Full text of "Ridpath's history of the world; being an account of the principal events in the career of the human race from the beginnings of civilization to the present time, comprising the development of social institutions and the story of all nations"

Presented to the
LIBRARY of the

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

MR. & MRS.
JOSEPH VINER

RIDPATH'S

HISTORY OF THE WORLD

BEING AN ACCOUNT OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN THE CAREER

OF THE HUMAN RACE FROM THE BEGINNINGS OF

CIVILIZATION TO THE PRESENT TIME

COMPRISING

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

AND

THE STORY OF ALL NATIONS

FROM RECENT AND AUTHENTIC SOURCES

COMPLETE IN NINE VOLUMES

BY JOHN CLARK RIDPATH, LL. D.

AUTHOR OP A " CYCLOPEDIA op UNIVERSAL HISTORY." ETC.

VOLUME I

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PREFACE TO VOLUMES I AND II.

|ITKrN the present cent-
ury the motives for writ-
ing History have been
greatly intensified. First
of all, the vision of the
historian hag been con-
siderably widened by the
enlargement of geographical knowledge and
the establishment of the hitherto uncertain
limits of cities and states. By this means not
a few of the puzzling and contradictory as-
pects of the old-time annals have been brought
into clearer light and truer proportion. More
particularly in Ancient History has accurate
geographical information contributed to the
completeness and perspicuity of the narrative.
The rectification of Chronology, also, has
gone forward with rapid strides, and the result
has been no less than the writing anew of whole
paragraphs in the earlier chapters of human
history. If to this we add the splendid
achievements in the department of Archte-
ology, in deciphering the hitherto mute rec-
ords of antiquity, and in interpreting the
significance of the architectural monuments so
abundant in most of the countries where civil-
ization has flourished, we shall find a large,
even an imperative, motive for reviewing and
re-writing the records of the Ancient World.
It is, however, most of all, the Scientific
spirit of the nineteenth century which has
demanded, at the hands of the historian, an
additional guaranty for the accuracy of his
work. This spirit is abroad in all the world,
and prevails most of all in the highest depart-
ments of human thought and activity. It
has not hesitated to demand that History shall
become a science. It has challenged or rejected
the value of all historical writings that are not
pervaded with the scientific method and modeled
on the inductive plan. All this is well; the
historian must scrutinize the foundations of
his work and the validity of his structure.

It is to motives such as these that the great
historical works of our century owe their ori-
gin. But for such reasons, Wilkinson, Ebers,
Rawlinson, Duncker, and Curtius had never
written ; and the world would still be blindly
following the unsifted stories of old. Thus
much may be said, then, as to the general
reasons for writing History.

The more particular motive which the Au-
thor of the present work has to offer to the pub-
lic for undertaking the composition of a book
so comprehensive as the title indicates, is this:
A desire to bring within the reach of the aver-
age reader a concise and accurate summary
of the principal events in the career of the
human race. The historical works produced
in our century have nearly all been in the
nature of special studies, limited in their scope
to a particular epoch. The result has been
that the works in question are so elaborate
in detail and so recondite in method, that
the common reader has neither courage to
undertake nor time to complete them. Be-
fore a single topic can be mastered, he finds
himself lost in a labyrinth. The synthesis of
different periods, treated by different authors,
seems impossible ; he turns in discouragement
from the task; and to him the history of tha
past remains a sealed fountain.

It has thus come to pass that the average
citizen, who, in the United States at least, is
expected to have accurate general views on
historical questions, may reasonably plead in
bar that the historians, by not considering the
limits of his time and opportunity, have put
the required knowledge beyond his reach. .

Be it far from me to say aught in dispar-
agement of the learned labors of our great
historians. They have fairly deserved the
plaudits of mankind. It can not be denied,
however, ihat the best of our recent histor-
ical works are, by excess of learning and the
dissertative Jisposition of the writers, quit*

PREFACE TO VOLUMES I AND IT

incommensurate with the demands, and, I may
g iy, the needs of the common reader.

It has been my purpose, in the preparation
of these volumes, to popularize the subject
without losing sight of the dignity and impor-
tance of the historian's office. The People are
as much entitled to accurate information, con-
cisely and graphically conveyed, as scholars
are entitled to elaborate dissertation. It is a
most pernicious error to admit that a true
epitome of History can be hastily and easily
prepared. Such a work, when conscientiously
undertaken, requires the greatest care and
the highest skill in execution.

In preparing the present work, I have
freely availed myself of the best and most
recent authorities. The names of Wilkinson,
Brugsch, Bunsen, Ebers, Duncker, Rawlinson,
Smith, Curtius, Grote, Niebuhr, Falke, Momm-
sen, and Von Ranke will suggest the secondary
sources which have been relied upon ; and these
names are the guarantees for the fundamental
accuracy of the narrative.

As to the style adopted in the following
pages, as well as the general views expressed,
and the method of treatment employed in the
various parts these are the Author's own.
It has been my hope and aim in this work to
relate the HISTORY OF THE WORLD in such
a manner as to bring the vast record within a
manageable limit, so that every reader who
will, may obtain, at a moderate expense, and
master, with a moderate endeavor, the better
parts of the history of the past.

A word of explanation may be required
respecting the arrangement of the earlier parts
of the present work. Instead of beginning,
as do most of the treatises on Ancient History,
with the Chaldsean and Assyrian monarchies,
I have chosen to begin with Egypt, tracing,
first of all, the history of that country down
to the time of its subjection to the Persians;
then ti:m-fcrring the scene to Mesopotamia,
and followin.i: thereafter the natural course of
events from the Euphrates to the Tiber from
Babylon to Koine. The choice of the valley
of the Nile, rather than the valley of the
Tigris, as the place f beginning, has been
determined by chronological considerations
and the true sequence of events.

CillkKXCASlLE, 1890.

A brief explanation is also demanded re-
specting the line of division between Ancient
and Modern History. Instead of selecting the
downfall of the Western Empire of the Romans
(A. D. 476) as the line of demarkation be-
tween the world of the ancients and our own,
I have taken the overthrow of the Greek Em-
pire by the conquest of Constantinople (A. D.
1453), as what may be properly called the
death of Antiquity. True it is that Modern
Europe was already in the nascent state be-
fore the final destruction of the old historical
forces; and for that reason the attention
of the reader will be recalled after the over-
throw of the Eastern Empire, by the span of
a thousand years, to the story of the Barbarian
Nations, which may be fairly regarded as the
opening scene in the drama of modern times.
It is also proper to add a word respecting
the use of the term CYCLOPAEDIA in the title
of these volumes. Popularly speaking, the
word is limited to the discussion of topics al-
phabetically arranged ; but neither etymology
nor better usage in literature indicates any
such limitation of meaning. I have chosen
to use the word in its truer sense, as implying
simply a discussion of Hie whole cirde of the
subject under consideration.

As it respects the illustrative part of the
present work, it may be said that the aim has
been kept constantly in view to make the illus-
trations contribute to a ready understanding
and apt appreciation of the text. Great care
has been taken in the preparation of the maps
with which, by the liberality of the publishers,
the following pages are so copiously inter-
spersed. The cuts and drawings have all been
selected and arranged in such relation with
the text that the one shall illustrate the other.
I trust that the work, the plan and motive
of which I have thus briefly summarized, may,
in the present Revised and Enlarged Edition,
meet with the same cordial reception at the
hands of the public which has been extended
to the author's other essays in historical litera-
ture. More particularly am I anxious that
these volumes may prove to be worthy of the
appreciation and praise of my countrymen, to
whose candor and charitable criticism I now
surrender the fruit of my labors.

J. C. R

Copyrighted by The Jones Brothers Pub. Co I8J3.

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CONTENTS OF VOLUMES I AND II.

PREFACE, 6-6

CONTENTS T-18

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 19-21

INTRODUCTION, 23-24

BOOK FIRST. BGYPT.

CHAPTER I. THE COUNTRY.

General Character of Africa. Coasts and
Mountains. Northern Africa. The Nile Valley.
Sources of the River. The White and Blue
Niles. Formation of Egypt. Character of the
Valley. The Delta. Divisions of the Country.
The Houses. The Annual Flood of the Nile.
Height of the Overflow. Appearance of the Wat-
ers. Deposit from the Flood. Advantages to a
Primitive People, 2U-36

CHAPTER II. THE PEOPLE.

Origin of the Egyptians. Not Semites or Ne-
groes. Impulse of Immigrant Tribes. The Egyp-
tians Cushite. Four Races known in the Valley.
Natural Conditions of Civilization in Egypt. Fer-
tility. Annual Flood. Isolation. Fixedness of
Natural Aspect. Suggestion of Cities. The Sol-
dier and the Priest. Reflex Effect of Mystery Nat-
ural Suggestion of Monarchy. Personal Qualities
of, the Egyptians. Stature and Physiognomy.
Longevity 36-41

CHAPTER III. CIVIL AND MILITARY ANNALS.

Obscurity of Ancient Dates. Herodotus and
the Priests. Dynasties of Gods and Men. At-
tempted Chronology. Diodorus and his Dates.
Opening of the Monuments. Manetho. Diodorus
corrects Himself. What the Problem is. Were
the Dynasties Consecutive or Contemporaneous?
Views of Moilem Scholars. Mariette. Brugsch.
Lepsius. Duncker. Results. Reign of Menes.
Founding of Memphis. Public Works. King
Ateta. Kenkenes, IVnrphes, and Scmenpses.
Butan and Kakan. Bainnutor. Nepliercheres.
Lesochris. Nebka. Tosorthros. Snofru. Acces-
sion of Khufu. Age of the Pyramids. Origin and
Character of the Monuments. Description of the
Pyramids of Ghizeh. How they were Built. Con-
jectural Uses. Reigns of Khufu, Khafra, and
Menkera. Wars of these Kings. The Sphinx.
Oppressions of the Fourth Dynasty. Decline un-

der Dynasty V. Ptah-Hotep and Una. Sixth
Dynasty. Foreign Wars undertaken. Campaigns
of Una. Reign of Pepi. Extension of Egyptian
Power. Merenra. Neferkara, Nitocris. Dynas-
ties VII., VIII., IX., X. Twelfth Dynasty estab-
lished by Amenemha. Extent of his Authority.
Usertesen I. Inscriptions and Obelisks. Succeed-
ing Usertesidce. The Feiyoom. Lake Moeris.
The Labyrinth. Tombs of Benihassan. Display
of Manners. Queen Sebeknefrura. Government
at Xois. Failure of National Power. Coming of
the Hyksos. Devastation of Egypt. Revolt against
the Shepherds. Recovery of Independence.
Thebes Ascendant. Aahmes and Tuthmosis.
Hatasu. Tuthmosis III. and IV. Queen Tai.
A.menophis IV. House of Ramses. Seti I.
Ramses II. His Great Campaigns. His Public
Works. Monumental Evidences of his Renown.
Greatness of Thebes. Menepta. Primitive Is-
rael. The Children of Jacob in Egypt, Story of
the Exodus. Seti II. and Menepta II. The Later
Ramesians. Dynasties XIX. and XX. Foreign
Influences in Egypt. The Priestly House. Disin-
tegration of the Kingdom. Revival under Taf-
nekht. House of Sai's. Divisions of the Coun-
try. War with Ethiopia. Country invaded by the
Assyrians. Esarhaddon breaks Egypt into Prov-
inces. Destruction of National Spirit. Reign of
Psametik I. Circumnavigation of Africa. Battle
of Carchemish. The Last Pharaohs. Conquest of
Egypt by Cambyses 41-71

CHAPTER IV. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

Literature of Egypt. Delineation of Manners
and"Customs. Rank of the King. His Importance
in the State. Regarded as a Deity. His Name
and Attributes the Same as those of the Deity.
The Discipline of his Life. Care taken of hi*
Person. Daily Ceremonial. Public Pageant
The King's Court. The Great Tribunal. Judi-
cial and Administrative Officers. Furniture of
Royal Apartments. Death of a King. Woman
entitled to Succession. Few Great Egyptians.

CONTENTS OF VOL UMES I AND II.

The Military Caste. Weaponry. Organization of
the Army. The Priests. Exemption from Secu-
lar Duties. Supported at Public Expense. Elab-
orate Ceremonial.-^- Classes of Priests. Famous
Shrines. Colleges. Priesthood Hereditary. Dis-
cipline of the Priests. Personal Purity. Food.
Celibacy. Common People. Vocations. Hered-
ity. Transmitted Skill. Changes from Rank to
Bank. Land-ownership. Subjection of the Peo-
ple. Prosperity of tho Peasants. The Peasant
Home. AmXisements and Sports. Games Dis-
played in Sculpture. Gaming, Music, and Danc-
ing. The Ox-song. Egyptian Sepulture. Em-
balming. The Process Described. Preparation
of Mummies. Solemnity of Egyptian Funeral
Rites. Ancestral Worship. Crossing the Lake of
the Dead 71-83

CHAPTER V. RELIGION AND ART.

Primitive Beliefs of the Egyptians. Were they
Monotheistic? Not Idolaters. The God Ptah.

His Worship. Theory of Worship. Titles of
Ptah. His Emblems. Ra. Where Worshiped.
How Represented. Associated with Other De-
ities. Emblems. Titles. Amun. Atmu. Turn
and Mentu. Seb and Tefnet. Osiris and Isis.
Seats of their Worship. Set. Symbolism of Osi-
ris and Isis. Horus. Kathor. Thoth. Minor
Divinities of Egypt. Adoration of Animals. The
Sacred Creatures. The Ibis. Apis. Bennu.
The Phoenix. Lesser Sacred Beasts. -Better Con-
cepts. The Day of Judgment. Practical Ethics.
Religious Bias of Egyptian Law. Strifes of Towns
Respecting Sacred Animals. Egyptian Art Asso-
ciated with Religion. Splendid Ruins of the Nile
Valley. Architecture. Building Materials. Pro-
fusion of Sculpture. The Column. Various Or-
ders. Statuary. Obelisks. Writing. The Hier-
oglyphics. Their Explication. Hieratic and
Demotic Characters. Coptic. Egyptian Paint-
ing. Scene in the Temple of Medinet-Habu.
Egyptians Wanting in Ideality, 83-102

BOOK SECOND.

CHAPTER VI. THE COUNTRY.

Geographical Character of Mesopotamia. Eu-
phrates and Tigris. Their Valleys. Annual
Floods. Tributaries. Dwindling of the Euphra-
tes. The Chaldsean Plain. Aspect o* the Coun-
try. Extent and Shape. Recession of the Persian
Gulf. Elements of Natural Wealth. Man Early
Attracted to the Situation. Proximity of Sea,
Advantages of the Primitive Chaldseans, . 103-107

CHAPTER VII. PEOPLE AND LANGUAGE,

Ethnic Place of the Chaldseans Considered.
Recent Classification of Races. The Aryan Race.
Its Distribution. The Semitic Race. The Ham-
itic Race. Kinship of Chaldseans and Egyptians.
The Chaldseans Modified by Other Peoples. Per-
Bonal Characteristics. Pursuits. Skill. The
Name Chatdsean. Principal Tribes. Character of
the Chaldee Language. Writing 108-111

CHAPTER VIII. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

Berosus. Fragments of His Works. Tradition
of the Creation. Oan teaches Men. Early Dy-
nasties. Chaldsean Tradition of the Flood. The
Same compared with the Assyrian Account.
Other Traditions of a Deluge.- Deeds and Fame
of Nimrod. Tribal Movements of his Epoch.
Urukh, the Builder. Style of his Structures.
Ruins of Warka. The Temple. Inscriptions of
Bricks. The Mughcir Ruins. Description of
Moon-god Temple. Calneh and Larsa. Ur.
Reign of Ilgi. Chaldsea conquered by Elam.
Kudur-Nakhunta. Kudur-Lagamer. His Con-

quests in the West. Abraham. Other Elamite
Sovereigns. Dynasty Third. Kings of Fourth
Dynasty. Ismi-Dagon. Gurguna. Haram-Sin.
Babylon the Capital. Minor Reigns. Arabian
Dynasty. Khammu-Rabi. Samsu-Iluna. Kara-
In-Das. Kara-Khar-Das. Purra-Puriyas. Kurri-
Galzu. Assyrian Conquest of Chaldsea. Con-
dition of Lower Mesopotamia thereafter. An-
tiquity of the Country. Its Importance in Early
History. Imperfect Knowledge of the Kingdom.
Present Knowledge only an Outline, . . . 111-123

CHAPTER IX. SCIENCE AND ART.

Fame of the Chaldseans. Learning Based on
Industrial Pursuits. The Industries of Chaldsea.
Houses. Temples. Absence of Stone. Varieties
of Bricks. How built in Walls. Mortar. Tem-
ple of Abu-Sharein.- Wanting in Beauty. Inner
Shrines. Dwellings and Huts. Details of Struc-
ture. Chf>ldsean Burying- places. Methods of
Sepulture. Coffins. Drainage. Pottery. Signet-
Cylinders. Tools. Metals. Fabrics. Chaldsea
Favorably Situated for the Study of Nature. As-
tronomical Knowledge. Measurement of Time
and Distance. Records of Eclipses. Numbers.
Weights. Writing The Cuneiform Method.
Tablets and Plates Gem Engraving, . . 123-131

CHAPTER X. RELIGION.

Chaldsean Views ef Creation. Myths and Tra-
ditions. Sky-gods. Doctrine of El. Anu.
Bel. Mixed with the Myth of Nimrod. Hea.
The Moon-god Sin. Called Hnrki. Samas.
Bin. Adar. Mingled with the Fish-god. Teoi-

CONTENT* OF

/ AND II.

pies of Bin. Merodach. Nergal. The Chaldfcan
Venus. Manner of the Pilgrims at her Shrine.
The Goddess Istar. Similar to Proserpina.
Nebo. Similar to Hermes. Sometimes omitted
from Lists. The Goddesses Dar-Kina and Beltis.
Anata. Anunit Zir-Banit. Nuua. Varamit.

Incitements to Planet Worship in Chaldsea. The
Houses of the Zodiac. Primitive Religion and
Primitive Science. What the Priest taught
What the Poet taught What the Sage taught
Blending of the Three Revelations by the Chal-
dean Seers 132-140

BOOK THIRD. ASSYRIA.

CHAPTER XI. COUNTRY AND PRODUCTS.

Character of Upper Mesopotamia. Doubtful
Boundaries. Probable Limits. Extent of Assyria
Proper. Eastern Assyria. Its Rivers. ffhe Two
Zabs. Western Assyria. Its Streams. Aspect of
Mesopotamia. The Country divided by Sinjar.
The Two Slopes. Xenophon's Description. Im-
perfect Geography. Character of Aturia. Other
Provinces. Western Districts. Wide Distribution
of Ruins. Assyria fortified by the Zagros and
Armenian Mountains. On the West and South
by Deserts. Southern Border exposed. Diversi-
ties of Climate. Phenomena of Eastern Assyria.
Of Northern Mesopotamia. Of Central Mesopo-
tamia. Great Changes of Temperature. Torrid
Climate of Southern Assyria. Modified by Civili-
zation. Striking Changes in Landscape. Ancient
Advantages lost in Modern Times. Easy Irriga-
tion of the Country. Assyrian Products. Enu-
meration of Things grown. Present Productions
the same as those of Antiquity. List of Principal
Products. The Manna. The Mineral Supply.
The Wild Beasts of Assyria. The Wild Ass in Par-
ticular. Horses. Cattle. Camels and Dromeda-
ries. Assyrian Birds. The Ostrich and the
Partridge. Waterfowl and Birds of Prey.
Fishes ' 143-153

CHAPTER XII. PEOPLE AND CITIES.

The Assyrians Semites. Ethnic Place cf th
Race. Determined by Language and Tradition.
Form and Feature of the People. Jewish Physi-
ognomy. Brawny Character of the Assyrians.
Like the Jews in Religious Belief. The Assyrians
Warlike and Brave. Aggressive Disposition.
Cruelty and Ferocity. A People of Pride and
Haughtiness. Have the Reputation of Craft and
Perfidy. Luxurious Habits. Pleasure the End
of Life. Learning derived from the Chaldseans.
Superiority of the Assyrians in Government.
Lacking in Scientific Knowledge. Assyrian Ar-
chitecture considered. The Building Imagina-
tion. Assyria next to F,L'yi>t in Structure. Ruins
of Nineveh. Description of the Mounds. The An-
cient City. Its Relation to the Tigris. Size and
Population of Nineveh. Mistaken Limits of the
City. What should be included and what ex-
cluded. The Walls of Nineveh. The Gates. The

Towers. Other Defenses. Difficulty of recon-
structing the Ancient City. Ruins of Calah. Gen-
eral Character of Ninirud. Wasted by the Ti-
gris. Royal Palaces. Described by Xenophon.
Khorsabad. The Mounds. Wall. Ruins of Ke-
remles. And of Asshur. The Site and Surround-
ings. Other Ruins. Building Activity of the
Assyrians, 153-161

CHAPTER XILi. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

Colonization of Assyria. Babylonian Origin.
Data of Early History. Table of Dynasties and
Kings. The Chronology. Legendary Period.
Prehistoric Glimpses. Asshur-Upallit and th
Chaldtean Rulers. The Period Succeeding. Shal-
maneser I. establishes Empire on the Tigris. Tig-
lathi-Adar the True Founder of Assyria. Re-
duces Chaldeea to Dependence. The Succession
broken. Bel-Kudur's War with Babylon. Reign
of Asshur-Dayan. Mutaggil and Ris-Ilim. For-
eign Wars. Chronicle of Tiglath-Pjleser I. His
Great Wars. The Surrounding Nations are con-
quered. Personal Exploits of Tiglath. A Builder
of Temples. Specimen of his Inscriptions. An
Uncertain War with Babylon. Continuance of
the same under Bil-Kala. Period of Decadence.
Reputation of Assyria. Revival of the Empire
under Izir-Pal. His Conquests. Riches and Glory
of Nineveh. Izir-PaFs Palace at Calah. The Cit-
ies flourish. Shalmaneser II. maintains the Fame
of his Father. His Syrian Wars. Conquers Da-
mascus. Patronizes Architecture and Letters.
The Black Obelisk. Civil War of Danin-Pal and
Shamus-Vul. Reign of the Latter. His Cam-
paigns. Conquest of Babylon. Character of Sha-
mus-Vul. Reign of Vul-Lush ILL Relics of his
Time. Legend of Semiramis. Decay and Luxury
following Vul-Lush III. Doubtful Dynasty of
Pul. Assyria and Israel. Tiglath-Pileser II.
reigns. A Reformer. Reduces Babylon. Makes
War on Samaria and Judah. Supports Ahaz
against Rezin of Damascus. Carries off the Israel-
Overawes all Syria. Rebellion of Hoshea,
Shahnani'sor II. reigns. Affairs in Egypt The
As.-yrian King defeats Hoshea. Besieges Tyre.--
Revolution headed by Sargon. The Latter reduces
Susiana and Babylon. Defeats the Assyrian Al-
lies. Comes in Conflict with Egypt Battle of

CONTENTS OF VOL UMES I AND II.

Raphia. Subdues the Arabs. Puts down Revolts
in Philistia. Suppresses the Insurrection of Mero-
daeh-Baladan. Holds Sway at Babylon. Bad
Success in Armenia. Interferes in Elam. Policy
of Deportation. The City of Sargon. Sennacherib
comes to the Throne. Insurrection of Babylon.
The King Victorious. Overawes Sidon. Egypt
goes to War. Battle of Eltekeh. The King over-
runs Judah. Deports the Israelites. Subdues
Revolt in Babylon. Bad Faith of Hezekiah. De-
struction of Sennacherib's Army. War with Me-
dia. Affair of Beth- Yakin. Defeat of the Malcon-
tents of the South. Overruns Susiana. Battle of
Ohaluli. War with Cilicia. Monuments of Sen-
nacherib. His Character. Esar-Haddon obtains
the Throne. His Wars. Various Expeditions.
Invades Edom. Conquers Bazu. Establishes As-
syrian Authority in Egypt. Captures Manasseh.
Accession of Asshur-Bani-Pal. Defeats Tirha-
kah. Egypt overrun by Ethiopians. Assyria Vic-
torious. The King's other Wars. Restores Order
in Susiana. Reduces that Country to a Prov-

ince. Affairs in Lydia. The King defeats the
Arabs. Decline of the Empire. War with Me-
dia. The Scythian Deluge. Ravages of the
Barbarians. Accession of Saracus. Invasion of
Assyria by Cyaxeres. Overthrow of the Em-
pire, 162-190

CHAPTER XIV. RELIGION AND ART.

Assyrian Gods derived from Chaldaea. As-
shur His Powers and Emblems. Minor Deities.
Place of Anu. Attributes and Symbols of Bel.
Hea. The Moon-god Sin. Shamas-Vul. Ninus.
His Emblems. Merodach. Nergal.Nebo. As-
syrian Goddesses. Associated with Male Deities.
Table of the Assyrian System. The Good Genius.
The Evil Genius. Idolatry of the Assyrians. As-
syrian Ethics. Religious Ceremonial. Feebleness
of the System. Assyrian Learning derived from
Babylon. Method of Writing. Tablets and Cyl-
inders. Cuneiform Inscriptions. Sculpture.
Trades and Manufactures. Skill of the Assyrians
in Industrial Art 191-200

BOOK KOURTH. MEDIA.

CHAPTER XV. COUNTRY AND PRODUCTS.

General Features of Media. Natural and Polit-
ical Boundaries. Mountain Ranges. Zagros and
Elburz. Aspect of the Country. Median Rivers.
Cheerless Landscapes. Poor in Water. Lake
Urumiyeh. Provinces of Media. The Capital.
Features of Ecbatana. Palace and Citadel. The
Northern City. Rhaga. Charax. OtherTowns.
Rock of Behistun. The Median Climate. Ex-
tremes of Temperature. Atmospheric Phenom-
ena. Influence of Mountains. Rare Rains.
Whirlwind and Mirage. Forest Growth. Or-
chards. Products of the Soil. Crops of the
Plateau. Gardens and Flowers. Mineral Wealth
of Media. Wild Beasts. Domestic Animals.
Birds. Fishes and Reptiles 201-210

CHAPTER XVI. THE PEOPLE.

The People called Medes. Iranic Origin.
Physical Type. Beauty and Strength of the
Medes. Heroism. Horsemanship. Intellectual
Qualities. Cruelty. Luxury. Warlike Disposi-
tion. Weaponry and Tactics. Median Dress.
Toilet and Ornaments. Polygamy. Royal Cere-
monial. Hunting. Animals Pursued. Median
Banquets. The Ring's Life. Absence of Gen-
ius. Art of the Medes, 211-215

CHAPTER XVII. LANGUAGE AND RELIGION.

The Aryan Speech. Affinities of the Median
and Persian Languages. Few Remnants of Me-

dian Proper. Art of Writing. System of Alpha-
bet. Arrowhead Method. Materials used. The
Zendavesta. The Nature Worship of the Irani-
ans. Priests. Ahura-Mazdao. His Attributes.
Sraosha. Armati. Spirit and Duty. The geut
uria. Mithra and Vayu. Soma. Devas and
Ahuras. Incoming of Dualism. Ahriman. Prac-
tical Ethics. Sacrifices. Eternal Things. Resur-
rection. Myth of King Yima. Legend of Three-
tona. Common Myths of the Medes and the
Greeks. System of Magism. Sacred Elements.
Disposal of the Dead. Divination. Insecticide.
Impressiveness of the System, 216-224

CHAPTER XVIII. CIVIL AND MILITARY AN-
NALS.

The Madai. Obscure Origin. Beginning of
National History. Early Relations with Assyria,
Conquest of Media by Sargon. The Mythical De'i-
oces. Appearance of Cyaxares. Organizes the
Kingdom. Makes War on Assyria. Is routed.
Reorganizes his Army. The Invasion of Assyria
again Undertaken. Incoming of the Scythians.
They seize the Country. A Reign of Terror.
Ended by the Butchery of the Scyths. Cyaxares
negotiates with Babylon. Insurrection and Inva-
sion join Hands. The Assyrians defeated. Over-
throw of Nineveh. Division of the Empire.
Other Wars of Cyaxares. Overruns Asia Minor.
Battle of the Eclipse. Peace made with Alyat-
tes. Sketch of Lydia. Reign of Gyges. Sardis.
Besieged by the Cimmerians. Alyattes expelfl

CONTEXTS or !/. r.)//-;.s / AX It II.

the Barbarians. Gold of Sardis. The Three
Powers of Western Asia. Period of Peace. Am-
bition of Necho. Battle of Uarcheuiish. Cham. -
ter of Cyaxares. Reign of Astyages. He adds
( '.i' I u si. t,i Media. Method of Government.
Royal Ceremonial. Hunting. Magism. Rise of
Persia Cyrus at Ecbatana. Intrigue and Coun-

ter-plot. Prophecy. Cyrus flees. Median Inva-
sion of Persia. Battles. Overthrow of the
Medes. -Reversal of the Position of the Two
Kingdoms. Establishment of the Medo-Persian
Power. Causes of the Catastrophe. Personal In-
fluence of Cyrus, 224-238

BOOK FIRTH. BABYLONIA.

CHAPTER XIX. THE COUNTRY.

Sketch of Lower Mesopotamia. Babylonia
Proper. Character of Susiana. The Euphrates
Valley. Products. Mesopotamia Proper. Sketch
of the Region. Northern Syria. Syria Proper.
Hollow Syria. Gateway between Asia and Af-
rica. Phoenicia. Its Advantages. Early Civili-
zation. Tyre and Sidon. Damascus. Pales-
tine. Peculiar Character of the Valley. Petty
Israelitish States. Philistia. Idumiea. Pal-
myra. Extent of the Babylonian Empire. Its
Rivers. Oro.itis. Jerahi. Kuran and Dizful.
Kerkah. Sajiirand Kowcik. Orontes. Litany.
Barada. Jordan. Jannuk and Jabbok. Lakes.
Sabaklmh. Bahr-el-Melak. Dead Sea. Its Pecu-
liarities. Sea of Tiberiat,. Bahr-el-Huleh. Bahr-
el-Kudes. The Arabian Desert The Egyptian
Empire, 239-240

CHAPTER XX. CLIMATE AND PRODUCTS.

High Temperatures of Babylonia. Variations
In Different Regions. The Sirocco. Destruction
of Forests. The Cereals. Abundant yields-
Forest growths. General Products of Syria.
Those of Palestine. Mineral Resources of Baby-
lonia. Gems. Building Materials. Babylonian
Animals. Birds. The Gray Heron. Fishes.
Domestic Animals. Camel. Buffalo, . . . 250-254

CHAPTER XXI.-PEOPLE AND CITIES.

Mixed Character of the Babylonians. Three
Race Elements Predominant Physkl Appear-
ance of the Babylonians. Like the A^vr-
ians.-Features.-The Susianians.-Hair-d,,
Beards.-Swart ComplexionIntellectual Charae-
ter.st.cs.-Babylonian S,.i.. m . P ._Enerjry and En-
terpnso. -Avarice. -Luxurious Livine'.-Strennth
Hero.sm.-Crneltv.-rsaRos of Wnr.-Meth-
Is of Civil Government. Pride and EC. -t ism -
Religion. Fractal Ethics. Calm Demeanor.-
The City of Babylon. Size and Character <.f the
Metropolis. Great Structures .Temple of Belus
The Royal Palare. The Hanging Gardens. How
watered. The Smaller I'aluetv-The Walls of Bab-
ylon. The Towers. Splendor of the City. Ex-
isting Ruins. Remains of El-Kasr and Amran.
The Birs-Nimrud. The Old Temple of Nebo.

Its Mythological Character. Other Characteris-
tics. Borsippa. Opis and Teredon. Susa. Car-
chemish. Tyre. Her Manufactures. Sidon
Ashdod. Jerusalem, 254-267

CHAPTER XXII. ARTS AND SCIENCES.

Babylonian Architecture, Must be studied in
Ruins. The Mounds. Materials of Structure.
Plan of Structure. Designs in Color The Baby-
lonian Palaces. Bridges. Bricks^ How laid.
Cement. Great Magnitude of fi'uildings. Rude
Character of Painting and Sculpture. Best Speci-
mens. Gem-engraving. Caricature. Problems
of Stone-cutting. Enameling. Pigments. Paint-
ing in Relief. Metallurgy. Pottery. Glazing.
Glass-blowing. Textile Fabrics. Brilliant Dyes.
Lore of the Chaldees. Astronomy in Partic-
ular. Relics of Babylonian Star-lore. Measure-
ment of Time. Uses of Eastern Learning. As-
trology, 267-274

CHAPTER XXIII. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

Meager Personal Monuments. Dress and Habit
of the Babylonians. Articles of Adornment.
Priestly Garments. Military Dress. Weapons.
Organization of the Babylonian Army. Usages in
War. Objects of Invasion. Priests. Several
Classes of Scholars. Influence of Learning.
Schools. Common Vocations. Commerce in Par-
ticular. Exports and Imports. Babylonian Lux-
ury. Banquets. Position of Women. Degrading
Customs. Traces of Esteem for the Sex, 274-278

CHAPTER XXIV. RELIGION.

Religious Beliefs derived from the Chaldees.
Slight Variations from the Old System. Principal
Deities. Bel, Merodach, and Nebo. Images of the
Gods. Retinues of Priests. Ceremonial. Proces-
sions and Banquets. Cleanness and Unclean-
noss. Symliolism of the Babylonian System.
Emblems of the Deities. Signs not understood.
Symbolic Names of Temples 278-280

CHAPTER XXV. CIVIL AND MILITARY AN-
N VLS.

Periods of Babylonian History. Babylon *
Vice-royalty of Assyria. Early Troubles between

CONTENTS OF VOL UME8 I AND II.

the North and the South. Alternate Independ-
ence and Suppression. Syrian Invasions. The
Kingdom established by Nabonassar. Pileser II.
and Merodach-Baladan. Seiniramis. Obscure
Successor of Nabonassar. Merodach-Baladan gains
the Throne. The Great Conflict with Sargon.
The Latter Victorious. Babylon subordinated for
Seventy-five Years. Appearance of Nabopolas-
sar. His Collusion with Cyaxares. Success of the
Conspiracy. Nabopolassar becomes King. Foreign
Relations. Babylonia in Alliance with Media.
Battle of Megiddo. Necho's Invasion of Babylo-
nia. Rout of the Egyptians at Carchemish. Neb-
uchadnezzar triumphs in the West. He becomes
King. Revolt of the Phoenician Cities. Siege of
Tyre. -Insurrection of Jewry. Zedekiah's Fate.
Sketch of Israel after the Exodus. Entrance into
Canaan. Division of the Country. The Theoc-
racy. Establishment of the Kingdom. Career of

Saul. Accession of David. His Wars. Strife of
his Sons. Reign of Solomon. Division of the
Kingdom. Jeroboam rules Israel. Succession of
Israelitish Rulers. Overthrow of the Kingdom.
Line of Rulers in Judah from Rehoboam to Zede-
kiah. Capture of Tyre. War with Egypt re-
sumed. Its Result. Traditions of Nebuchadnez-
zar. Captives in Babylon. Their Work in that
Metropolis. Great Cities and Enterprises. Char-
acter of Nebuchadnezzar. His Pride. Falls to
dreaming. The Hebrew Daniel tells him the
meaning. The King goes Insane. Evil-Merodach
succeeds to the Throne. Revolution. Neriglissar
reigns. Nabonadius obtains the Crown. The
Shadow of Persia. Babylonian Alliance with
Lydia. Attempts to protect Babylon. Lydia falls
before the Medes. Cyrus invades Babylonia. De-
feats Nabonadius. Capture of Babylon by the
Persians. End of the Empire 281-302

BOOK SIXTH. PERSIA.

CHAPTER XXVI. THE COUNTRY.

Territorial greatness of the Empire. Political
divisions. Persia Proper. Climate and Character-
istics. Rivers. Lakes. Mountains. Districts.
Forests. Plateau of Iran. Its Features.
Streams Valley of the Indus. Land of the Fish-
eaters. Elburz Region. Armenia. Its Mount-
ains. Asia Minor. Island Possessions of Per-
eia. African Dominions. Great Variety of Re-
sources 305-310

CHAPTER XXVII. CLIMATE AND PRODUCTS.

Tremendous Heats of Southern Persia. Chill
in the Uplands. Rigors in the Mountains. Cli-
mate of the Indus Valley. Vegetable Growths of
Persia. Grains and Fruits. Wild Animals.
Fishes and Reptiles. Domestic Animals. Persian
Mines. Peans and Gems. Animal Life of the
Provinces. Birds. The Iguana and Chame-
leon 311-314

CHAPTER XXVIII. PEOPLE AND CITIES.

The Persians of the Iranic Stock. Same Race
with the Modes. Principal Tribes of the Fam-
ily. The Parthians. The Gandarians. The Sat-
tagydians. The Gedrosians. The Mycians. The
Scythians. The Cappadorians. The Phrygians
The City of Penepolfa. Paaargada. Ita Ruins.
Susa. Miletus. Sanlis. F.phesus. Temple of
Diana. Its Wealth and Adornments. Review
of Climatic C'onditions as affecting Civiliza-
tion 314-318

CHAPTER XXIX. ARTS AND SCIKM i ~.

High Rank of Persian Architecture. Exhibited
in Royal Palaces and Tombs. The Two Palaces

of Persepolis. Character of the Platform. Plan of
the Structure. The Terraces. The Ascent by
Steps. Sculptures of the Stair-cases. What they
Signify. The Ten Edifices. Hall of Pillars.
Houses of Xerxes and Artaxerxes. Style of Col-
umns and Ornamentation. The Gate-ways. The
Hall of a Hundred Columns. A Place for Admin-
istration. The Great Hall of Audience. Ruins
of Pasargadae. Remains at Istakr. The Palace of
Susa. The Tombs of the Kings. General Charac-
ter of Architecture. Sculpture. The Things rep-
resented. Persian Coins. Utensils. Personal
Decorations. Social and Economic Arts. Absence
of Science. Unreflective Character of the Ar-
yans, 319-326

CHAPTER XXX. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

The Persian Type. Stature and Features. In-
tellectual Qualities. Literary Abilities. Warlike
Spirit. Moral Qualities The Truth-telling Char-
acter. Self-indulgence. Political Servility.
Usages and Manners. The Soldiery. Weapons
and Armor. Persian Cavalry. Scythe-bearing
War-chariots- Persian Order of Battle. Confi-
dence in Numbers. Stratagems. Generalship.

The King commanding. Decimal Organization.
The Persian Army marching. Ethics of the Bat-
tle-field. The Empire a Land Dominion. Mari-
time Skill acquired. Ancient War-galleys. The
Trireme in Particular. Pontoons. The' Persian
K inc. His Place in the Stale. His Dress and
IJc-.Mlia.- His Officers. A Fragrant Majesty.
The Royal Retinue. Habits of the Palace. The
Harem. The Queen-mother. The Eunuchs.
Princely Houses Ceremonial of the Court
Rules for the King.-He hunts and games.
His Reading done by Proxy. He was the State.

CONTENTS <>F

-:* I .\X1> II.

Tenfold Tribal Division. Dress and Manners of
the Common People. Education of Boys.
Diseateem of Industry. Vanities. The Penal
Code, 327-337

CHAPTER XXXI. LANGUAGE AND RELIG-
ION.

Kinship of Persic with European Tongues.
Peculiarities of the I^iti^uage. The Alphabet.
Cuneiform Method of Writing. Persian Inscrip-
tions. History of the Arrow-head System. Grote-
fend. Allinity of Persian ami Median Religions.
Zoroaster. His Place in History. His Work.
Monotheism and Dualism. Worship of Ahura-
Ma/.dJo. Persian Temples. Sacrifices. Idola-
try. The Ahuras and the Devut. The Good (ien-
ius. Analogy to Judaism. Apostasy. Institution
of Magism. Prevalence of Showy Forms, 338-342

CHAPTER XXXII. CIVIL AND MILITARY
ANNALS.

Primitive Persia. Foundation of the Mon-
archy. Acheemenes. Reign of Teispes. Coming
of Cambyses. Subjection of Persia to Media.
Residence of the Crown Prince at Ecbatana. Cy-
rus with his Grandfather. The Revolution.
Threefold Division of Asia. Sketch of Cyrus.
Relations of Persia with Lydia. Croesus and Cyrus
at War. Diplomacy of the Latter. Battle of Pte-
ria. Conflict in the Valley of Hermus. Siege of
Sard is. Capture of Croesus and Subversion of
Lydia. Contact with the Greeks. Revolt of Sar-
dis. Policy of Cyrus with the /Egean States.
Thales. Conquest of Harpagus. Cyrus subdues
Bactria. The Sacie conquered. Further Con-
quests in the East. The King's Enmity to Baby-
lon. Undertakes an Invasion. Overthrows that
Empire. Persian Power extends to the Mediter-
ranean. The Aryan Ascendency. Cyrus looks to
Egypt. Restores the Jews. Makes a Campaign
into the Great Plateau. Is slain by the Massage-
tw. Sketch of his Character. Accession of Cam-
byses. He kills Stnerilis. Makes an Invasion of
Egypt. Meets the Enemy at Pelusium. Takes

Memphis. Overawes the Country. Disastrous
Result of the Expedition against Amun. Takes
Vengeance on the Egyptians. Story of the False
Smerdis. Death of Carnbyses. His Character.
Reign of the Magus. He betrays Himself. Favor
to the Magi brings Revolution. Gomntes over-
thrown by the Seven Princes. Accession of Da-
rius. Religious Reform. The King suppresses
Maoism. Insurrections against the Government.
The Same are Suppressed by the Royal Armies.
Babylon is made the Capital. Suppression of
many Revolts. The King as a Statesman. Organ-
ization of the Empire. The Satrapial System.
Support of the Government The Administration
of Espionage. Post-houses. Coinage. The King
conquers India. He looks into Europe. Scythian
Expedition. Revolt of the Greek Cities. Sup-
pression of the Insurrection. "Sire, remember
Athens-" Policy of Darius. The Thracian Cam-
paign. The Fleet destroyed. New Expedition.
Battle of Marathon. Renewal of Preparations.
Death of Darius. Xerxes takes up his Work.
The Egyptian Revolt. The Great Invasion of
Greece begun. Persia impends over Europe.
The Army of Xerxes. Crossing of the Helles-
pont. Story of Thermopylae. Salamis and Ruin.
Battle of Platea. End of the Expedition. Ac-
cession of Artaxerxes. Second Revolt in Egypt.
Peace of Callias. Syrian Insurrection. Greek
Broils. Death of Artaxerxes. Troublous Times
ensuing. The Lydian Revolt Athens humiliated
in Sicily. Leagues Herself with Persia. The
Great Kings learn the Weakness of the Greeks.
Revolt and Expedition of Cyrus the Younger.
Battle of Cunaxa. Retreat of the Ten Thousand.
Peace of Antalcidas. Accession of Ochus. His
Campaign into Egypt Sidon destroyed. Rise of
Macedonia. Accession of Darius Codomanus.
The Macedonian Invasion of Persia. Battle of the
Granicus. Conquest of Asia Minor by Alexan-
der. Battle of Issus. Route of the Persians.
Preparations of Darius for the Final Conflict Ar-
bela. Overthrow of the Empire. Pursuit and
Death of Darius 343-376

BOOK SEVENTH. PARTHTA.

CHAPTER XXXIII. THE COUNTRY.

Place of Parthia in tin- Scheme of Ancient
History. Point of View from which the Empire
is considered. Chronological Relations of Par-
thia. Reasons for <.'ivin>_r Parthian History in this
Place. Parthia in some Sense a Revival of the
Persian Power. Time Limits of the Narrative.
Countries to be considered. Extent nf Parthia
Proper. Character of the Country. The Flora
and Fauna. Climate. Parthia protected by her
Position. Nomadic Character of the Primitive

Tribes. Territorial Expan'ioii. - Surrounding
Provinces. Sketch of Chorasmia. Character of
Margiana. Of Arya. Of Sarangia. Of Sagar-
t ; a. Of Hyrcania. -More 1'istant Territories.
.-ketch of Bactria. Of Arachosia. Of Sacastana
and Carmania. Of Persia Proper. Of the Meso-
potamian Regions. Total Geographical Extent
of the Kmi.ire

('HUTU: XXXIV. -PEOPLE AND ARTS.

Ethnic Oriu-in of the Parthians. Of Aryan
Derivation. But Modified with .S-ythic Blo-1.

CONTENTS OF VOL UMES I AND II.

Reasons of the Modification. The Horseback
Habits of the Race. Unfixedness of Character.
Primitive Religious Character. Zoroastrianism
accepted. Dualism. Deterioiation into Maj.;-
iem. Rise of the Magian Priesthood. Supersti-
tions of the People. Decline of the Faith and
Practice. Nature Worship revived. Religious
Results of Alexander's Conquest. Warlike Spirit
of the Parthians. Parthian Cavalry. War Man-
ners of the Nation. Organization of the Army.
Methods of the Campaign. Tactics. Efficiency
of the Parthian Horse. Military Operations
limited to the Day and the Summer. Parthian
Weakness in the Matter of Sieges. War
Vehicles. Elephants and Camels. Battle in
Terrorem. Formula for Armistice and Treaty.
Employment of Greek Language. Governmental
Intercourse and Manners. Pledges and Hos-
tages. Character of the Court. The Hunt. The
Paradise. Appearance and Manners of the
King. Royal Garments and Insignia. Place of
Woman. Acquirements and Learning. Absence
of Arts. Weakness of the Imaginative and Specu-
lative Powers of Mind. Architectural Instincts
and Achievements. Paucity of Parthian Re-
mains. A Movable Capital. Hatra and Ctesi-
phon. Circular Walls of the Former. Character
of the Ruins. The Palace. Nature and Extent
of the Structure. Arches and Sculptures. At-
tempted Restoration. The Temple of Hatra.
The Parthians not Comparable with Egyptians
and Greeks. The Necropolis Disposal of the
Dead. Sepulchral Remains. Parthian Art.
Terra-cotta Work. Utensils. Personal Decora-
tions. Jewels. Bas-reliefs. The Procession of
Victory. Other Scenes in Relief. Small ^Esthetic
Instincts of the Race, 383-396

CHAPTER XXXV. CIVIL AND MILITARY
ANNALS.

Obscurity of the Primitive Parthians. First
Emergence of the Race. Parthia as a Persian
Satrapy. Falls under the Dominion of Alexan-
der. Rapid Changes in A ncien t H istory. Parthia
associated with other Provinces. Is assigned to
Seleucus. Establishment of the Empire of the
Seleucidee. Fixing the Capital. Transference of
the Seat of Government to Antioch. Break of
Seleucus with the Asiatics. Neglect of the Mes-
opotatnian Countries by the Kings of Antioch.
Accession of Antiochus Soter. Reign of An-
tiochus Theos. Successful Revolt of Bactria.
The Example followed by the Parthians. Ar-
saces Heads the Revolution. Suppression of the
Greek Cities. Tiridates succeeds to the Throne.
His War with Ptolemy. He conquers Hyrcania.
Callinicus makes an Expedition n gainst Paithia.
Is overthrown. Beginning of Panhian Power.
The Kingdom improved and defended. Question
of removing the Capital. Influence of the

Greeks. Accession of Artabanus I. He con-
tends with Antiochus 111. for Media. Makes
War on Bactria. Period of Obscurity. Obscure
Uuign of Priapatius. Affairs in the Extreme
East. Revolt of the Indian Provinces. Relations
of the Punjaub and Syria. Accession of Phraates
I. Conquest of the Mardi. Resentment of Se-
leucus IV. The Caspian Gates. Phraates gains
Possession of the Pass. Mithridates takes the
Throne. His Place among the Parthian Kings.
Condition of Asia. Reign of Eucratidas in Bac-
tria. The Kingdom of Syria weakens. Compli-
cations in the South-west. Mithridates makes
War on Bactria. Condition of Affairs at An-
tioch. The Parthians conquer the Medes.
Hyrcania annexed. Elymais, Persia, and Baby-
lon subdued. Heliooles King of Bactria. Con-
quest of that Country by Mithridates. Establish-
ment of the Parthian Empire. Affairs in Syria.
Reign of Demetrius II. The Greeks in the
Parthian Empire. Demetrius begins a War.
Success of Mithridates. Marriage Project. Par-
thia Dominates Western Asia. Character of the
Government. The Nobility. Councils of State.
Parthian Constitution. Order of Succession.
Power of the Megistanes. The Surena. Fixed-
ness of the Government. Median Priesthood.
The Satrapial System. Its Variations. The Greek
Cities. Freedom of the Provincial Govern-
ments. The Parthian Capitals. Character of the
Court. Manners of the King in Peace and in
War. Accession of Phraates II. He makes War
on Syria. Danger from the Greek Cities. Winter
Insurrection against the Syrians. Destruction of
the Army of Sidetes. Jewish Independence.
The Scythians overrun Parthia. Phraates Slain.
Accession of Artabanus II. Barbarian Inroads
from the North-east. Nature of such Move-
ments. Bactria Overrun. Character of the Inva-
ders. Scythic Cannibalism. Artabanus beats
back the Barbarians. Is killed. Mithridates II.
accedes to the Throne. Deflection of the Stream
of Barbarism. Ambitions of Mithridates. An-
nexation of Armenia. Outspreading of Rome
into Asia. She interferes with the Asiatic
States. Comes Face to Face with Parthia. Ti
granes of Armenia becomes Independent. Death
of Mithridates. First Symptoms of Decadence.
Reign of Mnasciras. Succeeded by Sanatroeces.
Armenian Ascendency. War between that Coun-
try and Parthia. Lucullus in Asia. Accession
of Phraates III. Pompey as Proconsul. Peace
between Parthia and Rome. That Power domi-
nates Armenia. Assassination at the Parthian
Court. Mithridates III. Is followed by Oro-
des. Gabinius Proconsul in Asia. Is Succeeded
by Crassus. Outbreak of Hostilities. Parthia
invaded by the Romans. Crassus advances to
the Belik. Great Battle fought. Ruin of the
Roman Army. Death of Crassus. Extent of the

coxn-:\T8 OF

i AND n.

Disaster. Marriage Union of Partliia and Ar-
menia. Affairs at Seleuc a Execution of the
Surena, Csesar ami Ponipey. Tin- I-atter de-
stroyed. Caesar's Projects. His Death. Rela-
tions of Partliia with Rome during the Civil
War. Second Triumvirate. Antonius in A.-i:i.
New Tactics of the Romans. Accession of Ph nates
IV. Antonius maks AVar on Purthia. Sketch of
the Expedition. Media reconquered by Par-
thia. Civil Dissensions in the Empire. Octavius
Master of the Western World. Death of An-
tonius. Compact between Rome and Partliia.
Parthian Princes in the Eternal City. Protecto-
rate of Armenia. Reign of Phraataces. Acces-
sion of Vonones. Is expelled by Arlabanus.
The Armenian Complication. Reign of Artabanus
III. War with the Jews of Babylon. Bloody
Annals of the Court. Reigns of Gotarzcs and
Vardanes. Siege of Seleucia. Attempt to Re-
cover Armenia. Death of Vardanes. Rebellion
of Meherdates. Reign of Volagases I. Corbulo
in Asia. Civil War in Partliia. Expedition of
Psetus. Accession of Pacorus. Condition of

Parthia at Close of First Century. Evils of
Feudalism. Mixed Character of the Dynasty.
< li'isrogs elected King. Further Troubles with
Armenia. Trajan in 1'artha. -I'arthainasins.
Victories of Trajan. Earthquake of Antioch.
Roman Expedition against Parthia. Ctesiphon
taken. Romans turned back. Hadrian Makes
Peace. Accession of Volagases II. Character of
the Reign. Invasion of Alani. Volagases III.
takes the Throne. Antonines at Rome. Verua
in Asia. War of C-issi us. Great Pestilence.
Afflictions of Parthian Empire. Reign of Vola-
gases IV. Course of Events in the West. Suc-
cesses of Severus in Asia. War in Mesopotamia.
Disputed Succession. Volagases V. and Arta-
banus IV. Carac.illa Emperor. His Relations
with Artabanus Project of Intermarriage. Cara-
calla Makes War. Is Stabbed in Moon-god Tem-
ple. Miicrinus Succeeds. Battle of Nisibis.
Defeat of the Romans. Revolt of Persia. Vicis-
situdes of the Conflict. Downfall of the Parthian
Empire. Causes of Decadence. Transfer of His-
torical Station to Europe, 397-444

BOOK EIQHTH. GREECE.

CHAPTER XXXVI. THE COUNTRY.

Name of Hellas. Limits of the Peninsula.
Mountain Ranges. Spurs and Peaks. Rivers.
Acheloos in Particular. Principal Lakes. Coast-
line of Greece. Natural Divisions of Hellas. Lim-
its of Northern Greece. Great Variability of
Climate. Structure of Central Greece. Character
of Peloponnesus. Political Divisions of Ancient
Greece. Thessaly. Vale of Tempe. Features of
Epirus. Countries of Central Hellas. Doris.
Phocis. Locris. Mails. Boeotia. Attica. Me-
garis. ^Etolia. Acarnania. Corinth and Sicyo-
nia. Argolis. Epidauria and Hermionis.
Achnia. Elis. Arc.idia. Messenia. Laconia.
Argolis. Political Unity in Hellas forbidden by
Nature. Mythology Natural to such a Region.
Beauty of the Grecian Skies and Scenery, 4-47-456

CHAPTER XXXVII. THE PEOPLE.

Who the Hellenes were. The lonians. Views
of the Greeks relative to their Origin. Testi-
mony of Language. The Hellenes Aryans. Le-
gend of Hellen and liis Sons. Work of JEolus.
Race of Dorus. Descendants of Ion. Achfeus
and his Tribe. The Primitive Pelnssjians. Per-
sonal Qualities of the Hellenes. Stature. Beauty
and Endurance. The Greek the Man of Nature.
Worship of Comeliness.- -Symmetry and Grace.
Features. The Greek Woman. Courage of the
Hellenes. The Greek Mind the Best of the
World. Hellenic Thought Preeminent. Greek

Wit. Craft and Stratagem. Sense of the Beau-
tiful. The Adventurous Spirit. Greek Morals.
Deception of the Race. Morality of the Philoso-
phers. Hellenic Patriotism. The Love of Lib-
erty. Individuality of the Greeks. Greatness of
the Race 457-464

CHAPTER XXXVIII. LANGUAGE, LITERA-
TURE, AND ART.

Language and Ethnology. Cognate Tongues
of Greek. Growth and Spread of Greek. Three
Periods of Development. Dialects. Doric.
Ionic. Attic. JEo\ic. Greek ol Athens. Primi-
five Macedonian. Hellenistic a False Word.
Spread of Greek in the Age of Alexander. Infec-
tion of Latin at Constantinople. The Alphabet
Styles of Character. Grammatical Structure of
Greek. The Noun. The Adjective. The Verb.
Sympathetic Character of the Language. Its Pre-
eminence. Greek Literature. Homer and his
Songs. Preserved by Rhapsody. Revised by Pi-
sistratus. The Cyclic Bards. Hesiod. Appear-
ance of the Lyric. Elegy. Tyrtseus and Calli-
nus. Minor Bards. The Iambic. Archilocus
and Hippnnax. The Melos. Sappho and Anac-
reon. Pindar. The Drama appears. Thespis of
Attica. Development of the Theater. .Eschylna
and his Works. Sophocles. His Tragedies. Eu-
ripides. Coming of Comedy. Its Relations to
Greek Society. Aristophanes. His Fierce Sat-
Mfnander and Possidippus. Appearance
of Prose. Cadmus. Herodotus and his Work.

CONTENTS OF VOLUMES I AND II.

Thucydides. Xenophon. Rise of Oratory.
Styles of Delivery. Doubtful Place of Oratory.
Early Appearance of Art in Hellas. Tiryns and
Mycente. Schliemann's Discovery. Style of the
Greek Temple. History of the Column. The
Doric and the Ionic. Plan of a Temple. The
Inner Part. Decorations in Color. Effects of the
Ionic and the Doric Structure. The Acropolis.
The Erechtheum. The Parthenon. The Age of
Pericles. Fame of the Great Painters. Polyg-
notus. Zeuxis and Parrhasius. Tithmanes.
Apelles. Greek Sculpture. Rude Beginnings.
Myron and Polycletus. Phidias. Praxiteles.
Lysippus. Schools of Rhodes and Pergamon.

Minor Sculptors 464-482

CHAPTER XXXIX. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.
Daily Life of the Greek. The Public Mar-
ket. Flowers and Wit. The Crowds that gath-
ered. The Disputatious Spirit. Birth of
Politics. The Athenian Buzz. The Courts. The
Pnyx. The Council. Hospitality. Sociability.
Home Fare of the Greeks. The Feast. The Ban-
quet Ceremonial. Wreaths and Songs. Philoso-
phy and Banqueting. Night in Athens. Women
and Heroes. Later Restrictions on the Sex..
The Spartan Women. Women of Ionia. Mar-
riage. Domestic Ethics. The Hetxrse. The Greek
Home. Description of Houses. Andronitis and
Gynseconitis. The Prostas. House Decoration.
Furniture. The Couch. Toilet of Women. Arti-
ficial Lighting. The Library. Bric-a-brac.
Greek Slavery. The Slave Classes, . . . 482-490

CHAPTER XL. RELIGION.

Elements of Greek Faith. Piety under Frivol-
ity. Every Man his Own Priest. Offerings and
Sacrifices. Growth of Priesthood. Its Influ-
ence. The Prophetic Gift. Dodona and Delphi.
The Sacred Oracle. The Pythia. The Delphic
College. Puncture of the Fraud. Mysteries of
Eleusis and Samothrace. The Eleusinian Festi-
val. Feast of Dionysus. The Panathensea.
The Great Procession. Greek View of Life and
Death. Human Sympathies. The Final Scene.
Coffins, Epitaphs, and Tombs, 491-497

CHAPTER XLI. MYTH AND TRADITION.

The Myth-rmking Aryans. Fundamental
Unity of Aryan Mythology. The Greek Legend
of Nature. Zeus and his Offspring. His Mur-
riages. Hera Poseidon. Hades. Athene. De-
meter. Hestia. The Prytaneium. Ares. Aph-
rodite. Her Loves. Hephsestus. Phoebus
Apollo. His Oricle. Artemis. Hermes. Minor
Divinities. Heracles and his Labors. Descent of
the Myth into the Legend. Mythology a Natural
Philosophy. Intellectual Vigor of the Aryans.
Essence of the Myth. The Greek Mind and
Nature. The Things to be Considered. Mythol-
ogy in the Descriptive Stage. Science and the

Myth. Growth of Myths during Migrations.
Linguistic Metamorphosis the Explanation. Il-
lustrations of the Theory. Legend of Perseus.
Theseus. CEdipus. Cadmus and Europa. Ce-
crops. Asclepios. The Cyclopes. Legend ot
Deucalion. Prometheus. Epimetheus and Pan-
dora. Argonautic Expedition. Story of the Tro-
jan War 498-511

CHAPTER XLII. THE HELLENIC DAWN.

The Boeotian Migration. Return of the Herac-
lida;. Vicissitudes of the Movement. The Do-
rians in Peloponnesus. Previous History of the
Peninsula. Jostling of Other Tribes by the Do-
rians. JEolian Confederation. Ionia. Doric
Hexapolis. Truer View of these Movements.
Story of Minos of Crete. Dawn of History. Ele-
ments of Greek Unity. The Olympian Games.
Prizes and Rewards. Management of the Festi-
val. Pythian Celebration. Games of Nemea.
The Isthmian Games. The Amphyclionic Coun-
cil. Its Duties and Objects. The First Sacred
War. Relations to Delphic Oracle, . . . 512-523

CHAPTER XLIII. GROWTH AND LAW.

Three States of Peloponnesus. Seeming Lead-
ership of Argolis. Growth of Sparta. Lycurgus
and his Work. Divisions of Population and
Land. Distribution of Power in the State.
The Ephors. Spartan Education. The Spartan
Child. Endurance of Spartan Youth. The Pub-
lic Mess. Singing and Playing. Spartan Con-
tempt of Luxury. Spartan .Mother. The First
Messenian War. The Second Conflict The
Warrior Tyrtseus. Career of Aristomenes. Sub-
jection of Messenia. Tegea Conquered. War
with the Argives. Political Changes in Greece.
Coming of the Despot. Kingship retained in
Sparta. Sketches of Sicyon and Corinth. The-
Despotism of Megara. Story of Codrus. The
Archonship. Class Distinctions. Powers of the
State. Draco and his Laws. Sacrilege of the
Alcmaonidje. Appearance of Solon. His Mission
to Sparta. Plain, Mountain, and Shore. Appeal
to Solon. His Laws. Division of Citizens. As-
sembly and Senate. Punishment of Crime. The-
Statutes registered. Solon in Exile. He and
Croesus. His Return to Athens. Relations with
Pisistral us. Usurpation of the Latter. He is-
Exiled. Third Tyranny. Benefits to the State.
Ilipi ias and Hipparchus. Appearance of Clisthe-
nes . Revolution in the Government. Popular
Tendency. The Ostracism. Isagoras appeals to
Prejudice. Cleomenes humiliated. Sparta goes
to War. The Movement fails. Jealousy of

Sparta 523-539

CHAPTER XLIV. THE PERSIAN WARS.

First Relations of Greece and Persia. Mega-
bazus in Thrace. Revolt of Naxos. Artaphernes
espouses the Cause of the Oligarchs. Siege of

CONTENTS OF VOLUMES I AND II.

Naxos. Game of Histiseus. Aristagoras secures
Help at Athens. Burning of Sardis. " Lord, re-
member the Athenians." End of Histueus. Suge
of Miletus. Persian Authority restored. Mardo-
nius in Asia Minor. Darius would conquer
Greece. The .<Eginetan War. The Persian War
undertaken. The Advance. Eretria destroyed.
Miltiades appears. Battle of Marathon. Rout of
the Persians. Effects of the Battle. Honors to the
Dead. Death of Miltiades. War with yEgina.
Themistoclee and the Greek Fleet. Aristides.
Rivalry of the Two Leaders. Xerxes plans the
Conqueot of Greece. The Advance of the Great
Army. Preparation of the Greeks. Athens and
Sparta cooperate. The Story of Thermopylae.
Forcing of the Pass. Battle of Artemesium.
Xerxes would plunder Delphi. The Destruction
of Athens. Persian Fleet at Phalerum. Dissen-
sions of the Greeks. The Day of Salamis. Ruin
and Flight of the Persians. Greeks and Cartha-
ginians in Sicily. Mardonius tries to seduce
the Athenians. Battle of Platiea. The Persian
Rout. Spoils of the Field. Destruction of the
Persian Fleet at Mycale". Humiliation of the
Great King, 539-566

CHAPTER XLV. THE ATHENIAN ASCEND-
ENCY.

Career of Pausanias. His Intrigues with the
Persians. The Confederacy of Delos. Supremacy
of the Spartan Fleet. Rebuilding of Athens.
Progress of Democracy. Fall of Themistocles.
End of Pausanias. The Just Athenian. Rise
of Cimon. Battle of Eurymedon. Disasters to
Sparta. Leadership of Pericles. His Politics.
Maritime Swny of Athens. Revolt of yEgina.
Battle of (Enophyta. The Long Walls. Peace
with Persia. The Athenian Empire. Various
Insurrections. Revival of Aristocracy. Glory of
Athens. Policy of Colonization. Excessive Tax-
ation. Reduction of Samos 556-666

CHAPTER XLVI. THE PELOPONNESIAN
WARS.

Corinth and Corcyra. The Latter applies to
Athens. Attack on Pericles. Trial of Aspasia.
Thehans begin Hostilities. Murder of theTheban
Prisoners. Formation of Peloponnesian League.
Support of Athens. Invasion of Attica. The
Plague in Athens. Death of Pericles. Ravages of
the War. Potidwa taken. Platsea overwhelmed
by the Spartans. The Prisoners executed. Bat-
tle of Naupactus. Revolt of Mitylene. The In-
habitants saved from Destruction. Massacre in
Corcyra. Varying Progress of the War. Siege of
Sphacteria. Success of Cleon. Campaigns of the

Eighth Year. Brasidas in I he North. Defeat oi
Cleon. Peace of Nicias. Rise of Alcibiades. He
appears at the Olympic Games. War in Man-
tinea. Melos conquered by Athens. Affairs in
Sicily. Embassy to Egesta. The Sicilian Expedi-
tion undertaken. Disputes of the Commanders.
Mutilation of the Hermse. Alcibiades ordered to
Trial. Siege of Syracuse. Ill Success of the Athe-
nians. Battles in the Harbor. Destruction of the
Athenian Fleet. Retreat of Nicias. Annihilation
of his Army. Consternation at Athens. Revolt
of the Dependencies. Double Work of Alcibi-
ades. Oligarchic Revolution. Affairs in Samos.
Negotiations. Revolt of Eubcea. The Oligarchy
overthrown. Naval Battles. Return of Alcibi-
ades. Battle of Arginusa?. ^Egospotami. Ruin
of the Athenians. Approach of Lysander to
Athens. The City humiliated. Destruction of
the Defenses. The Oligarchy reinstated. Samoa
subdued. Reign of the Thirty. End of Alcibi-
ades. Reaction against Sparta. Pausanias sup-
ports the Oligarchy. Democratic Revolution.
Career of Socrates, 560-58*

CHAPTER XLVII. SPARTAN AND THEBAN
ASCENDENCIES.

Policy of Sparta. Agis and Lysander. Agesi-
laiis. The Decharchy. Cyrus the Younger.
Agesilaus in A sia Minor. Battle of Cnidus. Revolt
of the Greek States. Battle of Haliartus. League
against Sparta. Battle of Coronea. Conon and
the Persians. Siege of Corinth. Revolution in
Tactics. Iphicrates. The Peltastse Victorious.
Revival of Athens. Peace of Antalcidas. The
Mantinean War. The Olynthian League. Seizure
of Thebes. The Northern War. Epaminondas
and Pelopidas. Revolt of Thebes. Athens in-
volved. Character of Epaminondas. Progress of
the War. Peace of Callias. Isolation of Thebes.
Battle of Leuctra. Jason of Pherre. Epaminon-
das in the South. Athens and Sparta in Alli-
ance. Rise of Macedonia. The Tearless Battie.
Embassy to Persia. Thebes and Thessaly. Effort
for Peace. Battle of Cynoscephalae. Elis and
Arcadia. Attempt to capture Sparta. Battle of
Mantinea. Death of Epaminondas. End of Ages-
ilaus. Greek Affairs in Sicily. Dionysius.
Plato. Dion. Story of Timoleon. Sicilian Des-
potism overthrown. Greece threatened by the
North. Philip of Macedon. He becomes King.
His Policy relative to Greece. Social and Sa-
cred Wars. Seizure of Delphi. Philip takes-
Advantage of Dissensions. Demosthenes.
His Orations. Negotiations of Athens with
Macedonia. Pnilip invades Phocis. The Finnl
Scene 589-60*

CONTENTS OF VOL UMES I

II.

BOOK NINTH. MACEDONIA.

CHAPTER XLVIIL COUNTRIES, CITIES, AND

TRIBES.

Names of the Country. Regions included in the
Empire. How bounded. Principal Rivers. Val-
leys. Political Divisions. Orestis and Stympha-
lia. Eordrea and Pieria. Bottisea. Emathea.
Mygdonia. Chalcidice. Olynthus. Bisaltia.
PfEonia. Via Egnatia. My th of the Termenidee.
Reign of Amyntas. Alexander and Perdiccas.-
Archelaiis. Amyntas II. His Sons, . . 611-616

CHAPTER XLIX. REIGN OF PHILIP.

Sketch of the Great King. A Pupil of Epami-
nondas. His Residence at Thebes. War with
Illyria. Philip becomes Regent Overthrows
Argseus. Defeat of the Illyrians. Condition of
Greece. Decline of that Country. A Macedonian
Party in the South. Birth of Alexander. Philip's
Part in the Social AVar. Relations with the Athe-
nian Democracy. Affair of Amphipolis. Taking
of Pydna and Potidsea. Conquest of Thrace.
Sitalces. The Sacred War affords Opportunity for
Interference in Greece. The King loses an Eye.
Success of Onomarchus. Is overthrown and
killed by Philip. Battle of Chseronea The
Olynthian War. Demosthenes and JEschines.
Party Broils in Athens. Isocrates His Policy.-
Philip ends the War. Terms of Settlement.
Aristotle. Thrace subdued. Scythian Expedi-
tion. Hostility of Athens. Persia on the Scene.
The Triballi. Perinthusand Amphissa. Athens
Joins Amphissa Defection of Thebes. Chtero-
nea, Preparations for the Invasion of Persia.
Philip is assassinated. His Character, . . 616-629

CHAPTER L. ALEXANDER THE GREAT.

The Prince becomes King. What was ex-
pected. Loyalty of Thessaly. The Amphictyones
make Alexander Generalissimo. Illyria and Coast
Towns revolt. Are suppressed. Defeat of Thra-
cians and Triballi. Expedition into Illyria.
Greek Insurrections. Affairs at Thebes. Capture
of the City. Obliteration of Theban Power.
Athens overawed. The King will invade Asia.
At Ilium. Condition of AsiaMinor. Battle of the
Granicus. The Spoils. Sardis, Ephesus, and Mi
letus taken. Halicarnassus. March through Ly-
ciaand Pamphylia. Plot for Assassination Pam-
phylian Pass. Destruction of Marmarians
Further Conquests. "Excepting the Lacedaemo-
nians." Plans of the Spartans. Memnon. His
Death. Alexander at Gordium. The Fabulous
Knot Athenian Embassy. ^Conquests in Asia
Minor. The Persians in Front. Sickness of
the King. He marches Eastward. The Syrian
Gate. Battle of Issus. Capture of the Great

King's Family. Alexander turns into Syria.
Damascus taken. Spartan Intrigues. Negotia-
tions with Darius. Capture of Tyre. The Great
King makes Overtures. Gaza is taken. Egypt
added to Macedonia. Founding of Alexandria.
The King goes to Amun. At Memphis. Thapsa-
cus. Enters Mesopotamia. Battle of Arbela.
The Overthrow. Alexander at Babylon. Goes
to Susa. Thence to Persepolis. The Persian
Gate. Reaches the Capital. Burning of the
Palace. Intrigue of Darius. Comes to Naught.
Flight and Death of Darius. Overthrow of Bes-
sus. The King marries Roxana. The Example
followed. Jealousy of Greeks and Persians.
Killing of Clitus. Attempt of Hermolaus. Ex-
pedition into India. Overthrow of Porus. Games
and Cities founded. Conquest of India. Thus
Far, but no Further. The Return. Struggle with
the Malli. Division of the Army. Gedrosia.
Alexander organizes an Empire. His Works at
Babylon. Mutiny in Army. Death of Hephses-
tion. The Cossees subdued. Plans for the Civ-
ilization of Asia Death of Alexander. His
Character. View of the Epoch 629-663

CHAPTER LI. SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER.
Succession not established. Rupture in the
Army. Arrhidseus and Perdiccas. Birth of a
Son. Division of Provinces. Burial of Alexan-
der. Revolt of Greek Soldiers. Cappadocians
rise. Quarrels and Jealousies. Perdiccas resisted
by Antigonus and Ptolemy. Regent invades
Egypt. Attempt of Greece to overthrow Anti-
pater. The Latter proclaimed Regent. Transfor-
mations of Authority. Movements of Eumenes.
Polysperchon Regent, Democracy in Greece.
Olympias and Eurydice destroyed. Eumenes
and Antigonus. The Former put to Death.
Antigonus makes War on Se'.eucus. Battle of
Gaza. Greek Kingdom of Syria established.
World divided among Alexander's Successors.
War renewed. Antigonus conquers Cyprus.
Besieges Rhodes. Battle of Ipsus. Second Settle-
mentDemetrius Poliorcetes. Soter and Phila-
delphus in Egypt. Battle of Corupedion. Death
of Seleucus. Alexandria glorified. Downfall of
Ceraunus, Antiyonus II. Achsean League.
Philip succeeds Doson as Regent. Reign of
Soter. AVar with the Gauls. Antiochus Theos.
Syria with Egypt. Murder of Berenice and its Con-
sequences. Hierax. Battle of Ancyrse. Par-
thian AVar. Revolts of Media and Persia. Battle
of Raphia. Provinces reduced by Antiochus.
Reign of Philopater. Philip makes AVar in Asia
Minor. Rome puts forth her Hand. Flaminius
at Corinth, 66-680

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, VOLUMES I AND II.

PORTRAIT OF AUTHOR, Frontispiece.

AN EGYPTIAN PRINCESS TIME OF THE PHA-
RAOHS (Etching), 28

HEAD-PIECE FOR EGYPT, 29

MURCHISON WATERFALL UPPER NILE 33

KILOMETER, 34

COPTIC WOMEN FORDING THE NILE (Modern), . 35
DIAGRAM SHOWING THE ETHNIC PLACE OF THE

EGYPTIANS, 37

COPTIC MAIDEN (Modern) 40

CELEBRITIES or ANCIENT EGYPT, 43

BUILDING THE PYRAMIDS, 45

PYRAMIDS OF GIZEH, 46

SARCOPHAGUS OF MENKERA, 61

THE GREAT SPHINX, 53

PYRAMID OF DASHUR 54

OBELISK OF HELIOPOLIS 55

SPHINXES OP AMMUN-RA, THEBES, 58

QUEEN TA! 59

AMENOPiiisIII. RA-HOTEP, 60

STATUE OF AMENOPHIS IV., 60

SETI I. BURNING AN OFFERING OF INCENSE, . . 61

HALL OF COLUMNS AT EL-KARNAK, 62

TEMPLE OF CHESNU AT KAHNAK, 63

TEMPLE OF ABYDOS, 63

RAMSES THE GREAT, 64

RUINS OF THEBES 65

MENEPTA, 66

EXODUS OF ISRAEL, 67

EGYPTIANS IN BATTLE WITH THE ETHIOPIANS.

Drawn by C. F. Klimsh, 69

EGYPTIANS PLOWING 72

THE BULL APIS 73

TEMPLE OF Isis, PHILS, "75

HlPPARCHUS IN THE OBSERVATORY OF ALEX-
ANDRIA, 76

FELLAH PLOWING 77

ERECTION OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS, . 78

EGYPTIAN DWELLING 78

EGYPTIAN DANCER. After a painting by H.

Makart, 79

HIEROGLYPHICS OF OX-SONG 80

PROCESS OF EMBALMING 81

FUNERAL PROCESSION CROSSING THE LAKE OF

THE DEAD, 82

MUMMY CASES 82

THE EGYPTIAN TRINITY, 84

SACRED BEETLE 84

WINGED SUN 84

OSIRIS, 85

Isis 86

COLUMN OF OSIRIS 86

HORUS, 87

COLUMN FROM TEMPLE OF DENDERA 87

THE SACRIFICE TO THE NILE. Drawn by W.

Gentz 88

SACRED IBIS 89

TEMPLE OF Isis, ISLAND OF ELEPHANTINE, . . 91
JUDGMENT OF THE DEAD. From the Turin

Papyrus, 92

TEMPLE OF DENDERA, 93

RUINS OF THE TEMPLE AT KARNAK, 94

RUINS OF KOM OMBO 95

FACADE OF AN EGYPTIAN TEMPLE (Restored), 98

COLUMN FROM BENI- HASSAN, 96

COLUMN FROM KOM OMBO, 96

COLUMN FROM MEDINET-HABC 98

PROTODORIC COLUMN FROM BESI-HASSAN, ... 98

COLUMN FROM THEBES, 98

OBELISK OF ALEXANDRIA, 97

SCULPTURED FACADE OF THE TEMPLE OF EDFU, 98

EGYPTIAN ALPHABET, 99

THE ROSETTA STONE 99

CHAMPOLLION, 100

SPECIMEN OF EGYPTIAN WRITING, 100

CROSS SECTION OF THE TEMPLE OF EDFU, . . . 102

HEAD-PIECE FOR CHAI.D.EA, 103

CONFLUENCE OF THE TIGRIS AND EUPHRATES, . 104

EUPHRATES AND PLAIN OP C'IIALIMCA 108

DATE PALM OF THE LOWER EUPHRATES, ... 107

UR OF THE CHALDEES, 115

BUILDING OF THE TEMPLE OF WARKA, TIME OF

URUKH, 117

THE SEAL OF ILGI, 118

KUDUR-LAGAMER STORMING A TOWN IN CA-
NAAN 119

RUINS OF SUSA 120

BRICK OF BABYLON 125

GLAZED COFFINS FROM WARKA, 127

PROCESSION OF BEL, . 134

IMAGE OF THE FisH-Goo 136

IMAGE OF NEBO, '. . . .137

NANA, THE PIKENICIAN ASTARTB, 138

HEAD-PIECE FOR ASSYRIA, 143

TIGRIS AT NINEVEH, 145

ASSYRIAN MULE, 151

ASSYRIAN PARTRIDGE 151

ASSYRIAN OSTRICHES, 152

NINEVITE HERO, 153

ASSYRIAN KING, 154,

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, VOLUMES I AXD II.

PAGE.

ASSYRIANS GOING TO BATTLE, 155

ASSYRIAN WAR-CHARIOT 155

CAPTIVES OF THE ASSYRIANS, 156

ASSYRIAN PRINCESS IN FULL DRESS, 156

ASSYRIAN PRINCB IN FULL DRESS, 157

REGION ABOUT NINEVEH, 157

SITE OP NINEVEH 159

PALACE OF ASSHUR-IZUR-PAL, 168

ORNAMENTED PILLAR, 169

JEHU'S EMBASSY BEFORE SIIALMANESEB, . . . .171

PALACE OF SARGON (Restored), 178

WINGED LION, TIME OF SARGON, 179

DEATH OF SARACUS, 189

ASSYRIAN WHITING 198

ARROW-HEAD, TABLETS, AND INSCRIPTIONS, . . 199
ASSYRIAN CARICATURE DRAGONS FIGHTING, . 199

ASSYRIAN SOLDIERS FIGHTING 200

SUING FOR PEACE, 200

HEAD-PIECE FOR MEDIA, 201

SCULPTURED ROCK OF BEHISTUN, 205

RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS, 213

CYRUS THE GREAT. Drawn by W. Camp-

hausen, 235

THE YOUNG CYRUS ENTERING ECBATANA, . . . 238

HEAD-PIECE FOR BABYLONIA, 239

PHOENICIAN FLEET ON A VOYAGE OF DISCOV-
ERY. Drawn by P. Philippoteaux, . . . 242
PHOSNICIAN SCENE AT COURT. Drawn by P.

Philippoteaux 243

DEAD SEA, LOOKING SOUTH 244

BABYLON, 259

RUINS OF TYRE 265

VIEW OF JERUSALEM, 266

IMAGE OF BEELZEBUB, 279

IMAGE OF ASHTAROTH, 279

HIGH-PRIEST OP ISRAEL, 288

BATTLE OF MICHMASH, 289

SAUL ANOINTED BY SAMUEL, 290

ABSALOM'S TOMB 291

TEMPLE OF SOLOMON, 292

SIEGE OF TYRE BY THE BABYLONIANS, .... 294
CAPTIVE JEWS LED IKTO BABYLONIA. After

the painting by E. Bendemann, 295

DANIEL INTERPRETING THE DREAM op NEBU-
CHADNEZZAR 297

RUINS OF SARDIS, 299

CRCESUS ON THE FUNERAL PYRK. Drawn by

H. Vogel, 301

CAPTURE OF BABYLON 302

HEAD-PIECE FOR PERSIA, 305

MILETUS, 317

TEMPLE OF DIANA AT EPHESUS (Restored), . . 318

TOMB OF CYRUS 324

ANCIENT SUSA 326

HEAD OF A PERSIAN KING, 333

REBUILDING OF JERUSALEM, 350

CAMHYSES KILLS THE APIS'. Drawn by H.

Vogel, 354

BATTLE OP CUNAXA, 368

RETURN OF THE TEN THOUSAND. H. Vogel, . . 370
DARIUS CODOMANUS IN THE BATTLE OP ISSUS, . 371
VICTORY OF ALEXANDER ON THE GRANICUS.
After the painting by Chas. Lebrun, . . . 372

BATTLE OF Issus, 373

ALEXANDER DISCOVERS THE BODY OF DARIUS, . 375

TAIL-PIECE, 376

HEAD-PIECE FOR PARTHIA, 377

PLAN OF HATRA, 391

RUINS OF HATRA, 393

PARTHIAN SLIPPER COFFIN 394

PARTHIAN VASES, JUGS, AND LAMPS, 395

HUNTER KILLING A BEAR, 396

PARTHIAN WARRIORS, 397

COIN OF THEODOTUS 401

COIN OP ARSACES I., 402

COIN OP ARTABANUS 1 404

COIN OF MlTHRIDATES I., 409

MAGUS MEGISTOS, OR HIGH PHIEST, 413

SULLA, 420

ROMAN LEGIONARIES, 422

ROMAN SOLDIERS GOING INTO BATTLE, 425

JULIUS C.ESAR, 427

CHARGE OF PARTHIAN CAVALRY 428

ROMAN ARMY CROSSING THE TIGRIS 429

COIN OF VAHDANES I., 433

COIN OF VARDANES II., 435

COIN OF MITHRIDATES IV 435

PARTHIAN CAPTIVES BEFORE MARCUS AURELIUS, 439

SACK OF CTESIPHON BY THE ROMANS, 441

TAIL-PIECE. FRIEZE OVER DOORWAY OF TEM-
PLE OP HATRA (After Rawlinson) 444

GREEK GIRLS AT THEIR SPORTS (Etching),. . . 446

HEAD-PIECE FOR GREECE, 447

SOCRATES, 463

IDEAL BUST OF HOMER 468

THEATER OF SEGESTA (Restored), 471

SOPHOCLES, 472

EURIPIDES, 472

ARISTOPHANES, 473

MENANDER 473

THUCYDIDES, 474

HERODOTUS, 474

HERODOTUS READING HIS HISTORY. Drawn by

H. Leutemann 475

FIGHT OF ACHILLES AND MEMNON, 478

CAPTURE OF HELEN op TROY, 479

FIFTY-OARED GREEK BOAT, 480

PHIDIAS IN HIS STUDY, 481

THE PARTHENON RESTORED 482

TYPES OF GREEK WOMEN 487

DELPHI AND PARNASSUS, 493

PYTHIA ON THE TRIPOD. Drawn by H. Leute-
mann, 494

ELEUSINIAN FEAST. Drawn by H. Vogel, . . 496

COLOSSAL HEAD OF ZEUS, 499

COLOSSAL HEAD OF HERA 500

POSEIDON 500

RUINS OF TROAS, 509

l.lsr <>r ILLUSTRATIONS, VOLUMES I AND II.

PAF.

HEROES OF THE TROJAN WAR, 510

THE WOODEN HORSE 511

OLYMPIAN GAMES, 516

DKATH OF CODRUS. Drawn by H. Vogel, . . 530
SOLON DICTATING HIS LAWS. Drawn by H.

Vogel 533

CHU;MS SHOWING SOLON HIS TREASURES.

Drawn by H. Leutemann 535

CLISTHENES IN THE OLYMPIC GAMES, 537

BATTLE op MARATHON, 543

DISCOMFITURE OP THE PERSIANS AT DELPHI, . . 549

BATTLE OF SALAMIS, 551

SPARTANS AT PLAT.EA, 554

ATHENS VIEWED FROM THE PIR.EUS, 558

PERICLES 562

THE ACROPOLIS (Restored), 565

ALCIBIADES 573

NAVAL BATTLE IN THE HARBOR OF SYRACUSE, . 577
DESTRUCTION OF TUB ATHENIAN ARMY IN

SICILY. Drawn by H. Vogel 579

RETURN OF ALCIBIADES TO ATHENS. Drawn

by H. Vogel, 583

DEATH OF ALCIBIADES, 586

LAST HOURS OF SOCRATES. After the painting

by David " 588

EPAMINONDAS SAVES THE LIFE OF PELOPIDAS.

Drawn by H. Vogel, 595

BANQUET OF DAMOCLES, 599

PHTO Museum of DePauw University, . . . 604
DEMOSTHENES 606

-K-CHINK.S, 607

ANCIENT CORINTH, 608

HEAD-PIECE FOR MACEDONIA, 611

ARISTOTLE 618

"ASTOR TO PHILIP'S RIGHT EYE," 621

IsOCRATES 623

ARISTOTLE AND HIS PUPIL ALEXANDER, .... 625

ALEXANDER 630

DEFEAT OF THE THRACIANS BY THE MACEDO-
NIAN PHALANX 632

THEBANS AND MACEDONIANS IN BATTLE, . . . 634
ALEXANDER IN PERIL OF His LIFE. Drawn by

H. Vogel 637

ALEXANDER BEFORE TYRE. Drawn by H. Vo-
gel 647

ALEXANDER AT THE TEMPLE OF AMUN, .... 649
MACEDONIANS CROSSING THE JAXARTES,. . . . 655
DEFEAT OF PORUS BY THE MACEDONIANS, . . . 658
FESTIVAL is HONOR OF THE BIRTH OF ALEX-
ANDER'S SON. Drawn by H. Leutemann, 666

PTOLEMY SOTER, 672

DEMETRIUS POLIORCETES 672

PHILADELPHIA PLANNING THE ALEXANDRIAN

LIBRARY, > . . .673

HALL IN THE ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY, .... 674

PHAROS OF ALEXANDRIA 675

ANTIOCHUS I., 676

FLAMINIUS PROCLAIMING LIBERTY TO THE

GREEKS. Drawn by H. Vogel, 679

TAIL-PIECE 680

RACE CHART NO. 1

SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF MANKIND ON
THE HYPOTHESIS OF A COMMON ORIGIN.

Ruddy liaccs on lied Lines

Brown Uaces on Ilroti-ii Lines

Black Uiic'us on lltack Lines

Names of Existing HUCC.-S in Bed

ORIGINAL STOCK STEM OF TH

OF MANKIND &, BROWN OR MONGOLOID

<?#

s*s

Miuwi' A*intif cI

' - i
j.

^^^

ana

RACt: CHART NO. 1.

EXPLANATION.

IT is the purpose of this Chart to show THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE
RACES OF MANKIND, on the theory that they have all proceeded from a
common source. That source is indicated by the heavy black line at the left,
marked " Original Stock of Mankind." From this original stock several
great divisions branch off, the first of which is the stem of the prehistoric
Black races ; the second, the stem of the prehistoric Brown, or Mongoloid,
races; and the third, the stem of the prehistoric Ruddy, or White, races.
Each of these stems divides into many branches.

In general, the latitude of the given race is indicated in the Chart as on
an ordinary map ; that is* those races having the most northernly dfitribu
tion are above ; those in the temperate zones come next, as nearly as prac-
ticable; and those in the tropical regions fall in the center or lower part of
the Chart.

Wherever the red lines extend, there the White, or Ruddy, races are
distributed ; wherever the brown lines reach, there the Brown, or Mongoloid,
races are found; while the black lines indicate the distribution of the Black
races.

Nearly one-fourth of the Chart at the left indicates the prehistoric, or
unknown, period of race distribution. Out of this prehistoric period the
various races emerge. There is an Aryan, or Indo-European, family ; a
Semitic family; a Hamitic family; a Mongoloid family; and sundry Black
races, little known to the present day.

In the greater part of the center of the Chart, and to the right, wherever
the names of races or stocks are printed in black letters, those races, or
stocks, are extinct; that is, they have either ceased to exist, or are repre-
sented only in their descendants. Examples of such are the Visigoths, the
Carthaginians, the Etruscans, etc.

All the names of races, families, and stocks, printed in red letters, are
existing, or living, peoples. These are found, for the most part, distributed
to the right at the end of race-stems. Thus we have, as examples of living
races, beginning above, the Welsh, the Icelanders, the Red Russians, the
Montenegrins, the English-speaking races, the High Germans, the Swiss, the
Brazilians, the Esquimaux, the Magyars, the Osmanlis, etc.

The Chart enables the reader, in particular, to trace the race descent
of any living variety of mankind. Thus, the English-speaking races are de-
rived (read back from right to left) from Anglo-Saxons, Saxons, Ingavo-
nians, Moeso-Goths, out of the German stem, of the Teuto-Slavic division, of
the West Aryan branch, of the Indo-European family, of the prehistoric
Ruddy, or White, races.

So, in all the cases of race-history, the Chart is intended to show, at a
single survey, all of the leading developments of mankind. Many minor
varieties are necessarily omitted ; but all of the principal stocks of the human
race are here displayed in their proper ethnical and historical development.
(For the geographical distribution of the various races, see Race Charts Nos.
1 to 9, inclusive.)

INTRODUCTION TO VOLUMES I AND II.

IVILIZATION was first
planted in the great river
valleys of the East. The
upland, hill-country, and
plain reacted less favora-
ably upon the faculties of
man than did the dark
alluvium richly spread
along the banks of overflowing streams. The
exuberance of the soil thus formed, and the
copious and perennial supply of water, gave
great advantages to those primitive tribes of
men who chose for their homes the valley-lands
rather than the mountain slopes and plains.
Accordingly we find that, at the suggestion of
Nature, the first progressive communities were
organized by the river-banks, on the fertile
deposits made by the overflow of turbid waters
as they spread out to meet the sea.

In such a locality the first well-developed
society of which history is called to take ac-
count was established. Where the River Nile
bears northwards to the Mediterranean his
swollen waters, an nually yellowed with the rich
debris of the mountains, the oldest nation of
antiquity was planted. The secular history of
mankind properly begins with EGYPT.

The second region to which the attention of
the historian is directed is similar to the first.
The valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris,
occupying the depression between the Syrian
plateau and the table-land of Persia, furnish a
situation specially favorable to the development
of great kingdoms. Here the incentives and
instigations to a civilized life are scarcely infe-
rior to those of Egypt; and accordingly we
find that, at a very remote period, man availed
himself of the natural advantages of the low-
lauds lying along the two great rivers, and
planted powerful empires on their banks.

In this fruitful and well-watered region no
fewer than three of the great monarchies of
the ancient world CHAI.D.EA, ASSYRIA, BABY-
LONIA rose, flourished, and fell. It will there-
fore be natural, after tracing the vicissitudes
of Egyptian history, down to the time of the

conquest of that country by the Persians, to
turn to the valleys of the Tigris and the Eu-
phrates, and narrate, in chronological order, the-
histories of the three great kingdoms founded
on the banks of those rivers. The Second,.
Third, and Fifth Books of Ancient History will-
thus be occupied with an account of the Chal-
dean, Assyrian, and Babylonian monarchies.

In an exhaustive account of the early move-
ments of the human race, we should next en-
ter the valley of the Indus. Here we should
see the oldest branch of the Aryan family
developing into the civilized condition, until,
by the separation of the Iranic tribes on the
west, a new dominion is established in the
hill -countries of MEDIA and PERSIA. We
should observe the growth of this power,
warlike and aggressive from the first, until
attracted by the wealth and emboldened by
the effeminacy of the Mesopotamians, the army
of Cyaxares captures Nineveh and makes it
the capital of the Median dominions. The
Fourth Book will be occupied with the history
of the Median Empire, down to its overthrow-
by Cyrus the Great

With this event we may properly pause to
observe the revival of BABYLONIA under Na-
bopolassar and his successors. We shall see a
new power arising on the ruins of ancient
Chaldiea more glorious than she, but destined
to a brief career. The Lower or Later Empire
of the Babylonians will occupy a few of the
most brilliant and interesting chapters in the
annals of antiquity.

The collapse of Babylonia under the blows
of Cyrus will take the reader again beyond
the Zagros and open to him the records of
the MEDO-PERSIAX EMPIRE. Here he shall
note the growth, culmination, and decline of
the greatest power ever planted by the Aryan
race in Asia, and at its close shall mark with
admiration the triumph of the freedom-loving
Hellenes over the consolidated despotism es-
tablished by Cyrus and his successors.

But before transferring his historical sta-
tion from Asia to Europe, the reader may

(.23)

IXTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 8 I AND II.

well pause to observe the rise and expansion
of a great native dynasty on the ruins of Per-
sia. After a few striking evolutions, and the
lapse of a brief period, a new Asiatic domin-
ion, known as PARTHIA, springs up as the rep-
resentative State of the Iranic nations. With
this Power the successors of Alexander con-
tend in desultory and fruitless wars until
what time the shadow of Rome, extending
across Asia, reaches the Euphrates. Then,
for two and a half centuries, the Mistress of
the World shall find a barrier to her progress
in the long lines of Parthian cavalry lying in
the desert horizon of Mesopotamia. The Sev-
enth Book will be devoted to the history of the
PARTHIAN EMPIRE.

The next change of scene will be to the
GRECIAN ARCHIPELAGO. In the islands of the
J2gean, and around the adjacent coasts of
Asia Minor and Hellas, we shall see the Hel-
lenic tribes establishing themselves and laying
the foundations of the most brilliant civiliza-
tion of the Ancient World. For a while Sparta,
with her warrior caste, and Athens, with her
intellectual activity, will occupy the fore-
ground. The hosts of Persia will be precip-
itated upon the small but vigorous democracies
of the Greeks, only to be destroyed by their
valor. Macedonia shall then achieve, partly
by prowess and partly by intrigue, what the
Persians could not accomplish the subjection
of the Grecian States. The Eighth Book will
contain an account of the rise of the Hellenic
colonies, the glory of the Greeks, and their
final subordination by the Macedonians.

In the next scene the Illyrian Greeks of
the North, led by Philip and Alexander, shall
subvert the democratic liberties of Hellas, visit
Asia with retribution, overthrow the Medo-
Persian Empire, and carry the Greek lan-
guage to the banks of the Indus. Then, as
suddenly, the great fabric reared by Macedo-
nian genius shall collapse and disappear. The
Ninth Book will recount the history of MACE-
DONIA, from the rise of the kingdom to the
decline of the States established by the suc-
cessors of Alexander the Great, in Asia.

In addition to these general aspects which
the history of the Ancient World presents,
certain minor considerations will, from time to
time, claim our attention. Several countries
in Asia Minor, Syria, on the northern coast

of Africa, and in Europe, will at intervals de-
mand attention and be made the subjects of
special chapters in proper connection with the
general narrative. In this way the history of
Lydia and the other kingdoms of Asia Minor,
Phoenicia, Israel, and the Greek colonies will
be presented.

Summing up the results of this brief gen-
eral survey of Ancient History, we find the
subject presenting itself under nine principal
heads, or divisions, as follows:

I. BOOK FIRST. THE EGYPTIAN ASCEND-
ENCY. From the founding of the Kingdom
of Memphis, B. C. 3892, to the conquest of
the country by the Persians, B. C. 525.

II. BOOK SECOND. THE CHALDEAN AS-
CENDENCY. From the establishment of the
Cushite Kingdoms on the lower Euphrates,
B. C. (about) 2400, to the subjection of Bab-
ylonia by the Assyrians, B. C. 1300.

III. BOOK THIRD. THE ASSYRIAN AS-
CENDENCY. From the establishment of the
Assyrian Empire, by the conquests of Tig-
lathi- A dar, B. C. 1300, to the destruction of
Nineveh, B. C. 625.

IV. BOOK FOURTH. THE MEDIAN AS-
CENDENCY. From the origin of that kingdom
to its overthrow by Cyrus the Great, B. C. 558.

V. BOOK FIFTH. THE BABYLONIAN AS-
CENDENCY. From the revival of the Lower
Empire under Nabopolassar, B. C. 625, to the
conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, B. C. 538.

VI. BOOK SIXTH. THE PERSIAN ASCEND-
ENCY. From the founding of the Empire of
Achsemenes, B. C. 660, to the battle of Arbela,
B. C. 331.

VII. BOOK SEVENTH. THE PARTHIAN AS-
CENDENCY. From the revolt and accession of
Arsaces I., B. C. 256, to the destruction of
the Empire, A. D. 226.

VIII. BOOK EIGHTH. THE HELLENIC AS-
CENDENCY. From the establishment of Greek
colonies in Hellas, in the mythological ages, to
the death of Alexander the Great, B. C. 323.

IX. BOOK NINTH. THE MACEDONIAN
ASCENDENCY. From the founding of the

kingdom by Perdiccas I., B. C. , to the

absorption of the last of the fragments of Al-
exander's dominions by the Roman Empire,
B. C. 146.

In this order the History of the Ancient
World will be presented in the following pages.

RIDPATH'S

UNIVERSAL HISTORY

VOLUME I.

BOOK I. -EGYPT
BOOK H. CHALDAEA
BOOK m. ASSYRIA
BOOK IV. MEDIA
BOOK V. BABYLONIA
BOOK VI. PERSIA

AN EGYPTIAN PRINCESS

i T T I

took j[irsh

EG Y PT.

I. THE COUNTRY.

HE oldest civilization be-
gan on that continent
which seems to be least
favorable to the progress
of the human race.
Africa lies under the
equator, sun-scorched and
blasted. In the broadest part, through fifteen
degrees of latitude, the country is a desert,
the upheaved bed of a sea more impass-
able than the trackless deep. The whole of
the southern portion of the continent is oc-
cupied with a vast plateau which, descending
to the north, sinks at intervals into jagged hills
and anon into a tangle of impenetrable forests,
wild and gloomy, where, through untold ages,
the exuberant forces of Nature have triumphed
over the genius and cowed the spirit of man.
The African coasts, though washed on three
sides with oceans, are nowhere indented with
great bays and inlets. Near the shores the
mountains rise, and through these the rivers,
gathering their waters in the table-lands of the
interior, burst out in cataracts, make a short
and precipitous course to the foot-hills, and

then sluggishly traverse the narrow strip of
29

low and marshy land lying" between the
country and the sea.

NORTHERN AFRICA is a mountainous district
occupying the space between the Sahara and
the Mediterranean. Near the western ex-
treme the peaks of the Atlas range rise to the
region of perpetual snow. Further to the
east the mountains sink down into hills and
finally terminate in the plain of Barca, which
is scarcely a thousand feet above the level of
the sea. The northern slope, between the
Atlas and the Mediterranean, is occupied with
ranges of hills, deep valleys sometimes cleft
by mountain streams and sometimes dry and
barren plains of greater or less extent, and
morasses and flats, characterized by the luxu-
riant vegetation peculiar to the well-watered
portions of Africa.

At the eastern extreme of this northern
slope, looking out towards the Mediterranean,
opens the VALLEY OF THE NILE, the largest \o
Africa and most fruitful iu the world. It
occupies the north-eastern corner of the conti-
nent, being separated from Arabia by a nar-
row strip of sea and guarded on the west by
the fastnesses of the desert. Through this

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.-THE ANCIENT WORLD.

valley, from south to north, flows the great
river, famous from the earliest epoch in his-
tory and tradition. Here, on either side of
the river, stretching almost from the Tropic of
Cancer to the Mediterranean, lies the narrow
belt of black alluvium known as EGYPT.

From the great lakes lying under the equa-
tor; from the spurs of the table-lands beyond
the equator; from the slopes of mountains
whose gorges are filled with glaciers and
summits are covered with snow, the western
branch of the river of Egypt, known as the
White Nile or Bahr-el-Abiad, gathers its wa-
ters. Plunging down from the highlands, it
reaches a country of swamps and morasses;
infinite jungles; thickets of bamboo, tama-
risks, sycamores; humid and sunless forests,
where zebras, antelopes, and elephants abound ;
muddy banks covered with reeds, through
which the hippopotamus heaves his huge bulk
and crocodiles slide with a lazy plunge. Fur-
ther on in its course the river enters a region
of grassy plains, interspersed with tropical for-
ests, and occasionally broken into hills.

Far to the south-east, out of the table-lands
of Abyssinia, from the slopes and rivulets
of the range called Samen, the Bahr-el-Azrak
or Blue Nile takes its rise, and descends with
a smaller volume of waters to join the White
Nile at Khartoom, in 15 30' N. From this
point onward, through several degrees of lati-
tude, the ranges of hills lie almost at right
angles to the course of the river, which breaks
through the successive barriers in a series of
cataracts, the last being at Syene.

The country on either hand has now become
a desert, and begins to take on the peculiar
character of Egypt. The river at the last cat-
aract is a thousand yards in width. From this
point to the sea is a distance of seven hundred
and fifty miles; and in all this course the Kile
receives no tributary of any importance.
From Syene to the Mediterranean stretches a
vast fissure in the rocky structure of the con-
tinent; and in the bottom of this fissure,
more or less winding ami irregular in its
course, flows calmly and majestically the great
river which is the fundamental fact of Egypt.
Out of the rock-bouud depression through
which it flows the Nile has created a narrow

valley, which for fecundity of vegetation haa
no equal in the world. On the west the val-
ley is protected through its whole extent by
the range of hills, which, standing back but a
few miles from the river and parallel with its
course, form an effectual barrier against the
drifting sands of the desert. Against these
hills, rising from three hundred to five hun-
dred feet in height, the clouds of dust which
blow up from the blasted wastes of Libya and
Barca beat in vain. Only now and then,
where the hills press close to the river, do the
blinding storms from the west fling a thin
shower of sand into the valley.

On the eastern side of the river a similar
rampart of hills stands from north to south
between the bottoms and the desert flats and
sand-dunes which border the Red Sea. But on
this side of the river the valley is much nar-
rower than on the west. In some localities the
eastern range rises abruptly from the water's
edge, and in only a few places does the river
divide impartially the verdant strip through
which it flows.

The greatest breadth of cultivatable land
on the eastern bank of the river is about three
miles, and on the western bank about ten
miles; but the average breadth on either side
is not so great. About seventy-five miles
from the Mediterranean the Nile divides into
two branches, which flowing, the one in a
north-easterly and the other in a north-west-
erly course, inclose between them and the sea
the triangular district called the DELTA.

The climate of Egypt is peculiar to itself.
In no other country do the same conditions
exist. The temperature hardly varies as much
as fifty degrees during the year. For eight
months of the twelve the heat is tempered by
refreshing winds. In the upper parts of Egypt
clouds are never seen; mist, rain, and snow
are impossible. Further down the valley an
occasional fleecy cloud floats silently south-
ward. In the Delta the sea-breezes from the
north not infrequently bring on their dripping
wings the benevolent gift of showers.

Egypt is divided into three principal parts.
The first division, called LOWER EGYPT, ex-
tends from the Mediterranean to latitude
twenty-nine degrees and twenty minutes north.

ar E n \r T /: (IRAN

TT p

Y<\ ife

r ^\

MAP I.

ANCIENJ 1 EGYPT.

E(J YPT.THE CO UNTR Y.

The second division, more recent than the
other two, reaches from the southern limit of
Lower Egypt to latitude twenty-seven degrees
and thirty-eight minutes, and is called MIDDLE
EGYPT. The third division extends from the

MrUCIIISON WATEKFALL.-UPPER NILK.

southern boundary of Middle Egypt to the
ancient city of Philse, in latitude twenty-four
decrees, and is known as UPPER EGYPT. The
relative extent of these three great divisions
of the country, as well as the course of the

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

river and the shape of the valley, may be ac-
curately traced on the accompanying map.

In addition to the three major divisions of
the country, and for convenience of civil ad-
ministration, ancient Egypt was divided into
provinces called NOMES. Mention of such di-
visions has been found as early as the First
Dynasty, and in the subsequent inscriptions
the name of hesp, or Nome, is constantly re-
curring. The number of the provinces dif-
fered at different periods, the lists of Herodo-
tus and Diodorus being in several places
incomplete or contradictory. The standard
number of Nomes, according to Brugsch, was
forty-two; and there is little doubt that the
forty-two judges who constituted the High
Court of Egypt, as well as the myth of the
forty-two gods who presided over the tribunal
of the dead, may be accounted for on the sup-
position of one judge for each Nome, called to
a general council. Each of the Nomes had
for its center a city and a temple, and here
was established the seat of civil government
for the district.

The possibilities of Egypt are all traceable
to a single striking phenomenon the annual
inundation of the Nile. About the time of
the summer solstice, when the sun looking
down vertically upon the ice-gorges in the
Abyssinian mountains melts the deposits of
snow and pours them in yellow cascades to
join their waters in the two great arms of the
river, the first pulsations of the flood are felt
in Egypt. Where the White Nile receives
the Blue at Khartoom, the initial symptoms of
the rise are sometimes felt as early as A pril ;
but the true swell of the waters does not gen-
erally begin until the middle or latter part of
June. Then the volume of the river begins to
increase; the channel fills to overflow; the
current grows turbid, widens and deepens; by
the middle of August the inundation proper
pours into the valley, and by the autumnal
equinox the flood is at its height. Then, after
the maximum has been reached, the waters be-
gin to recede.

The banks of the river are, in most
places, higher than the adjacent valley-lands.
To prevent a violent overflow, huge canals
are cut into the bottoms at an angle with

the course of the stream ; and, during the
recession of the flood, the mouths of these
canals are closed and the retreat of the waters
thus retarded. Almost five months elapse be-
fore the river finds his old bed, so that during
nearly three-fourths of the year the manifesta-
tions of the swell are noticeable in Egypt.

The annual flood is by no means uniform
throughout the whole course of the river.
The greatest rise is in Upper, and the small-
est in Lower Egypt. At the first cataract
the inundation rises forty feet above low
water. At Thebes, thirty-six feet is the max-
imum; at Cairo, twenty-five feet; while at
the Damietta and Rosetta mouths of the Nile
the average rise is only four feet. The vol-
ume of the annual overflow is, however, by
no means uniform. In some years the flood
is twice as great as in others. If the swell
does not exceed eighteen or twenty feet the rise
is regarded as scanty ; from twenty to twenty-
four feet is considered a meager Nile; from
twenty-four to twenty-seven feet, a good Nile ;
while a flood of more than twenty -eight feet
becomes destructive and dangerous. In a few
rare instances there is no rise at all, -which
condition is a sure precursor of distress and
famine. During the reign of the Caliph Mus-
tansir a period of seven years (A. D. 1066-

EGYPT. THE COUNTRY.

1073) elapsed in which there was no ir-Mnda-
tion. A slight rise is sure to occasion dearth ;
and on the other hand a great flood, in addi-
tion to the usual disasters attending high
waters, entails various infectious diseases, es-
pecially murrain and the plague. It thus
happens that a variation of only a few feet in
the annual overflow of the river produces the
most important results.

From time immemorial the yearly prosper-
ity of Egypt has been estimated by the peri-

in appearance at different seasons of the
year. During the inundation the stream
is exceedingly turbid. Afterwards for about
two weeks it assumes a greenish tinge, owing
to the presence of large quantities of vegeta-
ble matter brought down from the tropics.
Again it takes the turbid appearance, and re-
tains it during the period of subsidence, until
the winter months, when the waters are com-
paratively clear. At all times, when not agi-
tated, the earthy sediment is quickly deposited,

riilTK; \VO.MKN FORDINU THE NILE (MODERN).

odic overflow of the Nile. At Er-Rodah, near
Cairo, in Lower Egypt; at Memphis, a little
further south ; and at Thebes, graduated pil-
lars, called Xilometers, register the height of
the annual inundation, and from this the an-
nual estimates are made.

The current of the Nile is sluggish, the
average velocity being at low water no more
than two miles per hour, and during the
flood not exceeding three or three and a-half
miles. The water of the river differs greatly

and, except during the green stage of the
flood, the water is pure and sweet.

Egypt is the "Gift of the Nile" so called
from antiquity. As the waters of the annual
overflow subside, a film of the richest alluvium
is deposited over the whole valley. No artifi-
cial methods of renewing the soil can equal
what nature has here gratuitously provided.
True it is that the annual layer, contrary to
popular belief, is exceedingly thin, aggrega-
ting only about four and a-half inches in

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

a century; but, notwithstanding the small
amount of matter actually deposited, the soil
of the valley, lying for so long a period under
the fertilizing water, comes forth after each
inundation fresh and fecund as though still
warm from creation. Such a soil no cultiva-
tion can exhaust no abuse destroy. The
cooling of the air by the immense body of
water which rolls through the valley, and the
complete saturation of the earth with the
flood in the verj' crisis of summer, when all

the circumjacent countries are burned to a
crisp, constitute the two essential advantages
which Egypt has immemorially enjoyed. To
these facts she owes her preeminence in an-
cient history. Notwithstanding her rainless
climate, and the gleaming blue of her cloud-
less skies, Egypt, nourished and sustained,
watered and cooled, by the munificence of her
solitary river, offered to the primitive race of
men the most luxuriant and beautiful home
of all the habitable globe.

CHAPTER II. THE PEOPLE.

HE origin of the ancient
Egyptians is involved in
the same obscurity that
clouds the early history
of most races. One by
one the ancient peoples
emerge from the shadows,
but the source of their emergence is hidden in
the vapor and mist of the dawn. Eaces, like
men, have no recollection of their own infancy
and childhood.

It is now generally agreed that at a very
remote period an aboriginal population, feeble
in numbers and prowess, was displaced in
Egypt by bands of immigrants from Asia;
that these immigrants belonged to a white
race, and that they were not Semites or Ne-
groes. It appears that the incursive tribe
came in full force, and that the invaders were
not modified to any considerable degree by
the influence of the original population of
the country. The early inhabitants of the
Nile valley and of the district drained by its
tributaries were as clearly distinguished from
the well-known Nigritian types of Africa as
were any of the white peoples of Asia.

The motives for the coming of these white
Asiatics into North-eastern Africa were the
same which usually induce tribal migrations
namely, overcrowding in the original seats of
the tribe, the predatory and adventurous im-
pulse, and those strange cosmic influences
which draw all the tendrils of animal and

vegetable life towards the West. The law ap-
pears to be world-wide in its operation.

Be this as it may, there is no reason to
doubt that the immigrant tribes that peopled
Egypt were thrown into that country by the
same impulses which in successive ages carried
into Europe the Celtic, the Hellenic, and the
Teutonic races; and the influence of the abo-
rigines in forming the new nationality of Egypt
was not greater than that of the primitive peo-
ples north of the Mediterranean upon the in-
vaders of those countries. Doubtless the
principal motive which impelled the Asiatic
bands towards Egypt was conquest, and the
course of their movements from the lower part
of the valley southward is distinctly marked.
The record of their advances through Lower,
Middle, and Upper Egypt is unmistakable, and
the evidence thus afforded gives a complete ref-
utation to the theory that the ancient inhabit-
ants of the country were the descendants of the
Ethiopians. On the contrary, it is definitely
established that the valley of the Nile and
the greater part of the northern coast of
Africa, as far south as the hill-country of
Abyssinia, were settled by a people who in
color, language, and institutions were wholly
different from the black races of the interior.

It is probable, therefore, that the ancient
Egyptians were, ethnically considered, a
branch of that Cushite family of Asiatic
origin which at a very remote epoch occupied
and civilized the lower valley of the Tigris

EGYPT. THE PEOPLE.

and the Euphrates. The ethnic position of
the Egyptians will accordingly be given as in
the annexed diagram:

to about the year 1500 B. C., a scene is de-
picted in which the god Horus is represented
as leading a company of sixteen persons in

Cuahitc

Stock.'

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE ETHNIC PLACE OF THE EGYPTIANS.

It must not be supposed, however, that
the invaders of the valley of the Nile were
uninfluenced in their primitive character by
previous contact with other races. The lan-
guage spoken by the ancient Egyptians gives
unmistakable evidence of intercourse between
them and both the Semitic and Aryan branches
of the human family. But the ancient speech
of Egypt was a distinct tongue, and the at-
tempt to classify it as a Semitic dialect is as
erroneous as to make the English language an
offshoot of Latin, or German a derivative of
Greek.

From the sculptures and inscriptions it is
certain that as many as four races of men
were known to the Egyptians three besides
themselves. In a tomb at Thebes, belonging

Scholars are divided in opinion as to the
original stock from which the ancient Egyptians
and the modern Copta are descended. One class
of writers, headed by Uunsen, hold that the stem
from which the Cushite races sprang was cer-
tainly Semitic a judgment based on the fact of
Semitic radicals and idioms in the Egyptian lan-
guage. Another class, headed by K.'nan. as
stoutly maintain that the primitive stock of the
Egyptian an d Abyssinian races was Aryan or
Indo-Europic. Each of these theories seems to be
beset with difficulties quite insuperable. A better
opinion is that the primitive people of southern
Arabia, of the lower Tigris, of the ocean shores as
far east as India, and, on the west, of the Nile
valley and Abyssinia, were neither Semites nor
Aryans. The Author has accordingly given to the
original stem of these races the general designa-
tion of "Cushite Stock," without attempting to
trace its Aryan or Semitic affinities.

groups of four, each group belonging to a
different race. In the company the Egyptian,
Semitic, Nigritian, and Aryan types of man-
kind are delineated with a clearness not to be
mistaken; so that both before and after the
original conquest of the Nile valley by the
people called Egyptians, it is certain that
they were ethnically modified by contact with
other races.

The Asiatic invaders of Egypt, upon their
entrance into the valley, found themselves in
the midst of strange surroundings. Their
previous life was in no manner suited to the
new condition. The vocation of the hunter,
the wild flight of the nomad, and the vigil of
the shepherd were no longer practicable. In-
stead of the open plains and boundless deserts,
they found here a narrow oasis, green, cool,
and luxuriant. Here were no forests. Here
were no storms of rain. Here nature restored
the soil with her own riches, and yielded her
abundance without labor. The first result of
the new situation was that the immigrants
abandoned the pastoral life for the pursuits of
agriculture, and at a very early date acquired
fixed habitations.

The first season after the invasion would
bring to the new people the striking phenome-
non of a flood in the river; and the regular
recurrence of the same fact year by year would
force upon their attention the advantages as
well as the dangers of the overflow, and sug-
gest the best means of protecting man and
beast. Intercourse must be maintained dur-

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

ing the long period of the inundation, and
the primitive dealings of the mart must be
carried on by water. Supplies must be pro-
vided and landmarks must be firmly set, so
that there shall be no displacement by the
flood. The cooperation of man with man was
a necessity of the situation. The range of
hills on either hand, pressing upon the in-
creasing population, stimulated the establish-
ment of social order, and rendered necessary
the organization of large communities. The
situation favored the multiplication of villages,
the projection of common enterprises, and the
building of cities. In no country of the an-
cient world were there so many towns, great
and small, crowded into so narrow a district
as in the valley of the Nile. The existence
of great civic communities sprang from the
conditions here suggested.

Nature to the ancient Egyptians presented
a fixed and unchanging outline. In no other
region of the globe did natural phenomena
recur in an order so monotonous. The few
birds that frequented the plashy brink of the
river gave forth an ominous cry. The land-
scape was solemn ; the sky, still and cloudless.
Man surrounded with such a scene and im-
pressed by such associations must soon acquire
a character stern, sedate, and passionless.
The ancient Egyptians were the most un-
mirthful of all the peoples of antiquity. The
environment was such as to blunt the mirth-
ful sentiments and dwarf the fancy. Only a
race unimpassioned and saturnine could in-
habit and develop Egypt.

The sameness of nature had another and
still more important influence upon the early
inhabitants of the country. The unchanging
aspect and persistent recurrence of the same
phenomena strongly stimulated the natural
disposition of men to follow the same pursuit
from generation to generation, thus laying the
foundation of the system of caste. Whenever
a vocation is handed down from father to son
for several generations, that pursuit becomes
more honorable than others, and it is soon re-
garded as a misfortune and disgrace to fall
out of the line of ancestral activities and
achievements. In Egypt only a few pursuits
were possible: and whenever a given family

had become identified with a certain calling,
as of agriculture, priestcraft, or war, it soon
became little less than a scandal and a sacrilege
in a member of that family to abandon the
honored vocation or to affiliate with those who
followed less favored pursuits. In but a few
countries of the world were the antecedent
conditions of caste so strongly operative as
in Egypt, and in but a few were castes so
early and firmly established.

The abundance soon acquired by the an-
cient Egyptians, the fertility of their lands,
the clustering villages, and the facility of
access to the valley, quickly aroused the pred-
atory lust of the surrounding tribes. The
nomads of the deserts and hills saw in the
rich bottoms every inducement to foray and
incursion. Those who were bravest to repel
attacks and swiftest in punishing the maraud-
ers would soon be held as public benefactors,
deliverers of the land out of the hands of
brigands and robbers.

Property is always swift to reward its de-
fender. The esteem in which the warrior is
held increases with each successful defense of
the fields and villages. The timid tillers of
the soil willingly yield the palm of precedence
and authority to the soldier who fights their
battles. He grows strong, and stands high
above those who build walk and gather har-
vests. The situation in Egypt was of a kind
to call into constant requisition the services of
a valorous soldiery, and consequently to estab-
lish and make preeminent a military caste in
the country.

In the establishment of ancient states and
kingdoms, he who stood as the interpreter of
Nature was likewise held in great honor and
esteem. The mysterious character of the duty
which he was called to perform lent a charm to
his office and gave to the priest for such he
was a reputation for sanctity and wisdom.
Popular respect soon grew into veneration,
and the local repute of the seer quickly wid-
ened into general fame.

In proportion to the magnitude and mystery
of the problems which the priest had to solve
would be the reverential awe and respect with
which he would be regarded by the people.
If, at any time or under any conditions,

H, -YI'T. -THE PEOPLE.

the phenomena of Nature seemed of manifest
explanation, if the causes of things appeared
to be easily traceable to other causes already
explained by reason or tradition, to that extent
would the office and influence of the priest
suffer in popular esteem ; and if, under other
conditions, natural phenomena seemed to be
specially involved and mysterious, if the causes
of things appeared occult and far beyond the
reach of human vision, to that degree would
the character and office of the seer be held in
veneration. In no other country of ancient
or modern times were the aspects and processes
of Nature clothed in such profound mystery as
in Egypt. Here the one great striking phe-
nomenon the inundation of the Nile seemed
to be absolutely causeless. The absence of
rain and snow left the popular imagination
without even a vague hint respecting the ori-
gin of that great natural fact upon which his
very life depended. The source of the river,
being inaccessible by distance and the inter-
position of the cataracts which effectually
barred up-stream exploration, seemed almost as
remote and infinite as the origin of the annual
flood. The solemnity of the procession of the
planets and stars, unobscured by tree or
mountain or cloud, heightened the effect of
the mundane mystery. As the yellow, turbid
waters swelled bank-full and silently over-
spread the valley, rising higher and higher
without apparent, cause, driving the flocks to
the.higher grounds and the people into upper
compartments, the ancient Egyptians found
themselves in a situation strangely combining
the hurry and commotion of cities with the
solitude of the seas. They who, in the midst
of such phenomena, seemingly causeless and
preternatural, assumed the task of accounting
for the order and the cause of things that is,
of constructing a system of natural and re-
ligious philosophy would from the beginning
be regarded by the people with peculiar awe
and veneration. Even the powerful soldier-
class would do reverence to those who ex-
plained and perhaps influenced that hidden
world of mystery from which proceeded both
benefits and disasters. The natural environ-
ment in which the civilization of ancient

Egypt was planted was exceptionally favorable
X._Vol. i ^

to the development of a priestly caste, sepa-
rated from the people and specially powerful
in the affairs of the nation.

In a country of hills and rivers and foreste,
the people are easily divided into distinct
communities, having diverse tastes and con-
flicting political interests. In such a situation
there is a natural tendency to the development
of popular institutions. Republics spring up
and flourish under conditions of struggling
personal interests and antagonistic political
preferences. In countries where the physical
and industrial situation of all classes is the
same, institutions of an opposite sort are likely
to prevail. Monarchy finds its natural soil in
the sameness of the situation of its subjects.
And this was peculiarly the condition in an-
cient Egypt. A great number of civic com-
munities, some greater, some of less note, but
all in like relation as to soil, industry, dispo-
sition, interest, and physical surrounding,
could but suggest a strong centralized govern-
ment, despotic in its nature and military in
its methods. The situation was such as to
foster and develop a race of warrior-princes,
before whose ambitions the liberties of the
Egyptians would fall an easy prey.

Such then was the ethnic origin of the
people of Egypt, so far as it is understood;
and such were the antecedent physical condi-
tions by which that people was most deeply
impressed during the formative period of
Egyptian nationality. From these conditions
arose the peculiar institutions which flourished
for so long a period in the valley of the Nile.

The ancient Egyptians were a people of
great power and vigor, but without the passions
and caprices of most of the European tribes.
The constitution of the race was at once elas-
tic and conservative, energetic and restful,
obedient and pertinacious. It was a race self-
conscious without egotism, haughty without dis-
dain, laborious without great motives, ambi-
tious without enthusiasm, warlike without the
spirit of conquest.

In physical form the Egyptians were closely
allied to the Asiatic peoples with whom they
were ethnically related. The person and coun-
tenance, however, soon assumed a distinct type
under the influence of the peculiar climate to

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

which they were exposed. Judging from the
mummies and sculptures, the expression of the
Egyptian face was sedate, fixed, impassive.
The forehead was symmetrical, but rather low
and receding. The eyes were black, large, and
longer than those of any other race. The
nose was of unusual length and slightly

lonians. The beard was scantier, and was
either shaven or plaited and worn in a man-
ner exceedingly artificial. The complexion
varied from a pink flesh-color and light olive
in children and girls to a darkish brown
in men. The accompanying cut of the head
of a modern Coptic maiden will serve to show

COPTIC MAIDEN (MODERN).

formed in the bridge. The mouth was calm
and expressive ; lips full, but not protruding ;
teeth, white and regular; chin, small and
round; cheek-bones, rather high aiid promi-
nent. The general outline of the face was
oval, the features of the man being narrower
than those of the woman. The hair was long,
full, black, aud crisp, like that of the Baby-

to what extent ages of time and mutations of
circumstance have modified the physiognomy
of Ancient Egypt into the face of to-day.

The Egyptians were a lithe and active peo-
ple, capable of considerable endurance, but
by no means so heavy and muscular as the
average of the European races. Judging
from the recorded reigns of the kings, the

EGYPT. CIVIL AND MILITARY ANNALS.

longevity was considerably above that of most
peoples of modern times, though not greater
than that of several ancient nations. Nor
does it appear that the disposition of the
Egyptian albeit he was a grave and solemn
being was incapable of cheerfulness and
pleasure. His courage and pertinacity, his
persistent prosecution of life-long enterprises,

his skill in architecture and valor in war, his
industry and frugality in peace, his placid
demeanor in society and undoubted preemi-
nence in the greatest of ancient arts, will
be abundantly shown in tracing the history
of those mighty kingdoms founded and
maintained by his genius in the valley of
the Nile.

CHAFTTER in. CIVIL AND MILITARY A.NNALS.

[HE chronology of the ear-
lier ages of Egyptian his-
tory is confused and un-
certain. The sources/rom
which the dates are taken,
though unusually abun-
dant, are in many parts
obscure, and in some conflicting. According
to the Greek historians, the Egyptians were
the oldest race of men. When Herodotus
traveled in Egypt (about 450 B. C.), the
priests recited to him traditions of the extra-
ordinary antiquity of their people. They read
to him from a roll of papyrus the names of
three hundred and forty-one kings who had
reigned over the country between the time of
Menes, founder of Memphis and first mortal
ruler of Egypt, and the reign of Seti 1 . Be-
fore this time the land was said to have been
for thousands of years under the dominion of
several dynasties of gods first the Eight Gods,
then the Twelve Gods, then Osiris, then Ty-
phon, and last of all Horus, who immediately
preceded Menes, the first mortal king. The
priests also took Herodotus into the temple of
Thebes, and showed him in one of the halls
the wooden effigies of three hundred and forty-
five priests who from father to son had exer-
cised the highest priestly office during the reigns
of the kings from Meues to Seti. Each in his
own life had placed his statue there.

From these data Herodotus made up his
estimate of the antiquity of Egypt. Allow-
ing three generations to a century, he com-
puted the whole time three hundred and

1 In Greek, Sethot.

forty generations from Menes to Seti at
11,340 years. From the accession of Seti
to the conquest of Egypt by the Persians in
525 B. C. Herodotus reckons one hundred
and fifty years ; so that according to the Greek
calculations, based as they were upon the tra-
ditional records kept by the Egyptian priest-
hood, the accession of Menes antedates some-
what the year 12,000 B. C.

Four centuries after the time of Herodotus,
Diodorus traveled in Egypt, and to him also the
legends of the priests were rehearsed. They
now placed the number of their kings at four
hundred and seventy, beginning with Menes;
and Diodorus declares that of all these kings
the priests had preserved in their holy books
individual sketches, showing such minute details
as how tall each king was, what he was like, and
what he did. According to the computations
of Diodorus, if the length of a generation be
estimated as by Herodotus, the accession of
Menes is thrust back to the year 16,492 B. C.
If the estimate be reduced by allowing four
instead of three generations to a century, the
epoch of Menes is brought down, according to
the data of Herodotus, to 9175, and according
to Diodorus, to the year 12.5QO B. C. Such
are the fabulous aspects of the question.

From such extravagant recitals only thus
much is clear: that the priests of Egypt pos-
sessed recorded lists of their kings, extending
in a long series to an almost incredible antiq-
uity ; and that even of a mythical age prece-
ding this, when gods and demi-gods ruled the
people, accredited traditions were recited.

After the time of Alexander, the Great, the

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

monuments of Egypt were opened to the re-
searches of the Greeks. Eratosthenes, the
famous librarian of Alexandria, transcribed
from the sacred books of Thebes the names
and histories of thirty-eight kings who had
reigned in that city ; and this list was after-
wards carried out aud completed by Apollo-
dorus, who added the names of fifty-three ad-
ditional Thebau mouarchs, making ninety-one
in all.

A short time previous to this, about the
year 250 B. C., a learned Egyptian, named
Manetho, a scribe in the temple of Thebes,
produced in three books a work on the history
of Egypt. The book itself, in the confusion
of after times, was lost ; but fragmentary chap-
ters of it were copied into the works of other
historians, notably Josephus, Julius Africa-
nus, Eusebius, and Syucellus, and were thus
preserved for posterity. According to Mane-
tho, the rule of the Egyptian kings began
with Menes and extended through thirty dy-
nasties, down to the time of Artaxerxes Ochus,
a period of 5,366 years. The date of the
reign of Artaxerxes is 340 B. C., which gives
for date of the accession of Menes the year
5706 B. C. This reckoning, however, is in
Egyptian years, the same giving, when re-
duced to the Julian calendar, the year 5702
as the date of Menes.

The next view of the case is that presented
by the historian Diodorus, already referred to.
Further investigations among the priests and
temples of Thebes revealed to him many
sources of error in the traditional accounts
first given of the lists of kings. The correc-
tions and reductions of dates thus suggested,
contracted the extravagant computations ac-
credited by the priests, until the accession of
Menes was brought down to a date somewhat
more recent than the year 5000 B. C. One
account gave Diodorus assurance that " for
more than 4,700 years, kings, mostly native,
had ruled, and the land had prospered greatly
under them." Another narrative stated clearly
that the oldest pyramid was built 3,400 years
before the time of Dipdorus's travels. The
corrected view of this historian, therefore,
fixes the date of Menes at about the year
4800 B. C.

It will thus be seen that the problem pre-
sented to modern research is this: Laying side
by side the lists of kings given by Mauetho
and preserved by Josephus, Eusebius, Africa-
nus, and Syucellus; the lists of the same as
contained in the works of Diodorus; the lists
of the same given by Eratosthenes ; the lists
of the same as preserved in what is known as
the Turin Papyrus (belonging to a period
somewhere between 1000 and 1500 B. C.);
the lists of the same as deciphered from the
existing monuments of Egypt to determine
by comparison and equation of dates the true
chronology of the period. The chief difficulty
which confuses the problem is this: Whether
any, a few, or many of the kings belonging
to the thirty dynasties extending from Menes
to the subjugation of Egypt by the Persians
were contemporaneous reigning in different
parts of the country at the same time, or
whether all the dynasties were consecutive
succeeding each other in chronological order
from first to last. For it is easy to conceive
that one dynasty might have had dominion
in Lower while another was reigning in Mid-
dle or Upper Egypt.

Some archseologists and historians have de-
cided this question in one way and some in
another. Some have held that a few of the
dynasties were contemporaneous and most of
them consecutive ; while others have reversed
the order. The lists given by Manetho were
evidently intended to be given in consecutive
order, and the same may be said of those of
Eratosthenes, and of those transcribed from
the monuments. But a comparison of one list
with another always shows discrepancies. The
archaeologist Mariette, accepting the lists of
Mauetho, has placed the accession of Menes
at 5004 B. C. The historian Brugsch has
fixed upon 4400 B. C. as the true date of
that event; aud Professor Lepsius, following
a somewhat different line of investigation, has
reduced the latter estimate by 508 years, set-
ting the era of Menes at the year 3892 B. C.
This last date is accepted by Dr. Duncker
as the best approximation which is possible
in the present state of historical researches,
though Baron Bunsen stoutly maintains that
the Lepsian date ought to be reduced to

EGYPT. CIVIL -I-V" MILITARY AXXALS.

AKilNOE UTIilLADELPHUS

CELE13KIT1ES OK ANCIENT EUYPT.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

the year 3643 B. C. a difference of 243
years.

The system of Lepsius may be regarded as
approximately established ; and the following
table will, therefore, present the best that is
now known of the twenty-six Egyptian dynas-
ties from the accession of Menes to the con-
quest of the country by the Persians :

EMPIRE.

DYNASTY

CAPITAL.

DATE
B. C.

This (Abydos)

3892

3639

III

Memphis . .

3338
3124

2840

Elephantine .

2744

OLD EMPIRE

VII

VIII

Memphis . .
a

2582

2522

Heracleopolis

2674 s

2565*

Thebes . . .

2423

XII

2380

XIII

2136

XIV

Xoi's

2167t

(TheHyksos) .

2101

MIDDLE EMPIRE

XVI
XVII

a 11
ti <t

1842
1684

XVIII

Thebes . . .

1591

XIX

1443

1269

XXI

Tanis . .

1091

XXII

Bubastis ....

961

NEW EMPIRE -

XXIII

787

XXIV

Sais

729

XXV

(The Ethiopians)

716

XXVI

Sals

685

XXVII

(The Persians) .

525

Dynasties IX. and X., reigning at Heracleopolis, ante-

dated somewhat the contemporaneous Dynasties VII. and

VIII., reigning at Memphis.

t Dynasty XIV., in like manner, antedates Dynasty

XIII., at Thebes.

The civil and political history of Egypt be-
gins with the reign of MENES/ founder of the
First Dynasty. He was a native of This, the
modern Abydos, in Upper Egypt. To him
belongs the distinction of having brought un-
der one dominion the several Egyptian states.
Selecting with great wisdom a site on the
lower Nile, a short distance above the diverg-
ence into the Delta, he constructed a dam,
turned the course of the river to the east, and
in the district thus reclaimed laid the founda-
tions of MEMPHIS, the most splendid city of
Egypt. Here he established his capital ; here
was built the temple of Ptah; and here the
first recorded triumphs of Egyptian civilization
were achieved.

1 In Egyptian, Mena.

On the north and west of the city, Menes
directed artificial lakes to be constructed as
a part of the defenses of his metropolis.
On the south side a huge dyke was thrown
up as a protection against inundations of
the river. The treasures of the government
were established in the city; the laws were
revised, and the methods of administration
perfected by the king and his counselors.
After a long reign of sixty-two years, Menes
lost his life in a battle with a hippopotamus,
and was enrolled by his countrymen among
the gods of Egypt.

Menes was succeeded on the throne by
ATETA,' to whom is attributed the building
of the citadel and palace of Memphis. He is
reputed, to have been a physician and writer
of works on anatomy, fragments of which
have survived to the present day.

The third monarch was KENKENES, of whom
no traditions are preserved. The fourth was
UENEPHES, in whose reign occurred the first
famine recorded in Egyptian history. To him
is attributed the building of the pyramid of
Kochome, the oldest, perhaps, of all these
marvelous structures. During the reign of
SEMENPSES, the seventh king of the First
Dynasty, a great plague is said to have oc-
curred, and many accompanying portents are
mentioned in the traditions of the time. The
fact of a plague and a famine at an epoch so
remote as the earliest dynasty is sufficient
proof that the country was already old and
thickly peopled.

The accession of BDTAN' marks the begin-
ning of Dynasty II. During the reign of
this monarch an earthquake is said to have
opened a great chasm, swallowing up many
people near the city of Bubastis, in Lower
Egypt. The successor of Butan was KAKAN,'
who is celebrated for having introduced the
worship of the bull Apis at Memphis, the
calf Mnevis at Heliopolis, and the sacred goat
at Mendes. The reign of the next king,
BAINNUTER,* was distinguished by the passage
of a law making woman, equally with man,
eligible to the crown of Egypt. During the
reign of NEPHERCHERES, the seventh sovereign

'In Greek, Athotis.
8 In Greek, Kaiechos.

' In Greek, Boethoi.
*In Greek, Binothrii.

EGYPT. CIVIL AND MILITARY AXNALS.

of this line, the waters of the Nile are said, in a tradition repeated by Manetho, to have been
sweet Kke honey for a period of eleven days; and the eighth monarch, named LESOCHRIB, is
reputed to have been a giaut five cubits and three palms in height.

The royal house was now changed by the accession of the Memphiau king NEBKA,' who

was the head of Dynasty III. During his reign the Libyans,
who had been subjected by the Egyptians, revolted, and were
frightened back into allegiance by an alleged increase in the
disc of the moon as they were marching to battle. The legend
is no doubt traceable to the occurrence of a lunar eclipse, a
phenomenon which exercised a striking influence upon the super-
stitious imaginations of the ancients. Nebka was succeeded by
TOSORTHROS, the Peaceful, the Egyptian .JCsculapius, who is said
to have been a patron of letters and to have introduced, or
at any rate improved, the art of building with hewn stone. The
last king of this dynasty was SNEFRU, the Betterer, though the
lists of Manetho add the name of Sephuris as the last of Dy-
nasty III.

The close of this line of sovereigns is marked as the time from
which Egyptian history can begin to be reproduced from exist-
ing contemporaneous monuments. Of the following three dynas-
ties abundant materials are found in the manifold and won-
derful sculptures of the age for the reconstruction of both the
political and the social history of the epoch.

The Fourth Dynasty, also a Memphian House, began with
the accession of KHUFU.' This is the epoch of the pyramid-
builders, one of the most brilliant eras in ancient Egyptian his-
tory. The government had become consolidated. The regal
power had expanded with the growth of the kingdom. The
population had so multiplied as to fill the laud and to place at
the disposal of absolute monarchs a vast amount of unemployed
manual labor. The native fertility of the lands had given to
all classes a greater amount of leisure than was enjoyed by any
other ancient people. The long continuance of the annual

In Greek, Chropt; in Manetho, Suphii.

BUILlll.Nl. TI1K I'YKA.MIKS.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

inundation, during which the ordinary vocations
of industry were measurably suspended, gave
additional opportunity to the kings to divert
the labor of the populace to ends of personal
fame and monumental vanity. Under these
conditions, the peculiar ambition of the times
was directed to the construction of magnificent
sepulchers for the kings. The pyramids were
the result of this monument-building impulse.
West of Memphis, at a distance of about
ten miles and running parallel with the river,
rises a barren plateau. The elevation is a
hundred feet above the level of the Nile, and

chambers hewn out of the rock ; aud what
more natural than that the king, who in life
was lifted so high above his subjects, should
in death be buried with a more magnificent
sepulcher ? So the royal sarcophagus was
placed in a more spacious chamber under a
grander monument of stone. By degrees the
sepulchral heap grew into definite shape, tak-
ing the immovable form and severe aspect of
a pyramid. The structure became more and
more regular in its interior arrangement and
external outline until, sharply defined against
the sky, the finished pile stood forth the pride

PYRAMIDS OF GIZEH.

stretches north and south for many miles be-
tween the verdant valley and the Libyan des-
ert beyond. Owing to the rocky character of
the ridge, its elevation above the river-level,
and the fact that the Sun, the chief deity of
the ancient Egyptians, seemed to sink to rest
behind it at nightfall, the kings, looking from
their palace in Memphis, and musing upon
the common fate which should soon call them
to the abodes of the gods, naturally chose the
western plateau as the most fitting place to
build their tombs.

In the sides of this hilly elevation the
bodies of the common dead were placed in

of the builders and the marvel of after ages.
Along the plateau west of Memphis, between
Abu Roash and Dahshur, about seventy of
these mighty monuments were erected. 1 Among
these three were preeminent on account of
their size and magnificence. They are known
as the Pyramids of Ghizeh, near which city
they stand. They are certainly the work ot
the Fourth Dynasty, and were built in the
twenty-fifth century before the Christian era.
The three are the most conspicuous objects in a

1 In the district mentioned in the text, Pro-
fessor Lepsius has traced the outlines of sixty-
seven pyramids.

3000 B.C. 29

21 2000 B.C. 19

44. Acce

liove

Eteli

Bull

ssion of Dy
rnmeut tra
n of I'epi .
ding of the
Reign of M
Reign
Great
P

nasty VI.
nsferred to

Pyramids
erenra.
of Queen N
bri'ak in 111
eriod of ob

t i>

Middle Kg
of Dashur.

itocris.

e Egyptian

scunty fro

M't

EGYPT.

From the Accession of Dynasty V.,
B. C. 284O, to the Conquest of the
Country by Cambyses, B. C. 525.

40. Acce
Decl i

ssion of Dy
'ne of the
Kefgn OL
Reign

nasty V.
Empire,
f Assa.
of Una.

annals,
m Dynasty
80. Access
Reign
Reviv
Reig

haldivan 1)
Kiipliniles.
58. Fou

VII. to Dy

ion of Dyn
of Arneue
al of the A
,-n of User
Construct!
and

nasty XI.
isty XII.
niha I.
rtb.

esen I.
on of the

Moeris.

Reien o.

i. Ac

ynasty est ablished b

i the Low-

abyrinth

I Q

,ueen Seb
cession of
riod of Soci
ncoming o
eclineof E
TheC

DARK PER 100 IN EGYPTIAN HI SI

eknefrura.

Dynasty X.

al and Poll

f the II - I.
ypt under
pital tra

III.

tical Distu

SOS.

theShephe
sferred to

rbances.

rd Kings.
X.iis.

CHALD/EA.

From the Establishment of the First Dy-
nasty, B. C. 255O, to the Conquest
of Babylon by Cyrus, B. C. 538.

ndingof th

gn of N

Idlng of th

' raham le

Accession

Building

Ur beco

Reign

Kucl

e Median
rod.
e Ancient
aves Ur, of
of King TJ
of Warba a
mes the Ca
of Kingllg
ur - Nakhu
udur- Laga
Reigns of

5'J. Fou
Exp

Kings. 4. A
_ anOuIf.
t th e head of

nasty of

[the Persi
Jltiesai .
the Chalde es.
rukh.

nd the Old _
oital of C'h alda-a.

nding of D
ulsion of 1
ccession of
Reign o
Chald
Kin

Chalcla-an

nta, of Ela
mer Invad
Kudur-Ma

m, conquer
es Canaan,
huk and A

Tem-
ples.

s Chaldwa.
rid-Sin.

vnasty III
lie KlumiH'
Dynasty
f Ismi-Dag
a?a makes
g Gurguna
of Ur.
eign of Na
Buildin
Reign

Kings.

on.

conquests t c
builds Hie C<

ram -Si 11.
g of Abu-S hi
of Tur-Sin.
Obscure Pe

PROV IIS
AM.vria

ASSYRIA.

FROM

The Founding of a Kingdom
on the Tigris

the Conquest by the Medes,
B. C. 625.

HI^ONOLOGIGAL
Mo. I.

AHCIEHT AFRICA! ^ ASIATIC

SHOWING

THE PROGRESS OF EVENTS FROM B. C. 3892 TO B. C. 525.

PREPARED BY JOHN CLARK RIDPATH, LL. D.

4000B.C. 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 3000 B.C.

92. First D

Reign o

ynasty fow
f Ateta.

nded by M

enes.

Reign

of Kenken

68.

Reign of

Semempse

39. Acce

ssion of Dy

nasty II.

Reig

nof Butan.

eign of Ka
Reign of

kan.

Bainnuter.

Rei

g_n of Neph
Reign of L

ercherps-
esochris.

EGYPT.

38. Acce

Reig

ssion of Dy
n of Nebfc

nasty III.
a.

FROM

Reign of T

osorthros.

The Founding of the Old Em-

Reign o
24. Ace

f Snefru,
ession of D

ynasty IV.

pire, B. C. 3892,

eign of Kb
Epoch o

ufu.
f the Great

TO THE

Pyr

amids.

Accession of Dynasty V.

Reign o
Buildin

f Khaf ra.
g of the

Gre

at Sphinx.

eign of

Menkera.

the <

Kll

The

1000 B.C. 9

11 Of 111,- II

\\lll

siollol '1 lv 11

divided In

Ml] XXI

to Prlnci-

-. A. '

t-loliuf Hu-

established

Suit.- Dyini

at Tanis.

IT.-.

pa!

ties.

ll of Till ni'

The

Ethi

>plan influ

ence con-

1 II. ,[,1.

Ui'l ni,

if \alii,

,[!.!

arl.

tro

Is tbe Affallrsof Egypt.

n IK Dai 1 .

,;., \,-,-

I'SHloll of U

IBM) III.

61. Acce sslon of Dy-

B-

KinnuiK of

\..M,a,,- ,

In Knypl.

nan Art.

nast v XXII. '

lion of Ken

;i>'s army.

I'ign of Qu

latu

11. A.'''

.'vslon ol D

K5. Access

Ion Dynast

i XX \ I

Con, (in-

st of Nini-\

.ii. For

elgn intlii.'

nee control

s tbe King

dom.

T'. Mem

phis captnr

ed by tbe Assyrians.

It.'Vlva

1 Of A

ectur*.

i:. IL'

1 ,,l i'-ai,,.

tlk I.

Bulldln

X of 1

and Kama

T h .

H circumnavigate Af-

K.-iK

n of t

opbls IV.

B. B

,;!, ,,! M.

glddo. [rlca

1 Kii.ti-rn I

dolatry.

Battle of i

archemlsh.

43. Ac

Reign of P

samelik I.

,11'iii, -t 1 i

n Africa, A

ila.andEu

rope.

1.. mat i

lia'll

ormed against Nehu-
zzar. [rlucnce

evival of K

gyptlan Ar

chitecture.

Predom

nance of Greek In-

22. AKr,'

Mi-nepta.

- 1 ->

at is conquered by

Hebren

- .,-.. me]

led from E

*ypt.

i an

>\ - L ,:..: ,,. t '..: lt ,-~ n

RelgnsonSt.il II and

Menepta 1

t. .

-- ' ' ,

i - , .( , I,, ,

rheIx>wer|Kmplre be

ami -a" \

ssyrla'n Pr

ovlnce.

7.',. K..|,,.||

ion of Neb

rlan power

to tile 1'er*

Ian Gulf.

I ...

llail.li.n V

ceroy of Babylonia.

,., A,...

h. Relg

sslon of Dy
u of Kb am
tructlon of

nasty V.

mo U:...,

,.. '.ill!.;!,

IToll "i i^
Period
Baby

ng Vul-Bal

,l !'. 1.1
onlainvad

adan.
Babylonia,
ed by Tlg-

Insurre

c'tion head

Saul-
c.i 1,\- Sinn

Muglna ra
AdlnandB

sen a Revolt.
quest of Babylon by
el-Usatl. [CyruN

nals.

1ft

shah, la

nt'serovirr

uns the Co

untry.

or s<

imsu-

[lUllo.

ebelllon of

Shaplk-Zi

ra. 11. lie

feat of Bel

.1/11 Ik 1,1 1,

v Shamas-

Vul.

K. i.;"',

.1 K.,

ra-In-

Das.

Obcmu

- 1' | ,-n n

mlramls m

iiri i.-il to \'

ul~Lnsh, of

Assyria.

a-l , a

,-lil'-r

s into relat

ons with

Baby

Ionian His

tory.

Decline In

Babylonia

[ ' :.'a !: \ > i ' i

i:-.

orali

nStat

es.

r.i

\.l':,,,ll:l- ,i

of Rim-Sin

and Nur-V

ul.

Bevol

t of Merod

ach - Balad

an.

pt'ir,' "I r.i-

bylon bv t

he Assyrians.

40. Rel

:;i, ,,l

ZSE

ir.l.l.liii A

kbl.

w. Access!

,1,'lUlallll

Nln 11.

20. H

elgn

if AM

aur-Bll-Ni

8l-.SU.

83. Assbur

-Izlr-Palcu

Itlvates th

e Arts and

Sciences.

RIOD.

l'l,f Karlv
The Reign

Kingdom o
9 of fell Kt

f Assyria e
ngs cover t

stabllshed
he Period f

on theTlgr

[ ,,m 1400 to

i-. .>. A,

He c

sslon of Sh
onquers Ba

almaneser
bylonla an

II.

d Syria.

y Oovern

orn

1300

B. C.

23. Rel

gn of sham

as-Vul II.

from < ii

aldara.

TIglatbl-A

dar founds

Hi,' AN\ri

an Empire.

10. Vu

[-Lush III.

makes an I

nvasion of

Media.

30. Ace

esslon of 11

el-Kudur-

Uzur.

10. E

poch of 6e

mlramis.

10. R

elgn of Nl

n-Pala-ZIr

98. Destruc

tlon of Sen

nacherlb's army.

Si. Peace

under Ass

bur-Dayan

The Ki

ng subdues

Susialia.

SO. Assb

ur-Rls-III

m makes

81. Acce

sslon of Es

ar-Haddon.

For
30. Tie

elgn Conq
lath-Pilesc

uests.
r I. enlarge

s the Bor-

Hem
68. Ace

akes war <
esslon of A

n Jews anil Egyptians
sshur-Banl-Pal.

10. R

era of the
elgn of Ass

Empire.

hur-Bil-Ka

la.

81. The E

25. Ov
mplre beg]

erthrow ol

ns to ,lf,-l

the Assyrian Empire
ne. [by the Medes

T.I. Break

in the succ

esslon.

Reign

Of Minima

neser III.

30. Re

ign ofAssh

u r-

71 . Acces

sion of Ass

hur-Dayan

III.

ayan II.

45. Tigla

th - Plleser

makes war

In Syria.

11. R

eign of V n 1

-Lush II.

He su

bdues Hos

hea the Isr

aellle.

27. Relg

n of Shalm

aneserlV.

Hebe

22. Sar

!! i\
gon becoru

re.
es King.

Hep

uta down t

he Baoylo

nlan revolt.

Hec

olonlzes fo

reign peoi

lesin Assyria.

:, s.

nnacherib

M1,-,'I'.',N t,

the throne.

captures B

abylon.

Battle of E

Itekeb.

Media Inv

iidi'tl NV Mi almani'K.-r

II. Period

or Peace.

20. Sb

aina-.-\ nlr m a fc - tin

country.

he Medes plav Tribute

to Vul-Lus

n III.

Perlo<l oflthe Devel-

03. Access

on of Astyages.

MEDIA.

opment o
Nation

f Median
allty.

Th.' Kli
Ifaglsm

g annexes Odusla
established in Media.

FROM

1 1..' \.

ung Cyrus resides at

ibllshment of the
Kingdom

The C'ou
Znicro
Irani

mi bey
>eltled

1 ul.. .

ond the

10. 8a
nl
ol
M

rgon colo-
zesbands

M, '.!.".

edla yields

K.-'l,;

H.BDI
Em

!., \^~M-:

tana.
version of tbe Median
plre by tbe Persians.
n Domination.

est by the Persians,

Cy*ares
their

.1|.|X'1II-. 1

In.l-.p.-n.l.

nd the Medes gain
nee.

J. C. 558.

The O

r.'.il Si-vlh

an Invasion.

25. Cy

axares ma

kes a League with Na

bop

lia^aran,

overthrows the Assy-

rla

n Kmplre.

10. c

yaxares In

vadea Lydla.

~'. Aw-hii

r-Izir-Pal 1

nvades Ba

bylonla.

50. ClV

11 War bet

ween rival

claimants t

o the Vice-royalty.

70. Pul ru

h'Sax QOTt

rnor.

47. The I.

ater Emplr

e establish

?d by Nabonassar.

:;:i. u.'ic

ns of three

obscure Pr

nces.

BYLONIA.

21. AC

I". H

cession of
elsoverthr

MIT, ,larl,

own by Sa

Baladan.
rgon.

FROM

BABYLON!

A A VICER

OYALTY OF

ASSYRIA.

4. R

elgn of Ha
Assyria re

glsa.
stores her a

ithorltyln the South.

yrlan Domination

For Two

Hundred Yearn

28. Ac
25. H

cession of
e captures

Vabopolaaaar.
Sineveb.

Kab.il

on la Flo iirinbe*

\ <-,,,!,

of Nebuchadnezzar.

quest by Cyrus,

as a D
(be

eponden
North.

ey of

He besleg

-.-. 'I lo- k

esTyre. [Ish Nation
ng destroys the Jew-

3. C. 538.

70. He c

onquers Egypt.

Epoch
oylo

of the greatness of Ba-

57. Ace

sslon of Evll-Mero

55. Re

gn of Nabonadlus.

:<-. .

verthrow of the Em-

re by Cyrus.

50. The

llftr*'M t

are

roio

nixed In

K). The J'ews relapse into Hea

tbenlsm.

I..... . r

K*y

i.i.

75. Ri'hobioam reigns 7U. Invasi

on of Israe

ll.y I>ul.

They a

re oppresse

d by the E
ipears.
The Israel

gypttans.
tes rebel a

gainst Ml-
li'.].

In Ju
75. Revol
Jerobo
55. Pro

dab.
t of the Te
am King of
sperous rel

47. Depo
n "1 i UMM,
Israel.

gn of Asa.

nation of t

!." [jm a

-- i:. v.i,

Ian
Time

es by TIglatb-Ptleser.
ning of the Babylon-
captivity.
if the Prophet Daniel.

)M OF ISRAEL.

rn.l.Tth

Joshua

e lead of
hev enter

95. The Kin

.1,'in ."-ta
by 8

6- 53. Baa
Ilshi'.l t,o

aul. 29. Wa

sha destro
am.
r of Zimri

vs the Hou
42. Relg
in

se of Jero-
n of Ahaz
Judah.

- i :,, .1

^wi.ih rebellion ended
ruction of Je-
rusalem .

Can

aan.

i:-. I "in ;.l

s an

d Omri.

The

Jews fall

M. Re

toratlon of the Jews

nlzatlon In Egypt

Israel
ruled by
he Judges.

an,, lilt

by Sa

,V. Mai,
Moun

ed 26. Bui

muel. ma
ie of 18. R
t Gilboa. a

Ming of Sa-
ria.
eign of Ah
nnf Jezebel.

int
26. Ext
ab
21. (.'a

, Molmtrj

rpatloo ,,i
a* of [mi*

itlvitv of t

dolatry by

:ie Ten Tri

yrus.
Hezeklah.

i..-

'Ionian Captivity,

3f K Q Q

46-Dav
Jeru

Id captures
lalem.

Time of El
88. Jerusa]

ijah.
em taken

!>7. Reign of the wlcke 1 Manasseh In Judah.

77. lleis.' an -Ion.

. w< OOO.

23. Re

belllon of

hv t

41. J.

11 deMr,.

salom.

T-.TT.r

if JrrrTO'.r.'h.

15. Ac

4. D

cession of
edlcatlon o

Solomon.
25. Jeroboam II
f Sol- D amascus.

i. r...
takei 6. J

gn of Jeholaklm.
(nisnlrm t aken by Nebuchad-
nezzar.

omon's Te mole. 9. A zariah rele ns in Juda

EGYPT. CIVIL AND MILITARY ANNALS.

group of ten similar structures, the other seven
in the neighborhood being of less magnitude
and importance.

The largest and most ancient of these three
great piles is the pyramid of Khufu, founder
of Dynasty IV. It was originally four hun-
dred and eighty feet in height; but the apex
has been broken away, until it now measures
only four hundred and fifty feet. Each side
of the base is seven hundred and sixteen feet
in length, the slant being five hundred and
seventy-four feet. The structure contains
nearly ninety million cubic feet of masonry.
It stands precisely on the thirtieth parallel of
latitude, and the four sides face the four car-
dinal points of the compass with geometric
exactitude. On the north side, precisely in
the middle, and fifty-two feet above the origi-
nal ground-level of the pyramid, a rectangular
opening is cut, being the door of a de-
scending passage three feet broad and
four feet high. This passage leads down-
wards at an angle to a chamber hewn
in the rock of the foundation, more than
a hundred feet below the ground-level
of the base. The chamber lies in a per-
pendicular line six hundred feet directly
under the apex of the pyramid and
thirty-six feet above the level of the
Nile. At certain points in the main
passage to this chamber diverging ways are
cut, leading to two other chambers, which also
lie in the axis of the pyramid immediately
above the first.

It was in the solemn stillness of these cham-
bers that the stone coffins containing the royal
mummies were laid to their final rest. Upon
the walls round about was sculptured the
story of the dead king's deeds. The door of
the passage was sealed with a stone, and the
name of the deceased monarch added to the
lists of gods in the temple. It is said that
throe hundred and sixty thousand men were
employed for twenty years in the building of
the monument of Khufu.

The second of the three great pyramids
in this group was built by Khafra, brother
and successor of Khufu. It is on a level
slightly above that of the first, and was
originally four hundred and fifty-seven feet iu

altitude. The masonry is somewhat inferior
to that exhibited in the monument of Khufu.
The general proportion is the same, and the
arrangement of the chambers within identical
with that in the larger structure.

The third pyramid on the ridge of Gizeh
was built by Meukera,' a successor of
Khafra and fourth or fifth king of Dy-
nasty IV. This structure is but two hundred
and thirty-three feet at the base, and the
slant height two hundred and sixty-two feet
The Menkera pyramid stands on looser soil
than its more ambitious sisters, and the sub-
structure is consequently of greater relative
proportions. Part of the exterior consists of
polished slabs of granite. The sepulchral
chamber within is double, one apartment be-
ing behind the other. In the innermost vault
the mummy-box of Menkera himself was found

SARCOPHAOC9 OP MENKERA.

Found in the tomb of that king at Gizeh.

in recent times by General Howard Vyse,
and the hieroglyphic legend written on the
case, containing, in addition to the name of
the king, the myth of the God Osiris, has
been deciphered and rendered into English.'
Until recently no other of the royal mummies
had been recovered.

The pyramids are built of successive layers
of stone varying from two to six feet in thick-
ness, according to the size of the structure.
Each layer is less in area than the one on
which it rests, and thus the structure is made

1 In Greek : ifencheret, or ifycerinut.

' The .sarcophagus in which the mummy lies is
blue basalt, and bears the following inscription :
"O Osiris, King Menkera, ever living one; begot-
ten of the sky, carried in the bosom of Nut, scion
of Seb. Thy mother Nut is outstretched over
thee ; in her name of the mystery of the sky may
she deify thee, and destroy thy enemies, King
Menkera, ever-living one."

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

to present on either side the appearance of a
series of stone steps narrowing and receding
to the top. It is stated by Diodorus on the
authority of the Egyptian priests that the im-
mense masses of stone used in constructing
the pyramids were brought from Arabia, and
were put into place by building up beneath
them huge mounds of earth from which the
blocks could be slid into position as from an in-
clined plane. Certain it is that in many in-
stances the stone used in the pyramids is not
found within many miles of where the struc-
tures are erected.

Ancient fable and modern ingenuity have
been put on the rack to explain the purpose
of the pyramids on some hypothesis other than
that they were the burial places of the kings.
Some authors have fouad in the mechanical
exactness with which the great structures were
reared an evidence that their dimensions were
intended as the basis of a system of weights
and measures. Others have discovered that
the pyramids were constructed with a geomet-
rical design, and with the purpose of teaching
astronomy. Others still, disdaining such hum-
ble theories, have declared that nothing less
than a divine origin, plan, and purpose could
account for the wonderful skill and hidden
mystery of the great monuments. As it re-
spects all such theories, the historian can say
no more than that the pyramids are solely,
plainly, and indubitably the sepulchers of the
dead kings of Egypt. That they stand with
their faces to the four cardinal points of the
compass signifies no more than that men in all
ages have by preference built their houses with
the four sides set to the north, south, east,
and west. That the tomb of Khufu stands
on the thirtieth parallel, whether it was so
placed fortuitously or with design, implies no
more at most than that the thirtieth degree
was known to the men who built the pyramid
a thing by no means marvelous.

The principal reigns of Dynasty IV. were
of extraordinary length. According to Man-
etho, Khufu reigned for sixty-three years;
Khafra, for sixty-six years, and Menkera for
sixty-three years. But according to Diodorus
the first is reduced to fifty and the second to
fifty-six years. Even these figures are to be

accepted with some caution, for it is related
in an inscription that Queen Mertitef, who
had been a wife of Snefru, last king of Dy-
nasty III., was a favorite of both Khufu and
Khafra an impossible thing unless her charms
survived for more than a century.

The reigns of the three great kings were
marked by military exploits as well as domestic
progress and architectural grandeur. Khufu
made war in Ethiopia and completed the con-
quests which had been undertaken by Snefru.
On the rocks of the Wadi Maghara, in the pe-
ninsula of Sinai, is a sculptured image of Khufu
lifting on high a war-club over an enemy
kneeling before him. To this king is also
ascribed the authorship of a part of the Fu-
neral Ritual one of the few existing remnants
of Egyptian literature.

To the great monarch, Khafra, is attrib-
uted the building of the enigmatical colossus
called the Sphinx. This great image stands
north of the second pyramid of Ghizeh, which
bears the name of Khafra. The effigy is the
symbolical form of the god Harmachu, mean-
ing Horus the Resplendent, to whom the ad-
jacent temple was dedicated. The figure is
hewn out of the living rock, has the body of
a crouching lion and the head of a man,
capped and bearded, and is one hundred and
ninety feet in length. Between the paws,
which are extended to a distance of fifty feet,
is a monumental stone bearing the name of
Khafra, who is said to have dedicated the
image. The shoulders are thirty-six feet in
breadth, and the head measures from top to
chin twenty-eight feet and six inches. The
drifting sands of centuries have fallen around
the mighty effigy until only the solemn visage,
looking out toward the Nile, and a small part
of the shoulders and back remain above the
level of the desert.

The heavy drain made upon the labor and
the public revenues by the monumental enter-
prises of Khufu and Khafra gave rise to the
tradition, current in the times of Herodotus,
that those kings were the oppressors of the
people and enemies to the worship of the gods.
It appears that the priests gave countenance
to this report, as well as to that which made
Menkera the restorer of the national religion

EGYPT. CIVIL A.\H MILITARY ASXALS.

which had been despised and neglected by his
predecessors. Careful examination of contem-
poraneous sculptures have shown both tradi-
tions to be without foundation in fact.

With the close of the Fourth Dynasty
even before its close a decline is noticeable !
in the political power and architectural grand-
eur which had prevailed under Khufu and
Khafra. The accession of Dynasty V. was
without Mat or splendor. Of the reigns of
the nine kings who are said to have comprised
the line very little is recorded. The
practice of giving a throne name or
title to the sovereign began with
ASSA, next to the last monarch of
this dynasty. To this period also is
referred the composition of one of
the oldest works in Egyptian litera-
ture a treatise on moral duties
written by Prince PTAH-HOTEP, son
of Assa. In the time of the last
king of the line, named UNA, the
form of the royal sepulchers was
changed from the regular to the
truncated pyramid, as illustrated
in the great monument called
"Pharaoh's Seat," 1 north of the
pyramids of Dashur.

The kings of the Sixth Dynasty
belonged to a family from Elephan-
tis* in Upper Egypt. It is probable
that the seat of government was
for a while transferred from Mem-
phis into Middle Egypt. It is cer-
tain that during the period Memphian
influence was less marked in the af-
fairs of the kingdom than it had been
previously. From this epoch begins the his-
tory of the foreign wars of conquest under-
taken by the Egyptian sovereigns. National
ambition began to take the place of religious
solemnity, and the effect of this diversion of
the public mind was immediately noticeable in
the decline of art and the neglect of monu-
mental enterprises. The period is marked by
a less careful style in the sculpture, and less
elaborate designs in the royal sepulchers.

1 In Egyptian Mastabat-Faraoon.
1 Elephantis is a small island in the Nile, opjx>
site Syene.

The growth of the military spirit is attested
by the famous inscription of Una, found in a
tomb at Abydos, wherein it is set forth that
great foreign wars had been undertaken and
conquests made by the armies of the king.
The conquered countries and nations are men-
tioned by name, from which it appears that
the royal forces, levied from all classes of the
population, and composed in part of Negroes
enlisted from the surrounding tribes, had
already carried the Egyptian dominion far

THE UKEAT SPHINX.

into the deserts of Syria and Arabia. Una,
himself, was general of five expeditions
against the Amu and Herusha tribes, probably
a Semitic race of the Sinaitic peninsula. Nu-
bia was also subjugated and a stone pillar set
up at the cataracts of Wadi Haifa commemo-
rative of the conquest.

The chief interest of Dynasty VI. centers
in the. long and glorious reign of PEPI.' He
took the throne at the age of six and held it,
according to the united testimony of Manetho,
Eratosthenes, and the inscriptions, for ninety-

1 In Greek, Phiops; in Eratosthenes, Apappu*

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

five years. It was during this extraordinary
reign that the great conquests already referred
to were made, and the dominion of Egypt ex-
tended to the Red Sea and the cataracts of
the Nile. The inscriptions of Pepi are very
numerous in all parts of the country from
Tanis in Lower Egypt and the Wadi Mag-
hara, where the king is represented on the
rocks as striking down an enemy, to Nubia,
where it is said his dockyards were established.
In Middle Egypt he founded the "City of
Pepi," the site of which is now unknown, and
built for his tomb the second of the two great
pyramids of Dashur.

At the close of Dynasty VI. there is a
great break in the monumental records of
Egypt. Of the next four dynasties no trust-
worthy contemporaneous inscriptions have
been discovered. The lists of Manetho, how-
ever, cover the period, and a few names of
kings succeeding the Sixth and preceding the
Eleventh Dynasty have been deciphered from
a tablet at Abydos and the Chamber of Kings
at El-Karnak. According to Manetho, Dy-
nasties VII. and VIII. belonged to a Memphian
line, and Dynasties IX. and X. to a Heracle-
opolite family. Beyond this, little is known.
Whether the dynasties occupying this gap of

PYRAMID OF DASHUR. Length about 200 feet.

The successor of Pepi was his son MERENRA.
Una was made viceroy of Upper Egypt, and
to him Ethiopia was a tributary province. In
that country, beyond the Tropic of Cancer,
timber yards were established for building
ships. The copper mines of Arabia and of the
peninsula of Sinai were developed, and the
quarries of granite of Elephantis were opened
to furnish stone for the monuments. Of the
reign of NEFERKARA, brother and successor of
Merenra, little is known ; and the same may-
be said of Queen NITOCRIS, kst of the line,
though after times were filled with her fame. 1

'The Story of Cinderella has been traced by
curious antiquaries to a legend by Queen Nitocris.

more than a century and a half (2592-2423
B. C.) were contemporary some reigning in
Upper and others in Middle Egypt remains
an undecided question. It is more than likely
that some of the kings of the House of Her-
acleopolis, belonging to Dynasties IX. and X.,
were local and contemporary with the sover-
eigns of the Memphian line.

The Twelfth Dynasty was introduced with
the reign of AMENEMHA' I., 2380-2371 B. C.
He had been a successful minister of a pre-
ceding king, and began his own career as a
sovereign by imitating the civil and military
policy of Pepi. All Egypt was under his do-

1 In Greek, Amenemes.

EGYPT. CIVIL AND MILITARY ANNALS.

minion, from Tanis to Nubia, from the Red Sea to the wes-
tern desert. Especial attention was given during his reign
to the establishment and maintenance of these enlarged
boundaries, to the irrigation of the country by means of
canals, and to the civil administration of the provincial
governors. Sculpture, architecture, and the building of
monumental tombs were revived and practiced with the old-
time zeal. The figure and fame of Amenemha have been
preserved in a colossal statue of red granite, found at Tanis,
in Lower Egypt.

The successor of Amenemha was USERTESEN' I. Under
this sovereign the kingdom reached a pitch of prosperity never
previously attained since the downfall of the Fourth Dy-
nasty. The vigor and splendor of his administration are
attested alike by tradition and monument. The inscriptions
on the rocks in the Wadi Haifa show something of the ex-
tent and importance of his foreign con-
quests, and the obelisk of Heliopolis,' the
oldest which has been preserved to our

1 In Duucker, Seturtesen. The kings of
this family are known as the Usertesidse.

1 The inscription repeated on the four sides
of the obelisk of Heliopolis may serve to
show, once for all, the style in which these
old magnificent kings were celebrated. The
sculptured legend runs thus: "Horus, the
life of that which is born, the child of the sun,
USEBTESES, who is beloved by the spirits of
Heliopolis, who will live forever, the golden
hawk, the life of that which is born, thia
gracious god has erected this obelisk at the
beginning of the great festival. He has erected
it who assures us of life forever."

IF HKI.luroLIS.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.'

day, bears witness to the grandeur of his works
and reputation.

The policy of this great monarch was still
further advanced by his successor, AMEN-
EMHA II., and USERTESEN II., the details of
whose reigns are not so fully known. But of the
next king, USERTESEN III., the materials are
again abundant. No former sovereign had a
reign so glorious as this, the most illustrious
of the Usertesidse. The boundary of Egypt
on the south was now fixed at Semneh and
Kummeh, beyond the Second Cataract. Here
were built outposts and fortresses, and stone
tablets were erected, defining the established
limits of the kingdom.

But these triumphs of political enterprise
and military prowess were eclipsed by the
great works of engineering belonging to this
reign. The most noted of these were the
great temple called the Labyrinth and the
famous artificial lake of Moe'ris. Both of
these wonders were constructed in the peculiar
urn-shaped valley called the Feiyoom, a few
miles south-west from Memphis. In this place
there is a cleft in the Libyan hills, through
which the valley of the Nile spreads out,
bayou-like, for a considerable distance to the
west. Through this opening in the hills the
engineers of Amenemha cut a broad canal, lead-
ing from the Nile into the valley of Feiyoom,
and there, by excavation and dykes, dis-
charged the waters from the annual inunda-
tion into the artificial lake. A large part of
the valley was inclosed within the strong dams
which held this overflow. The western part
of the Feiyoom was on a lower level, and to
all the region the waters of the lake were
distributed in season, making the whole a
luxuriant garden throughout the year. The
reservoir was abundantly stocked with fish,
furnishing food and amusement to the people.
More marvelous than the waters of Moeris
was the national temple called the Labyrinth,
built near the entrance of the canal into the
lake. Perhaps no structure of antiquity was
more justly celebrated. Herodotus declares,
after personal inspection, that its merits were
greater than its fame, insomuch that not all
the temples of the Greeks put together could
equal, either in cost or splendor, this solitary

wonder of Egypt. The Labyrinth contained
twelve roofed courts, abutting on each other,
with opposite entrances, six to the north and
six to the south. The whole was inclosed
with a vast wall. The temple was half above
ground and half subterranean, each division
containing fifteen hundred apartments. Those
above ground were visited and examined by
Herodotus himself, who seems to have been
struck dumb with wonder at the elaborate
magnificence of the structure. The subterra-
nean chambers were the sepulchers of the
kings and the halls of the sacred crocodiles.
So great and complicated were the winding
ways, the system of colonnades, and the hid-
den entrances, that a traveler without a guide
could not extricate himself from the infinite
complexity of the palaces around him.

In addition to the great monuments which
mark the reigns of the Usertesidse, the domes-
tic life of the times was of a sort to excite equal
admiration. In the tombs of Beni Hassan,
belonging to this epoch, five varieties of plows
are depicted. The farming life is shown in
detail ; sheep and goats treading the seed into
the ground ; wheat gathered into sheaves,
threshed, measured, carried in sacks to the
granary ; flax bundled on the backs of asses ;
figs gathered ; grapes thrown in the press ;
wine carried to the cellar ; the overseer and
the- hands in the fields and gardens ; the bas-
tinado laid on the backs of laggards. The
scene changes to herds and flocks ; fine breeds
of bullocks ; calves, asses, sheep, goats ; cows
milked ; butter made ; cheese handled ; fowls
strutting in the yard ; fine varieties of geese
and ducks. In other sculptures we see the
spinners and weavers at their work ; the pot-
ter manipulating the clay or burning the ware
in the furnace ; the smith manufacturing jave-
lins and lances; the painter with his colors;
the mason with his trowel ; the shoemaker at
his bench ; the glass-blower, with distended
cheeks, plying his art. 1 In another part the
interior of the Egyptian home is shown, fur-
nished according to the wealth and taste of
the occupant ; servants at their work ; J kitchen

1 Duncker's History of Antiquity, Vol. I, p. 118.
1 In these groups Negroes are easily distin-
guished from the natives.

EGYPT. CIVIL AND MILITARY A \.\.\LS..

utensils in use ; domestic apes ; cats and dogs.
Public life is also displayed : soldiers exer-
cising in arms; battles fought; walls battered;
towns carried by storm. Sports have come
in vogue: wrestlers with strained sinews;
jugglers; musicians; dancers, both men and
women ; dwarfs and deformities exhibited ;
fishing parties with hooks and spears and nets;
every phase of life depicted in imperishable
tablets of stone.

After the short reign of Amenemha IV.,
the Twelfth Dynasty ended with Queen SE-
BEKNEFRURA, and was succeeded by Dynasty
XIII., of which no more is known than that
the thirteen kings of this line occupied the
throne for an aggregate period of but fifty
years, and that the kingdom declined rapidly
from the grandeur which it had attained un-
der the Usertesidte. The short reigns of the
sovereigns of this house indicate an epoch of
social disturbance and civil commotion. An-
other break occurs at this time in the monu-
mental records, and it is probable that the
first shocks of impending disasters had already
disturbed and alarmed the country. For the
first time the seat of government was trans-
ferred to the Delta and fixed at the city of
Xo'is, from which circumstance the kings of
the Fourteenth Dynasty are called Xoites.
This house succeeded in maintaining itself,
though Imrdly beyond the limits of the cap-
ital, during the whole of the stormy and law-
less period of invasion which was soon to
follow.

From causes not well understood Egypt
was now no longer warlike and aggressive.
On the contrary, the condition of the country
was such as to invite assault. The armies of
Khufu and of Amenemha III. had gone to
dust. The national spirit and resources had
withered to such an extent as to promise suc-
cess to barbariau invaders, and the invaders
quickly came.

Out of Syria and desert Arabia a swarm of
men, belonging to tribes of no historic reputa-
tion, gathered on the eastern frontier and then
burst into the kingdom. They overran Mid-
dle Egypt and captured Memphis. They
sacked the towns, pillaged the villages, and
broke the statues. They made prisoners of

princes, put men to the sword, and sold
women and children into slavery. The leader
of the horde, named SALATIS, took up his
abode at Memphis as king of the country.
Lower and Upper Egypt were both made
tributary to the barbarian. He planted
garrisons in various parts of the country,
and along the eastern border built fortresses
against Assyria. Eastward from Bubastis he
founded the new city of Avaris, 1 fortified it
with a strong wall, and placed therein the
bulk of his army, numbering 240,000 men.
Such was the founding of the new line of
sovereigns known as the HYKSOS," or Shep-
herd Kings of Egypt.

After Salatis came in succession five of
these barbarian sovereigns,* whose joint reigns
covered a period of two hundred and forty
years. Between them and the native Egyptian
princes who, now. in the Delta and now in
Upper Egypt, raised the standard of revolt
there was almost constant war. But the in-
surrections were unsuccessful ; the Hyksos
triumphed more and more, and the whole
country falling under their sway sank into a
state of semi-barbarism. The period of this
dominion lasted, according to Manetho, for
five hundred and eleven years, during which
the fame of Egypt was virtually extinguished.
Only a few monumental records of the time
have survived the cataclysm ; but the sketches
of Manetho, Josephus, and the Turin Papyrus
bear witness to the deplorable condition of
the land while the invaders comprising Dy-
nasties XV. and XVI. remained in power.

Finally a rebellion broke out in the district
of Thebes. The insurrectionists, led by native
captains, won a decisive victory over the
Shepherds, compelling them to draw in their
outposts and concentrate their forces at Ava-
ris. This place was besieged by TUTHMOSIS, a
Theban king ; and when neither besieged nor
besiegers were successful a compact was en-
tered into in accordance with which the Hyk-

1 At or near the site of the modern Pelusium.

'The word is from hyt, meaning, in the sacred
language, a king ; and 101, in the vulgar dialect,
signifying a shepherd.

Names of Hyksos after Salatis: Beon, Apach-
mas, Apophis, Annas, Assis.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

los were to take their flocks and herds ami
kave the country forever. So the fierce in-
yaders who had held Egypt in terror withdrew
into the deserts of Syria.

After the overthrow of the Hyksos, the
Theban House became dominant iu all Egypt.
This, the Eighteenth Dynasty, began with the
ccession of AAHMES,' about 1591 B. C. Up-
per, and Lower Egypt were again consolidated

troductiou of the horse into Egypt and of the
war chariot. It is the age in which the rela-
tive places of the priestly and the military
caste in Egyptian society are reversed, and
the soldier made preeminent. In sculpture
and monumental elaboration there was a re-
naissance of the art of Dynasties XL and XII.
The famous temple-palace of Amun-Ra at
Thebes was built, and obelisks were erected
here and there, commemorative of the great
deeds of the age.

Aahraes was succeeded by his son AMENO-
PHIS' I., and he by his son TUTHMOSIS I., dur-

SPHINXES OF AMMUN-RA.-THEBES.

under one crown. Aahmes secured the influ-
ence and favor of Ethiopia by marrying the
king's daughter, the princess Nefru-ari, fa-
mous for her dusky charms, her wealth, and
her accomplishments. Egyptian supremacy
over the surrounding nations was again ac-
knowledged or forced by the sword. The de-
cayed and ruined temples were restored to
their old-time richness and splendor. The
military spirit, stirred into activity by the
struggle for independence, burned for the ex-
citements of war. It is the epoch of the iu-
1 Frequently written Amosii.

ing whose reign the first great campaigns were
undertaken against Assyria and the East.
Phoenicia and Syria were subdued, and the
arms of Egypt borne to the banks of the Eu-
phrates. Late in his reign, Tuthmosis asso-
ciated with himself on the throne his daughter
HATASU, who, after the king's death, reigned
jointly with her elder brother TUTHMOSIS II.
Her rank and influence in the state furnish
another proof of the high estimation in which
women were held by the ancient Egyptians.

'In Egyptian Ammun-Holep; sometimes Ra-
Hotep.

EGYPT. CIVIL AND MILITARY ASXALS.

Hatasu outlived her brother, and then assor
ciated with herself her younger brother TUTH-
MO8I8 III. Him she outranked in the govern-
ment, and public affairs she directed at her
will. By her the temple of Amun-ra was
completed, and her fame is recorded in the
great obelisks at Thebes.

After a happy and prosperous reign of
twenty-one years, Queen Hatasu was suc-
ceeded by Tuthmosis, who obliterated as far as
practicable his sister's name and inscriptions
from the monuments, dating his own reign
from the beginning of hers. The Assyrian
wars were still carried on, and a great battle,
in which the Egyptians were victorious, was
fought at Migiddo. Kadesh, the chief city of
the Kheta tribes, was twice taken by the
Egyptians, and the king marched his armies
as far as Nineveh. The entire reign of fifty-
five years was characterized by military activ-
ity and civil enterprise.

The next king of the dynasty was AMENO
PHIS II. In the beginning of his reign the
Egyptians captured Nineveh. On his return
from one of his eastern campaigns, he is said
to have brought back the bodies of seven
kiiifrs whom he had slain in battle, and whose
heads he put up as trophies on the walls^of
Thebes. After a short reign he was succeeded
by his son TUTHMOSIS IV., who, according to
Manetho, held the throne for nine years, and
was in turn succeeded by his son AMEN-
OPHIS III. He, like Aahmes, married a for-
eign princess, Queen Tai, perhaps out of Ara-
bia. He began his reign by abandoning
warlike enterprises, and devoted himself and
his empire to works of peace. Architecture
again flourished. New temples were built at
Thebes, and two great statues, both of him-
self, with his mother and the queen in relief
as the front of the die, were erected in the ad-
joining plain.

These two huge effigies in granite, stand-
ing in front of what was once the sanctuary
of Osiris, have survived the wreck of centu-
ries, and still rise above the flat in solemn
state by the edge of a forest of palms. The
northern colossus is the most famous, being
the statue which was known to the Greeks by

the name of the Vocal Memnon. According
N. Vol. 14

to the Greek tradition, based on the narrative
of travelers who had visited the spot, the fig-
ure was said to give forth at sunrise a musical
strain resembling the twanging of harp-strings.
From the base of the pedestal to the crown it
is fifty-nine feet in height. The ruined palace
of Luxor likewise bears witness to the grand-
eur of the reign of Amenophis. This gorgeous
temple was connected with a similar palace at

QUEEN TAI.

El-Karnak by an avenue guarded by a thou-
sand sphinxes, and at Thebes a colonnade in the
same style was lined with colossi of the god-
dess Pasht. In the inscriptions of his timea
this monarch is known by the distinguished
title of Pacificator of Egypt.

Xfxt in the succession was AMENOPHIS IV.,
son of the preceding king. He seems to have
inherited from his foreign mother a taint of
heresy, together with a person of extravagant

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

AHEXOPHIS HI. KA-HOTEP.

ugliness. Both he and his family are figured
in the monuments with bodies unnaturally
attenuated and features of abnormal repulsive-
ness. He began his reign by introducing the
adoration of the sun with a ceremonial un-
known to the national worship. Hymns were
chanted by an orchestra of harpers, and the
altars and aisles of the temples were strewed
with flowers in a manner utterly at variance
with the long established forms, and
suggestive of the religion of the Vedas.
The king changed his name to Khun-
aten,' and abandoning Thebes trans-
ferred his capital to Middle Egypt.
Leaving seven daughters and no son he
transmitted his crown to a dynasty of
sons-in-law, who were presently
overthrown in a reactionary
movement headed by Harem-
heb, a descendant of Ameno-
phis III. By this king the he-
retical work of the fourth
Amenophis was obliterated as

1 Alen, being the name of the
aolar disc.

far as possible, and the dynasty ended with his
reign in B. C. 1443.

Dynasty XIX. was founded by the great
HOUSE OF RAMSES. The first sovereign of this
name was perhaps related by descent with the
Shepherd Kings, whose warlike qualities he
seems to have inherited. He began his career
by conducting some successful campaigns in
Ethiopia, and Syria. He concluded a treaty
with the nation of Hittites, and after a short
reign died, leaving the crown to his son Seti 1 1.

This monarch took care to strengthen his
claim to the throne by marrying the Princess
Tai, granddaughter to Amenophis III., thus
uniting his rights with those of the preceding
dynasty. The offspring of this marriage was
Ramses II, who on arriving at years was asso-
ciated with his
father in the
government.

After an inter-
val Seti abdicated
favor of his

son, not, however,
until he had sig-

STATUE OF AMKNOPHIS IV.

EGYl'T.

AND MILITARY

nali/cd his reign with some of the tincst archi-
tectural works of Egypt. Chief ainoug these
may be mentioned the great Hull of Columns
at El-Karuak, containing in a series of mag-
nificent sculptures the story of Seti's cam-
paigns and victories.

Ramses 1 II. (1388-1322 B. C.) was the most
illustrious of all the kings of Egypt. He is
Mil-named the Great. Already at ten years
of age he took part in his father's wars. After
the death of that sovereign the young prince,
fired with military ambition, began to meditate
the conquest of the world. According to He-
rodotus, Diodorus, and Manetho though the
narratives are by no
means consistent
throughout Ramses
first brought into sub-
jection what neigh-
boring nations soever
had shown signs of
rebellion against the
domination of Egypt.
Then dividing the
country into thirty-
six Nomes, and ap-
pointing his brother
Arma'is to the regency
in his absence, he col-
lected a vast army of
six hundred thousand
foot soldiers, twenty-
four thousand horse,
and twenty-seven
thousand \var chariots,

and set out on his campaign for the conquest
of the nations.

Over the grand divisions of his army King
Ramses placed in command certain military
comrades who had been educated under his
father's direction in the same discipline with
himself. First of all, he directed his forces
into Ethiopia, and subduing the country im-
posed a tribute of ivory, ebony, and gold.
On the Red Sea he built a fleet of four hun-
dred ships the first war vessels ever con-
structed by the Egyptian* and subdued In-
land and water the islands and sea coasts as
far as India. The whole of Asia to the Ganges

1 In Greek, Sesostris, Sesosit, or Sethotis.

and beyond yielded to his arms, whereupon,
turning to the north, he conquered Scythia as
far as the river Tana'is, dividing Asia from
Europe.

Thence passing into Thrace the king con-
tinued his career until the severity of the
climate and scarcity of food brought him to a
pause. Everywhere in his triumphant course
he set up pillars bearing the inscription : "This
land Sesostris, king of kings and lord of lords,
conquered with his arms." After nine years
the victorious monarch returned laden with the
untold spoils of war and captives taken from
many nations.

SETI I. BURNING AN OFFERING OF INCENSE.

Such is the rather florid account left by
Herodotus and Diodorus of the foreign cam-
paigns of Ramses II. Modern research has
shown, by deciphering the inscriptions on the
rocks of Beyrout, in the ruins of Tauis, in
the Ramesseum at Karnak, and in a temple
built by Ramses in Nubia, that the praises of
the great monarch's wars have been sounded
in too high a key, and that his real exploits
were less prodigious than they are painted in
the pages of the Greek historians. It appears
that his chief campaign! were into Ethiopia,
Syria, and Arabia. No doubt his conquests
were carried as far as Mesopotamia, and per-
haps the larger part of Western Asia owned

UNIVERSAL Hl^TOhY.-THE ANCIENT WORLD.

his sway ; but the written traditions of the
great kiug are contradictory in many parts,
and in not a few are evidently the result of
fulsome eulogy. The building by Ramses of

a great wall from Pelusium to Heliopolis, in
order to protect his eastern frontier against
the onsets of the Syrians and Arabs, can
hardly be regarded as the work of a con-

HALL OF COLUMNS AT EL-KARNAK.

EGYPT. CIVIL AN1> MILITARY AXXALX.

queror ; and the cutting of a
system of canals from Mem-
phis downward to the sea was
in all probability an enter-
prise intended to impede the
movements of an invading
enemy. None the less, the
monuments of the Second
Ita rases, even when inter-
preted with a liberal allow-
ance for exaggeration, prove
conclusively the greatness of
the king and the glory of the
age which produced them.

By this monarch was com-
pleted the celebrated Hall of
Columns, which had been be-
gun by his father at Kar-

TEMPI.E OF CHESNU AT KAK.NAK, BUILT BY RAMSES III.

nak, as well as the temple of Amenophis III.
at Luxor. Before this magnificent edifice
were placed two sitting colossi of himself and
two obelisks of red granite, one of which still
stands with its everlasting legend as sharply

cut as in the day of its creation, and the other
in like splendor displays its quaint hieroglyph-
ics in the Place de la Concorde, at Paris.

Almost everywhere in Lower Egypt, Up-
per Egypt, and far beyond the monuments

THE TEMI'l.E UK ABYDOB

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

remind us of the exploits and glory of the
great king. High up in Nubia, at Abu Sim-
bul, in a valley with perpendicular walls of
yellow sandstone, two temples, the one dedi-
cated to Ra by Ramses and the other to
Hathor by his queen, are cut in the native
rock. Before the temple of Ramses are four
gigantic colossi of himself. The statues are
seated on thrones, and are over seventy feet
in height. The shoulders are twenty-five feet
in breadth, and from the elbow to the finger-tip
the measure is fifteen feet. In calm serenity

RAMSES THE GREAT.

of expression, truthfulness of proportion, and
austere dignity of posture, these great statues
are hardly surpassed perhaps not equaled
in the whole range of ancient art. On the
walls of the great temple at Abydos, in a
long procession of deified kings, Ramses, as a
god, stands glorious; and before the altar, as
a mortal, he offers sacrifices to his ancestors
and to himself.

Under the munificent patronage of the
House of Ramses, the city of Thebes, now the
capital of the empire, eclipsed the old-time
glory of Memphis. Here the marvelous works
of Tuthmosis, of Amenophis, of Seti, of

Ramses II. and III., rising in massive forms
on both sides of the Nile, towered in majestic
outline around a horizon of more than fifteen
miles. Structures of so much solid grandeur
have nowhere else, perhaps, been reared by
the genius of man.

Ramses the Great was succeeded in 1322
B. C. by MENEPTA, who reigned for twenty
years. This king has now been generally ac-
cepted by historians as the Pharaoh of the
exodus of Israel. The story of this remark-
able race begins with the call of Abraham
from his home in Ur, near the Euphrates, to
his promised abode in Canaan. Here his de-
scendants multiplied to the fifth generation,
when Jacob, the grandson of Abraham, with
his children and grandchildren to the number
of about seventy, 1 " went down into Egypt."
For a famine had arisen in Canaan, and Jacob
dispatched his sons to the Egyptian granaries
to purchase supplies. Joseph, one of the sons
of Jacob, had previously been sold by his
brothers into bondage, and had come to fill an
important position in the government of
Egypt; and thus it happened that the wicked
clansmen were brought face to face with the
injured brother, who, instead of punishing,
forgave them, and sent for the aged father and
his house.

The family of Jacob was thus established
(B. C. about 1550) 2 in Lower Egypt, east of

'It seems a matter of surprise that an event
of so much importance (viewed from the Hebraic
side of history) as the Exodus should have been
so difficult to recognize and fix chronologically in
the Egyptian annals. The difficulty in question
has mostly arisen from the erroneous'date of 1491
B. C., given by the Hebrews as the time of their
departure. This date would throw the Exodus
back to the time of the Shepherd Kings a view
of the case no longer entertained.

2 The date of the going down of Jacob has been
sharply contested. The event could not have oc-
curred before the time of the Hyksos (2001-1591 B.
C.), for in that case the Hebrews would have been
expelled along with the Shepherds. It could not
have occurred during the dominion of the Hyksos,
for the position of Joseph in Pharaoh's service,
the manner of administration, and the type of
Egyptian life described in Genesis preclude such
a supposition. It must have occurred after the ex-
pulsion of the Shepherd Kings that is, subse-
quent to the year 1591 B. C. The Author has,
therefore, taken the middle of the sixteenth cen-

.!:>, Try. CIVIL AND MILITARY ANNALS.

the Delta and on the borders of Syria. Here
they grew and multiplied in "the land of
(io-heu," or Ramses, as it was called by the
Egyptians. The period of the stay of the
Hebrews in the land of their sojourn was
about two hundred and forty years. For a
time the growing tribe was held in honor by
the government and people; but under Seti
I. and Ramses II. the ruling class began to
look askance at the strangers, and then to op-
press them. They were set to work at build-

and were beaten by task-masters until they
broke out in insurrection.

In the course of time, denial of religious
privileges complicated and intensified the re-
bellion. Moses appeared as a leader of his
people, and demanded, in a personal interview
with the king at Tauis, th privilege of con-
ducting them a three days' march into the
desert to sacrifice to Jehovah. But Menepta
replied by charging the Hebrews with a pur-
pose to escape their tasks under a pretense of

RUINS OF

ing and digging. The treasure-cities of Pi-
thom and Ramses were enlarged by their
labor. Perhaps the great canal projected
by Seti from the Nile at Bubastis to the
Arabian Gulf was carried as far as the Lake
of Crocodiles by the toil of the Hebrews.
They were sent to sweat in the brickyards.

tury as the best approximation to the date of Is-
rael's colonization in Egypt. He is not unaware
that this construction seems to allow too short a
[M-riiKl for the development of the great race of the
Exodus.

THEBES.

piety. Whereupon Moses, by signs and won-
ders done in the king's house and kingdom,
humbled the monarch and compelled him "to
let the people go."

After some delays the Israelites departed
along the bank of the canal, touching the
principal Hebrew towns, and gathering their
population as they went. The route then lay
through the Wadi Tumilot, reaching the
Gulf of Suez a few miles south of the present
city of that name. Here the fugitives were
hemmed in by the forces of Menepta, which

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

had been sent after the retreating host. At
this point in the gulf there is a shallow,
stretching from shore to shore, almost fordable
at low tide. By "a strong east wind," the
waters of the sinus were, on the night of Is-
rael's encampment there, driven back to the
head of the gulf, leaving bare the sandy bot-
tom. Over this the hosts of the Hebrews,
numbering, it is said, six hundred and three
thousand men of the soldier age, or more than
two million in all, crossed to the other side in
safety, which the Egyptians in pursuit essay-
ing to do were drowned. For, the waters re-

turning to their place, the Pharaoh's horsemen
and chariots, with wheels clogged in the mire,
were panic-stricken and overwhelmed.

The story of the Exodus is told by Man-
etho, and quoted by Josephus, in terms quite
different from the Biblical narrative, though
in the main corroborative of the event. Man-
etho's account is to this effect: That after the
accession of King Amenophis (Menepta) he
was seized with a desire to see the gods. To
this end he took counsel of a certain priest
also named Amenophis, who advised the
king that if he would see the gods he must

clear the land of Egypt of the leprous and
unclean.

The Pharaoh accordingly collected all the
diseased to the number of eighty thousand and
threw them into the stone quarries east of the
Nile. Among the victims of this peculiar
quarantine were certain priests and learned
men, which fact coming to the knowledge of
the son of Papius alarmed him lest he should
be visited with the anger of the gods for hav-
ing conspired to drive holy men into shame
and servitude. Albeit he saw in a vision that
others would come to the help of the lepers
and would hold dominion over Egypt for
thirteen years. This he wrote on a roll of
papyrus, and then committed suicide.

Pharaoh now became alarmed and liberated
the lepers from the quarries. He gave them
Avaris, which had been left in ruins since the
expulsion of the Hyksos. Repairing the city,
the lepers chose one Osarsiph, a priest of
Heliopolis, as their leader. He gave them
laws, enacting among other things that his
people might kill and eat the gods, that is,
the sacred animals of Egypt. He then bade
them fortify Avaris, and at the same time
send an embassy to Jerusalem to inform the
expelled Hyksos of the situation of affairs, to
invite them to an invasion of the country,
and to promise them the keys of Avaris on
their coming. The Shepherds eagerly accepted
the invitation, and came down with an army
of two hundred thousand to reconquer the
kingdom of their forefathers. Hearing of the
invasion the superstitious Amenophis, after
gathering a force of three hundred thousand
soldiers, forebore to fight, choosing instead to
retire into Ethiopia until the thirteen prophetic
years of leper domination should pass.

So Egypt was given up to the unclean.
The latter held high carnival in the sacred
places of the Egyptians until in process of
time Menepta came back with a combined
army of Egyptian soldiers and Ethiopian mer-
cenaries, and drove the leprous hordes and
their allies in a common rout out of the land.
And meanwhile the name of Osarsiph, leader
of the lepers, had been changed to Moyses.

The next Pharaoh after Menepta was SETI
H., who was succeeded by MENEPTA II. Then,

EGYFT.-CIVIL AM> MILITARY AXNALS.

in 1269 B. C., came the accession of RAMSES
III., who, in a reign of thirty-two years,
brought hack the empire to something of the
glory which it had under the elder kings of
the dynasty. Naval battles are pictured
among the inscriptions of this reign. The
Hittites and the Amorites are mentioned
among those whom Ramses III. conquered in

Pharaoh, descendant of Ramses the Great.
But the kingdom was again entering a decline.
The day of warlike exploits was past. The
inscriptions no longer tell the story of grand
deeds and heroic enterprises. Art except the
art of copying expires, and architecture lan-
guishes. Of King Ramses XII. a quaint legend
is recited, how, having married the daughter of

EXODUS OF ISRAEL.

war. The Nubians, the Negroes, and the
Libyans each in turn felt the terror of his
arias. Ten successful campaigns attested his
prowess and ambition.

From 1222 to 1091 B. C. the throne of
Egypt was occupied by eleven kings, all by
the name of Ramses. This period covers the
remainder of the Nineteenth and all of the
Twentieth Dynasty. The latter began with
the accession of SETNEKHT, a certain obscure

the king of Bachtan, and her sister being sick
unto death, the father besought Ramses to
send him some priest or god of Egypt who
should be able to save the life of his child.
Whereupon the Pharaoh dispatched up the
river in a fleet of boats an image of the moon-
god Chunsu, before whom the evil spirit that
possessed the maiden was banished and sent
to his own place. So great was the covetous
ecstasy of the king of Bachtau that for three

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

years and more he would not permit the effigy
of the moon-god to be returned to the sender.
Finally, he himself was seized with an illness,
and thereupon, being in alarm, he hastened to
send back Chunsu to kis place in the temple
at Karnak.

This epoch in Egyptian history is marked
for the presence of foreign influences in
the civil affairs of the kingdom. The Phara-
ohs now generally chose in marriage prin-
cesses from distant courts. Foreign settle-
ments became common in Egypt. A Semite
colony was established at Bubastis. The
presence of Semitic names Assyrian, Babylo-
nian, Phoenician gave token of constant in-
tercommunication between the Egyptians and
the nations of the East. Several kings of
Dynasty XXII., reigning at Bubastis, bore
names indicative of foreign descent. Of this
sort was SHESHANK I. , Vhe Shishak of the Bib-
lical narrative, who founded the Twenty-sec-
ond Dynasty.

Meanwhile the influence and power of
the religious order had increased as the national
spirit expired, insomuch that Dynasty XXI.,
reigning at Tanis in Lower Egypt, was a dy-
nasty of priests. They appeared in public
clad in the sacerdotal robes worn by the min-
isters of Amun-Ra. It was PSIUEN-SAN, one
of this priestly line, who gave his daughter in
marriage to Solomon. But the dynasty was
distinguished by no important enterprise.

The daughter of the last king of this House
was married to OSORKON, son of Sheshank.
The latter became a partisan in the struggles
between Judah and Israel. To him fled Jero-
boam, escaping from the wrath of Solomon.
Later in his reign, after the revolt of~the Ten
Tribes, he made war on Rehoboam, and de-
spoiled his temple and palace. In one of the
inscriptions at El-Karnak is given a list of a
hundred and thirty towns and districts which
were taken by Sheshank on his expedition
through Syria. After his return an important
modification was made in the constitution of
the empire, by which the office of high-priest
of Amun-Ra was made hereditary in the
king's family.

The process of disintegration was now
everywhere apparent. The employment of

Libyan mercenaries in the army in prefer-
ence to the native soldiery increased the ten-
dency to decay. A number of semi-inde-
pendent principalities arose in different parts
of Egypt. No Pharaoh seemed able to main-
tain the unity of the nation. A lethargy,
like that which preceded the invasion of the
Hyksos, paralyzed both king and people.

The Twenty-third Dynasty, with capital at
Tanis, held the throne of Lower Egypt for a
brief and inglorious period. At length TAF-
NEKHT, prince of Sa'is, leading Pharaoh of
Dynasty XXIV., rallied his powers and re-
vived, in some measure, the waning energies
of the empire. But the princes ruling in
some of the Egyptian provinces, in alliance
with the priest-king of Napata, called in the
aid of the Ethiopians, who were already in
the ascendant in Upper Egypt as far north aa
Thebes, overthrew Tafnekht, and established
Dynasty XXV., called the Ethiopian. The
capital was nominally at Thebes. PIANKHI,
the priest-king under whose leadership the
revolution had been accomplished, himself a
descendant of the Theban house, was estab-
lished on the throne. But Egypt was really
ruled from Ethiopia; and in the next reign
the logic of events was recognized by giv-
ing the seat of the Pharaohs to KASHTA, a
native Ethiopian, who had married a princess
of Thebes.

Meanwhile, the claims of the Sa'ite House
were maintained by BOKENRANF, son of Taf-
nekht, who seized the occasion of the Ethi-
opian usurpation to raise a revolt in Lower
Egypt. But the insurrection was only tem-
porarily successfnl. For a short time he held
the throne, but the Ethiopian powers were
rallied by SHABAK and led against Lower
Egypt in a victorious campaign. Sa'is, the
capital of Bokenranf, was besieged and taken,
and himself burned to death.

In the troublous times that followed the
Ethiopian conquest, the country was broken
up into petty principalities, ruled for the
most part by native governors, who were
virtually vassals of Ethiopia. At one time
Queen AMENIRITIS, sister of Shabak, reigned
at Thebes ; but the power of the local princea
was limited, and only for a season. Later in

EGYPT. CIVIL AND MILITARY ANNALS.

his reign Shabak, instigated by Hoshea, king
of Israel, was drawn into a confederacy of
the princes of Syria and promised his aid in
a campaign against Sargon, king of Assyria.
But the latter, more rapid in his movements
than his enemies, bore down upon the con-
federates, struck Shabak's army at Kaphia,
only a short distance from the eastern borders
of Egypt, and inflicted on him a disastrous
defeat, 718 B. C. The Ethiopian king fled
into his own dominions, retaining only Ethi-
opia and a part of Upper Egypt. In Lower
and Middle Egypt the native princes trans-
ferred their allegiance to Sargon, and thus

ates; but when the Assyrians, one hundred
an' 1 eighty-five thousand strong, had come
into the vicinity of Pelusium they were de-
stroyed by some peculiar visitation or panic
which the Egyptians, in common with the
Jews, regarded as miraculous. 1 (B. C. 698.)
Sennacherib fled to Nineveh and abandoned
his Egyptian wars. In the lull that followed
the Assyrian discomfiture, Tahraka invaded
Egypt, killed Shabatok, and again brought
the whole laud under Ethiopian domination
(B. C. 692).

On the accession of Esarhaddon, son of
Sennacherib, to the throne of Assyria, the

EGYPTIANS IN BATTLE WITH THE ETHIOPIANS.
Drawn by C. F. K lini.-li.

the influence of Assyria was established in
the country.

During the reign of SHABATOK, son and
successor of Shabak, the Ethiopian ascend-
ancy was restored for a time throughout
Egypt. But at the same time Shabatok lost
the Ethiopian crown in a struggle with his
rival, TAHRAKA. Soon afterward the native
Egyptian princes made an alliance with Hez-
ekiah, king of Judah, and joined battle with
Sennacherib, the successor of Sargon. The
allied army was defeated in Southern Pales-
tine and the princes, one by one, made their
submission. Soon, however, they were again
in arms, instigated and supported by Tahraka,
of Ethiopia. A second time the army of
Sennacherib advanced against the confeder-

struggle began anew for the mastery of
Egypt. In the year 672 an Assyrian army
invaded the country, captured Memphis and
Thebes, and drove Tahraka into his own do-
minions. Egypt was divided into twenty
provinces under as many princes, the leader
of whom was NEKU, of Sais. In a few years,
however, Tahraka returned, drove out the As-
syrian garrisons, and reestablished his author-
ity. But he, in turn, was speedily put down
by Ashur-bani-pal, the successor of Esarhad-
don. Several revolts were suppressed, and
after a time the native princes of Egypt
were won over to the Assyrian interest. Left
with some measure of local independence,
they accepted the yoke of Assyria, which,
1 See Second Kings xix, 35-36.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

on the whole, was less galling than that of
Ethiopia.

The dominion of Assyria was already
waning in the East. On the North the fero-
cious Scythians were breaking through the
borders of the empire. The Assyrian forces
were called home to ward off the threatened
danger. Egypt, for the time being, was re-
lieved from the menace of foreign arms.
Quick to seize the opportunity, PSAMETIK,
prince of Sais, raised a revolt, quelled the
native rulers who opposed him, drew to his
banner an army of Egyptians, Tyrians, and
Greek mercenaries, set up the standard of
nationality, and in a short time established
Dynasty XXVI. (B. C. 685).

Under his vigorous rule and that of his
successors the spirit of the Egyptians rap-
idly revived. But the new culture which
sprang up after the revolution was no longer
distinctly Egyptian. War, colonization, and
commercial intercourse had filled the cities,
especially the seaport towns of Egypt, with a
new class of citizens : foreigners, Ethiopians,
lonians, Carians, Phoenicians, Jews. The new
art was no longer the classical art of Old
Egypt. The Egypt of the Pharaohs was dead.
The language was infected. The outlandish
jargon of dragomans was already heard among
the ruins of the ancient civilization. None
the less, the age of Psametik I. was a genu-
ine renaissance, imitating the styles of Dy-
nasties IV. and V., and adding something to
the monumental glory of the past.

Even for warlike enterprises the reign of
Psametik is distinguished. Lower Nubia was
recovered in a struggle with Ethiopia. In an
expedition across the eastern border the power
of the Philistines was broken. Nor is it cer-
tain to what extent the dominion of the king
might have been extended had not a mutiny
in his army destroyed his prospects. The
native soldiery became jealous of the Ionian
and Carian mercenaries, on whose influence
the king especially relied, and broke out in a
successful revolt. All efforts to reconcile the
mutineers proved unavailing, and Psametik
was obliged to witness their departure into
Ethiopia, where they took service and received
lands from the king. The opportunity which

thus for a time seemed within the grasp of
Egypt to become again influential in the af-
fairs of the East faded suddenly away.

In" the year 611 B. C., NEKU II., son of
Psametik, succeeded to the throne of the
country. The first years of his reign were
occupied with the decayed project of con-
structing a canal from the Red Sea into the
Nile. Commerce was patronized. A navy
was built, manned by Phoenician sailors, and
sent by way of the Red Sea to explore the
coasts of Africa. In the first summer of their
voyage, and again in the second, the seamen
landed, pitched a camp, sowed grain, and
gathered a harvest. In the third season they
returned to Egypt by way of the Mediterra-
nean, having accomplished what, after twenty-
one centuries, Vasco da Gama, sailing in the
opposite course, did with so great toil and
peril -the circumnavigation of Africa.

But the monarch in whose reign the famous
voyage was made was less fortunate in his
schemes of war. Covetous of the prize of-
fered in the East by the decay of Nineveh, he
organized an army, marched to Megiddo, joined
battle there with Josiah, king of Judah, whom
he slew, and then advanced to Carchemish, on
the Euphrates. The epoch was in the ebb
between the collapse of Assyria and the rise of
Babylon. After three years, however, Nabo-
polassar, the Babylonian monarch, sent out a
powerful army, commanded by his son, Neb-
uchadnezzar, to drive the Egyptians from the
land. The decisive battle was fought in 605
B. C., on the field of Carchemish. The
army of Neku was utterly defeated, and
the power of Egypt in the East forever extin-
guished.

PSAMETIK II. came to the throne in the year
595. His short reign was distinguished by no
event except a fitful e_ .edition undertaken
against the king of Ethiopia. His son and
successor, UAHABRA, 1 inherited the crown in
the year 590, and attempted to carry forward
the ambitious designs of his grandfather.
Under his influence a confederation, embrac-
ing Egypt, Palestine, and Phoenicia, was
formed against Nebuchadnezzar, and the fleet
of the latter, manned by Tyrian mercenaries,

1 In Greek, Apriei ; in Hebrew, Hophra.

EGYPT. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

was defeated by the fleet of Uakabra. But
the laud forces of the Babylonian, advancing
into Palestine, besieged and captured Jerusa-
lem, sacked the city, pillaged the temple, and
broke the confederacy to pieces.

A still greater calamity soon overtook
Uahabra and ruined his house. Undertaking
an ill-advised war against the Greek colonies
of Gyrene, his army was defeated; and the
native soldiers thereujxm charged their defeat
to a concealed purpose of the king to de-
stroy them and to put Hellenic mercenaries
in their place. A violent revolt followed,
headed by AAHMES, who was chosen king
by the insurgents; and in 571, the forces of
Uahabra were routed in battle and himself
dethroned.

It is probable that this sudden and compara-
tively bloodless revolution was conducted by
Aahmes under the instigation and direction
of Nebuchadnezzar, and that the crown of
Egypt was held by Aahmes as a tributary of
the Babylonian king. Nevertheless, the Egyp-
tian prince at once proceeded to legitimate
his line by taking in marriage the heiress of
the Saite dynasty, Queen Shapertap, grand-
daughter of Psametik I. He endeavored to
arouse the national spirit by cleansing and re-
storing the temples, encouraging art, and
patronizing learning. The Greek influence,
however, was clearly in the ascendant, and
triumphed more and more. Naucratis became
a Greek town with Greek privileges, and the

guards of Memphis were for the most part
Ionian and Carian mercenaries.

This encouragement of Hellenic influences
was a part of the foreign policy of the king.
For he saw with ever-increasing alarm the rising
power of Persia, and recognized the instant
necessity of preparing for the inevitable onset.
This he did with commendable energy. With
all of the Greek states he established relations
of amity. Croesus, king of Lydia, and Poly-
crates, prince of Samos, he joined in an al-
liance against the Persian. But before the
storm broke out of the East upon the West,
Aahmes died and bequeathed the crown to
PSAMETIK ' III., his son.

Cambyses, king of Persia, was already on
the march against the Western confederates.
The Egyptian army was drawn out to Pelu-
sium to stay the coming invasion. Here
Psametik, who may be styled the last of the
Pharaohs, was met by Cambyses, defeated in
battle, and driven back to Memphis. In this,
the ancient capital of his country, the Egyp-
tian concentrated his forces, and was besieged
by the victorious Persians. The city was
taken, after a brief investment, in the year
525 B. C. The king was captured and led to
i death. The triumphant soldiery of Cambyses
marched over the prostrate gods of Egypt, and
the New Empire, which through centuries of
glorious achievement had been the pride of
the world, was extinguished. The land of th
Pharaohs became a Persian province.

CHAPTER IV. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

NLY a few Egyptian books
have survived the wreck
of ages. And the few
that do exist are treatises
on Death rather than
pictures of Life. The
funeral procession, the
sepuleher, the ordeal of the soul, the judg-
ment of the gods these are the choice themes
of the literature of Egypt. Whereas other
civilized nations have given us in their liter-

ary works a transcript, more or leas complete,
of the daily life of the people, the Egyptians
have left us little more than the ceremonial
of the tomb.

But in a graphic pictorial delineation of
Manners and Customs the Egyptians sur-
passed all other races, whether ancient or mod-
ern. On monument and temple-wall, on pol-
ished tablet and face of the native cliff, on
granite ol>elisk and red-stone sarcophagus

'In Herodotus, Ptammrnitu*.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

everywhere were pictured the quaint details
of common life. From the stony pages of
these imperishable records the hopes and fears,
the toils and sorrows, the purposes and aims
of the people of the villages and fields of
Egypt can be gathered as from the open book
of yesterday.

In the society of ancient Egypt the king
was first and greatest. Above the common
throng he was immeasurably lifted up. He
was the one source of political life to the
nation. From him flowed all the civil and
official rights of the people. He only was
not bound by authority. He was not subject,
neither indeed could be. The double crown
which he wore was no meaningless symbol. 1

In Egypt every circumstance of the eiivi-

EGYPTIANS PLOWING.

From a Bas-relief of the Oldest Dynasty, Memphis.

ronment conspired to augment the influence
of the KING. The monarchy, once established,
rapidly developed into a despotism. Herodo-
tus declares that the Egyptians could not have
lived without a king. He was alike the prin-
ciple of social coherence and the fountain of
political power. Before his feet commander
and nobleman, magistrate and priest bowed in
abject attitude. The custom of universal
kneeling in the presence of the sovereigns of
the East acquired in Egypt a peculiar signifi-
cance. In other courts it was an act of rev-

'The high miter or royal cap of the king (see
the picture of Ramses the Great, page 64) was the
crown of Lower Egypt ; the low miter, of Upper
Egypt. After the consolidation of the monarchy
the two crowns were combined in a peculiar
fashion so as to preserve the outlines of both.

erence, respect, humility; in Egypt it was an
act of worship.

The Egyptian king was a god. He was
defined and invoked by all the divine appella-
tions and epithets. He was not merely like
the gods, but was one of them. He was not
the minister of the sun, but the sun himself,
dispensing life and light. He was the mighty
Horus; the good god; the master. On all
the monuments and temples in perpetual
rhythm of repetition the attributes divine are
carved with infinite pleonasm. Everywhere
the king is the outpourer of life, the mighty
god, son of Ptah, beloved of Amun, offspring
of Ra, child of the sun, the eternal. The
young Ramses draws the milk of life from the
breast of Isis, and the goddess Anuke nurses

the boy-king Horus
into strength, and
beauty.

To the Egyp-
tians all this was
very real. They be-
lieved profoundly
in the godhead of
their sovereign,
and because they
believed, worship-
ed. Before his
death he was en-
rolled with the
spirits of his an-
cestors; priests were appointed to his service;
and he himself bowed in worship before his
own effigy. Between him and the higher
powers no human agency could interpose; for
who could mediate between the gods and one
of their own number? The priesthood was only
common clay before the glory of Pharaoh.

In the discipline and duties of his official
life the king of Egypt was quite another
creature. In the great work of ruling his
people he was the slave of traditional cere-
mony. Every part of his daily life was guarded
by form each moment apportioned to its
place in the royal programme.

How each day the king must live and act
is curiously related by Diodorus. The royal
ritual is complete. In the morning, first of
all, the monarch read the communications and

EGYPT. MAXXEKS AND CUSTOMS.

reports sent in from different quarters of his
empire. Then the sacred person must be puri-
fied by ablutions and the kingly robes put on.
Next came an offering to the gods a sacrifice
made by the priests in the name of their sov-
ereign. The high-priest himself offered prayer
while the sacrificial beast was brought to the
altar. He recounted that the king was a
righteous ruler, honorable, just, and pure.
He was gentle in demeanor, kind to his friends,
terrible to his enemies. If any fault had been
committed it was not the king who did it, but
the officers of his court; himself was incor-
ruptible. He rewarded honest men and pun-
ished liars. He was a sovereign faithful in
every duty and pious towards the gods. Might
the higher powers, therefore, grant him long life,
a prosperous reign, and great glory hereafter.

As soon as the ceremony was ended, the
priest read to the king, out of one of the
sacred books, the wise sayings and great deeds
of his ancestors, and exhorted him to emulate
their wisdom and virtue. At other hours
histories and poems were rehearsed for the
monarch's pleasure and profit. Anon he
walked abroad accompanied by his retinue,
but must return at the prescribed moment.
At the table he must be abstemious to the
last degree. Only the flesh of calves and
geese might be eaten, with a fixed portion of
wine. All crude and vulgar articles were
strictly excluded from the royal board. Pure
food was essential for the preservation of the
purity of the king's life. Even the priests
ate no other. How much more must he who
is greater than all priests so live as to expel
all disorder and evil?

Equal even greater care and circumspec-
tion were taken to preserve the king from
social contamination. Those who composed
his household and servants were all persons of
distinction. No menial was allowed to enter
his presence lest some low word should pollute
the royal ears. Educated priests and uolilc-
men conversed with him and with each other
in his licarinir. They went with him about ih.
palace and on his walks abroad, reciting ever-
more his father's praises and his own, and
laying upon others the sins and mistakes of
his administration.

On public occasions the pageants wero
oriental in their magnificence. The king was
borne to his coronation on a throne under a
canopy of purple. A score of priests, carry-
ing censers and the statues of the gods, with
trumpeters in the van, led the procession.
A scribe made proclamation of the great
event. Fan-bearers stood on the right and
left, and high officers of state bore the weapons
and insignia of the king. Behind the throne
followed the body-guard, soldiers, and priests,
with the white Bull Apis led by his attendants
and nurses.

The court of an Egyptian king was com-
posed of a numerous retinue of officers. The
government was one of centralized authority.

THE BULL APU.

At the head stood the Supreme Court, com-
posed of thirty, or sometimes forty-two judges.
Ten of these were chosen from each of the
priestly colleges the first at Memphis, the
second at Thebes, and the third at Heliopolts.
From the thirty a supreme justice was chosen,
who presided at the sessions of the .court.
Upon his front he wore a breastplate called
" TRUTH," garnished with precious stones and
suspended by a chain of gold.

Before this reverend assemblage were heard
and decided all grave questions of state,
of administration, of law. The proceedings
were characterized by the utmost regularity
and judicial fairness. Eight great volumes of
statutes at large contained the laws and prece-
dents of the kingdom, and to these the judges
scrupulously adhered. After the high officers
of the court came a multitude of others.
There were bearers of the fan, bearers of the
parasol, keepers of the king's bow, officers of
the guard, stewards of the palace, treasurers,

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

overseers of buildings, masters of the horses,
keepers of the records, stewards of the grana-
ries, stewards of the royal flocks, butlers, and
attendants.

The chambers and apartments of the king
were furnished with the gorgeous profusion of
the East. The furniture was decked with sil-
ver and gold. The horses were richly capari-
soned, and the king's barges were trimmed
with many-colored sails and gilded till they
flashed in the sun. The lounges and beds of
the palace were trimmed and cushioned in
luxurious patterns, and the royal kitchen was
furnished with utensils as costly as they were
curious and quaint.

Every thing thus conspired to maintain the
popular faith that the kings and the gods were
one. When the Pharaoh died he was mourned
for seventy days as though Apis were dead.
It was a time of fasting and sorrow. Wine
might not be drank or flesh eateii in these
days of lamentation. But when a new king,
son of the dead monarch perhaps, ascended
the throne, then indeed "the sun gave light
again" a new Horus had risen on the world.

Generally the crown descended to the chil-
dren of the king, with little or no discrimination
against the daughters. The constitution of the
oldest empire of the world did not admit that
it was a misfortune to be born a woman. In a
few instances the line of hereditary descent was
broken by revolt and usurpation.

Besides the king and his retinue of princes
there were few eminent Egyptians. There
were no distinguished families in the land,
no great generals, no orators, no poets, no
statesmen. Even the priests were noted as
a class, not as men. All grandeur proceeded
from the sovereign was derived from him.
In no other great nation of the world has
there been such a dearth of individual achieve-
ment. The great names of Egypt are the
names of the Pharaohs.

The military caste in Egyptian society
was not distinguished for the warlike grandeur
of its leadership or the personal heroism of its
soldiery ; it was strong en magse victorious by
its impersonal momentum. The army was
well disciplined rather than well organized,
and war was carried on with some degree of

scientific skill. The weapons were provided
from the royal armories. Helmets, shields,
bows and arrows, lances, and swords with
curving blades, were served forth to the bat-
talions according to the exigency of the serv-
ice. The trumpet sounded the march, the
battle, the retreat. In attacking towns the
battering ram and protecting shed were em-
ployed in the manner of the Roman siege.

In the Old Empire the cavalry service was
unknown, and war-chariots were not used un-
til after the expulsion of the Hyksos. There
were two great military orders the one called
the Hermotybians, so named from the peculiar
apron which constituted the feature of their
uniform ; and the other, the Kalairians, from
the linen coat which they wore. The former
were the soldiers of Upper Egypt and the
western part of the Delta; the latter of the
eastern Delta and the province of Thebes.
For it was a resident soldiery, living indepen-
dently on lauds granted by the king. Each
family of the warrior caste had an allotment
of about twelve acres a homestead, the pro-
ducts of which belonged to the occupants. In
times of emergency this military order could
bring into the field a force of five hundred
thousand men.

The favored rank of Egyptian society was
the PRIESTS. To them belonged one-third of
the lands of the kingdom. They were the
holy order in whose hands rested the mainte-
nance of the national religious faith, the con-
duct of the ceremonies in the temples, the di-
rection of the sacrifices, the work of education,
and the general culture of the Egyptians.

By the priests no secular duties might be per-
formed. They were expected to devote them-
selves exclusively to the business of their
sacred office, and to this end they were guar-
anteed a liberal support. The revenues from
their lands, together with certain taxes and
contributions of corn, wine, and animals
brought for sacrifice, furnished abundant
maintenance, and gave the priests unlimited
command of time for their religious duties.
The performance of the sacred ceremonies was
accordingly elaborate and expensive. The
ritual was followed with great exactness and
regularity, and every minute detail of wor-

EGYPT. MAXXEHS LVD CUSTOMS.

ship and sacrifice attended to with punctilious
respect for the scriptures and traditions.

The Egyptian priests were divided into
several ranks or classes, according to the dig-
nity ami importance of the services rendered.
In every temple was one High-priest, who
ministered only in the greatest things. After
him came the Prophet, who was overseer of
the temple; a Scribe, who was proficient in
writing and had charge of the property; a
Chamberlain, who took care of the images,
vestments, and sacrifices; an Astronomer, who
recorded the phenomena of the heavens; and

the planets were named and the stars mapped
with wonderful accuracy. Here were made
the beginnings of that sky-lore which in the
middle of the second century B. C. astonished
Hipparchus as he studi-d the heavens in the
observatory at Alexandria.

Among the priestly rank the hereditary
principle struggled with the principle of fit-
ness. Priests might be, and were, promoted
from one rank to another, according to the
merit of service ; but in general the office was
handed down from father to son in regular
succession. Five orders were recognized in

TEMPLE OK ISIS, I'lllLAE.

a Minstrel, who conducted the chants. After
these in rank were the image bearers, the
nurses of the sacred animals, the embalmers,
and ordinary servant:- of the temple.

The most famous shrines in the kingdom
were the temples of Amun at Thebes, of Ptah at
Mi mphis. of Ka at Heliopolis, and of Isis at
I'hike. The high-priest of Amun at Thebes
was the high-prie.-t of Eg\ |>t -next to the
Phuvoh in glory. In the temples colleges
\M re established, ami were for centuries tin-
chief centers of the intellectual life of the na-
tion. Here were tin- >eat.- of "the learning of
the Egyptians." famous throughout the East.

Here the sciences grew and flourished. Here
N. Vol. i5

the temples first priests, second priests, etc.,
the fifth being the lowest rank. It is recorded
of one Baken-Chunsu that, beginning service
in the third order, he rose in distinction until
he became high-priest of Amun at Thebes.

The discipline of the priest's life was exceed-
ingly exacting. The rules for the purification
of the body, for food, and for conduct were rig-
orous in the extreme. The ritual prescribed
that everv priest must |>erforiu ablutions twice
by day and twice by night. On every third day
the whole person must be shaven, especially
the beard and eyebrow.-. No clothing could
be worn except of linen. The shoes were of
papyrus. Woolen goods were abominable. No

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

priest could touch the hair or skius of beasts
without defilement. The animals for sacrifice
must first be purified by the attendants.

The priest's food was ordered in accordance
with the same strict regulations. No flesh, ex-
cept that of calves and of geese, might be

HIPPARCIIUS IN THE OBSERVATORY OF ALEXANDRIA.

EGYPT. MANXERS AND CUSTOM*.

eaten. Fish might not be touched. Peas and
beans were absolutely interdicted might n<4
be looked upon. The least excess brought
defilement and disgrace. The layman might
eat what he would, but tin- priest must be
pure and holy. Fasts were frequent and se-
vere. Sometimes for six weeks together the
priest would mortify his body in order that
the roots of deadly sins mi-lit be destroyed.
Celibacy was not. a part of the discipline, but
multiplicity of wives, permitted to the Pha-
raoh and his noblemen, was forbidden to the
priests.

The common people the Third Estate of
Egypt were divided into three classes: hus-
bandmen, artisans, and shepherds. The lines
of division were not very clearly drawn, nor
is there much ground for believing that one
of these classes outranked the other in social
reputation. There is no doubt that the mili-

FELLAH PLOWINIi.

tary and priestly orders stood much higher in
general society than did the handeraftsmen
and laborers; but it does not appear that as
between artisans and husbandmen there was
much distinction of rank. The shepherds and
swineherds are declared by Diodorus to have
been the lowest stratum of Egyptian society
a class hold in aversion and contempt by all
the other order-.

A man's place as a citizen in the social
scale was for the most part determined by the
rank in which he was born. It was not I'IH-
possible that this order should be broken and
the artisan become a husbandman, or even
the shepherd an artisan ; but such transfer of
social rank was the exception not the rule.

In no other country, perhaps, did the he-

reditary principle go so far towards fixing the
industrial pursuits of men as in Egypt. The
vocation of the father was followed by the
sou. One inscription bears witness to the
fact that the profession of architect had been
practiced in a given family for twenty-three
generations. 1

The naturally conservative character of the
people cooperated with hereditary influences
to limit certain occupations to certain families,
and certain families to certain occupations;
but it is nevertheless true that in the strictest
sense of the term the casteg of Egypt were not
rigid. Intermarriages between the various
orders of society were never prohibited, and
without exclusiveness in this regard there can
be no true caste.

Transitions from one social and civil rank
to another were common, or at least not in-
frequent in all- periods of Egyptian history.
The inscriptions on the tombs never ascribe
any merit to the birth of the occupant, but
rather to what he did. Nor was it impossible,
or even improper, for an Egyptian to belong
ti > t wo castes at once. He might be farmer
and mechanic, or priest and soldier, without
destroying his social rank. The disrepute of
the shepherd life has been traced to the fact
that the keepers of the flocks (not the breeders
of herds, who were well esteemed) were mostly
Libyan and Arabian nomads, and not native
Egyptians.

The life of the common people of Egypt
was passed with the usual vicissitudes of toil
and rest. To the farmer and gardener the
fertility of the soil gave abundant rewards for
their labor. The greatest drawback on the

1 It would be an interesting inquiry to deter-
mine how far the superior excellence of ancient
art is traceable to genius accumulated by the force
of heredity. The transmission of skill is a fact
that can not be denied ; and it is easy to see that
if the hereditary impulse were allowed freely to
work out its results through many generations, a
degree of power in the direction of a certain ac-
tivity might be reached which would astonish
and bewilder by the beauty and precision of its
work. Is it not possible that the inferiority of art
and design in our own times is in a large measure
lile to the fact that herein the force of he-
redity is constantly thwarted and broken up by
the multifarious and ever shifting pursuits of
modern life?

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

THE ERECTION OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS (EGYPT).

comfort and independence of the lowly popu-
lace was the fact that the lands belonged to
Pharaoh. The husbandmen held their home-
steads only by lease, and were thus virtually
the tenants of the king. Even the labor of
the people might be commanded by the mon-
arch who, for his own caprice and pride did
not hesitate to squander on the vainglorious
pile that was to guard his withered mummy
the toil of generations. It was by the confis-
cated labor of the people that the pyramids
were built. The tasks of those who toiled at
the public works and in the mines and quar-
ries were many times cruel and severe. The
laborer might be driven to his work with rod
and whip, or beaten for imperfect service.
The private employer and public taskmaster
alike might exercise the right of chastisement
over those who were employed by them, and

a thousand sculptures show that the overseers
did not neglect to vindicate their right.

Bating the occasional severity of their
labor and the fact that Pharaoh owned their
lands, the common people of Egypt, for the

EGYPTIAN DWELLING.

From a Bus-relief.

most part, lived a happy and prosperous life.
The domestic tie was strong, and the pleasures

EGYPT. MANSERS AND CUSTOMS.

of home of a higher order than in
any other nation of antiquity. The
monuments furnish numberless ex-
amples of the tenderness shown by
parents to their children, and the
manifestations of courtesy and affec-
tion between man and wife are so
common as to show that the rule
was kindness the exception cru-
elty. Even where the sculptures
bear witness to family jars and so-
cial scandals the delineation is gen-
erally given in the spirit of humor
rather thau in satire and bitterness.
As a general rule, the Egyp-
tian home was by no means the
abode of squalor and despair. Com-
forts as great as those found in the
peasant-homes of modern Europe
were enjoyed by the people of the
Nile valley four thousand years
ago. The houses of the artisans
and husbandmen were generally of
brick, and were as well furnished
as the houses of the workingmen of
to-day, and perhaps better built.
In humbler homes the stools and
benches and cots were of primitive
patterns and rude workmanship;
but in the houses of the well-to-do
and wealthy the tables, beds, and
chairs were elaborately finished and
ornamented in the highest style
with foreign woods and quaint de-
vices of workmanship.

Though sedate, the Egyptians
were fond of amusements, and the
various games in which the people
delighted are fully delineated on
the monuments. The juggler's art
was carried to great perfection. It
was the delight of the performer to
deceive the senses of the beholder
of his tricks. Wrestling, jumping,
and tumbling were sports greatly
enjoyed by the people. The figures
of athletes performing feats of
strength or boxing for the aniust -
ment of the bystanders are deline-
p,te<l iu many of the sculptures.

K VT I IAN ! 'A V
After the Painting t.v II. Makart.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

On one of the walls of Beni Hassan the
different phases of a game of ball, involv-
ing running and leaping, are pictured; and
in another part the performers are throw-
ing a set of balls into the air, catching them
in their fall. Of the indoor games, draughts
or checkers was the most popular contest.
All classes, from the Pharaoh to the swine-
herd, found delight in this amusement. Dice
were thrown, as in modern gaming, the
cubes being numbered as at present, but the
numbers differently arranged. Many other
contests of chance and skill, or both combined,
are represented in the paintings and sculp-
tures of Thebes and Beni Hassan. The
children were well provided with such home
amusements as were calculated to develop the
body and divert the mind. Dolls and wooden
manikins, with a jointed anatomy operated
by strings, gave infinite amusement to the
solemn-eyed urchins of the Egyptian household.

Among the higher classes music was the
chief delight. Musical instruments of almost
every conceivable pattern harps, guitars,-
lyres, sistra, flutes, pipes, triangles, horns,
trumpets, and drums are found plentifully
distributed among the sculptures of the tombs,
temples, and palaces. The attitude of the
player is carefully delineated. The military
band leads the cohort. The dancers take
their places, step to the strains of their own
instruments, follow the cry of the caller, or
whirl to the clapping of hands. The dance
of ancient, as of modern, Egypt, was accom-
panied with graceful postures of the body and
pleasing gesticulations on the part of the per-
former.

Many styles of dancing were cultivated
by the Egyptians according to the diverse
tastes of the different classes of society.
The dance of the priests differed from that
of the townsmen and peasantry, while the
upper orders of Egyptian society danced not
at all or only in private parties. Nor was

1 An old Egyptian myth relates the playing of
a game of dice by Mercury with the Moon. It
was before the birth of Osiris. The stake was the
five days necessary to make out a full year in the
Egyptian calendar. Fortunately Mercury won,
and the five days were accordingly added to the
three hundred and sixty.

the voice of song unheard in the Egyptian
home. Though poetry was less cultivated in
Egypt than in the countries settled by the
Aryan races north of the Mediterranean, the
musical talent was perhaps more highly devel-
oped by the former than by the latter peoples;
and the songs of Egypt, though lacking
in poetic inspiration, were melodious and
beautiful. 1

The people of Egypt bestowed unusual
care upon the bodies of the dead. The races
of men have held two theories in regard to
the proper disposal of the human body after
death. The first is that the mortal part should,
as speedily as practicable after the extinction
of life, be reduced to ashes ; the second is that
the body should be preserved and honored a.?
a living guest." Those races among whom

1 In the fields men sang at the harvest or fol-
lowing the plow. The appended stanza from an
"Ox-Song" was sung at the threshing-floor, and
has been preserved in one of the inscriptions:

VWA |_ "2

III III

//II

I I I

The following is the translation of this song:

Thresh for yourselves,

Thresh for yourselves,
O Oxen !

Thresh for yourselves,

Measures for yourselves,

Measures for your masters.
The marks *J to the left of verses 1 and 3
signify repeat.

2 It may be truly said that the system of earth
burial adopted by the nations of modern times
has preserved all the objectionable features of cre-
mation and embalming, without the merits ol
either. It is a poor compromise between super-
stition and science.

EGYPT. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

the worship of ancestors has prevailed, have
adopted the latter view, and for this reason
have embalmed their dead. The art of thus
preserving the remains of the departed was
practiced more generally and successfully by
the ancient Egyptians than by any other peo-
ple. Embalming was as much a profession as
the practice of medicine, and the bodies of

third; and among these the friends selected
according to their rank. and means.

The dead body was then delivered to the
embalniers, by whom the brain was removed
through the nostrils. Then an incision was
made in the left side with a sharp stone.
Through this opening the entire viscera were
removed, and being thoroughly cleansed by

FROCKS OF EMBALMING.

all except the poorest of the poor were in
some measure preserved airaiu.-t deeay.

When an Kiryptiau died the friends of the
deeea.ed went at once to the cuibalmer. By
him they were shown a set of models, that is,
wooden images painted and wrapped in imita-
tion (if the different styles of mummies pre-
pared at the establishment. The models wciv
divided into three classes; first, second, and

washing with palm wine, were covered with
pounded anmiaties and deposited in four urns.
The cavity of the body was filled with pow-
dered myrrh, cassia, and other fragrant sub-
stances, and the wound carefully sewn up.
The whole body was then packed for seventy
days in salt and Carbonate of soda, at the end
of which time it was washed and then wrapped
iu linen bands anointed on the inner surface

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

FUNERAL PROCESSION CROSSING THE LAKE OF THE DEAD.

with a certain gum which acted as glue. The
mummy was finally put into a wooden case
in the form of a man, and delivered to
the relatives, by whom it was set upright

Ml" MM i" CASES.

against the wall in one of the rooms of their
house.

The cost of preparing a mummy in the
first style is said to have reached as high as
twelve hundred and fifty dollars. In the sec-
ond style the expense was about three hundred
dollars, and the third was so cheap as to be
within the reach of all.

In the second method of embalming, the
body of the deceased was filled with the oil
of cedar, which was of such strength as to
dissolve the viscera. After this was done the
body could be easily cleansed and preserved
by the action of soda and salt. The cavities
of the head and trunk were generally filled
with aromatic spices, resins, or bitumen but
the latter was used only in preparing the
bodies of the poor. When a priest or one of
the wealthy classes was embalmed the mummy
was prepared with great elaboration and ex-
pense. Sometimes the linen bandage employed
measured a thousand yards in length ; the
case was tastefully painted and ornamented
with gold-leaf; and the sarcophagus of wood
or stone was profusely adorned and sculptured.
Such was the fantastic figure of the actor as
he quit the stage for the sepulcher.

In every thing relating to the fact of death
the ancient Egyptians had peculiar and solemn
rites. The ceremonies of the hour were di-
rected not only to the body of the departed
and Its careful preservation from decay uot

EGYPT. RELIGION AXD ART.

only to its honorable establishment among the
ancestral effigies of the household but also
to such forms and ceremonies as might prop-
erly induct the spirit of the dead into the
realms of blessedness. The funeral ritual was
solemn and elaborate. Prayers were offered
for the repose and chants recited for the
happy reception of the dead among the im-
mortals. The day of sepulture was a time of

groat lamentation. As the mummy of the
dead was placed in a barge to be taken across
the Lake of the Dead for it was the manner
of the Egyptians to bear the bodies about to
be entombed across the water to the place of
sepulture the members of the household, es-
pecially thfe women, were wont to follow in
another barge, and with uplifted hands and
unbound hair to cry out for the lost.'

CHAPTER v. RELIGION AND ART.

IT the present chapter a
sketch will be given of
the religious system of
the ancient Egyptians and
of the arts which they
invented and practiced.
The first topic will, it is
believed, prove of unusual interest as embody-
ing the ethical and philosophical beliefs of the
oldest race of mankind; and the second \\ill
hardly fail of like interest as presenting the
artistic concepts and achievements of those
who were in many respects the greatest people
of the ancient world.

The primitive religious beliefs of the
Egyptians have not been clearly determined.
The oldest monuments reveal the worship
of many gods; but the eminent Egyptolo-
gist, De Rouge, has been led, from a care-
ful study of the religious systems of Egypt,
to affirm that the original principle in them
all is the idea of one god. Other scholars,
equally dtttmguuhed, have decided that the
fragments of inscriptions and manuscripts
which have l>een preserved to our day do not
warrant De Rouge's conclusion. Certain it
is that, however monotheism may have orig-
inally prevailed in Egyptian philosophy, the
idea at a very early date grew into a poly tin -
istic development; but it is also true that the
spiritual concept in the religion of Egypt suf-
fered less by polytheistic degeneration than
among almost any other people worshiping
a multiplicity of gods. It was the moving
spirits, rather than the material forms, of

things that were adored by the Egyptian*,
Only in a few instances, as under Dynasty
XVIII. (see p. 58), was the attempt made to
introduce the idolatry 'of material forms.

Notwithstanding this high form under
which the religion' of the Egyptians was pre-
sented, it was none the less a system closely
allied with natural philosophy. The deities
worshiped were regarded as the moving powers
of Nature. A knowledge of the deities was
therefore necessary in order to interpret the pro-
cesses and phenomena of the external world.

The first and greatest of the Egyptian
gods was PTAH. His principal sanctuary was
at Memphis, and here his worship is said to
have been as old as the city itself. Nearly
all of the Pharaohs contributed to enlarge
and adorn the great Memphian temple where
Ptah was adored. He was the god of light,
of heat, of fire, and as such was worshiped
by the Greeks under the name of Hephaestus.

The fundamental theory of the Egyptian re-
ligion was that whatever gave life was worthy
of adoration. The sun, or the spirit that ruled
the sun, was preeminently the giver of life;
therefore, the sun, or the spirit of the sun, was
a god, and worthy of worship in the highest.
This spirit of life and light and truth was
Ptah. He stood at^the head of the dynasties
<>f tin' L r '"l-. His names were sublime. He
was the lord of truth, the ruler of the sky,

1 The usage of ferrying the dead over the water
to the tombs was much practiced on l^ake Moeris,
nor ia it improbable that the custom originated
with the priests of the Feiyoom.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

the king of both worlds, the weaver of the
beginning, the producer of the egg of the
sun and the moon. He was a creative spirit,
having the power of both sexes within hira-

THE EGYPTIAN TRINITY.

From a Column at El-Kanmk.

Therefore was he the Double God, and
therefore was the sacred beetle 1 which, ac-
cording to the tradition of the land, brought
forth without the agency of sex, placed on
Ptah's shoulders as his head. His body was
painted green, for he was the giver of vege-
tation. In his hands he bore a Nile gauge
and a scepter. On a Memphiau pillar (now

preserved in the
Berlin Museum),
Ptah is defined as
the god who made
himself to be god,
the double being,
who exists by him-
self, the only unbe-
gotten begetter in
heaven or in earth.
He was the spirit

THE SACRED BEETLE. of i nte Uige nt CTG&.

tive power, and as such was the nearest ap-
proach to the one God known in the symbol-
ism of Egypt.
1 Scarabseua gacer.

After Ptah came RA. He was the chief
divinity worshiped at Heliopolis. He was
more particularly the god of the sun, the
Helios of the Greeks, and as such gave his
name to the city. Sometimes he is repre-
sented as a child, sitting on a leaf of lotus;
for in the Egyptian fancy the sun of the
winter months was a little child. Afterwards,
at the vernal equinox, he was a youth ; then,
in summer, a bearded man ; and, at the au-
tumnal equinox, an old man, gray and de-
crepit. The allegory of human life furnished
a symbol for the god. He was borne daily
around the world in a boat navigated by
spirits who, hour by hour, drew the growing
deity to his destined place in the west, and
thence over the waters of the under world to
his renewal iii the morning. "The old man
becomes again a child," is the language of the
monuments.

In the sculptures of Egypt Ra is repre-
sented as a red god, having the head of a
hawk. Upon his crest he bears the solar disk.
His symbol is generally the hawk emblem
of watchfulness. The sun sees all things. He
drives away all darkness. Ra struggles against
the gloomy powers, and overcomes them. He i. s
accordingly adored as the victorious, the van-
quisher. The worship of Ra was more gen
eral than that of any other deity except Osi-
ris, and was frequently combined with the
worship of other gods, such as Amun, Num,
and Sebek. Thus were produced the com-
pound systems of Amuu-Ra, Num-Ra, Sebek-
Ra, etc., in which both deities were adored
together. At Heliopolis two animals were
sacred to this god : the black bull, Mnevis,
and the famous Phoenix. For it was from

THE WINGED 8CN.

the temple of this city that the fabled bird
began its annual flight around the world.
The cat and the hawk were likewise sacred to
Ra, and the two-winged globe of the sun his
emblem. It was from this great solar deity
that the kings of Egypt derived their power
and glory: they were all the sons of Ra.
While the system of Ptah and Ra the

EGYPT. RELIGION AXD ART,

8.1

Beginner and the Sustainer of Life was in pro-
cess of development at Memphis and generally
throughout Lower Egypt, the same myths in
a modified form appeared at Thebes. The
Memphian Ptah became the Theban AMUN.
The peculiarity of the latter deity was that he
was the invisible one. He was accordingly
worshiped as the concealed or veiled god. He
is represented as sitting on a throne, a scepter
in his hand and two feathers rising from his
crest. By his side stands the goddess Mut,
who is styled the Mother and the Lady of
Darkness. The vulture was her symbol. In
the sculptures representing battles the vulture
is often seen hovering over the head of Pha-
raoh the genius of protection. In the later
development of Upper Egypt the god CHNUM
was associated with Amun, and the latter thus
came to bear the symbolism of the former
being the head and horns of a ram.

Just as Amun was the Theban development
of Ptah, so the Theban Axiftu was the coun-
terpart in Upper Egypt of the Memphian Ra.
Atmu was a special form of the eolar deity.
With a slight variation of attributes, the
names TUM and MENTU were applied to the
same divinity. Turn was the setting sun, the
sun hidden behind the west, the sun of the
under world. Mentu was the sun of the east-
ern horizon, the sun of morning and the day.
Atmu, like Ptah, was called the father of the
gods. He was the spirit of the primeval
floods, out of whose mists and vapor the sun
was bom. Therefore he was called the egg of
(la. His emblems were the sun-dial and the
horologe.

Next in the Egyptian theouomy stand the
deities SHU and SEB. They were the gods
alike of Upper and Lower Ejrypt, beiiiL' wor-
shiped with e<|ii:il /..';il at Thebes mid Mem-
phis. Shu was light personified. He was the
gamut oi celestial force, and is represented as
supporting heaven. In his human form he
hears the ostrich feather, the symbol of truth;
for light and truth are inseparable. His con-
sort, TEFNET, goddess of heaven, was repre-
sented with the head of a lioness a symbol
holding the same relation to the female deities
as did the hawk-head to the gods. Seh, with
his consort, NUT, was the founder of the great

family of Osiris. Seb was the genius of the
earth and Nut of the heavens, and both were
worshiped in human form, as were Kronoe
and Rhea by the Greeks.

The greatest of all the Egyptian mytha
the most popular and universal were those
of OSIRIS and Isis. 1 Isis was the receptive and
Osiris the fructifying power in Nature. They
were the spirits of Blessing and of Life.
Their color is green; for the living earth is
green; and the sacred tamarisk, with ita per-
ennial verdure, is the emblem of that indwell-

ing life which was given by Osiris and born
of Isis.

The primitive seats of the worship and lore
of Osiris were at Phihe and Abydos. Oppo-
site the former city, on a little island in the
Nile, whose every sand was sacred, was Osiris's
, hidden under the tamarisks. Ail oath
taken by this grave wa> the most solemn
thing known to the Egyptian. Other tradi-
tions recorded his burial at Abydos, and the
priests of the temple in that city prayed to
rot near the tomb of their god. In Lower

1 In Egyptian, Ifetiri and Iftt.

I'MVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

Egypt the worship of Osiris was maintained at

Memphis, at Sais, and in the towns of the Delta.

The most famous sanctuary of Isis was

situated at Busiris, in the district lying be-

ISIS,

tween the branches of the Nile, and here the
goddess, together with Osiris, was adored in
prayers and praises. At the annual festival
great lamentation was made for Osiris's death.
While the supplications of the priests were
made a bull was flayed; the thighs were cut
away; the body was filled with bread, honey,
and incense. Then the whole was drenched
with oil and set on fire. While the flames as-
cended the people lamented, and what re-
mained of the sacrifice was eaten.

Blessing and Life were good; but there
was also Evil in the world. There was a spirit
of evil. He was the serpent called Typhon
by the Greeks, but the Egyptians called him
Set. 1 He was the genius of malevolence. He
slew Osiris, his kinsman, on the seventeenth
day of the month Athyr." Isis lamented the

1 In Hebrew, Satan.

1 On this day the sun Osiris passes through
the siscn of the scorpion.

di-ath of her lord; and at the great commemo-
ration a gilded heifer covered with a black veil
of linen was exhibited for four days as a sym-
bol of the sorrow of the queen of Life for
the god of Blessing. At the end the priests
brought out a chest, and the people cried
"Osiris is found!" A serpent was slain in
effigy, and libations were poured out to the
living deity.

Among the sculptures Isis generally ap-
pears as a maiden with the horned disk of the
moon for her head. She has a scepter
with flowers, and the emblem of life is in her
hand. In the inscriptions she is honored with
the titles of the great goddess and the royal
spouse. As to Set, he was burning red in
color, and the ass was his sacred animal. He
was called the almighty m i

O J

destroyer and blighter.
He filled the world with
forms of evil-sernents
and crocodiles and hip-
popotami, beetles and
dragons and asps. The
hot wind that blasted
the trees was the breath
of Set. The mildew and
the blight were flung by
his hands upon the gar-
dens and orchards.

Of Osiris and Isis
was born the child Ho-
RUS. He came into the
world to avenge his
father. As a child-god
he sits on a lotus-leaf,
his finger on his lips.
As a youth he takes
the name of Buto.
Then he becomes the
strong Horus, the great
helper, the pillar of
the world. He does COLTTMN OF OSI - RIS .

honor to the spirit of From Medinet Habu, Time

his father. He is the

genius of light. He rides in the sun-boat
and stabs the serpent Apopis. He treads
the crocodiles under his feet, and in the
form of the winged disk of the sun tri-
umphs over the hippopotamus. The wor-

EGYPT. RELIGION AND ART.

shiper of Horns cried out in his supplication:
" Come to me quickly on this day to guide
the holy bark, to force back all lions from the
land of Egypt and all crocodiles into the Nile.
Shamelessiicss and sin come and appear upon

earth ; but when Horus is invoked he destroys
them. All mankind rejoice when they see
the sun. They praise the son of Osiris, and
the serpent turns and flees." Horus was the
god of light, turning the gloom of winter into
the verdure and life of spring. He was the
Apollo of the Greeks.

A .>ri:ited with Horus was the goddess
HATIIOK, the Aphrodite of the Greek myths.
The principal seat of her worship was at
Aphroditopolu. She is represented as the
queen of tho dance and revel. To her was
attributed the power of maternity and the
mystery of love. On the monuments she
stands with a tambourine, sometimes in fetters.
Like Isis, she wears the horned crescent, the
moon's disk between. In the sculptures of the

temples no fewer than three hundred and
sixty local forms are given to this goddess,
the queen of the passions of Egypt

Among the deities worshiped by the Egyp-
tians the god THOTH* held a place inferior to
Ra. He was the chief Moon-god, and was
represented with the head of an Ibis. To
him is attributed the introduction of letters
and the reckoning of time. In the conflict
which Horus had with the dragon Set, Thoth
by his wisdom aided in destroying the serpent.
He was the god of knowledge and of art.
At the last, when the souls of the dead are
brought before the judgmenteeat of Osiris, it
is Thoth who records the
sentence of eternal doom.

After Thoth, who may,
perhaps, be regarded as
the last of the principal
gods of Egypt, came a
number of others of less
reputation. Among these
minor divinities may be
mentioned MAT, the god-
dess of Truth, and her son,
the jackal-headed ANU-
BIS. Next were the four
genii called the AMENU,
who presided over the pro-
cess of embalming. Chnum
has already been men-
tioned as associated with
Amun in the system of
Upper Egypt. KHEM was
the Greek Pan, and Nrr
was a local divinity of
Sa'is. To these should be
added the NILE, who, un-
der the name of Hapi,
was believed in and wor-
shiped as the god of fer-
tility and abundance. In count* naxrmvatnM

. or DESDERAII, WITH

times of low water, espe- HATHO B MASKS. TIM

cially when the annual
flood was scanty, portending famine, offerings
were made to the great river with the hope of
increasing his benevolence. Traditions exist
that at such times a maiden, bound in fetters
after the similitude of Hathor, was thrown
'Variously written, Thaul, Taut, Tanut, Tolh.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

TILE SACRIFICE TO THE KILE.
Drawn by W. Gentz.

EGYPT. RELIGION AND AI!T.

into the tide as a sacrifice of life to a deity
that might not be otherwise appeased. 1

Much has been written of the adoration of
animals by the Egyptians. It ia hardly cor-
rect to say that any beast was worshiped.
Certain animal* were sacred to certain gdds.
They were the symbols of the deities the
bodily presence of the invisible principle or
power. Perhaps no intelligent Egyptian wor-
shiped the bull or the goat; but the theology
of the land, as formulated by the priests and
the philosophers, indicated these animals as the
best living embodiment of the gods to whom
they were sacred. It was through the symbol
that the god was worshiped; and since the
gods were many, many were the symbols.

To the creative deities the robust gods of
power and mastery the sacred animal was the
bull; and correlative with this the cow was
sacred to the goddesses of birth and receptivity.
To Amuu and Chnum the ram was sacred;
to Ptah the beetle ; to Osiris the heron ; to Ptah
and Isis the vulture; to Ra and Horus the
hawk and the cat; to Thoth the Ibis; to
Anubis the ape; to Set and his later counter-
part, Sebek, the crocodile.

Here superstition found abundant material.
The sacred animals had a portion of the d i v in it v
within them. Any offense to the beast was
an offense to the god of whom the creature
was the symbol. The sacred animals must be
treated as deities. If the city was burning
the cats must be saved they were the crea-
tures of the guardian Horns, who rose to light
the world. To honor these animals in the
presence of all the people to cut up bits of
flesh fur the hawks and stand calling for them
t<> come, or to coax the cats, already replete
with delicacies, to take more milk and bread
were acts of profound piety, as it respected,
the supernal powers. To kill one of these sa-
cred creatures, whether intentionally or unin-
tentionally, was a deed worthy of death.
Diodorus relates that as late as the time of
the Ptolemies, when the Egyptians were ex-

nling to the liest historical opinion the
belief that human sacritic.-s were made to the
Nile liy the ancient F.-y^tuns is without founda-
tion a fact which seems tu render mythical
Gentz's striking sketch of The Sacrifice to tile Xile.

ceedingly anxious to secure the favor of the
Caesars, a Roman visitor in Egypt had the
misfortune to kill a cat, whereupon, in spite
of all authority and all fear of consequences,
a mob gathered and took his life.

Among the various races of animals set
apart to the gods, certain individuals were
preeminently sacred. These were known by
the priests, and were detected by marks and
signs which distinguished them from the com-
mon herd. An animal, when once thus desig-
nated, was regarded as an
incarnation of the deity.
The beast was led into the
temple of the god to whom
the creature was sacred and
was thenceforth addressed
in prayer and supplication
as if the god himself. By
the common people,
perhaps, the dis-

- -_-: .

IAI i:. i. am.

tinction between the deity and the sacred ani-
mal was not much regarded ; but by the priests
the discrimination was, no doubt, maintained
between the spirit and the material form of
their god.

A< it respected the bull sacred to Ptah and
Osiris, the Egyptian theology declared that
the first APIS was conceived by the influence
of a ray of light from heaven. After this,
Apis procreated his own kind, and the priests
were able to detect the true god from the un-
divine herd with which he pastured. Apis
was black. He had a triangular spot of
white on the forehead, and under his tongue a
fleshy growth in the form of the sacred beetle

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

of Ptah. His back was marked with spots
of white in the shape of an eagle, and his tail
was streaked with party-colored hairs.

When Apis was found he was put for forty
days in the meadows of Nilopolis. He was then
conveyed in a boat to the temple of Ptah at
Memphis. There he was bathed and anointed
and clad in the finest garments. Distinguished
priests fed him with the costliest food, and
precious frankincense smoked ever before him.
When, at last, death put an end to the elab-
orate mockery, the extinct god was honored
with a gorgeous funeral upon which wealthy
noblemen and kings squandered their for-
tunes. But the soul of Apis had gone into
another, whom the priests were not slow in
discovering and restoring to his place in the
temple. If Apis refused to die, at the end of
twenty-five years he was drowned in a sacred
fountain ; for the imposing ceremony of a new
installation might not be too long postponed.

At that season of the year when the inun-
dation of the Nile began, promising peace and
plenty for the year to come, a peculiar heron,
bearing upon his crest two long black feath-
ers, appeared in Egypt. The coming of this
bird, called BENNU, seemed to announce the
fertilization of the land and the return of life.
Doubtless, therefore, the heron brought the
blessings of abundance ; and to Osiris, the god
of blessing, the bird was sacred. In the great
temple of Heliopolis the heron was conse-
crated as the great Bennu of On, the self-
begotten creature who caused the divisions of
time to men.

Closely connected with this myth was the
more famous one of the PH(ENIX. The legend
recites that, once in every five hundred years,
a great bird, gold-colored and red, and shaped
like an eagle, came out of Arabia to the tem-
ple of the sun in Heliopolis. Here in the
sanctuary of the sun-god the winged creature
buried the corpse of his father, embalmed in
myrrh. On reaching the age of five hundred
years, the phoenix prepared a funeral pile and
burned himself upon it. Then out of the
ashes he rose by recreation of himself and
bore away the remains of his old body to He-
liopolis. The phoenix was sacred to Osiris ;
and the fable is no doubt the mythical ex-

pression of the completion of some astronom-
ical cycle, perhaps the return of the planets
to a given aspect. The planet Venus is called
on the Egyptian monuments, " the Star of
Bemm-Osiris."

To Ka of Heliopolis the male cat was sa-
cred, and the female to Pasht the divinity of
Bubastis. 1 In like manner the vulture of
Mut, the ibis of Thoth, and the hawk of Ho-
rus, were set apart as objects of popular ven-
eration and priestly care. When these ani-
imal gods died their bodies were generally
embalmed with as much care as those of men
of the highest rank. The mummies of the
holy creatures bulls, cows, jackals, dogs, cats,
vultures, hawks, ibises, herons, and even croc-
odiles are found abundantly scattered among
the sacred rubbish of Thebes, Abydos, Mem-
phis, Bubastis, and Hermopolis.

The faith of Egypt was not, however,
wholly given up to incongruous myths and
absurd symbolism. Mixed with the material-
istic degeneration of the national religion were
many concepts approximating the best beliefs
of the ages. Everywhere there was the rec-
ognition of a difference between soul and body.
The spiritual nature of man was clearly ap-
prehended. Immortality was accepted as a
thing taken for granted. Osiris had the power
of awakening life out of death. He was the
god of the human soul and of everlasting life.
There was an invisible world where the spirits
of men, eternal and indestructible, dwelt under
the dominion of Osiris.

After death the human soul was believed
to descend with the setting sun under
the world. Here, in a place called the hall
of Double Justice, on the Day of Justifica-

1 As a specimen of the hymnody of Egypt the
following chant to the male cat of Ra may be
given : " Thy head is the head of the Sun-god ; thy
nose is the nose of Thoth, the twice mighty lord
of Hermopolis. Thy ears are the ears of Osiris,
who hears the voice of all who call upon him.
Thy mouth is the mouth of Turn, who has pre-
served tliee from every stain. Thy heart is the
heart of Ptah, who has purified thee from every
taint of evil in thy parts. Thy teeth are the teeth
of the Moon-god ; and thy thighs are the thighs
of Horus, who avenged the death of his father,
and retaliated upon Set the evil which he pur-
posed against Osiris."

EGYPT. RELIGION AND ART.

tion, the soul is examined and its actions
weighed. Osiris is on the throne. With a
crown on his head, surrounded with lotus-
flowers springing out of the water of life, he
holds the whip and the crosier. Anubis, the
leader and keeper of the dead, and Horns,
the god of life, handle the balance, while
forty-two spirits, sitting beside Osiris, watch
the weighing of the spirit and its deeds. The

a hypocrite, or a liar; he has not taken the
property of the gods; he is not a drunkard;
he has not slandered his neighbor ; he has not
slighted his father or the king; he has not
babbled; he has not despised the gods, or
stolen the wrappings of the dead. If the
heart in the scale outweighs the feather, the
son! is acquitted. His heart is given him
again. His body is deified. Hathor and Nut,

T11E TEMI'I.K Of 1

heart of the dead is put into one scale and an
ostrich feather symbol of truth and justice
into the other; and while one of the gods
stands ready to record the result, the dead

himself recites tin acts which nre likely to
justify him in the presence of the deities.
None of the forty-two sins lias lie committed.
He has done no wicked thing; he lias not
murdered; he has not stolen; he has not

prayed that he might be seen; he has not been
N. Vol. i f>

ISLAND OF KLUT11ANT1NE.

goddesses of life and the sky, pour upon him
the living water, and he passes into the dwell-
ings of the immortals. As it respects the

late of the soul when the heart of the dead
\\a- outweighed by the feather, the Egyptian
monuments are silent. No clue has as yet
been found to throw light on this important
part of the national faith ; but a legend re-
cited by Herodotus, points to metempsychosis
as the destiny of the wicked. The impure

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

soul is driven into an animal, and thence into
another, in earth, or air, or sea, until after
three thousand years of transmigrations it is
again admitted into a human body and a sec-
ond time boru into the world.

In the practical ethics of life the ancient
Egyptians do not suffer by comparison with
the other nations of antiquity. Affairs of
business appear to have been transacted with
more than the usual care and honesty. The
people were cautious in incurring obligations,
and generally punctilious in fulfilling them.
There was nearly always something of a relig-

The lawyer must necessarily be versed to a
certain extent in the lore and traditions of
the priests. It was religious considerations,
indeed, rather than conflicting secular interests,
that broke the harmony of the Egyptian state,
and introduced the spirit of faction. The en-
mities between the towns were generally based
on hostile religious creeds. In one city the
people would slay and eat the animal which
in another was held most sacred; and the
people of the second city would return the
compliment by killing and eating the gods of
the first. In a third town the sacred beasts

JUDGMENT OF THE DEAD.
From the Turin Papyrus.

ious sanction to the business of man with
man. The duties and courtesies of life, es-
pecially such as appertained to domestic ties
and social relations, were observed with more
sincerity and good faith than among most
other nations of antiquity. In the Egyptian
villages and towns there was very little brawl-
ing and disorder. The administration of jus-
tice, in both civil and criminal causes, was
speedy, regular, and impartial. Affidavits and
pleas were carefully prepared in writing, and
the pettifogger was frowned out of court.
Albeit, it was the religious bias of the law
which complicated and embarrassed its practice.

of a fourth would be destroyed as a pest, and
so on through the whole round of counter
idolatries. The goat of Mendes was hardly
regarded as sacred beyond the limits of that
city. At Cynopolis the dog was worshiped,
and at Lycopolis the wolf; and the Cynopo-
litos and Lycopolites mutually murdered
each other's deities. The people of Dendera
hunted and destroyed the crocodile, sacred at
Kom Ombo; the Memlesians ate the holy
sheep of Thebes; and the Lycopolites did the
same thing, following the example of their
god, the wolf. These sacrilegious acts were
the basis of innumerable feuds and mutual

EGYPT. RELIGION AM> .l/.T.

detestation between the different sections of
the country. A people who could build the
pyramid of Khul'u and carve the statue of
Amencmlia III. could not purify their creed

sense in man is deeply impressed with the
mysteries of the national faith, and this sense,
struggling for expression, carves in the rock
the forms of the gods the symbols and em-

OF HH.MPKKA.

from folly, or their pruetiees from gro?.- MI-
perstition.

The ART "of a people is generally rlnsely re-
lated to their M-steui of religion. In the
earlier stages of civilization the imaginative

Idems of the powers unseeu. The generations
following improve upon the first rude models,

and tho cnmini; ajii's oipy and imitate the

work nf the aires that have preceiled them.

M. .it over, the houses of the gods must be

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

grander and nobler structures than the houses
of men. Magnificent temples, such as that
at Thebes, of whose splendor the ruins of
El-Karnak and Kom Ombo still preserve the
dim and glorious tradition, spring up, exhaled
from the pious spirit of the epoch, and the
lofty fresco, with its infinite allegories tells
the story of aspiration and hope. It is only

Egyptians displayed no small degree of good
taste and skill. The dwellings of the common
people were generally square and two stories
in height, with an open gallery above. The
materials used were sun-dried bricks laid in
bitumen, the columns of support and related
parts being generally of wood. The rooms
were ranged around the three sometimes all

RUINS OF THE TEMPLE AT KAKNAK.

in the later developments of ancient societies
that art was in some measure divorced from
religion and made to do service in the secular
affairs of men. These tendencies are well
illustrated in the art-history of ancient Egypt.
Among the Egyptians, ARCHITKCTUKE held
the most important place. The art of building
so as to secure permanence and beauty was suc-
cessfully cultivated from a very early epoch.
In the construction of ordinary houses the

four sides of an open square or court-yard.
In this trees were planted, cisterns digged,
and fountains constructed according to the
wealth and taste of the owner. In the more
aristocratic mansions were inclosed two courts,
an outer and an inner the latter being for
the use of the women of the household and
their intimate friends. Without, the entrance
to the dwelling was between two pillars and
by way of a porch, which generally contained

EGYPT.-RELIGION AND ART.

the name of the proprietor and the traditions
of the family sculptured in hieroglyphics.
The roofs of the houses were flat, and through
these ventilating shafts, provided with large,
square fans to catch the wind, were carril
into the apartments below. The ceilings of
the better sort of houses were frequently stuc-
coed with a considerable degree of skill, and

Syenite, one of the best building materials in
the world. Others furnished porphyry, lime-
stone, and sandstone, and still others inex-
haustible stores of granite. It was of these
well-nigh imperishable materials that the build-
ers of ancient Egypt reared their temples and
palaces and tombs.

The ability to work in stone was preem-

ornaments were employed in the various
parts according to the fancy and wealth of
the owner.

The public edifices of Egypt were built of
stone. In these structures \v.>re attained a
grandeur :iud nuiiruiticence hardly surpassed
in ancient or modern times. The valley of
the Nile, especially in its upper course, was
rich in quarries. Those at Syene have given
name to the famous crystalline rock called

inently an art of the Egyptians. No other
people have handled the obdurate strata of
Nature's rocky bed with equal ease and skilL
In most countries the carving of granite has
been regarded as a difficult or impossible
work; but to the ancient Egyptian sculptor
this hard and unyielding rock was only as ao
much soapstone which he carved and figured
at his will. Sculptures and hieroglyphics
were scattered everywhere with a profusion

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

FACADE OF AN EGYPTIAN TEMPLE (RESTORED).

indicative of perfect ease in the management of the hardest substances; but the means by
which such marvelous results were reached have never been ascertained. It is not even known
that the Egyptians were acquainted with the use of iron and steel. Tc
suppose that they were not, heightens our wonder at the work which they
achieved. To suppose that -
k they were, seems inconsis-
tent with the fact that no
steel implement has been

COLUMN FROM BENI
HASSAN.

COLUMN FROM KOM
OMBO, 200 B. C.

found among the ruins of Egypt.
And what still further compli-
cates the problem is the fact
that the bronze chisels discovered
in the quarries and stone-yards,
though perfectly edged and

,f~*\. sharp as new when found, and

^ \ ' i ' fjj battered on the top from long

J L. .i'l.jjj service under the hammer, will

\^ / not now bear a single stroke

against the very granite upon
which it is evident they were

formerly used, without turning the edge and becoming useless. Of
the many conjectures which have been offered to explain the method

employed by the Egyptians in
cutting the hardest varieties of
stone, not one seems clear and
satisfactory. The monuments
furnish ample illustrations of
the manner in which the ma-
sons and sculptors plied their art.
The workman kneels or sits or
stands before the block ; he
lifts the hammer in his
right hand, arid with the
left holds the chisel to the

COLUMN FROM THEBES.

COLUMN FROM MEDI-
NET-IIABU.

PROTODORIC COLUMN
FROM BENI-HASSAN.

even profusely, sculptured.

face of the stone ; but how should a chisel of bronze make

impression on a slab of granite?

The public buildings of the Egyptians were elaborately,
The monuments, likewise, bore upon their exposed parts, as

EGYPT. RELIGION A\l> ART.

on the faces of obelisks, and still mure
notably in their chambers and vaults, an
endless variety of carved figures and in-
scriptions. Nor were these sculptures and
hieroglyphics so executed as to leave the im-
pression of great labor expended and time
consumed in the work. On the contrary,
every thing points to the conclusion that these
seemingly impossible carvings were regarded
as easy and commonplace achievements. The
figures and hieroglyphics are elaborately em-
bossed and counter-sunk in a manner which
is astounding to a modern worker in granite ;
and the edges of the inscriptions, after the
disasters of forty centuries, are as sharp and
beautifully delineated as though they were
the work of yesterday. Such is the perfection
of these marvelous inscriptions that they
are to be regarded as engravings rather
than sculpture*.

It was in the architecture of Egypt
that the column was first introduced as an
element of building. The columnar aspect
in some of its many varieties was a pe-
culiar feature of all the Egyptian tem-
ples; and this, together with the absence
of the arch, constituted the type of build-

ing which prevailed in the Nile valley for
more than two thousand years.

It is a matter of great surprise that a
people so skillful in architectural work should
have been unacquainted with the uses of the
arch as an element of beauty and strength;
but with a few rare exceptions of the minor
sort and these generally in the vaulted
passages of tombs or other subterranean
structures the arch seems to have been un-
known. Of columns there were eight varie-
ties, all traceable in their ultimate analysis
to the square uncarved pier or pillar. This,
indeed, when ornamented with a single line
of hieroglyphics running down the middle of
the faces, may be regarded as the first and
oldest style of column found in Egypt.

The second, so-called protodoric, form
was the polygonal pillar, plain or fluted.
This second stage of development was
emphasized by the addition of paint and
the simpler sort of inscriptions upOD
the angular faces. The third style of
column introduced the capital, which at the
first was in the form of a bud of papyrus.
This style of capital was maintained

OBELI.~K OF AI.KXA.NUKIA.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

through several dynasties, during which time
the column iteelf passed through successive
modifications, until, in the epoch of Amen-
emha III., it became a round shaft rounded
in at the base. In the fourth order the capi-
tal, known as the lotus capital, took the form
of an inverted bell, with ornaments so under-
cut as to be seen only from immediately be-
neath; and this style in turn gave place to
the palm-tree column, so named from its re-
semblance to the palm with the lower branches
lopped away. In the sixth order the crown
of the palm used in the capital gave place to
the head of Isis, or that of Hathor, 'the Egyp-
tian Venus. This style was much employed

SCULPTURED PARADE OP THE TEMPLE OF EDFC, TIME OP THE PTOTJ-.MTES.

under the House of Eamses, whose architects
sometimes substituted for the head of Isis or
Hathor that of a cow with long reverted
horns. The seventh order was composite, the
columns being round, and the capitals a mix-
ture of former types the bell, the palm-
crown, and the Isis-head being frequently
combined in a single capital. The .eighth or-
ler is known as the Osiride variety, so called
from the figures of Osiris set in the front of
the pillar which served as a column of support.
Sometimes the statues of other gods or of kings
were substituted for the figure of Osiris. 1

In statuary the Egyptian artists have never
been surpassed. Not, however, in carving
the graceful forms of airy sprites and nymphs,
but rather in the colossal grandeur of heroic
figures did Egypt surpass the art of other na-
tions. The great statues of the kings colossi,
sphinxes, gods have been already mentioned
and described in the different parts of the his-
tory to which they more particularly per-
tained. It need only be added that in giving
to figures in stone an air of solemn dignity
and everlasting repose the Egyptian sculptors
have excelled the artists of every other age
and clime.

As related to the other monuments, the
obelisks of Egypt are
deserving of special
mention. They were
in the nature of memo-
rial stones, set up to
commemorate some im-
portant event the cor-
onation of a new Pha-
raoh, a proclamation
by hun, a victory over
invaders, the building
of a city or temple.
The obelisks are of
granite or syenite, four-
square, tapering, pol-
ished, covered with
hieroglyphics, and from
eight to over one hun-
dred feet in height.

'The height of the Egyptian columns varied
from fifteen feet to sixty feet, and the diameter
from two feet four inches to about twelve feet the

They generally stand in pairs before the city
gate or entrance to temple.

In the spoliation of Egypt these quaint mon-
umental stones have been taken by gift, pur-
chase, or robbery to distant climes and nations.
The Roman emperors carried some of them to
the Eternal City; one stands in the Place de
la Concorde, at Paris; one interests London;
and another, its mate both from Alexandria
adorns the Central Park at New York.

Of those arts which tended to humanize
the people, WRITING held the highest place
among the Egyptians. The system which
they employed, though extremely complicated

largest being of the fourth order, found in the tem-
ple at Karnak.

EGYPT. RELIGION AXD ART.

and laborious, was cultivated at an earlier date
and to a fuller extent than by any other race
of men. Within the present century the
treasures of the hieroglyphics have been un-
locked, and the mystery which surrounded

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Ba
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Km

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EGYPTIAN AI.PIIABCT.

them dispelled by the patience and ingenuity
of French, German, and English scholarship.

It is now known that in the course of 1
tian history down to the time of the Roman
emperors four systems of writing wer>
ively employed. Further back than the old-

est of these it is evident that pictorial symbols
were used to represent ideas; but at what
date the ideograplis or picture-writing proper
flourished, and under what circumstances it
gave place to an improved style of conveying
thought, can not now be known.

The oldest system, then, employed within
the historic periods of Egypt was the so-called
Hieroglyphics, or sacred carvings. It wai
long supposed that the pictorial symbols used
in this famous writing were true ideographs
or actual pictures of the things intended to be
represented, and that the system was, there-

THE ROSETTA 8TONE, BRITISH XUSCL'M.

fore, analogous to that employed in the writ-
ing of the Mexicans and North American
Indians; but the investigations of Champol-
lion, De Rouge 1 , Young, and Marietta have
shown conclusively that the opinion is un-
founded, and that the hieroglyjihics are true
phonetic writinir, in which t lie words are spelled
out just as in any of the Aryan languages. It
is to Champollion in particular that this dis-
is due. 1

1 In 1799 what is known as the ROETTA STOS
was discovered hy some of NM|. Icon's men while
making an exc:iv:ilion .'it Kn-rttjt. in Lower fV) | >t .
Tlu> >-tmic contained an inwription written in
three different characters : Fin-t, Hieroglyphic ;

100

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

The difference between hieroglyphic and
alphabetic writing has thus been shown to be
only this: that in the hieroglyphic sys-
tem the sounds of the language are represented
by pictures, many of them no doubt adopted
from an older ideographic symbolism, whereas

CHAMPOLLIOX.

in the alphabetic system the sounds of the
language are represented by arbitrary charac-
ters which have lost all resemblance to the
objects of which they were no doubt originally
pictures. It has thus transpired that that
which was so long supposed to be the picture-
writing of Egypt is really not picture-writing
at all, but a system of pictorial phonetics in
close analogy with other ancient writings.

second, Demotic, or common character of the
Egyptians ; third, Greek. From the Greek it was
discovered that the inscription was tri-lingual;
that is, each of the writings was a translation of
the other. Beginning with this clue, Dr. Young
finally succeeded, in 1815, in deciphering from the
hieroglyphic character the single word Ptolemy;
and, to the profound amazement of the scholars
of the age, the spelling was found to be Phonetic,
and not ideographic. The learned antiquarian also
made out the name of Berenice among the pictorial
writings in the frescoes of Karnak; and in 1822
Chtimpollion deciphered the word Cleopatra from
an obelisk found at Philw. Afterwards, continu-
ing his researches, he completed the translation
of the Rosetta Stone, thereby opening up the
whole field of Egyptian writings to the long-baffled
scholars of the West.

Nevertheless the hieroglyphics constitute a
system so exceedingly complex and obscure
as to be extremely difficult to master, even by
scholars of profound attainments in language.

Owing to the slowness and painstaking
elaboration demanded in writing^the Egyptian
tongue in hieroglyphics, the priests at an early
date introduced a modification of the symbols
by which the pictorial figures were abbreviated
and turned into a system of cursive signs
running readily into each other in formation
and constituting the second general variety of
Egyptian writing called the Hieratic. The
system was introduced as early as the Eleventh
Dynasty. It was in this style that the great
body of the Egyptian literature was composed ; -
and it is by the resolution of the cursive hier-
atic forms back into the hieroglyphics of
which they were the abbreviated characters,
that we are enabled to translate the few rolls
of papyrus which the ages have spared to
modern times.

Meanwhile, a vulgar or non-literary lan-
guage arose in Egypt. This tongue grew into
importance and encroached upon the archaic
and obsolescent forms of speech employed by
the priests and literati. As early as the times
of Psametik (B. C. 600) it was found nec-
essary to concede something to the common
speech. The people at large no longer un-
derstood the sacred language; and the Pha-
raohs found it expedient to translate proclama-

1 2

SPECIMEN" OF EGYPTIAN WRITING.

tions, edicts, and finally the sacred papyri into
the vulgar tongue. Thus arose the third sys-
tem of composition known as the Demotic,
which came into general use and maintained
its place in Egypt until the second century
of our era.

With the new ethnic development of the

EGYPT. RELIGION AXD AKT.

101

Egyptian race, about the date last mentioned,
we pass into the Coptic or last phase of the
language. Coptic holds about the same rela-
tion to ancient Egyptian as English does to
Anglo-Saxon. The Demotic character of the
preceding era gave place to the Coptic alpha-
bet, and the use of the old systems entirely
ceased. An acquaintance with the Coptic
language and literature, diligently cultivated
in recent times, has been the basis of the pro-
found erudition which has opened the treas-
ures of ancient Egypt, and constitutes the
special branch of learning known as EGYPT-
OLOGY.

In writing, the Egyptians used a sharpened
reed and a palette containing two small wells,
the one of red and the other of black ink.
The black was used for the ordinary text, the
red being reserved for initial letters, the first
words of chapters, and other emphatic or crit-
ical parts. For paper the leaves of the pa-
pyrus were used, being joined together in strips
trimmed to the width of ten inches, and fre-
quently as much as a hundred and fifty feet
in length, the text being written in vertical
lines from one end to the other.

In mimetic art the Egyptians had little
skill ; but in the composition and management
of colors they were more expert than any
other people of antiquity, except the Greeks.
The hues in which the artists of Thebes most
delighted were red, green, and blue. In the
laws of color-harmony the Theban painters
appear to have been as well versed as those of
modern times. It was an imperative rule
with Egyptian artists to produce pleasing
effects by contrast of color. Strong colors
were rarely used without the employment of
some complementary tiut to soften the glare.

Painting as an art in Egypt was clwlv
related to architecture. In common with the
early Creeks and Etruscans, the Egyptian
artists /Htlnfi-il tlirir wn/yi/i/ces. Color was an
invariable concomitant <>(' statuary and of the
relict's and intaglios witli which tlie temples and
tombs abounded. Columns, and especially capi-
tals, were highly ornamented with the colors
which were added, and the infinite figures and
inscriptions covering facades and halls were in
like manner carefully painted. So skillful was

the work that the alleged incongruity of color
and form in sculpture little offended the taste
of the beholder. Though this style of work
is repugnant to that dictum of modern criti-
ci.-m which requires in sculpture the exposure
of the native stone, the Egyptians chose to
combine the effects of color with the charm of
outline; and it can not well be doubted, when
we take into consideration the severe aspect
of all Egyptian structures, that a certain
cheerfulness and life were given thereto by
the addition of paint.

Perhaps no better idea of the combined
effects of sculpture and painting can anywhere
be obtained than in the great palace-temple of
Ramses III., at Medinet-Habu. On the north-
east wall of this famous ruin is depicted the
king seated on his throne under a gorgeous
canopy. The throne is inscribed with a hawk-
headed figure leading a lion and sphinx. Be-
hind the monarch stand the winged effigies
of Truth and Justice. The shrine is borne
by twelve princes of the realm. High officers
of state wave their lobelia before the mighty
Ramses. Priests carry his arms and insignia.
The sons of the king follow, bearing the foot-
stool of their father's throne, and accompanied
by scribes and great warriors. In another
part is seen a procession of scholars, fan-
bearers, and soldiers. A great scribe makes
a proclamation from a roll of papyrus, and
the high-priest of Egypt burns incense before
the shrine. Birds fly abroad to the four
quarters of the world as if to announce to
gods and men of the north, south, east, and
west the glory and renown of Pharaoh. All
this and more is elaborately sculptured, and
the effect artistically heightened by the art of
the painter. In the temples and palaces of
Thebes a like profusion of color and form
give evidence of the industry and skill of the
Egyptian artists. Nor have the fingers of
time much more effaced the brilliant hues
which were laid on the surface of the sculp-
tures than they have crumbled the stone
itself.

Not only were the statues and reliefs, the
columns and halls of palaces and temples
elaborately painted, but t'.ie hieroglyphics and
papyrus rolls, were also embellished with col-

102

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

ore of great durability red, blue, yellow, or
black according to the taste of the age ; nor
were the Egyptians without ability to de-
lineate living forms or landscapes wholly by
means of color. The specimens of such an-
cient art which have survived to our own
times are more remarkable, however, for the
brightness and luster of their tints than for
any excellence of general design or particular
skill in drawing.

The civilization of Aucieut as of Modern

Egypt was wanting in ideality. The genius
of the people rose not into the realm of the
imagination, but flew low on heavy and un-
aspiring wing, skimming the dusky horizon of
the practical. Solidity and grandeur, a cer-
tain stillness of aspect and durability in pur-
pose rather than the winged ideality of a
lighter and diviner art, are the qualities which
are reflected from the massive monuments
slumbering in eternal repose amid the sands
and bulrushes of the valley of the Nile.

CKOSS SECTION OF THE TEMPLE OF EDFU.

took jbtonh.

CHAPTER VI. THE COLJMTRY.

unlike Egypt was the
LAND OF THE CHALDE-
ANS. The great wastes of
Arabia are raised but little
above the level of the sea.
Journeying eastward from
this desert region the trav-
eler, before he begins the ascent of the moun-
tain ranges of Kurdistan, comes upon the
long belt of fertile, territory included between
the Euphrates and the Tigris. Within this
verdant strip "of alluvium and valley-land,
generally known by its Greek name of MESO-
POTAMIA, flourished three of the most re-
nowned kingdoms of antiquity Chaldsea,
Assyria, and Babylonia.

Beginning at the foot of the mountains of
Western Armenia, about the intersection of
the thirty-eighth meridian east from Greenwich
with the thirty-eighth parallel of north latitude,
this famous Mesopotamia!! region winds away
to the south-east, and narrows to a point on
the Persian Gulf about longitude 48 25' E.

For nearly five hundred miles in its lower
course the country between the rivers lias all
the characteristics of a valley; but above the
thirty-fourth parallel it widens, rises into a

hill-country, and in its upper part becomes a
plateau, bordered on the north and east with
mountains. The whole distance from the ex-
treme north-west of the peculiar district em-
braced by the two great rivers to the head of
the Persian Gulf is about eight hundred and
fifty miles.

The peculiarities and importance of this
remarkable region are traceable to the two
magnificent streams which constitute its boun-
daries. Bordered on the west by waste plains
and deserts, and on the east by a country of
hills and mountains, the low-lying plain be-
tween was rimmed with deep channels of
fresh water, never failing, exhaustless.

The EUPHRATES and the TIGRIS rise not
far apart in the mountains of Armenia. The
former has its source on the north of the
range, and the latter in the southern slopes.
The course of the Euphrates is first to the
west; then it breaks through the mountains
and sweeps in a broad circuit to the right,
and then turns in a direction almost due
south-east to its far-off confluence with the
Persian Gulf.

The course of the Tigris is much more south-
erly and direct. Descending from the moun-

(103)

104

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

tains the stream steadily approximates the
Euphrates until, in latitude 33 N., a junc-
tion of the two rivers seems imminent. Here,
however, the Tigris bends to the east and the
Euphrates slightly to the west, thus widening
the district between them into the shape of an
ancient urn. About two degrees further
south the confluence actually occurs, though
in ancient times each river pursued its course
thsough separate channels to the Gulf.

In their upper course the Euphrates and
the Tigris traverse a region of steppes broken
by rocky ridges and interspersed with pas-
tures and fruitful districts. The banks of the

dwindling, as does the Nile, from the diffusion
and loss of waters.

The bed of the Euphrates is lower than
that of the Tigris, and its course more quiet
and regular. The Tigris, on his higher level,
pressed in a narrow, rocky channel, hurries
with swifter flow and greater turbulence.
Frequent tributaries descending from the
ridges and tablelands of Iran join the eastern
river, maintaining and swelling his floods,
while the solitary Euphrates is left to waste
his wealth of waters in the sands.

The whole region lies sloping to the west
drooping as if to rest its western eaves on the

CONFLUENCE OF THE TIGRIS AND EUPHRATES.

rivers are fringed with plane-trees, tamarisks,
and cypresses. Here and there are meadow-
lands, alternating with low hills. Further on,
as the rivers descend to the level, the valleys
broaden ; but at the same time the higher dis-
trict between becomes more sterile a kind of
upland waste, abounding in ostriches and bus-
tards, the native home of wild asses and no-
madic tribes of men.

After this desolate hill-country is passed,
and the two rivers have sufficiently approxi-
mated to share each other's' influence, they
enter a plain of brown alluvium, rich, inex-
haustible. Through this region for a dis-
tance of more than four hundred miles the
streams pursue their course, the Euphrates

desert of Arabia. For this reason the Eu-
phrates, not confined by rocky barriers, has
ever shown a disposition to encroach upon his
right-hand bank, fixing his channel still fur-
ther and further to the west. This tendency
has been of vast importance to the region
along the western bank in the matter of irri-
uation: as far as the waters of the river could
be carried by artificial channels, assisted by
the natural pressure of the current westward,
the desert could be reclaimed and converted
into a garden.

Like the Nile, the Euphrates and the Ti-
gris are subject to annual floods. With the
approach of summer the snows, lying heaped
in the gorges of the Armenian mountains, are

CH A LDJEA.THE CO UXTJt Y.

105

dissolved and poured out into the upper trib-
utaries of the rivers. Rains aJso descend, ami
the combined effects are seen in overflowed
banks and submerged valleys.

The inundation in the Tigris begins as
early as the first of June, while that in the
Euphrates, whose fountains lie for the most
part on the north side of the mountain ranges,
does not begin until the early part of July.
Unlike the Nile, however, the rising of whose
waters is so regular and calm as to be hardly
perceptible from day to day, the floods of the
two great rivers of Mesopotamia, especially
those of the Tigris, are frequently violent and
destructive. Sometimes in the course of a
few hours the valleys are deluged, and the
sandy plains bordering the rivers in their
lower course converted into a wide and tur-
bulent sea rolling down to the gulf.

In the matter of tributaries both fivers are,
in their upper course, plentifully supplied
the Tigris abundantly. On the east the Eu-
phrates receives the Belik and the Khabur,
the latter widely branching into the hill-
country of Mygdonia. The principal tribu-
taries of the Tigris are the Great and Lesser
Zab, the Adhem, and the Gyndes. A hun-
dred smaller streams contribute their waters ;
but in its lower course even the Tigris is
scantily supplied with affluent streams.

For eight hundred miles above its entrance
into the Persian Gulf the Euphrates receives
not a single tributary As a consequence, no
other river in the world is, in the different
parts of its course, so greatly variable in its
quantity of waters. At the junction of the
Khabur the breadth of the Euphrates is three
hundred and fifty yards, and this general
width, with a depth of from fifteen to twenty
feet, is maintained as far south as the city of
Hit, in latitude 33 34' N. From this point
the river dwindles. In the first hundred miles
below Hit the width is reduced to two hun-
dred and fifty yards. After this the volume
is absorbed by canals and natural channels,
branching right and left, until at the site of
Babylon the width is no more than two hun-
dred yards, with a depth of fifteen feet. At
the thirty-second parallel the stream is reduced
to a width of one hundred and twenty yards,

with a depth of only twelve feet, indicating a
loss of nearly four-fifths of the waters which
filled the channel in the upper course of the
river. In its lower course next the sea the
Euphrates recovers a part of its wasted waters
by the return of the canals, and enters the
gulf with a width of two hundred yards and
a depth of eighteen feet. The Tigris grows
in volume through its whole extent, and at its
confluence with the Euphrates is the greater
river of the two. The entire length of the
Euphrates is 1,780 miles and of the Tigris
1,146 miles, including, in each case the wind-
ings of the channels.

In the present Book we are concerned only
with that part of Mesopotamia included by
the great rivers of Assyria after they descend
to the alluvial plain through which they flow
in their lower course. The line of division
between Upper and Lower Assyria may be
definitely indicated as beginning at Hit, 1 on
the Euphrates, and extending in a north-
easterly direction across the Mesopotamian re-
gion to Samarah on the Tigris. Below this
line the country, in shape like an ancient
goblet, is an alluvium, deposited by the rivers,
not unlike Egypt in its physical features, and
next to Egypt the oldest country with which
history is concerned CHALIXSA.

That which most attracts attention and
excites wonder in the region here described is
the absence of those physical features with
which the landscapes of nearly all countries
are diversified. Here nothing is to be seen
except the two great rivers, their hanks
fringed with palms and cypresses. On all
sides the sandy plains stretch away to the
horizon, the dead expanse broken now and
then by a mound or ruin, or marked by a
long, low line of earth, the bank of some an-
cient canal. Close to the border of the river
where the marsh-lauds abound, and along the
artificial channels through which the waters
are distributed, the vegetation is green, luxu-
riant ; but these verdant strips soon disap-
pear, and the eye, except in early spring, rests
on nothing but an arid plain, swelling towards
the south into an occasional ridge or sand-
dune. To the west, at a distance of from

1 The same as Ihi or Is.

106

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

twenty to thirty miles from the Euphrates,
vegetation wholly disappears, and the Arabian
desert, desolate and unbroken, spreads away
to the sky.

The present extent of Chaldrea Proper,
that is, of the urn-shaped district between the
two rivers, is about fifteen thousand square
miles. The long strip of fertile territory ly-
ing between the Euphrates and the Arabian
desert has an area of eight thousand square
miles ; so that the aggregate area of Chaldsea,
if determined by the present geographical
condition of the country, would be about
twenty-three thousand square miles a dis-

more than a hundred perhaps two hundred
miles further than at the present day.

The simple physical structure of Chaldsea,
the mild climate, 1 the presence of a perennial
supply of fresh water without the annoyance
and interruptions of frequent and violent
rains, and especially the fertility of the soil,
only equaled in its fecundity by the never-
failing fruitfulness of Egypt all contributed
to supply to the primitive tribes of this region
incentives to civilization second only to those
afforded in the valley of the Nile.

The low-lying flats stretching from river to
river had in them the best elements of natural

THE EUPHRATES AND PLAIN OF CHALUjEA.

trict equal in extent to the State of West
Virginia.

But the ancient limits of "the land of the
Chaldseans" were less in extent than here de-
fined. From the remotest epoch the Persian
Gulf has been steadily receding to the south.
The enormous amount of earthy matter car-
ried down by the Euphrates and the Tigris
and deposited further and further seaward has
crowded buck the waters of the gulf and built
up a district thousands of square miles in ex-
tent. The rate of the recession of the sea has
been estimated at a mile in. each seventy years,
and by some authorities at a mile in thirty
years. Nor is it doubtful that within the his-
toric period the Persian Gulf extended inland

wealth. Even beyond the Tigris the landa
were fruitful. Between the rivers the fertility
was marvelous. Wheat and barley, castor-
beans and sesame, grew wild. In the low
marshes bordering the streams the succulent
and bulbous plants flourished in native abun-
dance. Here thousands of aquatic birds cir-
cled around the ponds and hatched their
young among the rushes. Both of the rivers
abounded in fish always a chief factor in

'The climate of Chaldsea is rather milder than
that of Georgia and the Carolinas. On the lower
Euphrates snow is unknown, and though the heat
of summer is excessive, the vicissitudes from hot
to cold are so quiet and equable as to affect but
slightly the constitution of the inhabitants.

CHALDJEA.THE COUNTRY.

107

a people's food. On the higher lands ap-
ples aud dates were plentifully produced and
flourished without culture or attention. The
truthful Xenophon was struck with astonish-
ment at the beauty and fruitfulness of the
date-palms growing along the river. 1

That such a district should in the earliest
times attract a great population, and that this
population should be stimulated to vast civil-
i/.inir cnlcr] irises, was natural, inevitable. The
Primitive Man was quick to discover that sit-
uation \vhiehafforded him the greatest rewards
with the smallest expenditure of toil. There
he fixed his habitation. There also his fel-
lows, driven by hunger from the hill-country
or desert waste, came and established their
abodes. The hut became a hamlet; the vil-
lage, a great city. Whatever opposition na-
ture presented added to the zest of endeavor.
The necessity of standing guard against the
danger of the sudden overflow of the river,
the work of draining the marsh-lands, and of
digging vast canals for the purposes of irriga-
tion, were additional motives, rather than dis-
couragements, to the zeal of an ambitious
people.

To her other advantages ancient Chaldsea
added the proximity of the sea. The Persian
Gulf, a spacious body of water, lay always at
her feet. It was an invitation to commerce
and the consequent establishment of friendly
and beneficial relations with distant states.
The branch of the sea which washed the

1 Herodotus says of Chaldsea: "Of all countries
that we know there is none that is so fruitful in
grain. It makes no pretension, indeed, of growing
the fig, the olive, the vine, or any other tree of the
kind; hut in strain it is so fruitful as to yield com-
monly two hundred fold, and when the produc-
tion is at the greatest even three hundred fold.
The blade of the wheat-plant and of the barley-
I'liint is often four fingers in breadth. As for the
millet and the sesame, I shall not say to what
height they grow, though within my knowledge;
(or I am not ignorant that what I have already
written concerning the fruitfulness of Babylonia
will appear incredible to those who have not vis-
ited the country." To this Theophrastus adds:
"In Babylon the wheat fields are regularly mown
twice, and then fed off with beasts to keep down
the luxuriance of the leaf; otherwise the plant
dues not run to ear."

N. Vol. i7

Chaldsean sands was protected by its position
from the violent storms which make the In-
dian Ocean a terror to the mariner. This
circumstance was a further incentive to mar-
itime enterprises, and will account in some
measure for the early ascendency of the
Lower Empire over the neighboring king-
doms. How well the people of this region
improved the advantages of their situation
will appear as we survey the records of the

DATE PALM OF THE LOWER ELTIIK.ITE*.

great state which they planted and so long
upheld by their valor. Having control of
the wide water-courses by which the products
of one of the richest districts in Asia must
be carried abroad, and holding to the broad,
deep arm of the sea which constituted her
harbor on the south, Chaldsea easily asserted
and maintained her preeminence among the
earliest and greatest monarchies of the ancient
world.

108

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

vn. PEOPLE AND LANGUAGE.

| HE kinship of the people
of ancient Chaldrea with
the other nations of an-
tiquity has been much
debated. For a long
time it was confidently
maintained that the Chal-
dseans belonged to the Semitic family of man-
kind, being in close affinity with the Hebrews,
who traced their descent from Shem. It was
urged in proof of this position that the lan-
guage of the people who planted the first
kingdoms on the Lower Euphrates was so
closely allied with the Hebrew and Aramaic
dialects as to point unmistakably to a com-
mon origin for these several tribes.

This view is still maintained by some of
the ablest linguists and historians ; but within
our own times an opposing theory has been
advanced which seems likely to supplant the
other. A review of the whole question has
tended to show that the ancient Chaldseans
belonged to the Hamitic family of man-
kind, having their closest affinities of race
with the primitive tribes of Arabia, the Abys-
sinians, the Egyptians, and the peoples of
Northern Africa. Recent investigations have
greatly strengthened this view by showing
that the language spoken by the ancient in-
habitants of Chaldaea, instead of being, as
had been supposed, a Semitic tongue, was
really a distinct speech, though modified by
Semitic influences. The question here pre-
sented to the student of history is of a kind
to excite his interest, and to demand at the
hands of the historian some further exposition
of the present state of human knowledge con-
cerning the different races of men.

The best classification adopted by ethnolo-
gists, at the present day, is that which divides
mankind into three races : Black races, Brown
races, and White or Ruddy races. 1 These dis-

1 It is a matter of surprise that the color of the
Ruddy races of men should have been so univer-
sally mistaken for white. There has never been a

criminations on the line of color were as
strongly drawn at the daydawn of authentic
history as they are to-day, and are, therefore,
rightly employed as the best criteria by which
to distinguish one race of men from another.

In point of civilization the Ruddy races
have far outstripped the Brown, and the
Brown have outstripped the Black. So strik-
ingly has this difference in progress been man-
ifested that the historian is not called upon
to relate the annals of any of the Black racea
of men ; and his references to the achieve-
ments of the Brown races are few and rather
incidental. The whole field of ancient and
modern history is virtually occupied with the
ambitions, activities, and grand monuments
of those Ruddy peoples who, springing from
a common origin in the East and scattering
everywhere, have obtained and held .the mas-
tery of the world.

In the period covered by ancient history
the Ruddy race extended in its distribution
from the valley of the Indus to the western
shores of Europe, and from the equator where
it crosses Africa to the Baltic Sea. Within
this wide extended and diversified area of coun-
try the primitive tribes of men were nearly
all of a common ancestral family. In a large
part of the territory now occupied by the
Russian empire the original tribes were brown,
but beyond this, within the region above de-
fined, neither Brown races nor Black contrib-
uted to form the original population.

The Ruddy family of mankind has been
divided by ethnologists into three principal
races. These are

1. THE ARYAN RACE. This branch of

White race, properly so-called. The color of the-
fairest people of the fairest race of ancient or mod-
dern times has been a hue very different from
white. The term flesh-color or red much more
nearly describes the complexion of our own race
than the long-accepted epithet, white which term,
indeed, has never been properly applied to any
race, except to emphasize the contrast between
the Ruddy and the Black or Brown.

CHALDsEA. PEOPLE AND LANGUAGE.

199

the human family is frequently designate! l>y
the biblical epithet Japhetic, so named after
Japhet, the eldest son of Noah. To this race
the names Lido-Germanic and Indo- European
have also been applied by scholars ; but the
name Aryan (from the root AR, signifying to
pfoto) has now been generally accepted as the
term by which the people of Europe are to
be designated. The dispersion of this race at
the present time is world-wide, but within the
period embraced by ancient history the Ar-
yans were limited to Europe and the approx-
imate parts of Asia.

2. THE SEMITIC RACE. The name of this
division is derived from Shem, the second
son of Noah, and the term Semitic has been
adopted by scholars as properly descriptive of
that ancient people who, branching from be-
yond Assyria, carried their tribes into North-
ern Arabia, across the Red Sea and Upper
Egypt into the African desert, northward
into Armenia, westward into Canaan, and far
out through the Mediterranean, touching the
coasts of Africa, and reaching, perhaps, even
to Spain and Britain.

3. THE HAMITIC RACE. The name of this
family of mankind has likewise been derived
from the name of one of the sons of Noah
Ham. As in the case of the Semitic division
the terra Hamitic has been adopted from bib-
lical language, and is used by ethnologists
and historians to designate that branch of
the human race which taking its rise some-
where between the Caspian and the Persian
Gulf, held its course westward through Chal-
dsea; branched to the south around the sea-
line of Arabia into Eastern Africa; entered by
a direct migration to the west the valley of the
Nile, and further on peopled the whole coast
of Northern Africa; branched again by a de-
flection to the north, and passing through
Asia Minor may have entered Southern Greece
and Italy, planting, perhaps, in these two coun-
tries the primitive tribes afterwards known as
Pelasgians and Etruscans. But whether the
latter peoples were certainly of Hamitic origin
is still a matter of dispute.

It has not been well established whether
the ethnic affinity between the Clmlcheans and
the Egyptians, already referred to in the pre-

ceding Book, resulted from a migration of
tribes from the lower Euphrates to the valley
of the Nile, or whether the migratory move-
ment was in the opposite direction from Egypt
into Chaldcea. Certain it is that so far as
history is concerned the Egyptians, having
developed the older civilization, may fairly be
regarded as the older people ; and the pre-
sumption would be that the migratory move-
ment by which race relationship was established
between the Egyptians and the Chaldieaus was
from the west to the east. 1

It will thus be seen that if the foregoing
analysis and scheme of the dispersion of the
Ruddy or White races be correctly given, the
primitive people of Upper Mespotamia be-
longed to the Semitic family, and the inhabi-
tants of Lower Mesopotamia, or Chaldsea
Proper, to the Hamitic family of mankind;
and the student of history will from the pre-
ceding discussion have little difficulty in ap-
prehending the nature of the relationship.

More than the other peoples of antiquity
the ancient Chaldseans were modified by con-
tact with neighboring races. Some tribes of
brown Turanians, coming from the north-east,
appear to have invaded the country at a very
remote epoch, and by settlement therein to
have amalgamated with the Chaldseans. Like-
wise the Semites of Assyria, by constant inter-
course, influenced the language and manners
of the people who ruled on the Lower Eu-
phrates. Nor is it improbable that Aryan
tribes, by early contact with the inhabitants
of Chaldsea, may have contributed some ele-
ments to the speech and character of the
nation.

What we know of the personal character-
istics of tlic ancient Chaldseans has been gath-
ered from an examination of the physiognomy
and form of those peoples known to be of the
Hamitic race, rather than from the existing

1 Rnwlinson in summing up the evidence on
tins point says: "On the whole, therefore, it seems
most probable that the race designated in Scrip-
ture by the hero-founder Nimrod, and among the

(ireeks by tlir eponym >( Belus, passed from East
Africa, by way of Arabia, to the valley of the
Euphrates shortly before the opening of tin- his-
torical pcriixl." Kuwlinson's Ancient Monarchies,
Vol. I., page 54.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

monuments of Chaldsea. The Ethiopians are
noted for their swart, reddish complexion and
their crisp or frizzled hair. 1 Herodotus de-
scribes the people of Babylon as being of a
dark complexion and having straight black
hair. 2 The Abyssinians, the Copts, the Arabs,
and the people of Beloochistan of modern
times furnish the best idea of the features and
complexion of the ancient inhabitants of Chal-
dsea, whose color seems to have been a dark
red-brown or copper-hue, and whose person
appears to have been well proportioned and
somewhat delicate in outline. The figure of
the modern Abyssinians is slender; their fea-
tures regular and handsome. The forehead
is well formed, indicating a fair degree of
intelligence; the eyes are dark and lustrous;
the nose, straight and high ; and the chin,
firm and prominent. Nor are the lips heavy
and repulsive, as in the case of the Negro
races of the interior of Africa. And this,
perhaps, is a fair type of the Chaldsean, who
four thousand years ago gathered dates and
built cities on the banks of the Euphrates.

The Chaldseans were a people brave, war-
like, and energetic. The proximity, at a very
early period, of powerful kingdoms on the
east and north was calculated to stimulate the
military spirit in repelling invasion and mak-
ing conquest. Agriculture was the one fun-
damental industry suggested by the character
of the country. While this pursuit was of a
kind to incite the energies of the people, it
was also calculated to provoke aggression and
thereby to kindle the spirit of war.

In ingenuity and skill the Chaldseans dis-
played both natural aptitude and acquired
proficiency; and in those social qualities and
dispositions by which the humanity of a race
is so well estimated, they suffer not by com-
parison with the better and more enlightened
nations of the ancient world.

It does not appear that the name Chaldcean

"The frizzled hair of the Ethiopians does not
at all resemble the woolly hair of the Negroes,
and the other physical characteristics of the two
races are equally dissimilar.

'Hair of this kind has been found in a Chal-
dsean tomb of a very early period, the quantity
being so abundant as to indicate that the head of the
Occupant had been profusely adorned by nature.

was ever employed by the races dwelling
about the Persian Gulf to designate them-
selves. Nor is it likely that in the earliest
times this appellative was used by the people
of other kingdoms as the name of the inhabi-
tants of Babylon and the adjacent regions.
In the ninth century before our era the term
Chaldsean first appears in the Assyrian in-
scriptions. Later the word was generally em-
ployed as the name of the people of Lower
Mesopotamia. The historian Berosus, who was
certainly competent to say what should be the
race-appellation of his own people, called
them Chaldseans. The home of Abraham is
mentioned in Genesis as Ur of the Chaldees,
though this does not imply that the term
"Chaldees" was used as early as the times of
Abraham. The words Chaldee, Chaldsea, etc.,
are the same as the Burbur word Khaldi,
meaning the Mom-god, and that also is the
meaning of the word Ur or Hur. This is to
say that Abraham was called from the city of
the Moon-worshipers, or the city of the Chal-
dseans. In the later Scriptures the word is of
frequent occurrence. Habakkuk says, "Lo,
I raise up the Cb,aldseans, that bitter and
hasty nation." Isaiah in one place calls Baby-
lon "the daughter of the Chaldaeans," and in
another "the beauty of the Chaldees' excel-
lency;" while in Job we are told that "the
Chaldseans made out three bands and fell
upon the camels." Among the Roman authors '
the word is of frequent occurrence, being
found in the writings of Suetonius, the Annak
of Tacitus, and the Satires of Juvenal. This
common use of the term by ancient authors
may well be regarded as sufficient authority for
the retention of the name in modern writings. 1
Modern investigations have shown that the
primitive inhabitants of Chaldfea consisted of
four principal tribes. On the monuments
sovereignty over four races is ascribed to the
early monarchs, and the inscriptions speak of
four tongues or dialects among the people. It
is not probable that these tribal differences of

"This peculiarity in the naming of the race
whose chief capital was Babylon has its parallel
in the case of the Greeks, who, though called
Greeks by all the world besides, never even heard
of such an appellation.

CHALDJEA. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

Ill

speech were so marked as to indicate diversity
of races, but rather a diversity among the
branches of a common stock. The inscriptions
show that the Chaldee was indeed a composite
language, but its vocabulary is always essen-
tially Cushite or Hamitic, just as the English
vocabulary, though composite, is fundament-
ally Anglo-Saxon. In the Chaldee grammar
there are strong traces of Turanian influence,
just as in English the impress of the Latin
models which were dominant in the minds of
the British monks of the Middle Ages has
been stamped upon our grammar.

The nearest approach found among living
languages to the ancient Chaldee is in the dia-
lects of Abyssinia, and, among ancient tongues,
in the language of Egypt.' It is not to be
disputed, however, that Chaldee contained so
many foreign elements as to make the work
of classification difficult, and to give plausible
grounds for disputing its Cushite character.

Some portions of the grammar of Chaldtea
have been satisfactorily explained, but other
parts are still either obscure or altogether un-
known. The conjugation of the verb is rep-
resented as exceedingly complicated. In so
far as the process has been explained it is said
to be somewhat analogous to the verb-forms
in Hebrew, lu the formation of the objec-

tive case of nouns the suffix hi is added, at
in Hindustanee. The plurals of nouns and
pronouns are formed by doubling the root-
word. Thus the pronoun lit, meaning " him,"
is made plural by reduplication, nini (equiv-
alent to Aim-Aim) meaning " them." In the
formation of the ablative case of pronouns
the preposition kita, meaning " with," which
generally governs that case, to divided, and the
governed word put between the parts. Thus
kita is "with," and mu, "me;" but the ex-
pression " with me," instead of being written
kita mu, is ki-mu-ta. Ki-mi-ta means " with
us;" ki-tu-ia, "with thee;" ki-nini-ta, "with
them," etc. This is as if we should say in
English, " wi-me-th," for "with me;" "wi-t-
th," for "with us;" " wi-ttee-th," for "with
thee;" " \v\-them-th," for "with them," etc.
Several other peculiarities of Chaldee have
been explained by Smith and Rawlinson, but
the system as a whole is but poorly under-
stood, even by the best oriental scholars.

As to the nature of the writing employed
by the ancient inhabitants of Lower Mesopo-
tamia and the character of the inscriptions
which they have left to modern times, these
topics will be discussed in a succeeding
chapter on the Science and Art of the

du.'illl.S.

CHAPTER vin. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

[ONCERNING the antiq-
uity of the Chaldtean
Empire we have the tes-
timony of one native his-
torian, Berosus. This
famous annalist flour-
ished during the first
half of the third century before the Christian
era. He was a priest of Bel at Babylon, and
had access to the records of his country.

1 A few equivalents will serve to show the af-
finities of Old Chaldee thus:

English, "after;" In Cbaldee, tgir ; In Abyssinian, igria.
, " "great;" " gvla: guda.

"little;" " turn: " tuna.

" "father.' " alia : " ttta.

Soon after the conquest of Babylon by Alex-
ander the Great, Berosus wrote a Jlistory of
('In 1 1, 1, i, i in Greek, in three books, and dedi-
cated the work to Antiochus, king of Syria.
If this history by Berosus had been preserved
to the present time it would, no doubt, throw
much light upon many of the vexed questions
of antiquity. Unfortunately, the work has
perished except a few fragments which were
transcribed by Apollodorus and Polyhistor,

English. " brother ;" In Chaldee. til ; In Abyssinian, itha.

" road ;"

kharran; i-:- :

hone:"

turro: In Amble, gurra.

" mountain ;"

gabri; " }abal.

"river:"

ar; nahr.

house;"

J; in Egyptian. I

112

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

two Greek authors of the first century B. C.,
and from them were afterwards quoted by
Eusebius and Syncellus. It is only from these
fragments that we gather a Babylonian's own
views of the previous history of his country.

The work of Berosus begins with an ac-
count of the traditions of the Chaldseans con-
cerning the creation of the world and the
origin of man. The chapter which narrates
the genesis of things runs thus: " Once all was
darkness and water. In this chaos lived horrid
animals, and men with two wings, and others
with four wings and two faces, and others
again that were both male and female. Some
had the thighs of goats, and horns on their
heads ; others had horses' feet, or were formed
behind like a horse and in front like a man.
There were bulls with human heads ; and
horses and men with the heads of dogs ; and
other animals of human shape with fins like
fishes; and fishes like sirens; and dragons,
and creeping things, and serpents, and wild
creatures, the images of which are to be found
in the temple of Bel. Over all these ruled a
woman of the name of Omorka. But Bel
divided the darkness and clove the woman
asunder, and of one part he made the earth,
and of the other the sun, and moon, and
planets ; and he drew off the water, and ap-
portioned it to the land, and prepared and
arranged the world. But those creatures
could not endure the light of the sun, and
became extinct.

" When Bel saw the land uninhabited, and
yet fruitful, he smote off his head and bade one
of the gods mingle the blood which flowed
from his head with earth, and form therewith
men and animals and wild creatures, who
could support the atmosphere. A great mul-
titude of men of various tribes inhabited
Chaldsea, but they lived without any order,
like the animals. Then there appeared to
them from the sea, on the shore of Babylo-
nia, a fearful animal of the name of OAN.
His body was that of a fish, but under the
fish's head another head was attached, and on
the fins were feet like those of a man, and it
had a man's voice. Its image is still pre-
served. The animal came at morning, and
passed the day with men. But it took no

nourishment, and at sunset went again into
the sea, and there remained for the night.
This animal taught men language and science,
the harvesting of seeds and fruits, the rules
for the boundaries of land, the mode of build-
ing cities and temples, arts and writing, and
all that pertains to the civilization of men."

Such is the mythical account of the origin
of things as related in the first chapter of the
history of Berosus. The next part of the
work is devoted to the chronology of the Chal-
daean kingdom from the creation down to the
sixth century before our era. The epoch be-
fore the flood for Berosus has an account of
a deluge is assigned to ten kings, to whom
fabulous reigns are allotted as follows:

1. Alorus, a Chaldsean, who reigned 36,000 years.

2. Aloparus, son of Alorus, who reigned 10,800

3. Almelon, a native of Sippara, who reigned. ..46,800

4. Ammenon, a Chaldsean, who reigned 43,200

5. Amegalarus, of Sippara, who reigned 64,800

6. Dabnus, of Sippara, who reigned 36,000

7. Edorankhus, of Sippara, who reigned 64.800

8. Amempsinus, a Chaldsean, who reigned 36,000

9. Otiartes, a Chaldsean, who reigned 28.000

10. Hisuthrus, the Chaldsean Noah, who reigned. .64. 800

A total of ten kings, reigning 432,000 years.

After the flood the kings of Chaldsea are
divided in the scheme of Berosus among nine
dynasties. At the close of the first of these
dynasties we pass from the fabulous to the
historical era, though in some subsequent parts
it must be allowed that conjecture rather than
knowledge has filled the tables of numbers
and dates. The scheme of Berosus, therefore,
as completed by modern scholars for the epoch
after Xisuthrus, is as follows: 1

DYNASTY.

NDUBBK OP
KINO*.

REIGNING.

DATE.

? to B.C. 2458*

406 years*

2-158* to 2052

HI ?

2052 to 2004

458

2004 to 1546

245

1546 to 1301

VI 1

526

1301 to 775

VII. Chaldaean (Pul)
VIII '

1
13

28
122

775 to 747
747 to 625

IX. Babylonian

625 to 538

1 The three numbers marked with an asterisk
are a variation from the computations of Rawlin-
son, who makes the First Dynasty close and the
Second begin with the year B. C. 2286 instead of
2458 as given above. The author has been in-
duced to adopt the variation by a discussion in
Duncker's History of Antiquity, Vol. I., page 247.

a The monumental inscriptions have recently
shown that there were as many as fifteen kings
belonging to this dynasty.

CHALD^A. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

This scheme may be regarded as fairly au-
thentic except in particulars mostly unim-
portant which are marked as questionable.
If we allow but a century to be occupied with
the First Dynasty we are carried back to the
year 2550 B. C. as the approximate date for
the beginning of Chaldtean history.

To Berosus we are indebted for what is
known as the Chaldsean or Babylonian account
of the flood. The narrative is full of interest
as tending to show that all the nations having
their geographical center iu Mesopotamia pre-
served a common tradition of a great flood of
waters, by which the country was deluged and
the people destroyed. The narrative as given
by Berosus is as follows:

"In this year the god Bel revealed to
Xisuthrus in a dream that in the fifteenth
year and the month Daesius there would be a
great storm of rain, and men would be de-
stroyed by the flood of waters. He bade him
bury all written records, ancient, mediaeval,
and modern in Sippara, the city of the sun,
and build a ship and embark in it with his
kindred and nearest friends. He was also to
take food and drink into the ship, and carry
into it all creatures winged and four-footed.

"Xisuthrus did as he was bidden and built
a boat fifteen stadia long' and two stadia in
breadth, and placed iu it his wife and child,
his relatives and friends. Then the inunda-
tion came. When the rain ceased Xisuthrus
sent out some birds, but they returned to the
ship, as they could find nothing to eat and no
place of rest. After a few days he sent out
other birds. They also returned, but with
mud on their feet. Then Xisuthrus sent yet
others, and they never returned. Xisuthrus
knew that the earth had appeared. He took
out a part of the roof of his boat, and per-
ceived that it had settled down on a moun-
tain. Then he went out with his wife and
daughter and the architect of the boat. He
worshiped 'the earth, and built an altar and
offered sacrifice to the gods, and then disap-

"That is, nine thousand feet. This is tlio
length given in the fragment of Berosus quoted l>y
Kusolmis. The same extract, as quoted by Pyn-
cellus, makes the length five stadia, or three thou-
sand feet.

peared, together with those whom he had
brought out of the boat. When his compan-
ions whom he had left in the boat had gone
out and were in search of Xisuthrus, his voice
called to them out of the air, saying that the
gods had carried him away in reward for hia
piety ; that he with his daughter and the
architect were dwelling among the gods. But
the others were to return from Armenia,
where they then were, to Babylon, and, in
obedience to the command of the gods, dig up
the books buried at Sippara and give them to
mankind. They obeyed those instructions.
They sacrificed to the gods, and returned by
land to Babylon. They digged up the sacred
books, erected many cities and temples, and
rebuilt Babylon. On the Gordysean moun-
tains, where it settled, remains of the boat of
Xisuthrus were in existence for a long time
afterwards."

This account of the great flood, as given
by Berosus, is heightened in interest by com-
parison with the later and more ornate tradi-
tion of the same event as found recorded in
the inscriptions of Assyria. Among the ruins
of the palace of Ashur-bani-pal, an Assyrian
monarch of the seventh century B. C., tablets
have been found from which the story of the
flood has been deciphered iu terms somewhat
different, and yet strikingly analogous to the
old Chaldtean tradition. The legend recorded
on the tablets runs thus: That the god Hea
commanded SI -It' to build a ship of given di-
mensions and to launch it on the deep, for it
was his purpose to destroy sinners. Then
Hea said :

"When the flood comes which I will send
thou shalt enter into the ship, and into the
midst of it thou shalt bring thy corn, thy
goods, thy gods, thy gold and silver, thy slaves
male and female, the sons of the army, the
wild and tame animals; and all that thou
hearest thou shalt do. And Sisit gathered to-
gether all his possessions of silver and gold,
all that he had of the seeds of life, and
caused all of his slaves, male and female, to

'The same as Xisuthrus. In the writings of
Lucian the name of the captain of the deluge is
given as Sisythes, which is evidently a form inter-
mediate between Xisuthrus and Sisit.

114

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

go into the ship. The wild and tame beasts
of the field also he caused to enter, and all
the sons of the army.

"And Samas, the Sun-god, made a flood, and
said : ' I will cause rain to fall heavily from
heaven ; go into the ship and shut the door.'
Overcome with fear Sisit entered into the ship,
and on the morning of the day fixed by
Samas the storm began to blow from the ends
of heaven, and Bin thundered in the midst
of heaven, and Nebo came forth, and over
the mountains and plains came the gods, and
Nergal the Destroyer overthrew, and Adar
came forth and dashed down: the gods made
ruin; in their brightness they swept over the
earth.

"The storm went over the nations; the
flood of Bin reached up to heaven ; brother
did not see brother; the lightsome earth be-
came a desert, and the flood destroyed all liv-
ing things from the face of the earth. Even
the gods were afraid of the storm, and sought
refuge in the heaven of Anu ; like hounds
drawing in their tails, the gods seated them-
selves on their thrones, and Istar, the great
goddess, spake : ' The world has turned to sin,
and therefore I have proclaimed destruction.
1 have begotten men, and now they fill the
sea like the children of fishes.' And the gods
upon their seats wept with her. On the sev-
enth day the storm abated, which had de-
stroyed like an earthquake, and the sea began
to dry. Sisit perceived the movement of the
sea. Like reeds floated the corpses of the
evil-doers and all who had turned to sin.
Then Sisit opened the window, and the light
fell upon his face, and the ship was stayed
upon Mount Nizir, and could not pass over it.
Then on the seventh day Sisit sent forth a
dove, but she found no place of rest, and re-
turned. Then he sent a swallow, which also
returned; and again a raven, which saw the
corpses in the water and ate them, and re-
turned no more.

" Then Sisit released the beasts to the four
winds of heaven, and poured a libation, and
built an altar upon the top of the mountain,
aud cut seven herbs, and the sweet savor of
the sacrifice caused the gods to assemble, and
Sisit prayed that Bel might not come to the

altar. For Bel had made the storm and
sunk the people in the deep, and wished in his
anger to destroy the ship, and allow no man
to escape. Adar opened his mouth, and spoke,
to the warrior Bel: 'Who would then be
left?' And Hea spoke to him: 'Captain of
the gods, instead of the storm let lions and
leopards increase, and diminish mankind ; let
famine and pestilence desolate the land and
destroy mankind.' When the sentence of the
gods was passed, Bel came into the midst of
the ship and took Sisit by the hand and con-
ducted him forth, and caused his wife to be
brought to his side, and purified the earth,
and made a covenant; and Sisit and his wife
and his people were carried away like gods,
and Sisit dwelt in a distant land at the mouth
of the rivers." 1

Traditions of a flood have been preserved
in all countries the formation of which has
been such as to subject them to the danger of
overflow. Egypt is, perhaps, the only excep-
tion, and this is easily accounted for by the
fact that the inundations of the Nile were so
regular and so beneficial in their results as to
be desired rather than dreaded by the people.
Legends similar to those of the Chaldseana
and Assyrians have been found among the
peoples of Armenia, Thessaly, Bceotia, India,
and indeed, in all countries exposed to de-
structive floods. The story of the deluge as
narrated in the seventh chapter of Genesis is
a record of the same event as that given
by Berosus and stamped on the Assyrian tab-
lets, though the Hebrew account is in a more
refined and elevated form.

The period at which the great flood in
Chaldsea occurred is unknown. The dates
given in Berosus are mythical, and are based,
no doubt, on a method of computation not
now understood. So, also, the First Dynasty
of kings after the flood covers one of those
fabulous epochs in which tradition runs riot
and history gropes in blindness.

At the beginning of the Second Dynasty
there is, as yet, only a tinge of the morning
dawn. Here it was that NIMROD, the great

'George Smith's Assyrian Diicoveries, pp. 185-
195; also, Duncker's History of Antiquity, pp. 243-
245.

. CHRONOLOGY AND A \\.\l..\

115

hunter, who is represented as being a descend-
ant of Gush, flourished in Lower Mesopota-
mia. His dominion was at first along the sea-
coast, but was soon extended northward as far
as BABEL, which became one of his principal
cities. The capital was Ur or Hur, situated
on the right bank of the Euphrates a short
distance above the mouth. The other chief
seats of his power were the cities of Erech,
Accad, and Calneh.

Tradition indicates that Nimrod was a war-
rior, as well as a hunter of wild beasts. As
early as the time when the Book of Genesis
was composed the name of Nimrod had passed
into a proverb. The mixture of good and bad
in his reputation is, no doubt, attributable to
the fact that he was a tyrant
as well as a defender an op-
pressor of the people as well
as a destroyer of lions. Very
little is known of the details
of his campaigns or the meth-
ods of his government, but
his fame has reached through
the intervening ages as that
of Romulus pervades the his-
tory of ancient Rome.

After death Nimrod was
deified, and was ever regarded
by the Babylonians and As-
syrians as one of the gods of
the nation. His divine title
was Bel-Nimrod, signifying
God of tine Chase. The city of Calneh, as the chief
seat of his worship, was called by his name,
and to tins day the ruins and mounds which
are so abundantly scattered over the district
where the great hunter once held dominion,
are, without distinction, designated by the
name Nimrud. 1

Except the first, the successors of Nimrod
were less famous. Little is known of them

or their deeds. To this period belongs the re-
tirement of the Semitic tribes from the region
about Babylon and their concentration in
Upper Mesopotamia on the Tigris. The prim-
itive Phoenicians, too, living on the borders
of the Persian Gulf, alarmed, perhaps, at the
prowess of Nimrod, migrated westward to Cap
nan n, and founded their ancient kingdom on
the shores of the Mediterranean. Abraham,
with his kinsmen, left Ur, and journeyed first
up the Euphrates and afterwards to the west.
The power established by Nimrod was thus
left dominant from above Babylon to the sea.
After no great interval the mighty hunter
was succeeded by URUKH, who was wellnigh
as famous for monumental grandeur as Nim-

UR OP THK CHALDEES.

1 Notwithstanding the almost universal tradition
of Nimrod it should be borne in mind that thus
far no single inscription or monumental trace of
him or his reign has been discovered. If the exist-
ing remains of Chaldsea should be depended on as
the sole source of our knowledge of early Baby-
lonian history, we should be compelled to place
the beginning with the succeeding reign of Urukh
and to omit as mythical the storv of Nimrod.

rod for war. Urukh is the earliest Chaldsean
monarch of whom existing remains bear wit-
ness ; of him the testimony is abundant. The
burnt bricks and tablets containing his name
and inscriptions are of a more primitive pat-
tern than those of any other period. In the
mounds and ruins the references to this king's
reign are found in the lowest position, and
the style of writing is more ancient than any
other yet discovered in the country. The
character of the buildings also indicates a
very remote epoch. The bricks are unequal
in size, and clay mixed with bitumen is the
substitute for mortar.

The architectural style of Urukh'g struc-
tures, though simple, is massive, in some in-
stances suggesting if they do not rival the

116

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

pyramids. The foundations of his temples
are vast platforms of masonry, so broad and
deep as to suggest a waste of human labor
similar to the prodigal expenditures of toil in
the works of ancient Egypt.

To the age of Urukh belong the ruins of
Warka. On the site of this ancient city ' is
the celebrated mound called by the natives
the Bowariyeh. The general shape of the ruin
is that of a cone or pyramid, but the ravages
of time have marred the symmetry of the
structure. Modern investigations have shown
that this massive pile was originally a tower
two hundred feet square at the base and two
stories in height. The first story was built of
sun-dried bricks of irregular shapes and sizes.
At intervals of four or five feet layers of
reeds were placed in the bitumen to give cohe-
rence to the whole. la the upper story, now
fallen away in ruins, the central part was also
of sun-dried bricks but faced on the outside with
bricks which had been hardened by burning.

The present height of this ancient Chal-
dsean temple is about one hundred feet above
the level of the plain. But little is known
of the original proportions or plan of the
structure. In the ruin which remains the
massive buttresses are still easily traced, and
their dimensions indicate that the temple in
its entirety was one of great height and grand-
eur. All the bricks comprising the buttresses
are stamped with inscriptions and the layers
are firmly cemented with bitumen. The cubic
contents of the entire edifice have been esti-
mated at three million feet, and the number
of bricks employed in building it at thirty
million.

On the burnt bricks of this ruin the name
and praises of Urukh are of constant occur-
rence. Sometimes the simple name of the
great monarch is stamped in the baked clay.
Sometimes the inscription recites that " Urukh,
king of Ur, king of Sumir and Accad, has
built a temple to his lady, the goddess Nana."
Again the legend runs that "Urukh has built
the temple and fortress of Ur in honor of his
Lord, the god Sin." Or again the words are,
"The mighty Lord, king of Ur, may his name
continue ! "

1 \n Genesis called

The temple of Mugheir, or Ur, also belongs
to the times of Urukh, and is a ruin of equal
note. Like that of Warka, it lay until re-
cently buried under the rubbish of centuries.
Carefully conducted excavations have now
laid bare that part of the edifice which has
been spared by the elements, and the explorer
is able to trace the outline of what was once
the temple of the Moon-god Hur. The four
corners of the building instead of the four
sides, as has been common in nearly all coun-
tries ancient and modern are set to the cardi-
nal points of the compass, 1 so that the longer
sides of the parallelogram constituting the
ground-plan lie to the north-east and the
south-west.

The foundation of this edifice is raised
twenty feet above the level. The longer sides
of the base are one hundred and ninety-eight
feet and the shorter one hundred and thirty-
three feet in length. The first story above
the basement is about forty feet in height.
This story is protected without by a wall ten
feet in thickness composed of bricks burnt to
redness in a kiln and carefully laid in bitumen.
The second story, now mostly fallen away,
has been of the same shape and general char-
acter as the first. Local tradition has pre-
served a notion of the third story, which is
represented as being the shrine of the god to
whom the temple was erected. Some tiles
glazed with a blue enamel and some copper
nails have been discovered in such a position
as to leave the impression that they were a
part of the materials employed in the construc-
tion of the immediate shrine of the deity.

Ruins similar to those of Warka and
Mugheir are found in many parts of Chal-
dsea. Calneh or Nipur and Larsa have re-
mains only second in importance to those
already described. Ever and anon the trav-
eler comes upon some enormous heap of rub-
bish which on investigation proves to be the
overgrown wreck of a fallen temple. In
Calneh two of these mounds are found cover-
ing the fragments of buildings erected during
the reign of Urukh. Both of these structures
were temples, the first dedicated to Beltis and

1 This feature of the Mugheir ruin is said to
be common to all Chaldaean temples.

CHALDjEA. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

117

BUILDING OF THE TEMPLE OK \VAKKA. TIME OF UlU'KH.

118

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

the other to Bel-Nimrod. In Larsa the ruins
show that the sun-god, San, was worshiped as
the tutelary deity of the city.

The capital of Urukh's kingdom was the
city of Ur. In the inscriptions he is some-
times designated as king of Ur sometimes of
Accad. It was in Ur that the building ener-
gies of his reign were chiefly displayed. In
the ruins of this city his inscriptions are more
abundant than those of any other monarch.
In Upper Chaldsea the traces of Urukh are
less frequent. Babylon was then a newly
founded town, and seems not to have risen to
importance until the epoch following. After
Ur, Warka held the second rank among the
cities of the empire, Larsa and Calneh being
next in importance.

After the death of Urukh the kingdom
descended to ILGI, his son, of whom neither
traditions nor inscriptions have preserved any
lengthy account. The royal seal or signet
used by the Chaldsean and Assyrian kings
was in the form of a small cylinder, having
figures and characters engraved in the surface.
This cylinder when rolled upon wax or other
plastic substance left the king's name and
emblems set in relief upon the material used
in sealing. In one of the mounds near Warka

the signet-cylin-
der of Ilgi has
been discovered,
and is now pre-
served in the
British Museum.
The legend
which it bears
has been trans-
lated as follows: "For saving the life of Ilgi,
from the mighty Lord, the king of Ur, son of
Urukh."

By King Ilgi the public works of Ur,
begun by his father, were carried forward to
completion, and to him also is ascribed the
repairing of two of the principal temples of
Erech. It is known from the inscriptions that
both Urukh and Ilgi were warlike princes,
and that in addition to their fame as builders
they won by force of arms the distinction of
being known to after ages. Such is the mea-
ger outline of mingled fact and tradition, by

THE SEAL OF ILGI.

which the First Dynasty of Chaldsean kings
are preserved in the annals of modern times.

Meanwhile in the country of Elam, lying
east of Chaldsea, a new power had risen, as
warlike, perhaps, as the people of Ur and
Babylon. The capital of this kingdom be-
tween the Tigris and the mountains was the
ancient city of Susa. Around this center the
mixed tribes of Aryans and Turanians had
gathered into a monarchy at a time almost as
remote as that of the founding of an empire
on the Lower Euphrates. In the obscure
epoch following the reign of Ilgi, the Elamite
power became aggressive and made war upon
the Chaldseans. Under the leadership of their
great king, KUDUR-NAKHUNTA, they overran
the country as far north as Babylon, sacked
the cities, pillaged the temples, and carried
off the images of the gods. This was the be-
ginning of Dynasty II., the kings of which
are designated by Berosus as Median though
without sufficient reason. For it is evident
that the name Elamite or Susianian would
more properly describe the monarchs of
this line.

Though the dominion of Elam over Chal-
dsea was thus established it does not appear
that the Elamite kings resided in the latter
country. They chose instead their old capital
Susa, and governed the Chaldseans by vice-
roys appointed over their principal cities. Thus
did Kudur-Nakhunta himself, who established
tributary kings in the conquered country.
After him came the warlike king KUDUR-
LAGAMER,' who while retaining his own court
at Susa ruled in Mesopotamia by three of his
vassals.

Having settled the affairs of the countries
already under his authority, Kudur-Lagamer
resolved on a great expedition, first into
Assyria and afterwards into, Canaan and
Egypt. Raising a large army he advanced
up the Euphrates, and thence westward against
the Canaauitish tribes, who under their kings
gathered in the valley of Siddim near the
Dead Sea to oppose the progress of the eastern
invader. Here was fought one of the first
great battles recorded in history. Kudur-
Lagamer was victorious, and the kings of

1 The Cliedor-laomer of Genesis.

CHALD MA. CHRONOLOGY AXD ANNALS.

119

Canaan were for a period of twelve years
brought into subjection. After this they re-
belled, and the Elaniite monarch was again

After this battle, in which Lot, the nephew
of Abraham, was taken prisoner, the Elaniite
army, burdened with spoils and captives, began

KUDUR-LAGAMER STORMING A TOWN IS CANAAN.

obliged to come against them. A second great
battle was fought near the scene of the first,
and, as before, Kudur-Lagamer was completely
victorious. The power of the confederacy
was apparently broken.

to withdraw towards Chaldsea, bat when in
the vicinity of Damascus, Abraham with a
band of followers fell upon them by night and
drove them in a rout across the desert. It
uas rather a panic than a victory, though

120

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

Abraham's band by their bold onset regained
a large part of the booty. The effect of the
check, however, was such as to discourage
from further invasion the king of Chaldsea.

Of the subsequent monarchs of the Elamite
or "Median" dynasty only three are known
by name, and of the first of these, called
SiNTi-SniL-KnAK, nothing except the name
has been preserved. The second, named Ku-
DUR-MABUK, is honored in the inscriptions
with the title of "Conqueror of the West."
He is represented as having enlarged and
adorned the city of Ur. To him tradition
also ascribes the distinction of having restored
the Chaldeean religion, which had been dispar-

BUINS OF SUSA.

aged during the preceding reigns. The tem-
ples were repaired, and the old gods brought
back with honor to their pillaged shrines.
The national pride of the Chaldseans was still
further gratified by the removal of the king's
court from Susa to the old capital Ur, and
this city continued to be the seat of govern-
ment during the reign of ARID-SIN, the son
and successor of Kudur-Mabuk, and even to
the end of the Second Dynasty, B. C. 2052.
The semi-authentic annals of these earlier
periods of the Chaldsean Empire give place
in Dynasty III. to mere conjecture. In the
scheme of Berosus eleven kings and a period
of forty-eight years are assigned to the inter-
val between the time of Ariel-Sin and the ac-
cession of the fourth line of mouarchs. Of

the history of events during these uncertain
years no scrap has been recovered from either
monument or tradition. It appears to have
been a transitional epoch, during which the
power of the Elamite kings and their vice-
roys in Chaldsea weakened and disappeared.
Whether the sovereigns of Susa became less
ambitious of foreign dominion, or whether the
Chaldseans recovered by revolt and war their
former independence, seems undiscoverable
from the remoteness of the time and the con-
fusion of the period.

The Fourth Dynasty was ushered in by
the establishment of a line of native sover-
eigns, who held the throne of Chaldam for

f o u r hundred
and fifty-eight
years. The kings
of this line were
forty-nine in
number. One
of the earlier
monarchs of the
dynasty was
ISMI-DAGON,
who certainly oc-
cupied the throne
before the mid-
dle of the nine-
teenth century
B. C. His reign
is chiefly noted
for the extension

of Chaldsean authority into the upper part of
the Mesopotamian valley.

The ascendency of Babylon over the
country afterwards called Assyria dates from
this period. SHAMAS-VUL, one of the king's
sons, who acted as his viceroy in the upper
districts of the empire, built a temple at
Kileh-Shergat. The inscriptions give other
evidences of the preponderating influence of
the Chaldseau mouarchs towards the north, and
show conclusively that the power of Assyria
had not yet risen to importance. For a con-
siderable period the affairs of this kingdom
if kingdom it may be called continued to
be administered by satraps and governors sett
out from Babylon.

Ismi-Dagou was succeeded on the throne

CHALDjEA. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

121

by a son, called GURGUNA. This king is
chiefly remembered as the builder of the great
cemeteries at Ur, perhaps the most remarkable
ruins in Chaldaea. After Gurguna came
NARAM-SIN, doubtless his sou, who was the
builder of the great temple in 'the city of
Agaua. His reign is memorable as the time
when the seat of government was transferred
to Babylon, which by this epoch had grown
to be the metropolis of Chaldsea.

The tendency to remove the capital farther
and farther up the valley betokens the increase
of population in Upper Mesopotamia and the
gradual spread of civilization northward. The
seat of the Empire, which in the times of
Urukh had been at Ur, was transferred first
to Warka and thence to the more recent
Babylon, where it remained until the rise of
Assyria.

The date of Naram-Sin's reign was about
the middle of the eighteenth century B. C.
He was the first of a long line of sovereigns
in the Fourth Dynasty whose names add the
word Sin, the same being the Chaldee appella-
tive of the Moon-god, whose worship was a
chief element in the religion of the times.

After Naram-Siu came SrN-SHADA, who
was the builder of the upper terrace in the
temple of Warka, now the ruin of Bowariyeh.
Next was Tim-SiN, the greatest monarch of
his times. He was the founder of the city
Abu-Sharein, the ruins of which bear witness
to the introduction of a new style of architec-
ture, improved in its structural character and
richer in ornament than the building of pre-
vious times. Here it is, also, that the most
satisfactory traces of the simpler arts are
found. Stone knives and chisels aud hatchets
are discovered everywhere in the ruius ; but
implements of metal, except a few imperfect
specimens of gold aud bronze, are wanting
during this period. Iron seems to have been
used only in ornaments for the person.

Of RiM-SiN, the last monarch of this line,
not much is known, except what is contained
on a single tablet found among the ruins of
Ur. Immediately preceding his reign was
that of the king NuR-VuL, whose name occurs
in the list of Berosus, but of whom no monu-
mental record has been discovered. It is evi-

dent, indeed, that during the times of the Sin
kings the power of the Fourth Dynasty de-
clined to such an extent as to invite invasion
and conquest. The reigns of the later group
of these mouarchs covered the period from
the close of the eighteenth century to the
year B. C. 1546.

The name Arabian is given by Berosus
to the Fifth Dynasty of Chaldsean kings.
But it is by no means certain that the great
conqueror, KHAMMU-RABI, by whom Dynasty
IV. was overthrown and supplanted, was out
of Arabia. There is no doubt that the dis-
sensions aud weakness of the Chaldsean kings
of the Sin series had made the country an
easy prey to an ambitious leader and his
armies, from whatever quarter they might
come.

It is possible that the conquest of K lumimu-
Rabi was no more than a revolution effected
by a strong-willed chieftain of one of the lower
Mesopotamian cities. According to Berosus
this dynasty was composed of nine kings, but
the names of fifteen sovereigns of .the line
have been deciphered from the inscriptions
and tablets; from which it appears that in
several places the less important kings per-
haps those who reigned for a shorter time
than a year were dropped from the lists.
Nor is it quite certain in what order the reigna
of the so-called Arabian monarchs occurred.

There is no doubt, however, that the first
of this line was the great Khammu-Rabi,
whose name is associated with many important
enterprises. He it was who introduced the
system of artificial irrigation, by which large
districts in the country about Babylon were
converted into gardens. The great canal,
afterwards known as the river of Khammu-
Rabi, through which the waters of the Eu-
phrates were carried into the waste places be-
tween the rivers, was constructed during
this reign. A white stone tablet preserved in
the Louvre, at Paris, recites that the canal cut
by Khammu-Rabi became a blessing to the
Babylonians, converting desert plains into
well-watered fields and spreading around fer-
tility and abundance.

For himself Khammu-Rabi built a new
palace at Kahvadha, near the present site of

122

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

Baghdad. He also repaired the great temple
of the sun at Senkereh. 1 His reign extended
from the middle of the sixteenth century B.
C. to about the year 1520. After his death
the crown descended to his son, SAMSU-!LUNA,
of whom only one series of inscriptions have
been discovered. His reign belonged to the
last quarter of the century, after which the
lists are broken by a gap of about seventy-five
years.

With the reappearance of the line in the per-
son of KARA-!N-DAS, we come to a group of five
kings, between whom and the monarchs of the
rising kingdom of Assyria on the north, po-
litical relations begin to appear. It is the
time when Assyria first competes with Chal-
dsea for supremacy iu Mesopotamia. The
chronology becomes more certain, inasmuch as
the records of the two monarchies, by counter-
references, can be used to check the errors of
either. Between the two kingdoms the rela-
tions were sometimes warlike and sometimes
peaceful. Now a treaty is made, and now
the violation of a compact leads to invasion.
In one instance a revolution occurs, in which
the Chaldsean king, KARA-KHAR-DAS is over-
thrown and killed by an insurrectionist named
Nazi-Bugas, whereupon an Assyrian army
marches down the valley, destroys Nazi-Bugas,
and restores to the throne the brother of the
murdered king. At another time the daugh-
ter of Asshur-Upalit, king of Assyria, is given
in marriage to PURRA-PURIYAS, monarch of
Chaldsea, and indeed on every hand are dis-
covered the traces of the increasing influence
of the northern kingdom. The last of the
five monarchs just mentioned was KURRI-
GALZU, relics of whose reign are found chiefly
at Mugheir" and Akkerkuf.

The latter city is reputed to have been
founded by this king, of whom it contains
several important inscriptions. The remain-
ing sovereigns of the Fifth Dynasty are SAGA-
RAKTIGAS, who built a temple of the sun at
Sippara, AMMIDI-KAGA, ami six others, whose
names occur in a list of the kings iu such a
way as to classify them with. Kharnmu-Rabi.

Such is the somewhat meager outline of
the civil and political history of ancient

1 The ancient Larsa. * The ancient Ur.

Chaldsea, and of the broken genealogy of her
princes down to the time when Assyrian influ-
ence became dominant in Lower Mesopotamia.
The date of this event has been fixed at B. C.
1301. In this year Tiglath-Adar, king of
Assyria, invaded Chaldsea, captured Babylon,
and reduced the country to a dependency of
his empire. It is not to be understood that
the power of Chaldsea as a nation was de-
stroyed or that the political condition of the
country was very greatly changed from what
it had been during the times of the Fourth
and Fifth Dynasties.

With the accession of Dynasty VI., which
is said by Berosus to have embraced forty-five
kings, the Babylonian monarchs became and
continued mere viceroys, tributary to Assyria,
so that, in one sense, the civil history of Chal-
dfea may be said to have ended with the As-
syrian conquest. However this question may
be considered, the beginning of the fourteenth
century marks an epoch in the progress of the
Lower Empire, and is generally regarded as
the end of the first monarchy established on
the banks of the Euphrates.

The ancient kingdom of Chaldsea was, next
to Egypt, the oldest civil government of an-
tiquity. The conditions under which the em-
pire was established were very similar to those
which gave shape to early civilization in the
valley of the Nile. The great men of Chal-
dsea were, first of all, Nimrod, who was the
Romulus of the kingdom. After him was
Urukh, the Builder, who gave to Chaldaea her
material grandeur. Nimrod warred against
the adverse elements of primitive savagery ;
Urukh bestowed colossal energies on monu-
mental forms, and left his memory to the
temples of the gods rather than to heroic tra-
ditions. Kudur-Lagamer, likewise, may well
be regarded as great. He was a conqueror
one of the earliest known to history and
though his conquests beyond the western des-
ert could hardly be expected to remain as an
integral part of the Empire, yet the military
impulse given by him to the nation which he
ruled continued for centuries. For a short
period he controlled the destinies of a people
who were dispersed from the eastern limits of
Susiana to the Dead Sea on the west, a dis-

CUALDJEA. SCIENCE AND ART.

123

tance of twelve hundred miles, while from
north to south the breadth of his dominions
was scarcely less than five hundred miles.
Though he and his successors were unable to
retain control of Jiis widely extended terri-
tory, he nrvertheless demonstrated the possi-
bility of establishing vast empires embracing
many peoples aud languages, and thus became
the prototype of those great oriental conquer-
ors whose deeds constitute so large a part of
Ancient History.

The kingdom of ancient Chuldaea is more
interesting to us from its antiquity than from
its territorial extent or its material grandeur.
At a time when all the rest of Asia west of the
Altais and the Himalayas was slumbering in
night the Cushite tribes of the Lower Eu-
phrates emerged from darkness, and substi-
tuted for the coarse manners of barbarism the
institutions of primitive civilization the home,
the city, the state. These people betook them-
selves to the quiet pursuits of the field and to
the erection and decoration of the temples of
the gods, while the Semitic and Aryan tribes
on the north and west were still nomads, prey-
ing upon nature, living by the chase.

From this ancient seat of refinement a
knowledge of science and letters and art was
gradually diffused into Assyria, and after-

wards into Media and Persia. The method
of writing employed by the various races in-
habiting these countries is all traceable to the
primitive type employed by the Chaldseans.
So that it may be fairly said that Chaldtea waa
the mother of civilization in Western Asia.

Belonging to the period here considered
(2458-1301 B. C.), the names and fragments
of the histories of about thirty kings have
been checked off from the lists of Berosus
aud verified by existing monuments. Further
researches in Lower Mesopotamia will doubt-
less yield still more satisfactory results; and
with an amount of exploration and scholarly
criticism equal to that which has been given
to the valley of the Nile, it is probable that
Chaldsean history can l>e as clearly written as
that of Egypt. For the present we are com-
pelled to content ourselves with an outline,
rather than a narrative, of the famous king-
dom founded by Nimrod and terminated by
the conquest of Tiglath-Adar, of Assyria. In
connection with the history of the latter coun-
try, whatever is known of the viceroys reign-
ing at Babylon, and of the progress of the
country over which they ruled down to the
times of Cyrus the Great, will be narrated as
it is suggested by the more important history
of the Assyrians.

CHAPTER ix. SCIENCE AND ART.

|OR their learning the
Chaldseans have been pro-
verbial for three thousand
years. Doubtless the
country at the head of
the Persian Gulf was that
land of fabulous wisdom
known by the ancients as THE EAST. The
great poets and historians of Rome designated
by the name CHALD.EAN whoever was fam-
ous in a knowlfil-rt' f the stars, the lore of
books, and the gift of prophecy. There is no
doubt that long before the language of the
Hebrews became a fit vehicle for literary ex-
pression there were in Lower Mesopotamia
N. Vol. i8

men worthy to be called philosophers. The
traditions of antiquity point to two cities as
the fountains of human wisdom Memphis in
Egypt, and Babylon of the Chaldees.

But learning and philosophy grow up
slowly. They have their roots in those homely
arts by which human life is sustained and in-
vigorated. All the refinements of civilization
rest upon the two fundamental facts of agri-
culture and architecture. The first stage of
the evolution out of barbarism is marked by
plowing and building. Where the plow is
unknown and the hammer unheard, the tribes
of men will never reach beyond the develop-
ment of hunters aud nomads.

124

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

In ancient Chaldsea the agricultural life
was vividly suggested by the aspect and char-
acter of the valley. A level and unobstructed
alluvial plain stretched from river to river.
AVhat seeds soever were scattered in this mel-
low soil sprang into vigorous life. The prim-
itive dwellers in these flats were abundantly
and certainly rewarded for their labor. The
native grains and fruits were refined by culti-
vation, and the overplus of the harvest sug-
gested new wants and the possibilities of
commerce.

The most fruitful of the districts soon
gathered the most enterprising population.
The growing village gave token of progress.
Then came the town, the city, the temples of
the gods. The earliest buildings of Chaldsea
were cabins constructed by bending into
arches the tall stems of growing plants, inter-
woven with reeds, and covered with mats of
rushes. Soon the strong trunk of the palm-
tree was substituted for the native reed in the
construction of the frame, and instead of a
barricade of matting, a coat of plastering,
composed of mud and bitumen, was laid
upon the wall.

In a mild and equable climate such houses
might well suffice for the abodes of men.
Villages and towns might be so constructed,
wherein civilized peoples could live in comfort
and prosperity. But as society advanced the
religious impulse and public spirit cooperated
to demand and to produce a higher style of ar-
chitecture. The temples of the gods must be
imposing and ornate, and to this end some
material more enduring than reeds and trunks
of palms must be procured. In this stage of
their development men generally resort to
stone ; but the Chaldseans were here at a dis-
advantage. What nature has so abundantly
supplied in most countries is entirely wanting
in Lower Mesopotamia. In the whole coun-
try between Samarah and the sea there is not
a single quarry of stone. The peculiar char-
acter of early Babylonian architecture can be
traced to this remarkable feature in the physical
structure of the country. The Arabian quar-
ries on the west yielded only a coarse sand-
stone; the distance was great, and the inter-
vening plain, for the most part, an oozy and

impassable marsh. The absence of neighbor-
ing hills,

" Rock-ribbed and ancient as the sun,"

imposed on the Chaldseans the necessity of
selecting from the bosom of nature some ma-
terial less enduring than that which has given
immortality to the ruins of Egypt. Except
to a very limited extent and only in peculiar
situations, such as in the exposed part of an
important wall, is any stone found among the
remains of Babylonian greatness.

Clay in the form of bricks and tiles, was
the natural substitute, and of this an excellent
article was abundantly procurable.

In the more ancient ruins of Chaldsea, the
bricks are of the sun-dried variety; and
though, in those parts which have been freely
exposed to the action of the elements only
dust and shapeless fragments remain, yet, in
the inner and more protected situations the
bricks are as well preserved and firm as when,
four thousand years ago, they were laid in
wall and buttress. The introduction of the
kiln so greatly improved the quality of bricks
as to make them a fair substitute for stone,
nor does it appear that the art of hardening
clay by the action of fire has been much im-
proved beyond the primitive methods em-
ployed by the masons of Chaklsea.

The early builders of the Mesopotamian
towns generally used both kinds of bricks in
the same edifice, constructing the central parts
and inner walls of the sun-dried variety and
facing the walls without and parts exposed
with bricks burnt in a kiln. The harder and
more durable material was thus made to pro-
tect the perishable from disintegration under
the action of the weather. In cases where
buildings were constructed wholly of bricks
baked in the sun, the walls otherwise weak
and unstable were strengthened by building
in, at intervals of four or five feet, thick
layers of reed matting, which were allowed to
project beyond the edge of the wall, thus
forming an external protection as well as giv-
ing coherence to the mass. The burnt bricks of
Chaldsea were large in size and in shape pecul*
iar. The side surface was near a foot square,
and the thickness about two and a fourth

CHALDJEA. SCIENCE AND ART.

125

inches. Those bricks which were intended
for the corners and angles were molded in
triangular form or other shapes adapted to
the purpose, while such as were intended for
the arches were given the shape of wedges.

In color the kiln-dried bricks were gener-
ally of a yellowish tinge, sometimes a dark
blue, or more rarely a pale red. The sun-
baked bricks were more variable in size, some
being as small as six inches square by two
inches thick, and some being as much as seven
inches in thickness by sixteen inches in length
and breadth. The color of these is scarcely
darker than the native clay, which, owing to

BRICK OF BABYLON, TWELVE INCHES SQUARE. >

the absence of iron in the soil, is much lighter
than in most countries.

In order to cement their walls into a com-
pact mass the Chaldseans employed two kinds
of mortar. The first was mere clay or mud
mixed with chopped straw, the other bitumen.
The latter was the better material, binding to-
gether so firmly the bricks between which it
was placed that even at the present day they
can not be separated without a heavy blow.
The use of bitumen succeeded the use of clay
at the same time that the kiln-burnt suc-
ceeded the sun-dried variety of bricks.

The principal ruins of ancient Chaldrea
Bowariyoh and Mugheir have already been
described in connection with the reign of
Urukh. The temple of Abu-Sharein was of
the same general character, though somewhat

1 The inner inscription contains the name of
Nebuchadnezzar.

more refined in its proportions and style than
were the edifices at Warka and Ur. It is one
of the few structures of true Chaldtean date
in which stone is extensively employed. The
proximity of a quarry in the neighboring
Arabian hills is sufficient to explain this rare
departure from the use of brick; but it is not
so easy to account for the presence of pieces
of agate, alabaster, and marble, carefully cut
and polished, which have been discovered in
abundance scattered about the base of the
edifice. Small plates of gold and gilt-headed
nails, employed, no doubt, in internal orna-
mentation, have likewise been found in the
ruin.

The Chaldsean temples, though massive
and imposing, were evidently wanting in
architectural beauty. In the level and un-
varying plain in which they were situated,
they were, no doubt, grand and impressive ob-
jects; but the absence of external ornament
and of the thousand effects which art so
readily produces in the construction of great
buildings, must have rendered the temples of
Lower Mesopotamia, with their somber outer*
walls and huge buttresses and unsightly air-
holes, devoid of beauty and attractiveness.

In the inner parts, especially in the sacred
shrine of the deity to whom the temple was
dedicated, considerable artistic skill was dis-
played in ornamenting the wood-work and the
images of the god. Plates of blue enamel,
nails of copper and of gold, and the bits of
alabaster already referred to, indicate that the
inner shrines of temples were decorated in
a pleasing and artistic manner; but, beyond
this, the great structures of Chaldoea were,
like the pyramids, dependent for their effect
upon the mere grandeur and massiveness of
their aspect.

Of the common buildings dwellings,
houses, huts not much is known. Only a
few structures of this sort have been pre-
served. The outlines of one dwelling-house
have been traced in the excavations made at
Ur. The foundation was a brick platform,
raised considerably above the surface. The
house itself was in the form of a cross, irregu-
lar in outline and wanting in symmetry of
proportions. The floors were of burnt brick

126

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

well laid in bitumen, and the walls were plas-
tered with gypsum. In the chambers of a
house discovered at Abu-Shareiu more elabo-
rate decoration is found. The walls are orna-
mented with designs in color-frescoes in red,
black, and white ; figures of birds, beasts, and
men, carefully drawn on the fine, firm plaster
of the walls.

The compartments of Chaldsean houses
were generally long and narrow, and into
these doors opened directly from without.
The roofs were principally of wood, and
framed so as to lie flat from wall to wall.
Sometimes an arched roof is found, high and
regular, well built of bricks and pointed with
bitumen.

By what means the light was admitted into
the Chaldsean houses the excavations have
thus far failed to show. No windows have
been discovered in the walls ; but this may be
accounted for by the fact that only the lower
part of the walls, to the height of six or
eight feet, remain of what was once a story of
considerable elevation. It is to be greatly re-
gretted that the building material employed
by the ancient inhabitants of Chaldsea was
not like that of Egypt everlasting.

After the buildings, public and private,
which have been preserved on the banks of
the Lower Euphrates, the objects of next im-
portance to the historian are the burying-
places of the dead. The tombs of Chaldsea
are so plentiful and so thickly populated as to
give rise to the conjecture that the dead of
the Assyrians were brought from the north to
be interred in the sacred land. The quantity
of human remains in certain burying-grounds
is thought to be too great to have been de-
rived from the people of the adjacent district.
Large spaces are literally filled with bones
and relics of the dead. Sometimes the coffins
have been piled one upon another to the
depth of from thirty to sixty feet, and for miles
out into the desert the very soil underfoot
seems to be nothing but the accumulated dust
of dead races.

In some of these localities the relics are
from widely separated epochs; but in other
places the remains are homogeneous, being
evidently gathered from a given period of

Chaldsean history. The position and quality
of the relics, the nature of the accompanying
ornaments, and particularly -the character of
the coffins in which the remains are inclosed,
are generally sufficient to determine the date
at which the burying-ground was peopled.
None of the remains found in these vast char-
nels belong to a time more recent than the
middle of the sixth century B. C., while
many are to be referred to the earlier, even
the earliest, epochs of the national history.

In disposing of the dead the Chaldseans
employed several methods of sepulture. In
the first of these the body was laid prone in a
brick vault. The chamber was about seven
feet in length by three and a-half feet in
breadth and five feet high. The floor and
walls were made of sun-dried bricks carefully
laid in mud or bitumen, and the side walls
were closed in above with an arch. On the
floor was spread a matting of reeds, and on
this the body was laid so as to rest on the left
side. The fingers of the right hand were
placed upon a copper bowl, which was set in
the palm of the left. A single brick was
placed beneath the head for a pillow. Articles
of ornament and use were set in different
parts of the vault, and vessels containing food
and drink were placed near the head of the
dead. Vaults of this style seem to have been
in many instances family tombs, the remains
of several bodies being frequently found in
the same chamber. Besides the brick vaults,
several kinds of coffins were used in earth
burial. The first of these was a burnt clay
box in the shape of the cover of a dish. In
the bottom of the tomb a foundation was laid
of bricks. This was covered with mats, as in
the brick vaults; on these mats the body of
the dead was laid, and over the body a large
earthenware trough was turned so as to inclose
and cover the remains. The huge dish thus
inverted over the dead was generally seven
feet long, two and a-half feet broad at the
bottom, and three feet high. The covers in
the graves of children were only about one-
half the size of those in the tombs of adults,
the latter being the largest specimens of pot-
tery which have been discovered in any
country. In a few instances two skeletons

CHALD&A SCIENCE AND ART.

127

have been found under a single cover, but in
most cases only one body was placed under
each coffin. Arranged about the dead, as in
the family vaults, articles of food and orna-
ment were set, the disposition of the body
being as in brick chambers already described.
The dish-cover coffins were buried at a great
depth, none of those discovered at Mugheir
being within less than seven or eight feet of
the surface. 1

Another kind of coffins employed by the
Chaldraans consisted of two large earthenware
vessels, shaped like ancient water-jars, set
mouth to mouth and sealed with bitumen.
Each jar was about three feet deep, the whole
inner space of six feet being
sufficient to contain the body
of a full-sized adult. Within
the earthen cylinder thufl
formed by setting the two
jars mouth to mouth the
dead was placed, and tie
whole covered with earth.
For it was the manner of
the Chaldteans ' to arrange
the coffins containing the
bodies of their dead in rows
on the ground and then
cover them from sight,
gradually raising a mound
over the place selected for
burial. When a sufficient depth had been
attained, another layer was placed above the
first, and then another, till the surface of the
mound was sometimes raised sixty feet above
the original level.

The sepulchral mounds were carefully
drained. Lunj; shafts of clay tiling extended
from the surface to the original ground level,
insuring a perfect drainage. The shafts were
composed of a succession of rinirs or joints
about two feet in diameter, each joint being
skillfully fitted into the next and sealed with
bitumen. At the top each shaft contracts to a

diameter of about six inches. The whole tube
is filled within and packed without with a
mass of broken pottery, the whole being
as well adapted to the purpose of a perfect
drain as any modern contrivance. By the
means here described the tomb-mounds of
Lower Mesopotamia have been completely
preserved from the effects of dampness, the
contents being generally found as dry as the
dust of dust.

Their large dish-cover coffins and huge
stacks of drainage tiling show the Chaldteana
to have been unusually skillful in the design
and manufacture of potteries. Other specimens
of their work are more elegant and artistic.

1 It is quite probable that a part of this unusual
depth of burial may be accounted for on the sup-
position of subsequent accumulation on the sur-
face. The " rain of dust," continuing for some
thousands of years, has no iluiilit heaped upon the
Chaldrean dead some additional depth of earth.

GLAZED COFFINS, FROM WARKA.

Many jars, vases, and drinking-cups, belong-
ing to the earlier times of the monarchy, bear
evidence of careful manipulation and beauty
of finish. Some are of rude and primitive
patterns, resembling the aboriginal pottery of
Mexico and Peru; but others are produced
from the finest clay, skillfully turned on the
potter's wheel, and of designs equaling in
beauty the second class of Greek vases. In a
few instances the artist has, with considerable
success, imitated the forms of animals, but
this kind of art is generally found on burnt
tablets prepared especially to contain the re-
liefs. In such works the figures most fre-
quently modeled are those of lions, bulls, and
men, and the prevailing idea is that of a com-
bat the man overcoming the lion or the lion
devouring the man.

Of the signet-cylinders mention has been

128

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

made in a previous chapter. These peculiar
official ornaments were generally of jasper or
chalcedony, and were used by their owners to
impress their seals on soft clay tablets employed
in writing. The cylinders were about a-half
inch in diameter by three inches in length.
Through the axis a hole was bored and a metal
parallelogram bronze or copper one side of
which passed through the opening, was
attached, and by means of this the cylinder
was rolled upon the tablet. The ornament
was suspended to the wrist or neck of the
owner by a chain or string fastened to the
metal frame. On the surface of the signet, as
already noticed, the design of the seal adopted
by the wearer was cut in reverse, so that the
impression was made in relief. The engraving
presented in these ancient relics of a dead
empire is frequently of such elegance and
delicacy as to excite the admiration, if not the
envy, of modern lapidaries.

The tools and implements employed by the
Chaldseans were rude and imperfect. In the
oldest ruins flint knives, hatchets, and ham-
mers of stone abound, while articles of bronze
are less plentifully distributed. Of the latter
material the specimens are chiefly arrow-heads,
knives, hatchets, and sickles. The stone im-
plements are generally indicative of some
progress in the use of materials and the adap-
tation of means to ends, but in many instances
the tools are of so primitive a form, and so
rudely fashioned, as to excite surprise that the
articles produced with them should exhibit
so much elegance.

At the first the precious metal of the Chal-
dseans was iron, its use being limited to orna-
mentation. Several of the other metals silver,
zinc, platinum were unknown. Articles of
gold and copper are plentifully found in the
mounds, while relics of tin and lead are ex-
tremely rare. Gold, like iron, was chiefly em-
ployed in the manufacture of ornaments, and
copper, in the form of bronze, furnished
among the Chaldaeans, as among most ancient
peoples, the main reliance in the way of me-
tallic instruments, particularly in the fabrica-
tion of weapons.

Of the textile fabrics of Chaldsea not much
is known. It could hardly be expected that

the perishable product of looms, whose owners
have slumbered in dust for four thousand
years, should have survived to excite our cu-
riosity. Only a few shreds of linen and some
scraps of tasseled head-dress, occasionally found
in the tombs, remain as a token of the work
done by the weavers and spinners of Lower
Mesopotamia. In the book of Joshua we are
told how Achan lost his life for coveting a
Babylonish garment which he had found along
with a wedge of gold among the spoils of
Jericho; and the reputation which Babylon
afterwards enjoyed as the chief seat of the
costliest manufactures of the world, leaves
little doubt that her skill in this line of hu-
man industry had been of a high order even
from the earliest times.

It was in a clear apprehension of the laws
of nature, rather than in a useful application
of knowledge to the practical affairs of life,
that the Chaldseaus surpassed most of the
nations of antiquity. The featureless plain
of Mesopotamia was in a great measure de-
void of vivid -terrestrial phenomena. Those
aspects of the natural world, which in most
countries are so complex and variable as to
baffle investigation and stimulate the growth
of myths, were in Chaldasa, as in Egypt, more
regular, and suggestive of an orderly sequence.
Here nature seemed calm and majestic. The
exact point at which a star cut the horizon
could be noted from evening to' evening.
The return of any given phenomenon in the
stately progress of the skies might well pro-
voke attention and excite expectancy of
another recurrence. The serene climate and
pellucid Chaldsean heavens brought the people
ever face to face with the stars. That science
rather than poetry should be the favorite di-
version of the Chaldsean sages was a natural
result of their situation and surroundings.

The observation of the skies, so assiduously
cultivated on the Lower Euphrates, laid the
foundation of astronomy and chronology.
Diodorus truthfully declares that the Chal-
dseaiis were far before all other nations in
their knowledge of the heavens. Here it was
that the relation of the solar circuit to the
other cycles of the system was discovered and
recorded. It was seen that the sun completes

CHALDJEA. SCIENCE AND ART.

129

his course in the heavens in about twelve
rounds of the moon, and, therefore, was the
year divided into twelve months of thirty
days each ; and when this was found to meas-
ure the year inaccurately a system of inter-
calculations was introduced by which the cal-
endar year was made to correspond with the
sidereal year of three hundred and sixty-five
and a fourth days.

The progress of the sun through the
heavens was mapped for each of the twelve
months, and thus the twelve signs of the
Zodiac were established. The deviations of
the planets from the path of the sun on either
side determined the boundaries of the zodiacal
signs, and each sign was divided into thirty
degrees by the daily progress of the solar orb.

The phases of the moon fixed the limits of
the week at seven days, and after the analogy
of the year each clay was divided into twelve
parts or hours. Thus from nature were de-
duced the elements of the duodecimal system
of computation. The hour was divided into
sixty parts five times twelve. The cubit
consisted of twenty-four finger-breadths two
times twelve. The soss was a cycle of sixty
years; the ner was ten times sixty, and the
tar was the square of sixty, or three thousand
six hundred years.

For determining the distance from point
to point in the open skies the breadth of the
sun's disc was taken as a unit On the morn-
ing of the equinox, at the precise moment
when the upper limb of the sun was seen to
cut the horizon, an orifice in a water-jar was
opened and the fluid allowed to run until the
full disc was risen. The water discharged
was carefully measured and was found to be
l-720th of the quantity discharged through
the same orifice by sunrise on the following
morning from which the inference was drawn
that the whole orbit of the sun is measured
by seven hundred and twenty times the
breadth of his own disc. This ingenious
method of observation furnished a unit both
of space and time, the former being one-half
a degree, and the latter, two minutes, or one-
thirtieth of an hour. The distance which an
active foot-courier could walk in thirty units
of time, that is, an hour, was called a paratang,

and one-thirtieth of a parasang was a stadium.
The stadium was divided into three hundred
and sixty parts called cubits, and sixty cubits
constituted a plethron. 1

By the application of these simple meas-
ures to the terrestrial and celestial spheres the
Chaldseaus obtained very extraordinary re-
sults results which may be fairly called sci-
entific. They discovered and recorded the
fact that in a period of two hundred and
twenty-three months the lunar eclipses return
in the same order. The establishment of this
cycle gave the length of the synodic and pe-
riodic months with so much accuracy that
modern astronomers have found the calcula-
tions true to within less than five seconds of
our time.

The Babylonian tablets have already fur-
nished a list of ten eclipses of the moon and
three conjunctions of planets which were re-
corded by observers in the years 721 and 720
B. C. Callisthenes, who accompanied Alex-
ander the Great on his expedition to Babylon,
sent to Aristotle from that city a set of tablets
containing astronomical records reaching back
to about the middle of the twenty-third cen-
tury before our era. Although these records
are lost, and although the data on which
they were calculated must have been in some
particulars erroneous, yet they were no doubt
genuine astronomical tables which had they
been preserved would possess for modern as-
tronomers unusual interest and value. It
does not appear that the astronomical science
of the Chaldseans was tinctured with astrolog-
ical superstitions, or that the baleful effects of
priestcraft had blurred the natural beauty of
the skies.

Some knowledge of arithmttic was neces-
sarily precedent to progress in astronomy.
Nor is it a matter of conjecture that the
Chaldjeans had considerable skill in the science
of numbers. Two systems of notation were

The Babylonian cubit was equal to a fraction
over one and two-thirds feet, more exactly 21
inches, or 525 millimeters. Hence the following
table of equivalents:

1 cubit 21 inches.
60 cubits = 1 plethron 35 yards.
6 plethra = 1 stadium 38.2 rods.
30 stadia = 1 parasang = 3.58 miles.

130

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

employed, the one duodecimal, the other dec-
imal. In writing the numbers, only two ele-
mentary characters, the wedge (f ) and the
arrow-head (>), were employed. These char-
acters were combined in a manner at once
simple and comprehensive, so as to constitute
a complete and satisfactory table of notation.
The chief defects of the system were the repe-
tition of the same character to express differ-
ent numbers, the absence of the Arabic prin-
ciple of giving a figure a value according to
its rank, and the want of a cipher or zero.
Taken all in all, the method was superior to
that in use among the Greeks and Romans.

The system of weights employed by the
Chaldseans was based upon their system of
measure. A cubit of water, weighing about
sixty-six pounds, was divided into sixty equal
parts, and each part called a log being about
five-sixths of a pint. This was the unit of
measure ; and the weight of this unit, called
a mina, was the unit of weight. The oldest
specimen of a weight which antiquarian re-
search has rescued from the past is a duck-
shaped stone belonging to King Ilgi of Ur.
The simple inscription, "tenminse of Ilgi,"
tells the story of its date and use.

Investigation has shown that the Chal-
dseans, like most other nations, had one sys-
tem of weights for the common articles of the
market-place, and another for the precious
metals and gems. Instead of the imperial
weights employed for all other purposes, gold
and silver were estimated by a more delicate
system, in which peculiar circular pieces or
rings of the precious metals were taken as
the units of weight. The denominations were
the talent, the shekel, etc. names afterwards
adopted by the Hebrews and the Greeks.

The system of writing employed by the
Chaldaeans is worthy of special consideration.
Like the hieroglyphics of Egypt, the Babylo-
nian system was, for a long time, the puzzle
of European scholarship. Its first peculiarity
is that all the characters employed are recti-
linear, and the second is that the characters
are nearly all sloping or wedge-like in form,
from which the name cuneiform, meaning
wedge-shaped, has been adopted to describe
this species of writing.

Philosophically considered, such writing
is of the same nature as the hieroglyphics
of the Egyptians. Both systems began with
the pictorial representation of objects by
means of lines. In the case of the hiero-
glyphics the development was rather in the
use of curves, while, for some reason, in the
system of the Assyrian and Persian nations,
the use of right lines predominated. As a
result of these two tendencies the curve-line
figures of beasts and birds was longer retained
in the writing of the Egyptians and soonei
lost by cursive abbreviations in the writing
of the Chaldseans. The gradual departure
from the old pictorial type, and the substitu-
tion, first of an emblematic, and afterwards
of a phonetic type to represent the name of
the object rather than the object itself, and
finally the use of this phonetic type in spell-
ing alphabetically the words of the language,
were the same in both the hieroglyphic and
cuneiform systems. Each passed in like man-
ner through successive stages of degeneration
until the arbitrary alphabet triumphed over
the pictorial symbols.

The appearance of cuneiform writing ia
peculiarly angular and jagged. The words
are produced by combinations of the two
simple types, the arrow-head (>) and the
wedge (T). In many instances the character
is a monogram rather than a word spelled
alphabetically, showing that the process of
phoneticizing the language was arrested before
it was complete. In other cases the charac-
ters used are determinatives, being affixed to
certain words to indicate their classification.
Thus a given determinative indicates that the
word to which it belongs is the name of a
being in the class of gods; another, that the
object is classified with men ; another, with
countries; a fourth, with towns, etc. It is
probable that the determinatives had, as a
general rule, no phonetic influence on the
words to which they belonged, their function
being merely official, like that of a capital
letter in English. It appears that, in some
instances, however, the determinative was
pronounced instead of the word to which it
was affixed.

The writing of the Chaldteans is almost as

CHALDJEA. SCIENCE AND ART.

131

abundant as that of the Egyptians. It is
preserved in the two forms of tablets and
bricks. In all cases the writing was impressed
on the clay while moist and plastic. The in-
scriptions on the bricks are all of a royal
origin, recounting the story of the building
in which they are found, the name of the
king, his titles, his glory and renown. The
tablet inscriptions are more frequently of a
private character, referring to such matters as
deeds, contracts, and personal records. The
writing is from left to right in all cases except
on the signet-cylinders, on which the inscrip-
tions are of course reversed. Where the le-
gend is printed on bricks, only a part of each
brick a square near the middle is occupied
with the inscription, which seems, in most
cases, to have been stamped upon the clay,
but in others to have been engraved or cut in
the surface with a tool.

The tablets of the Chaldteans are plates
of baked clay, slightly convex on each side,
resembling a small pillow, flattened to the
thickness of two or three inches. The shape
is not always regular, nor does it appear that
the makers cared much for the beauty of the
material which was to contain a record of
their thought. The sides of the tablets were
thickly covered with cuneiform inscriptions.
The plates were then carefully burnt, and when
this was done a new layer of clay was spread
ever the surface upon which the inscription
was repeated. The whole was baked a second
time, so that the inner legend was securely
incased in a shell of imperishable tiling. If
the outer inscription should be defaced, the
shell could be broken away, revealing the
original within. And this original could
even be repeated by casting new clay iu the
concave mold of the outer crust, for this
would contain in relief an exact duplicate of
the first inscription ou the inner tablet.

On many of the plates, in addition to the
matter contained in the regular inscription,
the signet-cylinder of the maker or contractor
has been rolled across the surface, producing
in relief the legend adopted by the wearer as
his motto and seal. This part of the inscrip-
tion is found lying iu a baud across the face

of the tablet, and is easily distinguishable
from the rest, of which it is evidently the at-
testation. After the tablet was completed in
the manner described, it was laid away among
the archives of the family, just as important
papers are filed for preservation. Such in-
scriptions are abundant in all the ruins of
Lower Mesopotamia ; and there is little doubt
that the deciphering of these mute plates of
antiquity a work as yet only begun is des-
tined to cast much light on some of the vexed
problems of ancient history.

In addition to what they printed on clay
and preserved by burning, the Chaldseans
were skillful in gem engraving. Their work
of this kind was sometimes highly artistic,
comparing favorably with that done by the
modern lapidary. The signets and seals
already described belong to this kind of
art, and the inscriptions on some of the
cylinders are of such an archaic type as to
prove conclusively that the art was success-
fully practiced from the earliest times of the
Empire. Several of the seals belonging to
the elder Cbaldsean monarchs have been de-
ciphered and translated into English. Of
this description is the seal of Urukh, men-
tioned in a former chapter. The inscription
is: "The signet of Urukh, the pious chief,
king of Ur, high-priest of Nifter." Reference
has also been made to the seal of Ilgi, on
which the legend is as- follows: "To the
manifestation of Nergal, king of Bit-Zida, of
Zurgulla, for the saving of the life of Ilgi,
the powerful hero, the king of Ur, son of
Urukh. . . . May his name be preserved."
A cylinder belonging to one of the Sin Dy-
nasty has the following inscription : " Sin, the
powerful chief, the king of Ur, the king of
the four races. ... his seal." Some of the
cylinders are plain, having neither figures nor
inscriptions on their surfaces. Others have
figures and emblems, but no legend. Consid-
erable variety is shown in the designs pre-
sented on the signets, and no inconsiderable
degree of artistic skill exhibited in their exe-
cution. Enough remains to establish the fact
that the gem-cutters of Chaldsea were profes-
sional workmen and devotees of their art.

132

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

CHAPTER X. RELIQION.

HE religious system of
the Chaldseans began with
a theory of the creation
of the world. This theory,
as it was received and
taught by the priests of
Babylon, has been pre-
served in the fragment of Berosus already
referred to, 1 and is as follows :

" Once all was darkness and water. In
this chaos lived horrid animals, and men with
two wings, and others with four wings and
two faces, and others again with double organs,
male and female. Some had the thighs of
goats, and horns on their heads; others had
horses' feet, or were formed behind like a
horse and in front like a man. There were
bulls with human heads, and horses and men
with the heads of dogs, and other animals
of human shape with fins like fishes, and
fishes like sirens, and dragons, and creeping
things, and serpents, and wild creatures, the
images of which are to be found in the tem-
ple of Bel.

" Over all these ruled a woman of the
name of Omorka. But Bel divided the dark-
ness and clove the woman asunder, and of
one part he made the earth, and of the other
the sun and moon and planets; and he drew
off the water and apportioned it to the land,
and prepared and arranged the world. But
those creatures could not endure the light of
the sun and became extinct.

"When Bel saw the land uninhabited and
yet fruitful he smote off his head and bade
one of the gods mingle the blood which flowed
from his head with earth, and form therewith
men and animals and wild creatures who could
support the atmosphere. A great multitude
of men of various tribes inhabited Chakliea,
but they lived without any order, like the
animals.

'' Theii there appeared to them from the
eea, on the shore of Babylonia, a fearful ani-
1 See ante, p. 112.

mal of the name of OAN. His body was that
of a fish, but under the fish's head another
head was attached, and on the fins were feet
like those of a man, and he had a man's voice.
The image of the creature is still preserved.
The animal came at morning, and passed the day
with men. But he took no nourishment, and
at sunset went again into the sea, and there
remained for the night. This animal taught
men language and science, the harvesting of
seeds and fruits, the rules for the boundaries
of land, the modes of building cities and
temples, arts, and writing, and all that pertains
to the civilization of human life."

Such is the story of the genesis of things
as told by Berosus. The narrative goes on
to recount the genealogy and history of the
princes who first reigned in the earth after
the creature Oan taught men the arts and
sciences. First came Alorus, whom the god
himself had called from the shepherd life to
be king of Chaldsea. His reign lasted for
36,000 years. After that his son Alaparus
ruled for 10..800; Almelon, for 46,800; and
Ammenon for 43,200. Then there came an-
other sea-god up from the deep whose name
was IDOTION. He, like Oan, instructed the
human race, and then retired as he came. In
a subsequent reign, also of fabulous duration,
four additional fish-men, having the wisdom
of the gods, came from the sea, and were for a
season the teachers of mankind; and finally
in the reign of Edorankhus another aquatic
god, ODAKON, of like fashion with the preced-
ing, came and explained in detail the wonders
of the system which Oan had revealed in out-
line. This was the last of the Chaldsean ava-
tars before the flood of Xisuthrus. 1

The gods of the Chaldseans were sky-gods.
Their home was in the open heaven. They

1 It is interesting to note that the ten primeval
rulers of the world Alorus, Alaparus, Almelon,
Ammenon, Amegalarus, Daonus, Edorankhus,
Amempsinus, Otiartes, and Xisuthrus correspond
in number at least to the ten antediluvian patri-
archs mentioned in the Book of Genesis.

CHALVJEA. RELIGION.

133

were for the most part the deities of stars
ami planets. Twelve were worshiped as hav-
ing divine powers of the highest order. The
supreme god was EL. After him was named
the great capital Bab-El the Gate of El. He
sat enthroned above the other deities in heaven.
He was the lord of the sky-land. Austere and
stern he was, sitting apart from the other gods
and without sympathy for the human race.

In the great flood the anger of El was
kindled against all men, even Sisit, whom he
wished to destroy with tho rest. His titles
were " the Warrior," " the Prince of the gods,"
"the Lord of the universe." In one of the
Assyrian tablets he is called "the Lamp of
the divinities," aud everywhere he was recog-
nized as dwelling in light and majesty. The
worship of El, however, was not so' universal
or popular as was that of the gods whom the
Chaldtean imagination more intimately asso-
ciated with human interests and hopes.

After El the next in rank among the dei-
ties of the Chaldseaus was the god ANU. He
had his abode in the concave dome of the
heavens. Hither it was that the other gods,
terrified by the devastation of the flood, fled
for security from the wrath of El. Anu had
many titles. In the Assyrian inscriptions he
is generally honored with the epithet malik, or
king. In other places he is called ''the old
Anu," " the original Chief," " the Sire of gods,"
"the Lord of spirits and demons." On some
tablets he is known as " the King of the lower
world," "the Lord of darkness," "the Ruler
of the far-off city," etc.

The chief seat of Anu's worship was the
ancient city of Erech. Here was one of the
favorite burying grounds of the Chaldseans,
and over this Anu was said to preside as a
tutelary deity. 1 His association with this
great necropolis of Lower Mesopotamia gave
to him something of the character of Pluto
among the nations of the West. The worship
of Anu was very ancient. Urukh himself

1 The name of the god Anu appears in many
forms. Sometimes it is Ana, sometimes Yan or
Oan, the name of the fish-god who instructed the
Chaldreans in the rudiments of science and art.
The name also appears in the Hebrew word Anam-
melech and others of like formation.

mentions him among the deities worshiped at
Ur. Shamas-Vul, the son of Ismi-Dagon,
built at Shergal, as early as 1830 B. C., a
temple to the honor of this god. The temple
of Warka, even after Anu had long ceased
to be worshiped at its shrine, still bore the
name of Hit-Ann, or House of Anu. Even
Beltis, whose worship was substituted for that
of Auu in this temple, was known as the
Lady of Bit-Anu.

The god BEL is generally known by his
Greek name Belus. But the attributes given
him by the Greek authors dj not harmonize
perfectly with those ascribed by the Chaldaeans
to Bel. By the latter this god was honored
with such titles as "the Supreme," "the
Father of the gods," "the Procreator," "the
Lord of spirits," etc. There is also some con-
fusion between the offices and titles of Be
and those of the half mythical Nimrod after
his deification. It seems that vh..n the great
hunter was enrolled among the gods his attri-
butes and epithets were merged with those of
Belus, or Bel, so that in later times there was
little if any distinction between the deified
Nimrod and the god with whose nature he
was blended.

The common epithet of this hero-god was
accordingly Bel- or Bil-Nipru, that is, Bel-
Nimrod, or "the Hunter Lord." The chief
seat of his worship was Calneh or Nipur, the
modern Niffer. To him this city was sacred.
Here, no doubt, the great Nimrod reigned in
the heroic age of Chaldsea. The city bore his
name, and the great and splendid temple was
dedicated to his worship. By many traditions
he is associated with this old capital of the
country.

Besides the local importance of Bel-Nimrod
in Calneh, his reputation as a powerful deity
extended to other cities and districts. A
large temple was erected in his honor by
Kurri-Galzu at Akkerkuf, and invocations
found on Assyrian tablets, in which he is ad-
dressed as "the Lord of the world," prove
that his fame and worship had extended even
to the capital of the northern kiugd m. To-
gether with Auu and Hea he constituted a
trinity of Chaldee gods quite distinguished in
power and attributes from the almighty El

134

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

and the stellar deities who will presently
claim attention.

The third divinity in the triad of Chal-
dsea was HEA< He it was who in the like-
ness of the fish-monster came up out of the
sea to teach the Chaldaeans letters and astron-
omy. To them he made known the ways of
life, and though he took upon himself the
form of a reptile in which to make his revela-
tion to the first settlers in Lower Mesopotamia,
he seems not to have suffered by his abase-
ment. By Berosus he is celebrated as being
" the great Giver of good gifts to man." Some-

TBOCESSION OP BEI*

times he is called "the Lord of the abyss,"
and sometimes "Lord of the sea." Like Po-
seidon of the Greeks, Hea was represented as
having dominion over the waters. But more
particularly was he worshiped as the giver of
life and knowledge. As such his symbol was
the serpent, the common emblem among the
oriental nations of superhuman wisdom.' His

1 There are strong grounds for connecting the
tradition of Hea in the form of a reptile, making
men wise as the gods, with that of the serpent in
Paradise luring Adam and Eve with the promise
of expanded wisdom in enting of the fruit of the
tree of knowledge. Some forms of the Chaldwan
myth are very similar to the story of Eden. (See
Rawlinson's Herodotus, Vol. I, p. 609.)

connection with the invention of letters is
perpetuated in the arrow-head, which, in addi-
tion to being one of the primary characters in
all the cuneiform inscriptions, is also a symbol
of Hea. The cult of Hea was one of the
most important and influential elements in the
religion of the Chaldeans.

Next came the gods of the planets and
stars, the first of whom was the Moon-god
SIN. Though placed by Berosus after the
god of the suu, in the myths of the Chaldseans
themselves the moon-deity has the preeminence
over his more luminous rival. Perhaps there
is in this fact a hint that the early race of
men who gathered into a permanent society
at Ur of the Chaldees found pleasure and
profit rather in the calm meditations of the
eventide and the stillness of the night than in
the splendors of the day. There is no doubt
that the climate of Lower Mesopotamia was
specially favorable to the development of
evening reveries; and it is not difficult to
conceive how, in the cool of the twilight,
while the crescent moon hung her silver arc
of beauty in the western sky, the busy imagi-
nation and reverent heart of the Chaldsean
sage as he sat by the door of his tent could
attribute the first of divine powers to the orb
of night.

By the earlier Chaldseans the Moon-god
was called HURKI, from the same root as the
word Ur, the chief seat of his worship. This
name signifies to watch, and the epithet was
no doubt bestowed in allusion to the vigils of
those who by night watched their flocks or
dreamed of the infinite, under the stars. The
principal titles of Sin were "the Powerful,"
"the Lord of the spirits," and "the King of
gods." In reference to his heavenly sym-
bol, he was called "the Bright" or "the
Shining." On the monuments he sits as a.
venerable bearded figure, and near his head
are pictured the various phases of the crescent
moon. 1 On the signet-cylinder of King Urukh
the Moon-god is so drawn. He sits with one

1 It is a striking peculiarity of the drawings of
the crescent moon, as they appear on the Baby-
lonian monuments, that the semilune is always set
with the bow towards the horizon a position which
in the latitude of Chaldiea could rarely happen in
nature.

CHAU>.h'A.l{KU<lION.

135

hand outstretched as if in salutation, and
tlin-e worshipers standing before him do obei-
sance. This deity was the special favorite of
the Chaldsean kings. To him, as already
noted, the great Urukh and his distinguished
son Ilgi built and dedicated the ancient tem-
ple of Ur. His worship was also popular
with the princes of Borsippa and Babylon.
One dynasty of Chaldiean sovereigns were in
honor of this deity designated as the Sin
kings. During the long period of Assyrian
domination the Moon-god held his place in the
esteem of the people, and as late as the times
of Nebuchadnezzar his worship was perpetu-
ated with the greatest ardor and formality.

Next to Sin among the deities of the lumi-
naries of heaven was SAMAS, god of the sun. 1
His symbol was the circle. He was repre-
sented as illuminating heaven and earth, and
was celebrated as lord of the daylight. But
more generally his titles were not directly re-
ferable to the power and splendor of the sun.
He was known as "the Ruler of all things,"
"the Establisher of the firmament," and "the
Vanquisher of the king's enemies." In war-
like expeditions Samas went forth with the
army. He put the foe to flight. He tri-
umphed over opposition. He extended the
royal dominion and upheld the king's arm in
battle. Just as the sun warms and invigorates
universal nature, so Samas in the minds and
hearts of men cheered with light and warmed
with inspiration.'

The cities of Larsa and Sippara were the
principal seats of the Sun-god's worship. At
the former place was the great temple reputed
to have been built by Urukh and restored
from time to time by the Chaldiean kings
down to the times of Nebuchadnezzar. In
the latter city the worship of Samas prevailed
over all other forms of religion, insomuch
that Sippara became known to the Greeks
under the name of Heliopolis, or City of the
Sun. The idolatry of Adrammelech, the fire-
king, told of in the Second Book of Kings as
having been introduced into Samaria from the

1 The name is variously written : Samas, Sha-
mas, Shemsi, Sansi, San, etc. The English word
un is no doubt originally derived from the same
root

East, was but a transplanted form of the wor-
ship of the Chaldsean Samas. The high and
universal respect in which this deity was held
by the princes and kings is indicated in the
fact that very few of the royal signet-cylinders
are without the symbol of the sun among
their emblems of divinity.

High in rank among the deities of Chal-
dsea, though perhaps not greatly esteemed in
the times of the founding of the Empire, was
the storm-god Bm. 1 He wielded the power
of the air, and was therefore allied in his of-
fices to the classical Zeus. In the system of the
Chaldseans, however, Bin most nearly corre-
sponds to the Uranus of Greek mythology.
He was the wielder of the thunder-bolt, the
director of the storm and tempest. He it was
who in the Chaldsean account of the deluge is
represented as thundering in the midst of
heaven. He was regarded as the destroyer of
the harvest. His emblem, found upon the
tablets and cylinders, is a kind of flambeau
representing lightning. His character was
that of a destructive agent in nature, and yet
as the rain-god he was celebrated as the giver
of fertility and the master of the fecundity
of the earth. The rivers and canals and
aqueducts were regarded as under his watch-
care, and the public works by which civiliza-
tion is fostered were protected by his favor.

The first of the fire-spirits of the planets
was ADAR, the lord of Saturn. To him were
given also the Semitic names of Bar and Nin.
In character, however, the god Adar is more
nearly allied to the classical Hercules than to
Uranus. He was worshiped as the god of
strength and courage and the lord of the
brave. His face was against the enemy in
battle, and the heart of the warrior was
strengthened in the conflict by calling on the
name of Adar. He was "the Reducer of the
disobedient," "the Exterminator of rebels."
Like Bel-Nimrod he trampled down the foe.
Like the Roman Mars he led the king's armies
to victory.

By a strange mingling of attributes, Adar
is sometimes confounded with that fish-god,

1 This name is also variously written. Some-
times it is Iva, and more frequently Vul; but Bin
seems to be indicated as the true form.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

IMAQK OF THE FISH-GOD.

Oan, who taught the Chaldseans the begin-
nings of art and science. In this capacity he
is represented iu the reliefs as part man and
part fish, and underneath is written such titles
as " God of the sea" and
"the Dweller in the
depths." By another
change of epithets he is
lifted again to his own
place in the skies, and
adored as "the Chief of
spirits " and ' ' the Favor-
ite of the gods." Further
on, in the myths of Assyria, Adar, as the im-
personation of strength and power, takes the
character of the Man-bull, and as such stands
guard in the sculptured courts of palaces.

Like the worship of Bin, that of Adar
seems not to date from the earliest, but rather
the later, times of the Lower Empire. The
oldest of his temples were those of Calah,
which rank among the more important ruins
of Chaldsea. The later temple at Nineveh
had so great a reputation for magnificence
that the fame thereof was carried to the West-
ern nations to be celebrated by Tacitus. The
emblem of Adar is generally the fish, and the
popularity of the deity and of his worship is
indicated in the wide distribution of his em-
blem among the inscriptions.

The Jove of the Chaldseans was called
MERODACH. His leading title, somewhat gro-
tesque withal, is "the Old Man of the gods."
His worship was a part of the earlier religious
system, and gradually rose to preponderance,
especially in the times of the Assyrian su-
premacy. Merodach was the god of the judg-
ment the patron of justice and right. In
his worship there was a larger element of
morality than in that of most other Eastern
deities. 1 In all those lands where justice was
administered by kings sitting in the gates,
Merodach was regarded as presiding and
watching over the right. In a philosophical
way he was known as "King of the earth,"
"the most Ancient," and "the Senior of the
gods." From the high character and spiritual
nature which he bore, he was less frequently

1 The Hebrew name of Jupiter is Sedek, mean-
ing Justice.

represented by material emblems than was any
other of the great deities of Chaldsea. Nor is
it certain that any figure in Chaldsean art
is now extant which was intended to give the
artistic concept of this divinity. 1 In the in-
scriptions of Nebuchadnezzar II., Merodach,
under the title of Belrabu, is celebrated as
superior to all the deities of heaven and earth.
To the planet Mars was assigned the war-
god NERGAL, whose titles are "the King of
battles" and "Champion of the gods." The
principal seats of his worship were the ancient
cities of Kutha and Tarbissa. In the Assyrian
account of the flood Nergal is referred to as
the destroyer; but his chief fame was based
on his power over the chase and the battle-
field. In this his attributes are mingled with
those of Bel-Nimrod, to whom he is also
likened in the worship given him as the an-
cestor of the Assyrian kings. The symbol of
Nergal is the celebrated Man-lion, which
stands with outspread wings at the portals of
the great temples and the palace gates of Susa
and Nineveh. There is thus established an
intimate association between the War-god and
Adar, whose effigy, the winged bull, stands
also as the guardian to the entrances of pal-
aces and temples.

The Chaldsean Venus was called BILIT a
name which is given in Herodotus as Mylitta.
The name means "the Lady," but the more
august title of the goddess is "the Queen-
mother of the gods." Sometimes she is called
" the Lady of Offspring ; " and it appears that
the Babylonians gave her a preeminent rank
as the goddess of fertility and birth. At
Babylon a splendid temple was built iu her
honor. Within the court was a grove, under
whose cool shade a fountain of water symbol-
ized the divinity. To her the cooing dove
was sacred, and the sportive fish, whose fe-
cundity peoples the waters. The shrine of
the goddess was in the grove, near the fount-
ain, and hither came bands of pilgrims to
worship.

According to the custom of the time the
maidens of Babylon were once in their lives

1 Among the sculptures of Babylon, a figure of
a god walking is supposed to be an attempt to
represent Merodach.

CHALD^A. RELIGION.

137

obliged to offer themselves at this shrine. At
a certain season they came in companies, and
eat in long rows with chaplets of cords on
their heads, waiting to be chosen. With the
rest came the daughters of princes, in covered
cars, and with numerous attendants. Each
maiden was obliged to remain until some one
of the pilgrims cast into her lap a coin of
gold. Then she must arise and follow him.
The coin she afterwards gave to the treasury
of the goddess, and was thenceforth freed from
her obligation. 1 In all parts of Lower Meso-
potamia the worship of Mylitta was popular,
and the richness of her temples attested the
faith of the Chaldaeans in her whom they re-
garded as the giver of beauty and the author
of love.

Opposed to this goddess, who presided over
the birth of all things tender and beautiful,
was ISTAR, the goddess of war and ruin. In
her attributes she is allied to the Artemis of
Greek mythology. In her relation to Mylitta
we see unmistakable traces of that Eastern
imagination which, in constructing its systems
of theology, has shown so marked a disposition
to arrange the deities in pairs good against
evil, light against darkness, blessing and fruit
against death and ruin. By this strange op-
position of attributes the planet Venus was
assigned to Istar as well as to Mylitta, so that
from this source both love and destruction
were said to emanate. The double aspect of
Venus as mornipg and evening star had
caught the attention of the Chaldseans; and
just as the Western nations gave one name
Phosphor or Lucifer to the star of morning,
and another Hesperus to the star of even-
ing, so the astrologers of the Chaldsean plains
assigned two goddesses, the one of love and
blessing, the other of ruin and death, to the
conspicuous planet of the morning and even-
ing skies.

In the myths of Istar there is a great sim-
ilarity to the stories of Proserpina as recited

'The stoical Herodotus, in continuing the ac-
count of the choosing of the maidens, adds:
"The good-looking and graceful maidens quickly
find a pilgrim ; but the ugly ones can not satisfy
the law, and often remain in the temple for three
or four years." In the apocryphal Book of Ba-
ruc-h the same ceremony is described.

in the poems of the Latin race. The coming
of Life in the spring, and her disappearance
in winter, is commemorated in the narra-
tive of Istar's journey to the nether world.
She went down to the house of Irkolla, which
has no exit. Istar said: "Watchman of the
waters, open thy gate, that I may enter. If
thou openest not, I will break thy gate and
burst asunder thy bars; I will shatter the
threshold and destroy the doors." The myth
recites that the door was opened by the watch-
man, and as Istar passed into the lower world
he took the crown from her head. At the
successive portals
through which she
passed she was
stripped of all her
ornaments, until be-
yond the seventh
gate she was deliv-
ered to Ninkigal,
the spirit of the
depths, by whom Is-
tar was grievously
afflicted.

Meanwhile the
world above lament-
ed the loss of Istar
until what time Hea
sent word to Nin-
kigal to release her.
Then was she bathed
in the water of life ;
the seven portals
were opened, and Is-
tar came back to earth : a myth of the return
of spring.

The representative of the planet Mercury
among the Chaldteans was the god NEBO.
His name is derived from the word nibbah,
which in the Semitic dialects signifies to
prophesy. Nebo was the god of forethought
and intelligence. He presided over knowledge
and learning. He was said to hear from afar
off, and to teach and instruct mankind. In
his attributes he resembled Hermes of the
Greeks, though the character of Nebo was
more exalted and less treacherous than that
of the somewhat whimsical deity of the West.
He was called "the Supporter," "the Ever-

IMAi.K OF NF.BO.

138

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

ready," "the Lord of the constellations."
Notwithstanding the latter high-sounding title
it does not appear that Nebo was a deity of
the first rank in greatness.

Sometimes the name of Nebo is omitted
from lists of the gods, or again it is set among
the minor rather than the major divinities of
Chaldrea. It is doubtful whether Nebo was
worshiped from the earliest times, but it is
certain that he is to be classified with the dei-
ties of Lower Mesopotamia, rather than with
those of Assyria. The chief seat of his wor-
ship was Borsippa, and it was to him that the

great temple of
world-wide fame,
known as the Birs-
Nimrud, was ded-
icated. At Calah,
on the Tigris, the
ruins of one of his
shrines are found,
and it is from this
place that the
striking statues of
the god were taken
and transferred to
the British Mu-
seum.

The catalogue
of planetary gods

NANA, THE PHOCNICIAN ASTABTE. en( Jg w Jt n Nebo.

With each god, according to the system of
the Chaldeans, was associated a goddess,
who shared with her husband the rule of
his sphere. Hea, the Chaldsean Neptune, had
DAV-KINA for his queen, and her titles are the
same as his. The wife of Bel-Nimrod was
BELTIS, who had the highest fame, being hon-
ored with such preeminent titles as " the
Great Goddess," and " Mother of the deities."
Her rank in the pantheon of Chaldoea was
almost as high as that of Juno among the
Romans, and besides this exaltation she had
also many of the attributes of Ceres and Di-
ana. The queen of El was called ANATA,
but her personality is scarcely distinguishable
from his, and her titles are but a reflection
from her husband's. In like manner was asso-
ciated with Samas in authority his wife, the
goddess ANUNIT, who was worshiped at Larsa

and Sippara. The queen of Merodach was
ZIR-BANIT, who had a temple at Babylon, and
who divides with Beltis the honor and rank
of the Juno of the Chaldteaus. With Nergal
was associated the goddess NANA, who appears
to have been the divinity whom the Phoeni-
cians worshiped as Astarte; while to Nebo
was assigned the goddess VARAMIT, who was
honored with the title of " the Exalted one"

It was thus that in their aspirations for
communion with the higher powers, the yearn-
ings of the ancient Chaldseans turned upwards
to the planets and stars. The horizon of the
Babylonian plain was uniform and boundless.
It was the heaven above rather than the earth
beneath, which exhibited variety and life.
The Zodiac was ever new with its brilliant
evolutions. Through the clear atmosphere
the tracks of the shining orbs could be traced
in every phase and transposition. With each
dawn of the morning light, with each recur-
rence of the evening twilight, a new panorama
spread before the reverent imagination of the
dreamer, and he saw in the moving spheres
not only the abode but the manifested glory of
his gods. Between the rising and the setting
of the sun and the moon and the stars and the
movements and vicissitudes of human life
the waking and sleeping, the vigor and wea-
riness of men there seemed to be a constant
relation. The one appeared to depend on the
other. The afikirs of life seemed to receive
their laws and conditions from the skies. The
antecedents of good and evil were in the stars.
Merodach was the author of good ; Adar, the
breeder of malevolence.

In the Zodiac the sun had twelve houses.
His proper home was in the sign of Leo. So
likewise the planets passed through twelve
stages in their journey, and each . sign or
"house" through which an orb thus passed
became a seat of divine power, and the planets
themselves were gods. With these, thirty of
the fixed stars were associated as "counseling
gods ;" while twelve others in the northern sky
and twelve in the south, were called " the
judges." As many of these twenty-four lumi-
naries as were above the horizon decided the
fortunes of the living, while those below the
limit of night decided the fates of the dead.

CHALDMA. RELIGION.

139

Each month of the year belonged to one of
the twelve major gods, beginning with Anu.
The seven days of the week were governed
by the sun, moon, and five planets; and the
hours of the day were apportioned to controll-
ing luminaries.

In all this we find one of the earliest and
most striking examples of the primitive unity
of religion, poetry, and science. In the first
ages of history the offices of the priest, the
bard, and the philosopher were hardly to be
distinguished the one from the other. Each
had his own subjective concept of nature, and
each expressed what was most strongly im-
pressed upon his own thought. Doubtless the
man of antiquity, more than the man of mod-
ern times, was alive to the varying aspects of
the natural world. Doubtless he was thus pre-
disposed to consider Nature, and to speak of
her laws, her origin, her destiny. But each
thinker responded in his own way, and gave
his own interpretation as he waa moved by the
anima mundi. He uttered a prophecy, chanted
a poem, or explained in prose the nature, the
origin, the reason of the world, as he was
moved thereto by the varying moods of his
mind.

The primitive priest, as he gazed on the
passing panorama of earth and heaven, caught
at the idea of intelligent causes behind the
tangible forms and processes of nature. To
him the important question seemed to be who
it teas that controlled and directed the move-
ments of the world and led onward the mag-
nificent marches of the skies. In that part of
nature which lay nearest to himself he per-
ceived no motion or agitation which was not
traceable to some intelligent agency. From
this he reasoned by analogy that the greater
processes of the natural world were in like
manner produced by a personal will and
power that is, by a god. This idea has al-
ways seemed to men of one type of mind to
be the most important thought of which man-
kind are capable; and deducible from this
assumption, the priests of old reasoned that
the most important duties' of man related to a
knowledge and worship of the gods, who were
the causes of all things.

The poet takes another view of the same
X. Vol. i9

problem. It is to his sense* rather than to
his reasoning powers that Nature makes her
strongest appeal. He feels what he sees. He
enjoys ; he suffers. Upon his sensitive nature
falls the shadow of the cloud, and his thought at
once changes to somber melancholy, to doubt,
to gloomy forebodings. The cloud breaks
away, and his spirit becomes radiant as the
light. He gathers the sunbeams in his arms.
He turns his face upward to the blue pavilion,
and pours forth his ecstatic dream in a rhap-
sody of the skies. But he speaks only of
what he sees and feels. His gratified sense*
are the sources of his song.

The sage looks at nature, not in her effect*
upon his senses and imagination, not in re*
spect to the forces which lie behind her visible
forms, but in the relations of her parts. By
him every phenomenon is attributed to some
other, and that to some other still. To him
each fact is itself the cause of the fact which
succeeds it. All things are related and de-
pendent, and the highest knowledge is to un-
derstand the laws of these relations and de-
pendencies. By such knowledge man may be
able to/control the conditions under which he
exists, and to augment his happiness by an
alliance with Nature rather than by the wor-
ship of the gods.

In all times the leading minds of the w>rld
have busied themselves with one or the other
of these interpretations of Nature. In the
primitive ages, however, when thought and
feeling and emotion sensibility, will, and
passion were still commingled in the glowing
minds of men, it generally happened that the
priest was in part a prophet. The sage was
in some sense a philosopher; and the seer in
his higher and nobler moods broke forth
into song.

Of such sort were the Wise Men of Chaldaea.
The interpretation of nature through the min-
gled oracles of priest and bard and prophet
was the ground-work of that half-mythical and
half-scientific lore which, at the first Chaldaean,
became disseminated throughout Western Asia.
To trace the paths of the stars through the
sky, to note the approximation and divergence
of the planets, and to estimate the influence
of this ever-changing aspect on the affairs of

140

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

men, such was the work of the priests. To
show how the prosperity and reverses of the
Empire depended upon conjunctions and oppo-
sitions in the skies, was a duty which has
made the name Chaldsean synonymous in all
ages with seer and prophet. In the Book of
Daniel the Chaldseans are spoken of as the in-
terpreters of stars and signs, and the same
reputation is diffused in the literature of all
nations. Until to-day, in the high light of
civilization, the idea of some kind of domina-
tion of the stars over the affairs of human life
has hardly released its hold on the minds of
men; and the language of the old Chaldsean
ritual of signs 1 has still a familiar sound in
the ears of the credulous.

1 The following application of star-lore to the
affairs of life has been deciphered from a tablet
discovered at Nineveh : " If Jupiter is seen in the
month of Tammuz, there will be corpses. If Venus
comes opposite the star of the fish, there will be
devastation. If the star of the great lion is gloomy,
the heart of the people will not rejoice. If the
moon is seen on the first day of the month, Accad
will prosper."

The intellectual grandeur of the Chal-
dseans ended with the Assyrian ascendency.
The sages and dreamers of the South shrank
back before the brandishing sword of the
North. But the nobler part of Chaldsea, as
of every nation and kindred, could not perish.
The mighty works which were accomplished by
the race of men who brought Lower Mesopo-
tamia into the civilized condition are hardly
any longer to be distinguished from the dust
of the plain; but that beautiful astrological
idolatry, of which they were the authors, has
entered into the dreams and poems of all
lands, and has pierced with its tender light
even the gloom and melancholy of Byron :

" Ye stars ! which are the poetry of heaven !

If in your bright leaves we would read the

fate

Of men and empires, 't is to be forgiven
That in our aspirations to be great
Our destinies o'erleap their mortal state,
And claim a kindred with you ; for ye are

A beauty and a mystery, and create
In us such love and reverence from afar,
That fortune, fame, power, life have named
themselves a star." Childe Harold,

took

ASSYRIA.

CHAPTER XI. COUNTRY AND PRODUCTS.

| F the general character of
the country called AS-
SYRIA something has al-
ready been said. In the
description of Chaldsea a
sketch was also given of
the more important re-
gion on the north. Upper Mesopotamia is
strongly discriminated from the low-lying
Babylonian plain. The latter is an alluvium
which in the course of ages has been created
by the action of the rivers; the former is an
upland district, swelling into plateaus, rising
into hills and ridges. The natural limits of
the country are in some parts indistinct, and
the political boundaries of the Assyrian Em-
pire were at different epochs fluctuating and
uncertain.

The chief seat of imperial power in As-
syria lay on the Tigris, between the thirty-
fifth and thirty-seventh parallels of north lati-
tude. This region may be regarded as the
geographical and political center of that vast
dominion which for several centuries held the
ascendency in Western Asia. The territory,
however, which may be properly included un-

der the name Assyria had a much wider
limit than the two degrees of latitude which
included its vital part.

The ancient historians Herodotus, Pliny,
Strabo give no satisfactory account of the
boundaries of the country. The first consid-
ered Chaldsea to be but a district of Assyria ;
the second made Assyria and Mesopotamia
identical ; while the third included Kurdistan
on the east and Syria on the west under the
common name.

If in order to discover the true limits of
the country we turn to nature, we shall find
on the east the well-defined barrier of the
Zagros mountain range. This chain, which in
the upper course of the Tigris presses moder-
ately close to the river, makes a detour east-
ward, including the ancient provinces of
Adiabene and Chalonitis, and constituting in
that direction the natural boundary of th
country. On the south, also, the limit of
Assyria is plainly indicated in the descent
from the upland to the alluvium a line al-
ready defined as extending from Is to Sania-
rah. On the Mesopotamian side of the Tigris
the determination of a boundary is more dif-

(143)

144

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

ficult; but the best view, whether geographi-
cal or historical, is that which makes the
western and south-western boundary of As-
syria to be the Euphrates. On the north, that
branch of the Armenian mountains known as
the Mons Masius may be properly taken as
the natural limit of the country. Within all
this extensive area, and even beyond its bor-
ders, unmistakable traces of the great Assyrian
race are to be found; and if the provinces
and kingdoms conquered by this people were
to be included, the boundaries would have to
be greatly extended in all directions.

The maximum length of Assyria, measured
diagonally from north-west to south-east, was
about three hundred and fifty miles; the
greatest breadth, three hundred miles. But
the average length and breadth of the country
were not nearly so great. The whole area of
the region included in the irregular boundaries
above given was not less than seventy-five
thousand square miles a district equal to the
State of Nebraska, and not much below the
area of Great Britain.

During the period of her ascendency, As-
syria surpassed in territorial extent any of the
nations with which she came in contact. 1 The
great breadth of the Assyrian dominions, no
less than the fortunate geographical position
of Mesopotamia and the vigor of the race,
contributed to the power and perpetuity of
the Empire.

Assyria is divided by the Tigris into an
eastern and a western part. The former
stretches from the river across the plains and
up the slopes of the Zagros ; the latter, lying
west of the Tigris, looks to the Mesopotamian
uplands and is bordered afar by the Euphra-
tes. The eastern region is amply supplied
with water. A thousand springs and rivulets
bursting from the mountain sides gather and
rush along, combining as they near the Tigris
into rapid streams and swelling rivers. On
the north, also, the region is copiously watered ;

1 The great kingdoms and empires of antiquity
are dwarfed by territorial comparison with the na-
tions of modern times. But by the aggregation of
many populous cities within a narrow district, a
degree of compactness and political concentration
was obtained which is hardly surpassed in the
more diffuse civilizations of the present.

for the high ranges of Armenia send down to
the plains a perennial supply. The central
and southern region is less favored. The
rivers of Mesopotamia, on the side of the
Tigris, are neither numerous nor abundant in
water. On the side of the Euphrates a few
important tributaries are found at intervals,
but all the south-western district between the
thirty-sixth parallel and the northern limit of
Chaldsea is an arid and unfruitful country,
with many of the features of the Arabian
waste.

Taken all in all, the upland region rising
into hills and ridges between the Euphrates
and the Tigris could not be truthfully de-
scribed as fertile or as possessing any great in-
centives to civilization. Only in that central
part, stretching in all directions from the site
of Nineveh, were the fruitfulness of the soil,
the salubrity of the atmosphere, and the
general aspects of nature, of such sort as to
reiict powerfully upon the faculties of man.

EASTERN ASSYRIA, that is, the part between
the Tigris and the foot of the Zagros, is a
country half hilly and half alluvial in its
character. Ranges of hills, parallel with each
other, and at right angles with the mountains,
divide the district into a succession of valleys,
broadening into that of the Tigris, fertile and
highly favored. From the great river to the
mountain foot is about one hundred and forty
miles. The maximum breadth is attained
above the thirty-fifth parallel, and from this
latitude southward East Assyria narrows grad-
ually to a jwiut at the junction of the Gyndes
with the Tigris, a short distance below Bagh-
dad. In the river-beds the streams lie low,
filling their banks only in the seasons of rain.
The hills and ridges are built of limestone, and r
their upper slopes are covered with stunted
brushwood and dwarf oaks.

Beginning above the thirty-seventh parallel
and on the east bank of the Tigris, the rivers
of Assyria are, first, the Kurnib, a mountain
stream of rapid flow and considerable volume.
The next, and greatest, is the Zab Ala, or
Greater Zab, which flows with broad and
steady current through the district of the
most important Assyrian ruins the region
about Nineveh and Calah and enters the

ASSYRIA. COUNTRY AND PRODUCTS.

145

Tigris, after a course of three hundred and
fifty miles, in latitude 36 N. The Zab Asfal,
or Lesser Zab, drains the ancient province
of Adiabene, and the Adhem gathers its wa-
ters from the brooks of Chalonitis and falls
into the main river about the thirty-fourth
parallel. Last of the principal streams of
Eastern Assyria is the Diyaleh, the classical
Gyndes, which forms the south-western bound-
ary of the country from the mountains of
Kurdistan to the Tigris at Baghdad.

On the Mesopotamia!! bank, that is, in
WESTERN ASSYRIA, the streams are neither
many nor abundant. The tributaries of the

featureless, region, well-nigh as level and de-
void of charm as is the waste of Arabia.
Nevertheless, the surface of this district, like
the American plains, rises and falls; and the
country is far from being a sea-level flat like
the alluvial region of Lower Mesopotamia.
The streams of this district are few, and sink
into the niter-sprinkled soil. Rains are rare
and scanty, and the water which pours from
occasional springs is frequently brackish and
unfit for use.

Westward from the Khabur are the hilla
of Abdul-Aziz, an upheaved region covered
witli fragments of basalt, and presenting here

THE TIGRIS AT NINEVEH.

Tigris on this side are mere creeks, but a few
miles in length, and generally dry for the
greater part of the year. Far to the north,
Aowever, in the district of Mons Masius, the
streams are perennial, and the country, though
half-mountainous, is plentifully supplied with
springs and brooks. Into the Euphrates, from
the side of Mesopotamia, fall only the two
rivers, the Belik or Belichus, which drains the
ancient Padau-Anun, and the Khabur, which
waters a considerable region between the
thirty-fifth parallel and the mountainous coun-
try of Myjrdonia.

The traveler, as lie stands on the undulat-
ing plateau lying south of Mons Masius, sees
around him a somewhat elevated, but almost

and there the cones of extinct volcanoes.
This part of Mesopotamia is favored with one
small lake the Khatouniyeh oblong in
shape, with low and sedgy banks, abounding
in water-fowl and fish.

Western Assyria is divided into a northern
and a southern slope by a range of hills called
the Sinjar. This elevation stretches midway
across the country from the Khabur to the
Tigris below Nineveh, and constitutes the
principal water-shed of Mesopotamia. The
ranpe is an upheaval of shaly limestone, fos-
Mlil'iTous in character, and in some parts
mountainous in magnitude. Down the broken
Miles of this great ridge many springs pour
their feeble contribution of water, but the

146

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

resulting streams are small aud soon sink into
the plains.

The slopes of the Sinjar are sufficiently
fertile to produce fine orchards and fields of
grain. The native forests are of considerable
importance and extend even, to the summit
of the range. The country west of Nineveh
is a well-wooded region, and the slopes of the
hills descending to the river are in many
places picturesque and beautiful.

To the south of the Siujar range lies the
flat, unbroken plain which Xenophon declares
to be " a country as level as the sea, and full
of wormwood;" adding that, "if any other
shrub or reed grew there it had a sweet,
aromatic smell, but there wa not a tree in
the whole region." Only one river of any
consequence waters the country between the
ridges of Sinjar and the northern limit of
Chaldsea. This is the Tharthar, which flows
in a direction parallel to that of the Tigris,
and drops into a salt lake in 34 30' N.

Such are the natural features of Assyria.
It does not appear that, to any considerable
extent, the physical outlines of the country
were used as the basis of political divisions.
In the earlier development of a consolidated
empire, such as the Assyrian monarchy, little
importance is attached to provincial bounda-
ries. The Assyrians did not themselves culti-
vate geography as zealously as did the West-
ern nations ; and we are accordingly dependent
upon Greek travelers for most of what is
known concerning the political divisions of
Mesopotamia and the adjacent regions. It is
from the geographers Strabo, Dionysius, and
Ptolemy, that our information on this subject
is chiefly derived. The writers of the Old
Testament have also given us some valuable
data respecting the names and positions of
the Assyrian provinces. The knowledge de-
rived from this source, combined with that
which is gleaned from the classical geogra-
phers, furnishes a fair degree of certainty
concerning the main outlines of the political
districts of Assyria.

The central province that which included
Nineveh was called ATURIA', which is merely
the Persian spelling of the word Assyria.
This district lying chiefly, but not wholly, on

the east bank of the Tigris, stretches from the
Greater Zab northward to above the thirty-
seventh parallel of latitude, including within
its limits the sites of the great central cities
of the Empire. Between the Greater and the
Lesser Zab lies the province of ADIABENE, in
which are the ruins of Arbela. Still further
south, between the Lesser Zab and the Gyndes,
are the two provinces of CHALONITIS and
APOLLONIATIS, the latter lying along the Tigris,
and the former extending eastward to the
mountains of Kurdistan. Such are the prin-
cipal divisions of Eastern Assyria.

In Mesopotamia Proper, several provinces
are mentioned by Strabo ACABENE, TINGENE,
ANCOBAEITIS the position and boundaries of
which have not been determined. Far to the
north, at the base of the Mons Masius, is the
great district called by the Greeks MYGDONIA.*
It lies to the north of the Sinjar mountains,
and is drained by the tributaries of the Kha-
bur. To the west of this, in the upper bend
of the Euphrates, is the district called PADAN-
ARAM an ancient name occurring in Genesis,
but not mentioned by Strabo or Ptolemy.

The limits of the provincial districts of
the Assyrian Empire were, like the boundaries
of the Empire itself, somewhat shifting and
unsettled. There is no doubt, however, that
the provinces of what may be properly called
Assyria were as numerous and extensive as
here described. In every part of these wide
regions, with the exception of the arid plain
about the intersection of the thirty-fifth degree
of latitude with the forty-second meridian,
fragments and ruins of Assyrian greatnoss are
plentifully scattered. The supposition that
the Empire was limited to the east bank of
the Tigris has no foundation in fact. Three
out of the four capital cities were built on that
side of the river ; but in Western Aturia, also
in Adiabene aud Apolloniatis, in Mygdonia
and on the lower Khabur, the remains of
cities and palaces indicate unmistakably the
presence of imperial power and grandeur.

Assyria was fortified by nature. Along
the eastern frontier lay the ramparts of the

x ln the writings of Ptolemy this province ia
called Gauzanitis the same as the Gozan men-
tioned in Second Kings.

ASSYRIA. COUNTRY AND PRODUCTS.

147

Zagros a succession of mountainous ridges,
rising grandly ten thousand feet into summits
clad in snow. As the Alps to Italy, so stood
these lofty battlements to the fruitful lowlands
and plains of Mesopotamia. The few gate-
ways in the fastnesses of the Zagros are almost
impassable even in summer, and the warlike
races who dwelt beyond were quite shut out
from foray and incursion.

On the north the Assyrian plateau was
equally defended. Here the mountains of
Armenia form an insurmountable bulwark.
The summits are perpetually snow-capped,
and the deep gorges are impassable. This
great range stands nearly at right-angles to
the Zagros, and rises abruptly from the plain,
of which it is the natural rampart. Military
operations in such a region are impossible, and
in this fact are found the natural conditions
of that warlike independence immemorial!}'
enjoyed by the native tribes of Armenia.
Like the Swiss among the Alps, the fierce
mountaineers who overlooked Assyria from
the north smiled at military menace and
scorned the subjection of the peoples of the
plain.

On the west and south-west Assyria is
skirted by the wastes of Syria and Arabia,
Beyond the Euphrates westward, and above
the thirty-sixth parallel of latitude, lies the
rocky desert of the Hittites, with its capital
Carchemish; while to the south stretch away
the illimitable sands of Arabia. The obstacles
to invasion from this direction were few and
inconsiderable, but the paucity of the popula-
tion which could be sustained on the black-
ened hills of Syria and the scorched sanddunes
of Arabia was a barrier quite as effectual as
the ridges and snows of the Zagros and the
Armenian highlands.

The southern border of the Empire was by
nature the weakest. On the side of Chaldsea
the country lay open to hostile demonstrations ;
nor can it be doubted that the relations, both
warlike and pacific, of the Assyrians and
Chaldaeans are to be traced in large measure
to the feeble demarkation drawn by nature
between the two countries. To create and
maintain the line which was naturally wanting
the peoples of Upper and Lower Mesopota-

mia resorted to dykes and canals; but these,
even when grand in extent and construction,
could furnish but a poor substitute for those
immense and im]>erishable bulwarks of stone
the mountains.

The climate of Assyria was as varied aa
her physical outline. The degree of elevation,
the character of the soil, the latitude, the
proximity of mountain, river, or desert all
contributed to give variety to atmospheric:
phenomena, and variability to the aspects of
nature. For convenience of discussion the
whole of Assyria may be divided into four
climatic districts. The first of these is Eastern
Assyria the country beyond the Tigris. The
second is Northern Mesopotamia, being that
part which is under the immediate influence of
the Armenian mountains. The third division
is Central Mesopotamia, including the north-
ern and southern slopes of the Sinjar; and
the fourth is Southern Assyria being that
portion which borders on the plains of
Chaldaea.

The climate of Eastern Assyria is cool and
moist. The proximity of the Zagros with its
snowy heights reduces the temperature, wakes
the breeze, sends down the showers of rain.
Even in summer, when rains are more rare,
copious dews are distilled by night, refreshing
vegetation and cooling the atmosphere. In
winter and early spring there is a heavy rain-
fall, and the streams run bankful down to
join the Tigris. Very rarely does the terrible
sheryhi, or hot wind of the desert, blow its
withering breath on the green slopes of Adia-
bene and Chalonitis. Snow falls, but scantily,
in December and January, and ice of consid-
erable thickness forms on the ponds and
brooks. Farther to the south, in Apolloniatis,
the climate grows more torrid, approximating
that of Chalda?a. The winters but slightly
chill the traveler; the summers scorch and
burn.

The climate of Northern Mesopotamia a
rather severe. The temperature falls to ten
degrees below zero. Winter lasts for half the
year. The elevation of the country about the
head-waters of the Tigris is as much as one
thousand three hundred feet above the level
of the sea. The close proximity of the snow-

148

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

covered mountains on the north renders the
atmosphere invigorating in summer, and in
winter adds rigor to the climate. Snow pre-
vails, falling to great depth in the gorges.
The spring is late and chill ; the early summer
brings abundance of blossoms; July and Au-
gust have excessive heat, the temperature ris-
ing to 110 or even 115 in the shade. The
whole range of the thermometer from winter
to summer is above, 120 degrees, being as
great as in any country in the world.

The climate of Central Mesopotamia is
milder than in Mygdonia and the north. Here
ft seldom snows, except on the summits of the
Abdul-Aziz and the Sinjar. The winter is no
more than four months in length; the spring
is as charming as in any region of the globe;
for a short season the landscape is carpeted
with the richest verdure and adorned with the
most beautiful and fragrant flowers; but in
midsummer comes that intense heat from which
Central and Southern Mesopotamia have al-
ways suffered. From noon till night of the
summer day nor man nor beast can well en-
dure the glow of the furnace. Fortunately,
with nightfall the fiery heat subsides, and the
nights and early mornings are not unpleasant.
Anon the calm of the day is broken by storms
of rain and thunder and bail, bursting from
the Sinjar. The tempests are of almost tropi-
cal violence, furious with contending winds
and lurid with incessant lightnings. After
the storm has lashed itself to rest, the earth
and air are refreshed, and animals and man
find a pleasant respite from the heat. The
autumn throughout the greater part of West-
ern Assyria is remarkably fine, suggesting the
halcyon days by the banks of an American
river.

As Southern Assyria narrows and sinks
into the alluvial plain of Chaldsea, the torrid
element in the climate becomes more pro-
nounced. A strictly tropical country can not,
of course, be found as far north as the thirty-
fourth parallel; but the districts of Lower
Assyria, too far inland to be moderated by the
ocean, too far from the mountains to feel the
invigoration of their snows, and near enough
to the hot sands of Arabia to inhale their
fiery vapor, may well be regarded as suffering

all the ills df the tropics and without the
tropical charm.

It is not to be doubted that in ancient
times the climate of these regions was consid-
erably modified by the agency of man. The
waters of the two great rivers were car-
ried far into what are now desert districts,
and were distributed in channels over the sur-
face of the country. By this means the soil
was irrigated and the air cooled. Vegetation,
springing rank along the banks of the canals,
became at once a cause and an effect of
growth and moisture. As far as the power
of man could thus be extended the arid
wastes were planted with trees and cities.
Still, in the greater part of Southern Assyria
the country can never have been fertile ; and
the district between the river Khabur and the
northern confines of Chaldaea has always been
what it was in the times of Cyrus and Alex-
ander a country of extreme heat and barren
deserts. Xenophon declares that there was no
meadow, no tree, no leaf or twig of green,
but only a herbless waste, parched by the heat
of the sun.

There is, perhaps, no country in the world
which is subject to such great changes in the
appearance of the landscape as in Assyria.
In the spring the sudden outburst of verdure
spreads a carpet of green grass and brilliant
flowers on every hand in infinite profusion;
but no sooner is the summer ushered in than
green gives place to yellow, freshness to ster-
ility, life to death. The same district which
seems in April and May to be a boundless
prairie of blossoms and foliage is in a few
weeks burnt to a crisp, blackened and deso-
late as Arabia.

In modern times the inhabitants of South-
ern Assyria are dependent upon the course of
nature for whatever they produce. Irrigation
is but little practiced, and only the sudden
gush of seasonable weather in the spring pre-
vents the reduction of the country to a desert.
While the pastures are still green from the
continuance of the early rains the flocks find
a luxuriant supply; and there is even time
before the beginning of the drought for the
production and harvest of an abundant crop
of those cereals which are adapted to short

ASSYRIA. COUNTRY AND PRODUCTS.

149

seasons. After that, all herbage begins to
shrivel, the streams dry up to their fountains,
and the earth becomes as barren as the alka-
line plains east of the Rocky Mountains.

Notwithstanding the fierce summer heats
and the long continued drouths to which
Assyria is exposed there is no other country
better situated by nature for the artificial dis-
tribution of water, and the consequent favor-
able modification of its climate. For hundreds
of miles from their sources the Euphrates and
the Tigris have so great a fall as to make
practicable and easy the distribution of their
wealth through all the thirsty districts of
which they form the boundaries. Nor were
the ancient Assyrians slow to avail themselves
of the suggestion of nature respecting the
watering of their plains. Besides the canals
and aqueducts, the ruins of which are plenti-
fully scattered in Assyria as well as in Chal-
dtea, much evidence exists of the skill of the
people in lifting water from the rivers and
distributing it for the use of man and the re-
freshing of the fields. 1 Machinery of many
kinds was erected along the banks of the
Tigris, as along the river of Egypt, by which
the fertilizing fluid was lifted and borne to
where it was required. By this means large
districts which are now, from the brief con-
tinuance of the spring showers, reduced to a
precarious state, with a minimum of popula-
tion, were, in the times of the Empire, the
seat of abundance and luxury crowded with
great markets and populous cities.

The products of Eastern Assyria are not
very fully recorded by the classical authors.
The olive grew in Chalonitis. Pliny in his
Natural History speaks disparagingly of the
quality of the Assyrian dates. Spices and
aromatic plants were found in the valleys east
of the Tigris. Xeuophon enumerates sesame,
millet, wheat, and barley as the principal
grain products of Mesopotamia. For its cit-
ron trees Assyria was famous from antiquity.

1 At one place in Aturia the water of the Tigris
was carried in a tunnel through the hills and then
conducted a distance of eight miles in a direction
opposite to that of the tributary streams. The
aqueduct was supplied with locks and other con-
trivances for regulating the supply and flow of
the current.

They not only gave fruit to the hand, and
fragance to the sense, but were also esteemed
as to leaves and blossoms for their invaluable
medicinal properties. The tree was native to
the country, and has never flourished equally
in any other region. Silk was also, according
to Pliny, a natural product of Assyria, the
worm producing it being of a peculiar species
and unusually large.

It is rather by the present productions of
Mesopotamia than by incidental references
thereto by ancient travelers and historians
that we are enabled to form a true idea of
the vegetable and mineral resources of the
empire of Sargon and Sennacherib. The gen-
eral climatic conditions remain unchanged,
and the modifying influence of human skill
may be fairly estimated. To begin with the
fruits, the most important are, as they no
doubt were twenty-five centuries ago, the
orange, the pomegranate, the apricot, the
lemon, the olive, the fig, the grape, the apple,
the pear, the quince, the plum, the cherry,
melons of many kinds, filberts, pistachio-nuts,
and chestnuts. The orange flourishes only in
Southern Mesopotamia, and those semi-tropical
parts bordering on Chaldsea. The pomegran-
ate grows in all the provinces except where
the chill of the mountain peaks is too percep-
tibly felt. The native place of the fig is on
the slopes of the Sinjar and the hills of Ab-
dul-Aziz. Here too the vineyards flourish, as
also further south. The lemon accompanies
the orange ; and the orchards of apples and
pears are most productive on the ridges of
Chalonitis and Aturia. Along the spurs of
the Zagros the olive grows wild, while the
fragmentary woods of the north are enriched
with abundance of filberts and chestnuts. In
the valleys of Eastern Assyria melons flourish,
and the pear and the plum produce fairly on
both banks of the Tigris.

The edible vegetables of Assyria still more
abound. Capers and esculent mushrooms are
native to large districts. Beans and peas and
lentils yield abundantly and without much
labor. Onions, cucumbers, and spinach, and
indeed most of the garden products of the
United States, have been immemorially culti-
vated in Assyria. One of the commonest

150

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

shrubs of the country is that odorous absin-
thium, or wormwood, mentioned by Xenophon.
Its native place is Western Mesopotamia in
the region south of the Khabur. Here also
are occasional groves of tamarisk near the
river. The most beautiful of the natural
growths of the sparse woodlands are the myr-
tles and oleanders, which lift their large and
brilliant blossoms in great profusion along the
banks of the eastern tributaries of the Tigris ;
nor should mention be omitted of the famous
Salix Babylonica, or weeping willow, whose
delicate drooping sprays have been the admi-
ration of all peoples.

The list of Assyrian products would not be
complete without a mention of manna. It is
chiefly secreted by the dwarf oak, from the
branches of which, under favoring condi-
tions, it is gathered in considerable quantities.
Other trees and shrubs also yield a supply,
but less abundantly ; and in seasons of plen-
tiful moisture, especially during the preva-
lence of foggy weather, the manna is distilled
on rocks or even in the sand. This variety,
though scant in quantity, is greatly prized.
In times of drouth there is no secretion at all.

The seasons of the manna harvest are
spring and autumn. At these times it is
gathered by being shaken upon cloths spread
under the oaks. The manna preserves its
sweetness only for a brief period after being
collected. If not eaten in its natural state it
soon sours and becomes offensive. In order
to prevent decay, and to give the product a
mercantile value, it is boiled into a kind of
paste, which can be preserved in cans and
transported like other articles of the market.

The mineral supply of Assyria is much
more varied and important than that of Chal-
dsea. Throughout Mesopotamia, as well as in
the provinces beyond the Tigris, limestone
and sandstone are plentifully distributed.
The Mons Masius is built of basaltic rock
a substance almost as firm and heavy as the
Syenite of Upper Egypt. The base of the
Zagros is packed with several fine varieties
of marble, and in Aturia and Adiabene,
along the Tigris, beds of gray alabaster fur-
nish a material for the sculptor's chisel hardly
surpassed by the soft marbles of Italy. The

Assyrian clay, though unequal in quality to
that of the Chaldsean plain, is nevertheless
well distributed aud of superior quality.

Eastern Assyria had a wealth of metals.
In the immediate vicinity of Nineveh are
found rich mines of iron, copper, and lead.
The ores crop out of the hill-sides and are ex-
posed to view where they were worked by the
ancients. In the mountainous regions of the
upper Tigris the same metals are found. The
Kurdish ranges have mines of silver, tin,
and antimony ; nor is it improbable that some
of the gold of the palaces of the Assyrian
mouarchs was produced within the limits of
the Empire.

Other valuable minerals abounded in dif-
ferent districts. Sulphur, alum, and salt
were articles of exportation. In the country
between the Lower Zab and the Gyudes inex-
haustible supplies of bitumen, naphtha, and
petroleum were drawn from pits and wells.
Further north, near Nineveh, there were
^petroleum springs which furnished perennial
streams of the same materials. Salt was
produced from springs found in the same
locality and also from a few salt lakes in
Mesopotamia,

The animal life of Assyria was as varied as
the climate. Wild beasts, such as are pecul-
iar to deserts, as well as those whose lairs are
in the mountains, abounded both in Mesopota-
mia and in Assyria beyond the Tigris. The
lion roamed over the wastes of the south-west,
and was also seen on the cliffs of the Sinjar. '
In similar situations the leopard, the lynx,
and the hyena were found ; and the tiger,
which is not now a native of this part of
Asia, was quite certainly among those crea-
tures with which the primitive Assyrians had
to contend for the mastery.

Among the other animals beasts of the
hill-country rather than of of the plain
may be mentioned the bear, the jackal, the

1 Assyrian lions are generally represented in the
sculptures as maneless. In some cases the draw-
ing shows a peculiar, horny claw at the end of the
tail, half hidden in the tuft of hair an eccentric
feature not known to exist in any living species.
In some of the sculptures the lion is shown with
a inane, in which case he is a fair counterpart of
the lion of the African desert.

ASSYRIA. COUNTRY AND PRODUCTS.

151

wild boar, and the fox. The wild sheep, the
ibex, and the gazelle were of the mountain-.
The wolf, the porcupine, the badger, aud the
hare wi-iv, for the most part, liinitr'l to the
plains and to regions of moderate eleva-
tion. The ibex abounded in the Zagros and
in the highest ranges of the Sinjar and Abdul-
Aziz. The deer was found only in Eastern

ASSYRIAN MULE.

From the Sculptures.

Assyria, near the mountains. The hyena, the
lynx, amd the beaver were not very common.
The last-named animal differing somewhat
in form and instincts from the American
beaver had his habitat on the Khabur, where,
until his race was hunted almost to extinction,
he built his house and flourished.

According to Xenophon, the most common
animal in the region south of the Khabur was
the wild ass. At the' present day, however,
the creature is rare and has even been thought
to be extinct in its native country. This sup-
position is incorrect, the animal still being
found in the district in which it was seen by
the Greek historian. The Assyrian wild ass is
of the genus Equus, is delicate in form and color,
and exceedingly swift of foot, insomuch that,
when adult and vigorous, it outstrips all
other animals in flight. The young of the
species are sonletimes taken by the Arabs, but
pine and die under domestication.

The Assyrian sculptors delighted in draw-
ing animal forms. The inscriptions of Nim-
rod, Khorsabad, Koyunjik, and Nineveh
abound in carvings of wild beasts. The
forms of the lion, the leopard, the tiger, the
wild boar and ass, the mule, the stag, and the
gazelle were in great favor with artists, and
the skill with which these animals are carved
would, in many cases, do credit to Greece.

The domestic animals of modern Assyria
are mostly of species common in Europe and
America. And to these must be added the
camel. The horse was in use in Mesopotamia,
for the saddle but not for draught, long before
his introduction into Egypt Judging from
the sculptures, as well as from the existing
breeds of the country, the Assyrian animal is,
for speed, symmetry, and power, fully the
equal of the modern Arabian. From time
immemorial the chief wealth of the native
tribes of Southern Assyria has consisted in
horses. Anciently, as well as to-day, travel-
ers, princes, and kings gratified their pride
and ambition by purchasing, albeit at fabulous
figures, the fleet and beautiful steeds of the
Mesopotamian and Arabian wastes. The As-
syrian horses are less in stature than the
heavier breeds of the West, but of exquisite
symmetry of form and grace of movement.

The cattle of Assyria are relatively poor in
quality. Not so, however, the sheep and
goats. The former are of good size and well-
wooled, furnishing fine, heavy fleeces and a
superior article of food. The goat, as in most
oriental countries, is the principal dependence
of the people for milk and cheese. Asses and
mules are chiefly used for carrying burdens
and drawing loads a task to which the horse

ASSYRIAN PARTRIDOK.

is never subjected. In long journeys requir-
ing speed, endurance, and docility, the faith-
ful camel lends his unflagging strength and
unfailing patience. There are two species
camels proper and dromedaries, the latter be-
ing the more fleet and sagacious. 1

1 The two-humped camel of Bactria is no longer
found in Assyria, though the sculptures show that
he was known in the times of the Empire.

152

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

The domestic animals of ancient Assyria
were nearly the same as those of the present
day. The monuments show that the camel
was more in use by the enemy than by the
Assyrians themselves. The donkey was not
in use. The dogs were of a heavy and fierce-
looking stock, resembling the mastiff, and
quite unlike the fleet and slender greyhound
of modern times.

The sculptures and tablets of ancient As-
syria have made us acquainted with but three
of the birds known to the people of the Em-
pire. These are the vulture, the ostrich, and
the partridge. No others have been identified
with existing species. The vulture is exhib-
ited in connection with battle scenes, where he

are nearly the same in character with those
inhabiting like latitudes in Europe and Amer-
ica. The water-fowl wild goose, wild duck,
teal, tern, plover, sandpiper, and swan are
similar to those of the United States. The
crane, the stork, the pelican, and the flam-
ingo, have the same appearance, habits, and
haunts which are peculiar to those species in
the Southern States of the Union. The most
noted Assyrian birds of prey are the eagle,
the hawk, the falcon, and the owl. The song
birds are the nightingale and the Seleucian
thrush ; and the birds of the desert and plain
are besides the ostrich the great and lesser
bustard, the sand-grouse, and the francolin.
Assyrian art furnishes abundant proof that

ASSYRIAN OSTRICHES.

is seen devouring the bodies of the slain.
Sometimes he is made to execute poetical jus-
tice by pursuing and tearing the enemies of
the king. The ostrich inhabited Mesopotamia
below the Khabur, though he has long since
abandoned that region for the wider freedom
of the Arabian desert. 1 The partridge of two
or three varieties was found in great abun-
dance, and was the delight of sportsmen and
gastronomers.

The birds at present inhabiting Assyria
which are no doubt identical with species ex-
isting in the country two thousand years ago

'Xenophon describes the ostrich as seen on
the line of march, pursued by hunters, fleeing
with long strides across the desert, and " using its
wings for sails."

the rivers and ponds were thronged with fish.
The sculptures are not, however, of a sort to
identify varieties, the forms being somewhat
rude and conventional. At the present day
the two great rivers of Assyria, as well as the
smaller streams and the marshes, are crowded,
as they no doubt have always been, with bar-
bel and carp, which here grow to an unusual
size. In the eastern tributaries of the Tigris,
especially in the mountain brooks of the Za-
gros, trout are found, and in the deeper
streams pickerel and pike.

Taken all in all, the physical environment
of the ancient Assyrians was not materially
different from that of the central latitudes of
Europe and America. The variations from
this standard were the presence of large waste

ASSYRIA. PEOPLE AND CITIES.

153

districts, the absence of great forests, the fiery
heats of summer, and the consequent appear-
ance of semi-tropical plants and animals. In
other respects the country in which the Em-
pire planted by Tiglathi-Adar and Shalmaneser
rose, flourished, and fell, possessed the same

genera] antecedents of civilization, the same
elements of power and development, the
same incentives to human ambition and
achievement, as have played upon the fac-
ulties of man in Central Europe and the
United States.

CHAPTER xil. PEOPLE AND CITIES.

SSYRIA was peopled by
the race of Shem. What-
ever controversy has ex-
isted respecting the ethnic
character of the primitive
Chaldseans, concerning
the race affinities of the
Assyrians there is none. The vague conjec-
tures, which until the present century were
used as the foundation of historical writings,
have given place to exact knowledge, result-
ing from antiquarian research and definite
principles of criticism. Ancient traditions,
the discoveries made among the ruins of the
country, and the science of language, have
all contributed their testimony as to the ori-
gin and kinship of the people who built the
cities on the Tigris. The stock is called Se-
mitic ; its branches are the Aramaic, the He-
braic, and the Arabic. To the first of these,
the Aramaic that is, the race of Aram, or
the Highlands belonged the Assyrians. The
latter are thus allied by close affinity with
the Syrians, the later Babylonians, the Phoeni-
cians, the Hebrews, and the Northern Arabs.
All these people had common progenitors,
who, moving westward from Susiana or be-
yond, spread out into Mesopotamia and thence
into Arabia and Syria. The language which
has been preserved on the tablets, cylinders,
and bricks of the Assyrian ruins is unmistak-
ably of the same origin with the Hebrew and
the Phoenician ; and unless it could be shown
a thing never attempted that the people of
Upper Mesopotamia had changed their lan-
guage in some primitive stage of their devel-
opment, the proof of the Semitic character of
the race is positively established.

If we pass from the language of the Assyri-
ans to the traditions of various nations, we find
additional evidence of the kinship of Asshur
and Shem. In the Book of Genesis, the
ancestor of the Assyrians is classified with the
progenitors of the Aramaeans, the Hebrews,
and the Northern Arabs. The inhabitants of

OTNEVTTK HERO, SHOWING TYPICAL PHYSIOGNOMY.

Kurdistan, who are regarded as the descend-
ants of the Assyrians, not only speak a Se-
mitic language, but believe themselves to be
of the same race with the Arabs and Israelites.
The same tradition was held by the people of
Assyria themselves, who in their brief histori-
cal fragments recognize as their kinsmen the
Syrians, the later Babylonians, the Phosnicians,
and the Joktanian Arabs. Whatever hesitancy

154

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

there may be on the part of some historians
and ethnologists to use the term "Semitic" as
descriptive of one of the primitive families of
mankind, there can be none as it respects the
question of classifying in one group the peo-
ples of ancient Assyria, Northern Arabia,
Syria, and Canaan.

An examination of the physical character-
istics of the Assyrians tends to establish the
same conclusion. The art of these people
has preserved their face and form and stature.
On examining the Assyrian sculptures, even

ASSYRIAN KINO.

the uncritical can but be struck with the
resemblance of the form and features to those
of the Hebrews. Here we have the same
face which is seen among the Jewish captives
of Amenophis III. on the monuments of
Egypt. The Assyrian physiognomy, as deter-
mined by the sculptures exhumed from the
ruins of Nimrud and Khorsabad, is identical
with that which the Israelite has made familiar
to all the world. The forehead is low and
straight; the brow prominent; the eyes large
and oriental; the nose aquiline and some-
times coarse; the mouth firm-set; the lips
rather thick ; the chin strong and symmetrical.

The same countenance belongs, with slight va-
riations, to the Bedouin Arabs, and with no
variation to the present inhabitants of Kurdis-
tan. Such were also the features of the
Syrians and Phoenicians, and wherever a He-
brew is found, in any quarter of the world,
there the type is perpetuated.

In person the ancient Assyrians were
stronger and heavier than any existing Sem-
ites except the Kurdistanese. The Arab of
to-day is rather light and slender. The He-
brew of the Orient has not the short, stout
body peculiar to his kinsmen of the West.
The ancient Assyrian was brawny and pow-
erful. The tremendous limbs depicted in the
sculptures of Nimrud suggest to the beholder
the massive muscles and incalculable strength
of gladiators. The weapons which they han-
dle and the sports in which they engage show
that the Assyrians, more than any other
Asiatic people of their times, were men of
the heroic mold. And the sculptors, to whose
delineations we owe our knowledge of this
robust and vigorous race, seem to have
taken delight in doing full justice to the
brawny limbs and powerful breasts of their
countrymen.

In the traits of mind exhibited by the As-
syrians there is additional evidence of their
Semitic origin. Like the Israelites and the
Arabs, the people of Assyria were devoted to
religion. The public documents statutes,
edicts, and proclamations of the kings which
the tablets have preserved are characterized
by the same iteration of religious forms which
marks all the literary productions of the Se-
mitic race. Prayers, invocations, solemn ap-
peals to their gods, praise to the hidden power
who ripens the first fruits and gives the vic-
tory in war such are the dominant ideas in
the laws and state papers of the Assyrian
kings, and such have ever been the prevailing-
forms of expression in all branches of this
family of men. The Bedouin of to-day who
dismounts from his camel and prostrates him-
self on the gleaming sand of the desert bear*
not more certain testimony to his race affinity
than did the inhabitants of Upper Mesopota-
mia in their prayers, and psalms, and procla-
mations. The language is the tongue of Israel,.

ASSYRIA. PEOPLE AND CITIES.
in the praises of Baal and

155

though used
Astarte.

The ancient Assyrians were a people of
extraordinary valor. Everywhere man is seen

bodies mutilated, in proof of the victorious
vengeance of the conqueror. The heads of
the slain are chopped off with swords and
enumerated by a scribe, indifferent as a hunter

ASSYRIANS GOING TO BATTLE.
Drawn by H. Vogel.

in heroic action. He struggles with the ad-
versary. With the strong lion he grapples
hand to hand. Against all the ferocious crea-
tures of the deserts and mountains he goes
forth without trepidation. Nothing can sur-
pass the defiant courage with which he hazards
his person in the conflict. He meets the wild
bull, maddened with wounds, and brings him
bellowing to his knees. He quails, not before
any aspect of man or beast, but with firm set
lips and eyes fixed on his antagonist bends to
the struggle and rises victorious.

The stalwart character and aggressive bear-
ing of the Assyrians were particularly shown
in war. The same ferocity which they mani-
fested in the pursuit and destruction of beasts
they also exhibited in hunting men. The
sculptures show that the feeling of the Assyr-
ians towards the foe was one, not of hostility
only, but of hatred and contempt. Against
the enemy the bow is drawn with vindictive
willingness. The dead of the vanquished
army are trampled in the dust, and their

counting his game. Before the walls of a
mutinous city the bodies of the rebels are im-
paled on stakes. Others of the dead are
flayed ; for the skins are au article of mer-

ASSYRIAN WAS CHARIOT.

chandise; and anon a group of captives ap-
pear, led by cords with rings inserted in the
under lips of the prisoners, after the manner
of leading beasts. This, however, is true only

156

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

of captive men: women the Assyrian soldiers
treat with respect and tenderness.

In personal bearing the Assyrians were
characterized by pride and haughtiness. The
inscriptions and tablets are filled with vaiii-

CAFTIVES OF THE ASSYRIANS.

glorious boasting. The other nations are de-
scribed as cowards, whose gods have abandoned
them for shame. Fools also are the aliens,
unworthy of the favor of either earth or
heaven. They are fit only to be spurned
ground under the heel of Assyria, whose cities
are great, whose armies are always victorious,
whose gods are wise and mighty. No good
thing is conceded to foreign nations. They
are weak, effeminate; even their own deities
have given them over to merited destruction.
Like the language of the Greeks and the
Romans respecting the barbarians is this jar-
gon of Assyrian pride towards the peoples
beyond the borders of the Empire. Like
Jewish anathemas poured on the heads of the
Gentiles is this pompous strain of self-adula-
tion wherewith the Assyrians celebrated them-
selves and disparaged the neighboring nations.
The historians and prophets of Israel de-
nounce the Assyrians as a people of cunning
and cruelty. Part of this may, no doubt, be
charged to the enmity existing between the two
nations; but it is clear that the people of
Assyria were not free from subtle and treach-
erous practices. Craft and cruelty were, how-
ever, as they are to-day, the common vices of
the Asiatics; and the frenzied denunciations
of Jewish authors come with a bad grace con-
sidering that their own annals are stained
with deceit and treachery and blood. If the
Assyrians were in the habit of breaking their
treaties, so also were the Greeks. If the peo-
ple of Nineveh and Babylon were crafty in

peace, and perfidious in war, so too were the
Phffinicians and the Romans. On the whole,
the moral standard of the Assyrians, and their
consequent conduct in the practical affairs of
life, were not different from that of other
ancient nations inflamed by success-
ful conquests, and made arrogant by
the possession of unlimited power.

In their luxurious habits the later
Assyrians resembled the Romans. In
the early epochs of the robust and
manly virtues foreign wars swept into
the capital city, as afterwards into
Rome, legions of captives, trains of
spoils and treasures. The great mon-
archs'of the Empire, corrupted by
riches and booty, then began to set the example
of voluptuous living. Princes and priests vied
with each other in luxury ; and the people, who
might have been capable of liberty, fell into
licentiousness. The philosophy of Assyria,
teaching that happiness was at one with license,
gave the reign to individual will, and enthroned
pleasure as the chief aim and end of human
endeavor. And though the native vigor of
the race was for a long
time proof against the
effeminating tenden-
cies of wealth, the
time came when the
national character
yielded to those vices
which attend upon
material magnificence,
and sank into decay.
The art and learn-
ing of Assyria were,
for the greater part,
derived from the older
civilization of Chal-
diea. But the Assy-
rians were by no
means wanting in
original force and
genius. Whether as
it respects a certain skill in mechanical in-
vention or creditable achievements in those
higher arts which humanize mankind, they
reached a degree of excellence not hitherto
attained in Asia. Especially in political

ASSYRIAN PRINCESS IN
FULL DRESS.

ASSYRIA. PEOPLE AND CITIES.

157

science and in the development of civil
institutions did the Assyrians surpass any
contemporaneous nation. The administra-
tive skill displayed by the government in

ASSYRIAN PRINCE IN FTLI. DRESS.

the brighter epochs of the Empire would have
done credit to the later states of the West.
The aptness and ability of the Assyrians in or-
ganizing, equipping, and training armies has
been proverbial for twenty centuries, and their
fierce valor on the field of kittle is recorded
wherever their history has been mentioned.
Only a knowledge of the means by which the
forces of nature are subordinated to the will of
man was lacking to give to the Assyrians the
precedence in military renown over all the
nations of antiquity except the Romans. The
greatness and glory of the people is fully
conceded by the bards of Israel, especially by
Isaiah and Ezekiel, whose writings are filled
with mingled praise and censure of that colos-
sal power which, under the similitude of a
lion, is represented as "devouring the prey
and tearing it asunder for his whelps."

The architecture of a non-literary people
is the best record of their grandeur. The
houses and cities which men build are com-
mensurate with their ambition. Great build-
ing springs not so much from sense and
necessity as from imagination and dreams a
certain yearning to express in tangible form
the outlines of things seen by vision and the
inspiration of genius. Races without imagi-
nation live close to the ground. They crawl
N. Vol. i 10

into hovels. They sleep a gross and sensuous
sleep. They dream not of palace and city.
Without are tall, green trees, and white
clouds piled up mountainous, the arching dome
of heaven, and the glitter of the stars ; but
these things react not on the dull senses of an
unimaginative people. Only in the spirit of
him who dreams of palms and fountains can
spring the desire, the will, to hew the airy
column, to rear the splendid edifice, to adorn
his abode and glorify the records of his race
with palace and temple and tomb.

In monumental grandeur Assyria stands
next to Egypt The great cities of the Up-
per Tigris, though inferior in splendor to the
marvels of the Nile valley, were the admira-
tion of their own and after times. The exist-
ence of these renowned cities, albeit the dust
of centuries has settled on their ruins, proves
beyond a doubt the amazing vigor and intel-
lectual force of the race of men who built
them and gloried in their splendor.

Opposite the modem village of Mosul, on
the eastern bank of the Tigris, in latitude 36
2(yN., lie the ruins of NINEVEH, the capital of

THE REGION ABOUT NINEVEH.

the Assyrian Empire, and one of the great cit-
ies of the ancient world. The site is at present
marked by two remarkable mounds, the one
called Koyunjik and the other Nebbi-Yunus.

158

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

These mounds are distant from each other a
little more than half a mile, and between
them flows the Khosr-Su, a small tributary of
the Tigris. The mounds are of vast propor-
tions. The Koyunjik covers an area of over
a hundred acres, and rises to the height of
ninety-five feet above the plain. The Nebbi-
Yunus has an area of forty acres and a height
of over a hundred feet. The mass of the
larger mound is so immense that, according
to careful estimates, it would require the con-
tinuous labor of twenty thousand men for a
period of six years to raise it to its present
proportions. The structure is ellipitical in
shape, rising in a gradual slope on one side
and abruptly on the other. This immense
artificial elevation was crowned in ancient
times with the palaces of the Assyrian kings,
and the ruins of these magnificent edifices
now lie imbedded in the surface.

The smaller, Nebbi-Yunus, is triangular in
shape, and is cleft in twain by a deep ravine
which, in the course of centuries, has been
washed through its central part. The western
half is known as Jonah's Tomb, and the east-
ern portion is used as a burying-ground by the
Turcomans and Kurds who have possession
of the site of the ancient city. This mound,
like the Koyunjik, was covered anciently with
public buildings and royal palaces.

Nineveh had a river front of about three
miles. This was guarded throughout with a
wall stretching along the river bank from the
upper to the lower limits of the city. The bed
of the Tigris, however, owing to a change in
the channel, now lies about a mile to the west
of the line of the ancient wall. This western
rampart embraced in its course both of the
mounds above referred to, so that originally
their site was on the bank of the river. The
northern wall runs back from the Tigris to the
distance of between one and two miles. The
eastern rampart is above three miles in length
and approaches to within about a thousand
yards of the river, which is reached by the
shortest of the four walls by which the city
was originally inclosed and defended. The
whole circuit of the walls was about eight
miles, and the area of the city thus included
by impregnable defenses was nearly a thou-

sand eight hundred acres. Many of the cities
of the East number from one hundred to two
hundred inhabitants to the acre an estimate
which would indicate a population for ancient
Nineveh, within the walls, of from one hun-
dred and eighty thousand to three hundred
and sixty thousand souls. Outside of the
defenses the city, no doubt, extended far to
the east and north, and in all probability be-
yond the river to the west. 1

The dimensions of Nineveh have been
greatly overestimated. The discovery of the
ruins of magnificent cities in the immediate
neighborhood of the capital has led many anti-
quarians to suppose that the whole district for
a distance of many miles was one immense
municipality. The space in which the remains
of Khorsabad, Koyunjik, Nimrud, and Ke-
remles the four great ruins of this region
are found, is an oblong square, eighteen miles
in length and twelve miles in breadth; and
there have not been wanting eminent scholars
and historians who have maintained that this
whole district was included in Nineveh. The
area thus described is about ten times that of
London, and it seems quite inconceivable that
so great a district should have been covered
by a single city. The researches of Layard
and others have shown quite conclusively that
the four ruins above referred to are really the
remains of four distinct cities, and that only
one of these Koyunjik is included within
the limits of what was Nineveh. Neverthe-
less, so wide were the bounds of each, and so
far forth stretched the suburbs of the one
towards the other, that ancient travelers, such
as Diodorus, might well have considered the
whole region as one vast city. In passing
from the one to the other, however, there is
always found a considerable space unmarked
by ruins, and the bricks and tablets prove that
each city had its own name and institutions.

1 If we are to suppose that the part of Nineveh
included within the walls bore about the same pro-
portion to the whole as did Roma Qiiadrata to the
imperial city, it is safe to conclude that the above
estimates of the extent and population of the cap-
ital of Assyria are greatly below the truth. In
most cases the walled outline of old cities included
but a fraction of the district covered with build-
ings and thronged with human life.

ASSYRIA. PEOPLE AND CITIES.

159

The modern Nimrud is called Cahih in the
inscriptions of that locality; Khorsubad is
written as Dur-Sargina, or City 6f Sargon ;
while the bricks of Keremles show that the
ancient name of that place was the City of
God. 1 It is only the ruin of Koyunjik and
the neighboring remains known as Nebbi-
Yunus that can be properly identified as the
capital of the Assyrian Empire.

The wall which inclosed Nineveh was of
enormous proportions. Xenophon describes
it as being fifty feet in thickness and a hun-
dred and fifty feet high. Diodorus says that
three chariots could drive abreast on the top ;
and Layard admits that the ruins of the ram-
parts are so vast as to justify the description
given by the ancient historians. According
to the details furnished by Xenophon the first
fifty feet of the wall
was constructed of hewn
blocks of fossil-bearing
limestone, polished to
smoothness on the out-
side, and finished above
in a series of battle-
ments. At this point
the thickness of the
wall was diminished,
and thence carried up
with sun-dried bricks.
At the top the structure

was again broken into ornamental battlements
and towers.

At irregular intervals the rampart of the
city was pierced with openings for gates. The
most important of these was about the middle
of the northern wall. Here a great gateway,
fifty feet in height, entered the city. At the
outer and inner openings stood colossal figures
carved in stone bulls with the heads of men.
The wall above was surmounted with lofty
towers and others of less elevation were raised

at intervals along the summit of the rampart.
The gateway itself was provided, in the center
of the wall, with vast recesses or chambers on
either side, in which bodies of armed men
might be stationed to repel attack. The en-
trance was guarded by triple gates, and was
arched above with solid masonry ornamented
with reliefs. The floor of the gateway was
paved with flags of limestone, and upon these
slabs are seen to the present day the marki
made by the wheels of the war-chariota of
Assyria as they went forth to conquest.

Great as were the walls that surrounded
Nineveh the defenses were still further in-
creased by a barrier of water on all sides.
On the west, along the whole extent of the
city, lay the Tigris; and just outside of the
short wall on the south a natural tributary

SITE OF NINEVF.IL

1 The statement of the author of the Book of
Jonah that there were in Nineveh one hundred
and twenty thousand people who did not know
their right hand from the left, is perhaps a meta-
phor intended to describe the extreme ignorance
or moral blindness of the whole population.
Taken literally the statement would indicate
either an enormous population or a dense igno-
rance inconsistent with the building of great cities.

made access from without impracticable.
Around the remaining two sides, and close
to the rampart, a great moat, filled with water
from the Khosr-Su, hindered all approach. 1
On the north side of the city, and beyond the .
wall and moat, are the remains of a fortress;
and far beyond the eastern and southern ram-
parts the lines of ancient circumvallation and
detached earthworks are discoverable. No
city of antiquity was protected by a more elab-
orate and well devised system of defenses than
was the capital city of the Assyrian Empire.

1 In one place a moat, two hundred feet broad
and of great depth, is carried through silicious
conglomerate for a distance of two miles, and on
either side of the ditch, which was filled with
water from the Khosr, was a strong and high wall,
rising on the outside, even at the present day, to
the height of a hundred feet from the bottom of
the moat.

160

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

Of the internal structure of Nineveh the
ancient historians have given us no elaborate
account ; nor are the ruins in such a condi-
tion as to indicate with any considerable pre-
cision the character of the city. The lines of
the principal streets have not as yet been
traced. The sites of the great buildings with
which it is certain the city abounded have
only in a few instances been identified. The
warlike kings whose conquering soldiery made
the earth tremble and the splendid edifices
wherewith they adorned their capital have gone
down to dust together. No doubt the elegant
and princely parts of Nineveh lay along the
Tigris, in the western district of the city.
Here are the two chief ruins of Koyunjik and
Nebbi-Yunus, on which were the palaces of
the kings, and here has been exhumed the
larger part of those interesting remains by
which the life, manners, and language of the
Assyrians have been so richly illustrated.

About thirty miles down the Tigris from
Nineveh are the ruins of Nimrud, the ancient
CALAH. The remains are found on the east
bank of the river, a short distance above the
confluence of the Greater Zab. Calah was
the second city of the Empire. The ruins at
present cover about a thousand acres, being
more than one-half as great in extent as those
of Nineveh.

It is evidenced by the ruins, moreover,
that the Tigris has carried away a part of the
remains, and the small tributaries of this re-
gion have also reduced the limits of the
ancient city. Calah, like Nineveh, was sur-
rounded with a great wall, which was sur-
mounted with towers and pierced at intervals
with gateways. The general shape was rec-
tangular, but on the southern side the limits
of the city have been so obliterated by the
and of time as to be no longer distinguish-
able. As in the case of Nineveh, the Tigris
has, on the west, receded from the rampart
which it once skirted until a low-lying plain a
mile in width stretches between the river and
the wall. On this western side of the ancient
city, and overlooking the bed of the Tigris,
was an elevated plateau, raised artificially to
the height of forty feet and covering an area
of sixty acres. On this mound stood the

royal palaces, and it is in this quarter thai
the antiquarian has made his most interesting
discoveries. The platform itself was built of
successive layers of sun-dried bricks, and the
edges of the mound were protected by ram-
parts of solid masonry. These were ascended
from the lower parts of the city by flights of
steps, inclined planes, and staircases of stone.
Nearly the whole of the elevation is covered
with ruins and relics, the debris of fallen pal-
aces and temples.

Calah was seen and described by Xenophon,
who passed that way with the retreating
Greeks. He speaks of it as a vast deserted
city, formerly inhabited by the Medes. The
walls are described as twenty-five feet in
thickness, a hundred feet high, and nearly
seven miles in length. The foundation of this
extended rampart was of limestone to the
height of twenty feet, and the upper portion
of burnt bricks. Xenophon also mentions the
remarkable tower or pyramid which stands at
the north-western angle of the elevation here
described, rising in its present condition above
the surrounding country to the height of a
hundred and forty feet. It is the most strik-
ing object of all the remains in the neighbor-
hood of Nineveh. On this summit originally
stood what was perhaps the greatest and most
splendid of all the tower-temples of Assyria
a structure, as is shown by the foundation,
about a hundred and sixty-seven feet square
at the base, and rising in a succession of di-
minishing rectangles to the height of fully two
hundred feet.

Ascending the Khosr-Su from Nineveh to
a distance of nine miles, the traveler comes
to the village of KHORSABAD, the site of Dur-
Sargina, another buried city. The ruins
here, though less in extent than those of the
capital, are of almost equal magnificence.
Here again we have the rectangular rampart
drawn around the city, with the four sides
thereof facing the cardinal points of the
compass. Here, too, are the artificial eleva-
tions or flat-topped mounds from which the
proud palaces of kings and princes looked
down upon the city and surrounding country. 1

1 It appears that Khorsabad, Nimrud, and one
or two other cities in the immediate vicinity of

ASSYRIA. PEOPLE AND CITIES.

161

The wall of Khorsabad is about two thousand
yards in extent on each side, and is less mas-
sive than that drawn around the capital and
Nimrud. About the middle of the north-west
side and occupying a part of the line of the
rampart was the usual palace-mound, on which
stood the principal buildings of the city.

About fifteen miles due east from Nineveh
are the ruins of KEREMLES, the fourth of those
cities which antiquarians have been disposed
to include within the limits of the capital.
If such a conjecture could be entertained, it
would indicate an area for the entire city of
not less than two hundred and sixteen square
milts! Certain it is that at Kererales, as well
as at Calah and Khorsabad, the ruins are in-
dicative of royal residences and the presence
of princely modes of life.

Passing from these cities immediately asso-
ciated with the capital, the next in importance
among the Assyrian ruins are those of ASSHUR,
marked by the modern village of Kileh-Sher-
gat. The site is on the west bank of the Ti-
gris, about seventy miles below Nineveh.
From this point southward the remains begin
to partake of the peculiarities of Babylonia,
and to be no longer distinctly Assyrian. Like
the greater cities to the north, Asshur was
quadrangular. The lines of the walls are still
traceable across the plain, and the mounds
within the ramparts are of the same general
character as those already described. One of
the palace-mounds within the inclosure of the
city is two and a-half miles in circumference,

Nineveh, were a kind of suburban capitals, to
which, perhaps, at certain seasons of the year,
the Assyrian kings betook themselves for a tem-
porary residence. The style of the palace ruins
in four or five of these cities is unmistakably
royal, indicating that they were built and occu-
pied by kings or princes of the highest rank.

and is raised in some places as much as a
hundred feet above the plain. This stupen-
dous platform is covered with heaps of rub-
bish, fragments of hewn stone, masses of
burnt brick, shattered remains of unknown
structures, the di-bnn and dust of ages.

Besides the extensive ruin of Kileh-Sher
gat, not many sites of ancient cities have
beea discovered west of the Tigris. The an-
cient Nazibina has been identified with the
modern Nisibiu. In like manner, the town
of Diarbekr, on the Upper Tigris, is thought
to mark the place of the ancient Amidi.
Passing to the east, in the region between the
Greater and Lesser Zab, the modern Arbil ia
easily identified with the ancient Arbela, the
scene of one of Alexander's great battles. In
the vicinity of Nineveh several villages Tar-
bisa, Selamiyeh, and Senn are thought to
cover the ground once occupied by important
towns and cities. Many other places, espe-
cially in Mesopotamia, are known only ap-
proximately or not at all.

The names of a multitude of cities, towns,
and localities have been preserved, and
their sites in several instances determined
with some degree of certainty. After the
conquest of Assyria by the Medes, the cities,
particularly those west of the Tigris, fell rap-
idly into decay. The building activity of the
nation which had wrought such wonders was
suddenly paralyzed, and the splendor of fane
and palace was soon hidden in the smoke of
devastation, or dimmed and defiled by the
dust that rolled in clouds after the conquering
legions of a foreign soldiery.

Of the great deeds of the Assyrians, con-
sidered as a people of their renown in war
and progress in peace it is now appropriate
to speak.

162

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

CHAPTER xill. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

ISSYRIA was colonized
from Chaldsea. Accord-
ing to Genesis, Asshur
went forth from the land
of Shinar and builded
Nineveh. It appears clear
that at a certain epoch
the spirit of colonization prevailed in Lower
Mesopotamia. One company under the lead-
ership of Terah left Ur, and settled in Haran.
Another colony progenitors of the Phoeni-
cians departed from Chaldaea, and established
themselves on the shores of the Mediterra-
nean. A third and more important migration
was conducted up the Tigris, and choosing
the region afterwards known as Adiabene,
laid the foundations of Asshur so called from
the tribal name of the colony. Around this
city as a center and germ soon grew the do-
minions of an independent province, widening
at first into a tributary kingdom and after-
wards into a vast and aggressive empire.

Among the ruins of Kileh-Shergat and
other Assyrian cities are found unmistakable
traces of the Chaldsean or Babylonian origin
of the people. The oldest bricks are stamped
with Babylonian characters, and bear witness
to the fact that the country at that time was
under the rule of provincial governors. An
important tablet also contains the proof of the

coexistence of Chaldsean and Assyrian kings
aud of their relations by treaty. The names
of several monarchs of the most ancient times
are thus preserved, and a dim outline given
of the royal families, their intermarriages and
lines of descent. The elements of a meager
and imperfect history of primitive Assyria are
thus exhumed from the dust.

Data for establishing a trustworthy chro-
nology of the earlier epochs are vague and
fragmentary. Conjecture and right reason,
rather than ascertained facts, have been called
in to fill out the broken outline of the provin-
cial and kingly periods of Assyrian history.
By this means a sketch, not wholly imaginary
but falling far short of authenticity, has been
produced of the movements of civil society in
Assyria before the establishment of the Em-
pire. After the accession of Tiglathi-Adar l at
the beginning of the fourteenth century B. C.,
the scheme of chronology may be fairly re*
garded as established on historical foundations.
Before that period all dates in Assyrian history
are the result of conjecture and hypothesis.

Gathering together the best results that
have thus far been attained for the construc-
tion of a chronological outline, the following
table may be accepted as the nearest approach
to historic accuracy which is attainable in the
present state of knowledge:

PERIODS.

BULEBS.

COMMENTS.

DATES.

PROVINCIAL
PERIOD.

EARLY
KINGDOM.

Bel-Sumili-Kapi, . . .

* Si

Irba-Vul,

Provincial governors sent out
from Babylonia. Names pre-
served on" fragments of tablets
found in Assyria.

f Contemporary with Purna- 1
\ Puriyas, King of Chaldsea, /
Successor to preceding, ....
Successor to preceding, ....

Before the middle of the fif-
teenth century B. C.

About 1440 B. C., to 1420 B. C.

1420 1400
1400 1380
1380 1360
1360 1340
1340 1320
1320 1300

*
Asshur-Iddin-Akhi, .
Asshur-Bil-Nisi-Su, . .

Buzur-Asshur, ....
Asshur-TJpalit, ....
Bel-Lush

Pud-Il

Vul-Lush . .

Shalmaneser I, ....

Son of preceding, .

1 Frequently called Tiglathi-A T in Nin being another name for Adar.

ASSYRIA. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

163

PI KIODB.

RULERS.

COXMENTO.

DATta.

(

Tiglathi-Adar (Nin)

About 1300 B C to 1 9 80 B C

.
Bel-Kndur-Uzur

A break in the succession, . . .

1230 " I'lO "

Nin-Pala-Zira, . .

Successor to preceding

1210 " 1190 "
1190 " 1170 "

Son of preceding

1170 '' 1150 "

Asshur-Kis-llitn, .

Son of preceding,

1150 " 1130 "

Tiglatlrl'ili-iiT I.,

1130 " 1110 "

1110 " 1090 "

^lianius-Vul I-,

Brother of preceding,

1090 " 1070 "

THE GREAT

* * *

A break in the succession, . . .

EMPIRE.

* * ' *

A break in the succession, . . .

930 " 911 "

Vul-Lush II ....

911 " 889 "

Tiglatlii-Nin II

889 " 8XS "

883 " 858 '*

858 " 823 "

823 ' 810 "

Vul-Lush III ....

810 ' 781 "

Shalmaneser III., . .
Asshur-Dayan III., .
Asshur-Lusb, ....
Tiglath-Pileser II. ..

Successor to preceding
Successor to preceding, ....
Successor to preceding, ....

781 ' 771 "
771 ' 753 "
753 ' 745 "
745 ' 727 "

shalmaneser IV., . .

Successor to preceding, ....

727 ' 722 '
722 ' 705 '

LATER

Sennacherib,

Son of preceding,

705 ' 681 '

KINGDOM.

681 ' 668 '

' 668 ' 626 '

Asshur-Emid-Ilin, . .

Successor to preceding, . . .

' 626 ' 625 '

On the above scheme it may be remarked
that the dates are certainly established only
as far back as the reign of Asshur-Dayan II. ,
in 930 B. C. From this time downwards to
the overthrow of the kingdom under Asshur-
Kiniil-I lin, a period of three hundred and four
years, the list embraces fifteen monarchs,
which gives an average of twenty years to
each sovereign. Applying the same average
to the seventeen preceding rulers, we find the
establishment of the early kingdom to date
back to about the middle of the fifteenth cen-
tury B. C. But it will readily be confessed
that the assignment of twenty years to each
of this long line of monarchs is no better than
a rough approximation to the truth. So far
as the lists themselves, and the order of suc-
cession, and in general the relations of de-
scent, are concerned, a tolerable degree of cer-
tainty has been attained, but the dates of all the
earlier period are tentative and conjectural.

In the second place, it should be remem-
bered that no consecutive annals of the so-
called Early Kingdom exist. True it is that
a great and aggressive empire like that of

Tiglathi-Adar can not spring into being at
once. Previous progress in civilization, with
special reference to the forms and modes of
administration, must have been reached by
stages slow and painful before the nation can
display itself with regal splendor or imperial
power. Again, it is shown by analogy that a
race of kings natural leaders and rulers by
preeminence generally precedes the pro-
nounced expression of nationality in the
history of peoples. In the case of Assyria
we have the names and order of succession
of seven such rulers; and even before the
first of these a broken list of provincial chief-
tains or governors has been preserved. The
names, if not the deeds, of these primitive
heroes of the Assyrian dawn are as real as
those of Numitor and Romulus.

A few glimpses of the historic life of As-
syria are caught as far away as the times of
the earlier kings. No account, indeed, has
been preserved of the revolt or peaceable
secession by which the Assyrian provinces
became independent of the mother kingdom
of the South. But the time came when the

164

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

growing people about Asshur were not longer
dominated by Chaldsean authority. A royal
family sprang up in the North having estab-
lished relations with the princes of Babylon.

Especially did ASSHUR-UPALLIT, the third of
the early kings, cultivate the friendship and
favor of the Southern monarchy. He gave a
daughter in marriage to Purna-Puriyas, the
Chaldsean, and the son of this union became
king after the death of his father. A revolt
presently ensued, the subjects of this grandson
of Purna rebelling against him until the As-
syrian king marched an army into Lower
Mesopotamia, overthrew the usurper, Nazi-
Bugas, and put another son of Purna on the
throne. The whole transaction shows that the
rulers of Chaldsea and Assyria regarded each
other as equals, and were capable of acting
from the same large motives which determine
the policy of rulers in times of the most ad-
vanced civilization.

After Upallit for a period of sixty years
covering the reigns of BEL-LUSH, PUD-!L, and
VuL-LusH nothing except the names of the
kings is known of the civil history of Assyria.
The bricks of Asshur show that that city was
still the capital ; neither Calah nor Nineveh
had yet been built.

In the next reign, that of SHALMANESER I.,
the seat of power was transferred further north
and to the eastern bank of the Tigris. The
whole region on both banks of the river was
now dominated by the Assyrians. The semi-
peninsular and easily defended district be-
tween the Tigris and the Greater Zab was
chosen as a site for the new city of Calah or
Nimrud. This delightful locality became
known as Aturia, or Assyria Proper, and re-
mained through many reigns the center of
influence in the Empire. From this city the
first conquering armies of Assyria were led
forth by Shalmaneser to enlarge and strengthen
the borders of his dominions on the north.
Successful expeditions made the king's arms
known on the Upper Tigris where towns were
conquered and colonies planted, and the royal
power magnified in the presence of the barba-
rians. It is the epoch of the first Assyrian

wars.

TIGLATHI-ADAR, son and successor of Shal-

maneser, is regarded by common fame as the
founder of the Empire. Herodotus bears wit-
ness to the fact that the supremacy which had
hitherto been Babylonian became Assyrian.
The spirit of conquest became dominant in the
Northern kingdom. After a successful war in
Lower Mesopotamia, Tiglathi-Adar subscribed
himself as conqueror of Babylon. He even
established his capital iu the subject metrop-
olis, and therefrom issued his edicts during the
greater part of his reign. Here, too, a branch
of his family continued in authority for nearly
a century. At times these Assyrian vice-re-
gents of Babylonia were in revolt against the
Ninevite dynasty. For a season the inde-
pendence of Chaldsea is partially restored or
again lost as some more ambitious monarch
of the Empire would turn his arms to the
south. This condition of semi-dependence
continued for five or six centuries; though
there was a never a time after Tiglathi's
conquest when Assyria was not regarded as
the dominant power between the Armenian
mountains and the Persian Gulf. The race
ascendency of the Empire during the whole
period from the fourteenth to the seventh
century B. C., is clearly marked in the prev-
alence of Semitic names and Assyrian inscrip-
tions at Babylon and throughout Chaldsea.
Nor does it appear that at any time the old
Chaldsean dynasty was able to reassert itself
successfully against the rulers of Nineveh.

After the death of Tiglathi-ADAR the succes-
sion was broken for a period of a half cent-
ury. Whether BEL-Kin>UR-UzuR, whose name
next appears on the tablets, was a relative of
the preceding monarch or the founder of a
new dynasty has not been determined. After
Bel-Kudur, however, the succession is again
unbroken till the reign of Shamas-Vul I., in
1070 B. C.

The reign of King Bel-Kudur is chiefly
noted for his disastrous war with Babylon.
The viceroy of that city and province raised
the standard of rebellion against his master,
who, in 1210, went out to war with his re-
fractory vassal, and was himself defeated and
slain in battle. Vul-Baladan, the Babylon
prince, now inflamed with victory, organized
an expedition against Nineveh, and proceed-

ASSYRIA. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

165

ing thither was met near Asshur and annihi-
lated by the army of Nin-Pala-Zira, who had
succeeded Bel-Kudur on the throne of Assyria.

Assni'R-DA Y AN, the third Assyrian emperor,
was blest with peace. First of all he marched
into Babylonia and restored that province to
order. He next busied himself with the de-
molition of the old and half-ruined temple of
Vul at Asshur a work so vast that the recon-
struction of the edifice was not undertaken
for the space of sixty years.

Of MUTAGGIL-NEBO, the fourth from Tig-
lathi-Adar, only a single record has been pre-
served, and in that we are told that "Asshur,
the great Lord, aided him according to the
wishes of his heart, and established him in
strength in the government of Assyria." With
the reign of AssnuR-Ris-lLiM, the next in
succession, the military spirit waa revived, and
an inscription records that the monarch was a
powerful king, the subduer of rebellious coun-
tries, and the conqueror of all the accursed.
He waged several foreign wars, carrying his
arms if one tradition is to be credited as
far west as the Mediterranean. Certain it is
that he made 9, great campaign against the
Babylonians, whose viceroy Nebuchadnezzar
first sovereign of that illustrious name had
raised the standard of revolt and led his rebel-
lious subjects up the Diyaleh, and along the
foot-hills of the Zagros towards the Assyrian
capital. The invasion was met by the king's
army and beaten back, but Nebuchadnezzar's
forces again gathered head and advanced across
the open plain until they were met by Ris-
Eim's generals and completely routed. Forty
chariots and a banner remained in the hands
of the victors.

With the accession of TIGLATH-PILESER I.
the details of Assyrian history become more
abundant. The new monarch came to the
throne about 1130 B. C. The story of his
military exploits and civil career is elaborately
recorded on two cylinders, which are preserved
in the British Museum. The record is made by
the king himself, and making allowance for the
egotism which has always characterized royal
autobiography, and the bombast peculiar to
oriental style, the inscription may be accepted
as a true history of Tiglath-Pileser's reign.

This ancient chronicle begins with a
lengthy and formal invocation to the gods of
Asshur, by whose help and protection the
king's greatness had been won and maintained.
Then follows a detailed account of the five
great campaigns which he had conducted
against foreign nations. The first of these
was directed to the north against the Mos-
chians, at the foot of the Taurus. For fifty
years the tribes on this skirt of the Empire
had neglected to pay the tribute which had
been imposed on them by previous rulers.
Now they were subdued, and the tribute-
money regularly exacted. Another rebellious
Assyrian dependency, called Kasiyara in tLi
language of the inscription, was also subjected
with a great slaughter of armies and overthrow
of towns and cities. The second campaign
was waged through the same provinces, and
was chiefly directed against the Kaskians and
Urumians two tribes which had been making
depredations on the Assyrian frontier. These
also were overpowered. The wealth of the
nation, including one hundred and twenty
chariots of war, was transferred by the con-
queror to his own capital. Turning to the
east, the armies of Tiglath-Pileser next crossed
the Lower Zab, and carried the banners of
Assyria to the foot of the Zagros.

In the third year of his wars the king led
his forces westward to the Euphrates, against
the tribes called the Na'iri. This semi-barbar-
ous people had never been subjected to As-
syrian authority. In Mesopotamia the prog-
ress of the king was not seriously resisted,
but west of the Euphrates the Na'iri gathered
in great strength, and fought bravely in de-
fense of their country. The discipline of the
royal armies, however, soon triumphed over
native valor, and the scattered tribes were
pursued as far west as the Mediterranean.
Great spoils were taken, and a tribute exacted
amounting to two hundred cattle and twelve
hundred horses.

The third campaign led to a fourth. The
Aramaeans, whose country skirted the Eu-
phrates from Is to Carchemish, attracted the
attention of Tiglath-Pileser, and drew him,
already heated with conquest, into an invasion.
This was the most brilliant and successful of

166

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

his wars. He swept through the long, narrow
territory of the Aramaeans for a distance of
two hundred and fifty miles. Six cities were
captured, and the whole country ravaged to
its northernmost limits. The Assyrian army
then drew back to the capital, bearing vast
quantities of booty.

In the next year a fifth and last campaign
was conducted in .the country between the
Greater Zab and the Eastern Khabour "the
land of Muzr." Here the spurs of the Zagros
rendered military movements difficult, and the
courage of the mountaineers of Kurdistan was
conspicuous in defense of their fastnesses ; but
the king's army assaulted the strongholds and
put down all resistance. Arin, the capital,
was taken, and a tribute was imposed as the
condition of peace. The Comari, also, a neigh-
boring nation that had lent aid to the Kurds
in their recent hostilities, were next punished
for their part in the war. Their army of twenty
thousand men was routed, and their castles and
cities taken and burnt. At the close of the
chronicle of his exploits the king sums up as
the result of his great campaigns forty-two
conquered countries, extending from the head-
waters of the Greater Zab to the Euphrates,
and beyond to the west as far as the Mediter-
ranean. Cities, towns, castles, kings and peo-
ples had been subdued and reorganized " under
one government" the imperial government
of Assyria.

The great exploits of Tiglath-Pileser as a
hunter of wild beasts are likewise thought
worthy to be recorded. Wild cattle had he
pursued with his arrows. Nearly a thousand
lions had he destroyed while going to and fro
on his conquests. Some of the ferocious
creatures of the mountains and plains he had
confined in cages and dragged back, bound
with thongs, to the capital. There did the
royal keepers show them alive as the indubit-
able proofs of the king's prowess and of the
favor of Nin and Nergal, who gave the ad-
vantage in conflict, and guided the royal arrow
in its flight.

Great buildings also attested the enterprise
of the king. The gods of Asshur-Ishtar, Bel,
and II were honored with new and magnifi-
cent fanes. Mention has alreadv been made

of the demolition by Asshur-Dayan of the
ancient temple of Anu and Vul, which, after
remaining for six and a half centuries the
wonder of the capital, had fallen into ruin.
Neither Asshur-Dayan himself, nor Nebo, nor
Ris-Ilim had been able to restore the structure
to its former grandeur. It remained for the
victorious Tiglath-Pileser, enriched by con-
quest and inflamed with pride, to rear again
in pristine splendor the barbaric temple of
the gods of his fathers.' The wars of Tiglath-
Pileser were mostly waged with tribes which
had just emerged from barbarism. The half-
civilized peoples whose countries skirted the
dominions of Assyria on the west, the north,
and the east, were but poorly able to cope
with the well-drilled legions of Pileser's army.
Only in one direction was there a kingdom
possessing sufficient political unity to stand on
equal terms with the conquering monarch of
Asshur. On the south lay Babylon, old and
well-organized, and of ancient renown in arms.
In the earlier years of hiS reign, and even

1 As a specimen of the royal style, the follow-
ing somewhat vainglorious account of the rebuild-
ing of the temple of Anu and Vul, as given in
Tiglath-Pileser's inscription, is appended : " In
the beginning of my reign, Anu and Vul, the
great gods, my lords, guardians of my steps, gave
me a command to repair this their shrine. So I
made bricks ; I leveled the earth ; I took the di-
mensions; I laid down the foundation upon a
mass of strong rock. This place, throughout its
whole extent, I paved with bricks in set order ;
fifty feet deep I prepared the ground: and upon
this substructure I laid the foundation of the
temple of Anu and Vul. From its foundation to
its roof I built it better than it was before. I also
built two lofty towers in honor of their noble god-
ships, and the holy place, a spacious hall, I con-
secrated for the convenience of their worshipers,
and to accommodate their votaries who were nu-
merous as the stars of heaven. I repaired and
built and completed my work. Outside the tem-
ple I fashioned every thing with the same care
as inside. The mound of earth on which it was
built I enlarged like the firmament of the rising
stars, and I beautified the entire building. Its
towers I raised up to heaven, and its roofs I built
entirely of brick. An inviolable shrine for their
noble godships I laid down near at hand. Anu
and Vul, the great gods, I glorified inside the
shrine. I set them up in their honored purity,
and the hearts of their noble godships I de-
lighted." Rawlinson's Ancient Monarchies, Vol.
II., pp. 69-70.

ASSYRIA. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

167

during his great campaigns, the relations be-
tween Tiglath-Pileser's government and the
viceroyalty of Babylon continued friendly ;
but after his other wars were completed, and
he had for a while devoted his energies to
works of peace, the king's belligerent disposi-
tion broke out in an invasion of Chaldam:

He first led his army into the northern prov-
inces, and for two years laid waste the coun-
try. The two Sipparas were taken, and Kurri-
Galzu, and Opis on the Tigris. Finally Bab-
ylon itself was besieged and captured, after
which the royal army began to withdraw up
the valley of the Euphrates, taking several
cities on the march, and meeting but feeble
resistance. No sooner, however, had the As-
syrian forces departed from Babylon than
Merodach-Iddin, the viceroy of the kingdom,
gathered an army and began a vigorous pur-
suit. Hanging on Tiglath-Pileser's rear, he
gained several advantages, insomuch that the
Assyrian march was converted into a retreat.
An assault was made on the king's camp, and
the gods of Asshur were captured and borne
away in triumph to Babylon, -where they were
kept, to the shame of the Ninevites, for more
than four hundred years. Neither Tiglath-
Pileser himself nor any of his successors was
able to retake the idols which the king had
borne with him through all his conquests, and
which had thus become a part of the fame
of Assyria.

About the close of the twelfth century
B. C., Tiglath-Pileser was succeeded on the
throne by his son, AssnuR-BrL-KALA. Of this
prince and his reign not very much is known.
The Babylonian difficulties which had for sev-
eral generations afflicted the kings of Assyria,
again broke out in the reign of Bil-Kala.
Shapik-Zira, prince of Babylon, following the
example of his father, Iddin-Akhi, revolted,
and the Assyrian monarch made an effort to
subdue him, but with what success is uncer-
tain. There are some evidences also that Bil-
Kala devoted his energies in part to the relig-
ious enterprises which had characterized the
time of his father. The temples, however, do
not bear any distinctive marks of this prince's
fame or ambition. He was succeeded on the
throne by his younger brother, SnAMAS-VuL,

by whom a temple was built at Nineveh.
Besides this fact nothing is known of the
events of his reign. It is a time of decadence
in the history of Assyria. For two centuries
from the close of the reign of Bil-Kala to the
accession of Tiglathi-Nin, in B. C. 889 there
is an almost total blank in the annals of the
Empire. Only the names of the kings (and
but a few of these) have been preserved to indi-
cate the outline of events and the ebb and flow
of power.

The continued existence of a single do-
minion, with its capital at Asshur, was of
itself an important fact in ancient history.
The families of the Assyrian kings and nobles
became well established. The Assyrian stock
was the most notable in Western Asia. The
princesses of this line were sought in marriage
by the illustrious sovereigns of Egypt, and
the kings of the surrounding nations nearly
all courted the favor of an alliance with the
House of Nineveh. As the result of such
unions Assyrian names begin to appear in the
royal families of the circumjacent kingdoms.
For when has the mother forgotten to call her
child by the name of her father or brother?

Passing over the undated reign of ASSHUR-
MAZUR and the obscure times of ASSHUB-
DAYAN II. and Vul-Lush II., we come, with the
accession of TIGLATHI-NIN II., to another dawn
in Assyrian history. The reign of this second
Nin was brief and inglorious, and his name
and place in the history of his country are
only preserved in a single inscription. Not
so, however, with his son and successor, the
distinguished AssHUR-IziR-PAL, who came to
the throne in B. C. 883. His accession marks
the beginning of a great renaissance in the
art, learning, and political development of
Assyria. Whether in warlike vigor or civil
enterprise, this monarch stands preeminent
among his contemporaries. In the first six
years of his reign he waged no fewer than ten
campaigns against the surrounding nations,
carrying his victorious arms from the upper
fountains of the Euphrates on the north-west
to the spurs of the Zagros, where the tribu-
taries of the Diyaleh gather their waters, on
the south-east. The Kurdish tribes and moun-
taineers of Armenia; two races of Western

168

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

PALACE OF ASSHUR-IZUR-PAL.

Mesopotamia called the Serki aud the Laki;
the rebellious inhabitants of Assura; the
Nairi, previously mentioned as a subject-
people of the Upper Tigris; the highlanders
of the Mons Masius and of the district on the
north of Susiana; the Shuhites, who had
again revolted ; and especially the Syrians, in-
cluding the people of Carchemish and west-
ward through the regions about Antioch and
Aleppo as far as Tyre and Sidon and the
other Phoenician cities were each in turn
made to acknowledge the valor and supremacy
of Asshur-Izir-Pal's armies. In the progress
of these extended expeditions, not only the
military prowess but also the ferocious disposi-
tion of the king was fully developed. At the
siege of the rebellious town of Assura he maui-

fested the wrath of a barbarian. He captured
the king and sent him in fetters to Nineveh.
Those of the inhabitants who had actively en-
gaged in the revolt he either crucified or
burnt alive; while those who had been less
guilty of the rebellion were punished by the
cutting off of their ears and noses. 1 These
savage proceedings had the effect of inspiring
universal dread of the displeasure of the mon-
arch who inflicted them.

The general effect of Asshur-Izir-Pal's wars
was greatly to enrich the Empire. Increased
tributes poured into the capital. Contribu-

'Sueh brutal methods of subjugation were too
much employed by the Assyrian generals and
kings. The case of Asshur-Izir-Pal seems to be
extraordinary. He appears not to have been
troubled with compunctions, but to have gloried
rather in his savagery. With the utmost non-
chalance he thus relates the sequel of the capture
of Tela, one of the towns that resisted his author-
ity: "Their men, young and old, I took prisoners.
Of some I cut off the feet and hands; of others I
cut off the noses, ears, and lips; of the young
men's ears I made a heap ; of the old men's heads
1 built a minaret! I exposed their heads as a
trophy in front of their city. The male children
and the female children I burnt in the flames! The
city I destroyed and consumed and burnt with
fire."

ASSYRIA. CHRONOLOGY AND ANXALS.

tions of gold, silver, horses, and cattle were
levied without scruple and collected without
abatement from the conquered countries. A
great stimulus was thus given to the architec-
tural and cesthetic development of the As-
syrians. The later years of the reign of
Asshur-Izir-Pal became a kind of Augustan
Age, in which literature and the arts flour-
ished with a brilliancy which even from the
dust of centuries has flashed out on the sur-
prised vision of modern times. This era
marks a revolution in architectural taste a
change so great as strongly to distinguish the
remains of the earlier age at Asshur from the
splendid ruins found at Calah and Nineveh.
Whereas the former are so rude and unpre-
tending as to be at once assigned by the anti-
quary to the monumental endeavors of a
primitive people, the latter are so grand in
conception and so artistic in execution as to
be properly classified with the great works of
Greece and Egypt.

The favorite city of Asshur-Izir-Pal was
Calah. Under his ambitious and powerful
patronage this soon became the metropolis of
the Empire. Here he built a royal palace
that liar outshone any structure hitherto
reared within the limits of Assyria. The edi-
fice was three hundred and sixty feet in length
by three hundred feet in breadth. The gen-
eral plan of the structure was a series of
halls and chambers and a great central court
a hundred and thirty feet long and a hundred
feet in width. The palace proper was raised
upon a vast rectangular platform of burnt
bricks cased with slabs of hewn stone. Fac-
ing the city on the north and the Tigris on
the west were flights of steps ascending to the
grand facades, while beside the high gates by
which access was had to the principal hall, were
sculptured slabs representing the great deeds
of the king. The gateway in the southern
wall was guarded on either hand by winged
bulls with human heads carved in yellow
limestone, and the halls and chambers within
were decorated with enameled bricks, sculp-
tures, and frescoes.

The splendid example of the king as a
builder and patron of art reacted powerfully
upon the princes and nobles of the Empire.

Calah and Nineveh rose in grandeur. The
rough stone-work and rudely burnt clays of
the preceding ages gave place all 'at once to
elaborate designs in bas-relief and magnificent
architectural ornaments. The influence of the
capital was felt even to the provincial towns,
and the native energy of the Assyrian race
quickly displayed itself in the higher achieve-
ments of civilization. Manufactures sprang
up and flourished. Shops for the making of
fabrics, furnaces for the burning of enameled
bricks, forges for the working of metals, fac-
tories for the building of coaches and war-
chariots, studios for the production of designs,
the treatment of colors,
and the use of the chisel
grew up, flourished, and
multiplied. Assyrian ar-
tists traveled to Phoenicia
and even to India, and
introduced on their return
the styles and designs of
both the East and the
West. Memorial obelisks
like those of Egypt were
seen on the banks 'of the
Tigris. The taste of Assy-
ria became cultured, cos-
mopolitan.

Asshur-Izir-Pal died in
B. C. 858, leaving a con-
solidated Empire which
extended from the moun-
tains of Armenia to the
Mediterranean Sea. He
was succeeded on the throne by his son,
SHALMANESER II., who reigned for thirty-five
years. This prince had grown up among
the Assyrian soldiery. As a boy he had
accompanied his father on his great cam-
paigns, and had imbibed the spirit of conquest.
As a consequence of this training his chief
energies were devoted to war. No fewer than
twenty-seven campaigns are enumerated in the
history of his military career. By far the
most important of these wars were those waged
against Babylonia and Damascus. In the
former country a civil conflict had broken out
between Sum-Adin, the king, and his rebel-
lious younger brother named Bel-Usati. This

ORNAMENTED PU.LAR,

TIME OF ASSHUR-

1ZI R FAL.

170

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

disturbance gave Shalmanescr an opportunity
to interfere, and in the eighth year of his
reign he led an army into Babylonia and over-
threw and slew the insurgent brother; but
instead of settling the crown upon the rightful
claimant he wheeled suddenly about and
marched into Babylon. Here he was received
by the people as a deliverer, and easily made
himself master of the country. He then con-
tinued his conquest southward through Chal-
dsea to the Persian Gulf, and afterwards re-
turned without opposition to his own capital.

In 874 B. C. Shalmaneser began his wars
with Damascus. Ben-Hadad, king of that
country, had become alarmed at the growing
dominions and aggressive spirit of the Assyr-
ians, and had determined to anticipate the
expected invasion of his territory by preparing
to repel it. He accordingly entered into a
league with Tsakhulena, king of Hamath, and
Ahab, king of Israel. The kings of the Hit-
tites and Phoenicians were also drawn into this
alliance ; and when Shalmaneser marched west-
ward into Syria he was confronted by a large
and ably commanded army. Nevertheless in
a great battle which ensued the allied forces
led by Ben-Hadad were defeated. Twenty
thousand of their number were killed, and the
spoils of the field remained in the hands of
the Assyrians. The resistance, however, had
been so serious, the battle so hotly fought, that
Shalmaneser withdrew from the country, and
did not renew the war for a period of five
years.

By and by Shalmaneser, having completed
some other conquests, returned to his Syrian
war. The Western confederacy had mean-
while fallen to pieces. Hamath had internal
dissensions, and Phoenicia had shut herself up
in her fortified towns. Ben-Hadad, however,
induced the Hittites to join him, and stood
forth to meet the Assyrians in battle. The
victory, though indecisive, was again gained
by Shalmaneser, but he was unable after the
conflict to press forward to complete his con-
quest. After retiring a second time to his
own country, he gathered a third army, far
surpassing the others in 'numbers and equip-
ments, and returning against Damascus met
and defeated the army of Ben-Hadad with

great slaughter. The war, however, continued.
Ben-Hadad was assasinated by the treacherous
Hazael, who usurped the crown and the com-
mand of the army. Taking advantage of the
mountain range he posted himself in the val-
ley of Coelo-Syria, where he was assaulted by
the Assyrians and utterly routed. Sixteen
thousand of his men were killed, and the
spoils of the battle-field, including eleven
hundred and twenty chariots of war, remained
in the hands of Shalmaneser. The spirit of
resistance was broken. Town after town was
taken, and the Assyrian banners were carried
without further opposition to the shores of the
Mediterranean. It was at this time that Jehu,
king of Israel, submitted to the yoke of As-
syria, and sent an embassy, bearing presents
of silver and gold, to the court of Shalmaneser.

After completing his wars, Shalmaneser,
like his father, turned his attention to the
adornment of his capital. The great temple
of Nin, the Assyrian Hercules, which had
been begun by Asshur-Izir-Pal, was now
brought to completion. Not choosing to oc-
cupy the palace which his father had built,
the king selected another site within a stone's
throw of the former edifice, and there reared
for the gratification of his pride a structure
more vast and splendid than any hitherto
built by an Assyrian monarch. The literary
development, however, which had been so
rapid in the preceding reigns, was, in the time
of Shalmaneser, completely checked, and the
style employed in the inscriptions is even more
deficient in perspicuity and elegance than in
the time of the king's grandfather. The nar-
rative given by the rude annalist of the court
is fit to be compared with only the coarsest
essays of primitive literature.

A single monumental record of Shalmane-
ser's reign is worthy of special note. Under
the debris of the king's palace at Calah (Nim-
rud) the historian Layard discovered an obe-
lisk of black marble, perfectly preserved and
covered on its four sides with bas-reliefs and
historical inscriptions. The sculptures repre-
sent the monarch as receiving tribute from
five nations. Ambassadors bearing the pres-
ents are led before the king, to whom they
bow, laying down at his feet the treasures of

ASSYRIA. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

171

gold ami silver and ivory which they have
brought from distant regions to appease the
majesty of Assyria. The inscriptions contain
the annals of the Empire during the reign of
Shalmancser, with the usual vainglorious
phraseology of the court.

The last years of Shalmaneser II. were
clouded with disaster. One feature of his
military policy had been distasteful to the
people. Several of his campaigns had been
intrusted to Dayan-Asshur, the leading gene-
ral of the army. The ascendency of this mil-

the regency upon Shamas-Vul, the younger
brother of the rebel, and intrusted to him the
command of that part of the army which had
maintained its loyalty. With these forces
Shamas-Vul took the field, rapidly reduced
the revolted cities, overthrew his brother in
battle, and restored the king's authority
throughout the Empire. Soon afterwards
Shalmaneser died, and the loyal sou was re-
warded with the crown, which he received
with the title of SHAMUS-VUL II.

The reign of the new king lasted thirteen

JEHU'S EMBASSY BEFORE SHALMANESER.

itary hero over the king and court was a
source of displeasure and jealousy. Mean-
while, with the long continuance of Shalmane-
ser's reign, the ambitious Asshur-Dauin-Pal,
eldest son of the monarch, grew restive with
the unprecedented procrastination of his father's
death, and thinking to seize the fruit before it
was ripe raised the standard of revolt. Twenty-
five different cities, including Asshur (the for-
mer capital), Arbela, and several other old and
important centers, ready to hail the rising sun,
accepted the revolution as an accomplished
fact, and proclaimed Danin-Pal as king. In
this emergency the aged monarch conferred

years from 823 to 810 B. C. His public
career was not so distinguished as had been
foreshadowed by the ambitions of his youth.
His royal acts, like those of his father and
grandfather, are chronicled on an obelisk,
which has reached our times in a tolerable
state of preservation. From this we gather
an outline of his military exploits and what
he achieved in peace. His campaigns were
directed first against the half-civilized Na'iri,
whom the memory of previous chastisements
was not sufficient to keep in subjection. After-
wards the king's army was engaged on the
eastern frontier, where, for the first time, the

172

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

swords of Assyria clashed with those of Media
and Persia an ominous sound, foretokening
the day when the Aryan race, bursting
through its mountain barriers, should break
the dominion of Shem and take Western
Asia for a heritage. From his eastern war,
in the fourth year of his reign, Shamas-Vul
led his army against Babylonia. He entered
the country near the mouth of the Diyaleh
and pressed on towards the capital; but be-
fore reaching his destination he was encoun-
tered by Belatzu-Ikbi, king of the Baby-
lonians, who had gathered his forces, seized
an advantageous position, and stood ready for
the hazard of battle. The Assyrians gained
the day. Of the Babylonians eighteen thou-
sand were killed and three thousand captured.
Shamas-Vul pressed hard after the flying
enemy. Near the city Belatzu-Ikbi rallied
all his forces, embracing his allies on the south
and west, and staked all on the issue. An
overwhelming defeat followed. The Baby-
lonian army was decimated. The royal ban-
ner of Babylon and the pavilion of the king
were taken, with two hundred tents and one
hundred chariots of war. The power of the
Babylonians was broken for several genera-
tions, and the son of Shamas-Vul became
viceroy of the South. The obelisk of Shamas-
Vul exhibits the same spiritless style of writ-
ing which prevailed in the times of his father:
a flat narrative of monotonous facts, inelegant
and dull. Nor does it appear that the archi-
tectural taste of the king and his nobles was
superior or even equal to that of the times of
his grandfather. He was content to occupy
his father's palace at Calah, and to pass
the days not given to military enterprises in
rather inglorious ease. Only once does the
chronicle of the king break ofF to tell the
story how, while conducting his Eastern war,
at the foot of the Zagros, the monarch en-
tered with spirit into a hunt of wild bulls,
vnd himself killed many in the chase.

The annals of the reign of VuL-Lusn III.,
who succeeded Shamas-Vul on the throne in
B. C. 810, are meager and imperfect. Enough
is known, however, to show that his kingly
career, extending over a period of twenty-nine
years, was crowded with great events. Like

his ancestors for several generations, his chief
energies were devoted to war. Under the in-
fluence of his military successes and his skill
in administration, the bounds of the Assyrian
Empire were permanently enlarged. In sevsn
different campaigns he carried his banners
across the Zagros into Media. Three success-
ful expeditions he made into Syria, pressing
his way even to the city of Damascus, which
he entered in triumph. Turning to the north-
west, he swept through Palestine, reducing
Tyre and Sidon, breaking the power of the
Philistines, and subjecting Edom to his au-
thority.

In the further prosecution of his wars Vul-
Lus'n humbled the Na'iri, and the Persians
and the Medes sent presents in token of sub-
mission. Babylonia remained loyal to the
king, who journeyed into that country, en-
tered the temples of Borsippa and Babylon,
and offered sacrifices to Nebo, Nergal, and
Bel. Like his father, Vul-Lush had but little
ambition as a builder. His inscriptions bear
witness that he restored many of the public
edifices, which through neglect were falling
into ruins. His own palace was at Nineveh,
on the mound called Nebbi-Yunus; but this
vast heap, in which, perhaps, lie buried the
records of his reign, has never been properly
explored.

Two important relics of Vul-Lush and his
time have reached our day. These are dupli-
cate statues of the god Nebo, which, though
imperfect as works of art, are of the highest
interest from the inscriptions which they bear.
The dedication on the pedestal is to the lord
Vul-Lush and his queen SEMIRAMIS. Tbe
place in time and the rank of this famous
princess are thus fixed by indubitable evi-
dence. The credulous historians of Greece
and Rome had assigned Semiramis to an epoch
almost as remote as the founding of Nineveh,
and had given to her a character as wild and
overdrawn as the dreams of a mediaeval fic-
tion. She was represented as the most ex-
traordinary personage of the ancient world,
subduing princes by her fascinations, and lead-
ing vast armies to victory. A part of this
romance can no doubt be accounted for by
the fact that the ancient Assyrians carefully

ASSYRIA. < HHOXOLOGY AND ANNALS.

173

secluded their women, regarding them a* in-
1'rriors unworthy of commemoration in rlinm-
icle or sculpture. It thus came to pass, that
when at rare intervals, by some fortuitous cir-
cumstance, a princess was thrown into the
foreground, Oriental imagination and Western
credulity combined to invest her with the
character of a goddess. So, when the real
Semiramis, a princess of Babylon, having
rights of her own to the viceroyalty of the
South, was taken in marriage by Vul-Lush
III. and brought as queen to Nineveh, she
was treated with exceptional regard. The
Assyrians accepted her as an additional guar-
anty of the stability of the Empire; and the
Babylonians, looking from afar, saw in her
the possible mother of a line of kings who
should be tiieir rulers as well as monarchs of
the North. Beyond the exceptional promi-
nence thus given to Semiramis, it does not
appear that her personal genius or achieve-
ments would have greatly distinguished her
above the other noble ladies of her time. The
fabulous stories told of her by the uncritical his-
torians from Diodorus to Rolliu, when stripped
of fiction and tradition, shrink into a plain
narrative of a Babylonian princess, married
to an Assyrian king, retaining her own rights,
and adding by personal superiority to the
dignity and charms of the palace-halls of
Nineveh.

After the death of Vul-Lush III., in B. C.
781, a period of decline ensued, in which, for
thirty-six years, no great events are recorded.
The names of three kings belonging to this pe-
riod SHALMANESER III., ASSHUR-DAYAN III.,
and AssHUR-LusH have, indeed, been pre-
served ; but their reigns were brief and devoid
of interest. It appears that, after the great
wars of the preceding half century, by which
the boundaries of the Assyrian Enjpire had
been pushed back and established at the foot
of the mountains and the shore of the sea, the
energies of the kings and people, finding vent
and development no longer in the peril and j
glory of military campaigns, fell quickly into
decay. The luxury which follows successful
war brought effeminaney into the market-place
and ease into the palace. The heavy sleep

which follows indulgence was for a while un-
N. Vol. i ii

broken, even by the rumor of barbarians in
arms or the clamor of rebellious cities.

In the fifteenth chapter of the Second Book
of Kings, an account is given of the invasion
of the kingdom of Israel by PUL, king of As-
syria. Mciwhem, the Israelitish ruler, levied
upon his chief men and the people a tribute
of a thousand talents of silver, and gave it to
Pul to be at one with him and his interests.
The narrative seems to place this Pul in such
relations of time as to make him the immedi-
ate predecessor of Tiglath-Pileser II., who
came to the throne of Assyria in B. C. 746.
The Assyrian Canon, however, gives for the
eighth century the following list of kings :

ShalmTineser III., ...... 781 B. C. to 771 B. a

Asshur-Dayan III 771 753 "

Asshur-Lush 753 745 "

Tiglath-Pileser II., 745 727 "

Shalmaneser IV 727 722 "

Sargon 722 705 "

In this list there is no place for Pul. The
name itself is not an Assyrian name, and does
not anywhere occur in the annals of the Em-
pire. The most probable explanation of this
striking and patent contradiction in the
records of the two nations is that the Jewish
writers frequently use the term "king" of
subordinate rulers. 1 Pul was, probably, a
Babylonian officer of high rank, perhaps the
viceroy himself, who, in the disturbed and
obscure epoch following the death of Vul-
Lush III., became sufficiently independent of
the Ninevite dynasty to make war and levy
tribute on his own account. A campaign
thus issuing from Babylon against Israel could
easily be mistaken for an Assyrian invasion,
and the leader of such an expedition would be
more than usually susceptible to the influ-
ences of a bribe, such as Menahem gave him,
" that his hand might be with him to confirm
the kingdom in his [own] hand."

1 Thus we have in the Book of Daniel the strik-
ing account of the overthrow of Babylon by Cyrus,
in which Belshazzar, the lieutenant of Nabona-
dius, is constantly referred to as king. Belshazzar,
or Bel-Shar-Uzur, as the name is written in the
Babylonian inscriptions, never held a higher rank
than satrap of Babylonia, and can only in an ac-
commodated sense of the word be called " King
of the Chaldwans."

174

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

After an obscure interval of thirty-six
years the Empire, under TIGLATH-I'ILESEU II.,
again emerges from darkness. Just previous
to this event, iu the time of the temporary
eclipse of Assyrian greatness, occurred the
episode of Jonah, who came into the capital
and began crying in the streets, " Yet forty
days, and Nineveh shall be overthrown."
The alarm of the king perhaps Asshur-
Lush led to a reform in the morals of the
city, and the threatened judgment, for which
the prophet sat waiting in his booth of woven
boughs without the gates, passed by. The
relation of blood, if any, of Tiglath-Pileser II.
to the preceding kings of Assyria is unknown.
There are evidences that the line of succession
was broken, and that Tiglath-Pileser was a
logical necessity of his times rather than the
legitimate heir to the Empire. Certain it is
that he came to the throne in the character
of a reformer. The previous era of weakness
had encouraged lawlessness and insurrection
in the provinces. The frontiers were broken
in by the audacity of barbarian chieftains.
To reestablish his borders and restore the spirit
of the Empire were the first care of the king.

At this time Nabonassar, the ruler of Baby-
lon, encouraged by the long lapse of Assyrian
authority, had risen to the rank of a rival,
and the petty princes who held sway in the
southern parts of Chaldsea had ceased to pay
tribute to either the Northern or the Southern
court. It was against this race of kinglets
that the reorganized Assyrian army, led by
Tiglath-Pileser, was first conducted. The
king's campaign in Lower Mesopotamia was
immediately and completely successful. The
towns of Sippara and Kurri-Galzu were taken,
and whole country bordering on the Gulf
brought quickly into subjection. Nabonassar
was forced to renew his allegiance, and Tig-
lath-Pileser was publicly proclaimed as king
of Babylon. Ih the temples of that city, as
well as on other famous shrines of the land, the
monarch of Assyria offered sacrifices to the
gods of the South, and then returned victo-
rious to his own capital.

Still more important were the wars of
Tiglath-Pileser in Syria. During the deca-
dence of the three preceding reigns, the kings

of Damascus, Samaria, and Tyre, like the
Babylonian rulers, had broken faith with the
House of Nineveh and assumed their inde-
pendence. In 743 B. C. Tiglath-Pileser set
out to subdue them. Rezin, king of Damas-
cus, was first made to feel the angry stroke
of the power which he had provoked to war.
In Samaria, Menahem, who was still ruler of
Israel, was brought into subjection ; and the
kings of Tyre, of Hamath, and of the Arabian
tribes on the borders of Egypt, were quelled
by siege or battle. Azariah, who led forth
the army of Judah against the Assyrian, was
defeated, and the whole land was traversed
by the invader as far as the sea of the West.
The campaign lasted for five years, and was
never seriously impeded ; and yet, as soon as
the army of Tiglath-Pileser was withdrawn
into Assyria the insurrectionary movement
began again in all the Syrian nations.

The leaders of these Western rebellions
were Rezin, king of Damascus, and Pekah,
king of Israel. Instigated by their example,
the Hittites and the people of Hamath were
induced to take up arms. Ahaz, king of Ju-
dah, refused to become a partner to the league;
and when the rulers of Israel and Damascus
undertook to compel him to join the alliance,
by declaring war against him, with the avowed
purpose of setting up a partisan of their own
as king of Jerusalem, Ahaz sent an embassy
to the court of Tiglath-Pileser, offering to be-
come his vassal if he would send aid against
Rezin and Pekah. The Assyrian monarch at
once complied, and in 733 B. C. marched for
the third time into Syria. Rezin was beaten
in battle and driven into Damascus, which
after a two years' siege was taken by the As-
syrians. The rebel king was captured and
slain, and all resistance ended.

Pileser. next wheeled his army into Sama-
ria, attacking first the provinces beyond the
Jordan. Reuben and Gad and the half-tribe
of Manasseh were overrun, and the people led
into captivity. Beyond the Euphrates, along
the Khabour and other rivers of Upper Mes-
opotamia, the vanquished Israelites were scat-
tered in colonies and towns, where further
rebellions would be impossible. The inhabi-
tants of a few of the towns west of the Jor-

ASSYRIA. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

175

dan shared the same fate, and the shadow of
Assyria already fell athwart the whole of
1'uli-stine.

The Assyrian monarch next invaded and
subdued Pliilistia. The tribes of Ishraaelites
who peopled the peninsula of Sinai were next
smitten and scattered. Their native queen,
Khabibn, was deposed, and in her place an
Assyrian governor was appointed who could
be trusted to do his master's will. Returning
from these conquests to Damascus the king sum-
moned the rulers of the neighboring states
and chiefs of the tribes to send in their sub-
mission and pay the tribute which he had im-
posed upon them. To this call the kings,
great and small, of nearly all the Syrian na-
tions responded. Ahaz, king of Judah ; Mi-
tenna, of Tyre; Pekah, of Samaria; Khanun,
of Gaza; Mitinti, of Ascalon; and the chiefs
of the Idumzeans, the Moabites, and the Am-
monites, sent in the tokens of their submission
and paid the tribute exacted by the Assyrian.

Tiglath-Pileser again crossed the Euphrates.
For a few years affairs remained quiet in the
West. Meanwhile, however, Hoshea, an Isra-
elitish chieftain, made a conspiracy against
Pekah, the king, and killed him. The dis-
turbed condition of affairs in Samaria which
followed this insurrection, together with a re-
volt in Tyre, headed by Mitenna, made it
jnce ,more necessary for Tiglath-Pileser to
march into Syria. Hoshea quickly submitted,
and agreed to hold his kingdom as tributary
to the great king. The rebellion in Tyre was
also easily quelled, and Tiglath-Pileser, after a
bloodless campaign, returned to his capital of
Cahah, where, for the remainder of the eight-
een years of his reign, he devoted himself to
the work of improving and adorning the city.
The great palace- of Shalmaneser II. was re-
stored to its pristine grandeur, and a new edi-
fice of the king's own, little inferior in beauty
and magnificence to the great works of the
classical age of Assyrian architecture, was
raised on the mound of Nimrud.

In 727 B. C. Tiglath-Pileser II. died and
was succeeded on the throne by SHALMANESER
IV. The attention of this monarch was al-
most immediately drawn to the kingdom of
Israel. Hoshea, the king, had ever since his

accession to power been hot and cold in hw
allegiance. With a change of rulers in As-
syria he began to make demonstrations of in-
dependence, but a threatened invasion by
Shalmaneser brought him into submission.

Meanwhile, however, a condition of affaire
had supervened in Egypt, which fanned into
new heat the slumbering disloyalty of the
Israelitish king. The monarchy of Lower
Egypt had gone to decay. The spirit of the
old Pharaohs was extinguished, and the coun-
try lay open to the designs of the first ambi-
tious comer. Shabak, the Ethiopian, saw his
opportunity, and leading an already victorious
army down the valley of the Nile, quickly
subverted the kingdom. Bocchoris, the Saite
Pharaoh, was taken and burnt to death. All
remains of opposition were stamped out by
the ambitious Ethiopian, whose fame soon
spread throughout Syria and the East. In
him Hoshea of Israel found a natural confed-
erate, and having secured his cooperation,
hastened to break his own pledges of allegiance
to Assyria. Shalmaneser quickly scented the
revolt, and came with impetuosity upon his
perfidious subject. Hoshea was defeated in
battle, captured, and cast into prison. In the
further prosecution of his campaign the As-
syrian king laid siege to Samaria. The city
was bravely defended by the garrison, aided
by Egyptians, but after a two years' environ-
ment was taken by storm.

During the progress of this siege the city
of Tyre, encouraged by the obstinate resist-
ance of the Israelitish capital, threw off the
Assyrian yoke. Shalmaneser proceeded thither
with his army, and having gathered from the
Phoenician sea-ports, which had remained loyal
to his authority, a considerable fleet he sur-
rounded the revolted city by land and water.
The skillful sailors of Tyre, however, were
more than a match for their assailants, and
Shalmaneser, after a vigorous and protracted
effort was obliged to abandon the siege. In
withdrawing from the coast he contented him-
self with cutting off the water supply of the
Tyrians by destroying the aqueducts in tue
rear of the city. For five years the people of
Tyre saved themselves from perishing of thirst
by gathering the rainfall into cisterns.

176

LXIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

Meanwhile, in B. C. 722, a revolution oc-
curred in Assyria by which Shalmaneser was
ejected from the throne. His long absence in
the Syrian war had given both cause and oc-
casion for rebellion against his authority at
home. Now it was that an obscure popular
leader named SARGON, or Saru-Kina, appeared
in Nineveh, and putting himself at the head
of the revolutionary party, was proclaimed
king. After a space Shalmaneser not return-
ing the usurpation was accepted by the Nin-
evites, and the revolution became an accom-
plished fact.

Sargon at once began to make good his
usurped title by military achievement. Dur-
ing the fifteen years of his reign he was con-
stantly engaged in war. His first campaign
was directed against Susiana, whose king,
Humbanigas, had conspired with the now
aged Merodach-Balaclan, of Babylon, to de-
clare independence of Assyria. These kings
were defeated by Sargon, but before his suc-
cess was complete he was called into Syria to
determine the conditions on which the surren-
der of Samaria should be accepted. The city
was deprived of its independence ; an Assyrian
governor was appointed and 27,280 of the in-
habitants were carried into captivity beyond
the Euphrates. The rest were left undisturbed
on condition of the prompt payment of the
annual tribute.

Scarcely had the afikirs of Israel been set-
tled until Sargon was called upon to sup-
press another Syrian revolt. This time the
leader of the insurrection was Yahu-Bid, king
of Hamath. This usurping ruler had per-
guaded the cities of the whole circumjacent
region to join him in a league to resist the
authority of the Assyrian monarch. An allied
army was brought into the field and was met
by Sargon at Karkar. Here a decisive battle
was fought. The allies were defeated. Yahu-
Bid was captured and his head cut off. The
other leaders in the rebellion were likewise
taken and put to death. Gaza, one of the
dependencies of Egypt was next attacked, and
the whole region to the Red Sea and Mediter-
ranean subjected to the king's authority.

The invasion of Gaza brought into conflict
for the first time the two great powers of Asia

and Africa Assyria and Egypt. Shabak, the
Ethiopian sovereign of Egypt, led out his
army in defense of his province. Khanun,
the king of Gaza, rallied what forces he could
gather and joined his master to beat back the
invading army. Sargon came on to the city
of Rhaphia, and here was fought the great
battle which decided for a while the mastery
of the world. Assyrian valor and discipline
prevailed. The Egyptian army was routed.
Khanun, of Gaza, was captured and sent to
Nineveh, and Shabak was obliged to save him-
self by flight. Sargon did not, however, for
the present press his conquest further, but
recrossing the Euphrates spent several years
in quelling the half-civilized races that on the
north and north-east of Assyria found refuge
in the mountains, while ever and anon they
broke out in predatory wars upon the rich and
populous districts of their southern neighbors.

Before his northern campaigns were ended
news came to Sargon that the Arab tribes of
the Sinaitic peninsula were occupying their
time by making inroads into his tributary and
now defenseless kingdom of Israel. Setting
out into Syria, the king soon brought an
army against the marauders, whom he de-
feated, scattering some into the deserts of
Arabia, and colonizing others in the waste
places of Samaria. The 'presence of the great
monarch in the West alarmed the kings of
the neighboring nations, and they all, includ-
ing the Pharaoh of Egypt, made a hasty sub-
mission, accompanied with tributes.

The next military expedition of Sargon
was in B. C. 711. After the battle of Raphia,
Ashdod, a city of Philistia, became a tributary
of Assyria. The native prince of the city
was Azuri, who presently revolted, and was
thereupon deposed by the king. One Akhi-
mit was appointed in his stead, but him the
people rejected and chose a prince called Ya-
man to be their ruler. He too was a conspir-
ator who soon seduced the cities of Philistia,
and even Egypt, to join him in revolt. This
led to a siege of Ashdod by the army of Sar-
gon, who captured the city, seized the fam-
ily of Yaman, sent them prisoners across the
Euphrates, and chased the prince himself into
Egypt. Shabak, alarmed at the prospect,

ASSYRIA. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

177

quickly made his peace by surrendering the
fugitive, and sending humble apologies to the
king. Over Ashdod an Assyrian governor
was appointed, and the Western dependencies
of Sargon were again reduced to quietude.

Meanwhile the condition of affairs in the
South had become such as to demand the
king's attention. Merodach-Baladan, ruler of
Babylon, had flattered himself, after the with-
drawal of Sargon's army in the first year of
that monarch's reign, that no further danger
of Assyrian domination was to be feared.
This hope was greatly strengthened by the
twelve years of independence which Babylonia
had enjoyed while Sargon was absent in his
Western and Northern wars. The king of
Babylon had further fortified his desires by
uniting in league with himself the king of
Susiana, and the chiefs of the Aramaeans, who
occupied the banks of the Euphrates above
the capital. Notwithstanding these prepara-
tions, when the army of Sargon marched
southward, the courage of the Babylonian
king oozed away; his allies mostly deserted
him, and he himself sought refuge in the for-
tified town of Beth-Yakin. Hither he was
followed by the Assyrian army. A battle was
fought; the Babylonians were routed, the
king was taken, and the city burned. Susiana
was also quickly overrun, and the territory
partly filled with colonies transported from
the north of Assyria. It was the last serious
insurrection in Babylonia previous to the over-
throw of the Assyrian Empire. Henceforth
the power and authority of the House of Nin-
eveh were established along the shores of the
Persian Gulf, and Chaldsea became an integral
part of the dominant kingdom.

For two years Sargon held his court in
Babylon, and while here received the extraor-
dinary honor of embassies from distant islands
of the seas. Upir, the king of Khareg, in
the Persian Gulf, sent messengers to propitiate
the great king; and far off Cyprus, "in the
Sea of the Setting Sun," came by envoys from
her seven kings to make offerings to him who
had grown "as the goodly cedar, spreading
his branches over the nations."

In general the northern expeditions of Sar-
gon were much less successful than in the

South and West. The hardy mountaineers of
Armenia, iindiii^ ever a ready refuge in the
fastnesses of the hills, and inured by exposure
and perilous conflicts with savage beasts, were
a better match for the trained soldiery of As-
syria than were the half-nomadic races of
Syria and the effete battalions of Egypt. On
the south-east Sargou's success was so distinct
in his occasional conflicts with the Medes that
a good part of their country was reduced to
the condition of an Assyrian province. In
order to retain his foothold the king established
several fortified posts in the region which he
had overrun, and imposed on the conquered
districts a tribute to be paid in horses of the
fine breeds native to Media.

The last war of Sargon waged in the last
year of his reign was against the province
of Illib, bordering on Susiana. In a dispute
for the chieftainship of that country one of
the claimants sent for aid to Nakhunta, king
of Elam, and by him was promised assistance.
The other claimant thereupon solicited help
of Sargon, who gladly accepted this opportu-
nity of interference in the affairs of the Elam-
ites, and sending thither an army under his
generals, defeated Nakhuuta, and established
the partisans of Assyria in power. But in the
next year the king of Elam was successful,
regained what he had lost, and even carried the
war into the Assyrian territories.

It was during the reign of Sargon that the
plan of keeping conquered countries in sub-
jection by deportation of the people became
a part of Eastern policy. The tribes of the
northern regions, which were subdued by
Sargon, were partly carried away and settled
in Hamath and Damascus. Home colonies
were occasional!)' organized and sent into dis-
tricts which had been subdued by the Assyr-
ian arms. The races of the Zagros who be-
came subject to the great king were trans-
ferred in vast numbers to the towns on the
Tigris, and many of the people of the mor
trustworthy Assyrian provinces were sent to
districts which, like Samaria, were ever on the
alert for some opportunity of revolt. It was
the general policy of dispersing malcontents
that led to the wholesale transportation of the
Israelitish population into Mygdonia and other

178

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

regions beyond the Euphrates. By this means
Sargon labored assiduously, and not without
success, to diffuse the evil elements of his

pmpire, and to render homogeneous the di-
verse populations over which he was called
to rule.

As a builder Sargoii compared favorably

with the most illustrious of the Assyrian
kings. At Khorsabad he built for himself a
palace which scarcely paled before the most
splendid structures
of the Empire.
Rather by the pro-
fusion of its orna-
mentation than by
its size did the ar-
chitecture of the
epoch of Sargon sur-
pass the work of pre-
vious builders. For
his palace Sargon
selected a site quite
apart from other
structures. The high
platform was ap-
proached by flights
of broad steps.
Around the exterior
of the building ex-
tended two series of
elaborate sculptures,
and above these the
surface was covered
with enameled
bricks, arranged in
beautiful patterns.
About this magnifi-
cent palace as a cen-
ter was built the
"City of Sargon," 1
in form a square,
laid off with geom-
etric regularity, one
and a sixth miles on
either side, capable
of accommodating
eighty thousand in-
habitants. This city,
strangely enough,
was built remote
from the Tigris, back
at the foot-hills of
the Zagros, where,
with mountain scenery in the background,
cool air for the brow, and the water of

1 The town of Khorsabad occupies, in whole or
in part, the site of the ancient city Dur-Sargiiia.

ASSYRIA. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

179

(jure springs to quench his thirst, the king,
no doubt, dreamed to spend the evening
if lira life. His former residence had been
at Calah, where many improvements and
repairs attested his public spirit. Like-
wise at Nineveh, and elsewhere throughout
the Empire, are found the traces of his enter-
prise and genius. His reign of seventeen
years was one of the most prosperous and suc-
cessful for many generations, and was a fitting
dawn for the rising day that was to follow.

SI:N\ u HERIB, son and successor of Sargon,
is generally reputed the most illustrious of
the Assyrian kings. He is likewise, on ac-
count of the frequent mention of his name
and deeds in the writings of the Jews, the
best known of all the Eastern monarchs.
He began his reign in B. C. 705, and held
the throne for a period of twenty-four years.
In the later times of the Assyrian monarchy,
as in most old empires, the demise of the king
was frequently attended with outbreaks and
insurrections; for the malcontents were ever
persuading themselves that the new king
would prove a weakling, unable to maintain
the prerogatives of his fathers. On the ac-
cession of Sennacherib a movement of this
sort occurred in several of the provinces.
Merodach-Baladan, the exiled king of Baby-
lon, returned to the capital, murdered the
viceroy Hagisa, and resumed the throne from
which he had been driven in the first year of
the mg-i of Sargon. For nearly two years Sen-
nacherib was so much engrossed with the home
affairs of the Empire that he found no time
to punish the Babylonian revolutionists. In
B. C. 703, however, he put himself at the
head of his army and proceeded against the
combined forces of Babylonians and Elamites,
whom Merodach-Baladan had induced to sup-
port his claims.

The Assyrians gained an easy and complete
victory, and ' the usurping king was glad to
escape into Susiana. Sennacherib pressed on
to Babylon, captured the city, and appointed
the Assyrian general, Bilipni, as viceroy
of the South. On his way back to Nine-
veh the great king devasted the country of
the Aramteans and the neighboring nations
on the Middle Euphrates, and returned to his

capital laden with booty, and driving a host
of two hundred thousand captives, whom he
colonized in different provinces of the Empire.
Shortly afterwards the king made a brief
campaign against those tribes of the Zagroa
in whose affairs Sargon had found occasion to
interfere. Sennacherib deposed the governor
whom his father had appointed, and set up
in his stead another who was considered more
worthy of trust.

In the next year, B. C. 701, the Assyrian
monarch was called to the West. There Lu-
liya, the king of Sidon, who had obtained
authority over most of the cities of Phoenicia,
raised the standard of revolt, and made a
blustering preparation to meet Sennacherib in

WINGED LION, TIME OF SABOON.

the field ; but on the approach of the latter
the Sidonian filibuster escaped and fled to
Cyprus. The hostile cities immediately sub-
mitted, and received in the place of Luliya
an Assyrian prince, Tubal, as governor.
Only Ascalon and four dependent towns gave
Sennacherib trouble, and these places were
soon reduced by siege.

Meanwhile, the city of Ekron, in Philistia,
had revolted, expelled the Assyrian general
Padi, and solicited the aid of Egypt. The
Egyptian king, who was the Ethiopian Sha-
bak II. supported by his viceroys, the native
princes of Egypt espoused the cause of Ek-
ron, and for the second time the great powers
of Asia and Africa were brought to the arbit-
rament of battle. The Assyrian and Egyp-

180

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

tian armies met at a place called ELTEKEH, a
Levitical city in the vicinity of Ekron. Here
a great battle was fought, and the banners of
Egypt again went down before the invincible
soldiery of Assyria. Many trophies and vast
spoils fell to the victors. Resistance ceased.
Ekron was taken. The captive princes were
killed, and their bodies, impaled on stakes,
were made a spectacle outside the walls of the
city. Padi, the expelled ruler of Ekrou, was
restored to his office, and Hezekiah, king of
Judah, was thus embroiled in the conflict.

For the king of the Jews had been the
keeper of Padi during his imprisonment.
Thus was he confederated with the anti-As-
syrian party, and accordingly Sennacherib
turned against him in wrath. The " fenced
cities" of Judah, forty-six in number, were
taken and pillaged, and Hezekiah himself
was, in the language of the Assyrian king,
"shut up in Jerusalem like a bird in a cage."

When thus brought into a strait place, the
Jewish monarch sent out messengers with
princely presents, and bought a peace by the
payment of eight hundred talents of silver,
three hundred talents of gold, "and divers
treasures, a rich and immense booty." In
withdrawing from the country Sennacherib,
in accordance with what had now become the
settled policy of Assyria, carried with him
into his own country out of the lands which
he had subdued chiefly the kingdom of
Judah more than two hundred thousand
people, whom he colonized in various parts
of the Empire. Hezekiah, in order to obtain
the means of paying the heavy tribute which
was imposed upon his nation, was obliged to
despoil the temple of its treasures, even to the
extent of stripping off the gold and silver
with which the doors and pillars had been
overlaid by the artificers of Solomon.

In the meantime, Bilipni, the Assyrian
governor of Babylon, had proved false to his
trust. The aged and ever-vigilant Merodach-
Baladan returned into the country, and ap-
pealing to the native Chaldsean nobles, once
more fanned the embers of insurrection into a
flame. Against these insurgents Sennacherib,
almost immediately after his return from his
wars in the West, proceeded with an army.

Merodach-Baladan and the Chaldtean confed-
erates were routed from the country, and the
old revolutionist, fleeing from Babylonia,
found refuge on an island in the Persian Gulf.

In the following year the attention of the
Assyrian king was again drawn to the turbu-
lent states bordering on the Mediterranean.
Very soon after the previous withdrawal of
Sennacherib from Palestine, Hezekiah, the
king, chafing under the exactions of tribute,
renewed negotiations with Egypt, and after-
wards, believing himself secure in the pros-
pect of an Egyptian alliance, wholly re-
nounced his allegiance to Assyria. Sennacherib,
having not much to fear from the petty king
of Judah, and a great deal to fear from the
immemorial prowess and renown of Egypt,
determined to direct his efforts first against
the Pharaoh and afterwards against the lesser
foe. Therefore, leaving Palestine to the left,
the Assyrian marched by the sea-coast route
directly to the borders of Egypt, where he
laid siege to Lachish, one of her tributary
towns.

From this point he sent forward an embassy
to Jerusalem, and straitly demanded repara-
tion for the king's breach of faith. Hezekiah
adopted a temporizing policy, and the em-
bassy was sent a second time with demand for
submission and threat of punishment; but the
Jewish king had meanwhile been encouraged
by the counsels and good cheer of Isaiah, the
prophet, who declared that the Assyrian mon-
arch should not come nigh Jerusalem, but
should return into his own country by the
way that he had come.

In the mean time Lachish had been in-
vested and taken by Sennacherib, and also
Libnah, from which place he advanced upon
Egypt, and was confronted near the town of
PELUSIUM by the Egyptian army under Seti,
one of the native princes. It was the eve of
a great battle, and the two armies lay facing
each other by night, when a pestilential hot
wind burst out of the desert and swept over
the camp of the Assyrians. Dead men by
thousands, smitten by this unexpected and
viewless angel of destruction, strewed the
earth. A doleful uproar broke out among
the veteran soldiery of the East. The camp

ASSYRIA. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS,

181

was struck with a panic, and a spontaneous
rout ensued, which \v:is quickly aggravated
by the hosts of Egypt pressing upon the fly-
ing legions of Assyria. Without further con-
sideration of the affront of Hezekiah, the great
king quickly withdrew his army, recrossed the
Euphrates, and returned to Nineveh. 1

Notwithstanding the serious reverse which
he had sustained, Sennacherib soon recovered
himself and continued his military operations
with unabated vigor. His fifth great cam-
paign was directed against the mountaineers
of the Upper Zagros, in the country north of
Lake Van. The whole of this region, from
Media to the borders of Cilicia, was overrun
by his armies, but permanent conquest was
impossible in such a land inhabited by such a
people. Besides plundering the towns, gather-
ing such booty as the hill-country afforded,
and carrying away captive as many of the in-
habitants as fell within his power, Sennacherib
accomplished little in these northern wars.

A novel episode now occurred in the his-
tory of Assyria. The people of Beth-Yakin,
the native town of the chronic rebel Mero-
dach-Baladan, never satisfied with the domina-
tion of the North over their city, determined
to expatriate themselves and establish a colony
in Susiaua. They accordingly took to sea
with their gods and goods, and landing on
the eastern shore of the Persian Gulf, laid the
foundations of a new city. This depopulation
of one of his provinces angered Sennacherib,
and he immediately made preparations to re-
claim the fugitives by force. Until this epoch
the Assyrians had won no laurels on the sea.
They were an inland people, and only by

1 "And there passed not five and fifty days be-
fore two of his [Sennacherib's] sons killed him,
and they Hod into the mountains of Ararath."
Book of Tobit, I., 21.

"And this proved to be the conclusion of this
Assyrian expedition against the people of Jerusa-
lem. ... At this time it was that the do-
minion of the Assyrians was overthrown by the
Medes." Josephus : Antiquities of the Jews, Book
X., chaps. 1, 2.

Both of these statements are grossly incorrect.
Very far was Sennacherib from being killed within
fifty-five days of his return to Nineveh ; and the
Empire of the Assyrians was not overthrown by
the Medes until B. C. 625, seventy-four years after
the discomfiture of the great king at Pelusium.

contact with Phoenicia mistress of the Western
waters had they acquired any skill in the
construction and management of ships. So
notorious was the inaptitude of the nation for
naval affairs that the king of Susa, who had
received the refugee Babylonians into his do-
minions, hearing of the wrath of Assyria,
never dreamed of danger from a hostile fled,
but made strenuous preparations to repel the
expected invasion by land.

Sennacherib, however, keenly alive to the
advantages of the situation, imported into his
dominions an army of Phrenician ship-builders
and marines, and hastily constructed on the
Tigris a fleet of biremes, so formidable in ap-
pearance as to strike the Assyrians with
amazement. As soon as his fleet was finished
and equipped, Sennacherib dropped down the
Tigris and crossed the Gulf in the wake of
his fugitive subjects. Before either they or
the Susianian king were aware of the approach
of an. enemy, the Assyrians invested the
town. The place was taken almost without
opposition. The refugees were hurried on
board the fleet, and while the king of Susa
was still awaiting an expected invasion of his
dominions by land, the Assyrians with their
train of captives, returned into Babylonia.

Meanwhile the Babylonians themselves, be-
lieving and hoping that the rash galleys of
Assyria which had gone out into the open sea
would never return, and that both Sennacherib
and his fleet were by this time at the bottom,
raised the standard of revolt and chose a cer-
tain Susub to be their king. The Susianian
monarch also crossed over with an army into
Babylonia, so that Sennacherib found himself
between two foes an army of Chaldaean in-
surgents on the one side and an army of
Elamites on the other. Both were disastrously
defeated by the Assyrian king, who drove
back with him to Nineveh a vast multitude
of prisoners a heterogeneous throng of Baby-
lonians and Elamites, whom the monarch dis-
tributed as he would. Susub himself was led
a captive to be gazed at by the Ninevites.

The next two expeditions of Sennacherib
were directed against Susiana. The frequent
encouragement, and positive aid rendered by
Nakhunta, the king of this country, to the

182

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

ever-insurrectionary Babylonians, furnished
sufficient motive and excuse for an Assyrian
invasion. Besides, two cities belonging to
Assyria had been taken by the Elamites and
were held by defiant garrisons. Against these
Sennacherib directed the first movements of
his campaigns. Both towns were taken, after
which the Assyrian army marched into the in-
terior, capturing and destroying no fewer than
thirty-four large cities and a great number of
less important places, devastating the country
and carrying terror to both king and people.
The former fled affrighted from his capital and
sought refuge in a fortified town at the foot
of the mountains. At this point in the cam-
paign the home affairs of the Empire de-
manded the attention of Sennacherib, and he
returned to Nineveh laden with spoils.

In the meantime, Susub, the Babylonian
prisoner, escaped from the Assyrians, and re-
turning to Chaldsea was once more proclaimed
king. He made the most vigorous prepara-
tions to defend himself against the inevitable,
and even went so far in his desperation as to
break open the great temple of Bel at Baby-
lon and seize the sacred treasures, in order to
buy the alliance of the king of Susiana in the
approaching conflict. The aid thus sought
was promptly given, and an Elamite army
was quickly sent into Babylonia to support
the insurgents. But it was all of no avail.
The veteran army of Assyria was soon in the
field ; the allied host of the South was beaten
down in the hard-fought battle of CHALULI
and scattered to the winds. Babylon was en-
tered and pillaged. The temples were ran-
sacked, and the golden gods of the ancient
ages were broken in pieces by a derisive
soldiery.

The last campaign formally undertaken by
the great Assyrian was against Cilicia. Here
for the first time the armies of Asshur en-
countered the Greeks in battle. For a Greek
fleet was guarding the Cilician coast at the
time of the invasion, and this fleet the Phoeni-
cian navy of Sennacherib met and defeated.
In the land contest, also, the Cilicians were
overthrown. Then it was that the Assyrian
king, in order to carry out his policy of peo-
pling conquered provinces with the inhabi-

tants of other countries, founded the city of
Tarsus, after the model of Babylon. For just
as the latter city was divided by the Euphrates
flowing through the midst, so Tarsus, cleft by
the Cyduus, was divided into twain.

It appears that several years near the
close of his reign were occupied by Sen-
nacherib in this Cilician war. Whatever
successes he may have gained during these
aggressive movements in Asia Minor were,
perhaps, counterbalanced by losses and insur-
rections on the south and east. The records
of Babylon indicate that the last eight years
of the reign of Sennacherib were coincident
with an era of turbulence and misrule in the
Southern provinces. It is not unlikely that
the king was in his decline, and the vigor with
which he was wont to chastise rebellious coun-
tries was no longer manifested in his adminis-
tration. The Chaldteans, in common with the
rest of the human race, had learned that lib-
erties can be taken with the aged lion. It is
clearly indicated that at the close of the great
king's reign Babylon was once more in a state
of semi-independence.

During the vicissitudes of his military
campaigns, Sennacherib found time to distin-
guish himself and his epoch by splendid mon-
uments. At the capital he built a great pal-
ace, surpassing in beauty and size any edifice
hitherto erected in Assyria. The foundation,
which was a vast platform raised about ninety
feet above the plain, covered a space of more
than eight acres. Within the palace' were
three great quadrangular courts. 1 The prin-
cipal halls were the one one hundred and
eighty feet, and the other one hundred and
fifty feet in length, the width of each being
above forty feet. Around these halls and
courts galleries and apartments were arranged
in an artistic manner. The whole number of
rooms, besides the courts and halls, was about
eighty, of which forty have been explored,
and their dimensions and ornamentation ascer-
tained.'

In the matter of ornamentation the work
ot Sennacherib was distinguished from that

1 The ground-plan shows that the main courts
were respectively 154x125 feet; 124x90 feet; and
90x90 feet, in dimensions.

ASSYRIA. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

183

of his predecessors by its superior finish and
the introduction of backgrounds in the sculp-
tures. In the relict's which adorn the halls
and corridors of the great king's palace there
is an elaboration and profusion of details
which remind the beholder of the infinite
particularity and realism displayed in the
temples of Egypt. In Sennacherib's sculp-
tures there is a constant comforraity to the
facts and a total absence of imagination, as
if any departure from the real had been re-
garded by the sculptor as a crime against the
laws of art.

The great works of Sennacherib's time were
mostly produced by slave labor that is, the
labor of captives who were thrown into the
cities of the Empire by the tides of conquest.
Multitudes of Elamites, Jews, Aramseans,
Chaldiwins, Cilicians, and Armenians had
been added to the laboring population, and
these were organized into companies and
driven by task-masters to perform the chief
part in rearing the prodigious structures
which made Assyria famous.

Sennacherib may well be regarded as a
typical warrior-king of ancient times. Among
Assyrian monarchs he was perhaps the great-
est. Considering the extent of his wars his
success in the field was quite unparalleled.
Except the disaster at Pelusium and the loss
of Babylon in his old age, no single reverse
checked the victorious progress of his arms.
He possessed a degree of will and self-confi-
dence not easily matched among the rulers of
the ancient world ; and when we consider the
cares and burdens which he must have borne
in the civil administration of so vast a gov-
ernment, and the versatile and original talents
displayed in the architectural and industrial
progress of the kingdom during his reign, we
are struck with admiration at his tremendous
activities and force of character.

After reigning for nearly a quarter of a
century Sennacherib was assassinated by two
of his sons. The eldest son, Asshur-Inadi-Su,
who had been viceroy of Babylon, died before
his father. Nergal, the second son, became
heir-apparent to the throne ; but Adramme-
lech and Sharezer, two other sons, fired with
jealousy on account of their brother's prefer-

ment, conspired against their father's life and
killed him while he was worshiping in the
temple. 1

For the moment the insurrection was nearly
successful; for Nergal was driven out of
the kingdom. But a reaction soon set in, and
the people, shocked, perhaps, at the crime of
the parricides, turned to ESAR-HADDON, a fifth
son of Sennacherib, who was then in com-
mand of the army. As soon as the prince
could march on the capital for li was winter
then, and the army was far from Nineveh
he was recognized as king, and expelling the
assassins, who escaped into Armenia, began
his reign in the spring of B. C. 681. He
reigned for thirteen years, and like the kings,
his ancestors, was principally engaged in the
conduct of wars. At the first he put down some
forces which were endeavoring to maintain
the claims of the assassins of his father. In
the next year he led an array into Phoenicia,
where Abdi-Milkut, the king of Sidon, had
raised a revolt and induced some of the
neighboring rulers to join him. Esar-Had-
don promptly suppressed the rebellion, and
having captured the city, pursued the fugitive
king to Cyprus, whither he had fled, and
making him prisoner, put him to death.

An Assyrian governor was appointed over
Sidon. Large numbers of her people were
transported beyond the Euphrates, and their
places were filled by Assyrian subjects taken
from the provinces. The next expedition was
into Armenia. Here the king captured the
city of Arza, and carried away the inhabitants
to labor upon the public works of Nineveh.
In the following year his army was in Cilicia,
where he overthrew a large force of insur-
gents, and took and destroyed twenty-one
towns, with deportation of the people into
Assyria.

1 In the commission of this crime we see the
indubitable symptoms of the overtl..x>w of the
Empire. The dagger of the assassin was now at
work in the palace. The sacred character of the
king was no longer proof against that insane ambi-
tion which could not patiently abide the processes
of nature. What the violence of foreign war could
not accomplish in that it was weak, that the
blasted affection of the son for the father stood
ready to do by the atrocity of secret crime*

184

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

In the sixth year of his reign Esar-Had-
doii marched into Chaldsea, where, for about
fourteen years, civil affairs had been in a con-
dition bordering on anarchy. One Nebo-Zirzi-
Sidi son of the old revolutionist, Merodach-
Baladan was now in authority at Babylon,
holding the place of ruler with little or no re-
spect to the wish of the Empire. A younger
brother of this reigning prince, Nahid-Marduk
by name, had meanwhile gone to Nineveh,
where, pledging his own loyalty, he repre-
sented to Esar-Haddon the condition of affairs
in Babylonia. The king gladly espoused the
cause of Marduk, and overthrowing the power
of the rebellious prince conferred the sover-
eignty on him who had professed loyalty.

The seventh campaign of Esar-Haddon was
against Hazael, king of Edom. The capital
city of this ruler was taken, and the Edomite
gods were carried along with a captive train
to Nineveh. The images, however, were soon
afterwards sent back in answer to the prayer
of Hazael, who was restored to authority and
accepted as a subject of Assyria. Hazael
should marry an Assyrian princess and pay
an annual tribute of sixty-five camels. So
there was peace in Edom.

The next expedition of Esar-Haddon was
into a country beyond the Arabian desert.
At least such is the statement of the Assyrian
Canon. If the record be true, the campaign
was a most extraordinary one, extending four
hundred and ninety miles across a leafless,
trackless, waterless waste of sand. That the
Assyrian king was able to subsist a great army
in such a region on such an expedition seems
incredible. Esar-Haddon is said to have tri-
umphed over this far-off country of Bazu.
Laile, the king, escaped, but afterwards went
in person to Nineveh to obtain by humility
what he had been unable to secure by arms
a favorable peace for his people.

Shortly after this rather apocryphal epi-
sode, Esar-Haddon is found engaged in a war
with the Aramceans, in the marsh-lands of the
Euphrates. The Gambulu, one of the tribes,
had neglected their tribute, and the king went
thither to punish them; but the terrified chief
sent in his submission and made haste to pay
the tribute. Afterwards the Assyrian led his

army into the remote confines of Media, where
a confederation of tribes was broken and some
of the chiefs carried to Nineveh. This cam-
paign completed the tenth year of Esar-Had-
dou's reign. The last and most important of
all his wars was his conquest of Egypt.

Tirhakah was now the Pharaoh. His court
was at Memphis. He belonged to that Ethi-
opian dynasty established by Shabak I. The
Assyrian invasion was directed first against
Memphis and afterwards Thebes. Both of
these ancient capitals were taken, and Tirha-
kah was driven out of the country by the way
that his ancestors had entered. All of Egypt
between Thebes and the Mediterranean was
conquered by the Assyrians. The country
was divided into twenty provinces, and over
each a governor was set, the whole being sub-
ject to the viceroy Necho, father of Psametik
I. After reducing the country to an orderly
administration, Esar-Haddon returned to his
capital, where he inscribed himself on the en-
tablature of his palace, " King of the kings
of Egypt and conqueror of Ethiopia."

About this time occurred the rebellion of
Manasseh, king of the Jews. The Assyrian
generals were sent against him, and he was
quickly overthrown. Being taken prisoner,
he was conveyed in chains to Babylon. After
a while, when his pride was broken, he was
liberated by the king and restored to his do-
minions. In accordance with the custom of
the times, the tribute laid on Judah was in-
creased after the rebellion ; and to make as-
surance doubly sure, a great train of colonists,
gathered from Babylon, Susa, and even from
Persia and other foreign regions, was turned
into Palestine, until the immigrant population
predominated over the native-born in Jewry.

At this juncture, 669 B. C., Esar-Haddon
fell sick and resigned the crown of Assyria
to his son, Asshur-Bani-Pal. 1 The enfeebled
monarch retained for himself only the vice-
royalty of Babylon, and retiring thither,
passed at his southern capital the remaining
year of his life. He died in 668, and ASSHUR-
BANI-PAL became sole monarch of the Empire.
His younger brother, Saul-Magina, was ap-
pointed to the viceroyalty of Babylon. The

'The Sardanafialus of the Greeks.

A*svi;lA.-CHR02fOLOQYA2fD AXXALS.

185

uipti of the new king was ushered in by a
war with Egypt. For as soon as Tirhakah,
the expelled Pharaoh, heard that Esar-Haddon
was powerless to punish him further, he headed
liack to Egypt, and driving out Necho and
his band of Assyrian kinglets, restored the
old regime as quickly as it had been insti-
tuted. Asshur-Bani-Pal hastily marched into
Egypt, and encountering the Egyptian army
at KAR-BANIT, gained a complete victory.
Tirlmkah fled at once from Memphis, and
was pursued by the Assyrians to Thebes, and
tliroiiyh Thebes into Ethiopia.

Tirliakah, when the Assyrian army had re-
tired from the country, undertook to secure
by intrigue what he was unable to achieve in
battle. Several of Asshur-Bani-Pal's gov-
ernors, including the viceroy Necho, were se-
duced from their allegiance and led into a
conspiracy. This was discovered, and the
conspirators were taken by the loyal princes
and sent to Nineveh. But the rebellious
party gradually gained the ascendency, and
Tirhakah, returning to Thebes, was reestab-
lished in the kingdom. Meanwhile Necho had
pleaded for his life and liberty, and, being
set free, was intrusted by the Assyrian king
with the duty of restoring order in Egypt.

An army was intrusted to his command.
Tirhakah was once more defeated, and fly-
ing from the country, perished in Ethiopia.
His step-son, Urdaman, succeeded to the
crown, and soon developed military talents su-
perior to those of the late king. He carried
on a campaign in Upper Egypt, took Thebes,
and restored the Ethiopian dynasty to undis-
puted authority. Pursuing the Assyrians into
Lower Egypt, he besieged Memphis, captured
the city, and regained a complete supremacy
over the whole country. Asshur-Bani-Pal, on
hearing the news for he was now in Assyria
returned with all haste, entered Egypt, put to
flight the combined forces of the Egyptians
and Ethiopians, chased them up the Nile val-
ley and out of the land. He then sacked
Thebes, and carried away a train of spoils
such as had never before been taken from a
city of the Pharaohs gold, silver, gems,
costly garments, priestly vessels and robes,
ornaments of ebony garnished with precious

stones, obelisks, domestic animals, slaves, and
hostages. Native Assyrian governors whose
loyalty could not be doubted were then ap-
pointed in place of the deposed princes, and
the king returned victorious to \n< own capital.

In the meantime a certain Baal, king of
Tyre, had thrown off" his allegiance and defied
Assyria. Returning out of Egypt, Asshur-
Bani-Pal attacked the insurgent city, subdued
the king, and laid upon the people a still
heavier tribute. A different motive drew the
Assyrian monarch into Cilicia ; for the king
of this country had invited him thither and
offered him his daughter in marriage. The
offer was accepted, and the Ciliciau princess
accompanied her lord to Nineveh.

Soon after these events Asshur-Bani-Pal
made an expedition into Asia Minor, crossing
the Taurus, and directing his campaign against
several hitherto unknown provinces. After
subduing these and returning to his capital,
he was honored with an embassy from Gyges,
king of'Lydia, who sent in a voluntary sub-
mission on the part of himself and his country.
Afterwards in a war which Gyges waged with
the Cimmerians he was successful, and sent
some of their chiefs as a curious present to
the king of Assyria. The next invasion by
the monarch was into the mountainous country
surrounding Lake Van. Aksheri, king of the
tribes in this region, was defeated by the As-
syrians and put to death by his own subjects.
His son Vohalli quickly made peace with the
Empire oil the condition of paying a heavy
annual tribute.

A new complication now arose in a differ-
ent quarter. Some Susianian tribes, being
hard pressed by famine, obtained permission
to remove within the borders of the Empire.
As soon, however, as plenty returned, the im-
migrants wearied of their new surroundings
and desired to return into Susiana. This was
refused, and Urtaki, the king of the Susian-
ians, thereupon demanded that his subjects be
liberated. Hostile movements followed on
both sides. The cause of Susiana was es-
poused by the Aramseaus; but Asshur-Bani-
Pal quickly inarched into the country of his
antagonist, defeated his army, and took him
prisoner. Urtaki soon died, and his brother

J86

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

Ummau-Aldas, who had been iti exile on ac-
count of his friendship for the Assyrians, was
restored to his country and the throne. After
his death, however, his sons were excluded
from the kingdom by their uncle, who was of
the anti-Assyrian party. The princes fled to
Nineveh, and Asshur-Baui-Pal found it nec-
essary to undertake their restoration.

The usurper of Susiana made prodigious
efforts to save himself, drawing several adja-
cent nations, including Babylonia, into an
alliance against the Assyrian monarch. But
the latter was again easily victorious. The
allied army was defeated in battle; the king
was taken and put to death, and his head
nailed up over the gate of Nineveh. The two
young Susianian princes returned under the
protection of Asshur-Bani-Pal, and to each
was given a half of the kingdom. The rebel
princes were well-nigh exterminated. Some had
their tongues cut out; others were beheaded.

But the spirit of rebellion was not at all
extinguished. Saiil-Mugiua, the deposed king
of Babylonia, fomented an insurrection, and
induced several surrounding states to join
him. Even one of the princes of Susiana,
whom Asshur-Bani-Pal had recently restored
to power, was bribed to break his allegiance
and join the revolt. The other brother, how-
ever, remained loyal to the king, who had con-
ferred the right to rule, and so raising an
army, he attacked his brother, most of whose
forces were absent in Babylonia, and defeated
and killed him. For this he was rewarded
by Asshur-Bani-Pal with the undivided sover-
eignty of Elam.

But this merited honor he did not long
retain, for the army in Babylonia would not
follow his lead; and in the meantime, Inda-
Bigas, a chieftain who ruled the mountaineers
of Luristan, led a counter revolution, and
placing himself on the throne compelled Tam-
marit for that was the name of the Susianian
king to fly for his life. Saiil-Mugina also
was attacked by his brother, acting in the As-
syrian interest, and thus the rebellion was
brought to nought. Asshur-Bani-Pal overran
the country, captured the towns one by one,
and extinguished the last sparks of opposition.
Saiil-Mugina was taken and burnt to death.

Several years of quiet followed; but the
elements of sedition were constantly working
in Susiana. There was an Assyrian party
and an anti-Assyrian party. By and by, the
success of the latter was so marked that in
B. C. 645, Asshur-Baui-Pal again entered the
country and captured twenty-six of the prin-
cipal cities, including Susa. Western Elam
was thus brought completely under the domi-
nation of Assyria, while Eastern Elam re-
mained to the opposing party. Not long,
however, was even this status maintained. A
fresh insurrection once more called the Assyr-
ian king into the country, which he now en-
tered in extreme wrath. Fighting his way
victoriously to Susa, the capital, he took the
city by assault, and for the space of twenty-
three days gave it up to the rage of his sol-
diers. An edict was issued abolishing Susi-
auiau independence, and the whole country
was formally annexed to Assyria as one of
the provinces of the Empire.

The hard work given to the Assyrian army,
for the space of twelve years, by these Elam-
itic wars lent encouragement to political dis-
content in the West. Psametik of Egypt
made a dash for independence. Gyges, king
of Lydia, for some time the voluntary subject
of Assyria, hearing of the Egyptian outbreak,
sent aid to Psametik, and broke with Asshur-
Bani-Pal. Scarcely, however, had he done so
when the savage Cimmerians, whom he had
recently subdued, burst in upon his kingdom,
overran the whole country, defeated the king's
army, and put him to death. Ardys, his suc-
cessor, hastened to make peace with Assyria,
and the revolt was at an end.

The last of Asshur-Bani-Pal's foreign ex-
peditions was directed against those Arabs of
the desert who had aided the Babylonians in
their recent rebellion. Several of the wild
trjbes allied themselves to resist the power
which they had provoked, and a desultory
warfare was waged over a wide district of
country. That part of the waste region lying
between the Persian Gulf and Syria was over-
run by the Assyrian army. Damascus, Petra,
and the towns of Moab were taken by the
king ; and in the Damascene mountains, at a
place called KHUKHUKUNA, a decisive battle

ASSYRIA. CHRONOLOGY AXI> A. \.\AI.S.

187

was fought, in which the Arabs were disas-
trously routc-d. The two chiefs who had
been <-oiis|>ifiiou8 iu furnishing aid to Baby-
lon were captured, taken to Nineveh, and be-
headed.

During the latter years of Asshur-Baui-
Pal's reign, Assyria suffered a decline from
which she never recovered a decadence attrib-
utable in part to the internal forces of disso-
lution which were at work in the Empire,
and in part to external violence. It was be-
tween the years 634 and 626 B. C. that "As-
syria began to feel the effect of hostile dem-
onstrations from without, and to realize in her
own experience the difference between invader
and invaded. The same treatment which she
for so many centuries had visited upon sur-
rounding nations was now to be remeasured
to her in her own cup.

For in the mean time the kingdom of Me-
dia, on the south-east mountain skirt of the
Empire, had grown into a vigorous and war-
like life. The native forces of nationality had
here received a remarkable development, and
immigration from the East had both contributed
to the population and made versatile the genius
of the Medes. Several times in their foreign
wars the kings of Assyria had struck the Me-
dian soldiery, and not a few wrongs had been
done by the Ninevite dynasty to the rising
kingdom beyond the south-eastern mountain
chain. The effect of these acts had been to
arouse the animosity of the Medes, and they
only waited until their power should come, to
be avenged upon their great enemy.

In the year B. C. 634, the king of the Medes
felt himself strong enough to -begin the con-
flict. With a well equipped array he invaded
Assyria and offered battle to Asshur-Bani-Pal
in his own dominions. The gauge thus thrown
down was accepted by the haughty monarch,
and the Median king was utterly routed. His
army was cut to pieces and himself left among
the slain. The effect of this rout, however,
was rather to enrage than to terrify the Medes,
whose spirit rose with the conflict, and whose
immediate note of preparation for renewal of
the struggle sounded through the land. It
was at this juncture of affairs that a new peril,
unseen, undreaded alike by Media and Assyria,

flung an ominous shadow over all of South-
western Asia.

For now it was that the barbarous SCYTHI-
ANS swarming in the steppes of the North, at-
tracted by chance perhaps to the sunny plains
and fruitful fields of the Southern nations, began
to pour through the mountain passes and de-
vastate the country. It was a consuming horde
of ravenous semi-savages, more savage than
savagery, that settled upon every green shrub
of civilization, and, locust-like, devoured both
leafage and fruit. The organization of the
race was tribal. One "Head Tribe" had a
kind of loose supremacy of the rest. The
chief pursuit was that of herdsmen and sol-
diers. Huge droves of half-wild cattle were
followed from steppe to steppe by the nomadic
barbarians, who slaughtered when they would,
gorged themselves with blood and flesh, and
grew ferocious as the beasts that raven. 1

It was this prodigious race of savages that,
while the Medes were preparing for a second
invasion of Assyria, burst through the passes
of the North and poured into the Median
fields. Devastation and ruin followed in their
wake. Whatever was destructible perished.
The inhabitants either fled for refuge to the
fortified towns or were cut down wherever
overtaken with the short swords of the barba-
rians. All of Upper Media was trodden un-
der foot of the Scythian host, on whose feroc-
ity neither the weakness of woman nor the
helplessness of age left any softening trace.
Some of the towns were besieged and starved
into submission, and in such cases the inhabi-
tants were given up to merciless butchery.

1 Many are the cheerful descriptions drawn by
the Greek historians of this gentle breed of sav-
ages. Herodotus and Hippocrates were evidently
struck with the sterling, though somewhat stal-
wart, virtues of the race. They describe the .Scyth-
ians as creatures with overgrown and beastly
bodies; covered with coarse hair; gross and fat;
loose jointed ; abdomens protruding like pots ; un-
washed and filthy; smeared with paste; stuffing
themselves with cheese and the sour milk of mares;
hanging their slain enemies' scalps to their bridle
reins, and lapping the blood while hot ; using
human skulls for drinking bowls; and snoring in
the dirt and ashes under rude tents of felt or
among the rubbish of their carts. The Scythian
armor, besides the bow and arrow, consisted of
shield and spear and battle-axe.

188

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

In other places the supplies were abundant,
and when the patience of the barbarians was
exhausted they passed on to ravage other
districts.

Although Media and Iberia were the first
countries to feel the shock of the Scythian in-
vasion, the ravages of the horde were by no
means confined to these states. The savage
tide rolled on into Mesopotamia and Armenia,
and then swept westward and south-westward
into Syria and Palestine. Assyria especially
the better portion between the Zagros and the
Tigris was completely devastated. The ener-
gies of the Empire had, no doubt, flagged as
the vigor and will of Asshur-Bani-Pal went
out in old age. Assyria had so long enjoyed
immunity from invasion had so little imag-
ined it a possible thing for any nation to
enter her dominions that many towns and
even great cities were built without special
reference to defense. Into these the Scythian
hosts poured without a check. The accumu-
lated treasures of ages melted away before
them. Blood flowed in the streets where the
shout of an enemy had never before been
heard. Palaces were sacked and given to the
torch, and all who were not butchered out-
right were scattered in terror to the hills.

Of all the countries trodden under foot
by the barbarians, the rich and luxurious but
now decrepit Assyria suffered the most terri-
ble disasters. It was a blow from which she
never recovered. On the west the effect of
the invasion, spreading and diffusing itself
like a flood of waters, was less seriously felt.
Syria soon recovered herself and continued as
before. Psametik, of Egypt, met the Scyth-
ians on the confines of his kingdom and pur-
chased exemption.

In the course of time, however, the barbarian
deluge subsided and the dry ground appeared.
According to Herodotus, the savages held the
mastery of Western Asia for twenty-eight
years. After a time they receded, and most
of the nations which had fallen under their
sway regained their freedom. In Media, es-
pecially, was the power of recuperation mani-
fested. The people were warlike; the coun-
try was hilly; most of the towns were fortified.
The barbarian progress especially in Lower

Media had thus been impeded ; and as soon
as the swarm had in some measure disap-
peared, the Medes turned upon the remaining
savages and expelled them. Theu, with great
vigor, the damage done was repaired ; and
while Assyria, whose very opulence was
proving her ruin, still nourished the glutton-
ous brood at her breast, Media recovered her
strength, and made ready to finish in Mesopo-
tamia the work which the Scythic horde had
so fearfully begun. Such was the course of
events between the first and the second inva-
sion of the Assyrian Empire by the Medes.

The aged Asshur-Bani-Pal made some efforts
to restore and reorganize his kingdom. In
this work, nowever, he was cut short by death.
In the year 626 B. C. the great king died,
and was succeeded by his son, ASSHUR-EMID-
ILIN, more generally known by his Greek
name of SARACUS. It is here, moreover, that
the confusion of the Western historians re-
garding the last years of the Assyrian Empire,
begins. By them the character and deeds of
Saracus, who was a voluptuary, without spirit
or enterprise, were transferred to Asshur-Bani-
Pal Sardanapalus from which it has hap-
pened that the latter, one of the greatest of
the warrior-kings of Assyria, has generally
borne the reputation of an effeminate Oriental,
who went about his palace dressed in woman's
apparel, feasting in his seraglio, sleeping the
sleep of the glutton. The confusion has ex-
tended still further, making Sardanapalus
to be the last king of Assyria, him whom
Cyaxares destroyed amid the ruins of the
Empire. The Assyrian records have now
made it clear that to the voluptuary Saracus
belongs the discredit of being extinguished
in the ruins of his palace and kingdom.

This prince came to the throne in 626.
He began his brief and inglorious reign at
Nineveh. Preferring Calah as a capital, he
laid, in that city, the foundations of a palace
which, in its diminished proportions, was but
a caricature of the grand works of his father
and grandfather. 1 But it was not reserved

1 Esar-Haddon's conquest of Egypt made him
familiar with the famous architecture of that coun-
try. He carried home with him from Thebes some
of her guardian sphinxes, and the traces of Egyp-

ASSYRIA. CHRONOLOGY AND ANNALS.

189

DEATH OK 8ARACUS.

190

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

for Saracus to be either builder or king. The
handwriting was already on the wall, and the
fiat was gone forth. Cyaxares, king of the
Medes, was already gathering and equipping
an army for a renewal of the war which had
been so long interrupted by the coming of the
Scyths. He drew into an alliance with him-
self the Susianians, the ancient and inveter-
ate foes of Assyria, and in B. C. 627, a few
months before the accession of Saracus, was
ready to begin the war. The plan of the
campaign involved a double invasion of the
Empire. The army of Susiana was to march
from the south, while Cyaxares himself, with
the Medes, was to enter the country from
the east.

To resist the enemy Saracus made such
preparations as the enfeebled state of the
kingdom would permit. To meet the double
invasion which was threatened he divided his
army, and appointed the general Nabopolassar
to command one of the divisions. To him
was intrusted the work of repelling the Susi-
anians, who were expected to enter the coun-
try on the side, of Babylonia, while the king
himself was to face Cyaxares. From the be-
ginning the Assyrian cause was beset with
disaster. Nabopolassar betrayed his king and
country. Between him and Cyaxares nego-
tiations were opened, and, on condition that
the Median king would give his daughter in
marriage to Nebuchadnezzar, the oldest son
of Nabopolassar, the latter agreed to go over to
the Medes and join in the invasion of Assyria.

tian influence are noticeable from this time forth
in the royal buildings of Assyria. Esar-Haddon's
great palace at Calah one of the most splendid of
all the kingly edifices bore in many parts the
touch of the Egyptian. The grand doorway leading
to the inner chamber of the palace was guarded by
colossal sphinxes and lions after the manner of the
temples of Egypt. The palace of Asshur-Bani-
Pal at Koyunjik was also touched with this foreign
influence; and it was more than likely that that
monarch's taste for literature, of which he and his
scribes were the greatest lights of the Empire,
was in like manner traceable to an inspiration
caught in Egyptian campaigns.

The defection was fatal. The spirit of
Saracus and of those who still supported his
cause was broken; and before the combined
army of Medes, Susianians, Babylonians, and
disloyal Assyrians under Nabopolassar, Sar-
acus fell back to Nineveh, and entered her
gates to go out no more. It was now 625
B. C. The city was at once invested. The
siege was pressed with ever-increasing vigor,
and despair settled like a pall over the proud
metropolis which had so long been the terror
of the nations. Saracus was unequal to the
great emergency which was upon him and his
people. The last day of Assyrian greatness
drew into twilight. The river conspired with
fate to overthrow the defenses of the city.
The tramp of the Median soldiers was heard
in the streets. The inhabitants, who had
never before beheld a foreign foe except as
trembling captives, fled in dismay before the
fiery Medes. The king hastily entered his
palace, ordered the slaves to heap the sacred
things into a funeral pyre, and mounting to
the summit with his wives and servants, ap-
plied the torch and perished in the flames.
His ashes lay white upon the marble floor,
mingled with the ashes of the Assyrian Em-
pire. A new power had arisen beyond the
mountains to take the place of the colossal
fabric reared by the genius of Shalmaneser
and Tiglathi-Adar. Another race had come
into the ascendant, and the glory and great-
ness of the Assyrians were shrouded in ever-
lasting night. 1

1 Lord Byron, in his tragedy of Sardanapalus,
has given a most vivid picture of the closing
scenes of the Empire. Following Diodorus and
Ctesias, the great poet has committed the usual
error of confounding Saracus with Asshur-Bani-
Pal, attributing to the latter the vices and follies of
the former ; and to this is added the geographical
absurdity of making the battlements of Nineveh
to be washed down by a flood in the Euphrates t
.Indeed, throughout the whole drama the Assyrian
capital is placed on the banks of the Euphrates,
instead of those of the Tigris. Nevertheless, the
tragedy is an imperishable, though highly poetic,
account of the sunset of Assyrian glory.

A. I:I-:I.H;K>.\ AM> ART.

191

CHAPTER xiv. RELIQION AND ART.

HE RELIGIOUS SYSTEM of
the Assyrians was well-
nigh identical witli that
of the Chaldceaus, from
whom it was borrowed.
When the colonists that
founded Asshur went
forth from the low-lying plains of the South,
they carried with them the cycle of ideas which
the fish-god, coming up from the sea, hail
taught them. In both countries the external
forms of religion were alike. The temples,
the altars, the sacred offices of Calah and Nin-
eveh, were a transcript of those of Borsippa
and Babylon. And, subjectively considered,
the religious theories and beliefs of Assyria
were of the same warp and woof with those
which had immemorially prevailed on the
Lower Euphrates and the borders of the Gulf.
So far as the objects of Assyrian worship
were concerned, they were a group of gods of
various degrees of importance. There was not
sufficient unity in the system to warrant the
use of the term monotheistic as descriptive of
its character. The deities rose the one above
another, but none so high as to be regarded as
by preeminence the supreme god of Assyria.
Each had his own sphere, within the limits of
which his godhood was unquestioned and un-
questionable. It was the difference in the
elevation of the sphere by which these divine
activities were circumscribed that determined
the rank and honor of the respective gods in
the Ninevite pantheon.

To the general rule of identity between the
deities of Upper and Lower Mesopotamia
there was one notable exception. ASSHUR, the
special god of the Assyrian Empire, was un-
known in the South. He was the tutelary
deity of the race. To him both kings and
people looked as the peculiar guardian of the
city, the court, the nation. His praise was
sounded through all the inscriptions, and the
prayer of the priest always began with an ap-
peal to Asshur. Thirteen kings of the line of

Nirarod bore the name of this deity and the
name was identical with that of the country;
so that the highest patriotism and the most
fervid religious zeal found at the beginning of
their quest a common fountain of inspiration:
to the one he was the hero Asshur, the son of
Shem; to the other, the god Asshur, lord of
the Assyrian race. Asshur was worshiped as
the King of the Gods. He was the Destroyer
of the Enemy and the Giver of Victory.
When the colonists waxed strong in the upper
country they called their earliest capital
Asshur; therefore was he the Founder of
Cities. The enemies and servants of the
Assyrians were the enemies and servants of
Asshur, and to him was due the ascendency
of the race over the barbarians. So general
and wide-spread was the adoration of this deity
that his worship was never localized; nor does
it appear that a temple was ever built in his
honor. It was to the lesser gods that the
greater fanes were reared.

There can be little doubt that the myth of
Asshur was based on the founding of the race
by Asshur, the son of Shem. He, like Romu-
lus, passed by apotheosis from earthly fame to
divine honors. In this can be seen, also, the
reason for the worship of the Assyrian kings.
They were god-born. They were the offspring
of Nimrod of Asshur. Like his ancestors,
the monarch of Assyria was one of the im-
mortals, whom to injure or neglect was to of-
fend against the most high powers of heaven
and earth.

The emblem of Asshur was .iie winged
globe. From the midst of the circle issues a
royal figure, crowned, bearing the bow, or
extending his hand in authority. Sometimes
the divine effigy is seen drawing the bow,
against the enemy, and sometimes only the
hands of the unseen god are lifted from the
disk. In a few cases two other royal heads,
one on either side of the true deity, are seen
emerging from the outspread wings ; but the
figure of Asshur is generally singular alone.

192

L'XIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

The divine emblem is profusely employed in
all the Assyrian sculptures, and is, indeed,
their distinguish ing characteristic. Besides
this, however, there is another the sacred
tree which, like the winged circle, is much
employed as an emblem of Asshur. From
between the horns of a ram the trunk mounts
as a palm, and spreads in symmetrical
branches, or is laden with cones after the
manner of the fir-tree.

Next after the almost universal adoration
of Asshur was the worship of those Chaldsean
deities whose titles and attributes have al-
ready been given in a previous chapter. 1 The
principal names included in this list are Anu-
and-Vul, Bel, Sin, Shamas, Vul, Nin, and
Nergal. After these were the goddesses Islr
tar, Beltis, and Gula, and in later times, Hea,
Nebo, and Merodach. Only Anu-and-Vul
were deities whose worship was coincident
with the founding of the Empire. The rest
were of more recent date, having come into the
Assyrian Pantheon about the times of Asshur-
Dayan II. The general theory of the god-
head of these deities was so nearly the same
in Assyria and in the South that only occa-
sional variations from the primitive Chaldsean
type are to be noted in the religious beliefs
of the Assyrians.

The worship of Anu-and-Vul was intro-
duced from Chaldsea into Assyria long before
the latter became an independent kingdom.
It is thought that Shamas-Vul, the son of
Ismi-Dagon of Chaldsea, set up a shrine in
Asshur and dedicated it to ANU before As-
syria had grown into any distinct importance
This old temple was for a long time a land-
mark, then fell into decay, was demolished
by Asshur-Dayan I., and afterwards rebuilt
by Tiglath-Pileser. There was no other im-
portant temple of Anu in all Assyria; the
worship of this deity was never popular, and
hardly practiced beyond the limit? of Asshur.

Many of the inscriptions and invocations
which enumerate the gods of Assyria omit
Anu altogether, and the word is not employed
as a part of any royal name. Nevertheless,
when Anu is mentioned, as in the prayer of
Tiglath-Pileser I., the name stands second in

1 See Chapter X, pp. 132-140.

the list of the divinities invoked. The other
Assyrian mouarchs who seem to have looked
with most favor on Ann's worship were As-
shur-Izir-Pal and Sargou. The place of Anu
among the gods of the Empire was neither
definite nor conspicuous.

The third deity of the Assyrians was BEL,
the classical Belus. The principal seat of his
worship was at Nineveh, which was frequently
designated as " the City of Belus." The mon-
archs of the Empire sometimes addressed their
subjects as "the People of Belus;" and as
many as three of the earlier sovereigns bore
his name. In those invocations not a few
from which the name of Anu is omitted, that
of Bel stands next to Asshur; and there ia
everywhere evidence in the inscriptions of the
high honor in which this deity was held by
the nation. The introduction of his worship
was almost contemporaneous with the found-
ing of the Earry Kingdom ; and Bel-Sumili-
Kapi, first of the traditional kings, bore the
name of this renowned deity. It appears that,
among the later monarchs, Sargon looked with
especial favor upon the worship of Bel. One
of the gates of Dur-Sargina was dedicated by
this king to his favorite divinity and to Bel-
tis, his queen. The emblem of Bel most used
in the sculptures was the horned cap, which,
besides being a general emblem of divinity,
was peculiarly appropriated by the third of
the Assyrian deities. He was held in great
honor by the nobles and princes of the Em-
pire who rarely, if ever, omitted from their
prayers, edicts, and inscriptions the distin-
guished name of " the Warrior Bel."

The fourth Assyrian divinity, already men-
tioned in connection with the Chaldsean Pan-
theon, was HEA. He was the god of the hu-
man mind, having dominion over the senses,
the intellect, the feelings. The concept of
such a deity was rather too spiritual for the
materialistic disposition of the people, and the
worship of Hea was neither popular nor splen-
did. A few temples were erected in his
honor, 1 and one of the principal gates of Dur-
Sargina bore his name. Sennacherib, on his

1 The ruins of two one at Asshur and the
other at Calah have been discovered and partly
explored.

ASSYRIA. RELIGION AND ART.

193

Susianian expedition, stopped on the sea-shore
to make an ottering of a golden boat ; for how
should an army be carried across the untried
deep unless Wisdom should direct and guide ?
Hea's symbol was a serpent an image but
infrequently found among the sculptures of
Assyria. This, added to the fact that the
name of Hea was not employed as a part of
royal titles and but seldom used in invoca-
tions, is another proof of the unpopularity of
his worship.

The Moon-god SIN stood at the head of the
planetary deities of Assyria. His rank and
attributes were not greatly different from those
of his Chaldsean counterpart. The crescent
moon, which was the emblem of Sin, is per-
haps the most common of all the divine sym-
bols found among the Assyrian sculptures;
and here again we see the predominance of
Southern influences in the fundamental reKg-
ious beliefs of this great people. Sin was rec-
ognized as the oldest of the gods, and when
the Assyrians desired to express their thought
of the beginning of things they said, " from
the origin of the god Sin." Two great tem-
ples dating from the reign of Sargon, the first
to Sin and Shamas at that monarch's favorite
city, and the other to Sin alone at Calah,
marked the esteem in which the Moon-god's
worship was held in the later times of the
Empire ; and when Sargon sought a name for
his son, afterwards so greatly distinguished,
he said Sin-Akhi-Irib (Sennacherib), "Sin
multiplies brethren."

As in Chaldsea, so in Assyria the divinity
of the moon outranked the Sun-god, SHAMAS.
But the worship of the latter was exceedingly
popular, and but for the Chaldsean dogma of
the precedence of Sin, would perhaps have
stood next in importance to that of Hea and
Bel. There are instances, indeed, in which the
name of Shamas is placed in invocations next
to that of Asshur, and in a few cases the em-
blem of the latter is blazoned in the center
with the four-rayed orb, which is the symbol
of the former.

With most of the monarchs Shamas was
held in favor. To him Tiglath-Pileser ascribes
his right to be ruler of the people; and to
him Asshur-Izir-Pal gives the honor of his

victories. The great north gate of Dur-8ar-
gina was dedicated by Sargon to Shamas with
the high rank of third among the gods of
Assyria; and by Sennacherib and Esar-Had-
don he is placed, in their lists of deities, next
to Asshur himself. The emblem of Shamaa
is generally associated in the sculptures with
that of Sin, the sun being placed to the left
of or below the moon. At least two of the
monarchs of the Empire took the name of
Shamas as a part of their own.

One of the most primitive forms of As-
syrian worship was that of the god VUL. This
deity, like most of the others, was introduced
into Upper Mesopotamia by the immigrants
who peopled the country in the times of the
early kingdom. His attributes have never
been clearly discriminated from those of sev-
eral other divinities with whom he Was gener-
ally joined in worship. Perhaps his original
Chaldiean character was but little changed by
the transfer to the North, while his uncertain
rank was attributable to the growing prefer-
ence of the Assyrians for more favored deities.
Several of the kings, however, bear the divine
name of Vul, and his temples at Asshur and
Calah give evidence of the devotion of both
sovereigns and people to this ancient god of
the Chaldaeans.

In the old-time, half-traditional history of
the Assyrians fathered and perpetuated by
the Greeks, and by them transmitted to the
Western nations the race was said to have
been founded by NINUS. He was to Nineveh
what Romulus was to Rome. The Assyrian
Canon has dispelled- most of the legend which
Herodotus, Ctesias, and Diodorus recited as
early Assyrian history; and what remains is
to the effect that the god NIN, or Nraip, the
Assyrian Mars, first of the second group of
the deities of Asshur, is he after whom the
mighty city was named. As such he was es-
teemed and worshiped by the great kings of
the early line.

Tiglath-Pileser I. designates this god Nin
as his guardian; Asshur-Izir-Pal builds him
a splendid temple; Sargon dedicates to him a
city. The winged bulls which so abound in
Assyrian architecture as the guardians of gate-
ways, porches, and courts are emblems of the

194

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

mighty Nin, who was the sharpener of the
weapons of war, and the protector of mankind
in peace. Sennacherib and the great mon-
archs of the later line, chief builders and pro-
moters of Assyrian glory, made the name of
Nin a constant repetition, while doorway and
palace-hall witnessed how the best of Assyrian
art was consecrated to his hoHor. Three of
the kings bore the name of Nin ' as a part of
their royal appellations, and the principal
temple of Calah long time the capital of the
Empire was dedicated to his worship.

In the later periods of Assyrian history
the Chaldaean or Babylonian MERODACH was
given a place among the principal deities of
the nation. The campaigns of Vul-Lush III.
appear to have been the origin of this modi-
fication in the previous theology. The intro-
duction of the Southern god into the Pantheon
of the North was regarded with much favor
by subsequent monarchs, but continuous war,
with approaching decline, and perhaps some
national antipathy to innovation, prevented
the erection of temples to Merodach, and his
worship was consequently limited to associated
ceremonies at the shrines and altars of other
gods. His name, which was much used by
the Babylonian kings as an element of the
royal title, does not appear as an appellative
of any Assyrian monarch, though it seems
that Merodach was a common name among
the nobility.

According to the tradition of the great
kings of the Later Empire, their family was
descended through three hundred and fifty
generations from the god NERO A L, the Hercules
of Assyrian theology. His symbol was the
winged lion, and the multitude of sculptures
in which this figure is dominant gives abun-
dant proof of the high esteem in which this
deity was held by the dignitaries of the royal
household. The winged lion and the winged
bull, emblems of Nergal and Nin, were- the
principal figures in most of the palace sculp-
ture, and the two gods thus symbolized, being
the tutelary deities of hunting and war, were
evidently worshiped with great enthusiasm by
the kings who found in those pursuits their
chief avenues to amusement and glory. It

1 Nin is, as already stated, the same as Adar.

thus happened that Nin and Nergal, though
nominally inferior to the high gods Anu and
Bel, had really a stronger hold on the royal
favor than did those deities who presided over
less fascinating pursuits.

The god NEBO was, like Merodach, a Chal-
dsean importation. The wars of Vul-Lush
III. against Babylonia brought back to Nine-
veh, as a part of their results, the theologi-
cal notions of the priests of Babylon. The
Assyrian kings, after plundering with sacri-
legious hands the temples of the South, still
had a lingering fear of the deities whose im-
ages they had pulled down and carried away.
And so, with the usual philosophy of robbers,
they undertook to worship the gods and keep
the goods. It thus happened that some of the
later despoilers of the Babylonian temples be-
came the most assiduous propagandists of the
Babylonian faith. To this trait of human
weakness is traceable the introduction of the
worship of the Chaldsean Nebo at Calah and
other great cities of the Empire.

Such were the gods of the Assyrian race.
With these certain goddesses were paired,
in a manner analogous to the mysticism of
Egypt. The male deity was rarely if ever
worshiped alone. As the female principle
stands in nature universally correlated with
the male, as the mother of life, so in the
Assyrian Pantheon the goddess was always
set over against her lord. Thus, with As-
shur, the tutelary deity of the race, was
joined SHERUHA, his queen, the Mistress of the
Skies. 1 In like manner, ANUTA was the female
Anu, and BELTIS the female Bel. The queen
of Hea was called DAV-KINA, and the wife of
the Moon-god Sin was known simply by her
title of "The Great Lady." The name of
the Sun-goddess, queen of Shamas, was GULA,
and the spouse of the god Vul was called
SHULA. Nin's wife was worshiped together
with her lord, under the title of "Queen of
the Land ;" and the consort of the Babylonian

'Witt Asshur and his worship was also as-
sociated the famous goddess ISHT/IR, the Assyrian
Venus. The mythology is here a little obscure,
but it appears that in the later times of the Em-
pire it was Ishtar rather than Sheruha who was
regarded as the true queen and consort of the
great and powerful Asshur.

ASSYRIA. RELIGION .i.V/) ART.

19&

Merodach was named /iK-B.vxrr. Nergal
had for li;s wife the godde-* l.\/, anil tin'
spouse of Nebo was known by the name of
WAKMITA.

Of these fi-iiiale divinities some were in great
favor; others were less esteemed. Generally,
they were adored in the same temples with
tlirir lords. Sometimes, however, special
shrines were consecrated, and in a few in-
stances temples reared, to the favorite god-
desses of Assyria. Such was the magnificent
edifice which Asshur-Bani-Pal dedicated to
Beltis at Nineveh ; and such were the splendid
temples of Gula at Asshur and Calah. It
was for the worship of Ishtar that Tiglath-
1'ileser I. repaired and rededicated the great
fane at Asshur, the primitive capital; and to
her also was reared one of the most splendid
temples in Nineveh.

It thus appears that the deities of the As-
syrians were divided into four groups, the
first embracing only Asshur and his queen;
the second constituting the First Triad Anu,
Bel, and Hea; the third group being the Sec-
ond Triad, the planetary gods, Sin, Shamas,
and Vul; and the fourth embracing the four
minor divinities Nin, Merodach, Nergal, and
Nebo. The mythological scheme may thus
be presented in tabular form:

DEITIES OF THE ASSYRIANS I

GODS.

CORRESPONDING GODDESSES.

CHIEF SEAT OF
WORSHIP.

Asshur

Sheruhaand Ishtar.

Throughout
the Empire.

1 ll:-T
TRIAD.

Anu
B"I

Hea

Asshur.
Asshur and
raliih.
Asshur and
Oiilah.

Beltis (Mylitta)

Dav-Klna

SECOND
TKIAU.

Sin

Shamas.

Vul

" The Great Lady"

raluh and
Bit-Sargina.
Blt-Sargina.
Asshur and
Calah.

Gula....

Shala

Nin..

Mero

N.TK,
Nflx.

" The Queen of the Land."
Zir-Banit ...

Calah and
Nineveh.

Tarbisi.
ralBh.

Ini'h

Laz

\Viirmitn

Besides the deities who held dominion over
man and nature, the Assyrians recognized the
existence of spirits less exalted and powerful.
As some of the powers of nature seemed to
be exerted for the benefit of the human race,

1 Rawlinson's Ancient Monarchic, Vol. II., p. 27.

and some for its destruction, so the spirits
were classified into benevolent and malicious.
There were good genii and evil. The GOOD
< i i MUS was generally figured as a winged man
with benignant visage. Such a figure is seen
in the sculptures accompanying the king as
he goes to offer sacrifice at the altar. The
winged visitant wears on his head the horned
cap, emblem of divinity, and bears in his
right hand the pomegranate, or the cone of
the pine-tree, symbols of fecundity and abun-
dance. In his left hand the Good Genius car-
ries the sacred basket, in which are stored the
benefits and blessings which the immortals be-
stow on men a divine cornucopia filled with
the benevolence of the gods. Sometimes the
Good Genius has the head and visage of a fal-
con, after the manner of the hawk-headed
Horus or Thoth of the Egyptians.

The EVIL GENIUS is sometimes savage,
sometimes grotesque. Anon he is sculptured
as a man with the head of a lion and the ears
of an ass. Sometimes he is a monster, half
lion and half eagle. In this form he is assailed
by Vul, who smites him with the thunderbolt.
Again ,he is a dragon of parts prodigious, as
he might have been seen by Milton or drawn
by Dor6. Sometimes he wields daggers and
clubs, standing in ferocious aspect against an-
other figure like himself, or hovering in venge-
ful attitude over the winged lion of Nergal,
whom he seeks to dismay or destroy.

The Assyrians may be properly defined aa
idolaters. The images of the gods were to
the popular apprehension the gods them-
selves; nor does it appear that even the kings
and priests had other than the coarsest and
most material conception of the gods whom
they worshiped. The idols were evidently re-
garded in the light of deities, rather than im-
perfect and rude attempts to represent the
immortal powers. The language of the in-
scriptions indicates that according to the belief
of the Assyrian monarchs a people were help-
less when their gods were captured, and the
gods were taken when the idols were removed
from their shrines. No doubt this coarse ma-
terialism was in some degree the result of
theological degeneration ; for it is evident
from the high and solemn language of the

196

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

Assyrian ritual that the original concepts on
which the system was based, were neither gross
nor debasing. Still it must be confessed that
among the later Assyrians the idol had in
a great measure become the god and the god
the idol.

The images which were used to represent
the deities of Asshur were of clay, or stone,
or metal. The clay idols were the idols of
the common people. In the temples and pal-
aces the effigies of the gods were of stone or
metal. Some were of colossal proportions and
were executed with an approach to artistic
skill. There was, however, a certain conven-
tional and inexpressive type after which the
images were carved, far inferior to what the
artist was able to produce when freed from
traditional restraints. The images are gener-
ally rude and heavy, and have little claim to
be described as beautiful or artistic. The
stone idols are, of course, greatly superior in
design and workmanship to the coarse statu-
ettes which represented to the masses the
powers which govern the world; while the
still more costly and carefully executed idols
of silver and gold which ostentatious monarchs
set up in their palaces and temples, were of
even greater merit.

The religious beliefs of the Assyrians had
but little practical effect upon the conduct and
discipline of their lives. A certain coarse sort
of honor regulated in some 'measure the inter-
course of the people, but it was perhaps as
much the outgrowth of natural conditions as
of any sentiment of religious obligation. To
the Assyrian king the deity whom he wor-
shiped was a being more powerful than him-
self, but of like passions and prejudices, quick
to be offended, ready to aid in battle, capable
of hatred and revenge. The religious imagi-
nation of the race flew on heavy wing and
hovered low about material forms and forces,*
and the inner life of the people was character-
ized by neither the subtile mysticism of the
Egyptians nor the fiery zeal of Israel.

The two principal features of the Assyrian
ceremonial were the sacrifice and the invoca-
tion. The sacrificial part of their religion
was attended to by the kings and priests with
considerable pomp and formality. The bas-

reliefs of Nineveh give a tolerably succinct
representation of the ceremony by which the
favor of the gods was sought by the shedding
of the blood of beasts. The bull was the fa-
vorite sacrificial animal. He is led by the
king and a retinue of priests to the porch of
the temple, where sits the effigy of the deity
on a throne, wearing the horned cap, and
stretching out his hand towards the procession.
The king carrie* a cup, from which he pours
a libation; so also one of the priests, while
the rest attend the animal. A fire burns on
an altar near at hand, and here a part per-
haps some sacred organ is consumed as a
savor to the deity. The rest of the sacrifice
goes to the priests and the people.

The Assyrian prayers were highly conven-
tional and bombastic. The chief fragments
of religious literature exist in the form of
prayers and supplications. All the titles and
attributes of the god are recited by the wor-
shiper, who categorically enumerates what
things he and his ancestors to remote genera-
tions have done to merit the divine approval
and patronage. All the appellatives of the
deity are repeated as carefully as the titles of
a modern nobleman in diplomatic correspond-
ence. The inscriptions containing these sup*
plications are a kind of state papers negotiated
between the Assyrian priests and their gods.

The people had no great part in the higher
ceremonies of religion. The king was not
only the embodiment of the state, but also the
head of the sacerdotal order. Through him
and the priesthood the common throng were
permitted to approach the deities and share
their beneficence.

The favor of the Assyrian gods was also
sought by offerings and gifts. Things taken
in war were frequently consecrated in the
temples. Young kids and antelopes were
brought and given to the priests. Precious
stones and gems, and rare metals from foreign
lands, were placed before the statuettes of fa-
vorite gods until their shrines were resplendent
with glittering treasures. The walls and por-
tals of the temples were frequently blazoned
with silver and gold, contributed by rich no-
bles and conquerors returning from successful
wars.

ASSYRIA. RELIGION AXD ART.

197

Likewise, at intervals the Assyrians
feasted in honor of their gods, and rarely, in
times of public calamity, endured the rigors
and pangs of fasting in order to recover the
forfeited favor of the powers on high. In
such instances the humiliation was conducted
with all the robust vigor of the race. There
was neither eating nor drinking until the fast
was ended. Ashes were sprinkled on tin-
head, and sackcloth was put on both man and
beast. The domestic animals were forced into
the same abstinence and discipline as man.
All business was suspended, all enterprise
hushed, until Asshur had respect to his people.

Though there i? no doubt of the occasional
sincerity of the religious sentiment among
the Assyrians, yet the theological system
adopted by the race was less potent in shaping
the destiny of the nation than in most of the
ancient monarchies. In Egypt and Greece it
is proper to say that the worship of the gods
occupied a first place in the social and moral
philosophy of the people. In Assyria the
same could not be truthfully averred. The
Assyrian temples were always inferior to the
palaces in beauty and magnificence. The
courts and halls in which the royal monarch
displayed his splendid robes' far outshone the
sacred places in which the effigies of the im-
mortals were set up in silence. The glories of
the imperial regime quite surpassed all efforts of
the priestly order to dazzle the senses and lead
the imagination captive. The religious system
of the Assyrians was a matter of convenience
and use rather than a sentiment of fervid zeal
and enthusiasm, such as inspired most of the
ancient peoples.

Passing from the system of faith held by
the Ninevites to the merely intellectual achieve-
ments the arts, the science, the literature
of the people of Asshur, we find again that
the physical and material vigor of the race
outran its progress and development in mind.
The elements of Assyrian learning came orig-

'The royal and sacerdotal garments worn by
Assyrian princes and priests were of the most
costly and elaborate patterns : embroidered to the
last degree of art ; covered with figures and em-
blems suns and circles and pine-cones, eagles
and lions and sacred trees, pomegranates and
dragons and winged bulls.

inally from Chaldsea, and it does not appear
that the stream ran higher than its source.

As in tlif r:i f Home borrowing from

Greece the fundamentals of her art and learn-
ing, so was it with Nineveh attempting to trans-
plant the genius of Babylon to the banks of the
Upper Tigris. Not only were the rudiments
of science which were possessed by the As-
>\ rians brought from the older civilization of
Lower Mesopotamia, but the language, also,
in which thc.-e rudiments were imbedded was
the old Hatnitic dialect of the South a
tongue unknown except to priests and
scholars. In this dead language were com-
posed the dry, flat annals of the Early King-
dom and of the beginnings even the larger
part of the Empire. Not until the times of
Asshur-Baui-Pal were translations made out
of the Chaldee classic, and works composed in
the vernacular. It is rather to art and manu-
factures than to literature and science that we
must look for the civil greatness of Assyria.

In the matter of writing the Assyrians
achieved considerable success. The letters era-
ployed were nearly the same which have been
already described as the written characters of
Chaldee. The rectilineal symbols, however,

such as ||| ', are no longer employed by the

Assyrians, only the wedge-shaped letters being
used. Of these there are several styles, such
as the elongated ^^ , the contracted ., the
broad form T, and the arrow-head <. These
are combined and modified in various ways to
the number of about three hundred, and these
three hundred cuneiform signs are the primary
elements of Assyrian writing. The alphabet,
however, has, besides diphthongs and conso-
nantal combinations, but nineteen simple let-
ters, from which it is seen at once that the
written symbols employed represented not ele-
mentary sounds but syllables; as pa, pi, pu,
ap, ip, up. Besides the letters proper, certain
other characters were employed as determina-
tives to indicate the classification of the thing
expressed by the following word. Thus the
wedge sign placed vertically before a word in-
dicated that that word was the name of a man,
while the sign V indicated that the follow-
ing word was the name of a god.

The material on which Assyrian writing

198

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

was executed was either the clay tablet or the
slab of stone. The former was most used for
the common purposes of life ; the latter, for
formal and important inscriptions. The royal
writings and historical records are, however,
frequently found on clay tablets, and the fact
that many of these exist unto the present day

CD V

Arkisu Nabu-Kudur-Uteur nl bl se su Is
ki-blr ti sa Assur a na ka sa cli it 11 ka.

ASSYRIAN WRITING.

and furnish our chief source of Assyrian his-
tory shows their excellence and durability.
The tablet was generally in the form of an
octagonal cylinder, or more properly prism,
of fine and thin terra-cotta, on the exterior
faces of which the inscriptions were impressed
in columns, each side constituting a column,
reading from above down. This writing is
exceedingly fine, sometimes requiring a mag-
nifying glass for its decipherment. The lines

are five or six to the inch, being as close as
Hie type in this column. The prisms, many
of which are in excellent preservation, are
from eighteen inches to three feet in height;
and each contains, when perfect, about as
much matter as twelve pages of the present vol-
ume !

These octagonal tablets were disposed
about the courts and halls of palaces in such
situations as to be easily read. The rooms
and niches in which they were set up consti-
tuted the Assyrian library ; and here the
prince of the house, the occasional scholar,
the sage of Asshur, stood or sat, reading
the annals of the Empire, the edicts of his
sovereign, or the recitative of some priest in-
voking the gods in prayer.

The writing on the stone slabs was of the
same character with that of the tablets. The
slabs, however, were frequently of great size.
They were dressed and cut to proper dimen-
sions and built into the doorways and walls
of palaces and temples. A single slab was
sometimes of such proportions as to hold
the contents of a small volume. Wherever
there was a dressed surface of stone, unoccu-
pied with such ornamentation as prohibited
the addition of inscriptions, the Assyrians,
like the Egyptians, were fond of covering it
with the writing of the country. Hundreds,
perhaps thousands, of important and striking
bas-reliefs were thus covered in their whole
extent with these inscriptions sculptured across
their surfaces. 1 It thus came to pass that
the entablatures and halls and courts of the
Assyrian palaces and temples were made to
repeat in imperishable records the story of
Assyrian greatness.

In all the arts of Assyria there was mani-
fested a striking preference for the practical
over the theoretical, for the real over the ideal.
Only in rare instances as when the artist
carves fighting dragons or grotesque monsters
with drawn knives did the Assyrian sculp-

1 A very important and interesting example of
this kind of art is set up at the entrance to the
Mercantile Library of St. Louis. The slab is per-
haps twelve feet high and eight or ten feet wide.
It contains a colossal bas-relief of one of the Nine
vite kings a majestic figure and is literally cov-
ered with a cuneiform inscription.

ASSYRIA. RELIGION AND ART.

199

tors attempt to portray the forms of things
umv:il. In iiivliitectiire this tendency was
constantly exhibited, and the pictorial repre-

ARKOW-HEAD TABLETS AND INSCRIPTIONS.

sentations, whether in stone or in color, showed
a realism indicative of little imagination in
either artist or people. There is little disposi-
tion on the part of Assyrian sculptors
to idealize the subjects which they
treat, or to rise above the actualities
of nature. In general conception, in
grace of outline and freedom of execu-
tion, the works of Nineveh and As-
shur fall far short of the products of
Greek art ; but in boldness and a cer-
tain truthfulness to life they are hardly
surpassed by any of the classic sculp-
tures of the ancient world.

In manufactures and the arts of
trade the Assyrians were preeminent
above all peoples of their time. The
native genius of the race had an apti-
tude for the practical activities of the
shop and mart ; - and besides what the
natural skill of Assyria was able to
produce for the necessities and com-
fort of the people, foreign training and
skill contributed to encourage and
multiply the manufactures of tin-
kingdom. Into Nineveh were swept by
every war, in accordance with the
policy of the kings, multitudes of mechanics
and artisans, who brought thither and planted
on the Tigris the best genius of the surround-

ing nations. The factories of Assyria teemed
with a multifarious industry deftly conducted
by the varying skill of foreign workmen, just
as the immigrant Dutch weavers made
^ prosperous the times of Elizabeth.

Vases, jars, dishes, and bottles of
glass; bronzes; ornaments of ivory and
pearl; engraved gems and brooches;
rings and bells; musical instruments
cornets, flutes, harps; and implements
of the house and field, such were the
products of the shops of Nineveh. What
arms soever the ancient soldier bore in
beating down the enemy, in besieging
his town, in leading him captive from
the battle, or in warding off his thrusts
and blows, were produced in inexhaust-
ible stores. The armories of that ever
warlike people rang with incessant
clangor in the fabrication of the weap-
onry and harness of the stalwart soldiery of
Asshur. The mechanical powers were well
understood and readily applied, in their sim-

ASSYRIAN CARICATURE. DRAGONS-FIGHTING.

pier forms, to the production of implements
and fabrics. Huge aqueducts and tunnels
were constructed. The arch was employed in

200

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

building. Glass was blown and spread into
transparent sheets. Gems were engraved with
a skill unsurpassed in Paris. Woodwork was
inlaid with pearl, and
garments and robes
were woven and orna-
mented with an exqui-
site richness and beauty
that might well excite
the covetous pride of
the most voluptuous
Shah or Czarina of
modern times.

The glory of Assyria
was the glory of arms
and of material gran-
deur. The sheen of her
greatness was a barbaric splendor the prod-
uct of the genius of a primitive and powerful
race expanding under the fiery impulses of

ASSYRIAN SOLDIERS
FIGHTING.

war, enriched by the luxuries of conquest,
made haughty by domination.

The Tigris still washes these -ancient ruins.
The setting sun still falls with his long train
of splendid twilight across the Mesopotamian
hills, sinking to rest as gloriously as when
Asshur-Bani-Pal beheld him for the last time
from the western windows of his palace; but
the. great people who for seven hundred years
pressed beneath the conqueror's foot the neck
of a hundred enemies, has passed forever into
oblivion. Where Sennacherib and Sargon
drove their triumphant chariots through the
roar of tumultuous thoroughfares, amidst the
shouts of a victorious soldiery, some half-savage
Kurds, sitting on the broken stones of Khors-
abad or Nimrud, watch a distant flock, and at
the fall of night the jackal sets up a howl as
he issues from his den in the basement of a
ruined palace.

SUING FOR PEACE.

took 1

MEDIA,

CHAPTER xv. COUNTRY AND PRODUCTS-

HE country of MEDIA,
now included in the north-
ern portion of the Persian
Empire, was the scene of
the first upland kingdom
of Western Asia. Here
it was demonstrated that
civilization can flourish beyond the alluvium
of the river bottoms. The country consists
of a plateau on the thither side of the Zagros
mountains, sloping to the south and east. On
the north, from Ararat almost to the Caspian,
the river Aras 1 is the boundary; and on the
north-east the Elburz chain, rising, not like
the Zagros, in parallel ridges with intervening
valleys, but in a single lofty range around the
Lower Caspian, with spurs breaking off at
right-angles, constitutes the natural limit.
Eastward lies the land of the Afghans, be-
tween which and Media there is no natural
demarkation, and on the south the coun-
try descends to the arid plains peculiar to
the desert parts of Persia. The general ele-
vation of this important district is more than
three thousand feet above the level of the sea.
In shape Media is a parallelogram, lying
1 The classical Araxet.

with its greater axis from north-west to south-
east. The length of this greater dimension is six
hundred miles, and the average breadth about
two hundred and fifty miles. This gives the
not inconsiderable area of one hundred and
fifty thousand square miles a country consid-
erably larger than Chaldsea and Assyria to-
gether. The whole peninsula of Italy is only
two-thirds, and the British Islands no more
than four-fifths, as large as Media Proper with
the limits here defined.

The political boundaries of ancient Media
are difficult to determine. The authorities
disagree ; nor can it be doubted that at some
periods the limits of the kingdom were much
greater than at others. The historian can
look only to those physical barriers to which
political power would naturally extend and
beyond which it could not pass. These barriers
on at least three sides of Media may be deter-
mined with approximate accuracy.

On the west the center of the Zagros may
be accepted as the Median boundary in that
direction. On the north the boundary would
be the mountain chain which shuts in Lake
Urumiyeh, and further east the river Aras.
On the east the natural limit was that branch

(201)

202

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

of the Elburz in which lies the pass called the
Caspian Gates, and further south the great
salt deserts of Khorasan. On the south there
is no natural denmrkation, but from many
considerations a line nearly coincident with
the thirty-second parallel of latitude may be
regarded as a fair approximation to the old
boundary between Media and Persia.

The upper part of Media is specially moun-
tainous. The ancient district of Atropatene,
the modern Azerbijan, in the north-western
portion of the country, is almost Alpine in its
elevations. The Elburz, also, though narrow
at the base, is by no means an unaspiring
range. Out of this arises at a distance of forty
miles from Teheran the snow-capped Dema-
vend, the most sightly mountain peak in all
Asia west of the Himalayas. The Zagros,
already many times mentioned in the history
of Assyria, consists of six or seven parallel
elevations with depressions between, the whole
running in a broad mountainous belt between
the valley of the Tigris and the Median plain.

As the traveler traverses Media from the
north-west angle to the south, he beholds a
gradual descent of the mountains into hills,
these in turn sinking into rocky plains, and
finally vanishing in the desert. Except on
the south, the boundaries of Media are rocky
elevations, highest on the north and north-
east, while the central portion of the country
thus inclosed is a rough and arid plain. The
mountainous skirts of the land are full of ra-
vines and gorges, from the sides of which in
many places summits shoot up with precipi-
tous sides of gray rock. The general aspect
falls coldly on the vision, and the natural in-
accessibility of the region suggests a predatory
people, fond of hunting and war.

The rivers of Media are of minor impor-
tance. The streams which take their rise
from the Elburz are short and narrow. Those
of the eastern slope hurry down the hill-sides
and plunge into the Caspian; while those on
the western declivity are feeble in their waters
and are soon lost in the desert plains of the
south. Those rivers rising from the Zagros on
the west and entering the Tigris have already
been described. Some of those whose fountains
are on the eastern slopes of the same mountains

have a considerable volume, and flowing in
an easterly direction gather into rivers of im-
portance. The KI/IL-UZEN makes its way, in
a course of four hundred and ninety miles, to
the Caspian. The ZENDERUND waters a con-
siderable district in the north-central portion
of Media, and the BENDAMIR, flowing by Perse-
polis, falls into Lake Bakhtigan. 1 These three
rivers are the dominant physical facts in the
best portion of the country ; and this district,
neither unproductive in fruits nor cheerless in
aspect, was the heart of the land in the times
of Median supremacy.

In some limited parts the land was beauti-
ful. In the north-west angle, on the skirts
of Lake Urumiyeh, some verdant and pic-
turesque scenery greets the eye of the trav-
eler. Many of the valleys of the Zagros are
rich in both beauty and fertility. The banks
of the Zenderund, especially in the upper
part of its course, are bordered with green
pastures and occasional evidences of luxuri-
ance. For the rest, the general aspect of
Media is that of an arid and sterile upland
rocky, alkaline, poor in trees and rain and
running streams, tending to a desert. The
color of the landscape, except for two months
in spring, is brown. The herbage is dry
and juiceless, having its roots in a soil of clay
and gravel. The grass is coarse and the
bushes stunted in growth. The eye turns
wearily around the horizon, and is not satis-
fied. Even in Atropatene', one of the best
districts of Northern Media, large sterile tracts
are found at intervals, and gray downs spread
out, treeless and desolate, on either hand.

From time immemorial Media has suffered
not only from her scant supply of water, but
from the sunken position of the little which
nature has bestowed. The river beds are so
low and the valleys through which they course
so greatly depressed below the level that the
artificial distribution of moisture is impracti-
cable. The vast systems of irrigation which
were so easy and natural in the low countries,

1 It is a noteworthy fact that of all the greater
rivers of Media not a single one reaches the
ocean. The Aras and the Kizil-Uzen make their
way to the Caspian. AH the rest waste their
waters on the arid south.

Mi:i)IA. COUNTRY AND PRODUCT*.

203

with their lazy rivers coursing along beds but
little lower than the general level, were not
to be thought of in the Median gorges and
hills. Civilization was proportionally retarded,
and the pursuits of the nomad and warrior
were favored at the expense of husbandry.
Of all the Median rivers only the Zenderuud
was of a character to have its waters artifi-
cially distributed. All of the other streams lay
in the bottom of sunken channels, and plunged
along with a turbulence terrifying to the peas-
ant and fatal to bridges.

' Of other bodies of waters the most important
is LAKE URUMIYEH. It lies four thousand
two hundred feet above the level of the sea,
and is a shallow sheet spread out under a
blue sky. The length from north-west to south-
east is eighty miles, and the average breadth
is about twenty-five miles. It is a brackish,
fishless body of water, a sort of Dead Sea of
the mountains, nearly divided by a peninsula
projecting from the eastern shore and dotted
with a few inconsiderable islands. The waters,
though incapable of supporting life, are azure
in their hue, not unlike the lake tints of
Northern Italy, and the natives call the ceru-
lean sheet the Blue Sea in their language,
the Kapotan Zow.

For purposes of civil administration ancient
Media was divided into eleven districts. These
subdivisions were, however, embraced in two
larger parts known as GREAT MEDIA and ATRO-
PATENE. The principal minor provinces were
Rhagiana, Ardelan, and Nissea the latter
being the district famous from times imme-
morial for. its fine breed of horses. The other
provinces mentioned by Ptolemy were Margi-
ana, Choromithre'ne', Elyma'is, Sigriana, Dari-
tis, and Syro-Media. These districts seem not
to have been divided from each other by nat-
ural barriers, and it is possible even prob-
able that in the times of the Empire only
the two great divisions of Atropatene' and
Media the Great were recognized, the former
being the old home of the Medes, and the
latter a country added by conquest and colo-
nization.

The capital city of Great Media was ECBA-
TANA," situated somewhat to the east of the

l ln Greek, Agbatana; in Persian, Hagmalan.

Zagros range, at the foot of Mount Orontes,
now known as Mount Erwend. The city was
doubtless on the site of the modern Susa a
beautiful situation, verdant in spring and
summer, well watered with mountain streams,
and sloping gently to the west. According to
Diodorus Siculus, the ancient city had u cir-
cumference of fifty stadia, which would give
an area of fifty square miles. No doubt, how-
ever, the historian in giving these extravagant
dimensions recited what he had heard from
the story-tellers of his times, rather than what
he himself had seen and measured. Three or
four square miles would perhaps be a nearer
approximation to the real extent of Ecbatana,
nor is this an inconsiderable area for an an-
cient city.

In the case of the Median capital it is to
be regretted that antiquarian research has as
yet supplied but little information concerning
the size and character of the city. The site
is covered by the modern Susa, and no doubt
from age to age the ancient remains have
been rebuilt and built upon until, as in Venice
and Rome, the old outline is destroyed and
the old plan effaced. No expedition of a
scientific character has ever been sent to ex-
hume and explore the ancient city, nor is it
certain that any account capable of verifica-
tion can ever be produced of the old capital
of the fiery Medes.

The authority of Polybius may, however,
be cited respecting some of the principal fea-
tures of Ecbatana. By him the dimensions
of the ground-plan of the palace of Cyaxares
are given in definite measurements. The cir-
cumference of the building is said to have
been one thousand four hundred and twenty
yards in extent. Albeit, this is the measure-
ment of the mound or raised platform on
which the palace was reared, rather than the
dimensions of the actual foundation of the
building. The palace itselt seems to have
been something in the same style as the later
royal buildings in Susa and Persepolis, and
not wholly unlike the temples of Greece.
There were without two rows of columns, the
first supporting the main structure, and the
second constituting the principal feature of
the peristyle or external colonnade. The col-

204

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

umns were of cypress or cedar, and were
adorned with precious metals. Supported by
the capitals, and crossing each other at right
angles overhead, were beams of the same rich
woods similarly garnished. The roof was com-
posed of silver tiles, which lay flashing in the
sunlight. All the conspicuous parts of the
palace without and within were made to
glitter with sheets of silver and gold laid upon
the surface. In later times stone pillars and
columns took the place of the colonnade of
wood, and the somewhat oriental style of or-
namentation gave place to the severer tastes
of the West.

Near to the palace stood the arx or citadel.
It was the treasury of the city and state a
place of great natural strength and well de-
fended by the skill of man. The public
archives of the kingdom were here deposited
for safe keeping, and as the tides of war swept
by, the Medes looked to this stronghold as the
Greeks to the Acropolis, and the Romans to
the Capitoline hill. What manner of build-
ings and fortifications constituted the defenses
of the place only conjecture can testify. Some
ruins of later date are all that mark the site
once covered with the bulwarks of the capital
city of the Medes.

Besides the citadel it does not appear that
Ecbatana had any considerable defenses. To
the city tradition assigns no walls. Those
races which are able to protect themselves with
walls, are better able to do so witfiout them.
When London must be defended with a ram-
part the Fijis will indeed be ready to take
possession of St. Paul's. Among the ancient
nations the Medes and Persians, as a general
rule, trusted not to walled towns, but rather
to the valor and prowess of their soldiery.

Until recently much confusion has existed
in respect to the size and character of Ecba-
tana. Most of this has arisen from the fact
that the capital town of Northern Media was
also called by the same name. The latter was
situated in the province of Azerbijan, and was
built on the summit of a hill, rising like a
sugar-loaf above the surrounding country.
This conical elevation sloped down to the
plain on all sides, and was encircled with a
seven-fold rampart. On the center of the

summit was placed the citadel, with the treas-
ure-house and palace of the king. The con-
centric walls were painted of different colors,
the outer one being white, the next black, the
third scarlet, the fourth blue, the fifth orange,
the sixth silver, and the seventh golden so
that viewed from the surrounding plain the
concentric battlements of different hues, rising
one above the other and the whole crowned
in the center with the imposing citadel, pre-
sented a scene at once picturesque and grand.

The NORTHERN ECBATANA was situated in
the valley of the Saruk, a tributary of the
Jaghetu. The conical hill seems to have been
formed, as are some of those in the Yellow-
stone National Park, by the overflow of a
mineral lake, the deposit of whose waters,
rising in incrustations, accumulated from year
to year, lifting the small lake to the summit.
A mountain of this sort, covered with ruins
and surrounded on the sloping sides, is found
in the locality described, and seems to answer
well the position assigned to the old capital
of Northern Media.

The third city of the Median Empire was
RHAGA, situated near the Caspian Gates. It
was one of the oldest settlements of the Aryan
race, and is mentioned in the Zend-Avesta.
It is also referred to in the apocryphal books
of Tobit and Judith as the capital of Media
where Arphaxad reigned. It was the chief
town of the province of Rhigiana, on the east-
ern border of the Median territory, but the
exact location of the city has not been defi-
nitely ascertained. Some ruins at the modern
village of Rhey are thought to mark the site
of Rhaga, and the names are sufficiently sim-
ilar to strengthen that supposition. At any
rate the city was only a day's march from
those wonderful passes 1 where the Elburz
chain is cleft in twain for the exit of man
from the Median uplands to the sea.

Fourth among the cities of Media was
CHARAX, the site of which is now marked by

'The so-called "Caspian Gates" are one of the
wonders of geography. One of the passes is of
tremendous proportions. The mountain range ia
cleft at right angles to the bottom. The walls of
rock stand up on either hand a thousand feet in
height. The gateway is about five miles long and
no more than from ten to forty feet in width.

MEDIA. COUNTRY AND PRODUCTS.

205

the ruins of Uewanukif, near Rhaga just de-
scribed. Not inurli is known of tin- character
and importance of this town, and the same
may be said, with but slight qualifications, of
all the ancient cities of the Medes. The work
of scientific discovery, which has been directed
with so great profit to this banks of the Eu-
phrates and the Tigris, has been turned but
little to the Median ruins ; and the task of the
antiquary, as it relates to this important dis-
trict, is yet to be performed.

Besides the four cities above referred to,
four others of considerable note, belonging to
Western Media, may be mentioned. They
were all situated on the slopes of the Zagros
end were therefore better known to the As-
syrians and the nations of the West than were
the remote cities of the Median plains. The
first in rank and importance of the western
towns was BAQISTAN. It is situated on the
direct route from Babylon to Ecbatana, and
has been easily identified with the modern
Behistun. The description given by the an-
cients of the scenery and surroundings of Bag-
istan might almost be repeated to-day of what
the traveler sees about the Persian town which
marks the site of the buried city. Here b
the famous Rock of Behistun, where Semiramis
is said to have carved her own effigy and a
commemorative inscription. Here, also, ac-
cording to the tradition, she established a
great park or paradise, which was refreshed
with a marvelous fountain of water. Here,
too, upon the face of the living rock, are the
world-famous inscriptions of Darius the Great.
Upon the scarped surface of these precipices
nation after nation Mede, Persian, Par-
thian has left the trace of its power and
fame.

Further on towards Ecbatana, at the foot
of the southern slope of the Elwend, was the
ancient Median town of ARDAPAN. The site
has been identified with that of the Persian
village of Arteman. Our only knowledge of
the old city is derived from the historian Isi-
dore, who declares that the sunny climate and
cheery rills of the place attracted thither the
sovereigns of Media, anxious to escape the
boreal rigors of a more northern residence.
The royal palace of Ardapan was a favorite
N. Vol. 113

resort of fatigued and disgusted kings until
the splendid structure was sacked and de-
stroyed by Tigraues, the Armenian.

The third town of this second group was
CONCOBAR. The massive ruins which overlook
the modern Kungawnr make it comparatively
certain that the two sites are identical. Here,
as well as at Bagistan, the mythical Semiramis
had her paradise and temple. That tradition,
however, which ascribes the temple to Artemis
may contain a larger fraction of truth. The

SCTLPTL'RED ROCK OF REIIISTI N.

uncertain certainty of the mortal queen gives
place to the certain uncertainty of the immor-
tal divinity. In either case, it is but the fin-
ger of conjecture which points out the founda-
tion of the ancient edifice.

The last of the Median towns here calling
for mention was ASPADAN, in the extreme
southern limit of the country, close to the
confines of Persia. The modern Persian capi-
tal, Isfahan, occupies the site? and the recent
name is nearly the same as the old.

Owing to the perishable character of Median
buildings as compared with the everlasting
structures of the Euphrates and Tigris valley
not much can now be known of the relative

206

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

importance of the towns of Media. Wood,
even the beam of cedar, perishes. The archi-
tecture of the Medes is eaten up of time, and
the little that Time has spared War has de-
voured. Not a single edifice of the times of
the Empire has remained in any thing more
than shadowy outline within the whole coun-
try of ancient Media. As a consequence, the
opportunities for reconstructing the architec-
ture and the social life of which it was the
outer garb are either meager or altogether
wanting.

The climate of Media could be inferred
from the situation of the country. The zone,
the elevation, the trend of the region, the
proximity of great waters and high moun-
tains these are the elements out of which
climate is compounded. As Media was greatly
elevated, the country was dry, arid. The
mountain walls and southern trend gave a
higher temperature than would have otherwise
prevailed. The not inconsiderable extent of
the country from north to south, the variations
in elevation, and especially the proximity of
the desert on one side, furnished the condi-
tions of variability.

In general, the climatic division of the
region here considered was into two parts
Atropaten6, or Northern Media, and the
Southern Plateau, the latter being subdivided
into a western and an eastern district, differ-
ing greatly from each other in natural char-
acteristics.

The climate of Atropate'ne' is one of ex-
tremes. In summer the temperature rises
almost to 100 degrees of Fahrenheit, and in
winter the cold is excessive. Perhaps no
other region of the globe, lying in the same
latitude, is subject to such extreme rigors.
By the close of November the ground is
frozen. Then comes the snow, may be to the
depth of several feet. Then in midwinter
clear weather prevails, the sun blazing around
his shortened circuit by day, and the chaste
moon smiling coldly, almost disdainfully, on
the snow glare by night. All the while a
bitter high wind, keen and merciless as the
sword of an Afghan, whirls across the icy
hills, and he who faces it long may fall down
frozen to death. This terrible winter is largely

attributable to the great elevation of the dis-
trict, the very valleys being as much as four
thousand or five thousand feet about the level
of the sea.

During the winter months out-of-door ac-
tivity is mostly suspended. The incontinent
caravan, sometimes tempted to set forth, finds
a probable grave in the drift. By the mid-
dle of March the ice-manacles are generally
broken, and nature begins to revive. On the
hill-tops the snow fights with the sun until
May-day. About this time there is an epoch
of rainy weather. The sunshine rouses a sud-
den heat in the valleys. There is a quick
outburst of luxuriance. The slopes flush
green. Ominous clouds pass over. Now and
then one of them bursts with a clap of thun-
der. One shower chases another across the
fields. Hard after the dash of rain comes
perhaps a blast of hail-stones. Calves in the
pastures are sometimes killed; likewise men.
The houses are hammered; the fruit-trees
knocked to pieces. Sometimes in the morning
Nature is robed in an infinite fog. Then
bright, warm days follow fast, and in June it
is hot, sultry. Altogether, the autumn is the
most pleasant season. The weather is settled,
and life has something of equanimity.

Passing out of Atropattoe' and journeying
to the south-east a modification is soon noticed
in the climate. The winters are shorter. The
snow, even in December and January, is scant
and soon melts away. Ten or fifteen degrees
below the freezing point is about the minimum
temperature. This is the eastern part of the
great plateau. Here are the important cities
of Teheran and Isfahan. In spring-time all
nature bursts out a-blooming. The gardens
are full of roses. The air breathes balm. For
a season every sense is in paradise. Song-birds,
the very prime donne of the thicket and croft,
make vocal the perfumed breezes. While the
scant showers of spring continue there is noth-
ing wanting to soothe or intoxicate. At a
later date the sultry air of summer begins to
scorch and blast the beauty of the earlier
months. The mercury rises on some hot mid-
day to 100 F. Vegetation withers. At in-
tervals a gust of hot air blows up from the
southern desert, and life flies before it.

MEDIA. COUNTRY AND PRODUCTS.

207

Fortunately, however, the mountains with
their snows are not far away, and when
the breeze turns and falls from these incor-
ruptible heights there is a most grateful vicis-
situde from the otherwise intolerable breath
of the desert. In all ages the better class of
people in these districts of Media have been
in the habit of seeking refuge during the heats
of July and August in the shadow of the ad-
jacent mountains, from whose cool white brow
the refreshing air has dropped upon the fever-
ish faces of the suppliant population. Indeed,
the city of Hamadan seems to have been
founded by those who were escaping from the
sultry plains. Here, by the nearness of the
mountain and the plentiful supply of spring
water, the natural conditions of a summer
resort were discovered long before the dubious
luxuries of civilization had made ennui one
of the afflictions of society. The same or
nearly the same praise may be bestowed upon
the situation of Ecbatana, which was chosen
as the summer residence of the Persian kings.

If it were not for the scantiness of the
rainfall the Median plateau might be justly
described as a delightful climate. In respect
of moisture much is wanting to the comfort
and luxuriance of the regions. The soil is
rarely drenched with the dead drunkenness of
rain, and the thirsty plains swallow with a
feverish gulp the occasional libations of the
clouds. As a consequence of this atmospheric
drought the dews of night are correlatively
scanty, and each morning sees quickly enacted
the cruel tragedy of Apollo and Daphne.
Albeit the dryness of the air is favorable to
health, and the dark vapors of the poisonous
marsh and sunless jungle are unknown in the
Median uplands, where the fields glisten and
the hair of Nature is as crisp as flax.

One of the most striking atmospheric phe-
nomena of this part of Media is the whirlwind.
Ever and anon, in the hot season, a sudden
gust from the heated sands of the south strikes
a counter current of colder air dropping from
the mountain slopes, and a focus is produced,
around which a great cloud of leaves, stubble,
and sand is twisted into an inverted cone, with
its base against the sky. The monstrous ap-
parition goes whirling across the plains, fling-

ing all lighter substances to the capricious
demons of the air; but the violence of such
storms is by no means so great as that of the
tornadoes and cyclones of the tropics. In this
region of Media also appears the famous mi-
rage, the wonder of travelers and puzzle of
philosophy. The strange phenomenon is sup-
posed to be the result of unequally rarefied!
strata of air thrown into undulations by the
heated surface of the earth and viewed hori-
zontally. Spectral images are thus produced
of things which lie in the distance, perhaps
below the horizon. Mountains appear where
there are none ; villages rise in the waste, and
springs in the desert. The scene is a phantas-
magoria. Giants are transformed into col-
umns, and a clump of bushes into the domes
and minarets of a city. Lakes of bright
water bordered with the palm hang motionless
not far away, then vanish. It is the whimsU
cal specter of the desert.

In the western portion of the Median pla-
teau the climate is greatly modified by th
proximity of the Zagros. In the more moun-
tainous part of this region the severe cold of
the protracted winter is like that of Atropa-
t6n. Adown the slopes the rigors are less
relentless, and in the valleys there is warmth
and verdure. Here, too, water and running
streams are more abundant than in any other
portion of Media. In summer the valley air
is humid, and in some parts malaria prevails,
and the people suffer from chills and fever.
In this country of hills and glens it is possible,
as in California, to pass in a few hours' jour-
ney from the bleak frosts and snows of the
mountains to the luxuriance, warmth, and
sunshine of the vales.

The plateau of Media is in great measure
devoid of timber. It were hard to say whether
the generally arid condition of the region is at-
tributable to the absence of forests or whether
the failure of the latter has been caused by
the persistent atmospheric drought. 1 On the

'The correlation of vegetation and rain is a
question for which civilization must furnish a
practical solution. The tree and the water-brook
are inseparable phenomena, but which is the
cause of the other? It is evident that vegetation
depends upon humidity, but does not the rain-
cloud follow the forest and shun the waste? Is it

208

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

mountains the case is different. Here the
forest growth is abundant and stalwart. The
high ridges of Atropatene are not so heavily
wooded as the Zagros ranges on the west.
The latter are covered with heavy timber.
The Elburz chain is clad with forests of pine,
wild almond, and oak. Here, too, the poplar
and walnut abound. Ash and terebinth groves
are common, as well as those in which the
oriental plane-tree and the willow are the
prevalent growth. The oak, besides its use as
a timber-tree, yields abundantly the nutgalls
of commerce. The hill-slopes are covered with
the plant which yields gum tragacanth, and
many districts abound in nuts and berries.

In the valleys of the Zagros and the more
sheltered parts of Northern Media the or-
chards are as fine as in any part of the world.
In these almost every kind of fruit grows to
perfection. These regions seem to be the na-
tive land of apples, pears, and peaches. Here,
also, the vine flourishes. The olive, the al-
mond, and the apricot grow wild. Quinces of
richest flavor, plums, cherries, mulberries, and
nectarines complete the list of principal fruits
belonging to the vales of Zagros and the more
favored parts of Atropatene.

On the great plateau, as already said, for-
est trees are scattered but sparsely. The pre-
vailing types are the plane, the poplar, and
the willow. More rarely the cedar, the elm,
and the cypress are found, chiefly along the
banks of the infrequent rivers. Back a short
distance from the streams the forest growth
dwindles to bushes and shrubs only a clump
of thorn here and there or some half-grown
tamarisk breaks the monotony of the gray and
cheerless plain. Of all Media by far the most
exuberant district is that which lies along the
Lower Aras. Here there is a native luxuriance
equal to that of any region in the world. The
very delta of the Nile has scarcely a greater
fecundity. Flowers and fruits grow wild, and
the grass is so high in summer that a man on
horseback is hidden as he passes.

As to those products which flourish only
by culture, Media resembles other lands of

not probable that all the deserts of the world can
be reclaimed by the simple expedient of planting
trees?

the same latitude and elevation. The physical
conformation of the country is not unfavor-
able to agriculture. In Atropatene and on
the slopes of the Zagros the soil is easily up-
turned with the plow, and the various crops
spring up and ripen without much attention or
labor. The leading cereals are wheat, barley,
millet, sesame, corn, and rice. The tobacco
plant flourishes, as does also the castor bean,
and the fields whiten with cotton as in the
Southern States of the Union. In the gar-
dens are cucumbers, melons, and pumpkins.
Nor is the estate of man, as determined by the
means of subsistence, in any respect equivocal
or menaced with peculiar hardships.

In all parts of the Median plateau to
which nature has not denied a sufh'ciency
of water, the same though less flattering
agricultural conditions exist. As we proceed
to the south and east, however, and the
streams dwindle and die, and the springs
become few and poor in water, cultivation
becomes more difficult and less fruitful of
results. In modern times a system of canals
and tunnels has in some degree triumphed
over the natural tendency to barrenness ; but
in the days of the Median Empire no such
artificial compensation of nature's poverty was
known. The plateau of Iran, which, in our
day produces moderately good crops of wheat,
corn, barley, rice, and millet, was perhaps
incapable of such production at the time when
Media was in her power. Still, at the present
time, the yield of fruits and vegetables is in
many parts fairly, and in a few especially,
good. In a few districts the melons and
grapes are proverbially fine in flavor. Be-
sides these exceptional products, a large part
of the Median plain is peculiarly adapted to
the production of sundry drugs well known
among the nations. The principal of these
are rhubarb, senna, opium, asafcetida, mad-
der, saffron, and tobacco.

In the decoration of the earth few coun-
tries can equal Media. The flowers are lux- .
uriant and abundant. In the brief spring,
and again for a season in the autumn, the
blossoms are everywhere. In the summer, as
in many parts of the United States, the sun
devours every thing. For a while, however,

MEDIA. COUNTRY AND PRODUCTS.

209

there is beauty. The magnificent rose-tree,
sometimes fourteen or fifteen feet in height,
covers herself with a queenly festoon, painted
with every hue and fragrant with the richest
odors. The gardens are adorned with flower-
ing shrubs, chief of which are the lilac and
the jasmine. In some districts hollyhocks
grow wild, as do also tulips, crocuses, and
lilies. Primroses, heliotropes, and pinks are
aeen, and water-lilies rarely by the margin
of the streams. In like situations many fra-
grant mints are found, and sages in the gar-
dens. The chief feature of all this region is
the rapid metamorphosis from the desolation
of winter to the verdure and flowers of spring,
and a similarly sudden blight of all this
beauty with the apparition of the withering
heats of summer.

In the matter of mineral wealth Media is
by no means to be contemned. Her quarries
of stone are equal in quality tc ihose of As-
syria and much more widely distributed. In
the hills near Lake Urumiyeh is found the
famous yellow Tabriz marble, which is so trans-
parent as to be cut thin and used instead of win-
dow glass. Other varieties have different hues,
according to the nature of the carbonates de-
posited from the springs of the neighborhood.
Good grades of building stone are found in
nearly every part of the country, and the
quarries show that considerable attention has
been given, both in ancient and modern times,
to getting out and preparing the enduring
materials furnished by nature. It appears,
however, that the uses to which stone was put
by the Medes were rather such as setting
curbs and laying pavements in baths and pal-
aces than in architecture proper.

Of the wealth of Media in the precious
metals not much is known. It is thought that
some parts of the Zagros contain mines of
gold and silver. There are traditions of gold
mines in other mountainous districts, but
modern exploration has not demonstrated the
truth of the stories. The same uncertainty
prevails in respect to the mines of lead and
antimony which are said to exist in Atropa-
te'ne'. It is certain that quartz rock abounds,
and this would lead to the expectation of the
precious metals. In the way of gems the

most important were emeralds and lapis lazuli.
As to salt there is an endless not to say in-
finite supply. Vast plains are covered with
it. Salt springs are found in many places,
and the whole desert country towards the
south-east is more or less glazed with saline
incrustations. Rock salt, too, is abundant,
and is quarried out for native and foreign
consumption. Niter and sulphur are found
in the Elburz mountains and fine beds of alum
along the Aji Su.

The wild animals of Media are of the same
general types with those of Assyria. Among
the ferocious beasts the principal are the lion,
the tiger, the leopard, and the bear. In some
parts the wild boar is a terror. Jackals,
wolves, and beavers are common, as are also
foxes, rabbits, and porcupines. Another group
embraces the wild ass, the goat, the sheep, the
ibex, the stag, and the antelope. The aurochs
or mountain ox inhabits the Zagros. Among
the smaller tribes may l>e named the marmot,
the rat, the ferret, and the mole. Of all the
districts of Media, AtropaUhie 1 has the greatest
number of animals, and several of the species
above enumerated such as the tiger and the
lion are limited to this part of the country.
The Median wild ass differs from that of
Mesopotamia, as well as from that of Tartary,
in having no dark lines across the shoulders.
His ears are large and heavy, like those of a
donkey, and his mane is short and black.

Among the domestic animals of Media the
most important was the camel. He was the
chief reliance of whoever had burdens to
transport from place to place. There were
three breeds: the Bactrian, with the double
hump in his back; the Arabian, with his
longer and fleeter limbs; and a cross-breed
possessing the better points of the other two.
After the camel the mule was next in useful-
ness, and was preferred in the mountainous
districts for his smaller size and surer footing.

Most celebrated of all the Median domestic
animals were the Nissean horses, whose praises
were recited by nearly all the historians from
Herodotus to Livy. These steeds were noted
for their great size and peculiar shape, and
were prized by all the kings and princes of
the East. The breed is thought to have been

210

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

of Parthian extraction, and to be represented
in Media at the present day by a stock of
torses called Turkoman. Another breed is
now found in the country, which is evidently
of Arabian descent and more recent devel-
opment.

The kine of Media differed not much from
those found in most countries belonging to
the north temperate zone. The sheep and
the goat were of the common varieties, and
were deduced from the wild breeds of the
hills. As to dogs, the finest was that Mace-
donian greyhound which, if tradition is to be
accepted, was introduced in Assyria and be-
yond by the armies of Alexander. The ani-
mal is strong and swift, being used in pursuit
of the antelope and other fleet-footed and
long-winded game. His scent is fine and his
instinct unerring, though in fleetuess he is
reckoned inferior to the greyhound of England.

The great bird of the Median upper air is
the eagle. After him the genus Falco is rep-
resented by the falcon proper and several
species of hawk. Of land birds the most
noted are the stork, the pelican, and the bus-
tard. Of the edible birds the chief are the
quail, the partridge, the dove, the pigeon, aud
the snipe. On the great Plateau water-fowl
are rarely seen, but in Atropatene' wild ducks
are frequently noticed by the traveler. The
principal song birds are thrushes, linnets,
larks, goldfinches, and nightingales, while the
chattering race is represented by the crow, the
magpie, and the blackbird. In the neighbor-
hood of Isfahan pigeons are reared for profit,
and the round towers which are the homes of
innumerable flocks are seen here and there in
the landscape.

As already said, the lakes of Media are
fishless, being salt. Not so the rivers, though
in these the finny tribes do not abound. The

colder streams of the Zagros yield some fine
trout. As for the rest, the rivers of the
Plateau have several varieties of carp, barbel,
and gudgeon, but the waters are generally too
brackish to be a favorite home of fishes. In
many Median streams the unpoetic craw-fish,
with his reversed locomotion, is as much the
object of the fisherman's craft as the more
graceful denizens of the open river.

Portions of Media are as much plagued
with poisonous reptiles as any part of the
globe. In the grassy flat-lands along the lower
Araxes, snakes of vicious and deadly species
so abound that travel in summer time is
hardly practicable. Other districts are like-
wise infested with both serpents and scorpions,
but the sting of the latter is rather trouble-
some than dangerous. Lizards are very abun-
dant and of every hue. They are sometimes
more than two feet in length, and are a terror
to Europeans, though perfectly harmless. Of
the plague-pests of the air the most formidable
are the locusts. When they come it is in a
cloud that darkens the air. A single day of
their devouring reign is sufficient to sweep
from a whole district the last vestige of ver-
dure. The very twigs and branches of plants
and trees are destroyed, and nothing but a
mockery of vegetation left in the land. The
only compensation for the scourge is found in
the fact that the poorer people avenge them-
selves by eating the caters of their orchards.

Besides the ravenous breed of locusts, there
are one or two other varieties of destroying
insects, notably a kind of ferocious grasshop-
per, described as being four inches in length
and armed behind with a sword. The creature
is not, however, so formidable as indicated
by his appearance, being a kind of diminished
Falstaff of the meadows, with more noise than
danger in him.

MEDIA. THE PEOPLE.

211

CHAPTER xvi. THE PEOPLE.

I HEN the hosts of Xerxes
moved dowu the defile of
Thermopylae, the men se-
lected to clear the pass of
the Spartans were a body
of MEDES. It was the
first introduction of that
fierce soldiery to the people of the West.
They were at that time in close alliance with
their kinsmen, the Persians; and indeed the
two races have ever been intimately associated
on the page of history. " Medo-Persian " is
the name by which the great dominion estab-
lished by the Achsemeuiau kings has been im-
memorially designated. "Thy kingdom is
divided and given to the Medes and Persians,"
was the interpretation of the ominous inscrip-
tion on the wall of Belshazzar, the Babylonian
viceroy, and in a thousand paragraphs of
Greek and Roman literature the two peoples
are in like manner mentioned together.

Those readers who have given some atten-
tion to the study of the races of mankind will
understand the ethnic place of the Medes
from the statement that they were an offshoot
from the Irauic branch of Asiatic Aryans.
This classification throws them first of all into
relationship with the Persians, more remotely
with the races of the Indus, and still more re-
motely with the Greeks, the Romans, and the
Kelts. For the uuscholarly reader the Medes
may be classified as belonging to the Japhetic
family of Adamites.

Nearly all that is known concerning the
physical characteristics of the people of an-
cient Media has been gathered from the
sculptures of Persepolis. These carvings rep-
resent not only the Persians, by whose artists
the sculptures were executed, but also the
kindred Medes, who, as the older people, were
in good fame at the Persian capital. Besides,
the Greek historians Herodotus and notably
Xenophou in the Cyropcedia and the Anabasis
have given personal and character sketches of
the Medes, so full and explicit that their ap-

pearance is almost as well known as that of
the Romans or Assyrian*. From these sources
it is known that the typical Mede was tall and
graceful and of great physical nobility. The
physiognomy was almost equal in beauty to
the Greek, while in strength of body the
Mede was hardly inferior to the warrior of
Assyria. The Median forehead was high and
straight, and the nose was of that Macedonian
type which continues in the same line with
the forehead, long and well formed, and some-
times hawk-like and imperious. The upper
lip was short and moustached ; the chin round
and strong and heavily bearded. The hair
was abundant to superfluity, and was drawn
back from the forehead and twisted into curia
around the ears and neck. From the care
shown in its arrangement, the Medes were
evidently proud of the plentiful locks which
clustered around their heads. The Median
women are described by the Greeks as of great
personal charms. Their beauty was of that
queenly style peculiar to semi-heroic ages.

The manner of life among the early Aryans,
whether Persian, Hindu, or Greek, was such
as to encourage and develop physical perfec-
tion, and to make the bodies of men and
women glow with those native charms which
generally wither under the heats of civilization.
For this reason the ancient Mede was, as com-
pared with the modern Persian, a person of
beauty and dignity. From the Roman to the
r talian marks the distance from freedom to
servitude, from open nature to subtle craft,
from courage to cunning, from the glory and
audacity of paganism to the treachery and ser-
vility of religious thralldom. So. has it been
in Greece, in Media, in Persia, in the valley
of the Indus. So will it ever be so long as
Nature shall continue to be regarded as the
foe instead of the friend of man. The great-
ness of the intellectual achievement of modern
times is tarnished not a little by the eclipse
of the physical grandeur and beauty of the
early races.

212

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

In the qualities of heroic manhood the an-
cient Medes were rivals of the Greeks. The
men of the Median hills had the courage of
Athenian soldiers, if not the stoicism of Spar-
tans. Of their warlike daring there can be
no doubt. The poems of Horace attest the
reputation of the Medes even in the Eternal
City, and the prophet Ezekiel describes the
kingdom of Cyaxares as the terror of nations.

It was no doubt owing to this warlike consti-
tution that the Medes at the first gained the
ascendency over the surrounding tribes of the
great plateau, and laid the foundations of their
historic renown. They had the bravery and
audacity, if not the artistic possibilities and
intellectual force, of the Hellenes. To the
present day these same qualities are in some
measure preserved in the wild Kurds of the
hills, whose face and figure have the freedom
and symmetry of Sulliotes.

Of all the ancient peoples the Medes were
perhaps the most remarkable for their manage-
ment of the horse. They were disciplined
from childhood to ride at will, and were
trained to perform feats on horseback. This
tended to make them sinewy about the chest
and erect in figure. Their dress also was of a
kind to favor development; so that the hered-
itary beauty of the old Aryan stock found
no difficult expression in the person of the
Mede.

Owing to the meager architectural remains
left by the people of Media, and the want of
a national literature, there is some difficulty
in determining from original sources the per-
sonal appearance and demeanor of the race,
but the Persian decorations and monuments
supply the deficiency. It appears that the
chief intellectual qualities of the people were
a certain barbaric energy and a love of display.
Their pride was personal rather than national,
and hence it found expression in ostentatious
dress more than in architecture. Perhaps no
ancient people took more pleasure in personal
display than did the Medes. A magnificent
dress and stately semi-barbaric bearing char-
acterized them, though their splendor was
rather of richness than of artistic effect. In
intellect the Medes were not a superior people,
and as a consequence their civilization, though

not wanting in force, was unsupported by the
principles of perpetuity.

A leading trait of the Median character
was cruelty. The reputation of the race was
that of unparalleled atrocity in war. The con-
quests of the Medes were marked by the
worst abuses of half-savage warfare. Women,
maidens, old men, babes, were all alike the
objects of the undiscriminating vengeance of
the Median soldiery. The object in battle
was rather to insult and wreak vengeance on
the foe than to spoil and ravage. The old
annals of the East abound in references to
the outrages and bloodthirsty spirit of the
Medes.

After victory and conquest had brought
renown and riches to the race the people grad-
ually imbibed the vices of luxury. Having
gained the supremacy over Assyria, the soldiers
and courtiers of the Median monarchs soon
became enamored of the more expensive and
elaborate life of the people whom they had
conquered, and began to adopt those methods
and gratifications which first intoxicate and
then kill. There is little doubt that before
the time of Cyrus the Great the native vigor
of the Median stock had been sapped to such
a degree that the Persians found little diffi-
culty in reversing the political relations be-
tween their own and the kingdom of Astyages.
It is thus that civilization by relaxing the se-
verity of the habits of her foemeu avenges
herself and her wrongs upon the spoilers of
her vineyards. The luxurious capital of As-
syria, with her palaces and banqueting-halls,
was thus able to do what the armies of Sara-
cus were impotent to accomplish break the
power of the Medes.

Being peculiarly a warlike race, the first
aspect of Median life is that which presents
the army going to battle. The soldiers wore
broad-sleeved tunics and trousers. They cov-
ered their heads with felt caps and bore their
quivers on their backs. The tunic was some-
times converted into a coat of mail by an
arrangement of small metallic plates, overlap-
ping like the scales of a fish. The most pe-
culiar piece of the armor was the shield, which
was a structure of wickerwork, oblong in form,
and equaling or exceeding the height of the

MEDIA. THE PEOPLE.

213

warrior. It was set on the ground before him,
and was broad enough to protect two or tlip-r
soldiers, one of whom discharged arrows from
the covert, while the other, armed with a
spear, sustained the shield in its place and
acted on the defensive. 1 Such was the infantry.
But the more important branch of the
service was the horse. The cavalrymen were
archers. Skilled in the management of steeds
and the use of the bow, they adopted the tac-
tics of whirling in circles round about the
foe, discharging from every advantageous po-
sition showers of arrows, and then dashing
out of reach. It was the tactics of Arabs
or Scythians reduced to method and made

inserted in a ring or socket at the upper end
of the shaft. The lower end terminated in an
ornamental knob or ball, made in the likeness
of an apple or pomegranate. At the soldier's
right side hung the Median short sword, fas-
tened by a belt around the waist and also se-
cured by a strap to the thigh.

Of the Median dress something has already
been said. The principal article of apparel
was a long flowing robe, which seems to have
been a pattern original with the Modes. Thia
garment was of so great beauty as to strike
the fancy of the Greeks, and their historians
have immortalized it in the classics. Thia
famous robe was so made as to fit closely

RUINS OF PERSEPOLI3

terrible by discipline. The other weapons of
offense, besides the bow, were the spear, the
sword, and the dagger. The bow was of a
Very peculiar pattern short and greatly
curved. It was borne in a case, which was
slung either at 'the side or over the shoulders
of the soldier. The Median arrow was short,
not exceeding three feet iii length. The spear
was six or seven feet long, and had the head

1 Besides the large wicker shield here described,
the Medes also employed a small circular disk,
made of metal or wood, and ornamented with
knobs and circles. It resembled the bosses or
small shields carried by the Boeotians, and de-
pended for its efficiency upon the agility and skill
of the wearer in intercepting with it the flying
arrows of the foe.

about the shoulders and chest and then spread
into two capacious sleeves. At the waist it
was bound with a girdle, and fell loosely about
the lower person to the ankles. It was a gar-
ment greatly superior in gracefulness and ele-
gance to the toca of the Romans, to which it
bore some general likeness. The color was
generally purple, crimson, or scarlet. Some-
times the robe was striped longitudinally with,
bauds of purple and white. The material
mostly employed was silk, but among the
poorer classes less costly fibers were ^used
wool, no doubt, for winter garments. It ia
in this imposing robe that the Medes and
Persians are always figured in the sculpture*
of Persepolis.

214

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

The Median foot-dress was a sort of flat-
bottomed moccasin, laced or buttoned in front.
The head was covered in war with a felt hat,
but in peace a kind of light tiara, made of
stiff cloth and of a strangely original design,
was worn both indoors and out. The general
presence of a Mede in full dress was at once
stately and picturesque. The people appear
to have been inordinately fond of personal
display, and to have resorted to many artifices
to eradicate the defects of nature and heighten
their personal beauty. Nor does it appear
that the Median women, more than the men,
were addicted to those tricks by which age
and ugliness are hidden from attention. The
eyes were penciled to magnify their size and
luster. The skin was rubbed with cosmetics
d la mode, and false hair was in demand to
supply the occasional deficiency of nature. In
short, the shops of Ecbatana in the days of As-
tyages would have shown to the cynical ob-
server the same elaborate satire upon human
nature which in every age of the world
Fashion has written on the bodies and lives
of her subjects.

The principal ornaments worn by the
Medes were of gold. The backward condi-
tion of the arts, and the slender commercial
connection with other nations rich in precious
stones, will account for the general absence
of gems among the personal c'ecorations of
this people. Necklaces and collars of gold
were much worn by the nobility, and plain
earrings were generally a part of the adorn-
ment of persons of rank. Gold bracelets
were common among all classes nobles, war-
riors, and even peasants; and the bridle-bits
and harness of the horses of the wealthy were
decorated with the same precious metal.

The chief feature of the social system of
the Medes was polygamy. The king main-
tained a seraglio of wives and concubines,
and the nobles, according to their ability,
imitated his example. There were five legiti-
mate wives, who held the same relation in the
household, and after these the rest of the
retinue. The women were secluded, but not
with the same rigor as in modern Moham-
medan countries, and the usual abuses pecu-
liar to such a system were prevalent.

The ceremonial of the Median court was
characterized by a pompous formality. The
monarch himself was rarely seen, and the ap-
proach to him was guarded by imposing forms,
which must be scrupulously observed. Proper
officers stood sentry by the entrance way to
the kingly presence. He who would have
audience must prostrate himself as if doing
homage to a god, and even then he must
stand at a distance, between files of eunuchs
and courtiers. In affairs of state, and indeed
in all important communications, the things
said and done had to be presented in writing,
and all decisions and decrees were issued in
like manner. From time to time the officers
of the court submitted reports of such
branches of business as were intrusted to
them and of the general condition of the Em-
pire. By these means the necessity of going
forth from his palace was taken away, and
the king for the most part passed his days in
seclusion.

As in Assyria, so in Media, hunting was
the national sport. In this way the monarch
and his nobles amused themselves when the
cares of state were less severe. But in the
royal chase, as practiced in Assyria and Me-
dia, there was this marked difference that, in
the latter country, the king himself seldom or
never engaged personally in the pursuit of
wild beasts. In Assyria, on the other hand,
the monarch in person leads the chase, attacks
the lion, slays the wild boar. The Median
sovereign witnesses and enjoys the sport of his
nobles, but as a rule does not engage in the
contest. He stands apart, and approves or
condemns as his courtiers are skillful or
clumsy in the contest. 1

The principal beasts thus hunted by the
Median nobles were the lion, the bear, the
leopard, and the wild boar. The pursuit of
these was regarded as perilous, and the victo-
rious hunter returned with the honors of war.

1 It is possible that the Assyrian sculptors rep-
resent their emperors as doing what they did only
by proxy ; but considering the aggressive and war-
like spirit of the race of Nimrod, it is not improb-
able that pictorial representations of the battles
of the kings with lions, bears, and boars are true
to the facts, and that the royal custom of the
Medes was different.

MEDIA. THE PEOPLE.

215

The less dangerous beasts of the chase were
stags, gazelles, wild asses, and wild sheep.
The method of hunting was to pursue on
horseback the prey roused from the covert,
and when sufficiently near to strike it down
with well-directed arrows or javelins. Some-
times herds of deer were driven into inclos-
ures and shot down at the pleasure of the
sportsmen ; and troops of wild boars were in
like manner, but with more danger, driven
into marsh grounds, where they were worried
with dogs and bauds of "beaters" until they
fell an easy prey to the hunter's shaft.

The Medes were great eaters and drinkers.
Their banquets were characterized by profu-
sion and luxury. Their tables were laden
with rich viands meat, game, wine, bread,
sauces, and indeed every article with which a
semi-barbaric appetite could be excited or ap-
peased. The guests ate with the hand, after
the oriental fashion, using no knives or forks.
The point of distinction at the feast was to
multiply the number of dishes with which
each guest was surrounded. The meals of
nobles and royal personages were always after
the manner of banquets. Wine, was used
freely, and the close of the feast was fre-
quently a rout, of which Bacchus was general-
in-chief.

Great care was taken to guard the life of
the king. The measures adopted generally
indicated social depravity and political treach-
ery. That shocking absence of the sense of
honor, for which all Eastern courts are pro-
verbial, was constantly apparent in the rela-
tions between the king and his subjects. They
would follow him to battle and obey his com-
mands, but could not be trusted. So the food
and wine with which the monarch was daily
served must always be tasted by the obsequi-
ous bearer, lest some faithless courtier should
have contrived to destroy the royal life by
poison; and ever in his dreams the king be-
held behind the purple curtain of his couch
the assassin's hand clutching a dagger.

Doubtless this deplorable social condition
belonged rather to the later than to the ear-
lier days of Median greatness. It was after
conquest and lust and satiety had destroyed

the fierce native nobility of the Medes that
they exhibited the degrading vices peculiar to
effeminate despotisms. When the rich capi-
tals of Assyria opened their gates the hardy
soldiers of the trans-Zagros fell quickly into
gluttony iin<l riotous excesses. And so, as has
happened so many times in the history of
nmnkiml, the very victory of the Medes over
their enemy furnished the insidious conditions
of their overthrow. It only remained for
Persia, grown great by the practice of the
stalwart virtues, to turn the tables upon the
Medes, softened by luxury, and do unto them
as they had done to the enervated population
of Nineveh and Asshur.

The Medes had little genius. In literary
culture they achieved no distinction. No
potrn or historical fragment has been traced
to a strictly Median source. Of their art but
little is known. At Hamadan, the site of the
ancient capital, has been found a single speci-
men of sculpture, the broken fragment of a
colossal lion, which is believed to have been
the product of a Median chisel. As far as
may be judged from the appearance of this
weather-eaten and mutilated torso, it is of the
same style as that of Assyria. The body is
about twelve feet in length, and the creature
seems to have had something of the majesty
of a sphinx.

No doubt the art of the Medes can best be
judged by that of Persia. It is thought by
critics that the great sculptures which adorned
the capital of the Persian kings were imitated
from those of Assyria ; and if this be true,
then it is evident that the artistic styles dis-
played in the ruins of Persepolis were brought
thither by way of Media, and not directly
from the West. The point in which origi-
nality may with most plausibility be claimed
for the Medes is in their architecture, which,
though suggestive of that of Assyria, is still
sufficiently differentiated to be regarded as a
distinct form. It is to be greatly regretted
that some ruin of Azerbijan or the Median
plateau has not furnished the antiquary and
the historian with more tangible and authentic
evidences of the condition of art and science
among our oldest kinsmen of Western Asia.

216

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

CHAPTER xvil. LANGUAGE AND RELIGION.

HE language of the Medes
was Aryan. It was a
branch of that great speech
which has filled the world
with its dialects, of which
among the tongues of an-
tiquity the Greek, and
among those of modern times the English,
are the most illustrious representatives. The
Median language was closely allied to the
Persian, being either the parent or the elder
sister of that tongue ; from which it happens
that a fair notion of the speech employed by
the subjects of Cyaxares may be obtained from
an examination of the inscriptions of Persep-
olis. It is as though one should study Latin
from Italian manuscripts.

It has been thought by some scholars that
the famous Zendavesta, or bible of the Zo-
roastrians, is written in the language of the
ancient Medes ; but more careful investigation
has shown that the language of the Zoroastrian
scripture is older than that of Media, and
that it is to be traced geographically to Bactria
and Sogdiana. So, though it is probable that
learned Medes could have read the books of
Zoroaster, still it would have been brokenly
and imperfectly, as an English student would
read Anglo-Saxon, or an Italian, Latin.

It would be impossible at the present day
and in the present state of knowledge to de-
termine with precision the differences existing
between the languages of Media and Persia.
THe fragments of the former speech which
have descended to modern times are very
meager, and consist mainly of isolated words
from which the Median grammar can be but
imperfectly reconstructed. The words which
have been thus preserved are for the most
part nouns, principally proper names, and
these furnish but an indifferent clue to the
real structure of the language.

Median names are almost identical with the
Persian equivalents. In some instances the
spelling is precisely the same. Thus Arbaces,

Artabazus, Harpagus, Ariobarzanes, Tiridates,
and many other analogous names are without
distinction in the two languages. In other
cases the variation is so slight as to be of little
importance, as Artynes for Artanes, Parmises
for Parmys, Intaphernes for Intaphres, etc.
In still another class the Median words, though
not similar to any known Persian names, are
clearly made up of Persian roots and combi-
nations. To those who are acquainted with
the physiognomy of languages this kind of
evidence is conclusive proof of affinity between
the tongues in which it exists. Such names
as Ophernes, Sitraphernes, Mazares, Spitaces,
Megabernes, and the like, are so clearly Per-
sian in their typical structure as to be unmis-
takable by scholars, and yet these words are
not known as the names of Persians. A fourth
class, though having the Persic type, have no
root-identity with any known words in that
tongue, but are easily made out by compari-
sons with Zend and Sanskrit. It is as though
Norman names, the equivalents of which could
not be found in French, should be discovered
in Italian or Spanish a fact not at all incon-
sistent with the laws of linguistic growth and
decay. Thus it happens that the names of
the principal personages of Median history
Dei'oces, Phraortes, Astyages, and Cyaxares
are made up of parts not found in Persian,
but are easily explained by Zend and Sanskrit
roots. In like manner the meaning of many
Median names of places may be traced in cor-
responding forms found in the older branches
of the Aryan speech. Of this kind are the
names of the principal cities Ecbatana, Bag-
istan, Aspadan, etc.

Besides the names of persons and places
only a few Median words have survived. The
word for day was spaka. The heralds who
carried messages to and from the king were
called angari. One of the measures employed
by the Medes was known as the artabe, and
the Median robe was called candys. Two
other words artades, meaning " the just," and

MEDIA. LANGUAGE AND RELIGION.

217

dewis, meaning "the evil" are of record as
belonging to the Median dictionary; and
here, so far as present scholarship can deter-
mine, our knowledge of the vocabulary of
this ancient people is bounded. Only one
other fact concerning the speech of the Medes
is known, and that is the prevalence of the
terminational particle ak in nouns. This end-
ing seems to have been a kind of guttural
suffix, which was gradually softened down and
finally dropped altogether from the later de-
velopment of the language in Persia.

That the Medes possessed the art of writ-
ing their language can not be doubted. In
the First Book of Herodotus the story is told
how Harpagus the Mede sent to Cyrus a let-
ter concealed in the body of a hare. Several
other references of like sort indicate the be-
lief of. the ancients that the art preservative
of arts was known and practiced by the people
of Media. Several passages in the Book of
Daniel state specifically that King Darius
wrote and signed the decrees which from time
to time he issued "unto all peoples, nations,
and languages;" and in the tenth chapter of
Esther it is stated that there was kept at the
Persian court a book containing the annals
of the Median monarchs. But it is doubtless
true that the native writings of this people
were limited to political papers and royal
messages, and that no national literature of
any importance was ever produced. The peo-
ple were a matter-of-fact and comparatively
idealess race, and outside of the sacred lore
in which their religious system was expressed,
the world of letters was uncultivated the
world of thought unexplored.

In one respect, however, the Medes made
a decided advance. The cumbrous and elab-
orate system of writing employed by the peo-
ple beyond the Zagros mountains was greatly
simplified by both the Medes and Persians.
Instead of employing three or four hundred
characters (some of them composed of as
many as fifteen elementary strokes or wedges),
the ancient Aryan scribes reduced their sys-
tem to a manageable compass, based on an al-
phabetic analysis of sounds. In this effort at
.scientific writing they were comparatively
successful.

The system which they thus produced
embraced a list of twenty-three distinct sounds,
expressed by thirty-seven characters, wliich
was a nearer approximation to accuracy than
has been attained by several modern nations.
The characters, moreover, which were used in
the Medo-Persic alphabet were much simpler
in form than tho.-e employed by the peoples
of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys. The ele-
mentary stroke in writing was the wedge, J .
This character, except in the arrow-head vari-
ation (<), was always written either perpen-
dicularly (|), horizontally (), or inclined
to the right (^); and indeed the latter posi-
tion was only employed as a mark of separa-
tion between words. Each letter was made
up of a combination of simple strokes, the
minimum in any one letter being twt) wedges,
and the maximum five.

The Median writing was executed from
left to right. The characters were produced
between two parallel lines drawn horizontally
across the stone tablet or parchment. Fre-
quently, at the right-hand edge, the words
were divided, and a part carried back to the
beginning of the next line, after the manner
of modern times. As in many other lan-
guages, there was great danger of mistaking
one character for another. Several of the let-
ters so nearly resembled others as to lie indis-
tinguishable in careless writing. A slight
error in the use of the stylus or graving tool
was sufficient to alter or confound the sense
of a paragraph.

Whether the Medes employed a cursive or
round hand is not known. If writing was a
common art, much used by the people, it
would appear probable that a continuous or
running combination of the characters would
have naturally taken the place of the slow
and tedious elaboration of wedges. If, how-
ever, writing was limited in its practice to the
king's counselors and scribes, then it is likely
that no departure was made from the typical
forms of the graven alphabet.

The materials used in writing were stone
and parchment. The latter substance was
employed in disseminating the edicts of the
kings and for other similar purposes. For
the more important statutes and records of

218

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

the Empire the face of the imperishable rock
was used, and the scribe's chisel was the pen.
The method of writing on clay tablets and
cylinders seems not to have been known
among the early Aryans of the Median pla-
teau. Whatever writing they did was lim-
ited to the practical and necessary affairs of
life; the voice of imagination found no utter-
ance, the tongue of poetry no language.

Such was the speech of the Medes. As in
the case of nearly all the other ancient peo-
ples, the oldest records of this language are
embalmed in the religious system which was
formulated on the emergence of the race from
barbarism. This system is presented in the
ZENDA VESTA, though, as already said, the lan-
guage of that great work is much more an-
tique than that development of speech which
prevailed in the days of Astyages.

The Zendavesta is in eight Books, covering
the same general topics which are presented
in the Old Testament Laws, Covenants,
Prayers, Songs, etc. In these we can see re-
flected with considerable clearness the hopes
and aspirations of our ancestral race in its
earliest communings with the gods. It was
the blind effort of an unscientific age to in-
terpret the phenomena of the world and to
discover the Cause or causes of Nature. Per-
haps the oldest part of this quaint Bactrian
bible is the Gathas, or "Songs," many of
which are no doubt more primitive than the
separate existence of the Medo-Persian race.
They contain the unpremeditated and often
fervid utterances of awe-struck worshipers,
pouring out their praises and petitions to the
invisible powers of the earth and air and sky.
These powers were many rather than one,
and possessed few perhaps none of the at-
tributes of personality. There was at the first
only one class of divine beings the Ahuras,
or gods. These were good, and were wor-
shiped as beneficent and life-giving influences.
It is believed that that system of dualism
in which the bad powers of the universe are
set over against the good was unknown to the
earliest religion of the Aryan race.

The Powers, then, or Beings most wor-
shiped by the ancient Bactrians were Indra,
the Storm ; Mithra, the Sunlight ; Armati,

the Earth ; Vayu, the Wind ; Agni, the Fire;
and Soma, Intoxication. These principles or
forces of nature were the common objects of
adoration before the earliest tribal separations
of the Aryans the deities alike of Hindus
and Iranians. It was nature-worship, pure
and simple, in the garb of polytheism. It
was not long, however, before the perceptions
grew by evolution, and it was seen that the
powers of the physical world are harmful as
well as helpful bad as well as good. Upon
the good principles of nature, therefore, the
affections of the worshiper were turned and
centered, while from the bad his gaze was
averted, and by them his fears alarmed. Thus
arose the good spirits and the evil the Ahu-
ras and Devas, the beneficent gods and the
demons. Their worship was conducted by
three classes of priests: the Kavi, or Proph-
ets ; the karapani, or Sacrificers ; and the ricikhs,
or Sages. The ceremonies consisted of hymns
chanted in praise of the gods, in sacrifices of
animals and fruits, and in libations and intox-
ication. Of the sacrifice a part was burnt
upon an altar, the rest remaining to the
priest; and in the ceremony of intoxication
a portion of the liquor was poured out on the
earth and the residue drank by the karopani,
who, when drunken, were thought to be in
communion with the deity.

With the progress of religious ideas in
Media, and the acceptance of the dualistic
system of good and evil, there came also the
concept of one god above the rest a supreme
and all-wise Intelligence by whom the other
deities were held in subordination. This great
God of the Medes was called AHURA-MAZDAO,
or AHURAMAZDA the living Creator of all.
His attributes were holiness, purity, goodness,
truth, fatherhood, and happiness. He was
the posseasor and giver of all blessings, both
temporal and everlasting. Earthly honor and
preferment and spiritual elevation and wisdom
alike flowed from this immortal Source of
light and beneficence. Health, as well as
virtue; wealth, as well as wisdom, came to
the good from the bounteous hand of Ahura-
Mazdao, and by withholding he punished the
evil for their sin. ' He was a mighty and
spiritual God, of whom no image or likeness

MEDIA. LANGUAGE AND RELIGION.

219

could be made, and before whose sight all vile
and gross practices were an abomination. He
had, iu general, the same high godhood and
attributes of personality which are ascribed to
the Jehovah Kloliim of the Pentateuch, and
for this reason a strong national and religious
sympathy existed between the Medo-Persic
races and the Hebrews. Notwithstanding the
intolerance of both peoples in matters of re-
ligion, the Jews under Persian rule never
revolted, nor did the Persians at any time
persecute their Jewish subjects. Both nations
declared openly and with almost equal empha-
sis against the practices of idolatry, and both
agreed upon the indivisible unity and almight-
iness of the Supreme Being.

Associated with Ahura-Mazdao were the
angels. One was the great messenger and
bearer of good news to men. His name was
SRAOSHA. All the beneficence contrived above
for the human family was revealed to man
by this angel of light and blessing. He also
kept the true faith from corruption, and after
death brought home to celestial abodes the
souls of the just. Besides this sublime per-
sonage, several of the divine attributes were rep-
resented as angels. Such were VOHU-MANO,
" the Good Mind," and MAZDA, " the Wise,"
and ASHA, " the True," who are sometimes
represented as personal, but generally as sim-
ple characteristics or qualities of the godhead.

Next after Sraosha among the angelic hier-
archies was ARMATI, the goddess of the Earth.
She was the Median Ceres, and like the Roman
divinity, she kept alive the sentiment of piety.
When the half-wild Mede contended with the
thicket for the mastery of the soil, Annati
encouraged him in his battle with perverse
Nature, and when at last the harvest came she
was the giver. The swelling seed, the grow-
ing stalk, the fragrant blossom, the ripening
fruit were not all these the blessings show-
ered upon men by the angel of the fecund
Earth? Wherever germination and birth re-
vived the hope of the world, there Armati,
the good genius sent by Ahura-Mazdao, was
present to give and to inspire the delights which
come of increase.

Thus by degrees from the older nature-
worship of the primitive Aryans, the mind of

the Iranic peoples was called to the contem-
plation of Spirit and Duty. It was an ad-
vance from the form to the essence. The
form was Wind, and Thunder, and Sunlight,
and Fire ; the essence was Truth, and Purity,
and Wisdom, and Life. Even in those part*
of the .Median religious system in which the
old symbolism was preserved there was a con-
stant refinement, tending to the substitution
of spirit for mere form. Thus the Earth was
represented under the metaphor of the cow,
and presently it was the gefts urva or oid of
the cow that was addressed in worship. The
earth was thus conceived of as pervaded by
a directing principle of life a soul the
"anima mundi" of the Greek philosophers.

The myth goes on to recite how when man,
under the inspiration and direction of Ahuro-
Mazdiio, first cut the breast of the Earth with
a plowshare, the getis urva cried out in an-
guish, and besought the high angels to save
Armati from the pain and shame of desecra-
tion. But the high angels, knowing the will
of Ahura-Mazdao, refused to interfere. Earth
was left to suffer her pangs without allevia-
tion, but was given in recompense of her sor-
row the flowers and fruits and harvests.

For some reason the worship of MITHRA,
the Sunlight, was not included in the oldest
songs of the Zendavesta. In this the system
of the Medes was discriminated from that of
the Aryans of the Indus valley. With the
latter the worship of the Sun-god was of the
highest importance and popularity. With
the Iranians, however, the introduction of
Mithra into the pantheon belongs to a later
date and a lower plane of religious thought.
But not so of VAYU, the Wind. In the oldest
hymns of the Zendavesta his praises are
chanted and his godhead appeased with sac-
rifices.

The SOMA plant of the East is a species of
Asdepias. The power of the expressed and
fermented juice to produce intoxication was
known from the earliest times. The pleasing
thrill of delight which the drinker experienced,
and the sudden exaltation of his faculties
under the influence of the inebriating- cup
were not these the gift of a god? What
other power in all the earth could so bring

220

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

man into communion with the joyous divin-
ities? Thus did Soma become the plant and
drink of the deities. The gods in their revels
and excesses grew drunken. So said the
coarser theology of the people. But the Zo-
roastrian reformers were scandalized at the
thought, and declared that the gods were
sober, and that men were made into beasts by
the power of Soma. Thus was a schism begun
between the Aryans of the Median plateau, and
their older kinsmen, the Brahmins, of India.
For a while, after the Zoroastriau reform, the
line was sharply drawn between the temperate
theology of the Bactrian prophet and the
license and abandonment of the older system
of faith.

As already said, the Zoroastrian system of
divinity recognized the existence of devas, or
"fiends," as the antagonists of the gods. The
latter were known by the general name of
ahuras, or "deities." It was the system of
dualism in its infancy. Good and evil were
opposed. Out of the conflicting forces of
nature the intellect of man worlced its way
backwards to antagonistic principles. It is
interesting to note, moreover, how in the the-
ology of the Bactrians and Medes a spirit of
optimism prevailed over the pessimistic ten-
dency of thought. The gods and the angels
and good spirits were differentiated into indi-
vidual character. They were arranged in or-
ders and hierarchies, the one above the other,
and were given names. Ahura-Mazdao was
at the head. But not so of the devas. These
were all grouped together. They had no in-
dividual names or characters. They were
simply unclassified devils. There was no fiend-
in-chief standing over against Mazdao, like
Lucifer in the Miltonic theology. A deva
was simply a deva a malicious sprite disturb-
ing the world and working mischief to the
affairs of men.

Traces of the counter system of good and
evil appear in the oldest hymns of the Zenda-
vesta. The primitive Zoroastrians recognized
the unceasing conflict between the powers of
light and darkness. Truth and falsehood,
purity and depravity, are set against each
other. There were spirits of light and spirits
of darkness. Nature had her storms and her

sunshine. Man vibrated between smiles and
tears. But the bards and sages dwelt upon
the joyful rather than the gloomy aspect of
life. The good gods were adored more than
the devas were feared.

At the outset much of the Medo-Bactrian
system of dualism was traceable to the poetic
language of the Zoroastrian -sages. Abstract
conceptions were personified. What was
purely natural in the beginning became ideal
in the imagination of the poets, and was then
rendered concrete by personification. Natural
philosophy became religion by ascribing the
conflicts of nature to personal causes. Further
on in the history of the system the dualistic
belief rose higher, and in later times ventured
to set up AHRIMAN as the foe and rival of
Ahura-Mazdao. The world became a battle-
field between the antagonistic powers of the
air. Man was alternately aided and beset.
Health and prosperity and happiness gifts of
the bright immortals were shadowed by sick-
ness, calamity, and sorrow visitations of the
spirits of evil and malevolence.

Then did the priests elaborate their system
of dual theology and adorn it with decora-
tions. They made out two great hierarchies,
the one heavenly, the other infernal. The
six leading attributes of Ahura-Mazdao were
personified into six great deities. One was
known as the "Good Mind." Another was
the "Highest Truth;" a third was "Wealth."
To the fourth was given the name of the
"White," or "Holy;" while the fifth and the
sixth were called respectively "Health" and
"Immortality." Then the demo'n Ahriman
was invented. He was the "Bad Mind."
With him were associated as councilors Indra
and Shiva both from the pantheon of the
Brahmins. Three other personified principles
of evil were set in the Council of the Bad ;
and thus the armies of the air were marshaled
to elevate or debase, to aid or destroy the
children of mankind.

The faith of the Medes was by no means
exclusively a religion of theoretic beliefs.
There was much of practical ethics in the
system. Human duty was clearly recognized,
and its doctrines inculcated both by precept
and law. The great cardinal principles of

MEDIA. LANGUAGE AND RELIGION.

221

living were as well defined as by any
of the pagan nations. Truth in word and
purity in lite were regarded as the foundations
of society. Piety towards the gods and indus-
try in honrst endeavor were virtues without
which life was worthless. It is in evidence
that the Modes were capable of sound thought
on moral subjects. Every action was traced
to its motives and judged accordingly. Hu-
man conduct was weighed acconling to the
thought which produced, the word which ex-
pressed, and the deed which embodied it. One
of the most beautiful aspects of the system
was that which carried morality into the ordi-
nary pursuits of life. Sraosha expected of
men that they should till the soil. It was a
religious duty to do so. To destroy weeds
and brambles was well pleasing in the sight
of Ahura-Mazdao. To cut down thorns and
to speak the truth were acts the same in na-
ture and results. All the people were re-
quired to devote themselves in whole or in
part to the work of tillage. Ahura-Mazdao
expected it. Zoroaster taught it. Piety de-
manded it not only this, but a filial obedience
to the will of the True God and reverence
for his holy angels.

The sacrifices of the Medes generally de-
manded the shedding of blood, but not the
blood of men. The animal most offered was
the horse. It was reckoned most pleasing to
the deities that this noble creature should
bleed before the altar. Oxen, sheep, and
goats were also offered up as victims. The
sacrifice was made by the priests. The flesh
was held on high and waved before the sacred
fire, and then the consecrated parts were
eaten at a solemn feast.

"How happy art thou who hast come here
to us from mortality to immortality ! " Such
were the words with which the archangel,
Vohu-Mano, welcomed the soul of the right-
eous Mede into the abodes of the blest. For
the soul of man was deathless. The spirits
of the wicked and the good alike survived the
shock of death. When the mortal pang was
over the liberated soul whatever might be
its moral status traveled a long and narrow
path towards the unseen world. On the hither

side of the gate of paradise was there the
N. Vol. i 1>

"Bridge of the Gatherer." Who could go
over it? Only the righteous. Them the angel
Sraosha aided with his hand and his counsel.
The bad fell off" into the abyss. Upward to
the throne of Ahura-Ma/dau ascended the
souls of the good. Before these were set the
delectable joys of paradise. But all the evil
spirits went down in outer darkness, to be
chilled with bitter winds and to sit at poison-
ous banquets. Such were heaven and hell.

It does not appear that the earlier Zoroas-
trians believed in the resurrection of the body.
At a later date, however, the doctrine was in-
troduced and taught by the Magi. The later
portions of the Zeudavesta show conclusively
that the belief in the raising up of the dead
was a recognized dogma at the date of that
part of the Median bible in which the refer-
ences occur. The doctrine of the immortality
of the soul was not involved with the notion
of the resurrection, but existed as an earlier
belief fundamental to the faith of the Medes.

The myths of Media were many and inter-
esting. One of the most important was that
relating to the origin and primitive state of
man. The early condition .of the human race
was one of happiness. It was an Age of
Gold. The people were ruled by KINO YIMA.
It was a land of sunshine and peace. Sum-
mer reigned; the vine flourished; blossoms
filled the air. For a long time a contented
and flourishing race honored their good king
and lived without sorrow. By and by the
aspect of nature changed. Winter came. The
beauty of the world was destroyed by bitter
frosts. Then King Yima and his people re-
moved to another country more delightful
than the first. In this land, according to the
Vendidad, there was "neither overbearing nor
mean-spiritedness, neither stupidity nor vio-
lence, neither poverty nor deceit, neither pu-
niness nor deformity, neither huge teeth nor
bodies beyond the usual measure." Whether
of the flowers of the gardens, the fruits of the
fields, or the cattle upon the hills, no other
land was so beautiful and good as this second
home of the primitive Aryans. It was the
golden epoch, which the patriotic imagination
of the poets has ever depicted as the first and
most glorious state of the human race.

222

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

The second great mythical hero of the
Medes was THR^ETONA. He was the Bactriau
Beowulf the slayer of dragous aud extermi-
nator of monsters. By him was slain the
great devil ZOHAK, a mighty dragon, having
"three mouths, three tails, six eyes, and a
thousand scaly rings," and who had his lair in
the frozen peaks of the Elburz. A second
myth gave an account of another dragon more
ambitious aud terrible than Zohak. The name
of this second monster was CNAVIDHAKA. He
boasted that he would convert the whole sky
into a chariot, and that he would harness to-
gether Ahura-Mazdao and Ahriman and drive
them as his horses through the heavens. Such a
disgrace to the hierarchies, good and bad, was
not to be tolerated or thought of. A third
hero appeared on the scene, the inheritor of
the renown of Yima, called KEEESASHA. He
slew the boastful dragon and gave peace to
earth and sky.

These traditions of the ancient Medes give
a tolerably adequate notion of the current and
sweep of their myth-making powers aud cre-
ative imagination. It is especially interesting
to note that their legends are of the same
general character as those presented in the
poems of the Greeks and Komans that is,
heroic. Carrying the analogy further, it is
easily discoverable that the traditions of the
Teutonic nations of Northern Europe belong
to the same epic catalogue of stories with
those of the Persian plain and Indus Valley.
Keresaspa, Achilles, JEneas, Beowulf, Coeur
de Lion they are all one in nature all men
rising by heroic exploits to the rank and fame
of demigods. And this is another proof and
illustration of the common origin and race
affinities of all the Aryan families and tribes.

Thus it may be seen that the religion of
the Msdes, beginning with a tolerably distinct
expression of monotheism and with peculiarly
spiritual forms of worship, degenerated to a
certain extent into that dualistic folly which
makes the world to be warred for by conflict-
ing principles of good and evil. The latter
system embraced hierarchies of angels, and
finally personified the adverse forces of nature
into demons of high and low estate.

It vet remains to mention a third form of

religious faith adopted by the Iranic nations,
and afterwards made famous in the litera-
ture of the West. This is the celebrated
system of MAOISM. As the Medes in their
epoch of power pressed their way to the west
and north they came into contact with the
Scythian tribes of Armenia aud Kurdistan.
In these mountainous regions was the seat of
the Magiau system. Here the fire-temples
were built, of which not a few still stand as
mute witnesses of one of the strangest aspects
of the religious beliefs of mankind. The faith
of the Magi can hardly be classified with any
other ever accepted and taught by men. It
made the elements of nature the direct objects
of worship. It was not that some power pre-
sided over those elements that might be rever-
enced and adored, but the physical fact was
itself the thing worshiped as divine. The
elements of nature were four: fire, water,
earth, and air. Of these the first was the
most energetic and sublime. The consuming
flame was the highest manifestation of the
divine presence. Before this beautiful phe-
nomenon in whose rapturous embrace the ma-
terials of the world melted into ashes, the
awed worshiper stood in silent adoration. So
the priest built an altar, and the sacred fire
caught from heaven, was kindled and kept
burning always. The priest was the HOLY
MAGUS. No other might attend the altars or
conduct the mystic rites. Through him only
might the common worshiper approach the
divine presence and be reconciled by prayer
and sacrifice. The sacred emblem, flaming on
the altar, inspired the profoundest awe and
reverence. No breath of any mortal might
be blown upon it without pollution. The
burning of dead bodies was a horrid profana-
tion. Of the sacrificial offerings only a frag-
ment of fat was given to the flame.

The WATER was also sacred. The swift-flow-
ing river or placid lake was defiled with any un-
clean touch of man. No drop of blood might
mingle with the wave, and the laving of hu-
man hands left behind the stains of sin. In
like manner the bosom of EARTH was holy.
To profane the sacred soil was solemnly inter-
dicted. No corpse might repose therein, nor
any draff be thrown upon the divine ground

MEDIA. LANGUAGE AND RELIGION.

228

Likewise was the Am adored and propitiated
with offerings.

All the ceremonial of the Magian faith
was conducted by the priests. The sons of
Levi had not more exclusive jurisdiction over
the altars of Israel than did the Magi over
those on which were kindled the sacred fires
of the East. Nor was the Magus himself
unlike the Levitical priest. In person and
apparel the two impressed the beholder as be-
longing to the same class of hierarchs. Both
were members of a caste. Both inherited the
priestly office from their fathers. Both exhib-
ited a lofty manner and solemn air caught
from the severe and lofty conceptions of their
respective systems. The Magus wore a white
robe and a stately miter, from which, on either
side, depended a lappet, whereby the sides of
the face were concealed. He bore in his hand
a bundle of tamarisk twigs the sacred em-
blem of his sacerdotal and prophetical office.
By him thus clad and exalted in the eyes of
the multitude the sacrifices were prepared and
offered, and the libations of milk and honey
poured forth before the fires of the altar. For
hours together he chanted hymns and uttered
mystical incantations. Before him even the
king and the noble stood with humble tokens
of reverence, while the common worshiper
looked up awe-struck and trembling.

A strange practical question in the Median
system of belief was the post-mortem disposition
of human bodies. The dead might not be
burned, for by that method the sacred fire
would be defiled. Nor might a corpse be
buried in the ground or consigned to the
river, for in that case the one or the other of
the elements would be polluted. Likewise to
leave the body to be gradually resolved by
the slow action of the atmosphere was a pro-
fanation of the fourth great object of worship.
The last, however, seemed to be the least ap-
palling profanation of the sacred elements,
and was accordingly sometimes adopted. But
a more general way was to expose the dead to
be devoured by beasts and birds of prey ; and
this method is still followed by the GUEBRES
of Persia and India. Round towers, called
the Towers of Silence, and built according to
a pattern prescribed in the Zendavesta, are

erected at various points, and on the tops of
these i-ireiilar towers, doorless and windowlew,
are set a kind of hoppers constructed of iron
grates. Into these the bodies of the dead are
thrown, and when the vultures and crows
have stripped the skeleton bare and torn
away the tendons, the bones drop through
the grating into the inclosed space of the
tower. The revolting features of this method,
however, prevented its universal adoption at
any period of Median history. As a kind of
compromise between the humanity of the peo-
ple and the rigor of the priests another plan
was substituted, which consisted in covering
the bodies of the dead with a layer of wax,
so as to prevent contact with, and conse-
quent defilement of, the earth.

The Magi claimed to have the gift of divi-
nation and prophecy. The bundle of tamarisk
rods which they bore about with them was
the symbol and means of their prophetic pow-
ers. The superstition of a divining agency in
the rods seems to have been imbibed from the
Scythians, whose priests used bunches of wil-
low wands in ascertaining the things of the
future. 1 The soothsayer was a popular char-
acter and was much sought after, as he ever
has been and ever will be, until, in the slow
evolution of civilization, the ignorant mul-
titudes shall come to understand that the
universe is governed by law.

Practically considered, the most valuable
part of the Magian profession was that in
which the priests were engaged in insecticide.
The bad animals, the bad reptiles, the bad
bugs, were not all these the work of Ahri-
man? So the Magus carried with him an in-
strument for the extermination of all the
dragon's brood of small pests in the earth.
It was made a religious duty resting upon the
priests to impale and destroy what creeping
thing soever caught his eye. Albeit, by the

' There is little doubt that the absurd water
witchery of modern times is traceable to this far-
off origin. The water witch of to-day is a lineal
descendant of the Scythian Magus. The forked
switch of witch-hazel has taken the place of the
rod of tamarisk, and the frontier conjurer traverses
the ground with the same serious face of perfect
self-deception which the priest of Media wore a
thousand years before the birth of Caeaar.

224

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

roadside, the river bank, the mouldering wall
of palace or town, the Magi sat all day long
in a ceaseless warfare with snakes and mice
and lizards. Nor frog, nor worm, nor fly
escaped the vigilant cruelty and inspired ha-
tred of the zealous hierarch of the fire-altars.
Such were the principles and practices of
Magism the fire-worship of the Medo-Bactrian
nations. It was a picturesque rather than a
powerful type of religion. To see the white-
robed and mitered priests on the mountain-

top, passing to and fro in solemn service
before the altars on which were kindled the
ever-burning fires, to hear them chanting
weird hymns and uttering vague and awful
prophecies, might well incite in an unscientific
and half-barbarous age emotions of sublimity
and fear sentiments of awe and devotion.
But the old spiritual power of the Zoroastrian
faith could hardly be compared in its in-
fluence over life and conduct with the more
showy formality of the Magian ceremonial.

CHAF>TEK. .xviil. CIVIL AND MILITARY ANNALS.

IHETHER the MADAI,
mentioned in the tenth
chapter of Genesis as con-
stituting a branch of the
Japhetic family, meant
the race of the Medes, is
a question not easily re-
solved. The supposition, if allowed, would
indicate for that race an antiquity much
greater than can be deduced from the Assyr-
ian records. In favor of this hypothesis of
great antiquity may be mentioned the fact
that elsewhere in the Old Testament the word
Modal always signifies the Medes, and also the
additional fact that Berosus succinctly declares
that one of the earliest Chaldsean dynasties,
long before the rise of the Assyrian Empire,
was Medinn. The narrative states that this
Median line of monarchs in Lower Mesopo-
tamia resulted from a conquest made by the
warlike race dwelling beyond the Zagros.
This statement, made by the native his-
torian of Chaldsea, carries double weight, in
that it involves a humiliating subjugation of
his own people by foreign armies a state-
ment which, unless it were true, would be
forbidden by patriotism. The references by
Berosus and the author of Genesis seem to
point to the Medes as one of the primitive
races of mankind, appearing on the horizon
at a date as remote as two thousand years be-
fore the common era.

From these faint gleams of historic light

no more can be said than that the Medes
were a very ancient people. Of their career
in peace and war at that remote epoch noth-
ing whatever is known. Veiled they are in
the same impenetrable obscurity which dark-
ens the beginnings of all human history.
Negatively, the Zendavesta shows that at the
date of the composition of that Iranic bible
(about B. C. 1000) the Median race had not
yet begun to be felt in the affairs of nations.
Not until a century and a half after this date
do the Medes actually emerge into the clear
day of national life and activity. Before this
time it can be said only with approximate
certainty that this people had made a conquest
in Chaldsea and established over that country
a line of kings.

The actual annals of Media, then, begin
with the latter half of the ninth century before
the Christian era. At this time Shalmaneser
II. was king of Assyria. This monarch, ac-
cording to the records of his reign, made war
into the country beyond the Zagros mount-
ains, and while on one of his campaigns came
in contact with the Medes. A portion of the
territory of this people was devastated ; but
the Assyrian records do not indicate such re-
sistance on the part of the Medes as would be
expected from a great or vigorous nation.
The war, on the contrary, seems to have been
such as a powerful monarch would wage with
scattered and badly organized tribes.

After the death of Shalmaneser and the

MEDIA. CIVIL AND- MILITARY AXNALS.

225

accession of his son, Shamas-Vul, a second
Assyrian invasion of Media occurred. The
offense of the Medes seems to have been
merely the manifestation of a belligerent
spirit. For this potentiality of war their
country was again ravaged until Shamas-Vul
and his army were satisfied, and returned
through the mountain passes to Nineveh. It
was in this hard school of destructive incur-
sions that the Medes were taught their first
lessons in resistance and revenge.

Assyria was now in the heyday of her
power. To save themselves and their country
from further depredation the Medes adopted
the expedient of tribute. As the price of
peace they agreed to pay an annual stipend.
This policy was adopted in the reign of Vul-
Lush III., about the close of the ninth cent-
ury B. C. During the following one hundred
years the Medes became more compact and
populous. They lay like a cloud along the
eastern horizon of Assyria. Doubtless the
tribute had been paid only by those western
tribes who had felt more than once the venge-
ance of the Ninevite kings. The tribes to the
east had remained comparatively free from
foreign domination.

In the meantime a growth of nationality
had fired the spirit of the Medes, and the
presence of that spirit gave the Assyrians
warning that actual subjugation was necessary
to the maintenance of their authority beyond
the mountains. So Sargon the Great, in the
year B. C. 710, determined to subdue the
country and annex it to his dominions.
Armies were marched through the mountain
passes. Military posts were established and
filled with soldiers. Whole colonies of Medes
were deported into Assyria, and their places
were supplied either with Assyrians or with
captive bands of Samaritans, whom the mon-
arch had recently brought home from his
Western campaigns. Media was reorganized
as a province of the Empire, and the tribute
was systematically enforced, a part of the an-
nual tax being a levy of horses for the stables
of the king and for the captains of his armies.

The date of this subjugation of Media by
Sargon corresponds almost exactly with the
reign of the half-fabulous king DeTocES, who,

according to Herodotus, became monarch of
the Medes in B. C. 708. The account long
received as true from the old Greek historian
is now known to have no foundation in fact.
On the contrary, at UK; VITV time assigned by
Herodotus for the successful revolt of Media,
under the leadership of Deioces, Sargon'a
armies were wasting the country and destroy-
ing its independence ; and for sixty years
after this event no serious insurrection oc-
curred on the part of the subject people.

During this period the domination of As-
syria was extended eastward to the Elburz and
to the north-west into Azerbijan. Wanton ex-
peditions were made through the country both
by Sennacherib and his son, Esarhaddon, and
towns and cities on the remotest confines of
Media were either destroyed or made tribu-
tary. Occasionally some nomadic chief, hov-
ering with his lawless bands on the outskirts
of the Empire, was seized and carried away
as a curious spectacle for the gaze of the
Ninevites. Such examples acted in terrorem,
and the peace of the borders ceased to be
disturbed.

About the middle of the seventh century
B. C., we reach the solid ground in Median
history. From the year 875 to 660 B. C., is
the epoch of myth and fable. Soon after the
latter date the great C VAX A RES appeared on
the scene, and his coming heralded a com-
plete change in the condition of the countries
beyond the Zagros. The beginning of this
change was precipitated by the incursion of
new Aryan tribes from the direction of Bac-
tria. The incursionists were welcomed by
their kinsmen, the Medes, who at heart de-
tested the Assyrian power, and were but too
glad to find in an augmented and fresh popu-
lation both the occasion and the material of
revolt.

Cyaxares placed himself, as by natural
selection, at the head of this malcontent host
of his countrymen, and the power of Assyria
was soon overthrown as far west as the mount-
ain-;. The Scythian tribes still infesting this
border country were reduced to submission,
and the able and fearless Cyaxares set about
the organization of an independent kingdom.
Making his head-quarters and capital close to

22fi

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

the Zagros chain, he not only proved himself
equal to the task of keeping the Assyrians at
bay, but soon began to cast longing eyes
through the mountain passes at the luxurious
plains about Nineveh.

The political condition of Assyria was at
this time of such sort as to invite invasion.
Asshur-Bani-Pal, now in the thirty-fourth year
of his reign, was, if not already in his dotage,
less vigilant than in his youth. Perhaps there
was mixed with the general lethargy a certain
contempt of danger; for when had the big-
muscled soldiers of Assyria had cause to fear
an enemy? Nevertheless, an enemy was at
the gate. Cyaxares, at the head of a large,
courageous, but poorly disciplined army,
poured through the mountains, and the As-
syrian king was suddenly confronted with a
host that could no longer be despised. But
the aged monarch proved equal to the emer-
gency. At the head of his army he met the
Medes in the province of Adiabene. A severe
battle was fought, in which the old-time prow-
ess of Assyria triumphed over the naked cour-
age of the mountain soldiery of Media. The
army of Cyaxares was terribly routed, and
fell back pell-mell through the passes of the
Zagros. The king's father, PHRAOETES, who,
before his son's accession, had been in some
sort king of the Medes, was slain in the battle.

The disaster was to have been expected.
The Median army was a melange of half-bar-
barians. What could they do against the war
chariots of Nineveh ? Nothing but be mowed
down like a harvest. Cyaxares was quick to
take in the situation. He saw that his defeat
was directly chargeable to the constitution of
his forces. Every chief had come at the head
of his own clan, armed according to the rude
resources of his province. Horse and foot
were mingled. Bows and arrows, and spears,
and slings, and darts made a medley of impo-
tent weaponry. The king would remedy this
condition of affairs, and by breaking up and
reforming these heterogeneous bands of war-
riors, would marshal forth an army. It was
not long till the vigorous spirit of the mon-
arch had pervaded and fired both soldiers and
people. Discipline flashed along the ranks,
and the sting of recent defeat kindled the

anger of revenge. As soon as his mixed host
of Medes and Scythians was brought into
proper subordination, the king again set his
face towards Assyria.

There was now an orderly invasion. Asshur-
Bani-Pal took the field as before. The two
armies met a short distance from Nineveh.
The Assyrians were borne down before the
new foe from the mountains, and were driven,
after a decisive battle, behind the ramparts
of the capital. Hard after them came the
avenging Medes. A siege was begun, but be-
fore it had progressed to the extent of endan-
gering the city, the attention of Cyaxares was
suddenly recalled by a crisis in the affairs of
his own country.

It was the SCYTHIANS. As already said the
southernmost tribes of this barbaric race had
been easily subdued by the Medes. The two
peoples south of the Caucasus had to some
extent mingled together. A part of the army
of Cyaxares was Scythic. But the great body
of trans-Caucasian Scyths had felt only so
much of this Median ascendency as to excite
resentment. The hostile feelings of the north
gathered head. AVhile Cyaxares was still en-
gaged with the Assyrians beyond the Zagros
the Scythic host poured down into Azerbijan
and headed for Ecbatana. But Cyaxares
hastily returning from Nineveh confronted
them and prepared for battle. A savage con-
flict ensued, in which the reckless audacity of
the Scythians proved more than a match for
the disciplined forces of the Medes. Cyax-
ares was defeated, and he and his subjects
were compelled to seek refuge in the walled
towns and to sue for peace. MADYS, the
Scythic leader, dictated terms, which were
less severe than might have been expected
from a barbaric chieftain victorious in battle.
An annual stipend was imposed after the man-
ner of civilized states, and Cyaxares was al-
lowed to retain his crown, tributary to his
conqueror. Doubtless the easy terms imposed
by the triumphant barnarians was due to the
fact that their incursion arose rather from the
inspiration of the plunder than the lust of
conquest. Albeit, the character of Media as
a cold and upland region, with little accumu-
lated wealth, was not such as to entice or long

MEDIA. CIVIL AND MILITARY ANNALS.

227

retain a horde of the hungry and omnivorous
beasts from beyond the Caucasus. The low-
lying plains of tin- south-west, rich in fields
of pulse and vineyards, were better calculated
to appease the unappeasable maws of such
savages.

The condition was now that of foreign
domination and terrorism. The Scythians
after their manner pitched their tents here
and there over the country. Their flocks and
herds were pastured on the lands of the sub-
ject Medes, who with mixed feelings of hatred
and (oar found themselves unable to thwart
or stay the fierce wills of the barbaric leeches
that had fastened on the veins of their coun-
try. In such a situation energy and industry
were at a discount. The more a district was
cultivated the more it was ravaged. The less
cultivated parts fared better. The roving
habits of the oppressors carried them from
one region to another. The walled town was
about the only refuge for the galled and des-
perate Medes, who were afraid to offer resist-
ance either by stratagem or open revolt.

For some years the reign of terror continued
until the Scyths by dispersion into various
provinces became less of a scourge less im-
minently dangerous to the subject people.
By and by the invaders filed off in large num-
bers into Assyria, Babylonia, and Palestine,
renewing their ravages everywhere to the very
gates of Egypt. Many bauds remained under
their chiefs in Media, but the native subjects
of Cyaxares began to breathe more easily,
and their long smothered wrath rose in pro-
portion as the danger disappeared. In this
juncture of affairs the king himself deter-
mined to set the example of revenge and de-
struction.

Cyaxares made a feast. Treachery was
mixed in the cups. The appetite of the
Scythians became the means of their ruin
and overthrow. The invited chiefs were plied
with drink until they lay stupid, whereupon
the hidden bands of armed Medea broke into
the banquet hall, and slew them all without
mercy. The sound of the murderous work
was heard beyond the palace, and a popular
fury broke out against the savage oppressors
of the land. The incensed people took up

what weapons soever they could, and hewed
rii'lit anil left in a war of extermination. No
records have been preserved of the struggle.
It is known only that the Scythians were
completely overwhelmed. Those who escaped
the avenger's hand were driven through the
passes of the Caucasus into their native
haunts. So complete was the overthrow that
scarcely a trace of the foreign domination
remained in the country which the barbarians
had held and ravaged for a period of years.

As soon as the Scythians had ceased to be
a terror, the Medes renewed their project of
invading Assyria. That great Empire had
fallen into decrepitude. Saracus, the reigning
monarch, was an unworthy successor of those
mighty kings who for centuries had dominated
the better parts of Western Asia. The out-
skirts of the kingdom lay open and invited
attack. The resources at the command of
Saracus were as little adequate to supply the
means of resistance as was the king capable
of hurling back an invader. As soon as Cy-
axares could muster and discipline his forces,
he entered with renewed energy upon the
cherished plan of Assyrian subjugation.

At this time the viceroyalty of Chaldaea,
which had been a dependency of Assyria for
more than a half century, had recovered in
some measure the influence and renown of
her pristine era. The Assyrian yoke, though
not especially galling, was nevertheless a
yoke. No insurrections had occurred; but
with the decadence of Assyria the elements
centering at Babylon were rife for mischief.
In this condition of affairs the Median inva-
sion, led by Cyaxares in person, was precipi-
tated. Before beginning his campaign, how-
ever, the king of the Medes took the
precaution to test the loyalty of the Baby-
lonian viceroy. That notable was in no mood
to be virtuous, and readily yielded to the
overtures of the Median king. It was ar-
ranged that an army of revolting Babylonians
should march up the Tigris simultaneously
with the approach of Cyaxares from the east.
The Assyrians would thus be struck in flank
and front, and the capital would stagger under
the blow.

Meanwhile Saracus was informed of the

228

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

conspiracy. His weakness was spurred by
alarm into such activity as his effete adminis-
tration was capable of exhibiting. As the
best expedient he divided his forces, sending
one army down the river to resist the ap-
proaching Babylonians, while the main divi-
sion under his own command was directed
eastward to confront Cyaxares. Nabopolassar,
the Babylonian governor, had in the mean
time fallen without reserve into the arms of
the Medes. He had been astute enough to
discover at ouce the waning star of Assyria
and the coming Median ascendency. He also
saw the advantages of his position, and espe-
cially his opportunity to set a high price upon
his defection from Assyria. He accordingly
proposed to Cyaxares, in answer to the over-
tures of the latter, that the conditions of his
betrayal of his sovereign should be an alliance
of fortunes between Media and Babylonia;
that he himself should continue ruler of the
latter country; and that Cyaxares, as an
earnest of good faith, should give his daugh-
ter Amyitis to be the wife of Nebuchadnezzar,
son of Nabopolassar, and heir of the Babylo-
nian viceroyalty. To these conditions Cyax-
ares at once assented, and the double march
on Nineveh began.

The campaign that followed was one of
battles and vicissitudes. The combined army
of Medes and Babylonians was met on the
advance, and twice defeated by the aroused
hosts of Assyria. Cyaxares fell back into the
mountains, only to come again, and again
suffer defeat. He and his ally then retreated
into Babylonia, and were reinforced by fresh
contingents from Media. A third advance
was made. The Assyrian camp was surprised
by night and ruinously routed. The broken
fragments rolled back into Nineveh, and the
victorious invaders advanced to the siege.

Once within the walls, the Assyrians felt
secure, for, in expectancy of such a disaster,
the city had been garrisoned and supplied
with provisions and stores. For more than
two years the awkward but dauntless besieg-
ers beat around the invested capital. It was
naked ferocity attacking a rock. But by and
by Nature joined the conspiracy. With the
rainy season of the third year the Tigris rose

bank full, and threatened to do what the
clumsy enginery of Media seemed impotent
to accomplish. The turbid tide rolled higher,
beat the city bastions, and finally swept away
the walls and let in the wolves of conquest.
Saracus such is the tradition of the event
shrank into his palace, heaped up the antique
splendors of his ancestors, mounted the pile
with his wives and concubines, and perished
in the flames.

Such was the fall of Nineveh and of the
great Assyrian Empire. The collapse was
complete. It only remained for Cyaxares
and Nabopolassar to make such use of their
victory as should secure the vast harvest of
conquest. It seems that both the Median
monarch and his ally were in a faith-keeping
mood in the presence of their success. Instead
of quarreling about the spoils of war they
agreed to remain on terms of amity and divide
the world between them. A division was ac-
cordingly made. Nabopolassar received Bab-
ylonia, Susiana, Chaldaea, and the whole val-
ley of the Lower Euphrates spreading out
towards Arabia and Egypt on the south-west.
This the quondam viceroy and now king at
once proceeded to organize into the kingdom
of Babylonia a power which will furnish the
subject-matter of the following Book.

Cyaxares himself took what had constituted
the Assyrian Empire proper, embracing all
the northern portion of Mesopotamia and the
provinces thereunto adjacent. This vast and
important region, added to his own kingdom
of Media, gave, not only territorially, but also
as it respects population and resources, suffi-
cient scope for the exercise of all the energies
and ambitious of the victorious monarch.
Thus out of the wreck of Assyria arose two
separate and independent empires, Media on
the east, and Babylonia on the south and
west. And contrary to the natural expect-
ancy excited by such a beginning, the two
powers, instead of broils aud war, continued to
cultivate the friendliest relations.

Cyaxares had conquered Nineveh, but had
not conquered a peace. The elements of hos-
tility were active in his dominions. The Scyth-
ians who had been thrown off from his own
kingdom of Media were aggregated in band'

MEDIA. CIVIL AND MILITARY ANNALS.

in various parts, and were led to depredation^
by chiefs of greater or less ability ami ambi-
tion. Besides, the northern provinces of As-
syria, long time restless under the oppressions
of the Ninevite kings, sought eagerly in the
downfall of Saracus an occasion and opportu-
nity ot revolt. Doubtless Cyaxares himself
had grown warlike, and was not displeased at
the hostile turbulence which promised further
gratification to his ambition. He accordingly
entered upon a career of conquest which ex-
tended, through many vicissitudes of victory
and defeat, over a period of more than ten
years.

The general excuse for the wars which
followed was that common foe of the times
the Scyths. To pursue these barbarians into
what territories soever they might have in-
vaded was claimed as a just measure of re-
venge on the part of Cyaxares. Albeit, in
many instances the Median king was hailed,
even at the head of a consuming army, as a
deliverer from the scourge of Asia. But in
those provinces and countries in which the
inhabitants were of Turanian origin, and there-
fore of noniadic habits, the people frequently
made common cause with the Scyths in the
attempt to beat back the more civilized ad-
vance of Cyaxares and the Medes.

The two countries against which the arms
of the Median king were first directed were
Armenia and Cappadocia. These vast districts,
half-organized out of barbarism, were still in-
habited by native tribes, together with large
numbers of invaders precipitated from various
regions. Some of these belonged to the Tu-
ranian race; others were Aryans; many were
Scyths a wavering mass of savages and
robbers.

The first of these two countries had been a
nominal dependency of Assyria. The Arme-
nians had borne the yoke and waited their
opportunity. The high mountains and im-
penetrable fastnesses of the region gave a nat-
ural barrier to invasion, but the will of Cyax-
ares surmounted the ramparts of nature and
the Armenians were subdued in a vigorous
campaign. Cappadocia lay still more remote,
but the Mede paused not until not only this
country but also the far-off tribes of Colehians,

Iberians, and Moschi were brought into sub-
jection. By these conquests the borders of
the Median Empire were extended on the
north to the Caucasus, and on the west to
the river Halys_ It does not appear that the
campaigns were bitterly waged or long con-
tinued. The races with whom Cyaxares con-
tended were accustomed to mastery by some
military power, and that of the king of the
Medes was not more odious than had been
the domination of the Assyrians.

More important by far was the next cam-
paign of Cyaxares, directed against the king-
dom of Lydia, To enter this country he
must cross the Halys the Rubicon of Asia
Minor. The pretext for doing so was the
pursuit of the Scythians; but the Lydians
readily divined the real motive and made prep-
arations for resistance. A league was formed
among the princes of Asia Minor to oppose
the further progress of the Medes to the west.

These formidable preparations rather incited
than cooled the purpose of Cyaxares. He
summoned the Babylonians to his aid, and
gathered from various provinces contingents
of troops and provisions. With a great army
he marched westward, and began the invasion
of Lydia. He found in Alyattes, king of
that country, a foeman worthy of his steel.
It was no longer a campaign against semi-
savages, but a regular military combat between
opposing armies. Success varied from side to
side. Several hard battles were fought, and
in more than half of the conflicts the Lydians
were victorious. In one instance a general
and hotly contested engagement took place
t'n tfte night. For six years the war continued,
until at last superstition ended what the lust
of conquest had begun. In the midst of a
hard fought battle, while the heated combat-
ants were absorbed in the work of death, a
mysterious shadow crept over the face of Na-
ture. The sunlight grew dim and cold in the
dust of battle. A solar eclipse (B. C. 610)
was hanging an ominous curtain over the
heavens. A sudden awe fell on the armies;
then silence; and then, as the darkness deep-
ened, horror and quaking. An unscientific
age fears not man but the gods.

The l>:it tic was at an end. Nabopolassar

230

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

of Babylon, on the part of the Median mon-
arch, and Syennesis, king of Cilicia, on the
part of the Lydiaii allies, came forward on
the field and made mutual proposals of peace.
The threatening heavens made the negotia-
tions easy. It was agreed to end the war on
the spot. The Scythians were forgotten. The
dominions of Alyattes were to be left intact by
his friend, the king of the Medes. All things
were to be as they were before, and some
things better. For the two amiable sovereigns
ratified the compact by marrying Aryenis, the
daughter of the Lydian king, to the young
Astyages, son and heir of Cyaxares. And to
make all things sure, each of the kings punc-
tured his arm and gave the bleeding wound
to the lips of the other. Each of the friends
drew the life of the other from the wound.
Alas, for the deeds of the past.

It is proper in this connection to give some
account of the previous history of the coun-
try with which the Medes were thus brought
into contact. The kingdom of LYDIA was one
of the most ancient of all Asia Minor. Tra-
dition pointed to an origin at least seven
hundred years before the time of Cyaxares.
Three dynasties of kings had ruled the nation,
the Atyadse, the Heraclidse, and the Merm-
n:icl:i'. Of the first house there had been
four kings ; of the second, twenty-two ; of the
third, four thirty recorded reigns, besides
several conjectural. The most ancient name
of the country was Mseonia, and the people
were called Mseonians ; but under LYDUS, the
second of the Atyad kings, the name was
changed in his own honor to Lydia.

The Lydian legends were full of great
pretensions. One tradition recited that both
Belus and Ninus the mythical founders of
Babylon and Nineveh were Lydian princes
sent forth to establish kingdoms in Mesopota-
mia. Colonies had been planted so said the
myths in the remotest parts of the world.
Such an origin was claimed for the Etruscans
of Italy, and for other primitive states of the
west of Europe. A Lydian general, named
Ascalus, had led an army to the extreme
south-west, and built the city of Ascalon in
Syria.

The more authentic annals of Lydia go

back to about the beginning of the ninth cent-
ury B. C. It is probable that the two dynas-
ties, the Heraclida? and the Mermnadze, were
different branches of the same house. So
much is indicated by the feuds between them
and by the common names occurring in both
lists of kings. The later Heraclide monarchs
had treated the princes of the Mermnadse with
injustice, born of distrust and jealousy; and
this wrong grew to such proportions that the
Mermnads were obliged to seek safety in exile.

Their partisans, however, maintained their
cause, and anon the banished leaders re-
turned, put the Heraclide king to death, and
established their own chief, named Gyges, on
the throne of Lydia. This revolution, occur-
ring in the beginning of the eighth century,
marked the commencement of a new era of
vigor and prosperity of the kingdom. It was
from this time that the wealth of Lydia became
proverbial throughout the known world. Gy-
ges himself was one of the richest rulers of
his epoch. Magnificent gifts were sent by him
to the oracle of Delphi, in Greece. Sardis,
his capital, was a rich and luxurious city, and
in both art and commerce his kingdom had
great fame. Nor was his reputation less war-
like than that of his predecessors. He ad-
vanced his arms to the JEgean, thus coming
into conflict with the Greek colonists of Asia
Minor, most of whom he subdued and made
tributary to his kingdom. All the western
coasts looking out towards the Mediterranean
felt his power and acknowledged his greatness.

The kingdom of Lydia was not free from
the common calamity of the times. The trans-
Caucasian barbarians were not likely to over-
look a field so promising in plunder. From
this direction came the fierce Cimmerians,
spreading terror and ruin through the coun-
try. Gyges, having first sought and obtained
the help of the Assyrians, gave battle to the
invaders, and inflicted a decisive blow. Of
the routed Cimmerians many were killed and
many taken prisoners, of whom not a few
were sent as a present to Asshur-Bani-Pal at
Nine veli. In a second war with the same rude
and turbulent race fortune completely forsook
the banners of the king. He himself was slain
in a great battle, and the people and soldiery

IfElfl.l. ClVII. AXI> MILlTAIty .l.V.V.I/.s

231

were obliged to seek refuge in the walled
towns. Fascinated by the l'al>iilmi> wealth of
Sardis, the barbarians besieged the city, and
after a long investment, succeeded in break-
ing in and reducing every thing to ruin.
Only the citadel held out against the venge-
ance of the furious men of the North.

A period of prostration followed this over-
throw. The- Asiati< (i reeks dependent on
Lydia recovered their freedom. The emanci-
pation of the coast cities, however, was but
of brief duration, for in the next reign after
that of Gyges the Lydians had already suffi-
ciently recovered from the Cimmerian ravages
to continue and maintain their conquests in
the extreme west of Asia Minor. The cities
of Smyrna and Miletus were taken, and the
territory of Clazomence devastated in a suc-
cessful campaign conducted by the Lydiau
king.

After Gyges the most distinguished ruler
of Lydi.' was his great-grandson, ALYATTES.
This monarch undertook the work of expell-
ing the Cimmerians and their descendants
from the kingdom. Large districts were al-
most exclusively inhabited by this people.
Contact with civilization had somewhat modi-
fied their warlike habits, but they were still
sufficiently vengeful to be an object of terror
as well as of aversion. To expel these in-
truders at once and forever was not an easy
task, but was less so than when in the time
of active invasion they were fresh in their
native ferocity. Alyattes succeeded in clear-
ing not only his own kingdom, but all Asia
Minor of the scourge that had so long threat-
ened and lashed the nations of Western Asia.
Lydia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Phrygia, and
Cilicia were all freed from the terror which
had oppressed them.

A great cause of the prosperity and wealth
of the Lydian kingdom was the natural fer-
tility of the country. No other of all Asia
Minor had so rich a soil. Not only was this
true of the field and glebe and orchard, but
the sands also yielded their treasure. The
bed of the Pactolus, flowing through the cap-
ital, glittered with gold. In this fact is
founded the well authenticated claim of the
Lydiaus to be regarded as the inventors of

coined money. They were a frank and merry
people, having great sociability and not a little
artistic taste. The game of ball, which for
more than two thousand years has been the
dernier restart of the boys of the world, is
said by Herodotus to have been invented by
the sport-loving Lydians. So also of dice and
several other popular games which still sur-
vive. They were niusieians, having many
peculiar instruments on which they produced
sweet and plaintive melodies. In the. active
sports and in the discipline of war they were
second only to the Assyrians and Medes. In
the management of the horse they greatly ex-
celled. The cavalry wing was an important
branch of the Lydian army, and long before
the time of Alyattes the cavalrymen of the
service numbered thirty thousand.

After the Battle of the Eclipse, Western
Asia presented three great kingdoms: Media,
Babylonia, Lydia all at peace. The princes
and princesses of the three powers were inter-
married, and the affinities thus established,
strengthened by treaty stipulations, furnished
strong bonds of amity. Aryenis, the daugh-
ter of Alyattes and sister of Croesus, was
married to Astyages, the crown prince of
Media ; and Amyitis, the sister of Astyages,
was wedded to Nebuchadnezzar, the heir ap-
parent to the throne of Babylonia. Nor were
the royal brothers-in-law in such proximity of
territory as to be much vexed with each oth-
er's minor movements and ambitions. Ecba-
tana, Babylon, and Sardis stood well apart,
and opportunity was thus given to the mem-
bers of the three royal houses to love and ad-
mire each other at a distance.

Thus, after the crisis of B. C. 610, a half
century of peace elapsed. The previous
times had been filled with turbulence and
bloodshed. For more than five hundred
years there had not been such an epoch of
quiet as that which followed the treaty be-
tween Cyaxares and Alyattes. All three of
the monarchies grew strong, prospered, flour-
ished. Even the dependent provinces, not
greatly distressed with tributes, felt the glow
of peace. In the whole of Western Asia
there was a marked advance in the elements
of civilization. The only disturbance of these

2:12

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

peaceful tendencies was from the direction of
Syria and Egypt. In this quarter there were
several hostile movements which broke the
quiet of Babylonia.

With the revival of Egyptian affairs un-
der Psametik I., the old ambition of the
Pharaohs to dominate the East returned.
Actuated by this motive, the king just men-
tioned, extending his power in the direction
of Palestine, besieged and captured the city
of Ashdod, aud thus established himself in a
strong fortress beyond the limits of Africa.
Following up this advantage, Pharaoh Necho,
son and successor of Psametik, overthrew
Josiah, king of Judah, in the battle of Me-
giddo, and afterwards, making head towards
the Euphrates, took Carchemish, and com-
pelled the submission of nearly the whole of
Syria. The provinces thus overrun, however,
had fallen to Nabopolassar at the division of
the Assyrian Empire, and thus the Babyloni-
ans were aroused to the defense of their rights.

Nebuchadnezzar made haste to punish the
intrusion into his kingdom. At the head of his
army he advanced against Necho at Carche-
mish, overthrew him in battle, and drove him
precipitately out of the country. Egypt in
turn was made to feel the heel of invasion,
and the Babylonian borders were established
to the very gates of Pelusium. In all these
Syrian wars of Nebuchadnezzar he was backed
and assisted by his brother-in-law, Astyages,
king of the Medes.

Meanwhile the aged Cyaxares, the virtual
founder of Median greatness, died. He was
one of the great men of his times. States-
manship can hardly be ascribed to a ruler of
that era; but Cyaxares had ambition, and
was able to govern men. He could foresee
an end from the beginning, and could adapt
thereto the means most likely to secure the
desired object. King of a warlike people, he
showed himself fit to lead. First in a war-
like age, he maintained his ascendency to the
end of life. By his conquests and abilities
he brought to his people the materials of a
great kingdom ; but to organize those materi-
als into institutions befitting a commonwealth
was a work of which neither he was capable
nor his times desirous. His success, therefore,

as a conqueror and a king lacked the element
of stability. The greatness of his reign was
the greatness of inorganic power supported by
personal will rather than by administrative
forms or political wisdom. After a reign of
forty }ears he passed from the scene of hia
activities, and was succeeded by ASTYAGES.

The accession of this prince was in the
year 593 B. C. Though not wanting in abili-
ties, he was less ambitious than his father.
It is more easy to inherit an empire than to
win one; but inheritance is not a fact well
calculated to develop the highest powers of
manhood or kingship. Nor was the court of
an oriental monarch a place to inspire those
generous activities, without which great char-
acter is impossible.

The long reign of Astyages was compara-
tively uneventful. The most important occur-
rence of his whole career if we except the
disaster of its close was an addition of terri-
tory, which he had the good fortune to secure
rather by diplomacy than by war. On the
north-eastern borders of Media lay the coun-
try of the Cadusians. They possessed not a
little power and influence. More than once
Cyaxares had thought to make war and sub-
due them ; but his Western campaigns had
drawn him away to larger enterprises. If the
Cadusiaus were a temptation to the Medes,
the Medes were a menace to the Cadusians.
At the time of the accession of Astyages they
were ruled by a king named ONAPHERNES, who,
believing his country to be in danger, took
wisdom into his counsel, and opened negotia-
tions with the Median monarch relative to an-
nexation. This odd piece of statecraft was
successful; for Astyages was an easy-going
king, who preferred peace to war, and was
very willing to make terms with the Cadusian
ruler. So without bloodshed the dominions of
that barbaric but politic prince were trans-
ferred to Media, himself remaining as viceroy.

This stroke of good policy was perhaps the
greatest achievement of Astyages. His social
life was clouded, for he was sonless. His
Lydian wife, Amyitis, had brought him no
heir. Other wives were sought; but no son
came to the palace of Ecbatana. At last
Tigrania, a beautiful princess from Armenia,

MKIUA. CIVIL AND MILITARY ANNALS.

233

sister of Tigranes, king of that country, was
given to the Median king; but no son came
with the gift. So as the monarch grew old,
it seemed not improbable that the throne
would be left without an occupant a calamity
to be greatly dreaded in those times and coun-
tries, where the king is the state. Nor is it
unlikely that in the present instance the child-
lessness of Astyages was a circumstance of his
6nal overthrow.

In civil affairs the method of government
adopted by the Median kings differed not
greatly from that of Assyria. The general
character of the royal court was the same as
that of Nineveh. The monarch, except when
called forth to war, was not seen in public.
His seclusion was guarded by an elaborate
retinue of court officers mostly eunuchs. In
dress the luxurious style of the Ninevite kings
was adopted. Long robes of costly texture
adorned the bodies of the courtiers, and the
sovereign himself was magnificent. The halls
of the palace flashed with many-colored gar-
ments, red and purple, adorned with gold and
gems. The wrists of the officers were clasped
with thick bracelets, and their necks with
heavy chains.

An audience with the king of Media
could only be obtained through an elaborate
ceremony. The monarch had one officer called
his "Eye." Another high worthy had the
duty of conducting strangers into the majestic
p. ..^nce. A third bore his cups; a fourth
was his herald. After these were the guards
of the palace, the torchbearers, and the ushers
according to their several ranks.

As in Assyria, the chief sport of the mon-
archs of Media was hunting; and to this tnd
public parks were established near the capital,
into which were brought multitudes of wild
animals, such as the kingly fancy delighted to
pursue. At intervals the somewhat restricted
excitements of the parks were exchanged for
the freedom of the open country, when the
king and his court went forth to hunt at will.

One of the principal events of the reign
of Cyaxares had been the establishment of
Magism as the court religion. The priests of
this faith were licld in the highest honor, and
they made themselves constantly necessary to

the superstition of the royal household. The
king's dreams must be interpreted. Omens
and portents must IK- explained. Matters of
state policy must be laid before the supernal
powers. Who but the Magi should attend to
these mysterious offices? Astyages, like his
father, encouraged this priestly caste; gave
them honors; made them influential in his
government. Thus was developed in the state
another antecedent of its destruction. For,
as will be presently seen, religious zeal against
the prevailing customs of the court fired the
enemies of Astyages in the day of his over-
throw.

As the unwarlike king of the Medes grew
old, destiny prepared for him and his kingdom
a common catastrophe. Up to this time the
kingdom of Persia, lying to the south and east
of Media, had attracted but little attention
from any of the surrounding nations. What
the relations of that country were to the Me-
dian monarchy under Cyaxares is not very
clear. Perhaps the Persians, governed by
native rulers, had held a sort of natural de-
pendence on the court of Ecbataua. Being
of the same race with the Medes they enjoyed
some immunity from invasion. Indeed, there
was less in the highlands of Persia to tempt
the cupidity of a conqueror than in almost
any other of the regions bordering on the Me-
dian Empire. The habits and manners of the
two peoples were alike, and the general mo-
tives of war were for the most part wanting
between them. No doubt there was a certain
dependency political, and perhaps tributary
of the Persian upon the Median kings, but
the former as well as the latter were hereditary
monarchs, and claimed distinguished relation-
ships with the most honored royal families of
Western Asia.

Such was the condition of affairs when,
during the reign of Astyages, the young Per-
sian prince CYRUS was a resident at the court
of the Mede. He was here to observe, to be
educated, to learn refinement of manners, and
especially to be indoctrinated with the great
lesson of subordination to the powerful mon
arch to whom he himself, on his accession to
the throus of Persia, was expected to be a
loyal subject.

234

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

It sometimes happens, however, that a
young man of genius learns more than is in-
tended by his masters. He may come to ap-
prehend that they are living upon the renown
of the past, that their wisdom is dust, and
their lessons slavery. So thought Cyrus at
the court of the king of the Medes. A reign
of vice had succeeded a reigu of vigor. The
luxury of Assyria had effeminated both the
king and his subjects.

The young prince of barbaric Persia was
himself fresh from the hills. He despised the
kind of life which he beheld around him. He
saw the great king of the Medes immersed in
banquets, attended by a retinue of despicable
eunuchs, caressed by concubines, and amused
by dancing-girls. Ecbatana was a revel, and
the king's palace a debauch. Moreover the
simple religious faith of Cyrus, schooled as he
had been in the doctrines of Zoroaster, was
shocked with what appeared to him the hollow
mockeries of Magism. His father's house,
the Achsemenian princes of Persia, taught
not,, tolerated not, the gross and unspiritual
practices of the Priests of the Fire. Doubt-
less Ahura-Mazdao was angry at the Median
idolatries, and was only waiting to destroy.

In these circumstances Cyrus, pent up at
the court of Astyages, found abundant food
for rebellious thoughts. He longed to escape
from his surroundings, and to lead an insur-
rection in honor of his country and his relig-
ion. His position, however, was virtually that
of a hostage, and he was jealously watched
and guarded. In his anxiety he applied to
Astyages for leave to return to Persia. He
alleged that his father, the Persian king, was
old and feeble, and required to be cared for
by his son and heir. Astyages refused the
plea. He so greatly admired and loved the
youth that he could not endure his absence
from the palace! Cyrus thereupon sought
an intercessor. A favorite attendant of
the king pleaded with him that the young
man might be allowed to depart. Permission
was at length obtained, and with a few at-
tendants the prince set out from the Median
capital.

The mind of the fearful is always haunted
with dread and superstition. After the de-

parture of Cyrus, Astyages sat at a banquet.
The wine flowed, and the dancing-girls were
merry. The king demanded a song. One of
the girls or as some say, a minstrel took up
a lyre and chanted this ominous prophecy :

The lion once had the wild b >ar in his hall,

But he let him depart to his own ;
He has broken the meshes that held him thrall,

And, behold, how the boar has grown !

He will wax, and grow great, ani return at length,

And the lion has need to defend,
For the boar will o'ermatc\ him in courage and
strength,

And tear him in pieces and rend!

The king of the Medes was not so drunken
as to hear this prophecy with equanimity.
He was thrown into alarm, and instantly or-
dered a company of his guards to follow Cyrus
and bring him back to the palace. The prince
was overtaken and captured. The king's or-
ders were made known, and Cyrus consented
to return. That night, however, he made his
captors a feast, and while they were in the
stupor of drink he mounted his horse and es-
caped to the outposts of Persia. There he
took command of a body of soldiers, and when
the guards of Astyages, awaking to find their
prisoner fled, pursued and again overtook the
fugitive, it was only to find him at the head
of a force equal to their own, to be routed by
him and driven back into Media. Cyrus then
made good his escape to his father's court and
found protection in the Persian army.

Astyages was terrified and enraged at .^e
result. He beat his body and very properly
declared himself a fool for having yielded to
the solicitations of his courtier and permitted
the escape of Cyrus from his clutches. He
resolved, however, to recover by force the ad-
vantage which he had lost by carelessness.
He summoned his generals and immediately
gave orders for a great invasion of Persia.
The largest Median army ever mustered was
at onr-e collected. Tradition numbers three
thousand war-chariots, two hunared thousand
horse, and a million of infantry as the terrible
array which Astyages deemed necessary to re-
cover a young man whom he could recently
have destroyed by a nod. The Mede put
himself at the head of his host, and the inva-
sion of Persia began.

MKDIA. CIVIL ANI> MILITARY ANNALS.

235

Cyrus and Cambyses, his father king of
the Persians prepared resistance. They had
a hundred chariots of war, fifty thousand
horsemen, and two hundred thousand infantry.
Willing with this comparatively small force
to anticipate the movement of his enemy,
Cambyses marched boldly to a frontier town
of his dominions and awaited the onset. The

a mortal wound. The Persians were attacked
in front and rear and only succeeded in sav-
ing themselves by flight. The army retreated
in broken fragments and fell back on Pasar-
gadte, the capital. After burying his dead
rival the king of the Medea pressed on to
make an end by destroying at one blow the
metropolis and the kingdom.

CYRUS THE GREAT.
Drawn by W. Camphausen.

Medea joined battle, and for a whole day
the conflict raged without decisive results; but
on the second day superior numbers gave the
advantage to Astyages. Detaching a hun-
dred thousand men he sent them to the rear
of the town, and while the Persians were ab-
sorbed in the main contest the stronghold in
their rear was assaulted and taken. In defend-
ing the fortifications Cambyses himself received

The stress of their affairs brought out the
best qualities of the Persians. Cyrus, who on
his father's death was recognized as king, dis-
played remarkable heroism. Before Astyages
could reach the capital, the Persian had re-
organized his army, and advanced to meet
him. The country between the field of the
first battle and Pasargadse was rough and
hilly, and the Median advance was conse-

236

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

quently retarded. The circumstance gave to
Cyrus au opportunity to select his own ground
of defense. A most advantageous situation
was accordingly chosen. A narrow defile,
with lofty hills rising precipitously on either
side, was found iu the Median line of march,
and seized by the Persians. Ten thousand
picked troops were placed in the pass, and
against these the Medes flung themselves in
7ain. Astyages, however, adopting his former
tactics, detached a division of his army, and
succeeded in gaining the heights above the
defile, and the Persians were thus forced to a
hasty retreat. But in another'range of hills
nearer to the capital they secured a similar,
though less defensible, position, and again
awaited the onset.

With the coming of Astyages another two
days' conflict ensued, more terrific and more
decisive than the first. The hills which the
Medes must ascend, driving the Persians,
were steep, and the slopes were covered with
thickets of wild olive. For a whole day the
host of Astyages beat in vain against the ob-
stacles. The Persians held their position un-
daunted, discharging showers of missiles and
hurling down great masses of stone upon the
ranks of their assailants.

On the second day the overpowering num-
bers of the Medes began to tell in their favor.
Astyages placed one division of his army be-
hind those files which were ordered to the
charge, and commanded those in the reserve
lines to urge forward those in advance, and to
kill all who gave way before the Persians.
In this way it was contrived that the terror
behind was as great as the danger before.
To fall back was certain death; to advance
was possible victory. Before their assailants,
maddened by this merciless alternative, the
Persians lost ground for a while, and were
driven to the very summit of the hills. Here
their wives and children, who were more se-
cure with the army than in the capital, began
to fling up their arms and cry out with min-
gled tears and reproaches against that weak-
ness which seemed ready to expose them to
capture. Stung by these outcries, and roused
to the desperation of valor, the Persians made
a sudden rally, and flim? themselves with the

recklessness of death upon the advancing foe.
Sixty thousand of the Medes were borne down
by this extraordinary onset. The voice of
woman had risen above the roar of battle,
and the arm of Persia had thrust back the foe.

The victory thus gained was indecisive.
The Persians were relatively too weak to make
the overthrow complete. Astyages succeeded
after some maneuvers in gaining a position in
the immediate vicinity of the capital. He
was preparing to strike a final blow at his
antagonist, when the latter, anticipating the
movements of his enemy, fell suddenly on the
Median camp. It was the fifth pitched battle
which had been fought between the opposing
armies. Gaining something by the surprise
and much more by the impetuosity of his
attack, Cyrus cut right and left into the heart
of the Median bivouac. Panic and rout en-
sued, and the fugitive remnants of the army
of Astyages were pursued in all directions.
The victory was complete and overwhelming.
The chiefs and generals of Cyrus gathered
around him on the battle-field, and proclaimed
him KING OF MEDIA AND PERSIA.

Astyages made good his escape and fled
towards Ecbatana. He was accompanied by
a small body of friends who still adhered to
his fortunes; but the company was overtaken
by the eager and vigilant Cyrus, who routed
the band and captured the king. It was As-
tyages who had added cruelty to folly and
wickedness to disaster by punishing and put-
ting to death several of his generals, upon
whom he laid the blame of his overthrow.
This despicable conduct, added to much pre-
vious imbecility, created a wide-spread dis-
affection, and large numbers of the leading
Medes were ready to hail Cyrus as a deliverer.
The fact that there was no legitimate heir to
the Median throne tended to reconcile the
people to their recent disaster, and to incline
them to accept a Persian prince as their ruler.

Thus, in the year 558 B. C., was the great
monarchy established by Cyaxares brought to
a sudden end. The king was the state, and
the king was a prisoner. Ecbatana surren-
dered without a defense. The dependent
provinces sent in embassies and tendered their
submission. In a short time the authority of

Ml VIA. CIVIL .\\'l> MILITARY ANNALS.

237

Cyrus was as completely established in the
north as in the south. That large proportion
of the Medcs who lavoivd tin- /oroastrian r> -
form were satisfied ; for Magism was over-
thrown. The ambitious, who had fretted un-
der the effeminate government of Astyages,
were secretly pleased at the prospect of manly
vigor in affairs of state. The philosophic
were content ; for they saw in the revolution
only the transfer of authority from one royal
house to another. The patriotic were not
offended, for they remembered that the princes
of Persia and Media were kinsmen nobles of
the same blood and the same family. Perhaps
no conquest of history has brought less dis-
turbance to the vanquished state than did the
overthrow of Media by the arms of Cyrus.

The inquiry naturally arises why the allied
kingdoms of Babylonia and Lydia were not
involved in the stirring and critical move-
ments just described. Perhaps the first an-
swer is to be found in the suddenness of the
circumstances which precipitated the Medo-
Persian war. Scarcely could the news of the
passion of Astyages against Cyrus and the
rapid invasion of the dominions of Cambyses
have been borne to Babylon and Sard is, until
other intelligence would have followed of the
annihilation of the Median army and the over-
throw of the monarchy. Sovereigns were
more ready to send succor to a king at the
head of his army than to a captive in the
hands of his enemy. Especially would this
be true of the king of Lydia, whose remote
capital could hardly be expected to send a
contingent to so great a distance. As to Bab-
ylonia, Nebuchadnezzar, king of that country
and brother-in-law of Astyages, was already
dead, and could no longer recognize old obli-
gations. Neriglissar, who at the time occu-
pied the palace of Babylon, was himself a
product of revolution, and an enemy of that
house which had maintained the alliance with
Media. So Astyages was left to his fate, and
his fate was Cyrus.

We thus have the spectacle of a vast em-
pire which arose suddenly, and was more sud-
denly extinguished. In territorial extent thit
great power surpassed the combined areas of

Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal.
N. Vol. 115

In richness of soil and fertility of resource*
Media fully equaled Assyria, with her seven
hundred years of history. The mettle of the
people was by nature equal to the demands
of great nationality, and no incentive to the
highest ambition seeins to have been wanting
in the character and surroundings of the race.

The causes of the sudden eclipse of Median
promise must be sought on the side of polit-
ical weakness and social barbarism. The in-
herent vice of personal, and therefore irre-
sponsible, government, identifying the nation
with the king, and wrapping up the destiny
of the former in the personal and capricious
destiny of the latter, rendered every thing
precarious. After this the greatest element
of weakness was the want of political unifica-
tion among the various kingdoms and prov-
inces which were successively absorbed into
the Empire. The administration of the Me-
dian kings seems never to have embraced any
rational measures for the reduction of their
various peoples into a homogeneous nation.
The organization of the government was so
crude and imperfect as to furnish no guar-
anty of security ; and the king in his meth-
ods of exercising and dispensing authority
was a mixture of the oriental despot and the
barbaric chieftain. Successful war is a neces-
sary condition of the perpetuity of such a
government. When that fails, or when the
monarchy falls into the hands of an imbecile,
the state goes headlong.

To these causes must be added the general
decline of the warlike spirit of the Medes and
their degeneration into vice. The court set the
example. - Astyages was by constitution averse
to that kind of severe and adventurous enter-
prises upon which the martial spirit is fed
and nurtured. Xor did he, like Caesar, pos-
se* the sublime abilities of peace. He gave
himself up instead to the careless and reckless
indulgence of appetite and passion. It was
Charles Stuart succeeding Cromwell an age
of lasciviousness following hard after an age
of austerity and the rough, but solid, virtues
of war.

The vicious tendencies of the Median court
were caught up and diffused by the nobles.
To on td rink and outcarouse the king was the

238

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

highest flattery which the courtier could pay
to his master. And so, percolating through
the higher ranks of society, the insidious
streams of vice and immorality descended to
the common people and poisoned the national
life.

Finally, the personal character of Cyrus
had much to do with the revolution which
subverted Media and gave to his own country
the leadership of Western Asia. Fresh from
his native hills, he saw in the court of the
great king every thing to be detested, nothing
to be admired. There national immorality

and national impiety flourished. There disci-
pline was relaxed. There effeminacy was
enthroned. There, for thirty-five years, the
heroic virtues of war had given place to indo-
lence, to indulgence, to inglorious riotings
with piping eunuchs and unchaste dancing-
girls. In all this there was the incentive to
ambition and genius to strike a blow against
one who was too great not to be envied and
too mean not to be despised. The blow was
struck with a manly arm, and the fabric of
Median renown reared by the valor of Cyax-
ares passed away like a vision.

THE YOUNG CYRUS ENTERING ECBATANA.

took liflh.

* o

BABYLONIA.

CHAPTER xix. THE COUNTRY.

| F the general character of
the low-lying plain at the
head of the Persian Gulf
much has already been
said in the history of
Chaklsea. It is only nec-
essary to recapitulate the
leading features of that peculiar district. It
consisted of two parts : that between the rivers
Tigris and Euphrates, and the long and irreg-
ular strip of country bordering the latter river
on the right bank, aud bounded westward by
the Arabian desert.

The area of the first division, or LOWER
MESOPOTAMIA, was nearly eighteen thou-
sand square miles, and of the western tract
about nine thousaud square miles making
the entire area of what may be called Baby-
lonia Proper not far from twenty-seven
thousaud. square miles. The whole region
was an alluvial deposit, the product of
the two great rivers of Western Asia. The
boundary on the east was the Tigris; on
the south, the Gulf of Persia; on the west,
the desert; and on the north, a line drawn
from Samarah on the Tigris to Hit on the
Euphrates. Comparatively, the district thus

defined was less than the kingdom of Port
"gal.

BABYLONIA PROPER, however, was only the
nucleus of the vast Babylonian Empire, whose
greatness is now to be considered. It will be
remembered that Nabopolassar, on his defec-
tion from Saracus, the last king of Assyria,
received from his ally, Cyaxares, the vice-
royalty of Babylon. This he organized into
an independent kingdom the first step in a
career of conquest which laid the larger part
of Western Asia tributary at the feet of his
successors. It is with the extensive countries
thus brought under the sway of Babylon that
we have now to deal.

At the downfall of Nineveh, and in the
division of spoils between Cyaxares and JTabo-
polassar, it is not easy to determine precisely
what countries fell to the share of the latter.
A few historical references and the nature of
the countries subdued by the combined arras
of Media and Babylonia are the only indica-
tions of the limits of the parts claimed by the
respective conquerors. In a general way it
may be said that the western and south-west-
ern parts of the Assyrian Empire fell to Nabo-
polassar, and the residue to Cyaxares. Besidei

(239)

240

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

this natural division, the Babylonian prince
claimed and obtained the important country
of Susiana, beyond the Tigris. This province
constituted, then, the eastermost part of the
kingdom of Babylon, and is first to be consid-
ered in describing the character of the coun-
tries dominated by Nabopolassar and his
successors.

SUSIANA, corresponding with the modern
provinces of Khuzistan and Luristan, lay be-
tween the river Tigris and the Bakhtiyari
Mountains. The breadth of the country is
one hundred and twenty miles. The surface
is, for the most part, an alluvium, rising on
the east into a hill country abutting against
the mountains. The upland part is a beauti-
ful region, covered with fine woods and full
of springs. Across the country from the
mountain spurs and running to the westward
are many rivers of excellent character, clear
and rapid. The country in the western part
and in the valleys of Luristau is fertile in an
eminent degree ; but as the hills rise higher
and higher on the east the land becomes bare
and rocky, comparatively unfit for the abode
of either man or beast. This mountainous
barrier, however, constituted an excellent east-
ern boundary for the Empire easily defensi-
ble against the encroachments of enemies.
Looking down from this rocky rampart a
country lay spread to the westward whose
sloping hills and narrow valleys and swift
streams of shining water framed a landscape
similar to those presented on the Median
slopes of the Zagros. Taken all in all, the
province of Susiana was one of the most at-
tractive and valuable districts which Nabopo-
lassar inherited from Assyria.

Next in importance among the Babylonian
provinces may be mentioned the VALLEY OF
THE EUPHRATES, above the city of Hit. This
was a long, serpentine piece of territory con-
forming to the course of the river. On the west
it was bounded by the Arabian Desert, and
on the east by the highlands of Mesopotamia.
Through this tract the Euphrates makes its
way, sunk in many parts in a deep bed and
pressed between banks of limestone and gyp-
sum. At intervals on either hand the hills
rise to a moderate height and are covered with

shrubs and stunted timber. In other parts
the course of the river is marked by a narrow
strip of date-palms, willows, and tulips. So
deep is the bed of the stream and so imper-
vious the banks that the presence of the fresh-
water tide is felt for but a short distance, and
by the same circumstances irrigation is ren-
dered difficult or impossible. The chief value
of the valley is as a line of communication
between Babylonia and the West. By this
route Abraham and his household journeyed
from Ur to Canaan, and ever afterwards the
invasions and counter-invasions between Syria
and Egypt, on the one hand, and the Em-
pires founded on the Euphrates and Tigris on
the other, were made through this natural
gateway.

The chief fertility of this valley is found
on the western or Mesopotamian side. Here,
at intervals, especially in the upper course
of the river, the cultivable land spreads out
to a considerable distance, and is sufficiently
fruitful to yield fair rewards to husbandry.
The forests, too, improve north of the Kha-
bour, and the general features of the country
are such as please the eye and suggest civili-
zation. In the times of Assyrian and Babylo-
nian greatness this region along the Euphrates
was filled with a large and active population.
The river was one of the great lines of com-
merce, not only between the upper country
and Babylon, but also in a larger sense be-
tween the East and the West.

The third province of the Empire was
Mesopotamia Proper. Something has already
been said of this region in the description of
Assyria. The name indicates the boundaries.
It is likely, however, that that portion of
Mesopotamia in which the streams take their
course to the Tigris rather than to the Eu-
phrates, was not included in the part allotted
to Nabopolassar in the division of Assyria.
Doubtless, the valley of the Tigris was taken,
along with the trans-Tigrene provinces, by
Cyaxares as his portion of the conquest. But
all that large region in which the waters of
the rivers notably the Khabour fall off to
the west and join the Euphrates, went natu-
rally and politically to Nabopolassar and hia
successors.

BAlSYI.'iM.i. Till: COUXTKY.

24}

This Euphratine slope of Mesopotamia is
a country of much importance. It extended
on the north to the Masian mountains; on tin-
east to the watershed of the Tigris valley ; on
the west, to the Euphrates. Iti this district are
the great rivers, the Hilik and the Klmbour,
with their numerous tributaries. The hanks
of these streams are generally rich in pastur-
age, and in parts the fertility is exceptionally
good. Between the two rivers just mentioned,
and in the district where rise the Hills of
Abd-el-A/.i/, is found a region known as the
Land of Fountains, where more than three
hundred springs of pure water break out
into brooks and running streams, refreshing
the land with a natural irrigation.

West of the river Euphrates, and south of
the Taurus range, lay the country known as
NORTHERN SYRIA. It was a land of small fer-
tility and but few natural advantages. Like
the Euphrates valley, its usefulness consisted
largely in the fact of its being a thoroughfare
between the East and the West. The surface
was hilly and barren. From the north, begin-
ning with the spurs of the Araanus and
Taurus, the rocky ranges gradually descended
to the desert country about Aleppo. The soil
is generally unfruitful and the landscape deso-
late. The rainfall is insufficient, and the
streams few and poor in water. The hill-
sides and plains are covered in many parts
with stones, and but little cultivable land is
found. A meager crop of grain may be pro-
duced in the better districts, but, for the rest,
the country has no agricultural value beyond
the production of pistachio-nuts and a few
olives and grapes. It was, however, across
this somewhat forbidding region that the vast
and profitable trade between the countries of
the Euphrates and the opulent cities of the
distant Mediterranean was carried on. To
this source must be attributed the greater
part of whatever wealth and importance the
region possessed in the times of the Empire.

As compared with the country just de-
scribed, Syria Proper, lying to the south and
west, had many and great advantages. This
important province of the Babylonian Empire
extended on the west to the Mediterranean,
and on the south as far as the latitude of

Tyre. Along that distant coast arise the two
mountain chains of Libanus and Bargylus,
forming the barrier of the desert and furnish-
ing hundreds of streams of water. Upon the
slopes grew the finest timber. In the valleys
between the spurs bounding rivulets swelled
into rivers, and picturesque landscapes were
seen. Further inland lies the parallel range
of Antilibauus, with Hermon on the southern
and Jebel-el-Ala at the northern terminus;
but in natural attractiveness these mountain
districts fall below the magnificent Libanus,
with his cascades and forests and glens.

Between these two mountain ranges, ex-
tending north and south for over two hundred
miles, is the famous valley known as the Hol-
low Syria. Few richer districts are found
anywhere on the earth's surface. About mid-
way of this valley the two rivers, Orontes and
Litany, one flowing northward and the other
southward, take their rise. Along their banks
is found a soil unsurpassed in fertility and re-
sources. Stretching away to the foothills of
the mountains is spread an area of vegeta-
tion the most luxuriant to be seen in all
Western Asia.

But not only in its natural advantages is
this noble valley preeminent. Its historical
importance is even greater than the riches
'vhich nature has lavished upon it. For Hol-
low Syria is the gateway between Asia and
Africa. Along this lowland, flanked on either
hand with mountains, the tides of human am-
bition have surged to and fro for several
thousand years. Along this line the Egyp-
tians carried their solemn banners in the days
of Tothmes and Ramses II. By the same
route, in an opposite direction, came the con-
quering armies of Sargon and Sennacherib.
By this wav marched and countermarched the
forces of Necho and Nebuchadnezzar. Alex-
ander, on his way to Amun to be proclaimed
the Son of Jupiter, traversed this valley.
Here, too, marched the victorious legions of
Pompey the Great; and here the Crusaders
swept up and down in their struggles to gain
the Holy Sepulcher. Almost every foot of
this verdant region has been covered with the
tents of conquest and ground beneath the
heel of war.

242

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

The western slope of Libanus, dropping
down to the Mediterranean, extending along
the coast for about one hundred and eighty
miles, constituted PHOENICIA, one of the small-
est, but at the same time most important,
countries included in the Babylonian Empire.
Next the sea the laud had no great fertility,
being a mere strip of sand; but here was the
possibility of commerce. Here, too, rose the
long line of date-palms, which gave the name
of Plwenicia land of the purple date.

to the industry of men at a time when Egypt
was still fresh in her youth. All this would
have passed perhaps but for the safe and fre-
quent harbors which indented the shore, hold-
ing at perpetual bay the storms of the bois-
terous sea. These quiet havens of Phoenicia
were the birthplace of the navies of the
world. Here man first learned to contend
successfully with the perils of the open ocean
and to make Neptune, as well as Mars and
Jove, his confederate and friend.

PHOENICIAN FLEET ON A VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY.
Drawn by P. Philippoteaux.

In its widest part the country was scarcely
twenty miles in breadth, and anon the moun-
tain spurs came within a mile of the sea. An
insignificant belt of sand! But Nature had
chosen it as the spot from which should begin
the dominion of man over the deeps. Com-
merce was a necessity of the situation. The
forests of Lebanon have been proverbial in .
all ages. The heavy cedars almost overhung
the sea. To cut these giants of the wood and
float them down the short swift streams to the
coast gave a vent to the energies and profit

The fleets of Phoenicia put boldly to sea.
When History was still in the dawn the
strange crafts of this hardy maritime people
were seen creeping around the shores of the
Mediterranean. In the great days of Assyria
and Babylon the overland trade from the val-
ley of the Euphrates and still further east
was brought to the Phrenician coast to be
carried to the distant colonies and growing
nations of the West. By and by these same
fleets became important in discovery and in
war. The cities of Phoenicia grew rich. They

AJ! Yf.oXfA.TnE COUNTRY.

243

were the arbiters of the deep. Government
flourished. The court was one of the most
splendid in the East. Tyre and Sidon be-
came first known and then famous as far as
the knowledge of man
extended by communica-
tion in the earth; inso-
much that the insignifi-
cant strip of territory in
which they were situated
possessed a greater im-
portance in the destinies
of the ancient world than
did whole kingdoms
which were given up to
torpor and inaction.

Next in interest and
influence among flie out-
lying provinces of Bab-
ylonia was DAMASCUS.
This country lay east of
the range of Antilibanus,
and owed its fertility,
and in some sense its ex-
istence, to the two rivers
Awaaj and Barada, by
which it was chiefly wat-
ered. The moisture thus
diffused in an otherwise
arid region produces ex-
uberant vegetation and a
stalwart forest growth of
poplar, cypress, and wal-
nut. Wheat and barley
grow in the fields; apri-
cots, oranges, pomegran-
ates, and olives, in the
orchards. In this fruitful
circle of more than thirty
miles in extent lies the
city of Damascus, which
for beauty of situation
and construction has been
for centuries the most at-
tractive of oriental cities.

In its full extent PALESTINE, the Holy Land
of the Hebrews, embraced an area of about
eleven thousand square miles. This limit in-
cluded the subordinate divisions of Galilee,
Samaria, Bashau, ai:.l Gilead. The full length

of the country was one hundred and forty
miles, the breadth varying from seventy to
one hundred miles. The fundamental fact of
Palestine was the Jordan, which traverses a

1'IIUCXiriAV STEVE AT COrRT.
Drawn by P. Phlllppoteniix.

rocky valley from the slopes of Mount Her-
inon, in latitude 33 25' to latitude 31 47' N.,
where it loses its existence in the brackish
waters of the Dead Sea.

The region is peculiar. The valley is clearlj

244

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

the result of some cataclysm or volcanic erup-
tion, by which the surface of the earth has
been rent, producing a wide gorge or fissure,
the lower or southern portion of which is
greatly depressed below the surface. The Jor-
dan begins his course at a considerable eleva-
tion above the sea, and pursues a somewhat
precipitous course to the latitude of Merom,
where the sea-level is attained. From this
point onwards the Jordan is lower than the
Mediterranean, and as the descent is rapid,
the level of the river at the salt lake which
engulfs it is one thousand three hundred and
twenty feet below that of the sea.

THE DEAD SEA, LOOKING SOUTH.

On the two sides of the Jordan the land
rises in rocky ridges. The country is thus
divided into two slopes set over the one against
the other. In width the fertile part of the
valley is from one to ten miles, and this nar-
row tract embraces about all the fertile land
which Palestine possesses. A few vales here
and there, generally running at right-angles
to the course of the river, have a deposit of
rich soil, from which spring beauty and fra-
grance, but the general aspect of the country
is forbidding and gloomy.

On the highlands rising from the right or
west bank of the Jordan are found the small
states of Judaea, Galilee, and Samaria, while

on the corresponding slope to the left lie the
provinces of Itursea, Bashan, and Gilead. The
whole laud is hilly, undulating, rising into a
mountainous background. The southern por-
tion is most arid and barren, cheerless and
uninviting. The northern part has a larger
number of running streams. In some districts
of Samaria there are plains and valleys which
invite cultivation and yield fair rewards to
toil. The most beautiful part is Galilee, in
which water-brooks, sloping hills, and green
forests send back to the eye a sense of rest
and quiet. Of the level portions of Palestine
the fairest to view is the plain of Esdraelon,

stretching from
the bay of Acre
to the valley of
the Jordan and
presenting many
flowery land*
scapes.

The last of the
subordinate divis-
ions of this small
' but famous coun-
try is Philistia
from which by a
corruption of the
spelling the name
of Palestine is de-
rived. The dis-
trict lies to the
right towards
Egypt, and in its
general aspect ia

like the other provinces, though on a lower
level. Towards the sea Philistia sinks into
a sandy plain, but the inland parts are more
attractive and contain a good deal of cul-
tivable land, yielding wheat and barley in
abundance. In this region are the cities of
Gaza, Jaffa, and Ashdod, famous alike in
myth and history: in myth, for their names
are lost in the shadows of remote ages; in
history, for it was through Philistia that the
banners of conquest were borne back and
forth in the great wars between Egypt and
the powers of Western Asia.

Next after Palestine, among the countries
which Nabopolassar obtained by the conquest

BAH VI. <>.\l.\.

\ TR Y.

245

of Nineveh, may be mentioned the large and
irregular region railed IIU-.M.V.A, lying next to
Egypt. It was the land of the Amalckitcs,
the terror of Jewry. On the east lay the
great desert; on the south, the mountains of
Sinai and the northern arm of the Red Sea;
on the west, the borders of Egypt; on the
north Palestine. The whole region was and
is an undulating rocky plain, with a surface
of thin soil or gravel, degenerating into a
serai-desert. In some parts there are shrubs
and pasturage, whereon the nomads of Arabia,
beating up from the south, sustain their flocks
for a season. An occasional grove of palms
relieves the monotony of the landscape, yields
its fruit to the hungry desertman, furnishes
him a shade for his noonday rest. Next to
the seashore the country is as an elevated
beach. Further inland, extending from the
fissure in which the Dead Sea lies, is the long
depression called the Araba Valley, running
down towards Egypt, and gradually rising to
the level of the plain. Still further there
are a few barren ranges of unaspiring hills,
from the summit of which the African sunset
is seen full and red beyond the sea of Egypt.
The area of ancient Idumsea may be stated
approximately at one thousand six hundred
square miles.

The last of the Babylonian provinces here
requiring mention was PALMYRA the Land
and City of Palms. It lay between the valley
of the Euphrates and Syria, with the desert of
Arabia on the south. The general character
of the country was similar to that of Idumsea
and the region about Damascus. But here
the desert is broken at intervals by an oasis
that happy local paradise of the burning sand.
The city of Palmyra itself was built in one of
these oases, among nodding palms, amid foun-
tains and brooks of life-giving water.

Such, then, is the general outline of the
vast dominions ruled by Nebuchadnezzar.
From the extreme east, on the further bor-
ders of Luristaii, to the western limit, at the
gateway of Egypt, the Empire measured well-
nigh one thousand four hundred miles in ex-
tent. The breadth ranged in di (Ten-lit parts
from one hundred and sixty to two hundred and
eighty miles, giving an aggregate area of nearly

hundred and fifty thousand square miles
of territory an area about equivalent to the
empire of Austria. In shape, it will be ob-
served, the Buliylonian dominions were greatly
elongated from east to west, and this fact be-
came one of the chief obstacles in the admin-
istration and maintenance of authority. The
difficulty was heightened, moreover, by the
displacement of Babylon, the capital, which
occupied a position almost at one extremity
of the country, being nearly a thousand
miles distant from the western frontier. All
the advantages which the great city enjoyed,
all the ancient fame which gathered about
that marvelous capital, could hardly counter-
balance the evils arising from its extreme
situation.

If beginning on the east, we glance at the
rivers by which the Babylonian Empire was
watered, we find first of all the OROATIS, the
modern Tab, on the borders of Susiana. Its
headwaters are gathered within the limits of
Persia; but in its principal course it traversed
the territory of the great king. The whole
length of the stream is over two hundred
miles, and for a considerable distance above
the mouth it is navigable for boats of respect-
able size. In its upper course the waters are
fresh and pure, but near the sea the influence
of the tides and brackish sands convert the
current into brine.

A second important river of Susiana is
the JERAHI. This stream gathers its waters
from many fountains on the western slopes of
the Zagros. After accumulating a consider-
able volume, the river receives the large trib-
utary known as the Abi Zard, or Yellow River,
and pursues his southwesterly course tow-
ards the Persian Gulf. Near Dorak the Je-
rahi enters the district where irrigation is nec-
essary, and from this point onward the volume
of water in the channel is greatly reduced
by canals and reservoirs, into which it was
distributed. Though thus diminished, the
.-trcam maintains its course to the Gulf, which
it enters after a winding route of two hun-
dred miles. This river, after its junction
with the Abi Zard, is navigable for boats of
considerable burden, its breadth being over a
hundred yards.

246

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

Much larger than either of the streams just
described is the KUBAN. Like the preceding,
it is made up of two branches, the Kurau
proper and the DIZFUL. The former stream
takes its rise in the Yellow Mountains, bor-
dering Persia, and after a tortuous course
breaks through the Zagros and turns in a
south-westerly course to Shuster. Here the
stream divides into two channels, to be re-
united just above the junction with the Dizful.
From its fountains to this junction the Kuran
is two hundred and ten miles in length, and
the Dizful, before the waters of the two
streams are joined, has flowed a distance of
two hundred and eighty miles. Below the
confluence the Kuran is a majestic river,
equaling or surpassing in volume either the
Tigris or the Euphrates. The mouth of this
great stream is in the Shat-el-Arab, about
twenty miles below the city of Busra. The
whole length of the Kuran is about four hun-
dred and thirty miles.

A longer but less important river belonging
to the same region is the KERKAH the Cloas-
pes of the ancients. Its volume is made up
from three principal tributaries, all of which
flow down from the slopes of the Zagros.
After the union of the three branches the
river takes a westerly course, passing the city
of Behistun and the ruins of Rudbar. At
the last-named place the channel finds its way
out of the mountainous district, and after its
confluence with the Abi-Zal flows into the
plain. With its left margin it washes the
ruins of Susa, and thence turning to the
south-west falls, after a course of more than
five hundred miles, into the Shat-el-Arab.
Like the preceding streams the Kerkah is
navigable for large-sized boats.

Of the two great rivers, the Euphrates and
the Tigris, without which Chaldsea, Assyria,
Babylonia had never been, a full description
has already been given in Books Second and
Third. In like manner the course and char-
acter of most of the Mesopotamian streams
have been sufficiently delineated. If we pass
beyond the Euphrates to the west, however,
we shall find a great number of important
streams not hitherto described or noticed.
Beginning at the north, the first of these is

the SAJUR, a tributary of the Euphrates. It
is a stream about sixty-five miles in length,
navigable in its lower course for boats of the
smaller sort. The waters are gathered from
the spurs and foot-hills of the Amanus range
and are borne along by the ruin-crowned hill,
Tel Khalid, to join the parent river in latitude
36 37' N.

The second river of this region is the
KOWCIK, called by the Greeks the Chalis. Its
sources are in the hills of Ain-Tab, and
its channel is first directed towards the Eu-
phrates. Nature, however, has put barriers
in this direction. In the plain near Aleppo
a large tributary from the north deflects the
course of the stream to the south, and so, for
sixty miles, the river flows on through the sandy
plain. At this point in its route it meets the
hills and is turned eastward for a short dis-
tance, where it enters and is lost in the great
brackish marsh called El Melak.

In that remarkable valley between the
ranges of Libanus and Antilibanus rises the
ORONTES, the finest river of Syria. The wa-
ters of this great stream are gathered from the
slopes of the Antilibanus. Its upper fountain
is seven miles north of the ruins of Baalbek.
The course of the river is first in a north-
westerly direction, but after a sudden turn to
the north-east the stream flows along the foot-
hills of the Antilibanus to Lebweh, where it
is deflected over to the plains of Lebanon.
From this quarter the volume of water is in-
creased by many tributaries, and the river
finds its way along the base of the Lebanon
range. Further on it flows through the Lake
of Hems, and issuing, makes a detour around
the extreme of the mountains, turning towards
the Mediterranean. In this part it traverses
the valley of Antioch, and finally reaches the
sea in latitude 36 5' N. The whole length
of the river is a little over two hundred miles.
Its course is rapid and impetuous ; its channel
deep and capacious.

The river LITANY has already been men-
tioned as occupying the same valley with the
Orontes ; but the two streams flow in opposite
directions. The Orontes is known as the River
of Syria ; the Litany, as the River of Tyre.
The fountains of the latter are near to those

BAB YLOMA.-THK COrXTK Y.

247

of the former. A few miles north of Baalbek
a slight watershed turns the brooks to the
south and the valley gathers them together
into the Litany. The course of the stream is
at first southerly. The mountain slopes on
either hand send down additional rivulets,
and the volume is widened and deepened.
Near the southern extreme the valley be-
tween the Libauus and Autilibanus is con-
tracted in a narrow and forbidding gorge a
thousand feet in depth, through which the
river rushes headlong. After foaming and
plunging through these narrows, the agitated
stream issues into the plain, circles around
the base of Lebanon, and, after a course of
seventy-five miles, finds its way to the sea.

On the opposite side of the Antilibanus
range rises the River of Damascus, called the
BARADA. It has its principal source in a small
lake situated in latitude 33 41' N. From
this origin the stream flows eastward, first
through a glen between high cliffs until the
Antilibanus is cleared, and then from the
town of Suk in a south-easterly course towards
Damascus. In this vicinity the river begins
to be divided, both by artificial and natural
channels, until its waters are mostly dispersed
to convert a desert region into a paradise.
What remains of the stream finally disap-
pears, after a course of about forty miles, in
some marsh lands a half day's journey from
the city.

The river JORDAN is immemorially famous.
Its sources are to the north of Lake Merom.
Its uppermost fountain is a spring called the
Ras-en-Neba, near Hasbeiya. The rivulet,
proceeding from this origin, descends the
north-western slope of Mount Hermon. Small
brooks from several directions join their wa-
ters at Merom. This upper part of the Jor-
dan valley is a place of reeds and marshes,
and even after issuing from the lake the Jor-
dan is for a considerable distance a sluggish
and indifferent stream. Then, as the valley
sinks, the current becomes rapid and in some
parts headlong. Between Merom and Tibe-
rias the fall is in places as much as fifty feet
to the mile, but after passing the latter place
the decline is not so rapid, and the stream
sometimes flows with a placid current. From

Tiberias to the Dead Sea is a distance of sev-
enty miles, and the difference in level is about
six hundred feet.

In this part of its course the Jordan re-
. ceives two tributaries. The first of these is
the JARMUK, which drains the district south-
east of Lake Tiberias. In the rainy season
its banks are full, but in summer the channel
is almost dry. It traverses a country of con-
siderable fertility until it approaches the
rocky gorge of the Jordan, into which it falls
through a chasm with precipitous walls on
either hand a hundred feet in height. The
other confluent of the parent stream is the
brook JABBOK. This classic stream drains the
land of Gilead. Like the Jarrnuk, the Jab-
bok swells to a torrent in winter and shrinks
into a rocky bed in summer. On the sides of
the ravine through which it flows sunk deep
in the earth are seen overhanging oaks.
Here is a thicket of cane and yonder a cluster
of oleanders. Like the preceding stream the
Jabbok enters the Jordan through a cleft in
the rocks, roaring when swollen, and broken
into foam. The whole length of the Jordan,
from the springs of Ras-en-Neba to the Dead
Sea, is, in a direct line, one hundred and thirty
miles, or twice that distance if the wanderings
of the channel be included in the measurement.

Passing, then, to other bodies of water em-
braced within the limits of the Babylonian
Empire, we find not a few lakes of importance.
Especially is this true in the western portions
of the dominions of Nebuchadnezzar. The
greater number of these sheets of water were
of the brine briny, made so by having no out-
lets and by the saline character of the sur-
rounding districts. Four of the most impor-
tant, however, were fresh water; namely, the
Lake of Antioch the Bahr-el-Melak the
Bahr-el-Kades, the Lake Merom, and the Sea
of Tiberias. All of these Ixxlies were simply
expansions in the beds of rivers, by whose
volume they were perpetually replenished
from the hills, and through whose channels
the overflow was carried to the sea.

Beginning in Northern Syria, the first salt
lake demanding attention was the SARAKHAH.
It was situated on the route from Aleppo to
the Euphrates, just below the thirty-sixth

248

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

parallel of latitude. It contains about fifty
square miles of water, being thirteen miles in
length and from three to five miles broad. It
is the product of several small streams, which
pour their contributions into a basin from
which there is no outlet. The waters are so
exceedingly salty that the natural incrusta-
tions are gathered along the shores and sold
a rudimentary and puny commerce.

The BAHR-EL-MELAK has already been men-
tioned as the lake into which flows the river
of Aleppo. It has the same general character
as that last described, but is considerably less
in area. Its value, however, is not less con-
siderable, for from the bed of this basin, when
the waters under the summer sun have re-
ceded to their lowest ebb, the inhabitants take
from the bottom a large part of the salt which
supplies the markets of Syria. Over the sur-
face of the same sheet of brine, when the
winter rains have filled the basin to the brim,
large flocks of geese and ducks and solitary
flamingoes go sailing.

The three lakes in the immediate vicinity of
Damascus have already received some notice.
Between the rainy and the dry season they fluc-
tuate greatly in extent. Indeed, when the
rains are excessive the edges of the three
bodies touch each other, and the lake is con-
tinuous. They are all, as has been said, sup-
plied from the streams of the Antilibanus,
and being without an outlet, are brackish
and heavy. 1

The DEAD SEA, at the lower extremity of
the gorge of the Jordan, is the largest salt
lake of Western Asia. Perhaps no other
body of water of equal size has attracted so
much attention. It is forty-six miles in
length and ten and a-half miles in breadth.
The area is about two hundred and fifty
square miles. The lake is of an oblong form,
being quite regular in shape, except on the
eastern side near the southern extremity,
where a long peninsula projects nearly to the
other shore. All that portion of the sea lying

1 The marvel of the Dead Sea in regard to the
quality of its waters has been greatly exaggerated.
The fact is, that dead seas prevail wherever the
natural conditions are present. Syria abounds in
them, and Utah furnishes a notable example.

south of this peninsula is shallow, having a
depth of only a few feet, while the main body
lying to the north sinks to the extraordinary
depth of one thousand two hundred or one
thousand three hundred feet; and since the
surface of the lake is above one thousand
three hundred feet below the level of the
Mediterranean, the bottom of the chasm is in
some places more than two thousand six hun-
dred feet below the sea! No other body of
water on the earth's surface is so greatly
depressed.

The water of the Dead Sea is impregnated
with salt and other minerals to a degree un-
equaled. Lake Urumiyeh, in Northern Media,
most nearly approaches it in saltness and gen-
eral character. From this unusual impregna-
tion of minerals, and from the great depres-
sion of the surface, the Dead Sea waters have
a specific gravity and consequent buoyancy
greater than any other lake or sea. Chemical
analysis shows that one-fourth of the whole
weight of this thick brine is composed of
solid matter a quantity twice as great as is
found ill the waters of the open ocean.
Heavy logs of wood thrown into the Dead
Sea float out of the surface, buoyed up like
cork, and the human body will sink of its
own weight only to the shoulders. For the
greater part the lake is lifeless. Even the
shores are incrusted with the crystalline de-
posits of ages. Lot's wife is a pillar of salt !

Turning to the fresh-water lakes, the most
important is the SEA OF TIBERIAS, or Galilee.
In shape it resembles its salt counterpart of
the south, being an ellipse, with its greater
axis up and down the Jordan valley. Its
length is thirteen miles; its width, six miles.
The greatest depth is one hundred and sixty-
five feet. It is simply an expansion of the
Jordan, which comes down from Merom dis-
colored with a muddy sediment. This, how-
ever, is left in the bottom of the lake, and the
river issues below a clear and beautiful stream.

The region of Tiberias and the sheet of water
itself may claim considerable beauty more
than any other region of Palestine. The
traveler stands on the beach and sees around a
large circumference of the lake a well-defined,
pebbly shore ; before him a lake of bright,

/;.!/;) LOMA Tin:

pure water; around him a background of
hills. Water-fowl ou graceful wing alight
here and there, and the finuy tribes break the
surface in their sport.

A few miles north of Tiberias is Luke M> -
rom, now known as the BAHR-EL-HULEH. It is
nearly circular in shape, and has an area of
about twenty-five square miles. The country
round about is a marsh, covered with swamp-
grass, reeds, and rushes. Through these the
traveler beats a difficult passage down to thr
lake. Wild fowl take to flight, and the water
teems with fishes.

Passing from the country of the Jordan
and entering the valley of the Orontes, we
find the BAHR-EL-KADES, similar in all respects
to the lakes Tiberias and Merora. The first
is, like the latter two, an expansion of the
river to which it owes its supply. The area
of the Kades lake is nearly the same as that
of Merom, being about eight miles long by
three in width. There is a tradition extant
that the lake in question owes its origin to a
dam which was built across the Orontes in
the times of Alexander the Great, and there
are some evidences that the basin has been
artificially formed by the deflection of the
river. If such is, indeed, the origin of Bahr-
el-Kades, the lake had no existence in the
times of Nebuchadnezzar a thing quite pos-
sible.

About one hundred and fifteen miles north
of the last mentioned body of water lies the Sea
of Antioch, the BAHR-EL-MELAK of modern
geography. It lies nearly four-square, with
the angles, like the corners of an Assyrian
palace, facing the points of the compass. It
is a shallow lagoon, only a few feet in depth.
The surrounding country is a marsh, like the
region about Merom. The banks are fringed
around the whole circumference with a thick
growth of reeds, and the huts of fishermen are
seen here and there as they have been from
immemorial times.

Such were the general features of the great

Empire of the Babylonians. To the east lay
Persia, between which and the Chaldamn plains
rose an almost impassable barrier of moun-
tains. After the conquest of Assyria by Me-
dia, the latter country bounded Babylonia on
the north, nor was there any physical obstacle
to invasion from that direction. It will be
remembered, however, that from the circum-
stances attending the overthrow of Nineveh,
relations of amity were established between
the Medes and the Babylonians, and were long
maintained. The danger, therefore, to which
the kings of Babylon might have been ex-
posed from possible attack by their ambitious
and warlike neighbors ou the north was from
the first reduced to a minimum.

Ou the south of Babylonia lay ARABIA
a desert waste. Such was the country that
no great population could be maintained upon
its treeless, blasted surface. For this reason
the Empire had little to fear from the Arabs,
who could never muster in sufficient numbers
to menace a compact and powerful people
like the Babylonians. On the extreme west
of the dominions of the great king spread the
MEDITERRANEAN, from whose billows no threat-
ening foe was to be expected. On the south-
west border, however, lay the land of the Pha-
raohs, the most ancient and for a long time the
most powerful of kingdoms. Egypt was the
rival of Babylonia. The monarchs of the
two great nations eyed each other askance;
and causes of quarrel were found not a few.
The remoteness of the two countries was the
saving fact which prevented almost continual
war. If Egypt had the greater fertility, it
was restricted to narrow boundaries. The
wider domains and larger and more warlike
population gave the advantage to the Baby-
lonians, who waxed great and branched like
a cedar, while the declining energies of the
Egyptians wasted to feebleness and extinction.
It is now proper to consider in brief the pe-
culiarities of the Babylonian climate and
products.

250

ISIYERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

CHAPTER xx. CLIMATE AND PRODUCTS.

AKEN all in all, the coun-
tries included within the
Babylonian Empire were
dry and hot. On the
south the desert was in
close proximity. The
seas which washed the
borders of the dominions of Nebuchadnezzar
were small, and their influence was little felt
at a distance from the shore. Nor did the
mountain ranges included within the Empire
reach to such length and rise to such height
as to insure large quantities of rain or diffuse
everlasting freshness. The country was in-
cluded between the thirtieth and thirty-seventh
parallels of latitude, and was through the
larger part of its extent level and sandy.

From all of these circumstances heat pre-
dominated. The summers were long and
scorching; the winters, brief and mild. Of
course, the high temperatures of Chaldsea, of
Idumsea and Palmyrene were more excessive
in degree than in Mesopotamia and the north-
ern provinces. In all those parts approximate
to the Persian Gulf, even in the hilly regions
of Susiana, the heat of midsummer is fearful.
Frequently the thermometer at midday reaches
107 of Fahrenheit, and even in the under-
ground apartments, which the people construct
to protect themselves, the temperature hardly
falls below 100. At night the heat is as-
suaged, and the people find rest on the roofs
of their houses. In all the low countries and
southern districts winter brings no snow. In
December the rainy season sets in, and con-
tinues until March. Sometimes the clouds
pour down abundantly, and at intervals there
are violent storms of hail. Such is the gen-
eral character of the eastern parts of what
was the Babylonian Empire.

In the western provinces, next to the Med-
iterranean, there was a moister and cooler cli-
mate. In the mountainous districts of Liba-
nus and Antilibanus the winter is sufficiently
rigorous. In the valleys, however, the climate

is more mild than in the corresponding districts
of Europe. In some parts, indeed, as in Pal-
estine and along the Phoenician coast, the
winters are scarcely more severe than in Bab-
ylonia proper. At the Dead Sea the ther-
mometer never falls to the freezing point of
water, and in the summer season the heats
are intense and oppressive. In general the
temperature of Syria is about as here described,
but in the higher regions the air has a freer
movement, and the effects of the heat are
thereby assuaged.

The one great climatic drawback, however,
in the countries once ruled by the kings of
Babylon is the fierce Sirocco, or hot wind of
the desert. This burning blast is always blown
from the heated sands of Arabia. It is the
terror alike of man and beast. Mixed with a
cloud of fine hot sand the blast sweeps up
over the Syrian or Babylonian plains and
blisters what living thing soever it smites.
The sky grows lurid and the air is darkened.
The animals and birds fly to their covert, and
man seeks a shelter for protection.

It is not likely that any great changes have
occurred in the climatic conditions of the Bab-
ylonian dominions during the twenty-four
hundred years that have elapsed since the
days of the great Empire. Perhaps the soil
in many parts has suffered some deterioration,
but the same products are undoubtedly yielded
to-day as when they were gathered by the
husbandmen for Nebuchadnezzar's army. In
one respect the country has suffered much.
Many regions have been stripped of their for-
ests, and by this fatal procedure the natural
tendencies to drought have been aggravated.
Especially is this true in Syria, the climate of
which has certainly undergone some change
from the denudation of the woodlands; 1 but

1 Woe to the country that cuts down its woods.
The United States may well be warned by the
past. The woodman's axe is indeed the signal of
civilization, and it is also the forerunner of the
desert! The desert lies just the other side of the
cleared fields.

BABTLOtflA. CLIMATE A.\l> PRODUCTS.

251

the essential identity of products ancient and
modern precludes the conclusion of any great
transformation.

In ancient Babylonia whept grew native, as
diil ul>o barley. Lentil.-' and sc-aine came
without, culture, but more abundantly with it.
The edible roots peculiar to most parts of the
north temperate zone grew plentifully and
yielded large crops to the gardener. The date
palm flourished in all the southerly parts of
the Empire, and the great ap|>le-l>clt of the
world crossed the Babylonian plain. The
fruits of the country were various, and grew a
plentiful supply without the perils of winter
rigors or the untimely frosts of spring.

The yield of smaller grains was almost like
that of Egypt in abundance. The character
and amount of some of these crops as given by
the ancient historians is well-nigh incredible,
and can only be accepted on the supposition
that the alluvium of the Euphrates valley was
still fresh in its native powers, and that the
indigenous wheat-plant and other similar
growths felt here the rich impulses of nature.

The products of the Babylonian plain have
already been sketched in the History of Chal-
dsea. Those of Susiana were similar. Wheat
and barley yielded a hundred fold. The date-
palm flourished. In the native woods grew
acacias and poplars. This region, like parts
of Media and Persia, is the home of apples
and pears. Nearly all the fruits peculiar to
the better parts of the north temperate zone
grew ripe and abundant in the upland districts
and foot-hills of Khuzistan. The mountain
slopes of Susiaua furnished a fair supply of
timber, and this was sometimes cut, as in Phoe-
nicia, and floated down the streams to the
populous districts, where the cities were built.
For building materials, however, the palm-
tree straight and tall and easily hewn was
generally preferred, and this tree grew best
in the low plains next to the Gulf.

In the district hitherto described as the
Valley of the Euphrates meaning that part
of the valley above the alluvial plain of Chal-
dsea the products are not much varied from
those of Susiana and Babylonia proper. As
we ascend the river one of the peculiarities is
the appearance of the olive instead of the

date : the latter prefers the sand. Next come
the mulberry and the pistachio-nut, and the
walnut is abundant. In this region, as well
as in many parts of Mesopotamia, the vine
flourishes, though tin- valleys of the great
rivers seem not to have equaled those of Syria
as it respects the vintage. The small grains
wheat, millet, and barley grew well in all the
amble districts bordering on the Upper Eu-
phrates; and the orchards, in addition to
apples and pears and plums, yielded good
crops of pomegranates and oranges.

The northern portion of Syria was better
adapted to pastoral pursuits than to agricul-
ture. In general, there was more forest and
less productive soil. It was from the dense
woods of Northern Syria that the kings of
Nineveh, in the days of her glory, brought
the treasures of timber with which to adorn
the palaces of their capital. In various parts
of this region immense forests of walnut, oak,
pine, poplar, and ash are found, furnishing
an almost limitless amount of lumber. In the
open country wild shrubs appear in abun-
dance the oleander with its splendid flowers,
the honeysuckle with its fragrance, the myrtle
with its deep green leaves. In the orchards
grow the orange and the olive, the pome-
granate and the mulberry. The vine also is
cultivated, and pistachio-nuts and walnuts
flourish as well as in Mesopotamia. The vege-
table growths of the garden are similar to
those of like latitudes in Europe. Of general
products the castor-bean is and has always
been one of the most important staples of
Syria; and iu modern, though perhaps not in
ancient, times, cotton assumes its place among
the products of the country.

Nearly all of the native and transplanted
growths of Babylonia are found in South-
\\c>tern Syria. In this part of the dominions
of the Empire, however, the heat was more
intense than in the northern provinces, and
the greater moisture from the proximity of
the sea tended to create certain modifications
in the products of the country. Here, also,
are found the highest mountains within the lim-
its of the ancient Empire, and these, also, were
the causes of some changes in the things which
spring from the soil. Many new products

252

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

appear, not found iu Northern Syria, such as
the fig and the banana. The date still grows
as far towards Arabia as Damascus, but its
existence is precarious. Some of the products,
such as liquorice and the egg-plant, are sug-
gestive of Egypt. Others, like the lemon and
the almond, are similar to the same fruits in
the southern latitudes of the United States.

The general character of the products of an-
cient Palestine are of common fame, and need
hardly be repeated. The woods of the moun-
tain slopes were of cedar and oak and juniper.
The wild olive was a common plant of the
valleys. The papyrus of Egypt, the sugar-
cane, and the mistletoe either grew wild or
were cultivated in the gardens. Such is a
cursory view of the vegetable products, the
fruits, and the forests which prevailed in the
Empire of the Babylonians.

Of mineral resources the supply was pecul-
iar. In Babylonia Proper one of the most
important was bitumen. It was found as far
east as Susiana, but the most abundant sup-
ply was procured from the springs of Hit, on
the Euphrates. In the Dead Sea of Palestine
the same substance exists in inexhaustible
quantities. The part which this strange sub-
stance played in the reckless plain of ancient
Chaldsea, and afterwards in the buildings of
the Babylonians, has already been referred to
in the Second Book. As has already been
said, common salt was abundantly procured
from the beds of many of the Syrian lakes,
and was exported as merchandise. The Dead
Sea and the lakes near Palmyra yielded the
same mineral, the supply being limited only
by the energy of the manufacturers. From
the sources just mentioned, sulphur and niter
were also procured, and in other parts the
same substances were occasionally found. Of
all the countries embraced within the Empire,
the best for copper and iron was Palestine,
but even in this country the yield of these
valuable metals was not great. Silver was
found in small quantities in the range of
Antilibanus. It is not known that any gold
mine existed within the countries swayed by
the kings of Babylon.

Among the Babylonians gems and precious
stones were greatly coveted. But it does not

appear that the same were found anywhere in
the low plains around the head of the Persian
Gulf. Several kinds of gems were taken from
the hills of Susiana. In the channel of the
river Choaspes, agates were found in abun-
dance. In the vicinity of Damascus there
were beds from which alabaster was taken.
The Phoenician mines furnished lapis-lazuli,
and amethysts were obtained in the neigh-
borhood of Petra. From these various sources
the rough gems were brought to Babylon, and
engraved in a manner which has excited the
envy of modern times. Cornelians, rock-
crystals, chalcedony and onyx stones, jasper,
and feldspar were sought and sold in the shops
of the great city.

Of the supply of building material some-
thing has already been said in the history of
ChaldfM and Assyria. No stone was found in
Babylonia. In the earliest times, the ac-
quaintance of the Chaldseans with the native
tribes of Mesopotamia was not such as to en-
courage the importation of stone from the
north. In the valley of the Euphrates,
above the city of Hit, building stone is abun-
dant. Quarries exist on both sides of the
river, and in the country to the west, that is,
in Northern Syria, there is no deficiency.

The hills of Susiana are also piled up with
stone, and in Southern Syria ledges of out-
cropping rock frequently constitute the princi-
pal feature of the landscape. The variety
most abundant is common limestone, though
sandstone as well as silicious rocks and granite
are plentifully distributed. In the later and
more splendid days of the Babylonian Em-
pire stone was much used for building and
ornamentation, and the material so employed
was taken from the quarries on the Upper
Euphrates, and brought down the river to the
capital. Building with bricks, however, was
never superseded, even in the palmiest times
of the great kings.

Passing, then, to the animal life of Baby-
lonia, and beginning with the savage beasts,
we find the lion, then, as always, a monarch.
He was to be met in many parts Chaldaea
of old, Mesopotamia, Syria, alike in the des-
ert and the hills. Next and most formidable
were the bear, the hyena, the panther, and the

BAH Y !.<> MA. CLIMATE AND PRODUCTS.

leopard. The herbivora were represented by
the wild ox, the wild a>s, the sta;:, the ante-
lope, the goat, and the sheep. Of the leaser
creatures may he named the fox, the hare,
and the rabbit. A few of these animals are still
found, but rarely or in remote districts; others
are common, and abound. The ferocious
beasts have receded or encroached upon the
borders of civilization as those limits have
been enlarged or contracted by the fluctuations
of political power.

In modern times quite a number of addi-
tional animals not mentioned in the Assyrian
inscriptions have become prevalent in the
countries once dominated by the Babylonians.
Such are the otter and the beaver, the lynx
and the badger, the sable and the squirrel,
the jerboa and the porcupine. Some of these
are found in some parts, aud some in others.
Alligators have been occasionally seen in the
Euphrates by travelers.

The birds of Babylonia were and are
nearly identical with those now occupying the
same latitudes in Europe and America. The
chief birds of prey are the eagle, the vulture,
the falcon, the owl, the hawk, and the crow.
The smaller race consists of magpies, jack-
daws, blackbirds, thrushes, nightingales, larks,
et id omne genus. Of the edible birds the
most prized and most abundant are pheasants,
quails, and partridges. Of the river-fowl the
principal are geese and ducks. Of the ugly
and fantastic species may be mentioned the
pelican, the flamingo, the stork, the heron,
and the cormorant. Besides these are snipes,
woodcocks, sand-grouse, and parrots. In the
times of the Empire the ostrich was common
in Syria and Babylonia, though that phenome-
nal creature is not any longer found in those
regions. Perhaps the most peculiar bird of
these countries is a kind of heron, unknown
in Europe. It inhabits Northern Syria and
the districts about Aleppo. It is grayish
white in color, having tips of scarlet on the
wings, and a large beak scarlet and black.
The feet are yellow and the eyes red. In
shape it resembles the stork, but it is four feet
high, and the expanded wings measure a* much
a* nine feet ! This strange creature goes in a

flock of his kind. They are semi-aquatic.
N. Vol. i 16

In the rivers of Northern Syria they may be
seen standing in rows across the stream. They
select a shallow. Here they squat with their
outspread tails up-stream. The current a
thus stopped ; the water below runs away,
leaving bare the bed. When this feat is ac-
complished the birds all swoop down at a
signal and gather up in their big beaks the
fish and frogs that have been exposed in the
bed of the river !

The fishes belonging to the waters of As-
syria and Chaldsea have already been men-
tioned. Some of the reptiles also have been
noticed. Of insects, those most dreaded are
scorpions, tarantulas, and locusts. The last-
named have been the dread of fifty genera-
tions. Coming up from no one knows where,
swarming across the sky in clouds that no
one can measure, settling like an inexorable
plague on every green thing that springs from
the goodness of the earth, these devastating
creatures are the veritable curse of the coun-
tries subject to their ravages. In the locust-
bird Nature has kindly provided an antidote
with the bane.

The principal domestic animals of Babylo-
nia may be briefly mentioned. The chief of
these were the camel, the horse, and the ass.
The nature of the country was specially
adapted to the service of these creatures. The
open plain, tending on the Arabian side to
the desert, gave opportunity for the endurance
and sagacity of the camel, for the fleetness
and spirit of the horse, for the dogged pa-
tience and pertinacity of the ass. Next in
importance were the mules and the oxen.
The former were large and strong, and as in
other countries combined in themselves the
better qualities of their diverse ancestry.
They were much used alike in peace and war.
The monuments of Assyria show them under
the saddle, harnessed to carts, drawing huge
war-chariots on the way to battle. From
their attitude in the inscriptions they seem to
have been large and full of spirit, plunging
and rearing like horses. The asses from which
these animals were derived were larger and
better in all respects than the breeds known
in Europe. The same can not be said for
the horses of Babylonia, fdr these were hardly

254

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

equal to those of some other countries. Nev-
ertheless they were produced in great num-
bers. Herodotus narrates that the stables of
one of the Babylonian kings contained no
fewer than eight hundred stallions and sixteen
thousand mares. The prevalent breeds, if we
may judge by the delineations which have
been left in Assyria, were large-boned, large-
headed, strong, and heavy-muscled rather
than elegant or swift adapted rather for the
brick-yards of the plain than for fleetness or
beauty.

The sheep and goats of Mesopotamia were
like those of other countries. Of the former
animal several breeds were reared, of varying
grades as it related to flesh or fleece. The
latter yielded its flesh to the Babylonian
butcher-stalls its milk and cheese to the
peasant. Next in importance of the domestic
animals was the dog. The tablets show them
of many species and in the performance of
various services. The breeds presented ranged
from the elegant greyhound to the heavy and
impassive mastiff.

It is not known that the camel was native
to Babylonia. In several of the neighboring
countries, however, the beast was an efficient
agent in the affairs of life, and his importa-
tion into the Babylonian provinces was easy
and natural. The caravan trade then as

ever depended for its efficiency upon the
ship of the desert. The commercial com-
munication between the countries bordering
on the valley of the Euphrates and those
lying along the Mediterranean was maintained,
perhaps originally suggested, by the abilities
and temper of the camel. In war likewise
and in common travel this same remarkable
creature became indispensable to the wants
and caprices of men.

On the Babylonian cylinders are found
certain representations which seem to indicate
the buffalo as an animal native to the coun-
try. The creature thus delineated differs from
the ox, and corresponds very well with the
buffalo of Europe. The animal appears to
have been domesticated, and to have been
subsisted in the same manner and for the
same ends as the ordinary Babylonian cattle.
Oxen are represented on the same tablets,
and the uses of the two species, whether of
labor in the fields, or slaughter for the mar-
kets, or of sacrifice to the gods, seem to have
been identical.

Such is a brief sketch as supplemented
by what is said in the histories of Chaldsea
and Assyria of the general aspects of Nature
as she appeared to the ancient Babylonians,
and of the principal gifts which she gave
them out of her treasure.

CHAPTER xxi. PEOPLE AND CITIES.

T is difficult to define
properly the race-charac-
ter of the Babylonians.
From the earliest times
the people inhabiting the
low plains of Chaldrea
were a melange of diverse
tribes. Here the old Cushites had had their
abode. Here certain of the Semitic family
had found a home. Here perhaps some of
the primitive Aryans had intruded among
their elder brethren. Here the great Arab
Dynasty had been established, and had ruled
from the middle of the sixteenth century

to the year B. C. 1300. At the latter date
the Semitic Assyrians of the north swooped
down on Babylon, and took the laud, bringing
in the customs and blood of Upper Mesopo-
tamia. Here the plan of colonizing the con-
quered but insurrectionary populations of for-
eign countries was fully and unreservedly
adopted ; and here the tides of war, sweeping
back and forth from the east and the north
and the west, drew in with their ebb and flow
a vast debris of humanity, and left it as a
sediment in the countries about Babylon.
From all these causes a mixture and agglom-
eration of races took place within the realms

BABYLONIA. PEOPLE AND CITIES.

of Nebuchadnezzar, the like of which could
not be found in any other portion of the an-
cient world. The Babylonian nation was
composite.

The three dominant race elements in the
people of the Empire were the Semitic, the
Cushite, and the Turanian. By the first the
Babylonians were allied with the Hebrews
and Phoenicians; by the second, with the
Arabs and ancient Egyptians; by the third,
with the wild races of Northern Asia. With
the progress of time, however, and the as-
sumption of a fixed national type, the Semitic
element in the Babylonian people became
more and more predominant. After the con-
quest of the country by the Assyrians this
tendency was increased. It was like the in-
fluence of the Normans among the Celtic in-
habitants of Western France. The race-type
assumed in Babylonia became assimilated
to that of Assyria and the West. In the
times of the later Empire the old antecedents
had in a great measure been lost in a fixed
form, hardly discriminable by a common ob-
server from the well-known type of Assyria.
It may, therefore, be assumed that the Baby-
lonians of the time of Nebuchadnezzar and
his successors were a race of Semites, varied
and modified by many diverse lines of ancient
descent

In the physical appearance of the ancient
Babylonians the historian must trust rather
to the delineations found on the Assyrian
monuments than to representations left us
by native artists. Of the latter only a few
portraits, drawn on cylinders, have been pre-
served; and even these seem to present the
Babylonian form and features such as they
were in the times of ancient Chaldaea, rather
than at the high noon of imperial distinction.
According to these delineations the people of
Old Babylonia were slender and lithe a
rather thin visage and meager person. In
later times, however, owing to the race-mixture
already described, and especially to the ascend-
ency of the Assyrians, this slight personal as-
pect of the ancients was greatly modified. The
Babylonians, like their northern masters, be-
came strong and massive a big-muscled,
strong-limbed race, whose bone and brawn

were the impersonation of strength and en-
durance.

It can not, of course, be ascertained how
faithful are the representations made by the
Assyrian artiste of the citizens of Baby-
lon, or to what extent those artists merely
used the conventional types which they had
been accustomed to chisel in the stones of
Nineveh. At any rate, the later Babylonians
as depicted by their northern conquerors have
the same form and features as did the men
who carved their portraits. A full account
of the personal appearance of the Ninevites
has already been given in a chapter of the
Third Book.

In so far, then, as the physiognomy of the
Babylonians differed from the well-known As-
syrian type, the difference seems to be this:
The eyes of the former people were larger
and not so almond-shaped as those of the latter.
The Babylonian nose was shorter and more
depressed than the Assyrian, and the general
expression was less determined and spirited.
No doubt these slight departures from the
type prevalent in its best development at Nin-
eveh were the result of climate, and perhaps
of some old inherited characteristics from the
ancient Chaldseans.'

In the country of Susiana there seems not
to have been any such amalgamation of races
as existed in Babylonia proj>er. In the for-
mer province the old Cushite race remained
comparatively pure down to the times of the
Empire. In this case, also, our knowledge of
the person and features of the people is due
rather to Assyrian sculpture than to the na-
tive art of Susiana. The delineations found
amid the ruins of the Ninevite palaces prove
that there were two Susiauian types, quite dis-
tinct and striking : the one, the ancient Cushite
just referred to, and the other, a heavy south-
ern face, having the leading peculiarities of
the Negro. The two types are found side by
side in the sculptures, the one face being high
and Caucasian in its general contour, the other

1 As a general rule a northern climate raises
the features into greater prominence ; a southern,
depresses them. But in extreme latitudes the
rule seems to be reversed, and in the high north
the features fall.

256

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

marked with thick, protuberant lips, a receding
forehead, a broad, thick nose, and having the
head covered with the short crisp hair of
Africa. Perhaps the people thus represented
were the primitive people of Susiana, origin-
ally derived from the south, and yielding at
a later date to a northern race represented in
the other delineation.

Like most of the ancient peoples, the Bab-
ylonians wore their hair long. It does not
appear, however, that to the matter of head
adornment they gave so much attention as did
the Egyptians and Assyrians. The sculptures
show that the hair of the Babylonian was gen-
erally arranged in a single heavy curl, which
hung stiffly over the shoulders. Sometimes
the natural locks were left loose and allowed
to fall about the neck. In some figures the
hair descends to the waist, and is braided or
bound in a sheath. In other cases the Assyr-
ian fashion of a cluster of curls about the
neck and shoulders, or a close mass on the back
of the head, is followed. Perhaps the time
was when the dandies and belles of Babylon
looked to Nineveh for their styles as the world
of absurdity now turns to Paris in the matter
of personal adornment.

After the manner of Arabia most of the
Babylonians wore long, flowing beards. A
patriarchal appearance was thus given to many
of the portraits. Sometimes the beard, when
not curling, fell nearly to the waist, and some-
times when crisp clung closely to the face.
The- practice of shaving was common, and
many of the delineations show the face smooth
from the razor. As compared with the As-
syrians the prevalent complexion -of the Bab-
ylonians was dark and swarthy. Here again
their old descent from the south had coop-
erated with the current effects of climate to
give to the features that bronzed and tropical
aspect which until to-day prevails in the coun-
try about the head of the Persian Gulf. Bab-
ylon lies four degrees nearer the equator than
Nineveh, and the prevalence of the intense
summer heats of the low plains of that re-
gion gives to the face a strong suggestion of
Ethiopia.

Turning then from the personal habits and
appearance of the people to their intellectual

and moral traits we find much to admire and
not a little to contemn. In mental abilities
they surpassed most of the ancient races.
They had inherited from their ancestors, the
old Chaldseans, a large store of primitive learn-
ing. The attainments of the Chaldseans in
astronomical and mathematical knowledge have
been proverbial in all ages, and this scientific
lore was transmitted to the Babylonians. The
latter people not only maintained but promoted
the knowledge thus received from their pred-
ecessors. Their fame for learning resounded
through all Western Asia, and echoes of it
were heard in the eastern parts of Europe.
The Greek historians and philosophers ac-
knowledged their indebtedness to Babylonia for
many valuable inventions and much abstract
learning. The scholars of the Empire were
in good repute, and their attainments appear
to have been fully up to the measure of their
times and opportunities. The age was unsci-
entific and unscholarly, and the maintenance
by any people of a respectable body of learn-
ing brought them deserved preeminence.

The Babylonians, however, were unable to
rise above that superstition which has been the
besetting sin of the human mind. They poi-
soned their scientific teachings with a vast mass
of groundless imaginings deduced from their
own vague fears and conjectures. Astronomy
thus sank to the level of astrology, and science
in general remained without a fixed limit of
certainty. The same degeneration of learning
took place as afterwards occurred among the
Arabian philosophers of Baghdad, Cairo, and
Cordova. For this reason the purposes had
in view by the scholars of Babylonia fell below
the ends of true science. To determine some
occult or mysterious thing appeared to be the
highest aim of their investigations. To inter-
pret dreams, or to determine from the aspect
of the stars and planets the destinies of hu-
man life, was the chief work of the Babylo-
nian philosophy. The scientist became a
soothsayer, and the sage degenerated into a
rhapsodist or prophet. The mind had not yet
learned in its investigations that in order to
know, the hand of Thought must be laid im-
plicity in the hand of Nature.

In the matter of personal energy and ac-

BAHYLOXIA. PEOPLE AND CITIES.

267

tivity the Babylonians held a high rank
among the nations of antiquity. They had the
spirit of adventure. Alike on land and sea they
went forth to acquaint themselves with the
world and the world with them. They became,
after the Phoenicians, the most distinguished
merchants of the age. Their enterprise made
them first in the marts of Asiatic commerce.
Babylon became the great metropolis of West-
ern Asia. Whatever mankind had to sell was
offered, and whatever the needs of the world
demanded was purchasable, in the emporiums
of that great city. The life of the capital
was the life of trade and commercial rivalry.

Under these conditions the Babylonians
became greedy of gain. Avarice grew upon
what it fed on, and the covetous spirit domi-
nated almost every other feeling. Whatever
would bring money was for tale. The domes-
tic virtues were recklessly flung away for
the means of further gratification. Every
woman once in her life must offer herself to
strangers publicly before the temple of Beltis;
for by this means the crowd of strangers in
the city would be increased. Maidens were
sold at auction, for thus the wealthy princes
and libertines of the surrounding nations
would be drawn to the unscrupulous market.
The father or brother, with his daughter or
sister, stood ready to barter for money the
pleasures due only to love.

The prime motive of all this avarice was
the passion for luxurious living. Babylon
was the paradise of gluttony and lust. What-
ever ministered to the appetites and senses
was eagerly sought and enjoyed without scru-
ple. Adornment of the person, rich garments
dyed with costly dyes, jewels of untold value,
costly viands gathered perhaps from foreign
lands, fragrant oils for perfuming the body
every thing that could excite or appease hu-
man desire was demanded and found and
wasted in luxurious and riotous abandonment.
The banquet and the feast brought drunken-
ness and revel. The tables were spread with
riches which no appetite could consume.
Dark wines were poured into goblets of gold.
Tropical fruits were heaped in plates of silver.
The palace halls were harems; for polygamy
was the usage of the land and city.

It has not often happened in the history of
mankind that such personal i rait- and habits
as those of the Babylonians were blended
and partly redeemed with strength and hero-
ism. In spite of their luxury, the people of
the Empire were fearless soldiers. Those who
encountered them in the field found that there
was iron under the velvet. The epithets
which were applied to them by foreign histo-
rians show that their valor in war was equal to
their abandonments of pleasure. One would
have looked in vain among the bronzed cohorts
of Nebuchadnezzar for the fragrant dandies
who were recently drunken in Babylonian
palaces.

Not only were the people brave and war-
like, but with these heroic virtues they joined
rapacity and cruelty. The Babylonian sol-
diery was not only without fear, but also
without mercy. Woe to the enemy against
whom the fierce hand was lifted! There was
neither quarter nor compassion. Nearly al-
ways engaged in contests with surrounding
nations, war became a profession. Accus-
tomed to bloodshed and rapine, the soldiers
of the Empire learned to destroy without dis-
crimination, to kill without compunction.
They rode their horses and drove their char-
iots over living and dead, crushing in an in-
distinguishable mass the innocent with the
guilty. The tender and outraged form of
woman was thrown with contempt across the
brainless bodies of babes. From the moun-
tains that frowned on the thither borders of
Luristan to the gateway of Egypt, this iron-
hearted, merciless, lascivious soldiery carried
the banners of the Empire, and the nations
cowered in fear before them.

In their methods and usages of war the
Babylonians were very little impressed with
the practices of civilized states. Their cam-
paigns were characterized with needless vio-
lence and barbarity. The plan of colonizing
insurrectionary inhabitants was rigorously fol-
lowed. All the hardships of such removals
were inflicted without mercy. Prisoners taken
in battle were either killed or shamelessly
mutilated. The unresisting inhabitants of
provinces engaged in revolt were visited with
indiscriminate vengeance. The best interest*

258

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

of the Empire were many times sacrificed to
the blind rage of revenge kindled against
those whom a better treatment might easily
have won to loyalty.

In the civil administration of the govern-
ment the same ferocious methods were em-
ployed by the public officers. The suspected
was condemned, and the condemned was exe-
cuted. A fault was a crime. The displeasure
of the king meant death. His frown was
fatal. Torture was inflicted without mercy
upon the objects of the royal wrath. Offend-
ers were cut to pieces alive or were cast
bound into fiery furnaces. Such was the
spirit, the temper, of this terrible race of
Asiatic conquerors. They spared not any
thing that opposed them.

Following hard after these dissolute and
vengeful methods of peace and war came that
haughty and austere spirit for which the Bab-
ylonians were noted. Their successes were
such as to make them deem themselves invin-
cible. Pride came with power, as avarice
from gain, and lust from lawless indulgence.
The princes of Babylon walked abroad amid
the splendors of the city, and contemplated
with haughty egotism the magnificence of
their surroundings. The city sat as a queen,
and her royal broods of pampered idlers found
little to check their selfishness and overween-
ing pride.

These hard, cruel, and relentless features
of Babylonian character were little softened
by their religion. Albeit, the traveler visit-
ing the great metropolis would have imagined
that a people so devoted to the worship of
the gods would be incapable of the deeds of
cruelty. Temples rose on the right hand and
the left. Retinues of priests, engaged in some
work peculiar to their sacred offices, were ever
in sight. Costly . statues of the deities were
set up in honor of the unseen, and to attract
the gaze of the pious. In no other country,
with the possible exception of Egypt, was the
ceremonial of religion more costly and elabo-
rate. The kings were the chief worshipers.
Princes went devoutly to the temples. Royal
favors were poured out without stint in the
maintenance of the national faith. The names
of all classes had a religious signification, con-

taining some sacred syllable from the name of
a god. The seals of officers and the charms
worn by men and women of fashion were
nearly always embellished with some religious
device or emblem. When the feast was
spread and the wine was poured and the ban-
queters became uproarious, ever and anon a
song in honor of the gods was heard above
the rout.

It is said that in the noisy marts of Baby-
lon, where each was striving to sell and get
gain, a certain code of honesty prevailed.
Perhaps it was such honesty as was current in
the streets of mediaeval Venice a kind of pol-
itic observance of one's words and promises.
Commercial transactions necessarily imply a
certain kind of good faith which must be ob-
served by those who trade ; and it is rather to
this condition than to any subjective trait of
character that the alleged honesty of the Bab-
ylonian tradesmen must be referred. To this
must be added another element of temper
with which the people of the Empire have
been credited by ancient historians. They
are said to have preserved under all circum-
stances a calm and placid demeanor, little
indicative of the fierce passions which were
burning under the surface. This trait is, in-
deed, a quality of Asiatic manners quite uni-
versal in some of the oriental nations. It
appears to accord with the character of the
Chinese and Hindus and Turks to conceal
under a calm and sometimes benignant de-
meanor the fiercest rage and most vindictive
purposes of which the human heart is capable ;
and it is not unlikely that some race-charac-
teristic of this sort has furnished the basis for
the reputed equanimity of the Babylonians.
However this may be, it is of record that
they hid beneath a calm and imperturbable
exterior the evil designs and bloody purposes
which so much abounded in their characters
and lives.

The Babylonians were a people dwelling
mostly in cities. The rural population was
relatively unimportant. It was in the crowded
thoroughfares of the noisy metropolis that the
national qualities were fully developed. The
character of great Babylon, who said in her
heart, "I sit a queen," may, therefore, be

BABYLONIA. PEOPLE AND CITIES.

269

properly considered in this part of the history
of the Empire. Perhaps no other city of the
ancient world, with the single exception of
Rome, has occupied so large a share of the
attention of the antiquary, the historian, and
the philosopher.

BABYLON, the chief city and great capital
of the Empire of Nebuchadnezzar, was situ-
ated on both sides of the river Euphrates in
latitude 32 S9 7 N. The name " Bab-ili" sig-
nifies the gate of God. The modern town of
Hillah occupies the ancient site. It was the
largest and most opulent metropolis of the
ancient world. In modem times the whole
space once occu-
pied by the city
is dotted here and
there with ruins,
indicating in shad-
owy outline the
site of palace and
temple, of wall
and battlement.
Huge mounds of
incredible extent
and number show
the traveler and
the antiquary the
tomb of one of
the wonders of
the world.

The exact size
of ancient Baby-
lon is not known.

Modern explorers have been unable to
trace the course and extent of the walls.
All authorities, both of ancient and recent
times, agree that, the city lay four-square, with
the river running diagonally through the midst.
But the remains of the ancient ramparts do
not sufficiently indicate the lines of circum-
vallation. The old historians, therefore, sev-
eral of whom visited the city and were eye-
witnesses of her greatness, are the best, and,
indeed, the only, sources of information.
Herodotus declares the walls to have been
fourteen miles in length on each side, or fifty-
six miles in circumference. This would give
an area of one hundred and ninety-six square
miles. Ctesias. who also wrote from personal

observation, fixes the lengtL of the walls at
ten and a half miles on each side, or forty
miles in entire compass, giving an area of one
hundred and ten square miles. These are re-
spectively the largest and the smallest esti-
mates of the size of the city which have
reached us from antiquity. The writers and
travelers who followed Alexander in his vic-
torious career report the dimensions of Baby-
lon as intermediate between the figures given
by Herodotus and those of Ctesias. The his-
torian Ua\\ lin.-on. after a careful review of
all the facts, fixes the size of the city or in-
closure within the walls at about one hundred

square miles. This, though a much less area
than is included in the modern cities of Paris
or London, is far greater than the space
covered by any other ancient city. Borne
could have been two or three times inclosed
within these walls, and Nineveh was hardly
one-fifth as great in extent

It must not be supposed, however, that thia
whole area of a hundred square miles or more,
was actually occupied with the buildings of
the city. An open space all around was left
inside of the walls, and even in the parts cov-
ered with edifices or devoted to streets there
was doubtless much unoccupied ground. Or-
chards and gardens and parks would intervene
here and there, and certain parts would be

260

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

reserved for public or private improvements.
It is believed that the city by the extent of
space thus included within the walls, and not
actually appropriated for building purposes,
was rendered quite independent of outside
support in case of invasion or siege; for the
rich grounds which were not devoted to
building could be made quickly available for
gardens.

For an elaborate description of Babylon
we are indebted to Herodotus. The streets
were broad, and were laid out at right angles.
The city was thus divided into blocks or
squares. The walls were pierced on each side
with twenty-five gates a hundred openings
in all. The gates were the termini of the
streets, so that the whole inclosure was divided
into six hundred and twenty-five great squares. 1
These in their turn were divided into smaller
blocks by less important streets, and along
these the imposing houses of the proud city
were erected.

The buildings of Babylon were generally
three or four stories in height. They were
not, however, of so solid a character as those
of Nineveh. Good building-stone, that sine
qua non of architecture, was wanting in Bab-
ylonia, and its place had in a large measure
to be supplied with less desirable materials.
The walls were for the most part of brick,
and the beams and frame-work were of the
palm-tree, which constituted the one available
timber of the country. Of the trunks of this
tree the posts and columns were fashioned.
About these were twined for decorations
wreaths of rushes, and the whole was then
covered with stucco, and made to resemble
carved pillars of stone.

The Euphrates entered the city by one
archway and found an exit by another. Along
its whole course inside of the walls the banks
were paved for a great distance with bricks
laid in bitumen. Thus were constituted the
wharves of Babylon. The river, moreover,
was inclosed with a wall on either bank run-
ning parallel with his course, and preventing
the waters from overflow in times of floods.
These protecting walls were pierced with arched

1 At the smallest estimate each of these squares
contained nearly a hundred acres.

openings at every street crossing, and through
these openings the crowds of merchants and
market people and idlers made their way
down to the river bank, where boats were ever
ready for conveyance to the other side. In
case of high water the archways were shut,
and the walls became continuous. In some
places, instead of the ferry, the river was
spanned with bridges, over which the crowds
jostled from side to side. These bridges were
built with a draw between the piers, so that
communication could be easily cut off. As an
additional means of passage, a tunnel (if we
may believe Diodorus) was constructed under
the channel from shore to shore. This pas-
sage was fifteen feet in width and twelve feet
in height, being paved and walled and arched
with bricks.

Perhaps the most remarkable single struc-
ture of Babylon was the great temple of Belus.
It was founded four-square, in an inclosure a
quarter of a mile long on each side. It con-
sisted of a great tower or pyramid, on the top
of which was placed the shrine of the deity.
It was built somewhat after the manner of
the structures of Egypt. The basement was
a square of solid masonry, measuring over six
hundred feet on each side. On this was an-
other square of smaller proportions, and on
this another, and so up to the summit. The
ascent to the top was on the outside by means
of steps, which wound around the edifice.
The height of the temple was four hundred
and eighty feet, being but a few feet less than
that of the greatest Egyptian pyramid. The
summit overtopped the city. From the shrine
the whole panorama of Babylonian glory lay
spread below as a picture. Palaces and marts,
walls and river, quays and decorated boats,
and beyond all the limitless plains of old Chal-
da, down to the distant horizon of the desert,
furnished perhaps the most wonderful vision
which the eyes of man beheld anywhere in
the precincts of the ages that are dead.

The shrine on the summit of the tower
contained originally three colossal statues; one
of the god Bel, one of Beltis, and one of
Ishtar. Here were two great censers and three
golden bowls, the drinking cups of the three
deities. In front of Beltis were placed two

BABYLONIA. PEOPLE AM> CITIES.

261

lions of gold and two silver serpents, weighing
each thirty talents; and these were acc'nu-
panied with two huge howl* of .silver of the
same weight us the serpents. These splendid
treasures, however, were carried away at the
time of the Persian conquest; and when He-
rodotus visited Babylon the shrine was dis-
mantled. The statues were gone. So also
the golden lions, the serpents, and the drink-
ing-cups. Instead of these were set a golden
table, and a couch draped with a rich cover-
ing. The old Greek historian found on his
ascent to the top, al>out half-way up, a resting-
place arranged with seats for those who ascended
and descended the great tower.

The second and less pretentious shrine at
the base of the edifice had also been despoiled
by the Persians. Originally there had stood
in this place a colossal human figure, wrought
of solid gold, twelve cubits in height. In the
time of Herodotus there remained only a small
sitting image of Bel, with a golden table placed
in front. Here the offerings of the worshipers
were laid in the presence of the deity. In
front of the basement of the temple were set
two altars of sacrifice, and on these human
beings were probably offered up to appease
the anger of the Warrior Bel.

Not equal to the temple of Belus in height,
but of greater ground dimensions, was the
royal palace. This also was a quadrangular
edifice, and was surrounded with three-fold
ramparts of masonry, the outermost being
nearly seven miles in extent. The inner wall
measured more than two miles around, and
the basement of the palace proper was of an
incredible size. The two inner walls were
faced with enameled bricks, upon which were
pictured a vast array of animals. The scenes
were chiefly from the chase. In one part a
lion is thrust through with a spear, and in
another a huntress hurls a javelin at a leopard.
No complete description of the parts and gen-
eral appearance of this great building has
been preserved. It is only known that there
were three bronze gates to the palace, so mas-
sive as to require machinery to open and
shut them.

It was within the iuclosure of this royal
palace that were constructed the famous

Hanging or Elevated Gardens of Babylon,
which constituted one of the " >. \. n Wonders"
of t lie ancient world. Tli.-ir mi-trurtion was
due to the caprice of Amvitis, the Median
wife of Nebuchadnezzar, who, pining for her
native hills, besought her royal spouse to
create for her a landscape. A rectangle was
selected, each side of which measured four
hundred feet. Around this space were built
a series of open arches, and upon these, serv-
ing as piers, other rows of arches were erected,
after the manner of an ancient theater; and
thus the vast structure arose to the height of
seventy-five feet. Upon the summit was
spread an abundance of earth, and here not
only were seeds sown and flowers reared and
shrubs transplanted, but trees of the largest
growth, brought from distant provinces, were
set in their native beauty. It was a miniature
Bois ile Boulogne, created on a hill of masonry.

On the banks of the Euphrates was set a
*iuge hydraulic machine, working after the man-
ner of the screw of Archimedes, and by this
means water was raised in pipes to the summit
and distributed about the Gardens; and to
prevent this water from percolating to the
masonry, layers of rushes and floors of bricks
laid in bitumen and sheets of lead were inter-
posed between the superincumbent earth and
the supporting arches beneath. On the out-
side, at convenient intervals, were flights of
steps leading to the top, and along the ascent
were grottoes and resting-places, where the
royal pleasure-parties regaled themselves at
their ease: why should they hurry on such an
excursion? Hurry is precipitated by those
who fear that their pleasures will escape them.

Across the Euphrates from the principal
palace stood another of smaller proportions.
Around it, in the usual manner, was drawn a
three-fold rampart, the outer wall measuring
about three and a-half miles in circumference.
These ramparts and the walls of the palace
itself were covered with representations of
hunting scenes and battles, drawn with con-
siderable skill on the surface of enameled
bricks. As in the case of the larger palace,
not much is known of the appearance of the
smaller structure. Within the halls and courts
were set bronze statues, representing the gods

262

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

and the great kings of Babylon. Here were
seen the mythical Ninus and Semiramis, sur-
rounded by princes of old Chaldsean renown.

The Walls of Babylon are associated in
history and tradition with the Hanging Gar-
dens as one of the Seven Wonders of the
world. 1 These walls were, perhaps, the most
marvelous structures of the sort ever erected.
Their true dimensions, however, have never
been determined. The Greek historians who
visited Babylon have left contradictory ac-
counts of the breadth and height of the vast
ramparts surrounding the city. Nor is it
likely that positive measurements would have
been much more satisfactory, for these being
made at different times would have represented
the walls in various degrees of dilapidation
resulting from the havoc wrought by besiegers
and the slower ravages of time. Herodotus
states the breadth of the walls at eighty-five
feet, and the height at three hundred and
thirty-five feet. Ctesias, without giving the
breadth, puts the height at three hundred
feet. Pliny gives the two dimensions as
sixty and two hundred and thirty-five feet
respectively. The lowest estimates of all are
those given by Clitarchus and Strabo, who
place the breadth at thirty-two feet and the
height at seventy-five feet; but these authors
must either have greatly underestimated the
dimensions or else given measures of the ruined
rampart rather than of the original walls.
Perhaps a fair average approximation would
be seventy-five feet for the thickness and two
hundred and fifty feet for the height meas-
urements sufficiently vast to shock if not con-
found the credulity of modern times. The
length of these stupendous battlements has
already been given as being more than forty
miles.

On the top of the great wall of the city
were two hundred and fifty towers. These
were arranged in pairs on the outer and inner
edges of the rampart, and so broad was the

'The Seven Wonders" of the ancient world
were: the Pyramids of Egypt, the Pharos or
Light-house of Alexandria, the Colossus of
Rhodes, the Walls and Hanging Gardens of Baby-
lon, the Tomb of King Mausolus, the Temple of
Diana at Ephesua, and the statue of Jupiter
Olympius.

space that a four-horse chariot could be turned
between them. The towers were square, and
looked down, the outer row upon the sur-
rounding country, and the inner, upon the
city. So vast was the mass of masonry in
these walls, so great their height and thick-
ness, that they were an impregnable bulwark
against any enginery of the times. They
could be neither undermined nor surmounted.

Such was the famous capital of the Baby-
lonian kings. In splendor and opulence and
power it far surpassed any other city of an-
cient times. Through her magnificent streets
swept the chariots of princes and monarchs.
Out of her splendid gates poured the bronzed
cohorts of well-nigh invincible soldiers, going
forth to conquest. Into these same gates
were driven the captives from a hundred
vanquished provinces. Over her palaces and
temples the oriental sun rose in unclouded
glory. In the might of her power and re-
nown she saw her rivals one by one expire,
and in her triumph she arrogated to herself
the rank and title of mistress of the world.
But in the slow processes of destiny her own
time came to suffer humiliation and downfall.
No other city, reared by the genius and pride
of man, has suffered a more complete extinc-
tion. Babylon is literally in the dust. Only
scattered mounds, which the rolling years
have covered with grass and shrubs, remain
of the once mighty metropolis of the Babylo-
nians. All else rests in the slumber of ever-
lasting oblivion.

Journeying down the river from Baghdad
to Hillah, the traveler of to-day comes un-
expectedly upon a series of scattered heaps
which, could they speak, would cry up from
the ground, " We are Babylon !" As he pro-
ceeds, the mounds increase in size and fre-
quency. In the intervals between them,
should he disturb the soil, he finds an indis-
tinguishable mass of broken bricks and pot-
tery, slowly returning to dust. The mounds
mark the sites of the palaces and temples,
and the intermediate spaces the place of the
common buildings and streets of the city. The
northernmost of the great heaps is called Babil
by the Arabs to the present day. It is a mound
nearly four-square, with steep sides. The top

BABYLONIA. PEOPLE AND CITIES.

263

is flat, though traversed with several ravines,
plowed out by time. The southern side of
the elevation, extending a distance of six
hundred feet, is tolerably well preserved. The
eastern face, also, is easily traceable for a dis-
tance of five hundred and forty feet. The
other two sides of the square have been worn
down by the action of the elements, and re-
duced in some places to a level with the plain.
The highest part of the mound is one bandied
and forty feet above the surrounding country.
The vast heap consists of a mass of sun-dried
bricks, but in the outer wall the bricks are
burnt and enameled, bearing the monogram
of NEBUCHADNEZZAR. This great mound of
Babil has been identified by antiquaries as the
site of the temple of Belus.

A short distance down the river is the still
larger mound known as EL KASR, or " the
Palace." This remarkable elevation ia two thou-
sand one hundred feet in length by one thou-
sand eight hundred in breadth. Its summit is
seventy feet above the level of the plain.
Like the other heaps, it consists of an infinity
of crushed bricks and slabs and pottery. In
the basement some passages have been ex-
plored, which are paved and arched with bricks.
Some of the slabs which have been discovered
in this mound bear inscriptions by which the
place has been identified as the site of Nebu-
chadnezzar's palace. All the bricks which
have been discovered in that vicinity bear his
monogram, so that both tradition as shown
in the name of ' ' the Palace " now borne by
the ruin and antiquities point unmistakably
to this spot as that on which was reared the
royal house of the great king.

Near the ruin of El Kasr is that of AM-
RAN, so-called, according to tradition, because
here was buried the prophet Amran-ibu-Ali.
It is simply a heap, irregular in outline, and
less striking than the Kasr ruin. It lies near
the river bank, and one of the sides of the
original structure was evidently lashed by the
water when the river was full. The three
sides of the elevation, which have been traced
with gome accuracy, measure respectively
3,000, 2,400, and 2,100 feet. The slopes of
this mound, like many others, are furrowed
with deep ravines, through which the rains of

two thousand years have found their way to
the plain.

It is fitting in this connection to call at-
tention to the fact that modern antiquaries
have been divided in their opinion as to the
site of the famous BIRS NIMRUD, or so-called
" I >\ver of Babel." Some have attempted to
identify this ruin with the Mound of Babil
already described; while others, with better
reason, have decided in favor of a more strik-
ing elevation near the city of Borsippa. This
is distant from the heaps which mark the site
of Babylon about eleven miles, and may,
therefore, have possibly been included within
the walls of the ancient city. There are rea-
sons for believing, however, that such was not
the case, though no doubt, owing to the vast
extent of the rampart of the capital, the Birs
Nimrud may have not been far distant from
the walls. Be this as it may, and whatever
difficulties may arise from fixing the site of.
the Tower away from Babylon, there can be
little doubt that the Birs Nimrud of Borsippa
is the true ruin of the ancient and gigantic
structure.

It is from this greatest of the Babylo-
nian mounds that the best knowledge of the
character of the ancient temples or towers ia
derived. Some account of the general features
of the Birs Nimrud and of the wonderful tower
which constituted its essential part will accord-
ingly be given in this connection. The plan
of the structure has been carefully studied on
the ground, and an accurate knowledge has
thus been acquired of the dimensions and
peculiarities of the original edifice.

The Birs Nimrud is the ruin of the great
temple of Nebo. Its foundation was an exact
square, each side being two hundred and
seventy-two feet in length. The height of
this first platform of masonry was twenty-six
feet. Upon this was raised the second square
of the same height as the first, the sides
measuring two hundred and thirty feet. This
second square, however,, was not placed cen-
trally over the first, but was displaced or
drawn over towards the south-western edge of
the lower platform. The displacement was
such as to make the offset on one side meas-
ure thirty feet and OD the other but twelve feet

264

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

The third square was laid upon the second
in precisely the same manner as the second
on the first. This platform was also twenty-
six feet in height, and measured one hundred
and eighty-eight feet on each side. The fourth
square was laid on the third in the same man-
ner as the others; but the thickness of this
platform was reduced to fifteen feet, the sides
measuring one hundred and forty-six feet, and
the same style of displacement towards the
south-west side being observed.

Above the fourth stage in the Birs the ef-
fects of the ruin become more manifest, and
estimates have to be substituted in many parts
for exact measurements. The fifth square was
of the same thickness as the fourth, and was
laid in like manner. The sides of this plat-
form and of the sixth and seventh squares
measured one hundred and four feet, sixty-two
feet, and twenty feet respectively. The thick-
ness of fifteen feet for each platform was
maintained to the top. On the seventh square
was erected the shrine of the god, being a
cube of fifteen feet in each of its dimensions.
The whole height of the original structure
was, therefore, one hundred and fifty-six feet,
and the theodolite shows that the present
height of the Birs is within tiiree feet of the
original elevation!' The blasts of twenty-five
centuries have not sufficed to level the house
of Nebo with the Chaldsean plain.

The great temple was an embodiment of
Babylonian mythology. The seven platforms
were dedicated to the seven planets known to
the ancients. To each of these planets a color
was assigned, according to the astrological no-
tions of the Chaldseans. To the Sun was
given the color of gold; to the Moon, silver;
to Mercury, blue; to Venus, yellow; to Mars,
red; to Jupiter, orange; to Saturn, black.
To this planet was assigned the basement
square, which was accordingly painted black.
The second platform was dedicated to Jupiter,
and was painted orange. The third was given
to Mars, and was red. The fourth, or golden
square, was assigned to the Sun ; the fifth, or
yellow, to Venus. The sixth, or blue platform,
wa sacred to Mercury; and the last was as-
signed to the Moon and received her color
silver. These colors were laid on in various

ways, some being burnt in the surface of the
bricks, some painted, and the fourth and sev-
enth squares and with the latter perhaps the
shrine itself being faced respectively with thin
layers of gold and silver ! Such was the profu-
sion of superstition !

It will thus be seen that the Tower of Nebo
rose, like the temple of the Medes in Ecba-
tana, in successive bands of brilliant color.
Viewed from a distance, the effect must have
been such as to attract and please the eye. 1
Doubtless, when the sun flashed his splendors
upon the brilliant hues of the great pyramid, or
when the full-orbed moon in milder radiance
diffused her light around the gigantic pile,
the awe-struck worshiper may well have im-
agined that Nebo himself was enshrined on
the summit.

A strange fact relative to the Birs Nimrud
monument is that no stairways or other means
of ascending to the top have been discovered.
It is possible, however, that more extensive
explorations would uncover flights of steps.
The face of the first or basement square of
masonry was in several places indented
with niches, but these seem to have been for
ornament rather than for statues. It may be
remarked, also, that the third platform was
less durable than the rest, owing to the fact
that the bricks composing it were, in order to
secure the blood-red color, only half-burnt,
and were thus left perishable.

Antiquaries have decided that the sloping
or receding side of the mound facing to the
north-east is the true front of the Tower. It
is also believed that within the platforms of
masonry were apartments where the priests of
Nebo lived ; and it is not impossible that the
means of ascent were contrived within rather
than without the temple. Many of these
things, however, have been left to conjecture
and to such dim reasoning as the data will
support. It is a disputed point, even, whether
the approach to the Tower was simply a plain
ascent, or whether there was an elaborate

1 It will be observed that the Babylonians were
either ignorant of the charming effects of the
solar spectrum, or else they preferred to sacrifice
beauty to their mythology. The beautiful con-
trasts of color were quite neglected in the arrange-
ment of the bands on the successive squares.

BABYLONIA. PEOPLE AM> < I TIES.

265

vestibule which has gone to dust with the cen-
turies. The laltiT view is sustained to a ccr-
tain extent by tho existence in front of the
north-east slope of an irregular m:i<- of ruins,
which seem to indicate some kind of raised or
columnar approach to the main edifice.

The city of BORSIPPA, near which the great
Birs still stands, was among the most impor-
tant of Babylonia. It was one of the ancient
and venerated towns of Cha!(l;ea. In the
primitive ages, before the Assyrian Empire
had arisen or Media had an existence, Bor-
eippa was already a flourishing mart, adorned
with temples and other public buildings. A
sketch of these, and of the city itself, has
been given in the Second Book.

After Borsippa may be mentioned the town
of OPIS. It was situated on the eastern bank
of the Tigris, just below the confluence of the
Gyndes. The ancient name of this city was
Hupiya. The site is now marked by the ruins
of Khafaji. In the days of its importance
Opis was a large and flourishing emporium,
receiving commerce from both the rivers which
washed its walls. A short distance to the
south, and on the same side of the Tigris, was
another consider-
able town called
SrrACE, which
gave its name to
the province in
which it lay.
Further down,
on the shore of
the Persian Gulf,
was TEREDOS,
founded by Neb-
uchadnezzar,and
containing in the
palmy days of
the Empire

many thousand inhabitants. The site has
not been identified, owing to the fact that
the shore line of the Gulf has receded and
the whole district been covered with deposits.
It is thought, however, that Teredon was lo-
cated in the neighborhood of the modern town
of Zobair.

Passing into the Provinces of the Empire
the most notable city was SUSA, the capital of

Susiana. In the times of Babylonian great-
ness it was second only to Babylon. It lay,
as already stated, between the two branches of
the river Chaospes, on a beautiful plain, re-
lieved, at the distance of twenty-live miles,
with a background of mountains. It was one
of the most healthful and attractive regions
within the dominions of Nebuchadnezzar.
Here was situated the ancient palace of the
old native kings. It was reared upon a great
mound, after the style of the Babylonian
and Assyrian temples. The ancient city lay
on the eastern side of the palace. Here, ac-
cording to Herodotus, lived in primitive days
KINO MEMNON, who led an army to Troy to
defend the city against the Greeks. Such was
the beauty and salubrity of Susa and her en-
virons that the place was regarded as a sort
of second capital of the Empire. Several of
the Babylonian mouarchs here maintained
summer residences, and the court of Susa,
thronged with princes and native and foreign
noblemen, almost rivaled the splendors of
Babylon.

On the Upper Euphrates was CARCHEMISH,
famous for more than one decisive battle fought

VHT,-

RUINS Or TYRE.

in her vicinity. The strategic position was
one of great importance. By this route, as
through a gate, the armies of Mesopotamia
and the South must make their way in their
invasions of Syria. Here the nations of the
West Egyptians, Phoenicians, Israelites
must debouch, if at all, into Babylonia.

Far distant on the Mediterranean lay
queenly TYRE, greatest of the maritime cities

266

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

of the Empire. The position was strong,
easily defensible. At first the shore was
chosen; but at a later date, when Tyre
had grown to be the wealthiest metropolis
of the West, the city was carried out to a
littoral island, which became thenceforth the
principal seat of business and defense. The
shore-town was known as Old Tyre. The

its fortunate position and the genius of its
inhabitants upheld its preeminence even
down to the days of the Mohammedan con-
quests.

Next may be mentioned the rival city of
SIDON older, but less famous, than Tyre. It
was situated on the coast, twenty-three miles
north of the sister city. Sidon was the old

VIEW OF JERUSALEM.

people of the city were the most enterprising
of their times. They were manufacturers,
merchants, sailors; large-minded and courage-
ous; ready for any enterprise, and quick in
the spirit of adventure. Their manufactures
were of matchless beauty and excellence.
Kings, princes, and nobles were proud to
wear the royal-dyed fabrics of Tyre. Several
times in the vicissitudes of the nations the
city was besieged, and a few times taken ; but

metropolis of Phoenicia. The people of the
country were proud to be called Sidonians in
honor of their ancient capital. The period
of greatest prosperity was from 1600 to 1200
B. C., when its commercial preeminence was
already acknowledged by the Egyptians.
Sidon was destroyed by the Persians in the
year B. C. 351, as a punishment for rebelling
against Artaxerxes III. It then became a
provincial town of little importance. In

BABYLONIA. ARTS AND SCIENCES.

267

modern times the site of the old capital is
marked by the seaport of Saida.

On the route from Palestine to Egypt lay
the city of ASHDOD. It was regarded as the
western key to Syria, as Carchemish was
the eastern. He who held the two strong-
holds just mentioned, and Tyre, the doorway
to the sea, practically controlled the whole of
the Syrian dominions; nor could the suprem-
acy of these regions be long maintained save
by the possession and control of these impor-
tant cities.

Finally should be mentioned JERUSALEM,
the capital of Palestine. It is situated fifteen
miles west of the head of the Dead Sea. It
is built on a high plateau of limestone about

two miles square, abutting against the mount-
ains on the north. Here was originally the
capital of the Jebusites, one of the Canaan it -
i.li tribes expelled by Joshua. Under David
and Solomon, Jerusalem grew into importance.
It became regarded as the Holy City of Israel,
and acquired great fame as the principal seat
of the worship of Jehovah. In the times of
the Babylonian ascendency the city, lying
almost on the route between Babylon and
Memphis, was many times an object of the
cupidity or vengeance of the rival nations of
the East and the West. Her demolished
walls, ruined towers, pillaged temple, and
depopulated streets frequently bore witness to
obstinate defense and signal punishment.

CHAPTER xxil. ARTS AND SCIENCES.

|F the general character
of the learning of the
Babylonians, much may
be inferred from what
has already been said of
the lore of the Chaldees.
The artistic tastes and
philosophical opinions of the later i>eople were
derived from the culture of the ancient mon-
archy. The civilization of Babylonia was
merely an expansion or development of that
of Chaldrea, modified as it was, with a certain
infusion of Assyrian opinions and practices.

If we begin with Architecture, we must
traverse to a considerable extent the same
ground which has been gone over in the ac-
count of the cities and temples of the Empire.
Perhaps, however, some more specific notice
of the style of building employed by the Bab-
ylonians may be added with propriety; and
in producing such a sketch it is natural to
begin with the royal palaces. These were, of
course, next after the temples of the g(xls, the
most important structures of the times.

It is an unfortunate fact that the Babylo-
nian royal palaces have suffered more from
the dilapidations of war and violence than
have the temples; partly, no doubt, because

the latter were more solidly built, and partly
because, hi case of conquest, the temple is
less likely than the king's house to suffer from
the fury and lust of a victorious soldiery.
The remains of the royal structures of the
Babylonians furnish but a meager outline and
dim shadow of the superb originals. But, as
if in compensation for this loss, .the old histo-
rians and travelers have left us materials tol-
erably abundant from which to fill out the
the outline.

The palaces of Babylon, like those of As-
M-ria, wore built upon raised mounds or plat-
forms. These mounds were square in shape,
and were constructed of solid masonry. The
elevation of the platform was fifty or sixty
feet above the surface. The great mass of the
square was constructed of sun-dried bricks,
but a thick wall around the outside and a sub-
stantial pavement on the top were of burnt
bricks or stone slabs carefully laid in bitumen.
Upon this practically imperishable basis the
palace proper was reared.

The material used in the body of the struct-
ure was burnt bricks of the finest and most
durable quality. They were laid in a kind
of cement which, if we may judge from the
way in which it has withstood the elements

268

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

for centuries, was superior to any thing of like
sort employed in modern masonry. The walls
of the building were of enormous thickness.
The ground-plan was a rectangle, the sides of
the square being parallel with those of the
foundation. It is unfortunate that no remains
of a Babylonian palace have been discovered
in a state of such preservation as to furnish
authentic data for the restoration of the edi-
fice. Only a few facts can be .educed from
the crumbling debris on the summits of the
mounds. In general, the walls were straight.
They were high enough to be imposing. They
were not pierced with windows or other open-
ings. They were strengthened by buttresses,
built at intervals along the face. They were
decorated here and there with sculptured slabs,
set in both the inner and the outer surface.
The figures with which these were adorned
were generally small, but were executed with
care and with considerable artistic skill.

It was rather, however, to the device of
color than to the work of the chisel that the
palace walls owed their beauty. On the
smooth surface of the bricks the Babylonian
painters exhausted their resources in depicting
such scenes from the chase and the fight as
could please the eye or flatter the vanity of
the royal occupants. What the splendid
sculptures of Nineveh furnished to the Assyr-
ian kings in the way of artistic pleasures, that
the painter's brush in some measure supplied
for the princes of Babylon. An abundance
of these pictorial representations have been
found on the great mound of El Kasr.

Curiosity to know the details the height,
the number of stories, the internal arrange-
ment of these Babylonian palaces will, per-
haps, remain forever ungratified. No doubt,
in altitude, they greatly overtopped the three-
and four-story houses. As the king was lifted
up above his subject, so his abode and the
abodes of his princes and nobles were raised
on high above the unaspiring cityful. An-
other conjecture is that the palaces were
lighted through the roofless space overhead,
and not by means of windows. The extreme
mildness of the climate would justify such a
supposition, and the same is attested by the
fact that no windows have been found in the

walls. Another feature of the palaces, not con-
jectural, is the drainage, which was carefully
provided for by subterranean passages in the
basement.

An examination of the meager remains of
the bridges across the Euphrates and of the
great wall around the city does not indicate
that the Babylonian architects were especially
skillful. The piers of the bridges, however,
were correctly built, with a sharp angle
against the current of the river. In general,
the buildings of Babylonia, particularly those
of the great capital, were loftier and more
imposing than the structures of other oriental
countries. 1 No doubt they were equally
superior to those of other nations in respect
to ornamentation and general structure and
adaptation.

In the manufacture and preparation of
building material, the Babylonians surpassed
only in the production of bricks. Like their
ancestors, the Chaldaeans, they had two va-
rieties those dried in the sun and those
burnt in kilns. The former were used only
in the interior of thick walls and in building
great platforms and buttresses, wherein the
action of the elements could not be felt. All
the exposed portions of structures were of the
kiln-baked variety very hard and perfect.
The finest were of a yellow color, and were
so firm as to be practically imperishable.
Another very superior quality were of a blu-
ish tinge, sometimes almost black, and were
well-nigh as hard as stone. The softer sorts
half-burnt varieties, etc. were red or pink,
and could be easily broken into fragments.

The sizes employed were variable, but the
standard make were from twelve to fourteen
inches square on the face and three or four
inches thick. For the corners and angles
sizes and shapes were used which were adapted
in form to the situation. The bricks were all
cast in molds, after the manner of modern
times, and were stamped on one face with a
monogram or inscription. The die was always

1 In the present day the houses of the people
of the countries described in the text are rarely,
if ever, more than two stories in height. Accord-
ing to Herodotus, those of aneient Babylon were
" three or four stories high."

BABYLONIA. AJRTb AND SCIENCES.

209

sunk below the surface, so that the design.
whatever it was, should not be injured or
broken away in laying or handling. In
building walls or other masonry, the bricks
were generally laid horizontally, though in
some instances the vertical position was pre-
ferred. In other cases both plans were
adopted, a row being set vertically after each
horizontal layer.

The material used to keep the bricks in
place was cement, and of this there were
three varieties. The first was composed of a
mixture of common clay and chopped straw.
In building, this mortar was used more abun-
dantly than by modern masons, being some-
times laid on to the thickness of two inches.
The second sort of cement was composed of
bitumen, and was identical with that employed
by the Chaldseans. This variety was used in
basements and pavements, and especially in
those parts of structures which were exposed
to the action of water. The third kind
was composed of lime, and was of a quality
unsurpassed, perhaps unequaled, by thr.t em-
ployed in any other country. Until to-day,
the great masses of bricks piled up in the
basement squares and thick walls of the Baby-
lonian ruins are held together with a tenacity
which seems to defy alike the insidious onset
of the elements and the stroke of the anti-
quary's hatchet.

That which is the most striking feature of
the present ruins of the Babylonian plain,
and which, no doubt, was most striking in the
original edifices, is their great magnitude.
They are imposing by their size. In this re-
spect they are allied with the monuments of
Egypt. There is about them a certain im-
pressive grande.ur, which, next after the
gigantic structures of the Nile valley, strike
the beholder as the most majestic remains of
antiquity. They make up in massiveness what
they lack in beauty, and their sameness and
silence heightens rather than weakens the
vision of vanished greatness.

Passing from architecture to Painting and
Sculpture, but little is found to admire.
Only a few fragments, mutilated by time and
accident, have survived to the present; and

from these it may not be properly judged
N. Vol. 117

what was or was not the attainment of Baby-
lonian art. Of sculpture, a half-dozen broken
pieces have survived. Of these the most im-
portant is the figure of a colossal lion stand-
ing over the prostrate body of a man, found
on the top of the mound of 1 Kasr. Artists
and antiquarians have pronounced the work
of little merit. The figure of the lion in
many parts deviates from the outlines of
nature, and in some features is distorted.
The form of the man is so clumsily done as
to be hardly distinguishable. A certain pose
and grandeur of general effect, faintly sugges-
tive of the sculptures of Egypt, are all that
redeem the group from contempt. Of figures
modeled in clay a few have been discovered.
The best is that of a mother and child. The
statuette is no more than three and a half
inches in height. The mother sits. The
child is encircled in the left arm. The figures
are nude, the attitudes graceful. The general
effect is pleasing, as if deduced from nature
by an artist. The figures were originally
glazed with some sort of enamel, which has
peeled off, exposing the clay.

Of bas-reliefs the best specimen is that of
one of the Babylonian kings. The piece is
now preserved in the British Museum. It is a*
black slab, upon the surface of which the fig-
ure is engraved with excessive details of orna-
ment. There is very little grace or artistic
skill displayed in the work, though the finish
is almost as fine as that of the Assyrian sculp-
tures. The proportions of the figure are tol-
erably well preserved, and there is a certain
stiff dignity in the attitude not wholly un-
meritorious. The king with the left hand
grasps his bow ; in the right he holds his
arrow. His eyes are fixed, like those of Apollo
on the typhon but here the likeness ends.
The whole figure, with the exception of the
face and neck and hands, is covered with
elaborate ornamentation, showing all the de-
tails of the royal garment.

Turning to animal forms, Babylonian art
appears to a better advantage. A common
subject of the artist was the dog. The crea-
ture was presented in bas-relief, generally on
a black stone slab. His canine excellency is
on guard. He rises on his fore-feet, and will

270

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

spring upon the intruder if he advances
further. The piece is evidently a kind of
cave canem, suitable for halls and doorways.
Another figure, also in relief, is that of a great
bustard, executed with much spirit. The bird
strides, and has the manner of nature. On
the cylinders are figures of cows, deer, mon-
keys, goats sometimes figured with what may
be called artistic ability.

In the matter of engraved gems, the art of
Babylonia is tolerably represented in modern
museums. The peculiarity of such work is
its quaintness. Sometimes the artist seems to
have caricatured the thing represented. In
one gem the central figure is that of a man
with tivo elbow joints in one of his arms ! In
the same group two of the figures menace
each other with their fists, while two grotesque
animals in another corner make grimaces.
The whole is purposely done in the ridiculous
or satirical spirit. In some pieces the whole
group is composed of animals intentionally
misshapen and ludicrous. They make faces.
One takes the head of another in his mouth.
The wrong head is put on the body. A bird
is finished as a fish, and a goat ends like a
monkey. Among these odd conceits a human
figure appears. He would assert human dig-
nity by kicking out at the well-pleased mon-
sters around him. It is a mark of grotesque
fancy, perhaps tipped with satire. In other
gems there is a sort of procession of nonde-
script creatures flung from the fancy of the
artist. Some are comical ; some, quaint ;
some, it may be, serious. Generally a man
brings up the rear human intelligence follow-
ing a nondescript cavalcade of the lower crea-
tures in the march of folly! It is hard to
discover whether the spirit of the work is that
of profound irony or of mere caprice.

One feature of the gem-engraving practiced
by the Babylonians may well excite some won-
der. This relates rather to the mechanical
than to the artistic part of the process. By
what means was the cutting of the stones ac-
complished? In some cases, as when the
softer gems such as lapis-lazuli, serpentine,
and alabaster were used, the engraving would
be easily accomplished. But in the case of
the hard stones, such as cornelian, jasper,

agate, quartz, syenite, loadstone, and feldspar,
it is difficult to understand how the cutting
could be accomplished what kind of tools
and devices could be employed in an unscien-
tific age to reach the required result. The
use of emery seems to have been a necessary
part of the process. From the nature of the
work done it appears that revolving points of
steel or some other substance equally hard and
tenacious would have been a sine qua non of
the lapidary's bench. It should be observed
that the Babylonian gems indicate clearly the
superiority of the mechanical over the artistic
part of the process a rare fact in the history
of ancient art. Modern curiosity may well
be racked to know by what kind of contri-
vances the work was accomplished.

Another fact still better calculated to excite
our astonishment is the minuteness of much
of the engraving. It seems impossible that it
could have been done without the use of mag-
nifying lenses. Indeed, the supposition of the
use of such devices is not wholly unwarranted.
It is certain that the manufacture of glass was
known and practiced by several of the nations-
of antiquity, and the actual discovery by Mr.
Layard, at Nineveh, of a plano-convex lens
of rock crystal is proof positive of the exist-
ence of such knowledge in Assyria. Why not
in Babylonia? The gem-engraving of that
country seems to have demanded some such
scientific expedient.

It is not unlikely that the best and at the
same time most peculiar species of Babylonian
art has perished. This was pictorial enamel-
ing. It was practiced on the surface of glazed
bricks. The almost universal decay of the
great walls and bastions and buttresses of the
palaces and temples has carried down to dust
the artistic designs with which they were em-
bellished. The ancient historians bear record
to the striking and beautiful effects which
were achieved in the surface decorations of
the public and private buildings of Babylon,
but the actual evidence has crumbled away
and the antiquary is put at fault. What is
known with respect to these remarkable pic-
torial representations is that their subjects
were selected chiefly from battle and the
chase, and that nearly all conspicuous build-

BABYLONIA. ARTS AXD SCIENCES.

271

ings were distinguished by their presence.
Just as the artistic sense of the A.-syrians
found expression in the abundant sculptures
of Nineveh and Calah, so the taste of the
Babylonians sought and found gratification in
the colored designs of enameled walls. The
prophet Ezekiel speaks only common fame
when he refers to " the image of the Chal-
deans, portrayed upon the walls with ver-
milion." He also describes the pictures thereon
as being "girded with girdles upon their loins,
exceeding in dyed attire upon their heads, all
of them princes to look to, after the manner
of the Babylonians of Chaldsea, the land of
their nativity." He further says that as soon
as Aholibah saw these images she doted upon
them, and sent messengers into Chaldaea. Such
was the influence of these striking pictures
upon those who visited the great city. All
the facts in the case go to show that according
to the then standards of art criticism the
enameled pictures on the walls of Babylonian
buildings were of a high degree of excellence.
The known skill of the Assyrians in sculpture
at a much earlier date, as well as the kinship
and similar tastes and activities of the two
peoples, render it inherently probable that the
Babylonian artists achieved with the brush
something of the same distinction attained by
their northern rivals with the chisel. It also
stands to reason that the artists of the two
nations would alike select from war and the
chase the principal subjects for delineation.

In the application of color the Babylonians
seem to have followed nature. The tints most
employed were white, blue, yellow, brown, and
black. Red was not much used. These colors
were distributed to different objects according
to the fitness of things. Water was repre-
sented with pale blue, and the earth with a
shade of yellow. Lions were painted a tawny
hue, and spear-heads black.

Chemical analysis shows that the pigments
employed on the decorated walls were essen-
tially the same as those used by modern artists.
The yellow was principally an oxide of iron;
the blue was produced by the oxidation of
cobalt or copper. The red was a sub-oxide
of the last-named metal. The yellow was
sometimes the antiraoniate of lead.

The designs were painted on the surface
of brick walls before the glazing was applied.
Or, if the bricks were glazed before they were
laid, then the design was laid on with refer-
ence to the position which the bricks should
occupy in the structure. The latter suppo-
sition is borne out by the fact that the brick*
were so laid, and indeed so made, as to give
the figure represented on the surface a raised
character, like that attained in bas-relief. This
indicates no little skill in botn die artist and
the artisan. The effect could cnly have been
reached by modeling a large mass of clay with
the desired figure in the surface, and then cut-
ting the same into bricks to be afterwards set
in the same relative position in the wall. All
of this implies a kind of designing, and an
adaptation of means to ends, of which modern
workmen need not be ashamed.

In the matter of metallurgy the Babylo-
nians had considerable attainments. Of the
precious metals, gold and silver were abun-
dantly employed. Of these were made the
vessels and utensils of the palace and the
temple. The chief of the baser metals were
iron and lead. The alloy, known as bronze,
was more important than either. Of this were
made the magnificent gates and doors for
which the great buildings of Babylon were
famous. The art of casting metals was well
known. The golden images found about the
temple altars and shrines were generally cast
in a mould. Sometimes, however, the idol
was of baser stuff, plated with the precioua
metal. The silver statuettes were in like man-
ner cast molten. The gold and silver facings
so much used as a covering for walls and fur-
niture were thin plates hammered into proper
shape. The great castings, such as enormous
bronze gates, doors, portcullises, etc., were of
a sort to be set in fair rivalry with the works
of modern times. Of smaller castings of the
same material there were a multitude: brace-
lets, armlets, dagger handles, small figures in
imitation of the human form, or the forms of
animals. Such were set as decorations about
the halls and hearths of the Babylonians.

The pottery of the nation was as good as
the fine wares of Assyria, from which it dif-
fered in no essential particular. Brick-making

272

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

was better understood than by the Ninevites,
with whom stone was more prized. From the
kilns of Babylon all kinds of cups and vases
and jars were produced of good quality and
in great abundance. The colors preferred
were yellow and red and green. The vessels
thus produced were symmetrical, being evi-
dently the work of the potter's wheel. They
'were of elegant shapes, but were without or-
namentation, the ouly exception being in the
case of vases, which sometimes have a raised
band carried around the exterior surface in
the form of a spiral. Glazing was frequently
employed, both without and within.

Among the other arts practiced by the
Babylonians was that of glass-blowing. Sev-
eral bottles and vases produced by this method
have been found in the ruins. These articles,
however, are not very perfect either in design
or execution. Every specimen is more or less
warped from symmetrical outlines. The glass
composing them is in some instances tolerably
clear; in others tinted with coloring matter.
There are some grounds for believing that the
artisans of the country were able to produce
large masses of solid glass, but no actual dis-
covery has verified the supposition. The
historian Pliny has contributed a rather apoc-
ryphal story about the presentation to an
Egyptian king by one of the Babylonian mon-
archs, of a huge block of green glass, or em-
erald, six feet in length and four and a half
feet broad.

No nation of antiquity, with the possible
exception of the Phoenicians, surpassed the
Babylonians in. the manufacture of textile
fabrics. The products of the factories of the
capital were famous as far as civilization ex-
tended. As far west as Athens and Carthage
the carpets of Babylon were prized above
those of every other country. The dyes em-
ployed were imperishable, and the designs
used were artistic and beautiful. The figures
of animals, real and fabulous, were woven into
the patterns with wellnigh as much skill and
delicacy as by the looms of modern times.

In like manner cotton goods were produced
of the finest and best quality. Brilliant dyes
and beautiful patterns made these fabrics so
attractive that the kings and princes preferred

them for garments. Such goods were exported
to foreign countries, and were the admiration
of the connoisseurs of Sardis and Damascus
and Memphis. Nor was the manufacture of
linen less conspicuously successful. At Bor-
sippa and other places in Babylonia factories
were established which produced great quan-
tities of linen fabrics, these being the goods
commonly worn by the people. 1 The nobles
preferred cotton and woolen garments.

It is the misfortune of nations living in a
pre-literary age that their learning is either
unknown or discredited by posterity. The
lore of the Chaldees perished for want of
books. The tradition of it only is preserved
in the literature of the Western nations. But
this reflected light has indicated ancient Chal-
dsea as the birthplace of several branches of
learning, most notably the science of astron-
omy. Over these old Babylonian plains was
arched a cloudless sky. The great heats of
midday made the calm twilights and starry
nights of summer the time of out-door medi-
tation. Overhead the benignant planets pur-
sued their everlasting courses. The upturned
face of that unscientific age caught from the
bending heavens the first sublime lessons of
the universe. To trace the paths of familiar
stars, to watch the silent revolution of the
celestial wheel, to note recurrences and then
to expect them, these were but natural and
necessary stages in the sublime lore of the
heavens.

Thus would soon be developed a correct
perception of the differences between the
planets and stars, and a knowledge of the di-
verse laws by which they were respectively
governed. By and by the moon, as being a
wanderer, was associated with those five plan-
etary bodies discoverable by the naked eye,
and finally the sun himself was added as the
seventh globe of fire which seemed to change
place among the fixed orbs of the skies. The
paths of these seven " planets " were carefully
mapped, and the rudiments thus obtained of

1 It is interesting to note how the various prod-
ucts of manufacture will be reversed in value in
the processes of civilization. The relative values
of cotton, linen, woolen, and even silk goods have
been many times interchanged in the course of
history. The same may occur again.

/; I /; Yl.nMA. MtTS AND SCIENCES.

273

a true science of astronomy. Of course, the
fundamental hypothesis of the solar system
was at fault, as it continued to be until the
days of Copernicus.

Beyond their knowledge of the planetary
system, the Babylonians made considerable
progress in the study of the fixed stars. These
were arranged in groups and constellati"ii-,
and upoi: them was conferred the imperish-
able poetry of names. The imagination of
the observer caught a resemblance in the
heavens to the things on earth. The figures
of the great animals of the terrestrial sphere
were transferred to the celestial, aud sky-maps
were drawn with the outlines of these figures.
The poles of the heavens were fixed, and
Arcturus and Orion took their place, the one
with his bow and the other with his club, in
the blue pavilion spangled with points of fire.

From the Babylonians to the Greeks, from
the Greeks to the Arabians, from the Arabians
to Modern Europe, from Modern Europe to
the world, this old star lore of the East, with
its quaint uranography of animals and men
and monsters, has been transmitted, and the
science of to-day and to-morrow seems unable
to cast the spotted skin of the past! The
Zodiac is there with its Bull and its Lion ami
its Virgin, and who shall ascend into heaven
to take them down?

In the British Museum is a conical, black
stone upon which are figured the Signs of the
Zodiac as taught by the Babylonian astrono-
mers. Several of the outlines are identical
with those presented on a modern celestial
sphere. The Ram, the Bull, and the Scorpion
are easily recognized among the groups, and
the genius of ancient Superstition makes com-
ical grimaces at the genius of recent Folly.

After the manner of their system and under
the limitations of their knowledge, the Baby-
lonians labored at the practical problems of
the heavens. Kdipses were calculated and
predicted ; the phenomena sometimes happen-
ing as foretold and sometimes falling wide of
the times si>ecified. Of course, the calcula-
tions were based upon observations of recur-
rences and other data of a misleading charac-
ter rather than upon the well-known principles
of modern astronomy. Certain facts were

recognized, however, with respect to the mo-
tions of the sun and moon, tending to make
the calculations of the Babylonian seers more
trustworthy than at first sight would be con-
jectured. Iii the first place, the sun's course
through the Zodiac \\a- carefully traced. The
- of the great Ix-lt were called the
Houses of the Sun" for there the deity
seemed to lodge from month to month. In
like manner the path of the moon was accu-
rately mapj>ed through the same zone of the
heavens. The " Houses of the Moon," mark-
ing the monthly stages of the silver orb, were
located as were the " Houses of the Sun."
Albeit, the two classes of "Houses" did not
exactly coincide, owing to the inclination of
the moon's orbit ; but the relations of the two
paths through space were so well determined as
to afford a fair liasis of expectancy in the matter
of eclipses. The laws of nature, however,
were not sufficiently understood to remove
such striking phenomena from the realm of
superstition to the cool domain of Science.
The Babylonians, like the other peoples of
antiijuity, looked on and shuddered while the
great mystery of darkness was accomplished.
Lists of eclipses as recorded by the astrono-
mers of Babylon and preserved by the Greek
historians have been verified by modern math-
ematicians, and have been found correct 1 in
time aud extent of obscuration.

The Babylonians also succeeded in a toler-
ably accurate measurement of time. They
fixed the length of the year at three hundred
and sixty-five days, six hours, and eleven
minutes a very close approximation. By
means of the i/innnoii and the polos, two vari-
eties of sun-dial, they kept the hours of the
day. The period of the moon's revolution in
her orbit was accurately determined, and the
relative though not the absolute distances
of the planets from the earth and from each
other seem to have Ix-en known. It is also
in evidence that pome of the secondary planets,
as the four moons of Jupiter, had been ob-
served and figured by the sages of Babylon.

If we look at the uses to which the scholars

1 The five most conspicuous examples all be-
inti eclipses of the moon belong to the years B. C.

747, 7l'l, 7-.U tiu'l, and 523.

274

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

of the Empire put their astronomical knowl-
edge, there is less to admire. The astrological
purpose was dominant. The astronomer was
expected to inquire under what stars a person
was born, and to determine therefrom his des-
tiny. The fortunes and fate of human life
were to be deduced from the aspects of the
skies. Sometimes the celestial influence, which
began with birth and ended only with death,
was benign, and sometimes malignant. A
particular star presided at the entrance of
each man into the world, but to determine the
entire destiny of his life the astrologer must
know the aspect of the whole heavens at the
moment of his entrance upon life. From
these higher offices, relating to the weal or woe

of human beings, the Babylonian sages de-
scended to such topics as meteorology. They
predicted the weather, the apparition of comets,
the coming of the earthquake. They kept
lists of lucky and unlucky days, and pointed
out in a semi-prophetical way the portents of
doom to particular countries and peoples.
Peace, prosperity, and plenty ; famine, pesti-
lence, and war, were all determined from the
overruling influence of the stars.

Such was the mixture of scientific truth
and vague superstition in the beliefs and scho-
lasticism of the Babylonians, who from the
great city of the Euphrates stretched out so
proudly the imperial rod over the nations of
Western Asia.

CHAPTER xxm. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

ONCERNING the Man-
ners and Customs of the
Babylonians, a great deal
may be inferred from
what has already been
said respecting the other
aspects of their civiliza-
tion. The monuments of the country being
so meager as compared with the imperishable
records left us by the primitive Egyptians and
the Assyrians, we are more at a loss to deduce
what may be called the Personal Life of the
people of Babylonia than in the case of the
ancient inhabitants of the valleys of the Nile
and the Tigris. We are left, therefore, rather
to the old historians than to contemporaneous
inscriptions, in determining the personal habits
and individuality of the subjects of Nebuchad-
nezzar. To Herodotus especially are we in-
debted for copious descriptions of what he saw
and heard in Babylon.

Beginning with the subject of dress : the
people of the lower classes generally clad them-
selves in a linen garment reaching to the feet.
Over this a woolen tunic was worn, and this
was surmounted with a white cape. The feet
were sometimes incased in checkered shoes
with wooden bottoms. The hair was usually

worn long, and was gathered close to the head
under a sort of miter or turban. A cane or
walking-stick, with a carved handle, was a
universal accompaniment, especially in the
hands of gentlemen of leisure. The miter and
cape and woolen tunic of the Babylonian
attire were thrown off as convenience suggested,
and the figures frequently appear merely with
the long linen robe. The worshipers in the
temples are generally bare-headed, and wear
to their devotions a peculiar embroidered
tunic, different from that worn at labor. The
rich man at the altars of the gods is arrayed in
more costly style. He wears a miter, and his
garments are longer and more elaborate than
are those worn by the peasantry. He is pic-
tured with a goat in his arms, or some other
sacrifice ready to be offered. In adjusting the
long or principal garment, the Babylonians
left the right arm and shoulder bare, some-
what after the manner of the Romans.
Around the waist the clothing was held se-
curely with a belt.

A different style of dress was that of a short
coat with sleeves, fringed on the sides, reach-
ing to the knees. This also was worn by wor-
shipers in the temples, though sometimes in
every-day life by peasants. As a general rule

BABYLONIA. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

275

. the feet of the common people are bare,
though kings and noblemen are not so repre-
sented. Other parts of the royal attire were
distinguished both in pattern uiul material
from the dress of the people. His gown de-
scended to the ankles. It was richly fringed
and embroidered. A vestment worn over this
came as low as the knees, and was adorned
with tassels. In addition to the regular girdle
two cross belts, perhaps to support the mon-
arch's quiver, are seen on the royal person.
The miter or turban was of great height,
cylindrical in shape, and expanded towards
the crown. It covered nearly the whole head,
resting close upon the brows. The material
was of some kind of felt-cloth, elaborately
wrought and brilliantly dyed to please the
kingly fancy.

The chief articles of mere adornment were
the bracelets. The figures on the cylinders
indicate that the kings had the good taste to
leave earrings to others. In some instances
collars or necklaces were worn by royal person-
ages, and these articles are sometimes found
about, the necks of the gods. The collars
were made of joints or rings of gold or silver,
and the bracelets were plain bands of the same
precious metals.

As in most of the ancient countries, the
garments of the priests were costly and elab-
orate. The principal article was a long robe,
ornamented from top to bottom with a series
of flounces. Over this was placed an open
jacket, finished in the same style as the robe.
Down the back hung a long scarf or ribbon.
The head-dress was a tiara or miter, different
in pattern from those turbans worn by other
people of high .or low degree. Sometimes the
priestly cap was pointed with horns in a way
to suggest the sacerdotal head-gear of the
Egyptians. The priests went barefoot before
the altars of the gods.

Of military armor and dress not so much
\a known as of the garments of the priestly
<;aste. The principal articles worn by soldiers
were helmets, breast-plates, and shields. The
material used was bronzt. The articles car-
ried were bows and arrows, spears, daggers,
and clubs. The bows are of the usual pat-
tern, and might be mistaken for those of

American Indians. The curve extends from
end to end ; the length is about four feet
The quiver, too, is the ordinary sheath, such
as is used by the half-civilized races of to-day.
The arrows are three feet in length, barbed
with a metallic point, feathered and notched
to receive the string. In the soldier's girdle
were worn his daggers, many specimens of
which have been disrovrivd and are preserved
in modern museums. No battle-axes have
been found, but the same are represented in
several patterns on the cylinders. The draw-
ings indicate that the weapons were rude and
clumsy, such as are employed by people just
emerging from savagery. 1

The Babylonian army embraced the three
divisions of infantry, cavalry, and chariots.
The tactics and discipline were essentially the
same as those employed by the Assyrians. A
few representations of war-chariots have been
found on the cylinders. The pattern and equip-
ment are like those seen in the sculptures of
Nineveh, but the drawings are rude, and the
details can not be determined. The cavalry
was regarded by foreign nations as the most
formidable division of the army. The prophet
Habakkuk, who had occasion to know whereof
he affirmed, says of the Babylonian soldiery:
"They are terrible and dreadful. From them
shall proceed judgment and captivity; their
horses also are swifter than the leopards, and
are more fierce than the evening wolves. And
their horsemen shall spread themselves, and
their horsemen shall come from far ; they shall
fly as the eagle that hasteth to eat. And they
shall scoff at the kings, and the princes shall
be a scorn unto them : they shall deride every
stronghold ; for they shall heap up the earth
and take it." A like fame is given to the
Babylonian cavalry by Jeremiah, and others
of the Hebrew seers. In later times, how-
ever, as appears from the distribution of the
forces in the army of Xerxes, the horsemen
of Babylonia were less esteemed than the
infantry, perhaps on account of the superior
reputation which had now been attained by

1 A battle-axe, pictured on a clay tablet discov-
ered in the ruins of Sinkara, is thought, from ita
primitive pattern, to have belonged to the Chaldaic
period.

276

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

the cavalry of the Medes and Persians them-
selves.

The Babylonian infantry was a vast mass
of half-disciplined soldiers, made up of na-
tives, provincials, and foreigners. They were
irregular, both in movement and weaponry.
Each of the subject nations sent its own con-
tingent of troops, armed and equipped accord-
ing to the manner of the respective countries.
It was a courageous host, having an almost
fatalistic contempt of death, inspired by the
hope of booty and fired with the lust of con-
quest. In marching, the army spread itself
over the invaded country, destroying every
thing within reach. The populace was driven
before them into the towns. These were be-
sieged and taken with every accompaniment
of violence and barbarity. If the walls were
weak, they were soon leveled with battering-
rams. If the ramparts resisted such assault,
then mounds of earth were heaped outside
until the fortifications were overtopped, and
the infuriated soldiery poured in to their re-
past of blood and plunder. Sometimes, when
the walls were high and strong and ably de-
fended, years were consumed in the siege, the
vengeance of the besiegers gathering head to
burst with the excess of long-restrained rage
upon the fated city. Woe to the rebellious,
and a double woe to them that resisted !

The campaigns of the Babylonians were
waged without much regard to political expe-
diency. The object had in view was rarely,
if ever, the national development of the Em-
pire. Passion was the mainspring of war.
When that failed, the priests were called in
with their hocus-pocus to decide what natio.n
should be next invaded! In the progress and
management of the invasion the priests were
as much relied on as the generals to give di-
rection to the movements and to explain the
failures and successes of the army. The wars,
indeed, were regarded as the avenging bolts
of the Babylonian gods, hurled against the
impudent deities of other lands. Meanwhile,
if a royal indigestion precipitated a bad dream,
or if the king was from any cause troubled
in his cogitations, all must be interpreted and
made clear by the clever gentlemen who wore
the robes of the altar. The only compensa-

tion to this mutual superstition was that if the
priests failed to satisfy the king's spirit with
their rendering of his troubles, or if they
gave advice ending in disaster which could
not be explained away, their gods were rarely
able to save them from their master's wrath.

Looking more closely at the priestly pro-
fession, not merely in their relations to mili-
tary management, but more particularly as to
their regular duties in the temples, we find
them, as were the priests of Egypt, the pos-
sessors of a certain body of learning and tra-
ditions. They had rules and precedents, dog-
mas and ceremonials. They had methods of
purification, and laws for conducting the sac-
rifices. They had principles of interpretation,
and a canon of criticism relating to portents
and omens. Their wisdom was in high repute.
From king to peasant no one might question
the infallibility of their oracles.

It is not certainly known to what extent
there was in Babylon a guild of secular schol-
ars distinct from the priests. There are some
reasons for believing that such a class of per-
sons existed; and the condition of Babylonian
learning a mixture, as we have seen, of tol-
erably exact science with gross superstition
seems to warrant the supposition of a secular
as well as a hierarchical brain at work in the
problem. The language of contemporaneous
Western writers also, notably the expressions
of the prophet Daniel, indicate quite clearly
the existence of several classes of wise men in
Nebuchadnezzar's capital. Some are called
simply Chaldseans; some, soothsayers; some,
magicians; some, astrologers. Nor does the
language indicate that these are merely differ-
ent names for the same group of persons. It
could not even be inferred from the recital of
Daniel that any of the classes referred to were
priests. Indeed, it would seem clear from the
presidency of Daniel (himself a Hebrew and
not a priest) over the Babylonian college that
a powerful non-priestly element existed in the
learned body of the city. In all such ques-
tions, however, it should be always borne in
mind that the office of the priest in most of
the nations of antiquity was that of a natiiral
philosopiier, rather than of a spiritual guide.
He was expected to interpret the phenomena

BABYLONIA. .U.1.V.V/.7.-S .|.\7> (TSTuMS.

277

of nature, for with those phenomena the an-
cients were much more concerned than with
the mysteries of spiritual being or the possi-
bilities of immortality.

However these questions may be decided,
there is no doubt that the philosophers and
priests of the Babylonian Empire exercised
great influence in the affairs of the state.
They held high office. They were the king's
advisers. They conducted the ceremonials of
religion. They were reputed to have the
confidence of the gods. By degrees the priests
became a caste. They had their own rules
and discipline. Their sons were brought up
to perform the duties of their fathers. Around
this organization grew a certain body of
literature, in which were recorded the tradi-
tions of the past and the speculations of the
present. The history of the ancient Chal-
dreans, chronological lists of kings real and
mythical, treatises on grammar and law and
science such were the materials of which the
Babylonian sages constructed their meager
kingdom of letters.

The principal schools and seats of learning
in Babylonia were at the old towns of Erech
and Borsippa. At these places a certain de-
gree of mental activity and even audacity was
developed. There were scholastic schisms and
disputatious factions suggestive of Greek
wrangling and mediaeval dogmatism. But
under this superficial agitation, such as will
always exist when the human mind undertakes
to drag Nature up to the temple of Truth,
there was a vast deal of practical scientific
knowledge. Mathematics, astronomy, and
other branches of natural philosophy were
cultivated with such success as to leave a trace
on all subsequent history.

As already indicated the two principal pur-
suits of the Babylonian common folk were
agriculture and commerce; after these, manu-
factures loomed into much importance. Of
the kinds of agricultural work and the meth-
ods of tillage not much is known beyond what
has already been presented in the History of
Chakhea. The products were the same, and
the cultivation perhaps identical.

From Babylon the lines of commerce
stretched out to nearly all the countries of

the known world. The merchants, resident
and traveling, constituted a large per cent of
the population. Their energy and success
are attested by tradition and history. They
were both exporters and importers; and the
shops of Babylon displayed an array of goods
t'niiu almost every land. Not only by laud,
but by sea as well, was this commerce carried
on. Around the shores of the Persian Gulf,
and as ambition and cupidity increased along
the distant coasts of Africa and India,
the ships of the -merchant princes of the
great city sailed with their cargoes and re-
turned laden. Babylon was called the "City
of Merchants," and the Babylonians in the
army of Xerxes were known as the " Navi-
gators of Ships."

The leading articles of merchandise were
wool, linen, cotton, and the fabrics made
therefrom. The precious metals were im-
ported from distant mines. From Phoenicia
were brought tin and copper. Gold and ivory
wen- gathered from Arabia; silk, from India.
Media contributed wool and several varieties
of precious stones. From Upper Mesopotamia
were imported by way of the great rivers
wine and gems, emery, and building stone.
With these imports came foreign merchants
as well as native traders in the shops of
Babylon was heard the jargon of tongues and
the noise of them who sell and get gain.

The staple of the Babylonian table was the
dried fruit of the date tree: this for the com-
mon peasants. Herodotus declares it to have
been the bread of the people. The dates were
gathered when ripe, and were pressed into
cakes in the same manner in which they are
prepared at the present time. The goat fur-
nished milk and cheese. The sap and pith
of the palm yielded, under fermentation, the
palm-wine which was served on the table.
Of vegetables the chief were cucumbers and
melons. Of the oddities of the Babylonian
boar\l may be mentioned gourds and pidded
bete the latter especially being a dish which
could hardly excite the appetite of a modern
epicure. The markets of the country always
abounded in fish. It constituted one of the
chief articles of diet, particularly of those
living on the borders of the provincial marshes

278

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

of the Empire or along the Gulf. Fishes
were taken with hooks and nets, and were
cured in the sun. Sometimes a "fish-cake"
was produced by pounding and straining the
fiber and reducing it to a compact mass, like
bread. As already narrated, the tables of the
rich were loaded with viands and delicacies.

No people lived more luxuriously, as it re-
spects banqueting and feasting, than did the
ancient Babylonians. The supper of princes
was a revel, at which voluptuousness and in-
toxication, heightened with music, were the
presiding genii. An orchestra of trained per-
formers sat conspicuous and discoursed mellif-
luous strains, while the perfumed guests were
plied with wine. Indeed, the music of the
Babylonians, struck from fine instruments of
many sorts and fashions, was a notable feature
of social life. Alike in the royal banqueting-
halls and in the huts of the peasantry, in the
stores and market-houses as well as in the
painted palaces and the temples of the gods,
sweet strains were heard to inspire the courage
or lull the senses of the people.

The position of the women of the Empire
was peculiar. It began in abasement and
<;ame near ending in honor. When a maiden
became marriageable, which she did at an
arly age, she was subject to be sold by pub-
lic auction. Her father or brother might thus
expose her to the excited passions of rival

bidders. The custom was commonly practiced,
and, as it appears, without compunction on
the part of either seller or buyer. When the
creature was thus sold and delivered over to
lawless rapacity, it was with the understand-
ing that she should at some time go of her
own accord to the temple of Beltis and deliver
herself up to the first stranger whom she met.
And this Esplanade of Shame was always
thronged with visitors!

These two degrading customs apart, the
women of Babylonia fared much better than
in most other Eastern countries. There was
no harem, properly so called. Women were
apparently free from that degrading seclusion
which oriental despots have contrived to pre-
serve the purity of the sex! Nor do the an-
nals of the Empire indicate that the wives of
the Babylonian kings and princes were worse
treated or held in less esteem than were the
women of Macedonia or Carthage. From the
pictorial sketches found on the cylinders, rep-
resenting the various vocations and pleasures
of the Babylonian women, even among the
peasantry, it would not appear that their lot
was to be more deplored than that of the
men of their age and country. Doubtless, the
relations of the sexes then, as always under
the present constitution of humau nature,
were to a certain degree refined by mutual
sorrow and hallowed by the blessedness of love.

CHAF>TER

FEW paragraphs will
suffice to give an outline
of the theology and re-
ligious rites of the Baby-
lonians. Their system
was so little deflected
from that of primitive
Chaldfea tViat the whole subject might be dis-
missed with a simple reference to what has
been said in the Second Book respecting the
religion of the Chaldees. The original gods
of the plains of Shinar survived the shock of
the Assyrian conquest, and revived without a

. RELIGION.

change of name or feature amid the splendors
of the Later Empire. Nebuchadnezzar might
have walked to the temple arm in arm with
the shade of Kudur-Lagamer, and the twain
would have found no cause of controversy!
True, some subtle distinctions had arisen with
which the elder was unfamiliar in his day,
but they were not such as to disturb his faith
or shock his orthodoxy.

The few changes which occurred in the re-
ligious development of the Chaldsean into the
Babylonian system had respect to such points
as the relative rank of different deities, and

BAB YLONIA. RELIGION.

279

to such non-essentials as the matter of names
and epithets. In several instances, the higher
god of the Chaldgenns becomes the lower of
the Babylonians, and vice versa. Thus Merc-
dach, who was inferior to Bel in the primitive
pantheon, was made his superior by the priests
of Nebuchadnezzar. Nabouadius, however,
resented the degradation of Bel and restored
him to his supremacy. In like manner, there
was a confusion and even blending of the
names and offices of Beltis and Ishtar, who
are sometimes spoken of as one and the same
divinity.

The three great gods of the Babylonian
system were Bel, Merodach, and Nebo. After
these was Nergal, who had the principal seat
of his worship at Cutha. Bel and Merodach
were the supreme deities of Babylon. Here
once a year, in the magnificent temple of the
former god, a great festival was celebrated.
A splendid procession was formed in his honor,
and on the broad altar in front of his shrine
a thousand talents of frankincense were burned.
Nebo was the tutelary deity of Borsippa. His
worship was especially popular, and his name
was incorporated in the names of a majority
of the Babylonian kings. The great monarchs,

IMAGE OF BEF.LZF.BVB, THE FLY GOD.

Nabo-poltLssar, ^Yc&u-chadnezzar, and Nttbo-
nadius, were so-called after their patron god.
The names of Nergal and Bel occur in like
manner, but less frequently. The worship of
the Moon as the deity of Borsippa, and the

IMA'.K OF AhllTARoTK.

Sun at Sippara, has already been described in
the Book on Chaldna. ,

In all the Babylonian temples were images
of the gods. It does not appear, however,
that the worship conducted before these
images was downright idolatry. The theory
of the priests was as it
has ever been that the
mind of the worshiper was
fixed upon the deity by
means of the symbol. To
many of the ignorant
masses, however, the idol
was doubtless the god, and
the god the idol. An in-
termediate class believed
that the deity came down
at certain times, and ate
and drank the offerings
which were left before his
image.

The making of idols was a regular trade in
the city. The god-smith was in good repute.
The materials used in the fabrication of images
were gold, silver, bronze, and stone accord-
ing to the costliness of the temple and shrine
wherein the statues were to be placed. Some
of the idols were cast solid ; others were of
the base metals, or even of clay, overlaid or
plated with gold or silver.

Each one of the Babylonian temples had its
retinue of priests. To them the management
of the shrines and images and the conduct of
worship were intrusted. These hierarchs
lived either in the temple itself or in adjacent
houses assigned to their use. They married
and reared families just as the members of
other professions, and their places in the
priestly office were taken by their sons. In
many cases, however, the sacred college was
recruited from the ranks of the laity, nor was
any marked discrimination made even against
foreigners. In the conduct of the ceremonies
of their religion the priests were formal and
dignified. Their dresses were rich to the last
degree, and the public services were pompous
and magnificent. The altars were hidden
under clouds of frankincense ; costly offerings
were laid on the shrine; victims bled to sati.-t'v
the hunger of the gods. The great occasions

280

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WOULD.

of religious solemnity were holidays in the
city. Processions were formed and banquets
spread in honor of such days. Wine flowed
freely. Priests and people alike gave way to
the revel. The gods were said to rejoice and
drink with their worshipers, and all the ex-
cesses of the festival were shared in common
by men and deities. 1 During such seasons of
religious abandonment the esplanade before
the temple of Beltis was more than usually
thronged with women and strangers to fulfill
the degrading injunctions of that goddess and
her priests.

As among the Egyptians and the Jews,
certain requirements were made of the Baby-
lonians respecting personal cleanliness. Ab-
lutions and the burning of incense were the
means employed to purify those who were de-
filed. The newly-married were unclean, and
were obliged to sit for a season before a burn-
ing censer. The touch of a dead body, and
many other acts analogous to those interdicted
by the Egyptian priests and by Moses, ren-
dered the person unclean ; and whatever thing
the unclean touched was in like manner de-
filed. After the prescribed formula of purifi-
cation the unclean were restored to purity and
returned to the ordinary duties of life.

The Babylonian priests were mystics. They
delighted in the substitution of the symbol for
the thing. They assigned to their deities, and
to many other facts of their religion, sacred
numbers and signs by which the divine things
were known in conversation and writing.
Thus the god Ann was numbered 60 ; Bel,
50; and Hea, 40. The Moon was 30; the
Sun, 20; and Vul, 10. Beltis was 15, and
Nergal 12. Besides these numbers, which
were usually employed instead of the sacred
names for which they stood, many other signs

1 It was on occasions of this sort that the priestess
of the temple had the splendid gold-embroidered
couch of the inner shrine prepared for herself and
for the god who was said to visit her.

and symbols were used in the same mys-
tical manner. The surfaces of the cylinders
arc in some instances almost covered with
these signs, the same being placed here and
there in all the vacant spaces of the regular
inscription. Among such signs may be men-
tioned the circle crossed with transverse di-
ameters, which was the symbol of Shamas,
god of the Sun ; also the six-rayed .star, which
was the emblem of Anunit. Vul, the air-god,
was represented by a triple thunderbolt, and
Hea by a serpent. Ishtar was symbolized by
the female form, and Bar by a fish. Besides
those signs, the meanings of which have been
determined, many more are found, the sig-
nificance of which has not yet been deter-
mined and may never be. Prominent among
these uninterpreted symbols are the double
cross, the jar, the altar, the lozenge, and many
kinds of beasts and birds. To these may be
added the double horn, the sacred tree, and
the spearhead, all of which are many times
repeated on the cylinders. It is safe to infer
that all these signs had reference to the theo-
logical notions and religious ceremonies of the
Babylonians, that they were understood by
.the priests and perhaps by the people, and
that the final purpose of such symbolization
was to prevent the most sacred ideas and words
of religion from becoming too common by
repetition on the lips of the vulgar.

Most of the great temples of Babylonia
had symbolic names, the meanings of which
have not been determined. Such names are
nearly always preceded by the syllable bit, and
this part is evidently identical with the He-
brew word beth, meaning a "house." Thus
the names of some of the most noted temples
were Bit-Saggath, Bit-Ana, Bit-Parra, Bit-
Ulmis, Bit-Tsida, etc.; but the meanings of
these primitive words, Saggath, Parra, Ulmis,
etc., are unknown. The sense and the symbol
have sunk together into that oblivious dust
from which there is no resurrection.

y;.i/;)7,o.\/.i. m'//, AM> MILITARY ANNALS.

CHAPTER XXV. CIVIL AND MILITARY ANNALS.

ABYLON was ruled by
M'vcu kings. Of these
the great names arc Na-
l><i]><ilnssar, Nebuchadnez-
/:ir, ami Nabonadiu.s. The
hir-tory of tin- Kiupire be-
\vitli the

of the first named, in the year B. C. 625.
Babylonia, however, as a province or vice-
royalty of Assyria, had had an existence
extending over several centuries. The As-
syrian conquest Had never extinguished the
southern kingdom, but merely reduced it to a
position of subordination. There was thus in-
terposed between the time of the capture of
Babylon by the Assyrians, in B. C. 1300,
with the consequent transfer of the leadership
of the Mesopotamia!! nations to Nineveh, and
the sudden revival of Babylonian indepen-
dence under Nabopolassar, a long and dubious
period in the history of the ancient kingdom
of the South a period in which the political
status of Babylonia fluctuated between abso-
lute subjection and quasi independence. It is
in this chaotic time, between the extinction
of the Chaldsean monarchy and the restitution
under Nabopolassar, that the beginnings of
Babylonian history must be sought and found.
Very soon after the conquest of the coun-
try by Tiglathi-Adar, in B. C. 1300, it was
found desirable to govern Babylonia as a
viceroyalty rather than as an integral part of
the Assyrian Empire. In order to prevent
revolts and to' insure the loyalty of the pro-
vincial government, the Ninevite kings were
careful for a long time to select, as their vice-
roys in the South, princes and nobles of As-
syrian blood. With this precaution, the
province was left in a state of comparative
independence, subject only to the regular pay-
ment of the tribute. It was but natural,
however, that these Babylonian governors, so
far removed from Nineveh, should frequently
look askance at the doings of the home gov-
ernment, and that they should see in the situ-

ation the suggestion of independence. Even
under a certain NEBUCHADNEZZAR, the first
Babylonian viceroy, llx-re were two outbreaks
on the part of the governor. He made con-
siderable headway against the forces of Asshur-
Ki-Ilim, the then Assyrian king, and though
defeated and driven back, he retired into hia
government without serious punishment.

Whi-ii Asshur-Kis-Ilim was succeeded by hia
son, Tiglath-l'ileser I., the latter determined
to avenge the insult offered to his country and
led an army into Babylonia. Merodarh-Iddin-
Akhi had now become viceroy, and between
him and the Assyrian there was a struggle
for the mastery. The Babylonians were
beaten. Several of their cities were taken,
including the two Sipparas, Opis, and Baby-
lon ; but there was still vigor enough left in
the army of the viceroy to pursue and harass
the king as he retired from the country. It
is said, even, that Menxlach in one instance
made a dash on the rear of the Assyrian
army, and succeeded in capturing and carrying
away the images of the gods, which Pileser
had brought along to protect him. These
disturbances continued during the two suc-
ceeding reigns, and it was not until the close
of the first century after the conquest that a
state of comparative quiet was attained.

This more peaceful condition was brought
about rather by the weakening of Assyrian
influence than by any stupor among the
Babylonians. For about two hundred years
(B. C. 1100-900), the power which had been
so signally established by Tiglathi-Adar was
allowed to decline in the hands of incompetent
successors. Meanwhile the Babylonian!:, re-
covering from the depression of conquest,
flourished and extended their influence, polit-
ical and commercial, into several surrounding
countries. But, with the accession, in the
year B. C. 880, of Asshur-Izir-Pal, a new en-
ergy was diffused in Assyrian affairs. This
monarch marched an army into Babylonia,
and recovered all those territories over which

282

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

the viceroys had in the interim extended their
authority.

In the year 850 B. C. a civil broil arose
in Babylonia, and the distraction thus entailed
gave an easy opportunity to the son of Asshur-
Izir-Pal still further to humble the ambitions
of the Babylonians. He had the prudence to
espouse the cause of the legitimate viceroy,
who was opposed by a younger brother. The
Assyrian king was admitted to Babylon. The
younger brother was slain, and the rightful
governor restored to his authority. But the
Assyrian, having thus become strong by acting
as arbiter in a civil war, proceeded to make him-
self more completely than ever master of the
whole of Lower Mesopotamia. Those districts
,which had been dependent upon Babylonia
were made to feel that a mightier than Baby-
lonia had come. Their petty kings were dis-
placed. Assyrians were put in their stead,
and tribute exacted from all the provinces of
the South. The relation of the viceroyalty to
the Ninevite power was no longer ambiguous.

Nine years later the country was again
and this time wantonly invaded by the As-
syrians. The object seems to have been mere
spoliation. The viceroy met his antagonist in
the field, and was twice disastrously defeated.
He was obliged to make an absolute submis-
sion. Babylon fell to the rank of a provin-
cial city, subject to a heavy tribute. For
more than fifty years this state of miserable
subjection continued. Not until the disturbed
reign of Asshur-Dayan III., B. C. 770, did a
revival take place in the fortunes of Babylo-
nia. Put. was now the provincial governor.
Taking advantage of the troubles in Assyria,
he organized an army, overran Lower Meso-
potamia, made a successful campaign into the
upper valley of the Euphrates, and carried
his victorious arms without serious opposition
into Syria and even Palestine. These bold
movements on the part of Pul cleared the
ground for the still more marked successes
which were to follow.

In 747 B. C. N^BONASSAR became ruler of
Babylonia. He is generally regarded as the
first king of the Later Empire. Certain it is
that by him Babylonian independence was for
a time reestablished. The ambition of this

monarch, however, seems to have extended no
further than Babylonia Proper. The other
dependent provinces of the South were left to
go their ways. Several of them succeeded
for a season in throwing off the yoke and
reaching up towards sovereignty. Thus did
Yakin, chief of one of the coast provinces.
Thus also did Nadina and Zakiru, two other
local rulers in the northern part of Lower
Mesopotamia. Babylonia under Nabonassar
was thus restricted to her narrowest limits.
Nevertheless, the kingdom was so completely
established as to constitute the beginning of a
new era, from which are dated the subsequent
events in the history of the Empire. 1

It does not appear that the rather easy-
going Tiglath-Pileser II. , king of Assyria, was
much disturbed by Nabonassar's assumption
of sovereignty. In the early part of his roign
he made an invasion of Chaldsea, but hi
object seems to have been merely to humble
Merodach-Baladan son and successor of Ya-
kin, mentioned above who was trying to
maintain local independence. Pileser does
not seem to have troubled himself with the
more important work of humbling Nabonas-
sar, who was, perhaps, too large game for the
king's quiver. All of this inured greatly to
the benefit of the Babylonian, who witnessed
with delight the subjugation of the petty, re-
bellious princes of his own neighborhood by
the Assyrians. It saved himself the trouble
of making war upon the insurrectionists within
his own borders. That which humbled them
gave him strength. The broken-down prov-
inces of the South naturally looked to him as
a leader and protector, since he only seemed
able to stand without alarm in the presence
of the majesty of Assyria.

The reign of Nabonassar extended from
B. C. 747 to B. C. 733. With him, according
to Herodotus and other ancient writers, was
associated his mother, SEMIRAMIS. Attempts
have been made to show that she and the As-
syrian Semiramis were one and the same per-

1 It should not be forgotten in this connection
that Nabonassar took care to have destroyed the
records of his predecessor in order to make sure
his own place in history as the founder of a dy-
nasty.

/;.!/; )7.o.\7.i. r/r/A .i.\7> MII.ITM;)- ANNALS.

288

sonage. If we are to trust the accepted
chronologies, the Assyrian queen flourished a
full half century before the date assigned to
the Babylonian. Possibly there were two
princesses of the same name. Possibly a mis-
take has been made in the dates. At any
rate it appears that the queen-mother or
queen-wife, as some say of Nabonassar exer-
cised a large influence during his reign, and
added to the traditional glory of the name of
Semi ram is.

Nabonassar conducted no important wars,
and added nothing by conquest to his domin-
ions. After a reign of fourteen years he was
succeeded by an obscure prince, called NADIUS.
He is not reckoned among the "kings," and
his two successors, CHINZINUS and PORUS, were
still less worthy to be counted among the
great rulers of Babylon. The next was named
ELULACUS, who is rather a mythical than a
historical personage. Nadius is said to have
reigned for two years, and the others followed
in quick succession. None of the four left
any distinct impress on the history of their
times, nor do they seem to have been honored
even in their own country. With the accession
of MERODACH-BALADAN, however, another era
of prosperity and power dawned in Babylonia.

This ambitious prince had been the ruler of
a province in the times of Nabonassar, and in
the vicissitudes that followed that monarch's
death gained such influence as to make him-
self the successor of Elulacus. He had, after
his father's death, been obliged by .Tiglath-
Pileser to acknowledge himself tributary to
Assyria ; but this was done with a mental
reservation, and after remaining for a while
in obscurity, he suddenly availed himself of
a change of dynasties in both Assyria and
Babylonia to extend his authority over the
latter country. This was accomplished in the
year 721 B. C., co'incidently with the acces-
sion of Sargon to the throne of Nineveh.

It was a precarious assumption of power.
Merodnch-Baladan seemed to realize the peril
of his situation. Sargon, the new monarch of
Assyria, was not a ruler to be trifled with.
The Babylonian saw that he must fight. For
some time the affairs at Nineveh were in such
a condition as to favor Merodach's usurpation.

A period of twelve years intervened before
Sargon was ready to turn his attention to
affairs in Babylonia. This interval had been
well employed by the king of that country in
preparations for the conflict. He had suc-
ceeded in building up a formidable league to
resist the further encroachments of Assyrian
ambition. He established friendly relations
with Hezekiah, king of Judah. Sabak, the
Egyptian Pharaoh, also entered into the plans
>f Mcrodach, and thus an alliance was effected
between Babylonia and Susiana in the East
and Egypt and Palestine in the West. The
array thus presented to Sargon was not to be
despised.

The geographical position of the parties,
however, greatly favored the Assyrians. Nin-
eveh was so situated with respect to Babylonia
and Syria as to enable Sargon to divide the
parties to the league. He could easily thrust
his armies between those of his antagonists
and beat them in detail. He accordingly or-
ganized two campaigns, one against Egypt
and one against Babylon. The allies were
unable to withstand him. In B. C. 711 he
made his way into Egypt. The stronghold of
Ashdod was taken without much resistance,
and Pharaoh Sabak made haste to send an
embassy suing for peace. Egyptian depen-
dency was reestablished, and Sargon turned
his attention to the reduction of Babylonia.

In the next year he marched into Lower
Mesopotamia. A decisive battle was fought,
and Merodach-Baladan was completely over-
thrown. He retreated into his native prov-
ince, and shut himself in the fortress of
Yakin ; but Sargon pursued him, took the
city, got possession of the Babylonian himself,
and carried him oft" to Nineveh. Before leav-
ing the South, Sargon had himself proclaimed
king of Babylon, thus, for the time, extin-
guishing the line of native rulers.

The Assyrian monarch, however, did not
long live to enjoy his double throne. Upon
his death, in the year B. C. 704, insurrections
immediately broke out in Babylonia, and sev-
eral aspirants claimed the crown. A son of
Sargon attempted to uphold his father's claims,
but was unable to do so. A prince named
I HAOISA secured the throne, but was driven

'284

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

away after a month's occupancy. Meanwhile,
Merodach-Baladan, after a captivity of several
years, succeeded in escaping from Nineveh,
and reappeared where he was most needed.
He killed Hagisa, and again seized the throne.

His ascendency was for a short time main-
tained, but Sennacherib, who had now suc-
ceeded Sargon as king of Assyria, marched
against him, overthrew him in battle, and
drove him into exile. The Assyrian then
reestablished the authority which had been
exercised by his father in Babylonia, and for
the next seventy-five years the status of the
country as a dependency of Assyria was not
seriously disturbed. Sometimes the kings of
Nineveh controlled affairs in the South with-
out subordinate governors, and at other times
viceroys were appointed after the manner
which had prevailed before the accession of
Pul. During the reigns of Esarhaddon and
Asshur-Bani-Pal, of Assyria, several revolts
occurred, but they were of little importance,
and were easily subdued. In no case did
these civil troubles continue for more than a
year. Such is a brief sketch of the Bab-
ylonian kingdom from the conquest by Tig-
lathi-Adar down to the time of the revolt of
Nabopolassar.

The circumstances leading to this important
event have already been reviewed in connec-
tion with the overthrow of Assyria by the
Medes. Two generations had now passed, and
the Babylonians had become comparatively
contented under the dominion of the Ninevite
rule. Perhaps they had come in some measure
to regard themselves as an integral part of
the Assyrian Empire. At any rate, when the
first symptoms of the Median invasion ap-
peared, they were not shaken from the alle-
giance to which they had now grown accus-
tomed. In the first disastrous expedition of
Cyaxares against Nineveh, the Babylonians
took no part. During the whole time of the
Scythic invasions, when the attention of the
Empire was absorbed with the movements of
that barbaric horde, the southern viceroys
made no effort to assert their independence.

Meanwhile the baffled but not broken
ambition of Cyaxares was busily at work.
His emissaries were in Babylonia, sowing the

seeds of insurrection. The nobles and princes
of the country were taught to expect the not
improbable collapse of Assyria under the
assaults of the Mede. Such was the discon-
tent thus created that when the rumor of a
second advance by Cyaxares through the
passes of the Zagros reached Nineveh, the
news also came that the Babylonians had re-
volted, and were marching from the south to
cooperate in the invasion. Under this double
peril the forces of Assyria were divided.
Saracus remained at the head of his principal
army to confront the Medes, and Nabopolassar,
a trusted Assyrian general, was put in com-
mand of a large division with orders to march
into Babylonia, restore order in the kingdom,
and defend the southern border against ag-
gression.

It appears that Nabopolassar was not seri-
ously resisted in his mission. Either by force
or counsel he conciliated the Babylonians to
the extent of gaining admission to the capital,
where he was quietly installed as viceroy of
the kingdom. Here, however, he soon saw
his own opportunity. The agents of Cyax-
ares were ready to foster and stimulate a trea-
son, which the circumstances had already
suggested. Nabopolassar fell from his loyalty
and entered into willing negotiations with the
Mede. It was arranged that the viceroy
should betray his king and join in the coining
invasion of Assyria. Babylonia, as the price
of this treachery, was to be made independent.
Nabopolassar was to be the king. His son
Nebuchadnezzar should have for his queen
Amyitis, the daughter of Cyaxares: and all
was accomplished as it was contrived.

As soon as it was known in Babylon that
the king of the Medes was on the march,
Nabopolassar set out from the capital with an
army. While he made his way northward
his ally came from the east. The overthrow
of Saracus and the siege and capture of Nin-
eveh followed. The Assyrian Empire was
broken up, and each of the confederates took
his allotted portion. Assyria Proper fell to
the Medes, and Nabopolassar received the
kingdom of Babylon, to which were an-
nexed Susiana on the east, and the valley of
the Euphrates and the whole of Syria on the

iyi.nXlA. ClVll. AM> MILlTMiY .1 .V.V.I /.\

285

west To these subject fount rii-s the transfer
of masters was no great hard>hip, nor was the
conduct and usurpations of Nal>opoUussar in
any (uartcr -> ri.nisly resented. Such were the
circumstances of the founding of what may
be properly called the Empire of the Bab-
ylonians.

The great revolution occurred in the year
625 B. C. NABOPOLASSAR entered upon a
peaceful reign of twenty-one years. His gov-
ernment was not seriously disturbed by revolts
or by foreign invasion. He seems to have
had that wisdom of peace which permits the
fruits of revolution to ripen into institutions.
The reigns of such rulers are generally called
uneventful, but if the histories of countries
were written by peasants, a different story
would be told a story of prosperity in com-
mercial marts and of quiet under roofs of
thatch.

The foreign relations of Babylonia were
peculiarly auspicious. Assyria on the north
was disrupted. Media on the east was bound
by a marriage tie and a treaty of amity. Per-
sia had not yet become formidable, and Lydia
was far away. Egypt, now under the rule
of Pharaoh Psametik, had assumed a con-
servative policy quite necessary to her own
salvation. So Babylon, basking in the sun-
shine of good fortune, began to wax great
and to exhibit that splendor of proportions
and adornment for which she was soon to
become famous throughout the world.

A single circumstance contributed to main-
tain the military ardor of the Babylonians.
By the terms of the alliance between C'yaxares
and Nabopolassar, the latter was to assist the
former in the prosecution of his wars. From
this clause in the agreement it frequently
happened that the Babylonian king had to
lead an army into the field to aid in the cam-
paigns of his ally. In those wars in which the
Medes were obliged to engage after the cap-
ture of Nineveh, in order to maintain and
establish by force what had been won by bat-
tle, contingents of Babylonian troops were
always auxiliary, and not infrequently Nabo-
polassar himself and, after him, his successors
were present in person in the field. It will

be remembered that when the armies of Cyax-
N. Vol. i 18

ares and Alyattes were contending in the
great Battle of the Eclipse, it was Nabopolas-
sar who acted on the part of the Medes in
settling the conditions, of peace. 1 It is eaay
to conceive that the Babylonian was more zeal-
ous in his efforts for reconciliation than if he
hiniM If had been one of the principals in the
contest. Albeit, he may have known better
than the other kings on that memorable field
that an edip-e i< simply a natural occurrence
in no wist.- indicative of the wrath of the

eelestiaU.

After the peace thus established between
the Medes and the Lydians, Nabopolassar re-
turned to his own capital. He was no longer
either young or warlike. It was the fate of
his old age, and of the close of his reign, to
be clouded with disaster. A cloud arose out
of Egypt which cast a shadow over him
and his empire. The Pharaoh Psametik was
now dead, and his successor, Necho, was a
ruler less jxjlitic and more ambitious. He
regarded the Babylonian dominion in Syria
as a usurpation, which he determined to resent
and punish. Accordingly he raised an army
and began an invasion, with a view to rees-
tablish Egyptian supremacy in that country.
He proceeded through the plain of Esdraelon,
as far as the city of MEOFDDO, where he met
Josiah, king of Judah, with an army drawn
up to oppose his progress. Josiah was at thia
time tributary to Nabopolassar, and from some
cause had come to prefer a Babylonian to an
Egyptian master. He therefore stood loyally
in the way of Necho, who first tried strategy
and then force to remove the obstacle. The
battle went against the Jewish king, who was
driven, mortally wounded, into Jerusalem,
where he died. Necho then proceeded with
the invasion of Syria, and carried his triumph-
ant arms to the very banks of the Euphrates.

The authority of Egypt was thus restored
over the whole western portion of the domin-
ions which, out of the spoils of Assyria, had
fallen to Nabopolassar. On his return from
this successful campaign, Necho interfered in
the civil war which was going on between the
two sons of Josiah, both of whom claimed the
crown of Judah. The Egyptian decided in

'See page 229.

286

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

favor of Jehoiakim, Jehoahaz, the younger
brother, being deposed as a usurper. Before
reaching his own country, Necho fell upon
the strong fortress of Gaza, next to Ashdod,
the principal town of Philistia, and carried it
after a siege.

Nabopolassar was now (B. C. 605) in the
last year of his life. Alarmed by the loss of
Syria, he determined to recover what Necho
had taken from him. After the army was
raised and equipped, however, the aged king
found himself unable to conduct the expedi-
tion, and so the command was given to his
son, Nebuchadnezzar. This prince had al-
ready had considerable experience in war, and
had shown tokens of the distinguished career
which awaited him. He pushed boldly into
Upper Syria, where at Carchemish the Egyp-
tians had established themselves in full force
to hold Jie country. Here they were at-
tacked by the Babylonian army and were
completely routed. Every vestige of Egyp-
tian resistance melted away.

Nebuchadnezzar proceeded to the West,
meeting no further opposition. He paused
for a short time in Palestine, where he re-
ceived the submission of Jehoiakim, whom
Necho had set up, and then continued his
triumphant course to the gateway of Egypt.
Doubtless the Pharaoh would have paid dearly
for his recent ambitions but for the news
which here reached Nebuchadnezzar of his
father's death. Without delay, the king,
fearing that some rival might usurp the throne
of Babylon, gave orders for his army to re-
trace its course into Upper Syria, and himself,
with a detachment, made all speed by the
nearest route across the desert to the capital.

In Babylon, however, every thing was
quiet. After the death of Nabopolassar, the
priests, loyal to the son, had assumed the con-
duct of affairs until the prince might return
from the borders of Egypt. He had a tri-
umphant reception, and was peacefully estab-
lished on the throne of the Empire. His
accession, in B. C. 604, marks the era of
Babylonian greatness. Whether we regard
the vigor and success of his wars, or the glory
of his capital, or his prestige as a civil ruler,
his reign must be considered one of the most

illustrious of ancient history. It was at this
time that the great palaces and temples arose,
that the Walls were built, that the Hanging
Gardens were reared for the Median wife of
the king. It is hardly too much to say that
the chief renown of the Babylonians as a na-
tion is referable in a large degree to the per-
sonal energy and kingcraft and warcraft of
Nebuchadnezzar.

To Josephus and other Jewish historian*
we are indebted for the best accounts of the
wars of this period. The contemporaneous
records of Babylonia furnish but scanty and
imperfect materials from which to gather any
extended account of the military movements
of the time. It is to be assumed that most
of the campaigns of Nebuchadnezzar were
carried on to the West into Syria, Palestine,
Phoenicia, Egypt. It was from this direction
that he was provoked in his boyhood, and the
restless peoples spreading out towards Syria
and the Mediterranean were in a state of tur-
bulence most likely to continue the provoca-
tion. On the side of the Medes and Persians
not much trouble was to be anticipated. His
wife was a sister of Astyages, and Cyrus had
not yet appeared on the stage. These circum-
stances gave peace on one side of the Empire,
and on the other war. The Jewish historians
had good reason to recount the inroads and
devastations wrought by the great king's
armies.

For the first six years the reign of Nebu-
chadnezzar was but little disturbed. The first
important insurrection was the revolt of Tyre,
the chief city of the Phrenicians. About the
same time, Jehoiakim, king of Judah doubt-
less calling to mind the fact that he owed his
own sovereignty to Pharaoh Necho, the rival
of the king of Babylon, and believing that
the Egyptians would come to his aid revolted
and took up arms. It was to punish these
Phrenician and Jewish rebels that Nebuchad-
nezzar undertook the first great campaign
after his accession. He invested Tyre, but
that strong city proved for a long time im-
pregnable. So the king, without desisting
from the siege, divided his forces, and with
one division proceeded against Jerusalem. To
the last moment Jehoiakim relied upon the

BABYLONIA. CIVIL A\l> .MILITARY ANNALS.

Egyptians to come to his aid, but the Pharaoh
licM aloof, and his self-constituted ally was
Ic'ft to his fate. He made his submission to
J'ebiichadiH'zzar, who deliberately put him to
death, and he was "buried with the burial of
an ass, drawn and cast forth beyond the
gates of Jerusalem." For the time being,
the Babylonian king conferred the crown of
Judah upon Jehoiakin, son of the recent
ruler; but he soon fell under suspicion of
treachery, was deposed, and taken a captive to
Babylon, thus making way for Zedekiah, who
was put upon the Jewish throne.

Meanwhile, the siege of Tyre continued.
The island city seemed invincible before the
clumsy methods of the Babylonians, but the
latter hung to the task with vindictive energy.
Year after year went by, and the city must
soon have fallen but for a second revolt
on the part of the Jews. For some reason
these people had come to prefer Egyptian to
Babylonian masters. Perhaps they even hoped
ultimately to throw off all mastery and be-
come independent, as in the days of David.
At any rate, Zedekiah, after having kept his
faith with Nebuchadnezzar for eight years,
became at heart disloyal, and entered into an
intrigue with Egypt against the Babylonians.

Pharaoh Apries was now the Egyptian ruler,
a youth whose ambition overleaped his pru-
deuce. He and Zedekiah took counsel to-
gether against the mighty, and it was agreed
that the Jewish king should revolt and that
tha Egyptian should come to his support.
Accordingly, in B. C. 588, Zedekiah thlv\v
off his allegiance and gathered an army for
defense. This was the fourth insurrection
whirh had occiirrt-d since Palestine became a
Babylonian dependency. Nebuchadnezzar was
enraged. He marched with his host against
the city of the Jews, desolating the country
as he came. Jerusalem was at once invested.
Mounds were built against the walls, and the
place was already reduced to straits when
Apries came up from Egypt to succor his
friend. Nebuchadnezzar, for the time, gave
up the siege, turned upon the Egyptians,
whom he routed in battle and drove precipi-
tately into their own country. Zt-dt-kinh was
thus left to his fate. The investment of the

i-ity was renewed, and after eighteen months
Jerusalem fell. /><! kiah attempted to escape
witli a remnant of his troops, but was captured
near Jericho. His sons were slaughtered be-
fore his face; his eyes were put out, and he
was sent in chains to Babylon. The state of
Jinlali was extinguished, and the seventy
years' captivity of the Jews began. Gedaliah
was appointed by Nebuchadnezzar to rule
over the ruins of Palestine, among which
Jeremiah sat weeping.

It is appropriate in this connection to re-
count in a few paragraphs the history of the
people of Israel. Their career as a tribe from
the days of Abraham to the time of the Exo-
dus has already been sketched in the First
Book. 1 After their escape from the Egyp-
tians, the crossing of the Gulf of Suez, and
a conflict with the Amalekites, MOSES led the
people to Sinai, where the Law was given and
the Jewish economy instituted. The Levites
were set apart to have exclusive jurisdiction
over the national worship. In his progress
from Sinai to Canaan a desert march from
station to station through a period of forty
years Moses avoided the lands of the Edom-
ites, the Moabites, and the Ammonites, but
proceeded boldly against Sihon, king of the
Amorites, and Og, king of Bashan. Both of
these chieftains lived east of the Jordan.
They were dispossessed of their hinds, which
were bestowed on the tribes of Reuben and
Gad and the half-tribe of Mauasseh. Moses
died on Mount Nebo, and was succeeded in
authority by JOSHUA, of the tribe of Ephraim.

He proved himself to be an able and reso-
lute general. He led the tribes of Israel
iicros* the Jordan into Canaan, or the Holy
Land, and there began a war of extermina-
tion upon the native inhabitants. A preda-
tory life of forty years in the desert had con-
verted the brick-makers of Egypt into a hardy
soldiery, and the Canaauites were driven
back before them. All were exterminated ex-
cept the Gibeonites, who secured their safety
by a stratagem, and became a dependent or
servile class among the Hebrews. The otter
Canaan itish kings were enraged at this immu-
nity of the Gibeonites, and assembled in the

See Book First, pp. 64-66.

288

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.-THE ANCIENT WORLD.

north with the remnants of the native tribes
to punish those who had made an alliance
with the invader. Jabin, the so-called "king"
of Canaan, was leader of the confederacy
against which Joshua mustered his forces at
Beth-horon. Decisive battles were fought at
this place, and shortly afterwards at Merora,
in both of which Joshua completely overthrew
and dispersed his enemies. The country of
Palestine was peaceably divided among the
remaining ten and a half tribes of Israel. 1
The tribes of Reuben and Gad and half of
the tribe of Manasseh had already received

HIGH PRIEST OF ISRAEL.

their chosen portion east of the Jordan. The
first period of Jewish history extends from
the time of the conquest of Canaan, B. C.
1350, to the establishment of the mon-
archy under Saul, B. C. 1095. The govern-
ment of Israel during this period was a theoc-
racy. Moses had been a law-giver and leader.

1 It will be remembered that the twelve sons
of Jacob became the progenitors of the thirteen
tribes of Israel. The two sons of Joseph Eph-
raim and Manasseh inherited equally with their
uncles. When the tribe of Levi was set apart for
the service of the sanctuary, the number of tribes
inheriting lands (for the Levites had none) was
again reduced to twelve.

After him Joshua, the general, gave the peo-
ple peace by war. After him a series of
rulers arose known as Judges; for they
"judged Israel." Many of these were persons
of distinguished merit either in wisdom or
war. Such were Deborah and Samson and
Gideon, who the first by exaltation of char-
acter, the second by strength, and the third
by military prowess conducted the govern-
ment with energy and success. Sometimes
for an interval there was no judge at all. In
such interregna every man was at liberty to
do what seemed good in his own eyes.

By and by the example of the surround-
ing nations produced the infection of mon-
archy in Israel. The people clamored for a
king. The uncertain judgeship proved only
an equivocal defense against the strong, per-
sonal governments of the adjacent pagan
nations. Under the popular impulse, and
against the theocratic principle, SAUL, the son
of Kish, of the tribe of Benjamin, was chosen
for the royal honor, and was anointed by the
prophet Samuel. With this event the second
period of Israelitish history begins.

Saul was a warrior. He was an austere
and able man, cordially disliked by the priest-
hood, between whom and himself there was a
conflict of authority. He began his reign by
making war on the Ammonites, whom he
quickly reduced to subjection. He then fell
upon the Philistines, whom he routed with
great slaughter in the decisive battle of Mich-
mash. Then the Moabites, Amalekites, and
Edomites were successively driven beyond the
borders of Israel. Meanwhile, however, an
anti-Saul party had arisen among the people.
The intractable spirit of the king had given
the priests opportunity to incite discontent
and to direct popular attention to young
DAVID, the son of Jesse, as the coming ruler
of Israel. There were dissensions in the
house of Saul. The jealousy of the king was
aroused against David, and Jonathan, the
king's son, espoused the cause of the young
aspirant to the extent of becoming his pro-
tector. By and by, in a battle with the Philis-
tines, led by Achish, king of Gath, Saul and
all but one of his sons were killed. Ishbo-
sheth survived, and was for a brief period rec-

BABYLONIA. CIVIL AM> MILITARY ANNALS.

288

BATTLE OF MICHMASH.

290

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

oguized as king of Israel. David, however,
was also crowned at Hebron, and only awaited
Ishbosheth's death to become king of the whole
nation.

One of the first acts of his reign was the
conquest of Jerusalem, the principal town of
the Jebusites, which place he made the future
capital of Israel and the holy city of his race

remnants of the old pagan nations around the
borders of Palestine were reduced to absolute
subjection. The king conquered a peace, and
rested on his laurels.

At this epoch a national literature made its
appearance. David himself was a poet and a
patron of song. He is the reputed author of
many of the Psalms composed during h'ta

SAUL ANOINTED BY SAMUEL.

in all time to come. The Ark of the Cove-
nant, set up a long time ago in the desert,
was now transferred from Kirjathjearim to
Jerusalem, and this fact fixed the religious
thought of the people on the new capital.
David then entered upon his wars, which were
successful to the extent that the primacy of
Israel was for a season extended from the Red
Sea to the banks of the Euphrates. All the

reign, which have ever since remained a cen-
tral element in the religious worship of both
Jewish aud Christian peoples. Less creditable
to the king were the social abuses which began
in his time, and in some measure under his
countenance. Polygamy was introduced and
abetted by the king's example, and his per-
sonal conduct in many respects has subjected
him to the censure of after ages. Growing

BABYLONIA. CIVIL AND MILITARY ANNALS.

out of the jealousies attendant upon his mul-
tiple marriages, his sous, Absalom and Adon-
ijah, revolted against their father's authority,
and the former of the two was proclaim' <1
king. The armies of Israel were sent against
them ; Absalom was killed, and Adonijah was
sentenced and executed after the death of the
king.

ABSALOM'S TOMB.

David was succeeded by his son SOLOMON,
whose chief glory is the building of the temple
at Jerusalem. He was perhaps the most cul-
tured and certainly the most splendid king of
his times. The fame of his court extended
into all the surrounding nations. Luxury was
given full sway. The government was trans-
formed into a sultanate, in which all the vices
of the East flourished. The splendors of the
gorgeous temple erected on Mount Moriah
shone with a strange luster into the royal
palace and harem of the abandoned king.
His old age was distracted with domestic
troubles, and his death was clouded with the
shadows of imminent revolt and dissolution.

No sooner was Solomon dead than REHO-
BOAM, his son and successor, adopted his
father's methods as his own. He assumed
towards the discontented people, long oppressed
by heavy burdens of taxation, a haughty air
.well calculated to fire the rebellious spirit.
JEROBOAM, the Ephraimite, appeared as a pop-
ular leader. Ten of the tribes revolted and
went over to his banner. The remaining two
tribes of Judah and Benjamin remained under
Rehoboam, who henceforth took the title of
king of JUDAH, the ten tribes under Jeroboam

constituting the kingdom of ISRAEL. Thus, in
B. C. 975, wag effected the division of the
Hebrew nation into two peoples, who ever
afterwards maintain! <l towards each other an
attitude of estrangement and hostility.

Jerusalem remained the capital of Judah,
but the borders of Israel came within ten
miles of the city. The capital of the latter
kingdom was fixed first at Shechem, then at
Tirzah, and finally at- Samaria. Jeroboam
began his reign with a series of measures best
calculated to win the people away from any
remaining compunctious as it respected alle-
giance to the House of David, now represented
by Rehoboam. At Bethel and Dan new
sanctuaries were set up, and the god Apis,
cast of gold, was substituted for the ark and
the altar of the temple. A new priesthood
was instituted, and not a few Levites went
over from Judah to Israel. The people fol-
lowed the new idolatry with enthusiasm, up-
braided for their apostasy, but hardly checked
in their fall by the indignant protests of the
prophets. It was under these conditions that
Elijah appeared and fought the good fight
with the prophets of Baal.

From Jeroboam, the first, to HOSHEA, the
last, of the kings of Israel, there were nine-
teen reigns. The rulers who held the throne
during this period belonged to no fewer than
nine different houses a fact indicative of the
extreme turbulence of the kingdom. NADAB,
the successor of Jeroboam, was murdered by
his successor, BAASHA. The latter had some
military ambition, and built a fortress at
Ramah, with a view to future encroachment*
on the kingdom of Judah; but Ben-hadad,
king of Syria and friend of Judah, drove the
Israelite back into his own country. ELAH
succeeded to the throne only to be slain by
ZIMRI, who was king for a week, when he in
turn was deposed by OMBI, who had been
Elah's captain of the host. Then came AHAB
and JEZEBEL, whose unsavory names have
offended all Christendom. She outlived her
husband, as well as AHAZIAH, who succeeded
him, until she and her favorite son JEHORAM
were both put to death by JEHU, captain of
the guard. The latter took the kingdom, and
held it long enough to lose all his territories

292

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

east of the Jordan in a war with Hazael,
king of Damascus. It was at this epoch that
Israel first became tributary to Assyria, in the
reign of Asshur-Nazir-Pal, monarch of that
country. In the times of JEHOAHAZ, successor
of Jehu, the Syrians made further conquests
from Israel, and the kingdom appeared on the
verge of extinction until the military abilities
of JOASH, the next king of the line, restored
a part of what had been lost during the two
preceding reigns.

These temporary successes were extended
by JEROBOAM II., the ablest king of Israel,
who regained all that the surrounding nations
had won from his kingdom, and restored the
former borders of Israel. After him, how-
ever, there was another lapse, both ZECHA-
EIAH and SHALLUM the next two kings
being murdered in the same year. MENAHEM
succeeded to the throne, and undertook a
vain-glorious expedition against the Babylo-
nians, whose dominions he invaded as far as-
Thapsacus. This town he took, only to be
quickly expelled and followed to his own
dominions -by Pul the Babylonian.

The next two reigns, of PEKAHIAH and
PEKAH, were of little importance. During this
time (762-730 B. C.) Tiglath-Pileser, 01 As-
syria, overran the territories of Israel and re-
duced the kingdom to the last extreme. Ho-
shea, the last king of Israel, came to the throne
in B. C. 730, and held it for nine years, when,
after a two years' siege of his capital, he was
taken and the nationality of Israel extin-
guished by Shalmaneser a full account of
which is given in the History of Assyria.'

The kingdom of Judah, ruled over by the-
descendants of David during twenty reigns
covering a period of three hundred and sixty-

1 See Book III., p. 175.

BABYLONIA. CIVIL AND MILITARY A. \\.\l.s.

nine years has a history somewhat more rep-
utable than that of Israel. The people hat!
fewer vices, and fewer of their kings suffered
death by violence. A long list of misfor-
tunes, however, came upon the kingdom, not
a few of which were precipitated either by
the lolly of the people or the treachery of
their rulers. Judah, as has already been as-
serted, lay on the highway beween Babylonia
and Egypt, the rival powers of the East and
the West ; and the Jewish nation was not in-
frequently ground between the upper and the
nether mill-stone. Thus, during the reign
of Rehoboam, the first king of Judah, Jeru-
salem was taken and pillaged by Shishak of
Egypt. There were, also, constant troubles
with Israel. ABIJAM, the successor of Reho-
boam, gained some successes over that king-
dom, especially the capture of Bethel, one of the
ancient sacred places of the nation. ASA, the
next king, was so hard pressed, by the Egyp-
tians on one side and the Israelites on the
other, that he was obliged to despoil the tem-
ple of its treasures in order to purchase the
help of Ben-hadad of Damascus. JEHOSHA-
PHAT, the next king, made an alliance with
the Israelite Ahab, and the two made com-
mon cause against the Syrians ; but the people
of Judah paid dearly for the advantage on
account of the idolatrous practices which
flowed in with this friendly intercourse.
While JEHORAM was king, a horde of Philis-
tines and Arabs gained possession of Jerusa-
lem. Later, Athaliah, mother of AHAZIAH,
killed all of her offspring, except Joash, and
instituted the worship of Baal instead of that
of Jehovah. Idolatry was rampant for a sea-
son, until the -queen was overthrown in a
revolt headed by Jehoida, the high-priest.

Of the reigns of JOASH, AMAZIAH, UZZIAH,
JOTHAM, AHAZ, HEZEKIAH, MANASSEH, and
AMON there is little to be recorded, except a
steady decline of the kingdom, accompanied
with domestic troubles and petty wars. Jo-
SIAH'S reign was an epoch of partial restora-
tion. The land was cleared of idolatry. The
king showed himself to be a true iconoclast.
The pagan altars were everywhere broken
down and the idols ground to dust. After
this work was done the temple was renovated,

and the ancient worship of Jehovah restored
in comparative purity. It was at this tiim-
that a copy of the Mosaic Law was found and
brought forth as a swift witness against the
degeneracy of the Jewish nation.

The close of the reign of Joeiah corre-
sponds with the dute of those devastating in-
cursions of the Scythians, which have been
hitherto narrated in the Second and Third
Books. These barbarians found their way
into Palestine, and even as far as Ascalon and
Bethshan. At the former city they captured
and despoiled the temple of Astarte, and the
latter place took the name of the savage in-
vaders, being known for many centuries as
Scythopolis. About the same time that Ju-
dah was thus overrun by savages from the
north-east, Pharaoh Necho of Egypt started
on his campaign against Babylonia. Josiali,
the king, for once loyal to the Babylonian
sovereign, undertook to oppose the Egyptian's
progress, but in the great battle of MEQIDDO
was defeated and slain. Then followed the
brief and disastrous reigns of JEHOIAKIM and
JEHOIACHIN, and finally that of ZEDEKIAH,
whose relations with Nebuchadnezzar were nar-
rated at the beginning of this digression. With
the overthrow of Zedekiah, in the year B. C.
586, the kingdom of Judah was extinguished.
It had survived the rival kingdom established
by Jeroboam one hundred and thirty-five
years, but finally yielded to the same forces
which had brought to an end the erratic ca-
reer of the Ten Tribes of Israel.

Resuming, then, the thread of Babylonian
history: Tyre fell. For thirteen years it had
withstood the siege, but in the year after the
downfall of Jerusalem, namely, in B. C. 585,
Nebuchadnezzar, now relieved from his em-
barrassments with the Jews, renewed in per-
son the assaults on the Phoenician capital, and
the investment was pressed to a successful
issue.

Having thus secured, beyond peradven-
ture, the capitals of two of 'the principal
states of the West, Nebuchadnezzar was free
to undertake the chastisement of Egypt It
will be remembered how Pharaoh Apries,
having allowed Zedekiah to break with the
Babylonians in the interest of Egypt, had

294

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD.

incontinently rushed to the support, of his
ally and had then incontinently rushed back
again. Nebuchadnezzar now made prepara-
tions to punish his would-be rival, and, in
B. C. 581, began an Egyptian campaign.

Herodotus and the records of Egypt differ
as to the results of the invasion, the former
stating that Apries was dethroned and put to
death ; the latter, that the Pharaoh continued
to reign until many years afterwards, when
he perished in an insurrection of his own
subjects. The truth appears to be that in

and all around the outposts to the horizon of
civilization, until his Empire extended from
the Pillars of Hercules to the limits of Ar-
menia and the foot, of the Caucasus. For
such extraordinary exploits and wide-spread
dominion there are no sufficient grounds of
historic belief. After all deductions, how-
ever, the wars of Nebuchadnezzar were suffi-
ciently important and successful to win for
him the name of a great conqueror, and to
insure for his own capital and kingdom aa
era of peace and splendor.

SIEGE OF TYRE BY THE BABYLONIANS.

his first campaign, Nebuchadnezzar had no
marked success ; but that in a second invasion
of the country, in B. C. 570, the king of
Egypt was driven from his throne, to be suc-
ceeded by Amasis, who became tributary to
the Babylonian Empire.

Such were the wars of the great king in
Syria and the West. Besides these actual
achievements tradition has built up about the
name of Nebuchadnezzar almost as dazzling
an array of conquests as of Sesostris or of
Alexander. The Babylonian was even re-
puted to have made war in Africa and Spain

Perhaps the first great result of these im-
perial conquests was to bring into Babylon
and the surrounding districts vast multitudes
of captives, who sank at once to the level of
a servile class. These hordes of driven crea-
tures furnished at a trifling cost an unlimited
supply of labor. The Babylonians were thus
relieved from oppression, and found time to
build and to banquet. There were thus af-
forded those limitless resources out of which
arose the otherwise inconceivable wonders of
Babylon. The conquered provinces were in a
measure depopulated, in order that by de-

I', Ml YLONIA. CIVIL AND MILITARY ANNALS.

portation and colonization in and around
Babylon all further danger of provincial in-
surrections might be removed, and at the
same time an exhaustless supply of slave la-
bor be furnished to meet the demands of the
splendid capital, led and incited by imperial
caprice.

Thus were begun and executed the princi-

Now it was that the incomparable Walls of
Babylon, with their more than five hundred
million cubic feet of solid masonry, were
raised in massive grandeur around a circum-
ference of forty-one miles. Now it was that
tin Hanging Ga