous teachers, supposed to have been born
604 B.C., but of whom little which is authentic
is known. He was the great prophet of his age,
and held some government appointment, like
Keeper of the Archives, under the Chou dynasty,
the ruin of which he foresaw, and accordingly
resigned his office, going into retirement to cul-
tivate tao and virtue. There is a tradition that
60 BEX CRBISTUS
at the pass leading out of the empire, the gov-
ernor begged him to leave behind him some
guide for erring humanity, and that he there-
upon produced what is now known as the
" Canon of Reason and Virtue," — a work con-
taining only 5320 characters in eighty-one short
chapters. This remarkable production has been
studied by all the scholars of China, and in
every age has been commented on. It has been
said of it that probably no widely spread religion
was ever founded upon so small a base. The
native commentators observe that it is not easy
clearly to explain the more profound passages —
all that can be done is to give the general sense.
The early Jesuit missionaries found in its mys-
tical utterances a revelation of the Christian
Trinity, and the sacred name of Jehovah. A
brief extract from one of the numerous transla-
tions may give an inadequate notion of its in-
herent abstruseness : " Tao is impalpable ; you
look at it, and you cannot see it ; you listen to
it, and you cannot hear it. You tiy to touch
it, and you cannot reach it. You use it, and you
cannot exhaust it. It is not to be expressed in
words. It is still and void ; it stands alone and
changes not; it circulates everywhere and it
is endangered. It is ever inactive, and yet
leaves nothing undone. From it phenomena
appear, through it they change, in it they dis-
appear. Formless, it is the cause of form.
Nameless, it is the origin of Heaven and Earth.
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 61
With a name it is the mother of all things. It
is the ethical nature of the good man and the
principles of his action."
It is remarkable that this profound book
teaches men to return good for evil and to look
forward to a higher life. There is a passage
(considered to be spurious) in the earliest
Chinese historian previously mentioned, relating
an interview between Lao-tze, at the age of
eighty-seven, and Confucius, who was more than
fifty years younger, in which the latter was
lectured, and informed that he must put away
his proud air and many desires, his insinuating
habit and wild will ; and that the reason why
for twenty years he had not been able to attain
unto tao, was because he was incapable of giv-
ing it an asylum in his heart !
At the head of the Taoist Pantheon there is
a trinity, in imitation of that of the Buddhists.
A vast army of "superior and inferior divini-
ties— gods, genii, heroes, good men, and virtu-
ous women, the spirits of stars and the visible
manifestations of nature and the elements, such
as thunder and lightning, as well as dragons
— have all been classed together as objects of
worship, v/hile the god of literature, and gods
and goddesses of disease, all receive their share
of attention." The dragon is not regarded by
the Chinese as a fabulous animal, but as a real
existence and is worshipped as such. He reigns
over all seas, lakes, and rivers. Celestial phe-
62 REX CHBISTUS
nomena are ascribed to his agency. The exalted
notions of the Chinese in regard to the dragon
have made this a favorite word to symbolize
the dynasty, and the supremacy of the Chinese
emperor, who is supposed to be seated on the
Dragon Throne, while the dragon himself is
depicted on the national flag and on postage
stamps. Dr. Faber considers Confucianism as
an efl:"ort to check desj)otism by an appeal to the
example of supposed ancient rulers, fixing eti-
quette, even to details, while Taoism is an
attempt to accomplish the same end b}^ an appeal
to the laws of nature. It is essentially material-
istic. Even the soul is considered as a material
substance, although more refined than the body,
and liable to dissolution, but by discipline it
may be trained to survive. The body, on the
other hand, may attain to " a deathless perpetual
life," training for which is assiduously pursued
by multitudes who thirst for an immortality
" which was not the heritage of the many, but
might become the prize of the few."
Modern Taoism. — The Taoism of the present
day has nothing to do either with the Canon of
Reason and Virtue — of which its priests, for
the most part, cannot even read a word — or
with its reputed master, Lao-tze. With every
age the character of Taoism has changed. The
philosophy of its founder is now only an anti-
quarian curiosity. Modern Taoism is of such a
motley ch?vracter as almost to defy any attempt
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 68
to educe a well-ordered system from its chaos.
From profound speculation it has passed into
the pursuit of the elixir of immortality, the con-
quest of the passions, the search for the philoso-
pher's stone, the observance of fasts, the use of
rituals and charms, the indefinite multiplication
of objects of worship, and especially a system of
demon exercises. It has been largely mixed
with Buddhist elements and ideas, though in
former ages these religions were deadly rivals.
The official head of the sect, called by foreigners
the Taoist Pope, lives on the Dragon and Tiger
mountain in Kiangsi, where he keeps a great
establishment, and is at times supposed to be
consulted by the emperor himself. It is popu-
larly believed that when it is desired to have a
conference of this sort with this " Preceptor of
Heaven," word is sent to a representative of the
Pope living in Peking, who writes on a slip of
paper a mysterious message. This is burned,
whereupon the Preceptor of Heaven makes a
journey to Peking, whither he travels like other
grandees. But his return is by riding on the
clouds and enveloped in mist, which has given
rise to a proverb, — "Like the shoes of the
Heavenly Preceptor, coming in the clouds and
disappearing in the mist," — employed of what
is vague and supernatural.
In this connection it is important to take note
of the fact that the Chinese are victims to in-
numerable superstitions which may at any
64 REX CHRISTUS
moment become magazines of dynamite, liable
to sudden ignition with terrible effects. Total
ignorance of the laws of nature and an unlimited
faith in genii, fairies, magic pills, powders and
charms, make a hotbed in which noxious results
are rapidly and irresistibly brought to fruition.
The Chinese queue, originally imposed by the
dominant Manchus as a symbol of subjection,
has become the most characteristic and most
cherished mark of the national costume. To
cut off the queue of another is a serious offence.
During the year 1876, there prevailed over a
large part of China a strange mania both of queue-
cutting and of the fear of it. Men would awake
to find their queues gone when no one had been
in the room, and no human agency could have
been employed. In other cases specific individ-
uals were detected, or alleged to be detected, in
the very act, and horrible punishments were meted
out. Officials high and low issued proclama-
tions, some of them offering high rewards for
the detection of offenders, and others recom-
mending the use of certain charms. Talismanic
characters were sold by thousands, which, being
braided into the hair, would render knives or
scissors innocuous. For months this excite-
ment continued to prevail, and at length died
away as inexplicably as it came.
Root of the Boxer Madness. — In the year
1897 a similar excitement spread through many
provinces over the reported abduction of chil-
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 6b
dren. It was generally believed that kidnappers
could exert a potent spell over their victims,
who at once followed them and were never seen
asrain. What basis of fact lurked at the bottom
of these tales it was impossible to decide, but it
is certain that for many weeks it was highly
dangerous for any one to travel, and many per-
sons were captured by rustics and clubbed to
death with hoes, or tied up and sent to yamen,
where, failing to prove their identity and estab-
lish their innocence, they were beaten and locked
up, or in some extreme cases promptly tortured
to death to make them confess. On this occa-
sion the lives of many foreigners were endan-
gered and native Christians had many narrow
escapes. It is the Taoist teachings which have
made these epidemics of madness possible. It
is this which explains the persistence of the
often officially repeated libels against foreigners
of scooping out eyes, of extracting hearts, and
the like, with a view to " making silver," — an art
which it is believed they must possess, for other-
wise whence have they so much money ? The
subsumptions of the Taoists lie at the root of
the whole Boxer madness, which may, there-
fore, justly be charged to that origin, although
there is no valid evidence that either they or
the Buddhists had any important part in the
movement. As long as the Chinese are pro-
foundly ignorant of the uniformity of the mode
in which the powers of nature act, having lost
66 BEX CHBISTUS
sight (if they ever had it) of the intuition of
cause and effect, so long will they believe scat-
tered black beans may speedily develop into
an array ; that paper images flung to the winds
or burned will turn into real warriors ; that by
incantations swords may be rendered irresisti-
ble, that by the overshadowing influences of the
spirits of dead men, living men may be made
impervious to Mauser bullets, and to all forms
of shells projected from rifled cannon; that
young girls can ride on a cloud, and at will
bring down fire from heaven which will destroy
steel men-of-war, with no harm or even risk to
those wielding these tremendous powers.
From this point of view the Taoist faith is one
of the most deadly foes to the internal peace of
China, and to the existence of normal relations
between the Chinese people and those not of
their race who are dwellers within the Four
Seas, and are therefore, according to classical
authority, their brethren. It is altogether pos-
sible that the Chinese might in a general way
accept the dicta of modern science, without at
all abating their faith in the wild infra-natural
fables of the Taoists, or escaping from the bond-
age of the crushing burdens thus imposed, under
which the Chinese have been unconsciously op-
pressed for two millenniums. Complete eman-
cipation will be attained by the universal spread
of the principles of Christianity, the only source
from which it could proceed.
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 67
Chinese Buddhism
This religion was introduced into China by
the Emperor Ming Ti in the year 66 A.D., who,
in consequence of a dream (probably a myth of
a later origin) sent to India to inquire into its
character and to secure books and teachers, for
it is supposed to have been known in India some
centuries previous. The essential doctrines of
Buddhism are the vanity of all material things,
the supreme importance of charity, and the cer-
tainty of rewards and punishments by means of
the transmigration of souls. Its adaptation to
Chinese needs arose from its supplying the
vacancy due to the cold and heartless morality
of Confucianism and the gross materialism of
Taoism. Its success was immediate and remark-
able. During the period of the Three Kingdoms,
and down to the end of the Sui dynasty, Bud-
dhism made rapid strides. " The government
invited Buddhist missionaries from India to
teach Buddhism, to translate their sacred books,
to build beautiful temples, to cast immense idols,
and to paint lovely pictures of Buddha on the
doors of the homes of the people. The em-
perors of these dynasties visited the temples and
preached the law themselves, sending to India
for more sacred books, so that in the Sui dynasty
the Buddhist books were from ten to a hun-
dred times more numerous than the Confucian
books."
68 BEX CHRISTU8
During the T'ang dynasty Buddhism was
patronized by all the emperors but two. One,
however, who was fond of Taoism, drove out
all the Buddhists from their monasteries, and
ordered them to be killed, refilling the monaster-
ies with Taoist monks. The succeeding emperor
again expelled twelve thousand Buddhist monks
and nuns, who had probably crept back on the
death of their persecutor. The Empress Wu
allowed the Buddhists to teach that she was an
incarnation of one of the Buddhas, and immense
idols were set up throughout the empire to rep-
resent her. (It is a curious circumstance that
among her dependents in the imperial court, the
present empress dowager is said to be spoken
of as the " Old Buddha.") Buddhist monks are
often made mandarins. In the five minor dynas-
ties following there was a certain reaction, for
one of the emperors melted down the brass
images to make cash. In the Sung dynasty the
emperors sent out clever speakers to point out
the errors of Buddhism, forbade the building of
any more temples, and even the recital of Bud-
dhist prayers. But the religion made rapid
progress in Mongolia, upon which it has a firm
grasp. During the Mongol dynasty there was
another reaction, and magnificent temples were
erected. The founder of the Mings, as already
mentioned, had once been a Buddhist priest, and
in that period the temples were again built and
repaired.
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 69
The preceding paragraphs are condensed from
a summary of a Chinese history translated by
Dr. Richard, and they exhibit in a clear light
the numerous metempsychoses through which
this alien faith has been obliged to pass in the
land of its adoption. At first it was a lusty
j^oung giant, full of life and vigor, quite pre-
pared to endure the fiery baptism of persecu-
tion which was inevitable, but, like the human
soul itself, it has gone through great trans-
formations, modifying the other religions of the
land, and being in turn to some extent influ-
enced by them.
Chinese Buddhism was of the northern type,
which in its sacred books uses the Sanscrit lan-
guage, as the southern type employs the Pali.
The books as rendered into Chinese are trans-
literations (not translations) of the original,
and are therefore almost wholly unintelligible
to those who learn to repeat them, and alto-
gether so to those who hear them. It is the use
of this ritual in the services performed in honor
of the dead which gives both the Buddhist and
the Taoist priesthood their firm hold upon the
mass of the Chinese people, who do not know
and who cannot conceive of any other way of
suitably completing funeral ceremonies, than to
have a full complement of representatives of
each religion to chant their liturgies, while a
Confucian scholar is invited to make a dot on
the tablet to the spirit of the dead, which alters
70 BEX CHRISTUS
the character for " King " into that meaning
" Lord," a modern custom which seems to be
alike inexplicable and indispensable.
The Dominant Religion. — Notwithstanding
the powerful patronage of the emperors, as
already mentioned, the teachings of Confucius
and Mencius are too well understood and too
deeply planted in the popular heart to be up-
rooted or overridden. The literati have always
refused to be driven from their positions by
imperial orders, although, like others, they sum-
mon the priests in times of emergency. These
contradictory tendencies are well illustrated in
the third emperor of the present dynasty, who
promulgated an expansion of the Sixteen Moral
Precepts of his father, the great K'ang Hsi.
Among them is one directed against Taoist and
Buddhist priests, whose idle mummeries and dis-
solute lives are unsparingly condemned, exhibit-
ing a clear perception of the real folly, vice,
and peril of Buddhism in all its aspects. Yet
this emperor was himself a daily worshipper of
Buddhist idols served by the lamas.
That renunciation of their families, which is
a condition of entrance into the ranks of the
Buddhist priesthood, is so totally opposed to
the tenets and the practices of Confucianism,
that one might have expected it to be a com-
plete bar to the entrance of Buddhism into
China. But the recruits are taken from the
poorest families, who are unable themselves to
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 71
support their cliildren, and are glad to see them
provided for on any terms. In some cases chil-
dren are purchased. Sometimes, also, adults
who are weary of the " dusty earth " seek a
refuge from its ills within the walls of the
monastery. Many of these temples are situated
in the most eligible and commanding positions,
where the delights of the finest scenery which
China can boast may gratify the recluses who
have "seen the emptiness of the world." "Se-
questered valleys enclosed by mountain peaks,
and elevated far above the world which they
profess to despise, are favorite seats for the
communities of Buddhism. But it is no yearn-
ing after God that leads them to court retire-
ment ; nor is it the adoration of nature's Author
that prompts them to place their shrines in the
midst of his sublimest works. To them the uni-
verse is a vacuum, and emptiness the highest
object of contemplation. They are a strange
paradox, — religious atheists ! Acknowledging
no First Cause or Conscious Ruling Power, they
hold that the human soul revolves perpetually
in the urn of fate, liable to endless ills, and
enjoying no real good. As it cannot cease to
be, its only resource against this state of in-
terminable misery is the extinction of con-
sciousness, a remedy which lies within itself,
and which they endeavor to attain by ascetic
exercises ! "
Dr. Martin, from whose "Lore of Cathay" the
72 REX CHRISTUS
preceding paragraphs are cited, discriminates
between the religions of China as ethical (Con-
fucianism), physical (Taoism), and metaphysical
(Buddhism). The mutual interaction of these
upon one another has been alluded to, and a
discussion of this might of itself fill an ex-
tended essay, which would be a study in the
art of uniting what Sir William Hamilton styled
" incompossibilities." Buddhism has adopted
the deities and spirits of other religions. Tao-
ism, as we have seen, has imitated the trinity
of the Buddhists. Confucianism despises, re-
jects, and adopts them both ! Every Chinese is
a Confucianist, but most of them are likewise
Buddhists and Taoists as well. It is one of the
most common aphorisms that the "three religions
are after all one."
Temples to the Three Religions. — There are
in China many temples dedicated to the Three
Religions in which there are huge images of Con-
fucius, Lao-tze, and Buddha, seated together,
but the place of honor (although not invariably)
is given to the Indian divinity. " This arrange-
ment, however, gives great offence to some of
the more zealous disciples of Confucius ; and a
few years ago a memorial was presented to the
emperor, praying him to demolish the Temple
of the Three Religions which stood near the
tomb of their great teacher, who has 'no equal
but Heaven.' "
There is nothing revolting or licentious in
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 73
Buddhism, or indeed in any form of worship in
China, — a fact in itself as remarkable as is the
entire freedom of the Chinese classics from
everything, from this point of view, objection-
able. Buddhism has taught the Chinese a cer-
tain amount of compassion for animal life.
" The sparing of life has become a recognized
virtue, and Confucianists and Taoists have been
stirred up by Buddhism to exhibit more benevo-
lent feeling toward the irrational creation than
they would have shown without it." From the
view-point of political economy, however, not
to speak of Christianity, it seems a somewhat
misdirected effort to spend money to buy fish
out of a net and throw them back into a river,
when there are upon the bank starving men,
women, and children for whom nothing whatever
is attempted. Yet from Chinese premises this is
not at all an absurd proceeding. The fish once
back in their element are on a self-supporting
basis, and that is a thing done, whereas to dole
out money to refugees is simply to invite further
demands indefinitely, with no one to predict
what other disagreeable consequences. There-
fore, the man of benevolent instincts not im-
probably patronizes the fish, and allows the
human beings to worry on as they may.
The most popular divinity in China is proba-
bly the "goddess of mercy, of whom it is said
that she declined to enter the bliss of Nirvana,
and preferred to hover on the confines of this
74 EEX CHRISTUS
world of suffering, in order that she might hear
the prayers of men, and bring succour to their
afflictions. What wonder that this attribute of
divine compassion should win all hearts ? " It
is a characteristic trait of Chinese theology that
while down to the twelfth century this goddess,
Kuan Yin, was represented as a man, for the
last six hundred years the divinity has under-
gone a metamorphosis, and is now generally
regarded as a goddess, to which the attribute of
mercy is considered more appropriate.
Buddhist temples are far more numerous in
China than Taoist, but myriads of them are
small and by far the larger number have no
priest in attendance. In the northern part of
the empire especially, there is much less atten-
tion paid to them than elsewhere, and countless
temples and shrines are seen decaying because
the people feel too poor to repair them, and
because they supply no really felt need. There
is no doubt that the Buddhist monks, recruited
as we have seen from the poorest and the most
ignorant classes, fully deserve the ill-repute
which they have gained. They withdraw from
the use of the general community large tracts
of land, in order to support in idleness, gam-
bling, opium-smoking, and vice, social vampires
who add nothing to the common weal, but suck
the life-blood of China. Nunneries are fre-
quent, the inmates being the children of those
too poor to rear them. There may be virtuous
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 75
women among them, but the shrewd adage
runs : —
" Ten Buddhist nuns, and nine are bad;
The odd one left is doubtless mad."
It has always been recognized by the Con-
fucianists as a great defect in Buddhism that it
gives no instruction toward making one a good
citizen. Its only remedy for the ills of life is to
teach their unreality. Its precepts not to kill, not
to steal, not to commit fornication, not to drink
wine or eat meat, have not been without value ;
but for ages Chinese Buddhism has been quite
devoid of any ethical force. It has bestowed
upon China the doctrine of the transmigration
of souls, and it has given her the pagoda. It is
impossible for a Christian m.issionary in China
to announce his message without throwing down
a challenge both to Taoism and to Buddhism.
In this he meets with no opposition from the
popular feeling. His attitude toward Confu-
cianism should, on the other hand, be one of
profound respect, never attacking it, but en-
deavoring to exhibit what Christianity can do
and does do as a divine religion. The defects
of the Chinese are as obvious to themselves as
to others, and are readily and frankh^. admitted.
The only means by which Christianity will ever
gain a foothold in China is by convincing object-
lessons of its power to do that in whicli all the
Three Religions have conspicuously failed.
76 REX CHRISTUS
Mohammedanism in China
The followers of the Prophet came to China
more than a thousand years ago, in the T'ang
dynasty, both by sea from ports on the Arabian
Sea, and overland across Central Asia. The num-
ber of them in China is indeterminate, but they
are estimated at about twenty millions, the largest
Mohammedan population being in the provinces
of Kansuh, Hunan, and Shensi. They form a
mechanical, as distinguished from a chemical,
mixture with the Chinese, but as they speak
the language of the regions which they occupy,
from a linguistic point of view there is no line
of demarcation between these widely different
races.
The cheek-bones and the prominent noses of
the Mohammedans readily differentiate them
from the Chinese, and they have a custom, un-
known to the Chinese, of clipping the mustache.
They worship God under the name of Chu, or
Lord, but they do not propagate their doctrines ;
and in regions which the}' have occupied for
half a millennium the Chinese have no clear
idea of what Mohammedan tenets really are.
They do not intermarry with the Chinese, but
sometimes adopt Chinese children into Moham-
medan families. Their religious services, while
patterned on those in Mohammedan lands, are
mostly formal, and except at the time of the
Ramazan fast are but sparsely attended except
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 77
by women. The strict law forbidding the trans-
lation of the Koran has prevented it from exert-
ing any influence on Chinese thought, although
there is in China a considerable body of Moham-
medan literature. The Chinese consider the
Mohammedans to be violent in temper and cruel
in disposition. It is certain that where this is
practicable some of them take readily to the life
of a freebooter. While externally friendly to
foreigners who teach a doctrine so allied to their
own, the doctrine of Christ is to these people a
great stumbling-block. The number of con-
verts from their ranks has thus far been small,
but there are signs that within the next genera-
tion it may be much larger. One of their
mollalis recently made the remark in regard to
a mission station in his city, that until it was
founded the Mohammedans were like a jar of
pure water, but that on the advent of the Jesus
religion the jar has been so stirred with a stick
as to make the water appear turbid. By this
he meant that in comparison witli Chinese reli-
gions Mohammedanism made an excellent show-
ing, but that it could not hold its own against
Christianity.
Secret Sects
China is honeycombed with secret societies,
all of which, as the proverb says, " hang out the
sign : Virtue practised here." Many of them
have an object ultimately political, looking
78 BEX CHRISTUS
toward a change of dynasty, and they are all
alike forbidden by the government. No com-
plete catalogue of these sects has ever been
made, or ever can be made, since the names vary
in different places and in the same places at dif-
ferent times. New ones are continually appear-
ing, some of the old ones seem to die out, and
after a long interval the names reappear with
a new significance. Thus the I Ho Ch'uan
(Boxers), or Fists of Harmony, of 1890, adopted
the name of organizations much more than a
hundred years old, formed with totally different
purposes. Their books are literally manuals,
being always copied by hand (as it is dangerous
to have blocks cut and printing executed), and
to outsiders they are practically inaccessible.
The tenets held are of the most nebulous and
composite description, being literally an amal-
gam of Buddhist, Taoist, and Confucian notions,
brewed in one common kettle. Some of the
sects practice refining the pill of immortality.
Some of them spend their time in sitting on the
k'ang, or stove-bed, fixing their minds on vacancy,
with a view to seeing worlds unknown. Their
exertions are reviewed by a seer, called a
" Bright-eye," who explains the symptoms of
their experience. Many of them keep accounts
with themselves, according to a graded system
of merits for virtuous actions (such as relieving
distress) and demerits for bad actions (such as
failing to pick up paper having characters on
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 79
it). The balance of accounts, wlien audited by
the " Bright-eye," represents their standing to
date. Some sects make use of a kind of plan-
chette by which cliaracters are traced in millet
seeds, or in sand, thus revealing the secrets of
fate as adumbrated by a " Great Fairy." Some
sects simply worship Heaven, having no images,
and no ceremonies but the k'otow.
One recently developed but now famous
society is called the Ritualists (Tsai-li), and
forbids the use of wine, opium, etc., but appears
to have no religious basis of any kind. Some
of those most zealous in observing these rites
are often sincere seekers after truth and gladly
adopt Christian it}^ as soon as it is presented to
them. Others appear to do so, but after a longer
or shorter period go quite back to their former
creed, "for," he saith, "the old is better."
Some missionaries regard the prevalence of
these sects as a great assistance to the intro-
duction of Christianity, while others have found
them for the most part an obstruction. Many
of the best Christians in the Chinese churches
have once been adherents of some one of these
sects. But there has never been any general
movement among them toward Christianity,
although such an event is not impossible and
perhaps not improbable.
80 BEX CHRISTUS
SIGNIFICANT SENTENCES
This mysterious race . . . with the Anglo-Saxons and
the Russians, will divide the earth a hundred years hence.
— Sir Lepel Griffin.
The Chinaman is a religious triangle. — Dr. Marsh.
There are people who read the best of the Confucian
or Buddhist books, and say that the ideals are good ; but,
if such think that the heathen do very well as tliey are,
I should like to take them for one half hour through
a Foochow street and let them see what life would be
without any of the refinement, or health, or human kind-
ness that have come to them through the religion of
Jesus. — Evelyn Worthley.
Ancestral Worship
The millions of China are bound to the worship of
ancestors. From infancy to old age, in every turn of
life, in aU seasons of joy or mourning, all are in some
way associated with this very ancient custom. The fol-
lowers of Confucius, the Buddhist, the Taoist, rich and
poor, emperor and people, alike are influenced by it.
This custom existed two thousand years before Confu-
cius, but he confirmed its hold upon the people.
. . . Once a year, in April, a wonderful and touching
sight is to be seen in China. It is the spring festival for
the dead. Every one visits the graves of his dead. It
is a time that they look forward to and prepare for, even
more than we do for Christmas or any great occasion.
Groups of men, women and children may be seen in
brightest, prettiest dresses, the women and girls with
flowers in their haii", and all bearing baskets or packages
of food, fruit, incense, candles and lanterns, and great
bundles of paper clothing. — Mrs. Baldwin.
THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 81
SAYINGS OF CONFUCIUS
To be fond of learning is the next thing to knowledge.
To be up and doing comes near to perfection. Know
what shame is, and you will not be far from heroism.
Given instruction, there will be no distinction of
class.
I do not understand life, how can I know death ?
Learning, undigested by thought, is labor lost;
thought, unassisted by learning, is perilous.
Men of principle are sure to be bold, but those who
are bold may not always be men of principle.
Have no friends not equal to yourself.
Those whose courses are different cannot lay plans for
one another.
He who requires much from himself and little from
others will keep himself from being the object of resent-
ment.
Want of forbearance in small matters confounds great
plans.
He who speaks without modesty will find it difficult to
make his words good.
During all these forty-three centuries, while Confucius
has done much for good government and has set some
high moral standards for men, women have reaped no
benefit from the teachings of the sage.
— Mrs. Moses Smith.
THEMES FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION
I. Weakness of China's Religions as compared with
Christianity.
II. Popular Superstitions in China.
III. Temples, Towers, and Pagodas.
IV. Life of the Lamas.
V. Chinese Religious Education in the Home.
a
82 REX CHBISTUS
VI. Evil Effects of Nature Worship.
VII. Secret Sects and their Influence.
VIII. Ancestral Worship and its Effect upon Character.
IX. Feng Shui, or the Science of Luck.
X. Why the Proud Literati oppose Christianity.
XI. Compare the Confucian White Deer College with
Christian Colleges in England and America.
XII. Peking the " Forbidden City."
BOOKS OF REFERENCE
General references as before
Bainbridge's " Around the World Tour of Christian
MissioHS." II, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX.
Bishop's " The Yangtze Valley and Beyond." Ill, V.
Colquhoun's " Overland to China." XII.
Douglas's " Society in China." I, V, VIII, X, XL
Du Bose's " The Dragon, Tma.ge, and Demon." II, III,
VI, VII, VIII, IX.
Dukes's " Everyday Life in China." Ill, V, VIII, IX.
Edkins's " Religions in China." I, IT, III, IV, V, VI, VIL
Gibson's " Missionary Problems and Methods in South
China." I, V, X.
Gilmour's " Among the Mongols." I, III, IV, XII.
Gracey's " China in Outline." I.
" Great Religions of the World " (Harper, 1901). I.
Henry's '■ Ling-nam, or Interior Views of South China."
II, III, IV, V, VI, IX.
Hue's " Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China." IV,
Johnston's " China and Its Future." X.
Legge's " Religions of China." I, II, VI, VII, VIIL
Mackay's " From Far Formosa." V.
Moule's "New China and Old." II, VII, VHL
Muirhead's " China and the Gospel." I.
Nevius's "China and the Chinese." U, VI, VII, VIII,
IX.
TBE RELIGIONS OF CHINA 83
Report of Shanghai Conference, 1877. I, II, VI, VII,
VIII.
Rockhill's " Land of the Lamas." II, IV, XII.
Speer's " Missions and Politics in Asia." I, II, VII, VIIL
Wilson's " China." IX, XIL
Williamson's " Journeys in China." I, II, XII.
Articles on China in Periodicals : —
Atlantic, Vol. .52, " John Chinaman, M.D." VIIL
Eclectic, Vol. 82, " Feng Shui." IX.
Living Age, Vol. 68, " Peking." XII.
Review of Reviews, Vol. 28 (from Nouvelle Revue),
"Chinese Magic." II, IX.
CHAPTER III
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA
In a series of outlines such as are contained
in the present book it is out of the question to
make a comprehensive study of the peculiar
people whom we are considering. All that can
be attempted in this chapter is to select a few
salient points, with a view especially to show
how they are related to the effort to bring to
the Chinese a practical knowledge of Christian-
ity. The first impression which the traveller
receives on visiting China is the vast numbers
of its people. The teeming millions appear like
a hive of bees, like a nest of ants, like a swarm
of insects in the air. We have already referred
to the various guesses at the possible population
of the empire, and there is no reason why, if
that figure is insisted upon, we may not consent
to the estimate of four hundred millions as a
total. But these words convey no definite idea
to any mind, and are much less efficient than a
computation of the inhabitants to a square mile,
which vary from a relatively small number in
the mountainous and sparsely settled regions,
up to five hundred, eight hundred, and in some
84
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 85
exceptional districts perhaps more than two
thousand ! A part of the Great Plain of China
is certainly one of the most densely populated
sections of the planet, a fact which has important
bearings on many of the problems which concern
the future of the empire. This incomputable
number of human beings are related to one
another in a way elsewhere unexampled.
Solidarity of Chinese Society. — Through the
long millenniums of Chinese history the pro-
cesses of unification have been steadily at work,
so that there is in Chinese society a solidarity
which does not and cannot elsewhere exist.
The common study of common text-books con-
tinued for ages, the contemplation of the same
ideals, and the perpetual effort to impress them
upon every thinking mind, have brought about
this striking result. In western lands we are
familiar with the thought of the individual as
the social unit, and the process of individualiza-
tion begins early, and is soon completed. In
China, on the other hand, the family, or the clan,
is the unit, and the individual is but a cog in a
long series of wheels, which are all moved by
the same common impulse, and inevitably in the
same direction. To continue the mechanical
illustration, cogs, wheels, cylinders, shafts, belts,
upper and lower alike, are all responsive to the
rhythmic revolutions of the great turbine far
below, which for ages has gone on its unchang-
ing way. It is conceivable that each unit in
86 BEX CHRISTUS
this long series might be persuaded of the theo-
retical fact that its motion is abnormal and in
the wrong dire'ction, and yet recognize its help-
lessness and the hopelessness of any alteration.
For down under the turbine is the great river,
and as the river flows so goes the shaft, belt,
cylinder, wheel, and cog.
This exaggerated simile is not suggested as
exhibiting realities, for it is happily far from
doing so, but only to set forth the impression
made on the mind of one who deliberately sets
himself to the task of altering, intellectually and
morally, the complex phenomena of an empire
like China. In China no person, man, woman,
or child, is a free agent. There are not only the
general social obligations proceeding from an
intricate mass of well-settled principles and
precedents, but there is a forest of " personal
equations " to be reckoned with. A father has
power over his children which is not less abso-
lute than that of the most imperial monarch.
He may even kill his offspring, or sell his adult
children into slavery. Their property is his
property, and as long as the father lives their
families are under his control. This tyranny of
the upper generation extends through a great
variety of ramilications, and is especially efficient
in subordinating the younger and the feminine
portions of the family. It is not merely objec-
tive authority which weaves a web of entangle-
ment about all Chinese, but the scarcely less
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 87
potent bonds of sentiment, and especially custom,
which may be said to be the real divinity of most
of the people of China. What has been done
may be done, what has not been done is for that
reason outlawed. The phrase which denotes
heresy in Chinese, is literally " a different doc-
trine," and its antithesis is " true learning," to
wit, that which is everywhere taught and which
ought to be taught. From data like these it is
easy to infer that into this changeless race no
new ideas can penetrate, or penetrating can find
lodgment. Yet while all that has been said
represents but a part of the cast-iron theory of
Chinese environment, God has not made the
soul of any race impervious to spiritual truth.
When Chinese once come to a perception of the
existence of a Heavenly Father, their instincts of
filial piety show them the necessity of obedience
to him, and neglect of it as a capital sin. The
solidarity of the family is a two-edged sword,
and it may work for the toleration and diffusion
of a divine truth as well as against it. The
density of population, and the intricate ramifi-
cations of family and social life, afford so many
more avenues through which new and vitalized
conceptions of duty and privilege may every-
where find their devious ways.
Fixity of Residence. — It is a Buddhist saying,
that " when one individual attains to the path,
nine generations ascend to the skies." One of
the most striking contrasts between the Occiden-
88 REX CffRISTUS
tals and the Chinese is the instability of location
among the former, and the opposite in the latter.
Most Chinese are born, live, and die in the
same place without having been anywhere or
seen anything worth mentioning. But even
when they " go far and fly high," it is still true
that " the world has a million roosts but only
one nest." " The old soil is hard to leave," we
hear them say, and so it is. They are in reality
anchored in unconscious Confucian bondage to
the graves of their ancestors, and it is these, not
their adobe hovels, which it is hard to leave, for
the reason that sacrifices to ancestors constitute
a large part of the duty of filial descendants.
Given, then, fixity of residence added to social
and family solidarity, when persecution arises
from within a family because one of its members
has struck out a new route in accordance with
" another doctrine," we have need of patience
and of much faith. Sometimes it is possible for
one to avail himself of the scripture suggestion
to fly to another city, but more frequently, for a
variety of reasons, this is impracticable. In
such cases it is a satisfaction to know by the crucial
test of actual experience and observation that
the Lord is able, even under these adverse con-
ditions, both to keep and to deliver his children.
It not infrequently happens that it is the ex-
emplary behavior of those thus harassed which
wins the obdurate hearts of their persecutors,
who are often most literally their tormentors.
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 89
There is in the epistles of the New Testament no
exhortation to steadfastness which is not equally
and peculiarly applicable to Chinese Christians,
often walking in a narrow and thorny path ;
and happily there is no promise to those that
endure unto the end which is not likewise veri-
fied in the history of the Chinese martyrs, living
and dead.
Unity in Variety. — At first sight all Chinese
look alike, but upon a better acquaintance they
are seen to have striking differences among
themselves, not merely as regards separate prov-
inces in parts of the empire mutually distant,
but even in regions adjacent to one another.
Yet, on the other hand, every Chinese is himself
China in small. Their postulates, their ideals,
their motives, and their methods are so much
alike, that being excellent judges of human
nature they have only to look at themselves in
the glass and they see also everybody else. It
is in this way that Christianity is able to bring
to bear its most irrefragable proofs. Those who
know human nature and their own nature only
too well, and then see others with that same
nature essentially and inexplicably modified by
unknown forces, are in a mood to be willing to
hear what it is that is able to achieve such re-
sults. A confirmed gambler, or still more an
inveterate and incurable opium-smoker, lost to
the " Five Relations," and dead to shame, when
rescued and made into a new man is such a wit-
90 REX CHRISTUS
iiess to the power of an endless life as cannot be
refuted or ignored. Opium-smoking and gam-
bling are, indeed, the greatest vices of the Chinese
race, but they are only more obtrusive and not
less harmful than the wrath, bitterness, and re-
viling, which may be said to be invariable con-
comitants of Chinese social life, to an extent
and to a degree of which in w^estern lands it is
difficult to form any adequate notion. It is in
these traits first of all that moral reformation is
to be sought, and if it is found it is a sign of
new forces at work, as rudimentary buds are the
promise and prophecy of a coming spring.
Unity in variety and variety in unity is one
of the most marked characteristics of the Chi-
nese race. It is itself the product of causes which
have been operant during unknown millenniums
upon incomputable millions of people, " dura-
tion multiplied by numbers," on a scale never
elsewhere even imagined. It is this which gives
rise to the cohesion of Chinese with one another,
a quality so universal and so remarkable that it
resembles chemical attraction. Their guilds and
secret societies hold together without the aid of
law, often against law, with a tenacity which
cannot be surpassed.
Industry and Poverty. — There are thus
elements in the Chinese character of great sta-
bility and strength. Nothing is required to
bring them fully out but a great motive, and
this Christianity can supply and does supply.
1
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 91
When it has been assimilated by the Chinese
it will not improbably take on new types, as it
has so often done before. The experience of
the past few years is wholly sufficient to make
it certain that Chinese Christians will be the
equal of any Christians, and that some of them
are so already. Yet Christianity has to overcome
formidable obstacles even to get the slenderest
footing in China. There is, indeed, no system
of caste, but there is a broad gulf between the
different classes of society. The learned and
the unlearned live in different worlds, and to
pass from the lower to the higher seems hope-
less and impossible. It is a fact of importance
that in China poverty has never been a disgrace,
and that some of the most stimulating ideals
placed before every learner are stories of those
who, by singleness of purpose and perseverance,
have surmounted incredible obstacles and won
the two favorite objects of Chinese pursuit,
name and gain. It is one of the melancholy
phenomena in China that despite the unrivalled
and tireless industry of its inhabitants, poverty
is the key-note of this great empire. Its causes
are many and complex. Its manifestations are
protean and universal.
Puzzling Problems. — The most hopeful phi-
lanthropist is overwhelmed with the continental
scope of the problems thus suggested. The
most ardent evangelist finds himself confronted
with preliminary puzzles which must assuredly
92 REX CHRISTUS
give him pause. Men, women, children are in
bondage to the inexorable necessity of, in some
way, securing the means of subsistence. They
who have nothing to eat in the life which now
is — how shall they command time to be told,
in dimly comprehended language, of a life to
come in which eating has no place ? It is in
China if anywhere that one may fall back upon
the comfort embodied in the crowning proof
of the divinity of the Master's message that " to
the poor the gospel is preached." It is among
them that some of the most conspicuous examples
of Christian fidelity are to be found, that some
of the most intelligent recipients and most
earnest promulgators of the faith are to be
met. The margin between the scanty subsist-
ence which is only adequate to enable one to
exist, but not to live, and bare necessities, is so
narrow that he who undertakes the organization
and the administration of a Christian community
in such an environment, at once raises socio-
logical questions which permanently retain one
of the leading peculiarities of Banquo's ghost,
they " will not down."
The religious innovator probably puts into the
hands of his inquirers the gospels first of all,
and in them the learner reads with joy the pre-
cept : " Give to him that asketh thee, and from
him that would borrow of thee turn not thou
awa3^" Unless he receives what is technically
termed a loan, but by which is usually meant a
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 93
transfer of money in cases of emergency, with-
out interest and probably not to be repaid, the
petitioning adherent will be dragged to the
yamen and permanently imprisoned for default
of taxes on land (not improbably land which is
really non-existent, that is, land which, owing
to mismeasurements, has been extinguished by
transfers to its neighbors, nothing but the taxes
remaining to mark the site). Unless a widow
with six children, nearly all of them small, and
all of them " of no use," receives timely assist-
ance in the month of April, her crumbling house
will come down over her head in the rains of
July. Unless a sum of money, borrowed at the
ruinous rate of two per cent a month, is at once
repaid (which can only be accomplished b}^ help
from the foreign friend, the only real one
known), the remaining half acre of land must
be sold to pay the debt, and the family reduced
to beggary. Each of these is a bona fide and an
exigent case ; each presses for immediate settle-
ment, and unhappily each is a precedent.
Can one interfere in an ancient, crystallized
civilization like that of China and not do more
harm than good? How is it possible in the
face of woes like these not to interfere ? With
dilemmas of this sort the " Foreigner in Far
Cathay " is perpetually confronted, and if he is
able to formulate or to discover any rule, or even
any principle which is adequate to guide his steps,
his experience will be exceptional and peculiar.
94 EEX CHRISTUS
Sentiment toward Foreigners. — With such
a vast background as has been outlined in a pre-
vious chapter, it is not strange that the Chinese
look upon their own history as that of the human
race as a whole, ignoring as irrelevant and un-
important what lies outside of and beyond their
national experience. This places the foreign
religious reformer in the position of an alien in-
truder, against whom is every presupposition,
and in whose favor there is, for the most part,
nothing at all. It is on this account, if on no
other, most important that those who wish effi-
ciently to influence Chinese thought, and to
awaken Chinese religious emotions, should, in
advance of their overt efforts, have a reasonably
clear conception of what it is that they are to
exert their strength upon, and what things are to
be left alone ; what things are to be established,
and what things are to be taken for granted.
It is therefore most desirable to have had an
intelligent and a sympathetic study of what
already exists, as a precedent qualification for
intelligent exertion to that end.
The instinctive dislike of the foreigner on
the part of the Chinese is not without a firm
historical warrant. It is also exactly paralleled
by their undisguised contempt for their own
countrymen from other and especially distant
provinces, who are frequently referred to by
nicknames which express in stinging epithets
the innate disdain felt for them. They are not
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 95
only constantly spoken of as barbarians, but are
treated as foreigners, and when away from home
are placed under numerous and permanent disa-
bilities. This is true, for example, of Cantonese
merchants doing business not merely at the far
north, but in the adjacent province of Fukien,
of the men from Shansi who are all over the
empire, and of those from Shantung, who are
dubbed louts and bumpkins. It is a remarkable
fact that the Chinese seldom or never boast of
their great empire, and of its persistent survival
triumphant " o'er the wrecks of time " ; they
merely assume it as a matter of course. They
do not, like some sensitive peoples, inquire what
you " think of our institutions." They do not
care what you think, or what any one thinks,
and the very idea of such a thing is altogether
foreign to their intellectual outfit.
Patriotism. — Their conspicuous lack of any-
thing like what we term patriotism has attracted
much remark, especially in view of the strikingl}^
opposite qualities of the Japanese. Patriotism
in a rudimentary form does exist, and it can,
and perhaps will, be developed, but at present it
is replaced by a blind but powerful national feel-
ing, unorganized, inchoate, and for the most part
dumb as well as blind, but susceptible of being
mightily aroused with startling and unforeseen
results. The extremely delicate and often
dangerous position of foreigners environed by
conditions like this has been made manifest to
96 BEX CHRISTUS
the world, and it is important to understand
that these factors of national life and of inter-
national relations are to be permanent. Like
friction in machinery, the depth of mineral
deposits, or the trend of a mountain range,
they must be taken account of as existent and,
at present, unalterable facts.
Conservatism. — That trait of the Chinese
which is included under the general term con-
servatism is the instinctive effort to retain intact
the priceless heritage of the mighty past. Con-
fucius was that one of the ancients who most
effectively determined the key-note of the
thought and the life of the Chinese race, and
it was done by reverence and admiration for the
ancients, and by struggling at all costs to imi-
tate their example. Thus the face of the mas-
ter was definitely and deliberately turned to the
past, and the face of China has been in like
manner turned in the same direction ever since.
It is this which has tended to make real progress
in China difficult, if not impossible, and this it
is which gives rise to one of the greatest puzzles
in considering the history of the empire, how it
has contrived to be a persistent exception to the
otherwise universal law that a nation and a race
must either advance or die ; whereas the Chi-
nese appear to have declined either to advance
or to die, and have gone on their way moulded by
the ideals and clinging to the ideas of the past
down to this present time.
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 97
That this process can no longer be continued
has become dimly obvious even to the most con-
servative Manchus and Chinese. But what to
do about it they cannot and will not decide.
They prefer to drift with the current rather
tlian to attempt to steer in waters hitherto un-
known, and under conditions which, for the
most part, they but vaguely apprehend. It thus
becomes plain why it is that the Chinese are so
phenomenally destitute of initiative, and how it
is that as individuals in their experience, and as
a nation and a race in their history, they have
so often illustrated that definition of the con-
servatives as " those who, when they got into
hot water, stayed there lest they should be
scalded." The typical Confucianist who re-
gards the beginning and the ending of all wis-
dom as comprised in the doctrine of reciprocity
as taught by the master, is inevitably annoyed
that an attempt should be made to add anything
to, or to subtract anything from, this thesis, espe-
cially by foreigners from countries whose civili-
zation — such as it is — dates but from a time
when China was practically as old as now, and
whose ancestors, at the time of China's greatest
splendor, were wild men in the woods.
How a Chinese Scholar views Christianity.
— In the essay of Mr. P'eng Kuang Yu, at the
Parliament of Religions (quoted in the preced-
ing chapter), he takes pains to show that what
is called religion is of no service to China and
9S El:X CHBISTUS
the Chinese, "Granting that the belief in
heaven and hell and the final judgment is well
founded, he who has tasted the pleasures derived
from the fulfilment of his duties to society, has
already ascended into heaven, and he who allows
the lust of the flesh to defile his heart and per-
vert the use of his senses, has already entered
hell. What need is there in troubling the
Great Lord of the Eastern Mountain of the
Taoist, the Yen Lo of the Buddhists, and
the Christ of the Christians to judge the dead
after death and reward every man according to
his deserts ? " In the closing paragraph of an
essay by far the longest at the Parliament, he
disclaims his fitness to treat of religion at all,
on the ground that " the progress of Christianity
does not concern Confucianists in the least."
He endeavors to make it appear, by reiterated
assertion, that while it seems that missionaries
(especially from the United States) come from
a highly respectable class of society, they meet
in China only the very dregs of the people, that
they are constantly and inevitably deluded as
to the character of their converts, and that
"they make no attempt to study the political
institutions and the educational principles of
the Chinese people, and aim only to carry out
their own notions of what is right."
In another passage he says : "After all, to do
reverence to spirits is to do nothing more than
to refrain from giving them annoyance, and to
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 99
do reverence to Heaven is nothing more than to
refrain from giving it annoyance. On points
like this the ritual code is full and explicit.
There is consequently no demand for other reli-
gious works." "What the Confucianists call
things spiritual is nothing more than the law of
action and reaction, which operates upon matter
without suffering loss, and which causes the sea- ,
sons to come round without deviation. What
priests of the two sects (Taoism and Buddhism)
call things spiritual, consist of prayers and
repentance, which they make use of as a means
of practising deception upon the people by giv-
ing out that they can reveal the secrets of hap-
piness and misery thereby. As a rule, they are
men given to speculations on the invisible world
of spirits, and neglectful of the requirements
and duties of life. For this reason they are
employed by public functionaries to ofhciate on
occasions of public worship, and at the same
time they are despised by the Confucianists as
the dregs of the people." "The right principles
of action can only be discovered by studying the
waxing and the waning of the active and the
passive elements as set forth in the 'Book of
Changes,' and surely cannot be understood by
those who believe in what the priests call the
dispensations of Providence." "If by living
according to the dictates of nature, and by sup-
pressing the desires of the flesh, one arrives at
a perfect agreement with nature, and obtains a
100 REX CHRISTUS
complete mastery over desires, such a one Bud-
dhists call a Buddha, Taoists a Genius, and
Christians a child of God, . . . All philosophi-
cal systems recognise some ideal state of human
perfection, though it is known under different
names. It seems rather unnecessary for think-
ers of different schools to attack the opinions of
one another, for owing to the difference of nat-
ural endowments and social surroundings, all
men cannot possibly arrive at the same opinion
on any subject."
And once more this learned Chinese Celsus,
after explaining how the better class of Chinese
looked with indifference upon missionaries until
"a diplomatic officer of high rank lent his power-
ful testimony to the support of the missionary
cause," adds that since then "every self-respect-
ing man has studiously avoided the sight of
missionaries, knowing that their chief object is
to undermine by their teaching what he holds
dear. The turbulent element of the population,
however, often finds it to their interest to turn
Christian." "Christian missionaries in China
can do neither good nor harm to the power of
Confucianism by spreading the doctrines they
espouse, because they associate only with the
dregs of the people, or educated men of loose
morals!" "An increase in the number of con-
verts is considered as a measure of the success
of missionary labors, and may be made the
subject of boast on the part of the missionary
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 101
concerned, in his reports to those who sent him.
Even if there are law-abiding individuals among
the converts, it may be asserted with confidence
that there are no intelligent and educated persons
among them, for the reason that no intelligent
and educated person will embrace the religion of
another people."
Mace Characteristics
These copious quotations from the first author-
ized, and in a manner semi-official, exponent of
Confucianism to the western world, ought to
make it clear how Chinese conservatism bars
the mind and the soul to an apprehension, not
to say reception, of the real meaning of Chris-
tianity and a Christ. Chinese society is compact,
and highly organized after an ancient pattern.
There is a mutual responsibility which is more
carefully developed than in any other land,
which, beginning with one's mundane existence,
follows him to its close, implicating even ances-
tors and posterity. The complicated involutions
of the working of this principle are to a foreigner
almost incomprehensible, and to a Chinese are
one of the principal factors of his environment.
Under conditions like these, and in the pres-
ence of an unknown number of potentially influ-
ential enemies, it behooves every Chinese to walk
softly, like soldiers who have captured a fort in
which there is danger that, by a chance misstep,
some unperceived contact mine may be exploded,
102 REX CHBISTUS
and the unhappy blunderer may be maimed or
annihilated. Chinese life is full of phenomena
of which this is an unhappily accurate analogue-
It is therefore not unnatural that one of the
most rudimentary presuppositions of all Chinese
is, that it is dangerous to give offence, for among-
Chinese there are practically no secrets. Every
human being is, to a large extent, in the power
of a great many others, for whose use of their
power there is no guarantee of any sort. The
complaint of the scholar and official just quoted,
that missionaries are in the habit of receiving
among their followers every variety of rascal
which China affords, and of which, as he says,
the supply is inexhaustible, is probably based
upon very narrow premises, and upon possible
facts looked at through spectacles strongly col-
ored by prejudice. Both Roman Catholics and
Protestants vigorously repudiate it, and for the
same reason, that in either case it must be fatal
to the objects which they have in view. Never-
theless, in the former case there is overwhelming
evidence, and never more so than in the years
since the Boxer failure, that there is more than
mere rumor in these allegations. Bad men
do worm themselves into both branches of the
Christian church in China, however vigilant
the shepherds may be, and it is mainly due to
the trait which has just been mentioned. It is
a common circumstance in China that every one
knows a fact, except the person whom it espe-
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 103
cially concerns. No one likes to tell what is
disagreeable, and as a rule, if there is any fear
of unpleasant consequences to the witness no
one will tell it.
Talent for Indirection. — It is this which makes
it so difficult for the most conscientious and dis-
creet missionary to be quite sure that he is in
possession of all the needed data in any given
case. The difficulty in getting at " the bottom
facts" frequently is that there are no "facts"
available, and, as the pilots say, " no bottom."
"Who told you that?" is the first indignant
inquiry of an accused Chinese, and unless the
accuser is phenomenally sure of his ground and
ready for all five acts of a most dramatic drama,
he is quite as likely to withdraw the charge
upon a plea of misunderstanding as to sub-
stantiate it. If it is insisted upon, he knows
that the other party to the case will " go after "
him, a compound verb of fateful meaning, for in
China no one desires to be gone after. When
the Christian church has been firmly established
these Chinese traits become gold-plated and
silver-plated with Christian obligations and tra-
ditions ; but let there come a time of special
strain and stress, and the gold and silver plating
will in many cases (not, however, in all) wear
off, exposing the baser metal beneath. This is
that reversion to type which all scientists take
account of, and of which the history of Chris-
tianity, even in our own land at the present day,
104 REX CHRISTUS
has always been full. It is after an extended
experience of this fact in its larger meanings that
one apprehends the significance of the biblical
references to the third and fourth generation.
No less time than that is required for the re-
generation of a race, so that every fibre of the
moral and the spiritual nature may be instinc-
tively responsive to the new life, and a Christian
lieredity may have appropriate time in which to
do its work.
Suspicion and Distrust. — Connected with the
last-mentioned race characteristic is another, per-
haps rather Oriental than Chinese, a mutual sus-
picion which looks for danger everywhere, and
like a hunted animal is ever on the alert for foes
concealed. It is literally impossible for those
reared in the Christian atmosphere, in which even
the most threatening of commercial and financial
tyrannies is rightly called a " trust," to compre-
hend the conditions which prevail where no one
wholly confides in any one, and where this mutual
absence of confidence is on all hands much more
than justified. Every one of those "Five Re-
lations " so much vaunted in China is, from this
cause, filled with gall and bitterness. The stranger
from abroad finds himself the object of a pro-
found distrust, which he is helpless to dispel, or
even to mitigate. It is this which gives rise
to riots and to massacres, born from that " evil
heart of unbelief" v/hich finds it impossible to
credit the existence of a good motive when a
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 105
bad one can be suggested. Even this, however,
may be lived down, and in the very places where
they once occurred there may, at last, be estab-
lished the forms of a reciprocal good-will not
again readily interrupted. But this requires
time, tact, and indefinite patience. Yet it is a
singular and instructive fact that, once past the
preliminary stages, it is easier to gain the con-
fidence of the average Chinese for the average
foreigner, than a like confidence of the Chinese
in one another, and this whether the question
be one of objective fact, or of trustworthiness in
the handling of money.
The bearing of all this on the complicated
relations of everyday life must be left to the
more or less vivid imagination of the reader.
Its relation to the exigencies of the more diffi-
cult cases of discipline in the native church is
too serious to be omitted. Here is the faith and
patience of the saints ; and here, also, will
Christianity establish itself as able to do what
unaided human nature could never by any pos-
sibility compass.
Untruthfulness and Insincerity. — Another
phase of the same side of the Chinese character
is its innate untruthfulness under ofiven condi-
tions. This does not mean that the Chinese
are a nation of liars, for they are not. On the
contrary, there is adequate reason to believe
them to be by far the most truthful of Asiatics.
But it does signify that under certain stress of
106 BEX CHRISTUS
danger or fear every Chinese will either tell a
falsehood or he will tell nothing at all. This
is done by an innate as well as by a cultivated
instinct, like that of the serpent that slides into
the jungle, or the bull-frog that dives into a
mud-hole. There has never been any more
question in regard to the legitimacy of such a
proceeding on the part of the Chinese than on
that of the snake or the frog. It is both na-
ture and second nature. The Chinese have
many and conspicuous virtues, among which are
their faithfulness to duty, their sobriety, their
unfailing industry, their unequalled patience,
their inextinguishable cheerfulness, manifesting
itself in blooming flowers, in warbling birds, and
smiling faces, even in the midst of deep poverty,
gloomy prospects, and heavy hearts. All these
are wonderful and admirable endowments. And
here, on the other hand, we have the chief fault
of all, their deep-rooted, all-pervading insin-
cerity both of word and deed.
The last of the "Five Constant Virtues,"
sincerity, appears to be " constant " only in its
absence. This is true in every relation of life,
from the top of the social ladder to the very
base, and all through and through, Christianity
aside. Many true things are said in China,
many sincere acts are done, many heai-ts do not
fail to beat responsive to duty and to honor, but
one can never be sure which words, which acts,
which hearts are the ones to be trusted. The
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 107
philosophy of this grave defect in the Chinese
character, this is not the place to examine. Of
the fact itself there is no doubt. Every Protes-
tant missionary is anxious to have his flock of
Christians such as fear God and work righteous-
ness, but in the effort to compass this end he
not infrequently finds that when endeavoring to
investigate the " facts " in any case he is chasing
a school of cuttlefish through seas of ink. The
conscience of those who have been born into
a new life is not suddenly transformed, yet the
change does take place and upon a large scale.
When once it has been accomplished, a new force
has been introduced into the Chinese Empire,
a salt to preserve, a leaven to pervade, a seed
to bring forth after its kind in perpetually
augmenting abundance and fertility.
Saving One's ''Face." — It is an integral
part of both Chinese theory and practice that
realities are of much less importance than
appearances. If the latter can be saved, the
former may be altogether surrendered. This
is the essence of that mysterious " face " of
which we are never done hearing in China, the
significance and relations of which can never be
fully apprehended by any foreigner. The world
is conceived of as in Shakespeare, under the
figure of a theatrical stage, "and all the men
and women merely players." The line of Pope
might be the Chinese national motto : " Act well
your part, there all the honor lies ; " not, be it
108 REX CHRISTUS
observed, doing well what is to be done, but
consummate acting, contriving to convey the
appearance of a thing or a fact, whatever the
realities may be. This is Chinese high art;
this is success. It is self-respect, and it in-
volves and implies the respect of others. It is,
in a word, " face." The preservation of " face "
frequently requires that one should behave in
an arbitrary and violent manner merely to em-
phasize his protests against the course of current
events. He or she must fly into a violent rage,
he or she must use reviling and perhaps impre-
catory language, else it will not be evident to
the spectators of the drama, in which he is at the
moment acting, that he is aware just what ought
to be done by a person in his precise situation ;
and then he will have " no way to descend from
the stage," or in other words, he will have lost
" face."
We have just seen, in the citations from the
essay of Mr. P'eng, that the well-bred Confu-
cianist is not deceived by Taoist fables or by
Buddhist myths. He is a triple-plated agnostic,
with a short creed, and all his duties in plain
sight, and capable of being duly inventoried
every morning. But in practice a Confucianist
is, after all, but a human being; and while he
believes nothing which he cannot see, he also
believes everything which others believe, more
especially at times when he is driven into a cor-
ner. Thus the firm basis is laid for that social
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 109
dynamite of which we have spoken in the pre-
ceding chapters, composed of angry human
passions mingled with varying proportions of
the supernatural and the infra-natural.
In the language of a former British consular
officer of long experience and wide observation
(Mr. T. T. Cooper) : " Underneath their practi-
cal and sensible exterior there lurks a sleeping
demon of the blindest superstition, which re-
quires only the slightest touch to change them
into insensible madmen, reckless of life, and
savage as wild beasts ; and this dreadful curse is
not only common amongst the uneducated, but
amongst the literati and governing classes also."
Of this phenomenon extensive exhibits have
recently been made in sight of the whole world,
and we need not dwell upon them in this con-
nection. It is well, however, to mention that
there is an analogous set of phenomena in ordi-
nary social life, due to the sudden exigencies of
"face." No man, no woman, no child with
whom one has, or can have, anything to do but
is always potentially on the verge of a " strike,"
because in some way, not unlikely quite un-
known and incomprehensible to his foreign
employer, the employee's " facial angle " has
been unduly deflected. Cooks, sewing women,
coolies, office-boys, shroffs, compradores, teachers,
upon due provocation, all exhibit this trait ; and
after a due recognition of their point of view,
one and all may return to their avocations
110 BEX CHBISTUS
with a smile of triumph, as of one who has nobly
done his whole duty ; or, their point of view
not being that of their employer, their path
thenceforth curves off into a parabola and they
are seen no more.
Christianity a Solvent. — The group of traits
here mentioned reaches down into the deepest
roots of Chinese character and life. There is
abundant evidence, external and internal, that
they have always constituted a part of the intel-
lectual and moral equipment of the race. Many
of them are wholly incompatible with a thorough-
going acceptance of Christian ideals, and for
that reason alone there are many who know the
Chinese well to whom the vision of a China
transformed, in such a way that these peculiarly
Chinese peculiarities shall be essentially modi-
fied or abolished, is "an iridescent dream." The
question ought to be raised, but for readers of a
book like this it need not be argued. The gos-
pel of God is always and everywhere adequate
to the redemption of the children of men, and its
adaptations to the Chinese have been demon-
strated for many hundred years and on an ever
enlarging scale. In the century which has
now opened it is certain that such a number and
variety of convincing object-lessons will be added
that all those not altogether incapable of per-
ceiving spiritual phenomena will be compelled
to admit that Christianity has a vital relation to
the welfare of China and the Chinese.
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 111
To those immediately concerned in the intro-
duction and the dissemination of this faith there
are two capital problems : How so to present
the gospel as to win the non-Christian Chinese
to hear it; how to bridge the permanent gulf
between races ; how to fulfil the Master's last
great commission in the Land of Sinim. On
the other hand : How to plant and to train the
native churches that they may strike a deep tap-
root into native soil, independent of their origin ;
how to prepare the way by which the Spirit of
God may overcome inborn inertia, timidity, and
conformity to custom, plant " truth in the inward
parts," and bring forth the fruits of that Spirit
in the life ; how so to prepare the way that the
churches of China, like those of the New Testa-
ment, may be self-propagating, so that the word
of the Lord may sound forth from them in every
province and dependency of the Chinese Empire.
WAYMARKS IN THE HISTORY OF MISSIONS
IN CHINA
Fhom 1800 TO 1902
1800. Attention turned to China by discovery of Cliinese
manuscript in Britisli Museum.
1804. British and Foreign Bible Society formed.
1806. Kobert Morrison of England sails from New York for
China.
1814. New Testament translated. First Chinese baptized.
1818. Old Testament translated. Anglo-Chinese College.
Malacca.
1821. Morrison completes his Chinese Dictionary.
112 BEX CHEISTUS
1830. Arrival first Am. missionaries — Bridgman and
Abeel. Canton. (Cong.)
1834. Dr. Peter Parker opens hospital at Singapore.
1842. Treaty of Nanking. Five ports opened. Soon occu-
pied by twelve missionary societies.
1844. Mission Press at Macao. Removed next year to
Ningpo. 1860 to Shanghai. (Pres.)
First Boarding School for Girls. Ningpo. By Miss
Aldersey. (Eng.) Independent.
1845. First (Am.) Boarding School for Girls. Ningpo.
(Pres.) Miss Aldersey 's united with this in 1857.
1850. T'ai P'ing Rebellion. Twenty million lives lost.
First Foundling Asylum. (Ger.)
Boarding School for Girls. Shanghai. (Cong., now
Pres.)
1855. First Theological Seminary. Amoy, (Eng.)
1856. Second Opium War.
1858. First (Am.) Theological Seminary. Foochow. (Cong.)
1859. Boarding School for Girls. Foochow. (Meth.)
1860. Treaty of Tientsin. Many privileges granted for-
eigners.
College at Tungcho, Chihli. (Cong.)
Boarding School for Girls. Ningpo. (Bap.)
1862. Hospital and two Dispensaries. Peking. (Eng.)
Mission Press. Foochow. (Meth.)
Girls' Boarding School. Hongkong. (Eng.) Long-
heu. (Ger.)
1864. Bridgman School for Girls. Peking. (Cong.)
1865. China Inland Mission.
1866. Telegraph from Peking to outside world.
College Tungchow, Shantung. (Pres.)
1867. Girls' Boarding School. Chefoo. (Pres.)
1868. Mission Press. Peking. (Cong.)
Hospital and Dispensary. Hankow. (Eng.)
Girls' Boarding School. (Pres.)
1870. Tientsin Massacre.
James Gilmour sent to Mongolia. (Eng.)
Girls' Boarding School. Amoy. (Dutch Ref.)
1872. Female Seminary. Canton. (Pres.)
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 113
1872. First Opium Refuge. Hangchow. (Eng.)
1873. Mauchuria occupied by U. P. Church, Scotland.
First woman physician appointed to China. (Meth.)
1874. First Anti-Foot-Binding Association. Amoy, (Eng.)
First Bible Women's Training School. Swatow.
(Bap.)
1875. Girls' Boarding School. Kiukiang. (Meth.)
Hospital and Dispensary. Ningpo. (Bap.)
1876. Railroad opened, Shanghai, and four new ports.
Girls' Boarding School. Amoy. (Eng.)
1877. Hospital and two Dispensaries for Women and Chil-
dren. Foochow. (Meth.)
Shanghai Conference. Educational Association of
China formed at Tientsin.
Bible Women's Training School. Peking. (Meth.)
1878. Great famine.
Women's Hospital and Dispensary. Wuchang.
(Epis.)
1879. St. John's College. Shanghai. (Epis.)
College at Soochow. (Southern Meth.)
1880-1890. Opium Refuges in thirty-one different places.
Schools of various kinds for girls in nineteen different
places.
Hospitals and Dispensaries for women in fourteen
different places.
1880. First Woman's Hospital built at Tientsin.
1881. Viceroy's Hospital built at Tientsin.
Anglo-Chinese College. Foochow. (Meth.)
1882. Shansi Mission opened.
1884. Beginning of Industrial Institutions.
Famous " Cambridge Band" organized.
1885. Seamen's Institute. Hongkong. (Eng.)
1886. Christian College. Canton.
American Student Volunteer Association formed.
Medical Missionary Association of China formed at
Shanghai.
1887. First schools for the blind. Canton, Peking, and
Hankow.
Children's Home. Amoy. (Eng.)
I
114 REX CHRISTUS
1888. First school for deaf mutes. Chefoo. (Pres.)
University at Nanking. (Melh.)
Victoria Home and Orphanage. Hongkong. (Eng.)
1890-1900. Opium Refuges in seventeen different places.
Schools of various kinds for girls in thirty -six differ-
ent places.
Hospitals and Dispensaries for women in thirty dif-
ferent places.
1890. Door of Hope (rescue work), Shanghai.
Second Shanghai Conference.
First Leper Asylum. Pakhoi. (Eng.)
North China College. Tungcho. (Cong.)
Foundling Asylum. Kucheng. To rescue girl infants
sentenced to death by parents. (Eng.)
1891. Peking University opened.
1892. British Student Volunteer Union.
Hussey Orphanage and Infirmary. Nanking.
(Friends.)
189.3. Foochow College. (Cong.)
Anti-Foot-Binding Society. Ningpo.
1894. First kindergartens in China.
Empress presented with New Testament.
Natural Foot leagues. Chungking and Shanghai.
1895. China-Japan Treaty.
1896. Ptailroad opened, Tientsin.
Scandinavian Volunteer movement.
Orphanage at Hinghua. (Meth.)
Presbyterian College. Hangchow.
1898. Emperor's Reform Edicts. " Young China " party.
Anti-Foot-Binding Society. Nanking.
Girls' College. Foochow. (Cong.)
Anglo-Chinese College. Amoy.
1899. Rise of the Boxers.
1900. The Great Persecution.
1902. First Medical College for Women. Canton. (Pres.)
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 115
SIGNIFICANT SENTENCES
The grip of the outer world has tightened round China.
It will either strangle her or galvanize her into fresh life.
— D. C. BOULGER.
Three empires fill the vision of the future — the United
States, Russia, and China. — William Speer.
Topsy-turvy Ways in China
They mount a horse on the right side instead of the
left ; the old men play marbles and fly kites, while chil-
dren look gravely on ; they shake hands with themselves
instead of with each other ; what we call the surname is
wi-itten first and the other name afterward ; they whiten
their shoes instead of blacking them ; a coffin is a very
acceptable present to a rich parent in good health ; in
the north they sail and pull their wheelbarrows in place
of merely pushing them ; and candlesticks fit into the
candle instead of the candle fitting into the candlestick,
and so on. . . . China is a country where the roses have
no scent and the women no petticoats ; where tlie laborer
has no Sabbath day of rest and the magistrate no sense
of honor; where the roads have no carriages and the
ships have no keels ; where the needle points to the south,
the place of honor is on the left hand, and the seat of
intellect is supposed to lie in the stomach ; where it is
rude to take off your hat, and to wear white clothes is
to go into mourning. Can one be astonished to find a
literature without an alphabet and a language without
a grammar ? — Temple Bar.
The Opium Curse
Assuredly it is not foreign intercourse that is ruining
China, but this dreadful poison. . . . Opium has spread
with frightful rapidity and heart-rending results through
116 BEX CHRI8TUS
the provinces. Millions upon millions have been struck
down by the plague. To-day it is running like wildfire.
In its swift, deadly coiirse it is spreading devastation
everywhere, wrecking the minds and eating away the
strength and wealth of its victims. The ruin of the
mind is the most woful of its many deleterious effects.
The poison enfeebles the will, saps the strength of the
body, renders the consumer incapable of performing his
regular duties, and unfit for travel from one place to
another. It consumes his substance and reduces the
miserable wretch to poverty, barrenness, and senility. . . .
Many thoughtful Chinese are apprehensive that opium
will finally extirpate the race, and efforts are being made
to mitigate the curse.
— Chang Chihtung, in " China's Only Hope."
The Point of View
A Chinese resident in America is said to have written
home to his friends a letter from which the following
extract is taken : " ^VTiat is queerer still, men will stroll
out in company with their wives in broad daylight with-
out a blush. And will you believe that men and women
take hold of each other's hands by way of salutation?
Oh, I have seen it myself more than once. Not only
that, but they sit down at table together ; and the women
are served first, reversing the order of nature. After all,
what can you expect of folk who have been brought up
in barbarous countries on the very verge of the world?
They have not been taught the maxims of our sages;
they never heard of the Rites; how can they know what
good manners mean ? We often think them rude and
insolent when I'm sure they don't mean it : they're igno-
rant, that's all."
Chinese Curiosity
It would reward an Alma-Tadema to depict the Chinese
dandies filling all its many balconies, pale and silken
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 117
clad, craning their necks to see, and by the haughtiness
of their gaze recalling the decadent Romans of the last
days of the empire. Their silken garments, their arched
mouths, the coldness of their icy stare, have not yet been
duly depicted. . . . The Chinaman may be apparently
Indian-like in his stolid manner, but the Chinese woman
is not. She is devoured by curiosity. The women flock
around, and beg me to take off my gloves and my hat,
that they may see how my hair is done, and the color of
my hands. Then some old woman is sure to squeeze my
feet, to see if there is really a foot filling up all those big
boots ; for, of course, all the women here have small feet ;
that is, they have them bandaged up, and astonishingly
well they get along upon their hoof-like feet. They are
very friendly, and bring out chairs and benches before
their cottage doors and beg us to sit down, and oifer us
tea, or, if they have not got that ready, hot water. But
the children cry with terror if I touch them or go too
near ; and one little boy, in a school we went into, simply
trembled with fear all the time I stood near him to hear
him read. — Mrs. Archibald Little.
We do not lack either men of intellect or brilliant
talents, capable of learning and doing anything they
please, but their movements have hitherto been hampered
by old prejudices. — Emperor Kuang Hsu.
THEMES FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION
I. The Opium Habit and Other Elements of Weak-
ness in Chinese Character.
II. Elements of Strength in Personal and National
Life.
III. Poverty and Industry of the Chinese.
IV. Lack of Privacy and Love of Noise.
V. Marriage and IMortuary Customs.
VI. What the Chinese Eat and Drink.
118 BEX CHRISTUS
VII. Incouveniences of Travel ui Far Cathay.
VIII. Doctoring in China.
IX. How Women are Handicapped.
X. Infanticide and Footbinding.
XI. " Chinese " Gordon and the T'ai P'ing Rebellion.
XII. Some Epoch-making Treaties.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE
General References as before
Ball's " Things Chinese." I, II, VI, IX.
Bishop's " The Yangtze Valley and Beyond." I, IV, VI,
VII, IX, X.
Bryson's "John Kenneth Mackenzie." VIII.
" Chinese Empire " (Rand, McNally & Co., 1900). IX, X.
Colquhouii's " China in Transformation." II, XI, XIL
Coltman's " The Chinese." VIII, IX.
Douglas's " Society in China." V, VI, VII, IX, X.
Dukes's "Everyday Life in China." Y.
Edkins's " Religion in China." XI.
Gilmour's « Among the Mongols." VI, VIII, IX.
Graves's " Forty Years in China." I, II.
Gray's " China." I, II, V, VI, IX.
Guinness's " In the Far East." VII, IX.
Hake's " Story of Chinese Gordon." XI.
Henry's " Ling-nam, or Interior Views of South China."
IX, X.
Hue's " Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China." Ill, IV,
V, VII.
Johnston's " China and Its Future." XI.
Lockhart's " Medical Missionary of China." VIII.
Nevius's " China and the Chinese." Ill, IV, VI, IX, X.
Oliphant's " Lord I^lgin's Mission to China and Japan."
XII.
Robson's " Griffith John." XI.
Talmage's " Forty Years in South China." X.
Williamson's " Old Highways in China." IX.
THE PEOPLE OF CHINA 119
Articles on China in Periodicals: —
Century, Vol. 3, " General Charles George Gordon." XI.
Eclectic, Vol. 95, " Romance of Chinese Social Life." I, II.
Forum, Vol. 28, " Chinese Daily Life." Ill, IV, VL
Harper, Vol. 59, " Last of the Tai Ping Rebellion." XI.
Living Age, Vols. 121 and 122, "Manners and Customs in
China." I, II, V.
Popular Science, Vols. 33 and 34, " Chinese Marriage and
Funeral Customs." V.
CHAPTER IV
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS. PART I
From Earliest Times till near the Close of the
Nineteenth Century
At what time Christianity was first brought
to the Chinese Empire it is perhaps not possible
with certainty to determine. The traditions
of the churcli and scattered notices in various
writers " lead to the belief that not many years
elapsed after the times of the apostles, before
the sound of the gospel was heard in China and
Chin-India." Those who desire to collect the
traces of these early missions will find full (but
not entirely uncritical) references to them in
the writings of the Abbe Hue. Relative cer-
tainty begins with the record of the arrival of
the Nestorians, which it is supposed occurred
505 A.D. Nestorius was a monk, and later a
presbyter in Antioch, and after the year 428
patriarch of Constantinople. He soon became
involved in a controversy in respect to the
nature of the union of the human and divine
in the person of Christ, and he and his ad-
herents were eventually banished from the
Roman Empire. Some time after this he died,
120
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 121
no one knows where or when. His adherents
found an asylum in the kingdom of Persia,
whence they probably came to China. The
only record yet found of the presence of this
form of Christianity in China is the famous
Nestorian Tablet, which was discovered in Si
Ngan Fu in the year 1625, by workmen engaged
in making excavations for the building of a
house. There is no longer room for the small-
est doubt in regard to the genuineness of this
wonderful relic of the past, the date of which
is the year 781, contemporaneous with the semi-
anarchic condition of England, in the generation
following the death of "the Venerable Bede,"
and the struggles between the kingdom of Mer-
cia and the West Saxons.
The history of the Nestorian church in China
contains both an encouragement and a warning.
Among a people who, like the Chinese, revere
the past because it is the past, the Nestorian
Tablet is a convincing witness of the antiquity
of the Chinese faith, and of its triumphs during
one of the most splendid dynasties.
Roman Catholic Missions
The first effort by Romanists of the medi-
eval period was made by John, called Monte
Corvino, from the name of a small village near
Salerno, where he was born. He was sent by
way of India on a mission to the Tartars, reach-
ing China in 1291, at the time when the famous
122 BEX CHRISTUS
Kublai Khan was emperor. In 1307 this zeal-
ous missionary was to be reinforced by seven
Franciscan monks, who were made bishops in
advance of their departure, Corvino being ap-
pointed archbishop of Peking. Three of the
seven died of fatigue on the way, one returned
to Europe, and the other three did not reach
their destination until 1308. The subsequent
history of this wonderful movement resembles
the course of those rivers which, flowing through
desert wastes, are lost in the sand. Corvino
died at a great age after a life of incredible
toil. Other faithful and laborious men suc-
ceeded him, but the Mongol dynasty soon ran
its short life, and the empire was once more in
confusion. The Mings, who succeeded to the
throne, endeavored to put a stop to all commu-
nication with foreign lands, and the Christians
were persecuted and slain. So completely were
the traces of the past effaced that it was long
forgotten that Christianity had ever entered
the Celestial Empire at all.
The second period of Roman Catholic mis-
sions is separated from the first by a long inter-
val of silence. The great Xavier died on the
island of St. Johns (Sancian) toward the close
of 1552, after heroic and unavailing efforts to
obtain an entrance to the hermetically sealed
empire. Valignani, the Superior of their mis-
sions in the East, did not, however, abandon the
apparently hopeless enterprise, but appointed to
CHRISTIAN illSSIONS 123
it a Neapolitan Jesuit named Roger, wlio was
soon joined by another Italian whose brilliant
career in China has perhaps never been equalled
by any other missionary in any land, Matthew
Ricci. They effected an entrance into the prov-
ince of Kuang-tung in 1-682, disguising their
object and adopting the garb of Buddhist priests,
which twelve years later was wisely exchanged
for that of the literati. The next one and
twenty years were occupied with adventures
more romantic than mere fiction, in incessant
efforts to reach the capital of the empire, Peking.
Of these remarkable experiences and triumphs
we have full contemporary accounts, which
have been invested with still greater interest
by the pains taken to set them forth in the vol-
umes of the Abbe Hue (" History of Christian-
ity in China," etc.).
No detailed mention can be made of the liter-
ary, scientific, and miscellaneous labors of Ricci,
nor of the work of other distinguished pioneers.
The Jesuits achieved notable triumphs, then
came a reaction due to a variety of causes, and
finally an edict whereby " all missionaries not
required at Peking for scientific purposes were
ordered to leave the country." In 1747 severe
persecutions extended all over China. Many
foreigners and converts during this stormy
period " suffered death, torture, imprisonment,
and banishment." The behavior of the Catho-
lic Christians during this trying century and a
124 BEX CHRISTUS
quarter is the most convincing proof of the
genuineness of their religion. No better evi-
dence of this could have been given by converts
anywhere under the skies.
The Situation To-day. — During the past half-
century the growth of the Roman Catholic
church in China has been great, not in large
centres only, but also in all the provinces. In a
work by the vicar apostolic of the province of
Che-kiang, the English translation of which
was issued in 1897, the opinion is expressed
that during this time the number of converts
has doubled, but the editor confesses that he is
unable to obtain any statistics. According to
the vicar there are twenty -seven bishops, besides
four districts differently organized, and probably
three-quarters of a million Christians. Much
larger estimates are frequently given, but it
is uncertain upon what basis the computation
is made, as Catholic statistics usually refer to
families, while those of Protestant missions
take the number of baptized communicants.
With such different origin, methods, and
aims, it is perhaps not surprising that Catholic
and Protestant missionaries in China ordinarily
meet but seldom, and have none but the most
formal relations one with another. There are
not only the barriers of such diverse forms of
faith, but often also those of nationality and
language. There is said to be but one English
priest in China, although Germans are numer-
CHIilSTlAN MISSIONS 125
ous, and the other nations of Europe are largely
represented. It would be easy to append an
extended essay upon the methods of these two
branches of the church in China, but it is
scarcely worth the space, and must in any case
be unsatisfactory, from the lack of that definite
acquaintance with many facts in regard to Roman
Catholic missions on which either commendation
or criticism should be based. It is -certain that
they have many faithful and loyal followers
who have shown their faith by their works in
times of the greatest storm and strain. It is
equally certain that many others have but a
superficial knowledge of Christianity, and that,
especially since the Boxer rising was suppressed,
multitudes have flocked to the Roman Catholic
standard with a view to revenge. The semi-
political management of this great ecclesiasti-
cal organization is one of its worst features,
another being a frequently well-marked ten-
dency to antagonize Protestants by any and
every means. One would gladly pass over this
as a local and a temporary phase did facts
admit. If the present aggressions committed
in the name of this church in China are not
stopped, there is every reason to fear that they
may bring about another outbreak perhaps
greater than the last. A frank recognition of
this would be of the greatest service to the
Chinese, to Protestants, and to that great
church which, for the welfare of a great race,
126 REX CHBISTUS
has endured so much persecution and suffered
so many martyrdoms.
Protestant Missions
It is not easy for one who lives at the begin-
ning of the twentieth century to project himself
backward intellectually, in such a way as to
comprehend the relations then existing between
China and- the lands of the west. From the
Chinese point of view their empire had nothing
to gain by the visits of these unwelcome stran-
gers from the west except that trade was pro-
moted, an object which the mandarins professed
to view with supreme contempt, and in regard
to which they entertained the most fatuous
notions. Because large cargoes of tea were
shipped to England and to the United States,
it was inferred that the inhabitants of these
remote and inhospitable lands would otherwise
have nothing to drink. Because rhubarb was
bought in great quantities, the Chinese logically
inferred that the digestion of the barbarians
was of such a sort that without this drug they
must inevitably die. The records of the inter-
course between China and every one of the
western nations which dealt with her are full
of incidents which show how difficult it was to
arrive at any modus vivendi whatever. The
conceit and arrogance of the Chinese officials,
high and low, passes belief, and it was hand-
somely matched by the attitude of the common
CHRISTIAN 3IISSI0NS 1^7
people, who took no pains to conceal their open
contempt for the red-haired, blue-eyed monsters
who forced themselves upon them year by year,
and who year by year became a more and more
difficult problem.
In order to incommode the court at Peking
as little as possible, the merchants were assigned
to Canton as their only port ; and in order the
better to control them, they were penned up on
an insignificant strip of land which would with
difficulty afford pasturage for one or two ambi-
tious cows. These were the famous "factories,"
with a tiny space upon which alone tlie inmates,
who were virtual prisoners awaiting their tickets
of leave, could take that exercise, the object of
which was to the Chinese of that day, as it has
been to the Chinese ever since, an insoluble
riddle. Yet under even these restrictions and
incessant humiliations trade flourished, and
then, as too often now, trade had rights which
outweighed all other human interests. Perhaps
there never was a more typical illustration of
the familiar aphorism that corporations have no
souls than the career of the British East India
Company, both in India and in China. In the
former land they deported those who came with
the tidings of salvation, for the reason that the
knowledge of such an errand would not improb-
ably be attended with political troubles, and
political troubles would lead to irregularities
which might involve the loss of the sacred
128 BEZ CHRISTUS
Trade, which was in reality the idol before
which " The Company " bowed, and which alone
it worshipped. Like others in different parts
of the world since, they were in the China trade
"for what there was in it," and for nothing
else.
The Pioneer Society. — Modern missionary
work in China is naturally divisible into four
distinct periods, each terminated by a foreign
war. The first period covers the years between
1807 and 1842. Thus we see that it was not
until the close of the eighteenth century that the
conscience of Protestant Christendom became
sufficiently enlightened to contemplate the pos-
sibility of endeavoring to do its age-long duty
by its fellow-men at the ends of the earth.
The beginnings of this enterprise were every-
where conducted under difficulties and against
opposition such as we cannot now fully compre-
hend. The faith which could not only rise
against these hindrances, but could at the same
time do the work of the church abroad while
keeping its missionary fires alight at home, is
nothing less than sublime. The cry of Vali-
gnani, the successor of Xavier, as he viewed from
a distance Chinese mountains dimly defined, is
said to have been : " O mighty fortress, when
shall these impenetrable gates of thine be broken
through ? "
It is to the London Missionary Society that
belongs the honor of first undertaking a Protes-
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 129
tant mission to the dense population of China,
under conditions which indeed promised but
little, and which might well have given pause to
any but those animated by the most burning
zeal. The first missionary was Robert Morrison,
a Northumbrian lad born in 1782, who spent
his youth at Newcastle-on-Tyne employed at
manual labor for twelve or fourteen hours a
day, yet seldom failing to find one or two hours
for reading and meditation. Even at work his
Bible or some other book was usually open
before him. He was not able to obtain many
books, but such as he could get he read and
re-read with great avidity, a sure sign of
an intellectual appetite certain to lead to
future results. It is interesting to know that
neither his father nor his relatives could for
some time be induced to look with favor upon
his desire to become a minister, much less his
wild plan for missionary work abroad. He had
prepared for the divinity scliool at Hoxton by
studying between seven at night and six in the
morning, during the daytime making boot-trees.
He began the study of the Chinese language in
London, with a Chinese who happened to be in
the country. It was vain to expect a passage
in the ships of the East India Company, so
Morrison sailed for New York, where he spent
some weeks, leaving for China armed with a
letter from James Madison, Secretary of State,
to the American consul at Canton, where he
130 BEX CHBISTUS.
lived for a year in the factory of some New York
merchants. Although the foreigners both in
Macao and in Canton were outwardly friendly,
Morrison's position was one of extreme delicacy
and difficulty. Even a footing on Chinese soil
seemed unattainable, and the limitations under
which he labored were most disheartening. He
was the constant victim of that observation with-
out sympathy which Mrs. Browning defined as
torture. For a Chinese to teach the language to
foreigners was to subject himself to the penalty
of death, and almost all the helps to the acquire-
ment of the intricate maze of hieroglyphs were
at that time lacking. Morrison lived, as we
have seen, with the Americans and passed for
one, as they were less disliked than the English.
But his position was precarious in the extreme,
and in less than a year, in company with all the
other British, he was driven by political dis-
turbances to Macao, where he fared ill.
In 1809 he found, however, a double relief.
He was married to the daughter of an English
resident in Canton, and he was engaged by the
East India Company as Chinese translator at a
salary of ,£250 per annum. This gave him
a definite status and was an aid rather than a
hindrance to the prosecution of his mission, as
his translation work assisted him in the study
of the language and increased his opportu-
nities for intercourse with the Chinese. His
life was often endangered by pirates. There
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 131
was in Canton little congenial society, neither
the English nor the American residents having
any interest in his work or any belief in it.
His first child, a boy, died at its birth, and the
Chinese objected to its burial. His wife was
dangerously ill. His faith and courage were
strained to the breaking-point, but he plodded
on at his grammar and his dictionary, foun-
dation works of inestimable value to later
students. The grammar was finished in 1812,
sent to Bengal for printing, and never heard of
for three years, coming forth at last to be highly
appreciated. Morrison printed a tract and a
catechism, translated the Acts and the gospel
of Luke, a copy of which was burned by the
Roman Catholic bishop of Macao as a heretical
work. The publication of these books produced
a storm of opposition from the Chinese. A
special proclamation was issued against him, and
those who had assisted him were warned that
the penalty was death. ^
A True Yokefellow. — Just at this juncture
the Society sent out Rev. Robert Milne and
his wife to join the Morrisons, who arrived in
July, 1813, but in less than a fortnight the
Portuguese governor expelled them from Macao,
no assistance being given by the English resi-
dents lest their trade should be prejudiced.
At this critical period, when it was necessary to
try new ways, Milne was admirably adapted to be
Morrison's associate. He devoted himself with
132 REX CHRISTUS
great zeal to the study of the language, restrain-
ing as he could his impatience to be at work.
He was the author of the oft-quoted saying
that " to acquire the Chinese is a work for men
with bodies of brass, lungs of steel, heads of oak,
hands of spring-steel, eyes of eagles, hearts of
the apostles, memories of angels, and lives of
Methuselah ! "
By the end of 1813 the whole New Testament
had been translated, — considering the circum-
stances and the difficulties a gigantic achieve-
ment. It was agreed to search for a place in
the East India islands or the Malay peninsula
where the headquarters of the mission might
be established, and where Chinese might be
trained who could enter China without attract-
ing that suspicion which was inseparable from
foreigners. Milne spent seven or eight months
in prospecting in Java and Malacca, which was
selected as the coign of vantage from which
to move China. In the same year Morrison
baptized his first convert at a spring issuing
from the foot of a hill, away from human
observation. The East India Company under-
took the cost of printing Morrison's Chinese
dictionary, upon which they spent £10,000.
Mrs. Morrison was ordered to England with her
children, returning to China six years later, only
to die. Milne established himself at Malacca,
where the difficulties were different from those
in China, though not less formidable. He had
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 133
made remarkable progress in Chinese, and aided
in the translation of the Bible and other works.
Morrison was sent on an embassy to Peking
with Lord Amherst, an enterprise which failed,
owing to the arrogance of the Chinese, but the
experience was invaluable to him.
Strong Foundations Laid. — The establishment
at Malacca of an Anglo-Chinese college was the
next great step, and one in which Morrison
endeavored to interest friends at home. The
proposal was warmly taken up and Milne was
made president. In a report on the condition
of Malacca this institution was highly praised
by a member of Parliament for its thoroughl}^
sound and efficient work. Reinforcements were
now sent out to this "Ultra-Ganges mission."
A magazine called the Q-leaner was issued.
The presses poured forth pamphlets, tracts, and
gospels, both in Malay and in Chinese. Schools
were founded, but the people were ignorant and
listless. The converts were far from satisfac-
tory. Mrs. Morrison and Mrs. Milne had both
died, and Mr. Milne himself followed in 1822,
after eleven years of most fruitful service. One
of his tracts, the " Two Friends," has had a wider
circulation perhaps than almost any other Chi-
nese publication, and, what is more remarkable,
was recently shown, by a formal note of the mis-
sionaries scattered all over China, to be still one
of the most popular.
Mr. Morrison visited England in 1824-1825,
134 REX CHBISTUS
where he was again married. He was received
with great demonstrations of respect, present-
ing his Chinese Bible to King George IV. He
returned in 1826 to fall upon stormy times. The
relations between China and Great Britain were
becoming greatly strained. As a prophecy of
the coming and inevitable war the political ba-
rometer was continually falling. The external
issue of the conflict when it came was a demand
from the Chinese for the surrender of some nine
million dollars' worth of opium, but the real
question was the rights of intercourse between
other nations and China. In 1833 the Roman
Catholics attacked Dr. Morrison, securing the
suppression of his presses and his publications.
The monopoly of the East India Company was
abolished and Dr. Morrison's connection with it
ceased. He died in June, 1834, after twenty-
seven years of as laborious and fruitful effort as
were ever spent by any missionary that ever
penetrated the Celestial Empire. This early
work is a microcosm in which may be discerned
the roots of all that has since been accomplished
in the Land of Sinim. Dr. Morrison published
more than thirty different works, one of which
was his monumental dictionary in six quarto
volumes. Of the Bible, twenty-six Old Testa-
ment books were translated by him, and the
remainder by Dr. Milne under his colleague's
supervision. Dr. Morrison's best known con-
vert, Liang A-fa, was a useful and a successful
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 135
evangelist who suffered much for his faith and
died in 1855. He was the author of a variety
of widely circulated tracts, one of which gained
great celebrity, because from it Hung Hsiu-
ch'uan, who subsequently started the great T'ai
P'ing Rebellion, gained his first knowledge of
Christianity.
Among the reinforcements sent to the Malacca
mission was Dr. W. H. Medhurst, who arrived
in 1817, where he labored most industriously
for many years. After the death of Dr. Mor-
rison he visited Canton and made a voyage of
observation along the coast of China as far as
northeastern Shantung. After the war with
China he lived for thirteen years in Shanghai,
where also he was indefatigable. He was the
first to issue a Christian trimetrical classic on
the plan of the Chinese text-book. His publi-
cations in Chinese, in Malay, and in English
were more than ninety in number, one of which
was a Chinese and English dictionary in two
octavo volumes. The lives of the trio men-
tioned, like those of the great Indian three —
Carey, Marshman, and Ward, — serve to illus-
trate the mysterious fact that the pioneers of
missions are often the ablest workers, whom it
is difficult to equal and impossible to surpass.
Arrival of Americans
It v/as appropriate that the earliest mission-
aries from the United States should have been
136 BEX CHRISTUS
sent by the oldest American society, the Ameri-
can Board, founded in 1810, fifteen years later
than the London Missionary Society. The at-
tention of the Board was first called to China
by a Christian merchant, Mr. Olyphant, then
living at Canton. His vessels were always open
and free to missionaries. One of them, named
the Morrison, of four hundred tons — a large
vessel for those times — was almost a missionary
ship. The first recruits were Rev. E. C. Bridg-
man and Rev. David Abeel, who arrived Feb-
ruary, 1830. The former was soon a secretary
of one of the earliest organized efforts to en-
lighten the Chinese, called the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in China, which
dates from 1834, and which, within recent years,
has a modern successor in Shanghai of great
influence and importance. Mr. Bridgman was
also one of the originators of the Morrison
Education Society, another fruitful seed in the
early soil. In 1832 he began the publication
of the Ohinese Repository, consisting of papers
on subjects of interest and value to those wish-
ing to comprehend China. It was issued monthly
for twenty years under his editorship and that
of Dr. Williams, and contains a history of for-
eign intercourse and missions during that time.
It is now very scarce. Mr. Bridgman was a
prominent member of the Committee of Dele-
gates in Shanghai to translate the New Testa-
ment, and later the Old Testament. Samuel
CHRISTIAN MIS,SIONS 137
Wells Williams, who was appointed printer to
the American Board mission in 1832, was one
of those men not infrequently to be met with in
the mission field who are endowed with untir-
ing industry, great versatility, and an unusual
talent both for acquiring and for imparting
knowledge. He was one of a party to convey a
number of shipwrecked Japanese back to their
land in the year 1837. Though the enterprise
failed, it was useful in giving that experience
which fitted Dr. Williams to be interpreter for
an American expedition to Japan in 1853, and
again with Commodore Perry in 1854. From
1856 he was secretary of the United States
Legation, and took an important part in the
negotiation of the treaty of 1859 and of the
year following. His greatest work was his
" Middle Kingdom," in two volumes, published
in 1848 and entirely recast in 1883, which is a
standard authority on everything relating to
China. Another important contribution to the
study of China was his syllabic dictionary,
published in 1874.
Beginning of Medical Work. — The name of
Dr. Peter Parker is inseparably linked with the
early stages of medical work for the Chinese,
which has always been so great an aid in over-
coming their hostility to foreigners. His first
hospital was opened in the Chinese quarter of
Singapore in the 3^ear 1834. A year later it
was transferred to Canton, special attention
138 REX cnmsTUS
being given to diseases of the eye and to sur-
gical cases. Dr. Morrison had also been con-
nected with a similar enterprise in 1820, and
Dr. Colledge of the East India Company opened
a dispensary at his own expense in 1837, which
lasted for five years and was very successful.
Dr. Parker's work began Nov. 4, 1835, and
while at first the object of much suspicion on
the part of the Chinese, soon attracted wide
notice for its wonderful cures in all ranks of
society, and elicited many touching expressions
of gratitude. This enterprise so favorably begun
has been carried on ever since, and was the pat-
tern of many others since established. The
influence of Dr. Parker's medical work led to
the formation in 1838 of the Medical Missionary
Society, a pioneer in a field now much more fully
explored. Dr. Hobson of the London Society con-
ducted a separate hospital in Canton from 1846
to 1856. He was the author of many tracts and
of several medical works in Chinese. He was
associated with another man of mark, Dr. Wil-
liam Lockhart, who had a long and varied ex-
perience in southern, central, and northern China,
and whose volume called "The Medical Mis-
sionary in China" was one of the earliest and is
still one of the best presentations of its subject.
The Second Period, 1842 to 1860
The outcome of the struggle with Great
Britain was that China was compelled to yield
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 139
everything claimed, and as we have already
seen, in addition to Canton, which had been
little more than a prison-house for merchants,
the ports of Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shang-
hai were definitely opened, and consuls were
appointed to each of them. International re-
lations were thus constituted, and with it, as
a bitter accompaniment, exterritoriality, — an
imperative necessity in the case of an Oriental
government like China, but not the less galling
to its pride. Now that Great Britain had pre-
pared the way, Belgium, France, Holland, Por-
tugal, Prussia, Spain, and the United States
hastened to send embassies and to make treaties.
Hongkong was ceded to the British, and a small
and iDarren rock of " rotten granite " was, by the
magic touch of good government and commer-
cial enterprise, converted into one of the most
important ports of the world. There was an
enormous expansion of business in e,very direc-
tion, yet no one was satisfied, for the British
public, at least, had persuaded itself that now
that China was "opened," her people would
desire Occidental civilization. Thither accord-
ingly were sent great and futile shipments of
knives, forks, stockings, and pianos ! The
Chinese officials had been demonstrated to be
but men of straw, and a British consul, Mr.
T. T. Meadows, perhaps the most philosophical
of the many writers on China, considered that
this itself was one of the chief predisposing
140 BEX CHRISTUS
causes of the great T'ai P'ing Rebellion, which
for half a generation, like a slow-moving but
irresistible lava-flow, devastated more than half
the empire.
The effect of the new conditions was as
much appreciated by the body of missionaries
as by the merchants. When Morrison died in
Canton, in 1834, the prospect of the extension
of the evangelistic work, as Dr. Williams re-
minds us, was nearly as dark as when he landed.
Only three assistants had come to his help, so
that when the first American missionaries ar-
rived, at the expiration of twenty-three years
of toil, he was again quite alone. Within the
period closing with the treaty of Nanking, about
fifty missionaries had been sent from Europe
and America, either to China or to the Chinese
settlements in Java, Siam, and the Straits; but
owing to the fluctuating nature of these immi-
grants and to other causes, none of these mis-
sions had taken root. They were now almost
entirely abandoned for work in China itself.
The converts there had been but few, and at
the close of the war it is said that they might
have all been counted on the fingers of one
hand.
Splendid Reinforcements. — Without descend-
ing into detail, a few words may suffice to indi-
cate the nature of the great forward movement
which took place in China after the war. The
American Presbyterian mission began to work
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 141
in Canton in 1842, followed two years later by
the American Southern Baptist mission. Two
German missions, the Rhenish and the Basel,
entered the Kuangtung province in 1817. They
met with phenomenal difficulties and discour-
agements, yet persevered in their work. One
mission was largely for the native Cantonese
and the other for the Hakkas, a race of former
immigrants from central China. It is note-
worthy that one of their best men tried for
many years to establish himself in the vicinity
of Swatow, but failed ; yet that region later
became the headquarters of a conspicuously suc-
cessful work by the American Baptists, under
the lead of Dr. Ashmore (now a veteran of
more than fifty years' standing), and by the
English Presbyterians, led by Rev. William C.
Burns, one of the best-known missionaries of
this period by reason of his evangelistic spirit,
his extraordinary command of many dialects, his
sweet hymns, and his unequalled translation of
the " Pilgrim's Progress " into the mandarin col-
loquial. He also opened the work of the same
society at Amoy, where the London society was
represented by the Stronach brothers, who came
from Peking and Singapore. They devoted
themselves with great ardor to street preach-
ing, one of them learning by heart large portions
of the Chinese classics, so that when attacked
by Chinese scholars they always found more
than their match. The work of the American
142 BEX CHRISTUS
Board at this port was subsequently transferred
to the American Reformed mission. All three
of these missions expanded into large propor-
tions, and the entire history of their develop-
ment is a study in the wise and efficient union
of faith and works. The phenomenal measure
of union here attained was wholly due to the
missionaries on the field, and not to the societies
at home, making another object-lesson in the
conduct of missions.
In Foochow the American Board mission
and that of the American Methodists were each
begun in 1847, followed three years later by the
Church Missionary Society of England. Each
of these has grown to large results, attained
after long seed-sowing and patient, prayerful
waiting. In the case of the Church mission it
was eleven years before the first converts were
gained, and in the others almost as long.
Ningpo was occupied by the American Baptist
mission in 1843, the American Presbyterian mis-
sion following the next year, and the Church mis-
sion in 1848, in each case with expansion in due
season similar to that just mentioned. In the
rising port of Shanghai the London mission was
begun by Dr. Medhurst and Dr. Lockhart pre-
viously referred to, followed soon after by Mr.
Muirhead, who lived to complete, and more than
complete, fifty years of arduous and unusually
varied and efficient service. The American
Protestant Episcopal Board, under the lead of
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 143
Dr. Boone and a party of nine recruits, followed
in 1845 ; the American Southern Baptists, with
whom the names of Dr. and Mrs. Yates will al-
ways be identified, in 1847 ; and the American
Presbyterian mission in 1850, where their evan-
gelistic labors have been admirably matched by
the establishment and conduct of one of the
largest and best mission presses in the world.
The American Southern Methodist mission
(1848) has also done a great work, especially
for education of varied grades.
Many other incipient movements date from
this period of preparation. It was a time of
restriction, with possibilities of future develop-
ments rather than of actual expansion. For-
eigners were limited to a thirty-mile radius in
thekr excursions from the treaty ports. The
occupation of a large part of the interior by the
T'ai P'ing rebels made travelling dangerous ;
and though many bold and brave missionaries
adventured their lives in the camp of the leader,
who successfully established himself at Nanking
in 1852, it became more and more evident that
nothing really reformatory was. to be expected
from these " Kings," with their blasphemous
assumptions. Fifty years from the beginning
of Protestant missions it was estimated by some
that the number of converts was not more than
one hundred, although others place the figures
much higher. Yet important beginnings had
everywhere been made. The medical work
144 BEX CHEISTUS
was a great blessing in Canton, in Shanghai,
and wherever else it was practicable. The thin
end of the missionary educational wedge began
to be inserted in the yawning rifts of Chinese
ignorance and prejudice, and was driven home
with sturdy blows.
Translation of the Scriptures. — Mention has
already been made of the significant fact that
the very first Protestant missionaries translated
the whole Bible into Chinese, an enterprise which,
so far as is known, the Roman Catholics with their
start of many hundred years never undertook.
The revision of the earlier translation was ar-
ranged for immediately after the close of the
war of 1842, by a general conference at Hong-
kong the next year. The committee consisted
of Rev. Messrs. Medhurst, J. Stronach, and
Milne, from the London society, and Rev.
Messrs. Bridgman, Boone, Shuck, Lowrie, and
Culbertson, from American societies. The New
Testament was finished in 1850, the Old Testa-
ment in 1853, and another version in a simpler
style in 1862 by Messrs. Bridgman and Culbert-
son. In 1865 the New Testament was also
translated into the mandarin dialect by Messrs.
Blodget, Edkins, Burdon, and Schereschewsky,
the latter making the admirable rendering of
the Old Testament alone. The difficulties of
fixing upon suitable terms for such expressions
as faith, atonement, regeneration, sanctification,
etc., in a language like the Chinese, was very
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 145
great. The rendering of the word "baptize"
proved an obstacle to unity of versions, and
singular as it may appear to those unacquainted
with the nature of the question, no common
term for God could be agreed upon. Even to
the present time, all copies of the Scriptures
and most other Christian books, are printed in
different editions with different terms. While
this has been an obvious and much regretted
evil, the injury to the mission cause has been
far less than might be supposed, since the Chi-
nese are familiar with great diversities of ex-
pression for the same concept. There is now
an increasing tendency to harmony, and within
a few decades the controversy will have been
forgotten.
Treachery in Treaties. — The last four years
of this period were witnesses of another war
between Great Britain and China, the occasion-
ing cause being a " lorcha " loaded with opium
and flying the British flag. But the real diffi-
culty was the intolerable assumptions of the
Chinese, who had unlearned all the lessons of
the previous contest. Treaties were signed in
1858, but the foreign envoys committed the
fatal mistake of leaving Tientsin, and China
as well, by the end of the year, relieving the
emperor from his fear of being captured and
carried off, as the governor-general of Kuang-
tung had been. The following year the Chin-
ese treacherously refused to exchange the
146 BEX CHEisrus
ratifications of the treaties, and drove back the
British. Tliis involved another war, which
took pLace in 1860, with the British and French
as allies, resulting in the capture of Peking
in the month of October, and supplementary
treaties signed at Peking.
The Third Period, 1860 to 1895
The close of the second war with Great
Britain is one of the turning-points of modern
Chinese history. The ignorant and obstinate
Manchus and Chinese had been forced to rec-
ognize the power of the "barbarians." The
important right of residence in Peking was
conceded. Many new ports were opened, each
a large window for more light to enter the
empire. One of the most unique events was
the introduction into the treaties of the "toler-
ation clause," which in the American version is
as follows : " Art. XXIX. The principles of
the Christian religion as professed by the Prot-
estant and Roman Catholic churches, are rec-
ognized as teaching men to do good, and to do
to others as they would have others do to
them. Hereafter those who quietly profess
and teach these doctrines shall not be harassed
or persecuted on account of their faith. Any
person, whether citizen of the United States or
Chinese convert, who according to these tenets
peaceably teaches and practices the principles
of Christianity, shall in no case be interfered
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 147
with or molested." Much has been written and
said in condemnation and in praise of this
article, the former on the ground that it was
" forcing our religion upon the Chinese," though
it cannot justly be so construed. Like exterri-
toriality, it was not perhaps quite welcome to
the Chinese, but they made in the first instance
no objections whatever, or it would not have
been included, as the Ministers held no brief
for missions. There can be little doubt that
the treaty has been most useful to the better
interests of all classes of Chinese. That it has
been at times abused is likewise true, but in this
respect this article is unfortunately not singu-
lar. A spurious clause appended by a zealous
Father, employed as interpreter, to the Chinese
but not to the French version of the French
treaty reads thus : " It is in addition per-
mitted to French missionaries to rent and to
purchase land in all the provinces, and to erect
buildings thereon at pleasure." As only the
French text is authoritative, this pious fraud
was useless. Contrary to the common repre-
sentations on the subject, it may be said to have
had no relation at all to Protestant missionary
residence in the interior.
Evidences of a New Era. — It was in the early
part of this period that the Chinese Imperial
Maritime Customs service was instituted, manned
by foreigners and furnishing an object-lesson
in civil service, and revenues for the empire.
148 BEX CHRISTUS
The Burlingame mission to foreign courts was
despatched to enable the Chinese to get their
breath before coming into the "sisterhood of
nations." A large party of Chinese youth was
sent to the United States to be educated, only
to be recalled some years later before the fruits
were ripe. The Chinese commercial spirit
came to self-consciousness in western ways by
the organization of the important China Mer-
chants' Steam Navigation Company, and in
general it was evident that a new era had set in.
At the declaration of peace in the autumn of
1860 more than a hundred missionaries were
penned up in Shanghai awaiting the second
" opening " of China. Rev. Henry Blodget of
the American Board was the first Protestant
missionary to enter Tientsin immediately fol-
lowing the British army, passing on later to
Peking. During this period that mission, ex-
panding into several stations, began at T'ung
Chou the rudiments of what blossomed into a
college and theological seminary, together with
the usual forms of work, and a printing-press
in Peking. Mr. Edkins of Shanghai estab-
lished himself at Tientsin, and later at Peking,
in each of which cities flourishing missions
developed. The hospital work at the former
city is associated with the names of Dr. J. K.
McKenzie and Dr. Roberts. Dr. Lockhart, as
already mentioned, opened a hospital in Peking,
followed by Dr. Dudgeon and many others.
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 149
Mr. Muirhead of Shanghai was able to visit
Hankow, seven hundred miles up the Yang^-tse
River, at an early period after the treaty of 1858,
and in 1861 Mr. Griffith John went to occupy
what Secretary Mullens thought " the finest mis-
sionary centre in the world." From this strategic
point the work of the London and other societies
has spread all over that part of the empire,
into remote Ssuch'uan, and more lately into
the formerly sealed province of Hunan.
The American Presbyterian mission ex-
panded from Shanghai into the great and
ancient cities of Hangchow, Soochow, and Nan-
king, and later to Peking, where its beginnings
are linked with the name of Dr. W. A. P.
Martin, subsequently president of the T'ung
Wen Kuan, and of the Imperial University, au-
thor of many important works in Chinese. In
Shantung the same mission, beginning at Che-
fop and Teng Chou Fu, worked westward to
many cities, developing into two different mis-
sions. The name of Dr. Nevius will always be
associated with his great work in eastern Shan-
tung. A fine college grew up under the guid.
ing hands of Dr. C. W. Mateer and others,
the usefulness of which is but begun.
The Church mission opened a station in
Peking, which was later turned over to the
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (the
Anglican mission), which now has two bishops
over its flocks in Chihli and Shantung.
150 EEX CHBISTUS
The American Methodist mission, whose
occupation of Foochow has been mentioned,
began work in central China in 1867, and in
Peking two years later, reaching out for vast
distances in every direction. Their modest
Boys' Boarding School, begun in 1878, devel-
oped ten years later into what became the
Peking University, with a large constituency.
An important mission of this society in the
far province of Ssuch'uan was begun in 1881,
followed for a time by violence and serious
trouble.
The China Inland Mission. — Even to sketch
in the baldest outline the trickling of these
streams which were to convey the water of life
to widely separated parts of China would occupy
many pages, and would, after all, convey but a
slight impression of the real work of more than
fifty different missionary societies which grad-
ually overspread the land. To one of these,
however, it is necessary to devote a little space
on account of its unique origin, methods, and
results. The China Inland Mission was begun
in 1865 by Rev. J. Hudson Taylor, a physician
who went to China under the Chinese Evan-
gelization Society in 1853. It has always
been distinctively a "faith mission," with no
guaranteed salary for its workers, no personal
solicitation of funds being authorized, "pan-
denominational," and in its fuller development
international. Its efforts were systematically
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 151
directed, not merely to working in China but
for the whole of the empire, especially the
unoccupied provinces, then very numerous. Its
plan was to begin at the capital of each prov-
ince, although this would generally be the most
difficult city to enter, taking the prefectural
cities later, and the -smaller ones last. Thus
centres would be taken and held, through which
the whole province might be influenced. The
first stages were largely preliminary, especially
itinerating, which was carried on sometimes
upon a gigantic scale ; as, for example, one of
Mr. Stevenson's journeys from Burmah to Yun-
nan, Ssuch'uan, and thence to Shanghai, and
back to Burmah, making in 240 days a total of
about 7700 miles.
One of the marked features of the growth of
the mission has been the arrival of large rein-
forcements at one time in answer to definite
prayer. In 1881 seventy-seven members of the
mission signed an appeal for seventy additional
workers, and in the three following years sev-
enty-six recruits reached the field. In Novem-
ber, 1886, a hundred new workers were asked
for, and the whole number was sent out during
the following year. Among the forty acces-
sions in 1885 were the well-known " Cambridge
band," whose arrival created a profound impres-
sion both at home and abroad. The prayers
for funds were answered in like manner, so that
they have substantially kept pace with the
162 REX CHRISTUS
expanding area of labor. A considerable num-
ber of societies, especially from Scandinavian
countries, have sent out workers as "associates"
of the Inland Mission. At the end of 1898,
two years before the close of the period under
consideration, this mission had 583 workers dis-
persed through all the provinces except Kuang-
tung and Fukien, with 131 stations, and more
than as many churches, containing 4300 mem-
bers.
The policy of adopting large cities as cen-
tres of effort has been generally followed all
over China. The United Presbyterian church
has a large and rapidly growing work in
Manchuria, begun in this way, but developed
according to providential leadings, until at
the close of this period it had literally almost
covered the whole land with its influence. On
the other hand, three missions in North China,
the London Society in Chihli, the English
Methodist, and the American Board in Shan-
tung, have each one station in a country village,
from which the work expands as elsewhere,
without the advantage of a large urban con-
stituency, and free also from its drawbacks.
Modus of Mission Work
Amid wide diversities of conditions the pro-
cesses by which the gospel is introduced in a
new mission station bear a general family like-
ness, and may be readily outlined. The first
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 153
requisite is a home for the missionary, and in
securing this infinite patience and great tact
are often indispensable, especially in the early
stages of the work. In shrewdness at bargain-
ing the Chinese yield nothing to either Jew or
Gentile ; and the moment that a foreign " bar-
barian " wishes a site it rapidly increases in
value. The small holdings of Chinese property,
the large families, indefinite subdivisions of
land and dwellings, the tyranny of the aged, as
well as of those belonging to the literary class,
the terrorism of professional bullies, the antip-
athy to foreigners on the part of neighbors
and of the " gentry," the incapacity, obstinacy,
ignorance, cunning, deceit, and open hostility
of the local and higher officials, make this a
task which not infrequently extends over sev-
eral years. Only the most resolute purpose,
backed by illimitable faith in his mission of
enlightenment to those refusing to be enlight-
ened, prevents discouragement and failure.
Not all beginnings have been of this descrip-
tion, but they are frequent and are always to
be expected, especially in the larger cities and
in provincial capitals. The gradual thawing
of the icebergs of prejudice may generally be
counted upon, but it is a slow process. The
deeds of a moderate-sized mission compound
would sometimes make a carpet for a large
room, and the separate sheets resemble crazy
patchwork in their number, each one perhaps
154 BEX CHRISTUS
the issue of a hotly contested and long-con-
tinued battle. In countless instances, to other
forms of opposition has been added that of mob
violence, which is readily excited by subter-
ranean means through the influence of the
officials or the literary class. The wildest
stories are in circulation about the extraction
of the eyes and hearts of children for use in
" making silver," until the whole region is wild
with passion. It was this form of libel which
in the first part of this period produced the
terrible Tientsin massacre (June, 1870) in
which twenty foreigners lost their lives, in-
cluding a French consul.
The Second Step. — As soon as a base of
operations is secured, the next step is usually
the opening of a street chapel, to which any
and all are cordially invited. At first the
crowd gathers automatically, but in case of
marked opposition the place is in a manner
boycotted, and those seen to go there may suf-
fer for it. Roughs and rowdies may get up
disturbances, and every day may be a crisis.
The neighbors perhaps will not go into the
chapel at all, and scholars are very shy of it.
Many coolies listen to the reiteration of Chris-
tian truth and daily remark, " This doctrine is
all right," with not the smallest perception of
its drift. Scholars may condescend in private
conversation to announce the view that " this
doctrine is practically the same as ours," only
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 155
it is the Occidental version, whereas Confucian-
ism is the form adapted for China. The late
Li Hung Chang, in addressing a large company
of friends of missions in New York, remarked
that in his opinion Christianity and Confu-
cianism were substantially the same, and this
friendly and superficial notion is very prevalent.
The Abbe Hue, in one of his volumes on " Chris-
tianity in China," shows how for centuries the
course of thought has run in fixed grooves.
" Then, as now, the mandarins listened to dis-
courses on God, the soul, and salvation, from
mere curiosity, or as they say themselves, 'to
amuse their hearts a little.' They were often
even courteous enough to declare the doctrines
perfect and unanswerable, but on going away
resumed their habitual indifference, and became
just as Chinese as ever."
When audiences fail, it is not difficult to draw
them in by singing. It is often possible to
secure a large attendance after the shops close
for the evening. One day a countryman drifts
into the chapel who has come to town to sell
his watermelons. He squanders three cash on
a catechism which he cannot read, and disap-
pears. The next year he reappears with two
other men, one of whom is a scholar, and the
remote village in which he lives is suggested as
a good place in which to begin interior work.
A helper being sent to it is, however, unable to
find the place at all. " What does this fellow
156 REX CHRISTUS
want of that village?" is the thought of every
one of whom inquiry is made. When at last
the village is found, a hopeful interest seems to
be aroused, which goes on for some months. It
then turns out that the scholar is an opium
taker, and wishes to rent his premises for "a
chapel" to the foreigner. It is a well-tried
maxim that a missionary dates his real troubles
from the time of the baptism of his first con-
vert. Not all openings, however, are disap-
pointing. Sooner or later there is a patch of
peculiarly fertile " good ground " which brings
forth thirty-fold, and these form spots of light
in the midst of a gross darkness that may be
felt.
The Peripatetic Preacher. — Itinerating con-
stitutes an important part of missionary work,
particularly in the earlier stages. The mere
sight of a foreigner is in itself an illumination
to the rustic in the interior. Markets and fairs
are held everywhere, often on fixed days of the
moon, and at such times there is no difficulty in
drawing a large audience. Book sales will help
to confer an air of respectability to street
preaching, for the Chinese have a profound def-
erence for literature. Even a turbulent crowd
will sober down when some one calls out, " See,
he is going to sell books now ! " As a rule only
a small percentage of the men can read, and it
is therefore indispensable to furnish tracts and
leaflets in a style so simple as to be readily
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 157
understood of the people. The population is
so dense, and the indifference of most of them
to new ideas so great, that only when a district
has been continuously visited for a long series
of years can it be said in any real sense to
have heard the gospel. In the accomplishment
of this work colporteurs are indispensable, and
any number of the right men could be usefully
employed. The Chinese Christians of Canton
organized many years since a " Book Lending
Society," which is a unique and useful way of
bringing Christian literature to the attention of
local scholars, by loaning to them books to be
returned later in good condition, and perhaps
exchanged for others. The village school-
master and the literary graduate thus reached
exert an influence greater than that of scores of
other men. Such devices ought to be in use all
over China.
Churches in Embryo. — As soon as the station
is really in working order, there is almost sure
to be opened a little day-school for boys. At
first these are all of necessity children of non-
Christian parents, and some inducements may
be offered to them to attend. But ere long the
constituency alters, and the bud of a Christian
school is developed. The parents become inter-
ested, and the lads themselves may be the means
of doing great things for the Master. There is
no room for disappointment if the percentage of
such success is not large, when one recollects
158 REX CHBISTUS
how much fruit may depend from one little tree
long cultivated. The handful of pupils taught
by Dr. S. R. Brown in Amoy had among them
three who exerted a mighty power for good in
the future history of China, though nothing
seemed less likely at the time. As there begin
to be converts, the work of the missionary is
imperceptibly altered. While still endeavor-
ing to reach outsiders, he feels a yet stronger
pressure to teach those who are the first-fruits
of the new kingdom. This is done in many
ways, especially by station classes for men, held
at seasons and places most convenient for them,
in wliich the greatest contrasts of learning and
ignorance are united, but where there is room
for every talent which the teacher possesses.
These are rudimentary theological seminaries,
and out of them have come some of the best
workers ever seen in China. At first, by reason
of the poverty of the people, it may be neces-
sary to give assistance to these adult pupils in
food or fuel, but later, as a better comprehension
of the value of the instruction prevails, this is
no longer the case. By this time embryonic
churches, in the shape of small groups of twos
and threes in places near and far, begin to
appear, and the planting and training of these
bands of disciples require all the time, strength,
and wisdom available, and not infrequently
much more. To this work there is no assign-
able limit. It is in this that the greatest trials
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 159
and the greatest awards are alike met. As
the station grows older and is perhaps better
equipped, a boarding-school is added, in which
the instruction of lads from the day-school is
carried further, perhaps with a view to contin-
uation in a college elsewhere.
The Doctor and the Dispensary. — In a well-
equipped station there is likely to be a physician
who opens a dispensary and a hospital, the twin
keys which unlock many Chinese hearts closely
sealed against all other influences. It is when
sick, weak, and helpless, that the love and com-
fort of the gospel appeal most strongly to all.
Human nature is everywhere the same, and
that practical philanthropy which does not de-
spise nor refuse toilsome, disagreeable, and even
loathsome tasks, if only good may result, is
even to the most bigoted Chinese its own self-
evidence of a good-will to man never before
seen. Chinese medical science is little better
than a parody on what it professes. Surgery is
practically unknown. Chinese medicines are
nauseous, expensive, and for the most part
inert. Superstition vitiates every kind of treat-
ment. Nursing is " a lost art " never discovered.
Foods for the sick are everything which they
should not be, and dieting is both inconceivable
and impossible. Antiseptics are as unknown as
the X rays, and in the absence of sanitation,
ventilation, proper clothing, isolation, and gen-
eral common sense, nothing but a strong con-
160 BEX CHRISTUS
stitution and the mercy of God prevent all
patients from dying daily of unconscious but
age-long violation of all the laws of nature.
One's faith in the germ theory of disease is
much shaken by the unassailable fact that the
Chinese race still survives.
Preaching to dispensary patients, and espe-
cially faithful work among regular occupants of
the hospital, is probably the most immediately
rewarding missionary effort in China. If the
hospital and dispensary staff should be adequate,
great good may be done by combined medical
and evangelistic tours, referring all graver cases
to the central station for treatment. A list of
the diseases treated in a well-established medi-
cal work reads like the table of contents of a
compendious treatise on the Theory and Practice
of Medicine and Surgery. Great numbers of
frightful cases present themselves which in an
Occidental land would never be seen at all,
because they would have been treated in their
earlier stages. The training of medical students
is an important part of the missionary physi-
cian's work. It is a task beset with difficulties,
but has great rewards.
Special efforts are often made for opium
smokers, especially in the opium-cursed province
of Shansi, where wonderful results have been
sometimes obtained. Deacon Liu, the stalwart
Christian who refused to fly from the Boxers,
had at one time been a phenomenally heavy
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 161
smoker, taking more than an ounce of opium
each day. Here and elsewhere the outcome of
" opium refuges " has been mixed, and not in-
frequently highly disappointing. It has been
found that opium pills compounded with mor-
phia may induce a worse habit than the one
given up. Or, in Chinese aphoristic phrase,
"trying to cure consumption, the patient gets
asthma also." Work for the blind is carried on
to some extent by Mr, Murray in Peking, in the
use of the Braille system of raised dots to rep-
resent Chinese sounds, and with wonderful re-
sults ; but the plan has not yet been widely
introduced. Something has been done in the
way of Protestant orphanages, and a great deal
by the indefatigable Roman Catholics. Mrs.
Mills of Chefoo, formerly of the American
Presbyterian mission, is a pioneer in efforts for
the very numerous deaf and dumb. A refuge
for the insane was founded by Dr. J. G. Kerr
in 1898 at Canton, and each of these enterprises
has a vast field among the hopelessly afflicted
in this great empire. Dr. Kerr died in 1901,
having been at the head of one of the largest
hospitals for more than forty years. He trained
a hundred qualified Chinese physicians and
published many well-known medical works.
A beginning has likewise been made in the
special treatment of lepers, particularly by
Mr. and Mrs. Brewster in the Fukien prov-
ince, where the number of those suffering
M
162 HEX CHRISTUS
from this terrible malady is much greater than
elsewhere.
There is no reason why self-supporting Chris-
tian physicians, men and women, should not
feel a call to practise their divine art in China,
in cooperation v/ith any other work which they
might select, with a reasonable certainty that
great good in new ways, as well as in those
already opened, will assuredly result.
SIGNIFICANT SENTENCES
He has sounded forth the trumpet that shall never call
retreat,
He is sifting out the hearts of men before His judgment
seat.
O be swift, my soul, to answer Him, be jubilant, my feet.
Our God is marching on !
— Julia Ward Howe.
The Yale Law School student graduating with the
best record (1903) was Chung Hui Wang, a graduate of
Tientsin University.
Morrison's translation of the New Testament is one of
the noblest services ever rendered by any human hand to
tlie cause of religion. . . . Seven years had elapsed be-
fore he brought a convert to the font ; but through the
means of his dictionary it is impossible to estimate to how
many souls the doctrines of redeniption have been and
will be conveyed. — Noi-th American Review.
What has China to show for her far-famed literary ex-
aminations? Only a graduate wearing a yellow crystal
or ruby button — and to this, sometimes, is added a
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 163
peacock's feather. This last is a fit emblem of his great-
ness ; for just as surely as the glory of the peacock falls
to the ground at the first adverse wind, this man falls
from his pedestal whenever he comes in contact with an
all-round educated man from the Occident.
— Haknah C. Woodhull.
During my twenty years' stay in China I always con-
gratulated myself on the fact that the missionaries were
there . . . The good done by them in the way of edu-
cation, of medical relief, and of other charities cannot
be overestimated.
— Hon. G. F. Seward, fonner U. S. Minister.
I made a study of missionary work in China. I took
a man-of-war and visited almost every open port in the
empire. At each of these places I visited and inspected
every missionary station. At the schools the scholars
were arrayed before me and examined. I went through
the missionary hospitals. I attended synods and church
services. I saw the missionaries, ladies and gentlemen,
in their homes. I unqualifiedly, and in the strongest lan-
guage that tongue can utter, give to these men and women
who are living and dying in China and in the far East
my full and unadulterated commendation. In China the
missionaries are the leaders in every charitable work.
They give to the natives largely out of their scanty earn-
ings, and they honestly administer the alms of others.
When famine arrives — and it comes every year — or the
rivers inundate the soil with never-ceasing frequency,
the missionary is the first and last to give his time and
labor to alleviate suffering. They are the writers of
books for the Chinese. They are the interpreters for
them and the legations. The first graduates of the finest
western colleges supply and practice surgery, — an un-
known art among the Chinese.
— Charles Denby, former U. S. Minister.
164 BEX CHBISTUS
The Open Door
The Open Door for China !
Doors that are closed shut in
Squalor and superstition
And the old, old shapes of sin ;
The sin of the Primal Peoples,
Cunning and fierce and fell.
With foul untruth and lack of ruth,
And hate as deep as hell.
The Open Door for China !
And hail to the coming light I
For blinded eyes and stifled cries
Are there in her awful night.
The light of the White Man's Gospel —
The light of the White Man's Law —
Woman and slave to lift and save
From the " ancient dragon's " maw.
Blood of the pale young martyrs,
New-slain for the White Man's creed —
Of the mighty tree that is yet to be
It waters the fertile seed.
Their happy eyes shall see it
From the Place of the Golden Floor ;
They failed — they died ! Their hands set wide
The leaves of the " Open Door " !
— Blanche M. Channing, in the Boston Journal.
THEMES FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION
I. The Door Opened to the Gospel.
II. The White Man's Burden in China.
III. The Nestorian Tablet.
IV. Fibre of Faith among the Early Converts.
V. Native Preachers and Teachers.
VI. The Two Roberts — Morrison and Milne.
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 166
VII. Williams, The Pioneer Printer.
VIII. Peter Parker and Medical Missions.
IX. Power of Christian Literature in the Flowery
Kingdom.
X. The China Inland " Faith " Mission.
XI. The Tragedy at Tientsin in 1870 and Tientsin
To-day.
XII. Sir Robert Hart and Our Debt to Christian
Diplomats.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE
General References as Before
Beresford's " The Break-up of China." II, XII.
Bishop's " The Yangtze Valley and Beyond." I, U, XII.
Bryson's "John Kenneth Mackenzie." VIII.
Creegan's " Great Missionaries of the Church." I.
"Crisis in China" (reprint of articles in North American
Review). II, XII.
Curzon's " Problems of the Far East." II, XII.
Dukes's " Everyday Life in China." V.
Foster's " Christian Progress in China." I, IV, V, IX.
Gibson's " Missionary Problems and Methods." I, IV, V.
Graves's " Forty Years in China." II, VIII, IX, XII.
Gutztaff's " Chinese History." I, II, III.
Henry's " The Cross and the Dragon." IV.
Hue's "Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China." HI,
IV, V.
Johnston's " China and Formosa." V, VIII.
Johnston's " China and Its Future." XII.
Leonard's " A Hundred Years of Missions." I, IV, V.
Moule's " New China and Old." Ill, VIII.
Muirhead's " China and the Gospel." IX.
Nevius's " China and the Chinese." I, HI, IV, V, IX.
Robson's " Griffith John." V.
Speer's " The Oldest and Newest Empire." I, II.
166 REX CHRISTUS
Speer's " Missions and Politics iu Asia." I, IT, IX.
Taylor's "Days of Blessing in Inland China." II, X.
Wilson's " China." IX, XL
Articles on China in Periodicals : —
Contemporary, Vol. 36, " The Future of China." XII.
Nineteenth Century, Vol. 43, "The Future of Manchu-
ria." II.
North American, Vol. 153, "New Life in China." II.
CHAPTER V
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS. PART II
On the Threshold of the Twentieth Century
Woman's Work. ^ — One can have no idea of
the regenerative forces at work in China without
some knowledge of woman's work in the Flowery
Kingdom. It is desirable, therefore, at this point
to summarize those forms of activity which be-
long distinctively to woman's realm. From the
beginning, as wives of missionaries, women have
had a noble share in the labors of their husbands,
but it is in their organized capacity that we see
the largest results. Hon. Chester Holcombe,
secretary of the legation, and for some years
acting minister of the United States, says: "If
the missionaries in that vast empire had accom-
plished nothing more during the half century
than to furnish object-lessons of the true posi-
tion of women, and the highest type of Christian
homes, that result alone would justify their
presence in China, and the money invested in
the enterprise." But in addition to this general
service, as exponents of a new type of woman-
hood, there are certain concrete achievements
1 At Dr. Smith's request this part of Chapter V was
written by Miss Dyer.
167
168 REX CHRISTUS
which stand forth as conspicuous examples of
what women alone could do there for their own
sex. Foremost among these is —
The Educational Work. — Like all far-reach-
ing plans for the uplifting of the human race,
the beginnings were humble. The genesis of
schools and colleges for woman throughout the
East may be traced to a little gathering of ladies
in a London drawing-room in the summer of
1834. Rev. David Abeel had just returned
from China to recruit his broken health. Bur-
dened with a sense of the misery and degrada-
tion which he had seen among the women, and
which no man could relieve, he laid their case
before these ladies. The result was the forma-
tion of the Society for Promoting Female Edu-
cation in the East. This was the first attempt
to reach women in non-Christian lands in the
only way they could be reached — through their
own sex. A representative of the society was
sent to Singapore to open a school for Chinese
girls, the foregleam of a light now shining
brightly in many educational centres. Little
did that small group of praying women, who
assembled at Mr. Abeel's appeal, realize that
before the century closed its rays would have
penetrated into dark corners throughout the
whole world.
Nearly a generation passed, however, before
this pioneer society was followed by a second,
this time in America. The Woman's Union
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 169
Missionary Society, formed in New York in
1861, marks an era of rapid expansion. No less
than thirty-three societies came into existence
within twenty-one years in the United States
alone. The Congregationalists of Boston led
off in 1868 with the Woman's Board of Mis-
sions. The Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians,
and Episcopalians, also societies in Canada, fol-
lowed in quick succession.
It is profoundly significant that this splendid
new impulse for foreign missions synchronizes
almost perfectly with the movement for the
higher education of women, and the establish-
ment of colleges for them both in England and
the United States. The enlargement of mind
and soul, the broader horizon of thought, the
development of administrative powers engen-
dered by greater educational privileges needed
to be directed into channels of worthy effort.
Coincident with this opening of doors of privi-
lege in Christian lands came the opening of
doors of opportunity in heathendom. Seldom
has there been a more marked example of the
way in which the field and the workers are
divinely fitted for each other.
Day and Boarding Schools. — Prior to the
period of organization a few schools for girls
had been established in China. One of the
oldest, which may be taken as a type of all, was
founded by Mrs. C. C. Baldwin of the Ameri-
can Board in Foochow nearly fifty years ago.
170 BEX CHEISTUS
/mother was started by the Woolston sisters,
Sarah and Beulah, under the auspices of Meth-
odist women in Baltimore. These and other
early plants were transferred eventually to the
fostering care of the Woman's Boards of dif-
ferent denominations. Bitter opposition was
encountered at first. The Chinese claim that
women have neither minds nor souls, why
should they be taught to read? If parents
did not want their girl children, why should
they commit them to foreigners? There were
other ways to dispose of the encumbrances.
They could put them out of existence, or could
give them to some one who wanted to bring
up a wife for his son. Better still, they might
sell them for a small sum of money. This
last consideration furnished the solution to the
problem. For money the missionaries were
allowed the privilege of feeding, clothing, and
educating the girls, and also deciding to whom
they should be betrothed. This was called
" buying the right of betrothal," and it marked
an important stage of progress, as it made it pos-
sible to marry the girls to Christian young men.
The custom is almost unnecessary nowadays,
and is always discouraged if any other way can
be found to release the girls.
After the period of organization set in, the
women of England and America took up the
extension of these schools in good earnest, and
from 1870 till the close of the century they
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 171
multiplied rapidly. Through them access was
gained to the homes, thus giving an opportu-
nity to reach the hearts of the poor, unloved,
sorrowinsr veomen. Yet the obstacles to their
establishment even now are many and arise from
a variety of sources — the distance is too great,
and the girls must not be seen on the street even
if the mother is willing. The father or a big
brother vetoes the plan, or, if he be over-per-
suaded, uncles, aunts, and grandmothers hover
in the not distant offing with their scoffs and
biting sarcasms. Mrs. A. H. Smith said at the
last Shanghai Conference : " As we hold out the
bright and cheerful lamp of education to our
Chinese sisters, such a warning cry of opposition
goes up all around that one might suppose we
had offered a lighted bomb ! " The education of
girls is in no way opposed to the theories of the
Chinese, but only to their practice. In this lies
the hope of a great intellectual awakening for
their women. Experience shows that Chinese
girls have as good minds as the boys, but their
disabilities are naturally much greater.
The boarding-schools, now counted by scores,
bring teacher and pupil into still closer relations
than the day-schools, and increase the power of
personal influence. In them, also, it was nec-
essary at first to provide almost everything for
the pupils ; but by degrees more and more re-
sponsibilit}^ in this matter, as well as in regard
to betrothals, is laid upon the parents. This
172 BEX CHRISTUS
enhances in their eyes the value of an education
for their daughters. What is learned from
books constitutes but a small part of their
training. One of the most important functions
is to fit them to become wives of the Chris-
tian young men who are to be at the head of
the church in China, and noble mothers for a
new and better generation yet to come. The
course of study is elementary, but the schools
are graded, so that classes can be graduated,
and they are forerunners of colleges and higher
institutions of learning.
Influence on the Community. — As teachers,
Bible readers, physicians, nurses, wives of
preachers, and mothers in their own homes,
the girls from these schools are already shap-
ing public sentiment in this vast empire. At
the annual conference the native women make
reports of their evangelistic tours and other
forms of service. The consciousness that such
reports are expected of them awakens a sense
of responsibility and a laudable ambition. One
of the most notable gatherings of the nineteenth
century was a women's conference at Shanghai
in November, 1900, at which English-speaking
ladies, foreign and Chinese, compared notes
concerning the home life of Chinese women.
Lady Blake, wife of the governor of Hong-
kong, presided, and among the speakers was
Dr. Ida Kahn, one of the few Chinese gradu-
ates from a medical school in the United States.
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 173
Her address on Girl Slavery was a finished,
as well as a forcible, production. The intelli-
gent grasp of all the topics by the native
women spoke volumes for their missionary
training.
A striking illustration of their influence in
creating a right public sentiment appeared
recently in Hangchow, where the wives of sev-
eral mandarins met in an ancestral hall, and
formed themselves into an anti-footbinding
'society. Eighty women were present, fifty of
whom signed a pledge to unbind their own
feet and never to bind their daughters' feet.
This meeting was most remarkable in that it
was called by non-Christian women, and entirely
conducted by them. Before its close they de-
cided to go to work at once to raise money
among themselves to open a girls' school. The
initial public protest against the cruel custom
had been made years before by one brave Ameri-
can girl at the head of a school in Peking. " I
cannot have children in my school with bound
feet," she said. The same attitude was taken
by missionaries of different denominations, who
had been constantly working to abolish the evil.
This attracted attention, and brought forth re-
monstrance, but a sentiment against the cus-
tom was awakened and mass meetings were
held to keep it alive. But who would have
predicted that any such spontaneous action by
Chinese women themselves, and not Christians,
174 BEX CHBISTUS
would ever have taken place ? The same power
of public sentiment led twentj^-one families of
high social position in Foochow to obtain im-
perial sanction to unbind their women's feet.
About three years ago the empress dowager
issued an edict against the custom, which
caused much rejoicing in America. But despite
her command the expectations of a large mar-
ket for American shoes in China, to cover liber-
ated feet, have not been realized.
A Birthday Gift to the Empress Dowager. —
Another significant incident took place during
the war with Japan. " It Avas a happy sugges-
tion," says Dr. Smith, "at this time of storm
and stress that women of the Protestant churches
should present to the empress dowager, on the
completion of her sixtieth year (Nov. 7, 1894),
a special edition of the New Testament, in large
type, with gold border and solid silver covers
embossed with bamboo designs. The 10,900
contributors represented twenty-nine missions.
The casket was carried to the Tsung Li Yamen
by the British and American Ministers, and the
following day it was sent by the Yamen to her
Majesty, and subsequently acknowledged by
return gifts to twenty-two lady missionaries
who had been prominent in the movement.
The greatest curiosity was excited by this vol-
ume. The emperor, hearing of it, sent eunuchs
to the depository of the American Bible Society
to procure copies of the Bible for himself, and
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 175
it was known that he read it and that he learned
to pray. What influence these incidents may
have exerted it is impossible to say."
Kindergartens. — In 1894 the first kinder-
gartens were opened, but less than a dozen are
to be- found in all China. Yet children mature
so much earlier in the East than in the West
that there is far greater need of this class of
schools in the Orient than in lands where evil
influences are neutralized by Christian homes.
If a Froebel instead of a Confucius had laid the
foundations of China's educational system, what
a different nation she would be to-day !
The notion that the Chinese do not care for
their children is false, though the horrible facts
of infanticide and girl slavery would seem to
warrant such a belief. It is true, also, that they
are callous toward the dead because they know
nothing of a future life. This leads a father,
when his child dies, to say he has " thrown it
away." But parental love is as strong in the
human heart in China as elsewhere. Does a
mother lack affection who says of her baby,
" He is so sweet that he makes you love him till
it kills you " ? Probably no country in the
world has more travelling shows specially pre-
pared for the entertainment of children. The
fact that an army of men find it possible to sup-
port themselves by selling toys and sweets is
proof that the Chinese are fond of children and
indulgent to them.
176 BEX CHRISTU8
Among their games is the counterpart of our
familiar Punch and Judy show. Says Dr.
Headland of the Peking University, " Those who
hold that the Chinese do not love their children
have never consulted their nursery lore." No
literature, not even their sacred books, is so
generally known as the rhymes which corre-
spond to the English Mother Goose ; but many,
unfortunately, are grossly impure. No mother
in a Christian land would allow her children to
read them. He tells us that two out of the
eighteen provinces are singularly rich in these
juvenile jingles. No fewer than five versions
may be found of " This little pig went to market,"
showing that baby fingers and toes furnish the
same entertainment in the Orient as in the
Occident. The rhyme of the Little Mouse is
as popular all over North China as Jack and Jill
to an English-speaking child. It begins: —
" He climbed up the candlestick,
The little mousey brown,
To steal and eat tallow,
Aiid he couldn't get down.
He called for his grandma
But his grandma was in town,
So he doubled up into a wheel
And rolled himself down."
On account of their multitude of toys, their
fondness for games and their innate ingenuity,
Chinese children are peculiarly receptive to kin-
dergarten teaching.
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 177
Bible Women and Other Workers. — Next to the
teacher, perhaps the Bible woman is the strong-
est personal force on missionary ground. She
is an exponent of the " new " womanhood, and
the preparation for her many and varied duties
is a delicate and difficult task. The Oriental
sense of propriety demands that she shall be
middle-aged. There is no branch of the evan-
gelistic work more important than the tours of
these native Christian women. There are few
homes to which they are not welcome. Every-
where they are listened to with respect. They
show wonderful tact in adapting themselves to
circumstances and in overcoming the prejudices
of the people. They visit the afflicted, pray
with the dying, minister to the sick and desti-
tute, giving freely of their own small allowances
to help those in distress. Occasionally one will
supply the pulpit till a pastor can be found to
take charge. In the conduct of the affairs of
the native churches everything depends upon
the character and quality of those who may be
raised up as assistants from among their own
people. It is from this point of view that the
supreme importance of adequate and thorough
Christian training for all classes of women is
deeply felt, and training-schools for Bible women
have come to be recognized as a necessity.
More than twenty have been established since
1874, when the first one was opened by the
Baptists at Swatow. A student from a single
178 BEX CHRISTU8
school of this character last year reported 4367
attendants at her meetings during a tour of
less than six months. But the whole number
of persons reached by this form of service ex-
ceeds computation, and their influence for good
no man can measure.
It is not only to the poor and humble that
they carry the message of salvation. One of
the Bible women, Mrs. Chao, received a sum-
mons lately to visit a princess, whose name for
obvious reasons is withheld. As Mrs. Chao un-
folded to her the precious truths concerning the
true God, the princess was much affected, and
falling upon her knees cried out ; " I, the great
Princess Imperial of the first rank, who have
never knelt to any one but my Empress, I kneel
before you, and entreat you to tell me, are you
the true God ? "
The gathering of Chinese women for instruc-
tion in station classes is another useful form of
Christian activity. Brought together for six
weeks or two months during the least busy time
of the year, and put under regular instruction,
away from the endless interruptions of their
own homes, they have a chance to see more
clearly the full meaning of Christianity, as ex-
emplified in the lives of their teachers. At the
end of the term they return home benefited
themselves and ready to help others.
Mothers' meetings play an important part in
the education of Chinese women. These are
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 179
held in the homes of the missionaries, with
surroundings as bright as possible, and often
attract timid women of the better classes. See-
ing a foreign baby bathed is a great delight and
an excellent object-lesson. At the close, tea
and light refreshments are served. Though
first drawn by " cake and curiosity," they learn
to love these gatherings, from which they carry
away beautiful truths concerning motherhood,
pre-natal as well as its later phases. They go
back to their own dwellings, dark with igno-
rance and superstition, with the light of new
ideas in their eyes and the stirring of new long-
ings in their hearts.
Such are some of the " by-products " of mis-
sionary effort, and they are often quite as pre-
cious as the ore mined by direct labor.
Medical Work
In order to appreciate fully what women are
doing in China in their medical capacity, one
must have a clear conception of what a Chinese
home is like. Into its seclusion no foreign male
physician may penetrate, but the woman doctor
has access everywhere, from the i/amen, or
government house, to the most abject mat hovel.
She sees the boy-baby idol dressed and cared for
as though a real baby ; the paper idols in their
straw shrines in the homes of the poor and the
bronze idols in those of the rich; the mystic
characters on slips of red paper on the walls
180 BEX CHBISTU8
with sticks of incense burning before them;
the charm worn round the neck to ward off
devils ; the family shrine with its ancestral tab-
lets, costly vases and incense burners. To her
" comes the little slave girl almost murdered,
the childless wife whose husband is about to
discard her, the thirteen-year old daughter-in-law
whose mother-in-law has beaten her eye out,
and the child whose poor little crushed feet,
inflamed and suppurating with decaying bones,
appeal to her from the cruel bandages." It was
being an eye-witness to conditions such as these
which converted Isabella Bird Bishop from in-
difference to foreign missions into an ardent be-
liever in their saving power, and led her to build
five hospitals and an orphanage in the East.
To the Methodist church belongs the honor
of sending out the first medical missionary
woman in the person of Dr. Combs of Philadel-
phia, who reached Peking in the fall of 1873.
With her was associated Dr. Howard (now Mrs.
Dr. King) a graduate of Ann Arbor. She was
summoned to Tientsin to attend the wife of the
prime minister Li Hung Chang, and later to
minister to his mother, an aged woman who left
a bequest of $1000 for Dr. Howard's work, the
first bequest of a Chinese woman to Christian
benevolence. Mrs. Wu, the wife of a former
Minister to the United States was also a patient.
Thus access was gained to households of rank,
and this proved a turning-point in the history
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 181
of medical work in Tientsin. There, and in
other great cities — Peking, Shanghai, Canton,
Foochow, and elsewhere — the women's hospi-
tals and dispensaries are power houses from
which radiate immeasurable forces for good.
Healing is only a small part of the physician's
work. Systematic preaching and teaching in
the waiting-rooms, and especially in the hospital
wards, are perhaps universally practised. When
patients have most time on their hands, and
when their hearts are peculiarly opened, Chris-
tian teaching readily finds entrance. The same
persons constantly return, bringing their relatives
and friends, and thus the circles of influence
perpetually widen. In the poor man's home,
where the newly born girl baby is not wanted,
the woman physician does the work of an evan-
gelist by telling of a Heavenly Father's love for
even this tiny babe. To the crowd on the
street, where a woman has taken poison and
thrown herself on the doorstep of her adversary
to die, she tells the story of redeeming love.
Many a sufferer turns to kiss the shadow of
these Santa Filomenas as it falls upon the wall
in hospital or home. In China, too,
" A Lady with a Lamp shall stand
In the great history of the land,
A noble type of good,
Heroic womanhood."
The rapid expansion of medical work during
the last two decades forms one of the most
182 REX CHRIST us
encouraging records in the annals of foreign mis-
sionary effort. Hospitals and dispensaries are
now regarded as indispensable agencies in every
field. Some, like the Isabella Fisher Hospital
in Tientsin, were endowed by a single person.
At Shanghai the land, building, furnishing, in-
struments, and the salaries of a physician and
nurse for some years, were provided for by the
munificence of Mrs. Margaret Williamson of
New York, for whom the hospital is named.
Last year 36,643 patients were treated at the
dispensary, and 538 were admitted to the wards,
of which 90 were maternity cases. The Pres-
byterians alone have seven hospitals for women
in China. Four are brand new, three taking
the place of those recently destroyed by Boxers.
A few Chinese women have received medical
training in the United States. One of the first,
Miss Hii King Eng of Foochow, the daughter
of a native clergyman, studied at the Woman's
College in Philadelphia and is now at the head
of the Woolston Memorial Hospital. She came
to this country in 1884 and returned fully
equipped in 1895. Some idea of the extent of
her practice may be gained from the fact that
she treated over 15,000 patients last year. An-
other one was Mary Stone, the first girl brought
up by her own parents in all central and western
China with unbound feet. Her father and
mother were among the first Christian con-
verts. She was accompanied by Ida Kahn,
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 183
who began her life in a heathen home. Both
graduated from Ann Arbor and are now suc-
cessful practitioners together in a large hospi-
tal in Kiukiang. These are some of the
results seen in the second generation of Chris-
tian families.
A small beginning has been made in behalf
of special classes of suffering humanity, such as
lepers, but the defectives are scarcely touched as
yet. The first school for blind girls was opened
in 1890, when Dr. Mary Niles of Canton was the
means of saving the life of one of the viceroy's
wives. In gratitude the man asked if there was
anything he could do to assist in her work. She
replied that she wanted money to start a home
for blind girls in the city, and he gave her $1000.
The initial step has been taken in rescue work
in Shanghai by opening a Door of Hope, a
branch of the Florence Crittendon JNIission in
New York.
The First Medical College for Women. — The
crowning achievement of all these years of labor
is the erection at Canton, one of the most
populous cities in the empire, of the Women's
Medical College, the first institution of its
kind in China. It is an interesting fact that
Protestant work began in this busy metropolis,
where Dr. J. G. Kerr, of the American Presby-
terian mission, gave nearly fifty fruitful years to
medical service. The exercises in connection
with the opening of the college, Dec. 17, 1902,
184 BEX CRRISTUS
were worthy of so remarkable an event. An
audience of seven hundred persons assembled
within the building, and Chinese officials from
the viceroy down were present either personally
or by deputy. A guard of five hundred soldiers
lined the streets in the neighborhood to do
honor to the occasion. The college, the gift of
one generous man, is splendidly located, and
is the property of the American Presbyterian
Mission. The wealthiest and best educated
Chinese have shown a marked interest in the
enterprise, which is due largely to the untiring
efforts of Dr. Mary H. Fulton, aided by her
faithful coadjutor, Dr. Mary Niles. They and
their associates have an extensive practice
among all classes, high as well as low. Thou-
sands of women have been relieved of nameless
sufferings through their ministrations. The
noble pioneer work of Dr. Kerr and others
paved the way for Dr. Fulton to realize the
dream which she had cherished during her eigh-
teen years of missionary life. The preceding
June she had opened a new hospital for women.
On the day when the college was dedicated
the Chinese officials were loud in their praise, and
astonished that one woman could accomplish so
much. The United States consul, who made
the formal address, said, " In raising the women
of China to such a noble and unselfish standard.
Dr. Fulton is undertaking one of the grandest
tasks that has ever fallen to one of her sex."
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 186
There are accommodations for about sixty stu-
dents. The first class numbered thirteen. The
faculty consists of six foreign physicians and
several capable native doctors. The course of
study covers four years. Strict examinations
are held, and diplomas given only to those who
have met all the requirements. The institution
is entirely self-supporting, and all the students,
as well as the members of the faculty, are ear-
nest Christians. It is proposed to add a train-
ing-school for nurses, and a children's hospital,
for which the Chinese have subscribed 83000;
and when completed, the group of buildings will
constitute a medical plant of which any city
might be proud. Its influence in undermining
idolatry and in laying the foundations of Chris-
tianity will be incalculable. The China Mail
in an editorial said : " Among the present-day
developments of mission work and general prog-
ress, there is nothing of more importance than
the thorough training of Chinese women in
western medicine and surgery. The field for
such, when properly qualified, is practically
limitless." For several years, in all the large
centres, women missionaries have been engaged
in precisely this work of fitting native girls for
the medical profession, in which some of them
have attained eminent success. One advantage
of this new institution is the opportunity af-
forded to train larger classes at a time, with
less expenditure of missionary force.
186 BEX CHRISTUS
In China the number of women workers
equals, if it does not actually exceed, that of
the men. In view of what they have accom-
plished since the little company gathered in the
London drawing-room to listen to Dr. Abeel's
appeal, there might well be inscribed upon the
walls of every schoolhouse, chapel, hospital,
dispensary, orphanage, and regenerated home.
Sir Christopher Wren's famous motto in St.
Paul's cathedral. Si monumentum requiris, eir-
cumspice.
General Summary of the Third Period
Returning now from relevant digressions, it
is desirable to call attention to the great changes
which were coming over the vast empire of the
Far East. The haughty exclusiveness of the
" Son of Heaven " could no longer be maintained
in the face of the military occupation of Peking
and the dictation of a series of treaties by the
allies. A few years later the troublesome Audi-
ence Question was settled, and the relations
between the court of Peking and the other gov-
ernments were put on a new basis. In self-
defence it became necessary for the Chinese to
know something of international law, and this
led them, at last, to take steps to ameliorate the
condition of the army of coolies who had been
sent to remote parts of the world as laborers
on plantations, where they were often treated
with cruelty and whence many of them never
CHRISTIAN MlSSIOIiS 187
returned. Ministers from Peking began to
appear in Occidental capitals, and little by-
little, despite the ignorance, the obstinacy, the
selfishness, and the insincerity of the officials of
the empire high and low, rays of light began
everywhere to penetrate the circumambient
darkness. Almost the whole of this long pe-
riod was marked by a series of contests between
missionaries and the Chinese officials and lit-
erati, in which the latter strove to choke off the
perpetual advances of the former, but always
without success. Dr. Dudgeon of Peking is
authority for the statement that with a view to
discourage missionary efforts the official census
of the einpire was materially reduced by one-
third, with the connivance and by the sanction
of the Board of Revenue. " The following 5^ear,
as no abatement of missionary zeal followed, the
figures were again added to the record." It was
remarkable that in spite of the long series of
more or less important riots few missionaries
were actually killed. Mr. Argent, a lay mis-
sionary of the English Wesleyan Society, to-
gether with Mr. Green, a customs officer, was
murdered at Wu Hsiieh in central China at a
time of peculiar unrest. Rev. James A. Wylie
of the United Presbyterian Mission was killed
in Liao Yang, Manchuria, by passing soldiers,
during the war against Japan.
The Great Famine. —The years 1877 and 1878
were marked by the Great Famine, which spread
188 REX CHRISTUS
its baleful shadow over all the northern prov-
inces of the empire. During the first of these
years the missionaries in eastern Shantung took
active steps in administering partial relief, and
when the distress became general, in the year
following, this was repeated on a gigantic scale.
A central committee was organized in Shanghai,
and both Protestant and Roman Catholic mis-
sionaries, together with some members of the
customs service (sixty-nine foreigners in all),
engaged in the work of distribution of relief
upon as large a scale as practicable. Four
Protestant missionaries died from exposure and
overwork, one of whom, Mr. Whiting of the
American Presbyterian mission, was honored
by the governor of Shansi with a public funeral
in the provincial capital. The horrors of that
terrible time will never pass out of remem-
brance. The official report of the committee
estimated the loss of life at from nine and a
half to thirteen millions, and according to Dr.
Williams no famine is recorded in the history
of any land which equalled this in the death-
rate. The gratitude of the people was real, if
not always formally expressed in cordial ac-
knowledgment like that of a communication
from H. E. Kuo Sung Tao, Minister to Great
Britain, in a letter to Lord Salisbury, in which
he spoke of it as "too signal a recognition of
the common brotherhood of humanity ever to
be forgotten."
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 189
As one of the incidents of this critical period
it may be mentioned that Rev. Timothy Richard,
then connected with the newly formed English
Baptist mission in Shantung, felt drawn to go
to Shansi, where he began that cultivation of
an acquaintance with Chinese officials which
later bore important fruits. In the year 1889
some forty families, numbering perhaps three
hundred persons, of the Christians of this same
mission were impelled by local distress to mi-
grate from Shantung to remote Shensi (together
with thousands of their fellow provincials),
among them some who were the life-blood of
the church, including promising young men and
lads from the schools. Rather than settle in
the heathen villages, they determined to erect a
village for themselves where they could control
their environment. After much hardship and
sacrifice this was accomplished, the hamlet being
styled " Fu Yin Ts'un," or " Glad Tidings Vil-
lage," a name unique in China. The settlement
much resembles Christian communities which
have been organized in India. It was a natural
outcome of this migration of the flock that some
of the shepherds should be moved to follow. In
spite of famine, sickness, and persecution, this
graft from afar prospered, so that five years later
instead of one station there were sixteen, with a
large company of worshippers and many learn-
ing to read.
Two Notable Gatherings. — An interesting
190 REX CREISTUS
epoch in missionary effort was marked by the
gathering of the first General Conference at
Shanghai in May, 1877, attended by 126 repre-
sentatives of different bodies in a three days'
session, the proceedings of which were gathered
into a useful volume.
There were at that time 26 societies working
in the empire, besides the three Bible Societies,
British, Scotch, and American (29 in all), and
a few unconnected workers. The total attend-
ance was 478, 242 belonging to 13 British socie-
ties, 210 to 10 American, and 26 were connected
with two German organizations. Of the ladies
172 were wives of missionaries, and 63 were un-
married. The little handful of native Chris-
tians found at the close of the first war with
Great Britain had multiplied to something over
13,000, and the stations occupied amounted to
92, with 318 organized churches.
At a second General Conference, also con-
vened at Shanghai in May, 1890, the sessions
extended to eleven days. The number of mis-
sion societies in the empire was then 40, the
actual attendance 445 persons, 18 of whom
were unconnected. The number of mission-
ary workers in China was found to be 589
men, 391 married women, and 316 unmarried
women, — a great expansion over the last show-
ing,— making a total of 1296. The churches
were estimated at 522, and the native Christians
were found to be 37,287. Sixty-one hospitals
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 191
and 44 dispensaries in the year 1889 had
treated more than 348,000 patients. A care-
ful examination and comparison of the merely
numerical exhibits of these two conferences
may convey an impression of a portion of
the external results of thirteen years of labor.
But the great momentum which had been ac-
quired, the accumulated knowledge, the funded
experience, the spiritual impetus, cannot be set
down in statistical tables.
Bible and Tract Societies. — Repeated refer-
ence has been made to the translations of the
Bible into Chinese, under the auspices of the
British and Foreign and the American Bible
societies. The former organization began its
work in China with the earliest translation work
of Dr. Morrison, and has been one of the main-
stays of the missionaries ever since. By its aid
the Bible, and portions of the Bible, have been
rendered into numerous colloquial dialects, and
through the agency of many indefatigable col-
porteurs copies of one or another of the various
versions have been sold in all parts of the
empire.
The work of the American Bible Society in
China dates from 1834. All efforts of both soci-
eties were much hindered by the unsettled con-
dition of the country before and during the war
with Great Britain, but as soon as that was over
activity recommenced. In the earlier stages of
its work the distribution of books was done
192 BEX CHRISTUS
altogether by missionaries, and for the most
part gratuitously ; but this policy was altered
about 1866 to the present plan of sales through
general agents, and only occasional gifts. Even
as late as 1870, the date of the Tientsin mas-
sacre, the sales suddenly dropped from over
216,000 copies to about 37,000, showing a sensi-
tiveness to political conditions like that of a
barometer during a typhoon. The phenomenal
record of Bible sales since the Boxer outbreak
shows how important an agency this now is, and
is yet to be in the future.
Each of the Bible societies has had able and
active superintendents, the learned and modest
Mr. Wylie representing the British and Foreign
and Drs. Gulick, Wheeler, and Hykes the
American society. In each decade there was a
great expansion, due not merely to the widening
field, but to the augmenting demands of the rap-
idly growing native church. The Scotch Bible
Society, being formed much later than the other.*
(1860), was less hampered by constitutional
restrictions, and has readily allowed the sales of
tracts and Bibles together, and early sanctioned
the use of annotated editions of the gospels, and
suitable introductions. It has a large and well-
equipped printing establishment at Hankow,
and is one of the most enterprising of the agen-
cies for the regeneration of the people.
There are a number of tract societies work-
ing in China, one of which had its rise in the
CHEISTIAN MISSIONS 193
early dawn of mission work, being allied to
the Religious Tract Society of London. At
the close of the period under consideration this
society and another of similar object were united
under the name of the Chinese Religious Tract
Society, receiving grants from the British and
American Tract societies, and publishing useful
magazines in Chinese. The Central China
Religious Tract Society has its headquarters in
Hankow, its issues being largely the production
of the prolific and devoted Dr. Griffith John,
who has been mentioned as one of the earlier
pioneers. A North China Tract Society was
organized in 1882, which has a wide field of
its own, and a large number of publications and
republications. Other societies of the same
sort have their centres in Foochow, Kiukiang,
on the Yang-tze, and more recently in western
China. The products of all these organiza-
tions, representing, like the Bible translations,
the best work of the best Christian minds
familiar with the needs of China, have greatly
multiplied, and are now disseminated by hun-
dreds of millions of pages. The value and fruit-
fulness of this agency cannot be exaggerated.
Literary Labors. — One of the committees
appointed at the conference of 1877 was "to
prepare a series of school-books," the need of
which was recognized. It consisted of Drs.
W. A. P. Martin, Alexander Williamson, Rev.
Messrs. C. W. Mateer, Y. J. Allen, R. Lechler,
194 BEX CHEISTUS
and Mr. J. Fryer. At the succeeding con-
ference it appeared that forty-two separate
works had been issued under the lead of this
able committee, representing a vast amount of
work. It was then proposed that a band of
practical educators should form a new society,
to be called the Educational Association of
China, with a view not merely to publish school
books, but to improve methods of teaching
and to promote educational interests. In
the transition stage in which this great and
ancient empire then was, this would be a task
of equal importance and difficulty. As a result
of this coordination of intellectual and moral
forces, a wide range of books has been prepared
covering the most important branches of human
learning, so that it has become possible for a
Chinese pupil to receive, through the medium of
his own language, the equivalent of a college
education in the west. Triennial meetings of
this influential and aggressive body have been
held, beginning with 1893, and the results of
the work which directly and indirectly are due
to this agency alone are beyond computation.
Another indirect outgrowth of the text-book
committee of 1877 was the organization by
Dr. Williamson of the Society for the Diffusion
of Christian and General Knowledge among
the Chinese, popularly styled the Diffusion
Society. Its object was to provide high-class
literature for the more intelligent of the people
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 195
and illustrated books for families, without
trenching on the fields of other organizations.
Physically and intellectually Dr. Williamson
was a man of large mould, and devised large
things for China. His death was a great loss,
but Rev. Timothy Richard, of the English Bap-
tist mission, who had already shown his talent
in this work, was invited to become secretary,
and his mission granted permission. Mr. Rich-
ard at once broadened the scope of the efforts to
be undertaken and greatly widened the possible
field. His idea was to strike for the enlighten-
ment of the higher classes, especially the officials,
from whom the greatest help might come, and the
greatest opposition usually does come. During
the two following years there were serious riots
in central China, and an urgent appeal was
issued for the preparation of literature specially
adapted to win the approval of those who actu-
ally hold the key to the hearts of the masses.
The society published an ably edited magazine,
conducted by Dr. Y. J. Allen, called the
Review of the Times, as well as a similar one,
The Missionary/ Review, designed especially
for Christians. The avoAved object of the
former was instruction of educated men and
officials. With this view numerous volumes
were likewise prepared, the most comprehensive
being the work of a learned German scholar
of the Basel Mission, Dr. Ernst Faber, under
the title of "Civilization East and West." It
196 BEX CHRIST us
is an elaborate exposition in seventy-three
chapters, under five general divisions, of the
fundamental principles underlying the civiliza-
tion of the Occident. The circulation has been
large, and the indirect results must have been
great. One of the wise methods of the Diffusion
Society is to distribute, through the agency of
local missionaries, copies of its books accom-
panied with portions of the Bible, at the literary
examinations, to scholars on their departure for
home. In this way the minds of the leaders of
the whole empire are reached.
Power of the Printing-Press. — The great
streams of Christian literature implied in the
preceding jjaragraphs could not have been pro-
duced without the aid of mission presses, of
which the chief has been that of the American
Presbyterian mission in Shanghai, which cele-
brated its jubilee in 1894. Much of its phe-
nomenal success in its second stage of existence
is due to the singular gifts and industry of Mr.
William Gamble, who arrived in 1858. He
came from an old Irish Presbyterian family,
and, after emigrating to the United States,
worked in a large establishment in Philadelphia,
and then in the Bible House, New York, whence
he went to Ningpo, where the press then was,
taking new type, matrices, and a casting-ma-
chine. " With his two main inventions, — the
making of matrices of Chinese type by the elec-
trotype process, and the Chinese type-case as
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 197
now generally in use, — added to his keen busi-
ness faculty, indomitable perseverance, unfail-
ing patience, and true missionary spirit, he
succeeded in so developing the Mission Press
that it speedily grew from infantile proportions
into a mighty agency for achieving great re-
sults. He did a work that has hardly been
equalled in the annals of missions, or in the
history of the development of the art of prints
ing. Owing to the geographical position of
Shanghai, this great establishment bears a
unique relation to all the missions in China.
For the last fifteen years it has been under the
expert management of Rev. George F. Fitch,
upon whose desk are daily poured letters from
all parts of China, and from well-nigh all parts
of the world. Almost every individual mis-
sionary in China has dealings with the Press,
and at the time of the jubilee there were more
than a thousand names on its ledgers. Its
Chinese force then numbered 96 men, besides
30 binders outside, and for the five preceding
years the out]3ut had been something over
200,000,000 pages, of which 123,000,000 were
scriptures, more than 43,000,000 religious books
and tracts, and above 18,000,000 magazines.
For twenty years a Chinese elder of the Pres-
byterian church had served as its cashier (com-
pradore'), "and, while hundreds of thousands
of dollars had passed through his hands, it is
not known that a single dollar had ever been
198 REX CHEISTUS
misappropriated." In 1861 the American Meth-
odist mission began a press at Foochow, which,
under the superintendency of Rev. Messrs.
S. L. Baldwin, L. N. Wheeler, N. J. Plumb,
and others, has done much work, printing not
only for the southeastern provinces, but also
for Hongkong, Bangkok, and central and north-
ern China.
. Reference was made in speaking of the early
period of missions to the printing-press of the
American Board under Dr. Bridgman, soon after
taken over by Dr. S. Wells Williams. That
was destroyed by fire in Canton in 1858, and ten
years later Mr. P. R. Hunt, formerly of Madras,
was sent to Peking to set up a press there,
which under different managements was contin-
ued till it was destroyed by the Boxers in June,
1900. It was useful in printing the scriptures
in mandarin colloquial, and in much work for
the North China Tract Society, and for various
missions. Other presses were established by the
Church Missionary Society at Ningpo (1869) ;
by the English Presbyterian mission at Swa-
tow (1880) for printing books in the Romanized
colloquial ; by the National Bible Society of
Scotland, already referred to, at Hankow (1885) ;
by the American Methodist mission at Kiukiang
(1890), and later in Peking in connection with
the Peking University. In the latter city the
Anglican mission also has a press. The China
Inland Mission has one at Tai Chou, the United
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 199
Presbyterian mission at Newchwang, and the
American Presbyterian mission on the island
of Hainan.
This third period closed with the unexpected
outcome of a needless war with Japan, which
exposed to all the world the inherent weakness
of China, and her inability to play the part
which had been forced upon her in the " sister-
hood of nations."
The Fourth Period, 1895 to 1903
During the protracted war with Japan the
Chinese for the first time learned to distinguish
between different nationalities of foreigners.
The government undertook to protect neutrals,
and while many mission stations had to be tem-
porarily abandoned, there were many others in
which the missionaries remained in tranquillity,
and, as it proved, in safety. But the strange
position in which China found herself, and the
complete inability of the people to comprehend
what was going on, led to exhibitions of dissat-
isfaction and race hatred, with a blind violence
which was an amazement to the most experi-
enced. In the peaceable province of Ssuch'uan
riots broke out which resembled a tropical thun-
der-storm, driving to the seacoast more than
eighty foreigners. During the progress of the
continued persecutions it was reported that more
than fifty thousand Christians had suffered in
various ways, many having been killed. The
200 REX CHRISTUS
primary source of these troubles was the recent
war- It was known that the officials were anti-
foreign, and it was proved that the troubles
were incited by them. During the summer of
this year a terrible tragedy took place in Ku
Ch'eng, in the Fukien province, where Rev. Mr.
Stewart, his wife, family, and associates — ten
persons in all — were attacked by members of a
Vegetarian Society and killed. Explicit impe-
rial decrees were issued in regard to these
events, but the spirit which caused them re-
mained unaltered.
At the General Conference of 1890 a strong
committee had been appointed to put before the
Chinese government a Statement of the Nature,
the Work, and Aims of Protestant Missions in
China. Up to this time it had made no report,
but on Nov. 11, 1895, a very comprehensive
document was laid before the Tsung Li Yaraen,
to be presented to the emperor. This paper
pointed out the fact that Christianity is preached
all over the world ; that its growth has been
steady since its origin ; that it is an Oriental
religion ; and that it is not new nor recently
established. Special efforts were made to show
what Christianity teaches ; its instructions in
regard to obedience to rulers, and in regard to
filial piety. Its peculiar tenets were enlarged
upon, its past history and the honor in which
the Christian church is held in western lands,
its relations to Christian civilization, its output
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 201
of useful literature in China, its toleration in
China under successive dynasties, and in con-
clusion it was prayed that the decrees ordering
the suppression of false and calumnious books
and placards should be rigorously executed.
The substance of the closing petition was granted,
but the strange, complex organization known
as the government of China went on its way as
before. There were outrages here and there
upon missionaries, converts, and chapels, verbal
reproof, and a lingering settlement or no settle-
ment at all. The whole " missionary question "
was once more raised in the press of China and
the home lands, and after strong presentation
of both sides, no discerning observer could fail
to perceive that here is a sociological force
beyond the reach of any statesman or group of
statesmen, which must of necessity be allowed
to work itself out.
A Wonderful Awakening. — Meantime the num-
ber of missionaries, in spite of massacre, was
rapidly increasing. The conference of 1890
had called for 1000 more men, as well as a large
reinforcement of women workers, to be sent
out within five years. At the expiration of
that time it was ascertained that the number of
recruits had been 1153, but of these 505 were
unmarried women, and 167 wives of mission-
aries. In view of the increasing need the com-
mittee renewed the appeal in stirring terms.
There was a great awakening in Manchuria,
202 REX CHRISTUS
where the people, being largely immigrants from
other provinces, appeared to be more accessible
to new ideas and to Christianity than else-
where.
The first provincial union of the growing
Christian Endeavor Society was organized in
Canton by Rev. A. A. Fulton. Great conven-
tions under the lead of Mr. John R. Mott and
others were held at many accessible points, and
both Chinese and foreigners were deeply moved;
for this was rightly felt to be the promise and
potency of much greater things yet to come.
The work of the Young Men's Christian Asso-
ciation began to be heard of in China, a youthful
giant which will expand with the new century
till it fills all the land.
The Anti-Foot-binding Society. — All mission-
aries have always been opposed to Chinese
foot-binding, but in these years, under the lead
of Mrs. Alicia Little, the wife of a British mer-
chant, the matter was taken up in earnest by the
foreign community ladies, and in a wonderfully
short time a great public sentiment had been
developed among the Chinese themselves, espe-
cially the highest officials, many of whom gave
great impetus to the movement. The society
which these ladies organized had the enterprise
and audacity to try to get the matter before
the emperor and the empress dowager, but
their memorial was politely stifled in the ar-
chives of the Tsung Li Yamen. No one could
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 203
then have been made to believe that within a
few years the empress dowager herself would
openly advocate this reform, as has recently
happened.
Other Reforms. — The hostile province of Hu-
nan, by the operation of natural and inevitable
causes, was " opened," just as China itself had
been, two generations before, and began to
clamor for more light. A hundred copies of
the Review of the Times were ordered, and
the services of able men were asked to help
dispel the darkness. All this was but casting
up a highway for the diffusion of the light of
the gospel. There were reform societies organ-
ized even among the Hanlins of Peking, and
there were signs of the possibility of a new life
everywhere. The railway from Tientsin to
Peking was completed at once and proved an
immense success, while the Lu Han line from
the capital to Hankow was pushed forward.
Yet the years following the treaty at the close
of the war with Japan were, on the whole, a
time of continued disappointment to the friends
of China. There was no serious effort to make
the indispensable changes without which it was
doubtful whether the empire could longer be
held together.
China in Convulsion. — We have thus far fol-
lowed the Protestant missionary effort from its
beginnings down nearly to the close of the
nineteenth century, and have seen the little one
204 REX CHRISTUS
become a thousand, and the small one a strong
nation. For the next quadrennium the story
of that effort is so implicated with the political
history of the Chinese Empire that it is impos-
sible even to understand the former without
adequate knowledge of the latter. Merely to
recapitulate in outline the events which led to
the emperor's attempt at reform in 1898, leading
to his overthrow in September of that year, and
the counterblast of the empress dowager in the
year and a half following, would expand the
remainder of this chapter into a volume, and
would, after all, convey no correct impression.
It is therefore necessary to refer the reader to
fuller sources of information elsewhere, while we
confine ourselves to a few general observations,
of the justice of which the discriminating stu-
dent must be his own judge.
The convulsion which shook China to its
foundations was due to general causes, slow in
their operation, but inevitable in their results.
It was the impact of the Middle Ages with the
developed Christian commercial civilization of
the nineteenth century, albeit accompanied with
many incidental elements which were neither
Christian nor in the true sense civilized. If
Christianity had never come to China at all,
some such collision must have occurred, unless
both Manchus and Chinese had shown them-
selves more ready to adapt themselves to the
altered condition of a new time than has ever
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 205
heretofore been the case. All impulse toward
the real renovation of China came from without.
Every force from within had long since been
exhausted and more than exhausted. Making
all allowance for every influence brought to bear
upon China anywhere and at any time, we find
those which had their origin in Christianity
far to outweigh all the rest. Attention has
been repeatedly called to the wide missionary
itineration, the unceasing efforts at evangeliz-
ing all parts of the empire, the universal circu-
lation of the scriptures, and especiall}^ the
magazines, particularly the Review of the Times,
and other publications of the Diffusion Society.
These had penetrated China as aqueous vapor
pervades the atmosphere, making indeed no
external display, but preparing the way for
future precipitation.
In the beginning of 1898 the emperor sent
for books to the number of 129, a full list of
which was published in the report of the Dif-
fusion Society for that year, beginning with Dr.
Faber's " Civilization," already mentioned, and
ending with a " Child's Prayer." If, we repeat,
there had been no missionary effort in China,
that empire would still have been brought into
collision with the rest of the world, but there
would then have been only destructive and no
constructive forces brought into action. It is
the peculiarity and the glory of Christianity to
show how a nation and a race, as well as an
206 BEX CHRISTUS
individual, may be regenerated. The hostility
of the Chinese people was first of all toward
foreigners as such, by whom they saw, or sup-
posed themselves to see, their empire despoiled.
But there was also a large residuum of that natu-
ral antipathy of the human heart to any divine
teaching which uncompromisingly points out
weaknesses and faults, and which is no respecter
of person. Amid the varied action of so many
agents it is vain to deny that Christianity has
sometimes been so presented as to be misrepre-
sented, but on the whole there had for some
time been a marked and a growing friendliness
on the part of both people and officials, which
not infrequently led missionaries to the erroneous
conclusion that the days of their mourning
were now ended. The semi-political adminis-
tration of the Roman Catholic church in China
unquestionably excited the active animosity of
many who were either outwardly amicable, or
at least neutral toward Protestants. Of this
fact there were innumerable examples during a
series of years, and these continue down to the
present time.
The Great Boxer Rising
This began in the early summer of 1899
(preludes having, however, been experienced in
different places earlier) and it continued with
intermittent sequence for fifteen months or
more. It was in many respects one of the
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 207
most unique phenomena of the century. In
the regions where it originated and where its
withering influence was longest felt, it almost
paralyzed its victims with fear. When, in
accordance with orders from Peking, the
Christians were commanded to recant or to
die, Chinese ideas of obedience to the properly
constituted authorities impelled multitudes to
a formal compliance who had no wish to deny
their faith. This was especially the case in
Shantung, where the long-continued strain was
most felt, and where the alluring phrase " tem-
porarily abjure" was employed in official proc-
lamations. Many Christians chose rather to
fly from the storm, becoming wanderers and
fugitives on the face of the earth, rather than
send in to the yamen written notice of the
recantation. But the greater number, unable
to take with them their families, unwilling to
abandon their parents, and filled with corrod-
ing anxiety about their scanty but precious
possessions, fell into the cunningly laid trap,
and did what was demanded. A certain pro-
portion went to the temples as well, for, having
been forced to take the first step, they found no
place for pause. This, however, was far from
universal. It is probable that the instruction
of nearly all the Christians had been defective
in regard to the right course of action to be
taken under these crucial circumstances.
In Chihli, Manchuria, and Sliansi the coming
208 EEX CHBISTUS
of the fearful storm was far more sudden,
frequently resembling a typhoon, which, unan-
nounced, overwhelms its victims in remediless
ruin. There is scarcely any form of cruelty
known to the Chinese which was not practised
upon these terribly persecuted sheep without
shepherds. Great numbers resisted every effort
to make them renounce their faith, though they
were sometimes buried alive by degrees; oppor-
tunity being given at different stages of the
process to save themselves. In other instances
they were roasted to death with kerosene, or
hacked into small pieces with swords, their
bodies thrown into running streams, or burned
to ashes which were ground under heavy rollers,
to prevent the victims from rising within three
days from the dead and exacting vengeance.
These cases of loyalty to their divine Master
were well matched by a similar fidelity to their
missionary friends, for Avhom many Christians
willingly gave their own lives, although they
were aware that the offering would not avail to
save them. The numerous examples of this
sort have presented the character of the Chris-
tianized Chinese in a new light, and the whole
horrible experience has been an appendix to
the Acts of the Apostles and to the eleventh
chapter of the Epistle to the Hebrews. The
literature of the Christian church has been per-
manentl)'- enriched by these records, constantly
increasing in number and variety. To them
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 209
the interested reader must be referred for a
more adequate summary, as well as for details.
The devastating Boxer cyclone cost the lives
of 135 adult Protestant missionaries, and 53 chil-
dren ; of 35 Roman Catholic Fathers, and nine
Sisters. The Protestants were in connection
with ten different missions, one being uncon-
nected. They were murdered in four provinces
and in Mongolia, and belonged to Great Britain,
the United States, and Sweden. No such out-
break against Christianity has been seen in
modern times. The destruction of property
was on the same continental scale. Generally
speaking all mission stations north of the
Yellow River, with all their dwelling-houses,
chapels, hospitals, dispensaries, schools, and
buildings of every description were totally de-
stroyed, though there were occasional excep-
tions, of which the village where these pages
are written was one. The central and south-
ern portions of the empire were only partially
affected by the anti-foreign madness, not be-
cause they were under different conditions, but
mainly through the strong repressive measures
of four men, Liu K'un Yi and Chang Chih
Tung, governors-general of the four great prov-
inces in the Yang-tse valley ; Yuan Shih K'ai
in Shantung, and a Manchu, Tuan Fang, in
Shensi. The jurisdiction of this quartette made
an impassable barrier across which the move-
ment was unable to project itself in force, but
210 HEX CHBISTUS
much mischief in an isolated way was wrought
in nearly every part of China not rigorously
controlled.
Effect on the Native Church. — The havoc
wrought in all mission plants was a symbol of
the devastation in the native church. In many
places it was dispersed to all the winds of
heaven. In others it was literally exterminated.
Many unworthy members hastened to withdraw
from its connection when trouble came ; but
it is a significant fact that perhaps quite as
many others who had waxed lukewarm and
had been dropped from the rolls, finding no
discrimination made by Boxers between them
and others in better church standing, came to
the conclusion that if they were to be pillaged
and threatened as Christians, in spite of their
record, they might as well be Christians to
make sure of some refuge in the beyond, even
if none were to be found here ! The suffer-
ings of the poor, harassed, tempest-tossed wan-
derers were most pitiful, subjected alike to the
insults of their bitterest enemies and the taunts
of their relatives and neighbors. " Where now
is that Den-of-lions and Fiery-furnace Jesus
of yours ? Ask him to come and untie you ! "
said a scoffing spectator to one who had been
seized and bound, and was expecting execution.
Nothing was more common than for own daugh-
ters to refuse their aged mothers a temporary
shelter from pursuit. "No! You cannot come
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 211
in here and implicate us. Go to your foreign-
religion friends ; no doubt they will look after
you ! "
But much worse trials were yet to come.
When at length the tide slowly turned, the
Boxer leaders proscribed, and the plunderers
of Christians in danger of arrest and heavy
fines, then arose fierce temptations to which
many, alas, succumbed — the thirst for that
revenge so dear to the Chinese heart, and so
insistently inculcated in the classics. In regions
where the conditions admitted of it, it was so
easy to loot without fear of consequences, the
possibilities of extortion loomed so large and
appeared so attractive ! The indemnities which
were freely paid by the Chinese government,
or by local officials, proved to many a greater
snare than Boxer threats or imperial edicts.
One's vanished possessions rose in one's estima-
tion after they had taken their flight. What
more natural than to persuade oneself any
amount attainable would not be too much for
what had been suffered? The quarrels and
heart-burnings in the process of the division
of whatever allowance had been made by way of
reparation for wrongs were a far harder test of
Christian faith than the sudden necessity for a
decision to recant and live or to refuse and
die. These temptations, perils, sins need to be
set before us in a clear lime-light to make it
plain what tests the native church in China has
212 BEX CHRISTUS
passed through before the Boxer madness, while
it lasted, and especially since. These conditions
brouglit the best men in those churches to the
front, and showed them as pure gold tried in
the fire. The mercy of the Lord did not al-
together deprive them of their foreign teachers,
as the latter were only for a time withdrawn.
When they returned, the great task of strength-
ening the things which remain began in earnest,
and this has been going on ever since. The
Chinese church is not yet strong enough to
stand entirely alone, but it is far stronger and
more self-conscious of the eternal indwelling
Spirit than ever before. It has learned the
power of God to keep the soul in times of
deadly peril, and to enable the weakest to give
the strongest testimony. It has learned by
humiliation and confession to put away its
sins, and to gird itself for new conflicts and
new victories.
The public and honorable funerals given in
provincial capitals and elsewhere, not to the
foreign martyrs only, but also to the Chi-
nese, attended as they were by the highest ofiQ-
cials, and conducted with punctilious Oriental
ceremon}^, have, from a native point of view,
placed the church before the people of China in
an altogether new light. Its ablest leaders are
more trustworthy men than before their trials,
and the body of believers has a unity and a
cohesiveness which will certainly bear fruit in
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 213
the not distant future. It is especially note-
worthy that in the most important cities,
as a direct result of the unequalled opportuni-
ties afforded by the total and simultaneous
destruction of all mission property, in the ensu-
ing reconstruction everything was on a larger
scale than before, and one far better adapted to
the needs of the work. Mission compounds
which had long been straitened with no hope
of relief were at once doubled in size, or more
than doubled, and the outcome of the effort to
extirpate missionaries and expel all foreigners
has been such improvements in mission plants
as might not otherwise have been realized in a
century.
The Aftermath. — It is a typical Chinese fact
that two full years after the Boxer delusion had
been exposed, discredited, and extinguished in
the provinces which gave it birth, the move-
ment took firm root once more in remote Ssu-
ch'uan, with the familiar phenomena so often
seen elsewhere. Large bands practised by
night and by day, the wildest plans were laid
for driving out and exterminating foreigners
and delivering China. Chapels were destroyed.
Christians looted, and many of them killed.
But for the presence of an able and energetic
governor-general, the whole province would
have been swept into the madness. Sporadic
outbreaks have occurred elsewhere, but it is
certain that they are no longer encouraged by
214 BEX CURISTUS
the responsible officials, and most of them come
to an early end. There is no doubt that, accom-
panied as it is by heavy exactions for the benefit
of the mandarins, the foreign indemnity presses
hard upon China, and will do so for a genera-
tion yet to come. What that period may bring
forth, no one is qualified to say. The political
horizon is full of clouds, and the impending
crisis may involve changes in the rulers of the
empire. But whatever happens, the Chinese
people will remain, and it is certain that they
cannot long remain as they now are.
All signs indicate that China is open as never
before. Foreign languages are eagerly studied
in the very cities where, but a short time since,
all foreigners were killed. There is an unprec-
edented demand for the publications of all the
presses, Bibles, tracts, and the books and maga-
zines of the Diffusion Society, the sales of which
increased from a little over $12,000 worth (Mex-
ican) in 1897, to more than $33,000 worth in
1902. It is supposed that text-books to the value
of perhaps a quarter of a million of dollars
were sold in Shanghai in that year. The Pres-
byterian Press received four commissions for
books from the capital of Ssuch'uan, one of them
by telegraph, ordering books to be sent by mail,
though the postage bill alone amounted to
$328 ! At a dinner-party given in that year in
Pao Ting Fu to officials and to missionaries by
Yuan Shih K'ai, then governor of Shantung and
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 215
now viceroy of Chilili, on his departure for his
new post, he made the interesting statement
that upon inquiry he had found that mission-
aries were always in the vanguard of progress
in all lands, and that he was therefore glad to
welcome them at his table. But inasmuch as
there were no books in Chinese to give such in-
formation as the officials generally sought about
the rise and progress of Christianity, he had
taken the Bible and a boxful of Protestant and
Roman Catholic books in Chinese, and had sent
them to a Chinese doctor in literature whom he
had engaged to read them through, and then
write a brief digest of the whole. Some time
later he brought the result to Dr. Richard in
Peking, and asked him to revise them before
they should be published. This revision was
greatly needed, as they contained undigested
fragments from the Old and New Testaments,
from Protestant and Roman Catholic writers,
and from the records of the Foreign Office.
This incident, mentioned by Dr. Richard in his
report of the Diffusion Society, exhibits in a
striking manner China's need of more light.
According to German statistics, quoted by
Mr. Beach in his " Geography of Protestant Mis-
sions," the total number of foreign missionaries
in China at the beginning of 1900 was 2785,
of whom 610 were ordained, 773 were wives of
missionaries, and 825 other ladies. There were
162 male physicians and 79 women. The aggre-
216 BEX CHRISTUS
gate of native workers was 6388, and the total
number of native Christians 112,808, of which
the province of Fukien contained more than
25,000 ; Kuangtung, 15,000; Manchuria, 9900 ;
Chekiang, 9250 ; Chihli, 8000 ; Hupeh, 4650 ;
and Kiangsi, 4570. The number of differ-
ent organizations working in the empire had
increased from the forty of 1890 to sixty-seven.
Since the restoration of the empire to order and
quiet, the number of missionaries is again on
the increase, and by the time of the next con-
ference (which was to have been held in 1901),
there will have been an expansion in every
direction such as, at the beginning of mission
work a hundred years previous, would have
been beyond the bounds of the wildest imagina-
tion. But even at that early date it was not
beyond the limits of the faith of those whose
motto, like that of Carey, was "Ask great things
of God ; expect great things of God."
SIGNIFICANT SENTENCES
It is impossible to raise the men of the East unless the
■women are raised, and real converts among Asiatic
women, especially among the Chinese, make admirable
Christians. — Isabella Bird Bishop.
I fully believe that until the gospel is implanted in the
hearts of those who are to rule the homes there cannot be
a great awakening of the men and boys. We have in-
stances where men have been church members for some
time and have never taught their families; but I have
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 217
noticed that when the women receive the glad tidings it
is not long before these homes are acquainted with the
fact. — Mrs. E. C. Titus.
Much has been said about sending ladies to China as
missionaries. Possibly, if I had never seen the ladies at
work, I might agree with these critics, but the truth is
that they do the hardest part and the most of the work in
China. The teaching of the children and the nursing
and treating of the sick women and children, surgical and
medical, fall to their lot. I have not space to praise
them here, and I could not say sufficient good of them if
I had. — Hon. Charles Denbt.
Bondage to Custom
Engagements are almost as binding as marriages in
China. . . . Yet what shall we say to the case of a
dainty little hospital assistant, a bright and winning girl,
who is betrothed to an idiot who cannot walk without
assistance, and who makes awful faces when he tries to
speak his unintelligible jargon? This betrothal took
place because the girl's father liked the boy's grandfather^
who is now dead, and so are both the girl's parents.
"What can be done ? I believe the cure will come in time
by an enlightened generation of Christians refusing to
make infantile betrothals. — Mrs. Arnold Foster.
One Out of Five
One fifth of all the women of the world are found in
the homes of China. One baby girl out of every five is
cradled in a Chinese mother's arms unwelcomed and un-
loved, unless by that poor mother's heart. One little
maiden out of every five grows up in ignorance and neg-
lect, drudging in the daily toil of some poor Chinese
family, or crying over the pain of her crippled feet in the
seclusion of a wealthier home. Among all the youthful
218 BEX CHRISTUS
brides, who day by day pass from the shelter of their
childhood's home, one out of every five goes weeping in
China to the tyranny of the mother-in-law she dreads,
and the indifference of a husband she has never seen. Of
all the wives and mothers in the world, one out of every
five turns in her longing to a gilded goddess of mercy in
some Chinese temple, counting her beads and murmuring
her meaningless prayer. Of all the women who weep,
one out of every five weeps alone, uncomforted, in China.
Out of every five who lie upon beds of pain, one is wholly
at the mercy of Chinese ignorance and superstition. One
out of every five, at the close of earthly life, passes into
the shadow and terror that surround a Chinese grave,
never having heard of Him who alone can rob death of
its sting. One fifth of all the women are waiting, wait-
ing in China, for the Saviour who so long has waited for
them. What a burden of responsibility does this lay
upon us — the women of Christendom !
— Mrs. F. Howard Taylor.
Were the women only converted we believe that idol-
atry would soon cease out of the land.
— William Muirhead.
Nearly one half of the women of the world belong to
the two great empires of China and India. . . . The
women conserve the ancient religions and superstitions
of their country ; and what can a man do when the
women of the household are against him?
— Isabelle Williamson.
The word " home," which is unthinkable by us apart
from the tender ministry of woman, is represented in the
Chinese language by a pig under a roof. In most cases
it is an accurate description of the Chinese home, which
to our eyes is often little better than a pigsty. Of course
the Chinaman does not mean to satirize his home. To
him the pig is the symbol of " plenty." . . . Again, our
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 219
sense of all that is sacred receives a severe shock when
we discover that the word " marriage " is represented by
a woman and a pig practically under the same roof. . . .
Until we have a race of Christian mothers in the homes
we despair of producing a high tyjje of Christian char-
acter among the members of the native church.
— J. Miller Graham.
THEMES FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION
I. Women's Work for their Sisters in China.
II. Some Notable Women Missionaries in China.
III. Chinese Women as Christian Workers.
IV. Schools for Girls in China.
V. Young Men's Christian Associations and Christian
Endeavor Societies.
VI. Peking and Nanking as Educational Centres.
VII. Yung Wing and His Chinese Boys in the United
States.
VIII. Lessons Learned from the War with Japan.
IX. Brewing of the Boxer Storm.
X. Compare the Empress Dowager with Catherine II
of Russia.
XI. The Siege of Peking.
XII. Message of the Martyrs.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE
General References as before
Berry's " Sister Martyrs of Ku Cheng." II, III.
Broomhall's " Martyrs of China Inland Mission." IX, XII.
Chang Chih Tung, " China's Only Hope." VIIL
Condit's "The Chinaman as We See Him." Ill, V,
VI, VII.
"Crisis in China" (reprint of articles in North American
Review). VIII, IX.
Edwards's " Fire and Sword in Shansi." U, IX, XII.
220 BEX CHRISTUS
Foster's " Christian Progress in China." I, II, III, IV.
Graham's " East of the Barrier." I, IX.
Graves's " Forty Years in China." VIII.
Ketler's " The Tragedy of Paotingfu." II, VIII, IX, X,
XI, XII.
Lewis's " Educational Conquest of the Far East." VIII,
IX.
Martin's " The Chinese." VI.
Miner's " Two Heroes of Cathay." IX.
Mott's "Strategic Points in the World's Conquest." V.
Report of the Ecumenical Missionary Conference, 1900.
I, II, III, IV, V, VI.
Ross's " Mission Methods in Manchuria." VIII.
Smith's " China in Convulsion." VIII, IX, X, XI, XII.
Wilson's " China." VII, VIII, IX, X, XL
Articles on China in Periodicals (see Appendix) : —
Contemporary, Vol. 70, " Reform of China and the Revo-
lution of 1898." IX.
Forum, Vol. 18, " Significance of the China-Japan War."
VIIL
Review of Reviews, Vol. 22, " The Chinese Revolution."
IX.
CHAPTER VI
THE OPEN DOOR OF OPPORTUNITY
The Chinese Empire is by far the most ex-
tensive field ever opened to the conquests of
the church of God. Gibbon estimated that the
Roman Empire contained 120,000,000 persons ;
but it is certain that China has a population be-
tween three and four times as great. This unex-
ampled magnitude, which at times seems almost
overwhelming, is accompanied and conditioned
by a homogeneity, which, whether we consider
its duration in time or its persistence, is a phe-
nomenon unparalleled among the nations of
history. Amid all their endless diversities the
ideas and the ideals of the Chinese people are
substantially the same. In this respect China
is antipodal to that museum of races, languages,
religions, and civilizations, to which we give the
merely geographical appellation of India. In
China influences can be propagated from one
extremity of the empire to the other, to which
difference of race and language would elsewhere
be an almost complete barrier. According to
the best estimates the mandarin dialect alone,
in some one of its forms, is spoken by three hun-
221
222 REX CHRISTUS
dred millions of Chinese. Countless prefectures
and even single counties have a population greatly
in excess of that of whole groups of Polynesian
islands. It should be especially noted that the
greatest specific hindrance which the gospel
encounters in India is altogether absent in
China, which never had a system of caste and
would never have submitted to it. The Chinese
have always been a race religiously tolerant.
They are a marvellous example of unity in diver-
sity and diversity in unity. They have repeat-
edly shown themselves to be hospitable to new
religious ideas, as is shown by the rapid and
universal spread of Buddhism, and also by the
root struck into Chinese soil by Nestorianism
and the mediaeval Roman Catholic missions, each
of which failed from internal rather than from
external causes. Had Chinese Mohammedanism
been a missionarj'- religion, perhaps it might long
since have taken possession of China. There is
a powerful democratic element in Chinese so-
ciety to which no adequate justice has yet been
done.
No people were ever more easily governed
than the Chinese, when the government has
been in the direction of their ideals. Feeling
the inadequacy of the current faiths — or no
faiths — they have originated a bewildering
multitude of secret sects, with which the empire
is literally honeycombed. Probably not more
than a small number of them are really political
THE OPEN DOOR OF OPPORTUNITY 223
in their ultimate aims; but while the government
forbids them all alike, it finds itself powerless to
put them down. Seriously to attempt it on a
large scale might, and probably would, cause a
revolution, in which new rulers would take the
helm of the ship of state, after which the secret
sects would flourish as before. The practical
Chinese have a wonderful talent for compromise.
They dislike to press things to extremities. It
is a universally accepted axiom that if a single
individual is willing to sacrifice his life, ten
thousand men cannot hinder him.
The once almost impassable barrier of the
Chinese language has been completely scaled, as
well as tunnelled. It is extremely rare that one
otherwise fitted for work in China is obliged to
give up that ambition through inability to mas-
ter the colloquial speech. A great and rapidly
increasing Christian plant has been set up in
every part of China. Almost every corner of
the empire has been penetrated again and again.
The experience of thousands of workers has
been funded and put at compound interest. As
compared with a century ago we have of China
and the Chinese a vast, a varied, and an aug-
menting knowledge.
The real motive of Christianity in pressing
itself upon China is beginning to be dimly ap-
prehended by many who until lately never heard
of it. This is indeed a slow process, but it is
a process which is continually going on in the
224 REX CRRISTUS
minds of men, and of women as well, in all
ranks of life, from the empress dowager to the
peasants grinding at a mill. Race hatred and
suspicion survive, and increase too, after their
kind, and will continue to survive after seons
shall have passed away; but in spite of them
Christianity gets a better, a fairer, a fuller hear-
ing than before, with each new advance.
A Modern Miracle. — The survival of the
Christian church notwithstanding the fierce
onslaught of Boxer fanaticism, armed with
illimitable supernatural powers and backed by
the highest authority in the empire, is a stand-
ing miracle which invites examination and com-
pels explanation. Since the foreign soldiers, as
a rule, neither knew nor cared anything about
the Chinese Christian church, it cannot be ex-
plained as due to force of arms. It cannot be
charged to diplomatic patronage, for in the final
treaties between the Powers and China, mis-
sionary interests were studiously ignored. Had
they been raised as a living question, there was
so much disagreement that no action could have
been unanimous, and without unanimity there
could have been no action at all. Why, then,
was not the church exterminated? How came
Chinese officials, without diplomatic pressure of
any kind, and wholly of their own accord, to
grant indemnities for losses to those native
Christians of whom, but a few months before, im-
perial edicts had commanded the slaughtering ?
THE OPEN DOOR OF OPPORTUNITY 225
The more it is considered, the more clearly will
it be perceived that no story of the three chil-
dren in the furnace of fire, or of Daniel deliv-
ered from the hungry lions, is more worthy of
careful investigation than the continued exist-
ence of the Christian church under apparently
impossible conditions. The steadfastness shown
by many individual members of that church,
Roman Catholic and Protestant alike, in refus-
ing to recant, and in sealing their testimony
with their lives, is an irrefragable argument in
favor of the genuineness of their faith. Great
numbers, it is true, did recant, just as we have
too much reason to fear would be the case in
our own land under like fiery trial, and great
numbers of these have confessed their sin and
weakness, and have turned unto the Lord for
help and grace, just as like sufferers have done
in every age. Proofs offered by genuine and
unobtrusive martyrdom the Chinese can com-
prehend as well as we can, and they do not
attempt to refute them. Their existence on a
large scale makes a background for preaching
Christ to the Chinese, hitherto unavailable.
A United Church. — An important incidental
effect of the almost complete destruction in sev-
eral provinces of the outward symbols of mission
work, has been a marked impulse on the part of
Protestant missions toward a greater unity, di-
minishing competition, economizing labor, and
increasing the output. To what extent this
Q
226 EEX CEBI8TUS
may be carried cannot yet be known, but union
educational institutions, both in Chihli and in
Shantung, are now assured. It is not too much
to expect in due time a practical federation of
Christian churches in China which will present
a united front to the enemy, and which will lead
to the introduction of Christian influences upon
a far larger scale than at present. Protestant
missions with essential unanimity emphatically
decline the offer of the Chinese government to
confer official recognition upon their leaders.
They refuse to interfere in the ordinary pro-
ceedings of the Chinese courts of justice. The
fact of this settled policy is coming to be
more and more understood by all ranks of
Chinese officials. The opposite practice of the
Roman Catholic church in each particular, what-
ever advantages it may appear to give for a
time, is making clear the fundamental differ-
ences between these two forms of Christianity,
and we need not fear the result. In the Boxer
troubles Protestants suffered much because they
were mistaken for Romanists, against whom
there was not unreasonably much prejudice.
It is not unlikely that the same phenomenon
may be repeated in other forms, but the con-
flict and the resultant discrimination seem to be
inevitable^ In the communities where they
exist, there is an augmenting influence of the
Christian churches, and since the Boxer up-
rising collapsed, this influence has greatly in-
THE OPEN DOOR OF OPPORTUNITY 227
creased. Many Chinese officials for the first
time have come into contact with educated Chris-
tian Chinese, and have been struck with their
good sense, their capabilities, and their evident
moral integrity. In China these qualities in
combination are rare indeed. Their existence is
a prophecy and a promise. The Chinese know
very well how to talk about preferring righteous-
ness to gain. But when one of their most pro-
gressive governors is popularly believed to have
paid a bribe of twenty thousand ounces of silver
to the Manchu nearest the throne to get his ap-
pointment confirmed, the spectacle of a poor
Chinese who respectfully and modestly, but
firmly, declines to take surreptitiously a sum of
money which would quietly place him beyond
the fear of poverty, is one which cannot fail to
have its influence. China has occasionally had
men who would do this, and one of them who
lived and died in the Han dynasty (124 a.d.)
is still cherished in the national memory. But
China has never had the art of producing such
men, and its introduction will be owing solely
to Christianity.
Power of Regenerated Lives. — The " out-
populating power of the Christian stock," in-
sisted upon more than half a century ago by
Dr. Horace Bushnell, is a most important factor
in the coming evangelization of China. Where
the family is the unit of social life, as the vil-
lage of political life, the renovation of the family
228 BEX CHRISTUS
is the great social problem. Christianity under-
takes this mighty task by regenerating the
fathers, the mothers, the husbands, the wives,
the children, and the neighbors. An intelligent
official who glanced through a small Christian
tract explaining by scripture texts the duties of
each of these classes to one another, remarked,
" This is good ; if every one were to act like
tJiat, I should have no trouble in governing
the people." To the five human relations of the
Chinese, must be added, or rather prefixed, the
divine relation between God and man, before
society can have either an adequate basis or
a legitimate object.
There will be developed in an ever increasing
ratio assistance from the Chinese themselves
from the ranks of the native church, for it is by
them that the real work must ultimately be
done. The first foreign workers are of necessity
isolated, and without helpers. With the expan-
sion of the church as an organic and coordinated
body, workers of all grades of efficiency will
more and more appear. A large part of the
future literature by which China is to be moved
must be achieved by them. In them is the
hope of China. The philanthropies which have
been ancillary and subordinate to the work of
Christian missions in China, have exerted a
wide, a deep, and, we may well believe, a perma-
nent influence upon the people. In the Great
Famine of 1877-1878, and in numerous similar
THE OPEN DOOR OF OPPORTUNITY 229
emergencies since, vast sums from abroad have
been disbursed to needy Chinese. The methods
of distribution have necessarily been far from
scientific, for the problem is too profound to be
attacked except upon its edges. An army of
agents supplied with the revenues of an empire
would still be altogether inadequate. We are
for the most part quite helpless to remove the
causes of these great calamities, which recur
Avith the persistence of a repeating decimal.
Yet something has been accomplished ; best of
all, a great object-lesson in practical Christianity
has been given, which has deeply affected many
Chinese officials of great influence, and has cer-
tainly done much to remove the prejudices of
millions of people. The Christianization of a
land like China proceeds, as we have seen, along
many distinct but coordinated lines. In its
present stage it is practically impossible to dis-
sociate evangelism from education, and it can
be accomplished only by the unlimited use of
Christian literature, and of secular literature
prepared from a Christian point of view.
The temper of many of the officials in China
is not unfrequently thoroughly pessimistic.
They are profoundly dissatisfied with the condi-
tion of their country, without being at all aware
of the real sources of its weakness. They per-
ceive that everything ought to be done, but they
do not clearly see how, under present conditions,
anything can be done. As in the great coal
230 BEX CERISTUS
strike in the United States, every one feels the
pressure of the trouble, and perhaps every one
has some more or less vague notions about its
causes. But to the question, ^'■WJiat can we do
about it?" few have a definite answer. To
China in this mood, twentieth century Chris-
tianity ought to come with a clear message.
China needs light, and those who have the
Light of the World ought to bestow it, for it
is evident that the hope of the empire lies in
Christian education.
Educational Reforms. — After much vacillation
the government of China appears to be acting
upon a more or less clear recognition of the need
of radical reformation in the fossilized methods
of the past. On the 29th of August, 1901, an
imperial decree was issued commanding the abo-
lition of the examination essay, or wen-chang,
for literary degrees, in favor of short essays upon
modern matters and western laws, constitution,
and political economy. The same procedure is
to be observed in future iji examining candidates
for office. A similar decree commanded that the
usual methods of conferring military degrees
after trials of strength with stone weights, agility
with the sword, marksmanship with the bow and
arrow, on foot and on horseback, should be defi-
nitely abolished, as having no relation to strategy
and to that military science which for military
officers is indispensable. Instead of the former
methods, military academies are to be established
THE OPEN BOOR OF OPPORTUNITY 231
in the various provincial capitals, the students
being required to be examined in their knowl-
edge of literature as well as in military science
and drill. In the following month a decree was
issued commanding all existing colleges in the
empire to be turned into schools and colleges of
western learning, each provincial capital to have
a university like that in Peking, the colleges in
prefectures and districts to be tributary to those
at the provincial capital. The system is ulti-
mately to be completed by the general introduc-
tion of primary scliools in the villages. A few
days later another decree was issued ordering
the governors-general and governors to follow
the example of Liu K'un Yi (since deceased),
Chang Chih Tung, and others, in sending abroad
young men of scholastic promise and ability to
study any branch of western science or art best
suited to their abilities and tastes, so that in
time they might return to China and place the
fruits of their knowledge at the service of the
emperor.
Thus we behold the kernel of the reforms
ordered by his Majesty, Kuang Hsu, in 1898,
and which led to his dethronement and impris-
onment, substantially adopted less than three
years later by the empress dowager and her
advisers. It must not, however, be supposed
that the issue of decrees like these indicates
a steady and a consistent purpose on the part
of the government to adopt real reforms. In
232 REX CHRISTUS
many cases the responsibility for the execu-
tion of these plans is committed to officials
thoroughly hostile to their intent. For a long
time to come the progress made must be so slight
as to be scarcely discernible. The bare notation
of the tenor of these far-reaching edicts gives to
the Occidental reader but a vague notion of the
tremendous intellectual revolution which they
connote. ''Never before was there such an order
from any government involving the reconstruc-
tion of the views of so many millions, by the
study of the methods of government in other
nations." For a long time it had been dimly
perceived that some changes of this description
were inevitable, and when they came, there was
not only no formal protest on the part of the
people, but in Shansi when a vote was taken
among the students at the provincial capital by
the conservatives, they found to their astonish-
ment that eighty per cent of the students were
in favor of western learning !
The majority of those who have the supreme
control of China to-day are unhappily pro-
foundly ignorant of the nature of the great
problems which that empire has to solve, and
still more so of the processes by which alone
there is any rational hope of their solution.
It is obvious to one who knows anything of
the Chinese educational system of the past
millennium, that the introduction of the new
methods will involve its radical reconstruction
THE OPEN DOOR OF OPPORTUNITY 233
from top to bottom. Western geography, mathe-
matics, science, history, and philosophy will be
everywhere studied. The result cannot fail
to be an expansion of the intellectual horizon
of the Chinese race comparable to that which in
Europe followed the Crusades. This will be a
long process and a slow one, but it is a certain
one. It is from this point of view that missionary
education in China is seen in its true character.
Every mission station is a dynamo, diffusing
impartially in every direction light and heat.
It is at once a spiritual, a moral, and an intellec-
tual centre. In its schools pupils are educated,
and not merely instructed ; the seeds of a new
community are everywhere sown. From the
Christian colleges now widely scattered over the
face of the land young men are constantly going
out with enlarged minds and with open vision.
It is an instructive fact that it is only in Chris-
tian schools that that patriotism in which the
Chinese seem so strangely deficient is inculcated
on principle. China will never have really patri-
otic subjects until she has Christian subjects.
Educational Needs. — There is scarcely a
branch of modern education which is not ur-
gently needed. The Chinese need to know
in detail something of the history of the world
of which they seem but yesterday to have be-
come an integral part, that they may have
correct standards of comparison. They need
thorough instruction in political economy and
234 REX CHRISTUS
its laws, and in every department of sociology.
They need to know the underlying philosophy
and principles of trade, that they may compre-
hend and accept the proposition, incredible to
them, that what is to the advantage of one may
be to the advantage of all. They need espe-
cially to study the laws of production, and ere
long it will be necessary to ponder the laws of
distribution. They need to examine scientifi-
cally the incalculable resources at the disposal
of the people, and to learn how to develop and
employ them. They need to have the barren
scholasticism of the learned, and the narrow
utilitarianism of the uneducated classes, re-
placed by real knowledge. They need medical
teachingf to save innumerable lives and to dimin-
ish the sum of human misery. In every direc-
tion China needs the truth to make her free.
Christian education has produced some
sweet first-fruits, out of all proportion to the
number of workers. Until within a few years
nine-tenths of the general knowledge which
has been diffused throughout China, and ninety-
nine hundredths of all the modern schools, are
due to missionaries. In central China there
are large and infl.uential Christian colleges in
Shanghai, Soochow, and Nanking ; in south-
eastern China at Foochow and Canton ; at Teng
Chou Fu in Shantung, and in Peking and T'ung
Chou in the metropolitan province of Chihli.
In the capital of Shansi (T'ai Yuan Fu) there
THE OPEN DOOR OF OPPORTUNITY 235
is a unique government college founded with
money which would otherwise have been ex-
pended in missionary indemnities. Dr. Timothy
Richard, at whose suggestion this step was taken,
was placed in charge of this institution for a
period of ten years, by the enlightened gov-
ernor of Shansi. The government has already
established provincial colleges in the capitals
of eleven out of the eighteen provinces. The
policy has been deliberately adopted of requir-
ing from every student, upon penalty of ex-
clusion, the formal worship of Confucius, which
makes the services of Christian teachers and
the attendance of Christian pupils impossi-
ble. It is incidentally a testimony that the
Chinese authorities have felt Confucianism to
be in danger from the increasing encroachments
of Christianity. It is not to be supposed that,
because Confucian students are held aloof from
immediate contact with Christian instructors
and Christian text-books, that they can be alto-
gether isolated (in medical phrase) so as to be
beyond the reach of Christian influences of all
sorts. Christian periodical literature is able to
go where Christian feet cannot, and where the
living voice cannot penetrate.
In direct work with Cliristian students, and
in indirect relations with non-Christian students
of all types, the International Young Men's and
Young Women's Christian associations have a
unique and a most important field. Their efforts
236 BEX CHBISTUS
are as yet but in their preparatory stages, but are
rapidly growing in importance and power, so that
the good which they will be able to accomplish,
often in silent and unobtrusive ways, is inesti-
mable. The United Society of Christian En-
deavor is another agency peculiarly suited to
Chinese habits, and it has wrapped within it a
vast potentiality of good. Its great gatherings,
attended by a choice company of Chinese youth,
uniting in the use of the mandarin dialect as
" the greatest common multiple " of this strange
language, are a natural means of conveying
spiritual impulses to widely separated regions,
just as in other lands, but with perhaps far
greater efficiency, on account of the freshness
of the new life which has come into many hearts,
and the absence of many of the other avenues
by which, in Christian lands, that life can be
outwardly manifested. The singular solidarity
of the Chinese and their unrivalled talent for
organization make it certain that forms of Chris-
tian energy like those just mentioned will ere
long be widely adopted, and must of necessity
be extremely efficacious in multiplying the influ-
ence of the church.
The New China. — The immense difficulties
in the way of a practical regeneration of an
empire like China must not for a moment be
lost sight of nor minimized. Each one of them
must ultimately be reckoned with, singly and
in combination. But they have proved insuffi-
THE OPEN DOOR OF OPPORTUNITY 237
cient to stop the progress of a movement which
has now attained to large proportions and will
soon be far greater. It is to be anticipated that,
at some perhaps not distant day, there may
be a great movement toward Christianity. No
human prevision can foresee how or when it
will appear, nor what shape it may take. As
has already been pointed out, on account of its
mass, its homogeneity, its high intellectual and
moral qualities, its past history, its present and
prospective relations to the whole world, the con-
version of the Chinese people to Christianity
is the most important aggressive enterprise now
laid upon the church of Christ. To reply to
the numerous objections which are and have
always been made is, for readers of a book
like this, a mere waste of time. They have all
been often answered, and are at this moment
refuted by the actual work done. To abandon
a field because new and unexpected difficulties
have arisen is not in accord with the genius of
Christianity. Merchants, surveyors of Chinese
railways, and openers of its new mines are all
liable to be overtaken by mobs and violence,
yet they do not surrender their coveted conces-
sions, and neither shall we. As compared with
the expenditures of enterprises like these, and
still more in comparison with the costly military
disbursements, the total sum required for all the
missions in the Chinese Empire is a mere trifle.
In results achieved and achievable the returns
238 BEX CHRISTUS
to be expected from the latter far outweigh
those which can, by any possibility, arise from
the former. That there is to be commercially,
industrially, and in some shape politically, a new
China is certain. When such a population is
really revolutionized, the whole world must be
affected by the tremendous change. No more
lands now remain to be discovered and peopled ;
but as Dr. Josiah Strong well remarks, to raise
the scale of living in China to the average
standard in the United States, would be equiva-
lent to the creation of five Americas. In mod-
ern economics nothing is considered to be too
expensive which is worth while. Ten millions
of dollars are spent for a dam on the Nile, but in
a short time — perhaps annually — it will repay
its cost and make Egypt again the garden of
the earth. A hundred or two millions of dollars
are voted for a canal, but it is to alter the trade
routes of the globe and bring, as never before,
the Orient and the Occident face to face.
Money, labor, prayer, lavished upon the re-
demption of the great Chinese Empire, in the
end will yield ampler returns than can be looked
for in any other land. Upon the people of the
United States China has an especial claim.
"Who is my neighbor?" China. Owing to her
geographical position, if for no other reason, our
country has never had any territorial disputes
with her. The United States has no "conces-
sions" to be protected at the open ports, no
TBE OPEN DOOlt OF OPPORTUNITY i23d
"spheres of influence," no "earth hunger."
Our treatment of the Chinese in our own coun-
try has been full of injustice, and of an undis-
guised contempt for the principles upon which
our republic is ostensibly founded. Do we not
owe to the Chinese people practical reparation,
in the gift of the fuller knowledge of that which
shall help them to become, like ourselves, wise
and strong ?
Perhaps it might be difficult to find in any
land a class upon which more and greater bless-
ings have been lavished than the women of the
United States. But these great gifts are a loan,
and, upon the principle enunciated by the Mas-
ter, they only mean that by Him the more will
be required, — assistance, sympathy, prayers for
those in less favored lands. To our country-
women the innumerable millions of Chinese
women and children mutely and unconsciously
appeal. "Freely ye have received, freely give."
Their experience of universal popular educa-
tion gives American missionaries important ad-
vantages, and a corresponding responsibility.
Nearly all the large missionary colleges in China
were built by American societies, and are taught
by American teachers. It would be difficult to
find anywhere positions of greater importance.
China has many needs. She needs new intel-
lectual life of every description in every fibre of
the body politic. But she needs still more a
new moral and spiritual life, without which a
240 BEX CHRISTUS
merely intellectual renaissance will be full of
deadly perils. Every renovating force from
within has long been exhausted, and more than
exhausted. Her religions, her nature worship,
her hero worship, her ethical traditions, are life-
less and spent. Commerce, science, diplomacy,
culture, civilization, she must have in ever in-
creasing measure ; but apart from Christianity
they are a Pandora box of potential evils.
Aside from Christianity there is no visible hope
for China. With it, after age-long slumbers,
she will awake to a new life in a new world.
If this book does not lead up to the question
in the mind of the reader, "What can I do for
the redemption of China?" it will have been
written and read in vain.
SIGNIFICANT SENTENCES
I admire and reverence those devoted men and women
[the missionaries], and I regard them as taking to China
precisely the commodities of which she stands most in
need, namely, a spiritual religion and a morality based
on the fear of God and the love of man. — Sir Edwin
Arnold.
I went to the East with no enthusiasm as to missionary
enterprise. I came back with the fixed conviction that
missionaries are the great agents of civilization. I could
not have advanced one step in the discharge of my duties,
could not have read, or written, or understood one word
of correspondence on treaty stipulation but for the mis-
sionaries. — Hon. W. B. Rked, United States Commis-
sioner.
THE OPEN DOOR OF OPPORTUNITY 241
There can be no doubt that while American commerce
has been relatively declining in China, American missions
have been relatively increasing. The factor of missions
is to be reckoned with as much as the factor of trade. . .
American missionaries have been free from the suspicion
of acting as political allies ; and they thus possess a de-
cided advantage in attracting the natives to an honest
acceptance of the Christian religion. — Forum, April, 1899.
We cannot think of withdrawing our missionaries from
the Far East unless we are willing to withdraw our mer-
chants. Our ministers of the gospel must remain as long
as our ministers of diplomacy. — Hon. John Barrett.
Should he [a voyager] be shipwrecked on an unknown
coast, he will devoutly pray that the missionary may have
preceded him. — Charles Darwin.
Everything that has been done for the blind in China,
or any other eastern land, has been done by missionaries.
Miss Gordon Cumming said she was astonished, when
visiting Peking, to stand at the door of a dark room and
hear the Scriptures read by the touch of men who, not
four months before, begged in the streets, half naked and
half starved. The missionary has done this work alone,
from his slender income, boarding, lodging, and clothing
his pupils.
Until one travels from Canton to Kalgan and takes
long journeys into the interior, one cannot realize the
extent of this wonderful work, or the resourcefulness of
the missionaries. Nor can one realize the hold which
the missionary has upon the future of China. He has
not only established churches and planted schools; he
has written books and translated other books, and intro-
duced western ai'ts and sciences, and pioneered the way
for commerce and civilization. . . . The missionary is
B
242 BEX CHRISTU8
unsealing the Chinaman's ears, tliat he may hear the
tramp of the advancing nations of the twentieth century.
— Dr. F. E, Clark.
I believe the advancement of civilization, the extension
of commerce, the increase of knowledge in art, science,
and literature, the promotion of civil and religious liberty,
the development of countries rich in undiscovered min-
eral and vegetable wealth, are all intimately identified
with, and to a much larger extent than most people are
aware of, dependent upon, the work of the missionary;
and I hold that the missionary has done more to civilize
and to benefit the heathen world than any or all other
agencies ever employed. — Alexander Mc Arthur, M.P.
This is the crack of doom for Paganism.
— Dr. W. a. p. Martin, on the Boxer uprising.
They climbed the steep ascent of heaven
Through peril, toil, and pain;
O God, to us may grace be given
To follow in their train. — Reginald Heber.
Lo, these shall come from far ; and lo, these from the
north and from the M'est; and these from the land of
Sinim. — Isaiah.
THEMES FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION
I. China in Convulsion.
ir. Kuang Hsu and His Schemes for Reform.
HI. Ladies of the Legations at the Court of the
Empress Dowager.
IV. Li Hung Chang and Other Eminent Viceroys.
V. Chinese Scholars and Statesmen in the United
States.
VI. The United States as a JMaker and Breaker of
Treaties with China.
TUE OPEN DOOR OF OPPORTUNITY 243
VII. Russia's Occupation of Manchuria.
VIII. The " Yellow Peril " and the " Yellow Hope."
IX. Men of Might who have shaped the Future of
China.
X. How Missions have Helped in Diplomacy, Phi-
lanthropy, and Social Progress.
XI. Outlook for Chinese Women in the Twentieth
Century.
XII. Coordination of Christian Forces in China.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE
General References as before
Bishop's " The Yangtze Valley and Beyond." XI, XII.
Bryson's "John Kenneth Mackenzie." IX, X.
Condit's " The Chinaman as We see Him." V, VI.
Chang Chih Tung's " China's Only Hope." IV, V, VIH.
Colquhoun's " China in Transformation." I, VII, VIII.
Coltman's " The Chinese." X.
Creegan's " Great Missionaries of the Church." IX.
» Crisis in China." VIII, IX.
Curzon's " Problems of the Far East." II, III, VIII, IX.
Douglas's " Li Hung Chang." IV.
Gibson's " The Chinese in America." V, VI.
Gilmour's " Among the Mongols." IX, X, XII.
Hake's " The Story of Chinese Gordon." IX.
Johnston's " China and Its Future." IX, X, XII.
Ketler's " The Tragedy of Paotingfu." IX, XII.
Lawrence's " Modern Missions in the East." IX, X.
Leonard's "A Hundred Years of Missions." IX, X.
Lewis's " Educational Conquest of the Far East." IV,
X, XIL
Mackay's " From Far Formosa." IX,
Nevius's « Life of John L. Nevius." IX.
Report of the Ecumenical Missionary Conference, 1900.
rv, V, IX, X, XI, XII.
244 BEX CHEISTUS
Robson's " Griffith John." IX.
Smith's " China in Convulsion." I.
Speer's " The Oldest and the Newest Empire." VI.
Speer's " Missions and Politics in Asia." X.
Wilson's " China." IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X.
Articles on China in Periodicals (see Appendix) : —
Contemporary, Vol. 73, "How China may yet be Saved."
I, VII.
Fortnightly, Vol. 44, " The Youngest of the Saints." IX.
Forum, Vol. 14, "A Chinaman on Our Treatment of
China." VI.
APPENDIX
LEADING MISSIONARY PERIODICALS
Assembly Herald (Pres.), U. S.
Baptist Missionary Magazine (A. B. M. U.), U. S.
Chronicle London Missionary Society, England.
Church Missionary Intelligencer (C. M.S.), England.
Foreign Missionary Tidings (Pres.), Canada.
Friends' Missionary Advocate (Friends), U.S.
Helping Hand ( W. B. F. M. S.), U. S.
Life and Light for TFo?Han ( Woman's Board, Cong.), U. S.
Messenger and Record (Pres.), England.
Mission Studies (Board of Interior, Cong.), U.S.
Missionary Gleaner (Dutch Reformed), U. S.
Missionary Herald (Baptist), England.
Missionary Herald (Cong.), U. S.
Missionary Link (Woman's Union), U. S.
Missionary Outlook (M. E.), Canada.
Missionary Review of the World (Interdenominational),
U.S.
Missionary Tidings (Christian), U.S.
Spirit of Missions (P. E. Church), U.S.
Woman''s Missionary Friend (M. E.), U. S.
Wo7nan's Work for Wo7nan (Pres.), U. S.
Woman's Missionary Magazine (United Free Church),
Scotland.
Women's Missionary Magazine (U. P.), U. S.
ADDITIONAL ARTICLES IN PERIODICALS
[Owing to the complex international situation in China,
the number of valuable magazine articles concerning that
country, since the memorable summer of 1900, is unusu-
246
246 BEX CHRISTUS
ally large. Besides the few mentioned below, the student
should consult the files of denominational papers, and
publications like the Outlook, to which Dr. Smith is a
regular contributor. — F. J. D.]
Atlantic, Sept., 1900, " Russia's Interest in China." Oct.,
1900, "The Crisis in China." Jan., 1901, "The
Empress Dowager." Dec, 1902, " Chinese Dislike
of Christianity."
Century, Dec, 1900, " The Struggle on the Peking Wall."
Jan., 1901, "Besieged in Peking." Mar., 1901,
" Flight of the Empress Dowager." May, 1901, " A
Missionary Journey in China." Sept., 1902, " A Visit
to the Empress Dowager."
Contemporary, July, 1900, " A Scramble for China." Aug.,
1900, " Who's Who in China." Oct., 1900, " Our
Future Policy in China." June, 1902, " The Genius
of China."
Fortnightly, June, 1900, " The Last Palace Intrigue at
Peking." Aug., 1900, « Peking — and After." Feb.,
1901, " China and Non-China." May, 1901, " China,
Reform, and the Powers."
Forum, July, 1900, " Chinese Civilization : The Ideal and
the Actual." Nov., 1900, " Taming of the Dragon."
Harper, Oct., 1900 (1) " Wei Hai Wei," (2) " The Chinese
Resentment." Jan., 1903, " Chinese and Western
Civilization" (by Wu Ting Fang).
Nineteenth Century, July, 1900, "Our Vacillation in
China and Its Consequences."
North American, July, 1900, " Mutual Helpfulness be-
tween China and the United States."
Review of Reviews, Sept., 1900, " Can China be Saved?"
Jan., 1901, " Foreign Missions in the Twentieth Cen-
tury." Mar., 1902, " Practical Missions." May, 1902,
" Return of the Court from Peking " (from Revue
de Paris). July, 1902, "System of Modern Colleges
for China."
APPENDIX 247
LIST OF TWENTY BOOKS ^
At Moderate Prices, Most Useful in Course ok
Study on China
General Works
"Dawn on the Hills of T'ang." Harlan P. Beach.
Student Vol. N.Y. ^0.75.
" Princely Men in the Heavenly Kingdom." United Soc.
C. E., Boston. $0.50.
People and Life
"Home Life in China." M. I. Bryson. American Tract
Society, N.Y. f 1.00.
" Chinese Characteristics." A. H. Smith. Revell Co.,
N.Y. $1.25.
"China: Travels in the Middle Kingdom." James H.
Wilson. Appleton, N.Y. $1.75.'"
Mission Work
"John Kenneth Mackenzie." M. L Bryson. Revell Co.,
N.Y. $1.50.
" The Cross and the Dragon." B. C. Henry. Randolph,
N.Y. $1.00.
" China and the Chinese." John L. Nevius, Pres. Board,
Phil. $0.75.
"Mission Methods in Manchuria." John Ross. Revell
Co., N.Y. $1.00.
History
"China" (Story of the Nations Series). R. K.Douglas.
Putnam, N.Y. $1.50.
"A Cycle of Cathay." W. A. P. Martin. Revell Co.,
N.Y. $2.00.
1 Several desirable books are excluded from this list on
account of their high price. Secure, if possible, other books
mentioned at the close of each chapter.
248 BEX CHRISTUS
Present Political Situation
"China's Only Hope." Chang Chih Tung. Revell Co.,
N.Y. $0.75.
"Missions and Politics in Asia." Robert E. Spear.
Revell Co., N.Y. ^1.00.
" The Crisis in China." Harper Bros., N.Y. $1.00.
The Boxer Uprising
" Fire and Sword in Shansi." E. H. Edwards. Revell
Co., N.Y. $1.50.
"The Tragedy of Paotingfu." I. C. Ketler. Revell Co.,
N.Y. $2.00.
Religious and Educational
" Confucianism and Taoism." R. K. Douglas. Nelson,
N.Y. $1.00.
" The Educational Conquest of the Far East." Robert
E. Lewis. Revell Co., N.Y. $1.00.
"Two Heroes of Cathay." Luella Miner. Revell Co.,
N.Y. $1.00.
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INDEX
Abeel, David, 136, 168, 186.
Allen, Y. J., 193.
Amherst, Lord, 133.
Amoy, 27, 32, 139.
Ancestral worship, 80, 88.
Anhui, 36.
Ann Arbor, 183.
Antiquity, 1, 12, 121.
Area, 2.
Arnold, Edwin, 240.
Ashmore, Dr., 141.
Audience question, 186.
Baldwin, Mrs., 81, 169.
Bamboo, 7.
Barrett, John, 241.
Beach, H. P., 215.
Bible societies, 174, 191 ; trans-
lations, 132, 144 ; women, 174.
Bishop, Isabella Bird, 180, 216.
Blake, Lady, 172.
Blind, 161.
Blodget, Henry, 148.
Books, bamboo, 11; Buddhist,
67 ; destruction of, 14 ; ency-
clopaedia, 23 ; "of Changes,"
57,59; "Shuo Wen," 15, 19;
60, 62, 78, 131, 156, 194, 215,
235.
Boone, Dr., 143.
Boulger, D. C, 115.
Boxers, 64, 78, 125, 160, 192, 198,
206 et seq., 224, 226.
Brewster, Mr. and Mrs., 161.
Bridgmaa, E. C, 136, 144.
Brown, S. R., 158.
Buddhism, 15, 17, 61, 67 et seq.
Burns, W. C, 141.
Cambridge Band, 151.
Canals, 5; Grand, 21, 30, 31.
Canton, 27, 33, 127, 137, 198.
Chang Chih Tung, 116, 209.
Channiug, Blanche M., 164.
Chao, Mrs., 178.
Chef 00, 31, 33, 149, 161.
Chekiang, 19, 32, 124, 216.
Chentung Liang Cheng, 39.
Chihli, 5, 23, 29, 149, 207, 216.
Christian Associations, 202,235;
Endeavor, 202, 236.
Chu Fu-tze, 55.
Chu Hsi, 19, 36.
Ch'img Ch'ing, 35.
Clarke, F. E., 242.
Classics, 17, 19, 20, 141.
Climate, 6.
Colleges, 148, 234, 239.
Combs, Dr., 180.
Conceit, 8, 26, 126.
Confucius, 12, 16, 31, 44 et seq.
Sayings of, 80 ; 96, 175.
Conservatism, 9(5, 101.
Cooper, T. T., 107.
Cumming, Miss Gordon, 241.
Customs service, 147.
Darwin, Charles, 241.
Denby, Charles, 163, 217.
Diffusion Society, 194, 205, 214.
Dispensaries, 159.
Distrust, 104.
Door of Hope, 183.
Dragon, 61 ; Throne, 22.
Dudgeon, Dr., 148, 187.
Dynasties, Chou, 11, 59; Han,
14, 227; Hsai, 10; Manchu,
253
254
INDEX
25; Ming, 21, 122; Mongol,
20,68,122; Sui,21,67; Sung,
19, 32, 68: T'ang, 4, 16, 51,
68. 76 ; Tsin, 13.
East India Co., 127, 129, 132,
138.
Edkins, Mr., 148.
Education, 144. 168, 194, 234.
Emperors, Chia Ch'ing, 26;
Ch'ien Lung, 26; Ch'in Shili
Huang, 13 ; Chu Muan Cliang,
21; Hsieu Feng, 28; K'ang
Hsi, 25, 70 ; Kao Tsung, 17 ;
Kuang Hsu, 117, 204, 231;
Ming Ti, 67; P'ing Ti, 14;
Shun, 10; Tai Tsung, 17;
Tao Kuang, 27; T'ung Chih,
28; Yang Ti, 21; Yao, 10;
" YeUow," 15 ; Yung Clieng,
26.
Faber, Ernst, 54, 62, 195, 205.
" Face," 107.
Famine, 6; Groat, 187, 228.
Farming, metliods of, 4.
"Feng-shui," 9.
Fitcli, G. F., 197.
Five Relations, 47, 55, 89, 104.
Foochow, 27, 32, 139, 169, 193,
198.
Food supply, 6.
Foot-binding, 18, 173, 202.
Foreigners, sentiment toward,
94, 206.
Formosa, 27, 32.
Forum, 241.
Foster, Mrs. Arnold, 217.
Fukien, 32, 95, 161, 200, 216.
Fulton, A. A., 202; Mary H.,
184.
Gamble, "William, 196.
Genghis Khan, 20.
" Glad Tidings Village," 189.
Gordon, Charles George, 28.
Gracey, J. T., 40.
Graham, J. M., 219.
Griffin, Lepel, 81.
Hangchow, 19, 32, 149.
Hankow, 36, 192.
Headland, Dr. 176.
Heber, Reginald, 242.
Herodotus of China, 15.
Hobson, Dr., 138.
Holcombe, Chester, 167.
Honan, 36.
Hong Kong, 33, 144, 172, 198.
Hospitals, 137, 159, 182.
Howard, Dr., 180.
Howe, Julia Ward, 162.
Hue, Abbe', 120, 123, 155.
Hu King Eng, 182.
Hunan, 35, 76, 149, 203.
Hunt, P. R., 198.
Hupeh, 36, 216.
Ideographs, 3, 11.
Immigrants, 23, 33.
India, 6, 67, 127, 135, 189, 221.
Indirection, 103.
Industry, 90.
Infanticide, 58.
Ink invented, 15.
Insincerity, 105.
Irishmen of China, 33.
Itinerating, 156.
Japan, 13, 16, 28, 59, 137, 199.
Jesuits, 60, 123.
Jews, 15, 49.
John, Griffith, 149, 193.
Kahn, Ida, 173, 183.
Kansuh, 38, 76.
Kerr, Dr., 161, 183.
Kiangsu, 31, 216.
Kindergartens, 175.
Kipling, 41.
Kuang Hsu, 231.
Kuangsi, 33, 36, 70.
Kuangtung, 27, 33, 123, 216.
Kuan Yin, 74.
INDEX
255
Kublai Khan, 20, 122,
Ku Ch'eng, 33, 200.
Kueichou, 34.
Kung, Prince, 28.
Kuo Sung Tao, 188.
Lao-tze, 59, 62.
Legge, Dr., 51, 54.
Liang A-fa, 134.
Li Hung Chang, 30, 36, 52, 54,
155, 180.
Literature, 15, 17, 18, 26, 194.
Little, Mrs., 117, 202.
Liu, Deacon, 160.
Lockhart, William, 138, 148.
Loess, 5, .37.
London Times, 40.
Lui K'un Yi, 209.
Hacao, 33, 130.
Madison, James, 129.
Mail, China, 185.
Manchuria, 6, 24, 28, 38, 64,
152, 187, 201, 207, 216.
Marco Polo, 20.
Marsh, Dr., 81.
Martin, W. A. P., 48, 71, 149,
242.
Ma Tuan Lin, 19.
McArthur, Alexander, 242.
McKenzie, Dr., 148.
Meadows, T. T., 139.
Medhurst, W. H., 135, 142, 144.
Medical work, 179.
Mencius, 12, 31, 55, 70.
Mills, Mrs., 161.
Milne, Robert, 131, 144.
Minerals, 8, 34.
Missions, Am. Board, 136, 152,
169, 198 ; Baptist, 141, 1(59, 177,
189, 195; China Inland, 150,
198 ; Episcopal, 142, 149, 169,
198; Reformed, 142 ; German,
141 ; London, 128, 152 ; Meth-
odist, 142, 150, 169, 180, 187 ;
198; Presbyterian, 38, 140,
143, 149, 152, 169, 182, 187,
196, 198, 199; Roman Cath-
olic, 121, 188; Union, 169.
Mohammedanism, 18, 53, 76 o.t
seq.,22-2.
Mongolia, 20, 68.
Monte Corvino, 121.
^jfMorrison, Robert, 129, 140, 191.
Muirhead, William, 142, 149,
218.
Nanking, 22, 27, .31, 140, 149.
Napoleon, 39; "of China," 13.
Native Christians, 210, 225.
Neandor, 39.
Nestorians, 37. 120, 222.
Nevius, J. L., 149.
Niles, Mary, 183.
Ningpo, 27, 32, 139, 197.
North American Review, 162.
01jT)hant, Mr., 136.
Opium, 27, 37, 90, 160.
Pao Ting Fu, 30.
Paper money, 18.
Parker, Peter, 1.37.
Parliament of Religions, 5, 97.
Patriotism, 95.
Peking, 2, 20, 24, 28, 30, 63, 127,
148, 173, 186, 198, 231; Ga-
zette, 18, 53, 54; University,
198.
Peng Kuang Yu, 52, 97, 108.
Persecutions, 199, 208.
Plain, Great, 6, 31, 36, 38, 85.
Population, 2, 14, 17, 84, 221.
Poverty, 58, 90, 92, 158.
Prince, of Peace, 14; of litera-
ture, 18.
Printing presses, 133, 192, 196,
214.
Provinces, 29.
Queue, 64.
Railroads, 30, 31, 35, 38, 203.
Ralph, Julian, 40.
256
INDEX
Ramazan fast, 76.
Reed, W. B., 240.
Reforms, 29, 35, 203, 230.
Reid, Gilbert, 39.
Ricci, Matthew. 123.
Ricbard, Timothy, 69, 189, 195,
215.
Rivers, 2, 21, 30, 33, 37.
Roberts, Dr., 148.
Roman Catholics, 206, 222.
Russia, 31, 38.
Salt wells, 9, 35.
Schools, 17, 150, 157, 169, 171,233.
Secret sects, 77 et seq., 222.
Seward, G. F., 163; W. H., 41.
Shanghai, 27, 30, 32, 135, 139,
172, 183, 188, 190, 196.
Shansi, 5, 9, 23, 37, 95, 188, 207,
232.
Shantung, 12, 23, 31, 38, 95,
135, 149, 226.
Shensi, 37, 76, 189.
Si Ngan Fu, 29, 37, 121.
Singapore, 137, 168.
Smith, Mrs. A. H., 171; Moses,
80. ,
Solidarity, 85.
Soochow, 31, 149.
Speer, William, 115.
Ssuch'uan, 9, 35, 149, 199, 213.
Stewart, Mr., 200.
Stone, Mary, 182.
Stronach, 144.
Strong, Josiah, 238.
Superstitions, 63.
Suspicion, 104.
Swatow, 18, 33, 141.
T'ai P'ing Rebellion, 27, 31, 34,
36, 135, 140, 143.
T'ai Shan, 31.
Taoism, 59 et seq.
Tartars, 19, 23.
Taylor, J. H., 150 ; Mrs. F. H.,
218.
Temples, 53, 67, 72; Temple
Bar, 115.
Three Kingdoms, 16, 67.
Tientsin, 30, 54, 145, 148, 154,
180.
Titus, Mrs. E. C, 217.
Tract societies, 191, 198.
Training schools, 177.
Treaties, 145.
Tuan Fang, 209.
Unity, 50, 89, 142, 222, 225.
University, Peking, 149, 198;
Tientsin, 102.
Untruthfulness, 105.
Valignani, 122, 128.
Wall, Great, 13, 38.
War, methods of, 12; with
France, 28 ; with Great Brit-
ain, 146; with Japan, 28, 32,
203 ; Opium, 27.
Wei Hai Wei. 31,
Williams, S. W., 16, 21, 27, 37,
52, 136, 188.
Williamson, Dr., 182, 194, 218.
Woman's work, 167.
Woodhull, H. C, 163.
Woolston sisters, 170.
Worthley, Evelyn, 81.
Wu, Mrs. 180.
Yates, Dr. and Mrs., 143.
Yuan Shih K'ai, 209.
Yunnan, 34.
5 241 3
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