UNIVERSITY
OF PITTSBURGH
LIBRARY
fm^mmmm^wim&mi
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a-'^^/'
RIDPATH'S
UNIVERSAL HISTORY
AN ACCOUNT OF THE ORIGIN, PRIMITIVE CONDITION AND ETHNIC DEVELOPMENT
OF THE GREAT RACES OF MANKIND, AND OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN THE
EVOLUTION AND PROGRESS OF THE CIVILIZED LIFE AMONG MEN
AND NATIONS, FROM RECENT AND AUTHENTIC SOURCES.
WITH A PRELIMINARY INQUIRY ON THE TIME, PLACE AND MANNER
OF THE BEGINNING.
By JOHN CLARK RIDPATH, LL. D.,
AUTHOR OF A POPULAR HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC.
Complete in Sixteen Volumes
A NARRATIVE OF MORE THAN SIX THOUSAND PAGES, PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED WITH
COLORED PLATES, RACE CHARTS, HISTORICAL MAPS, TYPE-PICTURES,
SKIETCHES AND DL\GRAMS TO THE NUMBER OF MORE
THAN THREE THOUSAND.
VOLUME XV.
CINCINNATI:
THE JONES BROTHERS PUBLISHING COMPANY.
h:
^-o/ /> /■■}' s/ ■r:srnirT!nx
Preface to Volumes XV axu X\'L
HAVE n.nv brought to
it< ilnal fnnu the «nrk <.u
I Ifiieral Histury, the out-
< of which were dimly
conceived niauy j-ears ago.
It would be impracticable,
and perhaps of little profit, to trace the slow-
development of such a \vork from its first con-
ception to the final stroke with which at length
it is finished and delivered to the public. To
the author such a retrospect of processes and
combinations must be of nuich personal in-
terest, but the reader will be concerned ratlier
with the aggregate and final result than with
the tedious evolution.
At first view it will appear to the student
of history that the Ancient and the Modern
World are, in tlieir historical records, of about
equal duratiiu and importance. The begin-
nings of Ancient History are set, in a general
way, about as far beyond the Christian Era
as our own times are placed thereafter. To
Ancient History lielong the Classical Ages —
an epoch of achievement and glory which may
well challenge the mo^t brilliant periods of the
recent era. But a closer judgment of the rel-
ative importance of Ancient and Modern His-
tory will show the great preponderance of the
latter. This is one of the more important
facts which have impressed themselves upon
the writer's mind in the preparation of these
Volumes. He has come to believe in the great
preeminence of the Jlodern Era over the most
brilliant epochs of Antiquity. This is said of
the aggregate and total achievements of mod-
ern times as compared with the aggregate and
total achievements of any given period in the
liistory of the Ancient "World.
It is from considerations such as these that
Modern History has, under the writer's hand
and treatment, expanded to a considerable ex-
tent beyond the limits originally proposed.
This principle has been the foundation of the
jireseut Fi.ur- Volume Edition of the work. A
single volume of the iinir, with the first thir.l
of tlie second, will be fouml apiaiquiati-d to
the History of Ancient Statis and Nations;
while all the remaining volumes are devoted
to the History of the .Aliddle Ages, the Period
of Renaissance, the Revolutionary Epoch, and
the Nineteenth Century.
It is in the last-named division that the
largest increment and modifications of the
]u-esent edition will be discovered. To the
History of Antiquity the Book on the Parthian
Empire has been added in \'oluni.. I. As to
the history of Greece and Rnnie, ..nly inci-
dental emendations and extensions of the nar-
rative will be fouml. But in the history of
our own century the whole work has been
done anew, and on a larger scale.
Another important element in the growth
of the present issue of this History i-elates to
the part allotted to the most recent annals of
our times. By this is meant the nan-ative of
affairs in the ditierent nations during the
eighth and ninth decades of our century.
When the work was first projected. History
seemed to have rearhrd a pause with the con-
clusion of the Civil War in the Uniteil States
and the establishment of the Gernum Empire
in Europe. The period which the vrriter
was thus obligeil to make at the beginning
of the eighth derade i-^ at length ended,
and he is now able to pursue his course
with tolerable certainty tor a full score of
years. Nor have the course and tendency of
aflairs during this period been devoid of inter-
est from a historical point of view. To this
period belong the demonstration of Italian
unity; the definitive estaldishment of a German
Empire under the auspices id' the House of
Hohenzoilern ; the progressiv<. — Imt somewhat
broken— march of Eugbsh Lii)eralism towards
the establishment of an Imperial federation for
the whole British Empire; the vindication of
the right to exist on the part of the Thini
I'in.iwri: TO VOL I'M r:
A.\i> xvr.
Kejiulilii' iif Franco; and ))arti('ularly the res-
toration of a comi)k'te nali'.nal autonomy in
the United States.
It is not needed in tiiis coniieetion l<i liuell
in exten^o on the minor nioditications which
have suggested tiienisilves in tlie composition
of these volumes. It may be thonght that all
such departures from the miginal sketch for
the production of a literary work are hut-so
many evidences of the imperfection of the
plan, and that references thereto are in the
nature of communications at the confessional.
This view, li.iwrvn-. is at once superficial and
incorrect. It ]>r eds upon the assumjjtiou
that a literary production has the character of
a mechanical contrivance rather than of an or-
ganism. Such a view runs to the efiect that
literature and its products are the results of a
sort of infallible calculus rather than the
phenomena of growth and li^e. As a matter
of fact, every true product in the \v(,rld of
letters has the analogy of the tree which pro-
ceeds from germination by way of expansion,
leafage, and blossom, to final completeness of
height and form and the bearing of fruit.
The fable of the birth of Jlinerva is not re-
peated in literary production. Even the poem,
most imaginative and immediate of all our
mental products, does not spring full-winged
from the flames of imagination. No work of
art is cnnceiveii in its completeness by a single
effort of the niin<l. How much less should we
expect a literary work, extending through
thousands of pages, and covering in its subject
matter the vast panorama of human affairs
from the primitive shadows of the heroic ages
to the broad revelation of the present hour, to
be ])roduced in all its entirety and amplitude
in the first concept of the outline I
Frnm tliese considerations, I iiave been
willing that this History of the World should
be improved according to the laws of growth
and development, until it has at length reached
its present form and substance. It only re-
mains to add a single remark relative to the
difficulties of composing a true history of recent
events. Contrary to what would seem to be
the manifest principles of historical narrative,
it is the recent event and not the remote
which is most difiicvdt of just treatment. In
the first ])lace, the evidences of the real na-
ture of current athiirs are all stained and
swollen like rivtdets under the disturbance of
last night's rain. The waters are muddy and
jierturbed. Their course is difficult to discover.
Channels have been produced by the tem-
porary deluge, which will p;i.ss with the fort-
night and leave no further trace. The true
volume of present affairs is difficult to estimate.
The senses are confused by portents in the
earth and heavens, which nothing signify.
In still another particular the production
of current history is greatly embarrassed and
distracted. This is the necessity of the writer
to constitute a part of that vast society, the
movement of which he is expected to de.scribe.
He is himself borne along with the current.
He must needs feel its fluctuations. Anon he
finds him.self in the middle of the stream, or
borne at intervals into the whirling eddy near
the shore, from which p(jint of view universal
nature seems to revolve around him. He is
expected to share the sympathies, the beliefs,
the passions of the current age. He is ex-
pected to be swayed by the dominant preju-
dice, to think as his party thinks, to do as the
majority do, to dream the prevailing dreams,
to see the anticipated vision. He is expected
to wear the form and fashion of the times ;
to be pleased with the current pleasure ;
to smile, to sigh, to weep, to sleep and wake,
to go and come, to live and to die, even as do
those with whom he is associated in the desti-
nies of life. This setting of the writer among
the very facts, the tendency of which he is
expected to di-scover and describe, is the most
serious of all drawbacks to the accuracy and
fidelity of his work. I can not hope that
what I have written in this Fourth Volume,
closely involved as it is with the movements
of the current age, shall be wholly free from
the coloring of prejudice and the mistakes
arising from the personal equation. Doubt-
less there is in the following pages much chro-
matic and s]iherical aberration ; but I cherish
the hope that the reader will find much to have
been faithfully delineated and lifted somewhat
above the level of the political and partisan
distortion which is unfortunately the prevail-
ing vice of our times.
J. C. R.
Grke.ncastle, April .
VJO.
Contexts of \'olumi:S XV and X\\.
PREFACE, 1-3
CONTENTS, 3-22
LIST OF ILLTSTRATIONS, 23-27
INTRODUCTK )N 29-30
BOOIv TWENTV-KIRST.— THE UNITED STATES.
Chapter CXXII. — American' ^Iiddle Ages.
(ieneral Historical Outlook after Waterloo. —
Transformation of Society. — Aspect of the Nine-
teenth Century. — Progress of the United States in
Particular.— Sketch of James Monroe. — Policy of
the New Administration. — Haj'tian Complica-
tion.— DitHculties with the North-western In-
dians.— Manner of Settlement. — Admission of
Mississippi. — West Indian Piracy. — Question of
Internal Improvements. — National Road an<l Erie
Canal. — First Passage of the Seminole War. —
Jackson's Part Therein. — Cession of Florida to
the United States. — First Commercial Crisis. —
Admission of Illinois and Alabama. — Missouri
Imbroglio. — Tlie Compromise. — Reelection of JNIon-
roe. — The AVest Indian Piracy Again.— Question
of the South American Republics.- Visit of La-
fayette.—Presidential Election of 1824.— Sketch
of John Quincy Adams. — Revival of Partisan-
ship.—Difficulties with the Creeks.— Deatlis of
Jefferson and Adams. — Disappearance of Alor-
gan. — Rise of the Tariff Issue. ^Character of the
Epoch. — Election of Jackson to the Presidency. —
Sketch of the New Executive.— The Political
Revolution — Question of rechartering the Bank. —
Whig and Democrat. — Tariff Agitation renewed. —
Webster and Hayne.— Nullification.— Black Hawk
War.— The Cherokees. — Continuance of the Sem-
inole War. — Story of Csceola. — End of the Bank
of the United States. — Distribution of Funds. —
Reelection of Jackson. — Foreign Complications. —
Necrology of the Fourth Decade. — Disasters.—
Admission of Arkansas and Michigan.— Farewell
of Jackson. — Sketcli of Van Buren. — Subjugation
of the Seminoles.— Second Financial Crisis. —
Independent Treasury Bill.— The Canadian Re-
bellion.—Character of Van Buren's Administra-
tion.—Election of Harrison to the Presidency.—
Statistics and Growth.— Sketch of Harrison. —
His Death.— Notice of Tyler.— His Break with
the Whig Party. North-eastern Boundary Ques-
tion Settled. — Disturbance in Rhode Island. —
Completion of Bunker Hi
Troubles in New York. — Ki
Tlieir Exodus to Utah, . .
Monument. — Land
of tlie Mormons. —
Chapter CXXIII. — JIexkax War axd
Sixth Decade.
The Texas Agitation.— Rebellion and Inde-
pendence of the Province. — Question of Annexa-
tion.—Election of Polk to tlie Presidency.— The
First Telegraph. — Texas admitted into the
Union. — Also Florida and Iowa. — Sketch of Polk.—
Anger of Mexico. — Question of Boundaries. —
American Army on the Rio Grande. — Outbreak
of the War. — Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. —
AVar Spirit in the United States.— Plan of the
Campaigns. — Capture of Monterey. — Expedition
of Kearney. — Fremont in the Rockies. — Revolu-
tion in California. — Scott Commander-in-Chief. —
Battle of Buena Vista.— Capture of A'era Cruz. —
Invasion of Mexico. — Battle of Cerro CTOrdo. —
Conflicts about the Capital. —Capture of INIexico.—
End of the AV^ar. — Terms of the Treaty. — Oregon
Boundary Question. — Settlement of the Interna-
tional Line. — Discovery of Gold in California. —
Rush for the Mines. — Founding of Smithsonian
Institution. — Its Organization and AA'ork. — Ne-
crology of Fifth Decade. — Admission of AViscon-
sin.— The New Caiiinct Otlices. — Presidential
Election of 1848.- (^i.-ti-ns Inv.lvrd. -Sketch
of Taylor.— Proposition to admit California.—
Nature of the Issue.— New Mexico organized. —
Passage of the Omnibus Bill.— Death of the Pres-
ident.— Sketch of Fillmore. — Retirement of Henry
Clay.— Political Sentiment of the Times.— The
Cuban Imbroglio. — Failure of Lopez. — Policy of
Fillmore. — The Newfoundland Fishery Ques-
tion.— A'isit of Kossuth to the Ignited States. —
Arctic A'oyages of Franklin and Kane. — Deaths
of Calhoun, Clay, and AVebster.— Cuba and the
Tripartite Treaty.— Presidential Election of 1852.—
Position of Parties.— Sketch of President Pierce. —
Question of the Pacific Railroad agitated. —
" 3
4 COXTEXTS OF VOLVMKS XV AXI> XVL
Soiitli-\v.v<liTii r.oiin.lary ■letcrmin.-il. -i 'i.rniii'.' I'avis.— Thr War in Mi~sniiri.— Rattlns of Boone-
Ol Iim-ivoiir>,- with Japan. — WorM's Kairal N.-w vill.' and Wilson Civek.— Caj.tuTV c,| l.cxiiiL'tnn.—
Y.irl<. -\\'all<ti- inva.l-s ('.•iitral Anii-ii.a. Is Fi-.-iimnt an.l Halli--ol<.— Ft.rr.-s in Kc-nluc'l<y an.l
.Iftlin.nr.l an.l ,-x.-ciitcil.-Si,,ry nt tli- Martin , ..n tlic Mississippi.— Appariti.jn nl ( irant. — l!fl-
Ko.szta .\liair.— Pi-..j.-ct t.> piuciiasr Cnlia.-'l'li.- n...nl. — .\larni at Wasliin-ton. -McCli-llan Cmi-
O.slrn.l Manifest...- N.'W \\\-.~t..-n. T.iril..ri.'S.- i iiian.l.T-i:. Cliief.-Civali.ui ..I tiir .\i-:iiy ..f tlje
Repeal <.f til,- Mi-s..nn Cniproniise. Tlu-.ri.-s ■ l'..l..M,a<-.-r.all-s Bhiir. -i >p,.raii.,Ms aL.n- the
of li.,nu':as.-Kir.t> ..| ll,e Kausa<.Nel.i-a-ka (•..:;st. FiM KiUvts ..I tl„- War in KnL'lan.l.-
Bill.- fivil an.l .-...-i-.l Tinni H in Kansas. Tie- Ma>.in an.l .-li.l.-ll .-^.-nt .M.ma.I.-.MIaii- .,1 tho
Bonier War.-.<lav.TV (lu.^ii-n in lull F..iv,..- | Tr, „t an.l s„„ ./,„;„/„.- (^i,„.sii,,ns Iiiv.,lve.l.-
I'.isiti..n of Parties in l^V;. Tn.ul,l.-s ..1 the | He. i.n.ili.ms .,f .S-uanl. -Marshall Kxi.elle.l from
(ienev. ,-k,-l. h ..f his Lit,.. Th.- hr.-.l S,.,tt : tnn- ..1 1 i..n,K..n. I'.altl.- ..f I'itt.shnrir Fan.lin-.—
Ileei.si,,n. Tl,.-..ri.s ..f tie- .<npr,-nie ('■nrl ..n ' T.ikiie.' ..f l-lan.l Nuniher T.-n.-Uattle of I'ea
J^laverv. < intl.reak . .1 Tr. .nhl.- u ill. tie- M. .i ne .ns K.L.-. Tie- M.r,:„n,r in Hanipt..n Koads.-
in rtale War in the T,rnt..rv. Fn.l ..1 ih.- l'..al,n l.y the .I/,.,,;/,,,-. Capture .,i Roanoke
l)iHi.■nll^. .\ltaek ..n Anieri.an V.ss,-I in.<..nlh Man. I. N.w IVrn., l;.-anf..r-, an.l F..rt I'nlaski.—
Anieri.a'. I.aein- ..f Fir.-t Atlanli.- Cahle.- .\ew Orl. ans taken l,y |h,- F.-.|,ral I'le.t an-l
Failnre ..1 the' Fnterpris". A.ln,i>>i iMinne- , Ain.y. F..rts .ra.k-.,n an.l Si. Philip. ^ Kirl.y
Notiee of
Irvin- an.l his W..rks (is-ldll
Pi.hne.n.l a
n.l P,-ny\ill,..
— luka. — Corinlh —
C'ii.vi-11
:k CXXIW -Di^iMdN .\M> Civil
W.\u.
Fir-, M..v,in
l;av..n. r.att
i;,-M.it,-. .M..
',- ..1 .Mmfr.-.-sh
vein, -his ,,f Ih,
..r..ut:ir,-L..ss.-s an,l
- Fa-lern Anni.-s.-
K,-nev
,al of Slavery AL'ilali..n. P.-rs..nal
r.ank-^ ..n t!
!.■ Sh,.nan.l.,ah
.-Fi.,nt !;..val an,l
Lihertv 1
P..rl l;,'pnhli
.•.-.\.lvan.',-..f
the Arn,y,,f■th,■Po-
ecnti.ni «.
i III,- In^n^-_..■nI^. Tie- Kan.^an War.—
t,,n,a.-.-M,-(
■|,-ll.in's Plans.
Y.akt..^^n tak,-n.—
(;r..uin-.'
Ih.stilitv t.. Slavery. p..iili.-al C.nven-
W....rs E.\p.
•.liti..n a'jaiiist
X,.rf,,lk.— Paul,- ,,f
tions ..f
isi.o. ni-rnplion ..1 tie- 1 ^■nl...•ratii■
Fair daks.-
-.\.-.',->M 1
I.,-,- 1.. Conf,-,l,-rate
PaMv.— 1,
:e^nlt ..i Ih.- C.nt.-st. Tie- S,-.-rssi..n
C.nnnan.l.-
Pattl,- ..1 Oak
(M,.ve.-Mec-l,an-,-s-
Sclu'nie.-
Ihama ..1 |iisnni..n. With.lraual ..f
vill,-. -(.ain.
,-,s's Mill. — Wl
liil,- dak Suariii..—
Sonthern
l:.-pr.'s.-ntati\.'s an.l S.-nal.irs lioni
Fiazi,-r's k'ai
ini.-Malv.-rn 1
Ilill. Faihnv ,.f the
O.n-ress.
— Sintini.iit in tie- S, ■.■.->- (■..n\i-n-
iViiinsiilai C.
niq.al-n.— .\.1\-:
in,e,.| l.,.-,,n Wa-h-
tions.--.\
ttiln.le ..1 Stephens. -S.itinL. up ..f the
in-.;t..n. I'.alt
l.-s .if P.nll Ui
ini. C,-nl,-rvill,-. an.l
Provineia
1 C..nle.|.-rat.-(...verninenl. I'.a.-i- C..n-
Chanlillv. -.1
aek-..!! Caplnr.
■s Ilaip.-i's l.-riy.-
feren.-.-.
l.ast Iiays ..f th.- dl.l A.hniMi>lrai;..n.-
I'.attl,- ..f .\ii
ti.-tani. -I.,',- n-
Moven.eli
its in Ch.nlest.in llarlhir. i;pi-...le ..f
MeCU-llin s.
ipe,.<,-.l,-,l hy 1
raunsi.l,..-P,attl,- ,.,f
the >/'(/•
ut th, U..I. .^-k.'l.-h ..i l,in...ln-.- Life
Fredeihkshn
,^._I,,s..-s.-I)
is,-,,nia,;iin._' ()nll,„.k
an.l Cha
raet.-r.- Ills lnan..;nral .\.1.|..". The
,.f Ih.- rni..n
Cans,-.-Calls f
<ir Ki-ernits.-K-niiiK'
N,-n- Cah
ini-t.- Fall ..1 Snnit.r. Kin.lliie.' ..i tin-
th,- l-aiianeii
lalion I'roelaini
;ilion.— Chaiaiter ,.f
War Spir
it.— First Call l.ir V..lnnt.-.-rs. l;|...,.l in
Ih,. .\,t. Ca
ptnreof .\rkan.-
^as Post.-Movenu-nt
P,aUin,or,
..— Se.-..n.l Call f..r .<..llieis. Ki. hne.n.l
,.| (irant a-.;.
linst Vi.'k-hni-
Pi,,jerts and Fail-
nia.l.- tie
• Conf'-.li-rale Caiiitnl ('an-.s ..f llie
iiiis. — Kiinni
nu' lhi. Patter
i,s.-P.atlle of Fort
Civil Wa
(,ih^nn.-l;a>
■ni..n.l. C.iplin
V ..f Ja.ks..n.-Pem-
cn-i-ntv. S,..-ti,,nalisni ,.l th.-' Parti, ■s.-N.irlh. an --i,-,- an.l Captut.-.- Fail ..I \'..n 1 ln,l-..n -Con-
an.l S.',nlh.-rn Svsl,-n,s ..f T.al...r, C.tP.n an.l 1. .l.raU- an.l Fni..n Cavahy l;ai.ls.,f iMiS-fB.—
Cotl.,n <;in. Sla'v,-ry iH-.-p-,.. .le.l in S.,nll„.n. NVw M,-th...ls <.f P,slrn,-ti,m. -Capture of
Society. - Th.- Missouri .\-.'itati..n ami C..ni- str,-i-_dil.- P.nil,- ..f ( hi.kanian.ra.- E.\tent of
proini's,-. - .\nllili.ati..n Th,-..rv. .\ nn.-xati..n ,.f Fni.-n Ih>aM,r.-( iiant in Coniinan.l -Revival
T,-x:,s an.l it- (■..„-. in. •n,-,-s:-Kan.as\,hraska '.l the Fni..n Can-.-.- Lookout Mountain an.l
Bill. -Want ..I Int. r,-..ni-.- h,f,v,-.n th,- N. all,, in Mis-L.nary Pi.lu-.-. l..,-s,s ami Results.-.si..;.^- of
an.l .s..nth,rn Slat-. lnlln,-n.-.- -il S,.,ii.,iial Kie.xvill.-. Tl„- War in Arkansas.— P>ai.l ,.1 ,lohn
Pil<-ralnr.-. Fvil W,.iU ..i I i,iiiaL.-..-u<--. H.i-tility .M-.r-aii. L...ss ..f ( lalv, si,, n.—Fe,leral Failure at
Mc-CK-llan' an.l M..nis in W.-t Vii-.-inia. In.le- th- .-1 Chan, nil. .r>\ ill. -.-Kxtent of tin- I'nh.n
oisivi- Fn-.-au-.m.-nt- in ih-l 1;. ■•_•!. .n. ( ■..n.,iilra- Pi-a-P r. .-P.n.-n.an's liai.l.- Lee inva.l,-s P.-nn-
tion of Arnii.s at Mana-sa> .lnn,!i..n. P.alll.-..f -^ Ivaiiia.- .M,-a.l.- C..iiinian.ls tin- Army .,f the
Bull Run.-Huniili,,li..n ..l th.- .\"..rih.-Th.- C.n- P..Piin.i,-. Patlh- ..1 ( ..-Ityshnr-.- ' iian.i R. pnlse
federate Government at i;iehmon.i. -Sk, l,h of of the C,.nie,ierati- Army.— Truuhles of the t iov-
COXTENTS OF VOLUMES XV AX1> XVI.
ernment. — Conscription Act and Draft Riot. —
Suspension of Habeas Corpus. — Lessons and Re-
sults of the Draft. — Slierman's 'Work between
Corintli and Mobile.— Forest's Raid.— Fort Pil-
low.—Tlie Red River Expedition.— Battles of
Mansfield and Pleasant Hill. — Damming the
River. — Ascendency of Grant. — He is jiromoted
to Lieutenant-Generalcy. — Extent of the Union
Army. — Plan of the Campaign of lS(i4. — Sher-
man's Progress from Chattanooga to Atlanta. —
Battles before that City.— Death of WcPherson.—
Hood supersedes Johnston. — Siege of Atlanta. —
The Capture —Hood's Invasion of Tennessee.—
Battles of Franklin and Nashville.— Ruin of the
Confederate Army. — Sherman's Marcli to the
Sea.— Capture of Savannah.— Advance against
Columbia.— Fighting en roM(e.— Capture of Charles-
ton.--Fayetteville.— Hampton and Kilpatrick.—
Johnston restored to Command. — Averasborough
and Bentonville.— Capture of Raleigh.- Negotia-
tions of Sherman with Johnston.— Stoneman's
Raid.— Results of the Expedition.— Farragut cap-
tures :Mobile.— Fort Fisher taken.— Exploit of
Cushing.— Work of the Confederate Cruisers.—
The Savannah.— The .Svmler.—The iV(is/i!-(7/f.— The
Flofi'la.— Other Privateer Craft.— Story of the
Alabama. — Her Destruction by the Kearsarge. —
Movements of the Army of 'the Potomac. — The
Confederacy on the Defensive. — Lull in the
East. — Counter-movements of !Meade and Lee. —
Grant at the Head of the Armies. — Beginning of
the Advance. — Battles of the AVilderness. — Sheii-
dan's Cavalry Raid.— Cold Harbor.— Losses of the
Campaign.— Grant's Movement by the Flank.—
Investment of Petersburg.— Sigel on the Shenan-
doah.— He is superseded by Hunter.— Piedmont. —
Early crosses the Blue Ridge.- Battle of ]\ronoc-
acy.— Defeat of Wright at "Winchester.— Sheridan
given Command.— Defeats Early.— Fisher's Hill.—
ITnion Disaster at 'Winchester. — Rally and Vic-
tory of Sheridan. — Destruction in the Shenan-
doah Valley. — Continuance of Siege of Peters-
burg.—Spring Hill.- Battle nf Tiv,- r,,iUs —
Capture of Petersburg and Richinnnd by tlie
Union Army.— Retreat of Lee.— Cunfcdcvate Sur-
render at Appomattox. — Terms of Capitulation. —
Surrender of Johnston. — Collapse of the Confed-
eracy.— Capture and Imprisonment of Davis. —
Reelection of Lincoln. — Admission of Nevada. —
Question of Finance. — Coin and Paper JMoiiey. —
Chase's AVork in the Treasury. — System of
Revenue. — Greenback Currency. — United States
Bonds.— National Banks and Currency.— IMer-
chandise in Silver and Gold. — Lincoln's Second
Inaugural. — He is assassinated. — Murderous As-
saults on the Government.— Fate of the Conspir-
ators.— Character of Lincoln. — His Funeral. —
Johnson in the Presidency.— Amnesty Proclama-
tion.— Subsidence of the Armies. — The AVar
Debt. — Attitude of Foreign Powers toward the
United States. — Mexican Fiascoof Napi>KM.in III.—
Death of Maxinulian.— Success of tlie .Atlantic
Cable.— :\Ioney Order System estalili^hed in the
United States.— Organization ..if ■\Vr>trrn Terri-
toiies.— Purchase of Alaska, 100-174
Chapter CXXV. — Epoch of Recox-
.stkuction.
DifHculty between the President and Con-
gress.— Nature of the Lssue. — Reconstruction Proc-
lamation.— Congress pursues its Own Course. —
Civil Rights Bill. — Johnson's Denunciations. —
Philadel]>hia Convention. — The President makes
a Tour of the Country. — His Speeches. — Alutual
Recriminations. — Reconstruclion Plan of Con-
gress.— Fourteenth Amendment. — Vetoes. — Plan
Civil and Plan Military. — Re.'idmission of the Ten
Seceded States. — Affair of the Attorney-Gen-
eral.— Dismissal of Stanton. — The Impeachment
Trial. — Grant nominated and elected President. —
Sketch of the New Executive. — The New Cabi-
net.— Completion of the Pacific Railway. — The
Fifteenth Amendment. — Story of Black Friday. —
Completion of Reconstruction. — Ninth Census of
the United States. — Project to annex Santo Do-
mingo.— Day of Settlement with (ireat Britain. —
History of Alabama Claims. — The Geneva
Award.— Great Railway Development. — Burning
of Cliicago. — Settlement of North-western Bound-
ary Question. — Military Methods in the Govern-
ment. — Grant's Southern Policy. — Ku-Klux
Epoch. — Reelection of Grant. — Overthrow and
Death of Greeley. — Great Fire in Boston. — His-
tory of the Modoc War.— Their Treachery.— Re-
duction and Imprisonment of the Savages.— Con-
tinued Trouljles in the South. — The Louisiana
Imbroglio. — Credit JMobilier Scandal and Investi-
gation.— Financial Panic of 187o. — Construction
of the Ivortbern Pacific Railway. — The Texas and
Pacific Line. — Admission of Colorado. — Necrol-
ogy.—Coming of the Centennial Year. — The Com-
mission.— Buildings of the great Expusition in
Pliiladelphia.— Sketch of the Centennial Exhibi-
tion and Ceremonies.— Results of the Anniver-
sary.—Disposition of tlic r.iiilihngs.— War with
the Sioux.— Destruction of Ciistor and his Forces
on the Big Horn.- ( ixnilnow of the Sioux Na-
tion. — Captuie of the Cliicls. — Twenty-lliiid
Presidential Election. — l'..lili.al tJucMions of
]S70.-The Disput,.! I'lvsidency.-.Vppoiiitment
of tlie .loint Hi'.;li ( oiiiniissi.in.- Decisi.iii in Favor
of Hayes and Wb, •.•In- 174-193
Ch.\pter CXXVI. — L.\TEST Period.
Sketch of President Hayes.— The Inaugural
Address. — The Xew Cabinet. — Railroad Strike of
1877. — Riot and Destruction of Property. — Scenes
in Pittsburg, Chicago, and San Francisco.— Nez
Perce AVar. — Question of Remonetization of Sil-
CO. XT icy TS OF VOLVMKS XV ASI> XVI.
ver.— llist'irv of tlio Stamlar.l 1
of tln! Moiu'tury C'lunarl.-r ,
Silver-mines. — Nature ■■i tin- I
Agitation fortlie Kestorati..ii ..i
Sii.rrss .,1 I Ik- Measure. -The
(l.-iiiir ..f 1S7S.— (iuestion of tin
fax Awar.l a-ainst the riiite.l
tes.-lv
Washi
Inst
Xati
-(■eneral I liarac-
mal Conventions
ates.-Clainis of
of KSMi. I'hitlonns an.l (an.!
the Thir.l Party.-Kleetion of (iarlirM an.l Ar-
thur.— Measures of tlie Forty-sixth ('..iiuiiss.—
Refunding the I'lihlic Debt. - \V.,rl.l Tour of
General Grant.— Census of ISSO.— Lesions an.l
Deductions therefrom. — Necrology of thr t^iunl-
renniuni. — Sketch of President (iarlield. — llis
Inaugural ,\ddress.— The New Cabinet.— (Question
of Civil Srrvice Reform.— Nature of tlie Issue.—
Break in the Republican Party.— AfTair of Conk-
ling and Piatt.— Shooting of the President.— Story
of his Decline and Death.— The Funeral. — Ques-
tions involveil in the Case of Guiteau.— Sketch of
Arthur. — Cabinet Changes. — The Star Route Con-
spiracy.— The Trial and Results. — Pi'ogress in
Physical Science. — Epoch of great Inventions. —
Story of the Telephone.— Contributions thereto
of Bell. Gray, and Edison.— The Phonograph.—
Nature of th.e Instrument. — PossibU- Uses.— The
Elertrie Light.— Evolution of tlir Invnition.—
Work of lvli-..n.-l;esiilt- oi Kh-rtiir Li-liliug.—
Great Stnirtines of the Tiiiirs.-iluil.lirig ..f the
Brooklyn Bridge.— tHher Structures of like Char-
acter.— Wa.shington Briilge in particular.— Sub-
sidence of real I'olitical Questions. — The Tariff
Issue.-Considered in Extemo.— V.\\«<>\\v^u ..f the
Doctrine of Free Trade.— Theo.y oi 1 i,ri,l,iital
Protection elucidated.— Priuciiilcs and I'o.lriiu-s
of Limited Protection. —Hi-h I'lotrctiou. I'lohib-
itory Tariffs.- Recurniire nf thr Issue- ii, Am.ri-
can' Politics.— Position of the rartics.-I litli, ulty
of Political Ahgnmentonthe Issue. — Presidential
Aspirants of 1884.— The Nominations.— Election
of Cleveland and Hendricks.— Political Sequels of
the i;iecl ion. —Retirement of General Sherman
from Command of the .-Vrmy. — General Sheridan
succeeds Hitii. — Completion and Dedication of the
Washington Monument. — Sketch of President
Cleveland.— The New Cabinet.— Question of Offi-
cial Patronage. — Revival of Civil War Memories. —
Epoch of Military Memoirs. — Sickness and Death
of Cieneral Grant— Of General McClellan.— Of
General Hancock. — Of General Logan. — Of Vice-
President Hendricks. — Of Horatio Seymour. —
Of Sanuiel .1. Tild.-n.— i)f Henry Ward Beecher.—
Of Chief-.lustirr Wait.-.— Outline of the History
of the Supn-Mu- C..uit.— Sketch of Chief-Justice
Wait.-. A|.|...iiitiiii'nt of Judge Lamar to the
Snpi.-i...- [■..-ii.li. .lu.lge Fuller appointed Chief-
Jiisti.-.'. li.-:ith .if K. is.-oe Conkling. — Sketch of
his Chara.tcr an.l Career. — Labor Agitations of
the I\-iio.l.— Causes ..f tlie Disturbance.— Strikes
of issi;. — ILiyiuaik(-t Tragedy in Chicago. —
Charleston i::iiih.|nak.-. -Nature of such Omvid-
sions.— W..rk ..I th.- F.rty-niiUh C..nL'ress.— P.-n-
.sion L(-gislati..n. Int.-r.-^tate Comnien-e IJill.—
Bad Feature s of the Measure.— Party Politics.—
Factitious Issues.— Question of Protection and
Reform of the Revenue. — The President's Posi-
tion.— Renoinination of Cleveland. — Candidate.?
and Platforms of 1888. — Election of General Har-
rison.—.\dmission into the Union of South and
N.iith Dakota, :\Iontana, and Washington.— Es-
taMishini-nt <.f the 1 i.-partment of .\griculture. —
.^k.-tch ..1 llanis.Mi.-His Inauguration.- The
New Cabinet.— Centennial of the American Re-
public.— The Celebration at New York.— Outline
of Ceremonies.— Review of Constitutional His-
tory.— Philosophy of the Event. — Organization of
the Enterpri.se in New York City.— The Anni-
versary Proper.— The Exercises in Wall Street.—
The Great Par.ulr. Th.- Dan. piet.— Holiday in the
City.— Sp.-. 1:1! I'ai-.i.l.- .if May-.lay. — Historical
Allegori.s. l-.a-v M..v.-.nei)t ..f th.-' ^lultitudes.—
The Sam.,an C..niplicati..n. -C.m.liti..n .>f the
Islaii.ls.-Dillirulti.-s of the Ameri.-ans and (ier-
niaiis.- Destrncti.m of the War-lleets. — Settle-
ment of the Trouble. — Story of the Johnstown
FI00.I.— The Pan-American Congress.— The Inter-
national Maritime Congress. — Corclusion, 19.3-L'48
ROOK XW'EX'TY-SECOMD.— GRKAT BRITAIN
CnAiTi;i: CXWII— L.\st Two Han
Europe after Waterl.,...
shaken. — Napoleon's l.)rc-a.
Policy in the Age of Revol
dener and the Holy Alliam
Principles of tlie Compa.t.
tinnance.— Position of lin-i
the Alliam-.-. -The llaiiover-Bninswick Dy-
nasty.—(ieorge III. and the Prince of Wales.—
The Kegeney.— Accession of George IV.— Sketch
of his Life an.l Character.— His Double Dealing.—
Li\i-rp. .. 1 an.l ( 'astlereagh.— General Con.litions
of ill.- I'.iio.l. — R.-vivalof Revolutionary Spirit. —
R.-v..lt auaiiist Fer.linand VII.-He is Supi-nted
by till- II. .ly .\lli.-iii.-.-.— Interest of Great Britain
in dreek Uevolution. — Independence of (ireece. —
COXTKNTS OF VOLUMES XV AND XVI.
Peel reforms British Criminal Code. — Savagery of
the Former Jurisprudence. — Work of Sir Samuel
Romilly. — Sir James Mackintosh. — The Acis of
18:26. — Incompleteness of English Reforms.^
Canning Ministry. — Death of the Duke of York —
"Wellington Prime Minister. — Repeal of Test
Act. — Rise of the Catholic Question.— Outbreak
of the Burmese AVar. — Invasion of Burmah. —
Siege of Ava. — Subjugation of the Burmese. — The
Treaty. — Apparition of Daniel 0"Connell. — First
Measures of Catholic Reform. — Removal of Dis-
abilities.— Retreat of the Ministry before the
Catholic Party. — Passage of Relief Bill. — Humili-
ation and Death of George IV. — Note of his Char-
acter and Reign. — The Duke of Clarence Heir
to the Crown. — Note on Queen Caroline. — Sketch
of William lY. — Premonitions of Parliamentary
Reform. — Existing State of Representation. —
Growth and Evolution of the House of Lords
and House of Commons. — Character of the Com-
mons.— Jealousy of Royalty thereto. — Historical
Vicissitudes of the Lower House. — Vices in the
System of Parliamentary Election. — Evils of the
British Land System. — Development of Great
Cities. — Pocket and Rotten Boroughs. — Attitude
of Toryism towards Reform. — Effects of French
Revolution of 1830 in Great Britain. — Opposition
to the Reform of Parliament. — Fall of the Well-
ington Ministry. — Russell and the Reform Bill. —
Agitation of the Country. — The Landed Aristoc-
racy in Opposition to Reform. — Political Crisis
of 1830-31. — Deadlock between the Houses. — How
to put down Tory Opposition. — Retreat of the
Lords. — Passage of the Reform Bill. — L'npopu-
larity of Wellington. — Salutary Effects of the
Reform. — Equalization of Representation. — Re-
maining Restrictions. — Reformed Parliament
of 1833. — Wilberforce Agitates the Abolition
of Slavery. — Passage of the Emancipation Bill. —
Character of the Measure. — Second Agitation
by O'Connell. — Irish Question Emergent. —
The Irish Establishment. — Religious Conditions
in the Island. — O'Connell proposes Disestab-
lishment.— Opposition to the Measure. — Irish
Insurrection.— Coercion Bill.— Fall of the Grey
Jlini.stry. — Accession of Melbourne. — Abolition
of Irisli Bishoprics. — Ascendency of O'Connell.—
His Character and Powers. — Question of the Poor
Laws. — New Statute on Pauperism. — Passage of
the Municipal Act — The Tithe Commutation
Act. — Relations of Great Britain to Bclgic Revolu-
tion.— General Policy of England in the matter
of European Disturbance. — Character of the Mel-
bourne :\Iinistry.— Death of William IV., 2.53-27-t
Ch.\pter CXXVIII. — Epoch of Chartism.
Vicissitudes of the Ptoyal Houses. — The En-
glish Dynasty. — Descent of the Crown to Vic-
toria.— Her Age and Character at the .-Vccession. —
The Ceremonies. — Separation of Hanover from
England. — The Young Queen with the Tories.—
Lord Brougham. — Lyndhurst. — Other Notables of
Parliament. — Continuance of Reformatory Ten-
dencies.— Durham's Career in Canada. — Great
Extension of the Applied Sciences. — Discoveries
and Inventions. — Genesis of Steam Navigation. —
First Voyage Across the Atlantic— Applications
of Electricity. — Wheatstone's Work. — Railroad
Evolution. — Project of the Penny Po.st. — Sir Row-
land Hill.— The Post Debate in Parliament.—
Passage of the Post Bill. — Premonitions of Chart-
ism.— Origin of the Charter and its Provisions.—
Opposition of the Poor and Middle Classes
thereto. — Practical Failure of the Reform Bill of
1832. — The Real English People. — They clamor
for the Charter. — Causes of Disaffection in Eng-
land.— Career of Thom. — Heroes of Chartism. —
Henry Vincent in Particular. — Popularity of the
Cause. — Agitation of the Classes. — Work of the
Orators. — ilonster Meetings. — Conflict with the
Authorities. — Banishment of the Leaders. — Ebb
and Flow of the Movement. — Troubles in Ja-
maica.— The Issue in the Home Government. —
Overthrow of the ^lelbourne Ministry. — Question
of the Bed-chamber. — Absurdity of the Crisis. —
Return of Jlelbourne. — Disruption of the Whigs.^
Accession of Peel to Power. — Probable Extinction
of the English Guelphs. — Relation of Victoria to
the Dynasty. — The JMarriage Project. — Choice of
Prince Albert. — His Relation to the Queen and
the Throne. — His Part in Public and Domestic
A flairs. — His Character. — His Career.— Project of
Arbitration for Military Quarrels.— <!>utbreak of
the Opium War. — Antecedents of the Conflict. —
Rights of the Chinese.- Bad Faith of Great Brit-
ain respecting the Opium Trade. — Conduct of the
Traders. — Policy of the Government after the
Beginning of Hostilities. — Demand of the Chinese
Authorites. — Destruction of Opium in Canton. —
Sending out of the Fleet — Victory of the En-
glish.— Helplessness of the Chinese Government.—
Concessions of the Treaty. — The Indemnity.^
Melbourne Ministry weakens. — Beginnings of
Public Education in Great Britain. — First Grants
of Public Money. — The Educational Societies. —
An Annual Appropriation conceded. — Founda-
tions of the Modern System laid.— Position of
Statesmen on the Project.- Other Important
Measures of the Late :Ministry.— The Affair of
Stockdale. — Sunday Opening of the British Mu-
seum.— Hume defends the Measure. — Affairs in
the East.— Rise of Mehemet Ali.— Condition of
the Turkish Government. — Conquests of Mehe-
met and Ibrahim. — Interference of the Western
Powers. — English Fleet in Eastern Mediterra-
nean.— Mehemet obliged to yield. — The Treaty. —
Attitude of France.— Guizot Prime Minister.—
I Quietus of the Melbourne Jlinistrj". — Peel Prime
:Minister.— First News from Cabul.— Philosophy
! of the Cabul Situation. — Interest of Great Britain
'.vy/.'.vyv
Al'
.\1> AVI.
ill AlVhaiii.staii.-Sliah .Soojal. and Dc-t MoIkuu-
in.'.i. -Position of Kii.s.sia.-Slur.v ..f Aluxan.k-r
Biirius.— .\lliaiii-colKnt;laii(l with Jtost M..liaiii-
,,,,•.1.— Sir W. Ma<-naj.'ht.-n at Cal.ill. — Ilvrat tlie
K,-v ..I In.lia.-Maciia..'htrirs Kxpi-iitiniL-Kr-
f-islaii.-,- ol tlic- Af).'haa.s.-TaUint: of J.^lalaLa.!.-
Siirr.-ii.l.-i- (.f Dost.— Insiim-c-ti.m .4' C'al.ul.—
Akl.ar Kluui. -Massacre of tlu- KiiKlisli.-Sur-
rciMl.-r of Kli.hiiiston,..— llMrn.rs of il„. Si-,,in-l.—
Kotrrat of tlu- lMi-iti\v,.-Th.- \V,„.umi L'iv.-n
up.— Total l).-slnicti<.m of tlu- Kii<jlisli.— Doctor
]iry(loii. — KiToVfry of the Kii'.'li.sh.— Kfcaptiuv of
Cainil.— K.'scii,. of th.- Kn-lisli Woim-ii— Total
of Losses.— I )'CoMii.ll ill rarliaincnt.— His At-
li'iidc touanls I'artii-s.— The A<;itatioii for ]!e-
j.eal of th.- riiion.-Sk,-t.-h of the Kt-lations of
Irelan.l with KiiL'laii.l.— The Act of Viiiou.— Dia-
proiiortion of Iri.sh Kcpresentation.— Sulionliiia-
tioii of Irish Interi-sts. — Seiitiiiients of the Irish. —
rian of O'Connell.— His Power over liis Coiintry-
nien.— Hatred of the Conservatives. — The Monster
Meetings.— Upheaval of the Population. — A.scend-
ency of O'Connell over the Irish.— Question
of Physical Force.— O'Connell ajiijeals to Hi.s-
tr)ric Memories.— Interference of the British Gov-
ernment.—.Suppression of the Clontarf fleeting. —
Dis.sensions of the Irish. — Prosecution of O'Con-
nell.—Waning of His Influence.— His Death.—
Condition of the English Miners.— Parliamentary
Investigation.— Passage of Lord Ashley's Bill.-
The Factories Act.— EtTort to estahlish Secular T'ni-
versities.— The Toll-roads Question.—" Daughters
of Kelieeea." -The Mazziiii linhroglio in Lon-
don.—( iiaheite and i^ieen Poiiiare. -Question of
Piot.-ction and I'lee Trade.— Nature ..f Industrial
Conditions in the Mritish Islands. — Lagging of
Agricultural Pursnits.-Corn Law .,i KiTO.— Pro-
tective Policy of the i:i_d,leeiith Ceiiimy. Great
Britain .-onipared willi the Lniied St:,les.-( -mi-
trarietv of the two ( ouiH, ies. Lau'-iiiL'..f .Maini-
factures in America. -Protective Syst.ie here
Reversed. -Giowtli of IjiLdish Manni;,elu. iug
Towns.-P.'ena.tment ..f the Ceni l..iw.-Its
EflVcts. — Agreement of Whi.js and T..,i.^,„i tlie
ship of the Aristocracy.— Provisions of the Re-
form i;ill of ls4i).— Desperate Cmdition of Ire-
I land.— Coercion Hill pr.>i>osed.— Position of Parties
! ihen-on. —Defeat of the Ministry. — Interest of
(iieat liritain in the Arctic Regions.— Expedition
of Sir.lolin FranUlin. — Lneeitainty of His Fate.—
lOlli.rts at Keiovery. — Th.- Spanisli Marriage
Pinj,-,t. Nature ,,f "the Issue. Vi,-ws and Pref-
erences of France.— Tlie Trick of the ilarriage.—
(iriat Britain heaten.— Futility of the French
Scheme.— Its liidiculous Outcome.- Last Act of
Chartism. — European Revolutions of LS-IS.- Op-
jiosite Coiidiiions in Great Britain. — Genesis of
English Lilierty.— Solidity oi the British Consti-
tution. Hopes of the Chartists.— Their Policy.—
Tie- M.iiister relilinn.— The Propased Proces-
si'.ii. Shall \\i- 1 i-ht '.' — .Vlariii in London. —
I'repar.itions f..r I leieiise.— The Procession for-
lii.ldeii. — Weak laidiiig of the I-aiterprise. — Sur-
vival of Chartist I'rineiples.— Their Foothold in
the British Conslil iitiou. I'aiallel in American
History. — Divisions of the Irish Patriots. — Rise
of Young Ireland. — O'Brien and Meagher.—
Other Leaders.— Rally of the Irish Students.—
:\Iilcliel and His Party.— Rehellion advocated.—
ICll'ects of the French Revolution of 1848 in Ire-
land.—Tone of n. ru;i,,l Irish„inii.— The Emer-
gency in Parliament.- Mitehel arrested and
transported.— Ellecis of the Act.— The Insurrec-
tion.—Arrest and ( 'undeiiination of the Leaders.—
('ommutati<iii of the S,-ntiiices. — Consequencea
of the Disturliame. — Discouragement of the
Irish.— Suhseiiueiit Career of tlie Revolutionists. —
Irish Exodus to America. — Problem pf Ireland in
the rnite<l States.— Mutual Gifts of the Two
Peoj lies.— .Story of the Affair of Don Pacitico. —
Palmerston forces a Settlement.— Death of Sir
Rolu'rt Peel.— Tendency to Formalism in tlie
Church of England.— iv»rra F.crlr.'<i„ Jiediviva.—
Project of Pius IX.— opening of the Flaniinian
(;ate.- Wrath of the English People.— Ru.ssell's
Letter.— Panics ill Paiiiament.— Rome Aided by
Political Divisions.-Passage of the Ecclesia.stieal
Titles Bill 274-323
the II
l)istre>
BriLdit
Lauded A;
.1 Is-Hi. Al
.'Connell.-Api.arentllope-
gelicyofthCovermi
toCapitulate.— The Al
Apparition ,,f Disrael
(•ii.u'TKi: CXXIX— Fia.M Hyi^e r.ujK to
]5ns|.|l(.Kf.s.
The Prince Cmisoit advises First International
Exhiliition.— .Ml.eit's Place in Engli.sh Society.—
His Mental ClKira.teristics.— He sj.eaks at the
Mavor's r.aii.inet, A nta-onisn. wakened.— Phi-
losophy ..f the |:,iii,i, Oppo,iti.,ii. -Nature of
Enghsii I'n.giv.-. (Injections to the World's
Fair. -The l.'oyal ( •oinmission. — Ily.le Park
idaw Tan- [ chosen.- Paxi.,i, ;„id his Crystal Palace.— Change
f the En- . ill Pul.lic Opinion. — Formal Oiiening of the Ex-
y.— Finer- I i.oMtion.— ( lueeii's Account of the Day and the
upelsPeel Event.- Duration of the Fair.— Results of the
tlirown.— luiterprise.— Siil)se(|uent Ex|)Ositions. — Their Real
le Leader- Signilicance.— Ap).arition of Lord Palmerston.—
rnXTEXTS OF VoLl'MK
[XI) A' 1 7.
Sketch of His Career. — His Sympatliy with Na-
poleon and the Coup d' Etat. — Favors liuugariau
Revolution.— The Queen and Prince ofl'ended.—
Lord Palmerstou dismissed. — The Cuup d'Etat
makes TTneasiness in England. — Organization of
the MiHtia.—'I'''nnyson's Verses.— Dread <<i I'.niia-
parte.— Till' Militia I'-ilL-Formation of the In liiy
3Iinistry. — Parliamentary Career of iMacaulay. —
Death of the Duke of "Wellington.— Ode of the
Laureate. — Disloyalty in the Government. — Glad-
stone's First Victory. — Formation of the Coiilition
Cabinet.— Ri.se of the Eastern Question.— Its Na-
ture.—Place of Turkey in Europe.— Position of
Constantinople.— The City falls under the Domin-
ion of Islam. — Original Character of the Turks. —
Their Attitude towards the Rest of Europe.— The
Ottoman Sickens. — Condition of the Subject
Peoples in Turkey.— Position of the Russian Em-
pire.—Plans and :Mistakes of Czar Peter.— Possible
Outlets of Russia to the Sea. — The South-east and
the South-west Passage. — Pressure of Russia. —
The Ottoman Power. — Error in the Founding of
St. Petersburg. — Projects and Dreams of Catha-
rine.— Growth and Aggressiveness of Russia. —
Apprehensions of the AVestern States. — Condition
of Afliiirs during the Reign of Nicholas. — Dec-
adence of Turkey. — Czar Nicholas visits <iri'at
Britain. — He uncovers his Purposes. — Enijland
draws back. — Why Ctre.it Britain desired the
Maintenance of the Ottoman Power.— Syria and
Jerusalem a Factor in the Problem. — Antipathy
of France and Russia. — Napoleon must maki^
"War. — The Religious Question in Turkey. — The
Czar makes Overtures to Great Britain. — He dis-
covers the Sick Man. — England will not share
the Estate. — Treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji. — Posi-
tion of Lord Russell. — Russell's Construclion of
the Treaty.— JMentschikofT's Demands. — Confer-
ence at Vienna. — The Porte -will fight. — I'seless
Negotiations. — Napoleon's Correspondence with
the Czar. — Beginning of War. — AVestern Fleets
and Armies in the East.— The Black Sea.— De-
struction of Turkish Fleet. — Declarations of
AVar.— Attitude of Lord Palmerston.— The AVar
Spirit in (ircat Britain. — Palmerston resigns. —
His Recall. — His Ccmduct as Home Secretary. —
Episode i>f the Cliolera in England. — Pahner-
ston's Reply to the Presbytery of Edinburgh. —
The Ticket-of-leave System adopted for the Penal
Colonies. — Effects of the Measure. — Statute
against Smoke and Sont. — Concerning Church
Burial 324-;U:"l
Ch.vi'ter CXXX. — Sepoy Rebelliox.
General A'iew of India. — The Indie Race. —
First Impact of Europeans on the East. — Sketcli
of the Indian Empire.— Appearance of the East
India Company. — Character of British Organiza-
tion in India. — Relations of the Colonial Giovern-
ment and the Native Kings. — Busine.ss of Great
Britain in the East.— The Hin.lns as Soldiers.—
Position of the Bengalrse ArTiiy. — Indian Caste
ami its Results. — Hauteur uf tlu' liraliniins. —
Mohammedanism as a Factur. — Si-|..iys n'dnced in
Rank. — Exclusiveness of tlir Sip.iy EU'ment. —
liiihrnlty of Discipline in tin- .Vrniy,- Clive and
D:illinusie. — Reforms and Pinjects ni the Latter. —
Pln>ical Improvements in India. — Shock to
Hindu Prejudices. — Change in the Sepoy Arndes.—
Story of the Greased Cartridges. — Outlireak of the
Rebellion at Meerut. — Spread of the Mutiny. —
First Conflicts wdth the English Forces. — Setting
up of the Obsolete King of Delhi. — Contagion of
the Revolt.— Alarm of the Engli.sh.— Aflairs at
Calcutta.— The News in England. — Measures of
Lord Canning to suppress the Insurrection. —
Bringing of the English Armament from China. —
Outrani ordered from Persia. — Saving of the Pun-
jaiib from Insurrection. — Stratagem of Montgom-
ery.—The Revolt in Oudh.— Crisis at Lucknow.—
Death of Lawrence. — Beginning of the Siege. —
Cawnpore. — Inetficiency of Sir Hugh Wlieeler. —
Terrible Character of the Insurrection. — Appari-
tion of Nana Sahib. — Story of Amizulah Khan. —
The Nana called to the Assistance of the En-
glish.— Horrors of the Siege. — The Capitulation. —
Destruction of the Prisons. — Tale of the Prison-
house of Cawnpore. — Alurder of the AA'omen and
Children.- Fate of Nana Sahib.— Revival of the
English Cause. — Efforts to head the Rebellion. —
Capture of Delhi by the Sepoys. — Retaking of the
City. — End of the Indian Emperor. — Sufferings of
the English Garrison in Lucknow. — Breaking of
the Storm. — Defi use of the English Ciarrisou. —
Approach of Havelock. — The Relief. — Continu-
ance of the Siege. — Horrible Condition of the
English. — Expedition of Colin Campbell. — His
Alarch to Lucknow. — Battles Around the City. —
"Dinna ye hear it?"— Raising of the Siege. —
AVithdrawal of the (iarrison. — Death of Have-
lock.— Final Suppression of the Rebellion. — Luck-
now recaptured. — Death of Peel and Hodson. —
Ree.stablishment of Civil Authority in India. —
Honors for the Conquerors Living and Dead. —
Condition of Affairs after the JIutiny. — How to
deal with the Insurgents. — Measures adojjted by
the Government. — Reorganization of the Com-
pany.— Confiscation of tin- Lands. — Policy of
Canning. — Opposition thmtn in Iji^hunl.- Tlie
Hindus accept the Situati^'n. — Sk.tih c.i tlie East
India Company.-lts Cl.aitrrs, Iti^l.ts and Re-
Extension of its Aullmrity -Administration of
Hastings. — Pitt revolutionizes the Company. —
Its Abolition in 1S;!4.— The Government at the
Time of the Alutiny. — Transfer of the Company's
Authority to the Crown. — OtKce of Ciovernor-
General. — The Councils. — The Queen proclaimed
Sovereign. — New Era in India. — Orsini attempts
Napoleon's Life.— Effects uf the Event in Fug-
10
■\Ti:.\T.
(U.rMi:< AT AM) A']'r.
laml.— opinion ami Policy of rahntrstnn. — Tlio
Coiis|iira(y-tM-nMiriier Bill.— Natmi- ■■I llif Mtas-
lire.— Its Analo.^'v in Auii-rican Ilislory. — iMllcr-
cnce l)ftwi-eii plotting t'liiiu' ami a Krlmiy. —
Last Davsof tlic> Paliia-i^tmi .Minisny.-TI,r \Var
in fliina.— Reasons of Kii-lan,l an.l l-ran..- i><-
Hostilities a^-ainst the Cliinesc.-Il.M,il.ar.lnu-nt
of Canton.-Cl.iiia eonipelk-.l to sul.ii,it.-I'al-
nierston aniumnces Siifcess. — Iiaruiii ami Tin'
Oriqi,, of SjHcus, :;44-:;:-->
CiiAi-ri;i4 CXXXI— Sfni:A(,K ItrrnKM anu
A.Ml;iJUAN- Co.MI'I.K ATIUN.
The Derby Ministry.— The Jewish Question in
Parliainent.— I'rcjmliee ai;aiiist the Race.— Exclu-
sion of .lews from Ollice. — Policy of Gradual
Enianci|ialMin. — KK-ction of Rotlischil.l and Salo-
mons to Parliament.— Nature of the Parliament-
ary Oath.— "On the True Faith of aChiistian." —
Second Election of the Jews. — Their Admission
to the Ihnise —Condition of the British Poor.—
Landed Property and Political Kit'hls.— Obstruc-
tions to En;.'iisli lieform.— .'^low Progress in Re-
formatory Movements— Beating the Law.- Polit-
ical Hypocrisy.— Method of Indirection.— Loan-
ing Land for Political Uses.— Removal of the
Landed Qualification for Membership in Parlia-
ment — Colonization of British Columbia.— Ques-
tion of the Imiian Islands. — British Protectorate. —
Gladstone's Mission -Greek Revolution of 1SG2.—
Shall S^nglisli Workinginen be enfranchised? —
General Conditinn of British .Society.— Cry of the
Common >Lm. — Con.servative Leadership of Dis-
raeli—Ascendency of Napoleon HL- Cry of Re-
form in England. — Shall the Conservatives lead
the Movement '.' — Disraeli proposes a Franchise
Act — Which does not enfranchise. — Debate on
the Measure.— Rivalry of Palmerston and Ru.s-
sell.- The Former becomes Premier.— Tlie New
Cabinet.— Cobden's J/o/.— Death of Macaulay.—
Sketch of His Career and His Writings.-Straine.l
Relations of England with Foreign Powers.—
English Views of Napoleon HL— British Dis-
trust of the Emperor. — Commercial Treaty with
France.— Influence of Cobden. — Abrogation of
Duties. — Effects of the Wine-trade in England.—
Quesliim of llie Paper Duly. — The Argument. —
The Duty abr.lished —Palmerston inherits the
Question of SulIVnL'c Reform.— The Lil»eral Bill
of ISfiO- Naluie ..f its Provisions.— The Measure
withdrawn.— Omi, leak of Troubles willi Cliina.—
Shall Briti.sh Ambassadors be admitted to Pekin?-
Lonl El-in d.-..tr<.ys the Summer Palace.-Civil
■War in Syria. -Quancl of the Druses and Maron-
ites— Murders and Insurrec'tions,— England and
France interfere. — Eun.pcMU Protectorate estab-
lished in .'^yria- Palmeiston Ministry and Amer-
ican Civil War — H<-lationsof the Two C.untries.—
America looks to (ireat I'.rilain for Sympathy.—
And gelsaSneer.— British Antipathy toSlavery.—
Logii- of tlie Situation. — .\ttitude of (ireat Britain
toward the Southern Confederacy.— Declaration
of Neutrality.— Sarcasm of Palmerston. — Epoch of
Falsehood and Injustice.— Eflects thereof in the
I'nited States.— What Excuse might England give
for her Conduct?— liuestion of the Cotton Sup-
ply.-Blockade of the Southern Ports.— Strained
Logic of the .■\merican Government. — Sympathies
of the English Workingmen— The Mason and
Slidell Episode.— Unlawful Act of the .San Ja-
( ;,.( 1 — PK'cipitate Action of the British Govern-
iiiciii. — .\ntipathy to the American Republic. —
Enu'hsh Theory of Society contradicted by the
I'nited Stales.— Great Britain becomes the Naval
Base of the Confederacy.— Fitting out of the Pri-
vateers — Their Work of Destruction. — .\merican
Pi(.i.-ts — .\damsatSt. James.— " This is War."—
Sei|ii<l to the Crui.se of the Alabama. — Organiza-
tion of the Geneva Tribunal.— The "Three
Rules ' for Neutral Nations. — Decision in Favor
of the United States. — Position of British States-
men towards our National Government. — Lessons
and Reflections.— Danish Complication of 18t)3.—
Alexandra of Denmark becomes Princess of
Wales.— Napoleon refuses to aid Great Britain.-
Last Parliamentary Battle C'f Palmerston. —
His Victory and Death. — Domestic Life of the
Royal Family. — The Sa.'ce-Coburg Princes and
Princesses. — Death of the Prince Consort. — The
Queen's AVidowhood. — Russell Ministry.- Out-
break of the Jamaica Insurrection. — Antecedents
of the Revolt.— FiL'litin;,' at Morant Bay— Sup-
pression of the InsurL'i'iUs —Atrocities in the
Name of Law. — I!<.-moval of Eyre.— Reformation
of tlie Jamaican Gcjveiiimeiit 373-394
CnAi'TEP, CXXXII. — Fkniam.-.m and Dise-s-
TABLI.SHMENT.
Ministry of Lord Ru.ssell.— Cattle PUiL'ue and
Cliolria. — Discontent of the Mas.ses. — Position of
(ilad^tone and Bright —Proposition for extending
the Franchise. — Ministry between two Fires —
The Adullamites.— The Derbv Minisn v.-Policy
of Disraeli.-ALMtation in the Kingdom.- Work
of the ReioiMi l,.;e.;u- -The Hyde Park Riot.-
Di.-raeli wouM tiiUe the Wind "from the Liberal
Sails— The tjueen's Sj.eech.- The Conservative
Reform Bill.— The Measure outdoes the Liberal
Scheme.— Passage of the Franchise Act— Its Ef-
fect on tlie Political Society of Great Britain. —
The Measure extended to Scotland and Ireland.—
Condition of Afl'aiis in the Latter Country.—
()ri;;in and Ilise of the Fenian Brotherhood. —
Spread of the .Widely into the I'nited States.-
Leadeis ui the Orijanization. — The Movement
checked by the American Civil War.— Heart of
the (Question - Hojies of the Iri.sh Americans —
Relations of Cana.la to the Fenian Project— Pur-
p.ises and Plans of the Brotherhtjod —The Rising
in Ireland. — Ends in Smoke. — Woik of t'ne
CONTEXTS OF VOLUME
Xf> XVL
11
Fenians in Manchester. — The Movement runs its
Course in America.— The Canadian Fiasco of
1866. — Rise of Trades Unions. — Philosophy of the
Question. — Growth of sucli Organizations in En-
glisli Manufacturing Towns. — Terrorism as an Ar-
gument.—The Trades Unions given the Right of
Existence. — Tendency towards Cooperation. —
Abyssinia. — King Tlieodore. — Religious Condition
of the Country. — Nature of the Government. —
Theodore would wed Victoria. — His Capital
City.— The King's Liking for the English Offi-
cers.— He breaks with Cameron. — Arrests British
Subjects. — Seizes a British Embassy. — The Crom-
wellian Rule. — Expedition against Abyssinia.—
Capture of ^lagdala and Suicide of Theodore. —
Revival of the Irish Question. — Religious Status
of the Island.— Protestantism in Ireland. — British
Politics affected by the Issue. — Scandal and
Anomaly of the Irish State Church.— Necessity of
Reform. — Project of Disestablishment. — Over-
throw of the Conservative Ministry. — Leadership
of Gladstone. — Nature of the Bill proposed. — De-
bate on the Project. — Triumph of the Liberals. —
Passage of the Disestaljlishment Act. — Other Im-
portant ^Measures of the Liberal Party. — Questi(jn
of Irish Land Tenure. — Abuses and Outrages of
Landlordism. — Project of Land Reform.— Begin-
ning of the Great Battle.— Question of Land-
ownership. — Historical Antecedents of the Situa-
tion.— Efiect of Irish Rebellions.- Home Love
and Land Love of the Irish People. — Paucity of
Irish Cities. — Dominance of the Agricultural
Life. — The System witliout Alleviation. — Hope-
lessness of the Irish Tenants. — Autocracy of En-
glish Landlordism.— Practice of Eviction. — The
Soil cursed by Tenantry.— Discouragement of In-
dustry.— More Work, Jlore Taxes.— The Land-
lords Absentees. — Control of Opinion by the
Upper Man. — Favorable Condition of ITlster. —
Gladstone presents His Irish Land Bill. — Its
Theory.— Irish Rules Relative to Improvements.-
Passage of the BUI, :;'..i.')-41 1
Ch.\pter CXXXIIL — Reforms of the
EicaiTH Decade.
Question of Higher Education. — Absence of
Educational System in England. — Forster's Edu-
cation Bill. — Its Provisions.— Note on Dickens. —
Kature of the Opposition to Forster's ^Measure. — •
Attitude of the Non-conformists. — The Bill
adopted. — Continuance of the Educational Re-
form—Conservatism of Universities. — Condition
of Affairs at Oxford and Cambridge. — The Reform
instituted. — Project for Reforming the Ballot. —
Advantages and Disadvantages of Voting Viia
Focf.- The Chartist Principle.— Passage of Flus-
ter's Ballot Bill. — Proposed Reformation of tlie
British Array —Gladstone's Coup.— Nemesis |.in--
sues Great Britain with tlie Alabama Ckuiiis.—
Effects of French Revolution of lf<70 in Great
Britain. — The Irish University Bill. — Dublin Uni-
versity in Particular. — Queen's University. —
Catholic Institutions.— Difficulties in the Way of
Reform. — Nature of the (4la<lstonian Measure. —
The Debates.— Sriitiinrnts of thr Country.— De-
feat of the University I'.lII. — Tin- ( Inv.riiiuent em-
barrassed. — Conservative ItiMctiun. — Disraeli
Prime Minister. — New Cabinet. — Retirement of
Gladstone. — Question of Ritualism. — Canterbury's
Bill.— Plimsoll's Bill for the Protection of Sea-
men.— Rise of Imperialism. — Outlying British
Empire. — Dreams of Disraeli. — Victoria made
Empress of India. — Her Admiration for the Prime
Minister. — Disraeli becomes Earl of Beacons-
field. — Nature of the Change in His Relations. —
Beaconsfield at Congress of Berlin. — The Home
RuK- Question.— The Home Rule League.— Spread
of the Sentiment in Ireland.— Hunger Reinforces
the Argument. — Emergency of the Liberal
Party.— Gladstone defies the :Ministry.— Parlia-
ment dissolved. — Rout of the Conservatives. —
Chagrin of the Queen. — Gladstone's Ascend-
ency.— Ashantee War breaks out — Condition of
Ashantee Land. — Relations with the Fantees. —
British Invasion of the Country. — Story of the
War.— Sir Garnet AVolseley on the Gold Coast. —
Defeat of the Natives. — Cooraassie destroyed. —
Submission of the Ashantees.— Trouble with the
Zulus. — Cetewayo. — The Boers. — Difficulty about
the Transvaal Republic. — Cetewayo takes up
Arms.— Zulus repressed. — End of the Prince Im-
perial.— Consequences of His Death — Difficulty
with Afghanistan. — Pressure of Russia in that
Direction. — Exposure of Great Britain on the Af-
ghan Border. — Project of an English Emb.issy at
Cabul.— Shere Ali.— The English Expedition.—
New Treaty with the Afghans. — Insurrection in
Cabul.— Dispositi..n >>i Yak<«.l) Khan.— .\fglian
Question.— Treatment of the Liberals, . . 411-430
Ch.\PTER CXXXIV. — B.\TTLE FOR Hi i.ME
Kile.
The Home Rule Party in Parliament.— Parnell
its Apostle.— Other Leaders.— Attitude towards
the :\Iinistry.— Beginning of Crime under Suffer-
ing.— .\. Coercion Bill proposed. — Nature of its
Provisions.— The New Land Bill. — Home Rulers
adopt the Policy of Obstruction. — Parliamentary
Usages.— Strength of Home Rule Party.— Final
Expedient of the Ministry.— Expulsion and Im-
prisonment of Home Rule Leaders. — Position of
the Liberal Party.— Inclination of Gladstone.—
Passage of the L.<ind Bill. — Elicits in Ireland.—
Epoch of Outrages.— The .\rn;s I'.iU.- Pre.ssure
of the Land League.— The Gladstone-Parnell
Trraty.- Fillingof the Irish Juils.— Impossible to
liol.l the Crisis. — Sending out of Cavendish as
Clii. f Secretary.— His Murder in Phcenix Park.—
Effects of the Crime in Kugland.— Straits of the
Home Rule Partv. - Dciiunciations in Parlia-
COXTF.XTS OF Vl,].rMi:s XV AM) XVI.
ti'.l.— Civil ami liL'ligious Condition ot Kgyi)t.—
Trn.U'ney to ]nde]Ji-iiiicnfc.— Kcfornis proposed
l,y Mi-henu-t All.— Wusti-rii IntcilVn-ncc compels
Kvyjit to he l)i"i)Oiidi-nt on tliu I'ortc— Ihnihiiu
Pasha.— His Sncix'ssors.— K^'yjitian \'ii-w of the
Furci-n Doniination.-Tlu' i'cwpl.. d.Mnand He-
l.iiiu.— Kiseof Kl Aral.i.-KlToits to reach Anton-
(.iiiy.- JMir.ipcaii I'l.-. l at .\lr>;an<lria. — Promnlga-
tiiiii iif till- New C')ii>litnlion. l-',ngland supports
the Kh.-divc.-Sii,vrss ..1 Ara!,i.— iH-nian.ls of
(ircat Britain.— i;i..t in A l.xaudria.— The British
I'ltiniatMLn.— l-.niul.anliiunl <.i the City.— Tewfik
under the Pr..tr,ti..n of Kn^dand.— Defeat of
Ai.ilii. His r.;inislinn-nt.—(;overnniental Scheme
Appeal tn the ( '.uiiitry.— Triiiiiiph nf tlie Cun- ni Hiitlciin. t (Uiditi'ius of Settlement. — .\ppari-
servatives. — I'"lie',- .if tlie new Ministrv. - Salis- tinii of the Mahdi.— Who he was.— Conditions in
Iniry (ivenhr..u n.— le-i all ..1 (da.lsii.ne. The the Si.udan. I'aker's Kxidorations— He leaves
Ni-wCahinet.— I dadst Mile espouses the Ihiine-lJiil,- le.idou in the South. — Withdrawal of the Foreign
Cause. — Hi' juoposes a Bid lor ( ;o\eniiiient of CoiitioK- ( ;,,r,loii iu Khartoum.— His Character
in the l.ilic-ral Banks. I.iheial Ministry over- Surrender and I lealh.— i:ile,ts of the news in
thrown. -rnsettleiuent of theiinestion.-Celehra- , KiiL'l.ind.-The Kvent aid.s the Conservatives.—
tion of Her Majesty's .luhil.e. Bilatioiis of Bullish K.xplorations in Central Africa.— Work of
(ireat Britain to tlie (lovernnieiil of i;'_'ypt, — Bo- j LivliiL'stiine.- He is found by Stanley. — Story of
litieal Conditions in that Country.— British ]n- Kmin BasluL—Sendint,' out of the Relief E.xpedi-
terest in the F;gyptiaii Debt.— Principles <rovern- tion.— Stanley succeeds in his Work.— Revelations
ins; National Indebtedness.- Concern of France in Central Africa.- Conclusion of ^'arrative.-
in the E<:yptian (Question.— The Financial Con- Promise of the Victorian Age, 430-452
ment. — Parnoirs Kcplv.-
Shock to the I
Party.-Lessons of frisi, 1
lections.— Attitud
the Parties.— .Vdvanta^'e of
the Cinscrvaliv,
Attention of the Coveri
inent withdrawn
FVypt. -Partial Suppressio,
of Irisli Di^o,,!,.,
Opposition of the ..ranee
nan. Pas.-a-e of
Francliise Bill. -Troubles
ind Con,,.licati.in
the F.ast.-The War in
lv.'y].t.-The (Inv
Speech. -Defeat of the I.il
eral Budget. -Si-
cance nf the Vote. - Dowl
fall of the (dadsl
.Alinistry. — Relations of ih.
two Barlies to 111
and Foreign Admiulslratlo
1. Maniuis of S
burv called bv the nuee,
.-I'osilion of lb
Rulers in the Crisis.-Hes
talioii of .-alisbiw
BOOIv Twentv-Thiku. — Krance.
CXXXV. — l!.ui;noN Ri'.sTOR.^. '
Vninsula.-Bou.boni
sm n-instat
-d.-Conse-
ces in France.-The
llovahsts w
II tie -All or
ini;.— ".After Us tin
Delueel"
—Death of
-.-Lateral Descent of
theCioun.
— .\ccession
N:i
been.'— What Was. Louis Will, iveaius the oi Chailes X.— His Previous Caieer.— E.xpecta-
Throne.— Brines back the Pa-t.- 1 'iHiruhies in tion,.. ot tie- Dynasty.— Death of the Duke of
His Way.— How he uas re-arded.-lle thanks the P.eiiy. biilh of the Duke of Bordeaux.— Royal-
Prince Be.-eiit. Iluniilialioii of 1 lan. ,■. I'i.>suie isiii would outdo Itself.— Question of the F'.states
of the i;„,i..'ianl Noble,. BoyaliMu Painpant. of the Nol, I,-. -They demand the F^arth.—Dlffi-
Cnrlail lit of breiieh Teiiii'o.y. -The W.x.vsn .iilties of the .siiuatioii. -Pull for the Relief of the
Oecnpation. Beaction a'_'aiiist the ( iovei nuieiii.— b!niit;iaiit,~. — Plan of Compensation and Settle-
Richelieu leads the Chaiiiber.-Mai.piis Des- ment. -The .bsuils i esloi ed,-Rise of Journal-
d — Making Men
Press removed. — Bieht. I.eii.and Cent,-,. -T.eatv 'neat by P.ileiit. -Opposition in the Chamber.-
in.— Polignac Mm-
the Turco-Hellenic
joins iu supi.r-ssion of >lave-tnide.— linluo-lio — .\, nie of Boyalisin — Opi.osition to
lUties.-
His .Middle Course. Count Viil.le.-.Mteiiliou (harles Weakens -Sloiy of the Alriian W:
of France dr
dinand VII.
ISIL'.- Beviv
of Liberalisii
(■en.,o,>l,i|,
,1 the
■„>.
liinied The
l.X la-
The l.il.e.als
,a„
de.—
Imbro-lio— .\
Viil.le,-.\lt
ntiou
(harles Weak
ens
estol.Uion o
.\lLUe,s iiivad
■d 1
■ Hoi
• Alh-
its Mat
'ress (
f \"e-
Fire.-
ees to
Ministi
bv Bonn
lont.— Su
■cess of the
iliiation
-f the R.
valists.-AVe
■ plea.se.-
The Fiv
> Ordinances
ionol Tb
els.— The
Press breaks
llin-of 1
USUI recti.
n— Paris on
lor on
li-ii- Kl
eht of the
ition in
■arm.st.—
rhe SoMiers
tin- lln.lsr.-
ini,-i».int. -A N.'W C
nnslitule.n. Mi
ni.-i
inalily I'l.ilii.
(■leiiacl(a- nf the IIcv.li
ti..n.--InsMiL!eiil
'aris
lit ..1 ClKII-h-S
'I'lii- Sjiliiiix aii}ieais. — Sk
■leh i<i 1.. mis \a|"
l.-.,n
. . 4'i7-jsi3
His hrlatiMiis t.. the 1
Mia^ V. IIis.\.lv
aitil
ill F..n-iL:ii han.'.s.- His
'..hli.al Wiiliii-js.
— II,
IZEN- KiNC.
cFvIr.l t.. the Constitu,.
U A,vs..,iihlv. -Is
h.in
rl,.nns.-ro|,u-
tr-at.-a l.y the Rriaihlir:
ri.-si.lrnlial l-:i,-etiMii ,,l
ns.-^il.aie,. is (;.
is is. l...iii.. Nap.
.l.ai
i.His Caivrr —
ehns.ii Pn si. lent. -Is i
I'u-t
1 'i\'ar. - I'.aKlc
His Ministry. — 11. ■ int.
leivs in the .\ 1
.lilS
a. 1. a. — Mi. Ml,.
Italy. -S,.,.ks Fav.i- wi
h le.n„..-Th..
.Army siippi-.'ssrs P..ina
l'.u'lnn"o'f l,s:';''i
tioii ..1 I'niv.a.sal Sull
a.4...-l'..|H,laiily
,,t t
of the. Past
lie Rrvciluli,.!!
Pivsi.I.'nt.— .\nalysis .,f
Xai..il.'on the Man ..1 o
III. P.ilhi.al SiliK
.1, a-. -Si, all w,. St
in.l
rs..fFian.v.—
l;r.lc.ti,,n?— The (li.i...
ili.ai \ull hav,.
t s.
-The Citizen
P..lili.'al Measui.'s ,,l th
■ l'i''-''l''i'>' ll''
iirti
IVp
surrecti,.n. — -Nap.
Yi.ais.— X,.\v C,
COXTKXTS OF VOIA'MES XV AXl> AIT. 13
uties.— Barriea,!,. ,ii th,. .streets.— The San.s,.u- Cir.U'Tr.i: (.'XXX VII.— nF.rr|.,i,ic .\ni) Coup
lottos Emerg,..nt. — .sa,a-,.,l Itight uf Instin-eetinn. — Ii'Et vr
The Govenini,-nt su.pi ,uit.-( 'harles thn.ws
Tubs behin,! liini.-La|-ay,.tte r,.iiiiiian,laiit.— Th,. T'nheir.ie l;,.v,,lnti,.n.— Pi-,,visi,mal Thiv-
Success of th.. hays ,,f .Inly. — Wivi'k ,,1 I'.l,l,a- enine'iit ,.stal,lisli,.,h — Ft.an,-,. i-,.a,.l„'s li,.|Start-
Bourbonism.— Fill 111-,. I i,.siiiii,s ,
Progress of th,. I;,.\ .,liiti.,n. — 1
calleel to the Thr,,ii,.. Final Fli
from France,
Cii.iPTER CXXXVL— Tin: ('
Acce.ssum ,.l lh,. IFms,. ,,i (
larity of L,,nis Philipp,.. — I li, Fi.
He accepts th,. Cnnvn an.l h
King. — Continnaii,-.. ,,f ih,. .\l'_',ai;
of Isly an,l Caplni,. ..f .\l.,l ,.1-
Class Predoniinaiit in hi,.i„'li (..,.
Under ^laii ]i,.t r,.,-, i._'iiiz.'.l. -l;,.v
limits the l;,.,„li,,n. Pi-,.|,-iisi,ii
ma,le Ln,Ii,a,,iis, -Syinpalhy uith
inC'Linn,.- ( >ii,-li.,ii ,,l th,- F,aVi
F.uiMin..' ,,t F,,ilili,ali,.iis at Pan
Km- \v,,nl.l ally lliiii.-,al «ilh the .Spaiii>l
H,.use.— Isal„-lla an,l lh,. Piin,.,.ss AFiiia may l„
married. — la that Fviait Many Tliin::s niijlit 1„. -
Crisis and liisnir,,-: i,in. — .-^..i ienis Pevolt in Fy-
ens. — Duchess of P.i.iiy in Fa Venili'e.— Fate
Birth of Political Rea.son in France.— Faeti,.ns in ' ,^|il''' — Sliall th," hnipn,. i is,. V- I ,/. / /.,„;„,.,„•/—
the Government.— Popularity ami FTnji,ipiilarity l">^t"rati,,n ,,t the . a|. ,,!,■, ,iii,- |(>iiasly, . 4'.ili-.ilJb
of the Reign.-First Rivalry of Thiers ami (.lui- C'livi'TEK CXXXVIII —Tin: Sj:(o.\t> Em-
zot.— The Soult ."\Fini.stry.— Changes in tlie Cab-
inet.— Republican Attitude towanls the (i,)V,.in-
ment.— Fie.sclii utl,.nipls tlie Fife of th,. Kim.;.— Phil,.s.,phy of the Fu'in-h .sitmHi,.n in 1S.V2.—
Punishment ,,1 th,. ( nii,.-piiat., is.— Symptoms ,,f Nap,.l,-,,ii III. a F,.gitimal,. S,,v,.iviun.~.\hs.ilnte
Reviving Tin].,. rialisiii.-(,,n,lition of th,. Nap.,- l;iL;lits of the Fr,.n,-li Xali,.ii. l;,'st.,iati,.n of
leonic Dvna-tv. l.,-iiis Xap,-,leon P>,,napait,. (lr.l,.i-. - Th,. Fnip,a..r i.-.-rm-.l ali-ait tlie
makes His B,.\v. Tli..< ■liann,.,! Name.-Thelmp,.- .<ii, cssiiin. - H,. tuk,.s i;m..,'ni,. in Mainau'e.—
rial Fiasco at .Str.ishuiLj. — liiipris,iiiment ,,1 F.Miis "Th,. I-anpii'e is P.-a.'.-." -I',.lili."il an.l .s.„.ial
Napoleon.— Pviii,apl,.s ,,1 (,iiiz,,t an,l Thi,.is - (;',ms,.,pi,.n,;es ,,1 th,. Imp.aFil Mai i ia.^,.. -Fran,..e
The Governini.iit (■,His,.i-valiv,..-:\IoU: Mmisliy lH.,'.,ni,.s a Paity in th,' Ciiim-an War. — Mo-
overthrown.— i;,.lali.,iis of France with i.ieat ] tiv,s of the Fm].ei.,r.-Sii,.,',-ss .,| tli,. French
Britain— (Inizi.t ,.aliimniate,l. - Louis Phili],i.e Anns. -Birth .,f th.. Pun,-,. Imp,. nal. - Paris
an,l Vietoi-ia. -Jeal,,iisi,.8 about the Throne of -l,,rill,.,l.- Th,. laiipi-n.r s,.,.ks lh,- (i 1-will
.Spain—s.in.iws ,,f l.,,iiis Phili|,pe's Hou.sehold.- ! of Fii^laii,l.-Pi.,j,.,as of .\s-avsinali,,n.-{ Irsinfs
Kivalrv ,,f Fi.in,',. and Fic'laml in th,. Fast.-As- ' P.,, nibs i-xpl,.,!,.. — Piini-l,iii..|il ,.f th,. Crinii-
cen,len,-v ,,l th,- I,alt,.r. - l',...lv .,f Xap,.l,..,n lb,- iials.--P,,piilaiity ,,1 th,. Fiiip..r,.r.-rv,,/,/ F.m-
Great br,.mjlil lb,m,. f i St. Ib-lena.-t ,i,,wlh ,,f r„ ,■ ami CrrTii Vnhil:, ,:- -\\u\n\-.\vA,. visils Us.-
Bonapartisin.— I.i.nis ,\ap,.l,.on as an Authoraml Pisin- Anlipathy t.. ( himany.— Th,. (Ip.-ning
Ad\-entui,.i-. — Th,. <;,>v,.rnment completes the ( iauie niustb.. pla\,..liii llalw— Ca\ .,nr an.l Xa-
French F,,rtili,'ati.iiis.-Tli,. King grows Old, ami |,,,l,-,,n at ( in,..— i liii hi i-ak ,.i lb,. Kiaii,-,,-.\nstrian
looks ba,'kw,n-.l.-Tli,. SvMi.in an Aristneiacv. - \Var.-Sn,-e,ss ,if th,. Fivii,-ii Iii\aM.,n.— Treaty
Fatal Flaw in lh,. M,,iiai,liy.-Cry ol P.-mnii.- j ,,f Villaliam'a.- Tei ins ,,1 .s,.|tl,.|n,.nt.- Elfcts
Failure of th,. Cpii's. Piibliealiou of X,.w His- lli,.r,.,,l Abr,,a,l. — Th.. Fiiipi-n.r's Innuence
tories.— The l;,.l,.nn Pamini.t of l.S'4S. -Revolt of waxes.— He joins Great Britain in a War ,.n
Pans.— The S,,l, li, as mnliny.— Louis Philippe also China.— Eugenie inspires the i\[exi.. an Invasi.,ii.-
casts His Tubs. — All. Ination Necessary.— The Napoleon at Enmity with the Fiiil...l Siahs —Mis-
Republic proclaime,!. — Funis becomes 'William jmlges the Situation.— F,illy ,,f .M,.\i,an Selieme.—
Smith.— All is over.— Exit House of Orleans.— Monroe Doctrine f,>rbi,ks — Maximilian's Har.l
The Fugitives, 4S0-49S Fate.— Keactionagainstth,. Fmi.iiv. — F, ss,,nsfr,,ui
14
C()Xtj:.\t.
M) .VI 7.
the Frcnoh Klectioiis.— Paris ami the Kniiiiti'.—
The KniiM-ror a.l.jiiis the Capilal.— Kiititinisi-s
aliroa.l.— TIk- Su,v. Canal in Particular.— I'lac- of
that LstliMiiis in til.- llist-.rv .,1 Civilizati..ii.—
I.an.l-r.MU,.s an.l Watrr-n.iit.-s iR-twei-n Asia an,!
the West. -The Shiltin.,- Ti.k-.s of Comi.m.t.-.-.-
Ili.story of Pruj.Tts lor joiniu- th.- .M.-litrrraiR-an
iui.i Ke.l Sea.-raiiiir.-saii.l .<iu-(_v.ss.-s of th.- Kiiter-
j.risc- Tlu- Wcst.-rti I'ower.s h.-.-oiiit- inti-n-.stud in
the Canal ~l>i- I.css.-p.s a|.|M-ars on the -S-ene.—
Company o!,L;aiii/,-.l.-.<k,-t,-li of the Work. -Final
.'^ucee.s.s of th,- Canal, l.'ivalrv of (iival Britain
an.] Kran.v fur its (lu n.-,>hi|..- Kxlrnt of (-..n-
ni.-rce thn.iiL-h th,- Ciiaini.-l. Fn-n.-l, Tniv,-r.-al
K.\positi..n ..I Isi.:. Cirruni-tanc-s .listr.-.-sin-.: to
tin- KnipiM-.-(intlin,> of Kwnts in .<.hliswi-
lIol-t,-in. (■onii-..t l<.r the Danish Croun. .\ai.o.
h-on no l.,,n..-er .\rl.iter of KnrojM-. -( ;,rn,any
^■ains Control of the Disputed Provine.-.s.— Bi.s-
inarek vi.-its XapoK-on -Sketch of tlie .'^even
We.-k.s' War.— Revival of Kepnhlicanisni in
France. — Pulilic Opinion against tin- (iovcrn-
erntnent— Increase of tlu- Army.— ^^treiiL'th of tin-
Opposition Vote.— Gamhctta appears.— .Steadiness
of the Emperor's Conihict.— (iovernment sus-
tained hy a I'opnlar \'ote. — /'/,*;.<(•)(.• and Sencilus-
aimnllnm.— Work of the Radical Orators.— Neces-
sity of a Foreign War. — Kx])ulsion of Qneen l.sa-
bella from Spain.— (Question of her Successor. —
Candidature of I.ef)i)old.— France is oflended.—
Interference with the Hoh.-nzoUern Project.— The
Nature of the French Demand. — Na])oleoii would
ami would not, SOT-oio
C'H.\I'TEK CXXXIX.— Fli.iNCO-I'lU-SSI.VX
W.VK.
Anger of tlie French.— No German I'lince
shall he King of Spam. -" He Rou<;h with the
King." — War Inevitahle.— Opjiosition ..f the
F'rench Republicans. — Declaration c;f France. —
Spirit with which the Struggle began.— Del usion.s
of the French Statesmen. — Rising of (iermaiiv. —
Plans of the French Emperor.-Hi.s Misinforma-
tion.— Vigor of the German Movement —Organi-
zation of the King's Armies.— Germany in the
FieUl.— Affair of Saarhruck.— Baptism 'of Fire
and Other Nonsense.— Tlie Scene changes.— Ger-
many becomes the Aggressor. — \'elienienc(?of Her
Attack. -Crown Prince in Alsace.- France on the
Defensive —Tlie Fanjieror outgeneraled. — Stras-
l)urg besieged. — Pattle of Courcelles.— (ieneral
Position of the Oj.i.osing Forces.— Battle of
Marsda-Tour. — Peril of P.azaine — P.altle of (irave-
lotte.— Bazaine coojieil U|i in :^Ielz.— Fury of the
Parisians. — French Repuldicans lling Themselves
into the Conllict.-l'lan of MacMahon.-He is
overruled.— Falls back to Sedan.— Battle, Crisis,
and Capitulation. — "My Good Brother." — Najio-
leon a Prisoner.— Bismarck whistles a Tune. —
French Theory of Bazaine and Metz. — Position
of the Empress. — Upheaving and Downrushing at
Paris.— Flight of the Empres.s.- Dnperial Family
in I-^ngland.— Proclamation of the Third Rejiub-
lic. — " Not a I'oejt of Soil, not a .'^tone of a For-
tre.ss." — Radicalism Triumphant.— Frenzy of the
New Rei)uhlic.— Advance of the Germans on
Paris.— Great Capitulations of Sei)tember. — Ba-
zaine becomes a Scapegoat.— Ruin of F'rance. —
Heroism of (iambetta.- The German Anaconda
tightens. — Battles around Paris. — Del'eat of Bour-
haki. — Uproar in the French Capital.— Thiers
eleeti-d I'resident.- The New Ministry.— Govern-
ment at Bordeaux. — Preliminary Treaty. — Formal
Deposition of the Emperor. — Armistice. — Negotia-
tions and Treaty.— .Severe Terms of Settlement. —
I^'acuation by the Germans. — Vite la Com-
)-,«„('.'- Nature of the Crisis.— Sketch of the Com-
munal Movement. — Composition of the Com-
munists.—The National Guard.— Attair of Pare
Wagram.— Embarra.ssment of the Government. —
The Regulars join the Insurrection. — .Spread of
the Revolt.— Paris in the Power of the Insur-
gents.— (lovernment at Ver.sailles.— Emissaries of
the Commune Abroad. — Insurrections in Other
Cities.— Revolutionary Government organized. —
Revival of 17'.)2.— First Battle with the Govern-
ment.—National Assembly organizes an Army. —
Battle of Mont Valerien. — Reign of Violence be-
gun.— Fighting around the City. — Proclamation of
the Government. — Progress of the Siege. — Passion
and Fury.— Starvation and Burning. — Taking of
the City Gates.— Public Buildings fired.— Slaugh-
ter of Prisoners and the Suspected. — End of the
Revolt. — Dreadful Scenes in the City. — Disi)osal
of the Communists. — Political Questions to be
Settled. — Prerogatives of the Assembly. — Forma-
tion of New Constitution. — Difficulty of unifying
Political Sentiment. — Reiiction against the Com-
mune.— Treaty of Peace with Germany. — Liberal
IMeasures of the Government. — Amnesty for the
Bourbons. — Republicans carry the Election. —
Thiers chosen President. — Opposition Elements
constitute a Majority.— Policy of the Factions. —
Payment of War Indemnity. — Dangers to the Ke-
I>ublic. — Death of Napoleon III. — Questions of
the Executive Office.— End of the Indemnity and
Withdrawal of the Germans. — .Secret of the .'Suc-
cess of F'rench Finance. — Sympathy with Impe-
rialism.—Proscription of the Bonapartes. — Peril-
ous Condition of the Government. — Accession of
MacMahon to the Presidency.— His Political
Sttinding. —Influence of the Imperial Party. —
Probable Restoration of Monarchy.— Imperial and
Monarchical Factions. — Fixing of the Presidential
Term and Ditinitive Establishment of the Re-
jmblic.— Condemnation of Bazaine. — De Cissey
Ministry.— (iains of the Republicans.— Philoso-
phy of the Situation. — Dissolution of the Assem-
bly.—Rise of the Ojiportunists.— Party of Order. —
COXTKXTS OF VOLUMES XV AXD XV r.
15
Ascendency of Grevy ami Gambetta. — Death of
"The Liberator of the Teriitory," . . . .523-556
Chapter CXL. — Third Republic.
Grevy elected Pre-iJent of the Chamber. — Re-
publican Cabinet. — Republican Gains in the Sen-
ate.— Grevy in the Presidency.— Attitude of the
Extreme Left. — Impracticality of the Radicals. —
Ministry of De Freycinet. — Power behind the
Throne. — Question of the Religious Orders. —
Catholic Principles of Action. — Abolition of the
Jesuitical Establishments — " Our Enemy is Gler-
icism." — Establishment of New Educational Sys-
tem.—Resistance of the Jesuits. — Distraction of
the Imperialists — Note on Cassagnac. — Ascend-
ency of Gambetta. — Rochefortand his Journals. —
A Communist Platform.— Gambetta's Power in
the Government. — Prince Napoleon.- Decline of
the Monarchic Cause.— Decadence of Com-
munism.— Effort to reform the Election Laws. —
Nature of the Measures Proposed. — Project to
abolish Life-tenure in the Senate. — The Gambetta
Ministry. — Calling of International Monetary
Conference.— American Interest in the Move-
ment.—Question of Silver and Legal Tender.—
Propositions before the Conference. — Attitude
of Great Britain. — Monometallic and Bimetallic
Theories. — Meagre Results of the Confeience.—
Revival of France from the German War. — End
of Proscription.— Change in the Relations of Paris
to France— Break between the Capital and the
Country. — Injury done by the Commune. — The
Third Republic Representative of France. — Death
of Gambetta. — Revival of Distrust against the
Monarchists. — Prince Napoleon would be Bona-
parte.— Expulsion of Imperial Representatives. —
Respectability of the Orleanists.— Counts of Paris
and Chambord. — The Former represents the
Dynasty. — Episode of the Morton Ball. — Elections
of 1884.— Gains of the Socialists —French War in
the East. — Question of Marriage and Divorce.—
The Roman Catholic Theory. — Bad Working of
the System. — Statutes to Stimulate Marriage. —
Proposition to Revise tbe Constitution. — Objec-
tionable Features.— Crisis of 18.S5. — Disaster to
the French Arms in Cliina. — Overthrow of the
Ferry Ministry. — The Brisson Cabinet. — Profound
Vice in the Governmental System.— Question of
Patronage. — Corruption of the Public Service. —
Defeat of Civil Service Reform. — Plan of Gam-
betta.—Question of the Appointive Offices.—
Analogies of France and the United States.— So-
cialist Manifesto of 1885. — Great Vote in its
Favor. — Republicans retained in Power. — Re-
election of Grevy to the Presidency. — Ditlerence
between the French and American Constitu-
tions.—The Right refuses to Vote. — Monarchists
encouraged by the Election. — Conduct of the
Princes. — Decree of Expulsion passed.— Procla-
mation of the Count of Paris.— Boulanger ap-
pears and fights a Duel — Due d'Aumale puts Fire
on the Head of the Republic. — Chantilly given to
the French Nation. — A German Toy becomes a
Political Issue. — Instability of the French Cab-
inets.—Badness of Party Discipline. — Attempt to
abolish the Sub-prel'ecture. — Freycinet Ministry
overthrown —The Goblet Ministry.— Question of
rectifying the Boundary of France. — Revenge as
a iMotto. — Boulanger and Rouvier. — The Former
becomes an Issue. — Appeals to the People.— Is
made the Impersonation of Hatred against Ger-
many.— Great Scandal in the AVar Office.— Dis-
grace of Grevy 's Son-indaw. — The President
obliged to resign. — Boulanger stands for Insur-
rection.—Sadi-Carnot elected President. — Bou-
langer's Star goes down. — An Absurd Duel pricks
the Bubble — The Attention of the French called
to the Centennial of the Republic. — Preparations
for 1889.- Notice of the Great Exposition. — Con-
clusion, 550-580
BOOIC TWENTY-KOURTH.— GERlvIANY.
Chapter CXLI. — Nadir of the Father-
land.
EflTects of Waterloo in Germany.— Contagion
of the French Revolution.— (iain of the Father-
land from the New Life West of the Rhine.— The
Prussian Monarch would profit by Victory. —
Satisfaction of Madame Krudener. — Revival of
the Middle Ages.— Territorial Work of the Con-
gress of Vienna. — Project of Nationality.— Can
We restore the Empire?— Plan of Metternich. —
Reforms promised by the Diet.— Establishment
of Zollverein — Old Abuses revived.— Comi)osition
of the German Diet. — Disappointment of the Ger-
mans,— Spread of New Ideas. — Buml of Wart
lung.— Censorship of Press and Lecture-roniu,—
Real and Apparent Consequences of the French
Invasions. — The Period of Reaction.— Understrug-
gle of the People. — The German Rulers admin-
ister Husks. — Frederick Wilbam hugs the Arm
of the Czar. — Prussia breaks from Austria.— Ori-
gin of the Zollverein. — Recuperation of Ger-
many. — Revolutionary l\Iovements of 1830.—
Unanimity of the German People. — Perfidy of
Ernest .Vugust and Louis I — German Genius in
Disgrace. — Outbreak of Belgian Revolution. —
Causes of the Revolt. — Insurrection in Brussels. —
Barricade and Battle.— Provincial Government
16 in\Ti:\rs or v<>i.rMi:^ xv asu \vi.
eslalili^la-l.— Ci-l^'ium ;i.ln,-\i-.s Iml.i.i-ii.U-in-.-.— ' P-lilir~ ..i (.'rowii I'rinoes.— War of Italian Inde-
('..iiil.aris..ii ..f (■..ii.liiii.ii-- ill I'nissia an. I An- |..-ii.i.-ii.i-. — Prussia antaiionizrs KraiK-.-.— The
tiia. Au>triaii<r..«ii-...-st.. l--..r.liiiaii.l I..:.v; VM Italians carry ..n the M..veuH-nt l..r Nati..nality.—
Pi..-.'1-.-ss ..1 I.il.cialism in Austria aii.l Tnissia.—
CilAiTi;i: CXLII. — l-"i:i;i.i;i:l' K William IV. \v,|ii;,„, an-l Ilis 1V..|.U- in A./o.r.l.-r.ir.rts.,i Ilal-
\.v,-<i,,n ..i F,v.l...i.k Willi:,,,, IV.-n,v-iral '•'" N^'ti<.i,ality in G,-n„ai,y. - Uivaliy ..f tl,.' Two
Ii„|.r..v..„,..,.,sin lV„.sia.--A„s,.i,i..„si;,.^inning ' l-.a.lin^ S,at,-s.-!-„li. y ..I Kin:, Willia,,,. n-.Minl
oi tl,.- l:..,^„ -!.il..-,aM;x|..-.-lal ..„s ;m.l .iains.- I (^.„ ^,,.,.,,,, CXLIII.-AmkNI.LN. V or H :n.
Tl,.- l<ii,L'aii.l Il,.->.li..lar-. -I:..„-.-s Maiiili-st.,.—
Shall. .»„.>s„i th._- Ki„/- l'ni.i>M..ns.-IK-c.a>..s Z..LLLi:.N.
t.. lV.i.".-Th.- Cnv.i-.hii. r.st..,-.-.l.->i,„il r Mililarv r.,li.-y ..I K,,,.- Willian,.- Ai.|iariti.,ii
C..n.liti...,s lhp.U:;h..,U (..-nnanv-.-.l-snitiM,, in , ..I ni-n.airU.-Sk.t.l, ..1 his ( a,..,-,.- 1 1 is Vi,.«s
A,lstria.-Pivssu,v..llh,-l'ni>Mani;..v,.rn„u-nt.^ f. .lili.al. - His (..nins a,..l Ai„l,iti...,.- A Uc.-
rr..j,-ct ..I a Nati..nal I 'i.t,-ll.a.ll...k ..I th>- M..n- l..,i„.r ..i !!,.■ Tyiaimic (ml, a-. A,ist,ia s.vUs \o
tw.-i-n tl,.. Frriiih aii.l th.- ( ..-nna,',-. -KlliVt ..t i- l-ar.! Alai. I'.isniankian Virw ..i T,,-ati.s.^
till' N..US..I th.- l;fV..luti..n..I ls|S. Taiih <.l th.- < Mitl.i.ak ..I thi- Kanish War.-S,i, v.ss ,.t tha
T!i.. l'.il..-ial (■hart. •r.-I..., lis ..: P.avaria ivsi-ns.-^ I Wall, Hivi-i-.n ..I the Spoils.— Shall Fre.h-rii-k of
nu-nt.-lns,iriv.ti.,n in IVrliii. Thr Kin- <-..n- r.l l..tn.-.-,, A,i-I, ia an.l Prussia.— Conlcivntv of
<v.l.-s an.l surars.-Pr.,j.-,t ..I rnitv.-I.ilH.ralisiu 'last. in. r.-,i,,s ..I .-,tlhMi„-nt.-Two Power.s can
in th.. l>i.-t,-C..ininill.-.- n.l y,,/.,,',.,.— New Xa- ""I h.-l'nM i„ i .. rn.any. Pc-ire of Prussia for
ti..i,al \ss,.iiihly. — II.M-kir as a I..-a.U-r.— Kci.i-.- ' Halll.-. .\i,-tiia lh,,,ks it a Passing Storm.—
s,-ntativ,-s .•l„,s.'-ii.-KN|..ri,-n.-,- Wantinf:.-( iivat What shah !.,• .l..n,. uill, the 1 iii..hi,-s?-Franc-i.s
Ahiliti.s ,,1 the Frai,kl..it Parliain.-nt.-nan-ers .h.s,-).!, appeals t.. tl,.' S„,a]l,.r Slal.s.-r.isn,aivk
..f The..,i/,in:.'.-Ii,-.i.n.-.ti..n in P.la.k F..re.st.- i is (■..nlially llat.-l.-lle p„ts ,.ut Ills Ilan.l into
Parall.l..I .\ati..nal Parlia„„.„t an.l French Stat..s- i Italy.-The P, ns.„.Ilalian Allian.,_..-Th.- l>i,.tis
the Armistice.— Tuinull in F,anki..rt.-Kvil ('..n- F,.l.l. Patties an.l Victories.— The Crisis hreaks
s.-.pi.ai.-.-s of Vi..len.-...--I;el,..li:..ns in Nii_'hl...r- at K-niuirratz— The (ileal Triumph of Prussia.—
in- States,— Insurivcti.,n in Vi.-nna. -K..s<„th in \'en.-tia <;iven lo France. -Francis .los.'j.h cries
th,. Fiel.l.-l>uthivak..f Ilun-ariaii l;.-v.,hui..n.- out. -I-.i..! .,l the Seven Weeks' Wa,.- T!,.- Ilaml
to the (■zar.-Kisin..'..f th,-' I lun-arian Pcpl,..- I rn,li,-.l.-F..imati..ii of N.-rth-t,,-, man Ini,.,!.-
Surivn.lerof Cei-eyan.l Failur,. ..i the Cause.- Pi.-i.-n,-.- -.1 l;,>„,aivk -W,.,k ..f T,ansl..rn,a-
Invasi.,,. of Italv."-l;isin- ..'f th,- Sar.iin,ans.'- fa.ti..,, ..1 ".\ap.,l,M,a III, -X-.thin- He yaims.-
P-atth- ..f Novara.-Charles AM.ert loi-ns t.. Vi.-. !.„n.„,1>,iii.' Po.je, t.— Tr,-aty of .\.>rth an,l South
t<.r F„,aii,iel.-^Veni<'e i......n.pu-iv.l.-l;,-..,ti..„ in I l.-rmany.- Ati.tu.le of Bavaiia.- Anta-jonism of
Austria. -Accessi..n ..f Framis .h.s,.].h. Uivaliy | th,- M..tlier (■l,ui<.li.-Coiis,.-,iu,ai. es of .<a.lowa in
of Pr,issia an.l .\usti ia.— The Cine <.r th./ other .Vnslria.- The Past on its Kn,-es. — Downward
n,u>t l.a.l (iermany. -Nature of ( ;..v,-riiniei,t. - To'l,.! of the Fiemh Empi.e.-Collapse of the
Th.- Hi.l wouM mak.- Fr.-.l.-ri,-k Ki„p,-r.,r.-ll.- M. -xi. an I'i..|.-,t -Nai.ol,.,.n mate.l hy Bismarck,—
<leclin.-s.-r)isapi...intment ..f tl„- P,-..pl.-.-N.,ll,- Fiai,.-.- an.l I',,iss,a aua,t tl„- ( Ipp,,, tunity -The
in<.'(e....l out ..f IIa|.sl.ur-.-Insurr.-.-ti..ns!l„cir- < ', ,,,..i,.ii .■,,„„. s ..iit of Spam- l.sal„lla an.l Ku-
,lerofthel>ay.-Kn.l.,fthe Paiiiam.nt. Iiilhi>i..n ^■,' , All.-p.-.l Caii.h.latuie of Prim e L.-,.|....l.l.—
therefrom of Pr..._-ivssive I.leas.-The C..11. ■•.•.■ ..f Ii„p..rtan. .■ ..i the Ci lsls.-^^lesti..ll .,f the Ke-
Prim-es at Bc-rlin. Austria f..ll<.ws 11. r (.>wn vival ..f th.- I.atm Kaie.-Tlie Pr.iii.>se.l PriLsso-
Policv.— Z.,llv,-r.iu .li>s..lv,-.!.-Iii.-ii,al Chara.I.r Spai,i>l, Ar.l, -Climax of the Fi,-iicl, Kmpire.-
of th."- Sixth l)e.-a.l.-.-Attitu.le of < i.-rman States Tl,.- l-yna.-ty n,,i>t he rj.hel.l.-Th,- N,-phew an,I
ill th.. Crimean War. -lrritati..n of the Prussian hisrn.K- (;i.,mn,.,iil raises the War-.rv.—
PL-.,i.le. Kire,ts.,f the (■..„/,<(■/•;/.,( in liermany.- W,ll-,a,.„i,ii, t.-n.l.s to Ba.l-eii..u<;h.-King Will-
German F.h/cti.,11 ..i l.s.-).-,. — Attilu.le of the Uul.rs iai,i says S,.i,,eihint; lo Bene..letli,~ France is in-
towar.ls I,iheralism.-Ahility..f Human Nature t.j suh,-.l.- I.e P.., >if .says she is rea.ly. - Aliair of
r.-vive from Uepres.-i..n.-P,r,-..nal Inlluences in Saa,l.riick.-< •..rman Armies au<l l.ea.lers.— The
Ilistory.-General Caus.s Pre.l..minant.-Paral- Invasi..n Irr.si-iil.le.-BreakiiiL- up ..f Fallacies.-
ysis of the Kin-— A.c,-s-i.>n <.f William I.— Italy an.l Austria stau.l Alouf.—The Kuin of the
COXTEMS OF VOLUMES XV AXV XVL
French Armies. — Xapolcon becomes a Specter. —
Sedan ends the Trageily. — Wreck of the Em-
pire.— Germany as an Avenger. — Piiris under
Foot. — Tlie Armistice and Treaty. — Enormous In-
demnity enacted. — Triumph and Pride of Prus-
sia.—Extent of the French Losses.— Events tend
to the Estabhshment of a (icriuau Kmpire.—
King William proclaimed l",iu|Hinr. The Place
and the Occasion.— Tra-.dy oi ihr ('..uiniunc.—
Ueturn of Emperor William to Ju aiiii, . . iKM-HL'l
Chapter e'XLIV.— Tin-; ^'l:\v KMrii:r..
True Ori^jin of Piussian ( ireatness.- Geniiany
as a Unit.— The New (■oustiliitiou.— A.Uij.talion
of the System to the People.— What the Latter
expect.— Contrast with English-speaking Peo-
ples.— Struggle of State and Church in Prussia. —
Opposition of Bismarck to Papal Pretensions. —
Expulsion of the Jesuits —The Falk Laws. — Dep-
osition and Banishment of the Ecclestiastics. —
Premonitions of Socialism. — History of the Move-
ment.—Outline of the Socialist Theory. — "Marx
and LassalL'.— Results of Their Teachings— Ojipo-
sition to the Chancellor. — The Latter encourages
the Socialists. — Mistaken Deductions of the Ger-
mans.—Incubus of the Military System. — As-
sumptions of the Government. — Menace of
France. — Hardsliips of German Labor. — Dream of
Emancipation. — Diflerence of German and British
Theories of Government. — Sympathy of the Ln-
perial System with Socialism. — Violence of the
Times. — Attempt to kill the Emperor.— Re.cction
ensues.— Project to suppress the .Socialists.— Fail-
ure of the Measure.— Government succeeds by
Intrigue — Discernment of Bismarck. — .State So-
cialism proposed. — Nature of the Measure — Suc-
cess of the Scheme for unifying Germany.— Phi-
lo.sophy of the Contest between Feudalism
and Nationality.— Salutary Tiii|ieiial Measures. —
Where shall the Lenl, -.•,', i, lit be established?—
Revival of Hatred aLMin-t the .lews. -Sorrows ol
that Race.— Hebrew Coiuj.Ik atioii of ISsO.— .^nti-
Jewish Ebullition ot tlie deriuan I'le.ss —
Treitschke's Agitation. — Reply ..f the .lews.—
Extent and Character ot the Controversy.— Ques-
tion of increasing the German Army.— Era of
Jlonstrous Military Establishments — Extent of
the Various National Armies. — But We are -Ml
Peaceable.— <juestion of the Stamp Duty. — Anom-
alous Position of Bismarck. — Do It, or 'We will
resign. — Arbitrary Character ol th
Patriotism the Motive.— P.isman
Speech.— Startling Assumptions
vival of the Catholi,- (lue.iio:
Conciliation. — ^Meetin^' of \\\,- 'I'l
Motives Ostensible and heal <.l t
Liberal Gains in the Elect ion of
unmoved by the Result. -Majc
Government— The .Vdministniti.
The Empire would make pea
-\V.-
.— Th
to abolish Ih.. Mairia-e Laws. -Conrse of th.
Pop<- to th.- lea-man <e,vei- nt.— nne Manne
for (ieniiany and Another f,„- Russia.- -Imlno^li.
about the Imi.oilation of Ameiiran l'oik.-l-ni
ther demands of the Papacy. Revival of Ani
mosity between France and
ing of the XorUt-Gcnnan <hi:iit.\ — ]C|pisc
Crown Prince in Spain.— A Hair of tl
Resolutions. — Bismarck's liedaialion ,,i
ject. — Resignation of ;\Iini>ler Saijent.-
the German Liberals Concei ninL' tl
Business. — Westw-ard A[:iich of ( lio|(
many meets the PlaixiU' with Scieiuc
for Foreign Colonization. — Mack wanln.
many in This Regard.— .\fri. a the field
t ions.— Success of the Colonial haiteii
Bono? — Age of Colonization passe. I.
Greatness a Thing of ( ea many.- A Ih
Caroline Islands.— Thivat.-n.d War wit
German Passion for i:mi.ji.iti..n.-M..tiv.s f,,r
going Abroad.— Vastn.ss .,f the M..vement.—
Rigors of the (iermau .Militai v .s^yst.ni. — Expatri-
ation the Renie.lv. — Am. li. a th.' (/h.-.m Fiel.l.—
Peculiarities of th.- C.iman Im i.-m.iu in Aiiiei-
ican Society.— Kl.-cti,,n ..f lss7.-l'..litiial Ai-n-
ments of the Day.— Ti innipli of the C.vern-
ment. — Influence of the laiipi-i..r.~ I lis W-n.ralile
Character. -Other German Vet.i.ms, -What ..f
the Future?— Character an.l I'la..- ..f the Crown
Prince.— His Political Vi.-ws.- .\ nxhl\' ab..nt the
Succession. — Announcein.-nt alnuit tie- I'lim-e's
Disease. — ARacefor Lit.-, A:.;.iii\- in tin- Imjierial
Household.— Death of !-;iii|..i..r William an.l Ac-
cession of Frederick III. Th.- X.-w Ci-..un
Prince. — His Character and l'nn.i|.l.s Hecline
and Death of th.- Kmper.ii-.-.<..i i.,ws .,f the
Empress.— Access!., 11 .,f William 1 1.- C.,n. Iii-
Lask.-r
he Snb-
LasU
,f Opera-
..f the
pain.—
Booiv Twenty
( 'hatter CXLV. — D.iwx op Nationality.
Italy, Ancient and Moilern. — Close of the Na- I
poleonic Era. — Period of Incubation. — Career ol
Murat. — Congress of Vienna dismembers the |
FIRXH.— IT.ALV.
C.nntry. -Distill, ntion .,f th.- Parts-
Resnlts.-f the l;(-voluti..iiary A..;(-.-T
of Man not Extinct.— Restorati..ii .1...
store.— Beginning of Insurrections. -C
Laybach. — Austria must siiboi'dinau
co.vv/.-.vy.s III- V(iiA'Mi:> xv asi> xvi.
Ii,-v.ilt in I'i.Mlmont.— Charl.-s Albnt I.c'ohk.s ];.-
Siv..-ivi-nty i.f the
Pope.— Rome becomes the
f.viil.-ClKU-U-s Krlix ivsion-a. — I'uuish.ii.ni ..i
Capital ..f Ita"v. — Tii
e King enters the City.— In-
thr li.'i.uMirans.-Stitlin..' ..I I.ilMity. - A j.' .if
di-nati..ii lit tlu- I'.in
tiir — K.aini..niral C.mnnl.—
S,-,-i-.I Societies.— Tlir ('ail.cnari iu I'ai li.iilar. -
,, An- \Vc Infallibl,.?
\V.. aiv, iin.lcr C.-itain Cir-
]'rin.i|,l.-s an.l Ritual ..1 tl.r 1 inU-r.-lidali .ns ,.t
ciiiii.-taniTs. — Fiiiaiu-
ial iaiil.ana-sni.-iit ..1 the
lb,- S.„-i,tv Ir. Civil In.vi-nini.iit. - ll li.rniuisa
(;..vriiiim-nt. — M.'asi
ir.s ..1 iiph..l.lin..' lb,. Xa-
K.-v..liili..iiarv IVnlrr. Ma//,iiii an.l V..iiii^r
ti..iial Cn-.lit.— 1!.,.^,.
..1 th.. I'..p.-. -C.,.npl.-ti..n .'if
Italv. il;.j.-.-'t ,,i Ilu- >.Hi,-ty.- -Ar,-,.s>i.,n .if
th.- M..iit C.iiis Tan
ii..l.-liistiliiti..n .,1 th.. X.'U-
CliaVl.-i Alh.rt.— His l.ilHialiMu rxiiiiL'uish.Ml.^
I>..litical(ir.KT.-l-l.M
1.1 in l'..\'all..y.— Th..Cliiir.-h
Insunv.-ti.in .if Y.^iiii-^ Italy. —n.iml.lican Jii-
l'....tiii-.--r:xpiil-i..n ..f til.-
visi.,ns. - Inllii.Mi.-,- ..1 M..//iiii.--I'r..i.'.>ili.m nf
.I.Juits.-" l"il,'.'n,t'i'.!n .
..f Tlhiiiuht an.l ln.ln>try.--
lii..lMTli. - Maiiz..iii. — Cniiiiii-' ..f Cavin-. —
l'ii-.<t S,-i..iilili.- C.iii-i
■.-<,— Til.- I'., p.- niak.-s liiiii-
Cliaii-.-s in 111.. Papal 1 i. .v.-rniii.iil . l'..li.y ..f
wif a rii>,.iuT,-i:iii.
r.'-n.-.- ..I Italy int., Xati..n-
(;r.-..ry XVI. .\.v >i..n ..I Ti-.s I X.— LIUt .1
ality.— l.hiait.T (Vnt.-
iiiiial of til.- Kill'.''.- K.-i-n.—
ir.i|...s"..l til.- ilimvh. l!.v..lts ..1 ls|s.-l;,.j„il,-
.Mania-.'s in tin- I;.
li.-aii .-II. •.•.-..■.-.. lliiiiuMriaii Krv. .lilt i..n ai.l-;
11. .rs Ii.-ath.-^-Outlin.'
-■..1 lIisChaia.-t..-f.-PiusIX.
Italy. --liiv,i-i. .11 ..1 th.. I'lvii.-li.- I'.|.-at ..l CI, ail. ^s
siiipa-.^s til.- Y..ar.s .
.1 I'.-ti-r.— Celebiati.in of hi.s
Allna-t I'.attl,. ..1 N..vara. .\.m-..-.m. .„ .,f Viri,,r
.lul.il.'.,.- Hualh ..f t
he r..ntiir.— Pecci becomes
laiiaiiii.l. His l.ili.Tal riiiirii.l.-s.-MatiTialli.i-
I.r.j XIII. — Hi,s r..ii.
V tJG2-(3.SO
Cii.u'ri;i; CXIA'I. — \"ii n n: Em \xrKi..
CH.\rTi:i; C.\l>\
11. — m
■MBi:nT Jl.
C..n.liti..n ..f Atlair- in l-T'. TaialL-l ..I (..-r-
Aceessi.in ..f Hiiinb.-rl
I. -His
C..r.,iiati.in A,J-
manan.l Italian lliM..ry.-Cliaia.t.r ..f tli.- X.-u-
(Ir.-.ss.- B(-.iiniiinL: ..f .<.„■
ial A,i;iti
ilii.iis. — .\tti-in|,t
Sovi-reign.— (Jpi....-ili.,ii ..1 til.- i;xtr.-ln..- Kel.ill.-
P, a-as.-inal.- tin- Kiii-.'.-
Ov, ilhi
..w ..1 the Miu-
lieans.— Shall th.- .-ar.linian Kin^.l.ini l.-a.l
istry. -Tl„- Ii.-i,i.-li> Cal
..liti.-al Parallels
Italv?— Th,- Ib.iis.- ..f Sav.,v ,an n..t ivlival.-
«illi (..-iiiiany aii.l Fiaii.
■>-. — Wai
It ,«f Partv Soli-
LeKislali.,n auain-t tlu- Cbu'ivh. - AM..-n.l.-ii..y .,f
ilaiity. - F.l.-.li..ii-.,l Is-ii
.— W,al
in,s>,,f P,;;iitical
Count Cav..nr. -His (i.-nin-; an.l r.,li.-y. -Iiilli-
Hi-.-iplin.-. - l;a.li..alisiii
rcMVv.
l.-Al.so Cleri-
culti>-s in bis \Vay.-l'..--ibl.- riaii.-..-Italian Al-
.■i.-iii. -Chan-.- ill the I
'apal p..
licy.-The Pope
lianc,-. — Alarm ..f .\ ii-li ia.- -h.- lun-t mak.- War. -
calls l,.r l',-,iiniaiv .\i.l.
His l;,
■i.i.-.iitati..ns, —
Gri'hcli D',h„;. Strain. -1 b.-lai i. -n- b.-tw.-.-n Aus-
HisTI,.-,.iy ,,1 llM-'linpii.-.
..luii.-nt.
--l'il-.;iiiiia-j.-s to
tria an.l FraiK-e. C..nf.-i.-n.-.- ..f F'l .iiil.i: ns. -
P.iiii.-.— Th.- P..p.-'s A.M
ivss, — .\l
tlair .,1 ill.- /.../'i
Franee deelare.s War. -Be^innin- of Fr,-u,b In-
ddla A, „oc,',c,V,.—( Sliest
ion of
e-M.-n.lin:^ the
va.slon of Italy.-Montebello, Palestr,,, an.l ^la-
Sufirage.— nilhenltyofob
taiiiinga
P..piilarV..t,- -
genta.— .^M,-,-,-ss of the Allies.— Italian Tnsiirii-c-
lieasoning of the EU-etoi
s.— Pr,i|
...>iti..ii l.,r Fiii-
tions. - -Milan tak.-n. - Battle ,,1 .-..llVrin... - vrr.sal .^iillVau'.-.- Ilazar.l of the i:.--cp.-i ini.-nt.—
Ch.inu',- ..I Nap.,l.-.irs Plans.-Ti.atv .,f Villa- I Shall lb.- Vati,-an obev the Law ,,f th,- Stat,-?-
fran.-a. - ni-ap|...intiiiciit <,f the Italians. -C,-ssi,>n | liiipi..v.-ni.-iil .,f tlu- Xati..nal Fiiian.-,-s.-Paiall,-l
(,f \i,-,- aii-l .-^av,.v t.i Fran,-e.— ii,-n.-ial Lain to ' as itii 1 1..- Hi-t. .iv ■ .f the rnil.-.l Stat,-s -Cr,-,lit of
Italy. !-..i,tiniiiii, f tlu- i;,-v.,lnti,.n. -( lari- ' tli.- t ..,v.-in.ii,-nt lis.-s t<. Par.-l;.-s,iii,pti..n -
bal.'li an.l (•.iv.,ur.— IliHi, nit r,.siti,,n ..1 th.- bat- : Pr.is>.,.Italian Sy,iipatlii,-s. Tlie Is.-hia Farth-
t,-r. H.- h..l.ls ba.-k tb.- l;,-pnbli.-an M.,v,-ni,-nl.— I (jnake.-lnt.-i nat'i..nal .b-al..n-y al,<.iit Coiitribu-
" W,- ar.- Italv." Sai.linia -jiiiis lb,- Two Si, -i- | ti..ns.-P. „-h,-|. ,i t <liai_-,-s C, ,i i iii.ti, .n.-Applioa-
lii-s. - Vi,-t,,r i;iiiaiin,-l b,-,..ni.-s Kin-.'.-Triiiinpb j ti,,n ,.f tli.- N,-w \.^A^^ , .|' Snllia.,-.-. -Failure of the
ofth.- Nali..nal Cau.se. -I.a-t Work .,f C.iv..ni.- Mas.-.-s t,,v,,t,-. niasii f Ti.msil in Moilerii
His l),-ith. -The King an.l < ;.,v,-niiii,nt at Tn- i' Xal s -A^,- ,,| th.- l;ail« ay.- ( ,i, -at Change iu
riu. Shall I;,, 111,- b,-,-., Ill, -the Capital? lT.,r.-n,-e S, „ial aii.l In.liisli ial C..n.lil i. .lis. - I b ,w shall the
thi- Int.-riii.-.liat.- Sla-j,-. -\-i,t.,r Fiiianii.l an.l ! P.uluaysb.- ..« ii,-.l, mana-.-.l. an.l .-. .ntrolle.l ?—
th,- Cliiiivb. S,-b!,.>wi-..-ll.,l-t,-iii C..mpli.ali.,u ' Dilli-ivlil P,-,isi.,ns in Diiren-iit Stat.-s — Pailway
again. -War ,.f |s.,i;.-Italy giiiis W-n.-lia- l.aw in Am, -i i, a. -The I'robl, in in Italy.— State
Kl„„-li ,,f A-..itation. H,-f,-at i,f liaiibaMi. With- C,,nti-..l. but n..t Slate Maiia-. iii.iit . -'-Ch..l,-ra
drawal ,.f l-|,-i„-li Arniv ,l,-iiiaii.l.-.l. F.a.l Sii.-,-,-ss \-iMtali,,u of |ss4.-The Pla^-ii.- in Napl,-- -Ib.w
of til, ■ ll.ilians in th,- Fi,-l.l. -Italy trinniplis with shall the Hisa-t.-r b,- avert,-. I ■•— Kin-'s Flan an.l
Pr,i--ia. Til.- Fr.-ii.b Army « ilb.lrawn.-Cbar- P.,i„--s Plan. Chanu-in-.- Vi,-« s ,.f 1..-., XIII.—
a,-t,-r of til.- (;.,v,-riim,-nt.- C..n.liti.,n of lb.- Pa- i P..s-il.ility ..I I'.ipal F.-in. .val I., th.- T'hit.-.IStates.-
pa.-y. ( .ai ibaMi niak.s a Ibi-h lor l;,>m,-, -Is P,-,iin,- in lb.- \'. .linn.- .,1 I'ePr's P,n,e.— Previ-
oblige,! t.i siirr.n.l.-r. l;,-tnrn ..f lb.- I-i.-ii.-b ,,ns F.xp,-ri,n,-,s .,1 th,- l',,p,..— His Attitude
Armv.-Sp.rv ..f I'rin.-,- I,,-,.p.>l.l. Fn.l ..f lb,- t.iwar.ls Mankind s,,ll,iis. ni,-.ipp,,intment of
French Kmi.ire. Abr.,gati..n of the T.-mi.oial the Fri,-n,ls ,,f Fniv.isil ^ullia-.-e.-Klections of
CoXTKyi
ill tlie n
1.1 Ceni
Uv Poiu-
i)F voia'ml:
jiute between the Paparx
Logic of the Papal Positi'
I.— International ] ces^-ion.-
-The r.una of Parallel <
v.-on,'ilal,lr ])i>- A-e ul
(.nveniiiu-nt.- Ol.l Wo
.V/'
AT/.
Kii
■aliz
h auil Xi
Ital
■ a Blessing,
ith Centurie.s
Ten.lenries
Boots: Twkxxv-Sixth.— Eastern Euroi^e.
iPTEP. CXLVIH.
Revelati.i
ne.sses the II
Madame Kn
anee. — Keal
cijile of Intc
■ (V.s-ack.— AK-xan.ler wit-
.11 01 France.— Influence of
Iio.trine of the Holy Alli-
II f of the Compact.— Prin-
applied.— Congress of Aix-
la-Chapelle.— Troppau, Laybach, and Yeroni. —
Predominance of Russian Influence. — Internal
Improvements of Rii---ia,— Cliaiacter of Alexan-
der.— Ascendency of AKttii ni. h in Kiii'.p.-. — Tlie
Czar becomes despotic— ('(Hi^taiitine tlie Ibir
Apparent. — Nicholas takes the Crown. — Deka-
brist Insurrection. — Outbreak of the Persian
War.— Gain of New Territories.— The Porte pur-
chases Pearc—Aliaiis in P.ilaiid.- (onspira.y .,f
1830.-Battl(- nf the F..ll..«i,,u' Vrar.-Mippivs-
sion of the IiiMiuv,ti..n.— SiiireiiiiL;> <.f tlu- O.iiii-
try.— Pressure of Russia on Turkey.— Relations ,.f
Russia and France.— Break of the Franco-Rus-
sian Arch— Egyptian Complication. — Western
Tours of the Czars.-Plans and Policy of Niclm-
],,s— II,. disc.. vers a Sick Man.— War in the Cau-
casus,— .'Sliainyl overtliiown. — The Czar inake-;
Deinan.ls of 'the Sultan -Outbreak of the Cii-
niean War.— Theater ..f the Conllict, . . . i;:i7-7n4
PER CXLIX.-C
Siiiope —Western A
Turkish Successes-
Battle of Alma.— Sel
ation. — Beginning of
s- War.
ue-.ti..n.— The C.nlli.t
■ n ..f Turkisli Fle.t at
.n the Black Sea.-
.11 ..f the Russians. —
I the Key of the Situ-
ege.— Battle of Balak-
lava.— Fpiso.le of the Tight Brigade.— Struggle at
Inkerman. — SufTerings of the Allied Army. — Cap-
ture of the :\Ialakh.ifr and Redan.— Battle of
Tchernaya. — Russians aban.lon Sebastopol.— The
Czar brought to Bav.— Tieaty of Peace.-Terms
and Con.litionsof S,.ttl..meiil -General Provisions
of the Treaty.— Salutary Influences of the Event —
Attitu.le of the I'nited States on Private.'!--
ing ■. . . . 705-71-1
Ch.\pter CL. — L.\sT T\v.5 Alex.\nders.
Accession of Alexan.ler 11.— Ref..rms in the
Governmental Svstem. — Emancipation of the
Russian Serfs.— Polish Insurrection of 1S63.— Mis-
fortunes of the Czar's Situation. — Distrust of the
si. .11
\.l,.pt..,l.
F.N.vnti.
— A>sa^
der .
f th.- Di
^•.— Scv
ase .
f tie- Nil
ilists.-
dati.
11 with
til.' o,
Proc
amation.
-Tin- 1
cow.
-Danuei
.lis ('..
3hui
f R.-pr
.— Arr
s a T.'iir
t.. ?il..s-
.' Nil,.li>
-M.'.ve-
ws.-Tli.'
A.-t of
f the M.u
if.-^to.-
Fin;
1 Destruc
i..n ..1 r..i
ui.l.—
P...li
ce.-Diffi,.
,iltv..l th
• W.'-t
■111 Mill
Stan
1 the C.i
.liti..ii <.f
R.,>>i.
. M.'.-t
Tin-
■e E.npe,
,,i,,. — w,
rk i.f
the T
0.1.'
f.f S,-hl..
-•11.111
-;■■- "I'l'
riaii>-Ca>piau Rai
>in.-Ten.lencieS
Cii.vrTER CLI.
Br.-aking up o
1S44.— War ■
.Tii p.. «.■!■. ^
Druses an.l
Cretan IiiMU
Hol.l on Kill
Loss of Iiit.'i
Invasi
sault .
tion ..
chael
a.l.Ts ,.f th.
Caii~e. -.Massacre of
I„'ll..n,s-T
..' <'ii.-is breaks at
a X.'vv (T..vernment
■CJll ..f < It
!...-( ■..n.stituti..n of
,.• r..rt.' nil
, I'.-vpt.- The West-
ti..n,--W. ak
■iiing of the Tiirki-h
'.- bu.— ia 1.
-.■..iii.'S Aiigr.'.-sive.—
Ill th.' i:a>
.'in Oue^ti..n.-M.;.s-
jaiii-^t th.' <
hri^tiaiis.-Th.' Czar
.s -Th.' L.
1.1. .11 I'rotocol.— Rus-
.ir. Plans ..
Invasion.-Russians
— r.atl.' of
Tundja Brook.-Re-
-iaiK fr..iii I
levna.— Check of the
a Pass.— Secon.l As-
-The Place
besiege.l.— Capitula-
-< ■anipaign
of Grand Duk.' Mi-
-Ears taken
bv the Ilussian-s.—
20 t()\Ti:\Ts nr Vol.lMi:^ AT .l.V/' .V17.
Progressof the Inva^^ion.— St., ruling niSlu-iiovn. ^ nily.— Kiiibarrassnii-nt ol Orcat Britain nlative
Breaking ol tiie Turkisli IVwer.-Aniiistiev.— Thereto.— Rebellion of Arabi Pasha, Whai ~hall
Settlement enfonva bv Russia Tlie i ireat l'..w- be his Punishment?— Questions Mil. mill. -I by
ers interfere.-Treaty of San St.-lan.. an.l Con- tlie Court. -W..rk ..1 !..•« Walla.-.- al Cuslan-
gressof Bcrhn.- -Final Con. lili..ns..i S,. til. -III. •nt.— i tinoj.le — Tli.- S.Tvian l;ail«a>- (■..'a|.li.ati..n.
Eastern R..um,-lia ..r-anizc.l. Il..|..-..l lb.- Kef- ' Relapse- ,, I tli,- Turkish ( ...v.-rnm.iit. Th.- I'.ul-
ormati..n ..i Turkev. Im|...ssibilji v •■( l;.-i..rm.— -ariaii Qu(-sli..n.— Alexau.ler .,1 llall.-ubm- raised
Chan- s in tl..- Su.-,-,-ssi..u. — Kri.l ..1 Ab.lul- t.. th.- Tbr..n.-. -Ih- is ab.lu.l.-.l an.l n-sl.ire.l.-
Aziz.- .fu.li.-ial lii.iuiiy int.. tin- .\lann.-r ..1 his M,-na.-.- ..1 Turkish 1 lismembernu-nt.—C.nleren.-e
Death. -Ae<-essi..n ..1 Mura.l \'. Ab-liil 1 laiiii.l ..I C..uslantin..i.le.-(_h-n.-ral Vi>-w ..1 the Kastern
Il.-Questionuf the Paym,-nt ..1 th.- War In.l.-m- i Sitiiali..n 7JJ-7-1U
BOOIs: TWENTV-SEVENTH. — MIXOR ^>wlERIC^X
STATES.
Cn.U-TKK CLIL— DoMINlnx <„.- Caxad.V. |...s,-.l.-A,ln,inistrati..ns of Hufferin an.l I.orne.-
(ieo.-r-i .hie-il Positi..ii ..i (■in-i.li -l'r..vin.-.-s I'i^i^'"" '•' P'-htieal Parties. -The .MaeUonald
. I ,V I.-, 'i . y^,. 1,1 ^1 ,, ,.|,j ,i|- I . u.lilisiii ii Miiii-li>.— Iiit.-mal Pevelopment of the Domin-
. ■■ .. t" tit .!;s'..f tl.- S -1.- Its \1...r '"" liistituii.. US an.l Features of Quebec. — Mon-
_SI-1I ('- -.1- Ii.- 1 .nil .ir Fn-'lisli'— tr.al ami her I'ulilir Structures.— Sketch of Mon-
F-tl.i'l.- ..l' liii.' -'l'..lili' il |ii'vi-i..n's~..f the "''''' '""^ '"^''" ''"'"'^'''"'S-— Ottawa.— Franchise
,.' '^. , .' '.' f (I 1 1 f '''ill "' IsS'i. -Iiiilians raised to Citizenship. —
b""' 'i;, i;!',nl'':ih' h.' ':ni:'ti.,n'"'|-,'"m-ii ^"- ■■^ "- '--' l:ehelli..n.-Kx.-,utu:,n of the
r.,s.--,.:i,sinAm,.n.-a. t aus.-s ami Is.,.- . ,f th,- '-''■'• ^'-'y'' "' Ins Uf.- - h.-Mtme ..I the
Fr.n.h .-iml III. Han War. Attilii.l.- .,f Cana.la I' i-b. ry i,)ii.->l |. m b.t n .-.n C anada an.l the I iiitcl
l.-s. -T.-mptati.,n t.. Sniii-Ldin-.' an.l Contra-
1.1 Tra.le.-lirouth ..f l;eeii,r...itv, . . 74.>-7G4
h liillm-n.'
Chaii<_'.-s.
17111. — Chur
CnAi>Ti-:i{ CLIII. — .Mi:xiro.
Growth of Cana.la.— Relations with the T"nit.-.l I)i(i,-rent Conditions of Civilization bev.m.l the
States.— Rebellion of 1837.— Allair ..f th<- Co.,- Ki,, ( ;,:i„Je. — Plantiie.' of Kuiopean ( i.,vernment
Im,.- l>iv.-r>itv ..f Int. -1. -St am..ii-.' th,- Caiia- I j,, .M.-xi.-o. --A.lministiati..ii ..i M.-ii.l..za Kill..
,hans S.-pa,ati.,n ..1 tli<- P,.,vii,.-.-s l'..lili.-al ,,f th.- Vieer..vs. I nt.i nal 1 mpi ..v.ui.-nts ..1 th.-
Quarn-lsand th.ir < )i i;iin.-Cai.-.r .-1 Sir l-iamis [ C.,Mi,try.- S.,.' iai 1 iivisi..iis .,f th.- P.-.,|,l.-.-l'.,li,y
Head.— ComiiiL' ..l I... id Hurham llis lla.li.al ,,f Spain with K.sp.-.t I., lu-r Am.-riean Prov-
Methods.— A Xiiliial l;.-v..liiti.iii pi.ip.i-.,!. Pin- [,„.,. i;ir,.,.t ..f th.- Napi.l.-.iiii.- Wars.— Sugfies-
ham resigns nn.l.-r l'i.,--iii.- Th.- s,„|,„.| ;„ \]\^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ i,„i,.j„.||,i,.||,.,. InHu.-in-,. an.l Work .if
Favor.— True I .1.111.1. -r ..I III.- li..mini. ill. l;i-,-,if u„i,].n, ami M..i-.-l.is.-C)\ .-ithiow .if the Xa-
the Popular -\s-.-ml.ly. \.lmiinMiali..ii ..i L,,r.l ti..iial,s.- I!.-sl..rati..n .,1 Spanish Aiithoritv.-
Klgin. -Th- A.t.ii liii..ii.-(iii.Mi.iii ..f a S.-at .if M.^xi. an Kev..lnti..n an.l War ..1 1 ii.l.-p.-n.lence.-
<'"V'-n -nt.-iitta-fta.li.i-.-ii. Pn ,j.-. t ..1 iiiiil iii-j p,,,,,,,,, ,,f p;,,,,,,,,,. Saiila Anna aop.-ais.-ltur-
alllli.- Pi-.iviii. -,-.-. liL.uth .if Piililii- S.-iitim.-iit l,i,i;. i„ Kxil,. - N.-wCiiiiMiliiti 1 l.s.'4 — l-;.-L'in-
in 1 .iv.r .,1 rniiiii. .-li.iy ..I tli.- l.-ioaii lina- ,,i„^. ,,1 l',,|,ti.Ml K.-v.iliiti. .ii-.- .-paiiish Att.-ni]it
Knlar-.-.l S,-al.-.- -.\. t ..f ls.,7. Aiialy.Hs .,t th.- ,1,,,,,-y. -Th.- ,s...-,.,„l C in>titnlion.— Hostility of
G..v.-iiim.ntal Sy-t.-m. .\na|i.-.-i.s with th,- 'W-xa^ T.-xaii War an.l ImlepemU-nce— Santa
rnit.-.l -lat.-M -Pi.ivi-i.iii l.ir th.- A.lmisM.iii ,,1 \„„^, .,,,;„ ;„ p,,„,-r -T.-xas anm-x.-l to the
N.-w Pi.iMn,-,--<.,„l,,„- .it 11,.- lanailiaii T.-rri- ,■„:,,„, .,„,., _ .
h.-iit. <J,i.-sti..ii ..1 F.i,r.,p,aii ln\a-i.,n.-(;r,-at
11 th,- Pritish Km- l.-,„,i,-.- ii,ak.-< War — Aniiiins
pire.— Views i.f l'...uiiii. it. — His. ii.-^simi ..f Imperial i..-r..r. Caiitiii,- ..I I'm bla I
Federation.— I>illi.-ulti.-s ,.1 ih,- Svst,-m pi..- .M,;nar,hv ,-slalili-h,-,l --St,irN
pr,-s
-.-l..i
y.Au
,- .il
<•;„,
thi-
Cnit.-.
1 St;
I'l,-'.'-
- .Mi-
si..n
fr.mi
th,-
11. .1
ll.- 1
the
Futun
- St;
It us .
.f C;
CoyTKXTS OF VOLUMES. XV AXD XVI.
Juarez restored to Authority. — Final BanisUmout
of Santa Anna.— Reelection of Juarez.— His
Death. — His Influence in Mexican AfTaus. — Ad-
ministration of Lerdo. — Hostility of the Church.—
Insurrection of 1875. — Diaz Leader of the Insur-
gents.— Concession of the Government. — Period
of Quietude. — Difficulties on the Rio Grande. —
Gonzalez elected President.— He is succeeded liy
Di iz.— Growing Sympathies between Me.\icii and
the United States, 7G4-771I
Chapter CLIV. — South Amp:kica.
Spain is supplanted by England in the New
AVorUl.— Geographical Position of the Spanish-
American Possessions. — Slow Growth of Civiliza-
tion in South America.— The United States of
Colombia.^Union with Quito and Venezuela. —
Independence of Granada. — Republican Govern-
ment established. —Revolutionary Period. — Tre.aty
with the United States.— Progress of the Last
Decade. — Primitive History of Venezuela. — Dec.
laration of Independence. — Epoch of the Civil
Wars. — Politic.il Revolutions.— First Notice of
Ecuador. — Spanish Yoke thrown oflT.- Foreign
AVars and Domestic Insurrections. — In-taliility
of Political Structure.— Peru.— Story of Pizai re-
Great E.Ktent of the Country.— Loyalty of tin-
Peruvians. — Bolivia becomes Independent.— Com-
mon Aspect of South American History.— Afiair
of the American Ships.— Castilla and San Ra-
mon.— .Adoption of Constitution. — .\ge of Polit-
ical Violence. — Brazil. — Early Discoveries on the
Const.-Primitive Commerce —Colony of Rio de
Janeiro — Portuguese Colonies fall to S]iani.—
Evil Consequences in Brazil. — The Dutch in
South America.— Brazil goes back to I'nrtngal —
Transfer of .Seat of Government. — Rrazil recfive
the Fugitive Brangancas. — The Constitution mod
Separation of Brazil from Portugal. -
Countrv an Kiupiiv.— l),,m IVdro I.-
fied.-
The I
War
Trou)
dro 1
Thivi
Fin:!
Alii
Spirit and Accomplishments of the ]Om|ieror. —
He visits the United States and Europe.— Rail-
way Development. — Establishment of Steamship
Lines with North America. — Famine of 1878.^
Struggle with Slavery. — Brazilian Plan of Emanci-
pation.— Legislation against the Roman Church. —
Establishment of Civil JIarriage.— Cataclysm of
1889. — The Empire overthrown. — Banishment of
Dom Pedro and his Family. — Proclamation of the
Brazilian Republic. — Place and Importance of Ar-
gentina.— First Notices of the Country. — Vice-
royalty established. — War with (ireat Britain. —
Revolution of 1812. — Administration of San Mar-
tin.—Transfer of the Capital.— Las Heras Presi-
dent.— Independence guaranteed by Foreign
Powers- — Ascendency of Ro-as. — His Tlieory of
I ioM'iuinent. — His Downfall. — Civd Commo-
tions.— Course of .Affairs in the Seventh Decade. —
Greatness of the Arg ntine Territory. — Recent
Political Changes. — Parallel between the English
and Spanish Peoples. — Epoch of Railway Devel-
opment.—Election of 1880.— Settlement of the
Chilian Boundary.— Area and Statistics.— Educa-
tional Progress. — Geographical Position of Chili. —
Her Extent and Physical Character.— Primitive
History. — Outline of Events to the Present Time. —
Promise of the Republic 779-798
BOOIv XWEMTV-EIGHTH.— ORIEXTAL NATIONS.
Chapter CLV. — China.
Obscurity of Eastern History.— Falsi' llistorii-al
Standards.— Our Earliest View of the Chinrsi-
Empire and People. — Yu the Great.— Dynasty of
Chow. — Dynasty of Tsin. — Chinese Wall.— House
of Han— First Contact of the Western Nations
with China.— Tartar Inroads.— Christianity intro-
duced.—Genghis and Kublai Khan.— Great Fam-
ine of Fourteenth Century.— House of Ming. —
Invasions of Mantchu Tartars.— Tartar Dynasty
establislied.— Interest of the West in Chinese Af-
fairs.—British Embassy at Pekin.— Napier at-
tempts to open Communication- with Chinese
Coasts. — The Opium-trade and the Sequel.— De-
.struction of the Opium at Canton. — Declaration of
War. — Canton bombarded. — Further Conquests.—
Chinese purchase Peace.— Opening of the Ports.—
Treaty negotiated with the United States.— Ex-
tension of Foreign Intercoursc.-Kenewal of Dif
ticulties with Great Britain. — Local War at Hong
Kong. — Sending out of British Squadron.— Canton
bombarded. — Question of conferring with the
Emperor. — New Treaties with Fore-gn Powers. —
Continuation of the Troubles.— Lord Elgin in-
vailes the Country.— Battle of Pa li-kao.— De-
struction of the Summer Palace. — Chinese Re-
gency.— Burlingame in China.— His Great Work
with the Government. He goes Abroad as Chi-
nese Amljassador. — Tientsin Massacre. — Story of
the Anglo-French War. — Career of Gordon. —
Rebellion in Yun-Nan.— The Dowager Em-
pres.ses — Break in the Alantchu-Tartar Line. — As-
cendency of Li Hung Chang. — Establishment of
Chinese Embassy at Washington.— Formalities of
the Occasion.— Question of Chinese Immigra-
tion.— Nature of the Conditions on the Pacific
Coast.— Political and Social Aspect of the Issue. —
I'nju.
.IS ail Ar-nni.ii
.^TIm. A
Suiiiii
;irv
ot"C..n.liti..i,>, ;
n.l 1T...|,
CnXTi:XTS OF VolAMIlS XV AM) A'lV.
iT.ity,^ ,.,1...,. ,,i Au-lralia.— Expl
Mi:;'-lS ]iaiu|.i. r.- C..l..ny .,i i;,,t:
.■ouv.T. (■..!.. nizaiinu ..f
nalia, aii.l Nr'.v Z,-alan.l.
ClIAITKUCI.VI.— IaPAX.
ples.-I.ui,.i,-n.y ..I .Ia,.a,„ .>■ ll,M..ry.-
tiuns ,,1 (lu- (■ivati..ii Mvtl i.al \:i...r],.
iX<U; ..I l|„. Kir.-t I"..|.iilali..i,s. .Iiinii.u T.
Bii.Ml,i<iii iriln..hi<v.l. l!,-imnn- .■! I-.'
C'llMuMis ail I Ili<r..v,ri.-. U\<,- ,.1 tlu^ l
Faiuilir.s-Slni-'l- ..I 111.' .Iai.an.>.- I'li
Pow,-r of tlir Va-ai^.-rMaMi-^liiiH-nt
.S■A..,;..„<,^•-lllva^i..^- -l Kiil.lai Klian.-
of tiK- Sixtr.iitli f.iiliny. Wais with ( liiiia.—
Yoilu ),,-.-..„i,.s til.- Capital l;,lati..ns..t th.- A[i-
ka.lo aii.ltli.- Sli.,.jiiii.-l-iist (■..nil,-. ti..ii ..f W.-i-
cm Nali..iw u itli .Ia|.aii. i:ia..f lV,M-.-uti..ii<.-
I>ivi>i..iis ..I .lapaii,-.. S,,. i,lv.-i:-i.i..iia-.- au.l
Tyraiiiiy.-S,„ial (■.in.liti..ii ..t Japan t,l ll.-^iu-
niii- ..f I'l.-s.-iit Century. \V..ii.l. i iiil I'i...i;u->^ in
Civil War of ISii:;.- TiinmpU ..f Xationality.—
Exr..ll.MU-c of Japan. ■<.■ Iii>plav at Ani.,ri,;an
CViitrmiial-Kisi- of tlu- Nali,.n -F.ii niati.m of
tin- Now Imp.-iial C.nMituti..n.-C..n.lili. .iis an-
te.v.I.-nt I., til.' K\cnt. A«ak.iiiii.' ..1 .-tat. <-
niaiisliip.->tal.' ..f tlu- .lapaii. .-.• Mln.l al :\lia.Il<.-
of ri.->.-iil C.-ntuiv. (i,ii,ki,.-s ..t th.- r.-o:,|,- to
Assiniiiatr -Stimulus ..f l-..i.i-ii Intetrouis,-.-
Ab.iliti..n of Feu.lalisni. -AM,n.l,n.-y of Young
Men -Imperial I'r..j,-rt ..I th.- New Ktame of
Government. -Esial.lislim.-iil of tli.- (;,.,ro-:„.—
Imperial Proelamation. The Tn^een Revolu-
tion—I-Mucational an.l ln.lnsiii.,1 Cn.liti.ins.^
Analvsisof the C..iiMitiiii..n.-Th.- laup.a..r an.l
his Place in th.- .-tal.-. Ili-jhls an-l lHUies of
Suhjerts.-Tli.- ln,ii.-,ial Di.l rai.ill.l with
MaLMia Chaiia. r..u.is <.i tie- T«.. !!..„,->-
Iiu;i.-s.,l Mini-tiv au.l C. ,.in. il -C..im-. ..f Law
•f Hart.iL' and
\V..rk ..f Van-
11.1. W.-M Aus-
- W.i.U
111.- Au-
.\[it,h.-ll -I!.-
Chaia.-t.-r .if
.s -Iii>. ..v.-rv
. With.lia-.val
an.l A-.-iieul-
Im- C..l..nies.-
Ili.ulty ..fp. n-
1..1W ..I l.xp.ii.iuuiv -
t> - i:x.ell.-ii.-.- ..I the
1 Japan, . . sl;i-s;2
CiiAi'Tr.i: CLVII.— Ac-TK.A
I.al.- Ii.-vel..i.ui.-nt ..f An-Ii.ilia
plant. -.1 Civili/ati.iii. A. Kama-. ^ |
su.h .<lal.-s Sympathy l,.-Hv.-.ii .\u-ii.i!i,i an,
Aiii.-ii.a. -\uMiahaii Display al C.nleiinial Kx
p..-iti..ii -I-lau.l ..r ('..iitin.-nt'^-Ai.-a ..f th.
(•..untiv. li.ii.-ial Chaia. t,-r. -Th.- I'aits hette
kn..wn.'-l'nn.-ipal M.,nntains.-.\,i-.tialian I;iv
ers.-.\uml..-r an.l Cliaia. t.-r ..f th.- I.uk- s.-
Climati.- C..ii.litioii- Vaiiate.n. ..f Teiiii.. latui
an.l liainlall .\iiimals..f Australia. Marsupial
in I'arti.ular. AuMiahan I'.ir.ls -l;i,-hne>s an.
Vari.-ty of V.-j.-tahl.- i.if.-. (iiains an.l Fiuits
Ili.stririuti..ii ..1 (...1.1- ( liaia.ter..f th.- Mm.--^.-
Tlie In.Ii-jeii.,ns Ka,-.- -I'er-^onal ChaiaUei i.^ti.
of the Natives. -Maiiiu-is an.l Cirs|.,nis -Hu.h- Fmaneipalh.n
ness ..f the Ah..ri-in.-s. Th.-ir Pa.-itie T'isp,.-i. l.y rniv.-r.^al
tion. — MarriatreCn.si..nis. — Fii>t K.ir..pean Kuoul- Kra, . . .
oiStuail. Kiil.-ii.ii~.- ..f Biirk.- an.l AVilLs.-Tlie
I-xp.-.liti..ii iii-aniz.-.l.-Pi..-_-i.-ss ini.i the Inte-
ri..i.- iH-aih ..f the Lea.K-is.-lU-velation of the
(■..nliiient. - Kxi..-.lition ..f Waihurton an.l
C.ssc- -Sk.-t.h of Xeu- s.mth \Vale.s.-Its His-
torical r)evel.,i,ment.-(>ullin,- ,,f the IIi>t..ry .if
menl.-l'olilieal Phenomen.i of the Country.-
Imbi.iglio of LS:;:;. -Question of Free Tia.le.-
Skelch of Queen.-^hnuL— Product of CioI.I — (.)ut-
line of Civil (i.ivt-rnment.— Extent of South
Au-tiaha -( iiara. t.-raii.lC..ii.Iiti.,ns,,f Ih.-Cuu-
tiy -I;.-iuainiii-4 Pfviii. .- ..I .\ ii^ti .iha- ln^tltll-
tl.'.iis au.l Stiu.lni.s .a" .M.-n.,.ui lu- -Skel.-li ...f
.Sy.ln.-y. -Th.- riii\.-,>ity. -A.U-laide -Its Buil.l-
iii-j- an.l Knll■lp^i^.■~ Tasmania.— (jeneial Con-
.liii.-u ..I III.- .\u-tialian Provinces —Relations of
(■..l.iiiial an.l II. .lu.- < i. in .-i uni.-nt - ' >u,->ti..ii ..f
F.-.l.-iati..ii IVMv.uii.n .-l ll,.- P. 1.- -I'au.ity
.\n-ii.ilians-KNt. nt ..i th.- C..n,mi-i..- -Vi.-l.I..f
...iM -l'i..,lu. I .if \V,„il-i„.ii,-r,il Inil.i-tiial I>.-
v.-l..pni.-nt C li.l with th,- A.Mati.s (lin-tion
..I ( h.-ap I.al.or -l.ans i .-JatiuL' P . Chin.-se Imiui-
<..Tali,.n -To.uM.. wiili th.- H<.iii.- ( ;,iv.-i iiiu.-nt -
siJl
i: CLVIIL— CoMLi-
111 ih.- IIi~t..iian -Lea.I
IIl>|.i|V.-.\|,
uh.-ii
1 -Lea.IiuL' Truths
ht to 1..- Free -The Human
111 Emau(-i|>ation.-Evil.s of
'.-ini.-i.His Theory of Pater-
inaleil to Social Forms. — He
Necessity of Toleration.—
nan. — t'niversal Citizenship
:i..ii.— IL.pe of the GoWen
sii-.'-S6-i
List or Illustratioxs, \\)LUMiis X\' axd XM.
Fronti:
Washin'gton, 40
s CiTV 4:;
44
PoRTRur OF Lincoln, . .
Ueaii-Piece fok United
James Mjnroe,
FiiOXT View of the Cmm
The White House, Wami
Jean Lafitte,
JIarqits De Lafayette 45
John Ql-jncy Adams, 47
Andrew Jackson 49
Daniel AVebster, 50
Black Hawk, 51
Osceola, 5:)
The New Patent Office, Washington, ... 55
JLaRTIN A'aN F.IREN . . 5t)
Kverolades of Florida — Land of the Sem-
Ai.exanderH. Stephens, ,
:Ar(
Wi
m Henry Harrison,
Bc.nker Hill Monu.ment, tid
MoR.MON Emrikants in the Desert, (.7
Fall op the Alamo GO
Samlel F. B. Moh^e, 70
James F. Poi k 71
Capti'RE of Mexican Batteries r.Y Osptain
May, 7:!
Fke.mont in the Rocky Molntains 75
General Taylor Com.mandino at Bcena
Vista, 70
Bombardment of San JcAX D'L'lloa 77
WiNFiELD Scott, 78
JIiNERS Of Forty-nine, i<2
Adventurers en route Overland to Cali-
fornia, 8:i
Smithsonian Institution, - ... 84
Zachary Taylor 85
Henry Clay SO
Millard Fili.moke, S7
Kane and his Co.mi'anion.s in the Arctic P^e-
GIONS '^0
John C. Calhoun 00
Franklin Pierce, 91
San Francisco and Bay 92
Walker before HIS E.XECUTioN, 93
Stephen A. Douglas, 95
James Buchanan Ofi
Salt Lake City, 97
Landing of the Atlantic Cable, 9s
Sam Houston 99
Washington Irving, 99
.VuRAiiAM Lincoln
Pe.moval of Troops from For
Fort Sumter
Flag of the Confederate .Sta
P^iRTREss Monroe
Jefferson Davis,
Guarding Bridge over the 1
The San Jacinto slopping ti
William H. Seward, . . . .
Battle of Fort Donels(.in, .
Surrender of Fort Donei>o>
Battle of Monitor and Mer
iEORGE B. :McClella
Robert Edward Lee,
Battle of Malvern Hill
Stonewall Jack.son in Battle, . .
Struggle at the Bridge at Antiet
Ambrose E. Burnside,
Federal Gun-boats Passing A'icksuur(
(iRANT and PeMBERTON — CaPITUI.ATIO
Vl. KMU-RG,
Tearing up a Rmlwav,
George H. Thomas
Battle of Lookout ^Mountain, .
Attack ON Fori- Sumtek
Joseph Hooker,
P>attle OF Chanceli.orsville, . . .
George (t. Meade,
Pickett's Charge at (^
Bailey's Dam on Red L
FTr\
KG,
II Johnston
James P. M, Piiei
Sherman's Marc
JIeeting of Sher
David li. Farr\gut
Destruction of the .\lbe.marle,
"The Man ON Horseback," . . .
Battle of Spottsylvania Court-house,
Death of General Stuari,
Philip H. Sheridan
Sheridan's Arrival at Cedar Creei
Explosion of the .Mine before P:ite,
Surrender of General Lee
24
LIST OF JLLUSTHATIOXS. volumes XV and XVI.
General Lee taking leave of his .Soldieks, lti4
Salmon P. Chase, liio
Assassination of President Lincoln, .... 1(57
Last Houk of Bohtii, . . KiS
Tomb of Lincoln, Si'iiiNOFiEi.D, Hiii
Andrew Johnson, 170
Review of the Union Army at AVashinotun, 171
Down THE Yi'KON, Alaska, 173
Ulysses S. Grant, 177
Central Paoific Railway, Sierra Nevada, . 17.S
The Joint Hioh Commi.-^sion in Session, . . . ISl
Burning of Cmt-AGO, ISi'
Horace Greei.ev, 1S4
Attack on Pe.vce C'ommi.ssionehs hy Moducs, 1S.5
Charles Sumneh, 1S7
I\L\iN BciLDiNG, Centennial 1■',\IM^ITI0N, . . ISS
Independence Hall, IH'J
JIemorial Hall, C'entennial Exi'hsition', . . litO
Battle of the P.h; Horn— Custer's Death, . 191
Rctherford B. Hayes, 194
PiTTSBLRG Riot, 195
Launching a Life-boat, 199
James A. Garfield 203
James G. Blaine, i'05
Assassination of President Garfield, . . . 1.'06
Che.ster a. Arthur, -07
Robert T. Lin( oln l'08
Thomas A. Edison 211
East River Bridge
General William T. Sherman, . . .
Lieutenant-General Piin.rr' H. Sheri
Ghover Cleveland,
WiNFiELD S. Hancock,
John A. Logan,
.'U
Thomas A. Hendricks, 226
Samuel J. Tilufn, 220
Henry Ward Beecher, 227
Morrison R. AVaite, 229
RoscoE Conkling, 230
Earthquake at Charleston, 232
Bkn.iamin Harrison, 237
Views IN THE City of New York, 240
Old Federal Hali 242
Sub-Treasci'-v Building, Wall Sireet, . . . 243
Tail-i'iece 24.S
Head-piece for (iREAT Britain, 253
Windsor Ca.stle 255
Battle of Xavarino,
George ('anni\(;. . .
Cathedral hv York,
William IV.,. . . .
Lord John Russell,.
Daniel D'CoNNELL, 272
Victoria 276
View of Jamaica, 283
Prince Albert, 2S5
Mehemkt .\M Pasha 290
Palacb of Meiiemkt All. 291
PAOE
Dost Moham.med Khan, 294
Akbar Khan 294
Sir Robert and Lady Sale, 295
Arrival of Dr. Brydon at Jelai.ahad, . . . 296
The Khyber Pass 297
Reunion of the Captives of Cabul, 299
Sir Robert Peel, .302
Isle of Otaheite 304
Richard Cobden, 307
The Irish Famine— Scene at the (Jate of a
WOHK-HOUSE, 309
Lord George Bentinck 312
Erebus and Terror Outward Pxiund, .... 313
Elisha Kent Kane 314
William Smifh O'Brien, 317
Crystal Palace of 1851, 325
Duke of Wellington, 330
View of the Bosphorus, 332
Church of the Holy Sepulcher, 337
Lord Palmerston, 342
Ticket-of-Leave, 343
Diamond Harbor, Hooghly, 345
Native Officers of the Bombay .\hmy, . . 346
Brah.mins of Bengal, 347
Port of Calcutta 349
Throne-room, Palace of Delhi 351
Benares, 352
Sir John Lawrence 353
View of Lahore— The English Church, . . .354
British Residency at Lucknow, 355
Grand MosquK at Delhi,. 359
Relief of Lucknow, 361
Attack on the Alambagh, 362
Sir Henry Havelock 363
OuTRAM, Campbell, and Havelock, 365
HoDSON Seizing the Kino of Delhi, .... 366
Mf.morial of Cawnpore 367
Charles Robert Darwin, 371
Geneva, Switzerland 387
Geneva Tribunal, 388
Prince OF Wale.s 392
Jamaica Insurrection, 394
Lord Derby 396
Emperor Themdore (iiviNG AN Audience, . .404
William E. (ii.ADsToNE, 407
William E. Forstek, 412
Charles Dickens 413
Empress of India, 418
259 Earl of Beaconsfiei.d, 419
262 Liberal Ministry hf 1880, 422
265 CooMAssiE, 423
266 Sir (Jarnet AVolseley 424
269 Pontoon Bridge over the Pbah, 425
272 Cetawayo, in English G;arb 426
276 ' Hindoo Kush Mountains 427
Ha
\rah, from Northern Highlands — Ai
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, VOLUMES XV A XI) XVL
Charles Stewart Parnell,
Marquis of Salisbiry,
Gladstone,
Alfred Tennyson,
Palace of the Khedive,
Ahmed Arabi Pasha,
iMODERX LlGHr-HOUSE AT ALEXANDRIA,
Charge OF THE High LANDERS atTel-el-
On the White Xile
Warriors of the ]\Iaiii)I in Battle wi
Khedive's Forces,
David Livingstone
Henry M. Stanley, . .
Tail-piece. Holvhood and Arthur's
Head-piece for France,
Field of Waterloo
Louis XVHL
Chateuabriand,
The Escuri.^l, ,
Charles X.,
Coronation of Charles X.,
Charles Ferdin \ni), Dcke of Berry
Casi.mir Perieu,
Metz, ,528
BiS.MARCK accompanying THE CARRIAGE OF
XaPOLEON in. TO THE CaSTLE OF WlL-
helmshohe, .')2!1
Camden Palace, Chiseliiurst ."):',0
Cathedral OF .Strasburg, .'ilU
French Soldiers burning their Flags after
the Surrender of ;Metz a?,2
Entrance of the Germans into Orlean
Burning of St. Cloud by the Prussian,'
Gambetta Starting for Tours, ....
Overthrow of Bourbaki,
Battle of .St. Quentin,
.TuLEs Favre
.537
Sitting of the Delegate Govern.ment at
Bordeau.x, 538
Insurgent Communists Seizing the Guns, . . 540
Barricade of the Port St. Denis, during
the Commune, 541
Barricade, Hotel de Vii.le 542
Bombardment of St. Denis 544
Si ene During the Bo.mbardment of Paris, . 545
Fall of the Vendome Column 546
Supplying the Hungry during the Co.m-
Marquis de Lafayette,
Louis Philippe
Arrival of Louis Philippe in Paris,
Louis Philippe takes the Oath, . .
Battle of Isly
Capture of Abd-el-Kader
General View of Lyons,
Insurrection in Lyons
Marie Caroline, Duchess of Berry, . ,
IMarshal Soult
FiEscHi's Atte.mpt to assassinate
Philippe,
Guillaume Guizot,
Duke of Orleans
Dome of the Invalides,
Lamartine
Paris Insurrection of 1.S48
Adelaide, Princess of Orleans, . . . .
Proclaiming the Republic of 1848, . .
General Cavaignac,
Arrest of the Deputies,
Victor Hugo
Xapoleon III.,
Empress Eugenie
.\ttempt of Orsini to assassinate Naf
III.,
Suez Canal,
Henri Rochefort,
Isabella IL. of Spain
View OF ^Madrid,
Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, . .
Baron Le Bhuf,
^Larshal Bazaine,
Battle OF Mars-la-Tours
A Pftroleuse, 548
Death of the Archbishop of Paris, 549
Last Sortie from Paris 550
Transport of Communist Prisoners in Bre.st
Harbor 552
:\Iahsiial MacMahon, 5.53
I.EiiN (4ambetta, ,554
Louis Adolphe Thiers, 555
La Republique Francaise, .557
Le.)n Say .5.58
Gambetta in the Tribune, ,51)2
Prince Xapoleon, 565
CoMTE de Chambord, 5r)7
President Jules (Jrevy, 571
Prince DE JoiNviLLE, .572
Due d".\umale, 573
A'ersailles Palai e and Gardens, 575
Harbor of Marseilles, 578
Eiffel Tower, 579
Tail-piece, The Angklus, 5S0
The Surrender AT Sedan (Etching) ,582
Head-piece FOR Germany, ,583
Frederick William HI., 586
Battle at the Barricades in Brussels. —
After the [lainting hy Wappeis, 587
Leopold, King of the Belgians. — After the
painting by AVinne 588
Ale.xander Von Humboldt, .591
Prince INIetternich, 593
Berlin Insurrection of 1848, 594
Hungarian Volunteers. — After the painting
by A Von Pettenkofen 597
Arthur Gorgey, 598
Louis Kossuth 599
LIST OF 7/./.r.sy7,M77o.V.s, VoLl'MllS XV AM) XVI.
FltANl IS JOSRPII.
OTTO Von Bism.s
PAGE,
OF PeTEK the TiKEAT, . ■ 702
704
I'lnN.E I'keheukk or Ai
Ar^TiciAN-l'iusMAN Cav.
■ Ti-i;kish Fi
Al.MA, . . .
Vc.N M,
ritlNlE
Xe\>i;i rifusn
t..n \-..n W.M.
Germans lv,mmi
E.MI>EI;..K Will MM
Empekoi: Wii.i.nM
Views in Dehi.in, .
Prince P.ism m:. ic. .
The Chown Prin<i
OH-NT V..N .M,„TK
Ei,u-Ai:i, \-.iN M\-.
EMrEUnlt Kkkokhi.
l-.M^ Al:, II OF Hm
KniM, I M. Minn Vi.-w
s i\|..,l,.ni Vi.-w , .
111.
~s \ I
Taii.-imece-(;ei{mama CS-t
Heaii-i'iece eoi; Itm.v, (155
Gl-ISEIM'E :\Iazzim (i5!l
Alessam.k.i Man/j.ni ceo
MorJ6ka (;iil
Entrance of the Fhenc.h Trcmu-s into Ti. kin,
184S, 002
GcisEPi'E Gariii M.in . .00;!
Camileo Benso |)i CwoiK, CC-t
Battle OF MoNiEKi II... r.OO
Conflict of tin: r.uiix.i; c.i iiie r>ri faihra, . r.OO
Battle OF Soi.firin., ci;;
Plevna,
(II ii;n Amai.m -Alt.T K. Konjat,
FoCNTAlN ..r nil Sl.KX,,,,,,, . . .
Prince (;..im. imkoh
CoNSTANTIN.il I i; I l:..M S.FTARI, .
SCLEIMAN l'A-II\
Defense OF .^iiii'K \ 1'a-s
RkFFLSE of IMF Gkami Assaclt a
GlNERU. T<.|)IEI!LN
Omar Pasha,
AnHIANoPIF,
Congress of I'.fri.in, 1s7s
Views in Atiifns
Abi)1-i.-Aziz,
Si-ltan's Palace and thic
Tail-piece, 740
Heaii-piece for Minor American States, . 745
-IRCS,
Ni
Landini; of (mrih
by (;. P.ioliiit:,
Florence, . . . .
DfcalP^lmf. Ve
Sr. Petfk's lI.iMK, .
ECUMENMM, ('..IN.
Victor Kmsm fi, .
E.XPFLSPIN of.Ifs,
M.i
IR C
Pus!X
Leo XIII
BrIDOK of ."^ANt" AN<iELO, FioME, . .
A Street in Naples
Stairway of itie Si:sat.>riai. Pai u
Tmi.-piece. W1N..FI. I.i.,N .IF St. Ms
Head-piece kok Kastiofn Imropk, .
Alexander T
Column of AFFx^NlM,R I
Nicholas I • ■
71 Flnians iNVAiiiNi; Canada
rl :\IaF<)FISoF I...RNE,
74 I...RI. Dl FFERIN,. . . . .
r<; Sir .lo.lN .\lE.\ANDER -Ma. DONALD, . .
77 ( 'fI.MiKL .\ND Ka\IP,\|:1S OF (JFEiii^c, ■ ■
TNlVFRslTV OF T..R0N10
75 pAKIIOlFNr IIOCSE OF ()irAW\
7'.l I'..FNTAIN AND AqF'EDCCT, CiTY OF ]\IE.\IC(
si Mhsll/,. ,\I,MDEN
S:; JIKI.INXM. VII
sS City ..f Mi \i...
-!i l.NiiMN. 1: 1.. Cmhedral. City of Me.\i.(
I:mpfr..i: Max. mi
French in nit
730
LIST OF TLU'STEATIOXS, VOLVMES AT AXD XVT.
EXECITION OF MaXIMILLI.
JIeJIA and JIlUAMON,
FinsT Steajiei; on- the Ori
(iATiiERiNG Peruvian Bari
Belle of Pkiu"
Lima
Isle of Serpents, Bay ok Km he Janeiro,
DoM Pedro I.,
Shelter for Travelers in the Ande
Tail-piece— Cliffs of Cape Horn,. .
Head-piece for Oriental Xatiuns. .
Chinese Types. — Dmwn by K. lumjn
Chinese AVall,
Pekin, the Tartar City, .....
A Street in Canton, . . ....
Porcelain Tower, Xankin
Chinese Opium-s.mokers
Bombardment of Cantun i;v the P.ritish,
Battle of Pa-li-kao,
One of the Gates of Pekin oiven I'p to
Allies
View of Pekin,
Religious Ceremony in Chinese Temple.
Pekin Tragedians,
Chinese Mandarin
Shinto ."^hrixe near Yokohama
Kato Kiyo.masa,
Battle of Kublai Khan wi
ANEsE. — Drawn by F. Lix, .
Japanese Warriors in Ancieni
Japanese AVrestlers,
View fro.m the Bridge of Xipi
Japane.se School
^lUNEMITSU ]\IrTSU,
Aum[;alian Natives at Arork
AiMKAiMN (i..Li> Rush, 1S,-,1, .
:\riNES uv SaNDHUUST,
Cradling and P.\nn'ing — .\rsTi
Departure of the Burke ami
dition fro.m Melbiiuhne, .
MusTERiNii Sheep — .Australian
Lord Melbourne,
Public Liisrakv, Xaiional <
Wills
Ranch.
CoLLiNN Stkeet, .Melbourne, .
The University, Melbourne, .
Brisbane from Bowen Terrace
View of Hobart from Kangar
Tail-piece,
IXTRODUCTION TO VOLUMES XV AND X\'L
F Tve examine the history
of the times must recent
we shall find it strnngly
discriminated from that
of the ages more remote.
The historical phenomena
of the NiSETEENTH ClCN-
TUEY are separated by a wide remove from
the aspects of the eighteenth, and still
more widely from those of the centnries pre-
ceding. Human events have liecome vastly
complex and interdependent. States and na-
tions are interlocked and cross-woven in their
relations, and the various peoples of the world
seem floating in a common current towards a
common destiny. Here and there the surface
is dotted with vortexes of agitation, and it is
sometimes difficult to discern in which direc-
tion the tide is flowing; but the historian
knows that all irregularity and disturbance
are Init seeming, and that the whirls in the
river
"Are e.Mies in the mighty stivarn
Tliat rolls to its apiiointt'.! .ii.l."
The science of history is lieset with the
same kind of difficulty which confronts geol-
ogy in considering the latest aspects of the
physical world. The drift is more difficult to
understand than the azoic rocks. Both the
historian and the geologist are confused on
account of the nearness and multiplicity of
the things demanding attention and classifica-
tion. But the puzzle to the historical student
is greater than that which meets the student
of world-formation. For to the nearness aiid
multiplicity of the facts in the geology (if the
pleistocene, History must add a certain aggra-
vation of complexity which comes of human
relations and dependencies. The growing
sympathies and community of interests which
have become so conspicuous since the opening
of the century have interlaced the selvages
of the nations, until the general aspect is that
of fine great fact confused with a mass of be-
wildering particulars.
At the time of the battle of Waterloo there
was not an ocean steamer, a railway car, or a tel-
egraph in the world. How, then, could the
nations fraternize? Isolation is a result of non-
intercourse. In proportion as the means of com-
munication are multiplied the common and mu-
tual interests of mankind are developed, apathy
and suspicion are abated, and the temperature
of hunuinity rises to the glow of enthusiasm.
It is surprising to note how in recent times
the intellectual freedom and moral compass
of men have widened in the triumph over
the obstacles of environment. It is impossi-
ble that thought and action should ever go
back again to the old standards and critei'ia.
The movement of civilization is like that of
certain kinds of enginery that can go oi]ly in
one direction — like that of the power-loom or
thresher, the reversal of which is unthinkal)le,
except by crash and ruin. The threads of
common sympathies carried by the shuttles of
intercourse from nation to nation, from shore
to .shore, have bound all civilized peoples in a
common fate; liut this infinite union of things
before distinct and .separate, while it has in-
spired the pen of History, has greatly con-
fused and pcrph-xr,! the probleius'with which
she has had t<. d.al.
But internationality has not yet arrived —
perhaps may never arrive. From the past the
peoples of to-day lui
The .-pirit of loral
(1 repellant in-
>f se-reiiation.
f in the
the lasso
vance, even in the era of the (•osmop<ilite.
Thus it happens that modern society, like the
physical world, is balanced between two forces,
the radical impulses born of intercourse and
democracy, and the checks of old-time custom
and race hereditv.
JXTL'iil'l ( TK
il.I'Mi:
.\ T
yn .VI /.
Ami sii, aftor the
res
•lul.lii
1,' the ai
eie
It .,r,ler-l.nt n;' the
aiR
iellt 1
nier — was
I(
smneil in Jvii' pe. On
the-
Anif
i,-aii si,le
of
the Atlantir the ]n-nni-
las
. ,,„li
, ami
liral exp..
the Milir
iiii
■ nt of ..nr fathers stunj
,,f p.vernin.-nt liy the
IHM
pie rn
-e into sire
',i-'
han.'l shap.iiness. For
ut th
rtv years
tie
,v f.,ll..«,.,l in the geii-
era
1 .lull
ain "of 11
,v uhi.t may be calleil
ail
e,,n,.l
„f M-p..
1 .
ami tliHi liie ehange.l
ml >ucial u-nrl.l (h-elare.l
(111
If in
fnll fuyrr
W
it.ll.H
the All
ml
e was iraverseil by a
eb:
iin.-r.
Willi IM.'^
-.•;ii came the railway,
an
1 will
].s4r) hi
u intelli;ience, iiereheil
oil
the 1
iirhtning's
wi
ig, bei;aii to carry the
tn
ssages
•place
iif men fi
to thn.l.l.
on
"'A
city to city, from coun-
What
then, sh
ill
tlie wiiter or stuilent of
Hi
<tor_v say of ih.-
I'
i-cnt asp.it ami imive-
nieut of
the miiin,
-■!
Tl.at (»ri:aiii/,eil I'ower
is
osiuf^
U liuM.ai
d t
hat Mail isei.niing to the
fore. Tl
e histniiai
11 iL.les the separate and
variable
proKre- .,
S
at. s ami kingdoms; but
he
notes
wilh gre;
t.i
iiiter.'st the emergence
of
iudiv
ulualilv a
111
fi..,l.,m frniii the low
gr
)un(ls
,f ign.aan
n.l slavery. He notes—
111
'11 \vi
tte.l i
Ito th.- V
>iil
I Nature has been ad-
■.hiatiou of Humanity,
an
1 tha
(i,„ 1
/■•"'■"-■'
y
is tilling his cornucopia
to
the 1)
111 tl
e Books I
nil
piising the Jiresent Vol-
lime it siiall be the aim to give, in brief out-
line, a narrative of the course of afiairs from
the Treaty of Vienna to the leading events of
the current decade. The .story will begia
with the progress ami development of the
L'nlte.l Stall's, ami procee.l to the historical
111. .v. 111. Ills ..f those iiati.>iis with which our
own i.- most intimately assn.'iated— Great
Britain, France, (i.riiiany, Italy, Xorthern
and Eastern Eur-pp.', the Miii.ir American
Stat.s, ami finally the Oriental Empires and
Ausiialia. It will be necessary to summarize
the causes, e.nirs.'. and results of the several
teiiihl.' cniitljiis which have consumed such
an .iiiiimiiis part ..f the Mil.-tance of the cen-
tiuy — ih.' Civil War in the United States,
the Crinieaii War, an. 1 the Franco-Austrian,
Fran.-.i l'iii"l:iii. ami Turco-Russian struggles
in Kiii-.ip.-; but a> miirli as p.i.ssible of the
sjiaee ..f the V..I11111.' will be reserved for the
111..!-.' eh.erl'ul le.'ui.l ..f tli.ise events in which
the virtiU'S of p. are ami the triumphs of
knowledge are exeiiiplilied. Let the hope be
cherished that the hand of him -^vho shall m
course of time take up the ever-unfinished
work and carry forward the story of human
achievement ami a-piiali.>ii into the spleudora
of the tweiiti.th e.'iiliiiy, may be guided by a
clearer vision — though har.lly by a sincerer
trust and purpose — than have iiii.ve.l and sus-
tained the jireseut effort t.. supjily, in fair pro-
porti.m and truthfulness of matter, the history
of the jiiiucipal iiopes and sorrows of our race.
RIDPATH^S
UNIVERSAL HISTORY
VOLUME XV.
BOOK XXI. —THE UNITED STATES
BOOK XXn.- GREAT BRITAIN
, AliASKA
Jnak '6iucnh|-¥Jrst,
The Uxitki) States.
"^y.yl'A i- :-l-<.^'-r( '^'U' A
Chaf-ter cx::x:ii.— PS.MKK1CAM nuddle: a.ges.
iOULD t
lie
)hserver ta
his stand
iu
aiiv cinisp
iidus Stat
idi
in Wrst..
Eun,|...
tin
virw t
the suinni.-i- ,,f l.si:,, he
^vnuM h,,hul,l arnun.l the
hnrizM,, the -uh-i.hnee
of a storm which ha.l jn-evaileil for mniv than
a quarter of a ceutury. A period of firty
years had elapsed since the outbreak of the
American Revolution, and of twenty-six years
•since the assembly of the States General in
France. Through this very considerable ex-
tent of time the elemental warfare had in-
creased in violence to the close. The liattle
of Waterloo may be regarded as the last burst
of the tempest, the last tremendous effort of
the human storm. After this event the
clouds rolled heavily back, and the light of
peace, which had already illumined for some
time the shores of the Xew Wmld, began to
shine fitfully along the coasts of Eurcpe.
There was an immediate and great (•hanL;e
iu the condition of both the Old Wi.rld and
the New. The treaties i.f Vienna and (ih.-nt
marked the close of a liistorical .-purh. There
3
was, at least for the present, an end of oora-
niotion and the incoming of political ipiietuile.
A sort of calm, half-ominous in its charact. r,
supervened, as if the nations wouhl seek rest
from the tempests to which they had been ex-
pdsed. Tlie date to which we have just re-
ferred may be properly used as the beginning
of another era in the movement of nKxleru
civilization. It is here that we take nur
stand, in order to consider, in the current
Volume, the evolution of the new order of so-
ciety, under the general head of the Nine-
teenth Cextury.
In the present Volume it will he our juir-
pose to note the course nf events, first in the
United States, and afterwarils in tlie Eum-
pean nations, from the overthrow of Napo-
leon Bonaparte to the current annals of our
own day. The reader will, perhaps, from
the first be struck with what may be called
the nnhernic charartfr ..f the narrative.
Trag.'dv mav be said to disappear for a time
from hi>torv, an,l, thou-li oniu-dy dors not
takr its i.lar,-, w<. >liall look in vain tor tlio
UM I 'KJ;SA L II IS Ton }'. — THK MODERN 1 1 ORLD.
-^i
■ \ ,i..v,i.,
'ill- ;> ii'-^
V iial
,if,l SiHl
ml r:,,,i.l
■ ■> ol' Nnrl
IV th.. K.
1, Ai
■v.. Ill
111- to the civilization plaiiti-d ou this
the sea, iu the viudicatiou of free po-
iiistitutioiis as the best form of human
iiic'Ut, lias in the present century and
<i\vii land far niilstiipped any previous
■ment .,f like kind in the hi-h.rv nf the
raee. In llie |Mv>,.nt ,-liapl,r we shall
■ ketch in oullim-, ,f the prudi^io,,.- growth
cinnse of our country. It will he remem-
ii-rcd that iu the preceding Book the history
jf the United States -ivas extended to the
clo.e of the War .,f 1.S12 and
ther.tal.li.dinient of p,ac. hy the
treaty ot (..heiit. We shall iu
thi> place resume the narrative
with the administration of Mou-
roe, the fifth President of the
Repuhli,..
James ^[onroe was a Virgin-
ian, lieing the fourth and last of
the so-called Virginia Dynasty
^ of I'i,^idciit,>. All the chief mag-
i-tiati - thus fai-, with the ex-
c, ptioii of the I'lder Adams, had
m, 11 taken from the Old Do-
minion .Monr.ie was horn on
lie L'^lh of April, ITo.S. His
Mill, II loll \va> ohtaincd chiefly
at W iHiam and Mary College,
tioni which institution he went
out, in IT't'i, to hei'onie a soldier
of the devolution. He was iu the
lialth' ol' 'rn-nton, and received
a Dritish hall in his shoulder.
He took part, und,-r Lord "^tir-
liii-, iu tlie caniiiai-ns of 1777
and 1778, being iu the liattles
of l>iaudvwine, Germantown,and
^loiiniouth. In course of time he
siudiiMl law with Thomas Jefferson,
crnor .if A'irjinia. He served in the Vir-
,a A.-.-eiuhly, and at the age of twenty-
•e was a mcuiher of the Executive Council.
17.s:! he was sent to Congress, and while
li.- >eivi.-e a,> delegate he he.'aiue convinced
he inulililv ot' the Articles of (/onfe.lera-
, a. a loin, of government for the Col-
■s. II<. was one of the eailiest, though
<\vs the yomi-est, of tlio>e patriots who
l|e,l themselves ill helialf of a better Cou-
nlion t,,r the rnited .<tate-.
.Alonroe was a member of the Con.stitutional
THE UNITED STATES.— AMERICAN MIDDLE AdES.
Convention, anil in ITlH) was elected .Senator
of the United States. In 1794 he was sent
as plenipotentiary to Fiance, and was one of
those who negotiated with the French Gov-
ernment the purchase of Lmii-iana. After-
wards he was seat as minister plenipotentiary
to the court of St. James. In course of time
his views underwent some change from the
Federal towards the Democratic type, and he
is generally ranked iu the same category of
statesmen with Jeflerson and ]\Iadison. In
1811 he was elected governor of A'irginia, and
when Madison acceded to the Presidency was
appointed Secretary of State. His election to
the Presidency lias already been sketched in
the previous cliapter. The electoral vote in
his favor was 18o, out of a total of 217. His
Cabinet was composed as fallows: John
Quiiicy Adams, Secretary of State ; William
H. Crawford, Secretary of the Treasury; John
C. Calhoun, Secretary of War ; Benjamin W.
Crowninshield, Secretary of the Xavy; Will-
iam Wirt, Attorney-General.
Iu its principles and methods the new Ad-
ministration was Democratic. In general, the
policy of Madison was adopted and c<mtinued
by his successor; but the stormy times which
Madison had experienced iu the vici.ssitudes
of the war gave place to years of unbroken
peace. The animosities and party strifes
which had prevailed since the accession of
John Adams seemed for a sea.sou to subside.
The statesmen who were in the lead in Congress
and the nation devoted themselves assiduously
to the payment of the national debt. The
young Republic found herself burdened, after
the treaty of Ghent, with the accumulated ex-
penses of the war, and the task of liquidating
the debt was of herculean pro]>ortions. But
commerce .soon revived. The Government was
■economically administered. Popidation rap-
idly increased. At length wealth began to
flow iu, and in a few years the debt was fully
and honestly discharged.
In the summer of 1817 a complication of
some importance arose between .the United
States and the little kingdom of Hayti, in the
northern ]iart of San Domingo. There were
gr<iunds to suspect that Louis XVIII., the
newly restored Bourbon king of France, would
endeavor to obtain the sovereignty of the
island, and perhaps proclaim its annexation to
the French Kingdom. Under the Napoleonic
ascendency Hayti had, as we have seen, been
for a time under the dominion of France, and
there was an attempt to maintain, under the
restoration, what had been won by tlie sword
of Bonaparte.
In this state of affiiirs, Christojihe, the sov-
ereign of Hayti, lieeame anxious to secure
from the United States a recognition of the
independence of his government. The Presi-
dent met the overtures of the Haytian king
with fav(n-. An agent was sent out in the
frigate Ouigrefis to conclude a treaty of amity
and commerce with the kingdom. The Presi-
dent had taken pains, however, that the agent
so sent should not rank with plenipotentiaries.
On this score the Haytian authorities were of-
fended, and would not negotiate with an
American agent who was not properly ac-
credited to their government. For this reason
the mission resulted in failure and di.sapiioiut-
meut.
The attempt, in the same year, to form a
treaty with the Indian nations of the Terri-
tory North-west of the River Ohio was at-
tended with better success. The imjiortaut
tribes inhabiting this region, and concerned in
the new compact, were the Wyandots, the
Delawares, the Senecas, and the Shawnees.
Other prominent Indian nations, inehiding the
Chippewas, the Ottowas, and the Pottawatta-
mies, were also interested in the treaty and in
some degree parties thereto. The subject mat-
ter of the new eomj
act li
id relation to the
Indian lan.ls lying n
.rth o
■ the Ohio River,
mostly in what was
afterv
anls the State of
Ohio. It was at tl
is tini
' that the Indian
title to the vallev .
f tl,..
Maumee was ob-
tained. The re<sin„
and
piirchase of about
four milli(ins of aci
es in
all were accom-
plished ill the tr.-aty
;uidit
may well surprise.
iu the liyht of sub
equen
I values, to know
I that the jiurchase sum paid for this vast and
j fertile tract did not exceed fourteen thousand
1 dollars. In adiliiion to the purchase money,
j however, tin- Dela wares were to receive an
1 annnitv of live hundred dollars, while the
Wyandnt,_s the Senecas, the Shawnees, and the
(Jttowas were guaranteed ten thousand dollars
annually, in perpetuity. The Chipiiewas and
Pottawattannes were given an annuity of three
thousand three hundred dollars, f.r fifteen
40
uyivKRSAL iiisTonv.^Tfii: MoDKRy Would.
years. Ccrtaiu tracts wcrr al-o ri-iivr.l l.y
the Ked ineu, amountijii: in tin- n-'jiv-nic ti>
alviiit tlirec hmulred tli..usaii.l ;u-iv^. Tho
tlu-i.rv (pf tlu' (JuviTmiicnt was ilial in roiirse
of time the IniHaiis, liviii;^' on ihm- n-.Tva-
tions and surrounded by vast and ])r";^i(s>ive
settlements of White men, would he assimi-
lated to civilized life, and gradually alisurlu-d
as a part of the uatimi. It was not lonu:,
however, until it was discovered that the
Indiaus had little sympathy with American
farms and villagres and American methods of
life. The habits of barbarism were too strongly
Illinois to the Gulf, brought under the sway
of tho Kepublic.
During this same year tho ( iovernnient
was obligctl to gi\c attention to a nest of
buccaneers, who had cslalili-hcd themselves on
Amelia Island, oH' the north-eastern coast of
I'lorida. The piratical estaljlishment had its
origin in the revolutionary movements which
had been going on in New Grenada and Vene-
zuela. A certain Gregor McGregor, who held
a commission from the insurrectionary au-
thorities of New Grenada, had gathered up a
band of freebooters, recruiting his forces, for
mM'^'^M-hil
'^1
Ji.iiJi'li'lilii;'/';':'. = ■■'•-
fixed, through ages (.f heredity, and no apti- tlie m.i-t jiart, tV.mi Charleston and Savannali.
tude for the anticipated change was sei'ii on With the-e lie had fortified Amelia Island, and
the part of the sequestered aborigines. made it a lendi zvons for shive-tiaders and
The admirable working of the American South Ameii.'an privateers.
system, l.v which n.'W Statc-s e.,ul<l be a.lded It wa- pe,l,ap> dimly believ.'.l by the au-
to the itepublie, was a-ain shown in 1M7, dariuu^ raseai- that tlie well-known sympathy
At the elo.e of that year the we-tern portion of the Tnited Stal.s for repnbii.--. and par-
of what had be,.n the Mis.Mssippi Territory ti-idailv for the repuliliean tondm,-!.- sliown
I'l'
Stat,, of Mis-issi
• wealth
formally admitted. The n.'W ,
contained an area of f,rtv.>ey,.n thousand s,p
miles, and had a<-.,uire.l a population of h
fivethou^and. Tlin- was the whole eastern bank of the Tnited States. They aernnl,i,Mly
of the Missi-sippi, from the Jnnetion of the ceeded to bj,., •ka.de the fort of St. Angus
ith Ame
aek froi!
THE UNITED STATES.— AMERICAN MIDDLE AGES.
and to deiueau themselves as if tlicif were no
civilization and no retrilmtioii wjiicji tiny had
cause to fear. The Federal < inviiuuciit, hnw-
ever, took the matter iiiidci- advisement. A
fleet wa.s .seut against the jiiiairs, and tlie
lawless establishment was In-oken w^. A simi-
lar assemblage of freeboetei-s on tiu' island (if
Galveston, otf the coast nf Texas, was sup-
ju'essed in like manner.
It was at the beginning (.f the .M,.iinie Ad-
nnnisti-ation that the (jue^tion of tlie internal
im|ir(ivement of the n.nntry hist ])resented
itself as a praetieal i>sue to the American
nnnd. The populatic.u of tlie Kepuhlie liad
now taken its western course, and was [lourinu'
through the passes of the Alleghenie>, lapidly
filling up the country as far as the Father of
"Waters. The necessity for thoroughfares and
for other physical means of intercourse and
commerce was upon the people. The terri-
torial vastness of the country brought with it
the necessity of devising suitable means of
communication. Without thoroULdifares and
canals it was evident that the jirodiiets of the
vast interior, which civilization was ab<iut to
open u]), could never reach a market. It was
also evident that in a country where no capital
had as yet accumulated the necessary inqirovc-
meuts could not be effected l)y private enter-
]irise. But had Congress, under the Uepub-
lican Constitution, the right to vote money
for the needed improvements?
The Democratic party had from the iirst
been a party of strict construction. It was
claimed that what was not positively conceded
and expressed in the Constitution had no ex-
istence in the American system. The Feder-
alists, on the other hand, had claimed that the
Constitution of the United States was preg-
nant with implied powers, wdiich might be
evoked under the necessities of the situation
and directed to the accomplishment of desired
results. Jefferson and Madison had held to
the doctrine of strict construction, and had
opposed internal improvements under the na-
tional patronage. Monroe held similar views,
and the propositions in Congress to make ap-
]ir ipriatious for the internal improvement of
the country were either voted down or vetoed.
< )nlv in a single instance at this epoch did
the opposite principle prevail. A bill was
jiasscd appropriating the necessary means for
le construction of a National Koad across
le Alleghenies, from Cumberland t.i Wheeling.
This was the great ll
alreadv been extended
giida to Cundierland,
car
from Wheeling wstward through Ohio, In-
diana, and Illinois to Si. Louis. This done,
the question of internal improvements was re-
ferred to the several States, as a concession to
their rights. Under this reference. New York
took the lead by constructing a magnificent
canal from Buffalo to Albany, a distance of
three hundred :ind sixty-three miles. The cost
of this iui])ortant woik was more than .seven
anil a-half million dollai's, and the whole period
of ^Monroe's admiuisti-ation was occupied in
completing it.
Another important event of the year 1817
was the outbreak of the Seminole war. The
Indians known as Semiuoles occupied the
frontiers of Georgia and Alal.ama. It has
frequently been difficidt, in the history of our
country, to ascertain the exact caii.-es of Indian
h(jstilities. It might not be liir from truth to
allege that the hereditary instincts (.f war on
the part of the savage races .-ouuht expression
at intervals in bloody and devastating scenes;
Init the land question may, on the whole, be
I ascribed as the cause of the larger part of In-
I dian hostilities. In the ease of the Seminole
outbreak some considerable bodies of half-
savage negroes, and also of Creek Indians,
joined in the depredations of their country-
men. General Gates, commandant of the
post on Flint River, was ordered by the Gov-
ernment into the Seminole country, and made
some headway against them ; but after de-
stroying a few villages, his forces were found
inadequate to suppress the savages. General
Jackson, of Tennessee, was thereupon ordered
i to collect from his own and adjacent States a
sufficient army to reduce the Semiuoles to
submission. The General, however, paid but
little attention to his instructions, but pro-
ceeded to gather up out of West Tennes.see a
baud of about a thousand riflemen, with whom
he marched against the Semiuoles, and in
the following spring overran the hostile coun-
try, with little opposition. It was at this
time that General Jackson was given the so-
briquet of Big Knife hy the Indians, among
42
UMlKh'SM. lllSTOHV.-'THi: MOUERS WOULD.
this
whom his name ami Ihinc hail
wholesome dread.
Important conseijiu'iu'cs fullowcil
son, while cniriiL'f'l in his cxpciliti'Ui airainst
the Indians, ha.l entcrcl Flnri.la an.l taken
possession of a Spanish post at St. Mai'ks. He
gave as an excuse for so dnini: that the place
was necessary as a hase of oi)eratious against
the savages. The Spanish garrison which had
occupied St. Marks was removed to Pensacola.
i^rnM
anied .Arliuthnnt an<l .\.nhrister,
were found in St. Marks, and charges were
preferred against them of having incited the
Seminoles to insurrection.
Niir is it improlialile that the charges were
f.undeil in fact. The Englishmen were tried,
under Jackson's direction, were convicted of
treacherous acts in connection with the war,
were condemned and executed. Jackson then
proceeded against Pensacola, took tlie town,
besieged the fortress of Barrancas, at the en-
trance of the hay, and compelled the Spanish
authorities to take ship for Havana. These
were the events which first exeite<l the ani-
mosity of many of the penee-lnxinL' people of
the United States ai^ain-t < nunal Jaeksoii,
and he was sulijeeted l>y liis eiMinics tn un-
measured condeiiiiialiun. The I'n-ident ami
Congress, howevei-, ju-tifieil him in his some-
what reckless pi'(.eerdiiiL;.~, and liis nputation
was increased ratliei- than diiniiii-hed l>y his
arbitrary cnndnet. .V n^olutii.ii nf eensnro
which was introduced into tlie Ifoiw,- ot' Itep-
resentatives was sii|i|in-<>,.d liy a laiL''- vote.
When the news from Florida was home to
Spain, the king entered <■ phiints a'j.'iiiist
Jack.son, but his renionstraiu'e was unhee.le.].
Such were the circumstances which induced
the Spanish monarch to give up the hope of
maintaining his provinces in the New World.
He perceived that the defense of Florida was
likelv to cost him more than the countrv was
worth. He aeeordi.e.dv pro|,OM.d to cle the
country to the Fiiii.d Stat.-. For tin- pur-
pose negotiations wiro opmed at Wa-liini^tou
C'itv, and on tlie twenl v-econd of F. l.niarv,
1m''.i, a tivatv was .•onelu.h'd. l.v whiej, l.oih
the Floridasand tl nil vin- ishinds wrre snr-
.rendered to the Fnitod Stales. In .■on.-idera-
tion of the ce.ssion, the .\nierican (i.jvernmeiit
agreed to relimpiisii all claims to the territory
of Texas, and to pay American citizens for
depredations committed by Spanish vessels a
sum not exceeding five million doUars. By
the same treaty the houmiary-line hetween
Mexico and the L'lnted States was fixed at the
River Sabine.
The year LSI!) may be cited as the date of
the lir>t great financial eri.Ms in the United
Stat.'s. The American Kepulilic ha.l be.-n
j.oor, and the j.eople, as a rule, .small prop-
erly holders, to whom capital, as that term is
understood in more recent times, was a
stranger. At length, however, wealth in-
creased to a certain extent, and financial in-
stitutions grew into such importance as to
make possible a ci'isis in monetary and com-
mer.-ial affairs. In 1S17 the Bank of the
United States had l)een reorganized. With
that event improved fticilities for credit were
obtained, and consequent upon the facilities
for creilit came the spirit and the fact of
siH'culation. With the eiiterini: in of speeu-
eircle of finance ran its usual eoiir-o, until the
strain was broken in a crisis. The eontml of
the important Branch Bank of the United
States at Baltimore was obtained by a band
of unscru]Hilous speiailators, who secured the
connivance of the officers in their scliemes.
About two millions of dollars were withdrawn
from the institution over and above its secu-
rities. President Cheves, however, wdio be-
h.n-ed to the Snperi(,r Board of Directors,
whi
cality of the concern was expo.s,.d. An end
was thus put to the system of unlimited
credits, and in eoiirse of time the bu.sine.ss of
the country swung haek into its accustomed
chanmds. But fir a season the financial af-
fairs of the United States were thrown into
great confusion, and the parent Baid< itstdf
was bai-elv saved from suspension and bank-
Tin- admi-Mou of Mis.-i-ippi intoth.> Union
has alivadv lnou nn-ntionod. Other States
rapidly f.llowed. In IMS Illinois, ih,- twenty-
The niw eo„,„,'inwealtir embraced an area of
,,vir .'i.'i,(H)0 s,|uare miles. The population at
the time of adMii--ion had reaeheil .17,000. In
Doei-n.lior. 1X1'), .\Iahania was added to the
THE UMTED STATES.— AMKUK AX MIDDLE AtiES.
Uuiou. The new State came with a popula-
latiou of 125, into, ami an area of nearly
51,000 S4uare miles. Alioiit the same time
the Ten-itni-v ..f Missouri was <livided, aii.l the
southern part was .iruaiii/.r.l into Arkansas
Territory. lu IM'O the pnivinee of Maine,
which had been umlm- tin' juiisJietinn of ^las-
sachusetts since Uiol.', was separated from that
Government and admitted into the Union as
an independent State. The population of
Maine at the time of admis.«ion reached 29'*^,-
000, and its territory embraced nearly 32,000
square miles. In August, 1821, the great
State of Missouri, with an area of 67,000
squai-e miles, and a population of 74,000, was
admitted, as the twenty-fourth inemlier <if the
Union. But this ad-
dition to the Kepuhlic
was attenrled with n ^
political agitation sn
violent as to threaten
the peace of the Unicn
and to f letoken a Ion
series of events tl
effects t \\h\ h haM
not Mt (Ini] peait 1
from tlie cuiunt hi
tor} of (ur c untn
The difti(nlt\ in
que tl n \^ i tht pi
ence f h\ti\ in
Misouii In 1 Ini
ary ISIQ the I ill t
organize the 1 iiit i\
was bioUj^ht u) m
Congie Ml
into Ml soun
with them
in Congie
be admitt 1
pre\ ileiit th
sioml 1 tl II
A in tl n 111 1
wa iiiti In
Ynl f ibill
New York, moved the iiiMrti..
similar to that in the ^Missouri l>i
deliate thereupon ensueil, and
amendment was struck nut.
ade a motion that hereaft-
on of Territories out of
itioiial domain whirl, Ik
a clause
A heateil
propose<l
lor then
organiza-
■t of the
with the
Louisiana purchase, slavery shoidd be inter-
dicted in all those portii>iis north of parallel
36° 30'. This proposition was also lost, after
a heated discussiou. Meanwhile, Tallmadge's
amendment to the Missouri Bill was taken to
the Senate, and defeated. As a consequence,
the new Territories were organized tvithntd re-
dridions in the matter of slavery.
When the Enabling A.'t was passed, the
shuf
all
luuhil
In hill
hil
^
tainiug then bun
nil 1
1 itt
The 1 1
le wa It
11
1 11
whethei
a n w '^
li 11
Mth thf
^ tern t
In
hi
in 1
\\hethei 1
In (
11 1
lu h lb
n h nil be pi hi
lilt
III II li 1 1
lit t th T
111 II
il 1
1 1 \ Fi
III I, linn
1 t i
\
111 in\
fiiithei inti
du, tl
n
1111 1
11 1 _i lUting
fieed
om
b n n
1 aihnu
the 1
-e
becani tl
V t « In
pe jle (f Ml uii 1 1 1 t 1 th 11 "-tlte C .n-
uin ISO th f mill lb II in t the Ter-
iit i\ 1 1 ^t It w 1 1 I 11 111 ii| 111 ( unless.
Ih p 1 iti II t I but « I IP ed In the
III ai 1 1 xMii I iit\ t th who tr\ored
th \ 111 I II t 1 i\ i\ tl 111 th ] 111 be do-
III nil Vt th It til h u \ I tl new free
St It t Mini « 1 I 1 1 t 1 f 1 iliui ion
lilt tl I 111 11 111 i\ th 1 I h\ery
1 11 1^ th I U lit I 1 I tl \ nil ht ppose
th 1 Inn I 11 f M III 1 I II ^t It until
till iliii 1 n t Ml nil 1 1 In ^tate
h nil 1 11 It \i It i\ 1 1 ite en-
11 1 II III until th K th t 1 1 iiiiM when
a 1 ,11 i| 111, th t« II w Sill t tl.-r,
n with III 1 th thu willi iit In i\ was
44
iXI\ LA'S [L HIS WRY — THE MODERX WORLD.
l.a>-,-,l. Then upon ^ n ,t i 11, iin- .f Ilh
11. -i,-. Mia.l,. a in ti ii tint li ith ml I i
l.ai-I of 111,' L uiMUM . -M n-Mi" nil .x
cptr.l — Ivill- II ith I III. 1 u ill 1 1 llnitN
six .l.-iv.'~ ami tin, IV ,n„ii,I - - , 1, " ,~ th.
.■.■lcli,-at..l >Il" I I I ( ..Mii Ml~h „. t th
a nieasui-e i-lii<ri\ -iipp ,t 1 li\ tin _n i,ui-
anil can-ied tl,i ni_li ( ii_',i" in tl,. [lu-i-ti in
efforts nf Hei,i\ ( h\
The iii-ii,ci| il (inliti ,1^ .f til, phn ^^.lt
these: First, the admissiou of i\Ii~«ouii as a
slaveholding State; ^serom//;/, the dniMon of
the rest of tli( Ijom-iaiia purfha^e b^ the
parallel of tliiitx mx di/io- and thiit\ mm
uteis; thmllji. tin ilnn— , m of new ^tite~, to
he formed out ot th( tuntoi) -outh of that
line, with or without -Inerv, a« the people
might determine punlhly, the i)iohibition of
slavery in all the ni w ^t iti - to be organized
out of territor\ noiili it tin diMdinir hue
Bv this compromi-( tl,> -Iixun airitition w i-
allayed until ls49
IBv the time of which we are here speak-
ing the eHl-ets of the ravages ..f the War of
1>;12 were measiirahly obliterated. The great
iv.-.iuiTes and jiossibilities of the country began
to ap]iea,-. I'eai-e and ])lenty did their be-
lutieeiit Work in the rapiil development of the
nation. The li,>t tern, of :\Ionroe in the
tl,.- .\.liiiini.<tration grew into high favor with
the people. In the fall of 1820 he was re-
elected with great unanimity. Mr. Tompkins,
the Vice-President, was also chosen for a
seeonil term. l'erhap> at i,o other time in the
hi.-t.u-y of our country
has the bitterness of par-
tisau.ship so nearly ex-
pired as in the year and
with the event here men-
tioned.
The excitement over
the admission of Mis-
souri into the Union had
scarcely subsided when
the attention of the Gov-
i-i-nment was called to an
alarming system of pi-
lacy, which sprang up in
the early years of the
]iresent century in the
West Indies. Commerce
became so unsafe in all
those regions into which
the piratical craft could
make their way that an
armament was sent out
for protection. Early in
1822 the frigate Congress,
with eight smaller vessels,
sailed for the West In-
dies, and during that year
more than twenty pirate ships were run down
and captured. In the following summer Com-
modore Porter was dispatched with a still
larger fleet to cruise about Culxi and the
neighboring islands. In course of time the
retreats of the sea-robbers, who had for their
chieftain the great buccaneer Jean Lafitte,
were all discovered, and their piratical establish-
ments completely broken up. Not a liucca-
neer was left aHoat to disturb the peaceful
commerce of the seas.
At this period in our national history the
Government of the United States was first
THE UXITED STATES.— AMERICAN MIDDLE AGES.
Vii-'iULxht into relation witli tlie countries of
South America. The so-called Reimblieau
States in (iiir ueigliboring contiuent ;vere dis-
tracted with continuous revolutions. From
the days of Pizarro the States in question had
beeu, for tbe most jjart, dependencies of Eu-
ropean monarchies; but the ties which bound
them were broken, ever and anon, witli decla-
rations of independence and patriotic struggles
for liberty. The situation was so similar to
that which had existed between the United
States and Great Britain in the time of the
R -volution that the Amer-
ican Republic fell into
natural and inevitable sym-
pathy with the patriots of
the Southern Continent.
Many of the leading states-
men of the time found ex-
ercise for their faculties and
sentiments in speaking and
writing in behalf of the
struggling Republics be-
yond the Isthmus of Darien.
Among these Mr. Clay
was especially prominent.
He carried his views into
Congress, and succeeded in
committing that body to
the principles which he
advocated. In [March of
1822 a bill was passed, rec-
ognizing the new States
of South America, which
had decl.v.od, and virtually
achieved, their independ-
ence. The President him-
self sympathized with these
movements, and in the
following year took up the
question in his annual message. He finally
reduced the principle by which his Adminis-
tration should be governed to the following
declaration : That for the future the American
continents were not to be considered as sub-
jects for colnnizatiuu by any European power.
The declaration thus made became f;\mous at
the time, and has ever since been known in
the politics and diplomacy of the United States
as the Monroe Doctrixe, a doctrine by which
the entire Western Hemisphere may be said to
he theoreticallv consecrated to free institutions.
A social incident in the summer of 1824
gave great joy to the American peojile, and
afforded them an oppoitiiiiity to revive and
express their gratitmle to Frani-e for lier
sympathy and aid in the Kcvohition. 1 ne
venerable Marquis ih- Lafayette, now aged
and gray, returned once UKJre to visit the land
for whose freedom he iiad given the energies
of his youth, and had indeed .shed his blood.
Many of the honored patriots with whom he
had fought side by side came forth to greet
him, and the younger heroes, sous of the Rev.
olutiou, crowded arouml him. In every city
aud an every battle-field which he visited he
was surrounded by a throng of shouting free-
men. His journey from place ti place was
a continuous triumph. (.)ne of the ciiief ob-
jects of his coming was to visit the tomb of
Washington. Over the dust of the Fatlier
of his Country the patriot of France paid tiie
homage of his tears. He remained in the
country until September of 182.5, when he
ba<le a final adieu to the American people
who had made him their guest, aud sailed
40 i\\ivi:i!SAf. insroin:- Tin: .M<)i>i:i:x woin.i).
l):irk f.,!- lii- iialiv hni.l. Al lii^ ,l..parliiiv L- Kiiniin-. Al Pari-, Ani>l.nlaii., an.l Sr.
tlir iViiiaf /;,v„„/«,r,-,„ a naiiM. -,-nilicanI tur J',1. ■-l.uri:-, ihr >o„ ,-.„,tn,ur,l l,i> >luai.;., aud
lui]i--wa> |.iv|,aiMl lo l„.ai liiin auav. Wliilc- tlHi> l.rai.ir ar.,uaiiitr,| with tin' inaiiii.i- an.l
lilMTty ivinain> fi cii.-,-,- tlir \V.-t,'tlM' nam.- i-nlni,-.^ .,1- tlir t )|.l Worhl. Tli.. va>t n,,|„,r-
of LaVavrttr will l.r liallouvl uith patfiolic lui.ith-- u\ l,i> y,.ml, u.-iv ii„,,ruv,.l f. tlie
IVcnIirrtinns.' lulirM .-Xtcllt. lie Wa- .lr>tinr.l to a IMll.lir
IJ.Iniv tlu- -ailin- auav of tlir illuMrinus caivcr. II.' Mi-vnl hi- cnuiitiy a- al.llia>^a.l..l•
Flv,„•llll,an, aiioi i,. i- l-|,'M,hiilial .'l.'.'ti..ii ha.l t.. th.' N.'th.'ilaii.ls t.. I'..i'lu-al. t.. I'lii-Ha,
!„.,', I h.'l.l. I'nliti.'al .'X. -it. in. lit ha.l n-aii- t.. Ku-ia, an.l t.. Kiii^lan.l. Kv.-n in early
p.'an-.l in lli.' .-..nnlrv, an.l ih.-ro was a str.nig lit'.' hi- ahiliti.'.- w.-r.' -n.-li a^ f. .Iran' from
(livish.ii .,f ..'ntiiii.nl. riitnrtiinat.lv, t...^ \Va.-irini:t..n tli.' .■xtra..i.linarv praisi' ..f being
the ,livi<i..ii a|.|,.'ar.'.l t.i li.' lar-.'ly s.-i'ti-nial tli.- al.l.'st inini-t.-r .,f whi.'i, Ani.-ri.-a e.nild
ill it.-; ehara.-t.-r. Si rniii;- |..'r>..iialiti.'s lik.'wise li..a<t, lM-.,in 1774 t.ilM7 his lif.' was .le-
appear.-.l in tli.' .-..iit.-i. F..r tli.' first tiiii.- v.,t..l aim. -I uli,.lly t.. .lipL.tnali.- s.-rvi.rs at
the naiii.s .,f S.nitli ami Kast ami W.st w.av tli.' varim,- Kiir.,|,..aii Capitals,
hear.l, an.l tin- patri,.ti.' .'V ini-lit .li-.vrn the At this tin,.- th.' v.lati.ms ,,f tli.. rnite.l
...vnipt..ins .,f .lan-.a- in th.' p,.liti.-al plira-.-l- Stat.-s ^^vyv vv\\u-A in tlu' .■xtivin.'. In.le,-,1,
ngy ..f th.- .lay. J..lin (.hiin.'y A.hiiii,- was tin- n.'W K.pnl.li.' ha.l lianlly y.-t li.-en fully
William II. Crawf.nl, ..t (J.MU-ia, as the iiati.in,-. Tli.' i^.aiin- ..f .I.ilin <,tuin.'y A.lams
ch.,i.-e .if th.' .<.Mitli: an.l Il.nry Clavaml s.-'iin-.l the a.l.ipli..ii ..f tr.aty att.r treaty.
Aiuh-ew .Ia.'k-..n a- tie- f i v..rit.'s ..V th.' \V.',-t. Su.'h was his aenm.n an.l ].atri..tisiii, that in
The eh'.'ti..ii was h.l.l. Km n.'ith.'r .'an.li.late ..y.'i'y tr.'aty th.' rii;hts ami .li,L:nity ..f tli.>
Thus, f.r th.' s.''.'.,ii.'l tiiii.' in th.' liist..ry ,,f the tain.'.l. In f^iC A, lams' was li..n,in'.l with the
e.iniitry, tl,.' .'Imi.'e ..f I'r.shh.iit was, a.'.'.,r,lin- pn.i;'ss.,r^hip ..f Hh.'l..! i.' an.l J!.ll.'s-L.'ttn's in
t.i a ('■•.. iistitiiti..iial pr.,visi.,ii, r.'f'rr.'.l t.. the Ilarvar.l (oil.-.', ..fvlmli he was an aliim-
H..ns., .,f K.'pr.'s.'iitativi's. I!v th.-it Innly Mr. mis. II.' al-.. h.l.l lli.' ..fli.'.' ef I'nit.'.l .^lal. s
A. lams, th.-iiuh imt th.' h.r.'ne.st .'an.li.late, S,'nat..r In.ni .Ma-a.'hn-.'lts. On the a.'.'.s-
was .hily .'l.'.'t.'.l. ^^.r Vi.'.'-l'r.'-i.l.'iit, J.iliu si..n of .Al.mr...' t.i tln' I'r.si.hn.'y, he was ap-
('. (.'alli..iiii, i>f South ('ar..lina, ha.l h.'en p„inteil S.'.'r.tarv ..f Stat.-. All the aiite.'e-
ele.-.'i, liv th,' El.'.'t'.nil ( '..ll.'-.'. Tli. is .'aine >l,.nts ..f his lih'' wir.- sn.'h as t., pr.i.ln.'e iu
t.. a .'..n.'hi-i.m th.' .'i-ht y.'ars ,.f th.' Presi- hi,,, ,1„. ,,,,-,.-i .p.alitl.'al i. -ns tor the Pr.'.-i-
d.'ii.'V nf .lani.'s M.mr...'. ,l..„,.v, t.. whi.'h h.' was ,„,w .'alL-l.
sup.'re.r ..f any man wlm ha.l ...'.'Upi..! the Th.' revival ..f parti-an-hip, th.' aiilm<.sity ef
Pn-i.l.-ntial .'hair h.'f.r ' aft.'r him. It i- „y,.,a party 1. a.l.r.-, .'..nspii ..1 1.. .lisfraet the
II. .t m.ant that in f.ir.'.' .if ehara.'t.'r nr afility .'nnntrv, t.i k.'.'p the piilili.' inin.l fr.mi the
tl. m.'.-t Li-r.-at eni.'r-vn.'i.'S hi' was th.' .-.pial ,.alni pursuits .,f p.a.'.', <ir at l.'ast t.. mar tho
.,f Wa-lnn-t • Liii.'..ln <.r<irant; Imt he l,anm.nv nf th.- nali..n. Prnin this time fnrth
ha.l -.'iiiiis, M'hnlar-hip, -ivat attain nts. pnlitii's h.'-an t.. 1...' e, what it, has I'ver ?in.'0
.'smaii. At th,' a-
.1 his hither, .T.ihn A.
Th.' C.'nt.'iinial v.-.ir .'all.
iinrv ..f th.' '^ivan'sl ..I tl,,,-,
, '.la'v.' tli.'irai.l in ih.' War I
"I '!"■ l"'"l'l'
hawk.'.l ami
.li.'tati..ii ..f
■hi.'-' C-awf.r.l
(h'n.'ial.Ta.'k-.
.nan.nir
' p'.H.'v ..<
n.l th,:'!-,' was
th.' .lilHrent .1.
THE rXlTED STATES.— AMERICAN MIDI'LE ACE.
Ailiaiuistratiiin w.
ate, an.l tlirir ma
was .ivt-rth
the Lower ][iiuse Wditl
the same in lii< iiian-iiral a. I. In—. Iliit lli;
system of pulirv was aiita'^oni/rd liy the tn
lowers of .Tark-.,,,, CraufMnL an.l (;allin,i
ami their priiici|iles nhtained an aseendeu
in the ILaise of Re|.n-seutatives. As a e.
sequence, the reciMumondations of the Pri
dent were neglected or condemned in Coni;re-
anil the system of internal improvements,
the advocacy of whi<di Mr. Clay gave
the full resiiurccs of his uenius, was
cherked.
Up to this time the native Indian- held
the .Mississippi. In Georgia they had a
wi.l.' domain. Here <lwelt the 'Creeks,
with whom the White men ha.l had rela-
onies. In Is(l-_M;eoruia luid relinquish,.!
her claim to the .Missi-ippi t. riit..rv, and
the General Government aijrord to pur-
chase and to surrender to tin- State all
the Cre.-k land- lyin- within her holder,-;
but this pled-e had never hem fulfdl.-d.
Georgia became seriously di-sati^liod at
the neglect of the ( Toxfrnimut to {■aii\
out the compact. The dittii'idty liecaun
alarmin-, and the Goveiniuent' was thu-
constrained to enter into a n.-w treaty with
the Creek cliiefs, by which a cession of
their lands in Georgia was finally obtained.
At the same time, the Creeks entered into
an agreement to remove from their ancient -
haunts to new settlements beyond the
Mississippi. In all these difficulties the same two uien, had a-itate.
prim-iple was inv.lvrd. The Indians have , pendou.-e, and pionc
been, as a rule, iniwillin-- to recognize the va- ' ])olicy f ir the unilodC.
lidity of pledges mado by thfir ancestors rel- | their voices fir tr.'odou
ative to their national lands. Such a thing as perilous days of the K
ownership in fee -imph- was unknown ori
inallv among the native ra,-es. Tliev n
nized the ri-ht of ,piit-elaim. -by whirh th..
now occupying the lanils could alienate tlif
own title, but not alienate the title of flwir dp- s(m, eigl
.icenilanfii. For this reason the extinction of as it res
land-titles by the ( fovciiiment for the domains ' w.ov as
punhased from the Indians has alwavs been L'.-publi
difficult.
IS a
ift.d
had lived to seo
achieved. Both
its highest officia
extreme old a-e
While tht
ir the lit'tieth aninvi
iM\-Ki;sAL JnsT<)i:y.-TJu: modklw world.
livi
on.re.l pan
but their :
In Sc-iitcniliei- <if llie sainr year a Mri..u-;
social disturbance nccui-red in tin- Mate ot
:N'ew York. William Mui-oan. a iv.M.l.iit ui
the western jmrtinii nt' that .■.iiiiiii"ii\vcahh,
having threaten. -.1 in puMi-h tli.- M-n-cts of
the fraternity nf Free and Accepted .Masnns,
of which order he was a member, suddenly
disappeared and was never heard of after-
wards. Though many rumors of his where-
abouts were heard, none could ever be traced
tn an authentic source, and the belief was
cuiniauii that either his life had been taken
outright or that he had been privately and
_mtlv exiled into tlie obscuritv of some
perma
fei:
Xe
lai.l.
ider the
a great
V York,
foreign country. The M
suspicion of having abduc
clamor was raised against
extending into other parts of the country.
The issue between the Ma>on- and their ene-
mies became a political one, ami jnany promi-
nent men were embroiled in the controversy.
For several years the Autimasouic party ex-
ercised a considerable influence in the elections
of the country. DeWitt Clinton, one of the
most prominent and valuable statesmen of New
York, had to sufl^er much in loss of reputation
from his membership in the Masonic order.
His last days were clouded with the odium
which for the time iieing attached to the name
of the fraternity.
Now it was that in the Congressional de-
bates the question of the tariff was raised and
constantly debated. The discussions began
with the year 1828. By a tariff is understood
a duty levied on imported goods. The object
of the same is twofold: first, to produce a reve-
nue for the Gnverninent ; secondlv, to raise
rtieie on whi.'h the duty
t ihe domestic inauutacturer
may lie able to compete
I'oibicei-. In a subsequent
AVoik' a fidl discussion of
e |iie-enteil. For the pres-
■nl. It 1- >uthc
oms-.lutv is le
tliat
lien a cus
the purpose of rais
prie
e of the article on whi
■h tl
e duty is
1, it
is called a protective ta
■itr.
Wlu
ther it is sound policy
protect its indusll-ies is
n much agitated in ne
!;!?
a nation
u,. wldch
dl of the
iii/e,
countries. A.- a nil.-,
in' t
le earlier
t- ot
a natii>n'> history jirote
•tive
tai-itfs are
ploy
d, even to tlie extent
-n eolllpetition; but W i
of ,
h lie
leventing
hipse of
'f-ee pp, 21. '1-210.
given country the tendency is in tlie opposite
direction. Tlic mature peoples, as a rule, have
inclined to the principle of free trade and open
comiietition among all nations. In the Con-
gressional debates of 1828 the friends of Mr.
Adams decided in favor of the taritl', and in
that year a sehe.lule of customs was iH-ejiared,
by which the duties on fulirics made of wool,
cotton, linen, and silk, and those on articles
manufiictured of iron, lead, etc., were much
iiu'reased. This was done, not so much with
a view of augmenting the revenues of the
I'nite<l !-^tates, as of stimulating the manu-
facturing interests of the country. The ques-
tion of the tariff has always in our country
assumed a somewhat sectional aspect. At the
first the people of the Eastern and Middle
States, where factories abounded , were favorable
to protective duties, while in tiie agricultural re-
gions of the South ami West such duties were
opposed.
The Administration of John Quincy Adams
may be cited as the time when the influences
of the Revolution subsided and the sentiments
of a new era began to prevail. It was the
beginning of the second epoch in the history
of the United States, considered as a nation.
The Revolutionary sages had fallen out of the
ranks of leadership, and a new class of states-
men, born after the era of Independence, be-
gan to attract the attention of the people and
direct the cour.se of the Government. Even
the War of 1812, with its bitter ])arty an-
tagonisms, its defeats and victories, and its
absurd ending, was fading from the memories
of men. Xew dispositions and now tastes ap-
peared among the people. New issues con-
fronted the public. New methods jirevailed
in the balls of legislation. The old party
lines could no longer be traced with clearness,
and old party names were reduced to a jargon.
Already the United States Lad surpassed in
THE UXTTED STATES.— AMERTCAX MTDl'LE AGE.
growth aud development the mn.st saiiguiuo
expectatious of the fathers. But \vith the ex-
tension of territory, the incoming of new
States, the springing up of new questions of
national policy, conflicting opinions and inter-
ests divided the jjeople into parties; and the
stormy debates in Congress announced tlie
presence of that danger in the American sys-
tem which the Father of his Country had
foreseen, aud against which lie uttered his most
solemn warnings.
President Adams did not succeed in secur-
ing a second term. The national election in
the fall of 1828 was especially exciting.
Adams, supported by Clay, who was then Sec-
retary of State, was put forward for reelection.
During the whole of the current Administra-
tion the mind of the Opposition, or Demo-
cratic party — for the distinction between Whig
and Democrat began now to be clearly drawn —
was turned to Andrew Jackson as the stand-
ard-bearer in the contest. In the previous
election Jackson had received a larger elect-
oral vote than Adams; but the House of Rep-
resentatives, disregai-ding the popuhir prefer-
ence, had chosen Adams. Now, however, the
people were determined to have their way.
Jackson was triumphantly elected, receiving
one hundred and seventy eight electoral votes,
against eighty-three for his opponent. As.^non
as the election was over, the excitement w
had attended the campaign subsided, and the
thoughts of the people were turned to other
interests.
Andrew Jackson was a native of North
Cariiliiia. He was born on the Waxhaw,
March 1.5, 1767. Even in his boyho,,d the
evidences of a belligerent and stnnny nature
were apparent. His mother's plan of devot-
ing him to the ministry was hopelessly' de-
feated by his conduct. At the age of thirteen
he took up arms, aud was present at Sumter's
defeat, at Hanging Rock. Soon afterwards
he was captured by the Briti.sh, was maltreated
by them — left to die of small-pox. But his
mother secured his release from prison, and
his life was saved. After the Revolution, hav-
ing acquired the meagre rudiments of an edu-
cation, he began the study of law, and at the
age of twenty-one removed to Nashville. In
1796 he was chosen to the National House of
Representatives from the State of Tennessee.
in full t;
ice. In the
mnt.d to
the Senate,
a yeai-, wi
thout making
ote ! Dif
sivtisfied with
igned iiis
seat and re-
Here his turbident and willl'u
manifested thcni.-clvcs
next year he was pr<
where he remaiued for
a speech or casting a ■
Senatorial life, he re-
turned to Tennessee, lli-^ snbsi i|iicnt career
is a part of the history (if the cduntry, jiar-
ticularly of the South-west, with which section
his name was identified. He came to the
Presidential office as a military hero ; but he
was more t''»n *^>a*- — " "•■"" "*" g-'^nt ^^^t"-"
powers and mflfxible hone \.\ IIi- talents
were strong 1 it mi] li iu I Hi iutL^iit\
was unassailable, and his will like iron. He
was one of those men lor whom no tnils are
too arduous, no responsibilities too great. His
personal character was strongly impressed upon
his Administration. Believing that public af-
fairs would be best conducted by such means,
he removed nearly seven hun<lred office-
holders, and ap])ointed in their stead his own
political friends. In defense of his coiirsi-,
the precedent established by JeHersdU wa-
pleaded.
Jackson's accession to the Presidency was
in some measure a revolutiim, nut only in tlie
political. Imt in the social, tone ot' the Ad-
ministration. Hitherto all the Presidents had
uyi\'KJ!SAL nisTORY.-rni: modern world.
been im ii
of u
.Mill
h IlIIU
lit
l.tui .^.ntlti
UII I
lu< 1
1 u
1 (\
j)iil)li( ill 111
il
(\ 1
llll
n ,1
pi.l. t .1
,l\ll Ml\l
1 1 1
'
nl',' ',','
1(1
( 11- 11 -
111 <. \ mil
]>i 1 1 11 I
tl, -iiti
111 \
1 1
11
L.I
1 1
1 il
1 t
1
llll
\ii
1 1
1 1
u 1
lent tui.k .^truug gruuuJ.s against issuiug a
luw cliarter to that institutiou. lii'licvhig the
Bank to be both inexpedient ami unconstitu-
tional, lu- leconiinrn.lra llial its .■liailn- 1„. al-
i,«.Ml lu ,xi,iic, l,y liiuitati,.!,, in l.s.Hi. ISut
tn.ng aii.l fai--ivaeliiiio- iu its inliii.MHv w<.nl.i
Mcl.l wiiliuul a struggle. In l,s;;2 a bill xva.s
liiMuglil fnrwai-il in Congress to re-cliarter the
Bank, anil the measure was jiasseil. The
Piv>i.h-ni. however, vetoed the liill; and siiiee
BAN-IEL WEBSTER.
d many of the
his fbi-mer lit
lenient
^ in thi
rv,
iv-id..
ure.s. But hi- a.',-c
on the wh..l,-, d. r
and culture and
viou.sly prevailed
mansion.
The re-eliartcri
Ignited .States wa- tl.r lir-t i-sue wliieh
fronted the neu- .\diiiiiii>lralinn. Tin- I
,iit the Piv-identi
f thr Bank of tl
favnr. till' ]>iop.,-ition for a new charter
I'd, ami the Bank ceased to exist.
It was at the time of Jackson'.? first I'resi-
tial tcnii that the partisan elements of the
iti-d .'^tale- resolved themselves inlu the
11 which they were destined to hold for
II' than a i|iiarter of a century. The ]ieo-
bi raiiic divided into the two great factions
f Wl,!,i and Democrat. The old Federal
arty, under whose direction the Government
ad been iir;.:anized, had lost control of na-
iniial aliliir- with the retiracv of John Adams.
;ed force until after the War of 1M2,
1 the odiiitu arising from its connection
the Hartford Convention gave it a final
lis. Adherents of the ancient party still
ted thiiiisilves as late as the slavery de-
^ of I'SL'II.
W.' have alivady seen how, during Monroe's
-econil trnii, an "Era of Good Feeling," as it
was called, came about, during which par-
tisanship .-eenied ready to I'xpire. Jleanwliile,
the old Antifederalists had been metamor-
phosed, first into j!-j,iibliciiii.<, a name given in
the time of Join, Adams to the Anierieau
ehaiiipii.n- of Fiance as against Great Britain.
But this name was soon exchanged fiir that
of T>eiiii'rnif.<; anil under this title the party
I'aiiie into power with Jefferson. Then f illowed
the Adinini-tiation- of ^ladison, ^roiiroe, and
John (^linev Adams under the -am.- j.oliueal
banner. I'mler .V.lams, however, the new po-
litical for.'.- w.re alrea.ly at work. When
Jack.s.ni b.'raiii.' Presi.lent, his arbitrary meas-
ures alarm.'.l tli,> country, and .hove all the
eh'inent- of tlu- opp.isiti.m into a phalanx,
uii.l.r til.' lea.l.-r-hip of Clay ami W.li-ter.
T.i thi- n.'W party organization the nam.' H7i/./
was "iveii, a name taken from tin- old .'^.-..tch
THE UNITED STATES.— AMERICAN MIDDLE AGES.
Covuiuiuters of the seveutfcutli (jeiitury, wuru
by the patriots of the Aiiiericau Revolution
to ilistiuguish them fruiu Tories, aud finally
ailojjted as the permanent title of the oppo-
nents of Jetfersonian Democracy.
With the beginning of Jacksim's term uf
the Presidency the tarift' ijiu'stion \vas re-
opened, and produced great excitement. In
the !^essio^ of 1831-32, additional duties were
levied upon manufactured goods imported
from abroad. By this measure the manufac-
turing districts were ai^aiii I'avnred, at the ex-
pense of the agricultural St:iti-s. Suuth Caro-
lina was specially ofi'ended. The excitement
culminated in a convention of her iicoi)le, and
it was resolved that the tariti' law of Congress
was unconstitutional, and therefore null and
void. Open resistance was threatened in case
tiiere should be an attempt to collect the rev-
enuis in the harbor of Charleston. One
division of the Democratic statesmen took a
firm stand in support of South Carolina.
The doctrine of nullification, aud even of
secession, was boldly advanced in the United
States Senate. On that issue occurred the
famous debate between the elixpient Cohniel
Hayne, Senator from South Carolina, and
Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, perhaps the
greatest master of American oratoi-y. The
former appeared as the champion of the doc-
trine of State ngnts- the latter as the advo-
cate of Constitutional suprem..,- ;-t» dl the
Vnion.
The question, however, was not<k(iihil liy
debate. The President took the matti i in
hand, and issued a proclamation dinMn_ th(
right of any State to nullify the laws of Con-
gress. But Mr. Calhoun, the Vice-President,
resigned his office, to accept a seat in the Sen-
ate, where he might better advocate the doc-
trine and purpose of his State. The President
first warned the peojsle of South Carolina
against the consequences of iiushiiig further
tlie doctrine of nullification. He then ordere<l
a body of troops, under General Scott, to ]iro-
ceed to Charleston, and .sent thither a man-of-
war. At this display of force tlie leaders of
the nullifying party quailed, and receded from
tlieir position. Bloodshed was happily avoided ,
and in the following spring the excitement
was allayed by a com]n'omise. Jli-. Clay
brought forward, aud secured the passage of.
a bill providing for the giadunl reduction ,,f
the duties complained of, until, at the end of
ten years, they should reach a >iaiidurd which
would be satishictory to the South.
While these measures wcii' (ji-eupyin- the
attention of Congress an Indian war luoke out
on the Western frontier. The Sae.s, F,,xes,
and Winnebag..s, ,,f Wi^-onsin Territory, he-
came ho.stile aud took up arms. They were
incited and led by their iamons chief, lUaek
Hawk. Like Tecumtha, and many other
saehenis who had preee.h.d him. he believed
\ \^ ^ -ij.e^^'J'^
tions in a confedeiao a_ un-t the Whites.
The lands of the Sai s and the Foxes hmg m
the Rock Rnei countn of Illinois, had been
purchased by the Government twenty-five
years previously, but tlie Indians had not re-
moved from the cede.] territory. At length,
however, the white .settlements approaelied,
and tiie Inilians were required to nive p, i,-,-es-
sion. But a new race of warriors had now
arisen, who di.l not feel the force of a eon.-
],art made liy their fathers. They aeeonlingly
ivfused to -ive up their lands,' ;,nd l.eean:'e
hostil... Tlie (iovrnni.-nl insist. mI on the ful-
fillment ..f the treatv, and war broke out.
CXI VERSA L HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
The ir'iveru.ir nf Illin...i~ calle.l init the nulitiu.
Gt'iicral Sr.. It was scut, with nine cuiiipaines
of ai-tiUci-y, to the .-ite of Cliicago. His force
was overtaken with the cholera, which had
made its appearance iu the country, and Scott
was uual)le to cooperate witii General Atkin-
son. The latter, however, carried on a vigor-
ous campaign against the Indians, defeated
them in several actions, and made Black
Hawk prisoner. The captured chieftain was
taken to Wa.shington and other great cities
of the East, where his uuderstauiling was
opened as to the power of the nation against
which he had been foolish enough to lift his
hatchet. He was then liberated. Returning
to his own country, he advised his people of
the uselessness of making war on the United
States. The Indians soon abandoned the dis-
puted lands, and removed into Iowa.
Difficulties next arose with the Cherokees,
of Georgia. These people had reached a tol-
erable degree of civilization, and were certainly
the most humane of all the Indian tribes.
To a considerable extent they had adopted the
manners and customs of the whites. They
had opened farms, built towns, rstablished
schools, set up printing-presM'>, and formulated
a code of laws. As previously -tatid, tlic
Government had promised tlu' Statr of Ccu--
gia to extinguish the title of the Indian lands
within her borders, in compensation for her ces-
sion to the General Government of the territory
of Mississippi. This pledge, however, had not
l)i-cn fulfilled ; and the Legislature of Georgia,
growing tired of the delay in the removal of the
Indians, passed a statute abrogating the In-
dian governments within the borders of the
State, and extending the laws of the Common-
wealth over all the Indian domain.
It was also enacted that the Cherokees
and Creeks .should not have the privilege of
n.-iug the State courts in the attempt to main-
tain tliiir ri;^lits. The Supreme Court of the
r„itod Slat.-,
li(i\vever, declared the latter
Miial. The Indians made an
anibuM-ade
appeal to tl... ]•
terlrre. Oil t
the removal of
yond the .Missi>
stances which 1
■r.-i.lfiit, but he refused to in-
ic (-..ntrary, he recommended
the Chen.kees to the lands be-
-ippi. Such were the cireum-
■d, in the vear 1>!.S4. to the
another b;
F,.i-t Kin-,
storehouse,
ing with a
poured in
organization of i
of national re-
hr lM.i\N-Ti;i:i:rr(.uv,asasort
..ratio,, In,- th.- l„oken tribes.
wai-d and ~
s,in, only t
It was with great reluctance that the Chero-
kees yielded to necessity. Though they had
been paid more than five million dollars for
their homes, they still clung to the land of
their fathers. It was only when General
Scott was ordered to remove them bv force
that they yiehled to the inevitable, and took
up their march for their new liou,,-. in the
West.
The c.juflict with the Seminoles of Fhirida
was still more serious. In this case also the
difficulty arose from the attempt of the Gov-
ernment to remove the nation to a domain
beyond the Mississippi. Hostilities broke out
in 1835, and continued, with little interruption,
for four years. The chief of the Seminoles
was Osceola, a half-breed of great talents and
audacity. Acting under the old Indian theory,
he and Micauopy, another chieftain of the
nation, declared that the Seminole treaty, by
which the lands of the people had been ceded
to the General Government, was invalid; that
the fathers could only quit-claim their own
rights, and could not alienate the rights fif
their descendants. So haui;hty was the bcar-
ing of O-sceola that Geneial 'Thompson, the
agint of the Government, ordered his arrest,
and jiut him in irons. O-sceola dissembled his
jiurpose, gave his assent to the old treaty, and
was set free. But, as might have been fore-
seen, he immediately entered into a con-
spiracy to slaughter the Whites and devastate
the country.
In the meantime. General Clinch had made
his way into the interior of Florida, and fixed
his head-quarters at Fort Drane, seventy-five
miles south-west of St. Augustine. The In-
dian-^ gathered in such numbers as to threaten
this p.ist, and .Major Dade, with a hundred
and seventeen men, was sent out from Fort
Brooke, at the head of Tampa Bay, to succor
General Clinch. After marching about half
the dista,,ee, the division of Dade fell into an
ill were slaughtered exiMpt
l\v same dav Osceola, with
re General Thompsi>n was din-
lany of friends. The Indians
ii-de",-ous fire, and rn.lie.l for-
,1 fit
■ards
THE UXITED STATES.— AMEEICAX MIDDLE AGES.
m's 1 in- fVdiii tlie wot with a force
could bring support. General 'I
body was pierced by fifteen balls, ai
his nine companions were kilh-d.
Clinch now marched out from I'o
and on the :jlst of December fou-l
tlio battl.-i^eld
Indians made
battle with the Indians on the banks of the pulsed with severe losses. Two i
Withlacoochie. The .savages were repul.sed, the strug;:lin;;- ('reeks, who still
but Clinch fell back to Fort Drane. | the country, bei:an hostilities, but
In the following February, General Scott
took command of all the forces in Florida.
In
easily subdued, and compelled to seek their
reservation beyond the Mississippi. The 8erai-
meantime. General Gaines was advanc- , noles, however, held their own in the interior,
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
ami ill Octohcr .)f ISotJ Governor Call, i>t'
Florida, iiiarclicd airaiiist them, willi an army
of luo tliousUHl iiKm. He overlook the Jli-
<liaii- ill the Wahoo >\vanni, a short (li.<tanee
from the se.m,. of DadrV ma-a.iv. Here a
batth- ua~ lou-ht, and iho linliaii^ were de-
feated uiti, h.-avy lo,.-,.>. d-JM-y were ,,hli.-ed
aft.-rward< >alliod forth, and fai-lit anotln-r
l.attl.. on nearly tho .anie ,-ronnd.' A secon,!
time- th.y w.-re .Irf.at.d, th-n-li not deei-
sively, ami tlir war eontiiiu.d into tlie f..llow-
iug Admiiii-trati.m.
^TLirniiiL' to civil affairs, we lind that tlie j
anininMtv of th,. Prr.i.l.mt a,-ai.i~t the United !
State- Jlank had -iveii a (iiiirtiis to that in- j
.stitution. His veto of the re-eharter of the }
Bank has already heeu meiitioued. Not .sat-
isfied with tliis, he determined that tlie stirjdus
funds which had aeeuniulated in its vaults j
shonld U- .li-trilmted a. - the States. He
l»-li,-vinL' him-olf 1. h,. in ih- ri-ht. lir did
not hesitat.. to tako the iTsi,on>il,ihty. In
Oetuber, ].-<:!.3, he -ave nrd.r- that the ae-
euniulated fund> of the ::r.at r.aiik, ainount-
iiiL^ to fully ten million tlolhu-, ,-le.nld he di.-
trihuted among certain State Hanks which he
deMgnated. The measure wa. higii-hande.l in
the la>t degree, and evoked the mo.st violent
<j|i|)osition. The Whigs denounced the mea.s-
iM'e a- of incalculable mischief, unwarranted,
arhitrarv. .langerous. A coalition was for, 1
in the Senate, niider the lead.rshi], of Cal-
houn, Clay, and Webster, and the i'reM.lent's
di.stributiug officers were rejected. A niea>ui ;.•
of censure was also passed against him, but !
the |.r..|iosition failed in the House .,f Uepre- |
seiitativi'-. Such was the outcry throughout I
the country that the Administration appeared '
f.r a sea-nn to he ainc-t In-ulled. T-ut the
I'n-ideii, wa- a- fMrle- a- he wa. .ell-willed
and stul,l..i-u. He held on hi^ coui-e nn-
mnved l,v the .■lauior. The rev.lution of ,vii-
.suresto,M|o„ ihe JMurnaUofthe.S.iiate f,r f.iir
year., and ua- th.-n .xpunged from the record
throuidi tin- inllmnce ,,f .S-natnr Thomas H.
Benton, of Ml--ouri.
The di.-lribmion ..( the surplir- fund- to
tlie varinu-: Slate I'.anks wa- followed, in
l.s;;i;-:;7, bv a linancial panic, tli.> nio.t ,-eri-
ous which ha.l vet .,eciirr.-d in the hi.torv of
the country. Whether the removal of the
funds and the panic stood to each other iu the
relation of cau.«e and eflect was one of the
political questiou-s of the day. While the
Whigs charged that the arbitrary measures of
the President, liy disturbing the finances of
the c.untry, lia.l" precipitated the cri-is, the
Democrats answered that the Jiank of the
United States, with it- miiltif.rm abuses was
its.df the can-,. .,]■ the financial <lislr.-s-. It
wa- claimed by the latter partv that -rn-ii an
institution wa. too powerful and de.potic to
exist in a free ( i,,vcrnnient. The I'rc.i.lent
himsclt' was but little concerned with the
wrangling over this question. He had but re-
cently been re-elected for a second term, with
Martin Van Buren for Vice-President, instead
of Mr. Calhoun.
Before the end of his first term in the
exhibit. -d in full tnive in a complh-atin,, with
France. During the .Xapoleonic wars the
commerce of the United States had suti'ered
ill .-cveral in.stances, through the recklessness
of Fivmdi commanders, and certain idaims
were thii- held bv the American Cnvernnieiit
against the Fren'ch Kin-dom. The .,ue.tion
of a settlement had been agitated many times,
and in Is:!! the king of France had' a-reed
to pay five, niillinii delhirs for the allege.l in-
werc dilatory in makiiiL: payment. The' mat-
wrath of the Aimaican Pre.idcnt broke out,
and he sent a recommendation to Congress to
make reprisals on the French commerce. He
also directed the American niinister at Paris
to demand his pas.^ports and come home.
These measure, had th,. desired effect, and the
indemnity wa< pr ptly paid. About the
same time the (inveriinieiit of Portugal was
We may here pau.se to note some of the
calamities with which the country was afflicted
in the decade extending from l.s.'JO to l.'^40.
Several of tho-e .tate-TOcn and hadei- wh.)
remaine.l from the Kevoliitionary ep,,ch fell,
in these years, under the hand of death. On
the fourth of July, 1831, E.x-President Monroe
passed awav. He, like Adams and JetTensou,
In ihc'fiiUowi
Charles Car-
THE UXITKD STATES.— AMERJCAX MIDDLE AGES. -yb
roll, of Carrollton, the last surviving signer of valuable buil<lings more uoble ami imiiosiug
the Deehiratiiiu of ludepeiulonce, died, at the structures — -which are likely to outlast the
age of ninety-six. A short time afterwards \ century — were soon erected.
Philip Freiieau, the poet of the Revolution, de- j During this decade two additiimal States
parted from the laud of the living. Thebardhad came iuto the I'niou. In Jiinr, l>i:;t5, Ar-
reached the age of eighty. On the twenty- kan-as, with its fifiy-tw.j th..u>;iii.l xjuare
fourth of June, !«.•«, John Itanddph of
Roanoke died in Philadeli.hia. He was a
man admired for his talents, dreaded for his
■wit and sarcasm, and respected for his integ-
rity. In 1835, Chief-Justice ]\Iai-shall breathed
his last, at the age of fnirscore vears, and iu
Uiilrs and [lopuhition nl srveiity ihuii-aiid, was
admittfd. In thi- fdll.jwing Janiuuy, Michi-
gan Territory' was organized as a State, and
added to the Union. The new comnKHiwealth
l)rought a population of one hundred and
fiftv-seven thousand, and an area of tifty-six
the next \(ii Tx Pi -i h nt Mili n « in i th u ml pin
with tht t iK t u_lit\ h\< Mu 1 I s 1 ,u n ] t t!, VliMii
T I these I i-es it lite mu^t 1r ill Itw i it tli \ iiii| 1 t A\
<li-i^tcis to jiiip. it\ Oil th i\t nth t ^\ 11 illi Th
De embei IMi i hi l.i k ut in tl 1 u i i/ 1 I \ tl it f 1 1 i
put of New Y il ( it\ ml liil m i I ^ th mm ii I i \
thllt^ acies of bnilliii_~ Pn hiiii li 1 ii 1 t li il ml
tu nt\ nuu h inse- an 1 piopeit\ \ilu(d it i\ ii - t f itli witl
ei.htein rnilli n d ilhi- WLie con-unu 1 Tu^t ot tli Til in i:
one \eti afteiwiid the Pttent ofhce and Po-t the I nit 1 ^t it \
cfhie it Washington wtie destio-\ed in the I as th \ 1 1 1 1 ii
same mannei But upon the luins of these I tn i.iiiist iIk 1
It Vl~ .1
1 1 h the
Il 1
1 f 11 uel
11 111 1 11
11- 1 tue
1 lit W 1
1 11 1 tei
1 «1 1 1 h
Il miked
'M
p.Lnics.
Th.. 1
travfil
n ill.- .-1
I yj I -EliSA L HIS TO I! ) '
THE MODERN WOULD.
■w V,„k.
,~ rhn>VH
■.mir Min-
Wh.n hh
^^
-^
canir the .■aii.lKlalc (nr the
Vir,-I'ivsi.lci].'y in 1S82,
ami was electcil. Fmir
year.s later be led the power-
ful party to which he be-
longed, and succeeded Gen-
eral Jackson in the highest
office of the nation.
The J-^eminoles of Florida
id not yet been subdued.
lie cnniniand of the array
eral Hcott to General Jessup.
In the fall of that year Os-
ceola came to the American
camp under a flag of truce;
lint, being suspected of
ticaciicry, was seized by the
autlKPiities and sent to Fort
^biiiltrie as a prisoner.
Here he languished for a
year and died. The Sem-
ceived the siippm-t n
f th.. n.-w Whi..r party.
inoles wer.' greatly ilisheartened by the 'oss
As to the Vic(-l.iv>i,
.■ii.-v, i>.. .„,.■ s,.-ure.l a
of their .•lii.'ftaiii,' but c.ntinu.Mr th.' war.
majority in (h.- Klrc
I.,rnl C.ll.r... an.l the
In Decniber, ].s:;S, (■.,l.,nel Za.'hary Tayl..r,
Cili.ice drvnlv.'.l .HI th
■ S,.nat... r.y that 1).h1v
with a force of over a th.uisan.l men, ]ieiie-
(■|.l..n.'l i;i.-hnr.l M.
.l.,hi,s.,n, „r'Kciitn.-kv,
frati-.l the Everglades nf Fl.iri.la, an.l route.l
was .liilv .•l.vt..l.
the savages from their lairs, .Vl'ter unjiaral-
Martin Van F.nn-
, w:,s lM,n, at Kin.h-i-
l.'li'.l sufferings, he overt. mk th.' main b.i.ly.
hook. New ^'l.l■k, (m
ih.' oth .it D.'.vmb.r,
..n Christmas .lay. lu-ar Lake ()keech..bee.
17.'<2. His c,liu-ati..ii
wa- liuiitc.l. He stu.lie.l
Here a hard battle was f.iught. an.l the In-
law an.l liccame a p..l
ili.'ian. In his thirtieth
ilians were defeated, but n.>t until a hundred
year he was elected t
1 the Senate of his ua-
and thirty-nine of the Wliites lia.l fallen. For
more than a year Taylor
paigu in the swamp^^. Tl
THE UXITf:i> STATES.— AMERICAN MIDDLE AGES.
tinur.l his ca
men was finally broken, ami in iS-'ill the
chiefs sent in their submission. They signed
an addition il tieat\ , but iftei all, theii it
nio\ il to the ^^ e-~t \ms m idt A\ith much le
hi t UK e lud k]^^
11r hi t Mil it the II « Vlnnni-tiition
■ni- miiktl b^ lu thei hum ul cii-is in tlit
rh,
been
issues of irredeemable i)aper were issued to
increase the opportunities for fraud.
It was a time when the new lands were
rapidly taken up. The ]ia)icr moiicy of the
banks -waMeceivable at th \ iiious hmd-otiiees,
and spetulitois made i in h, with a plentiful
sujiph it bills, to seeuie the l.est lands. Geu-
ei il Jiikson still Piesident, seeing that an
nils un 1 ciiiitn(_> iicti\(d in excliange for
tla nitioud djmuii wis likdy to defraud the
T
^4^..
^t^ ^^ .<
great prosperity. The national debt had been
entirely liquidated. A surplus of nearly forty
million dollars had accumulated in the treasury
of the United States. We have already seen
how this surplus was distributed by the Gov-
ernment among the several States. Money
became suddenly abundant, and speculations
of all sorts grew rife. The credit system
sprang up and prevailed in every department
of business. The banks of the country were
multiplied to nearly seven hundred, and vast
Government out of millions of dollars, issued
his so-called SpECIE_CLaCIIIiAEj by which the
land agents were directed to receive nothing
but coin in payment for the lands. The ef-
fects of this measure fell upon the country in
the first year of Van Biireu's Administration.
The interests of the Government had been
secured, but the business of the country was
prostrated by the shock. The banks at once
suspended specie payment. Mercantile houses
tottered and fell. The disaster swept through
."jS
uxivkhsal histoi;y.—the modeus would.
every avenue of tnule. In ^larrli aii'l Aiail
of 1837 the failures iu New Yoi-k and New
Orleans amounted to nearly one liuiidnil ami
fifty million dollars. A eoniniiiiee of the
business men of the former city besought the
President to rescind the s])ecie circular and
call a special session <if Conirrcss. The former
request was refused and tiie latter couiplied
with, Init not until the disasters of the coun-
try, rather than the clamor of the committee,
bad appealed to the Executive.
When Congress convened, in the following
September, many measures of relief were
brought forward. A bill authorizing the issue
of treasury notes, not to exceed an aggregate
of ten million dollars, was passed, as a tem-
porary expedient. The President proposed,
and had presented to Congress, his plan, under
the title of the Ixdependext_Tkeasury Bill.
By the provisions of this remarkaijle pi'oject,
the public funds of the nation were to be kept
on deposit in a treasury to be established for
that special purpose. It was argued by Mr.
Van Bnren and his friends that the surplus
money of the country would drift into the
Independent Treasury and lodge there; that
by this expedient the specidative mania would
be effectually checked. It was thought that
extensive speculations couM not be carried on
without a superfluous currency. The philo-
sophical basis of the President's plan was a
separation between the business of the Gov-
ernment and the general business of the
country.
The Independent Treasury Bill, however,
though it passed the Senate, was defeated in
tlie House of Representatives. But iu the
following regular session of Congress the bill
was a second lime presented, and passed. In
the meantime, however, the business of the
country had in a measure revived. During
the year ISoS a majority of the banks resumed
specie payments. Conimereial affairs as-:\inie.l
their wonte.l a-peet. Rot trade was -^till par-
alvze.l. Eiil<r|.n>e.. ,,f all kinds lauLMiished,
tion was hiain
The well-k
was carefidlv adh
Discontent
the Admini.
century nf our national existence. In 1837 a
slight di>iurliaiiee occurred which involved to
a certain extent the relations between the
United States and Canada. A portion ot' the
peojjle of that Province had become dissatistied
with British rule, and a revolt was orpmized,
with a view of the po-MJ,!,. establi-hment of
independence. The movement excited the
sympathy, and even the aid. of many of the
American people. In New York -onie ^peeial
encouragement was given to the insurLrents.
From that State a party of seven liundred
men, having taken up arms, seizeil and forti-
fied Navy Island, in the Niagara Kiver. The
Loyalists of ("anaila attempted to capture the
place, but faileil. They succeeded, however,
in setting on fire the Caroline, the supply-ship
of the adventurers. Her moorings were cut,
and the burning vessel was sent over Niagara
Falls, a spectacle to men. The event created
much excitement, and the peaceful relations
of the United States and Great Britain were
somewhat endangered. The President, how-
ever, issued a proclamation of neutrality, dis-
avowing the action of those who had given aid
to the Canadian rebels, and forbidding inter-
ference with the affairs of Canada. General
Wool was sent to the Niagara frontier, with a
sufficient force to quell the disturbance in that
quarter, and to punish the disturbers. The
New York insurgents on Navy Island were
ol)liged to surrender, and order was presently
restored.
The event just mentioned was one of the
most exciting of Van Buren's Administration.
For the rest, the period was commonplace.
The political parties were left to supply the
materials of popular agitation. The question
as to Van Buren's Mieeessor in the Presidency
was raised at an early date. The canvass .if
candidates wa- wai'ed in a bitter spirit. The
measures cf the Administration ha<l been of a
chararaeter to provoke the sharpest political
antag"iii>nis. Tlie Whigs were now animated
witli the h(jpe of victory, and made haste,
nearly a year before the election, to nominate
General Harrison for the Presidency. < >n
the Democratic side Martin Van Buren had
no competitor; but the unanimity of his party
could hardly conqtensate for the blunders and
liiqiopularity, not to say misfortunes, of his
AdministratiM,,.
CHRONOLOGICAL CHART No. IX.
The Hiheteenth CEKTUf.v.
I'rom the .kre.ssiuii of Victoria to tiie Friincd-i'nissjnii War.
4CHS. The "m*
L'lieroke
iued.
iiitted it
UNITED STATES.
t_Jreat political t
Begin uing of II
S-jT. Andrew Ja
The i'resid.
lids of the Creek Indiana.
Ijiison, Vice-president.
; Specie Circular.
Df the United States,
rations of Harrison an
: United i
5.3. Katie's Arci
53. Survey of a
Intercourse i
World's Fan
54. The Osteu<
54. Passage of
I's Administration,
■toes tlie Bank Bill.
Webster-Ashburto
I Rhode
iai Oistu
. The Mo
-I. tnven
45. Adn
IV York.
ENGLAND.
n.ls'-, pu
■cures. Rl
iglou dies.
FRANCE.
VIghau war.
I'-eb. 10.
..xe-Coburg-tiutha,
I Abd-el-Ka.
rtressof II.i
bly. Bee.
Enters li:
President
>iapoIeoii III.
PRUSSIA. 31- Higel! p'i'i i ios 01
M. Schleierm.icli
:15. Wm. Von Humboldt, philosopher i
37. Archbishop 01
is confined in lortress oi Jiiiuaeu.
■40. King dies, a. 66.
, gg Frederick 'W^illlatn IV. succeeds.
45. Schlegel, philosopher and critic, d
representative gt
clogne, Ibrbiddii
47. Kingestablis
t Berlin.
War with Uei.mark. as t
60. Neauder. historian ai
53. Kodowitz, genei
AUSTRIA.
.TCliiiiilld succeeds, IVIar. 2.
48. Insurrection in Vienna. I.atour killed. King flees. 49. Gorgev surrenders, Au
48. R. Blum shot. Emperor abdicates; his nephew, Bern flee to Turkey,
PranclS Joseph, succeeds Dec. 2. ^g stfiu.s, cS'mpos^rfdfel
48. Hungarian war. Austrians defeat Hungarians at 50. Bem dies at Aleppo.
Szaikszoandat Mohr. &s. Marsbi
49. Budtt-Pesth taken hv Windischsratz. Jan. 5. 69. Metti
Bem deieata .-\n~- 1 .r. ;ii I [ ■ i [inmi^^tadl. 69. Wnr'
49. Hungary dechu.. ' \irill4. Kossnth. goVr. Lor
49. Ku.vsia joins .\!i- I ii ■ imu, conimander-in- 60. Em
chief, defe^u, 1' i : ,,1, l'enip^<war. lil. Li
GERMANY.
15. Ormt hUellecl}ial
19. Jacobi, pliil
15. Coufeae.ac:
a. Prussia, Ger- '20. Austriaand Pru-si t ,-
Holsteln, and confederati.)n. May I
imbourg. 25. Jean Paul Kic
Kotzebue, dramat-
at Frankf
Zollverein
lovelist and philosopher,
philosopher, and poet, dies
established among North
42. Heeren, historian, dies
". Tumults t Colognes
Hesse-Cassel i
ah. \Vi
5.5. Battle
65. Sebasl
POLAND.
1 falls. Sept.
Ve'' nc- ti
Skruznet'ki.
s, ■16. Poian
ITALY.
SPAIN.
DENMARK.
5. Eugene Beauliar
Charles Felix,
39. Christian VIII
■Vi. Emperor'dies, a. iig.
Alexander 11., March 2
"• .«;;;-ears-M
61. Death of Prince
of Poland.
11 Charles Albert. '"
37. Leoparfii poet, dies. a. S9.
47. Kiii!j.a.lopts liberal reforms.
4S. lonstitulinn proclaimed.
4S. Invasion of Lonibardy. War with Austria.
49. King defeated at Xovara.
'•'■ J'r'o"wn"o fon Victor Emanuel II.
49 Radetzky defeats king at Milan. Pence. Ai
^.SSfii
Mngmta.ivn
63. Frede
63. Greot
50 Danes deli
iwith Japan
Eehellioii in Utah,
be first Atlantic cable.
idmitted.
Brown Insurrection
lof soulli Laruiiua
)pi Florida Alal ama (
61-65. Tlie ureat civil War.™ '^'
Capture of Fort Sumter.
. _ Procla
The seven Daj-s b^ittles a
Siese of Victsburg.
Battle of Cliickamauga.
Battle of Chancellorsvilh
Lee invades Pennsvlvani,
Battle of Geltysuurg.
65-69. Johnson's Adminisu
Reconstruction ol'tlie
anesty Procl-imali
I of the Civil War.
lern States undertaken.
Schuyler Coifa.x ^'ice-president.
19. Completion of the PaciHc Eailvvay.
70. Ninth Census of ihe United States.
71. Treaty of Washington.
Great development of the railroad systen
Burning of Chicago.
72. Settlement of tlie North-west boundar:
Re-election of Grant.
The Modoc War.
73. Civil disturbances in Louisiana.
Disastrous fina]u-ial panic.
tial election.
Hayes.
ior> ; piemn
Napier, general
67 Passage of Rel i
Michael Faradai
aiashesenfiaULb
3 "War against Ai \
erbj (Toryipremit
il Prince Albert con o t
62 Great distress in L i
Serious troubles u I
63 Arthur Hugh CI
63 Lord Elgin go\eu I
63 William Makepe le 1
65 Troubles in Irelai 1 fr n I e
Corpus suspended in Ireland
65 Lord Palmerston prem
iLord Clyde) 66 Atlantic Telegi
ITT
--- -- Oct 10
able successful^ laid from
Bav (Ireland) t Heart Conteni Nenfoundli
eiijamin Disraeli le i
Disestablishment o
'0 Hill passed for p <
^1 -sales of comu ii
71_\\ E tladsu
31 1 o Ji.0
Pas age oft:
Turkey Peace i
ith Mev
Blot Savant d
i3 Despretz sav
'. adds to French Pro\
61 Libei
allj ofsardini
exed Mar 24
CO March
feat of inv
wounded by assassin
ucceeds Jan 2
fSu^n
s, Duchy of Na
War with P
At the I
Nachod.
opened by emper
'with^Italiiui
Prussians, J u
Empiror elected king olHungarj-
Pesih.
1 Hungarian diet.
;zby dies, a. 92.
ily and France.'
lick
's^y
-any established.
blosser. historian, dies
i Sleswick-Holstein against
54. Sehelling, philosophe
61. Schlosser. hi£ _ _ _
64. Maximilian, king of Bavaria, dies.
Succeeded by Son, Lud-wig II.
66. Formation of North German Confedera
70. North
Fra:
71. The
n of the Southern States i
i support Prussia in the wi
61. Princ
62. Jew-
el Cou
ation-2u,000,l
3.
Bhael Gortsc
ntral .
I and Turkey.
ity of Paris,
versary of
nder Niipoleon III. and king.
■nca. July 12.
yielded to France. Tuscany
War with Naples and Picily, which votes to join f
. Sardinia, Lombardy, Tuscany, Wodena, Parma, :
Naples, and Sicily form kingdom olllaly.
. Recognized by PJngland.
C«>iint Cavoar, statesman, dies. a. 52.
62. Garibaldi ireimblican i invades Papal States, i
tured hy ^o
Rail« ay ovs
Tax riot.s.
Emperor of France gi
, June IS.
ceded to 1
Italy provin
i Papal States from
neut, taken prisoni
ioutCenis opened.
:ert to Italy.
the capital of the kingdon
Mazzini.
jption of Mount Vesuvius.
volt. O'Donnell I
Ferdinand VII., (
>d' hv Cliristian IX
dur'hiesof Sleswick-Hol-
I Prussia.
64. Ijuppel laken by Prussians, April
Naval baitle ofl Heligoland, ^la^
.64. Wai ended-Denniaifc ceding to
April 10.
and Hols
ers to sell the islands c
I rnited States.
ited from military dut
THE UXITED STATES.^AMERICAN MIDDLE AGES.
The campaign of 1840 was the most ex-
citing which hail j-et oecurred in the history
of the United States. Van Buren was blamed
with everything. The financial distresses were
laid at his door. Extravagance, bribery, cor-
ruption— everything l)ad was charged upon
him. Men of luisiiirss ailvcrti>i'il t" pav >ix
dollars a barrel fur flour if llarrismi ^h..uld
be elected, three dollars a barrel if Van
Buren should be successful. The Whig ora-
tors tossed about the luckless Administration
through all the figures and forms of speech,
and the President himself was shot at with
every sort of dart that partisan wit and malice
could invent. The enthusiasm in the ranks of
the opposition rose higher and higher, and
Van Buren was overwhelmingly defeated.
He received only sixty electoral votes, against
two hundred and thirty-four for General Har-
rison. After controlling the destinies of the
Government for nearly forty years, the Dem-
ocratic party was thus temporarily routed.
For Vice-Pi-fsident, John Tyler, of Virginia,
was the successful candidate.
In the last year of Van Buren's Adminis-
tration was completed the sixth census of the
United States. The tables were, as usual, re-
plete with the evidences of growth and pro-
gress. The national revenues for the year
1840 amounted to nearly twenty millions of
dollars. At this time that important statis-
tical information, for which the subsequent re-
ports have been noted, began to appear in its
full value. The center of population had in
the last ten years moved westward along the
ihirty-ninth parallel of latitude from the south
fork of the Potomac to Clarksburg, in the
present State of West Virginia, a distance of
fifty-five miles. The inhabited area of the
United States now amounted to eight hundred
and seven thousand square miles, being an in-
crease for the decade of twenty-seven and six-
tenths per cent. The frontier line circum-
scribing the population passed thr(jugh Michi-
gan, Wisconsin, Iowa, and the western borders
of Missouri, Arkansas, and Louisiana, a dis-
tance of three thousand three hundred miles.
The population had reached an aggi-egate of
seventeen million souls, being an increase,
since 1830, of more than six millions. It was
found from the tables that eleven-twelfths of
the people lived outside of the larger cities and
■teid and a
m, and not in ac-
he.y„r,„/ol
civili/.ation rather
reuse of (■/(
I'liMtij. For since
ge of the
l»ipidation of the
increased
by so much as one
towns, showing a strong preponderance of the
agricultural over the manufacturing and com-
mercial interests. One of the most cheering
lessons of the census was found in the fact
that the wonderful growth of the United
States was ii
CnimUttinn-]
than ill an
li<'M) tile averau
country ha
person to the square mile!
The common judgment has been that the
Administration of Van Buren was weak and
inglorious. Doubtless it was characterized by
few important episodes, and was controlled by
principles some of which were bad; but he
and his times were unfortunate rather than
vicious. He was the victim of the evils which
followed hard upon the relaxation of the Jack-
sonian methods of government. He had
neither the will nor the disp(jsition to rule as
his predecessor had done. Nor were the peo-
ple and their representatives any longer in the
humor to suffer that sort of government.
The period was unheroic ; it was the ebb-tide
between the belligerent excitements of 1832
and the War with Mexico. The financial
panic added opprobium to the popular esti-
mate of imbecility in the Government. "The
Administration of Van Buren," said a bitter
satirist, "is like a parenthesis ; it may be read
in a low tone of voice or altogether omitted
without injuring the sense!" But the satire
lacked one essential — truth.
William Henry Harrison was by birth a
Virginian. He was the son of Benjamin
Harrison, signer of the Declaration of Inde-
pendence ; the adopted son of Robert Morris,
financier of the Revolution. He was a grad-
uate of Hampden-Sidney College, and after-
wards a student of medicine. Attracted by
the military life, he entered the army under
St. Clair; was raiiidly pnimcited; became
Lieutenaut-Governiir, and then Governor of In-
diana Territory, which office he filled with great
ability. His military career in the North-west
has been already narrated. He was inaugu-
rated President on tiie 4th of .Marcii, 1841,
and began his duties by issuing a call for a
special session of Congress, to consider "sun-
dry important matters connected with the
finances of the country." An able Cabinet
G4
i'XIVEJlSAL HISTORY — THK MODERX WORLD.
wu.< „r-aniztnl, at tliu hfud ui uliich ua.- Dau-
iel Webster as .Secretarv of State.
Kvervthiiig pnmiised well for tlie uew
Whi- A.lniiiii>iruti(Mi ; but l)elore Congress
eniiM eMiivciic. the venerable President, beud-
Iml' lUMl.r tin- \veii;lit of >ixty-eiL'l)t years,
fell sic'k and di.-.l, jii>t on.' ni.'.nth after his
an ov.-nt had nreurn-d in Anienrari history.
rror,,nnd and nniversal grief was manifested
On the (nh of April, ls41, John Tyler
took tlie oath ot office and lieeanie Presi<ient
ot tlu I nited '^ute^ He A\ as a statesman ot
coii^ideiable distinction, a native of Viigima,
a giaduate of William aud Maiv College At
au early age he left the profession of law to
enter upon a public career. He was chosen a
member of Congress, and in 1825 was elected
Governor of \'ir'_'inia. From that position he
wa> sent to the Senate of the United States;
and now, at the age of fifty-one, was called to
the Presidency. He had been put upon the
ticket with General Harrison through motives
of expe'diencv; for, although a Whig in most
of his political priiieiples. he was known U, be
hostile to the United States Bank. Aud this
hostility was soon to l.)e maiiife.-ted in a re-
markable manner.
On the convening of the special session of
Congress the Whigs were in high spirits. One
of the first measures proposed at the session,
which lasted from May to September, was the
repeal of the Independent 'J'reasury ]^,ill. A
general bankrupt law wa< al>o brought for-
ward and [las.seil, l)y which a great number of
ins(jlvent business men were released from the
disaliilities under which they had fallen in the
recent financial crash. The next measure — a
ite scheme of the Whigs — was the re-
chartering of the Bank'' of the United
States. The old charter had expire.l in
L'^ob, but the bank liad continued in
operation, under a charter granted by
the State of Peun,sylvania. A bill to re-
habilitate the institution in its national
character was now bnjught forward and
passed. The President interposed his
veto. Again the bill was presented, in
a modified form, and received the sanc-
tion of both Houses, only to be rejected
by the Executive. This action produced
a tiital ru])ture between the President
and the jiarty which had elected him.
The indigriant Whigs, baffled by the want
of a two-ihird.-' majority in Congress,
turned upon him with storms of invec-
tive. All the members of the Cabinet
except Mr. Webster resigned their seats,
aud he retained his jdace only because of
a pending difficulty with Great Britain.
A contention had arisen relative to
the north-eastern boundary of the United
States. The territorial limit in that
direction had not been clearly defined
in the treatv of 1783, and the commission-
ers at Ghent, in 1814, had contributed little
to the solution of the difficulty. Like most
of the other matters v.hich were presented
for the consideration of that polite and
easily satisfied convention, the fixing of the
boundary in question had been postponed
rather than settled. It was agreed, however,
at that time, to lefer the establishment of the
entire line between the United States and
Canada to the decision of three commissions,
which were to be formed under the aus])ices
of the tw(j Governments. The tir.-t of these
bodies accomplished its work successfully, by
THE UNITED STATES.— AMERICAN MIDDLE AGES.
Go
awarding the United States the islands in the
bay of Passamaquoddy. The third coniniis-
sion performed its duty by fixing tlie true
boundary-line from the intersection of the
forty-fifth parallel of latitude with the river
St. Lawrence to the western point of Lake
Huron. To the second commission was as-
signed the more difficult task of settling the
boundary from the Atlantic to the St. Law-
re-nce ; and this work
they failed to accom-
plish.
Thus, for nearly
twenty-five years, the
b o u u d a r y of the
United States on the
uorth-east remained
indeterminate. At
times the difficulty
became so serious as
to endanger the peace
of the two nations.
Finally the whole
matter was referref
t.. Liird Ashburtoii,
acting on the ))art of
Great Britain, and
Daniel Web-ster, the
American vSecretary
of State.
The discussion be-
tween the two diplo-
matists was as able as
the subject was intri-
cate. ' Finally the
bnuudary was def-
initely established as
follows: From the
mouth of the river
St. Croix, ascending
that stream to its west-
ern fountain ; from
that fountain due
north, to the St. John
to its source on the watershed between the At-
lantic and the St. Lawrence ; thence in a
south-westerly direction, along the crest of the
highlands, to the north-western source of the
Connecticut; and thence down that stream to
ftnd along the forty-fifth parallel to the St.
Jjawreuce. By a second agreement of the
commissioners, the boundary was established
from the western point of Lake Humn, through
Lake Superior, to the uorth-westeru extremity
of the Lake of the Woods; thence — confirm-
ing the treaty "f Oetnlier, IMS— southward
to the forty-ninth iiaiallel of latitude; and
thence with that parallel to the lioeky Mount-
ains. This important settlement, known as
the ^^ JESTER- A.SHBUKT'2N TREATY , Was com-
pleted on the 9th of Au-ust, 1842, and was
thence with that i
JOHN TMFP
ratifie.l by the S.
month.
In the year 1;
arose in the Stati
the 2()th of the same
<43:
le Uh
miotic trouble
1. For nearly
two centuries the ecvernnient of that Com-
miuiwoalth had rested up..n the old charter
granted by Charles IL There had l)een in
Rhode Island, since the earlier Colonial times,
a certain residue of loyalism unfavorable to
ryivEnsAi. iustohy.—thk modern world.
repuUlicau institutions. Aiuuni: ctlu-r things
a clause iu the aui-iL-nt Av.uur iv>t riding the
right of suflViige to ].rn]„ii\ -h-M. is of a cer-
tain grade still kept il> i-la.-r. With the de-
velopment of free institutinns under nur na-
gain,-d the a-r,.n,l,.nrv, and ihe pmp.-iliwu
wa< ina.h- tu ahnli<l, the re-trietinii ..n the
suffrage iu the Cm-titntion <.f tlie State.
The event sh..u-<-d that the ].e,,ple were al-
most uiiaidiniius \'><r the change. ]jut in
le-peet t tl til n_' the same
theu \M I 1 u liM 11 One faction,
kn wu I th I iw II 1 Oi lei party, pro-
C(el 1 in 1 1 hiue with the old Constitu-
tion tj ch o L '^tiiuitl W King IS Governor.
The other faction, called the Suffrage party,
acting iu an irregular way, elected Thomas W.
Dr.rr?
In M.ay of 1x42 both parties met and or-
ganized their rival governments. The Law
and < )nler party und'-took to suppress the fac-
tion of I)orr. 'I'he latter in turn made au at-
temjit to capture the State ar.seual. The
militia under Governor King's officers, how-
ever, drove the assailants away. About a
month later the adherents of Dorr again took
up arms; but this tiiiii' they were dispersed by
a detachment of national troops, which had
come into the State. Dorr thereupon fled
from Iihoile Island, l)ut .soon afterwards re-
turned, wheu he was caught, tried for treason.
convicted, and sentenced to imprisonment for
lil'e. He was ottered pardon ou condition of
taking the oath of allegiance to the established
authorities. This he stubbornly refused to do,
and was kept in confinement until June of
l.'<4.'), when he was liberated without con-
lu the year 1x42 was omipleted the Bunker
Hill Jlonument. As might well be expected,
the event called forth an unbounded enthu-
siasm, not (jnly in Boston and Massachusetts,
lint throughout the country. The foundation
of the great shaft had beeu laid on the 17th
of June, 1825; the corner-stone being put iu
place by the venerable Lafayette, wdio was
then visiting iu the United States. Daniel
Webster, at this time young in years and fame,
delivered the oration, while two hundred Rev-
olutionary veteran.* — forty of them survivors
of the battle fought on that hill-crest just fifty
years before — gathered with the throng to hear
him. Rut the work of erection went on
slowly. All ire than a hundred and fifty thou-
sand dollars were expended, and seveuteen
years elapsed, before the grand shaft commem-
orative of the heroes living and dead was fin-
ished. The column was of Quincy granite,
thirty-one feet square at the base, and two hun-
red and twenty-one feet in height. The dedi-
cation was post]ioned until the ne.xt succeed-
ing anniversary of the hattlo. On the 17th
of June, 1843, an immense multitude of peo-
ple, including most of the survivors of the
Revolutionary War, gathered from all parts
of the Repulilie to partici]iate in the cere-
monies. Air. Webster, now full of years and
honors, was again chosen to deliver the ad-
dress. The dedicatory oration was one of the
mo.st able and eloquent ever pronounced in the
L^nited States. Xew luster w\^s added to the
fame of the orator. The exercises were con-
cluded with a ])ublic dinner, given in Faueuil
Hall, tbe cradle of American liberty.
In the last years of Tyler's Administration
the State of New York was the scene of a se-
rious social disturbance, arising from certain
disputed land-titles, and going back in its ori-
gin to the Dutch occupation of New Nether-
land. Until the year 1840, the ilescen. hints
of Van Rensselaer, one of the old Dutch pa-
troons, had held a claim on certain lands iu
the counties of Rens.selaer, Columbia, and Del-
ryj\i:nsAr. history.— tiii: MouKRy worli)
i\v;irc-. In lifiuiilati'in of
•liiitiiiiu-il to receive fVom
the laniieiv wen- \\
ana rehellca. Fm
.^^1
ark 1
:,• 1X1
with
fr.
M'ttI
'1'
the Mc,
New V.,rk. In thr h
party h,..-a,n,. >u l-.l.
their fi-llow-teiiaiit.- \vl
Tiie payiug reuteis w
feathers, and d
tict-rs wt-re M-nt to ;
tli.-ni they kiUed. 1
ities of the f^tatc were invoked
dislurljances, and the excitements at 1
suljsided. To the present time, however,
lias never been any fnrmal adjiir-trnent (
difticnlty.
To the same ei)oeli nf ■ hi-tory l>t
tlie beginning of the tioiibl
nions. The latter, under t
their prophet, Joseph Smith, made their Hr>t
important settlements in Jackson County, Mis-
souri. Here their numbers increased tu tit'teen
hundred. Ehited with the suere>s (if their
colony, they began to say that the great West
was to be their inheritance. Tlie anti-ilormon
people of the surrounding country became ex-
cited, and determined to rid them.selves of
their neighbors. The militia was at length
called out, and the JNIormons were obliged to
ieave the State. In the spring of 1839 they
rrosseu the ^Mississippi into Illinois, and on a
high plateau overlooking the river, laid out a
new city, to which they gave the name of
Kauvoo, meaning The Beaiitlful.
Here they built a splendid temple. Agaia
,-rs of tlie Suini- inrrea.ed
diti;'rei,t parl-nf the Uuil.
piijinlation of ten thou.~ai
•a-e of tlie jSIormons and tlu
uhI about, and the t«n purti.
lie. Some law- ena.-ted bv S
• addi-
leUL'th
The
jiecul-
of the
yi
iiviet the er
V,-ith the r
:>ak nf viole
■eM.d, take
, the -JTth
Xauvi
.f thee:
. Siidth
. Cartli
i-lKir.-ed uith ce
t was believed
were powerle
to
and the out-
,f Nail
>t Mm,
..pen U,e
ll.,stillli
In the f,
n Illin..i>,
unc-, 1.S44, a mob gathered,
il door-, and kdled the pris-
: continued during the snm-
owin..; y.-ar the .diarter of
led by the Legislature. The
d of maintaining their ibot-
nd the great majority deter-
miiierl to exil.' th.ruselves beyond the limits of
to llie far West. I]i S.'ptendier, Nauvoo was
cannonadeil for three days, and the remnant
of the ^loinion- ulio had remained were driven
forth to join their compauious in exile. They
came ui> with the main company at Council
Blufis, Iowa. Thence they dragged them.selves
wearily ^vestward, crossed the Eocky Jlouut-
ains, reached the basin of the Great Salt Lake,
and founded L'tah Territory. Such were the
lieginnings of a complication, which, after the
lapse of nearly fifty years, has not yet yielded
I to the force of logic, or the logic of force.
(1 of :\IeNieo afterwards, to keep Texas
terposing an im-
nitry between the aggressive Anier-
d the Mexican borders. At length,
ever, a large laud-grant was made to Moses
\u>tin, of Connecticut, on condition that he
tie three hundred American families
Till- grant was
his son Stephen, with the privilege
THE VXITED STATERS.— MEXlCAS WAR.
JO
UXIVKRSAL UlST(tin:-TlU: MODEHX WORLD.
of iimnigrants. It \\a> lliu- tiiut the t'ninnla-
tions of Eugli>li (■ivilizali'iii wnv laid within
the borders of Texas.
Owing to tlir ,,i.|.i-.-..-iv.- jiniiry of the .Mex-
ican Government, and |iei-lia|i.- to the inde-
pendent spirit of tlie dexans theni>eives, the
latter, in the year fsdo, iai-e,l the standard of
rehellion. War lu-..l<e ,,ut I.elueen the parent
8tate and the revolted province. -Many a,l-
veuturers and some heroes from the United
States rushed to the scene of action, and e.s-
poused the Texan cause. In the first battle,
fought at <;..ii/.ales, a thou.sand .Mexi.-ans were
defeated l>vaTexan f .ree (d' half the numher^
new State was aekuowdedged by the United
States, by Great Britain, and by France.
l'"rom the first there was an ulterior object
on tlie jiart of the Texaus to gain admission into
the American Union, ^'o sooner had they
become independent than they ap])lied for a
jilace as a Htate in our liejadjlii-. At first
the proposition was declined by President
Van IJnreii, who feared a war with 3Iexico.
Ill the last year of Tylei's Administration the
rpiestion of the annexation of 'Jexas wa.i
again agitated. The population of that Ke-
public had now incresised to more than two
hundred thousand souls. The territory em-
bra.vd an area of two hundred and thirty-
seven thonsanil square miles, a domain more
than five times as great as the -State of Penn-
sylvania It was like annexing an empire.
The issue here jjresented became political
in its bearing. It was the great (jnestiou on
the peojile divided in the Presidential
leeti,.n of 1.S44. Xnr will the thoughtful
the cluM- of the century, fail
s old ciuesti f aiinexati.m
■ol.h.in nf .lavry. Freedom
,te> had f und a' vent in the
....kil.L'
even lM-yoi„l the K-eky
d to th,
Parilic; but slavery and
ed to be hampered (Ml the
Wnidd
not Texa.- open t.i the
-titlltin
i" a field as broad an.l
that 1
is-e-eil liy tlie >."ortherii
Id i)..t
lie e.|ui].Mi>,. between the
the Ul
ion be thus luaintaiiied?
we nu
y >ee the 1 lot tola iva.-oii
le .d'tl
e Smith as a rule favored
n, and
why the propositiim was
1 imich
coldness in the North.
roject \
as favored by the Denio-
MM-d llN
the Whi-s; so tliat here
le.dllllil
g of that -eetinnaliMu in
wliieh
has not yet disapiieare.l
David CiMekett. an ex-Cimgressman of Ten-
nessee, and a faiihais hunter of beasts and
men, was killed. In the tbllowing month was
fouj.t llie deeidve battle nf .<an .Taeiiito. in
whieh a Hiiall Anie.ieaii army, eommanded
bv General Sam lIo„-tun. annihilated the
hosts of Santa .\nna, and aehi.ved the freedom
of Texas at a blow. The independence of the
ite leader,
electeil, and
the Presidei
, e.|nally matched in strength,
of 1.S44 surpassed in excite-
uhieh had hitherto been known
. .bmie- K. Polk, of Ten-
t f'liwaid a- the Democratic
■ tlie Whigs ehose their favor-
nry Clay. The former was
hoi)e of the latter of reaching
was forever eclitised. For
THE UNITED STATES.— MEXICAX WAR.
Vice-President, George :M. Dallas of Peuusyl-
vauia, was chosen.
An incident of these days is worthy of
special mention. On the 29th of May, 1844,
the news of the nomination of Polk was sent
to Washington City from Baltimore by the
magnetic telegrajih. It was the first despatch
ever so transmitted, and the event marks an
era iu the history of civilization. The in-
ventor of the telegraph, which has revolu-
tionized the method of transmitting informa-
tion and introduced a new epoch in history,
was Professor Samuel F. B. ]\Iorse, of Massa-
chusetts. The magnetic principle on
which the invention depends had been
known since 1774, but Professor Moi-.'e
was the first to apply that jii-inciple to
the benefit of men. He began his ex-
periments iu 1832, and five years later
succeeded in obtaining a patent on his
invention. He had, iu the meantime, to
contend with every species of prejudice
and ignorance which the low grade of
human intelligence could produce. After
the issuance of the patent there was a long
delay, and it was not until the la^t day
of the session of Congress in 1843 that
he obtained an appropriation of thirty
thousand dollars. With tliat appropria-
tion was Cdii^tructeil, between Baltimore
anil Wasliiiiutnn, the first telegraphic line
in the world. Perhaps no other sintfle in-
vention has exercised a more beneficent
influence on the welfiire, advancement,
and happiness of mankind.
With the convening of Congre~^ in De-
ceml)er, 1844, the propositimi to admit
Texas into the Union was formally br(jiight
forward. During the winter the question was
constantly debated, and on the 1st of March the
hill for annexation was passed. The President
immediately gave his assent, aud the Lone Star
took its place in the constellation of American
States. On the day befiire the inaucruratiou
of Polk, bills for the a.lmission of Florida and
Iowa were also signed ; but the latter State,
the twenty-ninth member of the Union, was
not forniallv admitted until the following year.
James Knox Pdlk was a native of North
Canilina, Imm November 2, 1795. At the
at;c of eleven he removed with his father to
Tennessee. In 1818 he was graduated from
the University of North Carolina. In the
years of his earlier manhood he was the pro-
ti'ije of Andrew Jackson. His first public
otfice was a membership iu the Legislature of
the State. He was afterwards elected to Con-
gress, where he served as member and Speaker
for fourteen years. In 183'.) he was chosen
governor of Tennessee, and from that j)osition
was called, at the early age of forty-inue, to
the Presidential chair. At the head of the
new Cabinet was placed James Buchanan, of
Pennsylvania. It was an otfice reiiuirini;
thr tlir.'ateiiiuL'- ouestioii with
nexati
Texas,
But t
cour.se
))\ir=ue
Pr.M.l.
and the union was an accomplished
le Texan autlnu'lties kuew well
which tlip <;o\t'rnnient of Mexico w
A (l.-pntation was sent at once t(
■ntot the United States, re<iue-.tinL;
IV be immediately despatclu-d for
ion of the new State. It wa- in
An-
> of
fact,
the
ould
.the
that
UXIVEBSAL inSTURV.— THI-: MODERX WORLD.
dience to this petition lluit ( icm-ral /arliary
Taylor was ordered to uiarcli Iron, Caini. -l.-s-
SU]), in Wi-stcrn Lnui-iana, tn.,r(ii|.y IVxa.-.
■n,<. n.d .lU.-sliull al i^Mlr iMUVrrU that
Slato and M.-xi.-o ua> on,- nf l„,nndancs.
IV,-ha|.< iho l.an- ta,-l ..f the aunrxation of
-lVxa> tu Il.o Unit.-d State- would l.avo heen
have dirtatcd llio Ik lundaiydine l)etween lier
own trrnl-n.s and tlio>,. ..fTexas. Tlie foun-
dation of ,h.. ,,nanvl had hoon lai.l as early as
the M.'xi.-an Urvolulion of ls2\. I'.y that
evt-nt Mrxir,, had sliaken off h.-r .IqH-nd.-nre
on Soaiii. and had rearransred her eivil admin-
it herself. In doin
g ■■^"
unitfil in one the two ]irovinces of Coahuila
and Texas. These wero the frontier Mexiean
States east of the Rio (iran.le. Over the
united provinces she had established a eommou
government, and this government was main-
tained until the Texan Reliellion of 1836.
Texas, lieina; successful in that struggle witli
Mexico, naturally claimed that her own inde-
pendence, so achieved, carried with it the in-
dependence of Coahuihi, and that therefore the
territory of the latter provinci' liecame, hy the
act of revolution, an integral part of the new-
Texan Repnhlic.
The same views were held hy the people of
Coahuila. The joint Legislature of that jiro-
vince ami of Texas passed a >tatute, in De-
cemher of 1.S36, declaring the integrity of the
two States, under the name of Te.x.as. Mexico,
h.iwever, insisted that Texas onli/. and not
Coahuila, had revolted against her antimrity,
and that therefore the latter State was still
rightfully a part of the Mexican domiiuons.
It thus happened that Texas, now a State
in the American Union, claimed the Rio
Orande as the western limit, while Mexico
was determine.l to have tin- Nneees as the sep-
arating: line. Th,' t.a-riton- between the two
l^iit.MJ Stafs made a proposal t.. have the
ditHenltv -ettled by negotiation, but .Mexico
s<-oi-ufullv refused. ' The'refusal ^vas coii^trn.Ml
liv tln' .\iuericans as a virtual confession that
the Mexic-an Government was in tlie wrong,
and, ujion this conviction, continued to claim
the Rio Grande as the true boundary. In-
structions were sent to General Taylor to ad-
vance his army as near to that river as eir-
camistances would warrant, and to hold it
against aggression. Under these orders the
Aniciican army was moved forwanl to Corpus
ClMIstl, at tlie" niouth .,f the Nuec.s. „l„.,e a
camp was e>tal,lish,-d ; an.l theiv Tavlor con-
centrated his hove, to the number' ,,f lour
tlion-and liv hundred men. Such was the
s,tualionofatlldi>at the clo.e of liie year ls45.
.\[ the beginning of the following year a
critical step was taken. General Taylor was
onlered t(j move forward to the Rio Grande.
It was known that the .Mexican (iovernment
had resolved not to receive an American am-
bassador sent thither to negotiate a settlement.
It was also learned that a Mexican army had
been gathered in the northern part of the Re-
public fir the invasion of Texas, or, at any
rate, t copy the di.-pnted territory between
the two rivers. On the Mb of March the
American army was thrown Ibruard from
Corpus Christi to Point Isaiiel, ..n the Gulf
of .Mi'xico. .\t that place Taylor established
a (h'p.'.t of supplies, and thence pressed for-
ward to the Rio (irande. He arrived at that
river a short distance aliove the mouth, and
took a station at the town of Matamoras,
where he erected a fortress, named Fort
Brown.
On the 2(ith of April, (ieneral .\rista, who
had arrived at Matamoras on the day before
Taylor's appivaeh, and had taken commacd
of the ^Mexican I'orces on the frontier, notified
the American commander that hostilities had
I bcL'un. On that dav a company of American
dra.-oons. under co.umand of Captain Thorn-
Ion, was atta.-ked by a body of Mexicans who
had <-ros-e.l the Rio ( irande into the disputed
t.a-ritorv. The .\mt ricans lost sixteen men in
killed aihl wounded, and were ohligetl to sur-
ren.ler.
Such was the outbreak of the war. While
tlie troop of Mexicans just referred to crossed
ihe river above the American camp, other
bodies made a cro.ssins below, and threatened
Tavlor's communications. That General, i'ear-
ing for his supplies at Point I.saliel, hastened
to tlic place and strengthened the defenses.
The fort opiHisite Matamoras was left under
command of Major Brown, with a garrison of
three hundred nieu. The return of Taylor to
Point Isabel was witnessed hy the ^lexicaus
i acro.ss the river, who supposed the Americans
THE UNITED STATES.— MEXICAy WAB.
were retreating from the country. Great ju-
bilation ensued. The Bepuhlican Monitor, a
Jlexican newspaper of ^Jlatamoras, published
a flaming editorial, declaring that the cow-
ardly invaders of Mexico had fled, like a gang
of poltroons, to the sea-coast, and were using
every exertion to get out of the country Ije-
fore the thunderbolt of ^Mt-xicau vengeance
should fall upon them. Arista himself shared
the common delusion, believing that the
Americans had receded from the contest, and
that it was only necessai-y for him to bombard
Fort Brown in order to end the war.
In the mean time Taylor Lad strengthened
his situation at Point Isabel, and ^et out with
trains and an arm> of t\\o thou-and men tj
return to Foit
Broun. The^rex-
icans had now, to
the number of ^ix
thousand, crossed
the Rio Grande
and taken posses-
sion of Palo Alto
This place lay di-
rectly in Taylors
route. At noon,
on the 8th of ]Ma} ,
the American >.
came up, and the
battle was opened
A severe engage-
ment ensued, last-
ing five hours, in " ^
which the 3Iexi
cans were driven from the field, with the
a hundred men. The American artillery was
specially efficient. It was observed from the first
that the fighting of the Mexicans was clumsy
and ineffectual. Four Americans were killed
and forty wounded, among the former the
gallant Major Ringgold, of the artillery.
The battle of Palo Alto was indecisive.
On the following day General Taylor took up
his march for Fort Brown. Within three
miles of that place he again came upon the
Mexicans, who had rallied in full force to dis-
pute his advance. The place selected for
their second battle was called Re.=aca de la
Palraa. Here an old river-bed, dry and over-
grown with cactus, lay across the road along
which the Americans were advancing. The
Mexican artillery was planted to cominaiui
the approach, and for a wliil.' the American
lines were severely galkil. ,V charge was or-
dered, however, under Captain May, who
commanded the dragoons. The ^Kxicau l;iai-
teries were captured, and (.nncral La Vciia
was taken at the guns. The ^b-xicaiis, aban-
doning their batteries, flung away their ac-
coutrements and fled. Isor did they pause
until they had put the Rio Grande between
themselves and their pursuers. General Tay-
lor again took uji his march, and reached Fort
Brown witliout further molestation. He found
that that place had been constantly bombarded
ti(mi Matamoias during his absence. A brave
dt_fense hid betn made, but IMajor Brown, the
ss of
commandant, had fallen, i^uch was the be-
ginning of the Mexican War. a struggle des-
tined to be replete with ilisa.-tt r- to the Mex-
icans and with victories to thi' American forces.
The news of what was (hiiie on the Rio
Grande carried wilil excitement throughout
the United States. The war spirit flamed
high. Even party dissensions were for a
while hushed, and A\niigs and Democrats alike
rushed forward to fill the ranks. The Pn si-
dent, in a message to Congress, threw the
onus of the conflict on the lawless soldiery of
Mexico, alleging that they had shed the blood
of American soldiers on American soil. Con-
gress jn-omptly resixmded, and on the 11th of
Jlay, 1846, declared that "war already ex-
isted bv the act of the Mexican Government."
L'yiVEllSAL niSTOnr.—THE MODERN WORLD.
Ten inillion.-; of dollars worf iironiptly placed
at the disixwil of the Tresideut, and he was
authorized to accept the services of fifty thou-
sand volunteers. In all the States war nieet-
intrs were held, and such was the zeal for
the contiict that three hundred thousand men
are sai.l to have oth'red themselves for 'the
A plan for the invasion of Jlexico -^vas
made hy ( u-iural Sec.u, Conimander-iu-chief
of the army. The American forces were or-
ganized in three divisions: the AuMY or THE
West, under Cleneral Kearney, to cross the
Rocky Mountains and eoncjuer the northern
iMe.Kican provinces; the Army of the Cen-
ter, under General Hcott himself, to march
from the Gulf c<jast into the heart of the en-
emy's country; and the Akmy (.if Occupa-
Tiox, commanded by General Taylor, to sub-
due and hold the districts on the Rio Grande.
To General Wool was assigned the duty of
mustering in the volunteers. By midsummer
he had succeeded in despatching to General
Taylor a force of nine thou.sand men. He
then established his head-quarters and camp at
San Antonio, Texas, from which point he
sent forward the various divisions of recruits
to the field. Meanwhile active operations had
been resumed on the Rio Grande. Ten days
after the battle of Resaca de la Palma, Gen-
eral Taylor crossed the river and captured
Matamoras. He then began his marcli up the
right bank of the river into the interior. The
Mexicans had now felt the impact of Amer-
ican metal, and grew wary of their antago-
nists. They fell back t./ the old town "^^.f
jMonterey, which place they fm-tified, and
against which Taylor now began to advance.
The latter, however, was unable to leave the
Rio Grande with the weak army inider his
command, and was obliged to tarry until
August before his force.s were sufticiently
strong to justify the advance. At the latter
date he found himself at the head of over six
thousand men, and ])roceeded against Mon-
terey. He reached the place on the 19th of
September, and immediately began an in-
vestment.
Jlonterey was held liy a ^Mexican army of
ten thousand men, vnider General Ampudia,
but the small American force be.sieged the
place with great vigor. On the 21st of the
month an a-ssault was made, in which the
Americans, led by General Worth, carried the
heights in the rear of the town. Here was
situated the Bishop's Palace, a strong building
commanding the entrance to Monterev; but
the place was carried on the 22d of Se])tember.
On the morning of the 23d, Monterey was as-
sailed in front by the divisions of Generals
Quitman and Butler. The American storm-
ing ])arties charged irresistibly into the streets,
and reached the Grand Plaza, or public square.
In a short time they hoisted the flag of the
Union, and then routed the Mexican forces
from the biuldings in which they had taken
refuge. They Ijroke open doors, charged up
dark stairways, traver.sed the flat roofs of the
houses, and drove the enemy h) an igno-
minious surrender. Ampudia, however, was
granted the honors of war, on condition that
he vacate the city, which he did on the mor-
row. The news of this signal victory of Gen-
eral Taylor ami his army still further aroused
the euthu.-iasMi and warsjiirit of the American
people.
After the taking of Monterey, news was
carried by the Mexicans to Taylor that nego-
tiations for jieace were in progress at the cap-
ital. He accordingly agreed to an armistice
of eight weeks, during which hostilities should
cease by both jiarties. But the matter was a
mere ruse on the part of the enemy. They
desired to gain time for warlike preparations.
It was at this juncture that the celebrated
General Antonio Lojiez de Santa Anna was
called home from Havana, where he had been
living in exile. He was at once made Presi-
dent of the country and Commander-in-chief
of the ]\Iexican armies.
In the course of the autumn a force of
twenty thousand Mexicans was raised and sent
into the field. When the armistice had expired,
General Taylor again moved forward. On the
l.'nh of Xovemlier the town of SaltiUo, seventy
miles siiuih-west from Monterey, was captured
by the Americans under General Worth. Soon
afterwards, Victoria, a city of Tamaulipas, was
taken by a division under General Robert
Patterson. To that place General Butler
urn Monterey, on a march
The latter place had, how-
ever, in the meantime, capitulated to Captain
Conner, commander of an American flotilla.
presseo i<irw;
against Tami
riJ£ USITED STATES.— MEXICAN If'.l/.'.
General Wool now set forward in person from
San Autonio, Texas; euteied ^Mexico, and took
a jjosition \sitlim siipp(]itui^ distance of Jlon-
terey Geueial ^eott aiimdat this )iiuitiue,
and assumed the Loinui.unl in i_lin.t ot tlu
American armies.
In the meantime, tiie Aiiin ot tlie West,
under General Keaiuey, had sft nut toi tliL
conquest of Neu Mexico and Califoinia Attti
a long, ^\earisome march, this divisiun leatliKl
Santa F^', and .m the 1 Sth of Vu-ust c u.tm.d
On that far coast stirriny; events hi
while happened. For four yenis Coh
C. Fremont had been explriiu^r th
west of the Kocky IMountains. He h \
the American flag on the hij:,hest jiei
gieat lange, an<l tlieii set out t i "^
and afterwards fu ()r(L:iin. li in t
ttuitnn be turned s,,atlnvard int (
whi 11 on aniMug, he received des] i
i iniiiu bun lit tbt impending war with
Ih _i It ih.ntnnr tb.Mvn, „ ,
ul mean-
nd J hii
kbes m
Mtxico
K
■fl
and garrisoned the city. There was no further
resistance within the limits of New Mexico.
From Santa Fe as a base. General Kearney,
with a bndy nf f ..H hun.ln.d dra-oons, set out
(111 Ills niinvh to the Paciti.- cast. After pro-
ceeding three hundred mik-s, he was joined by
the famous Kit Carson, who brought him in-
telligence that California had been already
snbdned. Kcarnr-y thereupon sent back the
larL;i-r part nf his fnrces, and with only a hun-
dred men. made his wav U< the Pacific.
r(s]) in-ihiJitie- and began to arouse the Amer-
ican lesidents of ( difnrnia to a rebellion
a_'ain-t the autboiitv of Mexico. In this work
h( w is sii I 111 riie frontiersmen of the
Sic 1 iiiK It \ dl \ _ ithered around his stand-
aid an<l the Lunpii_ni was undertaken against
the ]Me\ican authoiities. In several minor
engagements the Americans were nnifirinly
siircessfu], and the autbority of FreiiKuit was
rapidly extended over the greater part of
Upiier and Central California.
UyiVEh'SAL JIISTOHY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
While these evcnis \vcrc liLiii|u'iiiii-- in the
North-west, Commmlnrc Sluai, ..f tin- Amer-
ican Navy, liad iiinlcrtnkiii a similar wnik in
the S„uth. Aniviii- at lli.' toui. nl .M,,i,.
terey, on the <'..a>t, alMHii ,i-lity luih- huuI,
of .San FraiicLseu, he caiitniv.l \Ur |,h,re. At
the extreme southern pai-t nl' liie St;iti', Coni-
nioilore Stockton eaptnre.l Sari Die'jn, and then
assume,! eomman.l of ll.e l'a,-itir S,,,,a<lron.
It was the news ot-the>,. events whiel. n,.|,ire,l
Fremont to exertions in the North an,l (enter.
He hoist, -.1 tlie American tia- ev,iyuhere;
joine,! Sloat and St,.ckt,in, an,l a.lvan,;,,,!
against J.,is Angeles, wliich was taken with
little oppiisition.
Before the end of the summer, California
was c,)niinere(l. In N,)vember, General Kear-
nev, with a linn,lred ilragnons, arrived, and
joini',1 liis forces witli those of Fremont and
Stockton. Al)outamonth later the Mexicans,
seeing the meagreness of the forces by which
they had been overawed, rose in rebellion, and
the Americans were obliged to take the field.
On the 8th of January, 1847, a decisive battle
was fought at >San Gabriel, in wliich the Mex-
icans were coiupletely defeatiMl, ami the autiior-
ity of the United States cstablishe,! on a per-
manent basis. Thus was the imjierial (hnnain
of California wrested from the Mexican TJev-
ernment by a handful of courageous adven-
turers, marching from place to place with their
lives in their hand.s.
( )n leaving New Mexico, Kearney had left
Am,ri,'an tores. He, t,,,,, h^-rame an a,lveu-
turer. With a boily of seven hundred men,
he marche,! across the enemy's country from
Santa Fi' cii route to Saltillo, a distance of
m,,re than eight humlred niil.s. On arriving
at tlic l;io (uan.le, he louglit a battle with
th,' .Mexicans, on Christmas day, at Bracito.
ill' then cr.issed the river, captured El Paso,
and in two months pressed his way to withiu
twiiity miles .if Chihuahua. Ou the banks of
Sacramento Creek he met the Mexicans in
overwhelming numbers,
and on the 28th of No-
vember, inflicted upoQ
them a disastrous defeat.
He then marched un-
opposed into Chihuahua,
a (it\ , f more than forty
th, ii-iiid Hihabitants, ami
hnall\ leached the di-
vision of General Wool
in safety.
j\Iean while General
''I ott, on his arrival in
Mexico, had drawn down
the luei a large part of
the Aim> of Occupation,
to join him on the Gulf,
fii the conquest of the
Mexican capital. After
the withdiawal of these
^ ti,)ops fiom Taylor, and
while the remainder were
left in an exposed condition, Santa Anna,
perceiving his advantage, immediately moved
against Tavlor with an army of twenty thou-
sand men. The American General was able
to oppose to this tremendous force not more
than six thousand men. After furnishing
garri.sons for Saltillo and Monterey, Taylor's
effective forces in the field aniounteil t,i l)ut
four thou.sand eight hundred men : but with
this small and resolute army he mandie,! ,mt
b.,l,llv t., m,M.t tlie Mexi.'ans. A fav,.rable
battle-irnmn,! was ch,i.sen at Buena Vista, four
mi],'s suutli ,a- Saltillo. Here Tayhir posted
hi- army, an,i awaited the onset.
( )ii the 22,1 of February the Mexicans came
THE UMTED STATES.— MEXICAN WAR
pouring through the gorges aud over the liills,
irorn the direction of Sau Luis Potosi. On
approaching, Santa Auua demanded a sur-
render, but was met witli defiance. The real
Ijaitle began on the moniiug of tlie 23d.
The Mexicans first attempted to outfiank the
American position, but the attempt was
tliuarted by the troops of Illinois. A heavy
division was next thrown against the Amer-
ican center, but this attempt \\asalso repelled,
•chiefly by the eflectivtni'~s of Captain Wash-
ington's artillery. The Mexicans then lell with
with volleys of grape-shot. A successful
charge was then made by the American cav-
alry, in which the losses were severe. Against
tremendous odds the battle was fairly won.
On the following night the Mexicans, having
lost nearly two tliousand men, made a precip-
itate retrc-at. The American loss amounted, in
killed, wounded, aud missing, to seven hun-
dred and forty-six. This was, however, the
last ot General Taylor's battles. He mjou
attei ktt the field and letuined to the United
btatc-. whtit he wa^ lecuved with giea.t eu-
1
trii at foice
S,M ,nd E, ^1
tht
t <>t
\Nas f,,i a \\
Keutuik\ a
hil
d
Ml--
breach ; tin
bravely to tl
111.
-ii|,|,
enemy '\\a> ,
of the stiui:
-I''
th.
charge upon
but the gui
columns of
tl
nr
. lut
in lift when th. thn-ii-m H. w i- ni.l. . .1 ni tlu i»ipulni es-
lun- 1. tii,_ uii.l. 1 tiiint th. li. 1.. lit 111. NN II
n mhI til. inn\ On tli. 'Hh ..I Mii. h ls4, (uii.iil S. ..tt
hut til. tio..|.- ..t hum. ...11,, I., I 1 ..mipi.t nni\ ottu.he
^^.l. iilh..] t.. th. tli.Mi-in.l m, ii 1 ni.l, ,1 t.. tli. Miuth ..t V. n
in.l Iii.luiii . ,111. (ill/ 111,1 ,,it.i..l n|M„i til, li-t , inipii.ii .,f
il th. .m-. t ,il th, th. w II 111 llii,. ,ln~ A,i , ( 1117 n i- m
i.k In th. .11-1- M-t,,l iMii, II,- w.i. ,,,„n,.l It 1 .li-l in.e
11- iin.l. 1 tun,. II- ..t.iLlitliiiii.h ,1 \ 11,1- 1,1,1 1, mil, ,11 i.l, ^^ i- l,t
"t ( i|,tim r.M,_ Lim Oiitli, \ II, 1-1,1, A,i i( iii/\( i-,l, I, i,,l,,l
1- wiie -(itt.u.l will, h In.l 1«, 11 . ii.tul li\ "^iiimiuth. Luly
cyiVKj.'SA I. histohy—thi: modeux
;'aiis was
li il frnni
iskc-ts
The
ited t(i lour hundix-d ami tliirty-oiie ;
if tlie ]Mexicaiis to fully a thousaud.
Santa Anna liarely escaped with his life,
leaving; liehind his private papers and his
U'onden hij !
The way thus opened, the victorious army
pressed onward to Jalapa. On the 22d of the
mouth the strong castle of Perote, crowning
the peak of the Cordilleras, was taken without
resistance. Here the Americans captured an-
other park of artillery and a vast amount of
warlike stores. Frnm this point General Scott
turned to the south, and ltd his army against
the ancient and sacred city of Puebla
Though the place contained a population of
eighty thousand, no defense was made or at-
tempted. It 1- on( of tli( striking episodes of
modem lii^tiii\ that a handful of invaders,
\\o thousand miles fioni their homes, should
thus march un(jpposed through the gates of a
great foreign cit} . On the 15th of May the
array was quaiteud in Puehla. General Scott
now found hi^ fout^ uduced to five thousand
men, and decmod it piudent to pause until re-
iiitoK I n]( 111- ( iiiilil uatli him from Vera Cruz.
At tlii^ juni tuiL negotiations were again
attempted ; Imt the foolish hardihood of the
^Mexicans prevented satisfactory results. By
midsummer General Scott's i-einforcenients ar-
rived, >wellinL:- his ininiliers to eleven thousand
men. T^eaviiiu" a Miiall t;ariison in Puebla, he
M't nut, on thi' 7lh III' Aiii^ust, on his march
fur tlie ea|iilal. 'i'lii- nuiti' now lay over the
nest iif till- ( 'iTililleias. Strong resistance
lad lireii e\|iieliil in llie ]iasses of the mouiit-
liii-; Imt the ailvaiH-e was unopposed, and the
\iii. lieaii aiiuv, sweepini;- over the heights,
.Mikeil iliiwii 111! the valley nf Mexie.,, Never
lad a snl.lieiy in a foreign hui.l beheld a
M-amler sciiie. Clear to the horizon stretched
I most liviu- laiiilscape of green fields, vil-
aL'es, ami laki -- a pietniv too beautiful to be
ills fV
THE UNITED STATES.— MEXICAX WAi;.
town of Ayotlrt. To thi> place the army now-
pressed t'orwan.l, descemliiiL'' tVum the iiiduiit-
ains. Thus far the marrh had l,.-, n ahnxj: the
great uatioual road from Vera Cruz to Jlexico.
The remaiuder of the route, however, was
occupied with fortifications both natural and
artificial, and it seemed im}His>il)|p to continue
the direct march further. The army accord-
ingly wheeled to the south from Ayotla,
around lake Chalco, and thence westward to
San Augustine. By this means the army was
brought within ten miles of the capital.
From San Augustine the approaches to the
city were by long causeways across marshes
and the beds of bygone lakes. At the ends of
these causeways were massive gates, strongly
defended. To the left of the line of march
were the almost inaccessible positions of Con-
treras, San Antonio, and ^lolino del Rev. To
the front and iK-youd the niar>h. >, and closer
to the city, lay the jiowerful bulwarks of
Churubusco and Chapultepec. The latter was
a castle of great strength, and seemed impreg-
nable. These various outposts of the city
were occupied by Santa Anna, with a force
of fully thirty thousan.l M.'xicans. The army
of General Scott was not one-third as great in
numbers, and yet with this small force he con-
tinued to press on against the capital.
The first assaults were made on the 19th
of August, by Generals Pillow and Twiggs, at
Contreras. About night-fall the line of com-
munications between thi-- fortri>- and Santa
Anna's army was cut, ami in tlip ilarkness of
the following night an assailing column, led by
General Persifer F. Smith, moved against the
enemy's position. The attack was delayed
until sunrise, but at that liour the American
column rushed forward with inipctimsity, anil
six thousand Mexicans were driven in rotit and
confusion from the fortifications. The Amer-
ican division nunibered fewer than four tlion-
sand. This was the fM victory of the mem-
orable 20th of August. A few hours later
Genernl Worth advanced on San Antonio,
compelled an evacuation of the place, and
routed the flying garrison. This was the necoinl
victory. Almost at the same time General
Pillow led a column against one of the heights
of Churubusco. Here the ^Fexicans had con-
centrated in great force; but after a terrible
assault the po-itiou was taken by storm, and
the enemy scattered like chatf. This uas the
f/,/n/ triumph. The diviMm, ,,r General Twiugs
a.lde.l ixjowth victory by storming and hold-
ing another height of Churubusco, while the
fifth and last was achieved by Generals Shields
and Fierce. The latter coufnnited Santa
Anna, who was coming with a laree arniv to
reinforce his garri.-oiis, and turm il him back
with large losses. The whcile of the Mexican
army was now driven into the tortificatii.ns of
Chapultepec.
On the following morning the alarm and
treachery of the Mexican authorities were
both strongly exhibited. A deputation came
out to negotiate; but the intent was merely
to gain time for strengthening the defenses.
The terms proposed by the Mexicans were
preposterous when viewed in the light of
the situation. General Scott, who did not
consider his army vaiiiiuished, rejected the
proposals with scorn. He, however, rested his
men until the 7th of Septendier before renew-
ing hostilities. On the morning of the 8th
General Worth was thrown forward to take
jMolino del Rey and Casa de JIata, which were
the western defenses of Chapultepec. These
places were defended by about fourteen thou-
, sand Mexicans ; but the Americans, after los-
' ing a fourth of their number in the desperate
onset, were again victorious. The batteries
were now turned on Chapultepec itself, and
on the loth of September that frowning citadel
was carried by storm. This exploit opened an
avenue into the city. Through the San Cosme
and Belen gates the conquering army swept
resistle.ssly, and at nightfirll the soldiers of the
Union were in the snburlis of ^[exico.
During the night Santa Anna and the offi-
cers of the Government fled from the city, but
not until they had turned loose from the pris-
ons tW'O thousand convicts, to fire upon the
American army, (hi the tullowing morning,
before day-dawn, a deputation came forth from
the city to \ic'j: tor mercy. This time the mes-
seni^ers were in earned: but < Jeneral Scott,
wearied \\\ih tritlin-. turned them away with
disgust. ■■Fnrir.inl!" was the order that rang
along the American liius at >unrise. The war-
worn regiments swept into the lieaiitifiil streets
of the famons city, and at m-vcii nVh.ck the
flag of the Unite.i States floated over th.' halls
of the Montezumas. It was the triumi.hant
80
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
eudiiig of one of the most brilliant and strik-
ing campaigns of modern history.
The Amerit-an ami}-, as compared with the
hosts of Mexico, had been but a handful. The
small force which had left Vera Cruz on the
march to the capital had lost considerably by
battle and disease. ^Many detachments had
been posted rn miitv to hold the line of coin-
municatious, and for garrison duty iu places
taken from the enemy. The army had thus
dwindled until, after the battles of Churubusco
and Chapultepec, J'ewnr than six thousand men.
were left to enter and hold the capital. The
invasion had been remarkable in all its par-
ticulars. The obstacles which had to be over-
come seemed insurmountable. There were
■walled cities to be taken, fortified mountain-
passes to be carried by storm, and frowning
castles with cannon on the battlements to be
assaulted by regiments whose valor and im-
petuosity were their only protection and war-
rant of victory. Yet the campaign was never
seriously impeded. No foot of ground ouce
t.nken from the Mexicans wa.s yielded by false
tactics or h)st by battle. The army which
accomplished this marvel, penetrating a far-
distant and densely peopled country, held by a
j)roud race, claiming to be the descendants of
Cortez and the Spanish heroes of the sixteenth
century, and denouncing at the outset the
American soldiers as " barbarians of the North,"
■was, in large part, an army of volunteers —
a citizen soldiery — which liad lisen from the
States of the Union and marched to the Mex-
ican border under tlie Union flag.
Santa Anna, on leaving his conquered cap-
ital, turned about witii his usual treachery, and
attaek.Ml the .Vinei-iran hospitals at Puelila.
At thi^ plare al.out ..i-litreii hundred of the
Ainerieau siek had been left in charge of
Colonel Childs. For several days a gallant
resistance was made by the enfeebled garrison,
but the besiegers 1„-1.1 out until General Jo-
sejih Lane, on his mureh to the capital, fell
upon them and dr(jve them away. It was the
closing stroke of the war — a contest in which
the American-, had gained every single vic-
tory from first to la>t.
The vmv eudrd with the c.niiplete over-
throw of the military pnwer .if Mexico. Santa
Anna, the President, was a fiiL;itivc. It was
manifest to all the world that the war had
ended, and it only remained to determine the
conditions of peace. Never was a nation more
completely prostrated than was the Mexican
Kepublic. In the winter of 1847-48 Ameri-
can ambassadors met the Mexican Congress, in
session at Guadalupe Hidalgo, and on the 2d
of February a treaty was concluded between
the two nations. The terms were promptly
ratified by the two governments, and on the
4th of the following July, President Polk is-
sued a proclamation of peace. By this im-
portant treaty the boundary-line between Mex-
ico and the United States was fixed as follows:
The Rio Grande, from its mouth to the south-
ern limit of New Mexico; thence westward
along the southern, and northward along the
western boundary of that Territory to the
river Gila ; thence down that river to its con-
fluence with the Colorado; thence westward to
the Pacific Ocean. Thus was the whole of
New Mexico and Upper California relinquished
to the United States. Mexico guaranteed the
free navigation of the Gulf of California and
the river Colorado from its mouth to the con-
fluence of the Gila. In consideration of these
territorial acquisiti(ms and privileges, the
United States agreed to surrender the places
occupied by the American army in Mexico, to
pay that country fifteen million dollars, and
to assume all debts due from the Mexican
Government to American citizens, said debts
not to exceed three million five hundred thou-
sand dollars. It was thus that the territory
of the United States was spread out in one
broad belt from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
On the north, however, the boundary-line
between the American Kepublic and the do-
niiiii.ms of Great Britain had never been defi-
nitely determined. The next question which
the United States had to confront was the de-
termination of this line, and in doing so they
were ol)liged to deal with an adversary very
difi^erent in character from Mexico. The
Oregon boundary had been in dispute from
the first deeaiie of the century. By the terms
Iietwe.ai the' ruited S|;U,.s and t le British
Dominions had lieen carried westward from
the north-western extremity of the Lake of
the W,.ods to the crest of the Kocky Mount-
ains, but from that point to the Pacific no
acrreemeut could be reached. As earlv as
THE USITED STATES.— MEXICAN WAR.
1807, auJ agaiu iu 181S and LsiiH, the United
States bad formally claimed tlie parallel of
fifty-four degrees and forty minutes; but tliis
boundary Great Britain refused to accept.
By a convention held in August of 1827,
it was agreed by the two powers that the vast
belt of territory west of the Eocky Mountains
and between the parallels of forty-nine degrees
and fifty-four degrees and forty minutes should
remain open indefinitely and impartially for
the joint occupancy of British and American
citizens. Great Britain named the forty-ninth
parallel as the true boundary, and stoutly
maintained it. By the agreement just referred
to the difficulties between the two nations were
obviated for sixteen years ; but thoughtful
statesmen, both British and American, became
alarmed lest a question of so much importance,
not settled on any permanent basis, should yet
involve the two nations in war.
NeootiatiiiDS were accordingly renewed. In
1843 the American minister resident at St.
James again proposed the parallel of fifty-four
degrees and forty minutes; but the proposition
was rejected. In the following year the British
ambassador at Washington again suggested
the forty-ninth parallel as the true boundary ;
but to this the American Government refused
to accede. At this juncture war with Mexico
broke out, and with it came the prospective
extension of the territory of the United States
to the south-west. The views of the Admin-
istration in regard to the north-western bound-
ary were relaxed with the prospect of Texas,
Kew Mexico, and California. Here again we
see underlying the controversy the still greater
question of American slaveiy. If the United
States had maintained its claim to fifty-four
degrees and forty minutes as her north-western
boundary, they would have acquired a terri-
ritory in that region, inaccessible to slavery,
and extensive enough for ten free States as
large as Indiana. The Government, then
strongly doniiiiatcd liy pro-slavery sentiments,
looked with little or no enthusiasm upon this
prospective enlargrnieiit of free territory, .so
that while the Adiniiiistration was struggling,
by the Mexican War and by purchase, to
procure a south-western empire for the spread
of human slavery, she permitted the opportu-
nity to obtain a free north-western empire to
pa," unimproved.
The matter involved came to an issue on
the 15th of June, ls4t), when the question was
definitely settled l)y a treaty. Every point in
the long-standing controversy was decided in
favor of Great Britain. In the many diplo-
matical contentions between that country and
oiu- own, the United States have alwavs been
al)le to maintain their jio.^^ition, with this single
exception of the north-western boundary. The
complete surrender to the British Government
iu this particular was little less than ignomin-
ious, and can be accounted for only on the
ground that the Government of the United
States, as it then was, was indifferent to the
extension of her domains in the direction of
freedom. However this may be, the forty-
ninth parallel was established as the inter-
national boundary, from the summit of the
Rocky Mountains to the middle of the channel
which separates the Continent from Van-
couver's Island; thence southerly through the
middle of said channel and through Fuca's
Straits, to the Pacific. Vancouver's Island
itself was awarded to Great Britain, and the
free navigation of the Colinid)ia Itiver was
granted to the Hudson liay Company and
other British subjects on the same conditions
as tho.^e imposed on citizens of the United
States. The treaty was totally unfavorable to
the interests of the American Republic, and
was denounced by many as actually dishonor-
able. It is certain that better terms might
have been demandetl and obtaiiieil.'
Within a few days after the signiiiir of the
treaty of peace with ]Mexico, an event occurred
in California which .spread excitement through-
out the civilized world. A laborer employed
by Captain Sutter to cut a mill-race on the
American Fork of Sacramento River discovered
some pieces of gold in the sand where he was
digging. With fnrtlier search, other particles
were found. The mw- spi-, ad as if borne on
the wind. From all ipiarters adventurers
came flockino-. Other exploiations led to
further revelations of the preci.ius metal. For
' S\icli was tile iii.liiiiiation ot tlie rqiponents
01 this tnMty -e-iHvially tin' IcaMd-s of the AVhig
pavty-tliat the i.olitical l>attle cry of - F;ft,j-fom-
Fdriii. or Fight." liecaiiie almost as jiopular a motto
as " Fm: Trade and Sailorf^' F.uihh'' had been in
tlie AVar of 1S12.
UXIVERSAL HISTOKY.-THE .MODERN WOULD.
cries— no limit t<> the cumntity ot' ^oid, wliicli
nii.<,'ht he had for picking up. Slrasrirliug
gold-hunters sometimes gathered in a lew hours
the value of live imndnd dnjhu-. The intel-
ligence went tiring thr-u-h thr States to the
Atlantic, ami tlu-n tn ih.- ciid> ..f the world.
Men thousan.ls nf miles away were crazed
with excitement. Workshops were shut up,
business houses abandoned, fertile farms left
teuautless, offices deserted. As yet the over-
d. Nor is their
has never been overe
richness yet exhausted.
In the year 1846 au Act was passed in
Congress for the organization of the Smith-
soNi.\N Institution at Washington City.
Twenty-two years ]n-eviously au eminent Eng-
lishman, a ciii-mi,-! and iihilanthropist, named
James Smitlisnn,' had dii-d at Genoa, bequeath-
ing, on certain conditions, a large sum of
money to the United States. In the fall of
MINER- llF FUKIY-NINK
land rnutfs to California were scarcely dis- IS.'^S, by th.' death of Smithson's nephew, the
covrr.'d: ncverthi'l.-s, tlmusands of eager proceeds of the estate, amounting at that time
adv.ijtmvr^ started tV.Mu th<' States on the to 851.1,000, were secured by the agent of the
In,,-, ],,„- journev :„■,■,... the ,„..i,„tains and National Onvoi-nment, and deposited in the
plains. Ix'f..,-.' the rod of 1n:,(», S:,„ F,-aii- mint. It liad been provided in Smithson's
ei-ro had -,-o\vn f,o,„ n „,!-.■,:, hie S|,;,„i<h will tl,at tlio br,|,ip-^t should be used for the
villa-v of lints to a city of tiftrci tholl^,^,ld
had a populatio,, of i,,oi-e than a (piartpr of a ;,',',1,V /',','!';r'l/.l ■,'."' ' \ftrrwaivl, ni 1,U ow„ a.-co,,l
millio,,. The ii„po,taii.v of the gold-mines i,,. ,.i„,^,, the i,a„.c of his i-,|.„t,-.l latla-,-. Hu-l
of California to the i,,dustri.-s of the country S,u,ili. I'nkr o, .\.„ lliimil.irlan.l.
(1. in 17S6,
,■ name of
TTJE JXJTKD STATES.— MEXICAN
83
establiAment at Washington City of "an in-
stitution for tlie increase ami difTusion "f
Tlie Act of Establishment provided that the
nstitntion to be founded from 8mitlison"s be-
|uest should be named, in liis honor, the
SmitliH.nian ln>titution : that th- same
I should be und.T the ininicdiiitr .■mitn
Pres-
nt, Vic.-.pn-id.Mit, Jnd,-(- ot' the Su-
]irini.-ii>al officers
Xatiiinal Government; that the
niau fund, amounting at that
■rued interest, to S(ioo,OOI),
out the _u it k-i_n^ 1 the tt-tat i an nn} k
phn of oijimziti n n i^ piepaiel b> T hn
Quinc} Adams, laid bef le Congie«-, an 1, iftti
some modifications, adojjted.
84
L'i\IVER.SAL niSTORY.-THE MODERN WORLD.
Prolessor Joseph Henry, of rriiicotmi C(j1-
lege, was choseu secretary of the iiistitutiou,
and the plan of organization was speedily and
successfully carried out. The result li;i> heeu
the establishment in the United .Statr.- of one
of the most beneficent institutions known in
the history of mankind. The Smitlisonian
Contributions to Knowlnhje already amount to
nearly thirty volumes cjuarto, and the future
is destined to yield still richer results in widen-
ing the boundaries of humau thought and
increasing the happiness of men.
On the 8th of June, 1845, Ex-President
Andrew Jackson died at his home, called the
H.-
Nashvill,
Tl
IM.^
seveuty-eiglit. On thi' L':.d of l-d
Es-Presid'cnt John (,)uin<-v Adani.^ di.'<l, :il the
Citv of Wa-l,in-tnn. Aft.T his rclinnicnt
from the l"iv.id,.u<-v he had Invn rlmsen to
body he iKid ili-plaved the ninst reniaikal.le
abilities and |,atii(.lisin. There I,,' a.-.|nired
Ele,iU,-nt." At the time ef his de.-ease he
was a member of the ib.n-e of Representatives.
He was struck with pai-alysis in the very seat
from which he had so many times eleetiitied
the nation with his fervid and coi:ent oratory.
In 1«4S, Wisconsin, the last of the five
great States formed from the Territory north-
west of the river Ohio, was admitted into the
Union. The new commonwealth came with a
population of two hundred and fifty tliousand,
anil an area of nearly fifty-fijur thousand square
miles. In the establishment of the western
boundary of the State, by an error of survey-
ing, the St. Croix River, instead of the Missis-
sippi, was fixed as the line, by which Wiscon-
sin lost to Minnesota a considerable district
rightfully belonging to her territory.
The vast extension of the National domain
and the increase of internal interests in
the United States, now
fully justified the estab-
lishment of a new Cabinet
""=^_ office, known as tlie De-
- -=^^=--_ partment of the Interior.
This was done near the
ch.'.e of Polk's Adnjini-s-
tiition lo the three
oii_inal departments of
th( Government as oriran-
izt lun 1> 1 theAdniinistra-
ti n t M ish.iieton had
h 1\ been ad<led the
ll t Postmaster-Gen-
1 I in 1 Secretary of the
\ i\\ I he Attoiney-
(nncid (f the United
stiles hnl also come to
be lecognized as a niem-
bei of the Cabinet. The
duties assigned to the De-
piitments of State and
Treasury had now become
so manifold as to require a division of labor and
the establishment of a separate office. A cer-
tain part of these duties were acconlingly as-
signed to what was at first known as the Home
Department, and soon afterwards the Depart-
ment of the Interior. In the beginning of the
following; .\ilniir,'stration, the new Secretary-
shin was lir,-t tilled liv General Thomas Ewiug,
Oh
lere the leading events of the Ad-
,11 of Polk. Near its close the peo-
e, as usual, much excited about the
to the Presidential office. Instead
ididates, three well-known personages
ented for the suffrages of the people.
THE UNITED STATES.— MEXICAN ir.4A'.
General Lewis Oass, of ilichigaii, was nom-
inated by the Democrats, and General Zach-
ary Taylor by the VN'higs. :\reanwhile, the
had ai-ou^ed to consid.Tubl.' vi-m- tho ;inti-
shiviTV si-ntimfUt nf tin' cnmitiT. At the
first this seiitiim-nt was i-xiav>M.a in Hinple ..p-
position to the cxkii^uit ,,f >hiv.Ty into the
theu unoccupied national dnmaiiis. As the
representative of this sentiment, and the party
founde.l thereon. Ex-President .Mai tin Van
Buren was l,n.i,-lit forward as the Free-Snil
candidate f.r the Presidency. Tlie partieiihir
circumstances which gave rise to the new
party, destined in future times to \i\\\\' so
important a part in the history of the
country, may well be narrated.
.AL.st of the i>sues on wliieh the Free-
Soil party was iiased grew out of the Mex-
ican War and the terms of the treaty witli
which it was concluded. In b^4i'>, Davi'l
Wdmot of Peun-^h mil inti In 1 int
Cou^res a bill to pi hi t ' i , lu ill lli
ten it t\ which mi_ht 1 m 1 I \ ti it\
WUll M XI ill! PI Itl II \\ 1 th
kc\ t dl tint en n 1 n tli hii t |
p iti m t ) the exttu 1 in it h\cn lii
bdl w Is defeated but the vh icites f tli
mea uie then(ef(ith cillel thf W w M l
Pi )M t inied them else iiit i ] iit\
an 1 in Tune f 1^4s n nun it 1 \ in
Biuen t 1 the Pie i leuc\ The leil c n
te t h->\\e\ei Itv betneeu Genei lis (_ \ss
an I Tnl 1 The i iti n of the ^\ hi^s
an 1 the Dem ( i it n the pi ti n t
sH\ei\ epetiuK m it uhti nt th 1 i
rit(iies naduota ^et been cleaih lehm 1
and as a consequence the electi n w is
left m consitlei able raeasuie to tuin n the
personal populaiitv of the two candid ites
The memory of Geueial Tajlois recent mc
tories in Mexico, and the democratic aspects of
his character in general, prevailed, and lie was
elected by a large majority. As Vice-Presi-
dent, jMillard Fillmore, of Xew York, was
chosen. Thus closed the agitated and not in-
glorious Administration of President Polk.
Zachary Taylor was a Virginian by l)irth,
a Kentuckian by breeding, a soldier by pro-
fes.sion, a Whig in politics. He was born on
the 24th of September, 1784. His father was
Colonel Richard Taylor, an officer in the Kev-
oluti(man \\ u In tin \. ii 17^") the tlmll^
removed to Iv( ntm I \ whin tin titlmdied
In the ^^ II I 1M-' \oun. 1 nlo, distin-
guished him-tlt in til. \ ith u, t (speiiilh
in the deten-L ot loit Hum ii i_ iin-t the
Indians. In tin *^i niiiioli \\ ii li hue i urn
spieuous put ibit hi- _i( it(-t Known was
won in Mexico In tli it <oiillht k coidmi;
to the popnhi i ~tiiii itioii In out-luned (xen
end Scott ind hi- popiiliiil\ nnde eas> his
way to thePu-id. IK \ I lis i. put ition, which
was stri, th niihtin w i- i ini ,1,1. iiid his
Hi- V.
with I 1. Ill w il it the iiuestion
about h\ei\ in the Itiiit lie L ilif inn
the Eldoiado of the ^^ t wi th ii in t
the dispute -whHli n w li Ic ut with in
creased violence.
In his first message the new Presi.lent ex-
pressed his sympathy with the C'alifbrnians,
and advised the formation of a State Govern-
ment preparatory to admission into the Union.
The people of California pr.miptly accejued
the suggestion, and a conv.aiti.in ..f delegates
was hel.l at M.mterey, in S..ptenibcr of ISAd.
A constitnti.in jn'ohibiting slavery was framed,
submitted to the ])eople, and adopted with but
little opposition. Under this instrument Peter
[■xjii:j:sal nisTonv.-THK modfaix world.
Huiiiet \\a- ck( teil i. <
Geueial A«-eml)l\ \\i
20th (,f D..tinlHi, IM'
M.
an.l nppo.^ed by th<.se of the
.irP.uu.l of upi,o.iti,m was that
Cnnii,n.iui<e Line, iu il. rxtmM
cili.-, ero-e.l Calitni-nia. \\h.nl,;
prulH.se,! rotate was n,,,-,! to th.-
slavery, au.l this hy an Aet of (
no T.'n-itoriai h-i>huinn eouhl a
he removed. Tli.- reply
resentatives was more ni
Thev said that th.- ar-iiii
of tiu- hill foraduii-ion
piu-t, and nut the whole
slavery .should
Xorth'ern Rep-
)])oneut
.nlv to:
]Mi--ouii Conipiomi-e had i£<pect only to
I oni-iana Puichase, and that California
Id II t In ic_Midt<l as nicludtd iu that pur-
-I th It till pi i| h it the pioposed State
III in\ I M lit li mil 1 then Constitution
Hit till iii-i h ( - "^iii h w I* the hssue. The
iti- ^H w iiiou and nioie violent, until
sti)iilit\ ot the I nmn ^\as seriously
ifRcultie-
ihtamed
<it ui
arose with re-
\ the ^lexican
I ]S'eW Mexico
Ki domain- hut the claim was
lit people ot i^auta Fe, who de-
te go\einmeut A serious issue
-ed hetween the State and the
i\ i(ipiiiiii_ till inteifeience of Con-
r.\ till- tiiiii tin jii ojile of the South
111 il hid hi_iin to (lamor huidly and
\ \Mth 1 1 -pi It to till i-iaje of fugitive
It \s 1- .laiuud tint th. houdmeu of
luth fleeing In m *ei\ite were received,
i-sing the holders of the fiee States, by
ioni-t~ and weie aided in efieeting a final
ill III thill ma-tei- A nainter-cry was
li\ tla opponents of sla\ery, who de-
d that in the Distiict oi Columbia at
wheie the national authonty was para-
, wheie no State Constitution guaran-
le exibtence of the institution, the slave-
-hould be abolished. The controversy
-(.d in heat along the whole line, and
\\a« e\ei}wheie manife-ted between the
- a spiiit of suspicion, leciiniination, and
It this tpoch that the illustrious
d lor the last time as a
in the councils of his
as he had come liefore,
peacemaker. His known
ironiise, especially on sec-
ipie>tions within the L'nited States, was
more maiiirested in full force. In the
: of is.'.d. while the ipiestions above re-
1 to were under Imt disciussion in Cou-
Clav was appointed chairman of a com-
• of thiitieii, to whom all the matters
■ ili-eii>siou were referred. On the 9th
logical. of May in that year he reported to Congress
the eeleluated (;)mnibus Bili., Covering most
of the points in dispute. The provisions of
this ii.ipoitant bill were as follows: Fh;t. the
th. The
Ile.ir
eon-p
y Llay apj.t
ieiious li-u!
Missnnri
ry. He cai
. the Pa-
u-t of the
in III,
liredi'
■charaeter ot
leelioll fir o
^P'
THE UNITED STATES. — THE SIXTH DECADE.
ailiuissiou ut' Calitornia as a free State, under
the Constitution already adopted ; semiul, the
formation of new States, not exceeding four in
number, out of the Territory of Texas, said
States to permit or exclude slavei-y, as the
people thereof should determine; thinl, tlie
organization of Territorial Governments for
New Mexico and Utah, witliout conditions on
the question of slavery; fourth, tlie establish-
ment of the jiresent hoinidary-liue between
Texas and New ^Mexico, and tlie payment to
Texas, ibr surrendering New Mcxiro, the sum
often million dollars from the national treas-
ury; fifth, the enactment of a more rigor-
ous law for the recovery of fugitive slaves ;
sixth, the abolition of the slave-trade in
the District of Columbia.
With the report of the Omnibus Bill
to Congress the debates broke out anew,
and seemed likely to be interminable. In
the midst of the discussion that ensued,
and while the issue \vas still undecided.
President Taylor fell sick and suddenly
died, on the 9th of July, 1850. In ac-
cordance -with the provisions of the Con-
stitution, Mr. Fillmore at once took the
oath of office and entered upon the duties
of the Presidency. A new Cabinet \^a^
also formed, with Daniel Web'-tei at tli
head as Secretary of State. Notwitl
standing the death of the chief maiii-tiati
the Government, as in the ca«e of tl:
decease of Harrison, again moved o
without disturbance.
lu Congress the discussion of the Con
promise measures continued until autumi
when the views of Mr. Clay, sustained as ^- '
they were by his own eloquence, at length
prevailed. On the 18th of September the last
clause was adopted, and the whole received the
sanction of the President. Hereupon the ex-
citement throughout the country rapidly abated,
and the distracting controversy seemed at an
end. Viewed in the light of subsequent events,
however, the peaceful condition that ensued
was only superficial. The deep-seated evil
remained. At this time there were very few,
if any, American statesmen wlio had di-r.-nipd
the bottom of the tmuble whii'li had aiisen
from time to time for more than a quarter of
a century, and which was destined, in spite of
all compromise, to appear and reiippear until
it .should be cut from the Ixidy of American
life with the keen edge of the sword
Tin the present, howevei, theie «as quiet
The Compiomi-e lets of lh3t) \m h tla I i^t
and ptihip- the gieitest, of tho . tcinpnuN
pa(-ih( nittsuies which \\eie ou^iiiitcd md
cauad thiough Conj,it-b b> tht genius ot
Hlum Cln Shoith ifteiwuds h, bide
adau to the Senitt md M)u^ht ithi^bdo\ed
A^hlmd I buet u t fioiu tin iiduou^ c lies
oi jiublic lite
Tht pi=sitre of the Onuiibu-, Lul wis
stiicth \ piibtuitl ittluiniit 1 lit (.\ tut soon
showed that the iiwinl coii^ation^
■\\eie alteied b} its pio\i~ions Public opinion
wtsMituilh the vameasbefoie In the Not th
appeared a general, indefinite, and growing
hostility to slavery: in the S,,utli. a fixed
and resolute i.urpo-^. to defend aii<l to r.rtfiid
that institution. To the I'roideiit, whose party
was in the ascendency in nio>t of the Free
States, the measure was fatal. For, although
his Cabinet had advised him to >igii the bill,
the Wliigs were at heart o|i|iosfd to the Fugi-
tive-Slave Law ; and when In- gave his assent,
they turned coldly from him. In the Whig
Convention two years afterwarils, although the
8S
r\n-f:RSAL history.— the modkux
miD.
y\\>- ill.
Wliil..
till- (l.l.atis I'll iIk- (_ciiipr(inii.<e
the atltiili..ii lit' the i-..iintry was tunieil with
less atteiii|it was inaih- liy a few Anieriean
adventurers to gain possession of that ishiuil.
It was tliought by the iusurrectiouists that the
Cubans were ready to throw off the Spanish
yoi<e and to appeal to the I'uited States for
ainnxatiiiu. In order to eueourage such a
movement
General
X
American
soldier, .
rg
the South
and (jn
tl
efiecte.l a
an.ling,
wi
of f,ll„we
s, at \'i
nl
There was
howevei
, 1
Neither th
> Culians
th
snl.liels in
the isl:
lid
fz, a
l)anr
Ln,„.z and
Havana, trii
It was eo
sage .if I'res
unusual al)i
the Department of tlie Ii
Agriculture; liheral a|.|,
provenient of riveis and
of a national a>\lum fni-
seamen; a permanent
duties on imports and d
of American manuf
commnnii-atiMii liitwe.-n the
1 of :Mav, 18.10,
onsiderahle body
•\ port of Cuba.
Awi in liis tavor.
-nor the Spani.-li
,1 tlie insurgent's
and Lopez was obliged to seek safety
ling to Florida. But he was not sat-
h his e-X]ierience as a revolutionist.
llowiiig year lie renewe.l the attempt.
of four hundred an<l eighty
le laniled in Cuba. They
ttacked, defeated, and cap-
vhelming force of Spaniards,
ringleaders were taken to
iidemned, and executed.
1 that the first annual mes-
Fillmore was a document of
;\[any important measures
were diseussed and laid liefore Congress for the
considi^ratiou of that boily. Among these were
the following: A system of cheap and uniform
postage; the establishment, in connection with
the Pacitic
terior, ofaBurean ..f
(ipriations for the im-
larliors ; the building
li-abled and destitute
tariff, with specific
liscrimination in favor
nres; the opening of
Mississippi and
ticnltirs ill California; an act f^r the retire-
aiid navy; and a btiard ot' commissiones to
adjust the (daiiiis of private citizens against the
• iovernment of the I'liiied States. Only two
ot' these recommendations— the asylum f.r
sailors and the settlement of the land claims
in California — were carried into eiiect. For
the President's party were in a minority in
Congress, and the majority refused or mg-
lected to approve his measures.
At this epoch, still another and serious
tronlile arose between the United States and
(ireat Britain. According to the existing
treaties between the two countries the coast
fisheries of Newfoundland belonged exclusively
to England, but outside of a line drawn three
nules from the shore the American fisherinan
had eijual rights and privileges. In cour.-e of
time a contentinu .sprang up between the
fishermen of the two nationalities as to the
location of the line. Should the same be
drawn from one headland to another, so as to
give all the bavs and inlets to Great Britain?
or should it be'ma.le to co„f„m to the irreg-
ularities of the coast'/ I'lider the latter con-
struction, American fishing-vessels might sail
into the hays and harbors, and there ply their
trade. P.iit this privilege was denied by Great
Biirain, and the ipiarrel arose to such a height
that lioth nations sent men-of-war into the
contested waters. The difficulty began in
1852, and extended over a period of two ytars.
At length reason triumphed over passion, and
the difficulty was happily .settled by negotia-
tion. The right to take fish in any of the bays
of the British possessions outside of a marine
league from the shore was conceded to Amer-
ican fishermen.
The summer of 18.52 was noted for the
vi-sit of the Hungarian patriot, Louis Kossuth,
to the United States. He made a tour of the
country, and wa< everywhere received with
that Austria and Russia had united against
Hungary, and had overthrown the liberties of
that land. Kossuth came to America to plead
the cause of his country and to conciliate pub-
lic opinion in behalf of the cause which he
represented. He also sought to obtain such
1st ;
iient of the land dif- those favc
Hm
Hi
THE UNITED STATES. — THE SIXTH DECADE.
missiou was highly successful, aud although the
loug-establisheil policy of the United States, uot
to have entangleiueuts aud alliances with
foreign nations, forbade the Government to
interfere in behalf of Hungary, yet the i)eople
in their private capacity gave to the cause of
freedom in that land aliumlant contributions.
To this epoch in our history belong the first
endeavors on the part of explorers to make
known the regions about the North Pole.
Systematic attempts were now made to enter
of Franklin, but returned without
Henry Grinnell, a wealthy meichant
York, fitted out several vessel-, at hi^
peuse, put them under connuauil ot J^n
Ue Haven, aud sent thciu to tlit ^
in vain. The G(jvcrnMRMit emit tn d
aid. In l«5.3au Arctic s,,ua(li n \\ i^ .
and the commaii.l "ivm to Di LM
Kane; but tliis expedition al- >, thiiu_l
scientific results, returned withmit tht
ery of Franklin.
success.
of NeN\
■ lUipi:
I K.
and exploie tht \
184.5, 8ir John Fi ^n
English seamen, ade 1
ery to the extreme N
possibility of a pa« a
sea into the Pacific
unknown distance m tint liiectim but the
extent of his succe^ ^\as ue\ei a«cei tamed
Years went by, and no tidings came from the
daring sailor. It was only known that he had
passed the country of the Esquimaux. Other
expeditions were at length sent out in search
Vol. IV.— 6.
mtete t
hil Ie\ t 1 the n 1^1 t his lite His
eaine tne an 1 zeil ml piweis of lebate
placed him in the front rank of American ora-
tors. As a statesman, however, he was wed-
ded to the destructive theory of State Rights;
and the advocacv of this doctrine asjainst the
90
UXIVEBSAL HISTORY.- THE MODEUX WORLD.
siipremacyofCougressaud the nation has placed Government to enter into a Triparlite Treaty,
hiiu on a lower level than that of his great so-called, in which each of the contracting ua-
conternponiries, Weljster and ('lav. At the tions was to disclaim then and forever all in-
age <
f sixty-eight
he f.-ll fn.i,
hi^ ph,
._■. like a
tention ..f rraiiiii
scarrt
<1 oak of tl
■ fu-ot. m-\
-.' again.
pr..|.osal Mr. ]•
Then
followed th
• d.ath of t
l„- I'lVM
l.iit. al-
al.l.-.t pap.Ts ,
read J
mentinii.d
ThMi, . n
h. -I^th
.f Jan.',
I).|.artiiiciit ..t
tie. <
He.in Cia
ink to i.-l
, liaMii^ h
Oil the L'4t
lljlt hi-
1 ..t ill.
1 i~t l.at
..||..U11I^
Hiilain an.l 1-^
('ill, a was f..r.-i..
Or[<.\
. 1 th. ilhi>l
11 .11. Dam.
W. I.M.
1 .I1..I at
m.-nt: that the
hl~ h
pl.u-e
of Seciftai
-hliel.l, Ma
y of State,
-adu.Mt
ma.le \
t^. Th.
I. ant hv
ri,il,-.l Stat.-, a
p..litic; that en
.f (•
T.i th
.,f th
■ death, wa- conferred on Ed\\;
III EuL.pe the ni w. of L.M»
1...I faith NN.iMJ.l hf kept
with Spain an.l with all nath.ns, hut that the
Fe.liTal Government did not recognize in any
Enropean power the right to meddle with
atiairs pui'elv American, and that, in ac-
crdance with the d..ctrine set forth hy
President M..nr.i,-, any .-u.di interference
would he regarded as an ati'ront to the
sovereignty of the United States. Snch
were the last matters of importance cm-
necte.l with the Admini>trati..n ..f Presi-
.l.iit Filln...r.'.
The lime now drew ..n f..r an..ther
Presidential election, ami th.- |..ilitical
])arties marshaled their f.irces tor th.- cn-
t.->t. Franklin Pierce, ..f New Ham,,-
^^\
\, u ( )i 1.
the Goverr
iiffected t.)
Fian.-.
um anil
It. of (4reat r.iit.
lieve that til.- <
pnrp.>se of th.- rnil.-.l Stat.-^ wa- t.i ae.piire
C'ld.a hy .-on, pi, -I— that tin- .Vin.-ri.-an (;..v-
of Lopez.
Acting upon this theory the British and
French ministers pr..)insed to the American
■\VinH.-lil S,-.,lt as theeli.,iee..f the Whigs.
'J he .pu..ti<in at i.-->ue, so tar as one c.uld
he f.iimulated, was the Gompromise Actsof
l.'-SO. But the parties, strangely enough,
in-tead of being divided on that issue,
were for once agreed as to the wisdom and
justice of the measure. Both the Whig
and Democratic platforms stoutly reaf-
firmed the principles of the Omnibus Bill, '
by which the dissensions of the country had
he,-n .piiet.-.l.
The phil,,s.,phi.- eve may di>c..ver in this
nnaniniitv th.- .-xa.-t e..n,liti..ns ..f the univer-
sal rev..lt a-aiii>t tie- jiriiM-ipl.-s s.. >t..utly
afiirnie.l. G-rtain it is that when the tw,. po-
litical parties in any modern nation agree t.)
maintain a given theory and fact, that theory
and fact are destined to speedy overthrow.
The greater the unanimity the more certain
the revolution. It was so in the present in-
stance. Although the Whigs and Democrats
agreed as to the righteousness of the Omnibus
Bill, a thir.l party arose whose members,
THE UNITED STATES.— THE SLYTH DECADE.
■wliether Whigs or DeiiK.icrats, doubted
denied the wisdom of the Compromise of 1850,
and declaretl that all the Territories of tiie
United States ou-ht to l.c five. .T,,hii 1'.
Hale, of New Ilaiuiishirf, was \<i
the candidate of this Free-.'j'^il party, and the
largeness of his vote showed unmistakably the
approach of the coming sturm. Mr. Pierce,
however, was elected by a luiiHlMmir iiKijnrity,
and William R. King, of Alabama
Vice-President.
Franklin Pierce was a native of" ?s
Hampshire, a graduate of B(jwil()iu (Jii
a lawyer by profession, a politician, a
general in the Mexican War, a statesman
of considerable ability. Mr. King, the
Vice-President, had for a long time rep-
resented Alabama in the Senate of the
United States. On account of failing
health he was sojourning in the i-laml
of Cuba at the time of the iuaugurati'>ii,
and there received the oath of offirv.
Growing still more feeble, he retu
his own State, where he died on tlie l^tl.
of April, 1853. As Secretary of Stat,'
under the new Administration, William
L. Marcy, of New York, was chosen.
At the epoch of the accession of Pierce
to the Presidency, the attention of t
country began to be called again to tl
necessity of improved means of conimmi
cation between the East and West. Pvai
roads had now been extended across tin-
older States of the Union and had at
length reached the Mississippi River; but
the vast territories lying west of the Father
of Waters were still unexplored, except
by the .slow-going movements of primi-
tive times. The question of a Pacific rai
was now agitated, and as early as the sui
of 1853 a corps of engineers was sent oi
the Government to explore a siiitaV
At the first the enterprise was regard'
majority of the people as visionary; but
intelligent minority discerned clearly euougl
the feasibility, and indeed the inevita
cess, of the enterprise. In the same year of
sending out the engineers the disputed
ary between New Mexico and the Mexican
province of Chihuahua was satisfactorily set-
tled. The maps on which the former treaties
-with Mexico had been based were found to be
Pein, of tl„ W II ol 1-
squadi.m juto the b.n
warned to depart, he ex]il.i
officer* the sincere decile ot tin I
to enter into a coniniercial treaty with the
Emperor. Atter much delay and hesitancy
on the part of the Japanese Government, con-
UMVERSAL IIISTOL'V.— THE MODEKN WORLD.
bet«,.-i,tli:,
Penv. A I
.f ilu- riiiic.l Si
was s(i(.n f..llnu,,l l,y the still ,-ivater tililuis-
l.riii- (■xiic.liti.ms <,r (inuial William Walker
inlo Ciitral Ai.uiira. This an.larious an.)
II iillic(i- laiil lief'ore iniscni]n
V fiiihi iIk' President , in l^'^l.
lir tiovernment of , in I'alil.
■V ..r ace,.|.tiii,>:- the San Fnii
l' until thcsprin.uof , < )1,1 Call
llirt.-.l. The ,,rivi- man-he.l
■ent ..n La Paz, in
Ih.xNin- siiiiiiL:, he
TS",4 that a tivaty ua- .11,
leo-es ..f ,-ni,n„.iv,. unv l
Ani.-iiran vr><.l>, an.l tuo p
aesiLiiiate,! lia- llaar n<e.
While these events NV.Te
for Ka.t the s.eon.l WoiiuV i'air was ,,|.en.Ml,
in the Ci v.-lal Palace, .New Vmk. It was the
■re >tan.lawl ..f rev<.ll. lli< hand, li..w..v,a-, uen
.- , s,'alt,-re,l an,l l,ll„M-ir ina.le |.ns,,ner. 1.
,1. ^ot satistied ui
arcliitecture. In
and glass. Tl
arts and niannl
\vere ].nt .m .
buildin-. The
(.r the «hnl.-
twn, and with this haud-
lid pnieeeded to Central
Anierha. lie was now
'insur::en't native,-, and
with Ihe-e he f..uj,tan,l
l^V,. In the .see.in.l
.nnlliet, at Viroin Pav,
1,.. natir.n. The s
ni. snn.n.er, when his
Hillucnr,. had lieeonie s„
oi-.at that he was ,.leet.'.l
l'i,>idrnt ,if Meara-
uiia. Soon afterwards
there was a change in
\ i:iiat insurrection ensued
luntv, and the nther Central
s. a>'si>t..l l)V the Vanderhilt
whns'e rights he had
uainst him. He was
,,veiihn>\Mi. and i.n the 1st (if May, 1857, was
ai:ain made prisimer. In a short time, ho\v-
e\-er, he was l',Mitl(i(.>e, and, making his way to
New < >i leans, he sneee.'deil in organizing a
thinl ,nn,panv of a.lv.ntuiers- men whe ha.l
cv.rytliin- tn' ^ain and nothing to lo>e. On
the I'otli of Nnvrmher l)e was successful in
reaeliing I'nnta A renas, Nicaragua, but within
le,-^ than a iiHmth he was obliged to surrender
tn Cnmin.idoiv Panhling. ..f the United States
Navv. He wa> taken as a eaotive tn New
THE UXITKD STATES— THE SIXTH DECADE.
York, but, regaining lii> hi
his scheming, and in June
Central America for the tli
commanded a ( mi-id
army he made a (U
duras; but the Pit-
sisted by a Biiti'-h
powered and captured
nearly the whole baud.
On the 3d of Sep-
tember, Walkei ^^ as
brought to trial by a
court-martial at Trux-
illo, was condemned
and shot. The cour-
age with which he met
his fate has half re-
deemed his forfeited
fame, and left after
times in doubt whether
he shall be called fa-
natic or hero.'
To Pierce's Ad-
ministration Inlnll.-
the episode in Am i
icau history km luii i-
the M.VRTrx Ko-^/i v
Affaiu. .Ala 1 tin
Koszta had been a
leader iu the Hunga
riau revolt again-t
Austria, iu l<S4i)
After the suppression
of the rebellion he fled
to Turkey, whence he
was demanded bv the
Austrian Government
as a refugee aud
traitor. The Tuiki'-h
authorities, however,
refused to give him
up, but agreed that
he should be sent
into exile to some
foiviiiii laud, ue\ei ti
upon (.-hdr^e the Vnitid bt
.ll.l.
tol
( W
til hi.
kt N , ,
lit
<.ii
lUMJIo
Hnn
pi. .1111
lit
an
.f-ua
iiat Nt.
o^,l-
and N
IS of
iplete
Tur-
>imer
ened
'The poet Joa(iiun
been a member uf AA i
invasion of Central Auu i
balnieil the memory of Ir
Wilh Walker in Nica,,,
conciliate the good (ii>iir
nit hnn on boai
Tin Ameiiean oihci.
K<i-7ta's ielea--e ,
94
VM VERSA L niSTOHY.-rHE MODERN WORLD.
ThereuiKUi, C;i]it;iiii Duncan
loaded his guns, juiinted tluiii
vessel, aud was al)()iit tu niak(
it was a-ret-d l.v all parties tli
W- |.nt in ,l,arj.. of lU- Fn-,
until liisnatinnalltv >l.nnld \m
In tlii> CMnditinn ..t
-inn x„ r.an.n
r at Wa>hin.u--
the Anieric-au
espoudence on
dec
tion was i^iviii kwv Un- <
Hiilsenian— the An.-trian n
toil — and William L. M;
Secretary of State. The
the sulijeot was one of the ablest discussions on
record, and extended, before its termination, to
almost every i|nestinu afli-ctiug naturalization
and citizenship, and, indeed, to many other
important topics of international law. Mr.
Marcy was completely triumphant in his argu-
ment, and Kn>zta wa< remanded to the United
States. Of .-" nineh iinp.atauce is the life of
one mail, when it involves the great question
of human rights.
The bad state of feelings cherished by Sjiain
towards the United States after the invasion
of Cuba by Lopez did not readily subside.
In 1853-54 the jjeaceable relations of the two
countries were again endangered on account
of Cuban complications. President Pierce be-
lieved that, owing to the financial embarrass-
mentsof the Spani-sh Goveinnient, Cuba might
now be purchased at a lea.-onalile price and
annexed to the United States. It can not be
doubted that there had existed for some time,
on the part of Democratic Administrations, a
covert purpose to obtain possession of Cuba,
and this again with respect to the institution
of slavery. For a quarter of a century the
South, embodying the slaveholding sentiment,
had seen with alarm the overwhelming growth
of the North and of the free institutions cher-
ished by the Northern people. Against this,
Southern statesmen had sought to op]).i=e the
machinery of the Government; and niany
were the devices adopted to prevent that natu-
ral course of atiliir- which poi
tended the lim-
itation of the -lave-y-t.-m.
The desire to
purchase Cuba wa> o„e of tl
ose devices by
which it was hoped to keep n
) the equipoise
of the South an.l of the .-yste
n of slave-lahor
on the one side, as against llu
North and the
system of free-labor on the oil
cr.
The duty of adjusting th
e delicate vvh-
tions of the United States and Spain with re-
sjiect to the i>Iand was intrusted at first to
!Mr. Soule, the American Minister at Madrid ;
but afterwards James Buchanan and John Y.
^lason were added to the Commission. A con-
vention of the anibas.?adors of the various
Governments concerned was held at Ostend,
and an important instrument was there drawn
up, chiefly by ^Mr. Buchanan, known as the
Ostend ;Masifi:sto. The (hjcument was
chiefly devoted to an elaborate statement of
the arguments in favor of the purchase and
annexation of Cuba by the United States as
a measure of sound wisdom to both the Span-
ish aud American (iovernments; but nothing
fif practical importance resulted from the em-
liassy or the manifesto. The logic of events was
against the purchase, and the question at length
lapsed.
The time had ik^w come for the territorial
organization of the great domains lying west
of ]Miiinesota, Iowa, and Jlissouri. Already
into these vast regions the tides of immigra-
tion were pouring, and a government of some
kind became a necessity of the situation. One
must needs see, in the retrospect, the inevitable
renewal under these conditions of the slavery
question as the most important issue which
was likely to affect the creation of new Ter-
ritories and new States.
In January of 1854, Senator Stephen A.
Douglas, of Illinois, brought before the Senate
of the United States a proposition to organ-
ize the Territories of Kansas and Neliraska.
In the bill reported for this purpose a clause
was inserted providing that the people of
the two Territories, in forming their Con-
stitutions, shmdd decide for themselves whether
the new States -•-hould be free or slaveholding.
This was a virtual repeal of the Missouri
Compromise; for both of the new Territories
lay north of the parallel of thirty-six degrees
and thirty minutes, above which line it had
been provided in the ]Mi.-souri compact that
slavery, m- involuntary servitude, should not
exist.
What the ulterior motive of Senator Doug-
las was in thus opening anew a question which
had been .-ettled with so great difficulty thirty-
three years before, can not well be ascertained.
The friends <if that statesman have claimed
that his action in the premises was based upon
THE UXITED STATES.— THE SIXTH DECADE.
a theory that all the Territories of the Union
should, as an abstract and general proposition,
be left entirely free to decide their domestic
institutions for themselves. The opponents of
Douglas held that his object \va> in this covert
manner to open the \a^t domain of Kansas
and Nebraska to the in-titiitiou of slavery,
and that thereliy lit- hoped to ■secure the ever-
lasting gratitude of the South, to the •-u]iport
of which he looked in his a.>-pirati(iii^ fur the
Presidency. However this may be, the etilct
of his measure in the Senate was inevitalile.
At a single stroke the old settlement of the
slavery question was undone. From January
until May, Douglas's report, known as the Kan-
sas-Nebraska Bill, was debated in C'ongre-^.
All the bitter s.-rtiolial antagoniMu- (.f the
past Nvere aroused in full i\<rrr. The bill was
violently opposed by a majorit_y of the repre-
sentatives of the East and the North, but the
minority from those sections, uniting with the
Congressmen of the South, enabled Douglas to
carry his measure through Congress, and in
May of 1S54 the bill was passed and received
the san<'tioii of the President.
No s(joner had this act for the organization
of the two Teri'itories been passed than the
battle which had been waged in Congress was
transferred to Kansas. Whether the new
State should admit shivery nr exclude it, now
depended iip(jn the vote df the people. Free-
State men and Slave-State men both made a
rush for the Territory, in order to secure the
majority ; and both parties were backed by
factions throughout the Union. As a result,
Kansas was soon tilleil with an agitated mass
of people, thousands of whom had been sent
thither to vote. On the whole, the Free-Stale
partisans gained the advantage on the score
of immigration; for their resources were
greater, and their zeal no less. But the pro-
slavery party had a corresponding advantage
in the prtixiniity <.F the great slave State of
Missouri. With only a modest river between
her western borders and the prairies of Kansas,
she might easily discharge into the Territory a
large part of her floating population, to be re-
manded when the i.urpnse for which it was
sent across the boun(hu-y had been subserved.
At the Territorial election of November,
1854, a pro-slavery delegate was chosen to
Congre.ss, and in the general election of the
following year the same party was triumph-
ant. The State Legislature, chosen at this
time, assembled at the town of Lecompton,
and organized a Government and framed a
Constitution permitting slavery. The Free-
Soil party, however, declared the general
election invalid on account of fraudulent vot-
ing. A general convention of this party was
held at T.ipeka, \\h<-re a Con^itution exelu.ling
-la\ery \\a- adopt( d. A lival (Government
tween the tw" faetinn-.
From the aut\nun of l-Soo until the follow-
ing sunniK r the Territory was the scene of
constant tuiniud and violence. On the od of
September the President appointe<l John W.
Gear}', of Pennsyhania, Military Governor of
Kansas, with full jinwers to rest<ire order and
punish lawlessness. < )n his arrival warlike
demonstrations cens.il. and the hostile parties
scattereil to their lionies. Meanwhile, how-
ever, the agitation having its center in the
Territory had extended to all ]iarts of the
Union. The questions thus rais<(l were
those on which the people of the Uniteil
States divided in tlie Presi.lential election of
l.Soli.
There was now no lack of an issue. James
Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, was nominated as
the Democratic candidate. By planting himself
uyivi:i;SAL history.—tuk modern world.
THE IMllh sj \11S—1HE SIXIH ]>I( \DL
subject mattei of the dt u-k
the destmie'! of the hhukin
for a eonbiflei ible jxu "I tl
Ameutin p( ople Dml ^
and hid been held i~ 1 -1 IX
Emei-(ui nt Mi-nmi i mu.
Stites uin\ In c .,11 . ot 111,1. ] 1,1.
m.neil t > 1!." k Mm 1 III111..1- ,1,
wiid>, lu 1<S3(. t . 1 ..It ^11. llii,_ M
lu these iemi)\ lU ^1 .tt w , tik. 11 il
sla\e AtthelUtei pli, ehi m.l 11,,.,.
who hid beeu bought 1)\ th. -iii_i
miiiied Two chihheii \\u. b..ii, ..1
in_. ui.l then th. vh..l. t,i,iiU w.
bi, k t..st L.iui^ 111.1 -.1.1 l)i..l N,
,t Ml
.. Ill
pint lilt to
l^'ll) \\ I- HI
(.>ll-tlUltl..|i ll 1
1.1 \..l,l 111 th.-
It It
.i,_|..- u\
1 pIllH.Il- -l\
i--.u,t, luMi.
~.,1 111, ^„l, II,
tt. lit
l.ll .,t tlK
];. mil— A\ n
11. ^.b..ll (,i
. I.ini.l ( ,1,,,,
u l^
I N._|.,
bill 111.1 ( It
. 11 — ,,11. nil.. 1
uliil. lu., ,- ,„1
\ 1 I
.It. Ill 1)1
it.s— TikL.^
AI.I . Ill 111.1
( ,lltl~-.ll- .llt.ll
1 111
11. I l,lt..l
111. d,tIM,.II
,.t ll,. I,l,l..l
IN Ul,l. h U 1 U
/. ll..ll-l\
111- t..l
th. .h. tuiii .,t the C.uit
It will bo leiiieiiibeiPil thit
oue cHiise
til, ■-
i|,i.
11. Cult ..t
th.
I n
t..l •-'it.-.
ill,,,
1..I ll
tlu
..lit
iiiitt, 1 h\
AftLl
the
DemoLi iti.
tuumi
ihiu
185b anil the
acces-
(III
)f B,i(.h\uxii
M th.
Pi
-i.h 11, \ th.
p.,lt,Ul. t.,1 ^UlU^. I
qiiietii> to the d.Ktimes ^'
ot th, Fiee S.nl piit:\,
nil 1 th. .1. . 1 I ,11 wi- it
„ii,, i-,i..l Ill^[u.h
1,S57, Cliiet - Justice
Rig-er B. Taiie_v, speaking f..i- th.' ('..iirt, ,1..
cided that negroes, whether fV.'.' or slav.', ,,'./■
nut rlliy'iK of thr Unlh.l St,ifr.<, ,„„/ //,„/ //,,■
Cn„!.l ».,/ hrrniHP .olrh l„, .,„,, ;„-,„rss /,•„„„,, ^, //,
Cin4lt,if;,>„; that 1111, ha- tli." law^ ..f th.' riiii.'.
States a negro eoiihl ii.'iih.a' sii.' nor ln' sii...]
and that therefor.' th.' ('..iirt ha.l 11., iiiri-.li,'
tiou of Dred S.'ott's ,-ui-e; that tli.. slav.' wa
to be regarded simidv in th.- li-lit ..f n |..'i
That
:iv,dv
Til.
.1 thet
bv th.' :\b.iii
■v ha.l is.'ap,'.
■,.f th.' Unit,
iselves ill win
'Ssible c..lllltr\
,f rtah Terri-
'.'iipi.'.l alna.st
ir Latt.r-Day
lallv fn. Ill the
it.'s, aii.l had
American iii.li.'ial s\
sonal chattel, an.] that he inii.
from place to pla,:'e bv his own,
piece of propertv : that the d
to the slaveholder the ri-lit <,f
through any State or T.rritorv
an.l of returnins: at his will \
.'state where slavery was r,','.iL
an.l that, therefore, the ^Nlis-oi
of 1.S20, as well as the C..iiipr..ii
.v.'.l Thus far Briohani Y
tl„.|- an.l r;ovcrnor. ha.l.
. At l.n-tli, h..v
la.h' t.. .xt.'ii.l th
..v.r th.' T.'rritoi-}
I,.' florin.. 11 Pr..ph«
h.a.l ..f th.' theo,
in tl,.' a.lministr:
iiiinitv ..f ^b.nn..r
v.'rv ililK'ivnt tn.i
rritnri.'s, „,„1 man
UXIVEESAL HISTORY.— THE MDDEUX WOULD.
When the Fe.lfral Jiiaue ,m,- -eiit out in
1857 to preside in tlie Tcrrilmy, he \\a~ re-
ti-ted, insulted, and driven \inlujtly In^ni the
seat of justice. The other ottieial^ of the
Federal (iovernmeut were in a like manner
expelled, and the Territory Iircanie the M-ene
of a reigni
.f terror.
Tlie Mniniouv idaimid
in JListificati
m <.f thcii
action that the otticei^
^\ho had 1h,
n -ent Ml
t to govern them were
of ^o Inu a
ehara.-t. r
a- h) conimaml no re-
sjioi-t. But
theexrUM.
«a~ deemed in>uffieieut,
and Brighai
. Youuu
«a~ Mip( i-idcd in the
Government
l,y All,
d Cummnij, Sup, iin-
tendcnt of I
i.dian Atn
11- ..u the UppM .Ml--
souri. Jud'
e Delana
i;. EekeK, of In.hana,
mand of Colonel Allieit Sidney Johnston,
were obliged to find quarter- on Blaek's Fork,
near Fort Bridges.
In the meantime, the President dispatched
Thomas L. Kane, of Pennsylvania, with con-
ciliatory letter- to the Mormons. Going by
uay ol' ('ahf.nna, he i,a.-hed Utah in the
iu bringing about an understamling between
Governor Gumming and the Mormons. In tne
latter jiart of May, Governor Powell, of Ken-
tu( k\ , and ^[ajor JMcCulloch, of Texas, arrived
was appointed Chief-Justice of the Territory,
and an army of two thousand five hundred
men was sent to Utah to put down lawlessness
by force.
Brigbam Young and the IMoniion elders
were not, however, disposi-d to yield without
a struggle. The antagonism of the people of
the Territory was excited to the highest
degree. The American army was denounced
as a horde of barbarians, an<l preparations
were made for resistance. In September of
1857 tlie national forces ent.red the Territory,
ami on the Cth of October a cmpany of Mor-
mon rangers attacked and destroyed most of
the supply trains of the army. Winter came
on, and the Federal forces, under the com-
at tic h. ad ipiarters of the army, bearing from
the I'li-ideiit a jiroclamation of pardon to all
who would .-ubniit to the national authority.
The Mormons in general
accepted the overture.
In the fall of this year
the army marched to
Salt Lak. City, but was
alt( luaid- (piartered at
( '.imp Floyd, forty miles
di-tant. At this place
the Federal forces re-
mained until order was
re-tored, when, in May
of 18fi(), they were with-
diawn from Utah.
Meanwhile, in 1858,
an .Vmerican vessel, sail-
ini; innocently up the
Paiaguay Riser, on an
exiiloiini; expedition,
wa- tired on by a jeal-
ous garrison. Repara-
tion for the insult was
demanded, but none was given, and the
Government of the United States was obliged
to send a fleet to South America to obtain sat-
i.sflictiou. A civil commis-sioner was sent with
the squadron, who was empowered to offer
liberal terms of settlement in respect to the
injury. The authorities of Paraguay quailed
before the ap]iroaching fleet, and suitable apol-
ogies were made for the wrong which had been
committed.
The vear 1^")8 was memoraljle in the his-
tory of the United States and of the whole
world for the completion and laying of the
first Teleuraphic Cable across the Atlantic
Ocean. It was on the 5th of August iu this
year that the great enterprise was successfully
THE UNITED STATES.-
completed. The work was; iliir in a lari.^o
measure to the energy and genius cf ( "vnis \V.
Field, a wealthy merchant (if Xiw Ynric City.
The first cahle'was one tlmusand six hundred
and foity miles in l.n,-th, ext.ndiu- from
Trinity Bay, NeNvfoundhmd, t- Val.ntia Ray,
Ireland. Telegraiiliir r muuicatinn was thus
established for a lirief sra>on Intwr.-n the Old
World and the New, and tli.- tiat.anal greet-
ings of peaceful nations on the two sides of
the Atlantic were fir tin- lir-t tiiuo transmitted
through tiie depths of the m-h. rntnrlunat.ly,
however, the eahle whieh, as at fir-t em-
ployed, was ill adapted to its pur|Mi.<e. In a
short period it was paitei] cm a net, and the
enterprise was thouudit liy the unhopeful to
have end. d in failui,
In isos the Tdiitoiv of Alnnu-ila wa-
organized and admitte<l into the I'aion The
area of the new State \\as a litth moii tli.m
eighty-one thousand ■-fpiare niih -, and u- po[i-
ulatioQ at tla d iti of idnn-ion iliout i hun-
dred and htt\ thouMud In the follow uig
year Oregon, the tlmt\-thiid State of the
Union, was admitted, bringing a population
of forty-eight thousand and an aiea of eighty
-THE SIXTH DECADE.
Texa
as a General in the War for Texan inde-
ence has already been mentionecl. His
career had been marked by the strangest
vicissitudes. He was a \'iiginian by
h, but his youth had lieeu hardened
among the mountains of Tennessee. He
gained a military fame in the Seminole
W u and - on b\ the f ice of his chai-
Kx^
Ttel 1 M t 1 lltl. d dl
tinct
ion He
w \s elected << \i im i ( t
1( nn
(ssee hut
while m the full tid. t 1
111- 1
(.1,(1. l,(\
hw life wa- '-uddenh \u
hi 1
w 1 with
a ilome^tic calannt\ the n.
ituie
ot whuh
his ne\ei been fulh a-t
eltu
md He
Middenh i,-iu,udhl-,thee
ktt
his home,
iiid <\di 1 hini lit ini n^
the
Lheiokee
Inliin^ ml u ,. | i - nth
(1(1
t. d as one
ot then (hi 1 \lt iw ii
Is 1,
. went to
Texas loin. 1 il Vn n '
11 1 1
it\ theie,
be(.ame its h i 1 i ml w i^
,h
s, 1, Pusi
dent I f th. ^tite iftei
the
siueessiul
stin__l( f 1 iiKhiu.hiKP
H.
-i^as next
sent In tlu Lej.ishtuu
I t
T(xis to
lepiesent the new Com
^ ilth m
the Senate of the Unitei
1 St,
ates. lie
thousand s,[i,aie miles It was ,,n tin 4tli of
March in tliw Neai that Gem lal Sun Houston,
(loo) uxivi:hsal iiistohy.-tiik moders would.
lu the year iSo'.t dicl Wasliiii-tnn Iiviiii;-, an ackiKiwlctlgmeut of the jxiwer and origi
who might at tlic time fi' his .Icatli lif i. -aid.'.! nality
„rr,vali„L' for his iialivr lainl a litenuT rank thmis
ainuim thenatinns,,f lu.Hlcrn liinrs. Onlx.th llial a
si, Irs of the Athiiitir his „anio ha^l lircmie doMin
fan,iliar as a hnuM.lml,! uoni. Ho it was. Wall,
olll
lir,.sci
reviou.s of Ell-land and
\niericau genius. When ]\Iurray,
kseller of Lomhm, was i)1)liged to
:,■ inanns,-ri|.t ,if JSrarrhri,!,,,- Hall,
l,a,l n,,t yot ,-,Mn, tlio sum ,.f a
fiiinoas, it was n,. |,,n-or d,>iil)tful
i,'ri,'an lit.a-ary -.niu- ha,l apiu.ared,
iniivor>al nM-,i;;niti,,n. ]':xcc])t Sir
lini,-s lia,l ivcfived s<i niniiili,;ent a
his labor.
/."i
Cmat-tkh cxxi\^ —disunion and civil war.
■r tho direi'tion of the
n such a manner attack
]Mian\vhili', in Kansas tlie controversy, ever
u<i\ 1m ( inie constintl^ and aiioii, lir,jke out with addeil heat. But
ni,)ie heated th,' I'lC'-Soil party gradually gained the upper
)(lie\edb> the liainl, an, I it became evi, lent that slavery would
Territory. ]!ut an issue
11 civatcl between tli,' .North and
In the former the antislavery
I became intense. It set-
In -oni, ,it tied into a niiirirtinii which might not be
ited. In the S,iuth, on the otluT lian,!,
the conviction grew that it ua- tli,' settle,!
I'lit,
,. tl
i tn,'ir |ie,aiiiar in-
stitutions. Sneli was the alarmiui: e,,n,liti(m
of alliiirs when the time arrive, 1 f,ir li,>ldiiig
teenth Presidential ehction.
The ex<at,'iiient, as usual, rose l,ii;h. The
Five-
■]nihlican. A great c, invention
that party was held in Chicago,
Mirahain Lincohi, of Illinois, was nomi-
I'n-i.lency. A |datf,,rnM,t priiici-
,,li|i,,siti,in t,> the
In the ml, ,,f April tl,,' D,' aali,' ,-,m-
,■.1 at (■harl.st,,n, S,,utl, ( 'aro-
,iner had the bo,lv e,,uvned
istractiim of coniis.'ls was ap-
]iar,]ii. Ill,' delegates were ili\i,l,Ml mi the
n, and, after niii.-h il.-bating
the iiartv was ilisriiptiMl. The
THE UXITEf) STATKS.—DISUMOX AM) ( I\IL UAIL
delegates from the South, utialilc to olitaiu a
distinct expression of their views in the plat-
form of principles, ami -eehiL; that the Northern
wing of the party was detennineil tn iKHiiinate
Senator Douglas — the great delendei- ..I |in|.ular
sovereignty — withdrew from the eonveiitiou.
The remainder, embraein^ nmst of tlie ileieuates
from the Xorth, continued in se>>ien, haUoted
f,.r a while for a c^uididate, and on the 3d
of .May a.ljnnrne.l to jiahnnme.
In 'that'eity, on the IMh .,f dune, the dele-
gates of the Xortheni w inn; of the paity reassem-
bled and chose Doughis as their slandanl-hearer
in the approaching canvass. The seceding dele-
gates adjourned, first to Richmond and after-
wards to Baltimore, where they met on the 28th of
June, and n.miinated Jnhii ('. I'.n ■■kinrid-e, of
Kentucky. The Amenean, ..i- Kuow-Xothing,
party had hy this time Inst sumethin- of its
distnietive leatnres, and t.iuk the name of Con-
(I tl
•h tl
The Republicans now -ained hy their
compactness and the distinetness ,,f their ut-
terances on the slaveiv (jui.siinn. M<i-t ol'the
old Al.oliti.iiii-ts. theu.uh hv far uunr radical
than the RepuhHeans, ra.-t' in their tnrlunes
with the latter, and supported Linenhi. The
result was the triumphant election of the Re-
publican candidate, by the votes of nearly all
S(aithern States was for the most |,art uiven
to Breckinridge. The States of Viri;inia,
Kentuckj', and Tennessee cast their ballots,
thirty-nine in number, for Bell. Douglas re-
ceived a large popular, but small electoral,
vote, his supporters being scattered through
all the States, without the concentration neces-
sary to carry anv. Thus, after having con-
trolled the destinies of the Republic for sixty
years, with only temporary overthrows in 1840
and 1848, the Democratic party was broken
into fragments and driven from the field.
The issue of the Presidential election had
been clearly foreseen, and the results were
anticipated, at least in the South. The Seuth-
ern leaders had not hesitated to (h'clare, iluring
the campaign, that the choice of Lincoln
would be regarded as a just cause for a ilisso-
[ lution of the Union. Threats of secessii.u had
been heard on every hand; but in the North
such expressions were regarded as mere |ii,!it-
ical bravado, having little loini(hitiuu in tiie
actual purposes of the Southern peeph-. At
any rate, the Republicans ,,t' the pei.idous
North were not to be deterri'd lV<im votiui'-
according to their political eonvi.'li.ms. They
crowded to the polls, and their favorite received
a plurality of the electoral votes.
At this time the <iov(rnment, so far as
Congress and the Executive were eiuicerued,
was under the control <.l' the Douglas Democ-
racy. A majority of the memliers of the
Cabinet, however, and a large number of
Senators and Representatives beh.n^eil to the
Breckinridge party, and had imlnhed frnni a
pro-slavery education all of the tire-eating
propensities of the ixtreme Sduth. Such
members of Congress did not hesitate openly
to advocate the principles nt' seeessien as a
remedy for the election of Tiiicoln. In the
interim lietween the fall of ISC.O and the ex-
piration of m-. Bu.'hanan's term uf ,,tHce, the
animosity .d' the Southern l.'ad.rs reached a
climax. It was foreseen hy them that with
the ensuing spring all the departments ef the
Government would pass under llepuhliean
control. The times were full of pas^nu, ani-
mosity, and rashness. It was seen that, fnr the
States — was possilde ; hut that
should
ig Ad-
.1, dis-
■ of the
n.ealtit
,ire. lie was not
[irofe.ssion, a dis-
-, ho denied the
t at the same time
,.d with the Con-
postpone
ministration shonl.l he i
uninn wouldheinip.^-sihle
President favored the m.
him.self, in principle o
unionist. On the contr
right of a State to secede,
he declared himself not ;
stitutional power neccssar;
by force. Sueh a theor\
sufficient of itself t(] paralyze the remaiinng
energies of the Executive — to make him help-
less in the presence of the emergency. The
interval, therefore, between the Presidential
election in Xovember of 18(10 and the inau-
guration of Lincoln in the following spring, was
seized by the leaders of the South as the oppor-
tune moment for dissolving the LTniou.
I The event showed that the measure had
if eoVt
unent was
102
UMVEESAL niSrOJlY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
beci. (.ucfulh pupiiul Tlu aduil x\ ik nf
seci — •ion \\a^ hi^iiii j~ Jiiitrlit li \\ In c ii an
iKipitKl inS,utli( iiolun lli> cia (liMini. n
],r cliMtH- . t tint ^lit ln.I >lu. iIm, 1 m tlu
cnil.i- t..i tlmlN N. n- md u i. n w u i.l\
t„ lun-t f ith HI ihnu> <»n llu 17th (f
D.<,.nlKi l^(>(i I , u\ nti n <li Mn liN the
pt.-ih ( t "- nth( 11 Inii L-~ mill 1 it ( liul.^
t 11 mil iftii tliKi ili\^ nt ii i\ (li-( u-^ion,
)u"i 1 1 uMliiti 11 lint till I iiKin hitheifo
tMMinj 1„ l\\(.ii '-iiilh e 11 Imi anil tht (ithei
i-i 11.^ nn.ld tlu 111111. ot tht I nittil Matc',
Ol Vlll.ll 1 U l^lll" hl.l It « IS 1 vt, p „t
ue thiniMhc- fullv
v. \.
ALFXVNDER H 'STrPIIFhS
vei-al di^coiil Tin ai tmn ua^ (oiitmious.
The sentiment of diMiiiion v,,,, i,l like an
^h ii tinii till I lit 111 jiow iiu' States were
almost niuiiiiiuonslv in sii|iport of the measure.
V,v the hr-t of FeUniai-v, IMII, six other
-M,.H~~i|i|,i, Flo
Lo
Texas — hail passed ordi-
iiaiiees of si.epssion similar to that adopted by
South Carolina, and hail withilrawu fromthe
Union. Nearly all the Senators and Repre-
sentatives of those States, following: the lead
of their constituents, whom they themselves
liad instigated in their course, resigned their
seats in Congress, returned to the South,
osed
di-uiii 11 ili.l 111 I 1] 1 11 ill the conventions,
and thai xoi,,. un< nnheanl. The hot-
lit nUd Itid.i- ill till -eeis>ion enterprise
luvhed togethti, ciinnig \vith them the en-
thusiastic suppoit ot the planteis and the
■\ounfr politicians ot the Snnthein States, and
a lon-ideialih niiiiiiit\ \ ote was east against
di-iinion A few speakers boldly denounced
tlie measuie as dislo}al, bad in principle,
! uiuous in results The course of Alex-
andei H Stephens, afterwards Yice-Presi-
dmt ot the Confederate States, was pe-
tuliii Hi ippeaied in the Georgia
coiiveiilion, among a people with whom
his voice had hitherto been prevalent in
all matters atli?cting their interests. He
undertook on the floor of the convention
to stem the tide and to prevent the .=e-
a,h
Ued
lis intenti
the convi
tioii anil his .^tate, but at the same time
s|iiike against secession on the ground
that the measure wa.s imjtolitic, miivv^e,
iiinJ likehi to be disnMrou^ in iVs results.
Not a few other prominent men in differ-
ent Jiarfs of the South held the same
view; but the op|ii>site o|.inion prevailed,
and sceession was readily and eiithusiastieally
aei.implished.
/ The formation of a new Government fol-
lowed fast on the heels of disunion. On the
4ih of February, 1861, delegates from six of
the seceded Statei"~Itffiembled at Montgomery,
Alabama, and proceeded to form a new Gov-
ernment, under the name of the Confeder-
ate States of America. On the 8th of
the month the organization was completed by
the election of Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi,
as provisional President, and Alexander H.
Stephens as Vice-President. On the same day
of the meeting of the Confederate Congress at
Montgomery, a Peace Conference, so-called,
I\\T CI r\TION' OF TFFFFP^iiN D \M^ ^T ArO\Ti,nAIFRY
104 lyiVKnsAL nisioRY.-'iin: Miii'i-ns world.
assembled in Wa.-liin-ton City. I)rl,L':itt# pell. .1 in nturii. Thus in gl..,„n aii.l ,-rief an.l
from twcniv-nnr Stale- wviv la.Miit. ami llie tliu ui.lnavals nlu-vnluli.in, tli.- AdiuiniMialinn
optimists nnIiu c.inpnM.l the l.n.ly ,-till .li. anicd of .lan.ts llucliaiian drew t.. a (•l..^(•. S,i,li
of p.acr. Tlii-v prcpartd .•citain annii'lnit-nls was the dreadful condition of allairs iliat it
to the Cnu-tiluiii'ii nf tlie lidud State>. and was ilcenied juiident for tlie new Pioident U.
the >aine were laid l.efn.e ((.n-rt>s, with the approach the Capital without recogidlinn. Foi
rce,iuini<iidalioii that thev he adnpud. That the lii-t time in the hi^t-ry ..f the iiati-n, the
hedv. lie>ldv leathered Irnni th.^ people, aii.l Chief .Ma,i;iMrat<- of the lieptd.he .lipp.d int.
\Va,d,in;:t..n Cil
h,- S,,utheri, l.a.h r.-. ■■■aw lilll.- h...l t.. the s,.nal sitety.
nirn. lMlati..o^,an.l lh.C.>iif.r.nee.li>perM-.l The new Chief Ma-i.-trat.- was a man f.
ti..al r.-ulls. the h..ur an.l f-r the ep..cl,. II..
I was .-till ri,.-i.l.ait, an.l the thr..wn t.. ih.^ fr..iit hv th...-e i.m.-. >,
was >lill nn.ler th.' .lire.'ti.m ..f in ih.^ a.-n ::af, h-k so tnuch hk,. I'
th.. I).-,iMHiali.- party; hut !!,.■ .■nniitry >..-m...l Ahraham \.\ur.,\^^, the sixt.M-nth I'n.-l.l.nt .,f
on th,' ver.^e .,f ruin. It app. ar. d ' that the th.. Cnit, .1 Sial.s, was a K. iitu.'kian hy hirth :
Ship .,f State was purp..>elv .-t.'en.l .lir...llv hnrn in ih.. .■..untv La Ku.', ..n the iL'lli ..f
f.r the r.-.-k.. In th.' Kx.c'utive ] ),partinen't F-hruary, 1 MM). Hi,- anc.->t..rs ha.l imtni-ratcd
th.r.. wa- a .'..mpl.te paralv,-is. The ar.nv ddth.r fnmi l;....kinuham County, Vir-inia;
ha.l iM.n ,-. nt in .leta.-hm..|,t- t.i r..m..te tr.ait- l).ith liilh.r an.l na.ther were Virginians by
The tinan.-ial . i.-.lit ha.l run .hiwii t.. the 1..W-- <-v.r, K.nlu.-ky was simply a territ..rial ex-
e.-t .1,1.. The (;.,v.rnm.nt was nnalile to t.m-i,,u w , -I wanl ,,f th,- MM J ),,u,iid,,n. The
twelv,- ]„.r ,..ent. Th,- ,liv.-i>.- ,-,,.in-.-ls ,,f l,i< M-urily, It app.-ars that the fandly were poor
fri, n.l- ha.l .li,-tra,-t.-,l tl„- rr,--i,lent. He li, -- t,, the la>t ,l.-L;r.-e— m,-re ha.-kw.,.i.ls p.-.,ple of
itat.-.l, an.l kii.-w 11., t Hhi,-h wav t,, turn. With ; the |,,w,->t .,nl.r. In 1 SIC, the Ihtli.-r, Th.,inas
th.- ,-x.-,-pii,,n .,t F.,rl- Sinnt.'r an.l M,,ultrie, : Lin,-.,ln, r.-n,.,v..l t,, Sp.-neer .-ounty, In.li-
in Charl.-t,,n harh,,r, F,,it Fi,-k,-ns n<-ar Pen- ' ana-.j"-t ll"" ■•dniitt.-.l int., the rid.,n-an.l
.si.-,.la. an.l F.,rtr.- M,,hr,„-, in the Che-a- hnilt a .-akin in the w....ls near th.- pres-
].eake, all the imp,,rtant naval p.,rt- ami p,,>ts .-iit villa-.- ,,f C.-ntryvill.-. Thi-^pla.-.- was
in tie- -,-,-e,le,l Stat,- ha,l li,-.-ii .-eiz,-,l hv the th,- .-,-,-n,- ,,f Tin.-.iliiV li,,yh 1— a .-..nstant
C,,nr,-,l,rate autlen ili,-. ,-v,-n h.-f.-r.- ih.- ,,'rL:au- strui:ijl,- with p.,v,rly. har.l.-hip. an.l t.,il. At
izali,,n ,,f th,-ir ( I, -v.-rnm.-iit. M.anwhile. in tin- a-.- .-f MXt.-.ii we tln.l hini mana-in.i: a
far-,, If Kan-a- th,- |,,<-al warfan- ,-,,ntin n,-,l t,, f-rry a,-r,- tl;.- Ohi.,. ,,pp.,-it.- th.- .n,,ulh of
l,r,-ak .,ut at ftful int,-rvak : hut th.- Fr.-e An.l, i-,,m Cr.-,-k— a .-. rvi.-.- f.r which h<- was
Stat.- partv ha.l at la-t -ain.-.l a pl.-te ].ai,l ,-ix .l.,llar> a ln.,nlh. In his y,,nlh he
ase,i„l.n,-v', an, I the ,-ailv a.lmi.-,-i..n ,,f th.- r.-.-.-iv. .1, in th.- a,ijL:i.-,L:ate, al..,ul .,!..- y. ar'.s
n,-w C,m'ini,,nwealth, with tw., a.hlith.i.al -.1 lin-, w hi,-h was all he ever ha,l in the
l;.-pul>li,-an Senat,,i>, was a f,ir.-;;,ine i:t>\\- wav ,,f fhiiiial . .Iu.-ati.,n. lu the year of his
elu-i,,n. maj.rity h,- r.in.,ve,l with his fatlier's family
With the h.-i:inniim- ,.f th,- new year, the t,, the N,,rtli F,,rk ,,f the .Saiiffanion River, ten
I>r,->i,l.-nt r.,u-,-.l him-.-lf Cr a m..ment, an.l miles wot .,f H.-.-atur, in lilin.,i.-^. H.-re he
ma.h- a f.-ekh- att.-mpt t., reinf.,rce and pr,,- au,l his fath.-r huilt an,,ther l,,,>: h.^n,-.-, an.l
vi,-i,,n th,- -ani-,111 ..f F.,rt Sumter The op..n,-.l an.l fenced a farm. Her.- Ahraham
steam. -r St.tr nf llir IF,-,/ was a.-.-.,i,lin-ly sent T>in,-,,ln, pu-hiiii;- f .rth from th.- anc.-sti-al
,,ut with men an,l Mippli,-: hut th.- C-.idh.ler- ,-al,in, k,'-an for himself the har.l battle of
at,- w,-r,- lnlurm,-,l ,,f all that was ,|,,ne, and life.
ha,l n,. tn.ul
As tlu' >team,-r a|,i.r,,ache,l the harbor of
The un,-lear,-,l l,,re>t, the unkn,k.-n .-...il,
ppr,,acne,i me naruor oi ,,,|^^, .^.^^^^ ,^,jj.|. ^^^^^ ^^^^.^^^ ^^^ lumherer's axe;
Charl,-t,,n -h,- wa- tir,-,l ,,n by a Confederate ^j,,, |..,j,i,| that o'erbears the boatman's toll,
batterv, iilant.-,] f,ir that purpose, and com- The prairie, hiding the mazed wanderer'stracks,
THE UMTED STATES.— DISUXIOX AM) CIVIL ]VAR.
lO.j
'The amhuslied Indian, ami the
Such wore the nee<ls that heh
Rough cuhnre; liut^riic
If but their h^toeks );.
■ ti nit ma\
rtli an.l .-
Lincoln served as a flatbuatmau ou the
Mississippi, and after a trip to New Orleans
returned to New Salem, a town twenty miles
from Springfield, and became a clerk in a
country store. At the outbreak of the Black
Hawk War he was elected captain of a com-
pany, and went on a campaign into Wisconsin.
From 1833 to 1836 he tried business for him-
self, but a dissolute partner brought him to
bankruptcy. He then began the study of law,
for which he had always had a preference ;
soon gained the attention of his fellow-men,
and rose to distinction. His peculiar power,
manifested at all periods of his life, of seizing
the most difficult thought, and presenting it in
such homely phrase as to make the truth ap-
preciable by all men, made him a natural leader
of the people. In 1849 he served in Congress
for one term, where he distinguished himself
as a humorous speaker. As candidate for the
office of United States Senator from Illinois
in 1858, he first revealed to the nation, in his
great debates with Senator Douglas, the full
scope and originality of his genius. Two years
afterwards he was nominated and elected to
the Presidency. On his accession to office he
was fifty-two years of age. He came to the
Presidency under such a burden of care and
responsibility as had not been borne by any
ruler of modern times. On the occasion of
his inauguration he delivered a carefully pre-
pared address, declaring his fixed purpose to
uphold the Constitution, enforce the laws, and
preserve the integrity of the Union. From
the first it was the policy of his Administration
to ignore the action of the seceded States as a
thing in itself null, void, and of no effect.
At the head of the new Cabinet was placed
William H. Seward, of New York, as Secre-
tary of State. Salmon P^ Cliase, of Ohio,
was appointed Secretarv of the Treasury, and
Simon Cameron Secretary of War; liut the
latter, in the following January, was succeeded
in office by Edwin^^M. Stanton. The Secre-
taryship of the Navy was conferred on Gideon
Welles. In his inaugural address and first
official papers the President outlined not only
his theoretical, but his practical policy. The
latter was, in brief, to rejiossess the forts, ar-
senals, and public property which had been
seized by the Confederates, and to reestablish
the authority of the Federal Government in
all parts. The first military preparatimis and
movements were made with this end in view.
Meanwhile, on the 12th of March, a Imdy of
commissioners from the seceded States sought
to obtain from the National Government a
recognition of their independence, but the
negotiations were of course unsuccessful. Then
followed a -ecoiid attempt on the pait of the
Gii\(.inment tn u iiili'in tin _aiii-'in at Fnrt
IBRAHAM LINCOO
Sumter; and with that came the beginning
of actual hostilities.
The defenses in Charleston harbor were held
by Major Robert Anderson. His whole force
amounted to but seventy-nine men. Owing
to the feebleness of his garrisons, he deemed
it prudent to withdraw from Fort Moultrie and
concentrate his whole force in Fort Sumter.
By this time Confederate volunteers had flocked
to the city, and powerful land-batteries were
built around the harbor, Ijearing ou Sumter.
When it was known that tlie Federal Gov-
ernment would reinforce the forts, the author-
ities of the Confederate States determined to
anticipate the movement by compelling An-
derson to surrender. On the 11th of April,
TEE US IT ED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.
General P. T. Beauregard, comiiiaiidaot of
Charleston, sent a flag to Major Anderson, de-
manding au evacuation of the fort. The
Major replied that he should hold the fort and
defend his flag. On the following morning,
AprilJ_2th, at half-past four o'clock, the first
gun of the great War was dischar2_ed from a
Confederate battery. A terrific bombardment,
of thirty-four hours' duration, followed. The
fort was reduced to ruins, set on fire, and
obliged to capitulate. The honors of war were
granted to Anderson and his men, who had
made a brave and obstinate resistance. It ap-
peared, however, in the sequel, that no lives
were lost, either in the fort or on the shore.
The Confederates in their initial movement
were thus completely successful, and obtained
control of the harbor of Charleston.
But the effect was against the aggressors.
The news of the capture of Sumter spread
through the country like a flame of fire.
There had been on the part of the people
a vague expectation of violeuce, but the
actual shock came like a clap of thunder.
The people of the towns poured into the
streets, and the country folk flocked to tlie
villages, to gather tidings and comment on
the outbreak of the war. Gray-haired men
talked gravely of the deed that was done,
and prophesied its consequences. The
general efl^ect of the capture of Sumter
was to consolidate opinion in both the
North and the South. On either side the
sentiments of the people were crystallized into
a firmly set antagonism, which could only l)e
broken by the shock of battle.
Three days after the fall of Sumter, Presi-
dent Lincoln issued a call for seventy-five
thousand volunteers, to serve three months in
the overthrow of the secession movement.
Two days later, Virginia seceded from the
TJnion. On the 6th of May, Arkansas fol-
lowed the example, and then North Carolina
on the 20th of the same month. In Tennes-
see, especially in East Tennessee, there was a
powerful opposition to disunion, and it was
not until the 8th of June that a secession or-
dinance could be forced upon the people. In
Missouri the movement resulted immediately
in civil war, while in Kentucky the authori-
ties issued a proclamation of neutrality. The
people of Maryland were divided into hostile
parties, the disunion sentiment being largely
prevalent.
Meanwhile, the volunteers from the North
began to make their way to Washington. On
the 19th of April, when the first regiment of
the jMassachusetts volunteers was passing
through Baltimore, they were fired upon by
the citizens, and three men were killed. This
was the first bloodshed of the war. On the
day before this event a body of Confederate
soldiers advanced against the armory of the
United States at Harper's Ferry. The officer
in command hastily destroyed a portion of
the vast magazine gathered there, and then
escaped into Pennsylvania. On the 20th of
the month another company of Virginians as-
sailed the great navy-yard at Norfolk. The
officers commanding fired the buildings and
ships, spiked the guns, and withdrew. Most
of the cannons and many of the vessels were
afterwards recovered by the Confederates and
turned against the Government. Virginia
was soon filled with volunteers from the South,
and in a short time Washington City was in
imminent danger of caj)ture.
The first duty of the Government was to
secure the Capital. This done, the President,
on the 3d of May, issued another call for sol-
diers. The number of the new call was set at
eighty-three thousand, and the term of service
at three years or during the war. A tltct was
equipped and sent out to blockade the South-
ern ports, and on every side were heard the
nnti.-s nf [ii-eparation. The si)irit of the pe(jple
luul been thoroughly aroused, and a great war
thundered in the horizon. Already the South-
ern Congress had ajourued from Montgomery,
ryiVFL'SM, iiisToi; v.—nii: moukilx
in: 1.1'
to meet, tlu> 2()tli ..f.Iuly, at KiclmKiinl, wliicli
was chosen as tin- cai.ital of tlic CoiifVdfracy.
To that phu-e ha.l alna.ly .o,,,,. Mr. Davis
and the oflicers of liis Caliim-l. I"i- ih- piir|.n.-<-
of directin<.' the atlairs of tlic ( o.winni.in and
army. So stood the antagonistic p- iuri> at the
beginning of June, 1861. It \va- now .vi.l.nt
to all men — slow indeed had tlicy Ihi-h to lie-
lieve it — that one of the greatest contliets of
modern times was impending over the United
States. Let us look briefly into the tai-ses
which ))rodnccd the Rebellion and h-d to the
Civil War.
yC The first and most general of these causes
wa.s'^f/ie different eonHruction put upon the Na-
tiowd Cmwtitiitlon by the people of the North and
the South. -^A. difference had always existed as
to how the instrument was to be understood.
The question at issue had respect to the rela-
tion between the States and the General Gov-
ernment. One party held that under the
Constitution the Union of the States is indis-
soluble; that the sovereignty of the Nation is
lodged in the central Government; that the
States are .subordinate; that the acts of Con-
gress, until they are repealed or pronounced un-
constitutional by the Supreme Court, are bind-
ing on the States ; that the highest allegiance
of the citizen is due to the (ieneral Govern-
ment, not to hi< State : and that all attempts at
nullificati..n and .li-union are in their nature
disloyal and treasonable. The other party held
that the National Constitution i- a compact be-
tween sovereign Siatis ; that tie-'' States con-
stitute a conf.'deracy. or what the Germans
would call a Sl„aln,hi(inl ; that tor (vrtain rea-
sons the Union may he di.'jsolved by the States;
that the sovereignty of the nation is lodged in
the individual States, and not in the central
Government ; that Congress can exerci.se no
other than delegated powers ; that a State
feeling aggrieved may annul an act of Con-
gress ; that the highest allegiance of the citizen
IS due to his own State, and afterwards to
the General Government; and that acts of
nullification and disunion are justifiable, revo-
lutionary, and honorable. The theory was, in
brief, that the Cnstitntion itself provided that
the States, umler the Constitution, might ab-
rogate the Constitution as it related to them-
selves, and thereby dissolve the Union.
Here was an issue in its consequences the
most, fearful that ever disturbed a nation. It
struck into the very vitals of the Government.
It threatened, with" each renewal of the agita-
tion, to undo the wliolr civil structure of the
I'niteil State.-. For a Ion- time the (larties
wiio (li>].uted about the meaning of the Con-
stitution were scattered in various sections. In
the earlier history of the country the doctrine
of State sovereignty had, indeed, been most
advocated in New England. With the rise of
the tariff question the local position of the
parties was reversed. Since the tariff— a Con-
gressional measure — favored the Eastern States
at the expense of the South, it came to pa.ss,
naturally, that the people of New England,
and afterwards of the whole North, passed
over to the advocacy of National sovereignty,
while the people of the South became wedded
to the doctrine of State rights. Thus as early
as 1831 the right of a State to nullify an act
of Congress was openly advocated in South
Carolina, and by her greatest statesman in
the Senate of the United States; and thus also
it happened that the belief in State sover-
eignty became more and more prevalent in
the South, less and less prevalent in the North.
The general efl^ect of this localization of the
two theories was to engender sectional jiarties,
and to bring them ultimately into conflict.
The second general cause of the Civil War
was the different ystemsof luh<n- In f/e X,nth and
ill the Soiitli. In the former sections the labor-
ers were freemen, citizens, voters; in the latter,
bondmen, property, slaves. In the South the
theory was that the capital of a country should
own the labor; in the North, that both labor
and cai)ital are free. In the beginning all the
colonies had been slaveholding. In the East-
ern and IMiddle States the system of slave-
labor had been gradually abolished, lieing un-
jirofitable. In the five great States formed
out of the Territory North-west of the River
Ohio slavery was excluded by the original
Jeffersonian compact, under which that terri-
tory was organized. Thus there came to be a
line of division drawn through the Union
east and west. It wsis evident, therefore, that
whenever the question of .slavery was agitated
a sectional division would arise between the
parties north and south of the dividing line, and
that disunion and war would be threatened.
But the danger arising from this source, and
THE UXITED STATES.— DISUNIOy AND CIVIL TCI/.'.
indeed from the first uciRTal cause aliDve
luentioued, was iucreaseil, and the discoi-d hi-
tweeu the sections aggravated, l.y srvvial sul)-
ordinate causes.
One of these was, at the time cdusidered,
merely an ineiileiit of inihistrial progress,
naiiielv, tlie invi:xtii>n of Tin: coxTdN-oix.
In ITilS Eli Wliitney. a young collegian of
JIassachusetts, went to Georgia and resided
with the family of Jlrs. Greene, widow of
General Greene, of the Revolution. While
there he Iiecanie much interested in the ditii-
cult process of picking cotton by hand: that
is, separating the seed from the tiber. So slow
was this process that the production of upland
cotton was nearly profitless. The industry of
the cotton-growing States, however well it
promised in the mere production of the plant,
was rendered of no eti'eet liy the tediousness
of preparing the jn'oduct fir the market. Mr.
Whitney, with the inventive curiosity and
skill of his race, undertook to remove the dif-
ficulty, and succeeded in constructing a gin
which astonished the beholder by the rapidity
and excellence of its work. Cotton in the
seed, submitted to the action of the ma-
chine, was separated to perfection and with
great facility. From being profitless, cotton
suddenly became the most profitable of all the
staples of the South. The industry of the
cotton-producing States was revolutionized.
Whitney obtained patents on his invention;
but the greed for obtaining and using his
machine was so great that no courts could or
would protect him in his rights. Before the
Civil War it was estimated that the cotton-gin
had added an aggregate of a thousand millions
of dnllai-s to tiie revenues of the Southern
State-. .Tu>t in proportion to the increased
profital>leuess (if cotl-m, slavedahor Iiecaiue iiu-
pnrtant, slaves valuabl,., and the sy-tem of
slaverv a fixe.l and deep-n,oted in-ritntinn.
Shi've ownei-hi|. ni-p. than .'Ver l.efnve was
nnu- imbedded in Suulheni sn,-i,.ty. The M^a-
ration betwe-n the lalu.ring and tlie u:.ii lal».r-
l)nt it was a sepamtinn of <-.,i,dlllu:,. Tlie
]nv-,.nt eenei-alinn nf phniters and slaveholders
had inh.a-ited that cnndilion. They had grown
as a i-ightfiil an. I iiere-~iu-y part of llie best
sucial .ireauizalinu in llu- w-rld. Seeln- them-
selves manifestly lifted
they came to look uj
lalior and free-labnrers
tempt.
-^taut
of such a result was, as we have already seen,
fully manifested in the MissouKi Agitation
of i8-_'0-21. Threats of dissolving the Union
were freely made Imth in the Suiitli and the
rejection of Missouri as a slaveholding State;
in the North, because of the proposed enlarge-
ment of the domain of slavery. When the
Missouri Compromise was enacted it was the
hope of Mr. Clay and his i'ellow-statesraen
to save the Union by removing forever the
slavery issue from the politics of the country;
but their success was tenip<jrary, evanescent.
It had remained for Mr. Lincoln himself, in
the opening of his great debates with Senator
Douglas, to announce to the nation the ulti-
mate irreconcilability of the opjKising elements
in the American system. '/ Hedeclared_that a
house divided against itself can not stand:
that the institution of slavery, to carry oui
the analogy, must either become universal ir.
the United States, or else, by limitation, be put
in such a condition as to lead to its ultimate
extinction.
Next among the subordinate causes of the
Rebellion and the Civil War should be men-
tioned the Nullification Act.s of South
Carolina. These, too, turned upon the in-
stitution of slavery and the profitableness of
cotton. The Southern States had become
cotton-producing ; the Eastern States had
given themselves to manufacture. The tariff
measures seemed to favor manufiicturers at the
expense of the producers of raw m;iterial.
:i[r. Calhoun and his fiien.ls proposed to
a]id thus Inrciiig an
His measures thiled ;
was fennd iieces.sary
iiim.isilies which had
;i;xA-ri(ix or Tkxas,
rgenient of the d.imain
USJVEIISAL HISTOKY.-THE MODKES WORLD.
110
Those who opposed tlie :\Iexicuu War di'l so, ii'Jt
so much because of the injustice of the conflict
as because of the fact that tliereby the area
of *laverv wniild br vastly exleiuled. Then,
at the <-in.-u nf tlic War, cam.' the enormous
acquisition -f t.iiii.uy in thr Smitli-west.
Whether tlir ,sniir>l,..ul.l b,- mad,- into fr.-e ..r
slavehnldin- Stat.., «as thr <iur.tinn next
aeitate.l. This ,...ntrnv,.rsy led tn tlie i.a.sa-c
of thr On, nil. us Uill, by whi.-li a-ain, f..r a
brief peri...l, th.' cx.'il.in.nt was all,iy.-.l.
In 18o4, as w liavr s.:M-n, th.- KaxsaS-
NEBRA8KA 111 1,1, was i>assed, Tliereby the
Mi.ssouri Compromise was repealed, and the
whole question opened anew, Meanwdiile,
the character and civilization of the Northern
and Southern people had become quite different.
In population and wealth the North had far
outgrown the South. In the struggle for
territorial domain, the North had gained the
larger advantage. In 1.S60 the division of the
Democratic party made certain the election of
Lincoln, a professed Free-Soiler, by the votes
of the Northern States. The people of the
South were exasperated at the choice of a
Chief ^Magistrate whom they regarded as in-
different to their welfare, or positively hostile
to their interests.
Returning, then, from these sul)ordinate to the
more general causes of the Civil War, we note,
in the next place, the want of intercourse between
the people of the North and the South. Obeying
those cosmic laws by which the population of
the earth has always been distributed, the
people of the States west of the Alleghenies
had been carried to their destinations in
channels flowing from the east to the west —
never from the north to the south. The arti-
ficial contrivances had been arranged along
the same lines. The great railroads and thor-
oughfares ran eastand west. All migrations had
been back and forth in the same course. Be-
tween the North and the South there had been
only a modicum of travel and interchange of
opinion. The people of the two sections had
become much more unacquainted than they
were in the times of the Revolution. From
this want of intercourse and familiarity, the
inhabitants of the two sections, witln.ut in-
tending it, had become estranged, jealous,
suspicious. They misrepresented each other's
beliefs and purpo.ses. They suspected each
(1 tiie
lier all
M.iKsty aii.l ill-will. Before the
h ha.l ennie to L...k up..n each
in the li-lit of (litierent nati..n-
A I..urtli geiiiral <-ause was found in the
piihUrntiiiii mill iiijhi, iin i,f sectional booh and
irritiiiij.<. I)iiriii:j the tuenty years preceding
the war, many \\..rl^. were published, both in
the Nmtli ami tli.- .^..iith. whose popularity
(lependiil wlinlly ..r in part on the animosity
tw.. >eetinns. Such b.iiiks
existing betwi-eii the tw.. -ectinns. Si
were frequently lill.-.l with riiljetile ami tiilse-
hood. The manners and customs, the language
and beliefs, of one section were held up to the
contempt and scorn of the people of the other
section. The niimls of all classes, especially
of the y.iimi:. were thus prejudiced and
poisoned. In the North the belief was fos-
tered that the South was given up to inhu-
manity, ignorance, and barbarism ; while in the
South the opinion prevailed that the Northern
people were a selfish race of men, mercenary,
cold-blooded Yankees.
Again, the eril Influence of demagogues may
be cited as a fifth general cause of the war.
It is a misfortune of repulilican governments
that they many times fall under the leadership
of bad men. In the United States the dema-
gogue has enjoyed special opportunities for
mischief, and the people have suffered in
proportion. From LS.oO to 1860 statesmanship
and patriotism were at a low ebb. Ambitious
and scheming men had come to the front,
taken control of political parties, and pro-
claimed themselves the leaders of public
opinion. Their purposes were wholly selfish.
The welfare and peace of the country were
put a.side as of little value. In order to gain
power and keep it, many unprincipled men
in the Smith were anxious to destroy the
Union, while the demagogues of the North
were williiiM- t.. abuse the Union in order to
acc<.ni|ili-li lli.ir purposes.
Ad.li'.l t.. all these causes was a groicing
public
uf .<la
"J'<"'
thr North against the institution
■-■• If,
hostility inborn and inbred
against human ehattelhood as a fact. The
con.-ei. nee ..!' thi' Nation was roused, and the
belief began to prevail that slavery was wH.ng
per se, and ought to be destroyed. This
opinion, comparatively feeble at the beginnings
THE UXITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR
of the war, was rapidly devcloiicl, and had ' detachment of Cnnfrderates, iindrr th.' <;„u-
nnich to do in deterniiniDg tlic iliivciinn and maud <>i' General ;\Ia,:;iiidi r. On ihr lOih i,f
final issue of the contlict. Siirh, in Inief. June a liody nf Union inmps wa> :^ent I.. di<-
were the principal can-.- wliirh l.-d to the lod-e tlu-m, hut was rrpnlsL-d with con.-id.ia-
Civil War in thr Tnit.-d Staf—one of the hi.. 1,,-. Such was the ..p.-nin- s.-.^nc in Oj.l
most terrible ami lil.M,.iy stiit.s <.f m.i.lfrn \'ii-ginia.
times. West ..f the nionnlains the con.|U.>t .f the
AVe shall now enter upon a hrief summary Stat.' had lieen un.l.rtaken hy l.un.ial (i.inije
of the principal events ..f tli.' struggle be- B. :McClellau, de-tin. -.1 t.. iie a c.in>pi.ai..us
tween the North ami South, h.'tween the figure of his ep..ch. In the latter jiart of
Fnh.n under the Constituti.ai, ba.-ke.l hy the May, General Th..mas A. M..rris, cmnumding
machinery of the (-hiverument at Washington , a force of Ohio ami In. liana troops, a.lvan.e.l
FORTRESS MONROE.
and the populous Northern States on the one
side, and the machiuery of the new Confed-
eracy established at Richmond, backed by the
forces of the South and the whole power of
the ancient slaveholding system on the other.
The war proper may be said to have opened
on the 24th ..f :\Iay, 1m;1. On that .lay the
Union army crosse.l tli.' Pot. .mac from Wash-
ington City to Alexandria. At this time
Fortress Monroe, at the mouth of James River,
■was held by General B. F. Butler, with twelve
thousand men. In the immeiliate vicinity, at
a place called Bethel Church, was stationed a
from Parkersburg to Grafton, and on the .3d
of June came up.m the Confederates at Phi-
lippi. After a brief engagement the Federals
were successful, and the Confederates retreated
toward the mountains. It was at this juncture
that General ^ri'( 'l.dlan arrived in jjerson, and
nett, the defeate.l C.nifederate comnian.lcr,
fell back with his forces to Cheat River, wliere
he made a stand, l)ut was a sec. mil time de-
feate.l an.l hiniMdf kille.l in battle.
Un the 10th of August, General Fl.ijd,
unnndiiiii i .l(tvliii
mil.x Imm .m,(.,i
(...,. I il 1. M.I 111^
, III. Iltli ..I --, I
uxiVERSAL nisTOL'V.- Tirr: modeux wokuk
( M I
Thel-iiioM annv at Alexan-
i> cniuluaii.lr.l l,v CiMial liuiii Mr-
. an.l <;,.i„ial rall.i-M„ ua~ MatioiK-.l
It nf Wa-l,ili-l..n In ualrh J.,l,ii>l(Mi'^
..III-, ill ..r.l.T ihal III.- lall.T liii-lit not
iiiii.'li..ii uilh lK-auiv;janl.
ill,. ISlh ,,r July 111.- F,-.l,ial army
l.iruanl. Tw.. .lays all.-i-\vanl> an uii-
iMt (■iiL.^ai:riiii-iit t.i.'k jilac-e betwccu
vill.- and Jiiill Itiin. The rnioiiists
.i-.->M-,l iin. ami i.ii tlif iiKiniiuu- of the
ilof CVlouel L 21st of J
upon tho Confc.
■ui- \\ ,11 ,. . ni 1,1. I -u.1.1, n iml .-u.^^cessftilJ stronyly i..,M.-,l li.-lweei) Bull Kuii aii.l .Manas-
-. t 11 1 I ,1. ti, limoit ot L,.iir,-,K-i-ati?s sta-'^sas Junction. Ik-re a\'em'r;rt' I'latll.- . hmk-.I.
to A\iiRhc-.tc. lliu- far
\ petty enoagcnii lit- tin- pi
1.1 -luuni-h. -, .it 111. ...nlli.-
ii.,\\ cum i.u til. hi-l -I
Il III \\.
.1 >>,i. ,. liil,,l il Mini
til, Oi iii_, hull il t".ni
.1 ,,t \l. Mn.lni \i, ih . 1
(..n. I il I..-, pli ] I. lin-to
geii
coiitiiuiiug with great severily until ii....ii.lay.
Up to that time the advantage ha.l li.-.-u with
McDowell, and it seemed not unlikely that the
Confederates would suffer a complete defeat;
but in the crisis of the liattle General Johnston
arrived with n.-arh' >ix tli..ii>aii.l fr.-sh tr.mps
from the ."^h.-iianiioah \'all.-y. The ti.le .if
victory turned immediately, and in a short
time McD.jwell's whole army was thrown
back in rout ami confusion. A panic spread
through the l'ni,in forces. The army had
been followe.l out fr.mi Washington by a
throng of non-combatants. Soldiers and citi-
zens became mixed together, and the whole
mass rolled back in disorganization into the
defenses of Washington. The losses were
ueaily equal, being on the Union side 2,951,
and on the Confederate side 2,0.")0.
The chagrin an.l humiliation ..f the N.irth
were extreme, an.l th.- S.uitli was c-.puilly
elated on account of the Confe.lerate victory.
For a while the Feiloral Government ;va8
more alarmed about the safety of Washington
Citv than it was coni-ern.-.l ab.mt the capture
of i;i,-liiii..n.l. In the latt.-r (-ity, ..n tli.- .lay
lu-f.n- II,.- l.atll.-, til.- n.-wC..iif,-.i.-rat..<o,vern-
„,i.,,t ha.l l..-.-,i f..niially organ i/.-.l. In the
Soiilli.-ni ('..ii-i-.-,-, Ilu-n- asM-n,li],-.l, were
many iii.-ii ..f .ii-liii.,:ul,-li,-.l ahiliti.-s. J,-ti;-rs,.n
Davi-, Ih- l'i-.-i.l,-nI, wa< a ihr-si-lil,-.! and
tal,-nt.-.l mail. Hi- .-xp.ri.-n. .- wa- wi.l,- and
tlion.nL^li ill 111.- aliair- ..f SiaU-, an.l hi- n-pu-
tati.-ii as a .-.l.li.-r, . arii.-.l in ll).- M.-xi,-an
War, wa- faiily go ..1. 11.- lia.l s.-rv.-.l in
l,..ll, II, ,11-.- ..r'llu- ^'alLiiial C.ii^iv-s an.l as
a iii.-iiilu-i- ..f Pivsi.leiit ri.-r.-.--- Cal.iii.-t. His
tal.-nts. ,l.-,-i>l..ii .,f chara.-t.-r, ai„l ai.l.-nt ad-
y,.racv of .^late l!it;hts ha,l nunle him the
THE uyrrrj) states.— the civil
AH.
113
iialuial, if not tlie inevilalili-. liailer of the
.South in the impending cuntiict.
After the battle of Bull Kun, tliere was a
lull in the military operations of the East.
In Missouri, however, hostilities l)roke out, and
were attended with important eonseqnenees.
That Commonwealth, thou;:h a slaveholdiiig
State, had retained its place in the Union. A
convention had been called liy Governor Jack-
sou, in accordance with an act of the Legis-
lature, but had refused to pass an ordinance
of secession. But the Missouri disuniouists
were numerous and powerful. The (iovernor
favored their cause, and they were little dis-
posed to give up the State without a struggle.
Missouri became a battle field for the con-
tending parties. Federal and Confederate
camps were organized in many parts of the
State, and hostilities bmke <nit in several
places. The Confederates, by capturing the
United States arsenal at Lil)erty, in Clay
County, obtained considerable supplies, arms,
and ammunition. They thereupon formed
Camp Jackson, near St. Louis, and the arsenal
in that city was endangered by the activity of
their proceedings. At this stage of the game,
however. Captain Nathaniel Lyon appeared on
the scene, and sent the arms and stores in St.
Louis up the river to Alton, and thence to
Springfield, Illinois. Camp Jackson itself was
soon afterwards attacked and Inoken up liy
the same vigilant officer.
Meanwhile, the lead-mines in the south-
western part of the State became an object of
great importance to the Confederates. In order
to secure possession of the same, they hurried
up large bodies of troops from Arkansas and
Texas. On the 17th of June, General Lyon
encountered Governor Jackson at the head of
a Confederate force, at Booneville, and gained
a decided advantage. On the 5th of July
the Unionists, under command of Colonel
Franz Sigel, were again successful in a severe
engagement with the Governor at Carthage.
On the 10th of August the hardest battle
fought thus far in the West occurred at "Wil-
son's Creek, a short distance south of Spring-
field, Missouri. General Lyon made a daring
but rash attack on a much sui)erior force of
Confederates, under command of Gcnei-als
McCuUough and Price. Th- F. dc,al< at first
gained the field against heavy odds, Imt Gcn-
ei-al Lyon was killed, and his men retreated,
his command falling to .'-Jigcl.
After his victory, Piirc pn sscd northward
across the State to Lexiiivion, on ila- Missouri
Kiver. This place was h.'Kl by t«o thousand
six hundred Federals, under comniand of
Colonel Mulligan. A stubborn defense was
made by the ganlson, but .Mulligan was obliged
to cajiitulate. Price then turned to the south.
The Federals i-allied, and, on the Kith of Oc-
tober, Lexington was retaken. General John
C. Fremont, who had now been appointed to
the command of all the Union forces in Mis-
souri, followed the Confederates as ftir as
Springfield, and was on the eve of making an
attack when he was superseded by General
Hunter.' The latter retreated to St. Louis,
and was in turn superseded by General Henry
W. Halleck, on the 18th of November. It
was now Price's turn to fall back towards Ar-
kansas. The only remaining movement of
im])ortance was at Belmont, on the Mississippi.
After the declaration of neutrality by the
State of Kentucky, the Confederate General
Leonidas Polk, acting under orders of his
Government, had led an arni\ into the State
and captured the town of Columbus. The
object of the movement was to give support
and countenance to the Confederate cause in
Kentucky; for the Southern sympathizers in
that Commonwealth were numerous and active.
Polk planted batteries at Columbus, so as to
command the Mississippi, and the Missouri
Confederates gathered in force at Belmont, on
the opposite bank of the river. In order to
dislodge them. Colonel Ulysses S, Grant, with
a brigade of three thousand Illinois troops,
was sent, by way of Cairo, into Jlissouri.
On the 7th of November lie made a vigorous
and successful attack on the C(jnfederate camp
'The command was taken from Fremont on
account of his attitude towards the slaves. Thus
far the Government had professed tliat .slavery
should not be interfered with, even in the States
held by mihtary occupation, (-ieneral Fremont
held the opposite view, and marched upon the
Confederates not only as a military connnander,
lint ns an emancijiafor. He issued a ]>idi-Iama-
vet
,]\ri
it was accordingly re]ie\
reason whicli at a later
liave been no rea-on at
THE rXITF.I) STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.
at Beliuout,but General P-lk tlnvw nint'.irw-
nieuts across the river. 'I'lir i]nii> ni' the liat-
teries on the Kentucky -iile were l.r,,u;;ht ti>
bear on the Union position, and (iiaiit, afti-r
his success, was obligeil ti> fall hai^k. Such,
in general, were tlie militai-y njinatiuns in tlic
West during the summer and fall of IMU.
For a while after tlie haltle <>f liull Kun
the Government at Washington was ahnost
paralyzed. It was put on tlie defensive. The
bridges over the Potomac had to be vigilantly
guarded lest, by a dash rif cavaliy, the Ca[u-
tal might fall into the hands of the (.'..nfeder-
ates. A brief season of great depression ensued ;
but the reaction was correspondingly vigor-
ous and salutary. As soon as the panic had
subsided the Administration redoubled its en-
ergies, and troops from the Northern States
were rapidly hurried to AVashington. The
aged General Scott, still retaining his place
as Commander-in-chief of the armies of the
United States, unable to bear longer the bur-
den resting upon him, now retired from active
duty, and General George B. McClellan was
called over from West Virginia to take com-
mand of the Army of the Potomac.
It was soon evident that as an organizer
and disciplinarian the young commander had
no superior. By the middle of October the
forces under his command had increased to a
hundred and fifty thousand men. Nor was
it any longer the mere rout of volunteers
which had rushed forward to meet defeat at
Bull Run, but a compact, well-disciplined,
and powerful army. On the 21st of October
a brigade, numbering nearly two thousand
men, was thrown across the Potomac at Ball's
Bhiff. The movement, however, was not well
supported. Nor had adequate means of
retreat been prepared. The Federals were
attacked on their advance by a strong force of
Confederates under General Evans, were
driven to the river, their leader, Colonel
Baker, killed, and the whole force routed
with terrible los.s. Fully eight hundred of
Baker's men were killed, wounded, or taken.
From the fii'st it was seen by the Federal
Government that the command of the sea-coast
■was an es.seutial of success. Accordingly, in
the summer of 1861, several important naval
expeditions were sent imt to maintain the in-
terests of the United States. One i.f these,
under command nf ('(mu Inre Sti-iiiMliani and
General Butler, pin,-,r,led t,, i|,e X,„tli ("aro-
lina coast, and, on the 2'.lili df Aii-ust, cap-
tured the forts at Hatteras Inhl. On tli.' 7ih
iif November a .second anuanicnt, ri.iinnandcd
liy Ciimmodore Dupont and '>(ni'ial Thunias
AV. Sherman, ent.-ivd the harl.or ..f Port
Rnyal, and tnok lA.its Walker and Beaure-
gard. Hilton Head, a point most advantage-
ous in operations against Charleston and.
Savannah, thus fell into the power of the Gov-
ernment. Ai-dund the whole coast a blockade
was established, which s i bei-anie so rigor-
ous as to cut off all commerce and communi-
cation between the Confederate States and
foreign nations. It was in this juncture of
affairs that a difficulty arose which brought
the United States and CJreat Britain to the
very verge of war.
Ever since the expansion of the cotton-
producing interest in the Sontliern States the
factories of England had been in a measure
dependent upon the American cotton-fields
for the raw material which they employed.
Around this tact many other indnstiial inter-
ests of Great Britain rln.-tei-ed. It was, there-
fore, a serious calamity to the English factories,
and to English industrial welfare in general,
when the Southern ports were closed by the
Federal blockade. A state of j.uhlic feeling
supervened in Great Britain very linfavorable
to the United States, and strongly sympathetic
with the Confederacy. In the meantime the
Confederate Government had appointed James
M. Mason and John Slidell, formerly Senators
of the United States, to go abroad as ambas-
sadors from the Confederate States to France
and England. Before the ambassadors left
America, the blockading squadron had closed
around the Southern ports, and the envoys
were obliged to make their escape from
Charleston harbor on board a blockade
runner. Having made their way from that
port, they reached Havana in safety and were
taken on board the British mail steamer Trent,
for Europe.
On the 8th of November the vessel was
overhauled by the United States frigate San
Jacinto, commanded by Ca|itain Wilkes. The
Trent was hailed and boarde.l. The two an;-
the S,in J,„
THE rXITi:]) STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.
tou, and imprisoned. Tlic Trrnf pinccrdrd uu
her way to England. Tiu' -t-iv <>{' tln' iii>ult
to the" Britisir flag was told, and the wlioh.
kiugdom burst out in a Idaze of wratli.
The sequel soon showed how little disposed
even the most civilized nations :ur tn ii;;::ird
consistency and right when their pnjudico iiic
involved in the question. For maily a hall'ecii-
tury the Republic of the United .States had
stoutly contended for the exemption from insult
of neutral flags on the high sea, and the Amer-
ican theory had always been that tlu' free flag
makes free goods, contrabaml of war <iidy
being excepted. On the other hand, Great
Britain had immemorially been the most arro-
gant of all the civilized States in the matter of
search and seizure. She had, in the course of
her history, insulted almost every flag that
had been seen on the ocean. Yet, in this
particular instance, the jiosition of the parties
to the Trent affair was suddenly reversed,
under the influence of passion and prejudice.
At the first, the people of the United States
loudly applauded Captain Wilkes. The House
of Representatives passed a vote of tlianks to
him, with the presentation of a sword ; and
even the Administration was disposed t"
defend his action. Had such a course been
taken, war would have been inevitable; l-i-
Great Britain, with equal inconsistency, had
flung herself into a passion for thealleg'il
insult to her flag and sovereicnty.
The country was saved fiom the pn '
however, by the adroit ami far-reaching; ■ i
plomacy of William H. Seward, the Secretary
of State. When Great Britain demanded
reparation for the insidt and immediate lilier-
ation of the prisoners, he replied in a mild,
cautious, and very able pa|ier. It was con-
ceded that the seizure of Mason and Slidell
was not justifiable according to the law of
nations, and a suitable apology was accord-
ingly made for the wrong done. The Confeder-
ate amba.ssadors were liberated, put on board
a vessel, and sent to their destination. The
action of the Secretary was both just and pol-
itic. The peril of the war went by, and Great
Britain, without intending it, was committed
to a policy in regard to the rights of neutral
flags, which she had hitherto denied, and
which the United States had always contended
for. So ended the first year of the Civil War.
Washington. Another arniv, .■..uinuiii.icd i,y
Ceneraf Buell, was stati d at l.uuisville,
Kentucky, and it was in this drpaitnient that
the first military movements of the year were
made. Early in January, Colonel Humphrey
Marshall, commanding a force of Confeder-
ates on Big Sandy River, in Eastern Ken-
tucky, was attacked and defeated by a de-
tachment of Unionists led by Colonel James
and more
I- loULhl at Mill Spring,
in the =ame ^cctmn of the ^tate. The Con-
federates were commandeil by Generals Crit-
tenden and Zollicoffer, and the Federals by
General George H. Thomas. The battle was
hard fought. Both sides lost heavily, and the
Confederates suffered defeat, which was ren-
dered doubly severe by the death of Zollicoflfer.
These operations were followed fitst by still
more vital movements on the Tennessee and
Cumberland Rivers. The former stream was
commaniled at the southern liorder of Ken-
tucky by Fort Henry, and the latt'er Ijy the
more important Fort Douelson, ten miles
LXJVERSAL HISTORY.- TllK MODKRX WORLD.
south of the Touuessee line. At tlic Ijegiu-
iiing of the year a i)lan was formed liy the
Federal officers fur the eai.tnrc of U.th these
jihices. Early in Febriuny, ('niiiiiindiirc Foote
was sent up the TeiiuessL-e, with a tlotiUa of
gun-boats, and at the same time General
Grant moved forna-.-il lo cociperate in an at-
tack on Fort Henry. Before the land forces
■were well in jjosiliou, however, the flotilla,
unassisted, compelled the evacuation of the
fort, the Confederates escaping to Donelson.
]'",ii;hty-three prisoners and a large amount of
stnns were the trophies of the victory.
After their success, the gun-boats dropped
down the Tennessee, took ou stores at Cairo,
and thf-n hetran the a-( > nt ot the ( unibiilind
7^
Grant pressed on from Fort Henry, and as
soon as the flotilla arrived began a siege of
Fort Donelson. The defenses were strong and
well manned by more than ten thousand Con-
fedi ratc^, iimlfr General Simon B. Buckuer.
Gr.iiit's fniccs numbered nearly thirty thou-
sand ; but the wenther was extremely bad,
the wintfi- not y.t brokcii, and the assaults on
till' t'.irtiticiitioiis |H rilo\is in the extreme. On
war, and all the magazines, stores, and guns
of the fort fell into the liands of the Federals.
It was the first decided Union victory of the
war. The immediate result of the capture
was tlie evacuation of Kentucky and the cap-
ital of Tennessee by the Confederates. Nor
did they ever afterwards recover the ground
thus lost.
Following up his success at Fort Donelson,
General Grant now ascended the Tennessee
River as far as Pittsburg Lauding. In the
beginning of April a camp was formed on the
left bank of that stream, at a place called
^_j3iiilol;^Chjjrcli. Here, on the morning of the
6th of the month, the Union army was sud-
d. nh .itti. k. d b\ th.- Confederates, led by
'uiierals Albert S.
I hnston and Beaure-
t.d. The shock of
' onset was at first
I M -istible. All day
I iij- the battle raged
I til tremendous
-1 luuhteron both sides.
1 lie Federals were
^i.idually forced back
IK III r and nearer to
the Tennessee, until
tilt \ were saved by
til' uun-boats in the
mil. Xight fell on
the '-cene with the con-
flu t -tdl undecided, but
m the desperate crisis
(ieneial Biiell arrived
from Nashville with strong reinforcements.
Grant, however, by no means despaired of gain-
ing the victory, even unaided by the fresh ar-
rivals. During the night he, with General
William T. Sherman, made arrangements to
a.=sume the offensive. General Johnston had
been killed in the battle of the ])revious
.lav. liea 11 regard, on whom the command
iiiv
Fo
successes. On the contrary, as the
as renewed on the morning of the
rything went against the Confed-
id thev wet-e obli-id t.. fall luirk in
■at to Cnrinth. The ln->e- i,| killed,
weiiiideil. and iiii-Hng in tiiis dreadful conflict
Were nmi-. than ti ii tlpmsand on each siile.
There had never bef.in" lieen such a harvest
full
THE UNITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.
119
of death in the countries this side of the At-
lantic.
On the Mississippi also the Unionists were
gaining steadily. After the evacuation of
Columbus, Kentucky, the Confederates pro-
ceeded to Island Number Ten, a few miles
below, and built thereon strong fortifications
commanding the river. On the western shore
■was the town of New j\ladrid, held l)y a Con-
federate foice
from Missouii
Against thi^
place an t \pe
dition was mide
by General John
Pope, with X
body of West
ern troops, v, hile
at the s 1 m e
time Comm
dore Fo.ite de
scended the Mi
sissippi with hi
flotilla, to attitk
the forts ot the
island. Pope
was entirely sue
cessful in his
movement, and
gained p sses
s i o n of N e \\
Madrid. riiL
land forces thtn
cooperated with
the gun -bolts
and for twent>
three days Isl
and Number
Ten was vigoi
o u s 1 y bom
barded. On the '
Union arinv it Shil
disasters ot the piecedinj; da^ and were pui
suing the Confedeiates beyond the Tennessee
the garrison it Isliii 1 ^umbei Ten nunil nii_
about five th usin 1 wtie made piis ii i i
war. By tin stnl iii^ suu iss the jNli i i] | i
was opened ti ni il \ i f ii nth i M iii
phis, and II th (th t 111 t 11 uii, Tun
that citv wistikeii in th tl 1 1 t (. iiini 1 i
Davis. '
Early in the vear (u'li.-nil Curtis had
pushed forward through MisMiuri, entered
Arkansas, and taken a iiosition at I'l'a Kidge,
among the mountains in the north-west angle
of the State. Here, on the 6th of March,
he was attacked by the. Confederates and
Indians, twenty thousand strong, under cimi-
maud of McCullough, jMcIuto.sh, and Pike.
The conflict lasted for two days, at the end df
which time the battle was decideil in favor <if
the Federals. McCullough and Mc-
intosh were both killed, and their
broken forces fell back towards
Texas. The Union losses were also
severe, and the battle was compara-
tively barren of results.
Ou the day following the con-
flict at Pea Ridge, an event oc-
curred at Fortress Monroe which
ar changing the character
-^n - \
A
'/V/{;
'\ \^
while the
^ tl im the
f nn \\ w ufiie Vttir the destruction of the
I\ )it(lk na%\ \ ud the Confederates had
raised the P^nited 'states frigate Mrrrimac, one
of the sunken ships md had plated her sides
«itli in 1111].. n tl ilil u-iiior ,.f iron. At this
til tl I I I I II t ua> lyiii- at Foitiv>s
U 111 When th.' r.|iii|.iii.-iit ot' llie Mrrri-
n, ui oiiiplrte, she was sent ilown 1<. attack
ml I tl-nv the s,,lla.lfnll. Keaellill- that
, Il II the S,|, ,,f Maivli, the M.rrim.,,;
ill 1 I N the Cniitederate. the T/V;/;,,/.,, he^aii
the woi-k of <lestnielioii. and two nowiaful
r.\ni:]:>M. iiJST<>i;y.-TJiK M<iiiEi;y would.
imhrrin
this,
,r, uf
jiiliar
.hips, th:
sent to the I...U.
CapUin^Johi. !■:!
New York, h:,.!
war vessel, NNith a -in.de n.uiia tower .,t' iron
exposed ahove the waier-liiie. Tlie tower ^vas
made to revolve .o a> to l.riii- its siugle heavy
guu to bear on the enemy in any direction.
Excejjt \\ben the port-hole was thus momen-
tarily exposed to an enemy's shot, the strange
craft appeared invulnerable to any missile which
the skill of man and the force of explosives
had ever hurled. This vessel, called the
Monitor, ^vas offered in the service of the Gov-
ernment, and at length steamed out fiom New
\(ik foi Foltle^^ Monioe. It happem 1
Koanoke Lland. (
the squadron ivae:
fortifications on the
carried, an<l the ga
ind
rathe 1 than w i^ intend d th it Eiic-Mm- ship
arrived iu Hampton Roads at the very time
when the Virginia was making havoc in the
Union fleet. On the morning of the 9th the
two iron-clad monsters came face to face, and
turned their terrible enginery upon each other.
After fighting for five hours, the Vityjiiia was
obliged to give up the contest, and return
badly damaged to Norfolk. Such was the
excitement produced by this novel sea-fight
that for a while the whole energies of the Navy
Department were devoted to building monitors.
Other events at sea were eciually important.
Early in February, 1S62, a strong land and
naval force, under command of General .\mbrose
E. Burnside and Commodore Goldsborough.
was sent against the Confederate garrison at
th uf the month
destination. The
vere attacked and
s, nearly three thou-
sand strong, were taken prisoners. Burn'ide
next proceeded against New Berne, North Caro-
lina, and on the 14th of ^larch captured the
city, after four hours of .severe fighting. Pro-
ceeding southward he reached the harbor of
Beaufort, carried Fort Macon, at the entrance,
and on the i.lth of April took posse.ssiou of
the town. On the 11th of the same month
Fort Pulaski, eoinmauding the mouth of the 8a.
vannah Kiver, had surrendered to General Gil-
moie This impoitant captuie resulted in the
ellntud bljekideof the empoiium of Georgia.
A ~till greater re-
■\ei^e now awaited tlie
Confederates, at New
Oilem^ Early iu
Apnl a powerful squad-
r n commanded by
Genci il Butler and A(h_
mil il_Ftri'a<rut, entered
Ml i--ip]ii, and pro-
1 1 tip the river as
is Forts Jackson
St Philip, thirty
- fiom the Gulf.
_uns of these forts,
t d on opposite
1 ic- of the Missis-
pjii completely com-
nniide<l the river, and
ob^tiuctions and tor-
pedoe- hil b(en plinte 1 m the channel.
On the \xt.\i of April the Federal fleet, coin-
prising fortv-tlve vessels, was brought into
position, and a furious bombardment of the
forts was begun. An incessant shower of
mis.?iles was for six days rained on the fortifi-
cations. Still the forts were but little injured,
and Farragut undertook the hazardous enter-
prise of running past the batteries. In this
he succeeded. The chain which the Confed-
erates had stretched across the river was
broken, and their fleet above was overpowered.
On the next day the Federal squadron reached
New Orleans, and the city yielded. General
Butler became commandant, and the fortifica-
tions were manned with fifteen thousand Fed-
eral soldiers. Three davs afterwards. Forts
THE UXITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.
121
Jackson aud St. Philip surrendered to Admiral
Porter, who had remained lielow and prose-
cuted the siege. The control of the Lower
Mississippi, with the metropolis of tlic South,
was thus recovered by the Federal <-Toveni-
ment.
After Douelson and Shiloh, the Confeder-
ates in Kentucky and Tennessee were much
disheartened ; but tliey soon rallied from their
discouragement, aud renewed the struggle.
An invasion of Kentucky was planned, and
two strong divisions — one led by General
Kirby Smith, and the other by General Bra.v-
ton Bragg — entered the State from East Ten-
nessee. Smith's army pressed forward as far
as Richmond, Kentucky, and there, on the
30th of August, attacked the Federals, rout-
ing them with heavy losses. Lexington was
taken, and then Frankfort ; and Cincinnati
was saved from capture only by the extraor-
dinary exertions of General Lewis WaUace.
The army of Geueral Bragg advanced from
Chattanooga to ^lunfordville, where, on the
17th of September, he captured a Federal
division of four thousand tlvc hundr.-il \nr\\.
From this point Bmug pre-rd on toward
Louisville; but Geueral Buell made a forced
march from Tennessee, aud arrived in that
eity only one day ahead of Bragg. That one
day turned the scale. The Unionists hence-
forth had the advantage, and the Confederates
were turned liack. Buell's array was swelled
to a hundred thousand men by reinforcements
pouring in from the Xorth. Tlie General
took the field in the beginning of October, the
Confederates retiring before him to Perryville.
At this place, on the 8th of the mouth, Bragg
was overtaken, and a severe but indecisive l)at-
tle was fought. The retreat aud pursuit then
continued to East Tennessee, the Confederates
sweeping out of Kentucky a train of four
thousand wagons lailen with the spoils of the
campaign.
Meanwhile, in Septemlior stirring events
had occurred in Mississippi. On the 19th of
that month a hard battle was fought at luka
between the Federal Army, under Generals
Rosecrans and Grant, and the Confederate
force, under General Priee. Tiie latter suf-
fered a defeat, losing in addition to his killed
and wounded, nearly a thousand prisoners.
General Rosecrans now took post at Corinth
with twenty thousand men, while General
Grant, with the remainder of the Federal
forces, proceeded to Jackson, Tennessee. Per-
ceiving this division of the army, the Con-
federate Generals, Van Dorn and Price, turned
about to recapture Corinth. Advancing for
that purpose, tliey rann- upon tb.o Fud,_-ial ile-
fenses ou the S.l'of O.-tober. Another hotly
Contested battle ensued, which ended, after
two days of heavy fighting and heavy losse>'^
ou botli sides, in the repulse of the Con
federates.
The Mississippi River was now operi to thg
Federals aliove and below; but in the middle,
namely, in the latitude of Tennessee, it was
still held with a firm grip by the Confederacy.
To relieve this stricture now became the prin-
cipal end of the Federal endeavors. Geueral
Grant removed his head-quarters from Jacksou
to La Grange. General Sherman was now at
Mein|iliis, anil it was the purpose of the two
LTniiMi nmanders to cooperate in an etli)rt
again-t \'iik~liiirg. The movement promised
to br Ml ;— fill, but, on the 20th of Decenib.-r,
General Van Dorn sinvrded in cnltiii- < Jraiii's
line of suiiplies at Ilojly S,, rings, ami ohlig.-d
hiin to fall back. General Sherman dropped
down the river from Jlemphis as far as Yazoo,
where he effected a landing, and on the 29th
of December made an unsuccessful attack ou
the forts at Chick.asaw Bayou. The result
was exceedingly disastrous to the Federals,
who lost in killed, wounded, ami prisoners,
more than three tlnmsuid nn-n. The enter-
prise was abandoned, aiul the defeated army
returned t„ th ■ fleet (if gun-bnats in the Mis-
sissi|,|.i.
The inilitarv ojierations ,,t' the year in the
West were <Iestiiied to eii.l with the great
battle of ^[urfreesborough. After his success-
ful defense of Corinth, General Rosecrans had
been transferred to the command of the Army
of the Cumberland. Late in the fall he
established his head-.piarters at Nashville, and
there collected a powerful army. General
Bragg, on his retreat from Kentucky, as
above narrated, threw his force into Murfrees-
borough. Thus the two Generals found them-
selves face to face and only thirty miles apart.
Late in December, Rosecrans moved against
his antagonist, and on the evening of the 30th
came upon the Confederates strongly posted on
i:yivKj:sAJ. iustohy.-tue modern world.
Stone River, a sliort ilistaiice
IMurfreosborougli. Diiriuir tlie
l.y UoMMTaiK r,„it.-.,i|.lat.Ml tl,,-
fom-.s on the l.-fl in mi.-1, nil.nl.
the Coufc.l.-ratr ri-1,1 win... ^
ridge, l)ef(ii-c a>.-iMaiirf cniiM In-
the west si.l.- n|' il„. riv.r. li
battle was the rxart r, tri
ado]>tP(l bv i;uMcran>. P.rfnn
CoiiiVMha-alV. w.T,. heavily i,ki-h
dee. on tlir iHt, and in il,.. ,-.n\
battle bepui wiili a tuilMU-
,.. ini- With ..nh
)Vcr\vhelniinL' victory by the heroism
,i.<ion (it ficiieral William B. Hazen.
•n hiinilred men, he stayed
liu- onset until tin- Fcili lal lines were restored.
At iiijliltall inoir than >cveu thousand Union
M.l.li.T- w, ,v n.i-Mii.^ iVoni the ranks.
(nMi.Tal KoMMTans. howv,-,-, was by no
N.-w-V.
ILi
:.o-i,.,l, «lth shorten. mI Inir. and every
ii^r the .li>|.oHlion for li^ht. The day ua- .^|ient in in-
in the . deei.-ive skirinisiiinn- ami artillery lirin.ir at lonji
range. Early ou the morning of the 2d
the conflict broke out anew on the east
>f Sto
there wa> teintie c-annnna.lin- in th;
STINFIWLI T\rr
divisior
1 ..f AI ( . k n th.
M.'Cool
k's a] ! d t n h li> w 1
heeded
by Ki-cu in» wh li
the re:
d natni. f tli ( nl
After ;
uo(,nda
a teriibl ^ti I.J win
V, th \ ni n iijit «
center, and h t . ifti i d( -ih i ite ii_hti
was obliged to i dl biek t> a new p I'-it
Here, howe\ei lu i dlied lus foice«, and I
\ lust
with
Mnrfreesl,
■ti r Tullahonia. The U
- ^\ in th.. tw.i l.attl.s wa> lu.. th..nsan.l five
hun.hv.l an.l tliirty-tliive killed, seven
■" tlmn^anil tw., hnn.liv.l an.l f.ity-rive
Uni ,n 11. ht w,.nn.|..l. an.l n.^arly tinve tli.,usan.l prisoners.
It lii-t un That of th.. <'..nl..hrati.s am..unh.l in kille.l,
1 I il n 1 el..v..n th.insand men. 3)\^^ ^ 1 0 J)
I h t 1 nnld In th.' meantime, a grfat cain/aign had
>hitl 1. 1 t li..en in progi^ss in tlie East, in its pn^jiara-
ti 1 1 ih lions iii.>r.- extensive an.l in il- nsults more
n <.n id ih-truetiv.' than anything which lia.l been
r. .hid ii.ht witnesse.l W.St of the Alleghenies. The Army
.f th.. P..toinac hail not been idle, an.l ..ther
livisi.nis of the Union and Confederate forces
la.l converted Virginia into a battle-field.
his groun.l unti! <r(n. i tl IJo-. ci in» i. i.liu t. 1 The first stirring movements of the year were
his line ..f 1,
W hil ihi- w nk wi- _ m.
valley of the Shenandoah. Desiring to
on, the ConfLdei Uts w.u lnnh i)iL\LUtLd occujjy this important district, the Federal
THE UNITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.
V
Government sent forward a strong division
under General X. P. Banks, who pressed his
way southward, and in the hist (hiys of ]\Ian.'h
occupied the town of Harris. Jiiliurg. On the
other side, General Stonewall Jackson was sent
with a force of twenty thousand men to cross
the Blue Ridge and cut oft' Banks's retreat.
At Front Royal, ou the Shenandoah, just be-
fore the gap in the mountains, the Confeder-
ates came upon a hody of Federals, routed
them, and captured their guns, and all the
military stores in the town.
Banks had succeeded in pass-
ing with his main division to
Strasburg, where he learned ^
of the disaster at Front Royal,
and immediately turned ou
his retreat down the valley.
Jackson pursued him hotly,
and it was only by the utmost
exertions that the Federals
gained the northern bank nf
the Potomac.
It was now tlie turn of the
Confederate leader to find
himself in peril. General \
Fremont, at the head of a ^
strong force of fresh troops, ^
had been sent into the valley '-
to intercept the retreat (jf the
Confederates. Jackson was
now obliged to save himself
anil his army. With tlie ut-
most celerity he receded up
the valley and reached Cross
Keys before Fremont could "^ '
attack him. Even then the I
battle was so little decisive
that Jackson pressed on to
Port Republic, where he fell
upou the division of General Sliields, defeated it,
and retired from his brilliant campaign to join
in the defense of Richmond. It was the first
of those rapid and successful movements which
revealed the military genius and daring of
St(jnew'all Jackson, ileanwhile, on the 10th
of March, the Grand Army of the Potomac,
numbering nearly two hundred thousand men,
thoroughly disciplined and equipped, and com-
manded by General McClellau, set out from
the camps about Washington on a campaign
against the Confederate Cajiital. It had all
the time been the theory of tlie National
Government that the capture of Richmond
was the principal object to be attained in the
war. It was only after many and severe re-
verses, after the rise of a new group of com-
manders, and a better apprehension of the
nature of the conflict, that the theorj' was
changed, and the Confederate armies, rather
than the seat of their Government, became the
objective in the plans of the Union Generals.
McClfllan's advance proceeded to Jlanassas
a /
Junction, the Confederates falling back and
forming new lines of defenses on the Rap-
pahannock. At this stage of the campaign,
however, McClellau changed bis plan, and em-
barked a hundrr,! and twenty thousand of liis
men for Fortress Monroe, with a view to ]iro-
ceeding from tliat point up tlie peninsula lie-
tween the James and York iiivers. The
transfer of the troops occupieil the time to the
4th of Ajn-il, when the Union Army left
Fortress ]Monroe for Yorktown. The latter
place was held by a garrison of ten thousand
-,(,... f'i^
UMVEBSAL HISTonV.—THE MODERN WOULD.
Confederates, under General MaL'iiK
yet with so small a force ^IcClellan's
was delayed for a whole month. It
rts, lad
ith
the Army of the
Pot^
of the militar
General to ov
enemy, and to
presence. At 1
town was take
Army nioyed ti
the Confed.rat
were defeated '
afterwards a tl
pec
/s of
lllr
caiiti.
u iu his
4lh
nf Ma
y, York-
ai
d the
Federal
d lo Willi
d, hut
th ^eyere lws.es. Four days
•d engauemeut occurred at
AVest Point, at the contluence of the Mat-
tapi>ny and the Pamunkey. Here the Con-
federates were again oyerwhelmed and driyen
back. The \yay n<i\v lay open to RichiiKiinl
as for as the Cliick;di.Miiiii\-, ten milis nnith
of the city. Tlu- I'liinn Army nndird tliat
stream without fiirtlh-r n-i-taiice, and crossed
at a place vA\i;\ ISottmns lind-c.
While this moyrnient Nva< in prou'ress, Gen-
eral W.Mil, roiiiniandant nf Fortress ]Monroe,
had, (111 the imh nf ^[ay, led an expeditinn
against KiHtMk ami i-eca])tared that town
from the < '"iitidfrates. The garrison with-
drew on tin- I'ninii (ioiieral's approach, and
marched oti' to Ji. ill in the defense of Richmond.
On the follnwiii-- day the iron-clad Virginia
was blown up, to save her from capture by
the Federals. The James River was thus
opened for the ingress of the National trans-
IMcClellan now advanced on Richmond,
ami when but seven miles from the city was
attacked, on the olst of May, by the Confed-
erates in full force, at a place called Fair Oaks,
or beven Pines. Here for two days the battle
raged, till, at last, the Confederates were
driven back. The Union victory, however,
was by no means decisive. The ( 'onfeilei-ate loss
was greatest, amounting to nearly eight thou-
sand in killed and wounded, while that of the
Federals was iu excess of five thousand. Gen-
eral Joseph E. Johnston, Commander-in-Chief
of the Confederates, was severely wounded,
and his place at the head of the army was
filled by the ajipointment of General Robert
E. I.,ee, a man whose military genius from
this time to the close of the war was ever con-
spicuous. He became the chief stay of the
Confederacy until the day of its final collapse
After the battle of Fair Oaks there was a
in the fikditing for a short time, and Mc-
Clellan determined to change his base of sup-
plies from the White House, so-called, on the
Pamunkey River, to some suitable point on
the James. The movement was hazardous in
the last degree. Xor wa> it fairly begun until
General Lee, discoyeiiiiM the purpose of his
antagonist, swooped down on the right wing
of tlie Uniou army at Oak (iiove, an<l an-
other hard-f lught battle eiiMied, without deci-
sive results. On the following day a third
Iful engagemeut occurred at jMechanics-
ville, and this time the Federals won the field.
P.ut on the fallowing morning Lee renewed
the struggle at a place called Gaine-s's Mill,
and cniiie out victorious. On the 28th, there
was but little fightine. (»n th.- 2!)th, McClel-
lan's army, still in iiioiion for the change of
base, \vas twice attacked — iu the forenoon at
Savage's Station, and in the afternoon in the
White Oak Swamp — but the divisions defend-
ing the rear-guard of the army were able to
keep the Confederates at bay.
On the 30th of the month was fought the
desperate but indecisive battle of Glendale, or
Frazier's Farm. On that night the Federal
army reached IMalveru Hill, on the north bank
of the James, twelve miles below Richmond.
McClellan had thus receded about five miles
THE UNITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.
UyiVKNSAL HISTOBY.— TEE MODEBX WORLD.
Ill a I'
C'apit.
urn, (li
[lis ,M
( (II
ll,.- ;
Ul
Tliiu.igl
>>inll of tlK
hi-t degree.
1 Lee's shat
Fnrsrvci:
leanl alnmsl
lu!Mi.-a i..,ua
the day tlie stni--Ie to,- tl„. p.,
higli grounds \va< furiuus in tin
Not until nine o'.-lnck at iii-iit >
tered enlunms tall liark .xlian-tc-
days the roar ef liattir had ln-ci
without cessatidu. N" ^udi drca<lful seenes
had ever hefure Ijeen enactdl on the American
Continent.
MeCIeHau was clearly victorious at ]\[alvcrn
Hill, and in the judgment of after times might
have at ouce made a snceessfvd advance (lU
Richmoud. Lee's aiiny was shattered, and
McClellan was still suprrior in numhers. Xor
could it be doubted that the Union army, uow
inured to fighting, was read}' and able to con-
tinue the struggle. Its commander, however,
ch.i.r. a- u-uai."tlie h-s ],a/,anl,.iis cum-se. On
the 2,1 of July he r.'lircd with hi^ army to
Harrison's Landing, a few miles down the
river. The great campaign was really at an
end. The Federal army had lost on the ad-
vance from Yorktown to this point, in its
progress, fully fifteen thnii-arid hhmi, and the
capture of Richmond, the great object for
which the expedition had been undertaken,
seemed further otf than ever. The losses of
the Confederates had been heavier than those
of the Union army, but all the moral effect
of a great victory remained with the exultant
South.
General Lee, perceiving that Kiehmond was
not likely to be further molested, immediately
formed the design of invading ISraryland, and
ca])turing the Federal Capital. The L'uion
tn.(i|)< between Richmond and Washington,
nuiiihcring about fiftv thousan<l men, were
under command of Ceneral John Rnpe. They
were in scnttend ditaehnients at various points
from Frederiek>lnui; tn Winchester and Har-
per's Ferry. Lee moved forw^ard about the
middle of August, and Pope began at once to
concentrate his forces as rapidlv as possible.
On the -iOlh ..f the n,onth he put the Rappa-
hannock between hi,- army and the advancing
(.'onfederates. ^Meanwhile, General Banks,
while attempting to forma junction with Pope,
was attacked by Stonewall Jackson, at Cedar
^^ountain, where nothing luit desperate fight-
ing .saved the Federals from a complete rout.
While Pope was still engaged in gathering
with hi^ division, cai a Hank movement, reached
i\Ianassas Junction, and captured the men and
stores at that place. Pope, with great au-
dacity, now threw his army between the two
divisions of the Confederates, hoping to crush
Jaeksou before Lee could come to the rescue.
On August the 28th and 2!tth, there was ter-
rible but indecisive fighting at ^Manassas
Jmii^ioii, on the old Bull Run battle^grouhd,
and at Centerville. At one time it appeared
that Lee's army would be completely defeated,
but the reinforcements wliich Pope expected,
a strong division under General Fitz John
Porter, did not reach the field in time, and
Pope was defeated. On the 31st of the month,
the Confederates bore down on the LTnion
army at Chantilly, fought all day, and won a
victory. Generals Stevens and Kearney were
auK.ng the thou.suids ,,f brave men who fell
from the Union ranks in this battle. On that ,
night Pope withdrew his shattered columns as
rapidly as possible, and took refuge within the
defenses of Washington. He immediately re-
signed his command, and his forces, known as
the Army of Virginia, were consolidated with
the Army of the Potomac, which had now
been recalled from the peninsula below Rich-
mond, and General McClellan was placed in
supreme command of all the divisions about
Washington. Thus ended in dire disaster
what is known as the Peninsular Campaign.
After his successes, both defensive and of-
fensive. General Lee pressed on to the Poto-
mac, cro.ssed that river at the Point of Rocks,
and on the Gth of September captured Fred-
erick. On the 10th, Hagerstown was taken;
and on the l.jth, Stonewall Jackson came upon
Har|)er's Ferry, and frightened the command-
ant, Colonel Miles, into a surrender, by which
the garrison, nearly twelve thousand strong,
became prisoners of war. On the previous
day there was a hard-fought engagement at
South ]\Iountain, in which the Federals, com-
manded l.v (;,nerals Hatch and Doubledav,
were victorhms. .McClellan's whole army was
THE UNITED STATES. — TEE CIVIL WAR.
127
f I
^ee, who, ou
ck
to Antietrtin
l)..>i
iim ill the
the
■e was sharp
th
■ Union and
' at
term Kin the
tlu
Shar|)shurg
aow iu the immediate rear i
the uight of the 14th, fell h;
Creek, aud took a strong
vicinity of Sharpsburg.
Ou the following nmrning
but desultory lighting betweei
Confederate cavalry. In thi
Federal advance, coming in oi
road from Keedysville, received tlie opening
volleys from the Confederate guns along the
Autietain ; but night came ou, and the conflict
was postponed. With the morning there was
great activity of preparation in both armies.
Later in the day the corps of (ieneral Hooker,
who commanded ou the Federal right, was
thrown across the stream
which separated the com
batauts, and biought
into a favorable po'^itK u
for action. luthisquu
ter of the field, the Con
federate left, u n d e i
command of Genei il
Hood, was assailed and
driven back a fen mdis
iu the direction of
Sharpsburg. The le-^t
of the day was spent in
an irregular cannonade
During the night, Gen-
eral jNIausfield's coips
crossed the Antietam,
and joined Hookei
Ou the morning of
the 17th both aimies
were well iu position,
the Federals being strongest in uumlier, and the
Confederates having the advantage of an un-
fordable stream in their front. It was of the
first importance that General MeClellan should
gain and hold the four stone bridges by which
only his forces could be thrown to the
other side. General Burnside, who was or-
dered to take the lower l^ridge, cross over
and attack the division of A. P. Hill, en-
countered unexpected delays, and was re-
tarded in his movsments. On the right,
Hooker renewed the battle at sunrise, and until
late in the afternoon the conflict raged with
almost unabated fury. Here fell the valiant
General Mansfield and thousands of his com-
rades. At last Burnside forced the lower
crossing, aud carried the battle far up iu the
direction of Sharj)sburg ; but the Confederates,
beiug reinforced from other parts of the field,
made a rally, and the Federals were driven
back nearly to the Antietam. It was only by
terrible fighting that Burnside succeeded in
stream; liut on tlic ap]>ro;u'h of darkness the
greater part of the Union Army ha<l gained a
safe lodgment between the river and Sharps-
burg. The Confederate forces still lield nearly
the same ground as in the morning, and it
seemed that the final struggle was reserved
for the morrow.
On that ,l:iv, however, ( Jeneral .MeClellan
acted on the detensive. It was another of
those fatal delays for which the military career
of that General was uiifoitunately noted.
During the 18th two strong divisions of rein-
forcements, under Generals Humphreys and
Couch, arrived, and it was resolved to re-
new the attack on the following morning.
But in the meantime (ieneral Lee, wiser than
his antagonist, had availed himself of the de-
lay, withdrawn his shattered legions from
their position, and recrossed the Potomac into
Virginia. The great conflict, wliich had cost
the Union Army an aggregate of ten thousand
men, had ended in a drawn battle, in which
there was little to be praised except the
heroism of the soldiery. To the Confederates,
128
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
however, tlie result was equivalent to defeat. 1
The ptomised iipiising of the people of 3Iai}-
land in behalt of the Confuliiate .aii^e did
not Ofcui and (.. m i d J « w . Mi.mI to
which 111 th. -Ii 111 -in ( .1 1 III nth hid < .-t
hini ah,ut tu.ntN ti\c th u- in 1 ni. n ( ).i tlu
in-piitd h\ the iu(i\i_ment'- ind d< -ji iti hts ot
th I niiiii toraniaiider puM u- to the battle
hid liLUi -.oielv di-ipiioiiitul |
It w 1- htc 111 OLt.h.i befoie Geneial Me- ,
Clellaii, lollouiuj, the iLtitatiiig Coufedeiate*, I
^ff:-^^f^^^^
aixain euteied Viif^iuia and leached Ile(.tolto^^n
The temper of the National Government \\a<?
«till a-a<^M^e and it ^^-l, hoped thit hif.iie
til. < niiii_ . t NMiitii th. mm nnjit a.ii-i he
thi .VM, t lun.l i.iin-t liwhinnnd Thi I'm. n
t mm nidi I vti|| |ii(feiiLd to advance hv the
ioiit< wliiili li( hid taken the pieviou-, epiint;
iinkin_ hi 1 1, of Mi]iplie-atWestPoint,oiithe
rmiiink. \ lint thi~ (.bn ^^1-,lhvet.d to 1a
tlip \.lmini-ti 111 n mi th. Liomid thit^Wi-h 1
luntiin ( it\ w ul.l thu- he aLMin uii..\(i..l
and e\po-f.l t> i i nnti i una-i.in . ii th.
pait of the ( ..nh.hi iti- M.Chllui M.l.h.l
to the jirotest of the President and the Cabinet,
altutd hi-, plans, and cho«e Alexandria as his
IwNe of opeiations Fi.ini tin- ji.iiiit it was
jii.iposed to go foiwaid li\ a\ i\ . t tli.' Orange
Raihoad thiouirh Gulp. | p. i t ( nii-.h.nsville,
111.1 th. lift b\ tin Anjiiiii t.iitral to its
inn. ti n NMth th, lin. uu hm^ from Fre.ler-
Rk-lmi_' t.i liuhm.m.l
The whole mouth of Oetobei, however, was
w a-ted w itli dela} , and No\ ember was well
besiun bifiiie the Fi ili lal Geueial, with his
uiii\ t I hull. li. .1 ami t\\. nt\ thousand men,
aim miict-.l huiiM„lf itad} l.ii the forward
m.i\ement. On the
7th of the month,
'^-^ just as the Union
ir t.i his de-
spatches, was about
to begin the cam-
paign, he was super-
seded and his com-
mand transferred to
General Buruside.
„dit or wrong, the
( -ident at last
1 the decision
t General Mc-
(_hllan was a man
iibtd in piflimmiiies
II Kqiubhi- to \ictoi\
1 ht |ilin of the campaign was now imme-
BuuiMile decided to form a
ni u hi- . t -upplies at the mouth of Acquia
( 1 .k tift\ h\e miles below Wa-hington, and
fi nil tint jioiiit to foice his way, by battle,
1 thiounh Fiedeiicksbuig; but again
lit iiio\enieiits weie much delajed, and that,
11) wli. II e\ei \ tliinu depended on celerity. A
-t 111 ]iiepaiations for crossing
I. Ilk Geneial Lee thus found
to di-co\ei the plan of his an-
I 2:athei his aimy on the heights
.if Fie.leiRk-buig. He chose
.h-|int. th. pi-sacje of the Union
ii\. 1 lint 1 ithei allowed the
little m.ile-tation, to take their
_dit bank of the Ilaiipahaniiock.
I of Decembei, the Union army
THE UXITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.
was brought into position, with its several di-
visions stretching from the village of Falmouth
t(i a point opposite the mouth of the I\Iassa-
liiiuax, aljout three miles below. Tiie pimtnons
were laid in front of the corjis of General
Franklin, who held the Federal left, and by
this means the army was transferred, without
serious opiMsition. In other parts, the Con-
federate sharp-shooters disputed the laying of
pontoon bridges, and the crossing of the Fed-
ei-als was considerably delayed. But by the
nightfall of the 12th the army ha<l been safely
trausferred to the other side of the river.
On the morning of the 13th of December a
general battle began on the left, where Frank-
lin's division was met by that of Stouewall Jack-
son. At the first, a charge made by General
Meade was successful, and a gap was opened in
the Confederate lines, but the movement was not
sustained. The Confederates rallied, and the
Federals were driven back with a loss of more
than three thousand men. Jackson's loss was
almost as great, and in this part of the field
the result was indecisive. But not so in the
ceuter and on the right. Here a portiim of
General Sumner's men were ordered forward
against the Confederates, impregnably posted
on a height called Marve's Hill. They were
mowed down by thousands and hurled back
in col]fa^ion, while the defenders of the heights
hardly lost a man. Time and again the as-
sault was recklessly renewed. A part of
Hooker's corps, led by General Humphreys,
came forward, charged with unloaded guns,
and ill fifteen minutes one-half of the four
tllou^and brave fellows went down. Nor was
the useless carnage ended until niaht came
aud closed the conflict.
General Burnside, rasidy [latriotic and al-
most out of his wits, would have renewed the
battle, but his division commanders finally dis-
suaded him, and on the night of the 15th the
Federal army was silently withdrawn across
the Rappahannock. The Union losses in this
terrible conflict amounted to a thousand five
hundred killed, nine thousand one hundred
wounded, and sixteen hundred and fifty pris-
oners and missing. The Confederates lost in
killed five hundred and ninety-five, four thou-
sand aud sixty-one wounded, and six hundred
and fifty-three missing and prisoners. Of all
the imj)ortant movements of the war, only that
of Fredericksburg was undertaken witli no
probability of success. Under the plan of
battle, if plan it might be called, nothing
could be reasonably exjiected but repulse,
rout, and ruin. Tluis, in gloom, disaster, and
humiliation, ended the great Virginia cam-
paigns of 1862.
It is now clear, in the light of the retro-
spect, that liad the war continued for another
year with the same general results and tend-
encies, the Confederacy must have succeeded.
The revolution which had been attempted
would have been accomplished and the Amer-
ican Union dissolved. It was now the aim
and determination of the Confederate Govern-
ment and of the military leaders to hold out,
if po.<sible, against the superior resources of
the North until they -hould compel the Na-
tional Government to}iLld tiie contest. The
war itself had ulw grown to unheard-of pro-
portions. The Southern States were draining
every source of men and means in order to
support their armies. The superior energies
of the North, though by no means so nearly
exhausted, were greatly taxed. In the pre-
vious year, on the da}' after the Ijattle of Mal-
vern Hill, President Lincoln had issued a call
for three hundred thousand additional troops.
During the exciting days of Pope's retreat
from the Rappahannock, he sent forth another
call for three bundreil tlinusand, and to this
was soon added a requisition for a draft of
three hundred thousand more. IMost of these
enormous demands were promptly met, and
it became evident, in the spring of 1863, that
ryiVEESAL HlSTOnV. — THE MODERN WORLD.
ill respect to resources the Feiler;il (ioveru-
ment was vastly sujierior to the Ccuitediracy,
and to this element of strength and encourage-
ment was added the reccllictinn ot the great
Union success which had attend, d the National
the can,,.;
W,
ry, 1863,
the most
nies — the
Emancii'mi
.N I'l
11 1. AM A IK IN. The war had
hee'n liegiin .
defined intei
nd «
ti'in I
igr.l thn.- far uith no well-
n the j.art nf the- (iovern-
mem to free
the >
laves of the Snuth. Pivsi-
dent Li.icoh
him
elf ha.l >aid in his pul.lic
papers that
he w
,ul.l >ave the Union aith
slavery if he
couli
. liut n-ifhniif it if he must.
Mcanwhilr, 1
nwcv
•r, lioth the Administration
and th.. l;.
|.U1,H
■an partv throughout the
country had
to Io..k with -reater and
Still greater
di>fa
vor on tile in>titntiou of
slavery. Dt
ring
lie progress of tlie war, the
sentiment of
ahnl
tion had grown with great
rapidity in t
R- Xl
rth, and among the soldiers
iu the field.
WW
n at last it hecame a military
necessity to strike a hlow at the labor-system
of the Southern States, the step was taken
with but little hesitancy or opposition. The
preliminary proclamation of freedom to the
slaves had been issued by the President in
September of the ]irevious year. In the paper
which he sent forth on that occasion, be warned
the people of the Southern States, that uidess
they laid down their arms and returned to
their allegiance to the National Government, he
would, at the expiration of ninety days, issue
a proclamation of freedom to the bondmen.
His warning was of course met with disdain on
the part of the Soutli, and the Kmancipation
Proclamation was accordingly i»ued. Thus,
after an existence of two hundred and forty-
four vears, the institution of African slavery
in the United States was swept away.
The military movements of the new year
began on the Mi-.-issippi. (ieneral Sherman,
though defeated at Chickasaw Bayou, was liy
no means idle. After that event he formed a
plan for the capture of Arkansas Po.st, on the
Arkansas River. At the very beginning of
the vear an expedition was sent out for that
purpose, the land forces being under command
of General John A. ]McClernand, and a flotilla
under Admiral David Porter. The Union
forces entered Arkan.sas, and reached their
destination on the 10th of the mouth. After
a hard-fought battle with the Confederates, a
Union victory was gained, and on the next
day Arkau.sas Post surrendered, with nearly
five thousand prisoners. As soon as the work
was accomplished, the expedition was headed
for Vicksburg, iu order to cooperate with
General Grant in a .second effort to capture
that stronghold of the Confederacy.
A second time the Union army was col-
lected at ^Memphis, and embarked on the
]\Ii»i-.-ippi. A landing was effected at Yazoo,
but the capture of the city from that direction
was found to be impracticable. The first
three months of the year were spent by General
Grant beating about the half-frozen bayous,
swamps, and hills around Vicksburg, in the
hope of gaining a position in the rear of the
town. A canal was cut across a bend in the
river, with a view to turning the channel of
the Mississippi and opening a pas.sage for the
giin-lioats, Init a flood in the river washed out
the works, and the enterprise ended in failure.
Then another canal was begun, but was pres-
ently abandoned. Finally, in the beginning
of April, it was determined at all hazards to
run the fleet past the Vicksburg batteries. On
the night of the 16th the boats were made ready,
and silently dropjied down the river. It had
been hoped tliat in the darkness they might
pass unobserved ; but all of a sudden the guns
burst forth with terrible discharges of shot
and .shell, pelting the passing steamers; but
they went by with com])aratively little damage,
and found a safe jjosition below the city.
Gratified with his success. Grant now
marched his land forces down the right bank
of the ^Mississippi, and formed a junction with
the squadron. On the 30th of April he
crossed the river at Bruin.sburg, and on the
following day fought and defeated the Con-
federates at Fort Gibson. The evacuation
of Grand Gulf at the mouth of Big Black
Kiver fillowed immediately afterwards, and
the Union armv swept freely around to the
rear of Vicksburg.
On the 12th of IMay a strong Confederate
division was encountered at Eaymond, and
after a severe engagement, was repulsed. At
this time General Johnston was on the march
from Jackson to reinforce the garrison at
13-J
UNIVERSAL JIISTOUY. — THF. MODEIiX WOULD.
Yicksburg. Graiit'.s right wiug, uiiJer Sher-
man aud McPherson, eucouutered John.-iDn's
advauce on the 14th of the month, ami a
severe battle was fought. The Confederates
were defeated, and the city of Jackson ^Yas
captured Wy the Uniimists. By tliese successes
(ieu.ial <inim ,:l,Iaiiir.l j,.,.-,H.>Vmi, ,,f tlie cm-
niuuiealions helweeii \'irk.~l.urg an.l the inte
rinr, and (ieueral IVniberton, who commanded
th.- Cuufederate army in the city, was cut off.
He must now either repel the Federal army
,,r be .■nnpe.l up in Virksburg. He accord-
ingly .sdhed out with the greater part of his
forces, aud im the IGtli met the Union army
at Champion Hills, on Baker's Creek. Here
another battle was fought, and still another at
Black River. In both of these the Federals
were deci.-ivcly victorious. It only remained
for Pemberton to fall Inick with his disiieart-
eued forces within the fortifications of Vicks-
burg. The city was immediately invested.
On the 19th of ^lay General Grant attempted
to storm the Confederate works, but the
attack whicli he made on that day was re-
ants were again hurled back, with still greater
destruction of life. In these two unsuccessfid
as.=aults the Union losses amounted to nearly
three thousand men. Grant perceived that
Vick.sburg could not be taken by storm, aud
began a regidar siege, which was pressed with
ever increasing rigor. It was not long until
the garrison was placed on sliort rations, aud
then a condition of starvation ensued. Still,
Pemberton held out I'oi- more than a mcmth,
and it was not until the 4tii .if July that he
was driven to surrender. By the a<t of rapit-
ulation, the defenders of Viek>bui-L:, marly
thirty thou.sand strong, became pri-oinas ot war.
Thousands of small arms, hundreds ot' canuon,
and vast quantities of ammuuitinn aud war-
like stores were the otlier fruits of this great
Union victory, liy wliirh tlie National Govern-
mentgaiued more and the Ciuifederacy lost more
than in any other jirevious struggle of the war.
It was a lilow from which the South never
recovered.
The commau.l of the Depa
Gulf had now been traiisfernd from (Jem
Butler to General Bank>, ami the latter
conducting a vigorous campaign on the Lo
of tl
Mis-is.-ippi ]-"arly in January he set out from
his luad ipiaiters at Baton Kouge, advanced
into Louisiana, reached Brashear City, aud
gained a deei,-ive victory over tlie Confeder-
at,. foree at a plare ealhd P,ayou Teche.
He then returned to the ^lississijijii, moved
norihwaiil to IN.rt Huil-on, invested the place,
and b(t:aii a sic;:e. The beleaguered garrison,
under General Gardner, made a stout defense,
aud it was not until the 8th of July, when the
news of the fall of Vicksburg was brought to
Port Hu.lson, that tlie commandant, with his
obliged to eajiitulate. It was tin. last (,f those
successful movements by which tlie Missi.ssij)j)i
was freed from Coiiledeiate control, and
opened throughout its whole length to the
operations of the Union Army. The strategy
and battles by which the great river had ijeen
recovered reflected the highest honor upon
the military genius of General Grant. From
this time forth the attention and confidence
of the people of the North were turned to him
as the military leader whose sword was des-
tined to point the way to the final triumjih of
the National cause.
It was at this ejiocli of the war that the
feature of cavalry raids became, on lioth sides,
an important element of military operations.
Perhaps the initiation of such movements may
he referred to Stonewall Jackson's campaign
down the Shenandoah Valley, iu the summer
of 18()2. Later in the same year, after the
battle of Autietam, the Confederate General,
J. E. B. Stuart, commanding the cavalry wing
of the Army of Northern Virginia, made a
dash with a troop of eighteen hundreil cavalry-
men into Pennsylvania, reached Chambers-
biiiy, captured the town, made a comj)lete
circuit of the Army of the Potomac, and re-
turned ill siifety to Virginia. Just before the
investment of Vicksburg, Colonel Benjamin
Griersoii, nf the Sixth Illinois Cavalry, struck
out with lii> eoniinand from LaGrange, Ten-
nessee, entered Mississijipi. traversed the State
to the east of Jackson, cut the railroads,
destroyed much property, and after a rajiid
course of more than eight hundred miles,
gaiueil the river at Baton Rouge. By these
laids the border ciuiutry of both sections was
kept in i.erj.etual agitation and alarm. With
the iiro[.'ress of the war, such movements be-
THE UMTED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.
came more aud more injiuioiis. The com-
manders aud soldiers in the same learned to
perfection the art of destroying the resources
of the enemy. Their destrm-tivc <kill was
directed chiefly to the anniliilaiion of rail-
roads. This work becanie a new militarv art,
division of the Confederate General Forrest,
was surrounded, captured, and sent to Libby
prison. In the latter part of June, Roseerans
resumed activities, aud by a series of flank
movements succeeded in crowding General
Bra2g out of Tennessee iuto Georgia. TJie
^^-.i
;raxt and pemberton— capitulation of v
and so skillful were the raiders that miles on
miles of track aud road-bed were destroyed in
a single day.
After the battle of ^lurfreesborough, Gen-
eral Roseerans remained for a season inactive.
Late in the spring the command of Colonel
Streight made a raid into Georgia, met the
1 alter, ami
left bank
Union General
Chattanooga, o
nessee.
Duriug the summer months
heavily reinforced by Johuston,
sippi, and Longstreet, from Virginia. On the
19th of September he turned upon the Federal
took post at
jf the Ten-
Bra gg was
from IMissis-
THE UNITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.
army at Chitkainauga Creek, iu the uorth-
we^t augle of Georgia. Diiriug the lirst
day a hard battle was fought, but night
fell ou the scene with the victory unde-
cided. Under cover of darkness the Con-
federates were strongly reinforced by the ar-
rival of General Longstreet, who was stationed
with his army on the left wing of Bragg. The
Confederate right was commanded by General
Polk, while the center was held by Ewell and
Johustou. The Federal left was commanded
by General Thomas, the center l)y Crittenden,
and the right by McCook. The plan of the
Confederate commander was to crush the
Union line, force his way through the gap in
Missionary Ridge, capture Rossville and Chat-
tanooga, and annihilate Rdsecrans's army.
The battle was renewed at half-past eight
o'clock on the morning of the 20th, the Confed-
erates coming on in powerful masses, and the
Federals holding their ground with unflinch-
ing courage. After the conflict had continued
for some hours, with varying successes, the
National battle-line was opened by General
AVood, acting on mistaken orders. Long-
street, who was over against this part of the
line, seeing his advantage, thrust forward a
heavy column into the gap, cut the Union
army iu two, and drove the shattered rii;lit
wing iu utter rout from the field. The bnint
of the battle now fell on General Thomas, who,
with a desperate firmness hardly equaled in
the annals of war, held the left until nightfall,
and then, under cover of darkne.ss, withdrew
into Chattanooga, where the defeated army of
Rosecraus found shelter. The Union lo.sses in
this dreadful battle amounted, in killed,
wounded, and rai.ssing, to nearly nineteen
thousand, and the Confederate loss was equally
appalling.
The victorious Bragg now pressed forward
to the siege of Chattanooga. The Federal
lines of communication were cut off", and for a
while the army of Rosecraus was in danger of
total destruction. But General Hooker ar-
rived with two army corps from the Army of
tlie Potomac, opened the Tenne.ssee River, and
brought relief to the besieged. It was at this
juncture that General Grant was promoted to
the chief command of the Western armies, and
assumed the direction of affairs atTTiatta-
nooga. Nor was there ever a time iu the
course of the war when the change of com-
manders was immediately felt in so salutary a
measure. General Sherman arrived at Chat-
tanooga with his division, and the Army of
the Cumberland was so strengthened that of-
fensive operations were immediately renewed.
The left wing of the Confedei'ate Army now
rested on Lookout Mountain, and the right on
Missionary Ridge. The position was seem-
ingly impregnable, and it required a courage
almost equal to hardihood on the part of the
Union commander to attack his antagonist.
General Bragg was u<,t onlv .-ontident of his
abUity to hold his lines aua'uist anv advance
that might be made, but even contemplated
the storming of Chattanooga. But the posi-
tion of the parties, their attitude towards each
other, was destined to Ije suddenly reversed.
On the 20th of November, Bragg gave
notice to GJeneral Grant to remove all non-
condjatants from Chattanooga, as the town
was about to be bombarded; but to this the
Union General paid no attention. On the
contrary. General Hooker, on the 23d of the
month, was thrown with his corps across the
river below Chattanooga, where he gained a
footing at the mouth of Lookout Creek, facing
the mountain. From this position he was
lot;
i^^jVERSAL iiist()i:y.— the mohkhx wnnij).
ordereil to hold liimself in readiness to
make an ;i-<ault on tlie following niorniiiLT.
Hooker was sii[i[ioi-t<'d hy Generals fJeary ami
Osterhau?, and the remaindei- id' tli.- Union
army was kept in a state of activity, in ordi'r
to prevent the Confederates from scmiing rein-
forcements to Lookout Mountain.
At the beginning of the engagement a
dense fog hung like a hood over the heights,
et^i-i'tnally concealing the movements of the
Federals. The charge began between eight
of the mountain the troops sprang forward
witli irresistible energy. It was such a scene
of daiHitless heroism as has rarely been por-
trayed in the record- of liattlc The charg-
ing columns, stru'j-ling aL'ain-t the obstacles of
nature, facing the munlcroii< tin- of the Con-
federate guns, coulil not 111- rlicckrd. The
Union flag was carried to the top, and iicfore
two o'clock in the afternoon Lookout ]Mount-
aiu, with its cloud-capped summit overlook-
he town and river, was swa
with
>r
and nine o'chn-k, and in the space of two hours
the ranges of the Confederate rifle-pits along
the footdiills were successfully carried. It had
been General Hooker's ptirpose to pause when
this should be accomplished, but the enthusi-
asm of his army rose to such a pitch as to
suggest the still greater achievement of carry-
ing the whole Confederate po.sition. Taking
advantage of the fog and the spirit of his sol-
diers, Hooker again gave the command to
charge, and up the almost inaccessible slopes
OT-T ^rnrxTAiN.
Federal sol.liers. The routed Confederates re-
treated down the eastern slope, and across the
intervening hills and valleys in the direction
of Missiouarv Ridge. Such was the event of
the 24th of Xovendier.
General Grant had reserved the main bat-
tle for the morrow. During the night of the
24th, General Bragg concentrated his forces,
and prepared to defend his position to the last.
He now perceived that instead of being the
attacking party he was himself to be assailed
THE UXITKL) STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.
with the whole resources of tli.' F.'.l.Tiiis. On
the morniug of the 2.")th, IlooktrV virtorious
troops were ordered to [iror.-r.! down the
slopes of Lookout, cross the Chattanooga, and
renew the battle at the south-western terminus
of Missionary Ridge. General Sherman had,
in the meautirae, built pont'ion liridizos over
the Tennessee aud the ChirkaiiiaiiLia, thrown
his corps across those streams, and gaineil a
lodgment on the north-eastern declivity of the
Ridge. General Thomas, commanding the
Union center, lay with his impatient soldiers
on the southern and eastern slopes of Orchard
Knob, awaiting the result of Sherman's and
Hooker's onsets.
The latter General was slow in strikinu- the
Confederates; but at two o'clock in the after-
noon the signal of an artillery discharge from
Orchard Knob announced the beginning of
the assault along the whole line.' The com-
mand was instantly obeyed. The thriiliiiL,'
scenes of Lookout Mountain were again en-
acted on a more masuificeut scale. The Fed-
eral soldiers were ordered by Grant to take
the rifle-pits at the foot of Mis-ionary I!idi;-o,
aud then to pause and re-form for tin- |>riiiri|):il
assault; but such was the clan of the ariii\-,
such the impetuosity of its impact, that, aft-T
carrying the rifle-pits, the column, of its own
motion, pressed forward at full speed, clamber-
ing up the slopes aud driving the Confederati'S
in a disa<trou* rout from the summit of the
Rid.'o. Xo more brilliant operation wa- wit-
ness'_'d during the whjle war. Nor was there
any battle of which the results were, on the
whole, more decisive. During the niglit Gen-
eral Bragg withdrew his shattered columns,
and fell back in the direction of Ringgold,
Georgia. The Federal losses in the two great
battles amounted to seven hundred and fifty-
seven killed, four thousand five hundred and
twenty-nine wounded, aud three hundred and
thirty missing. The los-: of the Confcdi'ratps
in killed, wounded and prisoners reached cen-
siderably beyond ten thousand. The conflict
was so decisive as to put an end to the war
in Tennessee, until it was renewed by General
Hood, at Franklin and Nashville, in the winter
of 1864.
While these important movements were
taking place at Chatlaiio,.;:a, (ieneral Biirnside
Tennessee. (Jii tlie 1st ot' September ho had
arrived with his command at Iviioxville, where
he was received liy the pe(i|ile with lively sat-
'The reverberations of Grant's six shotted
guns from Orchard Knob were the signal of the
beginning of the end of the Confederacy.
been largelv pervaded with riiioii sentiments.
The Federal army had 1 n i.ui.'h reunited
by the mountaineers of tliis region, and the
people in general looked forward to the over-
throw of the Confederacy as the recovery of
their liberties and fortunes. After Chicka-
mauga. General Longstreet was detached from
the Confederate army and sent into Ea.st Ten-
nessee, to counteract the movements of the
Unionists. On his march to Knoxville he
overtook aud captured several small detach-
ments of Federal troops, then invested the
town and began a siege. On the l2i»th of No-
carry Knoxville by storm, but were repulsed
with heavy losses.
All this time General (irant had h.ok.-d
with the utmost solicitude to the progress of
events in East Tennessee, ami thi' Administra-
tion had been equally anxious lest the veteran
Loiig>treet should achieve some yreat sn.'.vss
by his campaign. As soon as lirag- tell back
from Chattanooga, General SluTinaii marched
to the relief of Burnside ; but l.efore he could
reach Knoxville, Longstreet prudently raised
the siege and retreated into Virginia.
In the meantime, the Confederates had re-
sumed activities in Arkansas and Southern
Mis'souri. In the early part of 18(33, strong
bodies commanded by Generals Marmaduke
and Price, entered this country, ;nid on the
8th of January reached ami attticked the city
of Springfield. They were, however, repulsed
with considerable losses. On the 11th of the
month a second battle was fought at the town
of HartsviUe. with the same results. On the
2(ith of April, General Marmaduke assaulted
the post at Cape Girardeau, on the Mississippi,
but the garrison succeeded in driving the Con-
federates away. On the day of the surrender
of Vicksburg, General Holmes, with a force
of nearly eight thousand men, made an attack
on Helena, Arkansas, but was defeated with
the loss of one-fifth of his men. On the 13th
of August, in this summer, the town of Law-
];^>!
UXIVERSAL HIST()in: — THE MODERX WORLD.
ckr.l
ullc.l
reuce, Kan>;i>,
luiudred an.l t<.rty ii.i
of desperate iMlows. li-
(iuantivll. On the lOth'of SriKcnilier, tlie
F.-deral (ieu.Tal Si,..k- ivadied Link- K..ek,
tlu' eapital of Aikan.sis, ,-ai.tnn-.l the eity, and
r.>t(.ivd the Natiniial authoiitv in the State.
But the .i;rfale.-t iai<l ot' the year was re-
served for tlie Confederate General Morgan.
He organized a calvary army, uunihering three
thousand, at the town of Sparta. Tennessee,
and at the bead of his eoliunn .-truck out f.r
in his rear a large i'orce, under (ieneral Hob-
son, pressed bard after.
^lorgau now made a circuit through south-
eastern Indiana, crossed into Ohio at Harrison,
j)assed to the north of Cincinnati, and then,
becoming alarmed, attempted to regain and
recross the Ohio. But the river was guarded
by gun-boats, and the raiders were driven
back. Morgan's forces began to melt away ;
but he pressed on resolutely, fighting and
tlyins, until he came near the town of New
];i-l-ii. \\1kiv h.' w:i~ Miri-iiii.le.l and captured
te
the invasion of K(
ntuckv, Indiana, and Ohio.
As he passed thro
,-li Kentucky he gathen-d
strenirth. Tin- lai
::.■ (.'onfederate element in
that State contril.i
ti'd to bis resources in men
and means. MorL
an reacbed the Oiiio Rivei
at Brandenburtr, c
•ossed into Indiana, and l,e
L'an his march to
the north and east. Tlu
Home (iuards of t
ic Statr tui-ncd out, but llu
movement of the
Confederate f.nv was <.
uncertain and ra]
id tliat it wa- dillicuh t.
cjipck i\Iorgan's
.n,-iv- II'' was rcM-t,.,
seriouslv at Corvd
ni and at ntluT pninl^, and
by the brin-ade of General ShackeHord. For
nearly four months Morgan was imprisoned in
the Ohio penitentiary. [Making his escape
from this ].lace. he fled to Kentucky, and
finally succeedeil in reaching Richmond.
AVe may now pause to glance at some im-
])nrtant movements on the sea-coast. On the
1st of .Tannary, General Marmaduke, by a
brilliant exploit, captured Galveston, Texas.
Bv thi- means the Confederates .secured a much
needed port of entry in the South-west. On
the 7th of April, Admiral Dupont, with a
THE UXITED STATES— THE CIVIL WAE.
139
powerful fleet of irou-clad.s, iiimlf an attempt
til cajiture Charleston, but the sijuaih^ou ;vas
driven back much damaged. In the latter
part iif June the siege of the city was begun
anew liy a strong laud force, under command
of General Q. A. Gilmore, assisted by a fleet
under Admiral Dahlgreo. The Federal army
lirst effected a lodgment on Folly Island, and
then on Morris Island, where batteries were
planted bearing upon Fort Sumter, Fort
Wagner, and Battery Gregg — the latter at the
northern extremity of the islaml.
After the bombardment had continued for
some time. General Gilmore, on the 18th of
July, made an attempt to carry Fort Wagner
by assault, but was repulsed with the loss of
more than fifteen hundred men. The siege
was resumed and pressed until the 6th of Sep-
tember, when the Confederates evacuated Fort
Wagner and Battery Gregg, and retired to
Charleston. Gilmore thus obtained a position
within four miles of the citj', from which he
could bombard the wharves and buildings in
the lower part of the town. Meanwhile, the
walls of Fort Sumter on the side next to Mor-
ris Island had been pounded into powder by
the land batteries and the guns of the moni-
tors. The harbor and city, however, still re-
mained under the control of the Confederates,
tlie only gain of the Federals being the estab-
lishment of a blockade so complete as to seal
uj) the port of Charleston.
We may now turn to the consideration of
affairs of the Army of the Potomac. In the
spring and summer of 1863 that army, so un-
fortunate thus far in its career, had been en-
gaged in several desperate conflicts. After
his fatal repulse at Fredericksburg, General
Burnside was superseded by General Joseph
Hooker, who, in the latter part of Ai.i-il,
moved forward with his army in full ioive,
cro.ssed the Rappahannock and the Rapidan,
and reached Chancellorsville. Here, on the
evening of the 2d of May, he was attacked
by the veteran army of Northern Virginia, led
bv Lee and Jackson. The latter General, with
extraordinary daring, put him.'^elf at the head
<if a division of twenty-five thousand men,
filed off from the battle-field, outflanked the
I'ninn army, burst like a thunder-clund uimiu
the riirht wing, and swept everylhing tn di-
struction. But it was the last of Stonewall's
I battles. As night came on, with ruin impend-
ing over the Federal army, the great Confed-
erate leader, riding through the gathering
darkness, received a volley from his own lines,
anil fell mortally wounded. He lingered a
week, and died at Guinea Statimi, leaving a
gap in the Confererate raidcs which nu other
man could fill.
On the morning of the :;d the l)attle was
renewed with great fury. The Union right
wing was restored, and the Confederates were
checked in their career of victory. General
Sedgwick, however, attempting to reinforce
Hooker from Fredericksburg, was defeated
and driven across the Rappahannock. The
Union Army was crowded between Chancel-
JOSEPH HnnKER.
lorsville and the river, where it remained in
the utmost peril until the evening of the 5th,
when General Hooker succeeded in withdraw-
ing his forces to the northern bank. The
Union losses in these terrible battles amounted,
in killed, wounded, and prisoners, to about
seventeen thousand, while that of the Con-
federates was less than five thousand. So far
as the eastern field of action was concerned,
there was never a time when the Union cause
ajipeared to greater disadvantage, or the Con-
federate cau.se more likely to succeed. The
campaign, taken as a whole, had been the most
di-^a>tn>u^ of any in which the Federal Army
iiail a- yrt been engaged.
The defeat of Hooker, however, was to
140
UXIVERSAL niSTollY. — THK MODERX \Vi)l!I.I>
some extent niitipntiil hy il
cavalry raid of General Stni^
officer crossed the r;aii|.a]Kiiiii..<-l
29th of Aju-il i.ushed f.Twunl \vi
hat (A-iilral l;aih'..a.l, and da>hiii,L;- on to llit-
the Cln.kahoiiiiny. H,- suece,-,!,,! in cutting ( k-n-
of ; eral Lee's eonHniiniealions, swept around
THE UNITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.
141
within a few miles of Kieliniond, and on tlic
8tli lit' ]\Iay recrnssed tin- IJai)i)ahanuock in
safety. Td this time alsn ludnngs the success-
ful defense of Suti'olk, on the Xausemond
River, by General Peck, against a siege con-
(hvted by General Longstreet. The Con-
federates retreated from the scene of action on
the very day of the Vuioii disaster at Chancel-
lorsville.
Great was the elation of the Confederates
on account of their successes on the Rappahan-
nock. General Lee now determined
to carry the war into Maryland and
Pennsylvania. In the first week
of June he threw forward his whole
army, crossed the Potomac, and
captured Hagerstown. On the 22d
of the month he entered Cham-
bersburg, and then pressed on
through Carlisle, to within a few
miles of Harrisburg. The militia
of Pennsylvania was hurriedly called
out, and thousands of volunteers
came pouring in from other States.
General Hooker, still in command
of the Array of the Potomac,
pushed forward to confront his an-
tagonist. It was evident that a
great and decisive battle was at
hand. General Lee rapidly con-
centrated his forces near the vil- ^^
lage of-Getfetshurg^ca.pital of Adams
County, Pennsylvania, while the
Union Army was likewise gathered
on the highlands beyond the town.
On the very eve of battle the com-
mand of the Army of the Poto-
mac, and of all the Federal forces,
wa- transferred from General
Hooker to General George G.
^leade, who hastily drew up his army
the hill country in the direction of
burg. After two years of indecisi
fare, it now seemed that the fate
Hagerstown, and the struggle began. In the
afternoon both divisions were strongly rein-
forced, and a severe battle was fought for the
po.sse.«siou of Seminary Ridge. In this initial
conflict the Confederates were victoiioiis, and
the Union line was forced from its position
through the village and back to the high
grounds on the south. Here, at nightfall, a
stand was made, and a new battle-line was
formed, reaching from the eminence called
Round Top, wbere the left wing of the Union
through
Gettys-
ve war-
of the
\nd perhaps of the American Republic
was to be staked on the issue of a sinL;le
< )n the morning of the 1st of July the
I'liioii advance, led by Generals Reynolds and
Beauford, moving westward from Gettysburg,
encountered the Confederate division of Gen-
eral A. P. Hill, comincT uiion the road from
army rested, around the crest of the ridges to
Cemetery Hill, wbere the center was posted,
and thence to Wolf Hill, on Rock Creek.
The position was well chosen and strong, and
the whole Union army, with the exception of
Sedgwick's coriis, wa- hurried forward into
jilace during tlie night. The Confederate
forces were likewise brought into position on
Seminary Ridge and on the high ground.s to
the left of Rock Creek, forming thus a semi-
circle about five miles in extent. The cavalry
of both armies hung upon the tiauks, doing
rA/I//.si7 HISJOHY — Tin MODI r\ WOULD.
effiauL ^ i\iu lull lui ll\ i>utuii itiii_ lu
the iiniM c iillict- lit tlR tuitt i
Oil tlu III iiiiii^' (if Jiih 2 1 ih limit; w IS
begun li\ (i( IK I il I ii_-ii( I in tlie(-<.nled
eritt ii_'lii 1 h It I iiiiii II 1 I 111 \etl firward
with ini|ittu it\ ml 1 11 uj u the L uion
left uniki Guieijl '^uklo The '•tiuggle in
this put of the helil wT-- f i the pos>eb-ion of
Gieat tud LittU K luii 1 lup^ iml iftei tern
ble fighting, which lifted until ^i\ o clock in
the e\euing these --tioni; positinus lemained in
It w lb fcund tint, ( ii the wIimI,.. tlir pi.-ition
of the two annus hid not bcin nialciially
chiuged 1)\ the cuiflic t, altlioiiu'li nciiily liirty
thoueind Lnion aii<l Cunfederatc- dead and
w lunded aluiiK Ikhc evidence of the purtc-n-
tiius chancier of the battle.
A generil \h\\ of the field and of the sit-
uation showed that the National forces were
wis(h netiiig nil the defensive. The Confed-
( ntt linn w i- linking an invasion. It had
cdiiie t I I w ill Hid must break thrnigli or
-■^-L?"
\ ^fm\
i^^ ^4
ILK OI erETl\.-
the
mds of
Federals. Ii
L'enter the , siit!i'r defeat. The burden of attack was
battle was also severe, lasting for the greater
part of the day, and being waged for the mas-
tery of Cemetery Hill, which was the key to
the Federal position. Here, too, notwithstand-
ing the despi'i-ate assaults of the Confederates,
the iiit<-grity of the National line was pre-
served till nightfall. On the Union right the
Confederate onset was more successful, and
that wing of the Federal army, under General
Slocum, was soim-wliat sliattered. But by ten
o'clock at iiiLdit, wlini the tiirhtinir had ceased.
therefore upon Lee's army, and from this he
did not flinch. In the darkness of night both
Generals made strenuous preparations for the
renewal of the struggle on the morrow ; but
with the nmniiiig Iinth seemed loath to begin.
Doulitlfss both were woU aware of the critical
nature of the conflict. The whole nation, in-
deed, discerned that the crisis of the Civil
War hail been reached, atul that, perhaps,
before sunset the issue would be decided for
or aL'aiiist tlii> .\iih ri.-an I'liioii.
THE UMTEl) STATES. — THE CIVIL
AE.
The whnle foren.M.n of tlie
speut iu prepai-atiiiiis. There
.r Ji
tie fight-
av there
ing, aud that hut desultory. At
was a lull along tlie whole line. Then hurst
forth the fiercest cannonade cvir knnwn on
the Aineriean Continent. I'litil after two
o'clock the hills and siirroundin- country were
shaken with the thundt-rs of nu.re than two
hundred heavy guns. The Confederate artil-
lerymen concentrated their fire on the Union
center, at Cemetery Hill, and this place became
a scene of indescribable uproar and death. The
Union batteries, under direction of General
Hunt, drew back beyond the crest, in order
to cool the guns, and also for economy of am-
munition. The consequent slacking of fire was
construed by the Confederates as signifying
that their cannonade had been successful; and
then came the crisis. The cannonade ceased.
A Confederate column, numliering nearly
twenty thousand, and about three-fourtlis of
a mile in length, headed by the Virginians, under
General Pickett, moved forward for the final
and desperate charge against the Union center.
It was doubtless the finest military siu-ctai'le
ever witnessed west of the Atlantic ; but the
onset was in vain, and the brave men who
made it were mowed down with terrilile
slaughter. The head of the Confederate col-
umn reached the Union line, but there sank
into the earth. Then the whole was hurled
back iu ruin and rout. Victory hovered over
the National army, and it only remained for
Lee, with his broken legions, to turn back
towards the Potomac. The entire Confeder-
ate loss in this, the greatest battle of the war,
was nearly thirty thousand ; that of the Fed-
erals, in killed, wounded, and missing, twenty-
three thousand one hundred and eighty-six.
It was strongly hoped by the Government that
when the Confederate charge was broken and
the retreat begun. General Meade woidd be
able to spring forward from his position and
perhaps complete the war bv destroying tlie
forces of his antagonist before they could re-
cross the river; but the condition of the
Union army would not permit of such a mov-e-
ment. General Lee accordingly withdrew his
forces into Virginia, and the Federals took up
their old position along thn Potomac and the
Rappahannock. Such were tlie more important
military movements of l.*(i:l
ccumu-
inhiii
Meanwhilr. ntlier difhcultic:
lated like iiDUiitaiiis arnuml t
At the time it was imt >.. .l.iiilv .-cen as it was
afterwards that the war iiiii-t m.hh tiid ..,■
National bankruptcy viisuc The last call i- >•
V(iliintei.rs had not lifen fully ,in-t, and tli.-i.-
were not wanting those in pt.rtions of the
North who purposely impeded the gathering
of new forces. The anti-war party became
more bold and open, and denounced the meas-
ures (if the Government. On the 3d of
Mari'h, ].S(i3, a Conscrii-tion Act was passed
by CViugress, and two months afterwards the
President ordered a general draft of three
hundred thousand men. All able-b(jdied citi-
zens between the ages of twenty and fortv-five
were subject to the requisition.
The measure furnished fuel tor the fires
which the anti-war party had kiii.lle.l in the
North. Bitter deiuiiKiati.iii. of the Govern-
ment and its policy were heard in the Border
States, and iu some places the draft-officers
were forcibly resisted. On the 1.3th of July
va:-t mob ro>e in anus in tlie city, .Iciuolished
the buildings which were occupied by the
Provf>st :Marshals, burned the Colored Orphan
Asylum, attacked the police, and killed about
a iiunilred peojile, most of whom were negroes.
For three days the authorities of the city were
set at defiance. On the second day of the
reign of terror. Governor Seymour arrived
and addressed the mob in a niild-mannered
way, promising that the draft should be sus-
pended, and advising the rioters to disperse.
But they gave little heed to his admonition, and
went oil witli thr woik of dotiii.'tion. Gen-
eral Wool, comman.lfr of tlu' mihtary district
of New York, then took the matter in hand;
but even the troojis at his disposal were at
first unable to overawe the insurgents. Some
volunteer regiments, however, came troiiping
home from Gettyslmru The Metropolitan
Police Companies were comjiactly (U-ganized,
and the insurrection was put down with a
strong hand. The news of the fall of Vicks-
burg and the defeat of Lee at Gettysburg
threw a damper on these insurrectionary ]U'o-
ceedin-^, aii.l acts of domestic violence cease.],
Neveitliele-. tile aiili-war Spirit eontimie.l to
e.xpre-- it-elf in parts of the N..rth, and iu
ISlVEIu'iAL ElSTOllY.-THE 3I0DERN WOULV.
THE UXITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.
order to counteract it, the President, ou the i
19tli of August, issued a proclamatiou sus-
jieudiug the writ of habea.-< corpus throughout
thi- Uuiou.
Oue of the lessons of the hour was the in-
sufficieucy of the couscripliou as a metliod of
filling the Uuion army. That army was com-
posed of volunteers who had espoused the
cause of the Government with a tolerably
keen sense of the principles involved and a
fervid patriotism for the flag of the Uuiou.
The introduction, into this great army, of re-
cruits taken by the draft was a process quite
foreign to the sentiments of the people. Only
about fifty thousand men were added directly
to the National forces by conscription. But
in other respects the measure was salutary.
It was seen that the Government would not
scruple, in the lost resort, to draw upon the
human resources of the country by force.
Volunteering was greatly quickened by the
draft, and the plan of employing substitutes be-
came generally prevalent in the last year oi the
war. Such, however, were the terrible los.ses by
battle and disease and the expiration of enlist-
ments, that in October of 1863 the President
was constrained to issue another call for three
hundred thousand men. At the same time it
was provided that any delinquency in meeting
the demand would be supplied by a draft in
the following January. By these active meas-
ures the columns of the Union army were
made more powerful than ever. With the
approach of winter the disparity between the
Uniiin and Confederate forces began to be ap-
parent to the whole world. In the armies of
the South there were already symptoms of ex-
haustion, and the most rigorous conscription
was necessary to fill the thin, but still coura-
geous, ranks of the Confederacy. It was on
the 20th of June in this year that West Vir-
ginia, separated from the Old Dominion, was
organized and admitted as the thirty-fifth State
of the Union.
We come now to consider those movements
by which the war was ended. The military
operations of 1864 began, as in the previous
year, in the West. In the beginning of Feb-
ruary, General Sherman left Vicksburg with
the purpose of destroying the railroad connec-
tions of Eastern ^Mississippi. JIarching off'
toward Alabama, he reached Meridian on the
1.5th of the mouth, and tore up the tracks of
the railways from jNIobile to Corinth and from
Vicksburg to Montgomery, for a distance of a
hundred and fifty miles. Bridges were burned,
locomotives and cars destroyed, and vast quan-
tities of cotton and corn given to the flames.
General Sherman had expected the arrival at
Meridian of a strong force of Federal cavalry,
under cnmmand of General Smith, advancing
from Memphis. The latter made his way into
Mississijipi, but was met, a hundred miles
north of Meridian, by the cavalry army of
Forrest and driven back to Memphis. General
Sherman, disappointed by this failure, retraced
his course to Vicksburg, while Forrest con-
tinued his raid northward into Tennessee,
where, on the 24th of IMarch, lie occupied
Union City. He then pressed on to Paducah,
Kentucky, where he assaulted Fort Anderson,
in the suburbs of the town, but was repulsed,
with the loss of three hundred men. He
then turned back into Tennessee, and came
upon Fort Pillow, on the Missis.sippi, seventy
miles above Memphis. This place was held
by five hundred and sixty soldiers, about half
of whom were Negroes. Forrest, having gained
the outer defenses, demanded a surrender, but
was refused. He then ordered an assault, and
carried the fort by storm, in the course of
which nearly all of the Negro soldiers were
slaughtered.
In the spring of 1864 occurred the Red
River expedition, conducted by General Banks.
The object of the movement was the capture
of Shreveport, the seat of the Confederate
Government of Louisiana. The plan em-
braced the advance of a strong land force up
Red River, to be supporte<l by a fleet of gun-
boats under command of Admiral Porter.
The army was arranged in three ilivisions.
The first, numbering ten thousand, advanced
from Vicksburg, under command of General
Smith; the second, led by General Banks in
person, proceeded to New Orleans; while the
third, under command of General Steele, set
out from Little Rock. In the beginning of
March, General Smith's division moved forward
to Red River, and was joine.l by P..rt.'r with
the fleet. On tli.' 14th of the m.aith, the
advance reached Fort de Russy, which was
taken by assault. The Confederates retreated
up the river to Alexandria, and on the 16th
(■XI\i:i;SAL IflSToL'V — TJIK MODEUX \V<)1!L1>
l)os>il,lc. Til.. Ilnlilla |„-or..,,l,.,l U], tllr Mivam
t(.«anlShnv,-iH„t,aii,l tl„- hind loivt-s uhirled
oil' in a ciiviiit to tlie Irft.
On tlic rSth (if April, when tiie advance
brigades were appniachiug the town of Mans-
field, they were suddenly attacked by the
Confederates in fnll fn'ce.and advantageously
difiiculty that the flotilla descended the river
from the direction of .Shreveport, for the Con-
federates had now j)lanted batteries on the
banks. AVheu the Federal rrtn-al had pro-
ceeded a-^ \\\ is Alewnliii tl m \ ni nt
was a-ain ( li. 1 r 1 b\ tli 1 I i < f the
i-iv.-r. Th, uit , 1 ,1 1 1 i thit the
gun-bnats (_ ull n t 1 I tl i 4 i K Ihe
squadron wis hnUh su(d fioin its penl bj
the skill of Colonel Bai!e> , of '\\ iscon«in He
constructed a ]\m icioss the luer iiising the
water .so th a the \essels coid I bt il iti 1 o\cr
^^
.EVS DAM ON RED RIVER.
posted.
A short
and b]ood\
battle t
in which the Federals were
^omjilett
The vie
tors made
a vigorou
5 piirsui
ri,-a^an
t Hill, ul
rre th.-y
were ni
CnvrnMl th,. r.trr:
t tn ll„. rivrr. X.'arly
thousand men, t\
.nty pieces of arliller_\
the supply liain-
• if the Federal army
lost in these di-a
<trnus battles. It was
The whole expedition broke to pieces, and re-
turned as rapidly as possible to the Mississippi.
When General Steele, who had, in the mean-
time, advanced from Little Rock toward Sjneve-
port, lieard of the Federal defeats, he with-
drew, after several severe encounters with the
Confederates. To the National Government,
the Red River expedition was a source of much
shame and nmrtiHratiun. General lianks was
relieved of his (■(.mnian.l, and General Canl.y
was appointed to succeed him.
The time had now come when the evulu-
tion of military talent consequent upon the
THE UMTED STATES.— THE CIVIL U'AIi.
■war reached its climax in tlie ascemlency of
General Ul_ysses S. Grant. By degrees,
through every kiud of hardship and contu-
mely, that commander had emerged from the
obscurity which surrounded him at the begin-
ning of the conflict, and stood forth, in silence
and modesty unparalleled, as the leading figure
of the times. After Vicksburg and Chatta-
nooga, nothing could stay his progress to the
command-iu-chief. Congress responded to the
spirit of the country by reviving the high
grade of Lkutewnit-'aeHcraK and conferring it
on Grant. This brcmght with it the appnint-
ment, by the President, on the 2d of Marcii,
1864, to the command-in-chief of the laud and
naval forces of the
United States. No few 1 1
than seven hun li 1
thousand Union sihiui^
were now to mo\e it
his command. The fii t
month after his app nit
ment was spent in plan
ning the great t vn
paigus of the >cu
These were two in niun
ber. The Army t the
Potomac, under immedi
ate ciimmaud of Mea le
and the Genenl n
chief, was to a h n
upon Richmond, till 1
fended by the ai ii \ t
Northern Virgin 1 1 un
der Lee. At the ^inie
time General .Sheimiu
commanding the army at Chattanooga, now
numbering a hundred thousand men, was to
march against Atlanta. It was defended by the
Confederates, under General Johnston. To
these two great movements all other militarv
operations were to be suiiordinated. Grant sent
his orders to Sherman for the grand movement
which was destined to end the war, and the
1st of May, 18(;4, was fixed as the date of the
advance.
On the 7th of tliat month General Sher-
man moved forward from Chattanooga. At
Dalton he was confronted bv the Confederate
array, sixty thousand strong. After some
manoeuvering and fighting, he succeeded in
turning Johnston's flank, and obliged him to
fall back to Eesaca. Two hard-fought l.attles
occurred at this plan', on tin- 14th and ITith
of May, in which the I'nion army «as vic-
torious, and the Confederates obliged to re-
treat by way of Calhoun and Kingston to
Dallas. At the latter place, on the 28th of the
month, Johnston made a second stand. He
intrenched himself and fought valiantly, but
was again outnundjered and outflanked, and
comi)elled to fall back to Lost Mountain.
From this position also he was forced, on the
17th of June, after three davs of desidtory
fighting.
The next stand of the Confederates was
made on the Great and Little Kenesaw Mount-
ains. From this line, on the 22d of June, the
division of General Hood made a fierce attack
on the Union center, but was repulsed with
heavv losses. Five days afterwards General
Sherman attem]>tod to carry Kenesaw by
storm. The assault was made with great au-
dacity, but ended in a divadl'ul ic|iulse and a
loss of nearly three thousand men. Sherman,
undismaved bv Ids reverse, then resumed his
former tactics, outflanked his antagonist, and
on the •'>d of July compelled him to retreat
across the Chattahoochee. By tlie 10th t,f the
mouth the whole Confederate army ha.l been
fiirccd lini'k within the defenses of Atlanta.
A >]fise immediately ensued. Atlanta was
a place of the greatest importance to the Con-
148
CMVKJ.'.sAI. IllsToJlY.-^rHK MOIiEUX WORLD.
federacy. Here were located tin- hkk
shops, fbuudries, car-work? and drpiits ..t
plies, upou the possession nf wliich >'i
depended. The Confederati> (lnvt •niiiiini
in the nieantiine, lieeoini di- iti li 1 wit
niilitar\ polI(^ c f (ti ni i d I |h 1 F hi
That t mti II- iiid -I il ml . inni in h i
adopted tlu phii f lillii. huk hit I
superior fiiu I ~ it "^h iniiii it i ntiiitiii
lines, and ot 111 lint 111 11)^ h\ i - 1 1 i t I
policy, the (h>tiiiK-
this method was not pleasing to the authorities
at Richmond, and when Atlanta was besieged
Johnston was superseded by the rash but daring
General J. B. Hood. It was the policy of
the latter to fight at whatever hazard. On
the 20th, 22d, and 2Stli of July, he made three
despirate assaults on the I'nion lino aroniMl
Atlanta; but was iTpiils.Ml in .■ach en-a-etiieiit
with dreadful losses. It was in the beginning
of the second of these battles that the brave
General James B. McPherson, the bosom
friend of Generals Grant and .Sherman, and
the pride of the Union army, was killed while
reconnoiteriug the Confederate lines. In the
three conflicts jnst referred to, the Confederates
1 -t more men than Johnston had lost in all
lii^ masterly retreating and fighting between
C Inttanooga and Atlanta.
1 he siege of the hitter city was now pressed
\\ith great vigor. Sherman tightened his grip
fioni day to day. At last, by an incautious
niiAenient, Hood separated his army; the
I'nioti commander thrust a column
between the two divisions, and the
ininudiate evacuation of Atlanta
foil., wed. On the 2d of Septem-
lier, ."Sherman's army marched into
the captured city. Since leaving
> Chattanooga^ the Federals had
lost in killed, wounded, and miss-
ing fully thirty thousand men,
and the Confederate losses were
even greater. By retiring from
Atlanta, however, Hood, though
he lost the city, saved his army.
"^ He now formed the plan of
striking boldly northward into
Tennessee, with the hope of com-
] idling Sherman to evacuate
(Jeorgia. But the latter had
no notion of losing his vantage
ground, and after following Hood
north of the Chattahoochee, he
turned back to Atlanta.
Hood swept on through North-
ern Alabama, crossed the Tennes-
see River at Florence, and ad-
vanced on Na.shville. General
Thomas, with the Army of the
Cumberland, had in the meantime
been detached from Sherman's
army and sent northward to con-
front Hood. General Schofield, who com-
manded the Federal forces in the southern
]iart of the State, fell back before the
Confederates and took post at Franklin,
eighteen miles south of Nashville. Here,
on the SOth of November, he was attacked
l,y Ho..d, wlinin, after a hard-fought battle,
h,' held in check until nightfall, when he
escaped across the river and retreated within
the def(>nses of Nashville. At the latter place.
General Thomas rapidly concentrated his
THE LLXITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.
149
forces. A line of intrenchmeuts was drawn
around the city on the south. Hood came on,
confident of victory, and prepai'ed to be^in
the siege by blockading the Cumberhmd ; Init
before the work was fairly begun, (General
Thomas, on the 15th of December, moved
out from bis works, fell upon the Confederate
army, and routed it, with a loss of killed,
wounded, and prisoners of fully twenty-five
thousand men. For many days of freezing
weather, Hood's shattered and disorganized
columns were pursued until at last the rem-
nant found refuge in Alabama. The Confed-
erate army was ruined, and the rash treneral
who had led it to de^ti uc-
tion was relieved ot his
command.
On the 14th of ^ I
vember, Geneial Shei-
man burned Atlanta and
began his famous M\f( h
TojrHR Sra. Hisainn
of veterans uumbeied
sixty thousand men Be
lieving that Hood's aim^
would be destiojed iii
Tennessee, and kuo\\in_
that no Coufedeiatet<ii( t
could withstand hnii in
front, he cut his coniniu
nications with the Jv(
abandoned his bi^t
supplies, and stiuc k
boldly for the sea ei
more than two luiu
and fifty miles iwa\
Neither Sherman himself nor General Grant
had any definite plan as to the terminus of the
campaign; but the one had self-reliance, and
the other was calmly confident of the result.
The country also had come to know its leaders
and to trust them in every hazard. When Sher-
man left Atlanta, and was lost to sight in the
forests of Georgia, he was followed by the un-
wavering faith of the Nation.
As had been foreseen, the Confederates
could offer no successful resistance to his prog-
ress. The Union array swept on through
jNIacon and Milledgeville; reached the Ogee-
chee, and crossed in safety; captured Gibson
and Waynesborough ; and on the 10th of
December arrived in the vicinity of Savannah.
On the loth. Fort ^McAllister, below the city,
was carried by storm by the division of Gen-
eral Hazen. On the night of the 20th Gen-
eral Hardee, the Confederate commandant, es-
caped from Savannah with fifteen thou.?and men,
and retreated to Charleston. On the following
morning the National advance entered, and on
the 22d General Sherman made his head-quar-
ters in Savannah. On his march from Atlanta he
had lost only five hundred and sixty-seven men.
The month of January, 186.5, was spent
by the Union army in the city. On the 1st
of February, General Sherman, having garri-
soned the })lace, began Ids march against
PCH TO THF
Columbia, the capital of South Carolina. To
the Confederates the further progress of the
invasion through the swamps and morasses of
the State had seemed impossible. Now that
the veteran legions were again in motion,
alarm and terror pervaded the country.
Governor Jlagrath had already summoned to
the field every white man in the State l3e-
tween the ages of sixteen and sixty; but
the requisition was comparatively inefiectual.
Nevertheless, the Confederates formed a line
of defense along the Salkehatehie, and pre-
pared to dispute Sherman's march northward.
It was all in vain. The passages of the river
were forced, and on the 11th of the month
the Confederate lines of communication be-
1.30
ryjvKh'SAi, nisniuY.—THK Moj>i:i;y world.
tween Cliarl<-stoii and Aiii:ii>la w.iv nit ..t
On the next .lay ( )iaiiLM Imr- \va-- taken 1j
till" ScvcMtcuMith' Cori.^. On llir 14th tli
fui-.l.- an. I hii.lires ot' ihr CmLfanr wvw ca
ti.in ..1' Cdlnniliia. S.v.ral .livi-i..,i> pn-^x-
i-apidiv i;.i-\var.l: lanl-r- wnv thravn acro:
th.. lin.a.i a.,.1 Sahida Uivn-. an.l tli.- raiiit.
.Ma\
A- -Mdu as it hecaiuf fertaiii that Cokiinbia
inn-l tall into the hands of the Federals, Geii-
<-rai Hai-dt-e, eoniinandant of Chaideston, detei-
inined X<< abandon that citv alsu, and to join
(naiei-als Beamx-ai-d and Johnston in North
Carolina. Accordingly, ou the day of the
<'apture of the capital, guards were detailed
to destroy all the warehouses, stores of cottou,
and depots of supplies in Charleston. The
torch was applied, the flames raged, and cnn-
sternation spread throngliout the city. The
great depot of tlie Norih-wrsterii Railway,
where a large quantity <if powder was stored,
caught fire, blew up with terrific violeuce, and
buried two hundred people in the ruins. Not
until four squares iu the best part of the city
were laid iu ashes, was the conflagration
cheeked. During the same night. General
Hardee, with his fourteen thousand troops, es-
caped from desolated Charleston, and made
his way northward. On tlie morning of the
l<Sth the news was b.irne to the Xatiunal
forces of James and M>n-\~ Islands. In the
f..r..n(M,n the .'^lai- and Stripes were again
i-ai^.l over Forts Snniter, Hiplev, and Pinck-
nev. Mayer .Ma.'l,eth surrendered the city to
a company which was si-ut up from M<irris
Island. The work of savin- whatever might
l)e rescued from the flames was at once begun,
the citizens and Federal soldiers working to-
gether. By strenuous exertiiiiis, the jirineipal
arsiaial was save.j ; a depot of rice was also
preserveil, and it- eonients ilistributed to the
poor. Colonel Stewart L. Woodfof.l. of New
York, was appointed ndlitary ( lovernor of the
have been expeeled were soon /stahlished Ih-
tween the soldiery and the \ pie.
Columbia was, next after Atlanta, the
great arsenal of the Confederacy. Here were
the machine-shops and foundries .so necessary
tip the South in the i>rosecaition of the war.
pnblie prnjiiaty, and then imiuediately re-
iieweil his march northward. The cour.se of
the I'nion tinny now lay towards Charlotte,
North Carolina. The Natiomil forces swept
where a junetion was efll-eted with the Tweu-
tieih Corp-, under Slocum. Cro.ssing the
(ireat I'edee at Cheraw, Sherman pressed on
towtird.- Ftiyetteville, where he arrived with-
out serious hinderance, and on the 11th of
jNIarch took possession of the town.
^Meanwhile, on the 8th of the month, an
exi-iting epis(]de of the campaign had been
-npplied liy a dashing battle between Gen-
erals Hampton's and Kilpatrick's cavalry-
forces. To Hampton had been as.signed the
duty of defending the rear of Hardee's col-
umn on the retreat from Charleston. Resolv-
ing to intercept him, Kilpatrick cut through
the Confeilcrate lines. But the next morn-
ing the Union officer was surprised in his
quarters, attacked and routed, himself barely-
escaping ou foot into a swamp. Here, how-
ever, he suddenly rallied his forces, turned on
the Confederates, and scattered them in a
brilliiint charge. Hampton also made a rallv
and returned to the onset. But Kilpatrick
hehl his ground, until he was reinforced by a
division of the Twentieth Corps under General
Mitchell, when the Confederates were finally
driven back. Kilpatrick then conducted his
forees. without further molestation, to Favette-
ville, whei-.. the other divisions of Sherman's
tirmy ha.l alretidy arrived.
After the ovei-throw of Hood, in Tennes.see,
General Johnston had at length been recalled
to the command of the Confederate forces.
His influence on the destinies of the campaign
now licL'an to be felt in front of Sherman.
The advance of the Union army was rendered
more ditlicult by the viL'ilance of the Confed-
erate Gencfiil. At .Vverasborough, on Cape
Fear River, :i short distance no'-th of Fayette-
ville, Ceneral Hardee made a stand, bu't was
repid-ed with considerable los.s. On the IDtb
ofMtireh, when Sherman was incautiou.sly
approacdiin-- Iji'iitonville, the advance wad
furiously a>saile<l by the Confederates, and
THE UNITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.
the Lui u iimj ittei ill its 1 ittl ^ lu 1 ^
t lie seemed foi awhile lu d\nn;ei of defeat
Bit the hiillnut fi htin f the Ini i a f
G iienl Jeftei u ( D 1 tl e
the eul i tie „i It 1 i 1 i 1 1 ei (xeieral
•^heimio met hw tutt^ iii'^t till euteiel luto
1 tntinn n t ouh 1 i the ^muulei t the
1 -
11 d two da^s afteiwai lb "^heimiu eiiteiel
& 1 1 1 iioiieh unoi ] e 1 H
h\ a tiong columu f ^ 1
Geuertl ^ h fiel 1 u 1 1 1 U
tn tin lei Geueiil lem lie I
aimy now tuinel to the n lth^\e%t an 1 i
the 13th of Ajiril entered Ealeigh. This wa
t 1
- e taku
( 1 1 1 ^t I 1 1
VI It the ml lie t Mm
ut fi Iv x\ ille, at tl e hea 1 of
and men. The expedition crossed the
CMVKliSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
aiii.<; W'ilke.sborough was captured, and Stone-
man lorced his way across the Yadkin, at
Jonesville. It had been the plan of the cam-
paign that the Union cavalry should make a
diversion in favor of Sherman, by penetrating
the western districts of South Carolina. But that
coiiiniander, hy the celerity of his movements,
had ahvady reached Goldsborough, in the North
State, and was in no need of Stoneman's help.
The movement of the latter, therefore, became
an independent expedition, the general object
being the destruction of public property, the
capture of Confederate stoies, and the tearing
up of ndwa^s
luinnifj; tn tin Noitli tlu L nion troopers
now tix\ei^ed the western end of >sciith Caro-
lun md enteied Cauoll (.ouut\ \ irginia.
At Wjthevdle the iaihva\ wt^ torn up, and
then the whole line was de^tio-\ed fiom the
bridge over New River to within four miles of
Lynchburg. Christiansburg was captured, and
the track of the railway obliterated for ninety
miles. The expedition next turned to Jack-
sonville; thence southward; and then struck
and destroyed the North Carolina Railroad [
between Danville and Greeu.sborough. The
track in the direction of Salisbury was torn up,
and the factories at Salem burned. At Salisbury
was located one of the great Confederate pris-
ons for captured soldiers. It had been the aim
of Stoneman to overpower tlie Confederates
and liberate the prisoners ; but the latter were
removed before the arrival of the Union cav-
alry. The town, however, was captured, and
a vast store of ammunition, arms, provisions,
clothing, and cotton fell into the iiands of the
raiders.
On the lyth of April, a .livisiou of Stone-
man's force, under ]\Iajor Jloderwell, reached
the great bridge by which the South Caro-
lina Railway crosses the Catawba River.
This magnificent structure, eleven hundred
and fifty feet in length, was set on fire and
completely destroyed. After a fight with Fur-
geson's Confederate cavalry, the Federals
turned back to Dallas, where all the divisions
were concentrated, and the raid was at an entl.
During the progre.ss of the expedition, six
thousand prisoners, forty-six pieces of artillery,
and immense quantities of small arms had
fallen into the hands of Stoueman's men. The
amount of property destroyed, and the damage
otheiwiee done to the tottering Confederacy,
could not be estimated.
Gieater still in importance were the events
which had occurred on the Gulf and the At.
lantic coast. In the beginning of August,
1864, Admiral David G. Farragut bore down
with a jiowerful squadron upon the defenses
of M(]liil( The entrance to the harbor of that
tit\ «a^ commanded, on the left, by Fort
Games, and on the right by Fort Morgan.
The haibor itself was defended by a Conf'ed-
eiate fltct and the monster iron-clad ram Ten-
II' K Oil the 5th of August, Farragut pre-
piud foi battle, and ran past the forts into
the harbor. In order to direct the movements
of his vessels, the old Admiral mounted to
the maintop of his flag-ship, the Haiiford,
where he was la.shed to the rigging. From
that high perch he gave his commands during
the battle. One of the Union ships struck a
torpedo and went to the bottom. The rest
attacked and dispersed the Confederate squad-
ron ; but just as the day seemed won, the terrible
Tennessee came down at full speed to strike
and sink the Haiiford. The latter avoided tiie
blow, and tiicn followe<l one of the fiercest
conflicts of the war. The Union iron-chuls
closed around their black antagonist, and bat-
tered her with their beaks and fifteen-inch
bolts of iron, until she surrendered. Two days
THE rXITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.
afterwards Fort Gaines was taken,
23d of the month, Fort Morgan w
to capituhite. The port of .Mol.il
etlk-tuallv M'Hlr,! up to the Collf.lr
Not h-» iinp.i.-tant to tlio Vm.,>>
tlie eaptinv of l-'.a-t Fish,.,-. Tlii.
f .rtress (■o,ni,ian.l.',l th,. ,.„;n.or,. to
River ao.l Wilmin-ton — tlio la-t >o:i
bvtheC ;MhTaI,-S[al..s. In I ).■,•,■„
Admiral 1
'..rti^r ^va^
>.ait
erful Am
■riran m.
Kuln
siege and
lake the
III.
a force o
f -ix tho
acconipani
ed the ex
ledit
The armament came
and on th
? dav befo
re CI
bardment.
the work
T. 1-
bv Stn
m'.'''
Weitzel, u
ho led the
eolui
to the fort
to reeoiH
oiter
assault CO I
hi only e
id ii
his army.
O.ncral
r.utl
same cone
aHon, an
1 tho
doned. A
dmiral V
a-trr
before the
lort with
bis
forces, ui
lor Ibitl
er, 1
Monroe.
The onto.
mo u
hurailiatin
■■ to tho
Nali
earlv in J:
niiar\- llir
to Wil,„i,
'Jtoll, UIK
lor (
ded tl
structi.
s party, except
Pod,
■ f'tlie U
l-S to p
oy ni
d State
. Ihi
Confrd,
i-aov H
emmes
where
In tho pn-vi
ms
p .\„.<hr;/lr ,
in '
1 s:;, 11(10. 1
Ii
It
the last >oa-poi-t held by the Confe.lerates, and
theii- nutlet to the sea was thus forever closed,
The control of Albemarle Sound had been
obtained in the previous October. The work
was accomplished by a daring exploit of Lieu-
tenant Gushing, of the Federal navy. The
Sonnil was at the time commanded by the
tremendous Confederate iron ram, called the
Alhemnrle. Cusliin<r undertook to destroy the
dreaded vessel. With a number of daring vol-
unteers he embarked on a small steamer, and
on the night of the 27th of October entered
the Roanoke. The ram lay at the harbor of
Plymouth. The approach was made with
great difficulty. Gushing, however, managed
to get alongside, and with his own hands sank
a terrible torpedo under the Confederate ship,
exploded it, and left the ram a ruin. The
brave adventure cost the lives or capture of
10
Gontl'derate war-ve-~el< e.mld no lom^er be
sent abroad. Another plan, th.a-efore, had
to be adopted to maintain the Confederate
cruisers. In tin.' emirt;cney, tlie enussaries
of the South souL^ht the -liip-yaid.^ of Great
Britain, and from that vantage-giound began
t.. build and e.pnp their privateers. In spite
of all remonstr.iiiees, the British (.iovernment
connived at this proceeding, and here was laid
idations of that ditfieultv which w.as
t,, cost the treasury 'of En-land
,0(111. It was in the harbor of Biver-
ateer Florida was fitted out.
Sailing from thence, in the summer of 1862,
she succeeded in running into Mobile Bay.
Esca|iing from that port in the following Jan-
uary, she de-troyed fifteen Union merchant-
men ; was then caiitiired in the harbor of
the for
destined to (
SI."), 000, 000.
pool that the
i5y uyjiEB!SAL nisTony.— THi. y:()i>i:i;s wmn.K.
Buhia, Brazil, ami Nva> l.rou-ht into Ilainplon Stat,., >1.<- luvn- on,-,- ini, ,v,l a (■..nr...lerate
Roads, wluiv, in- an a.vi.Knlal cnlli-,M„, Au- im.ii, l.ia ,<,nunu..l <.n tlir l,i-h ^^ea, caplnrin-
«as s,.nl \u ii„. l^.ttonL .Mcanuliil.-, ihr an.l lunnin-
^'.uM/w, ihr f>/»>7.,, il,.. ,s7„„.n/,/.«/,, an.l Kaily in llir .Munnirr ,,f lsi;4. S.-mines
tiir Chirk., „„n„i.,. all l.uilt al ll,.- >lii|.-.N anl> ..f sail.-.l into ti.r liar • ni' ri„.,-lM,ni-, France,
Cla-ow. Sr,.llan,i, ,-..,].,, 1 m -,.,, and nia.l.' an.l ua^ I.,1|.,nv.-.1 ihitli.T hv (-.[.tain J.,lin A.'
^r.al hav.K- uitl, th.^ ,n.r.-|,an,-l„|,~ .,t tl,.- \Vin~l..u , .-..nin.an.l.r ..f 1 1„" M.an.. r 7.'. ,„-.<a,v/e.
l-n,l..l Sint... Wh.n l-.tt Fi^li.r ua. cap- Th.- Fi.n.'l, ( ;,,v.nnn.-nt -av.- ..nl.-is 'to
tni..l,tl,.- (lilrhfin.nnj., Mn. 1 an. .1 h.f .1, i|, .-all.-.l S.-nmu-- t., l.^aw th.- j....!, an'l ..n tin- li)tl, ..f
tlir 7;,//„/m.>v,, u.iv l,l.,un np l,v tin- C.nr.'.l- .Inn.' he siil.-.l .int f. -ivr his anta-..ni>t
eialL's. The Ge-./yut \\a,- .aplnn-.l m LsGo, • battlt-. feeveii iuik-.s Ironi the ,<h..iv, th._- two
DE-TP,t'iTtO\ OF THE ALr.l:M ARM-:.
ninl th.' Shn,an,U,.,h .•..ntiiuf.l alip.a.l nntll
th.' .•!..>.■ ..f th.- \vai-.
-+ -— l;nt hy tin- th.. .n..st .Ipstnn-tiv.- ..f all th.'
C..nr.-.l.-1-ate ve<-^cls was the fain..u> Ah,},„,na.
built at Liv.:T|)0()l. Her c.iininainl.-i- "as
Captain Sianines. the same who hail ei-nis.-.l in
tlic Siiniter. A inai<ii-ilv of the crew of th.-
Alabama were British 'snhjeets. H.-r arma-
ment was entirely British, an.l wln-n.-vcr .x-.-a-
sion required, the British llai;- was rarrie.l. In
her whole career, iiivolvini: the .1. -tru.-th.n ..f
sixty-six vessels, and a loss of t.n milliMii
dollars to the merchant-service of the rnit..l
,.,-at.- l.atth- ..f an h..nr"s ,lnrati..n, the
h,nn„ ua< >hatt.-.-.-.l an.l sunk. Seii.nies
a part ..f hi- ..th.-.rs an.l ,t<-w were pieked
l.y ih.- Kn.Jish ya.-ht /^- ,,-/,.,(/»./, which liad
1.-' ..nt fV..,n th..' harlMir t.. witness the hat
w. re i-airn-.l t.> S.,uthanii.tiin. an.l set at
rtv.
.•eni..nts ,,f l.sCi-l-Oo, in all parts of the
I ..x.-..|>t at the center. We turn, then, to
.-liii.al an.l final campaigns of the Army
he I'otomac, and of those divisions of the
THE rXITIJ) STATES.— THE VIVIL WAR
National forces immediatelv
■ associate.! tlin-.
with. After the great liatt
:le of <;etty^lMll;
the shattered Confeilerate eo
lumns under (in
eral Lee were withdrawn iiil
o tl,.. SlM.naiidoM
Valley. He was f.Uowed 1
ly tlio I'liioi, ,•:,'
airy under the command oi
f (ienerai (.^rr-
who pressed after the Cm
federates, and :
81iepherdsto\vn gained ^
the division of General
eral Meade himself, with
the main body of the
Army of the Potom le
entered Virginii neai
Berlin, and mo%ed toi
ward through Lo\ctt^
ville toWarreuton The
Blue Ridge was thus
again interposed betw een
the two armies It was
the hope of Mea<le to
preoccupy and hold the
passes of the mount Tin--,
and to strike his .lutag-
oiiist a fatal blow uheu
he should attempt to le-
lurn to Richmond But
Lee's movements weie
marked with his usual
caution and sagacitv
He first made a feint
of crowding his aimy
through Manassas Gap,
anil succeeded in di aw-
ing thither the bulk of
the Federal foices to
contest the passage He
then, by a rapid maich
southward, gained Fiout
Royal ami Che-tei Gip,
and reached C nip \n i m
safety. Geneial Mi ade,
sorely disappointed in his
e.Kiiectations of a battle
and took up a position oi
A lull now ensued fn.
Both the Union an,l Coi
much weakened by tli.-
numbers of troops to taki
of the South-west. Froi
street's wliole corps had
aid of Brasrg, who was h
in Tennessee. Perceiving that
list Has weakened, GeiHial Mead.
bank ..f the IJapi.Ian. aii.l liinis.
■^locnins eor])S were with.lrawn t
.• of the Potomac, and Meade, in
.bilged to act on the defensive
■ were rapidly filled with reinf.ir.
; t.. llie
I..war.l's
skillful
ii,u his
th,- Fe.l-
Brist..w
Hei
150 LMVEnSAL HISJOUY.— TIU: MODKHX WolH.U.
turn, fell hack, an.l the Iw. unai.-.^ ui \:x<i iu-cliief, wore tn l,f-iii the liiuil Ftru-de with
came \n re.-l for i1h- uiiiler, iIh- nih- at ( ui- tlie veteran:^ of l.ee.
j„lM r, ;,ii(l llie nih, r .,!, the upiirr Kappa- <-)ii the lir.-t .lav ,,f the a.lvane... (iraiit
|,.,n„..,-k. er.isse.l the Itapi.lau an.l enl.ar.l ih,- Wihler-
jilaee iu thi> pail cf llie HeM uiilil the arrival thiek.t^, ^ve^t nf ChaiK-ellorsvilh-. Tlu- rnhm
of General (Jraul a> (■..nHiiaii.l.r-in-rhief. army was ininie.hately cnfrontnl an-l altark.Ml
He tuek hi- stall. m at th.' h. a.l ..f the Army hy tlie C.iihil.-rate.s. Thr..u,uli iIh' •')th, Cth,
„f th.- r..t..ma.-; htil nlaiii.d d.neral Mea.le an.l 7th of May the figluin- e.mtiime.l in. ■.•.<-
in imm.Mhate .■..miiiaii.i. Th.' rampaii;ii whieli santly, with terrihle losses on li.ith si.le-; hut
n..w .n-u.-.l ua< ..n.> ..f ih.- iimsl ni.'in.uahl.. in th.> results were indecisive. L.'c ntiiv.l wilhiii
f
^4
s.IOTTS\I\ \M\ ((It Rl-HOt St.
for the closing narrative of the war. The I movement nn the left iu the flirection of
forward movement of the Armv of the Poto- §iwnsvJvajHJr--CiTOrt House. Here followed
mac was coincident with the advance of SI
man in the West. Fr,,m th.. \<\ ..f M
18»U, the riii.in anac.in.la li.'-an t.i tiLdit,.ii
folds ever more ri
body of the Confederacy. On th.' ^d of the I Bnt the losses of Lee, w
month, the National camp at Culpeper j fensive, were less dreadful
was br.iken up, and the inarch on Richmond j antne.niist
was begun. In three successive summers the I Meanw
Union army had been beaten back from that Sheri.lan fi-..in tl
metropolis of the Confederacy. Nowahnndre.l s.^nt him .m a
and forty thonsand men, led by the General- Hank ..f L.e's a
mornm.ir of the 9l]i to the night of
TJth, .111.. ..f the bloodiest struggles of the
Til.. Fi'ihrals L'aiiied some ground, and
(leneral J.ihnH.n w:is i-aptured.
on the de-
tlf.sc of his
rJeneral Ornnt ha.l detached
thi- Armv of th.. r..t.iinac. and
.■avalry rai.l an.un.l the h-ft
' id nL'ainst Kiclinn.nd.
THE UXITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.
Till' inuvemeut was executiil
cclrrity aud zeal for which Siii.|
IjecDine taiuou*. After cm-sii
Anna he succeeded in retaldnu
federates a large detachnnMit <if
ers. Ou the 10th of :Mav he ^'
at a place .m Yellow Tavern hy
.,(■ (Jeiieral J. E. B. Stuart, an
airy l.attle ensue.l, in wliich th<
were defeated with cnsideralile
in,i;- (ieneral Stuart hiniM^lf. \\]v
wounded on the field.
After Spottsylvania, (Jrant
the left, crossed the Paiuunkey
town, and came to a place called
twelve miles north-east of Rich
on the 1st of June, he
m ide an attack on the
Ci nfedeiate hue~ hut
Mud Ini
deid oi
f)i. tlu C
to change his base of sup]
r>ii
Here
.-li-nn:: divisi,,n tVoni Fnrtrc.- Monnn., and .,n
th.- r.th nf Mav had tak.M ISiiniuda Ilun-
dr.Ml and City I'.'.int. at th.. nrnulli ..f the Ap-
pnniattnx. Advan.-in- a-ainsl rel.a.d.urg, he
was met on the Kul, l,y the corp- of ( i.Mieral
Beauregard, and .hiven hack to his pn-nlon at
Bermuda Hun.lrcd, whce he was ohlii^.d to
intrench hiiusrlt' and act .>n the <h'lcn-ive. On
the l.-itli ..f June, (icncml (uani, then en-
gaged in his change of hase, l)r<.uglit his
wlioh' armv into junction with Butler, and the
ci>mhined forces moved against Fetersbur
puKe ot the FedeiaK
\Aas complete, but the\
held their lines ashrmh
Since the beginuini;
of the campaign the
losses of the Army of
the Potomac, including the corps of Burnside,
had i-eaclied the enormous aggregate of sixty
thousand. During the same period the Con-
federates had lost in killed, wounded, aud
prisoners about thirty-five thousand men.
Whether or not General Grant conceded
at this time the impossibility or, at least, the
impracticability of taking Richmond by direct
advance and assault from the north, may not
be well determined. At any rate he decided
' General Grant, in his Memoirs, says: "I h.tve
always regretted that the last assault at Cold
Harbor was ever made. ... No advantage
whatever was gained to compensate for the lica\ y
loss we sustained. Indeed, the advantuL'cs, other
than those of relative losses, were on the C'onfed-
erate side."
On the 17th and 18th, several assaults were
made on the Confederate intrenchments, but
the works were too strong to be carried in that
manner. Lee's army was hurried into the
defenses, and l>y the close of June, Peters-
burg was regularly inveslc<l \\>v a siege.
A branch cainpai-n had, in the in<antime,
been nn.ler wav in the Shenan.loah Valley.
On moving forward tVeni the Kapidaii, (gen-
eral Grant had despatched Sigel n|i the valley
with a force of eight tlKUisanil men. On the
15th of May, while the latter was advancing
southward, he was met at New ]\Iarket, fifty
miles above Winciiester, liy an army of Con-
fclerate cavalry, inider Oeneral P.reckinri.lge.
The Union force was attacked an.l muted, and
158
J M I -E]:sA I. u IS TO /,' ) '. thf: M( idkrx wo r l d.
far, I ,1
the ( 111
siuiiil \l
fnlU II 1 .
for, t I
Init tin In
il. Tlir >i'iuuiiiii, liii\v('vci% was
alariiiiii,-. Early, wiili a force of
iiisaii.l 111(11. coiitiiiiRMl his cdurse
ami nil the ."nil (if July, crossed
ic. l-'-iir ilay^ alp-iward he met
1 i.f (niinal L.ui> Wallace, on the
anil (liuvc liiiii liark with wri(His
t the .■li..ck, piviii 1.1 the Cnfed-
tlu- vail r (if ^\'alhlc(■ and his com-
■il Washington and Baltimore from
capture. Early dashed up within
,L:uii>liot of these <-ities, then or-
dered a retreat, and on the 12th
of the month, led hack lii^ foires
across the Potomac, with vast
iliiaiilities of plunder.
< Jeneral Wright, who was now
put in commanil of the forces in
the valley, set out in pursuit of
Early, and followe.l him as far
as Wiiirhester. Th.-re. on the
24th of July, he struck the Con-
federate rear, and gained a par-
tial victory. But Earlv wheeled
till ti
ueu
Fil-
>'l
( nt 1 lit ( 1 nl lit t 1 m
lut Penns^h tnia buiuedClnra-
beisbuig and letuinel lutj the
\ ilh\ h len with ] iK
' 1 ill ( 1 nt w I _uitly
\t 1
t \i 1
retreat ai-r
OSS the m
omitain
s into We;
s| Vi
The valle^
; was till
1 exp.wd
t'l
federate ii
iva-ion f
V the
• east.
T 11.
.w har.l
pr,....d
at P. te
r<liii.i
me.liat.'lv
.l.'-patel
le.i (i,
T>l,,
■iHTal ]•
I'i.l'..'
;arlv
th<. vall.■^
;. iiiva.l
1- l>llle
,■ M:ilN
laii.l. an
Wa-hiii-l.
III Citv
. Tim
- u-.Hil.l
the
federat.' 1
'^■ii.^i-al
eompel
(o-ant
to
hi- L'l-ip ..
n Pet.T-
1 .il-der t
.. sa
Kati.uial (
■aiiital.
But'tl
le meliaci
It ^vas the
illiant otticer to
.ps 11. ,w placed under
iiiMilv f.rtvth.msand,
le litth of Se]itcml.er that Sher-
11 Earlv's armv at Wiueliester.
THE UNITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.
Here a liard-fim.
Confederates wvm
lowiug up his ail'
a seconrl time I'Vc
1<J
1.1-
\\lii, h th( liuittul
.t tlu 1( \\ iminiinu
I il. I u ^, « is iitttih
I 111 ( hitt had gneii
.itliinc; fioni dtstiiR
the L'L'd (.f the month ,_ in, nut,
Fish.T's Hill. 'Ih. I--Ulh 1,1 111,
;vas madf upon th. ( miti di i it. - :
trenclied jMisition in,l tin I nioii \ ,
complete. TliPii , inn oni i.t tli<
episodes of tlie w n in whnh th
Shenandoah \'alli \ on,
storedifmses of tin ( 'i,
ravaged. The C omm im
Sheridan orders to -pm
tion that might an\ Ion.
of subsistence to tin >
work was fearfulU wtll
torch, and axe, iiid
sword, there was iioth
ing left between tlu
Blue Ridge and the
Alleghenies woi t h ■»
fighting for. >[ i.l
dened hy this destni,
tion, and stiuig li\ lii-
defeats, the vcti i ui
Early now rallied hi-
forces, gathered \\h it
reinforcements li t
could, and once nmie
entered the valk\
Sheri<lau had in the
meantime set hi*; sm
army in a strong pobi-
tion on Cedar Creek, a short distance from Stras-
burg, and feeling secure in the situation, had
gone to Washington. Early had now eveiw-
thing to gain, and the o|,p(ii-tiinity seemed to
offer. On the niorniiig of the lUtli of October
he cautiously ajiproaclii'd the Union camp, sur-
prised, burst in, carried the position, ca])tiired
the artillery, and sent the routnl troops in
confusion towards "Winrjicstcr. The victors
pursued as far iis Middi.town ; tlicn believing
themselves eoniplctily tiiiiuiphant, paused to
eat and rt'st. ^ieai, while, on the ]irevious
thuu U his ^ dl
1. n. \\..l
In u iiispn ilion b\
us pieseiai, tun
ol upon
Ik i-t.i„i-l,..| ( n
fedti ites iiul _ 1
n..l .„.
t th, i„o t M.n 1
M.t.llUs ot th.
Ml 1 „
1\ s llll,\ \N is dls
n th. X .11. \ ol
,.,1 lt\
h. •-h. n.
\ 1- tl,( iiiil ot stiite
,.1.1,1,
II,\,ii. thus
.1. ,i..l
h. hiiu/i.n ot ^ 11
.11,11 ,,,.1 full .it
..iihil.n
. Ill Ih. sn..,~~ .,t
^luiniiiis _i, ,1
.Xl..llt,o
1 t.i the sti, (ti mt
sit si, mix d.iwii to th. iintstment ot Pe-
iiu VII till ,i,.l \\,nt. 1 long the «iege
[Ills-. .1 With \ ii\,ii_ sn... - As eiily
I. .Oil, ,,| hiU 111 iti.i„pt hi.l been
1. 1 . iii\ th. pl ,. . li\ -t.nn, V mine
xjilo.!..! 1,1, 1,1 . n. .it th, t.iits Hid lu
ltiii_ .,il,, 11,11 s|,| 1,1. I. lu 11,1 to Lun the
,~ ll„ ,11 „1 I,, u, \.l u is i.puKe.l,
night. 8h..ri.lan
hn.l
e.l t.i Winchester,
au.l was, at the
time
of tl„
r.iiit .if Ills army.
on his way fr.
,1 ll
at p
ace to the front.
While ri.ling f..i
war.!
he 1
■ar.l the sonii.l .if
battle, spurre.l
on t
ir tw
'Ive miles at fu"
speed, met tlie
paid.
■stnii-
c fugitives, ralli.-.l
wilh sei'i.iiis hisses. Then the siege went
steailily torwanl until the l<8th of August,
when a .livision of the Union army seized the
Wel.lon P.ailroa.l. The Confederates made
several desperate assaults, in the hope of gain-
ing their lost groun.l ; but they were beaten
in their stnigglcs, ea.'li army losing thousands
of men. On the '2xtl, of SeptHinber, the Fed-
erals storme.l Battery Harrison, on the right
bank of the James, and the next day General
Paine's briga.le of e.ilore.l soldiers carried a
pow.'i-ful r.-il.inbt on Spring Hill. The 27th
of Oetoli.'r wit,„ss...l a bl.i.Hly battle .m the
Boydton mad, south of Petersburg. Then the
Union army went into fpiarters for the winter.
The accressive struc'Lde was not renewed
until th,' .-hise ..f F.'bruai-v. On tl„. I'Tth of
that in,iiith. General Sheriilan, >\ ho had issued
from tin. Sh.MUUi.luah Vallry, rain(
forces of Grurral I'.arly al Wavn
defeato.lthcin,aiMlth.ii.i..inr.l lh-<'
i„,l,i,.ra,lVu.,>lH,r^. J)un„^^Ia,
G.nwal (nam ronlinn..! l- pn.>.
UMVEHSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
he a -lult il n_ tin wh I liii lu fi iit oi IVt
],, 1,111.' ml tin « ik u I ( UH 1 Ihr
,.r- .in a ui 1 \ il >i ^^\^^ 11 li i 1 1 "i_ ni
•s, 1,.
v.lni, Hirlnuun.l. On th.' l-t -fA|uil
th,- work l,.-an uith a ^,'V.iv haltl,' at
Fivo rork>, ci.i the South M.h- Kaii-
-Q.
-^i^^^^'ll VJ5&''
' ^^.Vi^^^T'rf .^'^M.
*^AC ^«at«.*f*^ifa, -» ^ " V'-'
\^
llultlK'CoIlt.MU'
the tieiiHiHlou.- l.h.\v. On
that iiidit he, with hi> army
&;.
and the niemhcrs of the
('ni;t. derate Government,
T"'
th .1 troni Fvielimond, and
Q*
on the next inorniiit: that
,.itv, a> \m11 as rrtci>luir<r,
xvaVentnvd hv the Federal
,,,„y. The ^^arehnu.es .,f
,1„. ■iU-lated capital were
^i-
fired by the retreating Con-
11 r iiK
federates, and, notwith-
standing the ertorts of the
I 11 11
1 ,n ti 1
1
1 li.l
>, th.
■ hetter part ..f tlie Southern
It
tlu
■ he-'
inninii: of the swiftly coming
1 I lid.
^
ow \
va> it
perceived by all men that
tlir <al:istr,>i)lie was at liaihl, ami
suite cuuld last l)nt a f.'W days Lii;.
Gtiii ral .I(iliii>tiin ou its enierariici'
liiia. But that army was dJstiiicd
t'iiKT,i:r. The Coiife.leratrs. flyin-
tei>l)uru-, joined tlmst the ivt
Itirhinnnd'at Amelia ('nnit Il-u-e,
tile otHrer liaviiiK the sain.' in ,-ha'i-
isldy mistaken Ids ,,nlei- an.! driven
)■,) thr ,lirrrt;„n of I >., nnHr. Xrall^
of the C.ntederate army, n..w -rnv
less, had t.. he di-pei-ed thronuh tl
THF VXITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.
nd that the I render ..f Lee's armv. T- tl
IS t.
.1 ui
ino- heart of Lee, wer
delay.
The victorious Federal^ meanwhile pi
on in fidl pursuit, aud on the mc.rnimj n
t3lli nearly the whole of the Lniou arm\
at Jettersville, on the Danville IJailmad, :
to strike the Confederates at Amelia. .'•
dan still pressed on liy the hit Hank t^
west, in the <lireetion' ..f Deatun-ville.
ca up with hisdivisi,,n l,v wav..f the.^
Side Kailn.a.l to 15urke's Station. Le,
haek to the west from Amelia Co, n't II
and reached Deatousville ; Init here he i
the vigilant Sheridan planted sijuai-ely i
to ad.lim: that the oeeasinn for the sni
,.f the Arn.y of Northern Vir-inia ha
o- arrived.
to (_>n the 8th the process of snrrou
■e- hemndii- in the ConliMlerates went
■ m forward. On tlie momin- of ihe
lis it I.eeame known that tlu' k'ft wi
lit I'liinn army had ,-eeiired the line of t
:.l- , l.ur- Kaili'oad— when the wiveks
IIS street's veterans attenipitinu' to eovi
If I treat were confronted and drivi n
le- Sheridan— the .smil of the Conf.iler
ry failed him. Seein- the ntt.^r nseles
lii further struggle, he. <eiit fienerai (rr:
k- asking for a meeting jireliiiiinary
mrs
-. The division of Ewell. si
r, was tliin- a-ainst the Fedc-i
Kil
.1 L.-e
■e, hut
(h.r of
ot vet
Long-
ek bv
leader
ss of a
der. The LTniou conn
iplied with the request.
At tw,
it Apponiatto>
the
Ilo
was agreed that General (.Jrant .-
proposition in the form of a mill
which General Lee could retiiiii
swer. The Union con, mamlerae.M
Up aud presented the following n.
d. It
,iit his
Yir:;inia on tl
all the officers
caiitured. The policy of Lee was still to make
a detour to the west and south, around the
Federal left; and by strenuous exertions he
iiianageil to gain the Apponiatt<..\- at Fariii-
ville, ero.ssed to the northern bank, aud Inirned
the luidges. He would thus interpose the
river as a barrier between himself and his re-
lenth'ss pursuers; but it was all in vain. Hop-
ing against hope, he made a desperate effort
to holil the Lynchburg Railroad, but Sheridan arn
was there before him. Ou the 7th of April and
the Confederates had their last slight success 'ipl
in l)attle. Fvr a moment the flame of hope
was rekindled only to be blown out in despair.
On that day General Grant, then at Farm- Jionie" n/.t to l,e
ville, addressed a note to the Confederate com- anthoiity so Ion-
niander, expressing a desire that the further [ and the laws in foi
efl'usion of blood might be .saved by the sur- '■ V. s.
Tnit^a St
private
162
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
THE UyiTED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.
To this menioi
sponded as follows:
Head.
iluiii Genera' Lee
KTERs Army of Xorthern "I
\'iR(nNiA, A]iril '.>, is;n.">. r
General— I received your Irttrmf ilns.latr,
containing the terms oi tlie suricndrr 'il' llic
Army ot" Northern Virginia, as [.i-pommI l,y yen.
As they are snbstantiall>- tlie same a- tlh.sr .x-
pressed in your letter of thr sth instant, liny
are accepted. I will [.nHc-.l t.. .lcsi..;natc tlu-
effect. ^ ■ ., -1!. K. Lee, (icncral.
With the downfalr of Lee's army, the
collapse of the Confederacy was complete.
The destruction of the military power meant
the destruction of everything upou which the
South had depended. In the narrative of
Sherman's march northward from Savannah
to Raleigh, we have already recounted the end
of that great campaign. The surrender of
Johnston followed on the 26th of April, and
on the same terms which had been conceded
seventeen days previously by Grant to Lee at
Appomattox. In the overthrow of their two
great armies, the Confederates themselves saw
the end of all things. The work was done.
After four dreadful years of bloodshed, devas-
tation, and sorrow, the Civil War in the
United States had ended with tlie cnniplt-te
triumph of the Union cause. It only remained
to extend the Federal authority over the
Southern States, and to revive the functi<ins
of the National Government througho\it the
Union.
After the surrender of Lee and Johnston,
there was no serious effort to prolong the re-
sistance, or to reorganize the Confederacy.
General Lee bade adieu at once to hi^ war-
worn vetei'ans, and rctii'ed with .shattered
fortunes to private life. Mr. Davis and his
Cabinet made their escape from Richmond
to Danville, and there for a few days ke]it
up the tbnns of government. From Dan-
ville they tied into Xorth Carolina, and were
then scattered. The ex-President with a
few friends, made his way through South
Carolina into Georgia, and encamped near
the village of Irwinville. Meanwhile, the
Union cavalry in that region were on the
alert to make prisoners of the fugitives. The
capture was finallv effected on the K'th of
May, bv a division <d" the command of General
ht of these,,
ire partieul
Wilson. It appeared, it
that the Administration, mo
President Lincoln, would have conniviil at the
escape of Davis from the LTuited States. But
the capture was made, and the distinguished
pi'isoner was on the hands of the Government.
lie was at once taken as a captive to Fortress
^[onroe, and was there kept in confinement
until ^lav of ISCiT. He was then removed to
Kielunnnd. to be tried on a charge of treason.
Soon afterwards he was admitted to bail,
Horace Greeley and otlier eminent Union men
going on his bond. The cause remained un-
tried for about a year an<l a half, and was then
dismissed from court. It thus happened that
the legal status of that eii-or, fault, or crime,
which the Confederate leaders had committed,
was never legally determined, but left rather
to dangle contenticuisly in the political sky of
after times.
We may now review the course of civil
events as they had occurred in the National
Government in the last j'ear of the war. In
the autumn preceding the downfall of the Con-
feileracy the Presidential election had been
held, and Lincoln had been chosen for a second
term. As Yice-Pre.sident, Andrew Johnson,
of Tennessee, was elected in place of Hannibal
Haiiilin. The oppo.sing candidates, supported
by the Democratic party, were General George
B. ^[cClellan, and George H. Pendleton, of
Ohio. There had been a time after the out-
break of the war, when the spirit of party
was so much allayed as to warrant the hope
that the common cause of Kepublicans and
Democrats would not be further iniperil.d liy
political animositv: lait parlisan>liin soon
flanie(l up again, ami tlie North became a
scene of turmoil. The Deiiiociatic leaders
grew more and more rampant in their denun-
ciation ; first, of the metho<ls upon which the
war was conducted ; and then, of the war
itself In the I)eiiioeratii' national convention
at Chicago a nv-ojiition was actually passed as
a part of the platform declaring the war a
failure, and demanding a cessation of ho.stili-
ties until the arts of statesmanship should be
exhausted in attempting a peaceable solution
of the trouble. In General McClellau the
jiarty f uind a candidate to whom both the war
Democrats and the anti-war faction could be
attached.
^^-^-^r_5^~xj-s^?^ }y^^ >
THE UNITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.
165
l..f..at Li,
coin,
il.l liut V
1.1 iu
I's iiiajorit
• was
viiiiX (inl_\
the
UT. and"
New
•.,liiig the
elec-
, ill accori
lance
iv,l a Cou
■^titu-
But the whole eftoit
much lo:^s to stop the wai
coufusiou ami failure. Li
very heavy, ^McClellau
States of Keutucky, D.
Jerse)'. Iu the sumnn.r
tioii the people of Xevada
with au act of Concre-^s, )
ConiiiK.invrahli was pn.claiincl as the lliirty-
sixtii State. .ftlie riii..n. Tli.. -..1,1 an.! silver
mines of Xeva.la were .l.-v..l..p,..l witli sii.'li
rapidity tiuit they s i >iii pas-.'.l tln.s... ..f
Califoruia iu their yield -.f i\u- iiivi-i,,us metal.
Duriug the progress ..I' tli.' ('i\il \\'ai- tin'
question of fiuance was, after tlie aetmd mili-
tary operations of the field tin m -t i ii^
with which the Go\einmeut ii 1 1 t) ( iit nd
At the outbreak of the touHitt, e\en in hue
the actual outbreak, the fimneiil titdit ot the
United States had sunk t . thf 1 lut -t ( Mi I]\
the organization of tli. iiim ml tli ii t\ \
the expenses of the N iti n d < . \ . i nun iit li i 1
at the very beginning, been >-wellid t> \n
enormous aggregate The piice of ^"^ il.l ml
silver, as always happens in such eraei_i nc k '•
advanced so rapidh that the icdemiiti u li
bank-notes in coin --oon became imp i^^ilil.
On the 30th of Dccembei, IsOl, the binks ,,l
New York, and afteiunids those of the wli ile
country, suspended specie pi\ mints Iht
premium on gold and -ihei m-i hi_li( i ind
higher, and it soon becime e\i 1. iit tli it th ^
metals could no longer sul,su\t the puipi-t
of a currency.
The situation ^\as as novel a^ it ^\ is ti \ in_
Fortunately, the destinies of the tieasun wne
in the hands of a man of genius Salmon V
Chase, the Secretary, faced the issue, ami began
to devise a series of expedients, which, in the
course of time, entered into the financial history
of the country, and, as they were tested liy ex-
perience, became imbedded in tiie National
monetary system. Old things rapidly passed
away, ami all tliinL;s lii>i-aiii. n.'W under the
Secretary's ban. Is. As a teni|i.irary expedient
he sought relief liy issuing Treasury Notes, re-
ceivable as money, and bearing interest at the
rate of seven and three-tenths per cent. The
expedient was successful; but by the beginning
of 1862 the expenses of the Government had
risen t.> nmre than a million dollars a dav, and
other measures, vaster and more permanent,
had to be devised.
In order to meet the tieiiKn.l.nis iltimnd,
which were iuee>saiitl\ iii-m_ ( n_ii-s, on
the recoinmeudati.m ..I tli. "^.(iitin of the
Treasury, made ha:-te lo pi. \ id. in InternAlL
Revenue. This was ma. I. up limii tuo gen-
eral sources; first, a ta\ on iiiiiiiiiluitiiif^, in-
coine.i, and s(il(ii-ir.<; ami sniiii.l i ^fmiij) <liiti/
on all legal d.ieumeiits. Vs mi.,i, istl,,. .\.tim
of revenue was providid f.u aimtlRi step was
taken iu the issuance b\ tin ti. isiin nf a
hundred and fifty million^ ..i .l..lliis m n..n-
interest-bearini; Legal Iindlk Xoils ol the
United States, to bt used is mom ^ '->ULh
was the beginning of that famous eurrency,
which, under the name ol' (lrriiili,i,-L:<, bore up
the Nation during the war, survived the shocks
of the Revolutionary epoch, and continued,
after the subsidence of the conflict, to consti-
tute one-half of the paper money used by the
peojile of the Ignited States.
But the Greenback currency, its issue
again and again as the emergencies multiplied,
was not of itself sufficient. A third great
measure recommended by the Secretarv, pro-
vided fir by Congress, ami earriiMl out suc-
cessfully. \vas the issuance and sale ..f United
St.vte.s Bunds. These at first were niaile re-
UXIVFHSAL IHSTOnV. — TirE MODERN WORLD.
leeniaiilc at ;ui\
tivi- V.
thi^tiict, callc.l III,. FivK-TuKNiv I'.om- T
interest upnn tlicni \va> lix.d at -ix |hi- cc
payable M-mi-aniiuallv in -mM. Ih.- iv<
shnu,.,l that th.. claux- luakm- lli- int.T
pavaWlf ;,( unUI, ralli.M- than in lii.' Civcnha
r, anil in a
,|.o^,..l al.oiit
and tlir Xa-
>k tl
hi.-li
.M.
.1 silx
and
by tlic' <
aiiil nn.lci
ovcrninciit
foi-tv years
fron
dat.
Tl
(• iiiter-
.•St <.n thi
■< scrii's was
lixc
1 at t
V,- |.
■r ceut,
ami linlli
piincipal a
1.1 i
ltlMV>
Wi'l
(■ made
pavablr ii
<M,in. It b
can
■ til,.
|H,]i,.
• of the
groat and small, swam honeetbrth fur about
seventeen years in an ocean of self-sustaining'
l)aper money. The jirecious metals bicanie
onds.
rate b.mds into the lonL^-tinie, h,v
As the Five-Twenties lieean,.- ivdeemable they | ti
verteil into Ten-Forties, and wlieii, in couise li
of time, the latter fi^ll due, they were in turn W
converted into the Four-Percexts, whicli eon- V.
stituted the third generaiissiie. AthiM.wlieii \ r<
the cre.lit of the ( Jov.rnnH.iit was fully T
reestablished, and its ability deiii.,nstrated u
to discharge its debt to the la-t farthini
Three-AND-A-Half Percents, and tinall
Three-Percents, were provided for, int
which form the great debt was mostly coi
nl jnl.ber. of thi
heCix
il Warn
•onllie
, the X;
nillio,
hat h
sofdoll
1,1 Ihe w
,1 iv:
Meanwhile, the old hanks of the United
States disappeared. It became necessary to
provide for the people sometliing in the place
of those local institutions, by means ,>f ^vlli(dl
the ordinary business of the eoiinti y inu>t be
transacted. An act was a,-i-or,lingly passeil
for 111,' ,>lalilisliinent ,.f NAri,.XAl,' Uanks. i
Til,' slituti,.n ,.f th,s,. wa> p,','uliar in the
la-t il.'give. P.ut th,- ,-vent justificl the wis- [
d,)m ,d' th,' measure. The new financial iusti- | Sonthi-rn Stat,'s, ex
tuti,iiis wer,' b,)rn out ,if the exiL'encv of the I " witii inaii,',' towar
s.' Xnr,'an it well b,' ,l.,ubted
V ,',,iitinu.',l thn.ngh an,.ther
icar national baiikrn|iti'y niu.st iiave ensued.
On th,' 4tli of .^[ar,'h,' Ls(;5, President Liu-
rii,' bri,.f a,i,lr,'>s whii-li li,- ,l.'liven-,l ,in that
iim'.',l liv a .-n'at man in
H,- s,m,d,t by ealni an, I alino
ran,','s to ,'all ba.'k lr,,iii the
' the infatnat,.! imm,|,1,' ,,f tl
his ,',,nnlrvin,-.
', with ,'harity f.
The
Bank .\,'t ,.f ^lav. l-f,',', |,i,,
st,'ad ,,f 'jol,!, tl.,' n,'w ban
Xali,.nal ]5nn,ls a- tli,' ba.-is ,,f
in- an,l ,l,.p.,sitin- with th,' T,
Unit,'.l States the rciiiiMte an,
(elf,«-l,i|.
It will
„,n.l~, Three ,1a
e W
.rk ,,f
lealing t
he Xa-
i;
•ing pnl
1„- Fni,
,1 that
tii-al an
at this t
1 social
me the
1;;;;
th, li,,\
thr.M.s, V
ev.'r, tl
as n,it
,' niili-
(',,
iC'.h'i'a,
■acuati,
n of Kii
,rok,'n.
hmuud
THE UNITED STATES. — THE (IVIL WAR.
by Lee's army, the President visited that city,
CI inferred with the authorities, andtlien returned
til Washington. But, in the stranL'p vicissi-
tude of things, the tragedy of liis nwn >;iil life
had already entered its last act. On tin- rvi ning
(if the 14th_of April he attended fund's Theater
with his wife and a party of friends. As the
]ilay drew near its close, a disreputable actor,
named John Wilkes, Booth, stole unnuticeil
into the President's box, leveled a pistnl at
his head, and shot him through the brain.
Lincoln fell foiN\aid m his '•eat, was borne
tioiu the buildiui; linaeied m an uneouvtious
statt until the follow uil nioiiim^ and dud
It was one lit the tieate-t tia_idiisot nudiin
tinii the m i-t itiotiiius and diabolical nun
ein hi-tiii\ Ihe
assassin leaped out
of the box upon
the st iLP, escaped
liilo tht duklie-,
u,d Hid
It was imniedi-
ati h peiceived that
a nuiideious Con-
with .Ml
s. .Mary E
Surratt,
at wh(
se house
the plot
was formed
were a Is
. coiidei
iiied and
cxi-cmcl
. :\Iichacl
(TL^uigh
in. Dot
tor Sain-
iicl A. Muilil. and
^alllllrl .
\riiold
vere seii-
teiiccd t
1 iniprisoiii
lent for
lite in
the Dry
Tortugas
, and Eihv:
i-d Span.u
ler lor ;
term of
six years
Thus
ended in d
U-kliess, 1
ut not
n shame,
the strai
ge career i
f Abialu
in Liiii
iln. He
was one
of tlie nios
t reniaik
llile me
1 of any
age or
country— a
mail ill
whom
he qual-
ities of
geuuis a
id mini
ion -11
-. weie
stiangeh
minuled
IL w
- innil
lit fai-
Mjited,"
and lesiilut
e th lUJ
ittul 1
ilni and
|u^t, pa
RUt, telide
hen till
mil 4H
at The
it hi- ikath Loii-ii 1.
tul his
memoiy.
^l4 .\ltf-;l#^
^5^%
thf
(t I
1 mm. lit U
atioii At
~Ji
^,
--
a-
£.
thi
-i
II 1
111 houi 111-
mniiliiei, JTj
c
y
/
ot
,1=-^
11 11
I'll
til
lid
Mil
L.wi-1'ixue
( h mill 1 ot
Set
bv
let.
an
l^ Neuaid, ^^ho
accident, sprang
had bee
upon the
\'
l-.lbh
1
f
the
am
sic
111
; man, stabbed h
ide his escape ii
im iii-li I
to the 11
llto
deat
TI
•
cit\
w
is wild with ala
111 and
\ei
t.
Th'
Ian
tel
1, :
■graph tla-hed th,
news thr.
alarm ai
11^1
1 r:
out tl
ee ra
:
ev(
rvw
here. Ti- 1- of
■avaliwaii
1 th
. piili,
e
of
W'a
shington departe,
in all d
iree
o
hni
t il
iwii the coii-pirat
us. On
lie
2r.tli 1
f
Al
ril.
Biioth was f.nnd
coneeale,
in
a liai
„
th
of Fredericksbui
L'. Eefn-
n-
to -n
r-
rer
iler
he was shot by
Sergeaiit
'.o-t
■ II ( 'i
r-
bet
t, a
111 was drafftred fi
rth from
he
inniii
liu
lilii
1 1
-to die. PlWell
.m-ed. Ill- felli
was can-lit
ovs
Dav
1.
E.
H(
rrold and George
A. Atzeri
tt, t
ogetl,
•1-
..■^••
iK:;
.iK-
'M^0
I at of
The funeral ,,agean
never liefbre ei|na
From city to city, i
mourning people fo
nations rose the
shanie-svmpatliv i
dark crime tliat eai
Lineoli, fell at ai
•nni
1 o
d
■ath.
pre
1 on
a
scale
th
■ N
ew
^^'
orld.
vas
pri
cess
OI
, the
his
rem
liiis
to
their
iiigt
eld.
F
1 all
1G8
vmvehsal jijsTojn'.—TiiE modkrs would.
be apcomplislu'.l. Wlm hut Liurnln, in ^^uch | A
a crisis, was iitteil tin- siicii a. wcjrk'/ His teni- !
per, after tlie overthrow of Lee, showed coii-
chisivclv the treiul of his thoughts and syiu-
patliirs— liis sinrnv ,lr>ir,. for pMnec, liis love
for ;ili liion of ;ill >.•
The U..1-.1S ..f ,,„.|vy
Wl.rn til.- vil.- iniml.
T..ll,MUL'llH..I |„-;lr,
Wliat.'
AiM uiti
rh,> death of T.iiieoln made iieee-arv
ledlaleeh.vatio,, ,.r Aiulrew .TohiiMm t'o
The ol.l \V,,rl,l an.l tlie Neu, fr..in sea to sea, , he t.n.k the,.atli of office, .-uid eiilend at one
ftlen.l oiii- \..ii-f .,t symi.athy and shame! | upon liis duties as Ciiief Mai:i>trate. He w£
Son- liiMit, M, stopjied wlien it at last beat free ; I
Sad life, eut >.liort jnst a*^ its Irinmiih came! ' ' From the London Piufh ,,[ May C, 1SG.>.
THE UNITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.
ir,9
a native of Xorth Carolina, born m Rxloiph
on the L'llili of December, 1808. Hi b)>hooa
was passed in jioverty and neglect The funi!\
was obscnre in the last degree xud tl
sou had no advantages of educati u Vt
the age of ten he was appreuti 1 t x
tailor. In 1826 he removed th 1
mother to Tenne.ssee, and settled t ( i
ville, in that State. Here he was inuu 1
to au intelligent lady, who taught luni
to write and cipher. Here, by dmt t
native taleut, force of will, and ^titi th
of character, he first earned the \\>\ 1 1 i
of his fellow-raen. Here, through tjd in I
hardship, he rose to distinction, an 1 ait i
holding minor offices, was elected tJ C n
gress. As a member of the United St ite*
Senate in 1860-61, he opposed «ece lou
with all his vehement energies, e\en altet
the Legislature of his State had Uchi 1
Tennessee out of the Union.
On the 4th of March, 1862 J hn u
was appointed Military Govei'noi of Te
nessee, and entered upon his dutie at
Xash\ille He be- -=- — — — -
gan his adminis ^
tiatiou and earned ^-
out his measuies -
with all the \
and
an 1 eleete 1 t th
^Ii Hamlm ^
the Piesident 1
Vire-
rH
H-v in place of
ragic death nf
uddeiily to the
a iin } tion of responsibilities, second
nly m importance to those which
Line In had borne at the outbreak
t the war.
In his first Congressii)nal message
Piesident Johnson recommended a
I licy of extreme severity toward
the cimI and military leaders of the
C nfederacy. The merciful tones of'
I inc In were no longer heard from
tl e ^^ hite House, and for a season
theie w as quaking and dread through-
c ut the seceded States. On the 1st
t Fel rnary, 1865, Congress adopted
xn au endment to the Constitution, by
which human slavery was abolished
ai d forbidden in all the States and
Ttnitcries of the L^nion. By the
ISth of the following December the
amendment had been latified by the
nature. There was no quailiuL n [it
compromise. His life was frequenth i 1 ti 1 1
but he fed on danger, and grew stion^ ui 1
the onsets of his enemies. He held the efhc
1 en t Lu In
cnni lete the w
<1 althoutrh the institution of
1 h> pieces at the touch of the
It was deemed neces-ary to
ik by statutory and Con~titu-
of Governor until 1864, when he was nominated tioiial enactments. Thus were
ryivr:i!SAJ, iiistohy.—tiie modern would.
liiia, i.ura.lcMl the J^t
Inr iii.Miirir,-, >i,nuhl 1..
r il„. Kriirlli,.,,-.' On tins issue
Lin.'nin «a> luanl out of tl.e
eiave. On tlif 'J'.ttli i>r May, LSC,:,, the Am-
nesty I'noi I.AM \iKiN ua- i-sued l>y the Pres-
ident. By il- |ii-..vi-iMii- a -.neral pardon was
extended tn all |h ix.ns c xc.-pt those specified
in certain classes — wh.. had paitieipated in the
organization and del'eiisi. of the ( 'onl'ederacy.
The condition of pardon was that th.jse re-
ceiving it shouhl take an oath of allegiance to
the United States. The excepted persons
might also be pardoned on special aiiplicatiou
to the President.
:ner of
e,l, and
During the suini
armies were disbandi
vanquished returned l
the work of peace. <
scenes ever witnes>e(l
great military parade
ton City. It was til
war. Al...,lt -eVelllV
diers, including Shei
the great
nd the victors and
•ii- homes to resume
of the most striking
the country \vas the
review at Washiug-
isiuL-- i^ngeant of the
rects, and passed the re-
and, where the President and
ilicers, civil and military, of the
tcs were on the platform. After
Hers, as an organized force, melted
V, and were resolved into the ranks
and
The close of the war left the finances of
the Nation in a condition most alarming. The
war-debt, already piled mountains high, went
on increasing until the beginning of 1866,
it was only by herculean exertions that
nal bankruptcy could be warded off. The
yearly interest on the del)t had increased
to $133, 1)1)0, ()()() in gold. The expenses
of the government had reached an aggre-
gate of's2()U,000,()00 annually. But the
augmented revenues of the Nation and
the energy and skill of the financial man-
agement of the treasury proved sufficient
to meet the enormous outlay, and at last
the debt began to be slowly diminished.
< )n ihe 5th of December, 1865, a resolu-
tion was passed in the House of Repre-
sentatives pledging the faith of the United
States to the full payment of the Kational
indebtednes, both principal and interest.
During the whole period of the Civil
War the vital interests, not to say the
existence, of the United States were con-
stantly menaced by the hostility of foreign
powers. Of all the great monarchies of
Europe, only Russia had been sincerely
and at heart favorable to the cause of the
Union. The Government of Great Brit-
ain, from first to last, sympathized with the
Confederacy — not, indeed, that she was in
love with the institution of slavery, but
that she secretly hoped for the dismemberment
of the American Republic. Napoleon III.,
Emperor of the French, cherished plans, not a
few, to aid the Confederate States, and to pre-
cipitate, if possible, the downfivll of the Union.
His schemes embraced particularly the insti-
tution of a French Empire in Mexico. In
that country the distracted condition of afliiirs
furnished abundant opportunities for foreign
interference. A French army was sent into
Mexico. The constituted authorities were
overawed, an Ini]ierial government was orsan-
ize.l, aii.l early in ISCl the crown was ottered
t<i Ma.Kiinilian, archduke of Airstria. The iat-
THE UMTED STATES-TIIE CIVIL WAR.
rEMLU (11 ruE T
UMVEBSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERX WORLD.
ter repaiiN-d to Mexico, set up his government,
and sustained it for a season, with the aid of
Freneh and Austrian soldi. ^rs. 15ut the Mex-
ican .''resident, Beiiil., I'al.lo .Tu;uv/., h.aded a
revnluti.ai a-aiii-t tlie u>uriiin- .Maximilian;
and the ( iovernraeut of tiie L'nited States re-
buked France for her palpable and willful
violation of the Monroe Doctrine. Xapoleon,
arinv. .Maximilian, thus 1( ft witlmut >upport,
was (|uickly nverthrowu and driven from the
capital. He fled to the city of Queretaro,
where he was besieged, and finally taken
prisoner. On the 13th of June, 1867, he was
tried by court-martial, aud condemned to be
shot. Six days afterwards the sentence was
carried into execution. Maximilian nut his
fate like a hero. His death and the sad in-
sanity of the Empress Carlotta awakened the
commiseration, if not the sympathy, of man-
kind for the ill-starred enterprise in which the
misguided prince had lost his life, and his
queen her reason. The scheme of Napoleon,
who had hoped to profit by the calamitous
civil war in tlie United States, to gain a foot-
hold in tlie New World and restore the ascen-
deucv of the Latin race west of the Atlantic,
was justly t)ri>ught to shame and contempt.
After a few weeks of successful operation,
the first Atlantic telegraph, laid by Cyrus W.
Field in 1858, had ceased to work. The
friends of the enterprise were, for a season,
greatly disheartened. Not so, however, with
Mr. Field, who continued, both in Europe
and America, to agitate the claims of his
measure and to plead for assistance. He made
fifty voyages across the Atlantic, and finally
secured sufficient capital to begin the laying of
a second cable. The work was begun from the
coast of Inland in the >nnim.-r of l.S(i5. "When
Ku.^Urn had j.roceeded
mdi-cil miles <m her way
lie parted and was lost.
I oil to his enterprise,
rs liad been spent in un-
liut still he persevered,
lird cable, two thousand
miles in 1. n-th. wa> roiled i„ tlie Gr.^rt Ea^trni,
an.l a-aiii the ve^-el -tailed on her way. Thi<
time the work was completely successful. In a
short time the same great vessel returned to
mid-ocean, and, recoverintr the lost cable from
the .-teaim
r Grrat
more tiian
twelve 1
to Amerie;
, the e
But :\ir.
•ield he
In Ji
tlie depths, carried the second line successfully-
to the American coast. After twelve years of
unremitting effort, Mr. Field received a gold
iiieilal from the Congress of his country, and
the j)laudits of all civilized nations.
On the 1st of November, 1864, an act was
passed by Congress, establishing the Postal
Money-Oeder Sy.ste.m of the United States.
The design of the measure was to secure a safe
and convenient method of transmitting small
sums of money through the mails. Notwith-
standing the invaluable benefits of the system,
it was at first received with little favor. In^
1870 there were two thousand and seventy-six
post-offices from which money-orders were issued.
During that year the amount transmitted
was more tlian thirty-four millions of dollars.
The oiders fir \X7') numbered five million
six thousand three hundred aud thirty-three,
and the amount of mone_y sent amounted
to more than seveuty-seven millions of dollars.
Of all the orders issued during that year, only
twenty-seven were paid to persons not entitled
to the proceeds. Postal conventions have
already been held, and the arrangements com-
pleted for the exchange of American money-
orders with Switzerland, Great Britain, aud
Germany. The requirements of civilization
will no doubt soon demand similar compacts
among all enlightened nations.
The Administration of President Johnson is
noted as the time when the Territories of the
United States were given approximately their
final forms. The vast domains west of the
IMississippi were reduced by Congressional
enactments to proper geographical limits, and
were organized with a view to an early admis-
sion into the Union as States. A large part
of the work had been accomplished during the
Administration of Lincoln. In March of 1861,
the Territory of Dakota, destined, after twenty-
seven vears. to become two great States, was
detached fiom Nebraska on the north, an.l
Terrif.rv .Mil.ra.'e.l an area -.f .m.. luin.hvd
an.l liilv thou-an.l >.iiiare mil-. The State
..f Kan-a- had at h-l. oi, tin- ^HU ..f January,
isr.l, b.-,.n a.lmill.-d into the riiion, un.ler a
c.>n>nmiion tVamed at Wyandotte. In Febni-
arv of iMio. Arizona, with an area of one huii-
.Ired and thirteen thousand sijuare miles, was-
separate. 1 from New Mexico ou the west, aud
THE UNITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.
173
•organized as an independent Territory. On tlie
od (if March of the same year, Idaho was or-
ganized out of portions of Dakota, Nebraska,
and WaslunKtcni Territories, and on llie L'i.Uh
miles. On the 1st of :\Iarch, LSG7, the Terri-
tory of Nebraska, reduced to its present area
of seventy-six thousand square miles, was admit-
ted into the Union as the thirtv-seventli State.
of May, 1864, Montana, with an area of on
dred and thirty-six thousand square miles, was
cut off from the eastern part of Idaho. By
this measure the area i>f tlic lattrr Territory
was reduced to eighty-six thousand square
Finally, on the L'tlth of July, 1868, the Territory
of Wyoming, with an area of ninety-eight
thousand square miles, was organized out of
portions of Dakota, Idaho, and Utah. Thus
were the Territories of the great West reduced
'4 [-yiVKllSAL lllSTonv.— THK MODEUy WORLD.
The ye.
r IM
7 was al-^r, sivniaHz.-.l hy
he
h
< cuiiiitr
■ h:i,|
,;:;;;;. J:;: ■';:rj':::;;:'
ot'
A
.'1
ri
Ues ;U1.1
e rt.|h,r
i-ieliti
A-ia
uni.-atiou iMtureii tlie L'lii
l,y Nvav'nf IJehriiij: Stn
h.- CXploiatinll .~h..we.l t
e,l
it.
lat
Al
ieh it 1
n<l that
hy 11.
the
e'n' M,'pi,.-e,l t., he. I, '.
•oa>t ti^heiies, iiicluiline-
ly
he
-r
..luct.- of
the .-
eal-islaiiiis, were nf verv i:r
-at
vahie. and that the forests of -white piue and
yel^>^v cedar were aiuong the finest in tlie
woihl ^Vv-otiations for the purchase of tlie
p.MiiiiMihi were ae,s,nliii-ly <.peiie,l uith ItiKsia
iiy Mr. S^.wanl, li.e Amenean Se.avtary of
wa> eonelu.le.l i.y which, fnr ih- suiii of seven
luiUioi, two huiij.v.l tl >aiHl .h.lhirs, Ahi^ka
wa- purchased hy tlie United States. The
teiiitoiy tlius ad(h(l t^. the domains of the Re-
piililie einhraeed an area of five hundred and
ei-htv th'.iisiiid -.|uaiv niih-s.anda popidatioo
-f twentv-iiine thou.-aiid souls.
CHAPTER CXXV. — El^OCH OR RECOXSTRTJCTION.
ERYsoon after his accession
to the Chief ^lagistracv,
-el inii-di-aifreementsarose
h.twei 11 I'li'sident John-
>oi, and tlie two Houses of
Congress. The difficulty
grew out of the great
question of reorganizing the Southern States.
Strangely enough, the particular point in dis-
pute was the theoretical one as to the relation
which those States had sustained to the Federal
Uuiuu during the Civil War. If both parties to
the quarrel had limited their views to the settle-
ment of the p radical issues before them, the ques-
tions involved might have been of easy solution.
But the one party was as stubborn and dog-
matic as the other was angry and demagogical.
The President held, in brief, that the Ordinances
of Secession had been, in their very nature,
null and void, and that therefore the seceded
States had never been out of the Union. On the
other hand, the majority in Congress held that
the acts of secession were indeed illegal and un-
constitutional, but that the seceded States had
nevertheless lieen actually detached from the
Union, and that special legislation and special,
guarantees were necessary to restore them to
their former relation under the Government.
Such was the real foundation of the disputes
by which the question of reconstructing the
Southern States was so seriou.sly embarrassed.
If the Chief E.xecutive had been a man of
Lincoln's character, or if Congress had been
rresi.leiit
On the
Twenty da
less iiitluenceil bv it.- ])a>sioii>, by its growing
<li.<like of the Pn-ideiit, au.l by many other
ulterior motives, the ditHculty might have been
allayed or wIkjIIv obviated.
In the summer of 186.5 the work of recon-
struction was undi^rtaken l>v the
accordance with his own
of .May he issued a proi'lani
tion of Virginia to the U
afterward anotli,.r proclamation wa
tablishiiig a provisiomd government for South
Carolina, and at brief intervals similar meas-
ures were adopted in respect to the other
States of the late Confediniey. On the 24th
of June the rn-ident ppiclaiiiied all re-
trictions removed on trade and intercourse
with the Southern States. On the 7th of the
following September a second Amnesty Procla-
mation was issued, liy which <ill jiersons who
ha.l nplield the Confederate cau-e, except the
leaders, were unconditionally panloned.
In the meantime, Tennessee had been recJr-
ganized, and in l^CiQ was restored to its place
in the Union. But while these measures were
carried out. Congress was pursuing its own line
of policy with regard to the reconstruction of
the S.iiitheni States. During the session of
ls(;.")-(;t; a (.'oiumittee of Fifteen ^vas appointed
by that body to whom all matters appertaining
to the recirganization of the States of the over-
thrown Confederacy should be referred. Soon
afterwards the Civit, Rkuits Pii.i, was passed,
the object of wliicli was to secure to the freed-
THE UNITED STATES. — EPOCH OF jnyOXSTL'Tl'TTOX.
men of the South the full exercise of citizeu-
ship. The measure was opposed and vetoed
by the President, but was immediately repassed
by a two-thirds Congressional majority. It
was the beginning of the open break between
Mr. Johnson and Congress. On the occasion
of the celebration of Washington's birthday,
the bill was severely denounced by the Presi-
dent in a speech delivered in front of the Ex-
ecutive mansion. The position assumed by
Congress was declared to be a new rebellion
against the Government of the United States.
In subsequent speeches and messages the same
sentiments were reiterated, and the attitude of
the Executive and the Legislative departments
became constantly more unfriendly.
In the summer of 18(56 a call was issued
for a Natidual convention, to he held in Phil-
adelphia on the 14th of August. It was be-
lieved that the President was behind the move-
ment. The objects had in view were not very
clearly defined ; but it was understood that
the general condition of the country would be
considered, measures of National policy dis-
cussed, and all the political elements in opposi-
tion to the majority in Congress be consolidated
into a new political party, with which the
President's name would be associated in lead-
ership. At the appointed time delegates from
all the States and Territories were present.
Many members of the Republican party took
part in the movement, and the convention was
not lacking in enthusiasm. Still the meeting,
as all other factious assemblages, exercised but
little permanent influence on the afiairs of the
country.
The President, perceiving that the Philadel-
phia convention was of no effect, now made an-
other effort to rally public opinion in favor of his
policy. In the latter part of August he set
out from Washington, accompanied by General
Grant, Admiral Farragut, the leading members
of the Cabinet, and other prominent officials, to
make a tour of the Northern States. The ostensi-
ble object of the excursion was that the President
might be present at the laying of the corner-
stone of a monument to Senator Douglas at
Chicago. Departing from the Capital, the
Presidential party passed through Philadelphia,
New York, and Albany, and after taking part
in the ceremonies at Chicago, returned by way
of St. Louis, Indianapolis, Louisville, Cincin-
I nati, and Pittsburg. At all the principal
I towns and cities through which he passeil the
President spoke freely to the crowds in defense
of his own policy, and in denunciation of that
of Congress.
The whole journey was a scene of intense
excitement and partisan animosity. The gen-
eral effect of the President's course was disas-
trous to him and his political adherents. In
the elections of the following autumn the meas-
ures and attitude of Congress were sustained,
and most of the members of that body re-
elected by increased popular majorities.
Nevertheless, the result of the election had
little effect in altering the President's views
or softening his feelings towards the Legislative
department <if the Government. His stubborn
nature yielded in nothing, even when the voice
of the Northern people was heard as the voice
of many waters.
By degrees the affairs and status of the
Administration grew critical. When Congress
convened, in Deeemlier of 1866, the policy of
the President was severely condemned. The
attitude of all parties had strangely changed.
It had been believed and feared that Mr.
Johnson would pursue a course of angry retri-
bution towards those who had been engaged
in the rebellion. Now it was believed and
openly charged that he had gone over to the
Confederate party. Though he had begun from
premises which had been laid bj' Lincoln, he
had reached practical conclusions therefrom
which were off^ensive, not to say shocking, to
the great majority of those who had upheld
the Government during the war. Congress, in
its growing animosity to the President, had
abandoned the milder principles of reconcilia-
tion, which Lincoln had evidently professed,
and taken an attitude of relentless hostility
towards the Confederate party in the South.
Presently the Congressional committee ap-
pointed at the session of the previous year
brought forward their rejiort, embodying a
full plan of re(")rganizing the Southern States.
After much discussion the measures proposed
by the committee were adopted by Congress,
and the work of reconstruction was begun.
As the first condition for the reiidmission
of a State into the Union, it was enacted that
the peo|)le of the same, by their Legislative
Assembly, or otherwise, should ratify the Four-
1711
UMVERSAL HISrOnV. — THK MoDEUX WORLD.
teenth Ameiuliiient to the Constitution, which
declared the citizeuship of all persoiis born or
naturalized in tiie United States. In further-
ance of this policy, Congress at the same session
passed an act requiring that in the National
Territories the elective franchise should be
granted without distinction of race or color
before such Territory sliould be admitted into
the Union. A similar measure was adopted
with regard to the District of Columbia, for-
bidding the further restriction of the right of
suffrage to White men. To all of these acts
President Johnson opposed his veto; but in
every case his objection was overcome by the
two-thirds' majority of Congress.
For all practical purposes, the question re-
specting the method of reorganizing the South-
ern States resolved itself to this: Should the
civil or the military plan of reconstruction be
adopted? From the beginning the President
had urged the superiority of the civil method.
It was seen, however, by Congress and the
North that to follow this method freely would
be to remand at once the control of the lately
seceded States into the hands of the old Con-
federate party. Eight or wrong, it was deter-
mined by the majority that this should not be
done. It was clear that if the leaders of the
late Confederacy should return from all the
Southern States as Representatives and Sena-
tors, and should combine, as they were certain
to do, with the Democratic Representatives
and Senators from the Northern States, the
Republican party would be immediately over-
whelmed by an adverse majority. It was
therefore determined in Congress that the
military and suppressive method of governing
the seceded States should be employed, and
that an alliance between the Black Republicans
of the South and the White Republicans of
the North was the safest condiination for the
interests of the Union. This view of the case
was intensified by the hostility of the Execu-
tive, and henceforth tJiere was open political
war between the two departments of the Gov-
ernment.
On the 2d of March, ISCT, an act was
passed by Con-ri ^-. liy which the ten seceded
States were divided into five military districts,
each di.-itriet to lie under control of a gover-
nor npnointrd by the President. After ap-
pointing the couimanders required by this law,
the cliief magistrate asked the opinion of Mr.
Stanbery, his Attorney-General, as to the
validity of the Congressional measures of recon-
struction. An answer was returned that most
of the acts were null and void, and the Presi-
dent thereupon issued to the military com-
manders au order which virtually nullified the
whole proceeding. Congress now passed a
supplemental act declaring the meaning of the
previous law, and the process of reorganiza-
tion went on in accordance with the Con-
gressional plan. The work, however, was
greatly retarded by the distracted counsels of
the Government, and the chaotic condition of
afflurs in the South. But in due time the
States of Arkansas, Alabama, Georgia, Florida,
Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina
were reconstructed, and in the months of
June and July, 18fi8, were readmitted into
the Union. In every case, however, the re-
admission was effected against the protest and
over the veto of the President.
ISIeanwhile, a difficulty arose in the Presi-
dent's Cabinet which led to his impeachment.
On the 21.st of February, 1868, he notified
Edwin ]\I. Stanton, Secretary of War, of his
dismissal from office. Such a circumstance
had never before arisen in the administrative
history of the countrv. The act was regarded
by Congress as a usurpation of authority and a
violation of law on the part of the President.
The reconstruction difficulties had already
broken off" all friendly relations between the
two Houses and the Executive. Accordingly,
on the 3d of March, articles of impeachment
were agreed to by the House of Repre-
sentatives, in accordance with the forms of
the Constitution ; and the cause against the
President was immediately remanded to the
Senate for trial. Proceedings were instituted
in that body on the 23d of i\Iarch, and con-
tinued until the 26th of May, when the ques-
tion was submitted to a vote of the Senators,
acting as judges, and Mr. Johnson was aquit-
ted. His escape from an adverse verdict,
however, was very narrow — a two-thirds'
majority was required to convict, and but
a dmjle vote was wanting to that result. Sal-
mon P. Chase, who, after his retirement from
the Secretaryship of the Treasury, had been
appointed Chief-Justice of the United States,
presided over this remarkable trial, the first
TEE UXITED STATES.— EPOCH OF EECOXSTBUCTIOX.
of its kiud wliich liad ever distracted, nnt to
say- disgraced, the history of ths country.
After the impeachment the Administration
of Johnson drew sullenly to a close. The time
for another Presidential election was at hand,
and General Ulysses S. Grant was nominated
by the Republicans for the Chief-magistracy
On the Democratic side the nomination was
given to Horatio Sej'mour, of New York,
Tlie canvass was attended with great excite
ment. The attention of the people, still agl
tated by the recent strife through which the
Nation had passed, could not be diverted from
the question and issues of the Civil War.
The principles recently agitated by the
majority in Congress were made the basis
of the Eepublican platform of 1868, and
on that platform General_GTaiit was chosen
by a very large electoral majority. The
votes of twenty-six States, amounting in
the aggregate to two hundred and four-
teen ballots, were cast in his fiivor, while
his competitor received only the eighty
votes of the remaining eleven States. Of
the popular vote, however, ISIr. Seymour
obtained 2,703,600 against 3,013,188 given
to General Grant. At the same election
the choice for the Vice-presidency fell on
Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana.
Ulysses S. Grant, eighteenth President
of the United States, was a native of Ohio,
born at Point Pleasant, in that State, April
27, 1822. His boyhood was uneventful. At
the age of seventeen he entered the United
States Military Academy, at West Point,
and was graduated in 1843. As a Lieutenant
and Captain he served with distinction, and
was promoted for gallantry in the Mexican War.
After the close of that conflict he retained his
connection with the army for some years, and
then resigned his commi.ssion. He became a
merchant, resided near St. Louis, and after-
wards at Galena, Illinois. At the outbreak
of the Civil War he was living in obscurity,
nor could any have foreseen the probability
of his emergence. His first national reputa-
tion was won by the capture of Forts Henry
and Donelson, in 1862. After Shiloh, he
was conspicuous as a Union commander; but
was for awhile held back by gloomy and adverse
circumstances, sufficient to have driven a less
resolute and taciturn spirit fi-om the field of
view. With Vicksburg hLs star came into the
ascendant, and was never again clouded. In
March of 1864 he received the appointment
of Lieutenant-General and Commander-in-
Chief of the Union army. His subsequent
career at the head of that army has been al-
ready narrated. At the close of the war his
reputation, though strictly military, was very
great, and his complications in the imiiroglio
between President Johnson and Congress
heightened rather than diminished the estima-
tion in which he was held by his countrymen.
At the Repulilican Convention in Chicago,
on the 21~i oi M.iy, l^(i^. General Grant had
no competitor; he wa^ unanimously nominated
on the first ballot. On the day following his
inauguration as President he sent to the
Senate the following nominations for his
Cabinet: For Secretary of State, Elihu B.
Washburne, of Illinois; for Secretary of the
Treasury, Alexander T. Stewart, of New York;
for Secretary of the Interior, Jacob D. Cox,
of Ohio ; for Secretary of the Navy, Adolph
E. Borie, of Penn.sylvania ; for Secretary of
War, John M. Sehofield, of Illinois ; for Post-
master-General, John A. J. Cresswell, of
Maryland; for Attornej'-Geueral, E. R. Hoar,
of Massachusetts. These nominations were at
once confirmed; but it was soon discovered
I'M VERSA r. IIIST()]:V.— TIIE MODERX
>HLD.
vast
but
Stewart, liciim- an importer of foreign
y-as inelijrilile tn a iinMtion in the
(Iciirge S. Bnutw.-ll, <.f Massaclui-
sarrnnliiiiilv appnintr,! to thr va.-ant
^Ir. Wa.-lihurn.. al><i piv up his
ac-rpt the poMti,,!) nf .Mini^f-r to
ui.l ill.- va.-aucv wa- lill.-J l,v ih.- ap-
,t of irauiiltoiiFi.h. of Nov' York.
ir-t .v.iit liv which the new Ailiniiiis-
a- >iL:iiah/,iMl was the comph'tion of
ic liaiiniail. We have seen how this
rprise was projected as early as l.Soo,
years eLajised before the work of
ion was actually befrun. The first
of the road extended froui Omaha.
Neliiaska, to <)_r-den, Utah, a distance ol a
thousand and thirtv-tnn miles. This rrreat
span was known as the Union Pacific Rail-
way. The Western division, called the Central
Pacific, stretched from Ogden to San Francisco,
a di<tanrf<ifciL'lithu?idred and eiphty-two miles.
On the 10th of :May, 1869, the great work was
conipli-t<d with appropriate ceremonies.
Before the inauiruration of President Grant,
two additional amendments to the Constitution
had been adopted by Congress. Tlie first of
these, known as the Fourteenth Amendment,
extended the rights of citizenship to all persons
born or nattn-alized in the United States, and
declared the validity of the public debt. This
amendment was submitted in 18G7, was rati-
fied by three-fourths of the States, and in tie
following year became a part of the Constitu-
tion. A few weeks before the expiration of
Johnson's term the Fifteenth Amendment was
adopted by Congress, providing that the
rights of citizens of tlic United States /o vote
should not be denied or aliridg(<l on acc(Uint
of i-acc, color, or previous coiidition of servi-
tude. This article also, which was intended
to confer the right of suffrage on the emanci-
pated Black men of the South, was submitted
to the States, received the sanction of three-
fourtiis of the Legislatures, and on the ."(tth
of March, 1870, was proclaimed by the Presi-
dent as a part of the Constitution.
During the last years of the war,
and the decade following, the monetary
^' afliiirs of the United States were in
^i such condition as to furnish oppor-
tunity for great frauds and the wihiest
speculations. The buying and selling
of gold, made necessary at first by the
exigencies of commerce, became at
length a fictitious process, and was so
manipulated by the speculators, espe-
cnlly those having their haunts about
the <Told Room in New York City, as
to un.settle the business of the whole
country. Crisis after cri.=is was reached
and passed, marking so many disasters
to the monetary affairs of the people.
In the fall of 1869 occurred the most
extraordinary excitement of all. Per-
ha]is no other schemeof equal extentand
shrewd contrivance was ever concocted
in the financial marts of the world. A
company of unscrupulous speculators in New
York, headed by Jay Gould and James Fisk, jr. ,
succeeded in producing what is known as a
"corner" in the gold-market, and brought the
business interests of the metropolis to the
verge of ruin. Some account of the conditions
which made possible the nefarious transaction
in question may serve to render the event in-
telligible to the reader.
During the Civil War the credit of the
Government had declined to such an extent
that at one time a dollar in gold was worth
two hnnili'ed and eighty-six cents in paper cur-
rency. Doubtless a part of this extraordinary
premium on the precious metal was occasioned
by the plethora of the Greenback and National
THE UXITED STATES.— EPOCH OF EECOXSTRlTTIoX.
bauk issues of paper money. But the greater
part was due to an actual decline in tiie credit
of the Government, a fear tliat the enormous
war-debt wouh.l bear the Xatinn ilown to ulti-
mate bankruptcy. After the rt'stiiratiDU nf the
National authority, the value at' i>a|icr money
appreciated, and in the tall <>( l.s(;!l the ratio
of gold to the Greenback dollar had iailen ofl'
to about one hundred and thirty to one hun-
dred. There were at this time in the banks
of New York about 815,000,000 in gold coin,
and in the sub-treasury of the United States,
in Wall Street, a hundred millions additional.
The plan of Gould and Fisk was to get control,
by purchase, of the greater part of the
815,000,000; to prevent the Secretary of the
Treasury from selling any part of the hundred
millions under his authority; then, having
control of the market, to advance the price of
gold to a fabulous figure, sell out all which
they held themselves, and retire from the field
of slaughtered fortunes with accumulated
millions of spoils.
Having carefully arranged the prelimi-
naries, the conspirators, on the 13th of Sep-
tember, began their work by purchasing large
sums of gold, at the same time constantly ad-
vancing the price. As has been said, the
process was wholly fictitious. No real gold
was delivered to the purchasers, the sellers
simply agreeing to deliver at a certain price
at a future date. One party of the gamblers
thus became bound to do for the other what
they could not do except by going into the mar-
ket and buying the amounts which they were
to deliver. But the purchasers soon exhausted
the market, and they who were said to be
"short on gold" were at their mercy.
By the 22d of September the plotters had
succeeded in putting the market price of gold
up to a hundred and forty. On the following
day the price rose to one hundred and forty-
four. The members of the conspiracy now
boldly declared their determination to advance
the rate to two hundred, and it seemed that
on the morrow they would put their threat into
execution. By this time the whole business
of the country stood quivering like an aspen
in the wind, nor might any well foresee the
results of the crisis. On the morning of the
24th, known as Black Friday, the bidding in
the Gold Room began with intense excitement.
The brokers of Fi>k and CnM first advaiicpd
the price to a hundred and fifty, then to ;i
hundred and fifty-five, and finally to one hun-
dred and sixty, at which tiirnii' tlicv were
obliged to purchase several millions h;- a com-
pany of merchants, who had banded thrmsolves
together, determined to fight the gold-gamblers
to the last. Just at this moment came a de-
spatch that Mr. Boutwell, Secretary of the
Treasury, had unsealed the hundred millions
under his control, and had ordered f mr mill-
ions to be sold fi-om the sub treasury! The
news occasioned an instantaneous panic. The
price of gold went down twenty per cent, in
less than as many minutes. The speculators
were blown away in an uproar; but they man-
aged, by accumulated frauds aud corruptions,
to carry off with them more than eleven mill-
ion dollars as the profits of their game ! Several
months elapsed before the business of the
country recovered from the eflfects of the shock.
During the first three mouths of 1870 the
work of reconstructing the Southern States
was completed. On the 24th of January the
Senators and Representatives of Virginia were
formally readmitted to their seats in Congress,
and the Old Dominion once more took her
place in the Union. On the 23d of February
a like action was taken with regard to Missis-
sippi, and on the 30th of ]\Iarch the work was
finished by the reiidmission of Texas, the last
of the seceded States. For the first time since
December of 1860 the voice of the people of
all of the States was heard in the councils of
the Nation.
In the same year was completed the Ninth
Census of the United States. It was a work
of vast importance, and the results presented
were of the most encouraging character. Not-
withstanding the ravages of war, the last dec-
ade had been one of wonderful growth and
progress. During that time the population
had increased from 31,433,000 to 38,587,000.
The center of population had now moved
westward into the State of Ohio, and rested
at a point fifty miles east of Cincinnati. The
National debt, though still enormous, had
been considerably reduced. The products of
the United States had grown to a vast aggre-
gate ; even the cotton-crop of the South was
regaining much of its former importance.
American manufactures were competing with
ISO
CXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
those of England in the markets of tlie world.
The Union now embraced thirty-seven States
and eleven territories. From tlie narrow limits
of the thirteen orit;inal ('..jniiirs. with their four
hundred and twenty th(iu>:iiid M|iiari' miles of
territory, the National domain had >iircad to the
vast area of three million ^ix liundicil and four
thousand square miles. Few thin;;s have been
more marvelous than the territorial growth of
the United States. The purchase of Louisiana
iu 1803 more than doubled the geographical
area of the Nation. The several Mexican ac-
quisitions were only second in importance,
while the recent Kussian cession of Alaska was
alone greater than the original Thirteen States.
The nature of this territorial development will
be best understood from an examination of the
accompanying raaj).
President Grant was by nature a man of
few projects. He was perhaps the least vision-
ary of all the great Americans who have risen
to distinction iu the political history of the
country. If he had any particular dream of
distinguishing his Administration by some
specific feature, it was the project of the an-
nexation of Santo Domingo. He also had in
mind the enteri)rise of extending and amplify-
ing the relations, civil, political, and social,
between the American Republic and Mexico.
But with resi)ect to the purchase of Santo
Domingo he had a real anxiety. He promoted,
and may be said to have originated, the agita-
tion on that subject. In January of 1871 he
appointed Senator Ben Wade, of Ohio ; Presi-
dent Andrew D. White, of New York; and
Dr. Samuel Howe, of Massachu.setts, as a
Board of Commissioners to visit Santo Do-
mingo, and report upon the desirability of an-
nexing that island to the United States. The
question of annexation had been feebly before
the American people for several years ; but the
actual proposal awakened earnest advocacy on
one side, and strong opposition on the other.
After three mouths .spent abroad, the Commis-
sioners returned and reported in favor of the
proposed annexation. Tlie matter was laid be-
fore Congress, but the opposition excited in
that body was so great tiiat the measure was
defeated.
Now it was that the day of retriliuti.m
came to Great Britain for her conduct towards
the American Government during the Civil
War. The unfriendliness which she had
shown to the United States, and the great and
positive damages done to American commerce
by the Confederate cruisers fitted out in tlie
English ports, had been laiil up hy tlie
Federal Government unto the day of reckon-
ing. The United States held serious accounts
against Great Britain, which must be settled
iu some equitable manner before relations of
harmouy could be reestablished. The Con-
federate cruisers had been built and equipped
in the ports of England with the full knowl-
edge of the Government. Such a proceeding
was in plain violation of the law of nations.
Even if the independence of the Confederate
States had been recognized, it would still have
been unlawful for the private war-ships of
that power to be built, equipped, manned and
sent forth from the ports of a nation pretend-
ing neutrality and friendliness to the United
States. Time and again Mr. Seward had
remonstrated with the British authorities, but
without effect. As a matter of fact, the great
monarchies of Western Europe believed and
hoped that the American Republic had gone
to pieces, that the bubble had burst, that
the fragments of exploded republicanism, con-
sidered as a type of human government — a
type most dangerous to themselves — were
already drifting in the whirlpool. As a con-
sequence, they assumed a tone and niauuer
toward the American Government, as if to say :
" We have said as much; the profits are now
to us."
After the Civil War, however. Great Brit-
ain became alarmed at her own conduct, and
grew anxious for a settlement of the difficulty.
On the 27th of February, 1871, a Joint High
Commission, composed of five British and five
American statesman, assembled at Washington
City. From the fact that the cruiser Alabama
had done most of the injury complained of,
the claims of the United States were called
The Alab.vma Claims. After much discus-
sion, the Commmissioners fra.med a treaty,
known as the Treaty of Washington, by which
it was agreed that all claims of either nation
against the other should be submitted to a
board of arbitration, to be appointed by
friendly nations. Such a high court was ac-
cordingly formed, and in the summer of 1872
convened at Geneva, Switzerland. The cause
THE USITED STATES.— EPOCH OF EECONSTBUCTIOX. 181
rxivi:i:s.\i. iii^tohy.^tiie modeux would.
of tl.e two nalio
nil.arliallv h,
lid.
on the- Htli ot
Srptel
ihrr ua.- <h,
id.'.
favor of the I'll
t.-d St:
1,-. ]',y ihr
K'ei-
Givat IJiituiii
\a^ .ih
^■■vA. f'.r the
\vr
whi,'l, slu- hail .
f.Ilr. li
pay t,. the '
of the Anieiiraii
C.v.ri
in.-nt Sl.VolH
IMII
The vear IM
1 \\a- n
niarkal.K. as 1
eing
date xvhen the
railr-a,
eniiMnietion
of
United Stati-s re
irh.'d it
~ iiiaxiiiiiiiii.
111
year no Ie.v< thai
thn,l>alld MX
iim.
and ?evriii\ '-■:!'
'•'■ I'Mil
■.lad uriv e-n
Ii-ii.
.d t.j two thousand eight hundred and
i.Mii miles. Ten years later there were
th.iusaiid and twenty-one miles of track,
.r.liiii: to the npiirts lur IM.IO, the railr.iads
.if thirty thousand six hundred and thirty-
miles, and in the next ten years, embracing
]Mii...l of the Civil War, the amount was
ly .1. milled. Such is the victory of free
i)>ii-i', free industry, and free thought. It
u.ll Mirpi-i-.' :illd "i'l-TM.-r tl:.- -'...lent of
There is, perhaps, no fact in tiie hist.iry of the
world which exhibits so marvelous a develop-
ment of the physical resources of a nation.
Ere the mutterings of the Civil War, with its
uiit..l.l .lestni.'tiou of life and treasure, had
.li.'.l away, the recuperative power, enterprise,
aii.l -eiiius of the American people were re-
viale.l as never before in establishing and ex-
leii.liiii: the lines of commerce and travel. In
1.S30 there were but tw.ntv-tliree miles ..f
railway track in the X. u \V.,rl.l. lo 1S40
the lines in the Unite. 1 .States ha. I been ex-
lustory that the United States of America,
just emerged from the furnace of war, and
burdened with an enormous debt, built in the
single year 1871 more miles of railway than
Spain, whose daring navigators went forth four
hundred years ago to discover the Western
hemisphere, has ever built in her whole career!
The same year is u.ited for a calamity al-
m.ist as vast in proportion as the enterprise
just referred to was astonishing. The event
ill question was the burning of the city of
Chicago. On the evening of the .Sth of Octo-
THE UNITED STATES.— EPOCH OF RECOXSTRUCTIOX.
The area burued
lumdred acres, or
iiileri. Abiiat two
the ,-n„rtai;rati..n,
imnuiited to aliout
ber a tire br.ike out iu De Koveu Street, and
was <lriveu by a high wind into the liuulier-
yard> and winxleu houses of the ueighljorhood.
The riaiues spread with great rapidity, leaped
the South Braueh of the Chicag(_> Kiver, aud
began to roar through the business parts of
the city. All that night aud all the following
day the deluge of fire rolled on ; sprang across
the main chauuel of the river, aud swej^t into
blackened ruins the whole district between the
North Branch aud Lake Michigan, as far
northward as Lincoln Park.
over was two thousand one
three and a third square i
hundred lives were lost in
and the property destroyed ai
§200,000,000. No such terrible devastation
had been witnessed since the burning of Mos-
cow, iu 1812. In the exteut of the district
burned over, the Chicago fire stands first; in
the amount of property destroyed, .second ; and
in the suffering accasioned, third, among the
great conflagrations of history.
On the 21st of October, 1872, was settled
the remaining dispute concerning the geo-
graphical boundaries of the United States.
By the terms of the treaty of 1846 it was
sti|)ulated that the North-western boundary
line, running westward along the forty-ninth
parallel of latitude, should extend to the
middle of the chauuel which separates the
continent from Vancouver's Island, and thence
southerly through tlie middle of said channel and
of Fuca's Straits to the Pacific. But what
was "the middle of said channel?" for there
were several channels. The British Govern-
ment claimed the .Straits of Eosario to be the
true line intended by the treaty, while the
United States would have the Canal de Haro.
So the question stood for a quarter of a cen-
tury, and was then referred for settlement by
arbitration to William I., Emperor of Ger-
many. That monarch heard the cause, de-
cided in favor of the United States, and
the Caual de Haro became the international
The civil Administration of President Grant
was embarrassed throughout by the military
spirit and influences which still dominated the
country. The President himself was a military
man, a general of armies rather thau a states-
juau. At this epoch the great men of the couu-
the war. Maj<.,r-Generals and 15rigadier-(_ieu-
erals swarmed in the halls of Congress an.l
thronged the White House. The Presi.lnit was
niililary methods in the conduct of the (iovern-
ment. lie had, in fai-t, but liltlr sympathy with
on. But, on the oihrr hand, he was not in
sympathy with political methods, and knew
nothing of tlie arts (jf the demagogue. As a
natural result, he fell back up(jn the methods
with which he was best acquainted, aud the
Administration was said, especially Ity his np-
p.inents, to have a niilitaiy cast. ' On the
wh.ilc, however, the President retained his
jiowi-rfiil hold on the American people, nor
wa- it likely, in the Presidential campaign of
l.'S72, that any other C(Uild supplant him in
their all^ctions and jiolitical coiiH.lence.
As the (piadreniual term <lrew to a close,
the political parties marshaled their forces for
the contest. ]Many parts of the Chief Magis-
trate's policy had been subjected to severe
criticism and heated controversy. The Con-
gressional plan of reconstructing the Southern
States had prevailed, and with that plan the
President was in full accord. lUit the recon-
struction measures liail been untiivorably re-
ceived in the South, aud were geuerall}^ de-
noiniced by the Democratic party. The ele-
vation of the negro race to the full rights of
citizenship was met with much rational oppo-
sition, to .say nothing of race prejudice aud
political rancor. Owing to tlie disorganization
of civil government in the Southern States,
an opportunity was given iu certain districts
for bad and reckless men to band themselves
together in lawde.s.sness. Organizations knowu
as Ku-Klux Glaus were formed against the
constituted authorities, and the latter were
frequently what was called "carpet-bag gov-
erumeuts;" that is, governments instituted by
political adventurers who had gone from the
North into the South witli their carpet-bag^ in
their hands. The military spirit was still rife
iu the country, and the issues of the Civil
War were rediscussed with much bitterness.
On these issues the pe(iple divi<]cd in the
election of 1.S72. The Kepublicans renomi-
nated General Giant for the I're-iden.'V. For
the Vice-presidency Mr. Colfax declined a
IS-i
i'yiVFKSAL niSTonY. — THE MODElty WORLD.
renomiuatiou, aiul was rej)lacec.l on tin- tickt't Ijy
Heiiiy Wilsou, of MassaclniseLts. Un the
other side there was for a while nnieh coufusion.
It was doubtlessly foreseen by the Democratic
leaders tliat any one of their own number
would have small show of success aL'aiust the
taciturn hero of the Civil War. lu tlie mean-
time, a large number of inoiaincnt Kepuiili-
cans, dissatisfied with the Administration, per-
sonally piqued at President Grant, aud perhaps
sincerely desiring to promote certain alleged
refouns in the Go\einment, had foimed a Lib-
eral-Republican pait}, and had nominated for
the Pie^idency Hoiace Gieele}, the dis-
tinguished ...litor nf the Xew York TrllmM.
After some beatini: about, this nomination was
accepted and ratified by the Democratic party,
and the political contest was projected on this
basis. It was destined to be the last act in
the remarkable career of Horace Greeley.
For more than thirty years he had been an
acknowledged leader of public opinion in
America. He hail been a champion of human
rights, an advocate of progress, an idealist, a
[ihilaiitiiro|>i>t, a second Franklin, born out of
due si-ason. lie had discussed with vehement
energy and enthusiasm almost every question
in which the people of the United States had
anv interest. After a life-time of untiring in-
dustry he was now, at the age of sixty-one,
throv.u into the forefront of political strife.
The canvass was one of wild excitement
and bitter denunciations. Mr. Greeley himself
went before the pieojale and spoke on the
questions involved in the contest. But every-
thing seemed adverse to his prospects. His
own utterances, his strange personality, his
long contentions with the Democratic party,
the incongruity of his following, and many
other things, were paraded eflectively against
him. He was overwhelmingly defeated. Gen-
eral Grant's majority was almost unprece-
dented in the political history of the country.
Mr. Greeley, who had in the meantime re-
tired from the editorship of the Tribune, at-
tempted to resume his duties, but the shock
had been too great for his physical and mental
powers. He died in less than a mouth alter
the election, and with him ended the career
of the greatest journalist which America has
ever produced.
A iew days after the Presidential election
of 1872 the city of Boston was visited by a
conflagration only second in its ravages to that
of Chicago, in the previous year. On the
evening of the 9th of November a fire broke
out on the corner of Kingston and Summer
streets, spread to the north-east, and contj-nied
with almo>t unabated fury until the morning
of the 11th. The best portion of the city,
embracing some of the finest business blocks
in the United States, was laid in ashes. The
burnt district covered an area of sixtA'-five
acres. Eight hundred buildings, property to
the value of eighty millions of dollars, and
fifteen human lives were lost in the con-
flagration.
Our attention may now be turned for a
moment to au event of some importance on
the far-ofi Pacific Slope. In the spring of
1872 an order was issued to Superintendent
Odeneal to remove the Modoc Indians from
their lauds, on the southern shore of Lake
Klamath, Oregon, to a new reservation. The
Indians, who had been greatly mistreated by
former agents of the Government, refuse<l to
obey the order, and in the following Novem-
ber a body of troops was sent to force them
into compliance. The ^lodocs resisted, kept
up the war during the winter, and then re-
treated into an almost inaccessible region.
known as the Lava Beds
lowing spring, tlie Imliai
but would not yieM. < hi
conference was lielil lid
THE UNITED STATES.— EPOCH OF RECOXSTEUCTION
Icre, in the fol
The sj-stem of govfrnuient instituted in
Southeru States, under the reconstrm
]io]icy of Congress, was very unsatisfact
Tiie old Cnnfederate |iarty in the South
hraced the best eleuieiits of society. The \
side them, and niunlmd (;..,„.,al ('aiihv an.
Dr. Thomas in cold hh.od. My. M.aiham
another member of tlie Comnii~-ion, was >ho
and stabbed, but escaped with his life. Tli
Modocs were theu hesiejred and homhanled ii
1|
A^^^^^^^^S^'''M'- ^
.
-'\
■ ^^^^^^' * ^^
--'^
'^
1 nil- II NFi '- M MoiKirs
,- '^^feifc> '<
of It... -am/
in_
th. .nil mithm.n ^^ i- for
the nio-t pa
,aii^, nho 1,
^^M and oi
t d
1.1 _
x.h.d lip. n Whitt l;. 1 nl.h-
int.. th. ^..iitli lit. 1 ihf,
\._i.»- \\li.. \\eu athlutt.l
CnpTnghM..- o M n, l„m
«itli tli.m
r.
wi.ll th. two pillle-, thus
their stronghold, hnt it \Nas tlie 1-t of June
(.m-titut. d
I _i
, It l...-tilitN , M-tMl 11.1 in
before General Da\is and a force of leirulars
SOUR iiait~
.t ti
. c.mntry the .■ivii aulli.,rity
could compel Captain Jack and his murderous
wa- in con-t
ant
ha..s an.I tnrm.,il. Ii, ls73
band to surrender. The chiefs were tried by
a diffiuiltva
•o^e
111 L.Miisiana which bn.k,. the
conit-martial, and t xe uted in the following
]ieace of the
Sta
e and produced much e.xcite-
October.
niuit. 0«
"g
to the existence of d..ul)le
isr, ryni:h'SAL iiistohy.-
(■l.-fii,,i,-l,.,nnl.-, tun >,■!-, if l'r,-i,l. •mini .-l.M-tn.-s
liii.l 1..-,.,, rhoxn in tl.c pivviuu- MUliinni. At
thr sunr ti tWM (;nvrni..,s, Willi;, ti: r.
Krlln-L' ;mi.I .Inlin .MrHu.rv, U,rr ,lr,h,l. aii.l
rival L.-i-l;,iun- wnv uIm, nliiin.,! I,y tlic
rivnl ImanU. Tun Slaf ,-,vrr„i„rnts xviv
oi-'jani/r^l. and l-r awliil.- the ('..imi uvaltli
uas In a rn,Hlilin„ linnlrriir. nn anaivliy.
Th.' ,li^|„itr was at Irn.jll, y.[\-vu;] to tin'
F,..l,.ral (Jov.rninriit. an.) ll,.- I'lvM.J.nt .li-
<'i.l,Ml in favnrnf Krllo^., a,al ],is|u.lv. Tlu^
TWF. MODV.ny WOULD.
of tli<' riiil.-.l State.-- It was -with tho Credit
.Mnlilli.r a ^liir qw, nun tlial tlir door winch
th'\ had tliii< o|iiimm| into the treasury vaults
]io,~^ilile oli>tniction, the inanaueis resorted to
whole^Lde eoniiiition. In 1^72 a lawsuit in
I'eiin-ylvania developed the startliiijr fact that
niueh (,f the ~t.i(d^ of the Credit, IMobilier was
„„,„,/ /,„ „„,„/„,>■ of fm,j,;-ss! The „,a„agers
wii
'4, tl
.,pp,.sed to the adnnnistration of KelloLr.L', and
le,l l,y J). 1!. IVnu, who ha,l heen returucd as
Lie\itenaut-<ioveruor with McEiicry, rose iii
anus and took possession of the iState-house.
(ioveruor Kelh)gg fled to the Custom-house,
aud appealed to the President for help. The
latter immediately onlered the adherents of
Peuu to disperse, and a lioily of National troops
■was sent to New Orleans to enforce the proc-
lamation. On the assembling of the Legisla-
tui-e in the following December the difficidty
soldierv was asjaiu called in to restore onler
About the beginning of Presi.lent Oranfs
second term the country was greatly disturbed
by what was known as the Credit JMobilier
Investigation in Congre.s.s. The " Credit
IMobilier of America" was a ioint-stock corn-
works
ken to build the Pa.-ili.' llaiboad, purchase.
,e charter .,f the Credit .Mobilier, and th^
loital was increased to )«;l.7.-,(l,U00. Owin;
ers of the shares. Many were thus enriched
pici<m that members of Congress holding the
certificates had voted corruptly in legislation
affecting the Pacific Kailn.ad at once seized
the publi.' mil..], and led to a Congressional
investiuatiou. in the course of which many
scan.lalon- transactions were brought to light,
and the faith of the people in the integrity of
th( ir public servants was greatly shaken.
lu the autumn of 1873 occurred one of the
most di>a>lro\i- tinaucial panics known in the
hist..ry of the Tniud States. The alarm was
given by the I'aibnv of the great bankiug-
hou.se of .Tav C.,oke iV Co.. of Pliiladelphia.
Other fhilur'es followed in rapi.l succession.
Depositors everywh.av hurrici to the banks,
and withdrew their money and securities.
Business was snddeidy paralyzed, and many
months elapsed before eoutideuce was suf-
li,-iently re,-t<.re.l t.. enable merchants and
bankers to enga-e in the UMial transactions of
"■ I'l"
able.
wh
ed the stock
Tie. monev
Paeilic Kail
ition wlucli sajipcd tlie
ess, <lestroved financial
,e Credit M<
east ot the evil results of the
urbance was the check given to
on of the \.,rthern Pacific Rail-
of the
d bvC
part bv a Mibsidv, grant,
t. an.l'in this n'lauuer tl
lit M,,bili,.r L'.it their ban.
„. rnnnin- .>f a bran.di r.,a.l, two hundred
if- in l.ui-th. .lowu thi. valley .if the Colum-
a River to Portlau.l, Oregon. Large subsi-
THE rXITED STATES.— EPOCH OF nECOXSTRUCTlOX.
dies were granted to the coiiipaov Ijy Congres:
and other favorable legishition was expeete
k of constructio
nid froniDulutl
ikintr-house :
to follow. In 1870 tl
was begun and can-ii'il
Minnesota. Jay Cook
heavy loans tn this i
security the l)nii(ls o
confidently expfctrd
■would he obtained as si
tlie
that
(luhl
aecep-
1,1. f.ir
ure the succes:
of the euterpri.se and liring the bnuds to par
In this condition of atiair- tlie Credit ^Nlnliiliei
scandal -was liL.wn with it- shncking etlliivi:
before the emiiitry, ainl im Ci
have dared to vote fuithii- >ul!-id
wa}' enterprise. Jay (. 'i " il;i 's seen
comparatively worthh-s- : ilnn
failures and the panic Tlir wark
iug the Xorthern racific line v
arrested, and it was only attrr y
that the enterprise was pruMTMitc
In 1875 the section of fmir 1
fifty ndles, extending from Dnhith
Dakota, was put into operation.
span, a hundred ami five miles
tweeu Kalama anil Ta na.
Territory, was eomjileted, and ti
liue. Meanwhile the attention
became
i-ed the
instrnct-
udd,
)f d(
•I I to success,
lundred and
to Bismarck,
Then another
11 length, lie-
Washington
illy the wh
f the couul
was turned to the Texas and Pacific Kailway,
which had been projected from Shreveport,
Louisiana, and Texarkana, Arkansas, liy way
of El Paso, Texas, t<> 8an Diego, California, a
distance from Bhrevejiort of fifteen hundred
and fourteen miles. In 1875 the main line
had been carried westward a hundred am
eighty-nine miles, to Dallas, Texas, while th(
line from Texarkana had progressed seventy
five miles towards El Paso.
On the 4th of March, 1875, the Territory
of Colorado was authorized by Congress ti
.n-titutinii. On the 1st
iistrumei
le peopl
<siied h
form a State Cmi-tit
July, in the fnlluwin- yenr,
thus provided for wa- ratitie,
A month later the Pre-i,
proclamation, and the "C,
took her place in the I'liion.
mon wealth embraced an area
and four thousand five Imiidr
and a population of forty-tw
Public attention was directed
the discovery of gold in 1s5l'. Silver was
discovered about the same time, and in the
■winter of 1858-9 the first colony of miners
( th of .M:i
Prof,-ssei- Mni-e, Horace
Meade were all called
eir earthly labors. 0,,
, Chief-Justice Chase fell
188
under a stnikc ol' panily-is :if t
(laiijrhttT. in X.w Vnik Citv; a
of Shu-vh, in tl„- f.. 11,, will-
Chail.- Sunni.T, ..f Ma-arlui
Washin-lon. II,. ua< a nali'
born in lx\] : lilHiailv ,;Uu-.xu
Collcfr,'. At tl,.. aijr of tl.irty-
the arena of ],iil,li,- lif,-, an,l
ceeclfd Danirl \V,-l.~tw in tin-
Unite.I Stales. Tliis ,,uMu,,n \u
rXfVERSAL lUSTORY.^THK .V(>I)I:RX WOULD.
paraivMs at tlie- li,,ni,. n|' his inrrits wlii.'li will transmit his name to after
■ t si
Ami
>enatiir As the (_ i;.\ iKx.vi.
]5,isi,,n; t" eelelii-ate the great event with ai)iir,,iiriate
Harvard eereinonies. As to the Jboii of the eelebratiou,
e entered an luternational Exposition of Arts and In-
■^•')0 sue- diistries was decided on; as to the place, the
:e of Ihe eily .,f Philadelphia, hallowe.l hy r;ev,,lntinu-
neil until arv nieniories, was selected; as to the i'nnr, the
the time ,,f his ,leath, speaking much and jierLnl from the 10th of .May to the lOth of
powerfully "u all the great questious that i November, l-'^Ti), was chosen. Au appropria-
agitated the Nation. His last days were spent
in considering the interests and welfare of that
country to whose service he had given the
lifcdong energies of his genius. On the 2'2d
of November, lS7o, Vice-President Henry
Wilson sank under a stroke of paralysis, and
died in Washington City. Like Roger Sher-
man, ho had risen from the shoemaker's bench
to the highest honors of his country. With-
out the learning of Seward and Sumner —
without the diplomatic skill of the one, or the
oratorical fame of the other — he nevertheless
possessed those great abilities and sterling
tion of 81,.^O0,0()0 was made by Congress to
promote the enterprise, and voluntary offerings
and contributions were forwarded from every
State and Territory of the Union. The city
of Philadel]ihia did her part by opening Fair-
mount Park, one of the largest and most
beautiful in the world, for the Exposition.
The management of the enterprise was in-
trusted to a commission, which was organized
bj' the election of General Joseph R. Hawley,
of Connecticut, as president ; Alfred T.
Goshorn, of Ohio, as director-general; and
John L. Caniiibell, of Indiana, as .secretary.
THE UNITED STATES.— EPOCH OF RECONSTRUCTION.
Uutler the directiou of this commission five
principal buildings were projected, and were
brought to completion about the close of l^T").
The largest of these great struetair<, callrd the
Main Building, was eighteen liuiidi'cil and
eighty feet in length and four hundred aud
sixty -four feet wide, covering an area of a little
nnire than twenty acres. The cost of the edi-
fice was $1,580,000. The building second in
importance was the [Memorial Hall, or Art
Gallery, built of gran-
ite, iron, aud glass,
aud covering an area
of seventy -six thousaud
six hundred and fifty
square feet. This was
by far the most elegaut
and i)ermaneut of all
the structures erected
for the occasion. Ma-
chinery Hall, the third
of the great edifices,
■was like the Maiu
Building in general ap-
pearance, thougl
beautiful and grand.
The ground-floor em-
braced an area of nearly
thirteen acres. The
cost of the structure
was 8542,000.
cultural Hall oi
a space of littl
than ten acres, :
built at a cost of
nearly 82(;o,O0O. The
fifth aud smallest of
the principal buildings
was Horticultural
Hall, an edifice of the
Moorish pattern, cov-
ering a space of one
and three-fifths acres
$300,000. The other structures of chief
interest were the United States Government
Building, the Woman's Pavilion, and the De-
partment of Public Comfort. After these
came the Government Buildings of Foreign
Nations, the Model Dwellings and Bazars,
School diouses and Restaurants, Judges' Halls,
and Jlodel Factories.
On the 5th of January, 1876, the reception
of articles for the Exposition was begun. A
system of awards was adopted, aud on the lOlh
of May the inaugural ceremonies were held
nuiKr directiou of the Centennial Commission,
Prtsident Grant making the opening address.
By this time the attention of the peoi)le had
been fully aroused to the interest and impor-
tance of the event, and from the opening days
3 Exposition the grounds were crowded
thousands aud hundreds of thou.s\n<ls of
visitors. The Exposi-
tion itself was |ierlia|
"le giandest and most
n)teiesting of its kind
t\Li wituessed up to
ate in question.
All summer loug the
thiong of citizens and
sti augei s gatheied
f 1 om e\ ei } clime,
uied into the spa-
( 1 us and beuititul
I Lik Eepoits ot the
and costing about
proceedings and of the various exhibits were
sent broadcast to every civilized country
of the world. Distinguished personages,
among them Doni Pedro H., Emperor of Bra-
zil, came from various nations to gather in-
struction from the accumulated arts and
industries of mankind. On the 4th of July
the centennial of the great Declaration was
approjiriately celebrated throughout the coun-
try. The city of Philadelphia was crowded
li)0
LWIVKllSAL HISTORY. — THE MODEHN WORLD.
with two liuiidred and fifty thdiisiuid ?trangers.
lu ludepeiuleuce Square tlic Di-claratiun Avas
read fruin the oriiiiiial inaiiino-rijit liv Kichard
Htnry Lee, a -ra'nd.M.n ..f I, in, Uy whom the
re>(ihitu)ii tn Ik- live was lli^l ..iK-iv.l in C'on-
^Te.-. A .V.(/;.-„„/ (hlr ua~ ihrn ivrite.l l,y
Bu 11 1 1 i\ln, m.l Ih, ( .Ht,,ui,al (), iti,n dt
hxMMl In Wilhini M I \ (It- \t nijit th(
id.d uith I hnlhuit
ih. d.iU itt.udni
ini., n. I mniount Pnk
\aiiMl tiuin lu( Ih.m ,,m1 to tu.. hund.td md
fce\ent\ h\( th.m-iiKl ikim.u- 1 he ^louniK
■v\eie open fm one liuudied lud titt\ eight
da^"*, the totil leceipt^ foi idmisbion were
given as a memento by tlie Executive Com-
mittee, and most of the (ioverumeut Buildings
of Foreign Nations were presented to tlie city
of I'liihidclphia. It ran n.-t be d..ubted that
the ExpoMtion, eon^idered as a whole, left a
permanent impression for good on the minds
ot the Americiu people, and contubuted to
thi iiiiinon\ ind mutud mtuest of ill the
.l\lh/(d •-lU,- ot tht woild
J)iiiin_ th. h-t ^tu of Pit-id,nt (., iuls
V.imini-ti ition th, .ouiitu w >- diMu.liid hy
I « u \Mlh th, ^loux liidini- Jh. . fi. ue
UuitLd
lug to iehu(pn-h dl the
the Niobiiia, wi-t of the
inth meiiiliiu md noith
of
vth
u dUl .,f
<h B>
*^ /
T'^^^w'a
'^^m
Ml Mill I \I II\1L I LMLNMNL L\l()-
thou^ind On th, lOlhol \o\,mbei the E\
po«ition ^\ 1- foiniilU < lo-i d h\ the Pie^deut
of the United St It,- ittiii,l,,l b\ Geneial
Hawle> C'hniiiini ,.t th, (', ntennul Com
miction, and Dii,(toi (i,i-houi of Cincinnati
Eff^>it= \\eie midt howc\ii to seciiie a« fii
a" pncticable the peini\nenc\ of the Centen
nnl di-ph\ Machnun Hall wa« pui chafed
b} the cit\ of Phila,ltlphn but was afterwaids
remo\ed fiom tlu giounds. Aftei an attempt
to preserve the ^lain Building it was sold by
auction, and the materials removed. The
Memorial Building was preserved intact, to-
gether with a large part of the art treasures,
which were exhibitoil therein during the Cen-
tennial summer. The Woman's Pavilion was
no u til western
Dikota and to
thib ie&ei\ation
th, \ igieul to
i,tiit In tlR 1st
,,f Ilnull^,
1^7h
]\Ieiin\liile,
howe\ei gold
was di-(.o\eied
among the Bl itk
HilK, a legion
tliei,ieitLi put ,>f whieh lit longed b> the tieaty
to the Siou\ iesei\ ition But no tu U\ t,iuld
keep the hungi> hoi de of white gold diLi., i^ md
ad\entuKis fiom o\eiuinning the iiitmluted
ili-tii, t Ihis ^i\, tlu '^lou^. a good excuse,
not to -n I \ ili,l I IU-, f,ii giatif\iug their
iiatue disposition h> bieaking ovei the limits
of then iesei\ation, and loamim, it luge
thioutrh W^omlng ind Montini luiiniiig
houses steilnifj hoist- m,! kilhiii; wh,ii\(-i ,ip-
posed them.
The (ioverniiient now undert,Mdc to ilrive
the Sioux upon their reservation. A large
force ,if n'gulars under Generals Terry and
Crook was sent into the mountainous country
of the U]iper Yellowstone, and the Indians, to
the number of several thousand, led by their
THE ryiTKD STATES.— EPOCH OF RECOysTHUCTlOX.
noted chieftain Sittiug__JBi^ill, wen'
back against the Big Horn .Miuiit
River. Generals Custer iind lu ihj, \
sent forwai-tl with the Seventh ('aval
cover the whereabouts of the Imliai
them encampeil in a lariic villai:r, i
for nearly three mile- ah-iig the left
the Little" Rii; Horn. Oi
the L'.-.lll ..t June, (.en
ing for reintoreeiiieht-
chaiaed heailloii. witl
lii^ (livi-ion into tli(
Iiidi 111 town 111(1 \\ 1- 1
nations of the Territnry olijeeted to having
the tierce savages of the North for their
neighh..rs.
On the 24th of N..veiul,er the Fourth Cav-
alrv attacke.l and de.-iMVely .h-f.-atc-,! ih.^ .^loiix
at "a pa-s in the Biu' Horn .Mountain-. The
Indian- lost severelv in the eimaneiiient, ami
sail
1- ot
\e
limy- wan
CIS
Of
the detaiL <-
the
-t.UL
le
thit en-ut'
\ei
(t. 1
lirt
.1 il(
1 t
1- kn wn
1 ml ^ n
111 11
. t
1 1
mm 111
fell
111 th
i_lit Th
CouHk t I
4"
del It 1
di<l
not .=
uii
X— in de-
peratiou
an
1 di-istei
any
other
I.
dun htttlt
evei
fiu.j-
It
11 Inieiiet
Tlie
who
.
- t th.
Seventh
L
\lll\ Wl
two
hand
ed
mil Mxt\
one
killed
m 1 htt\ tw
won
nded.
(rt
n 1 tl Ren 1
who had lieen en^i^'tl
with the savages at the
lower end of the town,
held his position on the
bluffs of the Little Bii;
Horn until General Gib-
bon arrived with reiii-
foreenient- and saved the
remnant fnnii destruc-
tion.
Other divisions of the
array were soon hurried battle
to the scene of hostility.
During the summer and autumn the Lidians
were beaten in several engagements, and ne-
gotiations were at length opened looking fir
the removal of the Sioux to the Indian Ter-
ritorv. But still a few desperate bands held
out against the authority of the Gevern-
nient, and at the same time t'.e civilized
three hut-, T\as totalh ■
then went into wintf
pcjints in the hostile com
tioiis were still carried .
expeditions during Dei
itter
opera-
brief
luary.
I body
T.I2
UMVKRSAL HlSTony. — TIlK MODERX WORLD.
of tiie savages was overtaken ami cninpletcly
i-iiuted 1)\- tlie division of (Vimrl Mil,-.
ami Crazy lltnM', li.iii- iv<\\ alil.^ t" ntH'r im
the hnnler, aii.l iKcani,- .-ul.jrrt tn tlir autli.ir-
iti.-.- <.r Caiia.la. Jl.-n- iImv ivniaiiu-.l until
the loll..«in- aiKnnm. ulnii'tlir Cnverninent
rcipcned ne<,'ntiati(iii^ with them for their re-
turti til their rt-servatioii in Dakota. A cmn-
iiiissiou, headed by General Terry, met Sit-
ting Bull and his prineipal warri.irs at f^.rt
Walsh, on the Canadian frontier. Hrre a
conference was hehl on the Mh of Octohrr.
Full pardon for jntst (.tienses was otieri'd to
till' Sioux on eondition of their j)eaeeahle return
and future good ludiavior. But the irreeoncil-
ahh- Sitting ]5ull and his savage chiefs re-
jeeted the ijrojiosajs with scorn. The con-
ference was broken oil', atid the Sioux were left
at large in the British dominions north of Milk
River. It was not until 1880 that, through
the intervention of the Canadian Government,
Sitting Bull and his band were induced to re-
turn to the reservation of the Yankton Sioux
on the north bank of the Missouri River,
Dak.ita.
In the meantime, wiih the subsidence of
the interest occasioned by the centennial
celebration, and the excitement caused by the
war with the Sioux, came the Twenty-third
Pn.sidential election. Bef .re the end of June,
the National C.mvenlioiis wer.' hehl and
standard-bearers selected by the political par-
ties. General Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio,
and William A. Wheeler, of New York, were
chosen as candidates by the Republicans;
Samuel A. Tilden, of New York, and Thomas
A. Hendricks, of Indiana, by the Democrats.
A third— the Independent Greenback— party
also appeared, and presented as candidates
Petei- Cooper, of New York, and Samuel
F. Caiv, of Ohio. The canvass began early
anil witii great asperity. The cry raised by
the Democratic party was 7»V;e/'/»— reform in
tlie pidilic servii-e and in all the methods of
administration. For it was alleged that many
of the departments of the Government, and
the officers presiilintr therein, had become cor-
rupt ill iiraetice and in fact. The Republicans
answered back with tlie cry of R>form^
averring a willin-ness and an anxiety to eor-
and to
tied to
■A tl
of the riiited State-, a> agaiii.-t the doctrine
of State Sovei-eigntv, wa- not vet aekuouledged
in tlie South ; and that tl,,' rijit- of the Black
njen must be protected with additional safe-
guards. The Independent jiarty echoed the
cry of Reform — monetary reform first, and all
other reforms afterwards. For it was tilleged
by the leaders of this party that the measure
of redeeming the National legal-tenders and
other obligations of the United States in
;/()/(/ — which measure was advocated by both
the other parties — was a project unjust to the
debtor class, iniquitous in it.self and impossible
of fulfillment. And it was further argued by
the indejieiidents that the money idea itself
ought to be revolutionized, and that a National
j)aper currency should be provided by the
Governmeut, aud be based, not on specie, but
on a bond bearing a low rate of interest and
interconvertible, at the option of the holder,
with the currency itself. But the advocates
of this theory had only a slight political
organization, ;ind did not succeed in securing
a single electoral vote. The real contest lay,
as it had done for twenty years, between the
Republicans aud the Democrats. The can-
vass drew to a close ; the election was held ;
I the L:eiieral result was ascertained ; and both
! jiarties rlnii,,,,! thr virtori/! The election was
so evenly balanced between the candidates —
there had been so much irregularity in the
voting and subsequent electoral proceedings
in the States of Florida, Louisiana, South
Carolina, and Oregon, ami the powers of Con-
gress over the votes of such States were so
vaguely defined under exi>tiiii; legislation —
that no certain declaration of the result could
be made. The pulilic mind was confiniuded
with perplexity and excitement, and more
than once were heard the threatenings of
When Congress convened in December, the
whole question of the di^piited Presiileiicy
came at once before that body for settlement.
The situation was seriously eomplicateil liy the
jioliiical eoiii|ilexion of the Senate and theHouse
of le iiiiMiitaiives. In the former body the
Beiiulilicaiis had a majority sufficient to con-
THE UMTED UTATES.— LATEST PERIOD.
trol its action, ■while in the Huu>i' tin/ Dchki-
cratie majority was :-till iinnr dei'l-ivc ami
equally willful.
The debates l:)egau, ami seenn.-il likely tn he
iDtenuiuable. The que^tinu at i>,~ue wa;?
whether the electoral votes of the several
States should, at the proper time, be opened
and counted by the presiding officer of the
"Senate, iu accordance with the iniiuemorial
and constitutional usage iu such cases, or
whether, in view of the existence of dui)licate
and spurious returns from some of the States,
and of alleged gross frauds and irregularities
iu others, some additional ciiurt ought to !je
constituted to open and count the ballots.
Jleauwhile, the oecessitv of doing s(jniethiug
became more aud more imperative. The great
merchants aud manufacturers of the country,
and the Boards of Trade iu the principal cities,
grew clamorous for a speedy aud peaceable
adjustmeut of the difficulty. The spirit of
compromise gained ground, aud after mucii
debating in Congress it was agreed that all the
dis|nited election return.- should be referred to
a Joint High Commisskix, u, consist of live
members chosen from the United States Senate,
five from the House of Representatives, and
five from the Supreme Court. Tiie JudL;iiieut
of the tribunal was to be final in all matleis
referred thereto for decision. The ( 'oiiimi-^ion
was accordingly constituted. The counting
was begun, as usual, in the jiresence of tlie
Senate aud the House of llejireseutatives.
When the disputed and duplicate returns were
reached, they were referred, State by State, to
the Joint Higli Commission, by whicii body
the decision was made. On tiie'l'.l of March,
onhj two Jays before the time /.„■ ihr iiianijiinition,
the final decision was rendered. The Repub-
lican candidates were declared elected. Oue
hundred aud eighty-five electoral votes were
cast for Hayes aud Wheeler, and one hundred
aud eighty-four for Tilden and Hendricks.
The most dangerous political crisis in the his-
tory of the country passed harmlessly by with-
out violence or bloodshed.'
ci
fr'b
Chapter cxx:\"i.— Latest period.
|I THERroRI) Bl R
CHARD H V\Ls nine
teenth Pie-ident of the
United St ite- w i- boi n
in Dthwii. () on the
4th f ()a hei 1^-'-'
Hi- pimuv education
wa- icceutil in tin ] ul h ■-chooK Aftei
wilds h( w 1- 1 -tu I lit It the Noiwalk
\< id, m\ ^ml in is .7 it ^^llll,- Vu\ iii
' ilii t milete 1 miinti n f | iit\ i
in the InitL<l Mateb wab ne\ei m i unli i
illustrated thin in the \\ork i f tli 1 int
Commission. The five members (if th.- (
from the House of Representatives— that
being Democratic — were, of course, three
ocrats and two Republicans; the five fion
Senate— that body beint: lu-i.nblicaii— wen-
Republicans and two liei lat-. the tix.^
the Supreme Court were, lw> K' pnlilirans
liem.irrats, and Judge Joseph P, fira.lley,
was called an Independent, but whose \<<>\
anteredents and proclivities were Repiili
When the proceedings began, it was at
tory School, at ]Middletown, Connecticut. In
the following year he entered the Fresh-
man Class, at Keuyon College, and in 1S42
was graduated from that institution with
the highest honors. Three years afterwards
he completed his legal studies at Harvard,
and then began the practice of his jirof'essiou
at Marietta and Fremont, aud finally as city
solicitor iu Cincinnati. Here he won a dis-
tinguished reputation as a lawyer. In the
manife.st that everv Hem.Hratir memlier wouM
v..te t..i- liis ran.li.latcs. «liatevr ini-lit lie the
l.i-n,,fs; that .-vcrv K-pul .li.aii u-nld support
Haves and Wh.-.d.^i' wliale\,T iiii.,;lit be the facts ;
an.i that Jud-e I'.radl.-v. who r, instituted the i.'al
f.mrt, would de.ide areordii,,: m his antered.aits
■us and skilll
ilu' Court
decision,
;, was sim-
in which,
ileis were
leir antag-
CMVEHSAL HISTOHV.-THE MODEUX WOULD
le Ciiiriuuati Couveu-
I. The patriotic
f the cuhiiess (lia
hark t,, pohtical
assured cf right
new C'liiet' jMagis-
tiie eivii service
Ills iinlicv, and a
nai cure tor the de-
luged finances of
le Nation. The
niHodiate etiect of
hese assurances, so
vidently made in
o,,d faith and hon-
^
me:
tion nf l>i7(; he had the gnod-furtune to lie ' its character,
noiiiinatcd lor the Presichnicy over several of i iani ;\I. Eva
tlie niMst eminent men of the Nation. | John Sliernia!
Ill liis inaugural address, delivered on the ' tary of tlie
5th nf ,AIarch.' Tresident Hayes indicated tlie of I,,ua. S,.
■The 4tl, ..
thinL'liaslKii.i
1781, isi'l M.
frll
Th
ihle and lienehcent
m It- (Iniutii IS
the fciniei tnilu-
lence had been ex-
citing and danceious.
On the 8th of
Aliiih the TuMdent
^iiit t(i tlie "^tnate
the name- of tho^e
( ho-en foi his Cabi-
iK t In thi=, al«o,
tlieie ^\ele eMdenres
( t a ntw dtjiaitiire
in the ]ioli(\ ( f the
(, ^,^lnlUlt Ihe
( ibuKt tli( u^h cmi-
ntuth ibk and-tate.s-
nian like wa- uotice-
ablv non-partisan in
As Secretary i.f State, Will-
;, (if New York, was ch..>fn;
(if Ohio, was named as iSecre-
vasiiry: George W. JlcCrary,
■tarv (if War; Richard W.
iiiu'iiratiiin). 1877 (Hayes's inaugu-
II lie will neciir hereafter as follows:
dill, L'(i29, 2057, 2085, 2125,2153.
THE VXITED STATES.-LATEST PERIOD.
Thnmp-im, of Imlnui, "^ecietm nt tlit ^iw ,
till Schurz of Ml-- )uii ^etietTM t tliL In
teiioi, Chiileb E De\eii- ot Mi-uhn-ttt-
•Vttoine> Geueial, lud Dm 1 ^[ K t ' n
ne— ee Po-tmi-tei Genenl fh t n miiiiti ii-
h ntih
h^ th ^eli
\ liuiu
tl Itl U « 1 11 h 1
1 1,1
1 l\ 111
111
i 111 1 1
If -in 111
t i\ 1 1 thi 1 It 111
kii wn
1- flit IiVIlI >U) ^11
eiil \e
11- the niinin_ li tii l
In.l bee
n tiouhled with di \ iit
bi\in£:
their oiigm lu th iii
The nnnufictuiinj; town- md
ue— ed
-iniihi tl )ul)le-
ml th
e _i it ( n 11
^3
ti m- 1
IM11_ I llltl 1 t
JB
the hni
- ot tl■^^el an I
^1
1 )mmeice weie lie
^B
lu nth
liioiuht t a
^P
105
po-t- and gatheied «uch =tieiigth in Biltinioie
ind "\Iiitin-bui^' We-t \ luinn a- to piL\ent
the lunnin^'- rf ti iin- anil -et tlit aiith iities
at ktiinie The niilitii w i ill 1 iit b\
(t ^nn I Muthew- ii 1 lit t Miitiii 1 in_
Init wis -oou di-pei-ed b\ the -tiikii- wh
1 1 the time lennined iiia«tei- of the line
Ihe Pie-ident then oideied rT(nfiil Fitnih to
th, Lne with 1 li h t K^iilii ml the
"' ' ' t thi 1 1 1 \M 1 II 1 On th 2(tth
nth I M If-ut tiiniidt i nil 1 in
r.iltim le lint the tn [ - -iRcei
tuin^ the 11 tei- t ubini iiuu w i 1 ill
nil nnii\ w iinle
L\ till tune h tiik li i 1 ]iR i 1 e\ei}-
iiiiii 111 'tl » t til 'I
tniplous Ihewoikm^
men and capitalists rf
the countn had foi some
time nnintimed toward
eich itbei i kind of
ai nil d 111 iiti lllt^ alike
pi |llll ill t til llltel-
e t t b th
In the -piiug rf this
^e^l the raanairei- of the
f.ieit lailwa^* leading
fiom the «ea boaid to the
West, declaied a reduc
tion of ten per cent in the wages of their work-
men. This measure, which was to take effect at
tlie middle of July, was violentl}' resisted by the
employes of the companies, and the most actiye
steps were taken to prevent its success. The
reduction \yas to take effect at that precise
season of the year when the removal of the
enormous grain product of the West would
put upon the operatives of the railways the
most excessive labors of the year. It was also
the season when the receipts of railway traffic
were larger, and when, therefore, there was
least rational ground for a reduction of wages.
The resistance to the measure was natural and
inevitable. On the 16th of July the employes
of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad left their
where. In less than a week the trains had
heen stopped on all the important roads iie-
tween the Hudson and the ^Mississippi. Ex-
cept in the cotton-growing States, the insur-
rection was universal. Travel ceased ; freights
perished en route; busiiiess was paralyzed.
In Pittsburg the striki-rs, li. iters, and danger-
ous classes, gathering in a iin'b to the miiniber
of twenty thousand, i.litaiiifd r.,niplete control
of the city, and for two days held a reign of
terror unparalleled in tlie history of the coun-
try. The lawless violence, and madness of
the scene recalled the days of the French
Revolution. The Union Depot, all the nuirhine-
shiips, and all the railroad buildings of tlir ritv
were biinied. One hundred and twenty-five
196
lyiVEHSAL IIIST<)]:y. — THE MODERX WORLD.
locomotives, aud twu th'iu^aud five liuiulreil
cars, latleu with valuable iiierciiaudise, were
destroyed aiuid the wildest liavuc auil ujirdar.
The insiirrceti..n \\a- liiially Mii.i.iv.->.d liy the
regular lrnn],s and the I'.-iiiiMlvania luilitia,
but iKit until nearly a hundnd livt-s had been
lost, aud property df>tii>yt'd to the value
of more than S3,(t(K),0(iii.
On the 2r)th of July a terrible riot of like
character occurred iu Chicago. In this tumult
fifteen of the insurgents were killed by the
militia of the city. On the next day St. Louis
was imperiled by a .similar mob. San Fran-
cisco was also the scene of a dangerous out-
break, which was here directed against the
Chinese immigrants and the managers of the lum-
ber-yards. Cincinnati, Columbus, Indianapolis,
Louisville, and Fort Wayne were for a while
in danger, but escaped without serious loss of
life or pro])erty. By the close of the month
the alarming insurrection was at an end.
Business and travel tlowed back into their
usual channels; but the sudileu outbreak had
given a shock to the public mind, and had re-
vealed a hidden peril to American institutions.
To this period belongs the history of the
Nez Perce War. The Indian tribe of this
name had their haunts in Idaho. They had
been known to the Government since 1806,
when the first treaty was made with them by
the explorers, Lewis and Clarke. ]\Iissionary
stations had been establi.«hed among them,
and the Nation had remained on friendly
terms until after the Mexican War. In 1854
till- authorities of the United States purchased
a part of the Nez Perce Territory, large
reservations being made iu North-western
Idaho and North-eastern Oregon. But some
of the cliiefs refused to ratify the purchase,
and rontiiuied to i-oaru at large. These came
in eonHi.-t Nvith the White settlers wh.. ha.l
made their way into the disputed regions,
and hostilities at once ensued.
The war was begun by the .savages ni the
usual predatory manner. General Howard, at
this time commanding the department of the
Columbia, marched again-t the hostile triiie
with a small f.rce of r.-^ular-, but th.- Nez
■pereOs, led by their n..t.d ,-hieftain Joseph,
fletl first in this direction and then iu that,
avoiding battle. During the greater part of
the summer the pursuit continued; still the
Indians could not be overtaken. In the fall
they were chased through the mountains into
Northern Montana, wh«re they were confronted
l>y other troops under command of C(.iIonel
^liles. Tiie Nez Perces, thus hemmed in, were
driven across the Missouri River, near the
mouth of the Muselshell, and were finally
surrounded in their camp north of the Bear
Paw Mountains. Here, on the 4th of Octo-
bei-, they were attacked by the forces of Colonel
]Miles; a hard battle was fought, aud the In-
dians were completely routed. Only a few
braves, led by their chief. White Bird, made
their escape. All the rest were either killed
or made prisoners. Three hundred and sev-
enty-five of the captive Nez Perces were
brought back to the military post on the Mis-
souri. The troops of General Howard had
made forced marches through a mountainous
country for a distance of sixteen hundred miles!
The campaign was crowned with complete
success.
The year 1878 was noted in the financial
history of the United States for the important
Congressional measure, known as The Remon-
ETiz.vTiox OF Silver. When the American
RepuUic was instituted in 1789 one of the
most important matters imposed on the Treas-
ury was the establishment of a system of
coinage. At that time there might be said to
be no unit of value in the Old Thirteen States.
In general, the British system had prevailed,
aud the pound sterling, with its subdivisions
of shillings and pence, was recognized as the
money of aeeount. The Revolution had dis-
sipated coin from the country, aud the devices
of pajier money used in the epoch of Inde-
pendence were various and uncertain. By the
first coinage regulations ot the United States,
till' standard lunt of value was the American
Silvrr Dolhir, containing three ium.lred and
seventy-one and one-fourth grains of pure
I silver. The reason of fixing upon this par-
[ ticular weight was that the Spanish-American
dollar, largely circulating at the time in the
States, was found by analysis to contain ex-
actly tliree hundred and seventy-one and one-
fourth grains of pure metal. Since the peo-
)ile were already familiar with this dollar, and
used it largely as a unit of accounting, Mr.
Hamilton wisely adapted the new national
standard to the existing dollar. By such a
THE f XI TED S TA TES. — L A TES T PEL' 10 D.
measure it was practiraljie to
ish (l..llar into the new Ani.ii
Fn.iu tlie ,late ..f ti,r a
staiKlard, in 17!1L', mail l.sT:'.,
pure metal in the -tainlanl
beeu chaiigea, thou-h tlir a
eoutained in tlie dullar had In
alteiv.l. Fn.iu 17'.»L' I-, l-sjl
money ami aci-dunt. In the 1
to the estahlishmeiit ami eoin:
lar, ami from that time toil
unitof valurrxi<i,,,| in hnti, ,H.
a.iuartorofa.Tntiii-vtli...ln,iM
durin-whieh tii.i.- it' may !.,■ -
ditfieult t.) dclvrmino whc'tlirr
in thr r.iitr,! Stat.^s. -,,1,1 w
• .~-pan-
:.f this
?tal.
:'ly, by the single str
,/../''
owint; to the [iremiuni on goM ami .-ilvi^r, hoth
metals were out of circulation, a series of acts
were passed upon by Congress bearing upon the
standard of vfdue, wherel)y the legal-tender
quality of silver was tirst abiidgi'd, and tlim
abolishe.l. These enactments were .•ompl..t,Ml
by the report of the Coinage Comniitttc in
1874, by which the silver dollar was finally
omitted from the list of coins to be struck at
the National Mints. The general etfect of
these acts was to leave the gold dollar of twenty-
three and twenty-two hundredths grains the
single standard unit of value in the L'nited
States.
In course of time, the ulterior object of
this demonetization of silver became sufficiently
apparent. The manipulators of the measure
had foreseen that the National paper currency
of the country was destined, in a few years to
come to par in coin — that is, that specie-pay-
ments must soon be resumed by the Govern-
ment. Meanwhile, there came the discovery
of the iuexhaustible silver-mines in the West-
ern mountains. Thus was it also foreseen that
silver must, erelong, be abundant and cheap.
If that metal should be retained in the coinage,
therefore, the payment of the National Delit
woidd be proportionally ea.sy. It was deemed
expedient to strike down io time the legal-
tender quality of silver, in order that the
whole payment of the bonded indebtedness of
the United States must be made in the more
In aeeiu-dance with this project, Thi-; Ke-
sr.MPTiON Act was pa.=sed by Congress in 187.5,
whereby it was declared that on the 1st of
-la 11 nary, 1879, the Government of the United
Stales should liegiu to redeem its outstanding
olih'jatioiis //( ciiiii. As the time for resump-
tion drew near and the premium on gold fell
oil', the question was rai.sed as to the meaning
of "eiiiii" in the act for resuming specie pay-
ments; and now for the first time the atten-
tion et' the people at large was aroused to the
iiiet that, liy th,' acts of 1873-4, the privilege
of paying debts in silver had been taken away,
and that after the beginning of 1879 all obli-
gations, both public and private, must be dis-
charged according to the measure of the gold
dollar only. A great agitation followed. The
eiy for the remonetizatioii of silver was heard
everywhere. In vain did the bond-hoUint;
interest of the country exert itself to stay the
tide. The question reached the Government;
and early in 1878 a measure was passed by
Coii>^re.-s for the resloialion of the legal-tender
.piality of the old silver dollar, and providing
for the compulsory coinage of that unit at the
mints at a rate of not less than two millions
( f dollars a mouth. The Presi('ent returned
the bill with his objections, but the veto was
crushed under a tremendous maioiitv; for
nearly three-fourths of the members of Con-
gress, without respect to party affiliations, gave
their support to the measure ; and the old
double standard of values was thus restored.
In the summer and fall of 1878 several of
the Gulf States were scourged with a Yellow-
Fever Ei'iDKMic, unparalleled in the hi.stoiy
of the country. The disease iiiaile its appear-
ance in New Orleans, and from thence was
quickly scattered among the other towns along
the Lower Mississippi. Unfortunately the at-
tention of the people in the Gulf country had
been Init little ^iven to sanitary precautious,
i and the Southern cities were nearly all iu a
condition to invite the ])resence of the scourge.
The terror soon spread from town to town,
and the ]ieople began to fly from the pesti-
lence. The cities of Memphis and Grenada
became a .scene of desolation. At Vicksburg
the ravages of the plague were almost equally
1 terrible ; and even in the parish towns remote
lii'^ rXIVERSAL H I STORY. -
fr..i,i tlu- liv.-r, ami a> far north a- Xa<livi'lle
ami L.mi-vi:ir, tlir ImrnM- ..f il,.. laial niala.ly
«.Mv felt. All >,n,i.„.-r loirj t!,.' .Ii^'use li.-M
,.ii uiKil.atcl. The- hrlpl.- |H.|. Illations alo„-
th- Lou-,.r .Mi<>i"ii.|.i ]anuui,-l„.l an.l .li-l l.y
thou-aml.. In thr Nonli.rn Siat,- a ni:ular
,M>ti-.n of o.niril.utioii- ua,~ . -tal.li>lie.l. aii.l
int-ii aiul tn-a.mv «.mv |.our. ,1 out without
.tint. Thr rli;,rt- of th- Houanl A>so,-iation.
at New Orleans. M-nipl.i-. an.l .iM-whrre, u,-ru
ahiio.-t uii.M,ualoa in laroiMu an.l sacriti.v.
Att.-r nior.' than twenty thnusin.l people hail
fallen victims to tho jila.iine, its i-avatres were
at last stayeil hy the yratetul fr.i-ts .,f October.
Bv the Eig-hteeiith Article .if th.' Treaty of
Washin.-tdii, it wa.s a.uree.l that the ri,-ht of the
inhahitants ..f th.- rnitd States In certain >.'a-
tMierie-, uhich ha.l hitherto helon-e.l exchi-
sivelv t.i the >nl.j..cts .,f Oreat ]5ritain, shonhl
l„.a,'kn..wl..l„.lan.lmainlaimMl. It was con-
tish of every kin.l-exceplin- slmll-H-h— ..n
the sea-coa-t an.l .liore., an.l in the hays, har-
hor.^. ami creek- .if the Provlnc-s .,f (^lel.ec,
N.-va Scotia. New Brun>wi.'k, I'rinc.' E.lwanl's
Islaml. ami the islan.ls ther.unt.i a.ljacent,
.-h.iillil he eiiaranteeil to American fishermcu
haiid, the ('o.vernmeiit ..f t'h.- UniL-.l States
agreed t.i relin.|ui-h the .Inli.s which ha.l
hitherto he.-n cinu-e.l ..n c.atain kin. Is .,f tish,
imported hy British suhj.cts int.. Ameiican
harbors.
Several other cnuces-i.ins ..t' niin.u- impor-
tance were mutually ma.l.' hy th.- tu.. < iovern-
nients; and in onler t.i balance any discrcp-
aiicy whii'h miulit api>car in the a-L:regate of
such conces^i.)ns, an.l t.i mak.' tli.' -.ttlemeut of
a vexed iiiicstioii full, fair, an.l tinal. it was
further agreed, that anv t..tal a.lvantaize t.i the
United States arising" fr.m, th,' tivatv mij.t
h.- c..m]iensitc.| by a >um in -lis-, h< be paid
bv the Am.rican < o.vernment to ( ircat Britain.
In .,r.l.-r to .l,.|,Tmine what such sum mi-ht
he, a (;..mnii"i.,n wa> pr.ivi.le.l lor, t.i con-i-l
Queeu, on.- I.v the President of the Unite.l
States, and a third— in case the Queen and the
Presi.lent sh.iiihl not agree on the third — by
the Au-trian .Vmba-a.h.r at the Court <.f St.
Jame.. Tiiis provision fur the appointment of
THE MODERX WORLD.
a thir.l c.imndssi.mer .ir umpin- was one ,,f the
strane.-,-t inci.l.-nt- of .liphmiati.-al hi.t..ry. As
the event cam.- t.. pa->, the Jnan who, by the
ing, an.l ,li.l app.'.int. the umpire, was C.unt
V.in BeuM. a B.inrb.m in ]M,litics, a Saxon
n-n.-ga.le, an nph.il.l.r .if th.- 11. mx- .if Haps-
bur-, a hater of all reimblican in.-titnti.ms.
whi.-h
t.i b.- t.H. seri..u- f.r the .h-,-i-i..n ..f th.- J.iint
lli,J.(;..m.ni..M..n it-.-lf. wa> n-man.l,-.l f .r set-
tlem,-nt t.. a p.-litical a.lventnrer, temi.orarily
resident (■/, J.nu,ln„ !
Acc.ir.ling to the agreement, the Cmmis-
siou was ciiiislitut.-d in tin- summer of L'^T? ;
and the sittings w,-re hekl at Halifax. But
little attention wa- -iven in the United States
to the in-.iceedin;:- of the bo.ly until November,
when the cmnti-y ua> >tartl.-<l by the announce-
ment, that by tlu- casting v.Ke of ^Sh: Deb
f.»e, Belgian Mini.-ter to the United States,
wh.i ha.l li.-.-n named as umpire by the Aus-
trian Amba^sail.ii- at London, au award of
S."i,i Kill, tint) ha.l been made against the Amer-
ican Governnieiit I Tlie ilcci-ion was i-eceiveJ
with general surprise, both in the United States
and in Europe, and for a while it seemed prob-
able that the arbitration miglit be renounced
as iniouitous. It was decided, however, that
the award, whether just or unjust, wouhl better
stand; th.- b.-neth-ent principh- of aihitratiou
wa> w.irth n- t.. the I'nit.-.l Slates than the
cist ..f tlu- a.lv.-rse .le.-iM.m. A./cr.lingly iu
November, INTS, the am.iunt avNar.led " was
jiaiil — not without great popular dis.-atisfac-
tioii — to the British Government.
The year ]878 witnessed the establishment
of a Eesi,lent Chinese End.assy at Wa.-hing-
ton. For twenty years the gnat and liberal
treaty iiet;-.itiate.l by Anson Btirlingame had
been in for.-.- between the United Stiites and
China. Un.l, r lhi> compact the commercial
relati..n. ..f th.- tw.i countries ha-l been vastly
extcn.le.l. an.l a kn.iwl.-.l-,:.- ..f the instituti.ms,
mann.is. an.l ,-n~t..m> pr.-valent in the C.-l.-s-
tlal Empire -.. wi.lelv ditlii-.-.l as t.i bn-ak
.|.,wn. m s-,me meaM.re, tin- rac.pnju.lice
again. t th- Chin.-,-.-. Th,- enli::ht,-ne.l p..li.-y
,,f the r.-i;^ning Emp.-i.ir ha.l als.. contributed
t.i establi-li mor.- fii.-n.lly int.rc.iurse with the
Unite.l Stat.-s. Tie- iih-a .if s.-n.ling Kesident
Amhas.a.lors i., the American Government
THE rXJTlJ) STATES.— LATEST I'EUIOD.
had l)ien (iiteitiiind t 1 ^ \,i il \. n~ ilit tla I iiited '-t it. - uii li i j. iti .n ._. iii 1 , ,ii
Emjui 1 hid Ik.h a-UH.l tint th. Mim>l.i> til .t tlu ( ...\ . i inn. iit 1 lii^ >umm 1, id
iitelniiiw nld lie i.iuM 1 uitli ill tli ..uii . \i~t. 1 i> i piuit. . nt 1 1 i im mm. 1^71
e-\ shouu to tlii_ liio-t ti\ 1 I 11 ill II 111 J h [ij in pii ji i- d in I id j ti I n tin
offaceis chuseu h} the lin| iiiH. \,inni il i~ l^tli it Inn. IsT^ cinl.ii...! tlu . ~t ih-
its lepieseutitive- iii tlie I nit I ^t it. ~ u. i li-lun. iit t n.nlii ~t iti m- ml li_lit li n~. «,
Clitii Liu I'm Mnii-t.i I'l nil, l.ntiiM . ii .ill th K[. -e.l ], ii 1- tllu \tliiiti . i~t
\uiu\Viii. V^M-tint Lm ^ ml \ lu . ml d n. tlu _i.itliki- J.
Imii^ ^iaii_ -..i.tiix t 1 _iliii On tli. t lif 111 mm 1 l.\ i l.m.l ,t -.itni.n . xp.
^Mh^ot Nptenili. 1 til. linliiM ui-i..t-n,.l mii...1 in tli .iiiuei-.t ,,i-t^t.iin- iiul
h\ th. PitM.l.iit tlu . I in III - .t th 1 lull 1 111 th 1.. t m. th ,.K ..t
iie-ed ID HVa~hiii.'t 11 (_ it\ t. iii «. it i i \ i 1 I m.l . ..iinn . .1 Vhimli..!
li T\e lieeu iii.ii>ii-(.d w it
-uuiit-v til "them tint _ > .1 u n t t
ip- " Duiiue; till It I 11 t tl
hfth Cnsipss n l.ill« 1- 1 M -'I 1'^ II '11'
hie Siinu.l S C..\ .t \hu \
oi^amziti.iu .if TiiL I.iii "^ u iM '^i
201)
UMVEBSAL niSTOL'Y.— THK Mol'FL'X WOULD
once iK-liMl.llnj: tl,r..udi ilie .laiki,.- \hr mhI-
(leii -Imiv uf thr iv.l-light Huiial. Ilainin- up
fn.ni the iK'arh, trlliiii:- nf iVi.ials li.-ar liy,
Resumi'tkin ni- Sn:(-ii: rAv.Mi:Nrs \\a< :ic-
coini.li-liMl ,,n til.' l-l .lav ..f .huiuai-y, InTH.
F..r sM,n.. til,!.' i.ivvi.ai- to th..^ latt.T .laf th..
pr.-iuiiin, ..n ;j..l.l lia.l ,i:ra.Iually .1. .-liii.-.l. vny
sli.wly, in.l.M.l.as tl,.' .lat.' ..f iVMHupli.-ii .livu"
near. Duriii- tli.' la-l ni..iiili nf 1.>7'S tli.' .lil-
fereuce iM.tuv.ii tl,.' valif ..f -.M an.l pap.T
(l„llai-:s ua< -M -li-l.t a> to I.,- ..■anvly p.-r-
days th.' piviaiiim li'.v.ivl aln.iit ..ii.- p.a-
The G..1.1 i;..oiu at N..'w Y..ik rity uas .■l.«-.l,
an.lin._-talli.-i.a.n..y ivapp.^aivl ,,., th.' .•..uiit.-rs
of hanks an.l ill til.- sif.-s ..f -.n.-ivhaiits. F.,r
ni.av than >-v.a,l.M.n y.-ar-jnl.l an.l -ilv.-r .■,,in
ha.l l.e.-n ii-.-^l a- i,„avlia.i.liM> rath.r than
ni.-iey, th.' l-.aht.'ial. r imt.- ..f tlu. (o.v.tii-
Dui-in.i:- this wh-l- p.-rio.l tl,.' nh.nftai-y athiifs
of the (h.vcrnni.-ht ha.l h.,.:ii in a slat.' .if
disti'a.'ti.in. Th" nion.'tai-v unit ha.l h,',.n >.,
flu.'tnatiim- as to f.'n.l.T l-uitimat.' hu-iii.'ss
.1.1.'. Tl
lianllv 1.
of a .h.llar .'.
week t.i an..th.'i- Ih-Miliin- fi-oin this a
sessi,,,! ,,f the niai-k.^ts ..f the .'..niiti'v. an.l th.'
lawful t|-aiist.'ti..iis.,fth.'-tn',.t,.'aiTi.Ml iV.rvvaf.l
ical ec.ini>iny, suti'ef.'.l shipwr.'.k. ^Meanwhile,
parvftni statesmen eavc 1. itui-.s .ai tin- natufe
of ileht ami the danu'er nf ..vei-pi-...l\i.'tinn.
After tJie jiassafre of the Ih'sunipti.m Aet,
and .Inrini: the next four years, th.' vain.- ..f
the niiinetary unit steadily appr.'.'iat.-.l. an.l at
the same time the debtor-classes ..f the .'.mntry
entered a period of L-'veat har.l>hip : for tli.'ir
indehtedness constantly an'jm.iitf.l in a ratio
beyond the probability, if not the p.is-ihility,
of payment, Finan.'ial ruin an.l haid;rupt.'v
Thu~ pa-..l auay the A.liuini,-trati..u ..f
Ilay.s, It «a>, ..n" the uh..l.', a peculiar
.pia. Iron., inn. in Am.'ri,/an hi>t.'ry. The m.th-
...Is .,f th,' I'r.'M.l.nt lacke.l emphasis iu every
particular. Xi.r .11.1 the after-judgment of
(h.uhts cncniiii- the le.'iality ..f his ,.l.','ti..n.
The hhiinial cli..i.'e ..f (.'..ngi'cMm'n in 1n7s,
h.ing the el.'Cti.,)! for inemb.-rs ..f the F.a'ty-
>i.'vth O.iigr.'-, r.'Milt.'.l in a .-har maj.,ritv
lor the Dem.M'rat- iit l,..th th.' 11. .u>.' ..f' li.-p-
resentative.s an.l the Senate. For a season
everything seemed to foretoken the complete
restoration to ]io\ver of the Democratic party.
The l.ail.'r- ..f that party were >tr.,n:;ly hope-
]>-M> with unusual enthusiasm. The Kejtiib-
liiaii National Convention of that year was
h.1.1 in Chicago on the 2d and od of June.
'fhe phitthrm ..f principles adopted was largely
ri'ti'ospi ctive. The history of the party during
its twenty years of supremacy in the Govern-
in. 'iit was ii'eit.'.l as the best reason why its
leas.' of |i.i\ver shouhl he continued by the
}i. opl.'. Til.' plattnrni reatiirmed and eni-
]ilia>iz..l thi- .1. ..'trill.' .)f Xati.mal Sovereignty
a> .ipp.-.'.l t.. till' the.ay ..f State Plights^ de-
.•laiv.l in fav-r.'f p..pular..ln.'ati..n; adv.icated
a >y.-t.'i'! of .li^.'riiiiiiiating .littles iu favor of
Anii'ii.an in.lu^tii.'s ; ratitie.l the Administra-
tion ol Hay.-: aiel arraigned the Democratic
party as nnpatiioti.- in princijile ami frauilulent
gr.'ater part ..f two .lays had l.e.-ii .'.,n^unl..l
ill halloting, (ieiieral Jaiii..- A. (iartiel.l, ..f
Ohi... was' nomii.at.'.l tor I'lv-i.l.iit ; an.l
Chest.r A. Arthur, ..f X.'W Y..rk, lor Viee-
Presi.lent.
The Democratic National C,,nveiiti..n as-
semble,! in Cim-innati, on the 22.1 of June.
The |ilatf.,rni ..f ,irinci|,les .leelared a.lherence
.11 ill the Cioverumeut;
>ilver money and paper
Bankrupt Act, in 1^7*. With the epoch of
Resumption, h.iw.v.r, a .'.'rtain measure of
confi.lence was r.'-t.ind, ami the reiippearance
of coin m.inev was hail.-.l by many as the lie-
presence of troops at the imlls ; praise.l Samuel
J. Tllden for his patriotism; declareil for free
ships, and an amendment to the Burlingame
Tr.'atv as against Chinese immigrati.in ; an.l
appealeil t.i the acts of the Forty-si.xth C.n-
THE UNITED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.
•201
gross as proof of tlie wisJoin aud ecouoniy of
the party. After ailoptiiig this platform, the
convention nomiuafeil for the Presidency, Gen-
eral Winlield.S. Hanenek, of New York; and
for the Yice-prcsideney, WiUiani H. EngHsh,
of Indiana.
Meanwhile, the National Greenback party
had held a convention in Chicago, on the 9th
of June, and nominated as staudard-beai-ers
General James B. Weaver, of Iowa, for Pre.si-
dent ; and General Benjamin J. Chambers, of
Texas, for Vice-President. The platform of
principles declared in favor of the rights of
the laborer as against the exactions of capital ;
denounced monopolies and syndicates; pro-
claimed the sovereign power of the Govern-
ment over the coinage of metallic and the
issuance of paper money ; advocated the abo-
lition of the National banking system, and the
substitution therefor of a legal-tender cur-
rency ; declared for the payment of the Injuded
debt of the United States as against all re-
funding schemes; denounced land-grants; op-
posed Chinese immigration aud the increase of
the standing army; favored the equal taxation
of all property, and unrestricted suffrage;
demanded reform in the methods of Congres-
sional procedure, and appealed for support to
the sense of justice in the American j^eople.
During the canvass of 1880 the Third
Party movement reached its climax for the dec-
ade. The more rational part of the princi-
ples of the Greenback party had in them at
this time a quality which demanded the assent
of a respectable minority of the American
people. The correctness of the principles re-
ferred to, their truth in theory and rightful-
ness in practice, entered so strongly into the
political current of the time that they were
wafted higher and higher, until finally the
question of the right aud power of the Gov-
ernment to make legal-tender paper money,
absolutely, in time of peace as well as in time
of war, was carried for judgment to the Su-
preme Court of the United States; was there
argued by able Constitutional lawyers before a
full bench, and was decided, with only a single
dissenting opinion, in favor of the Greenback
theory of legal-tender paper money and its
validity, independently of coin redemption.
But, politically, the party representing these
ideas was doomed to failure. As the canvass
13
progressed it became evident that the contest
lay betw-een the Kepublicau and the Democratic
jiarty ; also, that the long-standing sectional
division into North and South was likely, once
more, to decide the contest in favor of the
former. That part of the Democratic plat-
form which declared for a tariff for revenue
only, alarmed the manufacturing interests aud
consolidated them in favor of the Republican
candidates. The banking and bond-liolding
classes rallied with great unanimity to the
same standard, aud the old war spirit, aroused
at the appearance of a "Solid South," insured
a solid North against the Democracy. The
election resulted in the choice of Garfield and
Arthur. Two hundred and fourteen electoral
votes, including those of all the Northern
States, except New Jersey, Nevada, aud four
out of the five votes of California, were cast
for the l!e]Hiblicau candidates, and one hun-
dred and fifty-five votes, including those of
every Southern State, were given to Hancock
and English. The candidate of the National
party secured no electoral votes, though the
popular vote given to Weaver aggregated three
hundred and seven thousand, as against eighty-
one thousand cast for Cooper aud Cary in
187(i.
The Administration of Hayes and the last
session of the Forty-sixth Congress expired on
the 4th of March, 1881. The closing session
had been chiefly occupied with the work of re-
funding the National debt. About ^750, 000,-
OOO of five and six per cent, bonds became due
during the year, and to provide for the pay-
ment or refunding of this large sum was the
most important matter claiming the attention
of Congress. Late in the session a bill was
passed by that b(jdy providing for the issuance
by the Government of new bonds of two
classes, both bearing three per cent, interest;
the first class payable in from five to twenty
years, and the second class in from one to ten
years. The latter bonds were to be issued in
small denominations adapted to the conditions
of a popular loan. One provision of the bill
required the National banks holding five and
six per cent, bonds to surrender the same —
the bonds having fallen due — and to receive
instead the new three per cents. This clause
of the law aroused the antagonism of the
banks, aud by every possible means they
i'MVEESAL HISronr. — rnE MODERX WORLD.
sough
t"
j.n-v
•nt th(
capita
ist>
nf
h,- ,.,
tlie sa
'"■
thi
tin- 1m
(inVCl
wl
<"" 1
• ..f >
nllKI 1
Th
nil
.-nil-
< 1.1. a-
l.-niti.
ress
('..
Ins sig-iiature ;
A veto mes-
aii.l the advo-
le to command
, tlie hill failed
cates of the mea^iir.- l.iiii
the requisite two-tliir.l- ii
to become a law. Thu> the .-i-ssi..!! .■l..,-i-il with-
out auy pr>.vi,-i..n f.n- the seven huii.lre.l ami
fifty millions of dolhirs in bonds falling due in
1.S81. The whole duty of providing for this
large fraction nf the public debt was remanded
to another Administration an. I am.ther t'on-
After retiring fr.nn th.- l>n,-i.l,.n,-v, (i.-neral
Grant, with his family au.l a .•..mpany ..f ]..'r-
sonal friends, set out to vi-it the .-..untriis ..f
Europe and Asia, and t.) make a t..ui- ..t' the
w.irld. Though the expedition was int. n. led
t.i be private, it at once attrartcl the iii..st
conspicuous attention, both at Imnii- and ai.Da.l.
The departure fron.i Phila.l.-lphia. in IVIay ..f
1877, proved to be the beginning of a pageant,
which, in its extent and magnificence, was
never before accorded to a private citizen of
any nation of the earth. Whei-ever the Ex-
President went, he was welcome.l with huzzas
and dismissal with plaudits. Eirst in Ensr-
land— at Liv.-rp....l, Manchester, Lond.in—
and afterwards, in midsummer, in Ik-lgiuni,
Switzerland, Pru.ssia, and France, everywhere
the General's coming was announced by the
thunder of cannon and a chorus of cheers.
A short stav in Italy was fi.ll..w,..I by a y..y-
a-., t.. Alexandria an.l a brief snj.mrn in
Egypt. Thence the com]iany proceeded
estine, and after\vards to Greece. The
ing sj)ring found the General and hi.'
again in It;dy, an.l th.' summer carrie.
into Denmark, Sw.'.len, and Norway,
next conntri.'s yi-it..l w.'iv Austria an.l :
while f.ir th,' wint.T lli<- .li-tingni«li.'.l 1
cho.se the s.mth of Fian./e aiul Si.ain. J
t.)P;
was then visited, and in January of 1879 the
cmpany embarked from ^larseilles for the
I'-ast. The following year was spent in India,
iMirmah. Siam, China, an.l Jajian. In the
fall ..f l.sTH tlie iiarty r.turne.l t.. San Frau-
th.-i
igh..->t t..kens of
.•st.-..ni yhi.'h th.' -r.-al nati..n- .-f the Old
\V..rl.l .-..ul.! Iie>t..w upon the h.-u.ire.l repre-
sentative of the New.
The Census of 1880 was un.l.-rtak.-n with
more system and care than eyer betbre in the
history of the country. The work was in-
trusted to the general superinteudency of Pro-
fessor Francis A. Walker, under whose di-
rection the Census of 1870 had been conducted.
During the decade the same astounding prog-
ress whii'h had marked the previous history
of the Unite. 1 States was more than ever
illustrated. In every source of National power,
in every element of National vigor, the de-
velopment of the country had continued with-
out abatement. The total populati.m of the
Union now amounted to 50,15L',^t>i; — an in-
crease since l.S7n ..f more than l,0O(),0iH) in-
habitants a y.'ar. The ji.ipulation of the great
Stat.- <.f New Y..rk ha.l risen to 0,083,173.
Neya.la, the least pop\dous of the States,
showed an enumeration of (j'i, 2(1.5. Of the
n, •")■■>■■, 18^> a.l.le.l t.i the population during the
last ilei-ade, l',24(;,r>ol lia.l been contributed by
immigration, ..f wh..iii al)out 8-5,000 annually
had come from Germany. The number of cities
having a population of over one hundred thou-
sand inhabitants had increased from fourteen to
twenty-tive. The center of population had
m.ned westward about fifty miles, and now
rested near the city of Cincinnati.
The statistics of trade and industry were
likewise gratifying to National pride. The
current of the precious metals, which for many
years had been constantly flowing from the
United States to foreign countries, turned
str.uiirly in 1880 towards America. The im-
]>.irtati.>n of specie during the year just men-
tioned in excess of the exportation amounted
to 875,892,111. During the greater part of
the i)eriod covered by the census, abundant
crops ha.l f.jllowe.l in almost unbroken succes-
si.>n, an.l the overplus in the great staples pe-
.-uliar to our s.iil and climate had gone to
i-nrich the ciintry. an.l t.i stimulate those fun-
(lauieutal industries upon which national per-
THE UMTKI) S2ATES.— LATEST PERIOD.
(I mA\^ idual h.i
jLR'iitKined ."^euator Olud 1' .M.ii
.uui, who, after battling Idi ukihn \i
the eucroachmeuts of iMial\~i- <
home in luiliauapolis, N(i\c mln i I
more universally felt \\a^ th< ln-^ <<
poet and ji)urnah-t, Willi iia < iilli
wli.i, .ill till ]_'th ..(• .lull. 1^7^
\anMll XV_V of (lLiht\ tnlU, |,1.~, ,1 t
\cai^ ills nanie had heeu known
and honored wherever the Enah^h
lanccuage is spoken. In lii~ dt.ith
one of the brightest lights nt Anuu-
ic'ui liteiatuie was extinguished.
On the I'.lth ot Deeembei, in the
sanii \ear, the illu-triou> Ba\anl
Ta\loi, leeeutly appointed Aiiirri-
oan :Mniister to the Geunaii Em-
pire, died (suddenly at Beiliu IIw
life had been devoted alino-t cm hi
-ively to literature, ami aliiiii~t
e\uv deiiaitment of lettei-, ti..iii
th( tninnion ta-k- nt jduinah-in to
the highe-t charmb of poeti}, had
been adorned hv hi* geuiu-. Hi-
j and became \^ell known, even in youth, as a
piomi~iug lad — afteiwaids as a -kiUful nie-
ilianic. Fuither on, we find him s, i-vini.- as
diiMi and pilot nt a canal boat, plviiig^the
Ohio and Penu.-.>hauia L'anal At ihr age of
I seventeen he attended the high-school in Ches-
1 ter, where he extended his studies to algebra,
Latin, and (ireek. In 1,S,31 he entered Hiram
I College, in w huh institution he icmained .as
student and iiistiuitin until l^.'if. In that
\ear he enteied William* College, and two
Mais afterward was graduated with honor,
lieturniug to Ohio, he was made first a pro-
the early age of fifty-f lui
P not .a-iirto be filled ii
tin 1st of X.Aembei, l.s7!t, Senator
Zaihaii.ih Chandler, of Michii;au,
one of the organizers of the Repub-
lican party, and a great leader of
tliat party in the times of the Civil
AVar, (lii-d sudilenly in Chicago;
and on the L'4th of February, issi, an.
Senator, :\[altliew H. Carpenter, of Wi-.'.,!
expired, after a lingering illness, at Wasl
ton City.
James A. Garfield, twentieth Presiden
tlie United States, was born at Oram^e, Ci
h.iga County, Ohi.., X.,v.-iriber lii. is:'',],
was left in infancy to the sole care .>f
111.. til. T, an.l the rude surroundings of a Ix
w.io.ls b.iine. The boy gathered from com
toil a soiinil constitution, ami fr.mi com
schools til.' rudiments of education. I'l
such di.-cipline he develiiped unusual faeull
ithcr I fess.ir, and afteruar.ls ,uY.si,k.nt of Hiram
isin, Cillege. In this p.jsiti.ui he \vas serving at
ling- the outbreak of the Civil War, when he left
his post to enter the army. Meanwhile, he
t of had studied law. iinbilied a Live for politics,
uya- and been elected to the Ohio State Senate.
ile As a sol.lier, Garfield was first made a
his Lieutenant-Colonel, and afterwards Colonel of
lack- the Forty-second Regiment of Ohio V.ilunteers.
He was soon promoted t.^ a Briga.lier-nener-
alship, and did good sia-vice in K.ntii.'k\- ami
T.-nnessee. He was made Chief of Stnlf to
Genera! Rosecrans, and bore a distinguislied
204
umvehsal history. -the modehx wohld.
M;
(llll
the
WMIvls, ullil.. still in th,- llrM, he «a- l Irrt,
by tin- iKM.ple (,f his tlislrict to il„' IIoii-,. ,
Representatives, in which IhhIv he sn-vcd en
tinuously for seventeen years. In l.'^TH 1
was eleeted to the United Stat( > S. iiate, ai
hard upon this followcil his nuiiiiiialinn ai
election to the Presidem-v.
In his inau-ural n.hhvss ^
18S1, (iai-ficld presented a re
proL'ress I.I' American civilizat
last ipiarter of a century. The country was
coiiL^ratiilated on its high rank among the
nations. The leading topics of politics were
briefly reviewed, and the policy of the E.\-
ecutive department of the Government set
forth with clearness and pieeisiim. The piili-
lie-school system ol' the I'liiled States was
recommended to the jealous care of the people.
Regret was expressed for the estrangement of
the South and for the heart-burnings of the
Civil War, which still remained in the Nation.
The maintenance (jf the ])resent Jsational
banking system was recommended, and also
the reiiression of the practices of polygamy.
The President advocated, finally, the restric-
tion of Chinese innnitrratinn, and the mainte-
nance of the equal righ
Black men of the South.
On the foUowiii- da;
to the Senate for coiilirm:
members of his Cabiii<
were : For Secretary
Blaine, of Maine; fir S
ury, William Win. In,,,,
Secretary of War, Kol
Illinois; for Secretary oi
H. Hunt, of Louisiana;
Til.
if State, James G.
eretai-v ..f the Treas-
of .Minnesiita; for
L-rt T. Liocoln, ,,f
the Navy, William
for Secretarv of the
Interior, Sanniel J. Kirkwood, of Iowa; for
Attorney-General, Wayne MacVeagh, of Penn-
sylvania ; for Postmaster-General, Thomas L.
James, of New York. The nominations were
promptly confirmed, and the new Administra-
tion entered upon its duties.
The first issue which engaged the attention
of the Government after Garfield's inaugura-
tion was the proposed Reform of the Civil
Service. This question had been inherited
from the Administration of Hayes, under
whom several spasmodic efforts had been made
to introduce better methods in the selection
of persons to fill the appointive offices of the
'iiited States. The real issue was-
Iways been — whether the clmiec
fH<-ials of the Geverniiient shonl.l lie
,e o,-,,„i,.l of the ehaia.'tei- and tit,,,
,„didates, ,,r on the ..rioeinle .if .li,-
pojitii'al patronage to those who had best
siTv.'.l the party; whether men should be
pi(,i,„.ited from the lower to the higher grades
..f ..tli.-ial life, aii.l ,elaiiie.l a.v.ii-iling to the
value a, 1.1 pr.itiiiei,cy of their services, or
whether they slxudd be elevated to jKisition in
])roportion to their success in carrying elec-
tions and maintaining the party in power.
The members of Congress, to whom the help
of efficient su|)porters in their own districts
and States seemed essential, and by whom the
patronage of the Government had been mostly
dispen.sed since the ilays of Jackson, held
strongly to the old order of things, unwilling
to relinquish their influence over the appoint-
j ing power. Presiilent Haves, after vainly
attempting to establish the .i]ip.isite policy,
abandoned the fiel.l near the close of his Ad-
ministration. The National Republican plat-
form of 18.80 vaguelv indor.?eil Civil-service
Reform as a principle of the party; and some
expectation existed that Garfield would take
up the policy of his predecessor. But with
the incoming of the new Administration the
n,sh of the politicians for office was unprece-
dented in the history of the country. The
place-seekers, who claimed to have "carried
the election," swarmed into Washington, and
thronged the Executive mansion, clamoring for
office, until all plans and purposes of reform
ii, the civil service were crushed out of sight
and ti'an,pled under feet of men.
This break from the principles of the Re-
publican ]ilatform was soon followeil with a
seri.iiis pdliti.'al ilisaster, having its ultimate
nrigiii in th.^ same (|nestion. A divisidii arose
in the ranks of the Republican party, which
f<ir a while threatened the disruption and
ruin of that organization. The two wings of
the Republicans were nick-named the "Half-
breeds" and the "Stalwarts;" the latter, headed
by Senator Conkling, of New York, being the
division which had so resolutely supported
General Grant for the Presidency in the
Chicago Convention ; the former, led by Mr.
Blaine, now Secretary of State, and indorsed
by the President himself, had control of the
THE IWITEI) STATES.— LATEST FEinOD.
Giiveniiiiciit and were
nuuieri.'ally
stronger
the Repiililicau rani
than their n|,p,,iK'iits. '1
he Stalwarts
claimed
the ilismemlierment
tlieir iiri'iKirtiniial part of
th.. a|.|i..inti\
e offices
Such ^vas the coi
nf the Gdverumeut, ami
the ri;J,t of
lisp.iis-
i.iurnm.Mit .if the
lue: the =ime iftti tlie m
mil 1 ^^hl h
.a.lpre-
.lavs aft..rwar.ls, the
\ iileil tlii()ii_h ^e\ei tl \
liii. \ li
iiieiits t.i visit 'Willi:
tioiis— thU 1 th luht 1
<ll tlll.UtL tl
e ..ftices
sons were to be ent.'
111 the L\.i il ^til< 111
1 1 th. 1 1111
.if pat-
tending- t.i pass, afl<
ioni_e 1)\ the "-en it i u
M ,1 i„
tives nf
nieiit, a sliort va.-at
tho e Stite-. in (_ i ii_i
ih li il
lit, sup-
si.-k,at tl,.- .-ea-M.l...
ireaten
11 ted b
.fe e.l
.lilioii of afliiirs at the ad-
Senate, in June. A few
President made arrange-
jiis College, where his two
I- the Williams Coninience-
1111 with his wife, wlio was
Ou the nioruiug of July
iM, in .■.uiipany with Secretary Blaine and a
iv\^- fri.ii.ls, l,..'.M,i.r.Ml th.' Baitim..iv liaihvay
the train to Long Branch, New Jersey. A
moment afterwards, he was approached by a
miserable political miscreant named Charles
les CTuiteau, who, from b.-hin.l an.l iinper-
ved, came within a few le.t ..f the c.im-
ny, drew a pistol, ami fire.l upon th.' Chief
Migistiate of the Republic Ihe iini of the
assissm was too ^ell taken m.l flu -t(..ind
shot stiuck the Piesident centnlh lu tht light
side of the back The bleeding man was
(piickh boiue awa^ to the Lxciuine nnnsion,
111.1 the mIc \wetch wh.i h i.l . .ininiitft .1 the
ciiine w IS Imiiicd to jiii^on
Foi 1 while the heaits ot the Ameiican
i^ilt \iliiited between hope and feu The
t ^111 11 il aid wab pioctied, and bulletins
u .)iih Issued containing a biief account
till I'l. -iilent's condition The couMCtion
■u dn liN da\ that he woiil.l iiltiniit. 1\ re-
"1"
fill life but a sems ot uli
the Piesident giaduxlh v-i
^utteung As a last liojie 1
of '-'cptembei caiefiilK .on
m.ton Cit^ t.i Ell., ion ^,\
Till
1 111. lis W, 1.
lei-
l.iMII hi. ihl
11 es
1-- >'Hd
md
p.keiied un.hi
his
le wa- on th.
t,th
^.M.l fi.ini W
ish-
. 11 he '\ is pi
ce.l
u ^aids fiom
the
mil hope aaain
16-
It leuErth (US
Kd,
.In At list
on
, .hot wi. h
<d.
•-ipt. mil. 1 1
»th.
of ( hi. 1 nil 11
his ,hut mill
UMlEliSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
THE UXITKD STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.
tiule and heroism. Nor can it be
the great crime which hiid him lo\
ratlier than eclipsed, the luster o
()u the follow
mg(
lyV
A. Arthur, then in New Yurie
of office, and immediately reji;
ington. For the fourth time in
the Republic, the duties of the Chief Maui
trac)' were devolved on the Vice-President. Tl
funeral of Garfield was observed first at \\'asl
ingtou, whither the body was taken ami jilace
in state in the rotunda of the Capiful. Hei
it was viewed by tens of thousands of iien
on the 22d and 23d of September.
Garfield had chosen Lake View
Cemetery, at Cleveland, as the
place of his burial, and thither
the remains were conveyed, by
way of Philadelphia and Pittsliurg.
As in the case of Lincoln's death,
the processions and ceremonies en
route became a continuous pageant.
On the 26th of September the boily
was laid in its final resting-place.
The day of the burial was observed
throughout the country in great
assemblies gathered from hamlet
and town and city, all anxious to
testify their sorrow for the calam-
ity which had come upon tht'
country in the President's death.
We may here pause to narrate
briefly the further events connectiMl
with the assassination and the as-
sassin. Guiteau proved to l.ie a
half-crazy adventurer — a fool. He
at once proclaimed the work which ;,
he had done, acknowledging that
he had shot the President, and
saying that he did so merely to remove him,
and save the country. And here began that
extreme unwisdom of the authorities which
characterized all the future proceedings. Two
plain constructions of the case were possible:
Either Guiteau was a sane man, in the ordi-
nary sense of that word, and had committed
the greatest and vilest of political assassina-
tions; or else he was a lunatic, who, under the
influence of an insane hallnrinatiou, had shot
and killed the President. Plain coranifin sense,
prudence, patriotism, political sagacity, and the
whole array of facts regarding the prisoner's
onbted that I character and conduct, pointed unmistakably
iw heightened, j to iiis lunacy, and to the second construction
"f his life. < given above. But prejudice, anger, folly,
■>ident < 'lu'stcr shdrt-sightedness, and the mere vengeful pas-
took llii' oatli siiins which flamed up in the excitement nf the
ired to Wash- hmir. nil backed and aggravated liy the criiii-
the histdiy <>i' inai wickeilness of the Anicrir: w>|ia|iiTs —
leady, for the sake of mere scn-atioiiali?-m, to
espouse any theory or promote any course in
order to keep the air white with their own
miserable editions — conspired to establish the
theory of Guiteau's sanity, with the appalling
conclu.sion that the President of the United
States had been puHtici
rged
theory was
ferocity until it prevailec
was drowned, and the o
American peo|ile tVom tl
litical assassination, was
Guiteau was imliitoil :
During the whole eoui>
senihlage around tlu> o
ton was little less than
ings ended with a con\
nati(.n to death. Then
sational imprisonment,
//(/ ([■■'sas.-tinaied. This
jireached with insane
I. The voice of reason
iportunity to save the
(• indelible stain of po-
-conied and put aside,
iiid tiio.l for murder.
(■ of thr trial, the as-
urt-room in Washing-
,1 mob. The |)roceed-
ictioii, and a condem-
foUowed anotlier sen-
and on the 30th of
20S
UyjVEESAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
June, 1882, the wretcli was taken
to the place of execution and ban
Chester A^ Arthur, thus ealKMl
drnt of the Unit. m1 Slat.-. y^■^<U,^
lin County, Vrrniuni, O.-i,,!,.,- :,.
wa-^ ..f Irish iKUvnta,-.-; wa-^ .-durat
Coll,-,-, from whieli in-tilution he was
his native
City to sti
tlie bar, ai
inu- the Ci
11 the jaii
hr Presi-
n Frank-
.:!(». He
lit Union
adu-
For a uliile lie taught school in
ate. and tlii-n went to New York
; law. lit- was soon admitted to
i-osc raiiidly to di.stinctiou. Dur-
War he was (.)nartcrniaster-Geu-
d of thr State of N.
tilli
the
office with groat credit to himself ai
ernmeut. From 186.-) to 1871 1
law in Xew York, and was then aii
jf eu-toiii- f.
he hehl unll
moved by I'r
practice fif li
iiorainateil ai
Then foil owe
accession of
of the Unioi
The assiii
dential office
Exc
le Pre>i-
was at-
tendeil with little ceremony or formality. On
the 22d of September the oath of offirr was a
f-rcoud time administered to him at tlie Cajiitol
by Chief-Justice \Vaite. After this, in the
])resence of a few who were gathered in the
apartment, he delivered au appropriate ad-
dress, referring in a touching manner to the
death of his predecessor. Those present, in-
cluding General Grant, Ex-President Hayes,
Senator Sherman, and his brother, the General
of the Army, then paid their respects, and the
ceremony was at an end.
In accordance with the custom, the mem-
bers of the existing Cabinet at once
resigned their oiSces. The resigna-
tions, however, -were not accepted, the
President inviting all the raendiers to
retain their places. For the time all
did so, except Mr. Windom, Secretary
of the Treasury, who retired, and was
succeeded bv Judge Charles J. Folger,
..f New York. .Mr. MacVeagh also re-
signed a short time afterwards, and the
Prc.-ident a}ipiiiuted as his successor
Benjamin H. Brewster, of Philadelphia.
The next of the old Garfield Cabinet
t letiie weie Mr. Blaine, Secretary of
•-"t ite and Mi James, Postmaster-
G nenl who were s'jcceeded in their
1 ]e(.ti\e offices by Frederick T. Fre-
lii _lnfs tn it New Jersey, aixl Tira-
tl \ O Howe, of Wi.sconsin. Mr.
1 m I In — ^o s;ieat was the charm of
tl it illu^tiious name — remained, as by
( mm n < n^mt, at the head of the
I) 1 iitmuit ( t War. Besid,'s the
<lnns.e> hcie leterred to, not much dis-
j) ^iti< u was shown to revolutionize
the policy of the Government by the
new Administration. The people generally,
without respect to party lines, gave a tolerably
cf)rdial support to him who had been so sud-
denly, and by so calamitous a method, called
to the Presidency.
The new xVdniinistration inheriteil the
troubles and complications of its predecessor.
The first and one of the most serious diffi-
culties of the time was the important State trial
relating to the alleged STAi:-RorTE Coxsi'ir-
,\eY. Under the recent conduct of aflairs in
the Po.st-office Department of the Government,
there had been organized a class of fast-mail
THE UNITED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.
routes, known as the Star Itmitrs, the os-
tensible object being to carry the iuail.> with
rapidity and certainty into di.-t;'iit, and ahll()^^t
inaccessible portions of the "Western States
and Territories. The law governing the let-
ting of mail contracts restricted tlie atliim of
the Postmaster-General and liis sul)nrdinates
to definite limits of expenditure; Imt one
clause of the law gave to the department the
discretionary power to expedite such mail
routes as seemed to be weaker and less
efficient than the service required. This gave
to certain officers of the Government the op-
portunity to let the contracts for many mail lines
at a minimum, a.\i(\ then, under their discretion-
ary power, to "expedite" the same lines into
efficiency at exorbitant rates, tiie end and aim
being to divide the spoils among the parties to
the contract.
This alleged Star-Route conspiracy to de-
fraud the Government was unearthed during
the Garfield Administration, and Attorney-
General MacVeagh was directed liy the Presi-
dent to prosecute the reputed conspirators.
Indictments were presented by the grand jury
against Ex-United States Senator Stephen W.
Dorsey, of Arkansas ; Second Assistant Post-
master-General Thomas J. Brady, of Indiana;
and several others of less note. Mr. ]\IacVeagh,
however, .seemed, in the conduct (if the De-
partment of Justice, to act with little s[iirit
and no success. After his retirement from
office, and the appointment of Brewster as
Attorney-General, matters were quickened
into sharp activity, and those indicted for con-
spiracy were brought to trial. After several
weeks of stormy prosecution and defense, the
case went to the jury, who brought in a ver-
dict absurdly convicting certain subordinates
of participating in a conspiracy, which could
not have existed without the guilt of their
superiors! This scandal, occupying the public
mind in the summer nf 1S82, contributed
much to the defeat of the Republican party
in the State elections of the following Novem-
ber— a defeat .so general as to remand, by
overwhelming majorities, the control of the
Hnuse of Representatives to the Democrats.
We may here turn aside from the course of
political events — from the mere spectacular
aspect of public affairs — to notice briefly some
features of the beneficent progress of physical
science. History, as a means of delineating
the course of human events, is, within the
))reseut century, departing more and more
from the methods of the old annalists, wliose
attention was wholly directed to the civil, jio-
litieal, and military movements of society. It
is now beginning to be perceived that the
sources of human happiness, the origins of
human advancement, lie far removed from the
fictitious splendors of public life. Yielding to
this tendency in history, we shall here notice
a few of those salutary inventions which have
done so much in mir day to add to the com-
fort, the prosperity, and the Imnur of the
American people.
It is safe to aver that the recent rapid ad-
dition by inventive processes to the resources
of physical happiness, and to intellectual
development as well, is the nmsr striking
feature of the eivilizatinn nf cmr time. At
no other age in the history of the world has a
practical knowledge of the laws of nature been
so widely and so rapidly diffused. At no
other epoch has the subjection of natural
agents to the will of man been so wonderfully
displayed. It may be truthfully averred that
the old life of the human race is giving jilace
to the new life, based on scientific research,
and energized by the knowledge that the con-
ditions (if our environment in the world are
as benevolent as they are unchangeable.
It has remained for the present era, and to
American genius, to solve the problem of oral
communication between pensons at a distance
from each other. A knowledge (jf the laws
of sound and electricity has enabled the
scientists of our day to devise an apparatus
for transmitting, or at least reproducing, the
human voice at a distance of hundreds, or
even thousands, (if miles. The history of the
Telephone must stand as a reminder to after
agesTTfTTie'inventive skill and scientific prog-
ress of the last quarter of the Nineteenth Cen-
tury. This instrument, like many similar in-
ventions, seems to have been the work of
several ingenious minds, directed at nearly the
same time to the same problem. The solution,
however, may lie jiroperly accredited to Elisha
P. Gray, of Cliicago, and Alexander Graham
Bell, of the ^Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology. It should be mentioned, also, that
Amos' E. Dolbear, of Tufl^t's College, Massa-
UNIVERSAL inSTOEY.— THE MODEL' X WORLD.
Is. an.l Thomas A. E.lisnn, „f X-w Jr
<,.uiM. M|rr,.,.,|.,| 111 >..lvill-llH-,lillic-lllti
until, wfi-e
,,r th,- llUIllllII voir,.,
iriiv, at Ion- .listaiir.
vo.'al .lisluiluuico. h
llr.l s.iUli.l
ininiicaie,!
,r licaiiii,-. Kwiypaiticiilar sound has
|ihysical (■(|iiivah.'iit in tin: system of
n whirli it is w ritti-n. Thr only thing,
■c, that is ncrt'ssary in order to carry a
ill its integrity to any distance, is to
t its physical ei|uivalcnt. and to re-
that equivalent to souk- organ of hear-
lalile of receiving it.
n these priiKaples the tcleiihone was
■d — created, l^-ery sound A\liich liills
. This tremor causes the .lisk to ap-
aiiil rci'cih' from the magnetic pole
iii>t liohiud the diaphragm. A current
■tiicitN is thus induced, pulsates along
IV to tlic other cud, an.l is .h-livered to
ctallic disk of tho second instrument,
miles away, just as it was produced in
-t. The ear of the hearer receives from
•I'oiid instrument the exact physical
lent of till' sound, or sounds, which were
■ed against the disk of the first instru-
aiiil thus the utterance is received at a
•e just as it was given forth,
already said, the invention of the tele-
>tands chiellv to the credit of Professors
ind liell. It should be recorded that as
IS IS.'IT the iihilosoiiher Page succeeded.
■-or Hell.
lot, ho\V
em. .Mass:
chusetts
d the whol
■ countr\
traiismitti
\Miilv mil
ng yoca
])lace as it
resjiectei
ihility of talking to per.sons at a dis-
The experiments of Gray at Chicago,
le IJi'll lele].h
an.l improy.Miie
Within reasonal
method of trans
utterance.
.li>i
:'t V
ilit.'lligen.r hy
ook the place .if
all sj.iwer an.l less convenient means of inter-
c.immunicati.in. The appearance of the simple
instrument was one of the many harhingers
of the auspicious time when the constant in-
terchange of thought and sentiment between
man an.l man, .•ommunity an.l community,
nation an.l nati.Jii, shall cui.hi.'e t.i the ]ieace
.)f the \v.>il.l, an.l the g.M..l-fcll.i\vship of the
human race.
After the telephone came the Ph.in.ickai'H.
The new instrument was in some sense the
complement of its predecessor. Both inven-
tions are based u]ion the same principle of
its physical e.piiyaleiit in a wave or agitation
wdiich atiii'cts the particles of matter composing
the material through wdiich the sound is trans-
mitted leil almost inevitaldy to the other dis-
covery .if nifrhiiKj anil niahi'tnij that pliysi.'al
e(]uivalent or wave in the sni-hu'e of s..me
b.idy, and to th.' repr.i.lii.-ti.>n ..f the .uii^inal
sound therefrom. Su.-li is the lun.lameiilal
principle of th.' inter.'sting hut, thus tar. little
useful instrument known as the phonograph.
The same was invented by Thomas A. Edison,
of Menlo Park, in the year 1877. The iu-
.strument differs considerably in structure and
purpose from the Vihrograph and Phonaidor/mph
which preceded it. The latter two instruments
were made simply to write sound vilirations ;
the former, to reproduce (ukIUiIij the sounds
themselves.
The Ph.m.igraidi consists of three iirincij.al
parts, — th.' sender or fuunel-sha|ied tube, with
its .'pen mouth-piece standing toward the oper-
at..r; the dia)ihragm and stylus connected
thiu'ewith, which receives the sound spoken
into the tiilii' ; an.l thirdly, the revolving cyl-
inder, with its sheet-coating of tin-foil laid
over the surfiice of a spiral groove to receive
the indentations of the point of tlie stylus.
THE UNITED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.
>11
The mode of operation is vcrv simplf. The
cylinder is revolved; ami the imint cf the
stylus, when tiiere is im sound auit;ition in tlie
funnel or ninutli-pit'cc, niakis a smooth, con-
tinuous depression in tho tin-foil ovrr the
spiral groove. But when any sound is thrown
into the mouth-piece tlie iron disk ordiapliragm
is agitated; this agitation is eari'ied through
the stylus and written in ii-ro-ular marks,
dots, and peculiar figures in the tin-toil over
the groove. When the utterance which is to be
reproduced has been completed, the instrument
is stopped, the stylus thrown back from the
groove, and the cylinder revolved backward to
the place of starting. The stylus is then re-
turned to its place in the groove, and the cyl-
inder is revolved forward at the same rate of
rapidity as before. As the point of the stilus
plays up and down in the indentations and
through the figures in the tin-foil, pioduced
by its own previous agitation, a quiver exactly
equivalent to that which was produced b^ the
utterance in the mouth-piece is communicated
backward^ to the diaphragm, and bv it is
flung through the mouth-piece into the iii
This agitation is of course the exact pln-u il
equivalent of the original sound, oi nion
properly, w the sound itself Thus it i~ tint
the phonograph is made to talk, to sinsj;, to
cry; to utter, in short, any sound suffinenth
powerful to produce a perceptible tremoi m the
mouth-piece and diaphragm of the instrument.
Much progress has already been made to-
wards the utilization of the phonograph as a
practical addition to the civilizing apparatus
of our time. It may be said, indeed, that all
the difficulties in the way of such a result
have been removed. J\Ir. Edison has carried
forward his work to such a degree of perfection
that the instrument may be practically em-
ployed in correspondence and literary compo-
sition. The problem has been to stereotype, so
to speak, the tin-foil record of what has been
uttered in the mouth-piece, and thus to pre-
serve in a permanent form the potency of
vanished sounds. Nor does it require a great
stretch of the imagination to see in the inven-
tion of the phonograph one of the greatest
achievements of the age — a discovery, indeed,
which may possibly revolutionize the whole
method of learning. It would seem clear that
nature has intended the ear, rather than the
eye, to be the organ of education. It is mani-
festly against the fitness of things tliat the
eyes" of all mankind should f.c stiaincd, weak-
eiic.l, permanently injnivd in .■liil.lliond, with
the unnatural tasks \vhi(di are im|iosed upon
the delicate organ. It would seem to he more
in accordance with the nature ami capacities
of man, and the o-eneral chaiacter of the ex-
ten
cei'iiment and appreciation ot lieauty, and to
impose upon the ear the tedious and hard tasks
of education. The Phonograph makes it pos-
sible to read liy the ear instead of liv the eye,
and it is not beyoml the range of probability
that the book of the futiu-e, near or remote,
will be written in iihonoerai)hic i)lates and
made to reveal its story directly to the wait-
ing ear, rather than throneh the secondary
medium of print to the enfeelileil and tired
eye of the reader.
But perhaps the most marked and valuable
invention of the current age — the best cal-
culated to affect favorably the welfare of the
people, especially in great cities — is that of
the ELEfTRii' Jacut. The introduction of
this superior sv.-teni of illumination marks an
epoch more inteiv-.|iii- and important in the
flict oi- mere change of ruler;
Ijeginiiing of the eighth decade
It tlie
■utnry
Uyi I 'Ei;S. 1 /. IIISTUR Y. - THE MODERN WORLD.
the project of iutrudiiciiiy the electric light ibr
genercal purposes of illuiniiiatioii be.iraii to be
airiluted. It was at once perceived that the
jiiivuiita-rs .,t Mich li-hliii- wen. as nuiiiy as
they were ..hvious. Th,- li-ht is so pnucrful
as to rciiil.r practical)!. • th.- perforiuance of
many m. chani.-al .■p.iali..iis as easily by uight
as by .la\-. Again, the ilanger of fire from
illuminating s.mrces is almost wholly obviated
bv the n.-w svstem. The ease and expedition
of all kin. Is of night employment are greatly
enhanced. A given anniunt of illlumiuatiou
can lie pr.i.liicc.l mneh m.ire cheaply by
el.'ctri.'ity than by any means of gas-lightiug
Among the first to demonstrate the feasi-
liility of electric lighting was the philosopher
(iramme, of Paris. In the early part of 1875
he succe.ssfuUy lighted his laboratory by means
of electricity. 8oou afterward the foundry of
Dncommun & Co., of ]Mulhouse, was similarly
liglited. In the course of the following year
the ajiparatus fir lighting by means of car-
bon caudles ^Yas introduced into many of the
principal factories of France and other lead-
ing countries of Europe. It may prove of in-
terest in this couneetion to sketch briefly the
principal features of the electric light system,
{inil to trace the development of that .system
in our .iwn and other countries.
Lighting by electricity is accomplished iu
several ways. In general, h.iwever, the prin-
ciple by Avliich the ivsiilt is accomplished is
one, and depends upon the resistance which
the electrical current meets iu its transmission
through various substances. There are no
perfect conductors of electricity. In propor-
tion as the unn-couductiv.' .piality is ]ireva-
leut iu a substance, espe.'ially in a metal, the
resistance to the passai:.' .if elci'tri.ity is pro-
nounced, and till- c..n>eiiiient disturbance
among the m.ilecular particles of the sub-
stance is great. Whenever such resistance is
encountered iu a circuit, the electricity is con-
verti-.l into heat, and when the resistance is
great, til.' h.'at i-, in turn, converted into
li-ht, or rath. a- tin- heat I .nncs phenomenal
ill light: that is, the sul.staii.H- which ..IKts
til.' r,>i>tanc.' gh.us wilh th.- ;i-aiisr,.nii.Ml
en.agv ..f th.- iiiiiM.le.l cinavnt. L'l.on this
Among the metallic substances, the one
best adapted by its low conductivity to such
resistance and transformation of force, is
lilatinuiii. The high degree of heat necessary
t.i fus.' this metal ad.ls lo its usefulness and
availability ior the jmrpo-e indicated. When
an electrical current is r..rced along a platinum
wire too sujall to traiiMiiit the entire volume, it
becomes at once heat. -.1— Hist to a red, and
then t.ia white glow— ami is thus made to .send
forth a radiance like that of the sun. Of the
non-metallic elements which otter similar re-
sistance, the best is carbon. The infusiliility
of this substance renders it greatly superior
to platinum for purposes of the electric light.
Near the begiuniug of the present century
it was discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy that
carbon points may be rendered incandescent
by means of- a powerful electrical current.
The discovery was fully developed in the
year 1.S09, while the philosopher just referred
to was experimenting with the great flattery
of the Royal Institution of London. He ob-
served— rather by accident than design, or
previous anticipation — that a strong volume of
electricity passing between two bits of wood
charcoal produces tremendous heat, ami a light
like that of the sun. It appears, however,
that Davy at first regarded the phenomenon
rather in the nature of an interesting display
of force than as a suggestion of the possibility
of turning night into day.
For nearly three-quarters of a century the
di-scovery made by Sir Humphrey lay doi-mant
among the great mass of scientific facts re-
vealed in the laboratory. In course of
time, however, the nature of the new fact be-
gan to be apprehended. The electric lamp in
manv forms was pro])osed and tried. The
scientists, ^iar.let, Wilde, Bnr-h, Fuller, and
mauy . it hers ..f less n.itc, bu.-ie.l th.'insclves
with ih.' w.irk .if invention. Especially did
'uainiii.- aii.l Siemens devote their scientific
g.'iiiii> to th.' w.irk of turning to good account
th.- knowl.-.hjc now fully poss,?ssed of the
all 1
ilccli
Ku-iai, |il,il.wiiili.-r, .lalif
w.irk still further by the pi
koli: i-a
ical int
THE UNITED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.
of the carbon candle. Other sci(nii>t> — Carre,
Foucaiilt, Serrin, Rapiefi', and \\'cnl(inanu —
had, at an earlier or later day, tlnnun much
additional information iiitn tlu^ coiiimun stm-k
of knowledge relative to the ilhimiiuitiiiu' i"'.-
sibUities of electricity. Finally, the accumu-
lated materials of science fell into the hands
of that untutored hut remarkably radical in-
ventor, Thomas A. Edison, wlici gave himself
with the utmost zeal to the work of removing
the remaining difficulties in the problem.
Edison began his investigations in this line
of invention in September of 1878, and in
December of the following year gave to the
public his first formal statement of results.
After many experiments with platinum, he
abandoned that material in lavor of the car-
bon-arc in vacuo. The latter is, indeed, the
essential feature of the Edison light. A small
semicircle, or horseshoe, of some substance,
such as a filament of bamboo reduced to the form
of pure carbon, the two ends being attached
to the poles of the generating-machiue, or dy-
namo, as the engine is popularly called, is in-
closed in a glass bulb, from which the air has
been carefully withdrawn, and is rendered in-
candescent by the passage of an electric cur-
rent. The other important features of Edison's
discovery relate to the divisibility of the cur-
rent, and its control and regulation in volume
by the operator. These matters were fully
mastered in the Edison invention, and the ap-
paratus rendered as completely subject to
management as are the other varieties of illu-
minating agencies.
It were vain to speculate upon the future
of electric lighting. The question of artificial
illumiuation has had much to do with the
progress of the human race, particularly when
aggregated into cities. Doubtless the old sys-
tems of lighting are destined in time to give
place altogether to the splendors of the electric
glow. The general efiect of the change upon
society must be as marked as it is salutary.
Darkness, the enemy of good government and
morality in great cities, will, in a great meas-
ure, be dispelled by the beneficent agent, over
which the genius of Davy, Gramme, Brush,
Edison, and a host of other explorers in the
new continents of science has so completely
triumphed. The ease, happiness, comfort, and
welfare of mankind must be vastly multiplied.
an<l the future must be reminded, in the glow
that dispels the night, of that splendid fact that
the jirogress of civilization depends, in a large
and the dirtusi..n of tliat knowK-dLre among
the people.
AVc may here notice, in a few brief [lara-
graphs, some of the great achievements belong-
ing to the last quarter of the Nineteenth Cen-
tury in the matter of physical improvements.
At no other time in modern history has civil
engineering been turned to a better account
than in the recent public works of the United
States. First among these we may properly
notice a few of the remarkable bridges which
have been constructed within the period under
contemplation. The principal place among
such works may ju'operly be given to the great
Suspension Bridge over the strait known as
East River, between New York and Brooklyn.
The completion and formal opening of this
work, which occurred on the 24th of ]May,
INS.S, was an event of so great interest as to
evoke universal attention and elicit many de-
scriptions.
The Brooklyn Bridge is the longest and
largest structure of the kind in the world.
The design was the work of the distinguished
Johi' A. Roebling, the originator of wire sus-
jieiision-bridges, under whose supervision, and
that of his son, Washington A. Roebling, the
structure was completed.' The elder of these
' The personal history of the Roelilings, father
and son, in connection with their great work, is
as pathetic as it is interesting. The elder en-
gineer was injured while laying the foundation
of one of the shore-piers on the 22d of July,
1869, and died of lockjaw. W. A. Roebling then
took up his father's unfinished task. He con-
tinued the work of supervision for about two
years, when he wns prostrated with a peculiar
form of paralysis known as the " Caisson disease,"
from which he never fully recovered. His men-
tal faculties, however, remained unimpaired, and
he was able to direct with his eye what his hands
could no longer execute. While thus prostrated,
his wife developed a genius almost equal to that
of her hnshand and her father-in-law. The pal-
sied engineer, thus reinforced, continued for five
years to furnish the plans for the work. These
plans were almost all drawn liy his wife, who
never flagged under the tasks imposed upon her.
In 1876 Roebling was partly restored to health,
and lived to hear the applause which his genius
and enterprise had won.
Uy IYER SAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
two einment eusiiieers luul alreiu
himself an euduriug fame by the 1
the first snspeusi()ii-l)ri(l,u-e acin-s tli
Kiagara. aiid al-o the still mvatrr s
tweeii C'iijciiiiiuii ami ( 'Mviiii:t(Ui.
structure, at the linic of its crrcti'iii, was liy a
thousaud feet tlu' l^Il-,.^t <.f thf kind in xhf
world. The yuiniL:('r li'icliliiio- inherited much
of his fiither"s -viiiu>, and added a genius of his
own. The einistriictioa nf the bridge over
East River cuiUd not havi' been put into hands
more capable if all nations had iieeu exi)lored
for en"ineers.
V won f„r
William
uildino- of
Trustees ;
■ <-liasni of
Henrv C
ructtire of
tiniati's
River, be-
pany for
The latter
. Kingsley, President of the Bridge
and his jiredecessor in that office,
.Murphy. The first plans and es-
■IV prepared in 1865. The com-
ho coiistniction was organized two
wards. The capital was fixed at
.-<."). (M)ii, (100. The (-iiter}>rise was not pressed
with dill' vigor until LST-"). when the work
was taken up by the State of Xew York. A
Board of Managers was appointed to bring
the bridge to completion at as early a date as
]ios>ilplc. Congress also patronized the enter-
)iiisc by ail ac't of June, 1869, authorizing the
constriKtion. The formal opening in May of
The East Ri\ ei <ti u tut. i>whiti-kn wn i>
a suspension biidtre ii in_ ^u\\ itid b\ t ui
enormous wires oi cables stietthinif ttom piti
to pier in a single «pan, a di«tance of 1, >95 feet
From the main towers to the anchorages on
either siilc is D.'^iO feet; from the anchorages
outward to the tiTiiiini of the approaches is,
on the Xew York side, a distance of 1,562
feet; and on the Brooklyn side 972 feet; giv-
ing a total length of bridge and api)r()aehes of
.■"I.9.S9 feet. The total wci-lit of \\\v structure
is C.ljoo ton-: thr t-sti iiiat.-d caiiacitv of sui)-
sistanee is calci;
The Brook 1\
It 4!
l^^ ditu tht att( ntion ot the a\ hole ^siti m
ti tht mLtiip(li- md pi i\ed h\ the mttiest
■which the e%ent e\cited thrt e\en in Vmeuca
politics is not the best, at least not the onh ,
vocation of mankind.
Perhaps the most notable example of the
Cantilever Bridge as yet produced in the New
^V()rld is the great structure of that order over
the Niagara River, just above the village of
Suspension Bridge, New York. It is the
work of the distinguished civil engineer, C. G.
ScJiiKidcr, and is one of the most beautiful
struetiiivs (,f its kind ever constructed. The
bridge has a total length of 910 feet, and
crosses the river with a single span of 470 feet.
THE UNITED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.
C)
The roadway is 239 feet above the water-level
in the chastQ below. The materials employed
iu the coustructiou are steel ami iron. The
erection of any kind of staging iu the river at
this point was impossible, and what is called
the "overhang" method of structure bad to
be adopted. Each of the great cantilevers
were built out from the piers, section by sec-
tion, until they had been advanced far enough
from each side of the abyss to join their
girders in the middle.
Still another of the most notable examples
of successful bridge-building iu the United
States is that of the new Washington Bridge,
extending from the upper extremity of Manhat-
tan Island, across the gorge of the Harlem
River to Westchester County, nn the other
side. The work is regarded as the most
beautifid of its kind ever erected in America.
The structure is of steel, and granite, and
bronze. The chasm is spanned by two mag-
nificent arches, having plate-girders of steel,
each arch being from foot to foot a distance of
610 feet. The piers are of massive masonry,
which rise to the level of the roadway. The
viaduct is supported on vertical posts rising
from the arches. The height of the roadway
is 152 feet above the level of tide-water in the
Harlem, being forty feet iu excess (jf the
like measurement under the East River Sus-
pension Bridge. The approaches to the struc-
ture are broad viaducts of granite, carried on
stone arches. All of the ornamentation is of
bronze. The Washington Bridge was con-
structed in 1888-9, according to the designs
and under the direction of the eminent civil
engineer, Mr. William R. Hutton.
On the whole, the Administration of
Arthur proved to be uneventful. The Gov-
ernment piursued the even tenor of its way,
and the progress of the country was un-
checked by serious calamity. In the domain
of politics, we note here the gradual oblitera-
tion of those sharply defined issues which for
the last quarter of a century had divided the
two great parties. As a consequence, there
was noticeable a healthful abatement of par-
tisan rancor. It became every year more ap-
parent that the questions at issue in the
political arena were merely factitious, and that
the clamors of partisanship were kept up liy
those who hoped to gather the spoils of the
political battle-field. Nor might any discern,
iu this decade, how much longer tli^x. ill-
founded cries of alarm might serve to hold the
people in line under the old party names. For
the time being, however, the man who plowed
or kept the tiock, the mechanic, the artisan,
the merchant, continued to come forth at the
call of party leaders, and to vote, as bad been
his wont, on issues that were more imaginary
thau real.
To this general fact, that party questions
were no longer vital and distinct, there was
one notable exception. It can imt be doubted
that the American people were, from 1880 to
1890, really and sincerely divided on the ques-
tion of the Tariff. Whether the true policy
of the United States is that of a free-trade or
a protective system was a fundamental issue,
and the decision was postj^oned. The policy
of gathering immense revenues from customs
duties during the Civil War, and in the decade
thereafter, had become firmlv imbedded as a
factor in the industrial and commercial sys-
tems of the countrv. A great manufacturing
interest had been stimalatnl into iinu-iial, n(jt
to say inordinate, activity. Practically the
piilitical parties had become so much en-
tangled with the finances an<l the industries
of the country that no party discipline could
withilraw and align the political forces in
coluiiius and liattalinns as of old. The ques-
tion was fundamentally as ancient as the Re-
jniblic. Ever and anon, from the very founda-
tion of the Government, the tariff' issue had
obtruded itself upon the attention of the peo-
ple. It may not be deemed iuappropriate in
this connection to state and briefly elucidate
the various views which have been ^entertained
on the subject. >d j |. ^-f j t '
First, we have what is called the doctrine
of Free Trade, pure and simple. The theory
IS, in a word, as follows: The indications of
profitable industry are founded in nature.
The hints and suggestions of the natural world
are the true indications of mankind as to how
the various industries which human genius
have devised are to be most profitably directed.
Thus, a rich soil means agriculture. A barren
soil is the iudicatiou of nature against agri-
' cultural pursuits. Beds of ore signify mining;
I veins of petroleum, oil-wells; a headlong river,
water-power ; hills of silica, glass-works ; for-
UMVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
est
S (.
piiu', >hip-ni
ast
- aud eoal-t;
r; liays
an
I ha
v.Mis a.,.1 i-ivei
nninierce.
F
■ee ti-adc
sa\
> tl
at these thiiii:
■^ n
•e the vc.ic
6 and edict
of
the
latiiral world
IS
to how h
ima
n iudus-
tn
sh
ill 1)0 C'xertei
.
The way
to
Avealth,
prospei
ity, happiness,
is
to follow
the
edict of
na
lire
whithersoever
it
calls. To go against
human nature is to go against self-interest and
against common sense. Lamez faire, that is,
"Let alone," is the fundamental motto of the
system — hands otf, and no meddhng with the
plain conditions which are imposed on man by
his environments. Let him who lives in the
fecund valley till the soil and gather a hun-
dred-fold. Let him who inhabits the rocky
upland, by river-side or bed of pent-up coal,
devote his energies to manufacture. Let each
procure from the other liy exchange the nec-
essaries and conveniences of life which lie
could not himself produce but at a great dis-
advantage, aud an irrational and needless ex-
penditure of toil. Let the producer of raw
material send it near or far to the manufac-
turer, aud receive in turn the fabric which he
must wear, even the food wherewath he must
sustain his life. Why should he do otherwise?
Why should either the man or the community
struggle against the conditions of nature, and
the immutable laws of industry, to produce
the entire supply of things necessary for human
comfort, convenience, and welfare? It is in-
tended that men should live together in amity;
that they should mutually depend one upon
the other; that each should gain from the
other's genius and exertion what he is unable
to procure by his own endeavor and skill.
Neighbors should be at peace. Different com-
munities should not quarrel ; should not put
interdicts and checks upon the natural laws
of intercourse and mutual dependency. Na-
tions shoidd not fight. The harmonious order
of civilization requires a world-wide exchange
of products. Men are happier and richer,
and nations are more powerful, when they give
themselves freely to the laws of their environ-
ments, and toil in those fields of industry to
which both their own dispositions aud the be-
nevolent finger of nature point the way.
The theory continues: All contrivances of
human law which controvert or oppose these
fundamental conditions of legitimate industry
are false in principle and pernicious in appli-
cation. If civil society assume to direct the
industries of her people against the plain in-
dications (if nature, then society becomes a
tyrant. The rule of action in such case is no
longer free but despotic. All laws which tend
to divert the industries of a nation from those
I pursuits which are indicated by the natural sur-
I roundings are hurtful, selfish, self-destructive,
and, in the long run, weakening aud degrading
to the people. A tariff duty so laid as to build
uj) one industry at the expense of another is a
piece of barbarous intermeddling with both
the principles of common sense and the inhe-
rent rights of men. If free trade makes one
nation dependent on another, then it also
makes that other. nation dependent on the first.
The one can no more afford to fight the other
than the other can afford to fight it. Hence
free trade as the great economic law among
the nations. It is both sound in theory and
beneficial in ajiplication. Hence a tariff for
revenue only as the true principle of national
action. It is the bottom economic policy of
government relative to the interests of the
people. Such is the general theory to which
has been given the name of Laissez faire, but
which is known among the English-speaking
peoples by the more limited term. Free Trade.
The first remove from the doctrines above
set forth is that of Incidental Protection.
The primary assumptions of this theory are
nearly identical with those of free trade.
Nearly all of the propositions advanced by the
free-trader are accepted as correct by the inci-
dental protectionist. The latter, bowever,
holds soiue peculiar doctrines of his own. He
claims that men, as the doctrine of Lais.<cz
/(lire teaches, should labor according to the
indications of nature, and that the attempt on
the part of Government to divert the indus-
tries of the people from one channel to another
is contrary to right reason and sound policy.
But he also holds that since a tariff is the
common means adopted by most of the civ-
ilized States of the world to produce the rev-
enue whereby the expenses of government
are met and sustained, the same should be
so levied as to be incidentally favorable to
those industries of the people which are placed
at a natural disadvantage. He does not hold
that any tariff should be levied with the in-
tmtloii of protecting and fostering a given
THE UNITED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.
iDclustrv, liut that in everv case the tax sho
be laid for i.nhlic piirpo^,:^ u„hj ; that is, \i
the intentiiin (if sustaining tin- State, ami
only iucidentalh/ directed to tlie protection
the weaker industry. These last assuini)ti
furnish the ground of political divergence
tweeu free-traders proper and incidintal )
tectionists. The latter take intu cmisiderat
both the fundamental conditiiuis nf the ar
ment ami the peculiar character <if the iml
tries lif the jieop.le. They claim that given
pursuits may thus he streiigtlicnrd and eiiciiur-
aged by legislativi' provi-ions, and that natuial
and political laws may be made tu cmipcrate
in varying and increasing tlie productive re-
sources of the iState.
The third general view relative to this (pies-
tion is known as the doctrine of Lijiited Pro-
TECTIOX. The word " limited," in the defini-
tion, has respect to a <(»ie relation. The funda-
mental difference between this theory and the
preceding is this: The incidental protectionist
denies, and the limited protectionist affirms,
the wisdom of levying tariff duties with the
intentwn and ;)»,■/»»' of protecting home indus-
tries. T.ie limited protectioiil~t would have
the legislation of the State take paitirnlar
cognizance of the character and vai-iety of the
industries of the people, and would have the
laws enacted with constant reference to the
encouragement of the weaker — generally the
manufacturing — pursuits. The doctrine of in-
cidental protection would stop slioit of tliis ;
would adopt the theory of •' let alone,"
so far as the original purpose of legisla-
tion is concerned; but would, at the same
time, so shape the tariff that a needed stimulus
would be given to certain industries. The
limited protectionist agrees with the free-trader
in certain assumptions. The former, as well
as the latter, assents to the proposition that
the orujinal condition of industry is found in
nature — in the environment of the laborer.
But he also urges that the necessity for a varied
industry is so great, so important, to the wel-
fare and independence of a people, as to justify
the deflection of human energy b)' law to cer-
tain pursuits, which could not be profitably
followed but for the fact of protection.
This princi[)le the limited protectionist gives
as a reason for tariff legislation, which he ad-
vocates. He would make the weaker industry
uld
live and tl
rive I)y the side of the
stronger.
■ith
He would
nodify'thc crude rules
.f nature
be
by the higl
ler rules of human re:
son. He
of
would not .
idy adai)t man to his en\
ironnient,
on-
l)Ut would ;
lapt the environment to
him. He
1,0-
would k.op
in view the strength, th
len.v, of the State, and
: digmtv,
would be
i.m
willin.i: to i
irur tempoiarv disa.lva
itages toi
-u-
the .-ake o
■pennan.mt -oo,l. L.
he course
-if time, wh,
n, under the stimulus
if a pi'o-
leave th
coi.l.. ..hold. I he encourag,.,! and f.stered
law. He wouj.l ,leny llie justice or
lomy of that system which, in a new
itry, boundless in natuial resources,
M-iid iheuKelves to ihe prodiU'tion of a few
It staple-, the manui'acture of which, by
ign natien<, would make them rich, and
■ lal producers in perpetual vas-
The fourth geneial view is embodied in the
theorv of Hlcai I'lan iicrio.x. In thi- the
doctrine is boldly advanced that the b.ittom
assumpti(U]s of free trade aie spi cious and
false. The influence of man iq his envi-
light reason would sug-
gest. The suggestion of right reason is this:
Every nation .should be independent. Its
c<unplete sovereignty and equality shoidd be
secured by every means short ot injustice. In
order that a State may be nnlep.iident and
be able to mark out ier itself a great destiny.
ronment is so great
whatever the law of
■nt f..r all
and yield
To devote
industries
its industries must aliord emph
the talents and faculties of m
products adapted t" all his wan
the energies ot a peojile to tl
only, which are suggested by the situation and
environment, is to make man a slave to nature
instead of nature's master. It may be .sound
reasoning for the people inhabiting a fertile
valley to devote themselves principally to agri-
cultural pursuits; Init to do this to the exclu-
sion of other industries is merely to narrow
the energies of the race, make dependent the
21S rXlVFBSAL HISTOUY.
lubnrer, ami finally (•xliaii>t tlinsc very poutrs
(,f nature whicli, I'nr thr |,iv-,iit. seem to snp--
ge.n one pui^uit anil lorl.i.l all ntliers.
TIh' th.ory of hi.L'h jn-otection continues
thus: It is tiie iluty of societv to huil.l up
viiiiiij inilustiies in every locality, whatever
then natiu-e nin-t he constraiuecl by means of
human law. 'I'lio produi-tiou of manufaetured
values shouM he <o ene-ura.fre.l by tarirtMu-
ties as to become profitable in all situations.
Kot only shoiilil every State, but every cotji-
nuinity ami everynian.be niaile comjiaratively
independent. Eveiy conununity sliould be
able by its own indu-try to snpply at least the
laro-ev part of its own wants. The spimlle
should be in.fir to tiuii; the forae made to
glow; the niill-wlicel madf to turn; the engine
miulf to jiant; and the towering furnace to
fling up iuto the darkness of midnight its vol-
canic glare, — all this whether nature has or lias
not prepared the antecedents of such activity.
And this can not be accomplished, or at least
not well aecoiiipli>li(Ml, in any other way than
by the legal protection of those imiustries
which do not tlourish under the action of
merely natural law. It is, in brief, the theory
of the high protectionist that every cora-
niunity of men, by means of its own varied
couraged by the protective system of indus-
tries, should become in the body jiolitic what
the ganglion is in the nerve svstem of man,- —
an independent, local power, capable of orig-
inating its own action and directing its own
energies.
There is still a fifth pnMtlon occasi.mallv
assumed by publicists, and somi'tiincs acted on
by nations. Thisi^ the iloctrine and jiractice of
Prohibitory TAnin-s. The idea here is that
the mutual iiit<-i-dc|.cndence of nations is, on the
whole, disndvnntn-eous, and that each should
be rendered »•/,„//„ ind, ■pendent of the ,,ther.
Snme nf the nl.lest pCoplcS of the WOldd haVB
adopted thi< doi'trine and policy. The Ori-
ental nntioiH, as a rule. have, until recent
ory in tlieir national allairs. The princijile is,
that if in any State or Nation certain industrial
conditions and ]iowers are wanting, then those
powers and conditions should be produced by
-THE MODF.RX WORLD.
I niean- of law. Internal trade is, according to
this il.H'triiie, the principal thing, and coniiiier-
' cial intercourse with foreign States a matter
' of secondary, or even dubious, advantage.
If the price of the given home product be not
-nthcient to stimulate its production in Mich
means of legi>lation, and raised again and
aeain. until the foreign trade shall cease, and
Imme manufac'tuie lie .supplied in its place.
True, there are not manv .,f the modei'n
■d that
Such, then, are the fundamental principles
wlii(di underlie the great controversy, and fur-
nish the issues of political divergence in the
United States. The ,pie-tioii is a- old a-^ the
beginnings of civil prngrc>s in the New AVorlil.
No sooner was the jiresent governmental sys-
tem in our country instituted, than the contro-
versy broke out in the halls of legislation.
under the ( '..nMilution wa- pa>sed for the pur-
pose of "prnvidiii- a revenue, and (illonhiii/
prnfectiiiii Id Amrra'au iii(lii.<lri/." The very ne-
cessities whii-h -ave rise to the Constitution
were those relatinu to commerce, and inter-
tariti: F
till
i.ling p.
tical agitations were produced iiy
the revival of the tariff issue in our system.
Durino- the ascendency of Henry Clay, his so-
called "American .system" became, for a sea-
son, the bottom principle of Whi- politic-^. In
the ante-bellum epoch the Whi- party con-
tinued to favor the iirotectiv.- -y-teni. while the
Democratic party es]ioused free trade. After
the war the question >lunilieied f^r a season.
In ISSO n parn-raph in the national platform
of the Deiiiucialic j.arty wa^ incited— n..t. in-
deed, with the intention of evoking an old
controversy from oblivion — which, by declaring
in favor of a tarifl' for revenue only, unex-
THE rXITKI) STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.
pec'tedly precipitated the wli.ile issue ai
and coutrilnited to, perhaps deterniiued,
deCeut of the Democratic ticket. Even
those States where Democracy was in the
cendant the growth of great maiuifactu
establishments liad hrniioht in a va-t :uni\
irtisans,
vho. in
spit
• '.f
•e fused t
' -I'l'l""
t a
jihitf.
,i their 1
r.'lief, w:
s c;
ieula
IrMn.V,
he verv
In,,-
iness
lev were
1 thisipies-
Both tlie Democrats and tli.- I!
in the ensuing (piadreniiiiini made
eftiirts to align their party foll(]wers i
tion; but neither was successful. The event
showed that the Democrats were by no means
unanimous for free trade, and that tln' Kcpub-
licans were ecpially far from unanimity in thrir
support of protection. It wa> fniind that hir-e
numbers of Republican leader,-, \\he>e tin.m-
cial interests lay in the directinn ot' enninieree
rather than in manufactures, espoused the free-
trade doctrine. Never was party discij)line
mure strained on any snlijeet than in the Presi-
dential campaigns fnmi l-'^Tll tu l.ss.s. Es-
pecially during the Adniini>tnitiiin of Arthur
and his successor did the tarifl' (piestion gather
head, and the white crests of conflicting tides
were seen along the whole surface of political
controversy. Nor may the publicist and his-
torian of the pa.ssiug age clearly foresee the
solution of the problem. One thing, however,
mav be safely predicted, and that is, that the
question in America will be decided, as it has
already been deeided by CJn'at Britain, ac-
cording to »elf-Ullr,-rd. No people will, in the
long run, act against what it conceives to be
its interest for the sake of supporting a given
theory. "When some ]iarty in ]iower, what-
ever that party may be, >lia]I become convini'cd
that the intrved of the I'liited State- reipiires
the abolithm of all pn.tective duties, and the
sukstitution therefor of a sy-teui ot' tariti" for
revenue only, then, ami not till then, will the
Lah^ez-fmre theory of ]iolitieal economy take
the place of that which has thus far prevailed
on this side of the sea.
Hardly ha<l the crime of Oa.ti.'ld's murder
been perpetrated, ami the ]'re>i(l(.'ncy trans-
ferred to Arthur, befoi'e the issue of naming
his successor was raised by the ever-bu.sy swarm
•of American politicians. To the calm-minded
Kakistocracy i
.Am
of that evano;
■1 of
of the En i ted
Stat
about blindly.
n.opi
The v,ar
breatliihii tiuM
'i
ler lias heen,
n.l a-ent of
itil the reiL'u
Mg under the
furnished a
e of passion
?rested went
anothi'r con-
ns wi
As t
im cam I
d otfic.
most warniiy advocat
were James G. Blai
F. Edmunds, of Yen
Lincoln
Slierm;
(.rovei
J IJai
that
■ dioul.
,,e,,,,le
he oil I ques-
the country,
a clo.se. many
II connection
LUioii- those
Itepublicaus
dent Chester
eV, of Cuu-
i.'. : John A.
Illinois: and
of ^[i"Ouri.
Deh
r'NIVEnSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
1884, Chicago was selected as the place of Imth
the National conveutious. The Greenliack-
Labor party held its convention at Indian-
apolis, in the month of April, and nominated
General Bntler for the Presidency, and A. M.
West, of j\Iississip]ii, for the Vice-presidency.
Tlie Kcpuhli.'an convention met on tli.' .'Id ..f
May. and, after a .spirited session of three .lays'
duration, nominated James G. Blaine, of
Maine, and General John A. Logan, of
Illinois, for the Prcsidencv and Vice-iiresi-
thing seemed to depend upon the electoral
votes of New York and Indiana ; and when
the preliminary counting showed the latter
State for the Democrats, the former became
the single battle-field of the campaign. The
event proved favorable to the Democrats,
ma
viite
-^^■^ ^yj^
dency, respectively. The Democratic delegates
assembled on the 9th of Julv, and on the 11th
completed their work by nominating for the
Presidency, Grover Cleveland, of New Yurk,
and for the Vice-presidency, Thomas A. Ilcn-
drick.s, of Indiana. The nominations on
were received with considernble
but a considerable faction in
refused to support the National
both sides
enthusiasm ;
each party
ticket.
As the e
ijiori
lection of 1884 drew nigh, every-
Ncw York was only 1.142. This small pre-
jionderance determined the result. It gave
the vote of the Empire State to Cleveland
and Hendricks, assuring to them 219 ballots in
the Electoi-al College, against
182 votes for Blaine and
Logan.
The se()nel of the Presi-
dential election of this year
was less happy than generally
happens under like circum-
stances. For six successive
Administrations the Republi-
can party had been in power.
The quarter of a century cov-
ered liy this ascendencv had
lieen by far the most important
since "the Rev.lution. The
l'iiite<l States of 1884 had
b( en completely transformed
fi.aii the United States of
iMiii. Tlie greaf, and, on the
\\hole, salutary changes which
had taken place in the social
condition and civil polity of
tlie American people were, as
always happens in such cases,
claimed by the dominant party
as the result of its manage-
ment and control of National
affairs. As a matter of fact,
the Republican party was it-
self the rr!<iiH of a growth and
development in the United
States — merely one of the effects, instead
of the emise, of the changed order of things.
But the leaders of that party ^vere, in a
considerable degree, honest in claiming that
the tremendous and beneficial changes wdiich
had passed, like the shadows of great clouds
over the American landscape, were attribu-
table to the long period of Re]inl)lican as-
cendency. To lose power, therefore, was polit-
ical bitterness itself. For the Republican
managers and office-holders to abdicate their
TEE UyiTED STATES.— LATEST J'EBIOJ).
X:
..pie 1.
tiuual
offices, auil go forth aim
less, seemed to tbeiu the
ness. Mr. Blaiue himself, uotwiihstaudiiig hi.<
equanimity and self-possessiou, felt keenly the
humiliatioQ of the overthrow. It was under
his banner that his party had at last come tu
defeat. Smm after the election he delivered a
speech which, far from lieiug pacific in it>
tone, was, f pr the most part, a hitter invective
against the Si.uth. The Itepnhlican newspa-
pers, especially in tlie
West, took up the hue
and cry, and filleil their
columns with such matter
as might well have ap-
peared in the first year
after the Civil War. By
degrees, however, this
feeling subsided, and near
the close of Arthur's Ad-
ministration t h e oflice-
holders, as a class, begau
to trim their sails with
the evident hope that the
breezes of Civil Service
Eeforin, to which the
President-elect was
pledged, might waft them
still further on the high
seas of emolument.
A short time before
the retirement of Arthur
from the Presidency, the
command of the array of
the United States -was
transferred from (reneral
William T. Sherman
to Lieutenant - General
Philip H. Sheridan. The
former distinguished offi-
cer, one of the most tal-
ented and eminent soklier-s of the century, hav-
ing reached the age at which , according to an act
of Congress, he might retire from active serv-
ice, availed himself f>f the iirovision, and laid
down his command. The formal papers with
which he concluded his official relation with
the army were marked with the same fervor
and patriotism which had characterized all of
his utterances since the time when he gave his
services to the country in the dark days of dis-
union. Nor could it be said that the new
e recurrence ot tin/
1, 1885, was noted fa
•eat monument which
uch a structure had been
17;)iJ. Xur could it wel
American people would.
(,ubted
e time,
rear some appropriaie m
of his Countrv. Th.'
taken, howevr. until \>
organization was cllii-tt
terpriso. lint for a Ioul
ning, the work of l.uildi
not until Con-n — . tainiti.l at la~t into action
pie, undertook the prosecution of the enter-
prise, that it was bnuight to completion. The
cost of the Washington Monument was about
al to the Father
was not under-
In that year an
])romote the en-
after the begin-
gged, and it was
UMVKHSAL IIJSTOBV. — THE MODERN WORLD.
S1,0<)(»,(HH1. It Milli.ls
the r<.t..ii.ac, in the
AVashiii.ut.m City. Tli.
time of it> rnctiui, tl„'
The ,-liall l.n.lMT, ^^ill..H
left iKililv ot
I nLlt>kirt^ (li
iiv was at th^
ill the wurhl
l,y Hon. Uohert C. Wmthrop, as well a.s the
]r.-s lornial aihlre-^-es of the dav, wa.-, well
w,,itliy of the event, and ealeulated to add—
if au.Jht eoiil.l add— to tile fame of him who
was "tiist in war, tii>t in iieaee, and first iu
without ivek.Hiin- tiie foim- was " tiist in war, tii>t in
datinii, 1^ ."i.-,.-, fr.-i 111 hei-lit, hciii- lliirty feet | the heaMs of hi. frllnu.nti/.ens."
liiiiiier tlian the Cathnhal at ('..loi^ne", and | ( h-over ('ieveland, tuenty-see..nd I'lesideut
Che'r> in' its'pn'ent'eoi'iilion. The'^reat j New .Ie,>ey, Maivh'lN, Jn:!7. Three years
olieji.k is , j.oM.l nf innrr tliaii eighteen ' afterwanis he was taken hy his lather and
white' inarl,le, and wei.uii .overal tons earh. , York. Here," in liis l.oyhood,' he received
cout
ites of the
plaee aliirrdeih For a while iu his yonlh he
was clerk in a vilkiLie store. Afterward the
family reniove.l, first to Cliutou aud then to
Iloliaiid Talent. At the latter place his father
dieil, and yonni; (.'levelaml. left to his owu re-
soiiice,-, went to ><'ew V<jrk ami Ijeeaine a
tea.'h.-r in an asylum to,- the hliu.l. After a
such [lursuits uncongenial to his tastes, went to
Baffiilo and engaged iu the study of law. • He
was admitted to the bar in 1859, aud, four
as
Assistant Distri.-t .\tt..rney. In 18(.i!:» he was
elected Shcrilf of Krie ( 'oui'itv, and in ISSI was
cho.sen Mayor of ilulfdo. His next pmmoti.m
by his tcllow-citizcns was to the g..vernoisliip of
New York, to which position he was electe.l, in
188-2, hy theastonishim; majority of ]',ll',s.'',4—
the majority bcin- perhaps unparalleled iu
the history 'of .\mcricaii elections. It was
while he still h.ld Ilii. ofiice that, ill July of
1SS4, he was ii iiial.d by the Deuiocratic
ious, are j party for the rrcMdeiicy ..f the I'nited States.
j Miadi interot was niauilested by the public
occurreil in the i stitiition of the new Cabinet. <Ju
iv. The the day followim: the inaiiguratiou the muui-
iuu char- nations were scut to the Senate, aud were as
Hx thon- follows: For Secretarv of State, Thomas F.
ba-e of ' I'.avard, of Delaware; for Secretary of the
Ay.nue ' Treasurv, Daniel tannine-, of New York ; for
ere Hivd Secivtarv ,,f llu- Interior, Lu.-iiis (,>. C. Lamar,
At the of ^ii.-i.M|.pi: f.r .S-civtary of War, AVilliam
1 by the C. Fndi,'ott...f Mas>aehu>etts: f^r Secretary of
The c.li- the Navv, William ( '. WhiliMV, of New Y,.rk:
H..u..-of f,r ro-ti.uKter-Ceneral, William F. Vilas, of
ig of dis- WiMM,u-in: f.r Attoiii,'y-< bneral, An-u-tus
^not so II. (birhind, of Arkansas. The peculiarity of
as to lie the ap|Miiiitiiieiit> was that two of them were
houored by it. Th.- principal oration, written from N.wv York. But the prejudice which
Uuiou, aud by IVie
idly forei.-n
nat
set at varioiH place.-
The de<licalioii ,
111 the strin
tiire
lent
on Saturday, the
I'Nt of F,
brna
ceremonies were ol
the lllo.-t i
npo-
acter. A proi-essio
1 of more t
laii
sand persons iiiai(
the iiioniniient, ah
hed from
vz IVnnsvK
til.'
to the Capitol, \
^l,ile salul<
< w
Pre.-ident of the
eluding ceremonies
Representatives, wl
tiugnisheil pi'i>ple
ha.l a,-Miii
the
.led-
mucli to do honor
to tiie occi
>ioll
THE UMTED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.
might arise ou this account was t'ully cduiitrr-
balanced by the lii'^h c-haiai't<'i- aii.l uiMlnuhtcil
abilities of tiie men \vh.iiii the I'n-i.lcnt had
chosen as the responsible advisers .if his Adniin-
istration.
The nio-:t serious riupstiou wliieh confronted
the new Pr.-i.hnt, and whirl, routinucd to
beset his ennr-e lliroudi thr who},. .juadnMi-
niuui, \vas the <li>trilMitinn nf i.tii.aal ]iati-i.iia-r.
The Democratic paity had cmno into jniwi-r
on a platform distinetly onunciatin- the doc-
trine of reform in the civil service. From
almost the beginning of the Government it
had been the custom of the partv in jiower to
offices. This usa-.', w.-ll establidR-d -inre tho
day.s of Jackson, had l>e,-u thf ^vv/tn and
cause of the greater i>art of tlir alm-.s whirh
had existed in the various ih|iarlnients of
the Government. Extn-nio partv un.-n had
claimed always that " to the victors lichmt;- the
spoils" ,,f ,,ttice. Of late years, liowcvcr, the
with disgust from the -fos piacti( f le-
■warding men for mere party >crviccs, and in
the evenly balanced Presidential contest of
18S0 .and "lS.S4 it hecame all imi.ortant that
)tessii
the
phalanx of civil service
was who in the late electi
Cleveland, ha
siuceritv
vation to the Pieddency. He went into office
pledged to carry out the views rif those by
whose suffrages he had been raised to power.
These views, moreover, were his own; and it
thus happened that the new Adnnuistratiou
was launched with "Civil-service Iv-foi-m " iii-
scriheil on its pennon.
In the ]iolitical managemiMit of States by
party ascendency, it ever happens that the
practical application of the principles (^n which
the party has come into ]Miwer is attended
with extreme difficulty. In the first place,
the so-called princii)Ies are frequently formu-
lated simply as a means to gather votes and
reach success. After the election has been
won and the party accedes to power, there is
no further thouirht of carrying into effect the I
alleaed " [irinciples" by which party success ;
has been achieved. In the contest of 1884
many of the Democratic leaders had upheld
the banner of civil service merclv as an ex-
pedient. To such elements of his party the
President's sincere attempt at the beginning
of his Administration to enforce the [irineii)le3
of thi' party platform by an actual reform in
tlie ,-y>tein of appointments was little less than
appallin-. To them the declaration in tiivor
ot' a I'eiter oi-dcr of things relative to the ap-
pointive offices of the < iovernmeut was purelv
nominal. They acconlingly made a rush to
gather the sp.'.ils ,,f the victory which they
claimed to have won. From the .lay ..f the
throne.MJ the Capital, an. 1 llie ( 'l,i..f _Mae i<trate
wa^ b,.-i,...:v.l bv hnn.hv.N an.l il.ousin.K ..f
th.is.' \\lio~i> prill. 'ipal claims to preferment
w.'ii- that th. y hail >erveil the party. During
th.- tirst year .if th.' new Administration it
was a t;rave,pi,..tii.u whether or not the Presi-
.lent w.iul.l be able to -tand bv the Hag of
relorui, or wh..ther h.- would 1,- .Iriven to re-
a.iopt the .•a>t-otf poli.'v of sati-fviu- with
otfi.'ial app.iintment< tin- liun-rv h'onl.. that
sniged ar.mn.l the Pre>i,|,.utial mau^ion.
epo.-h up.m which we here enter in American
history that the memories and deeds of the
Civil W.ir seemed to arise again in the pulilic
nnnd iiy a sort of uncaused revival, the true
origin of which it might be difficult to dis-
c.iver. Perhaps, on the whole, this renewal
of interest sliouhl be chiefly a-scribed to the
fa.'t that the great men whose genius ha.l de-
termined the destinies of that conflict now en-
tered the shadows of old age, and became talk-
ative about the stirring exploits .if their
youth an.l vii;.>r<in> mauho.i.l. At this time
began to appear that >.rie- of authoritative
publications .■nncerniu- the War for the Union,
in which many of the l.adiiig participants re-
lated their part in t\«- .Irama. This work, so
important to th.' riL:lit understanding of the
great strni:ele for aii.l against the Union, was
begun by (i.n.ral William T. Sherman, wh.i,
in ls7o, publi>|,e.l hi. ^f.■,nuir,, luirrating the
.st.iry of that part of the war in which he ha.l
been a lea.ler. Tliis was not indeed the first
of the publications ou the subject. As early
as 1870, Alexander H. Stephens, late Vice-
Presiilent of the C'.mfederacy, ha.l complete.l
his two volumes entitled the War B.tm.n the
CXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
States. Ill ]^.^4, (iein-ral (i
],uUir;lti.m in tllr Outn,-,, M.i
ell attl:icK'(l 111
,-,1 to tl..- lUV
CoiiH
til a h,
'ft ..11
The interest in the aliove jiiil.ilieatious was
greatly heightened by the (le;uth, within a
liinited period, of a large miniber of tlie great
ViiioD Generals who had led their armie:* to
victory in the War of the Reliellion. It was
in the early suniiner nf the year l.^So that the
attention of the people was called away fmni
public affairs by the announcement that the
veteran General, Ulysses S. Grant, hail been
stricken with a fatal malaily. tliat hi- days
would be few anini,- the liviii-. The hen, of
Yicksburg and AppMiuattnx sank under the
fixed itself in hi- throat, an,l on the 23d of
.Inlv he died .juietly at a summer cottage on
Mount Mcfn-e-or, New York. For some
nioiiths the silent hero, who had commanded
the eoinbine.l ariiiie- of the United States, had
b^-eii en-aged in the pathetic work of bring-
ing to coiupletion his two volumes of Memoirs,
from the sale of which — such is the gratitude
of Republics — the resources of his family must
be chieflv ilrawn. It was a race, with death
tor tlie goal. Seaively had the enfeebled Gen-
eral laid down his pencil until the enemy
knocked at the door. 'Jdie la-t days of (iraiit
were halh.we.l by the sympath'ies of the
Nation which he liad .-o gloriously defended.
The news of his death passed over the land
like the shadow of a great cloud. Almost
every city aud hamlet showed, in some ap-
propriate way, its emblems of grief. The
funeral ceremonies eqnale<l. if they did not
siirjiass. any whicdi have ever lieen wit-
nessed. The iiroces.-iiin in New Y<irk City
was jierhaps the most solemn and imjiosing
pageant ever exhibited iu honor of the dead, at
least since the i'uneral of the Duke of Wel-
lington. On August .S, ISS.j, the body of
General Grant was laiil to rest in Riverside
Park, overlooking the Hudson. There, on a
summit from which may be seen the great
river and the metropolis of the Nation, is the
tomb of him whose courage and magnanimity
ill war will forever give him rank with the few
master spirits wdio, by tlieir heroic deeds, have
honored the human race, and by their genius
have clianged the course of history.
A\'ithiii le.ss than three months from the
funeral of < iraiit another distinguished Union
commander fell. On the 29th of October
General George B. McClellan, organizer of
the Army of the Potomac, at one time General-
in-Chief, subsequently Democratic candidate
for the Presidency, and at a later period Gov-
ernor of New Jersey, died at his home at St.
Clouil, in that State. The conspicuous part
which he had borne during the first tw-o years
of the war, his eminent abilities as a soldier
aud civilian, and his unblemished character
as a man aud citizen, combined to heighten
the estimate of his life aud services, and to
evoke the sincerest expressions of national
sorrow on the occasion of his death.'
After another brief interval, a third great
military leader fell iu the person of General
'The posthumous inil.healioi
II Slory. under the ausiiii-es (
f, is, on the whole, to lie greall
Miitriliiition to the military— even th,
torv of the time, the work is valuable
McClellan
•iirette
THE rXITKD STATES.— LATEST PEIUOD.
Wiulield S. Hancock. This l)iave and <:eu-
erous commander was, at the time of his death,
the Senior Major-Geueral of the American
army. Always a favorite with the people an<l
the soldiers, he had, since the close of the war,
occupied a conspicuous jilace before the public.
In 1880 he was the Democratic candidate for
the Presidency, and, though defeated by Gen-
eral Garfield, the defeat was without dishonor.
His death, Avliich occurred at his home on
Governor's Island, on the 9th of February,
1886, was universally deplored, and tlie pen-
pie omitted no mark of respect for the memory
of him who, in the great struggle for the
preservation of the Union, had won and borne
the title of "Hero of Gettysburg." Thus
have passed away the gallant Generals of the
Army of the Potomac. George B. .MeC'lellau,
Ambrose E. Burnside, Joseph Hooker, George
G. Meade, and Wintield S. Hancock have, one
by one, joinetl
"The innumenilili- i-aiavan that iipim.s
To that mysterious ivahii. wluic rail
His chamber in the silent lialls nf 1 1,
hall take
still au-
n.l.-i-s of
r. Late
. rnited
k at his
Before the close .,f the year \>
other among the greatest of tin- nn
the Civil War ended his earthly c;
in December, General John A. Ln
States Senator from Illinois, fell
home, railed Calumet Place, in AVashington
City. Hi. .lisea^e was rheumatism, tn which
he had been siibjeet at intervals -inrr his ex-
posure and hardships in the eail\ A\'rstern
campaigns. After a few day>' illnr>> he lie-
came suddenly wrrse, sank into a cnniatose
condition, and, on the L'bth of the ni.mth,
breathed his last. His military and civil career
had been distinguished in the highest degree.
At the outbreak of hostilities in 18(51 few men
did more than Logan to strengthen and unify
the Union sentiment in the wavering Border
States. His voice was a clarion, heard .shrill
and far above the confusion and uproar of the
times. Resigning his seat in Congress, he had
joined the first advance of the Union army,
and fought in the battle of Bull Run. With-
out previous military training, he rose rapidly
McCleUan's nirni.
few matters tlir ei
Ian — but not Lint
but, taken altoge
works bv contrari
tlir \n
ing. In a
er :\reClel-
defensive ;
le eulogy,
ral's fume.
tn distinction, and became the Vnlunteer Gen-
eral pur excellence of the war. Alter the close
<if the conflict he returned tn pnlitiral life, and
was chnsen tn the United States Senate. In
]s,s4 he was nominated for the Vice-|iresi-
dency <in the Republican ticket with James < >.
Blaine. That tickrt being defeated, he re-
sumed his duties in the Senate, and remained
at his j>ost until his death. The ceremcmies of
the funeral and the general voice of the Amer-
ican press indicated in an unmistakable man-
ner the enduring place which he had merited
and wnn in the affections of the people.
In the meantime, a distinguished civilian
had tiillen from high ottice. ( )n X.ivember 25,
1885, Vice-President Thomas A Hendiicks,
after what was supposed to be a trifling illness
of a single day, died suddenly at his home, in
Indianapolis. The fatal message came in the
form of jiaralysis. Not a moment's warning
was given nf (he appmach of that pale courier
who knocks impartially at the donr nf the
peasant and the pnital nf the great. The life
of Hendricks had been one of singular juirity,
and the amenities of his character had been
conspicuous in the stormy arena of American
politics. The high qualities nf the man, com-
bined with his di,-tinrtinn as ( iovernor. Sena-
tor, and \'ice-l'resiilent, drew from the jieople
many evidences nf ])ublic and private respect
for his memory. The body of the dead states-
UMVFRSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
mau wa'- huiittl m Ci uu IIiU t i ni t iv, near
Indianapi)li<,, the funeial paguiut -ni|M-<iiig in
jtraiideui and vdloumit^ ui_\ (itlKi di-play of
fei
^^
the kiud ever witnessed in tlie Western States.
except the funeml of Linchi.
The death nf the Vire-Pi-esident was sonn
followed by that of Horatio Seymour, of New
York. On the 12th of February, IssC, thi~
distinguished citizen, wlio had hi-cn (nivcinor
of the Empire State, and in ISC.s J Vm-.-ratie
candidal- tor the IVe>id.-urv n^ain-t fieneral
Grant, died at his home in Utiea. He had
reached the a,se of seventy-.six, and, thou-h
for nianv years living in retirement, luul never
ties 1
tions
iil( 1
_uat
d lue
.M. 1 1
-14
b)in on the 14th ci Feb-
i thn m the e\ent> thud
year t la i^e it the tune c t hi d, ith He
had been i piominent hguie m hi intue
State fi 1 full} foit\ -seat lud hid luhl imn\
place of public tiu t xnd houoi In 1^7(1-71
he wa aniono the f nemo t m uneaithiu^ the
a.«toundiD_ fnnd ind lobbenes -nhich had
been puj ti it( 1 n the cit\ tiei un of "\e\\
York ml in th t 11 winjj \en was tut to
the ( entnl V enibh wiieiehi ei\ice weie
invahuble In ls74 he wa elected &o\einoi
of New \oik b\ 1 im]()iit> of moie than
Hftv th >u iiid \ te In the e\ecuti\e office
he w 1 < ne ot the lUle t and m t thoioutrh
lioiiiL, ni n who e\ei ccupied thr _uheina
torial hill t the ^titc In ls7ti h «i
ti(ni ( f that ^eii leieued a
the jiopuhi \ote ouh failiu
the ] leetoixl C )lle_e be an
the leideis ot the ] ut\ m
he noi Ceneial Him u i (
Deniociits liaviii^ ciiiud t\
with the =h t sun md the
the aid ot the I le t 1 il L mn
uid m the elec
uge nii)oiit\ of
ot a majoiit^ in
t the tictic ot
I ^^n \uthu
11 h elected the
1 thue State
Republicans by
II hiving
;^
-till
in repiilatioii and ennneiit in ahility wa- Sam-
uel J. Tild.-n. alM, of the Kmi-iie State who
died at lii< leiin,., called ( irevstone, at Yonkers,
near Xiw York Citv, on the 4th of Au-uM,
issi;. Mr. Tilden had lived to make a marke.!,
perhaps an inelia.'eabh., impression on tlie
l.oliti.'al tle.n-lit of the epoeh. He had a,-
ijiiiicd within the lines ot' iiis own ]iarty an
intluenee and ascendency far greater than that
of any other statesman of hi.s time. His in-
tellectual force could not be doubted, nor could
the electoral votes
tliey did not carry
Mr. Tilden retired
f a State or
t all. After
) private life,
THE UNITED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.
bnt continueil to guide the f(iunpel> of hi-
party, ami to influence pulilie opiiiiou. u|i tn
the (late of his death. Perhai>s one nC hi-
ablest — as it was his last — puMic |i:i|ii'r was a
general letter on the suliject df " Thr (na^t
and Harbor Defenses of t'he rnitcd Siates," a
publication which led to the h-i>hitiou of the
Forty-ninth Congress on that important suli-
iect. Thus, within the space of less than
eleven months, four of those eminent American
leaders, who had been candidates of the Demo-
cratic party for tlie Presidency nt' the Tnited
States, and the distinguished Vice-l'ivsi(hait,
recently chosen by that party to the second
place of honor in the Government, had fallen
from their places in the ranks of the living.
To this list of tlie Ani.-iican -ivat, whose
activities have recently cndi'd in ,hath, must
here be added the illu>trious nami- of llenrv
Ward Beecher. To him, ^^itil little n-.Tva-
tion, we niav assign the first plaei- amoiiu our
orators and philanthropi>t-. Xor i- it likely
that his equal in most of the -ublimc ipiahties
01 energy and manhood will soon In- seen
atrain on the stage of life. Ilis personality
was so large, so unique and striking, as to con-
stitute the man in some sense ■<iii (jeitcn^.
His kind is rare in the worhl, and the circum-
stances which aided in his development have
passed away. That fact in American his-
tory— the institution of slavery — whi.-h hmnulit
out and displayed the higher moods of his
anger and stormy eloquence, can not again
arouse the indignation of genius. The knight
and his dangerous foil sleep together in
.Mr. Beecher had the hapi>y fortune to re-
tain his fiiculties unimpaired to the v( rv close
of his career. On the evening of tlie oth of
March, 1887, at his home in Bnuiklyn, sur-
rounded by his famil}', without premonition or
portent, the message came by apoplexy. An
artery broke in that magnilicent heavy Iiraiu
that had been for more than i()rty years
one of the greatest batteries of thought and
action in the world ; and the aged orator,
nearing the close of his seventy-fourth year,
sank into that deep sleep from which no power
on earth could wake him. He lived until the
morning of the 8th, and quietly entereil the
shadows. The sentiments awakened by his
death, the circumstances of his sepulture, and
the common eulogium ipf maid<ind, proved
beyond doubt the supreme place wliich he had
occupied in the admiring c>tccm, not oidy of
his countrymen, but of all the great jieoples
of the worhl.
To this brief mortuary rcord, for the ninth
decade of the ceutuiy, must also he added
some reference to tlie death of Moi-ri>on
Kemich Waite, Chief-Justice of the United
.States His deeetse came at his home m
"Washington Cit\ on the 2 '.d ot jMuch ISSS
Ihe e\ent -u__ -t- md pi-tih - th i 1 liti in
ol a fe« 1 11 ui qh i liti\ t th hi-t m
and pii-oiiufi ot tht _u it till iin il i \ii whu h
Judge Waite pie-ided duiin_ tin 1 i^t tiuiteeu
jeaio ot his life
In the foinnti n t the ( n^titiitii n ot the
United Stites, it \\ i- mi iil 1 lint iIk tlnee
Geueial Depiitm nt- t th (. \iinmtnt
should be ot c lulitni link ml inliueme
The sequel hou \ i i- l(\ilipd in the
actual \^oikin_ t iii \ iti nil ^^ -ti m In-,
shown thit the L\iiiifi\, ml I _i-liti\e
depaitment- piedommitt nitiiiilK — | i ilup-,
incMtabh — o\ei the )u li i il I i in li ml thit
in the popnhi e-tiimti it 1 i t th '^iipuine
Couit 1- f t -mill impoil mi i- nqiiiid\Mtli
the Ple-llen(^ md the tuo H u- - t ( n
gic— rill- di- -teem ot the |iidi i m i n t
vtiihel In 1 in I 1.1 md moi. philo- iplm il
vu w t tin -till] tt rin im|) it un t ( -
[letnlU ot the t n-mitne opini n it oiu
rXIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
e:,t X:
at
l.-a-t
(;i]i.
.t-Justice was iiiailc l)y Trc^ident < uaut,
.1.1
atinii
an.l
tlie ik-ath nf tlii,~ alili- Jurist devdlveil on
IS.
can
I'r.^
•ident C'ii'vtlaud tin- lUity <>1' iiaiiiiuy his
ma
V lie
SUC(
T.— (J1-.
1 a
s the
(
■iiifl-.Iustiri- Waite was Imuii at ]>ynie,
;lic
un-
('(.n
nrrtirut, on llic I'lltli of Xuvumlicr, ISIB.
it is
Fn,:
in the i>uhli.- -rhonl he \va- ti-an>t;Tiv,l to
-J I
1st in-
iitirr.
Ironi
VaL
stiti
ilinn in l.SoT. He thuii bucunie a student of
and, after couipleting his course, removed
the iias>ioii to ( )hii(, where he entered upon tlie practice of
:■ of interest ! his profession at Mauniee City. After sei-ving
)f the vicis- oueteriu, in 1849-5(1, in tlie Ije-islature of the
Court ha
]ias>.(l >in(
•e its
or;
.;a
nizalion
Ill
17
Ml.
Th..
<.f .loin, .1
then i:
ll>t
CI
it!
it.-.l hv
•t-.Iu.tie
•'"'
,vli.,
he!.
1 til..
otHee unti
1 ' IT'.m;.
w
hen h.
■ <s.
ive
1,1a..
e to
Oliver Ell
.-worth
■|
"he latl
ter
rem
aiue.
1 in
ottiee until.
in IM
III,
tl
le iiitin
iiitii
'S of
ase com-
l-elle,! his
an<l honor
l'esit;n
■al.le
ati
'"
1. The
i.lenrv
of
a me
Chi
the
ef-Ji
l-tiee
John Mar-
fron, hi. ai
hall, \
.point,
vh.
iit
proide.
ill l.sd
1 n^
1 t.
. his
du- (
ilea
.'.iiirt
th in
LS.'io. Thi
s wa-
th.
en
A,-.
• uf
th..
American
Supre
nil
Curt.
Fi
r.im
is:i
\r> [,<
1.SH7 there
111
ill
t.'l-iv.jii
mil
ill t
lie (_
'hief
Justiceship
, oeea-
1.'.
1 l.v th.
■ .li.
^agn
■eme:
ut of
President
Ja<;ks.
.11
111.1 th.
■ S
eliat
e ot
• the
Vnited St
at.-.
Bi
It
ill th.'
hii
tter
veai
■ the
President
1
th
e ciilii
■mat
ion
.d' J
Uilgv
Koger H. '
fan.y
as
C
hi.d-Ju.
:ii.'i'
, wh
.. ell
tere.l
upon hi,- \.
.„- ter
111
ol
■ tui'iH,\
■-S.'\
-en ;
. It
Avas his c
.■lehrat
e.l
l.-.'i.-i..ii
ill
.,■ ot
■ the
negro Dret
1 Srott
, r
el;
ative to
the
stai
f tl,..
slave-race i
,1 Am.
erii
ea
, that :
app]
lie.l
the
t.in.h
to that im
\n
"ll
1 ..f e.,
mliustih
les whose
exphision ^
va> tlu
" L
il War.
After tl
le .h'a-
th
■ Chi.-f-.
Ju-t
iee '
Tane
y. in
1864, Pres
i.lent :
l.i,
ic.
■hi app.
.int.
■.1, ;
IS hi.-
^ su..-
cessor, 8ali
n..n I".
c
Ik
■ntl.^
,- Se,
rr.-ta
ry of
the Treasu
ry. ai,<
la
ut
Ii..r of
iim>
t of
til.. 1
iiiaii-
cial mea.-ii
ll-es ai
1.1
e
xp..li,.i,
Its
llV \
vhi.d
1 the
National e
ivdil 1
la.l
ov.-.
."'"'
1 an.l
pre-
serve.l dnr
ill- till
■ I
;.-i
i..lli..ii.
■jl
li.-ial
extended t.
the Civil
:. his.l.
■n the
\\'ar \
L'at
ini
h.
uiid.r
a.l.ji
1.1 .-.
i.li.-;
iti.iii.
.1 the
from
T,.
Chief,Iu-ti
<v Ch;
ase
'ell al.-o
. li\
■ vir
tU..' .
,f hi.
oHiee, the
duty
..f
1'
.residing
;■ at
the
ini]
,ea..|i-
nient of P
re.i.iel
It .
.\i
i.lrew J
ohn
.-on.
III
1^74
the aiipoii
Itmellt
.f
.AL.rri.-
.111
11.
Wai
State, he removed to T..le.l.i, whii'li hecame
lieii.....fortli his h..nie. until his duti..s as Chief-
Justh.e.-alle.l him t.. \Va.-lihigt..ii City. He had
Keen freijueutly solicited to liecome a candidate
f..r otlice, but had adhered to his profession until
1^71-72. when he acceiited from President
(iraiit th.. app..intin..nt a- iiiemh..r ..I' th.. cele-
Inal...! Poard of Arliitratioii, to sit at C..|ieva,
ill the adjudication of the Alabama Claims.
Here he was associated with Charles Franeis
A.lams, Caleb Cushing, and William M.
Kvarts: an.l, tli,,ui;li he was less known t.. the
after his return th.. d.
Chase opene.l the way
o th.
During his occupancy of the Supreme
Beiii.li. Chief-Justice Waite steadily rose in the
esteem and confidence of the Xation. He was
genius or ..f the very highest rank as a jurist;
iait, on tin. whole, the .iffice of Chief-justice
wa. rari.jy, if ever, mm-e worthily borne than
by its hite.-t oi-cu]iaiit. He was a man of
.li.-pos,.,| at all. t.i l.'.ik bev..iiil th.. Su]>reme
Ben.h t.i a ]...>.-ibly higlier s..at. His ,leath
was from pneumonia, and was s.. su.l.len as to
be announced to the country by the .same de-
spatches which gave first information of his
serious sickness. He died peacefully, at his
home. His funeral was held first in the hall
of the House of Pepresentatives, and after-
war.l IVom his old residence in Toledo, at
THE UXJTED STATES.— LATEST PEHIoD.
29
■\\'hich city his remains were tinaliy committed
to the tomb.
The death of Chief-Justice \Vaite made
■way for the return tn the suprcnic judicial
office in the United States of » mcnilicr of
the political party which had lonu Ihcii out
of power. Since the epoch of llio Civil War
the court had been filled almost exclusively
with judges who, by political affiliation, be-
longed to the Republican party. The first dis-
tinctly Democratic appointment which was
made in the last quarter of a century was the
recent one of Judge Lucius Q. C. Lamar,
who, by the nomination of President Cleve-
land, was transferred from the Secretaryshii)
of the Literior to the .Supreme Bench. It thus
happened, in the vici.*situde of things, that the
two political theories which were o|ipn>i.d to
each other in the War for tin- Union, and are
still opposed by party name, lircanic contluent
in the high court of the Xatiou. Tliis circiim-
stanee was to some a source of alarm and
prejudice; but the fear was not well founilcd.
Partisan dispositions are less potent and dau-
irtrous — if, indeed, they assert themselves at
all— on the Supreme Bench of the United
States. Thus far in its history the court has,
as a rule, been as pure in its aduuuistratiou
and methods as it has been great in reputation.
The muddy waters of party conflict have only
occasionally reached as high as the chambers
of our honored tribunal ; and the fear that it
may be otherwise hereafter may hopefully Ije
put aside as a groundless and spectral chimera
of the h.iur. On ')^\a\ 1, 1888, the President
appointed Ju.lge Melville AV. Fuller, of Chi-
cago, to the vacant Chief-justiceship.
The impression produced by the death of
Chief-Justice Waite had scarcely passed when
the decease of another citizen, most noted for
high character and great talents, called the
public attention to the rapid disappearance of
the Nation's most distinguished representatives.
On the 18th of April, at the Hoffman House,
New York City, Honorable Roscoe Conkling,
Ex-Senator of the United States, died after a
brief and painful illness. A local inflamma-
tion, resulting in the formation of a pus-sack
under the mastoid bone of the skull, led to the
cutting of the skull in hope of saving Mr.
Conkling's life ; but he succumbed to the fatal
malady and the shock of the operation.
Rose e C( nklin.i: w i> 1 m in VU iin New
York, on the 3()th of O t 1 I ^- Vtt r the
completion of an icidemi u t tii Iv, he
went as a student f f 1 ns t I ti i i ]'^4<).
On reaching hn ma)riit\ h w i li utl d to
the bar ind ^^l•^ -f n ift i\\ ii 1 \\\ lutcd to
the <ifiiLe f C uut\ Vtt Ml \ 1 1 )m the be-
ginning f hi> ciiei his ^Kit t dents and
remarkable toicc of chai ictei weie manifest.
He made i piotounl impiession first upon
the local mil tlun up n thf jenenl ^rciety
of New \ il In 1^)S Ik « i mu r t,f
Utica, anl in th -• im \ a \\ i lit t) the
National Hue t Kq u-cntatn e-- Ht had
already become an able pohtiuxn md was
soon recognize 1 i thi k 1 1 i f the Repulilicau
party in hisnatue '^tit Hi i w i^ lapid,
and his influence bee une niiiktl in the af-
fairs of the &o^elnmlllt Ht -un 1 f r six
years in the L )\\ti H u^t md m ishb was
elected to the '^en ite In thit b d\ he a-pired
to leadership, and gradually attained it, though
not without many struggles and contests with
the great men of the epoch. He was twice
reelected Senator — in 1872, and 1.S78; Init in
his third term, namely, in b^M, he found
himself in such relations with the Garfield
Administration as induced him to resign his
seat. This step was regarded by many as the
mistake of his political life. At any rate, he
' failed of a reelection, the Administration party
I getting control of the Legislature of New
UyiVLHSAL HJ^TOHY.-THE M()T)Elt:S WORIJK
\ ,k nil ,., ln,_ in tl i ii I i |li Vtt
thu 111 Ml ( I 1 liii. Kill It ]n\ It. hi
II, 1 t k U| Ullll tl .1 It t Ml t tli>
piactite of 111 I I I 1 n 111 N u ^ il ( it\
Ko^coe C( I 1 hi _ u I 1 II III t th hi.ht-
tage
Hl u. \u
shone to ^u It 1 I 1\ 11 t i_i tl 111 wlitu It iihii^
the iouc- 1 (. II 111 < 1 lit 111 thi LhRi.
L menti II I 1^-^n II u i il ni ] hti, U
aeii 1 il IIi> ^Mll II I 1 1 1 t II \ ml 111 li
pu Iwilh .1. U.i uihinitx ( nil liii Ih lii\t
ful, 1 t 1 UU lll^llk NMth th. hlju t h 11 1.
ot tht In iti 11 Hh t tkiits 1. •,e t ) the legioii
of geuius, iiiil lii'5 ))le^euct w is niaguificeiit —
an luspuatiiiii ti hi- fiRiid- i teuoi to hi^
enemies As a -uiiiiii in
i th 1 nit- f h
caieei, It mT,\ be ii 1 th i
<leith ni ue e\i i I hi
11 r iimI M
Bhii iiii.ht lu th
t t xMtl Inn tl
p ill ml t ill t h 11
.nil 1 1 lMte.lt
ztn t the Lnite 1 ^t it -
Meanwhile in th -pu
i_ f l^M 1 il
nil led one of tJR in t i
in 1 il 1 i-it iti 1
which hid \ 1 1 11 "iti
1 111 tl I 1 It
^t\te-> It w.K 1 fh nil t
1 1 1 t 111 1 1 |ii
statement i t th in
1 1 il 11 1 1 1
which pioln i ih 1 1
uutd attci tl 1 f tl
,11 tl n,k- ^
( im1 A\ 11 111 th
i|ipear tin tu t \ii j t m-
]Sen Willi 1 tl tin
i 1 1 11 U ll 111 tl
J wh 1 1 1- 1
going on i 11 - ) 1 11^ 1 tun
m 1 111 pc hctucc
th,' hil.iiiii-.-lass.'san.l the .-npitali-ts. It had
I,,,. 11 l„,p.d that Mi.'h a .•niitll.'t «,.iil,l n.Avr
he ivii,-u,d in th,- ,-,.iiiitiic- w.-M ,.f tlu- Alhm-
ti... Si„.|i a Imp.., Ii„...ver, ^va. .1 1..1 t„
,lis,,,,H,inn„..iit. Til.. ti,>t w. Il-nia,k,.,l -vn,p-
anil inii,-pr,iiluc'iiig regi.nis ..f I'l-im-ylvania
anil in -inii.. of the great manufa..t'irii..- .,t' Ni.\v
Enjan.l. F.,r a while the .li>tiiil,aii....s pn.-
,lii.;...l l.iit litll.. alarm. It was i,.,t until th.-
givat railr.,11.1 sirik.. .,f 1.^77 that a g..-ii..ral ap-
pr,.l„.n>i..,i wa- .■x.'it.Mi with respect t.. th.' nii-
fii.n.lly r.latiinis .if labor and capital. In the
fiill.iwiii'j y..ar much uneasiness exist,,!; but
the lii'ttcr times, extending fmm 1^7!) t.i 1.'<.S2,
with the cnsequent fevorahh- rat.- .,f wages,
teii.lcl t,) r..move, or at least t.. p,>stii,iiie, the
renewal of tn.iible.
A >eri..> .if ba.l .nins ensue.l. and the aver-
age ability .if th,. p.',, pie t,, pnr.diase was c.,r-
respoinlin'uly .limiiii-l,. .1. Tiie speculative
mania, li,,w..v..r, .li.l m.t ca,-.., aii.l the lar-e
am,, nuts ,d' .apital witl„lrawii tn.iu k.gitimat..
pn,.lii.-ti,.ii an. I l.,st in visionary enterpri,-..s, >till
furth..,- r...lii.-.',l tl,.. means of employing labor.
Stagnati.,11 ..|isii.'.l in business; stocks .lec.lin,',l
in vain.., manufart.iries were close, 1, aii,l the
.litticnhy of .ibtaiuing employment was greatly
Whil.. these causes— half-natural, half-arti-
fi.-ial— were at work, others, wh.illy tictitimis,
but pow.-rful ill their evil r..>ult-, bi'gan t.i
th.. oth.'r han,l, lab.ir .li.-r..v..r...l th.' .silutaiy
but .Ian-.. rolls po\v..r .,f .■nnibiiKiti,.ii. A rage
t.,r .ngaiiizini: t.n.k p,.ss,.ssinn ,.f th.. niin.ls of
the lali.n-ini: ni..ii ,,f the ....niitry, an,l to the
i,isnrr...-tioiiarv fn.nt ..f the' w.nkiii- cla,-.M,,s.
M.iiv
f..ir...l t.
work>h..p.- of Aiii,.n..a, ami a
tt.'rly un-American became dom-
,.f the leading e.stablishments of
Ciiuiuunistic theories of society
THE CMTED STATES.— LATEST i'ERlOD.
be adde.l tli.' evils
incident to the \\;i;
perlm])s, inxpaial
The n|„.niii,i:„f trade fnr theseas.m u<l \ssi\
witne.-sed a series „f strikes an.l laKur im-
broglios in all parts (if the cumitry. Siieh
troubles were, hnwever, cnntined for the nmst
part to the cities and towns -ivhere lahor was
aggreg;ited. The lir>t >erioiis troulih/ oeeiii-red
on what is known a> the Cniuld S\',-ieiii of
•railways, reatdiing IVoni the ;\[issi>sippi to the
South-we>t. A single workman, liehm^in- t..
the Knights of Lahor, and eniploycMl ,,n a
branch of the Texas and Paeiiie Kailwav, at
that time under a receivership, and therefore
beyond the control (jf Jay (iould and his >uh-
ordinates, was disehargid fr(ini his place. This
action was resented hy the Knights, and the
for a season, succe.«sfnl, and the transpoitation
of freights from St. Louis to the South-wc-t
ceased. Gradually, however, other workmen
were substituted for the striking Knights; tiie
movement of freights was resumed, and the
sti-ike ended in coni]iarative failure ; but this
end was not reached until a severe riot in East
8t. Louis had occasioned the sacrifice of several
Chicago. In that city the Soeialisti<' ami
Anarchic elements were sutHi-iently |ioweilid
to present a bold front to the autlioiities.
trocessions bearing red flags, and liannei-s
with commuuistic devices and mottoes, fre-
quently paraded the streets, and were ad-
dressed bv demaii'o'jues \\ ho avowed tliemselvi s
r. .Many ]irecautionary nieas-
^en to prevent the recurrence
as had lieen witnessed in the
re. On th,. following dav a
less .langerous, ..uthreak 'oe-
d<ee; but in this city the in-
vement was suppressed with-
f life. The attention of the
—let US hope t., some good
as never betore. to the dan-
xislimj; bitween the upper and
tne open e
order. ( )i
this reckle>^ ma
called th.' llavma
gin the usual inlla
near, with the evi
ensued Dvuannte
4tli of ^h
.lling
A terrihle .sc
\ere thrown ti
The
Augu.-
Chariest,
oti: The
naile liv uii|Uines
dioek which had
d will, Char
,-e,i that that
on. .^b.a-ur
wa?
With
ro.'ke
Hani
AVith the exeepti
of New :\ladrid. il
had sutiered from
•re hastily devised
the result .howed
IS Were verihe.l.
232 rXIVEL'SAL in^TORY.— THE MODERX WOULD.
ri.-.l tn 'ill,. -.■,,!,■. an.l iiia.lc a .-aivful MTUtiiiy of the region f. ...m' .-ia.-. l.ut
of the i.l,ri,n,nrnni,, uitha vi.-w..|-f..iiti-iluuiii- of Vfry.|ui<-k aiel vlol.nt o
soMi.thiii- tM the exa.-t kiiowkMl,-e ..f iiiaiikiial whhh tlie c-onlral r,,„ntrv of il
re>l.r,.tin- the eaUM- and eharaeter of earth- wa-, in tlio r..uv- of -.„ne tive n
,hK. a.'euraev. f)ne was, Tlio whole eoa.t in the eml ra
oaiice
ettleJ
lUak.
A few fa.
terniiiir.l with tolr
that the lioint e.f
of tlie great convi:
about twenty miles
the motion of the t
r.-gion r,t the
eall.-.l the rj,irr„tn-. ,h>turhan,-e was mo,hli,.,l with respeet to the
iiad keen at a place sea, and the ocean itself was thrown into tur-
Charleston, and tliat , moil for leagues from the shore. The people
uinediatelv over thii i of the city were in a state of the utmost conster-
nation. Thev
fle.l fr..ni their
F\PTHQt \KF ^T CH\PTE«TO\
,och The
d 1 ~ a .- 1 e 1 to
C haile«ton
sened to bung
out =onie of the
better qualities
ot I ui tn ihzi-
center had been nearly up and down — that is, ' tion. A.ssistance came from all quarters, at
vertical. A second point, tolerably well estah- contributions jioured iu for the support ai
lished, was that the isoseismic lines, or lines of enccuiragement r)f the atHicted peojile. !•
equal disturbance, might be drawn around the several weeks a series of diminishing shocks
irele
very nearly concentric.
itiniied to terrify the citizens and paralyze
and that the circle of greatest disturbance was the etlorts at restoration. But it was discoy-
of time that these shocks
were only the dying away of tlie great convul-
wasthataway from the epicenter— as illustrated sion, and that they gave cause for hope oi
in the ruins of Charleston — the agitation of , entire cessation rather than continued alariu.
the earth was not in the nature of a single i In the lapse of a few months the dSris was
I8U
CHRONOLOGICAL CHART No. X.
Most Recent Period,
From the American Centennial to the Year 1896.
Copyrighted by the Jo
lernatioiml Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia
lugurulion of Rutherfonl B. Haves as President.
i>lriiirs labor riot in Chicago.
>. |,i. inv.Mition of the electrical light by Ed:
Sijil. 2s. Reception of first resident Chinese embassy at
79. Jan. 1. Resumption of specie payments by the
iiiiiTrn ATiTro 80. Taking of the tenth census of the United
UNITED STATES. ^- ..^°A .S"--f °.'11e Republican^ pany^
the National eleetii
80-81. Refun
: of »7S0,000,000 of the Natii
<nal division of the Repul'h'
Assassination of Presi<lrii; >..,.
Aug.-Oct. Trialofthesii-.;i;i. 1 ■
83. May. Formal opening
Retirem*
83-84.
' General Sherman and accession of SI
onimand of the army.
val of the question of Free Trade
Nov. Success of the Democratii- p;irt
Cleveland to the presidencv.
85. Feb. 21. Dedication of lli. U :,-
Monument.
March 4. Inauguration i->f <.rM\
as President.
July 23. Death of General Ulys
Nov. 25. Death of Vice- Preside
70. Ma
L'h. Assumptio
22. Benjamin L
Business depression i
Outbreak of the Turc
Lowest ebl) in the for
78. Great ilistrcss
Sept. British
Renewal of the battle for Home Rule in Ireland.
Mareli 2. Passage of the Coercion Bill against the Irish t
Expulsion of the Irish leaders from the House of Comm<
uercial distr
■ty.
of Home Rule ques
in Afghanistan.
the K
April 19. Death of Benjamin Disn
82. April. Alleged compact bet
May 6.
Denunciation of the Lan
83. Failure of the ne«
Vnfavorable prog
May 5. Treaty of Gandamak with the V
PDCAT DDITAIM Ji>"e-Nov. War with Afghanistan.
UntA I Dnl I AINiDec. 24 capture and deposition of Yako.
Kha:
Liberal party in the P
i.f lllr l-;L'\litl;.Tl «!
e ln>h imny I., fnr.
^^n. 26.'"overt"hro"w a'l'i.'oi'
Rejection of the Liberii
verthr
ary elections. the Marquise
Passage of the
End of the MacMahon regime.
Definitive establishment of the Third Republic.
Sept. 3. Death of Louis Adolplie Thiers.
Accession of Jules Grevy to the presidency of th
Killing of the Prince Imperial in Zulu
FRANCE.
licMahon.
Moderate Republic;
n Frftnce;"e.\pulsio
. ! I I ;iiii\inst the Bonapartists.
I'll I I 'i nice Napoleon ami certain Ork-anist Pri
Kn.i '.iftlie Franco-Chinese \Var.
Abrogation of the No-Divorce Law.
-- -• revising the Constituli. .11 ;iLMi
i5. Question (
■pre:
78. April. The Socialist Hoflel fires on the Emperor.
Great reaction against the German Liberals.
Aug.-Oct. Bismarck presiiies over the Congress i
The Chancellor ;
GERMANY.
The Chancellor opens negotiations with the ^
Meeting of the Emperors of Germany, Austri
The general elections carried against the gov
82. rolitical affiliation of Bismarck and H
Repeal of the Fulk Laws againj
Attempt to repeal the Civil Ma
Russia at Danlzic.
sh influence
i of the Empire and
ilty with the United Sta
rassage of the Lasker Resolu
84, Alarm throughout Em
Measures adopted und<
Spain about the
Concluding years of the reign of Victor Eninianut-l.
77. Celebration of the Jubilee Anniversary of the Episcopat)
Pope.
ITALY. I^l'A^vi:;-'!
[Humbert!
i as Pope, with title c
[It to suppress Social]
an pilgrimages to Rome
lella Democrazia.
for universal suffrage,
he Pope to establish an
iilependent ecclesiastic
77. The Czar
Makes w :.
78. Tl
RUSSIA.
ceof the E.Ih I .1 .
Establlshmtm < l
Further suppressH
Turkey. May 30. Assassination of Abtlul Aziz anil accession
Murad V. Aug. 31. Accession of Abdul Hamid II.
Mexico. Success of the revolution headed by General Diaz.
77. Torfeey- March. The Porte participates in the London C(
April 10. Issuance of the London protocol at Constantinople
June. Beginning of the Turco-Russian War.
July 16-19. Battle of Tundja Brook and capture of Nicopolis.
Aug. 19. Assault on Shipka Pass.
Sept. 6-9. Battles of Plevna.
Nov. 17. Capture of Kars.
78. March 3. Treaty of San Stefano.
July 13. Beginning of the Congress of Berlin.
81. Turkey. Beginningof complication with Russia relative to
China. Negotiation of the Angell treaty with the United i
82. Turkey. Rebellion and trial of Arabl Pasha.
Terence. 83. Turkey. April. The Porte agrees to the bi
the Servian railways.
Mexico. Dee.
WORLD Brain. 'Reform
" ■— Accessi
uly. Acquis
ution at Philippopolis,
. General Diaz again
Sept. Eastern Roun
Canada, l^assage of the bill for en
March. Outbreak of the Biel rebelli
Nov. 6. Execution of Riel at BegiiKi
arriage
Mexico. Eleetii
ation in the Uniteil States.
the liisastrous earthquake at Charlesto
Death of Henry Ward Beecher.
the Inter-State Commerce Law.
Feb. Mafia riots in New Orleans and threatened w
Oct. 16. Killins of American sailors in Valparaiso
92. Felt. -J'.i. bcfiskiii of the Supreme Court uph
M.ii'ii I" iiirii/ial treaty with Spain nil
.iiiV \ .. - - 1 rikes anil civil war ai II
Ai, !■ II' i spread of cholera 111
%■ - ih.n of Cleveland to th.
92-'.i.;- ' :. ' I 111. 11 Ml Mil- World's Columbian I- \
..... .M.uvli.^. .second inauguration of tTi.
neselabor.Ts. Auj;. I:J. Passage of the Wilson-Gon
Ih M. Jan. 27. Opening of Midw
Feb. 2. Wreck Inst of tlu-
'-■f LirM-Uuiil as President,
n tariff bill.
^aw. [depression,
heginning of severe industrial
er Fair in San Francisco.
.ani.T Ktarsarsfc on Roncador
I. 11- ! ilii. i-"untry. [Reef.
Home Rule Bil
cendency of Salisbury i
I of the Lmulon I'tmes o
I, Celebration of the ji
nd expedition of H.-,ny
8. April l_«. r:i-<;..'.. nf
Sep" "i-.i ■' '" .'
try of Ue Freycinet.
tion of the Boulangist agitation,
esiilent Grcvy and election of M. Saili-Ca
of M. Floquet lo the Prime Ministry.
Explosion of Boulangism ami exile of Ge
Boulanger.
Re^
I celebration of the Centeiinia
jlntion and First Republic at Paris.
Feb. 7. Arrest of the Duke of Orlea
on Reed's rulings.
"iut seal fisheries.
II Hallway Union.
i.aiio In
k Dougl
institutional.
m Ship-
onded debt of the
rties on the silver question.
an<l Emin Pasha
Liberals. [crown,
cnce, heir presumptive to the
Ml V elections.
[cession of Earl Rosebery.
Prenjiership hy Gladstone and ac-
in Queen's speech for (iisestablish-
i of Rosebery Cabin
1 of Francois Felix
alh .if the'bacterio
; Pusli
pxoilus of German emigrants to the United Slates.
jral alarm of war; conservative victory in the election:
i>uncenient of the fatal ailment of the Crown Prince.
8. March 9. Death of Emperor ^Viliia^l I.
Accession of Frederick III; his reign of ninety-nir
June 15. Death of the Emperor and accession of his
Aug. 13. Von Moltke succeeded by Waldersee as G
' , Beginningof rupture between the young Emperor
"" ' ^' Anti-Socialist Bill rejected by th
Elections result in great gains for
18. Bismarck is succeeded by Von
AUempt to exclude Jewish pupils
Gov
Chancellor Capriv
Death of Count ■
Caprivi is made
90. J a
possession of territory and towns on the coast of Zanzibar.
L secures the renewal of the Dreibund.
■on Moltke.
a count by Emperor William.
's. 92. Feb. Great riots of the workingmen in Berlin,
tVilliam II. 93. Julys. Opening of the Reichstag by the Emperor in person,
il of the army. 94. April 23. Removal of the ban against Catholic orders, except-
md Prince Bismarck. ing the Jesuits.
' Reichstag. Oct. 26. Resignation of Chancellor von Caprivi and accession
he Socialists. of Prince Hohenlohe, [Reichstag.
;aprlvi as Chancellor. 95. May 11. Bill for repression of socialism rejected by the
rom the superior schools. 96. Jan. 19. Celebration of the twenty-fifth anniver-
■ting the AJri. Mil t...uii.!,ii \ . sary of the Empire,
llnexchaim. * > -sessions in Zanzibar.
tearlhquuke in the Riviera.
' becomes the third member of the coalition.
8. Celebration of the Jubilee Anniversary of the Pop.
delegate to Benevcnto.
July in. Passage of the Electoral Reform Bill.
Unsatisfactory results of the Suffrage Law.
s. 90. May 30. Treaty of commerce, navigat
Ravages of the cholera at Paleri
24. Overthrow of the Ministry (
95. Parliamentary election
Min
riod of peace an<i industrial prosper
90. Feb. 19. The Czar ,i
rubles of Bulgarii
trol
Ex-Emperor I
lapan. Feb. 1
>orlueal. Dv
39. .Spain
Decree of
m Pedro an
Prociamat
ochumed King
on of the Minis
lugiiese forces
91. Egypl. Feb 0 Defeat of Osman Di^r i
Canada. March 5 Parliamentary election
Egypt. July Ravages of cholera epi leniic
Cbina. Aug. Beginni
Brazil. Nov. 4. Dech
92. EBypl. Jan. 7. Death of Tewflk and
Spain. Julv:il. National celebration
Mrxifo. Sept. 29. General Diaz proclaimed Preside!
at Lisbon. Swilzerland. Dec. 15. Election of Charles Emmanuel Schenck as President
try. 93. China. Jan. 23. Burning of a temple at Canton results in 1,J00 deaths.
«i*ee<*e. Jan. 31. Great earthquake at Zante.
Beleium. ApriHO. Fajlnre of the bi^lUorJJniversal Suffrage.
appointed Konth Afripa.
Leopold. the Matabelesc.
Constitution. Europe. Jan.
enos Ayres. India. June 2(i.
of Abbas Pasha as Khedive,
niorating discovery of America
"—■•'-' years.
THE IMTED STATES.— LATEST I'EIUOD.
cleared away, business was resumed, aud the
people were again safe iu tlieir homes.
Ou the 4th of March, 1887, the second ses-
sion of the Forty-ninth C'ungre^s expired liy
statutory limitation. Tlie work of ilie body
had not been so fruitful of results as had been
desired aud anticipated by the friends of the
Government; but some important legislation
had been effected. Ou the cpiestiou of the
tariff nothing of value was accomplished.
True, a serious measure of revenue reform had
been brought forward at au early date in the
session ; but owing to the opposition of that
wing of the Democratic party headed by
Samuel J. Randall, and committed to the doc-
trine of protection, as well as to the antago-
nism of the Republican majority in the Senate,
the act failed of adoption. In fact, by the be-
ginning of 1887, it had becbme apparent that
the existing political parties could not be forced
to align on the issue of free trade and tariff,
and as a result no legislation looking to any
actual reform in the current revenue system
of the United States could be carried through
Congress.
On the question of extending the Pension
List, however, the case was different. A great
majority of both parties could always be
counted on to favor such measures as looked
to the increase of benefits to the soldiers. At
the first, only a limited number of pensions
had been granted, and these only to actually
disabled aud injured veterans of the War for
the Union. With the lapse of time, however,
and the relaxation of party allegiance, it be-
came more aud more important to each of the
parties to secure and hold the soldier vote,
without which it was felt that neither could
maintain ascendency iu the government. Nor
can it be denied that genuine ]iatriotic senti-
ment and gratitude of the Nation to its <le-
fenders coincided in this respect with political
ambition and selfishness. The Arrears of Pen-
sions Act, making up to those who were already
recipients of pensions such amounts as would
have accrued if the benefit had dated from the
time of disability, instead of from the time of
granting the pension, was passed in 1879, and,
at the same time, the list of beneficiaries was
greatly enlarged.
The measure presented in the Forty-ninth
Congress was designed to extend the Pensiim
List so as to include all regularly enlisted and
honorably discharged soldiers of the Civil War,
who had become, in whole or in part, depend-
ent upon the aid of others for their mainte-
nance and welfare. The measure was known
as the Dependent Pensions Bill, and though
many o])posed the enactment of a law which
appeared to fling away the bounty of tlie
Government to the deserving and the unde-
serving, the evil and the just, alike, yet a ma-
jority was easily obtained for the measure in
both Houses, and the act was passed. Presi-
dent Cleveland, however, interposed his veto,
and the proposed law fell to the ground. A
strenuous effort was made in the House of
Representatives to j)ass the bill over the veto,
but the movement failed.
By far the most impf)rtant aud uoted piece
of legislation of the session was incorporated
in the act known as the Interstate Commerce
Bill. For some fifteen years complaints
against the methods and management of the
railways of the United States had been heard
on many sides, and in cases not a few the com-
plaints had originated in actual abuses, some
of which were willful, but most were merely
incidental to the development of a system so
vast and, on the whole, so beneficial to the
j)ublic. In such a state of affairs the lasting
[ benefit is always forgotten in the accidental
hurt. That large class of people who, in de-
spite of the teachings of history, still believe
in the cure of all things by law, aud that man-
kind are always about to peri-sh for want of
more legislation, became clamorous in their de-
maud that Congress should take the railways
by the throat and compel them to accept what
may be called the sy.stem of uniformity as it
respects all charges for service rendered. It
was believed in Congress that to take up this
call, and champion the alleged cause of the
people, would be one of the most popular
measures of the period. The Interstate Com-
merce Bill was accordingly prepared, with a
multitude of lengthy and involved clauses re-
quiring a commission of great lawyers for their
interpretation. It was enacted that all freight
carriage across State lines wdthin the Union
should be at the same rate per hundred for all
distances, and between all places, aud under
substantially the same conditions, and that pas-
senger fares should be uniform for all persons.
i'MVERSAL HISrORY.~THE MODERN WORLD.
eil, or pas-
e, betweeu
liered'tbnt
niv expeu-
<\ thau in
.-ivr tn i,uiia an.l nprrate a y:
nihrrs. To .■any on,. „f tluse great tlmrough-
larc- nvcr tin- Kncky Mountains is a very dif-
(ereut thing from stretcliing a similar traek
aei-oss the level prairies of Illinois. It must
Still further be considered that, in the nature
of the case, competition will do its legitimate
and inevitable work at an earlier date and
more thoroughly between great cities, even
when remotely situated, than between uuim-
jiortant points, however near together. The
traffic and travel between two villages is not
sufficient to create competition among the car-
riers. It is as absurd to suppose that railway
taritfs can be the same between New York
and Chicago as they are between two Missouri
towns, as it is to suppose that butter can com-
mand the same price in an Iowa village that it
dues in the Quincy Market of Boston. What
should be said of an attemiit in Congress to
make the price of wheat ami jmrk uniform
throughout the United 8tates.
The Interstate Commerce Bill was con-
ceived against all the natural, manifest, and
undeniable principles of the commercial world.
It was passed with the belief tluit all ilis-
criminations in the charges maile by railways
doing business in more than one State could
be prevented by law. It was i)assed as if to
amend or abrogate those natural laws of trade
and traffic which, in their kind, are as absolute
and as beneficial as the law of gravitation.
It was passed with the ulterior ilesi-ii of
securing to its promoters tli.- support of that
ignorant and embittered race of men whose
l)rejudi<-es are out of all ju'opoitiou to their
knowledge of human rights, or their reeoi;iii-
tion (jf the paramount interests of the whole
]ieo|ile. It was passed under the pernicious
■od.lle.l
rl, l!„>v
110 other measure ever adopted by the Amer-
ican Congress was so difficult of application,
or was so barren of residts with respect to the
interests which it was iuleiiiled to promote.
Disorder was the first-born of tlie Interstate
Commerce Bill, and its last offspring was—
During the whole of Cleveland's Adminis-
tration the puljlic mind was swaycl ami ex-
eited l)y the movements of politics. The uni-
versality of partisan newspapers, the combina-
tion in their columns of all the news of the
world with the invectives, misrepresentations,
and counter-charges of party leaders, kept
political questions constantlj' uppermost, to the
detriment of social progre.ss and industrial
interests. Scarcely had President Cleveland
entered upon his office as Chief Magistrate
when the question of the succession to the
Presidency was agitated. The echoes of the
election of 1884 had not died away before the
rising murmur of that of 1888 was heard.
By the last year of the current Administra-
tion it was seen that there would be no general
break-up of the existing parties. It was also
perceived that the issues between them must
be )»-/</«, rather than faiml in the existing
state of atfitirs. The sentiment in the United
States in favor of the Constitutional pro-
hibition of the manufacture and sale of in-
toxicating liquors had become somewhat ex-
tendeil and intensified since the last quadrennial
election. But the discerning eye might per-
ceive that the real issue was between the Re-
pulilicau and Democratic parties, and that the
questions involved were to be rather those of
the past than of the future.
One issue, however, presented itself which
had a living and practical relaticm to affairs,
and that was the (plc-tion of PROTECTION TO
Amickk AX Injusthy. Since the campaign
of 18S4, the agitation had been gradually ex- ^
tended. At the opening of the session, in
1887. the President, in his annual message to
Congress, departed from all precedent, and de-
voted the whole document to the discussion
<.f the -ingle question of a Reform of the Reve-
III" Sii.<t,-iii of the Uiiiteil States. The existing
rates ot' duty on imported articles of com-
mer<'e had so greatly augmented the income
of the Government that a large surplus had
accumulated, and was still accumulating, in
THE UNITED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.
■the Xatioual Treasury. This t'ai;t was mack-
the basis of the President's arminiciit in favor
of a new system of revenue, i>v, at h'a>t, au
ample reduction in the taiitf rato under the
old. It was immediately cliarixid hy thi' Ite-
puhlicaus that the project in i|ucsli<in meant
the substitution of the system of free tra(h> in
the United States, as against tin' system of
protective duties. The question thus inv(ilve<l
was made the bottom issue in the Presiih'nlial
campaign of 1888.
As to the nominees of the various parties,
it was, from the first, a foregone conclusion
that Mr. Cleveland would be nominated for re-
election by the Democrats. The result justi-
fied the expectation. The Democratic Na-
tional Convention was held in St. Louis, on
the 5th day of June, 1888, and JSIr. Cleveland
was renominated by acclamation. For the
Vice-presidential nomination there was a con-
siderable contest; but, after some balloting,
the choice fell on Ex-Senator Allen G. Thur-
man, of Ohio. The Republican National Con-
vention was held in Chicago, on the 19th day
•of June. Many candidates were ardently
pressed upon the body, and the contest was
long and spirited. It was believed, up to the
time of the Convention, that Mr. Blaine, who
was evidently the favorite of a great majority,
would be again nominated for the Presidency.
But the antagonisms which that statesman had
awakened in his own party made it inexpedient
to l)ring iiim forward again as the nominee.
His name was, accordingly, not presented to
the convention. The most prominent candi-
dates were Senator John Sherman, of Ohio ;
Judge "Walter Q. Gresham, of Chicago;
Chauncey M. Depew, of New York; Ex-
Governor Russell A. Alger, of ^licliigan ; Ex-
Senator Benjamin Harrison, of Imliana; and
Senator William B. Allison, ,.f b.wa. The
voting was continued to the eighth ballot, when
the choice fell upon Benjamin Harrison, of
Indiana. In the evening, Levi P. Morton, of
Ts'ew York, was nominated for the Vice-presi-
dency on the first ballot.
In the meantime, the Prohibition party had
held its National Convention, at Indianapolis,
and on the 30tli of ilay had nomimited for the
Presidencv General Clinton B. Fisk. of New
Jersey, and for tlie Viee-presideney Jolm A.
Br.Kiks, of Missouri. The Democratic itlatfor.".!
declared for a rel'orn;
of the United States,
eiple of adjusting the
""I"
strict regard to the actual needs of govern-
mental expenditure. The Republican plat-
form declared also for a refm-m of the tariti'
schedule, but at the same time stoutly affirmed
the maintenance of the protective sy.stem, o^
fuch, as a part of the permanent policy of the
United States. Both parties deferred to the
patriotic sentiment of the country in favor of
the soldiers, their rights and interests, and both
endeavored, by the usual incidental circum-
stances of the hour, to gain the advantage of
the other before the American peo})le. The
Prohibitionists entered the campaign on the
distinct proposition that the manufacture and
sale of intoxicating liquors should be prohib-
ited throughout the United States by con-
stitutional amendment. To this was added a
clause in favor of extending the right of suf-
frage to women.
As the canvass progressed during the sum-
mer and autumn of 1888, it became evident
that the result was in doubt. The contest was
exceedingly close. As in 1880 and 1884, th^
critical States were New York, Coiniecticut,
New Jersey, and Indiana. In all ot' the other
Northern States the Republicans were ahnosl
certain to win, while the Democrats were
j equally certain of success in all the South.
In the last weeks of the campaign. General
Harrison grew in favor, ami his party gained
perceptibly to the close. The result .showed
success for the Republican candidate. He re-
ceived two hundred and thirty-three electoral
votes, against one hundred and sixty-eight
votes for Mr. Cleveland. The latter, however,
appeared to a better advantage on the popular
count, having a considerable majority over
General Harrison. General Fisk, the Prohi-
bition candidate, received nearly three hun-
dred thousand votes; but under the system of
voting no electoral vote of any State was ob-
tained for him in the so-called "College," by
which the actual el„,i,v is ma.le. As s,.on as
the result was kn<iwn, the excitement attendant
upon the campaign sulisided and political ques-
tions L'ave place to other interests.
The last days of Cleveland's Admiidstra-
tion and of the Fiftieth Colliiress were si-lial-
i/e,l hv the admission im„ the Tniun ,,f FouK
UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
New States, making: the uumbt-r fdi-ty-two.
Siuce the incoming uf Colorado, iu 187(i, uo
State had been added to the Republic, ileau-
while, the tremendous tiiles of population had
continued to flow to the west and north-west,
rapidly filling up the great Territories. Of
these, the greatest was Dakota, with its area
of one hundred and fifty thousand nine hun-
dred and thirty-two square miles. Iu 1887
the question of divi<liug the Territory by a
line running east and west was agitated, and the
measure finally prevailed. Steps were taken
by the ])eople of lioth sections for admission
into the Union. Montana, with her one hun-
dred and forty-five thousand seven hundred
and seventy-six square miles of territory, had
meanwhile acquired a sufficient population ;
and Washington Territory, with its area of
sixty-nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-
four square miles, also knocked for admission.
In the closing days of the Fiftieth Congress a
bill was passed raising all these four Territo-
ries— South Dakota, North Dakota, Montana
and Washington — to the plane of Statehood.
The Act contemplated the adoption of State
Constitutions, an<l a in'oclamation of admission
by the next President. It thus happened that
the honor of bringing iu this great addition to
the States of the Union was divided between
the outgoing and incoming .\d ministrations.
Another Act of Congress was also of
National importance. Hitherto the Govern-
ernment had been administered through seven
Departments, at the head of each of which
was placed a Cabinet iiffi<'er, the seven together
constituting the advisers df the President.
No provision for such an arrangement exists
in the Constitution of the United States; but
the statutes of the Nation provide for such a
system as most in accordance with the Repub-
lican form of government. Early in 18SH a
measure was brought forwanl in Congress,
and adopted, for the institution of a new de-
partment, to be called the Department of
Agriculture. Practically the measure involved
the elevation of what had previously been an
Agricultural Bureau in the Department of the
Interior to the rank of a Cabinet office.
Among foreign nations, France has been con-
spicuous for the patronage which the Govern-
ment has given to the agricultural pursuits of
that countrv. Hitherto in the United States.
though agriculture has been the greatest of all
the producing interests of the people, it has
been neglected for more political and less use-
ful departments of American life and enter-
prise. By this act of Congress the Cabinet
offices were increased iu number to eight in-
stead of seven.
Benjamin Harrison, twenty-third President
of the United States, was born at North Bend,
Ohio, on the 20th of August, 1833. He is
the son of John Scott Harrison, a prominent
citizen of his native State ; grandson of Presi-
dent William Henry Harrison; great-grandson
of Benjamin Harrison, signer of the Declara-
tion of Independence. In countries where at-
tention is paid to honorable lineage, the circum-
stances of Genei-al Harrison's descent would
be considered of much importance; but in
America little attention is paid to one's-
ancestry, and more to himself.
Harrison's early life was passed, as that of
f)tber American boys, in attendance at school
and at home duties on the farm. He was a
student at the institution called Farmers' Col-
lege for two years. Afterwards he attended
Miami University, at Oxford, Ohio, and was
graduated therefrom in June, 1852. He took
in marriage the daughter of Dr. John W. Scott,
president of the Oxford Female College. After
a course of study he entered the profession of
law, removing to Indianapolis and establishing^
himself in that city. With the outbreak of
the war he became a soldier of the Union, and
rose to the rank of Brevet Brigadier-General
of Volunteers. Before the close of the war he
was elected Reporter of Decisions of the
Supreme Court of Indiana.
In the period following the Civil War,
General Harrison rose to distinction as a
civilian. In 1876 he was the unsuccessful
candidate of the Republican party for Gov-
ernor of Indiana. In 1881 he was elected to
the United States Senate, where he won the
reputation of a leader and statesman. In 1884
his name was prominently mentioned in con-
nection with the Presidential nomination of
his party, luit 'Sir. Blaine was successful.
After the lapse of four years, however, it was
found at Chicago that General Harrison, more
than any other, combined in himself all the
elements of a successful candidate; and the
event iustified the choice of the party in
THE UNITED STATES.—LATEST PERIOD.
making him the standard-bearer in the en>uiiig
campaign.
General Harrison was, in aecinilance with
the usages of the Gnvmiiiieiit, inauguratfd
President on tlie 4tli ..f Manh, l^s'.i. He
had succeeded better tlian any of his prede-
cessors iu keeping his own counsels during the
interim between his election and the inaugura-
tion. Ko one had discerned 1:
all waited with interest the e:
pressions of his Inaugural X'
■dress. In that document he -i
forth the policy which he woul
favor as the Chief Executu
recommending the same gem i
measures whicli the Repulilu u
party had advocated duinii: tin
campaign.
On the day fcjilowiug the m
augural ceremonies, Pie~idtnt
Harrison sent in the nomuia
tidus fur his Cabinet (ifhci-, a^
follows: F...r Secretary nt st ,t,
James G. Blaine, of :Mauie ;
for Secretary of the Treasury,
William Wiudom, of MinneMit;i ;
for Secretary of War, Redtivlil
Proctor, of Vermont; for Sec-
retary of the Navy, Beujauiiii
F. Tracy, of New York; ior
Postmaster-General, John Wan-
amaker, of Pennsylvania; iiir
Secretary of the Interior, .Tnhn
W. Noble, of Missouri; for At-
torney-General, William H. H.
Miller, of Indiana ; and f.r Se-
retary of Agriculture — the ne
department — Jeremiah Rusk, ( i
Wisconsin. These appoin
firmed bv the S, nate, an.l tl,
the centennial anniversary of the :
of Washington, at New York Ci
the ceremonies connected with the '
tinn, in 1889, wore ass.iciated, as
tii-ilile, with the scenes of the first i
The event was so interesting in i
distinctlv National, as to warrant
nauguration
ty. All of
■If, and so
few para-
members
of the
ne
istration
assumec
1 t
duties.
With
n two n
int
guration.
an even
t n,
mind of
the Am.
rie;
incidents
of the
i;-
event in
questioi
w:
Celebr.vtiox of
Tl
American Rp:pubi,ii
selected
was the
.30t
Adii
hei
■thcial
The
the vrar 177(3
:!.S
UyiVEBSAL HISTORY. — THE MODEBX WOULD.
3. The adoptinii -..t the CnnMilutiun l.y the
States.
4. The lustitutiuu uf tlie ^Cw (iuvernmeut.
The D.-rhiralinii nf lii.lepeii.lfiire ua* a
demorratir
t"'l'
;v..lul
15 V
the
alleg-iauee of the UI<1 Thirteen Colonies to the
Mother Couutry was finally broken off. It
was essentially destruetive in its character.
The first sta.<;-es of all revolutions have this
distinctive aspect. They destroy. It remains
for a subsequent movement to rebuild. The
revolution, in its first intent, al)olisiies and
obliterates an existing order. It implies that
the people have borne as long as possible
some system which presses upon them, as if it
were chains and fetters. It is to Ijreak the
chains — real or imaginary — to throw off the
fetters, that the revolution liegins its career.
Such was the case with our own destruetive iu-
iurrectiou of 1776. It was leveled against the
existing order, and was most happily successful.
In the second stage, we have another
aspect. It was not long after the achievement
of independence until the Revolutionary
patriots came to .see that mere independence
W'as not enough ; that mere destruction of
popular abuses could not suffice fir the future
of Aiuerica. Acting from the.se sentiments,
the Fathers began to considt about rebuilding,
or building anew, a structure in which civil
liberty in America might find an abiding
place. These discussions began almost as soon
as independence was clearly gained. Wash-
ington and his friends earnestly debated the
feasibility of a better system of L^iverniiient.
Conferences were held, first at JMnunt Vermm,
then at Annapolis; and finally a great conven-
tion of delegates was assembled at Philadelphia.
This occurred, as we have saiil. in the summer
of 17.S7, The result of the labors uf this
conveiitinn is well known. That siran-e eeni-
promise, called tlie Constitution of the Unitid
States, was produced and si-ned by the dele-
gates, with ^Vashin<rton as tlielr |ire-iileiit.
Thi-^, th.-n. wa-^ the Epneh of For.ual ion -the
second of our R.^volntionary cri-.-.
Immediately after till- event, a jierio,! of
political airitation. the first real and -enend
asritation known in the history of the United
S'tates. oeenrred. The new C.,n,-titntion, l:.i<l
bef.i-e tlie States wa- jhe bottom fact IVom
which the >tormv di-cu-Mon> of the next two
years sprang. Should that Constitution be-
adopted? or should it be rejected, and the old
Confederative system of government be con-
tiiiueil as hefue? (.)n the>e questions there
was a division of jiarties, and the contruversv
waxed violent. All the Old Thirteen States
were shaken from center to boundary-line.
In a former part of the present work,' the
story of the adoption of the Constitution by
the several States has been narrated ; nor is it
ueees.sary here to repeat the well-known
account of how, in State after State, a majority
of the delegates was at last secured in favor
of the new system of government. This epoch
of agitation, of controversy, and the final
adoption, is the third great crisis to which we
have made reference as iielonging to our
Revolutionary history.
j After the Constitution had been adopted
j by nine or ten of the States, came the striking
,; event of the institution of the New Govern-
ment. The paper model of that government
existed in the Constitution itself How \Va>li-
ington was unanimously chosen as first Chief
Magistrate of the New Republic, is known to
all the world. A Congress was constituted by
the election of a House of Representatives and
a Senate, in accordance with the provisions of
the new instrument. All things were maile
ready, as an architect might prepare materials
for a structure. Then came the actual build-
ing of the temple. The scene was in Old
New York — the Neu Y.irk of a hundred
fe Vol. III., pp. 619-620.
ew York ( 'ity, at tlie time of which we speak,
imited to the lower end of Manhattan Isl-
It was no more than a speck in comiiari-
ith the Centennial Metropolis of the Nation,
rthern limits were marked by the present
Hi; of the New York Times. Immediately
oi iliis lav a lake, called the Collect Pond.
otlielut
ire extension
e popuU
tion was ap-
. Watei
was distrib-
iniits, ail'
.Irawn in.m
H.l Toa-
vater rump,
,ne liV >1
still a c.
THE FXrrED STATES.- LATEST I'EEfOD.
It is an interesting liistorieal liy-study to
note with care the varying- sentiments witli
which the people of the United States contem-
plated the ceutenuial return of the ditiierent
crises above delineated. The masses were
warm in their affections towanls the destructive
revolution accomplished by the Dwlaration of
Independence and the war which followed.
They took more interest in the fact of in-
dependence and the means by which it was
accomplished than in any other part of the
Revolutionary drama. With what zeal and
success the centennial anniversary of the Dec-
laration was observed in 1876, in the city of
Philadelphia, has already been fully narrated.'
The second centennial, that is, the centennial
of the Formation of the Constitution, did not
awaken in the United States any considerable
degree of enthu.siasm. The people took little
interest in that part of our national history
covering the development of <iur new institu-
tional structure.
In 1887 there was in the city of Philadel-
phia an effort to commemorate the anniversary
of the Constitution, and some local interest
was excited in the event. But there was no
■wide-spread zeal, no throbbing of the popular
heart over the coming c,f that anniversary.
The same may be said with respect to observ-
ing the intermediate stages of the adoption of
the Constitution by the States. No celebrations
of more than local importance were held in
any State in commemoration of this event.
At the first, it was even doubted whether the
centennial of the Institution of the Govern-
ment itself could awaken sufficient public en-
thusiasm to warrant a national celeiiration.
Events, such as the formation of our Con-
stitution, its adoption by the people of the
States, and the setting up of the new form of
government instead of the olil, are not suf-
ficiently spectacular and heroic to .'^et the
masses aglow, and to produce the requisite
heat of a great national celebration. In New
York City, however, the event of 1789 could
not by any means be allowed to pass without
an effort to impress upon the minds of the
present generation the great movements of a
century gone by. The New York Historical
Society took the matter up. and as early as
' See pp.
:\rai-rh of 1SS4 a resolution was ad..pte,l to
undertake the enterprise uf a eeiiteiinial cel-
ebration, commemorative of the tnimdiiig of
the (Tovernment, and particiilaily of tin- in-
auguration of Washington as tiist I'n-i.lent.
Soon afterwards a public meeting was lield at
the Fifth Avenue Hotel, and f.rnial stejis
w-ere taken for the prosecution of the work.
It was not, hi>wever, until the close of 18''^7
that the enterprise was espoused by the
municipality. At that time a committee of
fortv-nine citizens, with Mayor Abram S.
Hewitt as chairman, was appointed for the
general supervisi.m I'f the project; and many
capitalists, military men, inerehants.and others,
gave their influence and their means for tlie
promotion of the cause.
At an early date it was determined that the
celebration should conform as nearly as practi-
cable to the ceremonies attending the actual
inauguration of Washington. About this
central idea all the other features of the event
were clustered. The celebration was totally
different in character from the great industrial
and art expositions which have constituted
the larger part of national centennial displays
and festivities. The jubilees of France, the
great World's Fairs of England, and <inr own
Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, in
1876, were of this kind. But in the ease of
the commemoration of the American Govern-
ment, at New York, the feature of exposition
was wholly omitted. Everything was de-
signed to point backward to the events of a
century ago, and to evoke, through the shadows
of several generations, a vivid reeoUeetion of
the manners and condition (jf the American
people when the Republic of 1789 was in-
stituted.
During the whole ..f 18S8, an<l the first
months of the centennial year, the prelimi-
naries of the celebration were prosecuted with
zeal. Meanwhile, the Presidential election had
been held, in which the temporary ascendency
of the Democratic party was replaced by Re-
publican success. Benjamin Harrison, of In-
diana, was chosen President. Ex-Prcsident
Cleveland retired at the close of his Adminis-
tration to New York City, and became a resi-
dent of that melropolis. Happily enough, the
ineoiiiiii'j: Chief Magistrate was intimately as-
i soeiated in liis family relations, with the great
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
P rth of tl (Ini h of Henei
6 Nation il Academy of Design
THE UyiTED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.
241
t'veiits of the Revnlutiou. His great-graod-
falher, also named Beujamiii Harrison, had
])resided in the Colonial Congress when the
Declaration of Independence was adopted, Mr.
Hancock being absent from the chair on
that ever-memorable da}". The son of that
distinguished statesman had become ninth
President of the United States, and now the
great-grandson was chosen by the election of
the American people to the same high office
and dignity.
It was decided by the committee to devote
two days, namely, the 30th of April and the
1st of May, to the celebration. For a fort-
night before these days, the great trains on
the railways centering in the metropolis began
to pour out an unusual cargo of human life.
The throngs were gathered from all parts of
the Republic, but principally from the Old
Thirteen States. For three days before the
opening of the celebration, the Atlantic coast
was visited with great rain-storms, which
threatened to mar all that had been attempted;
but the skies cleared, the air became fresh,
and the sunshine bright. The rise of the cen-
tennial morning was as auspicious as though
it were the dawning of the first day.
We may here speak of the general ajipear-
ance of the city. Every pains had been taken
to put the metropolis into gala dress and to
present to the eye the most inspiring spectacle.
Never was a city more completely clad in gay
apparel. Every street on both sides, as far as
the eye could reach, was ornamented with flags
and streamers, mottoes, and emblems of jubi-
lee. In this respect Broadway and Fifth Ave-
nue were the most elaborately and beautifully
adorned. It is doubtful whether in the his-
tory of mankind a finer display has been made
in the streets of any city. The decorations
extended to every variety of public and private
edifices. Scarcely a house on IManhattan Isl-
and but had its shai-e in the display. Indeed,
if one had been lifted in a balloon above old
Castle Garden, sweeping northward with his
glass, he would have seen flags on flags from
the Battery to Spuyten Duyvil. Along both
sides of the \nrth River and East River, and
in the islands of the bay, the universal em-
M-nis were thing to the breeze. And the
purest of sunshine glorified the scene with a
blaze of morning light.
Arrangements had been made for President
Harrison, Vice-President Morton, the members
of the Cabinet, and other prominent men con-
nected with the Government, to go to the city
from Washington. A magnificent train was
prepared for the accommodation of the com-
pany, and in the early morning of the 2;ith
of April, the distinguished party arrived at
Elizabeth, Kew Jersey, and were presently
conducted across the harbor in a gaily decked
steamer to the landing on the New York side.
The bay was covered with vessels, the ships
of foreign nations vying with those of the
United States in flinging their flags and
streamers to the breeze.
The part assigned to President Harrison in
the commemorative exercises was the part of
Washington. On the arrival of the Chief
^Magistrate, he was tendered jjublic receptions
at several places in the city; and in the
evening he attended a great liall in the ]\Iet-
ropolitan Opera-house, which had been pre-
pared in imitation of the Washingtonian ball,
given on the occasion of the first inauguration,
at wliirh the Father of his Country led the
first cotillion.
On the morning of the oOth of April
the people of New York, and the hundreds
of thousands of strangers gathered there,
poured into the streets to witness the great
military parade, which was the feature of the
day. Meanwhile, in the lower part of the
city, the exercises which had been planned in
imitation and commemoration of Washington's
accession to the Presidency were under way.
Wall Street and Broad Street were packed
with people. A great platform had been
erected in front of the Treasury Building, now
occupying the site of old Federal Hall, and
marked by the presence of Ward's colossal
statue of Washington. It was here that the
oratorical and literary exercises took place.
These consisted of a Centennial Oration by
Hon. Chauucey ^[. Dejiew ; also of an address
by President Harrisdu, of a poem written by
John Greenleaf Whittiei-. and of such re-
ligious services as were appropriate to the oc-
casion.
The accessories were all in keeping with
the occasinn. President Harrison sat in a
chair which had been Washington's. The
table al.-o was Washington's, and the Bible
UXrVERSAL HrSTOHY. — THE MODERX WORLD.
in the past and trusts the futn
by the President was also ah
The exercises were closed wi
r .Mr.
i' the
lieves
itfic!
Arc
Neu
In
hliisli.ip (Virriu-an, of the archdio
York,
the nicantinic, tlie military para(
ati'S
(if all snch displays in the Un
Ih.-
with the sin.t,de exceptiou nf the re\
<nl,li.-rs at Washington at the close
Ci
■t ..
•il War — was in preparation for
The ]iriiicipal streets in the h
the citv had been assigned for
mat
.,n of the varions divisions of
A nundier of magnificent carri
bearing the President, the Vice-President, the
members of the Cabinet, and other distinguished
representatives of the Government, swept up
to the head of the column, and led the way to
the great reviewing stand, whirli liad been
]irepared on the west side of iladisnn Sijuare,
looking down into Fifth Avenue. Here the
President and his companions took their places
to review the column as it passed, and for six
hours the Chief Magistrate stood up to recog-
capacity, the passing squad-
rons of the greatest
))iiade e\ei known
HI a tmie of peace
w est ot the Atlantic.
It ^leie difficult
t 1 desciihe the great
1 loce^sion It was
admiiably man-
iged — wholly mili-
ttn The different
dni-i n- were ar-
I iii.i 1 jn hies from
luhtc n to twenty-
\\\ I mt n abreast.
In nnn\ jilaces the
niauhnig was in
close lank so that
the knees of those
ui the iCTr rank
fitted ilmost geomet-
iicall> into those
ot the men in front.
The passage was at
the late (f more
than uuie thousand
peihrui The best
estimates 1 lace the
nundiei in line at
o\ei fift^ two thou-
sand Mijor-Gen-
eral John M. Schofield was commander-in-
chief The course of march was fr(jm Wall
Street into Broadway ; uj) Broadway to Wav-
erly Place; through Waverly Place into Filtli
Avenue; along that magnificent thoroughfare
to Fourteenth Street; thence around Union
Square to Fifth Avenue; and thence northwanl
to Central Park.
Through all this distance, and .ui b..th sides
of the street, was a solid ^vall of liunian be-
ings, rising to the rear by every kind of con-
THE rXITEh STATKS.-LATEST PERIOD.
trivance which iugeuuit.y cmilil invent, so as
to gain a view of the prucessinti. The mass on
the sidewalks was from twenty to fifty persons
deep. In evi
thousand regulars — infantry and eavali
drawn from the army; then came the cadets 1
West Point, whose marching, and tmifij
adv:
seats, had been
erected for the
accommodation of
the multitudes,
and Udt a ^eat w is
left unoccupitd
At the street-cioss
ings every vaiiety
of vehicle hid
been drawn u[),
and the privilege
of standing on
boxes, or sitting
in carts, wagons,
or hacks, was sol
at high figures to
the eager peiplr
who pressed iiit i
the crowd. A\ in
dows, and e\en
other avaihbli
point of view —
house-tops, btl
conies, stoops, \e
ran das — were
crowded to then
utmost capacity
In favorite Wxh
ties, fabulous
prices w e i e
charged for the
privilege of look
ing from a win-
dow upon the pass
i n g cavalca 1
The latter was i
we have said, pi
ceded by the Pi l-
idential coni[iaii\
General Sdinfi 11
senio r ;M a j o i
General of the
American army, as el
head of the column.
the van of the process
■ him, and leading
iper, were over two
v.n. of su.-h
excellence as
to ex-
if .■heors frn
n en.l to eml
.f the
X,'Xt followt
d the artiller
■and
CMVEKSAL HISTORY.-THE MOUKRS WOULD.
batteries of the regular army. ^lauy of ilie
guns, aud iiuicli of tbe armor, was resplemleiit
for its brilliancy. After tbese came the ma-
rines aud naval caik't>, a vast (•(iluiiiii nt ajipren-
tices, whose iiiarrh. by its i)t-culiar rolling
movement, dcnnted that the n.luiiiii had been
recently gathered from the dirk- of ships.
Thus closed the fir>l .HviMuu of the proces-
sion— that is, those who were taken from the
Army aud Navy of the United States. Then
followed tiie militiamen— the National Guards
of the diH'er.'iit States. At the head was a
fr(jm Delaware ; for Delaware had been frxt
of the Old Thirteen States to adopt the Con-
stitution, aud was thus given a place of honor
on the Centfiinial Ainiiversary. The Gov-
ernor of each State represented in the parade
rode at the head of the ilivisicm from his own
Commonwealth. ^lost of the Governors were
in civil attire. General Beaver, of Pennsyl-
vania; General Fitzhugh Lee, of Virginia;
aud General John B. Gordon, of Georgia,
were conspicuous at the head of their divisions.
It was noticed that those who were present
from the Southern States were received witli
unstinted applause. Governor Beaver rode at
the head of the Pennsylvania troops, number-
ing fully eight thousand men. Then came
Cioveruor Green, with the soldiers of New
Jersey, three thou.sand seven luindred strong;
then Georgia, with General Gordon aud liis
staff. The Foot Guards, from Connecticut,
preceded by the Governor, numbered six hun-
dred. Gioveruor Ames, of Massachusetts,
beaded the column of one thousand tive hun-
dred from the Old Bay State — a noble division,
coutaiuiug the Ancient aud Honorable Artil-
lery of Boston, all uniformed after the most
antique pattern. The men of INIarylaud were
five hundred strong. Then came New Hamp-
sliire; then Vermont, with a division of seven
hundred. (ioveni-.r Kiehanlson, of North
Carolina, foil., wed with a bo<ly <,f tive hun-
dred men. Thi> diviMon was fortunate in
bearine- an old Ha- l,eh,n-iii- to North Caro-
lina in the ]ire-i;evoliiiioiiarv epoch. After
this came the -nat division' of New York.
Twelve thousau.l men, arnui-e.l in f .ur bii-
ga.le- of ei-hteen regiments, one battalion, an.)
five batteri.s, were the contrilmtion of the
Empire State to the great disphiy. At the
head of the line rode Governor David B. Hill.
In this column the Seventh Regiment, made
up of prominent nieu of New York City, and
numbering over one thousand, was, perhaps,
the most conspicuous siugle body in the whole
jirocession. The Twenty-second Regiment vied
\\ith its rival: and it lidght be difficult to de-
cide whether the palm for marching and other
evidences of elegant training should be awarded
to the West Point Cadets, the Seventh Regi-
ment of New York, the Tweuty-secoud Regi-
ment of th<' same State, the squadron from the
.Miehi-au Military Academy, or the Twenty-
third Regiment, of Brooklyn.
Behind this magnificent display of the mil-
itary came the veterans of the Civil War, the
men of the Grand Army of the Republic,
headed by their Commander-in-Chief, General
William Warner. These were arranged column
after eohnnn to an aggregate of twelve thou-
sand, according to the locality from which they
were gathered, the rear being closed with a
magnificent body of old soldiers, uumbering
nearly four thousand, fi'om Brooklyn and
Kings County, New York. It was already
nightfall when this extreme left of the column
passed the reviewing stand, aud the parade for
the day was at an end.
The evening of the 30th was occupied with
one of the most elaborate and sumptuous ban-
quets ever spread in the United States. For
this purpose the Metropolitan Opera-house, in
Broadway, had been procured aud decorated.
It was claimed b}- those experienced in such
matters that the floral ornamentation of the
hall was far superior iu costliness and beauty
to auvthing of like kind ever before dis-
played in the country. The boxes of the the-
ater were adorned with the National colors
and with the .shields and coats-of-arms of the
various States of the Union. Over the pros-
cenium arch was a portrait of Washington, ar-
ranireil iu a cluster of evergreens and flowers.
The auditorium was brilliantly illuminated,
and the scene of .splendor on every hand
might well dazzle the eye and surprise the
imagination of the beholder. The banqueters,
cmbraeiiiL' manv of the chief men of the Na-
tion, were >eated at a series (,f tables, the first
and principal one being occupied by the Pres-
ident of the United States, the Governor of
New York, the Vice-President, the Lieuten-
THE UXITED STATES.— LATEST rKRIOD.
245
aut-Governor, Cliief-Ju>tirc Fuller, . J lul^f An-
drews, General SchutieM, A.hniial I'.u'ter, Sen-
ator Evarts, Seuatdi- Iliscock, Kx-l'ri'sidcnt
Hayes, Ex-President Clevi-hin.l, liisliup Put-
ter, Speaker Cole of the Xfw V.n-k Assem-
bly, Secretary Proctor, H.m. S S. (\,x-, ( um-
eral William T. Sherman, Clarence \\ . B.iwen,
and Elbridge T. Gerry, the last two represent-
ing the Citizens' Committee. At tliis taljle
Mayor Grant presided, and read the toasts of
the evening.
The feast began at nineo'clock iu the evening.
At the close, a series of brief addresses were
delivered by the Governor of New York, E.\;-
President Cleveland, Ex-President Hayes,
General Sherman, Senator Evarts, President
Eliot of Harvard, James Russell Lowell,
Senator Daniel, and others. The closing
address was by the President of the United
States. Nearly all the speeches were faultless
in their subject-matter, eloquent in delivery,
and worthy to be regarded as classics of the
occasion.
The programme prepareil l)y the Citizens'
Committee embraced a general liciliilay of
three days' duration, during whi<-h luisiness
was suspended throughout the city. On the
29th and 30th of April and on the Lst day of
May the restricticm was faithfully regarded.
One might traverse Broadway and find but
few business establishments upen to the [lulilic.
This W'as true particularly of the two piinei-
pal days of the festival.
It now remains to notice the great civic
parade of the 1st of May, with which the j
commemorative exercises were concluded.
The design was that this .should represent the '
industries, the progress, and in general the
civic life of the Metropolis of the Nation and
of the country at large, as distinguished from
the military display of the preceding day.
It was found from the experience of the 30th
that the line of march was too lengthy, and
the second day's course was made somewhat
shorter. It is not intended in this connection
to enter into any elaborate account of the civic
procession of the third day. It was second
only iu importance to the great military
parade which had preceded it. The procession
was composed, in large part, of those various
civic orders and brotherhoods with which
modern society so much abounds. In these I
the foreign nationalities, which have obtained
so large a footing in New York City, were
largely prevalent. The German societies were
out iu full force. Coni|ianies repiv-enting
almost every nation of the < )ld World were
in the line, carrying gay Ijanners, keeping
step to the music of magniiicent bauds, and
proudly liftiug their mottoes and emblems in
the May-day morning.
The second general feature of this proces-
sion was the historical part. The primitive
life of Manhattan Island, the adventures of
the early explorers and discoverers along the
American coast, the striking incidents in the
early annals of the Old Thirteen States, were
allegorized, and mounted in visible form on
chariots, and drawn through the streets. All
the old heroes of American History, from
Columbus to Peter Stuyvesant, were seen again
in mortal form, received obeisance, and heard
the shouts of the multitudes. From ten o'clock
, in the forenoon till half-past three in the after-
I noon the procession was under way, the princi-
pal line of march being down Fifth Avenue
and through the principal squares of the city.
With the coming of evening the pyrotechnic
display of the preceding night was renewed in
many parts of the metropolis, though it could
hardly be said that the fire-works were equal
in brilliancy, beauty, and impressiveness to the
magnificent day pageants of the streets.
One of the striking features of the celebra-
tion was the ease and rapidity with which the
vast multitudes were breathed into and
j breathed out of the city. In the principal
hotels fully one hundred and fifty thousand
' strangers were registered as guests. More
than twice this number were distributed
in the smaller lodging-houses and private
dwellings of New York and Brooklyn. Yet
the careful observer abroad in the streets
saw neither the coming nor the going. With
the appearance of the days of the celebration
the throngs were j)resent : on the following
days they were gone. The great railways
centering in the metropolis had done their
work noiselessly, speedily, efiectively. It may
well be recorded as one of the marvels of
modern times that only two persons are said
to have lost their lives in this tremendous
assemblage, extending through several days,
and that at least one of these died suddenly
■241
UMVERSAL ITISTnny. — THK MODERN WORLD.
from heart disease, while the inannrr of the
death of the other was Linkiiown. Su.li is the
triumph whieli the mastery of the liiimaii
easily achieved in our age, under the gLiidaiji-o
of that beuefi(*nt science Viy which the world is
at once enlightened and [n-otcctcd from <lam;er.
The close of the year is.s.s and the liegin-
uiug of 1880 were marked by a peculiar
episode in the hi>tory ot the country. Au
unexpected and even dangerous complication
ai-ose between the Uuited States and Germany
relative to the Sanioan Islands. This com-
paratively unimportant group of the (South
Pacific lies in a south-westerly direction, at a
distance of about five thousand miles from
Sau Francisco, and nearly two thousand miles
eastward from Australia. The long-standing
policy of the Government, established under
the Administration of Washington and ever
since maintained, to have no entanglements
with foreign nations, seemed in this instance
to be strangely at variance with the facts.
Dui'ing 1888 the civil aflairs of the Samoau
Islands were thrown into extreme confusion
by what was really the progressive disposition
of the people, but what appeared in the garb
of an insurrection against the established au-
thorities. The Government of the islands is a
monarchy. The country is ruled by native
princes, and is independent of foreign powers.
The capital, Apia, lies on a bay of the same
name on the northern coast of the principal
island. It was here that the insurrection
gained greatest headway.
The revolutionary movement was headed
by an audacious chieftain called Tamasese.
The king of the island was Malietoa, and las
chief supporter, Mataafa. At the time, the
German Empire was represented in Samoa by
its Consul-General, Herr Weber, and the
United States was represented by Hon. Harold
]M. Sewall. A German armed force virtually
deposed Malietoa, and set up Tamasese on the
throne. On the other hand, the representative
of the Uuited States, following the policy of
his Government, stood liy the established an-
tics in the iskmd were tlins l)ronoht
fli<'t, and serious difiiculties occuricd
the ships of the two nations in the h;
When the news of this state of affairs
reached < ierniany, in April, 1889, several ad-
ditional men-of-war were sent out to the island
to uphold the German cause. Mataafa and
the Germans were thus brought to war.
.^reaiiwhile the American Government took up
the cause of its Gonsnl, and of King Malietoa,
as against the insurrection. A section of the
Amei-ican navy was desj)atched to the distant
island, and the ships of war of two of the great-
est nations of Christendom were thus set face
to face ill a harbor of the South Pacific Ocean.
In this condition of afiairs, on the 22d of
March, 1880, one of the most violent hurri-
canes ever known in the islands blew up from
the north, and the American and German
war-vessels were driven upon the great reef
which constitutes the only breakwater outside
of the harbor of Apia. Here they were
wrecke<l. The American war-ships Nipsic,
Trenton, and Vdinkdia were dashed into ruins.
The German vessels, Adler, Olga, and Eber,
were also lost. The English vessel, Calliope,
which was caught in the storm, was the only
war-ship which escaped, by steaming out to
sea. Serious loss of life accompanied the dis-
aster : four American officers and forty-six
men, nine German officers and eighty-seven
men. sank to rise no more.
Meanwhile, England had become interested
in the dispute, and had taken a stand with the
United States as against the decision of Ger-
many. The matter became of so great im-
portance that President Harrison, who had, in
the meantime, acceded to office as Chief Mag-
istrate, appointed, with the advice of the Sen-
ate, an Embassy Extraordinary, to go to Berlin
and meet Prince Bismarck in a conference,
with a view to a peaceful solution of the diffi-
culty. The Ambassadors appointed for this
purpose were J. A. Kasson, of Iowa; William
W. Phelps, of New- Jersey ; and G. H. Bates,
of Delaware. The Commissioners set out on
the loth of A)>ril, and, on their arrival at the
capital of the German Empire, opened nego-
tiations with the Chancellor Bismarck and his
son. The attitude and demand of the Amer-
ican Government was that the inde]iendence
be acknowlediied.and guaranteed, by the great
nations concerned in the controversy. The
conference closed in ]\Iay, 1889, with the res-
THE UMTED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.
toratiou of King Malietoa, and the recoguitiou
of his sovereignty over tl;e island.
The closing week of ^lay, 1889, was made
foi-ever memorable in the history of the United
States by the destruction of Johnstown, Penn-
sylvania. The calamity was causeil Ijy the
bursting of a reservoir and the ])oiu'inir out of
a deluge iu the valley lielnw. A large artifi-
cial lake had been constructed in the ravine of
the South Fork River, a tributary of the
Couemaugh. It was a fishing lake, the prop-
erty of a company of wealthy sportsmen, and
was about five miles in length, varying in depth
from fifty to one hundred feet. The country
below the lake was thickly peopled. The
city of .Johnstown lay at the junction of the
South F.irk with the Conemaugh. In the last
days of May unusually heavy rains fell iu all
that region, swelling every stream to a tor-
rent. The South Fork Lake became full to
overflowiug. The dam had been imperfectly
CI instructed. On the afternoon of May 31st
the ilam of the reservoir burst wide open in
the center, and a solid wall of water from
twenty to fifty feet in height rushed down the
valley with terrific violence.
The destruction which ensued was as great
as the modern world has witnessed. In the
path of the deluge every thing was swept away.
Jiilinstown was totally wrecked, and was
thrown iu an indescribable heap of horror
against the aqueduct of the Pennsylvania rail-
way, below the town. Here the ruins caught
fire, and the shrieks of hundreds of victims
were drowned in the holocaust. About three
thousand people perished in the tlnod or were
burned to death in the ruins. The heart of the
Nation responded quickly to the sufferings of
the survivors, and millions of dollars in money
and supplies were poured out to relieve the
despair of those who survived the calamity.
The year 1889 witnessed the assembling at
Washington City of an International Congress.
The body was composed of delegates from the
Central and South American States, from
Mexico, and the United States of America.
Popularly the assembly was known as the
"Pan-American Congress." The event was
the culmination of a policy adopted by the
United States some years previously. General
Grant, during his Presidency, and in the sub-
sequent j)eriod of his life, had endeavored to
1 promote more intimate relations with the S])au-
ish-American peoples. James G. Blaine, Sec-
! retary of State under Garfield, enteriained a
similar ambition. That statesman was accused
I of a purpo.se to create iu the Unitcil Stati-s a
policy similar to Disraeli's liigh-jiniiniMn in
Great Britain. The United States wciv t.. he-
come the arbiter of the Western nations. Tci
this end the Central American and South
American States must be brought, first into
iutimacy with our Republic, and aftcrwarils
be made to f )llow her lead iu warding ofl' all
Europeanism.
The death of Garfield prevented the insti-
tution of some such policy as that here vaguely
defined. Nevertheless, in 1884, an Act was
passed l)y Congress, authorizing the President
to appoint a commission "to ascertain and
report upon the best modes of securing more
intimate international commercial relations be-
tween the United States aud the several coun-
tries of Central and South America." Com-
missioners were sent out to the countries
referred to, and the movement for the Con-
gress was started. Not until May of 1888,
however, was the Act passed providing for the
Congre.ss. The Spanish American nations re-
sponded to the overtures, aud took the neces-
sary steps to meet the United States in the
conference. The objects contemplated were,
first, to promote measures pertaining to the
peace and prosperity of the peoples concerned ;
to establish customs-unions among them; to
improve the means of communication between
the ports of the States represented, and to ad-
vance the commercial interests and political
harmony of the nations of the New World.
The Spanish-American and Portuguese-
American States, to the number of nine, ap-
pointed their delegates, and the latter arrived
in the United States iu the autumn of 1889.
President Harrison on his ]iart named ten
members of the Cougress as follows: John F.
Hanson, of Georgia; Morris M. E.tee, of
California; Henry G. Davis, of West \'ir-
ginia; Andrew Caruegie, of Pennsylvania; T.
Jeflt^'rson Coolidge, of Massachusetts : Clement
Studehakcr. of Indiana: Charles It. Flint, of
Ncu- York; AVilliani H. Tnscot. ot Sonth
Carolina; Cornelius N. Bliss, of New Yck ;
aud John B. Hcndcr.-on, of :\Iis,-onii. Mexico
sent two representatives, namely : Matias
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
Romero and Eiirirjiic A. Alexia. Brazil, .-till
an Empire, also sent two delegates: J. G. do
Aniaral Valente and Salvador de ]\Ieudonga.
The representative of" Ilnnduras was Jeronimo
Zelaya Fernando C'niz, the delegate of Gua-
temala, and Jai-into Castellanos of San Salva-
dor, ('".-ta liica .-ent as her representative
Manuel Araj^nn. Horatio Guzman, Minister
of Xiearagiia, represented his Government in
the Congress. The Argentine Republic had
two delegates: Roque Saenz Pena and Manuel
Quintana. Chili sent two delegates : Emilio
C. Varas and Jose Alfonso. The representa-
tives of the United States of Colombia were
Jose M. Hurtado, Carlos Martinez Silva, and
Climaco Calderon. The delegates of Vene-
zuela were Nicanor Bolet Peraza, Jose An-
drade, and Francisco Antonio Silva ; that of
Peru was F. C. C. Zegarra ; that of Ecuador,
Jose Maria Plaeido Caamano ; that of Uru-
guay, Alberto Nin ; that of Bolivia, Juan F.
Velarde; that of Hayti, Arthur Laforestrie;
and that of Paraguay, Jose S. Decoud.
The representatives met in Washington City
in October. Committees were formed to report
to the body suitable action on the subjects which
might properly come before it for discussion.
From the first the proceedings took a peculiarly
practical direction. The great questions of
commerce were at the bottom of the reports, the
debates, and the actions which followed. Nor
can it be doubted that the movement, as a
whole, conduced in the highest degree to the
friendship, prosperity, and mutual interests
of the nations concerned.
At the same time, an International Mari-
time Conference, for which provisions had
been made in the legislation of several na-
tions, convened at Washington. In this case
the States of Europe were concerned in com-
mon with those of the New World. All the
maritime nations were invited by the act of
Congress to .send representatives to the Na-
tional Capital in the following year, to con-
sider the possibility of establishing uniform
rules and regulations for the government of
vessels at sea, and for the adoption of a com-
mon system of marine signals. Twenty-six na-
tions accepted the call of the American Govern-
ment, and appointed delegates to the Congress.
They, too, as well as the representatives of the
Pan-American Conference, held their sittings in
November and December of 1889. The same
practical ability and good sense, as related to
the subjects under consideration, were shown
by the members of the Maritime Conference
as by those of the sister body, and the results
reached were equally encouraging and equally
gratifying, not only to the Government of the
United States, but to all the countries whose
interests were involved in the discussions.
The history of the United States has been
traced in the present Book from the Treaties
of Ghent and Vienna, in 1815, to the dawn of
yesterday. The Republic has passed through
stormy times, but has at last entered her sec-
ond century of Nationality in safety and
peace. The clouds that were recently so black
above her have sunk behind the horizon. The
equality of all men before the law has been
written with the iron pen of war in the Con-
stitution of the Nation. The Union of the
States has been consecrated anew by the blood
of patriots and the tears of the lowly. The
temple of freedom, reared by the Fathers, still
stands in undiminished glory. The Past has
TAUGHT ITS LesSOX, THE PRESENT HAS IT&
Duty, and the Future its Hope, o^
' ins Ml
s z s g- : : 5
1. o - " : s s
'' liilll!
iBcinfv 6ainiltj- Srrnnb.
OR RAT BRITAIN
Chapter CXXVIi— last Two hax\:overiaxs.
iHE smoke. if the Battle of
Waterlno mlled l,;u-k tu
J the l,unl,.rs ,,f P.rl;;i,i,n,
; an.l then to the eontiiies
j[ of Europe. A (irl.l of
i, ilesolatiou was irveahd
y without a parallel in nio,l-
eru history. The wrei'ks lay hcapi'il on every
coast. It was at once apparent that a l.lo.i,ly
transformation hail been etti'ete,! amoni;- tlie
Western nations. Nor nii-ht the pre<eienee
of statesman or philosopher discover in the ( x-
isting condition the true results of the Kevo-
lutionary conflict.
One of the first facts diseoveral.le in the
then condition of We.stern Ivirope- was that
Great Britain had been least of all >haken
from lier political moorings. It was discerned,
as the roar of battle receded to the horizon,
that England had, even through the epoch of
turmoil and violence, held on her tedious an.l
labored course, like a heavy ship, toiling with the
breakers, battered with the st<jrms, but, never-
theless, essentially sound in her structure. It
could hut be acknowledged, moreover, that
Great Britian only had emerged from the con-
flict of twenty years' duration with military
honor and civil pi'ecedence. It was by the
indomitable couraee ,,f the English soldiers,
a- much as by the half-accidental coming of
r.luclier, that the Impei'ial eagle of France
had been struck to the dn>t on the plateau of
;\Iont St. Jean. Throniih his whole career,
the Cor>ican had found -tlier foe which he
so much dreaded as Kn-laiid. With that all-
the field of Europe an,l made it the chess-
board for his ,nij,ty ,L:ame, he recognized that
th.. plaver \\ho >at in the foes .,f the British
IMand-'washis real antagoni-t^ He well knew
that the free institutions ,,f Ei,i;land, as «ell
as the native vigor .,f the Knuli-h race, had
.■.mspire.l to ,leve|op in the Saxon Isles a civil
perial France might well stand in awe. Dur-
ing the whole period of the Repul.ilic, the
Consulate, and the Empire, the Government
of Great Britain maintained an attitude of
sullen and unyielding hostility, first to the re-
pulilican tendencies of the French Nation, but
more particularly to Napoleon himself. On
many occasions the conduct of England to-
wanis France was of a kind not to be justified
d)le d:
imetimes, indeed,
(?o3)
•2o4 UyiVERSAL HJ.^TOJiV.
tlie English ministry crossed the hdrdor-line of
perfidy in its proeeediugs with Bouajiarte. But
ill such iustauees tlie Englisli inMipie, consider-
ing the charai'tiT and |)iinciiilc's of the i'n- witli
whom tiii-y had to dval, found little difticulty
in frainiii- a juMilicatiuu tor the course pur-
sued l,y their 'rulers.
In otlier re-peels the policv .if Great
Britain was nio.e honurahle, nmre e.miniend-
ahh". As a rule, >he <(.„.,( >toutly to her
liuiedinnored prnHMjile ,,f nou-interferenee in
the art;iir> (.f other Siat.->. Nnr di.l she, after
Waterloo, notwithstanding her an,-er and heat
the di>nie,„l,ern.ent an. I |.artiti..u of Frane.^.
And what i> ..f mni-h inor.' inii,..rtau.'e, she .1.-
t.. hecnie a party t.,' that unh..ly H,.lv Alli-
ance, wherehy her chief partueis in the la>t
great struggle witii Xaii.il.-.m n.nv pr..ii.iseil t.>
direct the .lestinies of l-hiroin'. It may ]ii-
profitable to tii.- rea.ler in tlii< .■oniie.-tioi, to
elucidate in hrief tli.' gene.d> ami character ..f
the so-calle.l H..ly Allian.-...
Ma.lanie the Ban.ne- Krii.l..u.-r was a
in her palmy .h,y>, an.l a my-ii.- when her
thine.. n >!,.• travel.M tlir..u-h tlm principal
.■iti.-s .,f Europe. Her wealth wtt^ gi.^tit. her
ace.miplisltmeiits ntaitv. At l.ai-tli priii.vs
s.inie .-ense, her tov<. After' iso:; ,hr ivm.I.-.I
in.,stlv iti Paris. Aft.awar.ls >h,. r.turn.-.l t..
Riga, and .lev.-t.Ml h.^r^.-lf to r.^ligio,,. nn>-
tiei>ni. A-ain at I'ari-, iti 1M4, ^u■ fin.l h.a-
in her .salon, ree.iving th.- \ isit> of ni.mar.-hs.
She beeaiii.' a pr.iphi'te>s — tif < 'as-an.lra ot' th.'
ni..dern Ilitini. Sh.- ior..t..ld th.. vi,-i-itu.l..s
..f th.- ht~t year ..f the Nap.,le.,nie rniiuw.
Ahxan.l.a- ..f Ktrsda met h.T at H.-ilhn.nn a
n th h.dori- Waferlo.i, an.l became infatnate.l
with her an.l her .h.ctrines. Henceforth, f.r
.-.■veral years, she ni.iveil the Czar acording
to the impulse of hi-r reverie and purjiose.
Strange that this woman sluudd have con-
tribiit.Ml s.) n.ivel a chapter t.i the lii.story of
111. 1.1. 'Ill I'^ur.ipe as that reorde.I in the ])ages
of the H..ly Alliance!
It was on the 26th of Septemher, isi-'),
that the league so-called was ma.le. The
parties to the compact were Alexander I., of
THK MODERX \V<il:Ll>.
Kti>sia : Eniper.ir Francis, of Austria: and
Frederick William HI., of Prussia, To the
AUituice, however, nearlv all the other P.)wers,
ex.-ept It.aiie, Engla.i.l, "an.l Fran.-e, .soon ac-
w.a-e arrang.-.l f.,r the m..>t part by Alexan.ler,
.Ma.lanm Krii.hner. The O.ar was then in
.-hil
1 with the 1
.roplu-t.— .
■fh,. Alliaii....a-piiv,l
to 1
... n.. l.-ss t
hail a n.-u
ba>i> f.r th.. p.ilith.al
or.f
er an.l .■..n.
In.-t, n..t ,1
nlv ..f Eur.. p.., hut .d"
the
w.,rl.l. T
' "U'^i
.•t a>.Minii-.l t.. be the
app
an.l
tian
itv ..on>i(l.
1.1 u.. mi-
n.-.., ..f th
■ivd a> a 1
lit say the codificati.in
e principles of Chris-
u.-ans and metho.l of
poll
li.'al ai'ti.i
il was t.i
n. H.n..
b.. a .li-ti
..f.rth, .-ivil g.,v,.rn-
Clu
The
istian in a
■ .'^lat..s ..f
Europ.'. V
\er.- t.. ..oiidii.-t th.-ir
C'hri>t.ii.l..m, are t.. b.. th.. l-atrian-hs an.l
talh..rs ..f th.- pe..ple. It might be .lilK.-ult to
wh., e..mplete.l an.l >igne,l the Alliance w.-re
selt-.le.-(-ive.l in r.-p.-.-t t.i the nature anil iu-
evitalih- t.ii.h.m.i..- of their agreement. But
the whole phil.'sophi.-al m.-aning an.l ]iurport
of the conipa.-t mii:ht w.-Il be sumnie.l up in
the one drea.lful wiii.l — (/..^/.e/.'sio.
The three uionarchs sigue.l the Alliance in
September of 1.S1.5. But the contents of the
ai;reenient were not kn.iwn to Europe until
the L.'.l .if l-'ebruary, l."-<l(i, when the jiaper
was publish, ,1 in full in the Frankf irt Jminial.
<> if th.. sp.'.'ial teatures of the instrument
was that by which all members of the Boua-
part.- hiniily were to he forever excludeil, not
only from the thron.- ..f Franc.', hut from all
the sovereiguties of P^urop... Th.- monar.'lis
were very sinc'ere in th.'ir pr.ije.'t, as we shall
]iublican an.l rev.'luti.mary nioveineius of
FSL'0-24. The Piepuhlicans of Naples aud
Pie.linont. of Spain, and of France herself, shall
feel, in ftdl force, the residts of the scheme
c.intriv.'.l hy Krn.lener ami Alexander. N.)t
until th.' latter has been calle.l t.i hi^ account —
not until fifteen years have passed away aud a
n.'w rev.ilution in France shall have driven the
Elder Branch of the House of Bourbon into
GREAT IIRITATX.—LAST TWO HAXOVERIAXS.
perpetual exile— shall the elti-rts nf the Iloly
AlliaiKv sink into the earth an. I .lisii.iMar.
To thr L'Verla>tiii^' eriMlit of (in-at Uritain
Ik- it sai.l, that .*he lia.l nn ,,;,i-| or lot in the
conq.aet. S|„. st 1 out a^jain-t all l.h.n.li>h-
ments. No in(lu<-L-nient> r.aihl he i,ffrvv,\, n..
motive suggested, to seduee her from her im-
memorial policj' of uou-ioterfereiiee in the af-
fairs of foreigu States. Geori^-e Canning, at
that time British Minist^a- of Fnroi-u AHiiirs,
sotight with all his rniglit and inllumee to
cotinteract the effects of the hypocritical com-
pact by which it was sotight to combine the
onsly cultivated to the elo-r i,f hi- r.i-n.
(Juing to his rr.airring paroxysms of insanity,
establishment of the Regency in 1811. George
Augustus Frederick, Prince of Wales, became
liegent in conseipience of his l'atht'r"s malady,
and by the act of Parliament. It is a notiJe-
able liiet in the hislory of Kngland that the
Heir-Apparent to ihc thi'ono ncaily aluavs,
during his minoiity, and up to tlic timt- of his
accession, adopts _tlie p(jlitiral principles and
espouses the cause of the Opposition. The
Xi
powers of Europe in a nniviaval family de;
potism.
No adeijuate idea can be acrpiircd of th
political and civil history of Great Britain i
the period immiMliatolv succeeding the X;
poleonic wars witliont taking into considcratio
the character of the reigning dynasty. Th
fir.st two princes of the line of Hanover-Bnne
wick had been fireigners — Germans, speakin
the German tongue, undcr-tandin- hut littl
of the genius and tendency of FaiLilish insiiti
tions. With the acce-
however, a new era opia
on the part of the yoni
ereign. It is not the pla
the rei^ni of Georo-e III.
ad popnla
winch to
lotc the e
leaders of the
adopted the po
pai
icv
possible, from
reitrnintr kintr.
Prince Recent
fell under the
th'e
Th
do,
Parliament, ai
d'\
pnictices'ordn
U'
always
ince, if
hi-s. He
loiienls in
Fox a. id
■ihlcs and
lie social exe
III., leade
It w;
> nito
those
■oken
It the
nt, it
ryiVEL'SAL iustoi;y~the moderx would.
coul.l ha
•,11\
1.- sxid t
Kit III.- iiiililai
V -i,l,.n-
C'astl.'. \\v
inav li.-i
' |.au-
■ fnl
a moiiK
lit to
dors of t
ic
imi' fnCUSl
1 nearthr tliiML
u. Tlie
notice the cli
u-acter :
n.l .li-
l"Sit
on „f hi
sue-
maflneps
of
the iinniin
il kin- wa- la-
-htcned
cessor, Geoi-i;-
. IV.
bv his hlimlnefs, and ou the 29th of .Taiuiarv,
1820, he passed away, being then in the eighty-
second year of his age, and the sixtieth of
His
laid
uilts
awav
at \Vi
George AiigustiisFiederick. Prince of Wales,
who now acceded to the throne, with the title
of George IV., was the first of the nine sons
of George III. From liis l.irtli he had been
noted f<ir liis comeliness of person. He- liad
GREAT BRITAIN.— LAST TWO HAy()]'KJ!lAXS.
an ease of carriage and a grace of luauuer
which gained for him at an early age the so-
briquet of "the Gentleni:ui George;" liut long
before he readied his majority it was known,
not only to England, luit to all Etiropi-, that
the veneering of acconiplislunents which in-
cased the Heir Apparent was only a trans-
parent gloss through which all manner of
vices and excesses played liide-aiid-go-seek
■within. The story of the Prince's lif,. ran not
be repeated on the pages of respectable litera-
ture. He plunged at will into the wdiirl of
all vicious excitement. He did not stop short
of the grossest profligacy; and to this he added
the habit of, falsehood to an extent that made
his name proverbial. Even his plighted faith
could not be trusted. The political agitations
in the midst of which he was nurtured, and
which might have well provoked the highest
powers of his mind, had t(j him no attractions.
Schooled in everything that Fox and Sheridan
had taught him in his youtii, he flung him-
self at full length into the pool of vice, and
rejoiced in it as though it were a sea-bath in
summer. At last he fell in love with Mrs.
Fitzherbert, who had been twice a widow at
the age of twenty-five. Hini she led on until
she drew him into a private marriage, which
became the ■•<ri(ii(hih(m maximinn of the age.
The nation was in a turmoil over the event.
Fox, misled by the Prince as to the facts in
the ca.se, went openly to the House of Com-
mons and denounced the story as a malicious
falsehood. The Prince's salary was rai.sed from
fifty thousand pound< to >ixty thousand, and
Parliament gave him a hundred and sixty-one
thousand pounds to discharge his debts; in-
duced thereto by the falsehood which Fox had
given to the House of Commons.
But the .story of the Prince's personal life
need not be pursued. On eomiiii; to the throne
in 1820, it was expected that a Whiu' ministry
would be at once called to the (■..iidiiet of af-
fairs. But the king dealt doubly with those
wh.. had been his friends, and' .sought, by
means of a <'oalitioii, to make ea.sy sailing
through a .sea of political aiiathy. He had
already adopted the same ]iolicy during the
Regency. He di.slikexl George Canning, to
whose energy of character much of the success
of the British Government during the Revolu-
tiouarv epoch must be attributed. Nor can it
be doubted that the king's mifrie,„l!i„H» and
the ii„lispositioii of Canning to take part in
the Pailiamentary proceedings against (^.eeu
Caroline, induced the statesman's tenijiorary
withdrawal from the Ministry.
During the greater part of the reign of
George IV. the Government was conducted
under the ministerial leadership of Earl Liver-
po,,|. The latter had acceded to office
after the as.-a.siiiation of Perceval, in 1.S12;
and he remained at the head of the Caliinet
until 1>;27. when his declining health com-
pelleil him to retire. It was, however, to the
energy, we might say the unscrupulous vigor,
of the ^larquis of Londonderry, better known
as Lord ('astlereagh, that the success of the
home management of Great Britain must be
attributed at this epoch. Tlie latter statesman
had become leader of the House of Commons
as eailv as 1812. He became the guiding
spirit of the foreign policy of the Government
during the last years of the Napoleonic era, and
for fully a decade remained in the ascendant.
He it was who represented the king at the
second Treaty of Paris, and signed the com-
pact of peace in 1815. He was, jierhaps,
the .mlv or,,, of the ureat ]iolitical leaders of
his time who remained in the favor of the
Prince Regent, as he had Ijeen always in favor
with George III. He was the ])ersoiial ad-
viser of the new king, and traveled abroad
with him into Hanover, in October of 1,S21,
meeting there, in International discussion, the
Prince Metternich. This, however, was the
enil of his career. Castlereagh's intellect gave
way under the pressure of overwork and a
highly nervous organization, and on tlie 12th of
August, 1822, he committed suicide with his
penknife.
The general character of the hisKn-y of
England, in the period from b'^lo to 1825,
can not be uii(lersto<id without the survey of
the whole of Europe. After the treaty of
Vienna, Great Britain shared somewhat in the
exhaustion, not to sav the a])athy, which
supervened in all pa.-t> of the Continent. The
m..ntal-«hi.li had llamed and roared around
the .s,,nare> ot Wellington, subsided into an
almost absolute quiet in the five ensuing years.
Despotic governments were, for the time, easily
restored, and a flock of legitimate princes,
rxn\i:j;sAL history.— the modern world.
rushing liack ii
t., thr
a, •nun
thrones of thii
1>, fn
brief sea-nn. a^ r
.nifnrlaM
■ >.'ats
had niTuiii..'.! sill,
,. th,. .Mi.
d!.' Al
But thf halo-
■ n u|iuch
,f linu
of shcrt duration
>;.. Ill,
ic thai
ade elai)sed aftt-r
tlu' liattl.
of W
the fiaines of i
I'Volutinll
raii-l
,<;-reat contia-ratii
n in Fra.
,T, I.rL
up ill littlf ji'ls
in ahnn>
rver>
Western Euro,,,,.
Thi,- IV
•ival nl
tionar
II.
pear ui i^iil
the spirit of her peopl.' ami iii-titnti..ii<, w.ac
alike unfav..ialih- t.i the politi.-al iiiMin.-.-ti..n^
which, at this t-poch, liroke out in nearly all
the Latin States.
But Great Britain could liy no means avoi.l
constant connection with the afiiiirs ..f the
Continent. The first foreign eiitangleineiit of
the British Goveruaieut after the treaty of
X'ienna, sprang from the necessity under
which the Government found itself to resist
and resent the work of the Holy Alliance in
the Spanish Peninsula. Of all the restored
sovereigns, none settled back into his seat more
comtoi'tal.lv than .li.l F.-r.linan.l VII., .,f
.Spain. The nieth.Hls of gnvenini..-nt which
were reinstituted belonge.l, in that country, to
the si.xteenth century rather than to the nine-
teenth. The opposition of the liberal jiarty
was unavailing to check the almsfs and ex-
travagance of the reii:n. Finally, in \XV.K
the Spanish king, in onlcr to ii'pl.nish his
wasted exchequer, si.j.l Flori.la t.. th.- riiiteil
States. Presently a ivv.ilt brok.- out at C'a.liz.
The iusurrecti.in ^prea.l : the pca>aiits of the
provinces rose in arms, an.l, in \X'1'1, the p.,p-
ular movement resulted in the el.cti..ii ..f the
patriot Riego as Presi.h-nt .,f the Cort.'s.
Sui/h was the conditi.m of atiiiirs when the
cause of Ferdinand was espoused by the Holy
Alliance. France, Au.stria, Ru.=sia, and Prussia
took the astounding course of formal armed
interventi..n in the affairs of Spain. Nothing
than t., M-.- (n.at liiitain in this emergency
tuiiiing s.|nanlv aliout, aii.t in the very face
mouth of CaiininL' a-aiii~t tlie Spanish int.'r-
vention. Thou-h h.-r protest wa- unavailiii'.;-
for the time, it luv.athele.-s .erve.l X\h- pui-
jiose of a warning against such work in the
future, and pointed with a menacing index to
the .lowntall of the Alliance.
This c.implieation ..f En-lan.l relative to
Spain ha.l n-.t been unraveled until the king-
d.iiu bceani.' pr.douii.lly iiit.-rested in the
ali;iii> of (iiv.-i-e. Ileie auaiii the leaning of
tile I5riti>h .Xati.ui, not la.lii'al, but ever iu-
i-liiilng to the .-i.le of |...liti</al liberty, was
strikingly niaiiifeste.l. It is not the place to
rei'.iunt the f.)rtiiii.-s of tin- Kreek lievdntion
It is MitHcieiit t., note that the attitmh- .if
(nvat Brilaiii was insistent with her recml.
Ill n., .■..untiy .li.l the .-.ciety ..f the i'hil-
helleues find so congenial a seat as \n England.
The Government confronted Turkey; and Mr.
( 'anning, no less than Lord Byron and other
Piritish patriots, stood stoutly for the inde-
pendence of the Greeks. While the monarchs
of the Continent feared the rising of the
Greeks as another eruption of that fearful
dem.icracy which had jostled so many from
their thrones. Great Britain deliberately pro-
moted the cause of Grecian liberty. This
policy was persistently adhered to until the
summer of ]S27, when the sit nation of affairs
in the East led t.i the appointment of ambas-
sadors by Great Britain, Fiance, ami Russia,
to consider the ipiestions at issue. A confer-
ence was hel.l in L.>ii.l.'n in the beginning of
July, an.l on the (ith of that mouth a c.im-
liaet was siL;ne.!. in ai'cordance with which the
nations coucerned would proceed to terminate
the Tnrco-Grecian War. A joint expedition
was fitted out, consisting of English, French,
ami Itnssian vessels, and sent int.i the Eastern
.Me.literranean.
The ..bject in view was to compel the Sul-
tan to Lirant an armi>tiee pending the determi-
nation of th.- c..iulitioiis of peace. The allied
armament reached the Bay of Xavariuo on the
20th of October. The Sultan promptly and
em])hatically declined the mediation of the
P.iwers, ami th.' issue came at .m.-e f.i the
arbitrament ,,f battle. IMeaiiwhile, Ibrahim
Pasha received large reiidori'. ineiits fr.ira
Egypt, and was ordereil to put .lown the
Greek insurrection at every liazanl.
The captains of the allied fleets, however,
ha.l n-.-.iveil orders not to permit the further
de.-inietiou of the Greek insurgents. The com-
manders of the S(|un(lniii therefi
upon the Turkish Aihniial. whii
position ;i
GREAT BRITAIN.— LAST TWO HAXOVRHIAyS. 259
heranie floine Secivtary of
)ore ,lown ; In i
taken his : En.t;
iM.tt.mi ,,t til.- r.ay uf Xavarino, tirst
where a battle was (jpened \'y a disehai
the Turkish guus. Tlie cnliirt l,e<-aiiie -.ai-
ei'al anil coutinued furinu>ly for- tuiii- hnurs,
when tlie work was .Ion.-. fhe s.iuadmu
of the (Ottomans was blown tn fragments.
Scarcely auythinjr reniaineil hut the (/«7„-/.-.- i>f
ships floating ou the agitated sea. Thus by a
single stroke the Greek crisis was ended, and
the way prepared for a permanent settlement
of affairs in the East.
We may here pause for a moment to speak
of, at least, one of the great measures (pf
Sir Robert Peel. That statesman entered the
enfeebled ministry of E'lrd Liverp""! in ]X'J2.
ment. On this i
the House of ( 'i^
to retire from tin
could n..t well b.
iun to this move-
■ was defeated in
\S-2r,, an.l s.aiglit
; but his services
He so„n found a
his faculties and
lanizing the crirai-
. The" history of
tself a chaiiter iu
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
l.-hmils, an. I woul.l dra
Mi.ldle Ages, an,l .-,ih>r,
of English liisloi-v. Tin
ill,' li-ii
IS awa
, that
, esppci;
■ WAi
,lnre,l iVu,,, II,.. custn,,,:^ of l.ailiaii.in; l.ut he
can har.Uy lie auare of the extent to which
all the elements of that liarbarisrn continual
vital in the code of Great Britain ilnwn fi the
close of the first quarter of the nineteen ih
century.
The cruel savagery e.xpressed in that code
can hardly be described in language. It
would require an artist's brush, and the bhiod-
dripping canvases of a great gallery, to reveal
the cruel scheme of the criminal law under
which the English race groaned from age to
age, and from which the inveterate con-
servatism of that people, forbade them to
be delivered. As late as a time within
the memor}' of men yet living, the offenses
still punishable by death under the statute law
of England were innumerable. If, in the last
years of the Napoleonic era, the death penal-
ties due, under the jurisprudence ot the king-
dom, had been inflicted as the law demanded,
the highways of the kingdom would have been
well-nigh a continuous gibbet, and a large
percentage of the people hangmen by profession.
Out of the very necessity of things, the judges
had been driven to the continuous use of
respite, in order to avoid the death penalties
which they were obliged to pronounce from
day to day. At every assizes, large numbers
of criminals, whose lives had been demanded
})y the law for pett}' offenses, many^ of which
have now ceased to be criminal at all, were
respited by the judges because of the sheer
inipracticaliilitv of cmtinunns execntiims. And
vet, under this sli..ckinii conditinn ..f affairs—
such was the ,,p,fnun<l hvp.MTi-V.if the a-e^
the law-making and law-adndnistering pow.Ms
of Great I'.Htain st \ stuhbornly against
every eflort at refnrni, hugging the barbaric
abuses whicli tliey had I'eceived from a pagan
ancestry, as tlnuejli tlmso abuses were the
At the epoch iif which we si.eak, the lives
lina
- brought to the bar of
• n
erey of the court. As
■ tl
elt of a pocketdiandker-
r.-ni
1 was still a capital of-
er (
r a mariner, so unfbrtu-
\e :
pa,-- Iri.ni the magistrate
g o
licer, durst beg for bread
ni .
live until !„■ might reach
was
demanded by the law.
ela
loiaiion of details ade-
the
re vol ting cruelties of the
eign
III,
Re
was m tlie hrst years ol tlie present cen-
that that great legal reformer, Sir Samuel
illy, ap])eared in I'arliament, and under-
t(jok the work of reforming the EnglLsh crimi-
nal code. To him, j)erhaps more than to any
other Englishman, must be ascribed the con-
cejition of the great task of reestablishing the
criminal jurisprudemce of Great Britain on a
new basis of tolerable humanity. The reader
will readily recall the fact that in France the
reform of the criminal code hail been glori-
ou.sly accomplished in the last decade of the
preceding century amidst the flame and roar
of revolution. He must also remember that
it was from IMiralieau, that titan of destruction
and reform, that Sir Samuel Romilly derived
the larger part of those humane princijiles of
which he became the advocate and expounder
in the House of Connnoiis, What, therefore,
must have lieen his chagrin when, after hav-
ing managed to secure the repeal of the stat-
ute of 8 Elizabeth, chap, 4, whereby petty
theft was made a capital oiiense, he was obliged
year after year to see his bills for the aboli-
tion of other eipially .smguinary statutes
thrown out of the House of Lords, rejected
with di-dain In- the statesmen and publicists
of hi* time, and himself viewed askance as
The work of Sir Samuel Romilly
the di.-tiiiLiuidied M-l,olar aiid jurist
:\lackint..sh. Him the versatile .Ma
chosen to call "the father of Englis
deuce." Mackintosh, how^ever, was a scholar
and thinker rather than a jiarliamentariau ;
and however great and sidiitary his work may
have been in reformina- the mind of Great
was taken
world by
Sir James
caulay has
h jurispru-
Britain, bis iuflueiice on
but feeble and indirect.
GREAT nniTAJX. — LAST TU'n HAXoVKh'UyS.
l;.,l,ert IVfl, the Duke of W.-lli
of affairs when tlie ascfiid.-
ley ..f Sir Knhrl-t
Peel became au ackni.ul.
Ige.l fact in tile
British Parliament.
The temper and tenii)era
ne It of Sir Rdhert
were well ada]iteil to the u
ok uhieh he now
received from the hands
of U-niiilv and
Mackintosh, and uhieh he
«a> desthied t.i
carry tnrward trimnpliaiitly
That work uas
coni[ileted. or al le;i>t Ue^m
Acts wliich Peel inln.dnce,
, ill hve pnneipal
into Parliament,
and which he defended ,.n
the !lth of .Mareh,
1826, in one of the nn.-t
d.h' and eliective
speeches of the centui-y. '1
le firmulation of
the new principles ..f jiiri>
pnalence was the
work of Peel's hand 'an,i
brain; Init tlie
juinciples of the reform he
lad received from
his predecessors. His -n
at strength ami
capacity as a legislator lay
n ids aliility— liis
li..\\er almost unrivahd —
-f gatliering the
essentials of other men's
a-eations, and of
giving thereto the form an
I force of statute
"We may not sujjpose that the reform
the English code, to whicii we Jiave li
given considerable space, was by any nie;
complete and final under the worl^ ot
statesmen and publicists above I'eferred to.
i.- indeed out of the question tliat anytiii
and jurisprudence of England. A lae,-
people wdio out of the nature of theii- o
feelings derive little — almost notliing — tV
abstract reason, anil everything from
perieuce and tentative movements in t
direction and in that, must needs mareli in
rear of a people like the Freneh, wlm
notliing if not rational. But at tlie sametii
the English people, though tlnir pro.jio-
slow and tortuous, manh .<,,•,/,■.///, and lar
lose by relapse and retro;: i,>-ioii what tl
have once gained under tlie law of experie,,
We here come to one of tliose ever-ree
ring ministerial crises in wliieh tlie civil hi-l'
of England so much abounds. The \eai- 1>
marked the limit on Lord l.iv,a| IV asee
eii.-v The Premier fell Mek, and throii^di
illiie.-s, rather than by ineltieieiiey. hi. Mini-
was broken Uj). In tlii- emer-eney Cen
Canning was sent fa- by tlie kint;-, and |ilai
at the head of the Government. P.iit
rt Peel, the Duk.
leading Tories, r.
dnbio
In Ai
the
must he attributed
Inii:: live to hoi,
uhieh he had rea.
died; and in the
Ministry was conslitiited unde
of the Duke of Wellington.
Another death, oeeiirring
same time with that of Canning, had an im-
jiortant intliienee on the ,-0111-0 of the reign-
ing ,lyna>ty. Fred.riek, Diik,- .,f York ami
All.any. ,M-e,,n,l .son ,,f (M,.rgi- III., ami heir
to the' crown after the nigniiig king, ilied,
and his title and right were tran-ferred to the
Duke of Clarence,'\vho was destined soon to
accede to the throne as William IV. It was
one of those cireumslanees above the will and
purpose of man, by wliii'h the iMirojiean
dynasties have been so frei|iieiitly deHeeted
into unforeseen channels, pinilueing many
times anomalous results and eonipiieations in
the royal families.
The Duke of Wellington wa> induced to
accept theotbce of Premh-r by tin- .-oliciiations
of the king. At the tin f hi,- acce-ion to
orhce. the repeal of the Te.-t and Corporation
Acts was already pending in the Ilonse of
Connnons. The measure was violently opposed
by the Tories; but Wellington, to the great
disappointment of many ot' his political follow-
er.-, advised the Hou,-e of Lords not to offer
A ,p
Hiisl-
' :\Iini
Cath
It ■
eked;
the removal of the cr
he Catholic.- had hi
ilisabili
been s
]?nt, i.pf;
finnllv ,\U-rV
UXIVKHSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
1 t.i tunnnil aii.l violvnee, if meso. w.nil.l, so.mer ur
ill tlu- kin-.lMin. two iiati..i,> in
-imiiii- ail ac<-..imt of the iiortli-.-a-t.-ni fV
•h Catl
i-,lo,n. To
ner or later, hrinsj: the
two iiatioii> into contiirt. It was on the
|io>iii^ iiowcrs at h^riirtli came together in hos-
tility. I'hc IJiiiiiie.se were, at that time, mak-
iii;:- war oil Assam, and it was in resistance
of this inoveiiient tiiat the British, in East
inilia, oppor^ed a iiani-r of force.
ade, namely, the third of the century, belon<rs
the history of the extension of British terri-
tory and domination in the East by the con-
quest of Biirmah. It iniLdit have been fore-
seen that, ill the nature of thiiiL's, the estab-
lishment, and the extension, of the British
power in India, and the well-known war-
like and aggressive disposition of the Bur-
After some desultory fighting, war was de-
clared, in February of IS'24. An expedition
was sent out from India, under command of
Commodore (Jrant and Sir Archibald Camp-
bell. Ill M-Av of \x'24 the armament entered
the Irawadi liiver. and came before the Bur-
mese citv ot Kangoon. War now broke out
in earnesl, the Briti.<h gradually penetrating
GREAT BRirAIX. — LAST TWO HAXOVKL'IAXS.
into the interii)!', the Bm-iuese, with thi'ir half-
barbarous methods of ^Tarfare, falling hark \n-
fore the iuvasion. Ban.lnola. Gi'iirral ..f th.^
B\n-ni(-:e army, (■(.llecti-d a foivc of sixtv
th,,nsiii.l men, and, in the hitter part nt' ls24,
fought j^everal battles with the J;riti<li anny
about five thousand strong, in which the latter,
though so greatly inferior in numbers, \\cre
nearly always victorious. On tlie iM ef Aiuil,
in the following year, the eity of Dunaliew
was taken by Sir Areliibuld, and here Ban-
doola was killed. Later, in the same immth,
Prorae was captured by the British, and, on
the 17th of September, an armistice was con-
cluded for a mouth.
Later iu the year, an army of sixty thou-
sand men advanced against the liriti-h tVnm
Ava, the capital. But the latter hehl nnt
under repeated attacks, in none of w hich were
the Burmese more than partially successful.
A decisive battle was fought on the 1st of De-
cember, and negotiations f >r peace were im-
mediately opened. It was smm Inund, how-
ever, that the Burmese were insincere, and
hostilities broke out more violently tliaii evi^r.
In January of 1826, Sir Ar.-hil.ald Camplicll
advanced on Ava, the Burmese capital. ()n
the 9th of February, a decisive battle was
fought near the ancient city of Pagan-]\ryn, in
which the British were completely victoiinus.
The defeated enemy now came (piickly to
terms, thouLdi many acts nf vinlence and hos-
tility still told of "the unsettlcl condition of
affiiirs in the countrv. The Treaty of \ an-
pui
an end to the war
the
basis of the large accession of territory known
as British Burmah. The Burmese s..yereign
was obliged to give up Aracan, tog.ther \\ith
the provinces of Mergni, Tavoy, and \ ea : to
yield all of his claims to the kingdom of As-
sam anil the contiguous States, and to pay a
large indemnity for the expenses of the war.
The strength, vigor, and resistless impact of
the British power borne on the vehicle of Sir
Archibaltl's small army against an ancient and
populous kingdom, more than ten thousand
miles distant from the seat of the English
Government, was but another illustration of
the vitality and enterpri-i' of that warlike race
which has fastened the crooked flukes of its
anchors under the chalky walls (jf the British
Islands.
nection some fuller a.vount of the a-ilatin,i
which now arose relative to tl„. p.-nal di-al.il-
ities un.ler which the Uo.oan fatlmlic- of
Eojand an.l Ireland had I.een placed l,y the
Act of Union. .Now it wa~ that the givat agi-
tator and relbrmer, Darnel O't'onnell, ap-
peared ,,u the scene, and began, with vehe-
ment invective and unanswerable argnment, to
demand the removal of tlu' penalties a-ainst
ciety calle.l the ('atholic Asso.aation, small at
first, but growing slowdy to larger j)roiiortions,
and spreading to all parts of the Lnited
Kingdom. In 182S he was elected for Clare
to the House of Commons, an ey.'nt which
foretold the success of the cause which In- ad-
vocated. A measure embodying his principles
the House of Common- ai^aiust the most -tren-
nous oppo.sition ; but the bill was rejected in
the House of Loids. The excitement rose to
In
Acts, which had been in fare >in,'e the lime
of Charles II., was, as we Ikuv said, .-arrie.l
throngh Parliament, in a bill introduced for
that purpose by Lord John Ru-sell.
It Wa- l.elieVed by the Tories that So great
would sati-fv the Catholi,.s and loan- (piiet to
the Kingdom. But the event proved other-
wise. With the triumphant ele<-lion of O'Con-
nell to Parliament, the agitation broke out
anew. It was claimed that the reformatory
measures thus far priunoted had been intended
to favor only tin- Piotestant Dissenters of
Cxreat Britain, and that nothing short of the
removal of the legal disabilities of the Catho-
lics would suffice. It was clearly in defiance
of the statute f.rbidding the a.bnission of
Romanists to Parliament that d'CMuall was
elected to that body. The crisis wa- rea.died
when the lime came for the Iri-h aL'itator
to take his seat in the House of Commons.
The :Ministry. ba.'ked by the Protestant ,lnbs
which had been formed in m.ist parts of the
Kingdom, determined to exclude O'Conmdl
from his place. When this projc et was known.
2(U
UyiVERSAL HISTOny. — THE MODERN WORLD.
party aniinn.sity was f;\iiiu-<l to a white heat.
The ]iiil)lic liecame so convul.-ed that an appeal
til iiri.is «eenie(l inevital)h-, iiiih-^s the Gnvern-
nieiit shi.ulil yielil. It wa< in the tac nf tliis
alarming' ei.u.litii.n i.f atiiiii- tliat thi- .Ministry,
at tlie np, iiin,- i.f tlie railiaiiiiiitary .m-^mhu
uf 1^2'.l. was iihli^eil to n-trmt. It was per-
ceivi-il hv tlie Tory leailrrs that it wnalil lie
better for the Goverunient to bring furwanl a
bill of their own motion to relieve the Catho-
lics of their ilisabilities tlian to be driven to
such a conrss.' by the inipemling revolution.
Li accorihuice with this jiruilential scheme,
a bill was at once prepared, which had the
effect of arousing all the deep-seated preju-
dice.* of the Kingdom. Tlie Tory Jlinisters
were denounced as traitors, not only to their
party, but to the Constitution of Great Brit-
ain. ;Manv of the extreme partisans refused
to fiillnw thiir leaders further in the direction
of reform. The Duke of Wellington and Sir
Robert Peel became the objects of bitter di.elike
to the Ultra-Tories, and the latter statesman
was actually defeated for reelection by the
rniversitv of Oxford. Nevertheless, on the
]3th of April, 18211, the Relief Bill was
passed, and for the first time in one hundred
and fifty years the Roman Catholic subjects
of Great Britain -were made equal before the
law with the other people of the Kingdom.
Henceforth the discrimination against them
extended no further than to their exclusion
from the offices of Regent, Viceroy of Ireland,
and Lord Chancellor of the Kingdom.'
George IV., who had personally resisted to
the last the recent measures of reform, was
correspondingly humiliated at his own and the
defeat of his Tory Ministry. His health was
already greatly enfeebled. He presently re-
tired from the public gaze, and sought seclu-
sion in the shades of Windsor Castle. The
worn-out debauchee took no further interest in
public atlaii-, and the public re-ponded by tak-
'ByasiKin.n i mm nl. m i tin MUii lalile t'.Uli^-
JraloiVoik till i.ii.li i.iilii ( liurch of Englnnd,
\^a«; almost ili-tinM.l \\ liu .U the very time
when the ti ium|ili.int ( .itholir- were hailing tlie
passaw of the Kehef Bill throUL'h Parliament It
seemed that the Molence done to the Mother
Church l,y Henr> YIII. and the •Reformers of
the Sixteenth Century, w.is aliont to be a\enL'ed
by the concurrent ravages of jiarty stiite ami the
devouring elements.
I ing as little interest in the afiairs of the king.
The latter was taken seriously ill early in the
year, and died on the 2ljth of June, 1830.
The Duke of Wellington, who was not waut-
xw'j. in power of personal analysis, and was no
flatterer of men, living or dead, summed up
the qualities of the deceased monarch as fol-
lows: "He was the most extraordinary com-
j pound of talent, wit, bufloonery, obstinacy,
and good-feeling — in short, a medley of the
I most opposite qualities, with a great prepon-
derance of good — that I ever saw in any char-
acter in my life." Ot his reign, however,
though short and little distinguished for glory,
it may be said that hardly any other decade in
the history of England has been more marked
for the many practical reforms which it wit-
nessed, for the advance of all liberal senti-
ments in society and State, and for the dif-
fusion abroad of more liumaniziug tendencies,
than was the otherwise feeble and unsteady
reign of George IV.
I The late king left no legitimate children to
inherit his title and crown.' His brother, the
Duke of York and Albany, was long since dead.
The next elder of his brothers was William
1 Henry, Duke of Clarence, who now acceded
to the tlirone, with the title of William IV.
He had been a sailor in his boyhood, serving
I with distinction under Admirals DiL'bv, Rod-
I
'As for <^ieen Caroline, she also had gone to
the land where shameless persecution could no
longer assail her. She had, after the infamous
trial to which she had been sulijected in the
House of Lords, been permitted to resume her
title of Queen, but was forbidden to enter "West-
minster Hall on the day of her husband's corona-
I tion. It was the death-stab in the woman's
bosom; she pined for nineteen days, and yielded
her shattered life to the elements. Even this was
not the end of the dark fatality that overhung her
career. Her daughter, the Princess Charlotte Au-
gusta, was wedded, in ISlti, to Leopold of i^axe-
Cobnra, afterwards king of the Belgians, but on
the i;th of November in the following year she
ihe.l in the aironies of child-birth— an event that
wrung from the htein soul of Byron ime of his
sublimest stanzas :
\M\
iPKp for th»e,
cfa^p to lioard
id poureil
GREAT BRITAIX. — LAST TWO HAXOVERIANS. 2(;5
ney, and Xelsuii. 15ut auiin- tli.' nl-u ..f his drstiuea to be left at the end of his reiL'n, as
hi-uther he had lived tlie lilc .if a piivatc -en- his brother CJeorge IV. hail ln-cn, without an
tknian at Bii^hy Park, rnlnrtunatdv, the heir capable of inheriting tlio emwn.
life of William had nut Ihi n Mudi as i,, jus- William IV. eanio tu tho ihinm- at a time
tifv anv hopes that mi.^ht li- riitm-faiiird' nf when the a-itati or ivfnn,, in all thr Ii'lHs-
retonnhi- and riMK^emin- tlu' .um.'ral eharar- , lative and administrative, methods of the King-
terwhirh was now borne ' ' ^,_ - ^~^
throughout Europe by ^m -V '^
the pruKvs of Hanover- -- -
Bruuswiek. Siune idoa
to be guided may be had
from a scrutiny of his
conduct while a member
of the House of Lords.
While sitting in that
body, he had defended
the recklessness, the ex-
travagance, and de-
bauchery of his brother,
the Prince Regent. He
had spoken iu favor of
the Bill of Divorcement,
by which that alleged
gentleman proposed to
put away forever from
hei'itance the untortu-
nate Queen Caroline.
He had denounced the
jiroposed emancipation
of the slaves, as against
the laws of ju tree in 1
the interests of hum in
ity. In his pimte lite
his relations weie hii 11\
more well-timed and le
spectable than those ot
his brother, the Rej^eut
He had become en im
ored with aceitim Mi
Jordan, an attie s b^ "'^'^^
profession, with \\h m
he lived for ueiih tutiit\ \ i
being broken tf U 1 1 t t i m
reasons. In 181S he h\\ trie
Adelaide of Saxe Meinin^tn, wl
time, obtained a great influence
the P,
; 1 1
iff
'! ti
w
L 14; 1..
It
t ti
a couise 01
u- her easv-
sud knl> ,
' luneuts t
But
legitimate
ge, an<l
Ik \
settled
2riG
LLMVEL'SAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
it th
h liil
t r,nti-l
leld
P.ulnmint woul.l
IK 1
imoheth.-ort-ate
h. 1
Ji^l, ~in ikiiig ra.
« 1~
L 1 1~ li 1,1 l).-..-ii
tlu
liK.l nt the Sax.
lit
w i~ It tir>t, an a>
nil
lit. lalh the wi.-r
\\as u„ut to call
lKUl..ftli.-liist..i-_v..ftlK-I-:n-
. Dii-iiially. the H.,u^e .jf
kiii-s. The Witeiiagemot
iiR-ii— whnui the sovereign
iitu ciiiiril. It was an as-
a-.^ <.f the W'iUin, or Wise
of tin, Kii,i:.lo„i. It eiiu-
ot' l,.i„|.o,-al lonls, of earls,
ke-. ot l,aion>. of aivhhi>li-
m.l l.i>lio|,>, and al.l.ots,
ht to-ether, an. I cnslitnt-
h.Hly ..f marinates, from
the kiiiij was w.iiit to seek
lile. The il..n^e ..f C'.jiiimous
I ha.l arisen tV.uii a vi-iy .lifl'erent
s.inree, an.l ha.i lieeii'.if sL.wer
i devel..i.n.ent. It> .ait:in is to he
I songht in the Ai]i:].i-Sa.\..n mooU,
or meetings. e..n>i>ting. at first,
frciinen as might he essential to
the welfare .if the tribe. The
first of the m.iots was the tinm-
ni.i.if, which iuckuleil the assem-
le.l freemen and cnltivators of
the folk-lands, gathered together
to regulate the civil atliairs of their
towushi]). their village, or parish.
Ivext came the hnnj-mo^it, being
an assemblage of the principal
meu of the burgh, fur the pur-
pose of administering municipal
atiairs.
still ni
Endi>-
WILLIAM IV.
H.iuse ..f r.
ha.l been dc
th.. civil poll
'he Iiiiiiilreil-mni.t had a
imp..naiit place in the
■.-teiii. It eoiii]irised the
1 chief freemen gathered
>t-veral townships and
itiiiii the limits of the
Hun.lred. Above this
was the .^Ina-iunnt. It
11. lu.-. In times ]ia.-t this basis [ was a body gathered from the shire or county,
iiiiie.l latlu-r by landed estates j having au ealdermau for its president, and ex-
tioii : but the whol.' growth of ' ercisiug jurisdiction over the several hundreds
<.f Eughui.l ha.l li.eii ill the cuiiiiri.-e.l within th,- >hiiv. The body was
•nlargeiiieiit . if iio|iiihir rights — e.uiip.ise.l .if a reeve ami four freemen from
from th..M, feu.lal ideas up.-ii every hun.lred. Its members can hardly be
ati.ui ha.l >.i hing been founde.l. said to have lieen elected, at least not by such
.if the evolution of the British methods as would coustitute a modern elec-
GREAT BRITAIX-LAST TWO HAXOVEi: fA.\s
finn. But they were >eiit Id llu
various nio,,ts
liy the comuiou voice, ami l>y i
i.thods which
had ill them the germ of a tnu
In many eiiier'jencicr it l,c.
tor the medueva! kiirj> nf Im
,.l,,-,i.,„.
■jiaiid to call
not only the (Tn-at < 'nuiiril
.„■ Hon-, of
Lords, hut al?o the CoMini..ii- -
that is, rcpre-
sentatives from the varioii>
m.iots abnve
described — to as^^ii^t and Mippoit
tl,r -.v,.,vio-n
in his ^vars, and to give him i
onn-rl in tho
general affairs of his odv. iiiiucni
TI,o Mu.lrnt
of history \vill rea.lily n <ali th
■ iact that the
Commons of tlu- AV.-t( rn ]:inti|
oan killed s
were, in the times of whirh wr
sp,.ak, an ox-
tremely modest folk, very little
li,-p..s..dtoin-
terfere in the afiliirs of >tatc.
.i » .1
political matters, slow to cuiivri
sovereign's call, and meek in hi
p,vs..„c',.. In
England, however, on a<-eount c
f the peculiar
structure of society, the (.'omm
ms c|TW into
greater prominence than in any
.tliri- connti-y.
A burgess or middle cla-> -pian
2 np, in whose
hands much wealth was at hn-tl
acrnmulated.
They it was who henecfoith
nn<t, in large
measure, furnish the iwcnnes
of the Kinu-
dom. As a. cousequenee, the
KieJiM. C.ni-
mons were more frequently
■all.d bv the
king to assist him with their
piv-cn.-e and
their means. For several centi
rii- th..,-,. was
an approximation betwrm tho t
wo Ib„l>,,S ,.f
Parliament. But at leii-th t
„. growth of
the Commons alarmed both tin
kin^ a„<l the
lords, and in the reign of Ed
ward III. the
two Houses were formally si
pa rated. The
organization of each became
iiore ileiinite.
and each henceforth pur:
lines of development.
The reader may perce
here prepared, the elemei
flict by wdiich, at the n
teenth century, the moiKi
of England were for a v
the Second Revolution, ol
Commons was again tiiii
the most powerful and m
in all Christendom. But
interest to the student o
old barbaric constitution
been, through all stai:*'
j)reserved as the funda
House. Such was the ast>
of the English race that
le[iendeiit
situation
threat cou-
he seven-
listocracv
•rted. In
Il.juse of
It became
itive bo.ly
^ that the
imons had
evolution,
is of the
viz
the u
Aye,
hiigu
-es and
ed and
■re the
■d tlu-
vital
>art of
the ui
(dual
it.
-rowth
the Parlianieiitafv
At leii-th. how
and dill-n>ion ,,t' political enlightenment made
it inipo-Mlilc ior the abusive part ..f the sys-
tem longer to sttrvive. This crisis was reached
in the beginning of the tburth decade of the
pre.-eiit century. The ret'ormatiay si)irit was
already abroad" in the Kin;;do,n. " The eftbrt
to repeal the more obiioximis nf the disabilities
whi.-h had len- l,e,'n iinpo:.,.l on the Catholics
made niaiiile>t the abii>e> which were inter-
mingled and blended with the Very Structure
of the House of Commons; and no s(joner had
the repeal been passed, than the refirmiug
jiarty turned upon the House itself, with the
determination to e.\oivi,-e the evils under
which that great body was laboring as the
governing force of England.
The very foundation had to he broken up.
It was perceived that the vice was deep-seated,
icai'liing down to the verv lia>is on which the
lIoii>e .if Commons rested. The various bor-
seiiiatives sitting in the lIon>e were drawn by
thoueh the iK.pulation had thictuated from .side
to siile; though great commniiities had been
planted where none <'\i>ted befire; though
other great communitio bail, in the mutations
of industry, under the land.il system of Great
Britain, and in an.-wer to the calls of commerce,
disappeared from the places where they did ex-
ist, the old basis of representation still pre-
vailed; so that the House of Commons no
longer representeil the England of the present,
but the England of a mythical past. Large
cities bad sprung up where hitherto there was uo
i dweller. Such were Livei|„„,l, Manchester,
ami Leeds, which, thotiLih inhabited by teem-
j iiig thousands, w.ae absolutely titiivpreseuted
in Parliament. The ancient b..f.mL;h> knew no
such cities, ami conservative I>n;ilan<l lunl thus
far respected her ancient bor,inL:hs— mn.-t re-
spect them still! Manv .,ld districts had be-
come weU-nigh depopulated; but conservative
r yi 1 'ERSA L HIS roR y. — the m< )i>ERy world.
Euglaud still regar.lLMl
regard them still ! Sue'
rotten borough of <iial
ouuh ofOM Saniiii.uh
\lnihvon,'n,hrr.<:,l Ihr linn.
,rn'u..l,< U.'lvlllP s.,-,';illr,l
ill..
,f n-i.
itativt' gi
success of the political ic\<ilt in lidialf <if tlic
Komati Catholics liiriii>licil the exanii.li —
gave encourageniriit to tlii' nioviiiU'iit. A
popular belief wa-; (lilfuscil aluoad tliat tlic
movenieut could hut lie crowned with .-ucri >-.
But against it all, the reiictionar}' party, tlie
conservative, obstructing element in Britisli
politics, that ancient Toryism which had
thiou-h so lai-c a period of British lii>t<iry
coijtroll.-d, ,,r anta,-.iiii/..Ml, th.- dcstini.'s of
the kingdom, set tlirnisi'lvcs with the hrniiiess
and obstinacy of tin- ininiova!)!.' rocks in the
Hill of Taric.
It happened at this particular juncture that
the affairs of Continental Europe tended much
to strengthen and intensify the jmpuhir inovi--
ment in England. In tlir voi-y year ot' tlio
accession of William IV. to the Kn;^li-h
throne, the ronsed-np pcple .,f Franc dis-
p,,>(.d of ihrl,- kin- hv a most summary pro-
cess. At the same time a r,.ho]lion oc-urrcd
in I'.rl-ium, wlii.'h I.mI to tlio scvcninco .if that
in.p.rtant power from the .lominion of Hol-
land, and the cstablisliment of an independent
kingdom under the rule of Leopold, of Saxe-
Cohurg, who receiv<'d the crown, in July of
1831, with the title of Leop.iM I.. King nip the
Belgians. In the.se movements of the Liberals
of the Continent, the people's party of Eng-
land was quick to discover the omens of suc-
cess. On the other hand, the English Tories
found in the destruction of the continental
systems, with which they sympathized, every
reason for distrusting popular government and
adhering to the past. To the Liberals of
Great Britain Louis Piiilippe, of France, was
(intern plate ; to the
lenace, a specter.
loi-niing the basis of representation in the
Ihilisii House of Commons liecame the nll-ab-
sorhnig.piestioninthefirstyeiirsol William IV.
in the liody to which it was directed. A
ministerial crisis was precipitated liv the fooh
ish dechuation of the Dnke <if Wellington
aiiainst the pidpisition f.ir rarliamentary re-
lorm. He was siald, idy deprived of thec.m-
fhl.-nce of the country, and a coalition of the
Will- party with those uho ha-l loljnwed the
poiitic.al fortunes of Cannin- was termed.
The Wcllin.i^ton .Mini-try was .lissolvcd, and in
Xovemher of l.SoD the king summoned Earl
(irey to form a new Cabinet, pledged to carry
out the reformatory policy. It is believed
lliat the earl hiinseif had liut little sympathy
with the poiiular cause: hut he was willing,
on assuming the leadeiship of the Govern-
ment, to promote at least certain features uf
the propo.sed Parliamentary revolution.
The Hi-.FORM Bill, so-called by preeminence
over all other Parliamentary measures having
like pnrposes as their end, was accordingly
prepare<l,and, on the 1st of Mar<-h, ls:;i,was
laid, hv Lord Jnhn Itussell, liefoiv the House
,if Commons. Then it was th:
iiiry ro.se," such as, iierhaps, was
liefori' in that turbulent arena where so many
of the battles ..f English liberty have been
longht and won. The bill passed to its second
leading, and through its second reading, by a
majority of one vote. It was .seen by the ad-
vocates of the measure that it was destined to
failure, and railiament was dissolved with an
appeal to the country.
The English Nation was now shaken to its
center. A new Parliament was returned much
more favorable to the bill than was the pre-
ceding. The second reading of the act was
now carried by a majority of one hun<lred and
thirty-six. The third reading was pressed,
and the act went triumphantly through the
Honse of Commons. Earl Grey carried the
bill to the Lords, where it was rejected by
a majority of firty-one. Here, then, the issue
was made uj). The landed aristocracy of
:-mmg
heard
Gr
Britain planted itself squarely in the
ref irm, and the question was whether
GREAT ni:iTAJX.--LAST TWO HAXOVEIHANS.
the ancient prejuilices of tlie k
sent,.l in tl,e Il'ou.e of L.,nls, v
tlif [...pular, an.l now oveiwlu'I
in the Hou.-^e of Commons, m- w
ould yiehl to
hether, on tiie
conti-ary, the pojndar party, In-
ner of reform, and backeii liy t
rin- tlie Ijau-
le (iei'isive ro-
suits of the recent Farlianiei
tary eh'ction,
ml ^^ u
io~e the
he gieat
though
to leaeh
tion lu
would he hurleil hack, routed, overthr
It can not be doubted that the last
of 1830-31 witnessed in England a en
serious and alarming than anything wl
been known since the Kevoluiion o
The radical lefoimeis and ihi I Iti
were ready to decide the i^-m li\ ir
Between the extiemist~ 1h\\(\ii, i
Grey Ministn , (amni^ w i
moderate party of En_.i-linit
determined on reform ^tdl
the result b} methods fh 1 1 f
the emergenc\ tuo coui-c md onh tuo,
were open to tht (uMinnunt Ihiu wis
between the two H( um -, t riiliniK it wlut,
in more recent jihi i^t 1 _\ w uld In <1l-
nominated a politic d di idl (k Ihismi^ht
be broken eithei, fiist, h} a decLiiati m In in
the House of Commons that the assent ( t tin
lords was not nui-^'-aiii foi the pissagt ot tin
bill; or, siu.ndh h\ .1. itni^ un,h 1 1 \ d
prerogative \ ^iithLicut nundui it m u pi i-s
to liear down thead\eise Ton 111 i] iit\ 111 th
Upper House Each of tlie^i im th i~ 1- li
jectiouable m the la-t dcLiu 1 diiliu
the assent of the H .u-. ot L nK unim.-in
was revolutions Ti i u iti tin m w puis
would be to diown the House ot Loids and
destroy its distmcti\e chaiactei With much
reluctance it was determined by the Ministij',
on the 1st of January, 1832, to demand of the
king the creation of the new peers. Under
this menace the Tory Lords receded somew'hat,
and the bill was allowed to pass its second
reading. But when it came to the third read-
ing, the passage of the measure could not be
forced, and the Grey Jlinistry resigned.
Wellington was now asked to form a new
Cal)inet, and undertake the Government.
But the task was hopeless. After a single
week of such political turmoil as has rarely
been witnessed in Great Britain, the king
was obliged to send again fi.ir Earl Grey, and
recommit to him the destinies of the State.
That Minister and Lord Brougham went to the
king in person, deiiianded of him the power
to create the new peeis neco-ary to the
passage of the liefirm Bill through the House
of Lords, and conipell.d the king to put lii.s
assent 1,1 tvriliny, as lollows: '-The king
grants peruii,~>ion to Earl (uey and to his
Chancellor, Lord Brougham, to create such a
number of puers as will be sufficient to insure
the passing of the Keforni Bill, first calling
up peers' eldest sons. — Wii.iJ.ut It., Windsor,
May 17, 1832."
The event showed that the extreuiity which
WIS thus pio\ided for was not demanded.
The Toi\ loids saw at last the exiiedieucj of
ttit to sa\e much Aecoidinglj,
LOKD JOHN RISSLLL
when the Reform Bill came to its final pas-
sage before the Lords a sufficient number of the
peers, headed by the Duke of Wellington, vol-
untarily abitented themselves from the House to
permit of the passage of the Act by a majority of
eighty-four. Thus on the 7th i",f June, 1832,
the Bill for the Reforniation of the British Par-
liament became the law of the Kingdom, after
a struggle, which, at several of its phases, had
brought the country to the very verge of
revolution. The jiei-il had been emphasized in
many instances by actual violence. Time and
again popular indignation had broken forth
against those leaders of the Tory i)arty who
were imiieding the progress of the Kefurm.
UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
In Lnn.l„u the palace of the Duke ui Wel-
liiijrtou was assailed In- a fm-iuus iiKih, with
could prevail auy louger. Xottiugham was
burned to the grouud, and a large part of
Bristol destroyed In- insurgents beyond the
control of the authorities. But as it became
evident that the reformatory movement would
succeed, as the Tories shrank before their op-
ponents, a better temper prevailed, and the
ship of State at length outsailed the storm
and anchored in clear water.
Perhaps no other measure ever adopted by
the British Parliament was more salutary in
its effects than was the Reform Bill of 1832.
It was a new era from which many other re-
formatory projects were to date their origin
and possibility. By the Reform Bill, the so-
called pocket and rotten boroughs were dis-
franchised. No longer might some landed
uabob carry in his pocket several Parliamen-
tary votes, behind which there was no constitu-
ency. Other decayed boroughs, while they
did not actually lose their representation in
the House of Commons, had that representa-
tion greatly reduced. The votes thus gained
from the disfranchised boroughs, were redis-
tiilniteil to the counties and manufacturing
towns to which an adequate representation had
hitherto been denied. The whole disfranchise-
ment extended to fifty-six boroughs and about
thirty small towns. The general effect was
that of equalization, by which the jiopulnus
counties and the cities were given their just
equipoise in the House of Commons.' Certain
property qualifications ou the suffrage were
allowed to stand. Indeed, in the light of the
liljeral i.rinciples which now ]irevail in Eng-
land and the United States with respect to the
rights and prerogatives of citizenship, we can
but be surprised that the very moderate prin-
ciples incorporated in the Reform Bill of 1832
should ever have been regarded as radical or
extreme. The right of voting in the English
1)oroughs was still restricted to the tenants of
houses worth ten pounds a year. Properties
under this valuation, or rather the holders of
the same, lay as before, under complete disfran-
chisement. In the counties, tenants paying a
rental of fifty pounds per annum were enti-
tled to suffrage, while freeholders having an
income from their own lands of forty shillings,
or landed property worth ten pounds a year,
were permitted to vote under the provisions of
the bill. Such were the general features of
the reform by which the Parliamentary repre-
sentation in the House of Commons was de-
termined for the ensuing thirty-six years.
We now come to consider the legislation
of the so-called Reformed Parliament, which
began its existence in 1833. The liberalizing
tendencies which had been jjroduced and dis-
seminated during the period of agitation, now
speedily bore their fruits. No sooner had the
House of Commons again assembled than a
bill was brought forward for the abolition of
slavery in all the colonies and possessions of
Great Britain. In this case, the agitator was
William Wilberforce, Hull, one of the en-
thusiasts of humanity, at that time a member
of the Commons for the county of York.
During the greater part of his life he had
been engaged in projects looking to the aboli-
tion, first, of the slave-trade, and then of slavery
itself. As early as the ascendency of William
Pitt, Wilberforce, in conjunction with that
statesman, sought to secure the abolition of the
slave-trade in the British dominions. No great
step, however, was taken in this direction until
I 1807. Pitt, io the meanwhile, died, and
, Wilberforce struggled on against the selfish-
ness of men and the prejudice of ages. He
was already in the last act of his life when
the Reformed Parliament, under the inspira-
tion and leadership of Brougham, Buxton,
Clarkson, and many other philanthropists, who
had heard the cry of the oppressed, took up
his unfinished task, and, as his life went down
in the shadows, the Mene Tekel Uphardn of
slavery was seen in burning letters over against
the wall. Even then the slaveholders of the
Kingdom rallied all their powei's to defeat the
measure; but the gale of public opinion blew
hard against them, and they and their cause
went down together. A- month after the death
of Wilberforce, when, from the mountain-top
uplifted high, he had caught across the river
one certain glance of the radiant landscape,
the Emancip.\tion Bill was passed, and
human slavery met its (juietus throughout the
British dominions. It could luii be said, how-
GREAT BRITAIN.— LAST TWO HANOVERIANS.
ever, that the slaveholders suft'eroil greatly
from the loss of their alleged "propert_v."
The plan of abolition was so gradual in its
application, and the steps taken so ample to
remunerate those who were supposed to have
suffered financially by the destruction of servi-
tude, that none might well complain. Those
who had held slaves were allowed therefor au
aggregate compensation of twenty millions of
pounds. The emancipation, moreover, was
postponed to such dates as were supposed to
be convenient for the masters. Slave children
under six years of age were to become free in
the summer of 1834; slaves of the field, in
seven years; and domestic servants, in five
years from the passage of the act. It was
estimated that the slaves of the Kingdom, for
whom a compensation was given to the owners,
numbered, at the time of the pas.«age of the
Emancipation Bill, almut eight hundred thou-
sand.
Daniel O'Connell now reappeared on the
stage of British politics, and became one of
the leading figures of the scene. The as-
cendency which he had acquired duiing thi^
agitation for the repeal of the [leiial disaliil-
ities of the Catholics, now carried him to the
front of another nKJvement, still more impor-
tant and radical in its character. England
for three crnturies hail been a Protestant
State. The RfforiiKition had entered into
comhinatinn with the whole frame of civil so-
ciety. In no other State of modern Europe
had the reiigiuus institutions of the country
been blended more ouipletely with the polit-
ical structuiv than in tiie major i.-<land of tlu'
Kingdom. Ireland, on the other hand, was a
Catholic country. Into the Western Island
the Reformers of the sixteenth century had
never been able to penetrate. The Celtic race
proved itself most loyal and devoted to the
^Mother Church. Hardly might it be said that
Spain or Portugal, or Italy herself, had re-
mained more profoundly infected with the
Holy Faith, as dispen.sed from the chair of St.
Peter, than had Ireland.
This divergence and antagonism in the re-
ligioii- system of the people of the two i-slands
constituted in the fourth decmle of the jiresent
century, as it had done for generations, and as
it does to the present day, the insujierable bar
to political and social sympathy between the
English and Irish races. At the reformatory
epoch, of which we are here presenting a
sketch to the reader, the leaders of the Cath-
olic, we might say, the Iri-sh, party in the
United Kingdom, were elated by their success
in securing the passage of the Repeal Bill.
Tiiey had shared in the more recent excite-
ments attendant upon the reformation of the
British Parliament. They were for many rea-
sons emboldened to strike out for a more rad-
ical reform, and in Daniel O'Conuell they
found the impersonation of the cause.
The two most offensive symbols of the sub-
ordination of the Irish people to the British
Government were the Established Church, and
the System of Tithing by which it was sup-
ported. The Episcopalian Establishment was
as fixed in Ireland as in England. It sat
brooding over a people who were utterly
alienated from it. The Irish were Catholics,
but they must support the Church of England.
That Church existed among them fm- its own
good. In many parts of the country the Es-
taiilishmeut was represented merely liy the
liuildings, the clergymen, and tin' pari>h.
Parishioners there were mme. To supiiort
such au institution, foreign in every particu-
lar to the genius and sympathies of the peo-
ple— to support it liy taxes and rentals laid
heavily aii.l perpetually upon the Iri.h Cath-
olic i)easantry — was an ini(|uity so pal|ialili' as
to be monstrous in the estimation of posterity.
Against this whole system of foreign eccle-
siastical domination, O'Coiniell now raised his
voice. He demanded the .li-establi-hment of
the Church iu Ireland. lie deinan.led that
the tithing system, by which that Church was
supported, should be abolished; that the dio-
ceses should be broken up, and the bishops and
priests of the Church of England left to such
free support as they might still obtain ; that
the Establishment, in a word, should hence-
forth be made to rest on its own basis, just as
the Mother Church rested, in the island.
At this time a state of affairs had super-
vened in Ireland on the religious side of
society very similar to that which existed in
England l)etore the passage of the Reform
Bill. (J't'oniiell's measure was in the nature
of an ecclesiastical reform, by which inequal-
ities of taxation and similar abuses were to
be removed. But the propositions of the
UMVEHSAL HISTnUY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
reformer were met with violent (.pnositi'-'U m
Parliiimeut ami throu-hout the .■niintry. Tlie
wrath of the prrhitr< ..f the (/hiirrh of
England, and those wlio wnv :,-M„iatr,l with
them in inteivst — Inirk,-,!, as tlirv wnc, hy tiie
Tory party, aii.l all thr pv.ju.lices l.oni of
conservatism — rose lo tiic pitfli ot violence.
The agitation uas lanne.l to a flame. The
Ministry of Earl lirev tottere.l under the as- i
deavored to a.ssert itself and maintain the
asendency of the ancient order l)y the passage
of a CoiiRCiox Bill, the ohjeet of which was
to suppress the Irish movement by force of
arms. But the measure, as might well have
heen foreseen, only aggravated the evil which
it was designed to mitigate.
In the midst of the confusion the Ministry
of Grey went to pieces on the rocks. The
Earl resigned, and wa&
(1 in office hy
Lamh, l.ette'r
IS Lord Mel-
But he also
l|i,V\ ^-
succeetH
William
known
bourne,
was unable to weather
the storm. After a
brief and unsteady ef-
fort to hold the helm,
he A\ as obliged, though
'■upi)oitedb\ the king,
to t,ive plaee to a new
(.ou^eisatne Minis-
ti\ uudei the leadei-
shipotSiBd.eitP.tl.
Ihi^ m .x.m.iit h u-
£\u \\ is I. un-tille
i^it- j>iede(.es>-<ii Ihe
ippeal to the countiy
w hi< h \\a^ now made
,,.ult.d HI tht .xu-
thi u .tBul Ui.l the
leippointmentot Mel-
l)( uiue a'- Piemiei, in
1^13 In the nu \n-
mt lit h id attenqited
t( ( i-t 1 tub to the
In^h wink In h1 pt-
,n t nuwi.e of
saults of it? adversaries. Jleanwhile, the first
fruits of the agitation, as always happens in
such cases, were bitter to the taste. The Irish
peasantry, outraged for generations by the in-
tolerable exactions of the English Establish-
ment, broke into revolt. In many places the
country was terrorized by the excesses of the
insurrections. Crime and bloodshed were in
the path of tho.se who now avenged themselves
for the wrongs which had been inflicted upon
them. At the first, the British Ministry en-
which ten of the bishoprics in Ireland were
abolished, and the revenues of the Churcli
rearranged on a basis approximating to
justice.
This was the epoch of the ascendency
of Daniel O'Connell in the House of Com-
mons. As a debater he hud become pre-
eminent. This, too, in his old age; lor he was
beyond fifty when he entereil Parliament.
The analysis of his character and purpo-ses has
been difficult, even when the same have been
GREAT BRITAIN.— LAST TWO HANOVERIANS.
illumined by the light of subsecjueut eveuts.
It seems to have been his policy to demand
much, and to accept for his eoiiutrymeu what-
ever he could get. His (iratory was rude and
boisterous; his invective a thing to be dreaded,
even by the greatest and most callous Parlia-
mentarians of his time. As a field-speaker, it
is doubtful whether any man of the century
has been his superior. He swayed the multi-
tudes of his excitable countrymen at his
will, and was given by his ailniirers the hardly
too extravagant epithet of the "Uncrowned
King."
It is to the era which we are here considering
that we may properly assign the beginnings of
another measure of reform in the administration
of Great Britain. Parliament was now, for the
first time, called upon to wrestle with the great
question of pauperism. The existing Poor
Laws of the country were such that the num-
ber of those claiming public charity of the
kingdom increased from year to year. The
disease was seen to be aggravateil by the very
means which had been adopted to allay its
ravages. The amount annually appropriated
for the support of paupers had run up to the
enormous sum of seven millions of pounds,
and still the cries for gratuitous support in-
creased and multiplied. It was under the
Administration of Lord Mellwurne that the
reform of the Poor Laws was undertaken by
Parliament. The measures adopted were suc-
cessful only to a limited degree ; but they had
the merit of leading in the right direction.
The new statute forbade the further payment
of benefits to able-bodied paupers in their own
homes, and required all those who demanded
an entire or partial support at the hands of
the ]niblic, to enter the work-houses, and earn
bylahurwhat they s aijit, an.l had previously
received, as a gnituily.
In the year 1835 still another impetus was
given to the car of reform, by the passage
,di Parliament of the Municipal Act.
measure was especially designed tc
thr
Thi
ameliorate the condition of
The act was a ?ort of sequ
Bill of lS;lii. It was p,ovi,l
payers of municipal coi-iiorati
might elect a body of towi
that the latter i
number as chief
)wns and cities.
1 to the Reform
d that tlie tax-
US and lioroughs
councilors, and
lit choose one of their own
gistrate of the corporation.
The principle of local self-government was
thus, with great advantage, introduced and ap-
plied among the municipal populations of
Great Britain.
.Sharp after this came the passage, in 1.S.36,
of what was known as the Tithe Commuta-
tion Act, by which it was provided that a
fixed rent, to be determined by the average
price of com for the seven preceding years,
.should be substituted for the irregular tithes,
which had hitherto been collected in the
parishes. Some of the English dioceses were,
at the same time, reformed, and, in other
bills, it was enacted that marriages might
thereafter be solemnized in the churches of
Dissenters.
In the early part of the reign of William
IV. much ill-feeling was created in Great
Britain and Holland by the conduct of the
former cfiuntrj' towards the latter. The diffi-
culty was entailed as one of the consequences
of the Belgic Revolution of 1830-32.
King William I., of Holland, naturally
looked to England for sympathy in his contest
with the revolted Belgians. What, therefore,
were his chagrin and resentment to find the whole
influence of the British Government thrown on
the side of the insurrectionists, and to see the
crown of the kingdom of Belgium conferred
on Leopold, son-in-law of the late king of
England. To the student of history, however,
this course of the British Government will not
apj)ear astonishing or unnatural. From time
immemorial it has been the ill-disguised policy
of England, in the maintenance of her own
ascendency, to give her sympathies to the revo-
lutionary party in foreign States; this to the
extent of encouraging the rupture of rival
kingdoms up to the point when the revolution
itself becomes a menace to British interests.
It was in ])ursuance of this political habit
that in 1835 the encouragement of the British
Government was openly given to Isabella of
Si>ain, at that time engaged in a civil war with
her uncle, Don Carlos. A division of the
English army, under command of General
Evans, was .sent into the Spanish Peninsula,
and took active part in ui)holdiug the child-
queen of the kingdom.
On the whole, the Ministry of Lord Mel-
bourne was inefticient, and the times of its
ascendency uneventful. The Premier himself
UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
owed his high phice in the (ii)vei-nnient to
negative rather than positive qualities. He
has been pronounced by political critics to
have been deficient in insight and in energy;
and his political influence must be referred,
not to his own strength, but to conditions in-
dependent of his will, and to the concurrence
of fortunate circumstances. It was the hap-
piness of Melbourne, however, to form the
connecting link between the reign of William
IV. and the girl-sovereign who succeeded him.
As for the king, his life was now rapidly
waning. In the last years of his reign he ex-
ercised only the slightest influence on the
course of events. William began to show
signs of debility in May of 1837. It was
found that he labored from a fatal afl^ection
of the heart. Declining for several weeks, he
came to his death on the 20th of June, in that
year. He died, as his brother liefore him had
died, with no legitimate children; and the
large family of alleged illegitimate heirs were,
of course, excluded from the throne. It be-
longed to the Melbourne Ministry to steer the
ship of State from the narrow and stormy seas
of an unpopular reign into the ocean — almost
shoreless — of the Victorian epoch; an ocean
wide and free — not, indeed, without its seasons
of storm and tempest, but for the most part
fanned with gentle breezes from infinite
regions, and crowned with the radiance of
1 sunlight.
CHAPTER CXXVIII— KPOCH OK CHARTISM.
HE reader of history must
be constantly surprised
with the vicissitudes
through which the Royal
! Houses of Europe have
been fated to pass. Time
and again we have the
iiii'uou of a princely family in
lenly struck with blight and
barrenness. Who could have foreseen that
the House of Tudor, represented in the vigor-
ous and passionate Henry VIII., could have
so suddenly and strangely descended into ex-
tinction and oblivion? Who could have an-
ticipated the equally sudden descent of the
House of Stuart into the female line? And
who can contemplate without wonder the de-
termination of nature that not one of the
seventeen children of Queen Anne should
reach maturity'^ Why should Henry, six-
times wedded to fcrlile (|ni'ens, be unable to
perpetuate the name of Tudor? Why should
Anne be mocked as if she were a fruitful tree,
doomed to bear forever, but droppiiic; its un-
we vii-w with astonishment the sudden ilci'iid-
ence of the family of Oor-e llf. Nine s.ms
William IV., in June of 1837, not a single
male child of the legitimate blood of the
EnglLsh Guelfs, not a single true cion of that
House of Hanover-Brunswick, wdiich had been
transplanted from Germany to England, re-
mained to inherit the crown. Edward, Duke
of Kent, fiurth son of George HI., had been
laid with his fathers since 1825. To his sur-
viving fiimily, however, b}' the established
laws of English descent, the monarchy must
now go for a sovereign. And that sovereign
was found in the person of the Duke of Kent's
daughter, the Princess Alexandrina Vic-
toria, and to her the crown descemled without
the shadow of dispute.
The Princess at this time was seventeen
years and one month of age. She had been
the heir-presumptive during the reign of her
uncle William IV. Her education, in the
meantiiiio, was intrusted to the Duchess of
Northumberland, by whom the Princess was
removed from the degrading influences of the
court, and carefully trained for the duties
alike of queenhood and womanliood. Her
.lrve]n|,ni.iit had been carefully guarded, and
she had ^rown up a virtuous, intclligi nt, and
pruilout L'iiK fitted by every kind of discipline
for the exalti'd rank and trying duties of her
station. Nothing in history presents a stronger
GREAT BHITAIN.—EFOCn OF CHAEriSM.
-LIAM THE CONQUEROR 1087.
GEOFFREY PLANTAGENET-.Matilda.
:,. Henry ]I., 1189.
4. Stephen, 1154.
6. Rkhakd Lion Heaut. IIDU.
7. John LAfKLAND, 1216.
8. Henry III , 1272.
9. Edward I., 1.W7.
10. Edward II., I.S27.
11.eJar„„I,,1.7.
Edward. Lionel, E.hmilKl l,,l,n
the Blark ITinoe. Duke of rlarence. Duke of York. Duke of LANCASTER.
chard II., 1400. Philippa
1
RoKer Mortimer
RICHARD, DUKE OF YORK
17 Ei.WARi. v., 14S3. Elizabeth^
ili.Ni;Y 1\ ., 141:; ,lohn Beaufort.
I I
IlENliY \ .. 1422. .lolin. OWEN TUDOR.
IIKNKY VI.. 1471. Margaret— Duke of Kiilimoii.l.
WALTER STUART.
IN. RnilARD III., 148,5.
19 Henry VII.,
James III.
-James IV.
EiiWAKD VI., 1X,3.
.ame.s
Jlary, Queen of Scots,
24. James I iVI.), 1B2.5.
26 Charles II., lf,s.5. 27. James II., 1701,
I
14. JnmesEdward 28. Mary, =28, WILLIAM III, OF ORANGE
Elizabeth,
SOPHIA-DUKE OF HANOVER-
I BRUNSWICK,
30. Oeorge I., 1727.
Fredi'riek, Prince of Wales.
I
.".2. i;Eoi.fiElII„1820.
i
THE IVIONARCHS
ENGLAND.
. riEORoE, IV., ls:;o. :54. William IV.. ls;-;7. Duke of Kent.
Priuee of Male^
contrast than is nfflirdoil l.y the seiitinifiits, tlie ' and alx.niiiiatidii, which swelled and limke in
instinets, and |U1i-|h,scs ..f the maidenly liosoin i n siirC nf iiidcsci-iliahle ofiensiveness armind the
of Virt.iria 011 tho <lay of lier tiecession, and Kiiolisli liir :■ during the last two ivion.s.
the pas.'^ioiis tloatino in that purlieu ,,[' HItli j The circumstances of the inauguration of
UNIVERSAL HISrOKY.-THE MODERN WORLD.
the young Queen were such as
entluisiastic admiration of \\rv
youth and inexperience, and
ignorance of the world, it had
would leave her a helpless n<ivi<
the rdval seat. But si
erself to be ready for the
()u the day of hei accession
m waiting lead
hei own si}ttcli aloud in tin tleai,
d^en the
s. Her
ortuuate
■ pposed.
ness under trial. The war-battered Welling-
ton .said gruffly that he could not have wished
a better performance from his own daughter.
On coming to power, the now Queen rejected
the name Alexandriiia, which
had been given her out of com-
pliment to the Empeioi of Kus-
sia, and Mgned heiself «unply
ViCTORi\ K the name bv
which bothheiselt and hei epoch,
(Jl 1 h,\ \1C1UKI-
niiisical tiiiK's of i^irlhood, showed neither fear
nor einbarras-iiiciit, Mushed crimson red when
hor two airod uiiclos knelt to kiss her hand,
and won the hearts of all. Peel declared him-
self aina/.ed at her manner and behavior, at
her deep sense of the situation, at her firin-
if the most
it in Entil
history
The maiden ruler who was thus called to
the throne of England was the thirty-fifth iu
order of succession from William the Conqueror,
and the fifth Queen Regnant of the United
GREAT BRITAIN.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.
Kingdom of Great Britain ami Irelaml. The
contiugeucy which had i)eeii provided for
on the aceessiou of George I. had thus at
last arrived. Under the constitiitiou of the
Dukedom of Hanover-Brunswick, the princes
of that line must be male ; for the Salic Law,
prevalent inimemorially iu Germany as well
as France, excluded women from the throne.
Accordingly, when George I. was called hy
Parliament to the sovereignty of Great Britain,
it was provided that so long as a male heir re-
mained to wear the crown, Hanover and
England should be governed by a common
king; but iu case the English crown should
fall iuto the female line, theu Hanover should
revert to some other branch of the family in
■which the male line was still preserved. The
event had cimie. The daughter of the Duke
of Kent had inherited the English throne.
Hanover was accordingly severed from its
political relations with Great Britain, and on
the accession of Victoria became an inde-
pendent power. Duke Ernest, of Cunilier-
land, was chosen king.
The new sovereign of Eiiiihuid came into
power under the auspices of tlu' Tinies. Lord
Melbourne was still Prime Minister. The
Queen herself sympathized in her youth, as
she has always done, with the Tory party, and
as it had been in the cinshii;' years of George
IV. A new Parliament was created by an
appeal to the country, and the result showed
that the Tory, or, as it now began to be called,
the Comervativr, party had a slight gain in tlu'
elections. If we should glance into the En-
glish Parliament at tliis time, we would dis-
cover in that body an array nt' political talent,
not to say genius, wliich cuidd hardly be sur-
passed in the palmiest days of British history.
The foremost man of all was, doubtless. Lord
Henry Brougham, at that time fifty-eight years
of age. Perhaps no abler or stronger charac-
ter has appeared in the arena ot statesmanship
within the present century. He was a great
orator, as that term is used, to describe not
only the temiwrary influence of the speaker
over those whom lie aildresses, but also to sig-
nify a solidity of subject-matter and cogency
of reasoning, such as may well influence the
thought of readers in another age and country.
Brougham had risen to the Chancellorship in
18.30. In 1835 he was left out of the Whig
Ministry, and, during the remainder of his
career, pursued an independent course on all
questions of the dny, wielding, in his old age,
a free-lance, whieh hi' lunled with the power
of a giant. Atter him, the second place among
the Parliamentarians of the time has been as-
signed to Lord John Lyndhurst, who, as a
debater, has had few superiors in the British
House of Lords. Lyndhurst was the son of
John Singleton Copley, an American painter
of the Colonial times, and was born in Boston,
in the year 1772. He was a Tory by politics,
a statesman by profession. Without the ag-
gressive force of Brougham, without his rug-
gedness of character and stormy disposition,
he nevertheless rose easily to a high plane of
intluence in British affairs, and maintained it
through a long and eventful life. In the House
of Commons of this time might be .seen sitting,
for the city of London, George Grote, the histo-
rian of Greece. There, also, was Edward Lyttou
Bidwer, destined to the peerage. In the same
body appeared, for the first time, the eccentric
and foppish Benjamin Disraeli, for whom des-
tiny had reserved the task of making- his au-
gust Queen Empress of India. William E.
Gladstone had then seen five years' service iu
the House. Lord John Kussell had just begun
his career as leader of his partv. Tiiere were
Pahnerston, and I'eel, and Stu'idey, O'Connell
and Shell, shouting to the charge for the
emancipation of Ireland. It has been re-
marked that of the great names who were des-
tined, in the next forty years, to be blazoned
on tlie escutcheon of British Parliamentary
history, only four — Roebuck, Cobden, Bright,
and Maeaulay — were wanting in the Parlia-
ment whieh assembled when Victoria took the
scepter.
The Government of the (}urrn inherited
from its predecessor all of the i-eformatory tend-
encies of the age. Those tendencies had not
yet satisfied themselves by taking organic
forms in the Englisli Constitution. But for a
brief season the reformatory movements were
checked by the diversion of the attention of
the Governni..nt to th<' aflhirs of Lower Canada.
In that country an insurrection broke out in
1838, and the 'Government found itself under
the necessity of suspending the colonial con-
stitution, in virtue of which Canaila hail her
UMVEBSAI. HISTORY.— THE MODERS WORLD.
civil existeuce. In order to secure a better
ailministratiiiii in the Province, Joliii Gecu-ge
Lanibtnn, Lunl Durham, was selected as a
new (ioveriior, and to hira was assigned the
dittiriilt task nt' ijiu'lliiig the insurrection, pac-
ityiii;^ the pe(ii)lc, and reorganizing the Gov-
ern im-iit. On rei)airing to America and as-
suming; his duties in Canada, he was so
unfortunate as to adopt measures beyond the
limits of his instructions, and perhaps beyond
the limits of present application to the then
conditions in Canada. The ordinances which
he prepared for tlie government of the Prov-
ince were subsequently' taken as the basis of
Canadian nationality, but they were disap-
proved by the House of Lords; whereupon
the Governor was so deeply offended that, with-
out waiting to be recalled, he abandoned his
post and returned to England.
Nor did the event fail to justify, in some
measure, what had seemed to be the rashness
and impractical temper of Lord Durham. Pow-
erful friends at home approved and defended
his course. His report on the condition of
affairs in Canada was one of the ablest papers
of the times, and Parliament was soon obliged
to adopt the very policy which the discarded
Governor had attempted to maintain in his
brief and extraordinary administration.
The period of history upon which we are
now entering was marked in the history of all
countries by the great extension of scientific
knowledge. It was the epoch, rather, in which
scientific knowledge began to be extensively
applied in all industrial and commercial enter-
prises. It was, in short, the dawn of the new
era of contrivance and invention. The aug-
mentation of the productiveness of human
labor in almost all departments of industry
became perceptible from the fourth decade of
the century, and the volume of applied force
was destined to increase and widen through
th" whole Victorian Age. It were difficult, in-
deed, ns it is always difficult, to point out with
exactitude the beginnings, the true origins, of
the great discoveries and inventions which
have s.i vastly nndtiplied in our times. Per-
haps w -hnidd cite the last quarter of the
ci-litcfiith riiitury as thegeneraldateof the sci-
entific discoveries which began to be utilized
fifty years afterwards. The discovery of oxy-
gen-gas by Priestley, in 1774, might almost be
said to be the first stage in the natural sciences.
What, indeed, had mankind actually known
about the true constitution of nature up to
the time of Priestley and Franklin ? The
scientific men of this and tlie sulisequent age,
however, were explorers and discoverers ratlier
than inventors. It is with the application of
discovery, the adaptation, or, if we may so say,
the incorporation of the principles by which
phenomena are governed into physical con-
trivance, that we are here to consider and il-
lustrate.
One of the greatest of the achievements to
which we refer was the extension of Steam
Navig.\tio>' — particularly the navigation of
the Atlantic Ocean by steamships — and the
establishment by this means of regular lines of
communication between Europe and America.
The Atlantic Ocean was first traversed exper-
imentally by a small steamer called the Savan-
nali, in 1816. The vessel was constructed at
New York, was successfully steered to Liver-
pool under the propulsion of steam, and con-
stituted the brief experimental wonder of the
times. The next voyages accomplished by the
came agent were made a few years later be-
tween Holland and the Dutch West Indian
colonies. It was, however, in the early part
of the year 1838 that the practical feature of
ocean steam navigation was demonstrated on a
large scale. In that year the British-built
steamships Sirius and Great Wedeni made their
trial voyages across the Atlantic. The first
trip of the Great Western was made from Bris-
tol to New York in fifteen days. The Siriiin
steamed out from Cork and reached the Amer-
ican metropolis in seventeen days on her trial
trip. It was the demonstration of a great
problem, the favorable .solution of which was
destined to exercise a vast influence, not only
on the commercial affairs of nations, but on the
nations themselves by the extension of inter-
course and the stimulation of internationality.
This was particularly true of that feature of
the improvement which related to the trans-
mission of the oceanic mails. Nor will the
patriot reader on this side of the Atlantic fail
to recall with pride the fact that the ^lother
Countrv, essentiallv maritime as she is, at the
bottom of her greatness, was constrained to
draw u]ion the genius of the American Repub-
lic for the first suggestions and demonstrations
GREAT BRITAIX.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.
279
of the practicability of prnpelling ve^^.-cls Iiy
steam-enginery.
The same pride may well be inspired by
the story of the indebtedness of the llother
Country to her daughter in the matter of ap-
plying the electrical current as a means of
communication. In England, tiie first to
make such application of electricity was Sir
Charles Wheatstone, at that time professor of
experimental philosophy in King's College,
London. It was in June of 1836 that Wheat-
stone produced what may be called the rudi-
mentary telegraph. lu that year he took out
a patent "for improvements iu giving .signals
and sounding alarms in distant places by
means of electric currents, transmitted through
metallic circuit." Similar discoveries had
already been made by our own Professor Morse,
but it does not appear that Wheatstone was
indebted for his contrivance to the American
inventor. Both philosophers were working
out, independently, the solution of the same
problem. Witii Wheatstone was associated
Mr. Cooke, an Englishman of scientific attain-
ments and business experience, whose practical
abilities were joined with those of the phi-
losopher in his patent for the first electrical
ap)iaratus of the telegraphic kind iu England.
It should be observed, however, that the
work of Wheatstone was limited to the sound-
ing of signals at a distance, and did not reach
to the conveyance of information by means of
lanu'uage. The latter achievement was the
work of Morse, as has already been delineated
iu another chapter. In the matter of the rail-
road, however, the first actual production be-
longed to England. There it was that Stephen-
son led the way into the new continent of
commerce and travel. The London and Bir-
mingham Railway was not, however, opened
in its whole length until 1838, fully sixteen
years after the successful opening of the first
line, eight miles in length, to the Hetton
colliery. An act for tlie transmission of the
English mails by railway was passed through
Parliament in lS.;s. mi.l thenceforth the de-
velopment and extension of the system was
rapid and constant until it became universal.
We come at this same ])eriod in English
history, t-> one of tlmsc rcinnrkaMc features in
We refer to the establislitnont of what, in
English parlance, is call.,! Tin: Pkn-nv Pi.st.
The methods ,,f transmitting the mails by
irregular and local agencies, sncli as bail been
in vogue since the Middle Ages, continueil in
operation in Great Britain to within the
memory of men still living. The idea of a
general postal system, operating at cheap rates
under direction and control of the Govern-
ment, did not enter the mind of any British
statesman until after the accession of Victoria.
Even then the project had to be carried to
Parliament, and persistently advocated by a
man wiser in his generation than any member
of that body, before the feasibility of the
scheme was acknowledged and adopted. The
experiences of Sir Rowland Hill — for to him
all mankind are perpetually indebted for the
conception of a cheap and universal postal
system — were almost identical in his dealings
with the British Parliament and advocacy of
his proposed measure before that liody with
those of Professor Morse before the American
Congress. The scene iu either instance of
these two pioneers before the two great repre-
sentative law-making bodies of the English-
speaking Nations may well remind one of the
attitude of Columbus, surrounded with a group
of bigoted monks and ignorant school-men, and
trying to reveal to their bat-winged imagina-
tions the glories of a New World !
It was in the year 1839 that the Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer laid before Parliament
a proposition in which it was declared expe-
dient to reduce the po.stage on letters to one
uniform rate of one penny charged upon every
letter of a given weight. The measure also
proposed the abolition of the franking privi-
lege hitherto p<isscssed by members of Parlia-
ment, and the restriction of franking to such
official documents as must be transmitted by
the officers of Government. The striking
feature of the proposition was that it reversed
the existing theory in reganl to the transmis-
sion of matter bv mail. Iliiherto the receipts
-otfi.
UXIVERSAL HISTORY— THE MODERX WORLD.
l)y many others, the aggregate receipts of the
post-ottice department were reduced to a figure
as meagre as the system itself was contemptible.
Whenever from any such causes a deficiency
had arisen, it had been the custom of the
department (o advance the rates of postage,
believing that thereby the aggregate receipts
would be increased. It remained for Rowland
Hill to demonstrate the fallacy of this position
and demonstrate the truth of the reverse. In
1.S37 he published a pamphlet entitled Post-
office Reform; its Importance and Practicability.
It was one of tho.se rare productions which,
by their invincible logic and cogent array of
facts, make a conquest of the human mind.
Hill's work fought its way even into Parliament.
Tlie post-ofRce authorities decried the project.
The Postmaster-General denounced it in the
Hnuse of Lords as a visionary scheme. When
Parlianient took the matter up, and, in .spite
of itself, began to admit the truthfulness of
Hill's demonstrations, the officials of the de-
I)artment assented to try the imject, but
hedged against the consequences. .Sydney
Smith satirized the enterprise with his usual
bitterness. Nevertheless, the ministry gave
way under the impact of the truth. The
great commercial cities caught a glimpse of
the benefits of the new system, and poured their
petitions in its lavnr into the House of Com-
mons. A bill was brought in embodying
the scheme of Rowland Hill, and on the
10th of January, 1840, the act for the e.stab-
lishment of postage at the uniform rate of one
penny j)er letter of not more than half an
ounce in weight, was adopted against the
strenuous opposition of a large party in both
Houses of Parliament. And it may well sur-
prise posterity to know that among the names
of those most liitterly antai;dnistic to the act
were those of tlie Dukr of Wc-llington and
Sir Robert Peel. The country and the world
immediately responded to the new system by
pouring an increased volume of revenue into
the post-office department of every nation
where cheap postage, after the manner devised
by Sir RoAvhmd Hill, has been adopted as a
niethod of administration.
Wr here appioarh ..ne of the nio.-t remark-
able episoiles in the iM.litical history of England.
It was in the year 1838 that the extraordinaiy
social and iiidustrial upheaval known by the
general name of C'h.\ktis.-m occurred. It is
doulttful whether any other agitation of like
kind, more general, more profimnd, more
heated, had shaken the fabric of British so-
ciety than was the sudden and unexpected in-
surrection of the masses in favor of what was
known as "the People's Charter." This name
was given to a brief summary of political prin-
ciples said to have been drawn up by Daniel
O'Connell, in the year above named, and
handed by him to the Secretary of the Work-
ingmen's Association, with the remark :
"There's your charter; agitate for it, and
never be content with anything le.ss." It is
proper, first of all, to state concisely what
were the principles of political action sum-
marized in the People's Charter.
The document in cuiestioii contained si.x
brief formal piopositions, which were as fol-
lows:
1. We deman.l Universal Suffrage — by
which was meant ratlier ilanliood Sutirage
than what is now known as universal sutirage,
meaning the ballot in tlie hands of both sexes.
This, the Chartists did not demand.
2. We demand an Annual Parliament — by
which was meant the election of a new House
of Commons each year by the people.
3. We demand the right to Vote by Bal-
lot— by which was meant the right of the peo-
ple to employ a secret, ballot at the elections
instead of the method viva voce.
4. We demand the Abolition of the Prop-
erty Q.ualification now requisite as a comlition
of "eligibility to Membership in the House of
Commons.
5. We demand that the IMembers of Parlia-
ment shall be i)aid a salary fijr their services.
G. We demand the Division of the Coun-
try into Equal Electoral Districts — by which
was meant an equality oi' j)ojii(lation, as against
mere territorial extent.
Such, in brief, was the code of political doc-
trines under which the Chartist reformers of
1838 went forth to agitate the country.
To the reader of to-day it must appear a
matter of astonishment that the representatives
of the working classes of Great Britain should
have been called upon, at a time witliin the
memory of men still living, to defend and ad-
vocate jiolitieal principles so self-evident and
common-sense as those declared in the Charter;
GREAT EI:I1AL\.-EF0CH OF LHARTISM.
!.sl
ana bis wonder mast be laiscd
wheu he is t<ikl that the \v
p<i\ver of Great Britain, the K
H.
-f L
great Middle Class ,,f i:,,
selves iu liorritied antiii^mi
and its advocates, as tlidii:
the most incendiary ddeiii
and the latter a ral)lile dl
from the pnrlieus of the
How can such an incre<lih
ent-ceutury history of (Jr
plained and interpreted?
In the first place, the 'sv
1832 had proved a signal f;
with respect to the worl
Britain — to the masses of
bill had been a-itated in
the well-to-do .Mi.ldle (;ia
people. That
first place bv
f Englishmen.
The battle for the standard in the Parliament-
ary war of 1828-32 was between the Middle
Class and the Aristocracy. The former fought
for an extension of their rights; the latter for
the maintenance of their exclusive privileges.
But in that contest neither the representatives
of the ^Middle Class nor the representatives of
the Aristocracy had had the slightest care for
the interests of the working masses — for the
rights of the real people of England. Never-
theless, the real people had been profoundly
agitated by the Middle Class oratoi-s and
statesmen, and had been led to believe that
the Reform Bill was intended to remove the
evils under which the workingmen of Crreat
Britain toiled on in the obscure drama of ]>ov-
erty from birth to death.
The real people of England wei-e thus en-
listed in favor of the reform measures of is.'Vi,
and followed the banners nf l-^ail <ney. Sir
Robert Peel, and Lord John Russell. ' But
what was the chagrin, mortitication, disappoint-
ment, and, presently, the rage of the working-
men when, after the passage of the Reform
Bill, they began to perceive that, .so far as
themselves were concerned, the measure had
been a delusion an<l a snare. They saw, after
five years of bittern( >s, that though great bene-
fits had been derived from the bill by the
Middle Class, no benefit whatever had reached
themselves. They beheld, more.jver, the Whig
' party withdraw from them and stand aloof as
though it would affiliate with that very Aris-
tocracy from whose hands the Reform Bill had
measures of 1.s:;l', >.auide,l as a mockery, anil
I the mention of il began to a\vakeu on the
j features of all \voi-kin,i:nien, from the hard-
handed artisans of L.nidon to the soot-smutted
miners of Wales, a sardonic gi'in, presently
I stiffening into a frown of unspeakable hatred.
Such was the principal antecedent of the agi-
tation which arose under the Charter.
, Other causes coiiperated with the principal
cause. The amendment to the Poor Laws,
while correct in principle and ultimately vin-
hardship and engendered dissatisfaction. Be-
I yond all this, the working people of England
I were, at this time, ignorant to the last degree.
They knew only iu a certain vague way that they
were oppressed, that they were suffering.
j They knew enough to perceive that the pro-
ducts of their toil went to enrich the landed
gentry, or to fill the coffers of great merchants
and manufacturers. Superstition had not yet
loosened its hold upon the popular imagination.
Ignorant leaders came forth like apparitions,
first, to deceive, and then disaiiiioint, the
masses. One of these, bv the name of Thom,
a bankrupt brewer and halt-madman, ajipeared
ui Canterbury, proposing to lead the people.
He called himself Sir William Courtenay, of
Powderham Castle, Knight of Malta, King of
Jerusalem. Multitudes followed him about,
until presently, near the gates of Canterliury,
he and some of his principal fbllowers, at the
head of a large body of riojers, were shot dead
in a conflict with the militia. But the fanatics
who followed his banner believed that their
leader would come forth by resurrection, and
at length conduct them to social happiness
and plenty. The industrial districts of Eng-
land were rife with such delusions, and the ex-
istence of the insurrectionary tendency among
the working-classes was used by the Middle-
Class Whigs as an excuse for inclining to the
side of conservatism, and for locking with
strong chains the wheels of the car of reform.
But there were not wanting in England cer-
tain brave spirits warmed with the enthusiasm
UXIVERSAL HIST0J;Y — THE MODERN WORLD.
of huiuauiU', feiirhig U(jt theiueuaee ul' political
ostracism, dreading uot even the dungeon and
the gibbet, who took up the People's Charter,
so-called, and went forth among the masses to
defend and advocate its doctrines. Among
these, several names were conspicuous. First of
all may be mentione.l Feargus OT.mii..r, who
was, perhaps, the most popular and vehrment
of all the Chartist leaders. Thomas Cooper, a
poet of no mean capacity, a philanthropist in
word and deed, buoyed ii]) the cause of Chart-
ism witli tongue and pen. In the eighth decade
of the {)reseut century the lecture-goers of the
United States were called, time and again, to
hear the silvery tones of the voice of an aged
Englishman. He was a veritable Saxon. His
full beard and mustache were long and white.
He was short and thick in figure, of florid
complexion; and those fierce blue eyes, which
he had taken by heredity from his Teutonic
ancestors in the Hollowlands along the Bal-
tic, by turns blazed with the fierceness of
his earnest convictions, or beamed with
the benignity of his generous spirit. Great
were the themes wliich he presented on the
American platform. Elixpieiit was the old
man as he delineated some of the leading vicis-
situ<les of English history, or portrayed the
thrilling crises of Continental society. With-
out i:iite or menioranduni, he spoke for hours
without a jiause, and his hearers sat enraptureil.
On his last round before the free people
of the West, the old man's right thumb was
covered with the black stall which concealed
the incipient felon destined to cause his death.
He is gone. It was Henry Vincent, the
Chartist orator, who, in 1828, suffered imprison-
ment in Wales for advocating the People's
Charter.
Chartism became popular throughout Eng-
land. The chief seats of the agitation
were in the manufacturing and commercial
cities. In all such situations the Chartists be-
came numerous and powerful. The leaders,
as a class, were men of the highest respectabil-
ity and most earnest purpose. In some in-
stances, mere factionists and adventurers,
having everything to gain and nothing to lose,
threw in their fortunes with the cause, and
generally brought di.sgrace upon it. But for
the rest, the movement was directed by an in-
telligent enthusiasm for which it would be
difficult to find a parallel as the jirime motive
of any other political agitation. It can not
be denied — and it was a fact, indeed, gloried in
by the Chartist reformers themselves — that the
multitudes who followed in the wake were men
of low degree, drawn from the mines and fac-
tories, the dirty streets of cities, and the hum-
ble shops of country villages. This mass,
how-ever, constituted a large jnirt of the En-
glish jjeople, and their struggle for emancipa-
tion was among the noblest of the jiopular
excitements of the century.
The methods, moreover, adopted hj the
Chartist leaders to secure their ends were in
the highest degree commendable. The orators
went from city to city, from village to village,
speaking to the throngs that gathered to share
a common enthusiasm and to hear discussed
the principles of the People's Charter. Torch-
light processions, popular dinners, and multi-
tudinous gatherings became the order of the
day, and the movement presently gathered
such head that the Government, not without
reason, grew apprehensive of a political up-
heaval in the kingdom. As a rule, all the
English artisans and the producing classes,
properly so-called, espoused the Chartist cause.
The Ministry and Parliament became alarmed,
and strenuous measures were adopted to pre-
vent the further spread of the excitement, and
to trammel up the cou.sequences of the work
already done.
The Chartist meetings began to be lirokeu
up, and the leaders to be prosecuted. One of
the severest crises was that attendant upon the
effort to release Henry Vincent from prison at
Newport. For this purpose a vast force of
workingmen was crudely organized, under the
leadership of a Newport trader by the name of
Frost. He was assisted by several others, and
his forces were arranged in three columns, to
converge on Newport at a certain hour of the
night; but the movements of the rude in-
surgents were so irregular that only the colunm
headed by Frost arrived at the scene of action
at the appointed time. This division was con-
fronted by the city authorities, and a collision
occurreil, in which the workingmen were dis-
persed. Frost and the other leaders were
taken, tiled, convicted, and condemned to
death. The .sentence was not carried into ex-
ecution, I)ut was commuted into banishment
GREAT BRITAIN.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.
for life. Three of tlie leaders were sent to
the penal colonies ; but in course of time the
animosity of the Government was cooled, and
those of the condemned Chartists who had not
died in the interim regained their freedom.
It were long to follmv the destinies of the
agitation during the next ten years. The
movement ebbed and timved. Thuse of the
Chartist leaders who hail espoused the cause
tliiough an unselfish enthuNia-m, ln^plled by
'i\mpdth\ foi the woes of the Eu^li^h masses,
held st .utU .u I\i- (uti II- 111 I 1. M u
Jai
It
iw out of the aboliti
of
slavery in that country, and of a struggle be-
tween the old masters and the freednien, not
unlike the chaos which eusued in the 8outheru
States in the decade succeeding the American
Civil War. On the whole, the Imperial Gov-
ernment of .Jamaica, that is, the Governor,
the Council, and the other royal officers,
favored the maintenance of the rights of the
eufianchised classes in the island. But the
As^-embh, lepiesentmg the old dommant mas-
h" it th. 1). 1 1. iilintt I th iii-Lhes
tions did not ajijiall them; imprisonment, and
e\eu death, did not suffice to still their
voices. We shall hereafter see that as late as
1848 the Chartists, as a party, were as numer-
ous and powerful, as capable of shaking the
country with their tread, as they had lieen in
the spring-tide of the agitation.
The Ministrv of .Mt'llMHirnc now tottered to
its fall. The circumstance wlurh was destined
to give tlie coup de grace to tliat rather long-
lived and little sensational Cabinet related td
the administration of atlairs in the island of
against the freednien, and a clash thus arose
in the heart of the Government.
The question was one which greatly puz-
zled the Ministry; but the Gordian knot was
cut at length bv an act suspending or alirogat-
iug the Jamaican Constitution. This measure
was violently opposed by Sir Robert Peel and
the Conservatives on the one side, and by the
Radicals on the other. The latter now consti-
tuted a considerable body in Parliament. They
bail, in tile times of the Reform agitation, fol-
lowed the Whig banner with enthusiasm; but,
UJS'JVEBSAL HISTORY.-THE MODERN WORLD.
like tlie Chartists, of xviiich they wii-.. really
the representatives, they \\:\'\ cati n the worm-
wood aud drauk the gall of liiitvi iie>s aud dis-
appoiiitraeut on aceouut nt' tin- ,-iiiull niiteonie
of the Eeforiu movement tn popular liberty.
The eombiued attaek of the two wings was
more than the ^Melliourne Ministry ronld
stand. The Premier resigned his place, and
suggested to the C^ueen that she call Sir Eob-
ert Peel to the head of the Government.
Between the larger paragraphs of English
greatness are interlarded many paragraphs of
English littleness. We here come to one of
those extraordinary episodes in the Parlia-
mentary history of Great Britain which may
well excite a smile ou the lips of posterity.
The young Queen of the United Kingdom had
her royal hou.sehold after the manner of her
ancestry. Among the personages composing
the household, two of the most important were
the Ladies of the Bed-chamber. Thi.s delicate
office of personal aud intimate attendance on
the Queen had been given to the wife of Lord
Xorraauby and the sister of Lord Morpeth,
afterwards Lord Carlisle. These two noble-
men hail both been holding high offices under
th.e Whigs. The first had been Lord-Lieuten-
ant ot Ireland, -and the second, Irish Secretary
in the same Administration. But these officers
hail, of course, gone down with the NVhig
Mini-try of Melbourne. The question was
whether the wife of the one and the sister of
the other, Ladies of the Bed-chamber to the
Queen, should or should not go out of place
with the Ministry. When Sir Robert Peel
went to the Queen to accept from her the of-
fice of Premier, he thought he discovered a
specter, two specters indeed, in Her Majesty's
bed-chamber. He conceived that the retention
of two eminent Whig ladies in clo.sest attend- '
ance upon their royal mistress would break the
efficiency of the new Conservative Ministry
about to be formed. He, therefore, rather
abruptly and without due tact, demanded that
the Queen's ladies-in-waiting should share the
fate of the fallen ^linistry.
The young Queen was shocked at the pro])0-
sition. She had become greatly attached to
the ladies who were now regarded as a menace [
to Sir Robert and his Conservatives. She ac-
cordingly consulted with Lord John Russell,
and, (ju his advice, replied to Sir Robert that '
she
t consent to a course which she
be contrary to usage, and which
tly repugnant to her feelings.
n refused to accept the
conceived t
was SI I gr
Sir Robert thereupi
Government, and made a high-sounding ora-
tiou in Parliament in defen.se of his position.
A Ministerial crisis was thus produced, aud
the (Jueen was obliged to recall Lord Mel-
bourne to the head of the Government. The
excitement growing out of this "Question
of the Bed-chamber," as it was called, spread
through the country, and a considerable in-
terval elapsed before Parliament swung back
into its customary mood.
The return of Lord ^Melbourne to the head
of the Government was only for a brief season.
On resuming office he was still confronted with
the Jamaica Bill. That measure had to be
modified and remodified under the dictation
of the Opposition, until its leading features
were tinkered away. Even these beatings
about could not save the alread_v discredited
Whig party from rout aud overthrow. The
^Ministry staggered on for a brief season, aud
was driven finally from power to make wa}',
in September of 1841, for the accession of Sir
Robert Peel and the Conservatives.
The attention of the British public could but
be called, at an early date, to the question of
the succession. Here, indeed, was a Maiden
Queen on the throne of England. As for the
rest, the English Guelfs were well-nigh extin-
guished. The great family of George HL had
come to this: a modest, quiet, and not un-
comely young woman ou the English throne.
Nor was the Queen herself unmindful of the
situation. Girlish fancy, as well as Imperial
duty, had suggested to her the desirability —
the necessity — of marriage. To her credit be
it said, that she was totally devoid of that un-
womanlv pride which flamed in the bosom of
Elizabeth Tudor, making her prefer the sin-
gleness and selfishness of royal power to the
charms of wifehood and motherhood. At the
opening of Parliament, in 1840, Victoria ap-
peared in person, and declared her intention
to be married to her cousin, Prince Albert
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. The young Majesty
said in her speech, that she trusted that the
step which she was about to take would be
Conducive to the interests of her people as
well as to her own domestic hajipiness. It was
GREAT BRITAIN.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.
known that the royal marriage thus anuouiiced
was, both on the Queen's part and the part
of the Prince, an affair ..f tlie heart, rather
than an affair <>f royal and [>i4itieal Cduven-
ieuce.
The event fully jii-titiid ]iulili(^ expecta-
tion. Prince Albert was eiuinentiy worthy of
the trying station to wiiich h(^ was called.
His situation was peculiar in the last degree.
From one point of view, it seemed that the
law of nature was reversed and made of no
effect by the Constitution of (iivat Britain.
The Prince was the husband of the Queen,
but the law of affection catne in to rectify
and amend the hardsliip to which the husband
was subjected; and there can be no doubt
that while the Queen hciicf .rtl
scepter over his head, he to tlio (
held an equally imperial sc. pti'r ovo
It may well be asked, especial
public like ours, what part or
Albert, in such a situati<iii, hail, or
with respect to the public aflairs (
dom. Was he simply a ciplicr by
that significant unit, the (,|nccn'.' <
be reckoned among the political
forces of the reign? In the first place, the
Prince was by nature and discipline a gentle
man and scholar. The domestic pui^uits
charmed him from his lioyl 1. In hi- int 1
lectual preferences he cho.-e art and i In iti n
as the two subjects most congenial to hi- t i-t
and to these elevating branches of cultuie 1
devoted himself with assiduity. He becam
the patron of many of the noblest enteipu-e-
of the Victorian era; and although never what
might be called a popular prince among the
people to whom he was set in such strange
relation, he nevertheless exercised on the men
and manners of his time a most wholesome in-
fluence, the effects of whieh have not yet
passed away. Nor may we overlook his
equally salutary, though imlirect, influence on
the Queen, and tlinniirb the Queen on the
Ministry, the Parliament, the whole Adminis-
tration of Great Britain. In this respect he
was a moderating and conservative force,
checking, as far as he iiii'.dit. the evil con-
sequences of party legislation and the rage of
politics. He was in all respects a cautious,
prudent man, little disposed to interfere, except
with affectionate advice, in the affairs of the
18
august peisom.e b\ hi- -ide His pifunige
of art and leainmg tndeaied him m a high de
sree to the inttlkcturl ( hs«e- of Enghnd
Iters
Jtific
t i
C( nipau\ wd
luk mines ot
wise eon
Some
it the UKidtnts (t the Puulcs
career, aftei his union with the Queen may
well be mil it 1 Vt tli ut t h \Ms ub
jected t( I huniiliiti n in I iiliiiiicnt b} the
reduction of tlio
proposeil annuity of fifty
thousand pounds t
o thirlN- thousand pouuds — ■
this the work of
tlie T.iiy Oppo.liion. His
good sense, howev
■r. l.d hiiu 1 ake no sign,
and presently afte
■wards he leeeiv.'d the great
compliment of be
n- deeliired Ileeeiit in case
of the Queen's de
ilh with Is-iie. In this case
the Opposition joi
led with til,. Ministry, and
the act was pa-
■d by unaniinoiis vote. It
ean not be <loul
ted that the measure con-
tributed not a lit
ic to the dignified estimate
which was helK'ef,
rth iilaced on the Prince by
the Engli-li peopl
'. Ever afterwards he con-
stituted a kind «t'
mtside Privy Council to the
2sr, UNIVERSAL HISTOBY.-
Queen ami extant .Miiiir-try; imr wduld it he
single instance in wiiieli lii< iiilliirnrr was ex-
ercised to the liuit nf ihr r.iiii^li Nation.
Meanwiiile. thr rrinre s.t his mind on the
aceompli-hmcnt of many imiaovmients an.l
irh.rms in thr oxislin- mder. in the early
years oflns a^r.anhnrv h,- nnd.-rlonk, annm-
other thin-s, to Hlort ih.' aholuion uf duolu,^-
in the army. 'He- rruirc's [.i-njc't ( t.-m-
plated thf .^tahhshnicnt (.t a system nf Cnurls
of Hoimi-, lu'lhrr whi.'h the <lilheulties (-(in-
stantly arisin- hetwecn ..IHcers and am((n-
soldiers, mi-iit he arhitratod witlmut apjieal
to the harharons co.h' duello. In this worl^ he
secured the e(i(>|iciation of the Duke of
Wellington, and, aliie'Ugh the measure of es-
tablishing C(mrts tliiled of adoption, the atti-
tude of tlie Prince, and of those statesmen
who esiMJUsed his views, prevailed over the
brutal usages df the past to the extent of their
extinction. DudiuL', as a practice among
public men and soldieis, disappeared from En-
trlish siieietv, if not as a direct result of the
eulieliteiied agitation started liy I'rince Albert,
at least coineidentl\- with the etliirt which he
made in that direelion.
Following the course of events, we come
now to consider the history of the so-called
Ofiuj[ Wau between I'highnid and China.
The circumstances leadiiej to tliis unfortunate
-THE MODERN WORLD.
in- habit spread rapidlv amon- the
The Imperial ( iovernmenl t.H,k the alai
adopted the pohcv of excluding the
ship. fr.,ni all the'harbors of ( 'Inna.
The meaMuv.- lookiu- to this eud w,
sonal.le in the highest de-ree. The ri
of the Kn,pn-e :
theopnuo-habit
slightest show o
had, meauwiule
of the Jbilisl,
•t tl
d K
.m. At
to Ku-
oui'M' in
In these
mercial transactions of the llritisii Ivi-t India
Compiaiiy: but, i v properlv, in the wnutoii
avarice and con-cienceles-; jiolicy of the Home
Government of (ireat Ibitaiu. Tlie matter at
issue related to the inlroduction and sale of
opium b\- Kiitish traders in the ports of
China. Such importation liad begun under
the auspice- of the East India Company, and
until ls:;4, \\hen the charter and cxclu-ive
rights .,f the eo.npanv expired. :\Ieanwhile,
the opium-trade had become important. ISIany
district- in India produce the ]ioppv in exu-
Iterant abinidance. The drug drawn therefrom
was carried by the .-hips of the Company to
the Chinese ports, and sold to native merchants,
under wlioiBe encouragement the opium-sniok-
jiorts of entry the British Government laid
planted superintendents, whose conduct, in-
stead of being directed with judicial fairness
national law. was wholly biased by the inter-
ests .,f the illicit trade' of their .'■onntrynien.
Xor (lid the Home (ioverumeiit in this
emergenev take the lirst step towai'ds the main-
tenance .,f ri-ht and honor in its dealing with
the Chinese au t horit i(^s. Even when Caplaiu
Elliott, chief superintendent in the port, of
Canton, made oia- appeal after anotlier to the
' ^Miinstrv for iu>tructions covering the dischtirge
of his duties, he received no reply. .Matters
and bolder. (li,-chari;ing enormous cargoes of
the deadiv i\vwz under the very eyes of the
Chiiie.e otlicers. -\fter a while the (h.vern-
ment ,-ent .alt a di-patch to Captain Elliott,
telliiie hiui virtually that those who traded in
opium against the edict of the Emperor would
liave to take the eouse.piences ; that the British
aiilhorities would not interfere to protect those
merchants who were engaged in the illicit
trade, but that they must hear such losses as
their own persi-tencv and the execution of the
Chinese laws mi-ht entail. This was e.piiva-
h nt to savin.j- that the British traders in the
Ea<t mi-hi provoke a war with China, with
the implied iiderence that, ofhr the irar lois
/«■,/)()(.( ;reat Britain would defend her inter-
e.-ts witliiait looking into the ju.stice or injus-
tice of the conflict. It was clear that as soon
as hostilities should be precipitated, excesses
would be committed by the Chinese, unac-
GREAT BRITAIN.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.
287
quainted as they were with the usages of Eu-
ropean warfare, and that the Hume Govern-
ment of England wi.iukl be iiljlio-ed ti) take up
the cause of its traders and other subjects on
the coast of China.
The war came on. The Imperial officeis in
the Chinese ports demanded that the intro-
duetion of opium should ahsohitely cease, and
that the cargoes now in store should Ije given
up fur destruction. At length, in 1S.3!),
Captain Elliott was constrained to cnniply
with this demand. It wn~ a-nM-d that all llic
opium then in the hands of Kuglishnun shoidil
lie surrendered to the native otHcers, and he
also exacted a pledge — of no validity — from
the merchants tliat they woul<l cease to tnithc
in the drug. Accordingly, on the 3d of A|iiil,
in the year just named, 20, .383 chests of opium
were given up to the mandarins, and, under
direction of the Imperial Commissioner Liii,
were destroyed. It was this event — tlioui^li
the same had been broui^ht about in viitiuil
conformity with the instiaietions wliieli Captain
Elliott had received — that precipitated iii stili-
ties. A declaration of war was made i)y the
English Government in 1840, and the Ea>t
Indian fleet was sent to the C'hinese coast.
Native armies were thrown into the field; liut
in the conflict which ensued tliey were like
sheep for the slaughter. There could be
but one result. AVhat could the diminu-
tive, undisciplined, half-armed men of the
Orient, though fired with the valor of
Spartans, do before the shining bayonets and
vomiting cannon of Great Britain ?
As a matter of course, the English were
constantly victorious. In the first year the
British fleet captured the town of Chusan,
and in 1841 the Bogue Forts were easily
taken. It is narrate.l that when one of the
Chinese towns was captured, the Tartar gen-
eral, in the hour of defeat, shut himself up
in his house, and ordered his servants to burn
him to death. It was the custom of the routed
Chinese to drive their wive< and children into
throats in the very frenzy of tlieir h.ipeless
rage. When the British s(piadron sailed up
the river PeiJio against the Chinese capital,
some futile efl^u'ts were made at negotiations.
but the movement came Xo naught. The im-
portant city of Ningjio. distant somewhat from
the sea, was taken, and then Anmy, far to the
souih, fell into Ih.' hands ..f the Brili>li.
Not, however, until an armv was planted
111 tiont of Nankin, did llie Imperial (o,vern-
iiienl realize the hopelessness of iurtlier i-esist-
ance. Negotiations were again opened, which
.^ooii resulted inatreaty — atreaty as one-sided in
its pi-ovisions as the war had been in its results.
The island of Hong Kong was ceded to Great
Britain. It was agreed that British consuls
shonl.l l,e established in the live great ports
of Canton— Ainoy, Fooehow, Ningpo, and
Shaiii:l,ai— and that those pla.'es should be
thrown open to liriti-li tradiT-. Finallv, an
indemnity of four and a half million pounds
ineiit as the jirice of the war, and to this was
added another large sum to pay I'or the opium
whieh liad been destroyed at the outbreak of
hostilities. The treaty was as humiliating to
the Cliincse as the -war itself had been an
outrage to their nationality. If there be a
siiiLili' instance in the recent history of man-
kind more highly illustrative of the possilile
meanness, avarice, and arrogance of the
strong — an example of the willful persecution
people liy one less numerous, but nioie miLihtv
than themselve.s— it is that of the Gpiuni War
of Great Britain with China.
We are now come to the epoch in British
history when the Melbourne ^Ministry, the as-
cendency of which had reached well back into
the last reign, tottered and fi:dl. The Whig
Government, represented bv this ^Ministry, had
been for some time in a moiibinid condition.
If we glance into Parliament at the close of
1840, we shall see a Government respected
by no party, not even by itself; yet the Wliigs
clun- to pnwer. Time and a-ain the :\[inistry
was lieaten on important voti-s in the House
of Commons; but Lord Melbourne still clung
to bis office. It was a time of tempori/in- and
political expedients, most of whieh wi^rc
adopted merely for the imrpose o| heldiii- the
party in powr. In the nianv months of the dec-
long tlie popular movements lie-
this time may be mentioned the
UMVEBSAL HISTORY.— THE MODEBX WORLD.
e.stablislimeut of a System of Public Educa-
tion in Great Britain. In this important
enterprise we see again illustrated the ever-re-
curring fact that in the British system of state
and societ)', everything is the result of growth.
It might he impossible td point nut a single
striking feature in the gn-at nntioiiality of the
England of the present day wliirh has not
proceeded from some germinal beginning in
the past, bren pronioi,-d in the planting ami
development l)y the courage and forcsigiit of
a few^ progressive Englisiniicn, (ip|.nscd and as-
sailed by the majority, pushed up and out
against such opposition by the iidierent vitality
of the measure, and brought finally to efflo-
rescence and fruiting by that simple law of
social evolution against the operation of whicii
neither men nor nations can prevail. Su it
was in the case of the project f )r the estaii-
lishraent of a system of public education.
It was in the year 1884 that the first grant
of public money was made by Parliament fir
the education of tl'.<- childron ..f the people
It was the meagre sum of twenty thousand
pounds a year. Even this pittance, given
forth from that treasury which had poured out
rather than
been orn-Mni
lishe.l Chni-
Scho,,l S,,ei.
bodv, .-alle,]
National
another
of all Christinn denominations. While the ef-
forts of the National School Society were di-
rected wholly to the educational work of the
Church of Endand, the sifter organization
went so far a-; to in-oinote fbi^ e(liieation of the
children even nf Di-^ent.'r^.
It was into the hands ,A' tlie-^i' two societies
that the annual Parliamentary appropriation
of twenty thou.sand pounds was directed; and
by these two societies the moncv was expended
up to the year 1839. To this time no efl'ort
whatever had been made in (Jreat Britain to
extend, niidiT the ]iatronage of the Govern-
ment, the advantages of education to the masses
of the people. Up to this time a scheme
looking to a system of common secular educa-
tion reaching to the poor would have been
regarded with horror by the most progressive
statesmen of the country. In 1S.39, however,
a bill w-as introduced by Lord John Russell,
increasing the annual appropriation to thirty
thousand pounds, and at the same time pro-
viding that the distribution of the funds should
be transferred to a Committee of the Privy
Council. Hitherto the money had been an-
nually distiiliuted precisely where it was not
needeil.aiid withheld from the very places which
were crying to Heaven for such assistance.
Under the new scheme of disbursement the
method was reversed, and the benefits of the
measure extended to those poor and crowded
localities which were thronged with the chil-
dren of the people. It was actually conceded
that the aid of the law might be extended to
schools in which the Roman Catholic version
of the Bible was read! The measure was at
once vehemently assailed by the Opposition.
It was declared that to extend the aid of the
Government to schools not umler the co itrol
ami direction of the Church of England was
an outrage on the Constitution of Great Brit-
ain, a menace to religion and morality, a
measure for the (irojiagation of heresy and in-
cendiarism in both Church and State.
rirent was the clamor over Lord ,Tohn Rus-
sell's Bill. The measure at loneth jir.'vaiied,
and the foundations were thus laid for the
great system of popular education since estab-
lished and developed in Great Britain. But
we can not pa.ss from the subject without not-
ing with amazement, and fiir the instruction
of all who are interested in studying the evo-
lnti(in of enlightenment among the nations,
and es]ieciallv the slow progress of the coming
ilawn in the brains of the great, that the Ru.ssell
P.ill was ,.ppose,l in Parliament with lioth the
voice, and the vot.'S of Sir Robert Peel, Lord
Stanley, William E. Gladstone, and Benjamin
Disraeli. Nor may we pass wdthout mentioning
the other fact, that the measure contemplating
the establishment of.secular schools in the United
Kingdom was supported by Daniel O'Connell
ami Smith O'Brien— a fact L'ivinij as good
cause for pride anions' the Tri~li penple as may
ever !.<■ "ivi'U to the iiresent on account of
anything done in the iia<t.
Some honor niav therefiu'e be claimed for
the Melbourne Ministrv as having had under it.«
GREAT BRlTAiy.— EPOCH OE CHARTISM.
289
patronage and directiou thefii>;t fiiriual ineasiire
fin- the seeular edueatidu of the Englisli peopU-.
Meanwhile, an incident in the history nt' tin-
Pai'liameutary government nt llii- ciidch may
well be cited as illnstrative nf tin' irndtncies
of civil procedure. It was tlie hiw ni' Parlia-
ment that the reports of its committ(M-< .-hculd
be published for the information <>{' th.- Imdy
and the people. A certain piisnii report,
made near the beginnint; of IS4n, coiiiaimd a
paragraph denouncing a bool; pulilishi'd by a
and olisceue. For this publication the author
of the book brouglit suit for libel against the
Parliamentary printers, and obtaine.l judgment
against them. But the House of Commons
refused to acknowledge the validity of a jmlg-
meut against its officers or agents tor doing
■what the House had directed tiieiu to do. An
issue was thus made between the (^m^en's
Bench on the one side, and the Commons on
the other. The sheriffs, ordered to carry out
the judgment of the Court, were arrested l)y
authority of the House, and for some time it
looked as though the High Court of England
and the House of Commons would end the
matter by arresting and imprisoning each
other! At length, however. Parliament gained
the day, and an act was passed exempting,
for the future, the officers of the House from
such interference and prosecution as they had
recently suffered. The incident is cited here
to illustrate the general law that under the
governmental and civil systems, establishiMl liy
the English-speaking race, conflicts and dis-
putes between the Legislative and the .Judi-
ciary nearly always conclude with a victory
of the former over the latter.
Still another historical incident may serve
to show the spirit and manner of the times.
shall fnid no public in-titution more worthy
genius of the E.,-lbh people, than the British
Mn.-.Mnn. The in-titution wa<, by the law .if
Sundays it was closed. In July of the y.ar
just referred to, Joseph Hume, an enlightened
and progressive member of the IIon>e ni' Com-
mons, hoping on the principle of counli r-
attractiou to draw large nnmliei-s of people of
the poorer class away from the purlieus of
I vice anil degradation, and to raise them some-
what to a higher and pnr.'r plane ot' thought
by the contemplation ot the -land and beauti-
ful, introilnced a bill that the British .Mu,<eum
an,l the National < iailery of Art sln.uld be
.ipened at .-eitaui hour.s on Snntlay. Mr.
Hume earefnlly provided that the opening
should be ,(/■/,,• the conclusion of .livine service
in the churches and, more particularly, "at
such hours as f,nrr,i.<, fevr-../,,,/,,., and ,jln-shops
are kijaJlij ,,j,riini" The proposition was met
with invt'ctive ami the appeal to the odium
th,vlo,iir„m. Sh: Ilunie was ,lenonuced as a
covert enemy of the Sabbath day, a foe to
the Church, and a dangei-ous nuui to society,
because he had intro.biced a bill which might
serve to draw some thousands of people OU
Sunday aftenioous fn.m the sacred ass.,ciatioa
of the gin-.shops to the degradin- influences of
the British :*luscum!
Passing from these minor incidents in the
civil history of the Kingd.mi, we come to con-
sider a very impoilant and serious aspect of
foreign attiuis. It was at this time that Great
Britain v,-as drawn by her interest, and under
the policy which she had prescribed for her-
self, to a stern and wailike interference in the
affairs of the J^a-t. The scene was Egypt and
Syria. In the former country the ruler, at
this eiioch, under the general suzerainty of the
Turkish Sultan, was the famous Pasha Jlehe-
met Ali. He was a warricu-, a statesman, a
man of genius, despisinu the Sultan, his mas-
ter, and having a eener.al cont.'nipt for the
methods of government en,ploye<l by the Sub-
lime Porte. It is cpdte likely that Meheiuet
Ali wasandnti.ins of eslabli.-hing an independ-
ent sovereignty. (^)iiite like him in character
and abilities was his adopted s(m, Ibrahim
Pa.sha, General (.f the Eeyptian army. To
him Mehemet Ali locikeil tor the conduct of his
wars.
The P.rte,atthi< time, had fallen into that
tined never to destroy, has, since the beginning
of the century, fatally alllicted the Ottoman
Em]iirc. The outlyinj in'oviiu'cs and de-
of wh..ever nn-ht go ioi-th to ravage. To
Mehemet Ali, Syria was the inviting field.
He c-arricd thither his victorious arms, and
made a con.piest „f the country. The Sultan
2!l0
UMVERSAL HlSrOnV.-THE MODEBX WORLD.
was constrained for a while to let lii.< \ni\\t
vassal have his way, but at lengtli, in 1
declared war against liiiii. A derisive li;
was fought, an.l liiialiini l'a>ha gaine.l a i,
victory nver the 'riiik,-. The Sidtau i
Capitau Fa.ha. Adniiial <,f the Oituman (
deserted to the Egvpliaiis, and thi
rful I and territorial integrity of the Turkish Em-
boli, ' pire. It is not the place in which to explain
ttle I the origin and true nature of this theory,
■eat I which has been so prominent in the diplomacy
ii'il. i.t' the States of Western Europe during the
eet, i:reater part of the present centviry. It is
of . Liiiinane, however, to the ipiestion iiamediately
MEHEMET ALT PASHA.
Egyptian independence, with the conseqnont
loss to Turkey of all the cuintries around the
eastern and south-eastern iKjrders of the ^ledi-
terranean, knocked at the door.
It will 1)6 rememl.ered that the welhknown
..f the AVestern I'nw.
rs, p;
■ularlv of
:hind, ^^■.
,.■ time ..f whieil we
hefoi-e us to note the fact that, ot all the
Western Kingdoms, Great Britain was most
devotedly and consistently attached to the
|)rinei|ile of maintaining the tiiiity and iiide-
peiidenee of the Ottoman Power. On the
other hanil. France was least devoted to the
-nine |n-in<i|]le. Prussia and Austria were de-
v<Jted to it in a general way. Russia was
GREAT BRITATX. — EPOCH OF CHARTISM.
devoted to it, not devote<l to it, m devoted t
iu a measure, as suited the mteie^taud [n^-i
ot (.atheuue II , the Itu~^ian power has beeu
-Iciwh but -uiel),like out ot the avahuiehts
^^
!
< f the
^lll le
of Pett
m Tht itilu of ^eiKi-il hi t i\ 1
l-\ leedl the tict th it -mce theda\-
I 111 le initRuhih ^luce the <h\-'
rS> mm*
Vlp- -I1 11112; down from the north-east
tit 1 wliiid- of the Ottoman. It will
It lemembeied that the necessity, or
UXTVERSAL HTSTOL'Y.-^THE MODERN WORLD.
seeiumg necessity, ot resi<tiiJLr tins juTssure
had been the niaiuj^priug nf tin' jinlicy iiilnjitcd
by the Western Powers to iqihold thr integrity
aud autononay of Turkey.
The threatened estaljlishment of :iii inde-
pendent Egypt under the sovereignty of Mi--
heniet All seemed to contravene the L:i'iiriai
purpose of Western Europe, and lOnglanil
resolved to interfere. An Euglisii f.eet was
accordingly despatched to the Mediterranean,
and uniting witii the Turkish squadron, pro-
ceeded to the bnndiardnient of Arr,-. An En-
glish army in Egypt, a'livd with Tnrkid, and
Egyjitian forces, attacked the strougliolds of .Me-
hi'iuet, and drove hiin thence with great losses.
Iliraham I'asha, though he had shown himself
more than a match for the native armies of
tiie Orient could not resist the impart of
British bayonets and British cannon. ^leliemet
All was obliged to give up the hopeless con-
test, and to content himself with a restricted
government in Egypt. All of his Asiatic
conquests were w'rested from him and restored
ti> the Porte. Amba.ssadors reijresenting the
jiarties to the controversy came together in
London, and in July of "l840 the terms of
settlement were arranged and signed liy the
Western Powers.
They were signed by all but France. In
that country Louis Philippe was now king,
and Adolphe Thiers was his Minister of State.
It was the belief of Thiers that the whole busi-
ness in Egypt had been fomented and managed
by Great Britain in her own interest. The
belief was not without foundation. Thiers was
enraged at beholding the covert elevation of
the British standard in the East. He con-
ceived that France had been disparaged in the
wdiole course of the Egyptian complication,
and that the disparagement was tlie careful
work of (ireat Britain. He declared his pnr-
|)osf of going to war sooner than submit to
the hunjiliati^ f his cnnntry. The king.
re-
fused to f.jjow the bellicose Prime Minister,
and he was at length obliged to resign his
otlicc. .M. ( Jni/.ot aeeeded to the lea<lership of
the French I'abinrt, and in .Tnly of 1S41 the
Treaty of Lond..n was signed by' the represent-
ative of France. Thus, for the ilecade wdiich
we are here considering, was the Eastern ques-
tion disposed of under the auspices of England.
I During all these events, the Whig Ministry
of Melljourne stumbled on in jiaralytic fashion
to the inevitable downfall. The straw which
at hist broke the camel's back was a proposition
intiodnced by Lord Russell, then in the Min-
istry, with regard to regulating the trade in
eoiji.' His {iroposition was to establish a duty
at a ti.xed rate of eight shillings the quarter
on wheat, with jiroportional rates for the other
cereals, rye, barley, oats, etc. His proposition
wiis a concession to the principle of free trade,
which was just then l)eginning to claim, as it
I British public. Being so, the proi)o.sitioii of
Russell was in the nature (.)f an exi)lo>ive with
a lighted fii.se in the mid-camp of the Ministry.
I Melbourne, and the rest who were vehement
protectionists, must either folhiw for the free-
ti'ade modification of the corn laws, or else
combat the propo>itinn dt' Russell and give up
their offices. Such was the condition of affairs
when at last Sir Robert Peel, in June of 1841,
brought forward the proposal in the House of
Commons of a dii-ect vote of want of confidence
in tlie :\[inistry. The res,,lution was adopted by
a inajoiity of one. Parliament was dis-
Sfilved. The Tories came ijack in the early
autunni with a great accretion of strength.
IMelbourne and his colleagues resigned, and a
new Conservative Ministry was organized under
the Premiership of Sir Robert Peel.
The auspices of the new Tory, or, as it was
now called. Conservative Government, mav be
said to have been favorable at home, unfavor-
abh- alirond. It was in the early days of Sir
Robert's Administration that the news began to
be borne to London of the direful disasters which
had overtaken the British authorities, civil and
military, in Cabul. The city so-called is the
capital of the State of the same name, in the
northern part of Afghanistan. If we look into
this far region, in the year 1837, we shall find
on the throne of Cabul a native prince by the
name of Dost Mohammed. He was, in a cer-
tain sense, a usurjier; that is, he had led a
popular revolution against Shah Soojah Moolk,
the old so-called legitimate sovereign of Cabul,
and ha.l expelled l)oth him and his house.
rstn
in the
GREAT BL'ITAiy.— EPOCH OF CHAItriSM.
Dost Mohammed eslablislied liiiiiM-lf in the
kingdom, and set his brothers and .-ims at the
head of the petty sulijeet States— thi> with the
eiithu>iastic approval id' tlie pnpuhir revola-
ti.uiary party.
The reader might well ask by what possilde
construction of international jiolities this course
and condition of affairs in Cahul eimld lie of
the slightest interest to <M-eat liiitaiu. Why
should England cnneern her>elf in the least
about the destinies resulting from a revolution
in a petty kingdom in Northern Afghanistan?
A full answer to these (piestions would reipure
voliune. It is sufheient tnr nur pur|Mis(_- u>
summarize the leading features nf tin- compli-
catiou ; to express, if we n-.ay, in a few juiia-
graphs, the essence of thi- lar-ntf AMati.' im-
broglio. First of all w.' mn>t .'..nddrr the
British East Indian Empire. Tin- va>t Power,
at the time of which we speak, was already
stretching out its long and sinewy arms from
Calcutta over the Indian populations, nuiu-
beriug in the aggregate much more than a
hundred millions. Some of the proviinTs of
India were actually subjeet to the autlinrity
of (n-eat Britain;" others had allianr.,s ,,f
friendship and dependence with her; and still
others, while maintaining a show of inde-
jieudeuoe, were overawed by her presence and
sce])ter.
One of the countries thus dependent by
alliance with the East Indian < lov.iinuent of
tireat Britain, was the Puujauli. This givat
]irovince, embracing the Upper Indus Valley,
lay next to the borders of Afghanistan. The
Ameer of the Punjaub was a I'riend and de-
pendent of the East Imlian (Jovernment. It
was to him, for frien.ldilji and protection, that
mendiers of his family and a irw ni' the priuces
who had adhered to 'his rau>r, ll,,l after the
revolution efieeted in Caliul bv 1 )o>t Moham-
nird. Such was the situation, viewed from the
Endi-li Mde of the land-raiM'.
the
ofKu>Ma. Tl
ions, like a L
>ubstauee, o'
,f Asia. Hei
zenient was
, like
-we.^te
Friendly were her relation> with the Shah (,f
Persia. " The Czar patrouize.l the Shah, treated
him like a small kinsman, used him like a
friendly puppet, lU'oteete.l him, en.-ouraged
him. tinally put him out a.- a feeler in the di-
reetiim of Atghaidstau. In other words, it
was on the line ui Caiml that the conHieting
interests, or rather ambitions, of Great Britain
and Pussia met in the East, as they had al-
ready met in the A\'est, on the line of the
Bosphorus and the Daidanello. The figure
is sufficiently ridiculou>: but at this time Pu.-sia
was the monkey of A>ia; I'er.-ia wa- the
eat; Cabul was 'the eatVpaw, and Imlia was
tlie,,ven, in whieh were roasting the English
lying by the door of the oven !
All this was by hypothesis. Overt acts as
yet there had been none. But the situation
was such, in the estimation of both Great
Britain and Pusda, a- to mak.' it deMrable to
have the alliauee of I )o>t .Mohamme.l. At
this time there was resilient at that monarch's
court a certain Alexander Burnes, kinsman,
though the name be diti'erently siielled, of the
jioet Burns, of great menmry. The l-higlish-
mau had goue from India into Ali^hanistan
and Cabul. There he found Dost .Ab.hammed
favorable to an alliance with England. But
he also found the enii.ssaries of Russia at the
court, busy with their schemes and tempta-
tions. Dost Mohammed desired, as the seipiel
has shown, to go with En-laud. Ihit, throu-h
some pervei-sity and bliinlne^, the Briti-h
East Indian Government hail determined to
undertake the restoration ot' Shah Soojali, the
obsolete king of Cabul, to the throne of his
ancestors. This, of emnse, eonipelled Dost
]\[ohammed to tall over towar.ls the side of
Persia and PusMa. At tlii^ juueture the (iov-
ernor-Geueral of India, in i>ur<uaiiee of his
folly, sent out an army by way of the Punjaub
to conduct Shah Moolk bark to his dondnions.
The i.oliev of Lonl Aueklanil. tlie ( iovemor-
General, in thi> paitieuhir. had the full eon-
eurreuee and Mipiioit ot' the Home (o.vern-
was under eonnnand of Sir \V. Maenagh-
ten, whose M-eond i,i eommand was Gene'i-al
]:iphin>toue. It appear- that there was on
the part ot the leaders of the expedition the
UyiVEHSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
ulteui)
l(im\ti(
sinh
Krst that
^ AMth
pi,, in i-av
tt up
held the c
nlutmo
his suhje
a tlip jiut ot ^11 ^\ M'
iivii\ e\ti iiii(hn 11 \ Tt vii, li
phce nuclei ^uch couditinu
o be
such
In the nieintinie hD^tilitu^ hid lictruu 1)V
•xu attack of tht Pn '■I Ills 111! th( i it\ (i*H<iit,
popuhilj desigmt(<l i^ tin li\ ot Imhi
The phce is &ituit(d nn th< luus ot niniiiiiiui-
catiou between tin pi itc m nt V^ii and the
\'ille^ of the Indus It In s h\t hundieil md
fifty miles e\st wild nf ( ,l,ul lul^s-T Hint
was be'^iCLtil b-\ i Pcisiui mm nf ilxiut
thiityfiM thoiisind imu Ih.
m dtfendiu. his nt\ wis ism-
Eldi.<l P(.ttni_ci C.mimiudinl
g-iiiisdn HI Hint It wis til 1;
couiage, 1 ithi i th ni tn the \ ih
troops, tint till I'li-iiu iiiiii V
and fimlh Ih iteii oil
Bv the bcginnmtr ot Octobei 18 IS Su W.
Macnaghten had collected his forces west of
the Indus, and tlience set out on his ill-starred
expedition for the restoration of Shah Soqjali
to the throne of Cabul. The movement to
the interior was valiantly resisted by Dnst
Mohammed and his s,,,,,.' The half-wild Af-
ghan soldiery, though unable to stand in bat-
tle before the disciplined army of Great
Britain, nevertheless fought as for their altars
utui piinic,
d b\ (.ohmel
if the Biitish
ibilities and
of the nxfne
. hi Id It bay
land. It was manifest from the
till- from any ujirisiug of the peo-
ijf Shah SiMijah, Dost Mohammed
iplete and universal alleuiance i.f
Thev rallied tn his standard,
and threw themselves in the advaiiee and on
the flanks of the British ai my. Thev planted
themselves in the town of (ihuznee, where
they resisted the whole force of their enemy,
suffering a siege until what time the British,
by heaping bags of gunpowder against one of
the gates and blowing open the wall with an
exiilosiou, rushed through the breach and took
the town. The Afghans retreated, and the
ipened to Jelalabad, which was de-
tlie celebrated Akbar Khan, one of
• Dost .\[olKimmed.
ty was also taken after much hard
The invaders then came to Cabul,
way was
femled li
the sons
This
fighting.
from which Dost IMohamraed escaped into the
open country. Maenaghten's idol. Shah Soo-
jah, was reinstated iii his ancient palace; but
it was evident from the first that he would
have to be maintained in ])lace by the British
army. Dost Mohammed rallied his forces and
returned to the contest. On the 2d of No-
vember, 1840, he fought with the British
army a decisive battle, in which only the En-
glish artillery prevented the Afghans from win-
ning a clear victory in the field. They were,
however, defeated, and on the evening of the
same day, Dost Mohammed, of his own ac-
cord, rode to the British head-quarters, an-
noimced himself as King of Cnlml,
rendered as a prisoner of war.
The downfall of Mohammed, h.,u
no means ended tlu: ntrst. The
army lay in its cantonments at ('al:
lull year, upholding a dnhious [»-.\rr.
innivei-ai} of Do-.t M himiii U
uimelj, No\embei 2 1^41 i ] i nl
lectiou bioke out lu C diul \\hi li I i
and horioi of detad^, w i^ dnii i un| i
When Alexiudei Butni^ nn li it Iv t )
thei ueot theinsnutnt-, la aid hi-lii
GREAT BRITAIX. — KPOCH OF CHARTISM.
nd sur-
295
ippease
hei and
with the knives of the Afghans. The hacked
and disfigured body of the murdered English-
man was exhibted as a tro])hy in the bazars
The command of the Britisii army was de-
\ hcd on Genenl Elphinstone, and to hira
Mikii md his chiefs now dutatLd ■(\hite%er
teniis iIk\ \\ III 1 It i| 1 lis til It III tliis
dieidful (iiKUdiiN tlit put t th liiitish
ofhceis uid nun .U( ^^ n Ih \ t, 11 mt , a
Conilition of scnil d si m ti m whuh the\ ue\er
hen conipin\ ^\p\f
Then the flimts i
nl \khii Kb
anl tbt _' il iii.f
It 111 1 it th
1 1 ( lit ti pietes
lit n t'en
It n.o the In I
iiiK ti 11 He
khm
11.1 ei
th \f_l 1
It \n 11 1
It mil/ 1 \\ ufu ^^h^ b \M till t b i i V
1 t be hjut^ 1 in luijm.e Sii ^^ \ ti ,
All ni.hten ml se\ei il t his ( fiucis wt ic it luint
th united to i confeience ^\lth Vkliu st n
his chiefs An alteication ensued and witli ii
Macnaghten and hi^ companions w tie butcheied i Ttl ihl
iinstone even went
•If was iinwillin-
Afghanistan to
1 at the latter
r\\i]Li;sAL iiisTony.-uiE MODEny would.
for th
.•ave th
■ tulilll
coii,lu
■l oil II
It
\\ 1^ no
llu .1
lu^ il.
tlu.lin
. tlu 1
pi".
aiu ^<
lit \Mtll
to link
ill. ,1 tllL
111. I II iti\i- mil In iiiiu along
K liMiu olh.i i- m.l till widow
(1 :\l.ii iiaL^httu, a^ wlU as, then
thei helple^^ cieatuies ^\ho had
the expedition iiom India, left
. it':) way tliiough the dieadfiil
Kooid Cabul, a hoiiible mount-
wives
as the
Lady
d, Mi-
lt Jd-
thoir purpose, or else to put the E
furtiier in his power, (Icniamled thai
and children should now lie -iiveii
juico of liberation tor tlir arn
M II mghteu, Laih "^ih wlio-i lui
KolKit, was at tint tun. i .niiiuud.
alalii.l Ml- ^tiiiit Ml- 1k\oi with her
&e\(.n tliililiin iiid -oiik otlitiN wii atcoid-
ingh --munikied, in the heait ot the Asiatic
desolations, to the coiiipabbionate keeping of
Akbai and his letaiueis! The lemnaut of the
ami} was then i)einiitted to pass; but it was
the passage of death The foice melted away.
Fiiidh It dwin.Utd to i Inndful The column
still on the load to Jclalabad, wheie Gen-
of u il Sile was holding out against the enemy;
th it but Akbai Khan had compelled Elphmstoue,
innndei in chief, to agiee that Pale
(\ iiuit( Jtldibid, )om the fugitues,
.1 H\ fioiii the (ounti} But theie were
on soon no iugitucs to loin Aiii\ing within a
>\) few miles of Jelalabad onl> six men out of
it tilt II u 111.1 the sixtti n thousand weie alne Five of these
bullets of tieachei weu stunk dowu befoie the foitiess was
mill, airainst an iin- \ leaihed I)oi toi Bndou was the solitaiy
h the (ThibNe* had I fugituc who at last totteied up halfdead
-s the ]ns- \klni Kb 111, a.Minst the gate of Jelalabnd to lecite the
to bu> otl Ills own chieftains fi an ston of the most appalling disastei, the most
(rh'KAT BJUTAIX. — EPOCH OF ( HAimsM.
shameful o\erthio\\ tlie m t cuiel letuKti u | ^\^ i ize I t) the ^i iiud \u
which h ul e\ei t%eitil en x Bnti h ainn uudei c immind < f i eiienl Sile v
Th e(iuel 1 oou t( hi Vllni Khmhil ' lu the h pe rl let \uiii^tht In
hilhi i(.\ei)^e E\cn th ii in„tui\ t lu ml liilli n wh hil I ii n
chitttiin mil t hwL 1 ii iti ti 1 II til Liimn Vtt i iii in\ \ i i itu I
ot di I tei ^\n fi\el It 1 M 1 il ( n i d "if mil iii tl I iii t I i
11] t the
S-ile icfu ed to le
teini whith hid 1
t ^uu
ell
e\t it( 1 tl m Llj 1
HI
St 1. Ht Itttu
1 1
the tit\ in 1 th
Vt
Ilk ( euti il I
1
kck ^^ho hid heeii
defen liu_ the Ivh\
lei
Pi ciiiie to the
e
cut < eneiil ^
tt
c iiiiinn hut t
the
Biiti h t.ite It t
m
dUnr et r ut t i
tht
fi nt t le t le
the
ftituiie ftheBii
■ h
cm e C tuenl '-
lit
hiviug dineu b
uk
the eiiera^ wi
eu 1
abled to much
ut
of Jehhbad Ex
i\
thuu foieti kene 1
X
sjfoh ie( \ei\
1 ut tlitie \\i n
th
b h t Sh-ih s
lit
ih
stunt 1 t It 1
11
111. ,cuel
Ull
hi I 1 id1 .1
ul
^^nh il 1 hil I
u^
1 the
Ii tt
lu C lu I u u [
teiniti ml ] liti
Mc in while 111
\uel hiid tei in i
( \eiu 1 ( eiiei tl f
III 1.1 xpi 1 11, 1 1 1 1 ;
uti \ th H 111 < v 1. 1
Ot .11 e It \M el \ t
t II. Ill ''eptembei f
1 1 uiii> letuteit 1 (
let f^en^eincew i .iil
Then ^leit bizii lu \\1 .
the luutihtel 1 1\ t
.1 ll.lt
' U 1 ll
1.1 1. I
V 1 1
.t 1 , 1
1 1 u
I) tM
.1,.. 1
. I, 111
11 1 w I
i:\]VEj!SAL insTony.—riiE modern world.
\v (.f Caljul, lu l)ecuiuf the
a I Nor were tlie ,(;eiiei-al
„-.tllHM'ii"cip:il Powers
lr,| to ilir eouflk-t, ill any
■,o l.v it> i>>ue. An ani.v
Mnivov.T, lie was (juiek t
-lot been recipi'oe:
,e WIul: Mill
Cal.ul, «i
iVoll, il„.
W,. 1,
ll,r llol:
gre:-s oi cvciiis 1
Great Britain, Ju-t a~ tli- la-t eelio,.> of tlie
disasters of TaUnl wer,' luai.l in En-land, a
new agitation liroke out, of which llie eonse-
queuces have not yet wholly (li>ain»'are(l.
Daniel O'Counell arose, and stood again on the
stage of British |iolitics; and his figure, his at-
titude, his s|MTcli. wrro more alarming to En-
glish conservatism than ever hefore. It is
doubtful whether any other personage has ever
appeared in the arena of Parliament in whom
were concentrated so many of the elements of
the storm as in O'Cimnell. He was a man
of majestic presence ; an orator by nature ;
theCeitof theCrlts; -trrn and yet humorous;
bitter in his antagonisms; firm in his friend-
ships; loving Ireland with jiassionate devotion ;
a Catholic, but not a Papist; a friend of free-
dom and humanity; an agitator by nature ; a
reformer by practice. He was already sixty-
eight vears of age. He had not entered Par-
liament until he was fifty-four. But when lie
did come, it was the api)arition of a new force,
the rising up of a new figure on the stage, to
whom the greatest Parliamentarians did either
obeisance of admiration or mtnace of antii^athy
and hatred.
The connection of Daniel O'Cmnell with
the Reform Bill of l^:'.!', and particularly
with the act repealing the disabilities of the
Catholics, has been noted already. He be-
came in that work and suksecpiently the coad-
jutor of the Peforniers in the House of ( 'oni-
m.uis. He Mil, ported the ^linistry of Lord
Melbourne, and in many emergencies gave
material aid to the Whig party. He, like
other liberal statesmen of his lime, had hoped
and expected great things from the reform
measures of ]s2.S-32; but, like the rest, he
had been sorely disappcjinted. He, too, had
quickly perceived that the reform had not yet
struck down to the real people of England.
i>try had not b
He .-aw that the Whigs were afraid of him;
that their i)arty was disparaged in the e>tima-
tion of the British public 1)V his supjiort ; that
whereas Lord .Melbourne "an.l hi- follouing
were willing to avail themselve- of the aid .,f
<)'('oiinell in emergencies, they were equally
willing to know him not when the emergency
^^a- pa.-sed. It thus happened that in the in-
terval between 1.S.32 and 1.S42. (Vroiinell
thought mn,-h and profoundly on the mo.st
radical of all .unstions afiecting the political
de.-linies of his country.
on the whole, the political and civil union of
Ireland with England was an advantage or a
disadvantage to the former country, a blessing
or a curse to the Irish people. Eight or wrong,
he came to the conclusion that the Union was a
cnr>i'; that the woes of Ireland in the first
tliird of the ])resent century were largelv trace-
able to the jiosition of subordination into
which she had been forced against her will;
and that the only remedy, the only prospect
of recovery for Ireland, was the repeal of the
Union between that country and England. He
took his stand accordingly. He went boldly
into the House of Commons, and to the people
of both islands, and declared his purjtose tii
have the Act of Union annulled. He an-
nounced i.r..phetically that the year 1.^4.3
shoul.l be known in history as the "Year of
I!e])eal," and that agitation was the order of
We may revert for a moment to the time
and circumstances of the event by which the
political destiny of Ireland had been merged
with that of Great Britain. In the last stm-my
.h'cade of the eighteenth century the people of
that island had, as a rule, show-n no undue
h.valtv to the ]?riti>h crown. The society of
"Uni'ted Iri>hni,n." in .-vmpathy and alino>t in
league with Erance, had had an exten>ive in-
fluence in its work of agitating for Iri.-h inde-
peiide At len-th the English Government
bore down heavily on the Iri.sh insurgents,
anil alter the lo-~ of aliout twenty thousand
men. and the expenditure of more than thirty
million pounds sterling, suppressed the revolt,
^lanv of the Irish patriot leaders were con-
300
rXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
(lemned and executed. By tlie year 17!l!> the
iusLirrectiou was at an end, ami a state of
quiet in which there was a mixture of torpor
qiervencd iu Iii
Then
was
and des
came the .\cv t>v {>
vided that the two ishinds' should henceforth
be merged iu a common government under the
title of the Uuiteil Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland ; that lli.- existing English dynasty
should .■ontiuu.. iu aulhority over l.oth 'alik. •";
that the Tuitcd Kin-dou, I'lo rc|ircscuted iu a
single Parliament; that Ireland lie granted
therein c. representation in the House of Lords
of twenty-eight temporal ])eers, and in the
House of Commons ,,f one Iniudnd repre-
sentatives ; that the Iri-li .
merged with th;it of K
ufactures and eomneree
same footing in the I wi
d ; that man-
idd he on the
u.ls; that the
pniportiou ,.f
ffhri, for Ku'Jaud to In:, for hvland, for
twenty years; ami that the existing law courts
should he maintained, with an appeal from tiie
Iri-h Chaueorv to the House of Lords. This
Uuit.-d Kin-dom uaspa-od in ISdO, and w,-nt
into etreet on tin- fiist day of the present
Ael
Un
her career of
Britain. It was a career of alt. mate pa-ion
an.l apathy, of .-xeiLauont .and torpoi-, of
sporadic insurrections and spaons of loyalty.
It can not he douhted that tho A.-t of Uni,.n
was, in the first place, forced upon the people
of the island against the wishes of four-fifths
of the ])opulation. It is almost equally cer-
tain that at no time, even to the present dav,
could the measure have received the assent of
a m;ijority. At the time which we are here
considering, the Union had been in force a
little more than forty years. O'Connell came
to the deliberate conclusion that it could he
and should be repealed. Nor cnuld it well be
said that the means wluch he adopted to this
end were inefficient, or that his method was
one of political unwisdom. In fact, he had
studied thoroughly the genius of English in-
stitutions, and no one knew better than he the
character of the antagonists with which he
had to deal. His plan was essentially that of
the Chartists. It was agitation, open and
above board ; dis
cussion
of the question before
tlie people, an
appeal
to justice, and after-
wards to that pn
f .nnd p
■ejudieo of race which
had existe.l imi
lemoria
ly between his couu-
trynien and the
,eople .
f England.
The exeiteme
It Wl.ie
1 now arose surpassed
any thing iu tl
'• l"-''^-
oils history of Great
Britain, ex<'ept (
Illy tho
e licry pa.ssious which
evolutions
d rolled li
e oppositi.
those
standard in Ireland. The contest
tlie volcanic fires of his nature.
se liy thousands and hundreds of
o his call. Xo orator of this, or
any, century has so swayed the
f h'iseouiitrynieu. The tides ebbed
sea. In England
(>'(' ell and his party was
kindled to a white heat. Xi-ver were' sii.'h
denunciations heard in any other eivilize.I
country as were launched at the head of the
great Irish agitator. To the alarme.l upper-
classes of English society, whether AVIiig or
Tory, O'Connell became' the hcte nnirc of the
epoch. They hurled at him every epithet
which [larty malice could invent. They called
him the "Big Beggarman," and traduced his
character in all the figures and forms of speech.
But to the excitable Irish he was the " Un-
crowned King." He planned in Ireland a
series of niass-ineetincs, which were successful
cxt
of thousands, poured from hut and hamlet and
town to the places of the great a.ssemblages.
Ireland was not wanting in spots consecrated
liv jiatriotie memories. Tradition had hallowed
many a jilaee as the scene of great deeds, in
the old heroic days when wild Iri,sh chieftains
had led their subdued clans in the struggle for
freedom. O'Connell adroitly chose such places
for the meetings of the people. One great
throng was assembled at Kilkenny, where rose
the old round tower of St. Canice's Cathedral.
Another meeting was held in the orator's na-
tive cfiunty of Kerry, where, in the midst of
his thrilling oration, lie turned about, and ap-
pealed to "yonder lilue mountain, where you
and I were cradled.'' Atrain, at :Mullaghmast,
an innumerable multitude was gathered, whom
the speaker tired by rcfcning to a still more
GREAT BRITAIN- EPOCH OF CHARTIS.V.
burning memory. " Here," said \iv, •■ tlij'oe
hundred and ninety Irish chiettnins perished ;"
and then went on to deserihi.' the Ix-traval uf
the old heroes of his countrymen l)y the hated
Saxons, who had invited them to a banquet.
Ireland was now shaken to its center. The
means for carrying forward the peaceable revo-
lution began to be provided. A popular sub-
scription, called the "rent," was taken up,
which aggregated forty-eight thousand imuuds.
All the while the leader counseleil his fol-
lowers to maintain the peace, to indulge iu no
acts that might stain the history of the sacred
cause. Under the magic of his influence, they
obeyed him as children might oliey a venerated
father.
Mean while, the Go vernmen t became alarmed.
All Ireland was in peaceable insurrection.
True, among the vast multitudes which had
arisen at O'Conuell's rail, many were rea<ly
for violence, ready for thi> revnlutidu by the
sword and fire. But sueli audacious fraction
of the whole was held iu check by the dicta-
torship of the master. " Every man," said he
in proclamation, "who is guilty of the slight-
est breach of the peace is an enemy of me and
of Ireland." But the Government could no
longer with safety to itself — sn it was decided
by the Ministry — refrain thm interference
with the revolutionary movement. Greatest
of all O'Connell's meetings was that which he
appointed to be held at Cloutarf. Recently a
monster gathering had been held on the Hill
of Tara, where stood the stone used for the
coronation of the ancient kings of Ireland.
But at Clontarf, near Dublin, the scene of the
great victory which the Irish had gained afore-
time over the Danes, it was proposed to hold,
on the 8th of October, 1843, a political meet-
ing, which of itself should give reality and
sanction to the revolution. It was proposeil to
bring together at this place a human sea, com-
posed of five hundred thousand Irishmen, de-
voted to the cause of a peaceable severance
from the dominion of Great Britain.
The preparatiiins went on ert'ectively. It
could not be doubted that the meeting was
destined to be the greatest assemblage ever
held in the British Islands. Nor can there be
doubt that O'Connell was fully able to sway
the multitude to his will, and that his p\irpose
was wholly peaceable. But the Lnrd Lieu-
19
tenant of Ireland saw tlie thing in a different
light. With the sanctiim of tlie Home Gov-
ernment he accordin-ly [<<<>k stejis to prevent
the assemblage. He issued a proclamation on
the day before the meeting, declaring that it
was calculated to excite well-grounded appre-
hension that those engaged in the movement
had in view the alteration of the huvs and
Constitution of England by physical force.
He therefore warned the people not to attend
the proposed meeting ; to stay at their homes ;
to disperse each to his own place. Military
preparations were made to carry out the edict
and prevent the assemblage. The Irish were
already gathering in heavy masses from all di-
rections. A dreadful collision with untold
destruction of human life was at the door.
In the emergency, O'Connell again showed his
imperial ascendency over the minds of his
countrymen. He sent out a proclamation on
the eve of the meeting declaring that the or-
ders of the Lord Lieutenant must be obeyed ;
that the authorities must not be resisted by
force; that the multitudes must return to their
homes. The order of the leader was univer-
sally obeyed, and the meeting at Clontarf did
not take place.
Great, however, was the chagrin of many
of O'Connell's followers. The more radical
had hoped that a conflict would be precipi-
tated— much as our fathers had forced the
I hand of Great Britain on the slope of Bunker
; Hill. The great division of younger Irish
j patriots went sullenly to their homes, and
O'Connell never regained his mastery over
! their minds. As for the victorious Govern-
ment, it at once proceeded to make the most
of its advantage. Prosecutions were instituted
against O'Connell and his leading coadjutors.
He and his son, John O'Connell, also Sir John
Gray, and Sir Charles Duffy, with some others,
were arrested and brought to trial on a charge
of stirring up disaffection among the Irish
people, and exciting them to insurrection
against the Constitution and Government of
the United Kiniidom. O'Connell conducted
his own defense, Init not with the vigor which
he had displayed in the open field. He and
his associates were convicted. O'Connell him-
self was sentenced to imprisonment for a year,
and to pay a fine of two thousand pounds.
The rest were condemned to punishment less
302
UXIVEIiSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
severe. O'Cmiuell iiniiuiliutely appealed to
the House of Lord.s, ami by that body the
sentence of the court below was reversed. The
convicted men were set at liberty, and the
crisis was at an I'lid.
It .'an not i,e douhtrd that the iutliieuce of
O'L'oniiell over his countrymen waned from
the time of the Clontarf catastrophe. His
natural forces were expended in this final
contest in favor of Irish independence. He re-
mained in the House of Commons until 1<846,
making his last speech iu that body on the 3d
of April, in this year. It ^vas noticed that
the fires of his stormy oratory were already
quenched. He became a subject of melan-
cholia. Foreseeing the end of his life, he
withdrew from the public s:i\7.e and set out for
Rome, whrre h... ho|„-d to ,lie. Just as the
first ol,,om of the potato lluuine be-an to settle
on his couutry, he dejnirted for Italy. Arriv-
ing at Genoa, he could go no further. There,
on the 15th of May, 1847, the most remarkable
Irishnuxu of the present century ended his
tempestuous career.
In the meantime, the Administration of Peel
had taken up and disposed of several impor-
tant matters claiming the attention of the
English people. It may be noted, however,
in the light of the retro-
spect, that the legisla-
tion of the times was di-
rected rather to social
than to political questions.
This fact is illustrated in
the bill brought into Par-
liament by Lord Ashley
for the allevatiou of the
conditions of life among
the miners of Great Brit-
ain. It is probably true
that until within the dis-
tinct memory of men still
living, the life of the En-
glish miner was one of
the most terribly degraded
existences known iu his-
tory. It is impossible to
conceive of any condition
of human hardship and
depravity more appalling
iu itself, more horrible
in its consequences, than
that which was present in
the collieries of England
and Wales. This was es-
pecially true of the women
and girls who were com-
pelled to toil their lives
away iu dark, damp
mines, where the suu.
light never penetrated,
1 where comfort never came. It was shown by
I a Parliamentary investigation of the state of
afl^airs in the coal-mines, that women and girls
were hitched instead of mules to the coal-carts,
and obliged to draw them through the filth
and urinie of narrow pas.sages, until not only
all semblance of womanhood, but the very
lineaments of humanity were obliterated. It
was revealed, that under these conditions, a
state of iiumoralitv existed iu these subterra-
GREAT BRITAIX.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.
oOo
u were
.vidiug
nean caveros too awful iu its manifestations to
be discussed even for the iustructiou of after
times. Lord Ashley procured the jjassage of
an Art l)y which the evil, iu -iUrs
ahnlish.Ml. In 1S42 a hill was pas^ed
that, atter a limited jjeriod, no wcjnian or girl
should thereafter be employed in the mines
and collieries of England.
Two years afterwards, the Factories Act was
passed, by which the daily hours of toil of
children under thirteen years of age were re-
duced to six and a half, but the clause of the
bill reducing the working hours of men to ten
failed of adoption. It has been remarked by
those who have studied carefully the debates
attendant upon these measures, that a large
proportion of English Parliamentarians, backed
by perhaps a majority of the middle and upper
classes of the people, deeply reprobated the
fact and tendencies of Lord Ashley's bill. It
was urged that to prevent women and girls
from pursuing the horrid life to which they
had been condemned hitherto in the mines was
an abridgment of the natural rights of En-
glishmen to labor iu what manner they chose —
an attempt to annul the necessary laws which
should govern the relations of the emjiloyed
and the employes.
It was to this period that the first effort to
establish Secular Universities in the United
Kingdom must be referred. We have already
seen how the project for the establishment of
Common Schools was resisted ; how the Church
of England contested the measure by which
her monopoly of the child-mind of the realm
was to be broken up. The same kind of prej-
udice and bigotry <lisplayed itself in full force
when the project fir the estalilishment of the
Queen's University in Ireland, with three col-
leges subordinate thereto, was laid before Par-
liament. It was pnipdsed that the new insti-
tuti(ju should be entirely undenominational iu its
character, its management, its teachings. For
once the proposition had the effect of bringing
into union the combined forces of Catholicism
and the Established Church. The Catholics,
euii.^titiiiing fully five-sixths of the Irish people,
and the Episcopal Establishment, embracing
the remainder, were equally vehement in resist-
ing and resenting the proposal for the estab-
lishment of what both parties chose to de-
nominate a "godless" institution.
At this time Wales was thrown into a vio-
lent excitement by an insurrection of the com-
mon people against the Toll Roads, on which
the ever-increasing rates of toll became a bur-
den no longer tolerable. The movement
against the roads and the managers took one
of the most grotesque and singular forms ever
witnessed. Some one discovered a passage in
the twenty -fourth chapter of the Book of
Genesis, as follows :
"And they blessed Rebekah, and said unto
her. Thou art our sister ; let thy seed possess the
gate of those which hate them." Of a certainty,
this must mean that the toU-gates of Wales
should be possessed by the seed of Rebecca!
An association was accordingly formed, called
the Daughters of Rebecca, whose business it
should be to possess the gates. Since an ef-
fective corps of rioters could not well be or-
ganized out of women, it became necessary to
extemporize the daughters by putting men
into women's clothing. Such was the aspect
of the riots. The assaults on the toll-roads
were made by night. The insurrection rather
gained the day, for although the rioting
Daughter^', of Rebecca were presently sup-
pressed, their doings had been sufficiently sig-
nificant to mduce the passage, by Parliament,
of an act for the abolition of the exorbitant
tolls.
Another struggle between human right and
human authority was fought out at this time
in a peculiar manner. The Italian patriot,
Joseph iMazzini. was, at the date of which we
speak, resident as an exile in L(jn(lon. He
was engaged in jiolitical corresp.jiidence with
the Sardinian and Austrian Governments for
the promotion of the cause of the emancipa-
tion of Italy. Knowledge of such correspond-
ence was brought to Sir James Graham,
Home Secretary for the Government, and, by
his command, Mazzini's mail was arrested, his
letters opened, aud his communication with
foreign States thus cut otl. The .piestion was
whether or not. under the Constitution, such
right of pillaging private mails existed; aud,
though the conservative spirit rather favored
the exercise of such a prerogative liy the
Government, it was accompanied with such a
nudge in the riljs of Sir James Giaiiam and
the ^linistry as signified, when rendered into
Englisli: This right exists; but let it never
304
UNIVERSAL mSTOEY. — TRE MODERN WORLD.
Iv y.no
be exercised again, — a peeiil
tion of the question.
In 1843 au alarming ilifficiilty. arising out
of comparatively trifling circumstances, threat-
ened the peace of Great Britain and France.
Missionaries had made their way into the island
of Tahiti, in the South Pacific, and had so liir
succeeded as to convert and educate the y(]ung
Queen Pomare, sovereign of the island. The
French also were busy in that far region, and
by various means succeeded in inducing the na-
tive queen, notwithstanding her partiality for
England, to put herself under the protection
of France. This done, the French Admiral,
cruising by the i.sland, compelled Pomare to
hoist the tlag of Lis country above her own.
wrecked in a [jcculiar manner. The great in-
dustrial question, involving the policy of Eng-
land as it respected her existing laws on the
subject of protection to the home industries of
England, was the reef on which Sir Robert's
ship finally went to pieces. The issue here
opened before the reader is one of the widest
and most interesting in the history of civilized
nations. We have already, in a previous chap-
ter, discussed the question of Free Trade and
Customs Duties for Protection to Home In-
dustry in our own country. This was the
question, which U(jw arose with peculiar sig-
nificance in the history of Great Britain. It
can hardly fail of interest that we should, at
the very beginning, take for a moment a higher
The queen thereupon appealed to Victoria fi>r
protection, for a guarantee of her independ-
ence. The French Government disavowed the
act of its admiral in Tahiti, but an unfriendly
feeling was fomented in both France and Eng-
land over the question, and the bad blood of
the day came near finding vent by the sword.
The difficulty was at length settled by the
restoration of the rights of Queen Pomare,
and the war spirit subsided. Nor will the
American reader fail to note, for his interest
and instruction, the Tahiti incident of 1843-4
as almost in exact analogy with the crisis
through which our own country and Germany
have recently passed, relative to the Samoan
Islands.
The Ministry of Peel was destined to be
point of view, and note, with perfect impar-
tiality, some of till' bottom principles and con-
ditions out of which this great industrial prob-
lem has arisen.
Consider, first, the British Islands with re-
spect to the industrial conditions which have
been impressed upon them by the hand of
nature, and, in a secondary sense, by the
progress of civilization. These islands are of
small extent. In the distribution of minerals,
no other country has surpassed them. In the
distribution of agricultural lands, these coun-
tries are limited. They are insular, hemmed
in by the sea, having no expansive background
of broad territories. The country, moreover,
is mountainous; broken in nearly all parts
into irregularities of surface, forbidding to the
GREAT BRITAIN— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.
305
agricultural instiucts of meu. In other parts
we have marsh-lauds, great sluggish rivers,
aud originally over the whdle huiilseape a
heavy, almost impeuetrahli" Innst. It was
natural in such a situatinn that mining, manu-
facturing, and coninieivial industries should
spriug up and flourish from the earliest days.
Here were almost limitless supplies of block-
tin, of iron, of copper, of ccial, of all the con-
comitants of those industrial pursuits wliich
relate to the extraction of minerals and their
combination with lalxir in the higher firms
of value.
In such a country the agricultural pursuits
must inevitably lag in the rear of the other
progressive industries. This natural fact, tend-
ing to the disparagement of agriculture in
England, was aggravated by the peculiar or-
ganization of English society. The establish-
ment of the feudal system, and the building
up thereon, in after times, of the most power-
ful landed aristocracy in Europe have tended
ever since the Middle Ages to concentrate the
ownership of lands in Britain in the hands of
a few; and this tendency has still further re-
tarded the agricultural interests of the king-
dom. Out of these facts it was f lund, hmg
before the close of the seveuteenth ccntiu-y,
that the agricultural pursuits were so <lisp:ir-
aged in England as to call for legislation in
their behalf. In 1670 a Corn Law was passed,
imposing a duty on the importation of the
cereal grains. It was a measure intended to
stimulate the production of those grains at
hoiue, rather than a device for revenue. Let
the reader, moreover, observe with care that
the Corn Law was from its incipieucy a meas-
ure of the barons and lords, a project of the
country squires to increase the receipts from
their estates. The lauds were snlilct by tlie
landlords to their tenants, the peasantry of
England. With the increase ni the price of
grain thus artificially produced, the tenants
would be able to bear a higher rate of rent.
Thus the cofl'ers of the hmd-owning rlass would
be tillfd with an increast-d voluine of revenue,
drawn ultimately fmni the consuniersof bread-
stuff-;. But the consnni.-i^ of breadstufl's were
mostly the maiuifactiircis. the miners, the ar-
ti-ans'; the shop-keepers, and th,- merchants.
The cnnntry pea.aiitiv w,re ind.M.l few in
under the laws of nature and industry, had
accumulated, and were still accunudating, in
the manufacturing and mining districts.
Thus came in the Corn Law as an artificial
agency to stimulate the production of grain in
Great Britain. During the whole of the eight-
eenth century the policy adopted by the Act
of 1670 continued in force. It became the
immemorial usage of Great Britain to assess
and collect large customs duties on all im-
ported grains ; so that at the beginning of
the modern era the Protective system had be-
come what might be called a part of the Brit-
ish Constitution.
Consider, on the other hand, the natural
and artificial conditions present in the United
States of America. It would be difficult to
find in the same a single element of the prob-
lem which is not directly the reverse of the
corresponding fact in Great Britain. Here
there is a continent of rich agricultural lands.
They are spread out from ocean to ocean, from
the Lakes to the Gulf It is estimated that the
Mississippi Valley alone contains two billions
of arable acres. On the whole, the distribu-
tion of minerals in our country is not propor-
rieli eiKingli, and even inexliaustible, are far
apart. In some regions, coal and iron are
}iresent together. Copper lies on one coast;
lead is far distant. Tin, there is none at all
east of the Rockies.
It is not needed that we should review in
e.rtenso the industrial features wliieh nature
has impressed on our eonnti-y. SufKce it to
.say, that in almost ever-y partieular they are
the exact reverse of those of England. Here
the agricultural interest foreran all other forms
of industry. The manufacturing and com-
mercial interests have lagged behind. Agri-
culture has been at a natural a<lv
industrial development of the l'
Manufactures have been at a u
vantage. It thus has happened tl
adopted by the Amerieaii ( iovt
ratified by the
weaker, namely,
has been the ex
Enoland. In tl
nil
.1 tl.,. Pr
<l tVnni tl
Here th
ntage in the
lited States,
tural disad-
it the policy
nnient, and
tragi 11 g the
iig interest,
e policy of
ruotiou and
has ahvays
and artisan
le has been
30G
UXIYERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
the product of workmanship, nitlier than the
product of uature ; and its increased price has
been drawn ultimately from the agricultural
classes, who have cnnstitutcil tli'' body of con-
sumers.
These paragraphs have been inserted in this
connection i^r the puij»ise of elucidating for
the American iTaik-r ilie whole question before
us, but mure particularly to account for the
fact that the Protective System was for more
than a hundred and fifty years naturally and
inveteratelv pursued in (Jreat Britain with re-
spect to (iiji-inilliirdl jiroiJiicI^, while in the
United States it has been tblhiwed, not with
equal persistency, but still pcrsi-tciitiy, with
respect to the manitfacturuuj indii^triiv. The
brief study here presented may serve to show
how it is that the sentiment of Free Trade
originated iu the very heart and soul of the
English manufacturing towns; was fostered
there; was promoted from those places as cen-
ters by a manufacturers' propaganda, and
finally forced, as a permanent policy, on the
British Parliament, against the fiercest opposi-
tion of the landlords and country squires of
the Nation; while on this side of the sea, the
sentiment of Free Trade has had its origin
and propulsion from the producers of those
great staples which are developed from the
soil — has made its way, in so far as it has pro-
gressed at all, against the whole force of the
manufacturing interest, and has been unable
to the present day to gain an ascendency iu
the American Congress because of the superior
compactness and solidarity nf the manufactur-
ers of the country.
We now return from this digression to con-
sider the destiny of the Corn Laws in Eng-
land. In 1815 the old statute of 1670 was
reenacted by Parliament. Under the new law
the ports of England were absolutely closed
against the importation of foreign grain; that
is, such was the effect of the law. In some
cases the price of wheat was raised to nearly
five dollars a liuslid. It is needless to say that
the crowdrd ]).n|ili- of the manufiieturing
towns cried .au ticrr.-ly atrainst such prices,
and it \v;is nnlv Iiv an amendment to the
Corn Laws, bv whirj, a slidin- scale, as it was
called, was ^n1i-tiiu:.d for the xVct of 1815,
that the clamor .,t' the starving populace was
stilled for a season. It was in the nature of
this sliding scale to adjust the duty on grain
to existing prices, so that when the prices rose
to a certain level the duty on foreign importa-
tions should cease. The intent and aim of the
policy were simply to preserve and maintain a
high price on the EuglLsh cereals, so that they
might be produced notwithstanding the disad-
vantages under which such production had
been placed by nature.
From 1815 to 1841, it may be said that
both Whigs and Tories were e(jually devoted
to the Corn Laws in both theory and practice.
They were so in theory, liecause it was accepted
as a truism not any more to be doubted than
an axiom in mathematics, that the Protective
System, as such, was a necessary part of the
true nationality of England. It was accepted
in practice, because it .seemed at least super-
ficially to accomplish a given result. Self-
interest was thought to be subserved by such
a law. We have seen how the Corn Laws pro-
ceeded from the agricultural, or rather the
land-owning, side of the British public. If we
glance at the constitution of Parliament, at
the epoch which we are here considering, we
shall be no longer surpri.sed at the compactness
and force of the Protective System as it related
to agricultural products. Every member of
the House of Lords was a large land-owner,
and fully five-sixths of the members of the
House of Commons were iu the same category.
Parliament was a land-owning institution. It
was virtually based on laud-ownership. At
first sight, it will appear strange in the extreme
that in a country marked out by nature for
the most successful development r)t all nianu-
facturmg industries, the evolution of the
governing body in civil society should have
been wholly from the side of land. But the
student of history will readily recall the Nor-
man conquest, the distribution of the lands of
the Island bv William and Ins followers in
sixty thousand liofs, the establishment ot the
feudal sy,-teiii, the ever-growing dispo.-itiou of
the peo])lo during the Jliddle Ages, and sub-
sequently, to attach importance to land-owner-
.ship, and will oasilv understand the anomaly
The eii-cunj.-tancos to which we have here
referred will throw additional light on the
struggle of l.So'J. That contest was simply
GREAT BlUTAIX.— EPOCH OE CHARTISM.
307
fill- the riilVancliisenieut ami rpprespiitafinu
of the luamifac'turiiig towns. It was for
the disfVanehisement of the decayed hiiidi'd
constituencies. Until that time, it nii:;lit
almost be said that the manufaetuvinL;' in-
terests of Great Britain were unrepresented in
the governing body of the realm. If they
were represented at all, it was because of their
subordinated importance to the landed in-
terests of the kingdom. What, therefore,
must have been the indescribable prejudice
and antagonism against \yhich the propagan-
dists of the Anti-corn-law League must battle
in the attempted reversal of public opinion,
and for the substitution of the principle of
Free Trade instead of the Protective -System,
which had prevailed imraemorially !
Nevertlieless, that indefinite thing called
public opinion did, between the years 1841-46,
change over from the old system to the new,
from the dogmas of Protection to the theory
and practice of Free Trade. The revolution
was accomplished, as nearly all such changes
are in England, by agitation. The movement
began, as we have said, from the manufiictur-
ing towns. It had its heart in Manchester.
Leeds and Birmingham became coadjutors in
the work. The agitator, the great inspiring-
spirit of the oncoming battle, was Richanl
Cobden. He had been brought up as a ware-
houseman in London. When about the age
of thirty, he traveled much in foreign lands,
observing carefully the industrial condition of
all peoples. He then became a partner in a
cotton-printing establishment near Manchester,
and at length distinguished liimself as a
pamphleteer. It was but natural that he
shduld become deeply impressed wi(h the dis-
paraged condition of the maiiufai'turing in-
dustries of the country.
At length, in the year L'^-'l-^, a cniiinuTcial
crisis oconrrfMl in the town of r.nlt..„-l..-M,,„rs,
in Lanrasliire, and nearly all thi- l.ii~iiicv< in-
terests of tlie place, and the surrmnidiri- rc-inn,
went to wreck. Three-fifths of tlic niaiiiifac-
turing establishments were shut up on a<'i'iinnt
of tlic disaster. More than five tlionsand
w.>rl;iiiLiiiien were thrown out of em]iloyinent,
left JioiiH'less, and without the means of secur-
int: a <u!i-i-tiiici'. In this appalling condition,
the snlli'iiiMj masses were confronted in a
startlin-'iiKumerwith the fffects of the Corn-law
System. They perceived that they must starve
because of tlie exorbitant prices of breadstntls,
and that these exorbitant prices were the
Iircidnet, not of the relation of supply and de-
mand, but of the law of Parliament. From
this lime f(irth the agitation l)roke out, and
Cobden was the torcii-b..arer of the new li-ht.
Meetings to secure the abolition of the Corn
Laws began to be held in the manutactuiing
cities, and able speakeis instuicted the people
in the laws ot pohtual econom>. Now it was
that John Blight took his stand b> the side
of Cobden. Ill P.ulianKnt almost the -ole
apo~tle of FiM 'li 1.1. w.i^ ( bailee Vil!iei>, a
mm of an-tiH 1 iti. bm i_i but a -mind con-
\. It t.. th. .1 .tnn.- . t Fi.. 'ha.le. Daniel
()C..iiii. 11 Inni- It n..u n. u the Muiset, threw
some ..t th. I 1-1 . IK 1^1.- .it hi- life into the
a^itition t II th. ib.iliti.in .it tin Pi.it.ctive
S\-t. m Mihi. I <.ib-.,n,a Tun in In- aiite-
(<.l. lit- i.iiiK.I th. 1. i_ii. 111,1 \V .1 r.iK,
a T-nituiiii mil. 1-1,1, p,i|.ulai aii.l .l.i.iu, nt,
\t m
t .if th.i-e who
n\ Leatrne and
30»
UXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERX WORLD.
established the Free Trade Hall in ]Mauches-
ter, seemed almost as hopeless as the struggle
of a swimmer to ascend Niagara. The whole
volume of national iuHuence, of national
])ractice and traditi(ni, roared and rushed in
tlie fare of the agitators, and seemed to bear
tlu'ui down with an overwhelming pressure.
But thfv were not destined to be swept away.
Circumstances favored, as they have rarely
favored, the cause of the reforming party.
That most unanswerable of all arguments,
human misery, came to the aid of the propa-
ganda. Wretchedness, woe, want, starvation,
despair, uttered their voices, and the cry at
length reached the profoundest recesses of
prejudice and conservatism. It reverberated
through the Kingdom. The towns were
shaken at tirst, and then the country-side be-
gan to heave and swell. It was not, as we
have said, the voice of man, but the voice of
hunger, of thinst, the clamor of women and
cliildren for bread. We have just .seen how
at Boltou-le-Moors the appeal of starvation was
first made on account of a commercial crash.
But it was at once seen that any other city,
in which the manufacturing interest predom-
iiiateil, and where thereby dense masses of
]iopulatiou hail been drawn together, might
suffer a like catastrophe at the mere wave of
a wand. It was perceived that the whole
manufacturing and artisan industries of Gi-eat
Britain were saved from sliding iuto the horri-
ble pit only by such temporary shores and
props as might be at any moment broken and
knocked away. Even Parliamentarians must
see it and shudder. Eveu the great land-
owner, secure in his estates, with his multi-
plied tenantry, and his herds of Teeswater
bullocks, must hear the cry in his fastness, and
tremble at the possible consequences.
But to mere commercial disaster, and the
serious consequences following in the wake, a
fiir more dreadful circumstance was now to be
added. The summer of 1S4.T in Ireland was
unusually wet ami cold. As the season wore
'>ii, it became certain that the potato-crop was
al>out to ])rove a failure. It was noticed, on
digging into the hills where the young bulbs
were swelling to maturity, that a peculiar rot
had attacked them, and tlint already, m mid-
pununer. a consi.lerable part 'if the expected
pri)duct had l)cen destroyed. In a C(uuitry of
j such various resources as the United States,
where the failure of some single product oc-
curs with scarcely a notice except in the cen-
sus, where the abundance of other things
makes up for the deficit, and the well-sus-
tained tide of life sweeps on without a check
in its flow or diminution in its volume, it is
almost impossible to conceive of the dismay
and horror with which the people of Ireland,
in this summer of 184-5, must have regarded
the impending failure of the potato. Before
the season was yet well advanced, or the full
extent of the disaster more than vaguely con-
jectured, the Relief Committee of the Man-
sion House in Dublin issued a paper in which
it was declared that no reasonable conjecture
could be formed with respect to the limit of
the effect of the potato disease, and that the
[ destruction of the entire crop seemed an im-
j mineut jjossibility. — Let us look for a moment
at the condition of the Irish peasantry.
A great majority of the Irish were depend-
ent absolutely, at this time, upon the potato for
subsistence. This was particularly true of all
the people in the southern and western parts
of the island. In the Xorth country some
other articles — oatmeal in particular — were
I eaten ; but apart from this, the potato was
j the be-all and the end-all of the Irish peasants
resources. It will surprise the American work-
iugman to know that, in 1845, not a few of
the Irish peasants, but all of them, lived, not
principally or in the main, but ivholly, exclusively,
on the potato. Such a thing as meat, or any
other of the more concentrated forms of human
food, was absolutely unknown in the Irish-
man's home. His meal was of the potato
only. All of his meals were so. He had
nothing else. His children grew to manhood
and womanhood, and then to old age, without
ever having once in their lives known the taste
of meat-food. In such a condition, what shall
we say of the terror which the gloomy, wet
summer of 1845, and the spread, ever-increas-
ing and widening, of the potato-rot must have
inspired among the crowded populations of
the ill-omened island ?
The cry was soon heard across the channel.
At first the country squires of England, satis-
fied in tlieir abundance, were disposed to deny
the story of the famine, to put it off as a scare,
' as a holigoblin conjured up by the Opposition
>10
ryiVEBSAL HISTORY- THE MODERX WOE ED.
anil tlic Free Traders; but the specter would
imt dnwn, and tlie shadow thereof soou fell
arn.,-< the (ilidinatc and conservative couscience
of tinat liiitain. Such was the conditiou of
attairs that .(nhn liiii^ht, speaking of the crisis
afterwar<ls, .Icclared that Famine itself had
joined the Free-Trade cause.
But why the cause of Free Trade ? For the
reason that the grains which all the world
stood ready to pour into the harbors of starv-
ing Ireland were excluded therefrom by the
Corn Laws of Great Britain. Even if not
excluded, the price was so exorbitantly high
as to be beyond the reach of the Irish peas-
antry. The Corn Law thus stood, like the
tree of Tantalus, with its boughs hanging
low and laden with abundance over the
heads of the Irish people, but ever beyond
their reach. Grain must take the place of the
potato, or the Irish must starve. But grain
can not be substituted as the food of the peo-
ple so long as the present prices are main-
tained. The present prices are the result of
the Corn Laws. Therefore, the Corn Laws
must be abolished, and that speedily, for
starvation is an exigency which, if not met at
once, need not be met at all.
Such was the tremendous argument with
which the Free Traders were reinforced in the
autumn of 1845. Meanwhile, Cobden, Bright,
and Villiers had gone on with the argument in
the abstract, with the appeal to the judgment
and understanding of the English people.
Under their appeals, during the last five
years, a large and influential following of Free
Traders had been organized outside of the pales
of party. Free Trade was their one great
principle. To them the shibboleth of Wliig
or Tor// was no longer anything. They did
nut riwi' to pronounce it at all, but stood ready
to j^iiii their fji-ees with either party if thereby
the abolition of the Protective System could
be secured. The Whigs, who now constituted
the O|)|iositiou, were naturally more inclined
to tiic dm-triiie of Free Trade than were the
<'oii-.Tv:iti\fs in ]iower. But as a matter of
fart, th" t'oiimlation of both parties was under-
niiihd, •and earli awaited the catastrophe. Sir
Kolvit r.-.l and liis ^[inistry had cotue into
])o\v. r under the distinct pledge of supporting
the .Ni-tinu' ^v^tein of iiiilustry. In particular,
they had iiroini>ed that the Corn Law should be
upheld. It had been noted, however, that Sir
Robert, in his public utterances on the sub-
ject, was disposed to regard the Corn Laws as
exceptional, and a suspicion crept over the
country that at heart and m theory Sir Robert
was more of a Free Trader than a Protec-
tionist. Colxlen and his followers looked
upon the matter in this light, and calmly
awaited the issue.
Such was the condition of affairs when
j famine knocked at the door, and the Govern-
ment was obliged, nolem volens, to take its
stand and declare a policy for the immediate
relief of the country. On the opening of
Parliament, in January of 1846, Peel went
boldly to the front and outlined the legislation
I which he should undertake. It consisted ia
j brief of the gradual, and yet speedy, abolition
I of the Corn Laws, and with it virtually the
I whole system of Protection. Of course, the
policy was only dimly suggested in the
Premier's speech at the opening of the session ;
but the outline was sufficient, and the Con-
servative party had before it the alternative
of being dragged at the wheels of the chariot
of Free Trade, or of finding for itself a new
leader in place of Sir Robert Peel.
The situation and the occasion have ever
since been memorable in the Parliamentary his-
tory of Great Britain. The Conservative Min-
istry, with the exception of Lord Stanley, had
all gone over with Sir Robert, agreeing to sup-
port him in carrying out the new policy of the
Government. For the moment it seemed to
the landed interests of Great Britain, and es-
pecially to the representatives of that interest
in Parliament, though they still constituted an
overwhelming majority of the whole, that the
end of all things had come; that the league
of the manufacturing towns with commercial
disaster and domestic distress at home, and
with the potato famine in Ireland, had won
the dav over the ancient order of society, and
was about to stamp the residue under foot.
Only one avenue of escape seemed open. If
a new leader could be discovered to rally to
the ill-each and reorganize the shattered Con-
servative ranks, all might yet be well.
The leader eame like an ap]iarition. On
the iiiglit when Sir Robert Peel, having ahau-
done<I the cherished principles of the Conserv-
ative party, foretokened in his speech the
GEEAT BUirAiy.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.
311
adoption of the Frce-Tiudc imlicy, ami wiicn
the Conservatives, without a voiei/, still sat un-
der the paralysis of the hour, a stranj^e tiuuic
arose iu the House of Commons, aud hciian to
thuurler against Sir Roliert Peel in a jurfcot
storm of invective and bitter sarcasm. Ii was
that fantastic Hebrew, Benjamin Disraeli, who,
from being the butt of the House of CuiiiiiKiiis,
now suddenly arose to the rank of Icailt-isliip,
from which the vicissitudes of fully thirty
years could hardly suffice to shake liim. The
world knows the history of the man ; how he had
entered Parliament as a Radical ; how he had
made himself, by his quaiut apparel and loud
ways, a mixture of peacock and jackdaw; how
he had been hooted down without finishing his
maiden speech; how he had persevered against
every species of prejudice, from the deep-seated
prejudice of race to the gad-fly prejudice of
mere manners; how he had gained in spite of
all; how he had drifted over to the Conservative
benches; and finally how, on the memorable
night above referred to, he had suddenly
sprung open like an automatic knife, and cut
his way to the very heart of the temporizing
policy of the Prime Minister. From that
hour unto the day of his death, Benjamin
Disraeli never ceased to be the idol of the old
conservative landed aristocracy of Great Brit-
ain. Henceforth he stood for the ancient
system ; for the monarchy as a general fact,
and for the Queen as a particular instance;
for the feudal land-tenure of the aristocracy;
for privilege and prerogative; for the House
of Lords; for the Established Church, aud for
every fact and principle in the British sy.stem
of society and government whercliy that sys-
tem might better be maintained in its ancient
solidarity and grandeur.
Notwithstanding the brilllanry of Disraeli's
attack on Peel; notwithstanding the sudden
rally of the Protectionist party, and its quick
recovery of all that might yet be saved from
the wreck, there was no hope that the tide
could lie stemmed, that the determination of
the <'ountry to sulistitute Free Trade for the
I'rntcrtivc svstf'iii riinld be thwarted or turned
from the iiuvposc. Until this end should be
accomiilislicd, tlic ^rinistrv of Peel must live.
Trad... The m.asun. i,ro|,„sed bv the :\ri„istrv
still in.'lnded tiu- iiMpn>iti,ui of a duty .,t ten
shillings a quarter on wheat, so long as the
[nice should not exceed forty-eight shillings.
Above that figure, the duty was to be reduced,
until at tifty-three shillings a quarter, the
tai-iir should stand at tVuir shillings only: this
arran.-einrnt for the time. At the end of three
yt-ars the s//s/,j;, ,,f protection on grain was to
be aliandoned i,i tulo. It was fireseeu that,
when once abandoned, protective duties could
no more be revived. It was al.^o clearly dis-
cerned that the protective principle, as applied
to the production of sugar, and other agricul-
tural as well as a few manufacturing interests,
must go along with the major concession in the
case of grains. The legislation of the hour
meant, iu a word, a complete revolution and re-
versal of the ancient industrial policy of the
British Government, with the substitution for
the time-honored system of Free Trade, pure
and simple. In Parliament, the Protectionists,
still vital, aud now under the leadership of
Lord George Bentinck aud Disraeli, made a
strong rally against the bill proposed by the
Ministry. But the measure was passed in the
House of Commons on the 15th of Mav, 1X46,
by a majority of ninety-eight votes. In the
House of Lords the bill was carried through by
the support of the Duke of Wellington, aud
became henceforth the law of the realm.
The :\rinistry of Sir Robert Peel had now
but a month to live. While the Anti-corn-
law agitation had been going on in England,
the disaffection in Ireland, though less .spec-
tacular in its manifestations than before, had
become more dangerous. In that distracted
island the pangs of famine had sharpened the
fangs of political antagonism, and there were
blood-stains in the pathwa_y. Crime came in
the wake of the great movement which O'Cou-
nell had bron-lit so nearly to suec-ss. The
voun-er and moiv thonj'itle- of' tli.' Irish
The new scheme
quickly jierfected
It was not a dec!
the Government was
aid befire Parliament,
in for ininiediatc Free
what the lea.ler had
son and icnionstram
for the Government
wav against the lawl
It was
:-l,ie'
312
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
disaft'ectious of the Irish people. It was
to the Government of Sir Robert Peel a
dangerous, and, as the sequel proved, a fatal
expedient. The immemorial policy of the
Whig party had been against the principle of
coercion as applied to social disturbances
among the subjects of Great Britain. The
Chartists, and after them the Free Traders
under the leaflership of Cobden. had them-
selves so many tune- ielt the ^\elght of pei>-e-
cutiou tiiattlK\ al-oaiKUtd them-t 1\( - .i_nni-t
principle. As for the Protectionist wing of
Conservatives, now under the leadership of
■d George Beutinck and Disraeli, their rage
inst Peel and the Ministrv knew no bounds;
while, as a riil.>, tli.'v wduld have adhered
■ncrclDu as a priiiciplr, tlii-y were ready to
ndon consisteurv if liny might by any
in< (iviTturn thi' < idviTnment of Peel.
:i11y, tlie Irish roprosentatives were, of
i-.<r, hilti'ilv (i[i|iiisi'il to the coercion of their
nti-viiieii. There thus accumulateil in the
Opposition .so many elements of power that
when the Coercion Bill was put on its passage,
June 25, 1846, the Ministry was defeated by
a majority of seventy-three votes.
Sir Robert Peel thereupon put his resigna-
tion in the hands of the Queen, and L(jrd
John Russell was named as his successor.
The new Cabinet included Lord Palmerston,
as Foreign Secretary ; Sir Charles Wood, as
Chancellor of the Exchequer; Lord Grey, as
Secretary for the Colonies; and Sir George
Grey, as Secretary for
Home Affairs. The
brilliant Thomas Bab-
ington Macaulay had
a seat in the Cabinet,
as Paymaster-General
the Govei-nmeut.
Meanwhile, during
the progress of the rec-
ord in the preceding
pages, an incident of
a very different kind
had occurred in the
history of Great Brit-
ain. It was at the
middle of the fifth dec-
ade that the attention
(if the British public
was first seriously
awn to the possibili-
ies that lay hidden in
Arctic Regions.
In the very summer
of the beginning of
the Irish famine an
enterprise was pro-
jected which was des-
tined, before the move-
ment slK.uld subside,
to add largely to the
geographical information of mankind. It was
at this date that the daring adventurer, Sir
John Franklin, undertook his voyage of polar
discoviTv. This remarkable sea-captain had
alreaily achieved renown by his voyages and
exphn-atiiins. As early as 1S19 he had been
sent to the Arctic Seas by the Hudson Bay
Cnn]p;inv; a voyage which detained him three
and a half vears, and extended to a distance
of r,( ariv six thousand miles. Afterwards, in
18o0, he was made Governor of Van Diemau's
GREAT BRITAiy. — EPOCH OF CHARTISM.
Lanri, in which office he couducted the affairs
of the Islanders with the greatest success. At
the time of undertaking his great Arctic voy-
age— that on which his fame with posterity
seems to depend — he was ah-eady in his six-
tieth year. The inspiration of tlie enterprise
was the hope of discovering a north-western
passage into the Pacific Ocean. Two ships,
the Erebus and the Terror, were fitted out, and
in Jlay of 1845 Sir John sailed on the ill-
fated voyage. His ships were last seen by
the Esquimaux, in July of the same year.
From that date they disappeared forever from
sight.
The interest of ueiih ill nations was ex-
cited \n the untert^lnt^ whuh ^hiouded the
fate ot Fiankhn and hi^ ( uipini ii- In
' Britain. It was discovered that Sir John had
died in Juue of 1847, and that his companions
had perislied to a man among the rigors of the
frozen zone.
It was early in the Administration of
Lord Russell that the peaceable relations of
France and England were seriously disturbed
by a marriage project which was said to be
French in its origin, but Spanish in its appli-
cation. The reader on this side of the sea
may well wonder how such a question as a
marriage, even the marriage of a queen, could
be thought to jeopard the peace of Europe.
I But when we regard the peculiar constitution
of the European kingdoms, and particularly
he dvnast
ich contri
them,
need
lut
TWARD BOUND.
United States especially pn.fdun.l sympathy
was evoked, and efforts, not a few, were put
forth for the discovery and possible rescue of
the Arctic explorers. We have already seen
in the preceding Book how the Grinnell expe-
dition, and afterwards the expedition of Dr.
Elisha Kent Kane — most eminent of Ameri-
can Arctic travelers — was fitted out and de-
spatched into the North Seas. Little, however,
was accomplished towards the discovery of
Franklin, although the knowledge of mankind
respecting the regions of the North Pole was
extended and many times multiplied. It was
not until 1859 that the ship Fox, under Cap-
tain McCliutock, sent into the Arctic Ocean
by Lady Franklin, had the good fortune to
steer in the track of the lost sailors of Great
marital relations of th
be regarded as impoi
history will not fail to
instances, the law of
' Rdval families should
ant. The student of
■enifnibor that, in some
descent, liy which the
place of the crown is determined in hereditary
governments, has, by sheer force of its own
workings, produced an almost intolerable re-
sult. At one time it appeared that Charles
V. was to receive by legitimate inheritance
the larger ])art of Continental Europe. If
the so-calle<l Balance of Power among the
European States is to be preserved, then the
sovereigns who wear the crowns may well be
constrained to give heed to the marriage com-
pacts by which the crown is to be deflected in
this direction or in that.
At the time of which we speak, young
UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
ibella II., of Spain, who had now reached
r nnu-ria-e. It had lonn- hem th,- pohey of
lion of liiood and niteivst ijetweeu the French
d Siiani.-li IJonrlions. Tlie attempt to do so
d, in innii- than one instance, been the
ii^e of war. It might have been thought
at, with the accession of the younger branch
Bourbon, in the person of the Citizen King
France, the traditional policy would have
been abandoned. But Louis Philippe, and
Guizot, his Minister of State, seem, on the
contrary, to have strongly desired that the
young Queen of Spain should be wedded to a
French Prince. The king himself had two
elinilile sons who might aspire to Isabella's
liand. The elder of these was the Dnc
d'Ainiialc, and thi' younger the Dae de 'Shmt-
]i(ii>icr. It liappcni'd, moreover, that the
The intrigue of Loui.-^ Philippe was far-
leaehing in its character. His programme con-
templated the marriage of Isabella to her
cousin, Francisco de Assis, and the comcident
marriage of the Due de Moutjiensier and the
Infanta. It was conjectured by the plotters
that Isabella her.self in such a union 7VouM die
ddldleiia, and that, in that event, the Spanish
crown would descend to the offspring of Mont-
pensier. He, after the Due d'Aumale, was
heir to the crown of France. Thus was to be
provided the possible
union of the two
crowns on the head
of an Orleans Prince
of France.
As soon as the pur-
po.se of the French
Court with respect to
the double marriage
was blown abroad, it
created great excite-
ment at other Euro-
^^^^^^ pean capitals. Eng-
^ laud herself, though
zj insular and to a great
_~ degree disentangled
-~Z^ Irom Continental alli-
, ances, was deeply of-
^ fended at the proposed
union between the
1 French and Spanish
^ V royal families. The
' ''((^ project led to remon-
strances and diploniat-
J ical correspondence
not a little. It hap-
pened that at this time
Victoria passed over
to the Continent, and
made a visit to Louis Philippe at Eu. During
the interview, the king straitly disavowed
for himself and his Minister the purpose of
having the Spanish Infanta married to his son,
at least, until what time, by the marriage of
Isabella and the birth of offspring to her, the
descent of the Spanish crown should be pro-
vided fnr. Nevertheless, in course of time,
the dniililc marriage project was carried out
pi'rlidiiiu>lv, as was believed at most of the
eo\nis iif I'jiirope. Isabella was wedded to her
ci>u,-in, Francis of Assis, and on the same day
GREAT BRITAIX.-EPOCH OF CHARTISM.
315
the Infauta, JNIaria Louisa, was nianied to the
Due de Montpensier. Enghmd was beateu by
tie intrigue. She must either suljiuit to the
successful mauipulatiou of tlie Freuch Gov-
ernrueut, or else go to war. It is uot likely
that iu any event she would have chosen the
latter course. But her indiLMiatinn was ex-
treme, and she expressed Iut disjilcasure in
the strongest terms consistent with peace.
The careful reader of history, however, will
have noted the small effect of such schemes as
this supposedly dangerous double marriage.
Never was the truth of the ])rinciple more
Cdiiently illustrated that iu the instance before
us. The elaborate provision which Louis
Philippe was making for the inheritance by
his posterity of the crown of both France and
S|iain was soon blown utterly away. The
Revolution of 1848 iu France put both him.self
a'ld his sous forever out of sight. Living in
exile iu England uutil tiie day of his death,
he must often have contemplated from a dis-
tance the humiliating and ridiculous outcome
of his intrigue relative to the Spanish crown.
Even if the Revolution of 1848 had never
occurred, the result would have been the same;
for at length the marriage of Queen Isabella
and her cousin was blessed with the birth of a
son — against the expectations and hopes of the
French Court, whose dignitaries had contrived
the marriage. These events — the expulsion of
Louis Philippe and his family, and the birth
of a legitimate heir to the Spanish crown —
served to convert the anger of England, first
into indifference, and then into contempt.
We are now arrived at that period in En-
glisn history when Chartism was destined, after
one huge effort to force itself as a modifying
principle into the Constitution of Great Brit-
ain, to sprawl into oblivion and be seen no
more. The effort in question was made in
1848. It was in this year that the energies of
all Europe seemed, by gathering and com-
pression, to explode in a universal revolution.
We shall hereafter narrate, on a larger scale,
how in nearly all the European capitals, in-
surrection put his bugle to his lips, and blew a
blast which, in instances not a few, startled
the legitimate kings from their seats, and sont
them flying by day or night into foreign lands.
Paris was the scene of such a revolt, which
ended in the downfall of the House of Orlciuis
and the erection of a republic. Berlin was
the scene of another such insurrcctitm, almost
successful, against the reigning dynasty. Brus-
sels likewise stitfercd revnji, tlmiigh tiu- king
of the Belgian>, l)y a \vi>r declaration that if
his people did imt « ish him fm- their snvi reign,
then he himself had no wish to iei;^ii linger,
snatched the lH.lt fr.un the cI.ukIs an.l e..n-
ducted it harmlessly to the earth. All around
the horizcm the thunder of revolution was
heard, and even England felt the jar.
In that country, however, the conditions,
civil, social, and political, were very different
from those of the Continental Powers. Eng-
land had stability, equanimity, equipoise. Her
foundations were laid deep on the very con-
crete of barbarism. Her structure had been
raised experimentally. It had been built, here
a little and there a little, remodeled, altered
much in details and slightly iu general plan.
But it was essentially the same colossal fabric
which had grown into shapeliness and grandeur,
if not into political beauty, through ages of
development. On that structure many cen-
turies had wrought. On it the Conqueror had
used his battle-axe, and the Plantagenets their
swords. The wardiammers of York and Lan-
caster had resounded on the wall. Tudor had
reared one battlement, and even Stuart had
contributed something to the magnificence of
the pile. William Henry of Orange had gone
round about it, and the four Georges and
William of Hanover-Brunswick had at least
slept in the stately chambers of the edifice.
Now Victoria had added grace and woman-
hood, and the coping-stones were not without
glory. Nor may we ever forget that, under
the shadow of the great temple, that rude
creature, called English Libeiiy, had grown and
flourished.
Wherefore Enghuid was not easily liisturbed.
She was with difheulty shaken by agitation.
Least of all was she amenable to the aignment
of insurrection. Tongue-foree and pen-force
she might indeed fear and feel; Imt sword-
force not at all. Out of all which eireuni-
stauces came English indifference to the ]»ilit-
ical revolt <if 1S4S. Nevertheless, the Chart-
ists, who tor :i deeade ha>l maintained their
cause in the inanufaetnring districts and great
salvation. Now was the hour in which, as
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
Eii,uii>liinen, they might gain, by poaecfiil
agitation, or, at nmst, the display of physical
force by uiinihers, the democratic rights which
they sighed for, and which seemed to be the
rare-ripe fruit of insurrection iu the Conti-
nental States.
So the Chartist agitation broke out anew.
The movement was augmented by the misfor-
tunes through which England had recently
passed. O'Connell's great campaign for the
repeal of the Union bad ended iu defeat ; but
the discontented spirits of both Ireland and
England were not stilled. The agitation for
the repeal of the Corn Laws had indeed been
succes.sful. But the Reform legislation of 1832
had brought only disappointment and mockery
to the working democracy of England. The
ranks of Chartism were augmented from nearly
all the columns of discontent, and it was be-
lieved by the leaders that the time had now
come, when, by a single great rally, they might
bear down Parliament, and constrain the Gov-
ernment to yield to their demands.
In pursuance of this general policy, the
Chartists proceeded to prepare a monster pe-
tition to the House of Commons, demanding
that the principles of the People's Charter
should be acknowledged by that body, and in-
corporated iu the Constitution of the realm.
It was arranged that the petition sbould first
lie signed by millions of English workingmen,
anil that it should then be carried to the House
of Commons Ijy a delegation at the head of a
procession, wdiich it was hoped to swell to the
n umber of five hundred thousand persons. For
this purpose, the multitudes were to assemble on
Kennington Common, on the 10th of April,
1848. The Chartists hoped to make the dem-
onstration by far the most formidable which
had been known in the political history of
mankind. It was believed that half a million
(jf people could l)e brought together and ar-
ranged in a single procession. At this time
Feargus O'Connor was the acknowledged
leader of Chartism, and he was to be the mov-
ing spirit of the multitude. The fatal defect
in the wdiole proceeding was that the Chartists
themselves had no clear idea of the After That.
Suppose the House of Commons will not hear
our petition, will not yield to our demand, will
not feel the display of force and numbers.
What then? Shall we fight? Shall we peace-
ably disperse to our homes, and leave the En-
glish Government to ridicule both our proces-
sion and ourselves? It was jirecisely the same
difficulty which had wrecked the cause of re-
peal in the hands of O'Connell. The younger
and fiercer Sf)irits who followed that storm-
breathing Irish Achilles, would fain have
fought ; but the older, the wiser, the more
conservative, including the leader himself, and
vast majority, sought the end only by apjieal,
by argument, and by the olive-branch.
So also with the Chartists. Meanwhile,
however, there was great alarm in London and
throughout the kingdom. There were rumors
of insurrection in every city. But, as usual,
the event soon showed that the crooked flukes
of the British anchors had fast hold of the
ledges under the sea. The defense of the
metropolis was intrusted to the Duke of Wel-
lington. Military preparations were made to
maintain the peace, and if need be, to break
up the Chartist demonstration. About two hun-
dred thousand militiamen were enrolled for the
occasion, and before the day of the meet-
ing it was evident that the demonstration
was doomed to failure.' Instead of a half
million, only twenty thousand, or at most
twenty-five thousan<l persons, assembled on the
Common. Orders had been issued by the
Government forbidding the formation of the
procession, as having for its purpose the dis-
tuibance of the peace of the realm. Feargus
O'Connor advised his followers to obey the
mandate. He and some of the Chartist lead-
ers proceeded, however, to present the huge
petition to the Commons. But the efllect was
naught. It was boasted that the papers con-
tained seven million signatures. But this
statement was found to be greatly exag-
gerated. Fewer than two millions of names
were found, and of these many were spurious
and fictitious. Nevertheless, it could not be
said that a paper signed by a million of
earnest Englishmen was absurd. The Chartist
movement was a failure, not because of the
political principles on which it was projected,
but because those principles were already
' Among those who served as special police-
men on this memorable occasion was at least one
notable personage — no other than Louis Napoleon
Bonaparte, soon to be President of the French.
Republic, and afterwards Emperor Napoleon IIL
virtuallv aeknowleuged iu
laii'l, and were destiued, in
valid and applicable to tlic
of Great Britain, to be 1:1
as elements of the Cons
threeof the f^ix artii
w^MV ^oon ado|,trd 1
Thi- i-iiiiriple ..[■ M:
a part of the English Cnn>titulion. '1
of voting by Secret Ball-t, (Ki.u-ii.d
ballot-box, has also been
part of the ,i„ul,i.<
oprmmii of all Briti.
elections. In like nui'
ner, the Propert
Qualification irniinse
on candidates for Par-
liament, against which
the Chartists so vehe-
mently find justly de-
claimed, has long since
been abolished. It is
an anachronism iu j
itics to insist on the
GREAT BRITAIN.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.
leart
of
•nlld
Eng-
were
ItidU
bv the in
KngHsh Xa
The en,
telligcn-c and
inn, but bv Pari
ndalivr a'i:itati<
consciincr nf
anieutarvadnpi
n in Inhind, 1
the
At
atc(l
Irast
M,. p,.n,„l.
IrnLl'n"'!,,'
','ii'i!nw rjit"!
','■
acknowledgment of
principle already a
kn.nvle.lged. As i
America the strugg
of the Greenback part
f)r predominance as
party ended iu failun
though the prin
for which all rati(inal
Greeubackers con-
tended — namely, that
the Congress of the
United States has the f
right and power, in-
dependently of the
fact of war, to makp alisohite paper
and to constitute the same a l.-jnl
lu the payment nf
cally otherwise provii
and almost unanitnouslv a|>|irnv(il b
preme Court, anil di-iviii into the
tional Interpretation- of our Pep
i;i-I.AND. and dev
>e emanci|,at]o„ ,
.tcl its,. It Willi
f the Iri-h ,,eo,
e fro,
mtrol ot Kn.la,
neWM
d \Vi
,e le
partv movement collapsed, eniled in dir-t and ^ man of wealth a, id rank, lie was abli
s,noke, thoiigh the principles for wiiich the I the can-^e a sti-ong impetus. Assoc
Chartists contended were approved, not only him was Thomas Fi-aucis Meagher,
20
Ited with
who liad
VyiVEBSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
fame as an orator — a thing always e^^.-^ential to
agitation in Irelaml. Two other leaders of
great prominence also appeared in the persons
of Sir Charles Gavan Dutty, founder of the
Nalhni, ami .Inlni Mitchel, an Irish revolu-
tiiiiii>t, pine ami siiii|ili-. T" these men the
jiartv <if YniiMi;- Ireland now hmked for coun-
sel and direction.
Around the nucleus here defined was iui-
mediatelv ,t:athcn-d much df the intellect nf
the island/ Especially did the young men
fresh from the universities rally to the call for
the independence of their country. Theycon-
trilnited to the radical newspajiers the keenest
part i.f their intellectual product in both jirose
and verse. Some wcie for gding farther, and
some U(it so far. All were for the repeal of
the Union, and the establishment of Irish in-
dependence by revolution. But what did the
revolution moan? It was the <ild difficulty
over again. Did revolutiim mean outright re-
bellioH, downright war, the unsht-atlic-d swnrd,
battle and blood and death';" < )r diil it mean
something less than tbese':'
Here the ])arty divided. The more radical
of the radical timk tn the leadership of Mitchel.
That great insurrectionist established a new
newspaper called the United IrUJui-inii. and it
was at once perceived that around this truly
revolutionary standard was gathered the body
of Young Irelaml. ^Mitchel's uewspaper soon
surpassed \he Xatii<ii in influenceaudcirculation,
as it surpassed it from the first in vehemence
and liitterness towards the British Government.
The new orwan teemed with the wildest dia-
tribes and invectives. Rebellion -was openly
advocated as the only remedy for the ills of
Ireland. Even t1ie measures by which the
'US>
th,
,do ..f anarrhy. :\rrth."ls of de-
stn.vin- lli-ili-h -nidi-rs and their abb,-ttors in
••ivii -0,1, tv W(T.- .xplaiiicl with as much
, 1,,,.- :i-'thou-h th.-y had been the methods
of tin- buichc-r's stall. ^\rtii'ies ap])eared in
the r„Ur,l fi-'islinnni demon -t rating the useful-
ness of vitriol a- an :ment of destruetion.
Mitehel and his ronespondents rose to the
high jiifch of fanaticism, and it became evident
that they meant to provoke the English (Gov-
ernment to a collision.
^lean while, an actual revolution had broken
out in Paris, and discharged the Orleans
j)rinces from all further service. The event
was hailed in Ireland as a sure precursor of a
general revolution, in the cour-se of which the
Celtic Island iuust of necessity achieve its in-
dependence. O'Brien and Meagher went to
the French capital to solicit from Lamartine,
then almost supreme in State aflidrs, his .sym-
jiathy and patronage in the matter of the Irish
revoluti.ju. At length, matters in Dublin and
in ,.ther parts of the Inland came to sueh a
pass that it was no longer optional with (Gov-
ernment whether they would or would not
proceed to the issue and trial of strength with
the Irish insurrection. The Lord-Lieutenant
had gond reason f .r re^^anlin- Mitchefs j.aper
as not only sediti..us, but ineendiary. Still,
according to current statutes, it was a dithcult
matter to proceed against the rampant editor
and his estai)lishment. Though his paper gave
fnun day to day deliberate instruction in the
art of killing, which, under the circumstances,
appeareil very much like the art of murder,
there had been as yet no such overt acts as
would warrant his arrest for crime. Anything
short of criminal prosecution went for nothing
when directed against the favorite leaders of
the people; for they immediately freed them-
selves from duress under the law of bail, and
became nmre active than ever.
In Parliament, it was deemed that the
emergency called for speedy and severe reme-
dies. A bill was accordingly hurried through,
making all written incitement to crime a
felony under the statutes. It was a deadly
blow aimed at the Irish insurgents; but ^litchel
at least was undaunted. He went on more
violently than before, and was arrested and
thrown into prison. Even from his cell he
Inirled defiance at the Government, and urged
his countrymen tci rescue him from the clutches
of tvranny. But the outside party was want-
iuL' in courageous leadership. Mitchel was
tried and found guilty. Standing in the dock,
he made a furious and defiant speech, and
went down game under a sentence of fourteen
vears' transportation to the Bermudas. He
was hurried out of Dublin, and as the ship
which bore him from sight dropped behind
the horizon, the hope of a successful Irish in-
surrection disappeared.
The condemnation and banishiuent of their
most courageous leader roused the animosity of
GREAT BRITAIX.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.
eveu the more moderate party of young Ire];\nil- \ n(lil(
crs, and they all took ou the character of ji((.|
rebels against the Governincnt ; not rebels in- J
deed iu fact, but rebels in s[iii-it and pnrjiose. \ '\y\r[
Smith O'Brieu, Meagher, and ntluMs l,ft Dub- lind
lin and wnt to Badingnrrv, «l„iv tlic-v w,,v in >.
snn'onnded by a crowd n[ insur,:rnt-,' whom of tl
bliug military discipline. The Tijiperary j)o- of <
lice stood against the insurgents, and were I fm' 1
attacked by them. O'BrienV forc(>s oblige,! \ uu;,
the posse to take i-efuL'c in ;
assailed them with such n
possessed. The police fired
ftud several of the assailant
The remainder at hngth (fi-
trivial aflair, rescued from r
serious consequences. ( )'l)i
Thurles, where he was tak(
two others were soon afters
the mountains. A cnurt \v
mel, and in Septeniliei- nt' 1
were found guilty. ( )'I5iiei
be hanged, beheadcil. mirl 'ji.
was the still merciful statuti
relative to treason. ]Meagl
sentenced to death, with the addeil horrors
of mutilation. Standing in tlie dock, the
brave young Irishman cried out, with uplifted
han.l an.l steady voice : "Even here, where
the sha.lows of death surn.und me, an.l from
•where I see my early grave opening for me in
no consecrated soil, the hope which beckoned
me forth on that perilous sea whereon I have
been wrecked, animates, consoles, enraptures
me. No, I do not de-pair of my | r old
country, her peace, her lilierty, her glory."
The sentences of the < haiined men wei-,>
commuted into other firms of punishment.
O'Brien was to be transported for life. All
of the convicts were sent to Australia, from
which, in cour.se of time, both ^litchel and
Meagher effected their escape. O'I'.rien re-
fu.sed to avail himself of the opportunities to
get away, and was at length panloncil : first,
on condition of not returning to England or
Ireland, and afterwards unconditionally. As
to Sir Charles Duffy, In.- was twice brought to
trial, and twice the jury refused to convict.
The prosecutions endcil with the condemnation
and expulsion of the leaders. Yiiung Irehunl
■was broken up, and another element was
Irisli
veil b.
1 theaj,
he unfc
suppo>
itation :
rtunate
■d that th.. eon.,
nd disaMer. whi,
Island would te
lomena
race.
manni
fhe con
ilrv had lirst lie(
■abin.and there
movement, wa,> pr.ifonijd. Tie
n came
1,.. p.,.
■ arms as thi'y
tato famine, in which liunecr ,
nd diset
se an.l
m the windows.
hrou.Jis
.tueof
vere .shot .lown.
themo-t fertile parts otthe Idai
d. This
vasfol-
•rsed. It was a
lowed, hard after, l.y ih.- Youn
insiir-
eule only ),y its
rection. by the clamor for rev.
Intinu, :
n.l the
Meagher an,l
England might be thrown .ilf, ;
nd Irisi,
ikc .if
happi-
rds caiitured in
calle.l at Clon-
iiess bo secured by the way of'
ciM'e. This hope also was i.
Iri-h In.
ph.,..|v 1
.pen.l-
laste.l.
4S the prisoners
The Irish patriots were doom
..1 t.l S.'
their
as sentence,! to
favorite young leaders escape
the .l.'at
, pen-
/or,/; for sucli
ally onlv liv transportation to
th.. S.u
th At-
f Great Britain
■ was likewise
lan'tic. "it can not be wonde
e.1 at tl
at the
1 'ri 1 ■ ■ 11
. X,.w Y.
i.s.mI a.lm
320
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
people of the Islanil i:ave up in (le>p;
began to look aliiuad for some possJhK
from the hon'oi-< of ihc -iiniiiion.
There, ln-yond thr Aihiiilir, ili. y .•
glimpse of a lu-oa.l aii.l open laiel, froi
i,i;s, tl
rei
It is a sa.l (lav in tho lif.' of man when the
stron- tie v.-hieh lmel> liim to native land,
snaps a-nn.l.a'; ulioi, he i- eon-trained to turn
his l.ark on the home of his an.vst..rs, to no
on shipboard, and see hrhiiel Idiu, in the
gloaming of the first evening, the uretn shore
of his own country .sink lnhind tlie sea. Tlie
Ipjsir P^^niiRATiiiy to Amerira, which now
ensiie<l as the legitimate eonse(pienee of the
hardships to which the nation had been ex-
posed, while it was one of the most striking
examples of voluntary expatriation ever known,
was by no means a sin-prising event. Behind
the emigrants were famine, pestilence, land-
lordism,""rol)hery, the oppressions of the British
Govci-niinnt — every eoni|in]sive force that
mi-lit well drive a people into exile. In the
conr.-e ol' two or three years from the begin-
ning id' the potato tiimine, the country was de-
populate.! at the rate <>t' aliout a million souls
into America. Tli'e exiles of Erin, -..nerally
in ra-s, were -eei, by humhvd- and thousand's
in the streets of the A rnerican sea-l.oard .aties.
from whi.di tliev -raduallv di-lril.uted them-
selves into the interior, .diicHy alon- the line ,,f
the great railways .and eamds, whiidi about that
time were in cou-rnieiioii, and iindin;:- eniplov-
ment and profitable wages at the hands .d' jiub-
lic eontraelois.
It is from tliis point kC view that the
to be considered. It can not be doubted that
the great emigration coiitribnted many un-
favorable elements to American life. It could
not be expected that shiplead- .d' half -tai ved
low e-tate, unfe.l in all their lives with other
fold tlian the potato, could at once and favor-
alilv a-sume tin- iluti.-s ,,f i;e|.ublican citizen-
shi|.. Our own <vstem has been largely to
blame fir the vices that came with the Irish
exoilus. But the apiiearance of these people
has not been an nnmixed curse. In the first
place, something is due to the princijile of iu-
ternationality— to that lu-ineiple which de-
mands the exposure ami distribution of our
own go<id, of our own strength, to tliose who
have it not, of whatever clime or race. We
may not Ibrget the incalcnlal)le benefits which
tin- Iri^h emigrants received from their con-
tact with our pi-nple and institutions. Then.
vantage to onr.selves. If virtue, indeed, flowed
tiom the hem of our garments at the touch of
Ireland, strength was given back into our
own cousiitiition from the wound made in
our soil by the- Irish spade. The a.lduion of
so large a body of cheerful and patient labor-
ers to our own strained resources of physical
force must by no means be overlooked in
considering the general features and character
of the problem. Finally, it shall not be for-
gotten that in the day when American institu-
tions— aye, the very existence of the American
Republic — was staked on the gage of battle;
wdieu the day of conflict came, and the free
system of representative government on this
side of the sea was under trial of the sword ;
when everything which the American heart
hol.ls dear 'was at jeopard in the smoke an.l
blood and carnage of Civil War.— then the
Irish < tin-ent eontribut.Ml its full ,piola to
the rnion Armv, and on i-vwy field, IV.im
the Happahannock to the Ozark Mountains,
Irish life wa- fively and -rateCullv -iven un-
der the Siardianne'r uhi.di had reeeivd and
guarded tl xile- of bs,-,() in the dark day of
their banidiinent.
While the attention of the British Parlia-
ment had been prineipall}- ili'awn to the events
ters of less importance, but still of interest to
the reader, had occurred, .\mong these, one
of a picnliar sort may be mentioned as
illiHtrative ot' the nature and tendencies of
British legislative thought at the epoch befiire
us. The incident referred to had many of the
features of that remarkable Martin-Koszta
Atlidr to whi.di the reailer's attention has
been direetid in a former chapter. Beginning
with a merelv personal matter, the event
Koszta wi
r own country, ih'stined
ng forth and (diicidate
files of international law
GREAT BRITAIN.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.
321
The affair in (iiiesti
:aut
K.
■ffig\
Greece, aud was based ultiiii;i
riglits of British citizens iv-
Greece was, religinu^ly ('''ii-id.'!
sway of the Eastern, ni >o-,alli
olic" Church. That Clanvli, :
Church in the West, had its sup^
aud its traditional jiracticcs niai
certain usage was annnally tn
of the traitor, Judas Iscariot. This ecri'mony
was performed in connection with the Easter
celebration in eacli year. It was generally an
uproarious performance, at which the ruder
citizenship was given license, not uuly to con-
tribute to the burning of Judas, but tn in-
dulge in other half lawless amusements. At
length the authorities of Athens concluded to
abolish the ceremony. Accordingly, in 1847,
the police were instructed to prevent the an-
nual celebration. The movement was seriously
resented by the people, aud a mob arose
heailed by two sous of the Greek Minister of
"War. The insurgents came at length to the
spot where the Judas was to have been burned,
but, being deprived of the annual sports which
they had been wont to enjoy, they turned
aside to find some actual Judas on wlnmi they
might be revenged. Such a Judas was nut t'ar
to .seek. It chanced that there was resident
near the scene a certain Jew named Don Pa-
cifici), whose house the angry mob attacked
and destroyed. But Di>n Pacified had the pru-
dence aud craft of his race. He was a P..rtu-
gue.se by descent, born at Gibraltar, but a cit-
izen of Great Britain. It was the latter cii--
cum.stance, that is, his being a subject of the
British crown, that now stood him well in
hand. He accordingly made up an inveutory
of his losses, which he estimated at the very
lilieral figure of thirty-two thousand pounds
sterling. He also claimed that among his pa-
jiers, which had been destroyed by the mob,
there were certain documents establishing the
indebtedness of the PortUL'UPse Government to
himself in many ad.litinnal thousands „f
pounds. The event shnwed that the imagina-
tion of Don Pacifico had been thrifty in the
last degree, and that his legitimate claim would
have to be reduced to a small fraction of what
was shown in his inventorv. But the lu-inei-
ple was all the same, and Don Paeitie.. loudlv
It of
led that the Greek Govenuuent
liquidate the whole or abide the couse-
cjuences.
The Greek authorities, however, were little
disposed to allow the vali.lity of the claims,
whereupon a British fieet was despatched to
the sea-port of Athens to comjiel payment.
In the emergency, Greece appealed to France
and Russia to aid her against the unjust
demand of Great Britain. Both of those
governments had been somewhat ottended
at the ])recipitancy of England in disjilaying
force in the harbor of a frien<lly jiower. The
English Miuistry was accused ot a coveit dis-
position to loose her.self from the engagement
b)' which the independence of Greece had
been guaranteed at the establishment of the
Greek monarchy. France was more mild-
mannered, and proffered her good offices in
the settlement of the difficulty. It aj)pears
that the English Ambassador at Athens pro-
ceeded, in conjunction with the representative
of France, to adjust and allow .so much of the
claims of Don Pacifico as might be valid. Init
at the same time Lord Palmerston went ahead
to force a settlement in his own way.
All of these circumstances combined to
give an occasion for the Opposition in Parlia-
ment to attack the foreign policy of the Gov-
ernment, and the methods of Lord Palmerston
in the Greek affair in partienlai-. Palmerston,
however, defended him.-elCand the course which
he had taken, in a masterly speech in the
House of Commons, and the policy of the
Foreitrn Office was upheld by a great majority.
The claim of Don Pacific,, reduced t., more
moilerate pro]>orti<ins, was at length discliar>:ed
by the Greek Government, but only after the
controversy had dragged along till all parties
were anxious to lie freed from its further con-
sideratiiin. A difficulty which came near lead-
intr at one time to serious consequences was
finally eliminated from the thought of the
322
UXIVERSAL HISTORY.^THE MODERN WORLD.
nations concerned by the diversiun of their
attention to other questions and interests.
In the course of the deliate in Parliament
oil tlie matter nf Dm, I'acifico and his tn.ul.-
h_-s in Ath,-„s, Sir Kohrrt I'.m-I made liis la-t
siH.,-,-h ill that -ivat l.ody, where he had lieeii
So ii.ii;^' ih-tiii;iiii-hi'il, and for several years
s(i|inMiic. It was ill the early morning of
JiiiH' '_".!, is.'iO, that the eminent statesman
lel't tlif Ilnii-,' (if Commons for the last time.
He was a meiiil)er of the Royal Commission,
which had heeii constituted to superintend the
great Industrial Exhibition in Hyde Park,
the ])reparations for which were making at
that time. Sir Robert attended a meeting of
the Commission, and then visited the Queen
at Buckingham Palace. On leaving the latter
place, he was thrown from his horse, and be-
coming entangled in the bridle, was crushed
under the animal's knees and hoofs. His in-
juries were flital, and, after suffering for three
days in great agony, he died, on the 2d of
July. The event produced a shock through-
out the kingdom. It was proposed that the
dead statesman should be buried in Westmin-
ster, but Peel had provided otherwise in his
will. In that document he had stipulated also
that no member of his family should accept
any title or other mark of honor on account
of the services which he had rendered to
the country. For this reason, when the offer
was made to elevate Lady Peel to the Peerage,
the honor was declined. Nor will the repub-
lican reader of the New World fail to do obei-
sance to the sterling spirit of the man who
could thus deliberately rest the reputation <if
bis family with posterity on his own unaided
name.
Just at the time of winch we speak, the
interest of all England was excited by a pro-
ceeding of the Pope of Rome relative to his
alleged jurisdiction in Great Britain. The
reader must in this connection recall hurriedly
the history of the English Church. He must
remember how closily. from the day of its
birth, that Chinch had lucii identified with
the political ( 'onstiliition of the Kingdom. The
RefoniKitioii in l-'ii-laiid had run a course very
different fnmi the dc-stiiiii's of the same move-
ment on the Continent. Every part of the
Establishment had now been for a long time
interwoven with the civil fabric until not only
the independency, but the very existence of
the one seemed to be involved with that of the
other. The Church of England had from the
ini.ldle ,,f the sixteenth c.-iitnrv rested heavily
on Calholiri.m. It had remained for the
iiiiutcTiith (Tiitury to r.-iii..ve most of the dis-
abilities under which tlie Catholics had long
gidinieil, and to introduce a reign of compara-
tive toleration. No sooner, however, was the
weight lifted and Rome set free, than she be-
gan her old-time tactics for the recovery of
this Very time, a reiietion in favoi' of the
Mother Chincli was discovered in the very
heart of l^piscipalianism. Several of the
leading ecclesiastics discovered a sudden lik-
ing for the ceremonials, to say nothing ol' the
dogmas, of Rome. It was noticed that, in the
highest places of the Church, an unusual honor
began to be paid to the saints. The sign of
the cross was made as reverently by Church-
men as by Catholics, and the claim of infalli-
bility was instituted. It w'as observed that
some of the bishops read the liturgy in a
manner and tmie strongly in sympathy with
the Latin chant of the Roman priest; and at
last it was recommended in some dioceses that
auricular confession be made, and that penance
be done and absolution granted for sins. This
was indeed SancM Ecdesia Rediviva! It only
remained to elevate the host to complete the
transformation. In the autumn of 1850 the
people of England suddenly awaked to find
that their National Church was apparently
slipping back into the open portal of " the
Flannnian Gate."
Pius IX. was quick to discern and to ap-
preciate the advantage wdiich this movement
seemed to promise. He accordingly issued a
letter or bull, dividing England into dioceses,
to be placed under the control of one Arch-
bishop and twelve Suffragans. More than
this — and this was the gravamen of his offense —
he proceeded to authorize the bishops and
andibishops to take their names or titles /com
Ihr iiaiiir iif till' J/./rrscs to wdiich they were re-
spectivelv assigned. This sounded very much
like the assmiiption of a certain indefinite ter-
i-itdi-iiil doiiiinioii i.ver the diocese, rather than
that merely ecclesiastical authority against
which no one could raise objections. The as-
sumptions of the Papal bull were immediately
GREAT BRITAIN.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.
323
backed by a prominciameiitu dI' ( 'antiiial Wise-
man, the uew Catholic AiThl>i>ho|i of iMighiud.
The pastoral letter whieh he imw tulilresssed to
his siilijects was, according to its superscrip-
tion, "given out (jf the Fhiminian Gate at
Rome." Tlie comnniniration, which was m--
dered to be read pulilirly in all tiie Catholic
Clmrches of Lun.ion, was Utile lt>s than ni>o.
lent. It declare.l tliat '■ thr heloved coun-
try "—meaning England— --iiad heen received
to a place am(jng the fair Churches which
constituted the splendid aggregate of the
Catholic communion." It went on to say that
Catholic England had been restoreil to its true
orbit in the ecclesiastic firinanient, etc.
Now it was, however, that the matter was
overdone. The English people suddenly sprang
up in indignation against the Papal assump-
tions, and the Island rang from shore to shore
with loud denunciations of the whole impudent
scheme, which had seemingly been devised
for the restoration of the country to the do-
minion of Rome. Lord John Russell, at the
head of the Ministry, wrote a general letter,
in which he called the attention of the people
of England to the insidious plot of the Pope
against the principles of the Reformation, and
against the still greater fiact of English liberty.
By the opening of Parliament in 1851 the
public temper had become so much aroused
that the Ministry were impelled, as much by
the force of the popular voice as by their own
convictions, to take some action again.st the
scheme of the Pope and Cardinal "Wiseman.
To do so, liowever, was a step attended witli
great ditticnlty. In the first place, England
had now openly adopted the principle of uiu-
versal toleration in matters of religion. In
the next place, it was seen by the leading
minds that even the extraordinary pretensions
and claims, which had recently been set up
with respect to Papal dominion in Great
Britain, were idle and empty, void of effect, the
mere sound of brazen cyndials.
But the real difficulty in dealing with the
question lay in the peculiar division which
then existed in Parliament. lu that body
there were three political jiarties, the Whigs,
the Conservatives, and the so-called Peelites.
The latter had belonged, for the most part, to
the Conservative party, but had adhered to
Sir Robert Peel in the matter of Free Trade,
and had thus parted company with the Pro-
tection division, representing, in general, the
landed aristocracy of (Jreat Britain. WMien
the Peel Mini>try gave way, it was not tlie
accession of the Whigs; the overthrow oi the
recent Government was personal rather than
political. Besides the three divisions already
mentioned, there was a strong Irish contingent,
and this, since the passage of the Reform
measures by which the disabilities resting ou
the Catholics had been removed, was made up
almost exclusively of Catholic members. Any
measure now proixised by Lord Russell against
the assumptions of Rome would be at once as-
saileil, for [uinly political reasons, by DLsraeli
and the Conservatives proper, while the Irish
party, which, iu general, had cooperated with
Sir Robert Peel ou everything except religious
questions, would, of course, oppose the Ministry
in a measure directed against Rome.
As to the party in power, it was itself made
up ot extremes. Those who strongly adhered
to the Church of England were rampant for
the enactment of strenuous measures against
the Papal interference. Of this kind were all
the prelates and their following, both iu and
out of Parliament. At the other extreme of
the ^Ministerial party were those moderate
statesmen, wdio were indifferent to the vapor-
ings of Rome, and would have been glad if
the question had never been brought into the
House of Commons. It was in the midst of
these embarrassments that Lord John Russell
brought before Parliament the so-called Ec-
clesiastical Titles Bill, by which it was
proposed to prohibit Catholic Bishops from the
use of all such titles as, being derived from
their dioceses, might hint at temporal, that is,
territorial, jurisdiction. To accept of any such
title was made a crime, under a penalty of a
hundred pounds for every such assumption.
The measure in this form, however, could not
be passed through Parliament. The bill was
so amended as to omit the more stringent
clauses, and, even in the emasculated form, was
only accepted as an end to the controversy. It
does not appear that the Roman hierarchy was
much disturbed or impeded by the measure.
The statute continued in force, or, rather, not in
force, until 1871, when it was ipiietly al)ro-
gated by the same body which had adopted it
twenty years before.
UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
CHAPTER CXXIX. FROM HVDE PARIv TO BOSPHORUS.
1-1"
iiiaile a new departure
from its beaten course. It
is not often that the stu-
(U-nt of the social evolu-
ttiil t'l see the beginnings of things.
e is obliged to content himself with
As a nil
following the lines of force already operative 1
in affairs, without being able to discover ex- ,
actly their origin. In 1851, London, or, rather,
all England and the world, were destined to
witness, in Hyde Park, the first great Intee-
NATioNAL Exhibition of Arts and Indus-
tries. The project certainly originated with
Prince Albert, Consort of the Queen. "We
have seen, in a former place, to what an extent
the interests and sympathies of the Prince
were devoted to the industrial and artistic side
of life. His position in English society, his
ample wealth, his power and iuflneuce in pub-
lic affairs, gave him abundant opportunity to
study out measures for the promotion of such
matters as he conceived to be of benefit to
the people. It was out of these antecedents
that the concept of the Hyde Park Exhibition
arose in his mind. He conceived that, if by
some means, a plan could be devised for bring-
ing together, under suitable conditions, the
choice products, manufactures, and artistic
achievements, not only of the English people,
but of all civilized States, the reflex effect of
such an exposition must be salutary in the
highest degree. Albert was preeminently a
practical man ; but he also had, in some good
measure, the inspiration of philanthropy, and
was even capable of dreaming of a better age.
He imagined that if such an Exhibition as he
contemplated could be successfully carried out,
it would tend to produce, by acquaintance, a
better nuderstaudiug among the nations, sug-
gest friendly c'.>un,-ils ninoiig them, and dis-
courage war— all thi-, in addition to stimu-
lating a healthful rivalry among the various
l^eoples in the matter of their industries and
arts. Thus even might the reign of Violence
1)e ended, and the reign of Peace be ushered
in. It can hardly he doubted that the Prince,
and tlin.-i.- immediately associatid with him,
were carried forward against extreme opposi-
tion and almost insuperable difficulties, by the
pleasing hopes which they entertained of the
betterment of mankind by the work they had
in hand.
It was on the 21st of March, 1851, that
Prince Albert, speaking at the Lord Mayor's
banquet in the Mansion House, set forth in a
happy and not unpoetical way, the project of
the Exhibition. In concluding his address he
declared that it should be the end of the en-
terprise to "give the world a true test, a liv-
ing picture, of the point of industrial develop-
ment at which the whole of mankind had
arrived, and a new starting-point, from which
all nations will be able to direct their further
exertions." The projiosition of the distin-
guished speaker met with an immediate and
hearty acceptance by many of the public men
present, and before the end of the banquet
the first formal steps were taken for the pro-
motion of the enterprise.
But no such measure has ever been pro-
jected in Great Britain without at once awak-
ening the antagonistic forces which slumljer
ever at the door. lu that country, the party
method of advocacy and opposition is applied
to everything. It might be said, without ex-
aggeration, that if the Premier of England
should lay before the House of Commons a
resolution that men ought to be good and
happy, the leader of the Opposition would be
ready with a reply; the debate would be sharp
and protracted, and the majority for the meas-
ure would be determined by a division of the
House I For this reason, progress in England
is laborious in the last degree. The course
towards better things is rendered tortuous and
difficult. The streams of national life flow
like water underground — turned in this direc-
tion and in that by the nature of the media,
percolating through gravel-beds, deflected by
misplaced strata, and finally issuing through
hitherto undiscovered orifices in unexpected
GliEAT BHTTAfX.-^Fh'OM HYUE I'ABK TO nOUFHORUS.
i-' :!•
326
UyiVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERX WORLD.
places, on uuknown hill-sides. Let the reader,
however, fail uot to note that, by such a ])ro-
cess, the waters are purified and the springs
rendered pcnMiiiiul in their tlnw.
X(i sii.iiici' was the Princr's prnject known
than o,,,,nMtinn aru-. in every .piaiter. First
„tall, It wa~ <aid that a World's Fair, hehl in
London, would i.ring t.i the metropolis a
melange of all nations. With them would
come their vices and diseases, and the people
would become infected with both. In par-
ticular, it was urged that the Red Kepulilicairs
of the Continent would come over in swarms,
and that their presence in London would ex-
cite the revival of Chartism, Irishism, Revolu-
tionism, and every other political calamity.
It was even .urged that the English home
would be invaded, English altars polluted,
English wives and daughters turned from the
practices of virtue by the unscrupulous,
bearded adventurers who would gather in the
metropolis. In the next place, the British
press, fr<im the London Times all the way
round to Funrli, broke loose with invective
and ridicule to such a degree that at times it
seemed the Prince and his project would be
blown away in a common blast of contumely
and laughter.
It may well be admitted that many real
difficulties attended the enterprise, even after
the Eoyal Commission, with Prince Albert at
the head, was appointed to carry it forward.
In the first place, an embarrassment arose in
the matter of securing a suitable site for the
Exhibition. Hyde Park was at length chosen ;
but the most strenuous effiirts w-ere made to
prevent its use by the Commissioners, for the
purpose. It was argued that the beautiful
park would be forever despoiled if it were
opened to the vulgar hordes who would come
tramping from every quarter to the monster
fair. But the Commissioners at length car-
ried the day, and the park was selected as the
scene of the Exposition. In the next place,
some colossal structure was required in which
the arts and industries of the contributing
nations might be displaved properly. This
was a serious question ; for it might well be
asked how any edifice, under any method of
building, could be reared and ]nit under roof
with sufficient capacity for the contemplated
display.
The difficulty was met by the genius of
Sir Jo.seph Paxtou. It had been at first sug-
gested to attempt the construction of a huge
liuililing of brick and stone. But the olijec-
tions III ,-ucli a structure were obvious. A
building of the kind must at the best appear
like a monster factory or warehouse. Besides,
it was doubtful whether the requisite strength
could he secured in a construction of the
kind, to say nothing of the admission of light.
It was a happy inspiration which brought to
Sir .lo-i-phV iliind the idea of a buil.ling of
iron anil gla-s. He conceived that a Cry.stal
Pal.\ce, to use his own language, might be
constructed which would meet, in the happiest
manner, all the requirements of the Exhibi-
tion. The event showed the entire wisdom of
the plan proposed. A great palace of iron
and glass, for the display of the industrial
and artistic products of mankind, was succe.ss-
fully constructed, and London was at length
gratified, not to say glorified, with the sight
of the completed structure.
Meanwhile, public opinion had, to a large
extent, veered around to the Prince's quarter.
From the first the Queen had ardently pro-
moted the cause in which her husband had so
heartily embarked. She felt for him and all
his projects as much enthusiasm and devotion
as her calm and somewhat sedate, though
womanly, spirit was able to entertain. As it
became evident that the Exhibition was des-
tined to be successful, and as the opening day
of the Great Fair approached, the zeal of the
people and exhibitors ro.se to the level of the
occasion. The pleasing duty of formally
opening the Exhibition was justly allotted to
Prince Albert. It was really a great day in
the history of England, and of the Western
nations, when the Royal procession was
formed from Buckingham Palace to Hyde
Park. It was estimated that the way thither
was lined with fully three-quarters of a million
of people, and, at the opening hour, no
fewer than thirty thousand were seated under
the shining roof of the Crystal Palace.
The Queen her.«elf attended proudly with her
husband, and her glowing account of the
opening ceremonies may well be repeated as
an adequate description of the scene. "The
great event," said Her Majesty, " has taken
place — a complete and beautiful triumph — a
GREAT HRITAiy.^FROM HYDE PARK TO BOSrHORUS.
1 .-hall
cVfl- lit
lirou.l of f.ii- my li,l
■Ve
1 Albert and
my country. . . . Tln'
.a 1-1
presented a
woudertiil spectacle— cinwiU >
iva
niimthrouuh
it, carri
iges anil ti p,^ |.a»ii
,-. '
line like the
t'nl-ulia
i.in-(lay,aml fni- mr fl
e >a
lie anxiety —
11(1, IIIIK
h greatiT anxiety, m
ac
■oiliit ef mv
lu'lnved
Albeit. Thr (lav w:
. b
■i-lit,and ail
llUsllr
uid (•xcitcmciit. '. .
The Cicen
I'ark
md Ilydc I'ark we
one den.-^ely
crow(le(
mas.? of huniaii licin
1 the highes't
pnoil-lui
mor, and most ciitlni
<ias
ie. I never
.«aw H>
(le Park look as it di
1 —
IS fiir as the
eye emi
(1 reach. A little rai
1 f(
11 just as we
?tarteil
but, before we came
Ilea
• the Crystal
Palace,
the sun shone and g
can
ed upon the
gigantic
edifice, upon which
the
flag.s of all
nations
were floating. . .
The glinip.se
of the
transept through the
ir(
n gates, the
waving
palms, flowers, statues
n\\
liads i>{ peo-
pie filling the galleries and seats around, with
the flourish of trumpet.s as we entered, gave
lis a sensation which I can never forget. . . .
The sight as we came to the middle was mag-
ical— so vast, so glorious, so touching. One
felt, as so many did wdiom I have since spoken
to, filled with devotion — more so than by any
service I have ever heard. The tremendous
cheers; the joy expressed in every face: the im-
mensity of the liuilding; the mixture of palms,
flfiwers, trees, statues, fountains; the organ,
dred voices, which x.unded like nothing; and
my beloved husband, the author of this peace
festival, which unites the industry of all na-
tions of the earth, — all this was moving
indeed; and it was and is a day to live for-
ever."
The Exhibition extended from the 1st day
of May to the 15th of October, when the cere-
monies of the display were formally closed by
Prince Albert. From first to last, Hyde Park
and Crystal Palace were thronged to their ca-
pacity. At times it was estimated that quite
a hundred thousand persons were within the
precincts. Even financially the enterprise was
crowned with success. In the beginning the
money requisite for projecting so great a work
had been raised by private suhscri]ition. Aft-
erwards, a large guarantee had boon provided
a^raiiist the possible losses attendant u|ion the
Exhibitiim. But at the close tlio troasurv was
full, and a large sum was left as pn.tils to be
expended by the Commissioners.
We >hali not fail to note the exemplary re-
sults (,f the WoildV Fair in llvde Park." It
was the Hist of many Miohdi-plays; ,i(,ro(.iild
it be doubted, as the ovoiil has so well attested,
that all civilized States would covet the dis-
tinction and ulorv of eelipsine- the first Inter-
national Fair. The IJydo Park Expositi(m
was soon foil., wed by a similar display in
Dublin, and by another ol' painting and soulii-
ture in ^Manchester. The oily of Paris, under
the auspices of the Second Ihiipire, hold two
great International l^xpositions ; and under the
Republic, two others of still greater erandenr
have been given. In l^b'J, laiLiland did her-
self the honor of a second i^shibitioii, in Ken-
sington. In 1.S7.3, An-tiia came to the front
with her Exp..sitioii at Vienna ; and in 1S76
the Americans availed themselvos of the cen-
tennial anniversary of their Independence to
set forth at Philadelphia one of the grandest
and most successful of all the International
Exhibitions.
In the meantime, in the course of the
thirty-eight years that have elapst-d since the
first disjilay of the kind, nations and iioople
have come to a truer understanding of the
real significance and value of such enterprises.
The roseate expectations wdnch were at first
entertained, that such comings together of the
peoples of different countries would usher in
a reign of peace and fraternity for all man-
kind, have disappeared in the light of the re-
ality; but much has remained of solid value,
of progress and humanity, as the residue of
International displays. They have grown in
favor, and may well be regarded as a perma-
nent element in the civilization of the future.
The date in English history made famous
by the Hyde Park Exhibition is memorable
in Parliamentary annals for the rise to influ-
ence and promi.sed ascendency of Henry John
Temple, better kn(^iwn liy his title of Lord
Palmerston. We have already scon him tak-
ing his station, in lS4(i. as .S'crotary for For-
eign Aflairs. in the .Ministrv of Lord John
Russell. That poMti.m he held during the
Revolutionary year, 1S4S. At that time he
was obliged, ill virtue of his otfice, to give
constant attention to the relations of Great
Britain with almost every Coiitiiieiital pow-r.
UMVERSAL niST()i:r.~THE MUDERX WOULD.
Europe was in a state of active erujition, and
tlie esteut to whicli Englaud miglit be afi'ected
tliereby \Yas prol)leiiiatical even to Euglisli
statesmen. Tlie eon.liti.m cf atiairs on the
C'dutinent eliangcd liki- tin- varying tigul■e.•^ of
a ];aleiiloscop(.\ and Lmd ralnieiston must
needs l)e <.n the alert in the Fijreigu Office of
Great Britain lest the king<loiu should be
shak.'ii iVoni her ni.M.rings by the agitations
al.n.ad.
For these great duties and responsibilities,
Palmerston was both fitted and unfitted — fitted
by intellect and training ; unfitted by disposi-
tion. He was naturally quick-temjjered, im-
pulsive, and self-willed, not to say aggressive,
in disposition. In the stormy time of the Eu-
ropean upheaval he ueverthele.ss conducted
the aliaiis ot the Foreign Office with great
alnlity. But it was soon discovered in the
Russell Cabinet that Pahuerstou was disposed
10 run his department of the Government
without nnich respect to either the Premier or
the (^ui'fu. In instances not a few he con-
ducted important negotiations, and sent out
despatches, without submitting them to the re-
visory rights of his colleagues or the sanction
of the sovereign. As a result, when things
went badly, the Government was held responsi-
ble for measures which it had not approved.
A break was thus produced, which was in the
nature of a fracture between Palmerston and his
fellow-ministers, but a real rupture between
him and the Royal family. When the Prince-
President, Louis Napoleon, effected his great
Coup d'Etat, at the close of 1851, very serious
consequences were entailed by the recklessness
of Lord Palmerston. It had been the settled
policy of Great Britain to move with extreme
caution with respect to recognizing the validity
of the proceedings of Prince Napoleon. When
that personage, however, had accomplished his
purpose by revolution. Lord Palmerston, in an
imprudent conversation with the Polish Minis-
ter, at London, expressed his hearty approval
of what Napoleon had done. The remark was
immediately conveyed to the French Minister,
and by him despatched to his Government, at
Paris. England seemed thus to be committed
to the policy of recognizing the Coup d'Etat
whether she would or not. Likewise, on the
occasion of the visit of Kossuth to London,
Lord Palmerston, who, in the conduct of the
Foreign Office, had done his best to support
the fortunes of the Hungarian Revolution,
had been deterred from giving a formal recep-
tion to the fugitive Kossuth only by the re-
monstrance of the Cabinet. When thus
balked in the expression of his syiui)athy
for the political exile, he was still so impru-
dent as to accept an address from a body of
English Radicals, who ha.l held a meeting
m honor ot Kossuth, and ailopted rex.'.u-
tions including an ex|ire.ssion of animosity
and contempt for Austria. By accepting
this paper from their hands, Palmerston was
put into the attitude of approving the animad-
versions which some of his countrymen had
uttered against the Austrian Government.
The Queen and the Prince Consort were
much offended at the proceedings of the re-
fractory Minister. Her Majesty had hjiig since
had occasion to send to Lord John Russell a
memorandum, expressing her displeasure at
the treatment which she had received from the
Secretary for Foreign Affairs, and also adding
explicit directions for his conduct thereafter.
Palmerton's course in declaring his approval
of the Co2tp d'Etat of Napoleon brought aftairs
to an open rupture. Lord Russell, with the
concurrence of the Queen, after having ob-
tained an acknowledgment from Palmerston
that the report of his expressed views relative
to the Paris Revolution was correct, addressed
the Minister a formal note, notifying him of
his dismissal from office. This summary pro-
ceeding was the source of great excitement
both at home and abroad ; and when Parlia-
ment convened, in February of 1852, the
whole question was debated with vehemence
and acrimony. The course of Lord Russell,
however, was overwhelmingly approved by the
House of Commons, and Palmerston was, for
a season, remanded to retirement, if not ob-
.scurity.
The circumstance of the recent French Rev-
olution, by which Louis Napoleon paved his
way to Empire, was destined, in its English
correlations, to be the rock o:i which the
Russell Ministry went to pieces. There had
arisen in England a feeling of unrest and in-
security on account of the supposedly defense-
less condition of the Kingdom. By a sort of
instinctive movement, the public mind was
seized with the passion for organizing and dis-
GREAT BRITAIX.—FHOM HYDE PARK TO unspJli ii: CS.
cipliuiug a kiml of Xati.mal (niai-<l against the
pui-sihle eiuergeucies of tliL' time. Tlie gath-
ering, (lisciphiie, and etjuipnu-nt of voluntary
militia coni|ianifs iH-ranic tl ivlrr nf ihc dav,
audf.u-tlir none., it >rruu,i that (iivat lli-itain
was t(i lu.rum,. a caiuii. Tliciv wa- actual
dread ..f a Freneh war, and the .-entinieiit
the Laureate. add.x-M-d to his enuntrv.nen:
Let your Keforms for a nioment 1:0
Look to your l.utts, aii.l take •/„.,
"Better a rottni l.omu^.h ..r so,
Kitl.-lnrn, Kitieiiien. Kiflmiru, lorm:
Form, be ready to do ...r di.- !
Form in Freedom's name au.l thr ijuei'ii's!
True, that we have a faitlilul Ally.'
The military movement referred to in 'IVi,-
nysun's lyric h;id thus far lieen of a popular
character. The i.lea had po>s.'~>rd the pro|,l,-
that there was insecurity, and that England
must prepare herself against the threatening
conditiou of the Continent. Many men were
yet living who had fought at M'at.rloo; mtiny
more who remembered that fatal .■ataelvsm.
Now there was come into the tiiM anotlier
Bonaparte, nephew of the Cor-iran. His re-
cent jiroceedings among the Frcn(di >howi'd
that he wouhl scruple not at any means of
restoring the Napoleonic rnj\mi\ \\\ this
was particularly alarmino- to the En-land of
ls:.2. When rarliamont met, it wa< neces-
sary that the Mini.-trv should respmal to the
voice of the coui:try hy some action promotive
of the general military organization of the
Kingdom. \ Militia Bill was accordinirlv pre-
paivd hy T.ord ,Tohn Ktis<ell, and laid hefore
the House o|- C.mnuais. The ,lel,at<' th.M-e.m
at
statute had been hailly devise.l. One clause,
which made the organization id' the militia
local in character, rather than general, was
Meaiii
T.ouisX^
particularly unfortunate. The attack on the
Ministerial" Bill was general aiel liom all
cpiarters, and, to the siu'prisc ot' the Covern-
a pouerful and characteristic speech ' a,.i„,t
the policy of Lord l;ii>M-ll, and the jailer,
^^ithout prolonuin- the controversy, reHened
his othce. Li the exi-tin- condition ,,f parlies
to form a new Ministry at all : hut the (^iieen,
in the emereency, ealh-d to her aid the Earl
of Derby, an.l iin.hr his hadeiship the Ad-
ministration was reoi-eaiii/ed.
The new I'lime .Minister was not wanting
in great tibilitiis; but he had extreme dif-
ficulty in bringing into his Cahinet ineii of
equal character with himself. The portfolio
of the Treasury was given to Disraeli, who
soon showed himself, contrary to all expecta-
tion, to possess the same genius for figures
and schedules wdiich he had already displayed
in the wider domain of general politics. The
IMinistry was somewhat conglomerate, not
an.l expediency. If Palmerst<,n could have
lieen induced to Join it, sufficient power might
have been developed in the Cabinet to extend
the 'Government mdetinitely. But as things
st(iod, the end of the current Administration
was seen from the beginning ; the Derby
^Lnistry was a pk aller from the first, and on
account of its obscure membership) was desig-
nated as the "Who? "Who? Ministry,"
A Parliamentary incident of the time
.serves well to illustrate tln' [leculiar move-
resoluteness with whi.'h o|iiiiion in that coun-
try is sometimes confronted bv the individual
will. Li 1S47 Thomas IJabington .ALu'aulay.
the hist.uian. had lost his seat in the House
of Commons. For s,„iie time he had sat in
that body as the representative of Edinbiii-el,,
and had reflected fame on hi> constituents bv
the bi-Illiai..'V of his talents. At length, how-
evia-, hi' eave odhnse (., liis rieid and exacting
people bv -ii|.|H,itiiie a bill fa- a Parliamentary
grant t.. the Loval Catholic College nf Mav-
nooth, in Leii„ter, Ireland. Ac ■dinelv,
when the election .■ame roiiml. :\[a,'aiilay's
of Ediid3ur>:h, and he was, tiu-tunatelv for him-
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
GREAT BRITAIN.— FROM HYDE PARK TO BUSPJIORUS.
:^31
uterests
iirivate
11.1 K.lin-
self, and still more fortuuat.ly fm- t
of historical literature, iriiiaiHlnl
life. Proud iu his humiliatinn, h,.
stand for any other consiiturncy,
burgh, equally stitf in lui- n<..lvr, \va> -low
to recall her ott'en<liim' favoiiu' tu In r service.
At length, however, her resent nt -ave place
to coiiinion sense, ami it was siiiuilie.l to Ma-
caulay that if he would otler himself, he should
be again elected to Parliament. N.jt he. If the
electors ot Edinhuririi should choose, of their
own volition, to return him to the House of
Comn)ons, he would heed their, 'all. " I should
not,' said he in answer, "feel myself justified
in refusing to accept a public trust offered to me
in a manner so honorable and so peculiar."
He was accordingly elected by a great majority,
and at the opening of the session, in 1852,
again took his .seat in Parliament.
It was in this same autumn tluit the aged
Duke of Wellington rea.'hed the end of his
eventful career. He died quietly in Waliner
Castle, on the 14th of September, l'Sr)2, in the
eighty-fourth year of his age. He was among
the last survivors of that Revolutionary Era,
in which he had been so conspicuous and heroic
a figure. More than thirty-.seven years had
elapsed since, on that stormy ami tuuudtunus
June afternoon, on the plateau of Monte Saint
Jean, he had said : " Rise, ( iiiards, and charge!"
A whole generation had |ia-sed ■.\\\:\y since the
great military Captain of England had issued
from that sulphurous uproar of Waterloo, to be,
in some sense, the Arbiter of Western Europe.
In the interval, he had been called often to the
councils of his country, where the simplicity of
his character and his touching, aliuo.st fatherly
devotion to the Queen, rather than any great
political talents, were displayed. In his last
years he drew to himself, in a remarkable de-
gree, the veneration and affection of the En-
glish people. This was particularly true in
London, where his face ami firm were known
great was his reputation that the ]ieople called
him, by preeminence, " The Duke," as though
there were no other duke in the kingdom. After
reaching much beyond his fuirscore years, he
went down to the grave in full honor, and,
after life's titful fever, he slept well. His
funeral called forth almost the entire ])opulM-
tiou of London, and the pageant of that day
was unrivaled by anything which had ever
yet been witnessed in the British Isles. The
muse of Tennyson took wing, ami his song said
Bury the (Jieat l>uke
We have alreaily remarked the temporary
character of the Derby .MiMi>try. Tlie elec-
tions of 18.52, though slightly in fhvor of the
Administration, hail no emphasis. On the re-
openiug of Parliament, the onus ,,f the ( iov-
eniment fell ini Disraeli, .Minister of the
Treasury. We have seen above that his open-
ing pass in the management of his Depart-
ment had been, iu a measure, successful ; hut
on that occasion he had merely teniiioi-ized
with the great questions of the revenue, which
he must now discuss in accordance with some
permanent policy. Disraeli had now com-
pletely abandoned the principles of Protection
anil l)ecome as sound a Free-trader as any. It
was necessary that some alterations should be
made in the income taxes of the Kingdom ;
that the same should be greatly reduced, if
not abolished, in the interest of the landlord
class. In order to make up for the resulting
deficit in the revenue, Disraeli proposed a re-
duction of the malt-tax, and other modifica-
tions in the e.xisting schedule. In presenting
the budget to the House of Commons, he made
an elaborate and able speech, again exhibiting
the vast resources of his genius and acquire-
ments. But another, as strong as he, stood at
the donr, and no sooner had the Minister con-
cluded his .peech, than William E. (iladstone
rose to re]ily. Notwithstanding the great ef-
fect wdiich Disraeli's address had produced on
the House, his rival bore him down in the de-
bate, and the Derby ^Ministry, beaten on the
resulting vote, were obliged to resign. The
coiilliet on this occasion was the first passage
at ai-ms iu the struggle for leadership between
Disraeli and Gladstone — a duel of Parliament-
UMVEIiSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERy WORLD.
■h was ac^tine.l tocnntiiuR'Uilh
atinn. ,.f vict-ry ami .Icfcat inr
ar.-, until what tiiiir the (^ueeu
Bear,'„isli..l,l.
With til..
le Eail
V Mini-t
I'r
Mill
lea.l.Tshi|, nf Lnr.l AUrnh
ist.T. Lm,-,! Kiiss-ll was a-ain ,-allr,l int.. tlir
Govt-rnnnait as S,,civtaiT .,f F.nvign AtKiirs.
Pallllel•:^tl)ll, who had been the agent of the
latter statesman's overthrow, now became liis
colleague, accepting the office of Home Secre-
tary, (iladstone was maile Chancellnr .if th.'
Exclicnuia-, this being his first cntrani-.' ind.
the Cabinet. The place which he acci-pt.'d
was, as we have seen, the most difficult, nut
to say dangerous, office in the Administrati.m ;
but the new Minister entered uii.m his .Uities
(it
with the ciinfi.lence of a veteran, ami it wa-
on.v p.Mveiv.-.l that Id^ abiliti.- in ban. Hi.
th" .litli.adt pr..bh-ni~ of linanc.. u,.|v a- .•..
spicuous as they had alreaily been shown to 1
on the wider plain of general politics.
We have nmv arrived at that epoch in tl
hist.irv .d' En'.;land, wdien the attention ..f tl
peopli' anil th.' (Jovernment was dra\Mi aw;
from the b.iiu,. ati'air- .if the KinLi.lnni t.. ll
greatest an.l nm^t pcrph-xing internation
controversy «liirli has tn.nbl.-.l Eun.pe
the |.r.-en"t .Tiitiirv It is doubtful, indeed, I name ..f tlir .'..n
wh. th.T any ..tli.T I'.i.'t in the diplomacy of | eant. What A
tb.. kin-.l.inis .if M.i.lrrn Europe since the rise
.if stat.'.a-aft. has bi-.a) so great a menn.-e, su
far.r.'a.'bing in its raniifieati.ms. an.l s.i ditii.adt
.if settlement, as that so-called Eastern Ques-
Tiiix. on an account of which we are now to
enter. It has involved the entire fabric of
Europe, and a .-.insiilerabl,. p.irti.m of Asia, in
the f.ilds <if a complii'ati.iii wlueb neither the
tabms of France nor the spear of St. (Jeorge
has as yet prevailed to loose.
Of this vast complication, Turkey is the
heart and center. She leilds in general the
IS c.in.-.-rn.Ml, it is -ui'li as to give her undis-
put..'d tr.il of those narrow waters which
M'parati- the AMatii- .Lniiinioiis from the couu-
than a century. At the upper limit of Eu-
ropean Turkey, the river Danube discharges
liy many mouths into the Black Sea. Follow-
ing the c.ia-t of that stormy water southward,
a -trait murli narrower and more easily eon-
tr.ille.l than that ot Gibraltar. Then, tl'irongh
the Sea .if Marmora, we make our way, through
the Dardanelles, into the Archipelago, and
thence into the
"^ -^ "-"='1 free waters of the
Mediterranean.
The advau-
• ^ |-| '-"-"S^'i:^ tage of the situ-
ation was clearly
discerned by the
Roman Cavars.
Con-tantiue and
his sons .selected
that old Byzau-
tium, l\inLr .m the p.iiut of lan.l next the Bos-
phoriis, an.l l.iokint; into .V-ia Min.ir, a- th.' seat
tin.", -o f.iun.led and so patrouize.l, the Komau
naintained itself after the Eternal
West had gone <lown before the
a.-ssaults of the Barbarians. It wa- within a
few years of the birth of Columbus that the
la-t Eastern T'.a^-ar, still bearing the name of
Con-tantin.', \ icl.led his scepter to Mohammed
II. an.l hi- army of Ottoman Turks. The
eror was sufficiently signiti-
ulrahnian and his Saracen
lost had briai unable to accomplish on the
i.ld of Tours, more than seven centuries be-
ore, that was now effected at Constantinople
IV the Ottoman Emperor and his tierce sol-
li. ly. I-lam was set up in Europe. The
"n-sciiit shone on high above the dome of St.
The con.iuest of Constantinoiile was more.
GREAT BIUTAIX.^rnOM HYDE PARK TO liOSPHOEUS.
333
far more, than a mere victory of Islam over
Christianity. It brought the warlike Otto-
mans to iirechiminauce in Eastern Em-dpe.
Than these no fiercer or more r()uniu(-'iius sol-
diers battled in the sixtn'nth (■.■ntury. Tiiey
were the descendants ot ilir iioii-tort;crs of the
Altais. They had tlicui<.-lv.s b,,rn omvertol
to the profession of the Tropliet with the
sword and battle-axe of Arabia. Then, in
turn, they had become the most zealous and
successful propagandists of the new faith.
Mohammed organized his empire from the cap-
ital which he had conquered, and the Ottoman
Power was an e.stablished fact in Europe.
The Turks were, from the first, Asiatics,
not Europeans. They had the thought and
habitude of the Orient. With the Occident
they had nothing in common. Their religii.m
was not more foreign to Europe than them-
selves. The whole history of the Turkish
power appeared from the first in tlie nature of
a historical displacement, by wliii-h a part of
Asia had been thrown, as if bv a geologic
convulsion, among countries of a ciittrrent type
and origin. To the rest of P2uro|H' tlie Turks
were an everlasting menace. Up from the
South-east, by successful wars, they made their
way towards the heart of Em-ope. There was
no nation as far west as the Atlantic that did
not, as late as the close of the seventeenth
century, have serious apprehensions of what
might come to jiass frcjm the aggressiims of the
Ottoman Power.
The Turks, for more than three hun.lred
years, maintained their isolation among the
States of Europe. They assimilated in no par-
ticular with the civilization of the West. Xor
might it well have been foreseen what would
be the condition of Eastern Europe in the
nineteenth century if the Ottoman had not
lost his pow-er and ambition. But at length
he sickened. Paralysis came, in body, soul,
and member. The Oriental haliit at length
predominated over the ethnic forces of the
race. The sons of the iron-forgers became
Orientals pure and simple. Mohammedanism
and opium wrought together in the deteriora-
tion of the Turk, until he became the creature
whom we see to-day.
In the next place we must take into consid-
eration the condition of the subject peoples
over whom the Ottoman .scepter in Europe
21
had been extended. Tho.se of the southern
part of European Turkey, with the exception
of the Greeks and Albanians, generally yielded
to the sway of Islam, and were gradually as-
similated to the dominant power. But in the
Danubian countries the people of the subject
States retained their profession of Greek
Catholicism. The provinces in this region re-
mained Christian under Mohammedan rule.
As a general thing, the Ottomans were little
disposed to persecute for mere opinion's sake.
Particularly after the decay of the Turkish
political power had well set in, did the author-
ities of the Sublime Porte act tolerantly to-
wards the Christian subjects of the Empire,
so long as the latter lay quiet under the system
of Government which the Sultans had estab-
lished. Up to this point, therefore, the reader
will hardly discover the outlines of those
threatening complications which, under the
name of the Eastern Questi<ju, have so much
distracted the States of modern Europe.
Thus much, however, is but the beginning
of the problem. In the next i)lace, consider
the Russian Empire. We speak here of that
European Russia extending from the Ural
Range to the borders of Germany . and from
the Caucasus and the Black Sea on the south to
the Arctic Ocean. Within this almost infinite
domain a vast power, politic-al and ethnic,
emerged suddenly to view at the close of the
seventeenth century. That Inspired Barbarian,
Peter the Great, appeared on the scene, and
became one of the principal actors. He put
himself at the head of the Slavonic race,
organized an Empire on a large scale, left the
old inland capital of IMoscow, made his way to
the Gulf of Finland, and planted there bis new
seat of Government. It was clearh' his policy
to issue and bring with him, among the civil-
ized States of the West, the new Muscovite
power, which he had created rather than
inherited. In this stupendous scheme he beat
about somewhat at random, and made many
and grave mistakes. One thing he clearly per-
ceived, and that was that the inland barbaric
character of the Muscovite dominion must give
place to a new system, which should be mari-
time, and therefore commercial, in its character,
and international in its relations. The posses-
sion and development of sea-board emporia was
a f'liie qua iion in the scheme of the Czar.
334
UiMVEESAL HISTORY.— TEE MODERN WORLD.
In a w..nl, there \v:i
Ininei-iul KilsMu, a,
\\n\A he, for this uew
uiitl,t to Ihr occiiit, and
thence to the world. Tlie i.rojret was lational
m the highest degree, and Iroin the day oi its
ciiuception until the jire.-enl, the enterprise ot
Peter I. has never ceased t.. he the dream and
purpose .>f his .ucces..,rs.
Let us now see how Peter's phm might he
carried into ott'ect. In the tirst place, it would
be possii)le to make a way to the south-east
by the concpiest of Persia, through Afghauis-
tau, into the valley of the ludus, aud thence
to the great waters of the Indian Oceau. But
the draught on Peter's miud was not in that
direction. The great States with which he
desired to compete lay westward. The iutei--
national system into which he would enter was
European, not Asiatic. We shall see, how-
ever, that at a later age, when the British
East Indian Empire was so forward in devel-
opment as to check the Russian movement,
the Czar Nicholas actually sought, partly by
diplomacy aud jiartly by force, to make his
way through Afghanistan into India. The
great disaster to the British arms in Cabul,
an account of which already has been given,
was, as we have seen, the direct result of the
Russian policy in its Eastern application. In
the second place. Czar Peter might take pos-
session of the Black Sea, aud from that vantage
work his way by conquest through the Turkish
dominions westward to the ^geau. Or, by
varying the .scheme, he might take his course
directly to the Bosphorus, overwhelm Con-
stantinople, take pos.session of the straits, aud
thus send his ships freely into the Mediter-
ranean.
It must he reniemliered, however, that to
deal thus with Turkey, in the tirst years of the
eighteenth century, was a very ditiereut meas-
ure from a similar aggression after the lapse
of a hundred and fifty years. But still a
third coui-se was open to Peter, and this he
chose to follow. He might select the Baltic
as his means of exit into the Atlantic, in
which ca.^e his n.'W capital must he founded
on that coa^t. Tliis was accordingly done — a
measure which may lie rc-arded as the great-
est of the (V.ai's mistakes. The event soon
showcl that vast intcr-couimercial relations
could not well he (-tabli>hed lietweell Russia
aud the Wc-tciu kiM..:,|.>in> l.v wav of the Bal-
tic Sea. St. Petersburgh was too far away
from the fortieth parallel of latitude to become
a gieat commercial emporium. No doubt Pe-
ter the Great was constrained to pursue the
C(jur.se w hich he finally chose, in his attempted
exit to warm water aud the freedom of the
world. The de.-truction of the Ottoman Power
at that time was too serious a matter to be
rashly undertaken. But considered as a fact,
the establishment of the Russian capital on
the Gulf of Finland was an error in policy
which the whole force of the Empire has not
yet been able to correct.
As long ago as the times of Empress Cath-
erine, the embarrassment of the situation was
severely felt. That imperious personage,
aljlest, perhaps, of the woman sovereigns known
in history, perceived clearly that St. Peters-
burgh, considered as the emporium of the
Em]iire, was a failure. We may now see
clearly how Catherine chafed aud fretted on ac-
count of the barriers against her progress in
the only directions whither she desired to go.
Over one of the gates of St. Petersburgh, ou
the side looking towards the Black Sea, .she
put up this inscription: " The Way to Constan-
tinople" But that way was too arduous even
for the ambition of the Czarina aud for Su-
waroff. Perceiving the impracticability of a
conquest of Constantinople in her day, she
cast a longing eye to India, and in the last
year of her life we find her, in pursuance of
this anihition, engaged in jilanning the inva-
si(ju aud con(|uest of Persia. Death cut short
the enterprise, and the great drama which was
on in France drew the attention of her suc-
ces.sors to the stirring events in Europe.
But notwithstanding the mistake of Czar
Peter, notwithstanding the defeat or failure of
many of the plans of Catheriue II., the Rus-
sian I'anpirc coutiiiucil to grow and expand
with marvelous rapidity. Already in the age
of Frederick the Great the military resources
of Russia were observed with amazement and
some consternation by the Western Powers.
It is doubtful whether any other great Empire
has become vast, and regular, and strong, in so
few generations as have elapsed since the ap-
jKirition of Russia among the European na-
tions. Already in the closing years of the
Napol lie era the tremendous impact of the
Russian power made Europe tremble. It was
GREAT BRlTAIS.-t ROM HYDE PARK TO BOSPHORUS.
:iS^
agaiust that monstrous structure that tho
Grand Armj- of the Cursican broke itself into
pieces, while the Boreal tempests roaring- out of
Lithuania hid the residue under the snows for-
ever. The Muscovite hail cnme.
Henceforth Russia, by her force and ve-
hemence, inspired a dread in all the Western
States. It should not be said that France
and England jWiml the imwer «i' the Czar;
but there was constant aiipreheiisinn of his
aggressiveness. The Russian dominions were
wide enough, and had a population sufficiently
vast to C(justitute a physical terror to Eastern
Europe, and the passions which were known
to slumber in the breasts oi the Romanoffs
might well inspire alarm in the domain of
diplomacy.
At the time of which we speak the Russian
crown was worn by Emperor Nicholas 1.
He was at this time fifty-six years of age.
He was a son of that Paul I. whose
assassination, in 1801, was so fatal a cir-
cumstance to Napoleon. Nicholas, as all
the Czars, and particularly the Czarina Cath-
erine, had done before him, looked with ever-
longing eyes upon the Bosphorus, and the pos-
sible exit by that route into the warm waters
of the 3Iediterranean. It could hardly lie
said to be a secret in any part of Europe that
the Czar desired the dismemberment of the
Turkish Empire. The decadence of that
power had, in the meantime, been still more
clearly manifested than in the first quarter of
the century. But the Western Powers had
now come to look upnii Turkey as a barrier
to the progress of Russia, a sort nf ijuffer be-
tween the ram's-head of jMuscovism and the
walls of European civilization on the East.
Turkey might suffice to deaden the stroke and
distribute its effects, so that they shrndd not
be felt in the West. Nor was Nicholas him-
self at all careful in the matter of concealing
his desires and purposes. The Russian Czar
was, as yet, too little removed from the honesty
lit barbarism to be a i^nod diiihimatist, and
thus thought It no harm to sp.ak to the rep-
resentatives of the We^t^ru Statr> relative to
the probable dismemberment of Turkey. He
did not perceive that his ojien cupidity would
jar on the diplomacy of the West. Calling
to mind the easy process of International spoli-
ation which his grandmother, Catherine II.,
had ha.l with Austria and Prussia in the di-
vision of Poland, he conceived that the same
method might well and cordially be adopted
by himself! Napoleon III., and Victoria.
Czar Nicholas was not wanting in great
aliility. His dark and jiiercing eyes easily
saw the situation, but did not see the temper
of those with whom he had to deal. He
thought that the only thing to be done was to
shaking the Ottoman tree, assured, as he was,
that the ripe fruit would fall richly to the
ground. He discerned, moreover, that his fel-
low, his true coadjutor in the work before
him, was Great Britain. Austria had been
already subordinated to his purpose. Prussia
he felt sure of securing to his interest. France
he did not so greatly regard, because of the
revolutionary condition of affairs in that coun-
try. But England was a necessitj', and he
accordingly began his overtures to her. As
early as 1844, on his visit to London, the
Czar plainly told the Duke of Wellington and
Lord Aberdeen, at that time Secretary of
Foreign Affairs, what he thought ought to be
done in the event of the approaching dissolu-
tion of Turkey. It seems that the courtesies
of the occasion required the English statesmen
to be silent, and the Czar mistook their silence
for assent. Accordingly, on his return to
St. Petersburgh, he had his Minister of State
to prepare a memorandum of the "arrange-
ment" which he supjoosed he liad made with
Great Britain. Afterwards he opened up cor-
respondence with England, calling the attan-
tion of that Power to his supposed understand-
ing with her, and demonstrating the course
which Russia and Great Britain should take
together when the cataclysm should occur in
Turkey. From these negotiations England
either drew back, or again answered with
silence.
The reader will not fail to perceive some
of the reasons why Great Britain ha.l, belore
the epoch at which wc have now arrived, be-
come |n-ofoundly anxious that the ]iolitical and
territ<irial integrity <if the Ottoman Powit
strontjcst i-K-mcnt was doubtless her desire to
hold her commercial ascendency in tlie Medi-
terranean. Let the student look attentively
at the map of that great Inland Sea, ami the
UNTVERSAL ElSTORY.^rHE MODERN WORLD.
position of the Europoan J^tatps i\'l:i
Let him observe how, on the n.,-
,f (iih
tar. Great Britain lias si't hi-r tov(r.-s, coni-
mauding the western entrance. Let him note
the anah>gy between Gibraltar and the Bos-
pliorus. The latter is the eastern entranee to
the M.Mliteiranean. If En.udand Could control
that strait, she ^vouhl be absohitely mistress
of the sitaati<.in. Note the fact that, at the
south-eastern angle of the Mediterranean, Great
Britain has managed, since the beginning of
the century, to hold the upper hand. Could
she accomplish the same at the north-east ex-
tremity, her sovereignty of the Avhole region
of the Mediterranean would be complete.
It was not to be supposed, however, that
in tlie case of the dismemberment of Turkey,
the control of the Bosphorus would fall to
England. That must inevitably be the por-
tion of the Czar. Though that personage
might willingly concede to England the estab-
lishment of her dominion in Egypt, together
with the possession of Candia and other nota-
ble advantages in the East, he would inevi-
tably take for himself the Dan ubian provinces,
and the contn)l of the Bosphorus. For this
reason England strongly desired that Turkey,
her ally and friend, not to say her dependent,
should retain her place among the nations, and
keep her paralytic grip on the only channel
leading from the Black Sea into the Mediter-
ranean. Great Britain would stand behind
the Sublime Porte, and guarantee its autonomy
and the imlepeudeuce of Turkey. If Eng-
land could not herself obtain possession of the
Bosphorus, she would see to it that the pos-
session of the Bosphorus should remain in the
hands of her ally and dependent. She would
make Turkey her proxy, and would do by her
what she could not opi^nlv do herself. While
seeking to avoid open and deliberate responsi-
bility in the matter in hand, she would
adopt, nevertheless, the i>ld law maxim appli-
cable to the question: Qui prr alimii picif,
f'lcit per se.
We must now take into consideration still
another aspect of tliis multifarious Eastern
Question. Glancr for a moment at the old
Turkish town of .L rusal.-m. There the rivalry
between Russia and the Western Powers was
based wholly on religions differences. Within
the Holy City the Greek Catholic Church and
the Roman Catholic Church were set face to
face, and the bitterness of their rivalry was
proportional to the folly of the superstitions
which divided them. The Greek Church had
its fountain-head of authority in St. Peters-
burgli, and the Roman Church looked to the
Eternal City as the seat of its government. In
Jerusalem many of the sacreil places were held
by the Greeks; others, by the Latin monks
representing Rome. In times past the j^ro-
tectorate of the Latin monks in Jerusalem,
anil, in general, the guardianship of Christian
interests in all Syria, had been conceded to
France. The protectorate of the Greek
Church, in its wdrole extent, belonged to Rus-
sia. It thus happened that when a Greek ec-
clesiastic fell into a cpiarrel with a Latin
monk, in Jerusalem — a quarrel relative to the
Church in Bethlehem, the Sanctuary of the
Nativity, the Tomb of the Virgin, the Stone
on which the body of Christ was anointed, or
the Seven Arches of the ]\Iother of God — the
Greek priest had behind him the Czar of Rus-
sia, and the Latin monk the ruler of France.
Not without the profoundest elements of iu-
structiou is this picture of the array of the
greatest political powers of modern times be-
hind the poor, pitifid, obsolete superstitions
rampant in an old Syrian town.
The matter, however, was sufficient to fur-
nish a pretext for the antagonism of France
and Russia. But yet it is due to civilization
to sav that a more powerful and valid reason
was found for French hostility. The accession
to power of Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
was accomplished, as we shall see in a succeed-
ing chaiiter, by means at which a scrupulous
ruler would have startled. But Napoleon did
not scruple. He went straight forward, and
accf)mplished his purpose. No sooner had he
done so, however, than he found it necessary
to distract the attention of the French people
fnim the rather shocking manner in which he
had come to power. Having made a success
of the Cmip d'Etat, he must now obliterate
the memory thereof by a coup de gloire. For-
eign war was almost a necessity of the situa-
tion; and a Latin monk in Jerusalem, quar-
reling about his monopoly of the Anointing
Stone, constituted as good an excuse as any.
It should be remembered, also, that France,
in particular France under the scepter of
GREAT BniTAIX.—FROM HYDE PARK TO nuSRllORU^.
Napoleon III., hail a recollect lo)t, as it respected
Kussia, which she desired to queuch. She still
remembered the year IS] 2, and waited for the
opportunity to write the Malakhuti' instead ut'
;J37
the Bridge of Beresina. It has been one of
the peculiarities of the French people that their
attention thus can be diverted from the hard-
sliips occiisiuucd by juilitical convid.-ion.s at
rXIVERSAL HISrORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
home to the gloritication of tlie name of
P'rance liy victory in foreign Avar.s.
8till anotlier element mn^t ho intnMhiced
into the romiili'-ation. We iiave seen already
that a large pait of the subject populations of
the ()ttoni;iii l-linpire were Christians of the
Greek Cath'ilie taith. They were thus suhject,
ecclesiastirally, {« the Russian Primate of tlie
Church, and were under tlie protection of the
Czar. These peo]ile were also Shivouic in
their origin, and were thus divorced in their
race sympathies from the Turks. The Dan-
ubian Principalities were more Russian than
Turkish in manner and custom and ethnic
preference. Among these elements of sym-
pathy felt by the peoples inside of European
Turkey for Russia and her system, the relig-
ious identity constituted the safest and surest
pretext which the Czar might seize upon as a
claim for interference, and this he adopted as
his argument with the Western Powers in
justification of his proceeding.
In the meantime, however, Nicholas made
a final open overture, in the hope of securing
the assent and cooperation of England. Up
to the beginning of 1853 the Czar still be-
lieved that the Government of Great Britain
was in virtual acc<ird with his own on the
question of how Turkey should be disposed of
in case of her dismemberment. In January of
that year, while he was in attendance at a ducal
party, given by his friend the Archduchess
Helen, to which the diplomatical corps at St.
Petersburgh was invited, he plucked aside the
English Ambassador, Sir Hamilton Seymour,
and openly revealed to him, in a free con-
versation, his views relative to Turkey. He
expressed his wish that the Danubian Princi-
palities should become independent under his
own protection. The Turkish Power, as such,
was to cease to exist. The Czar disavowed
any purpose of occupying Constantinople; but
it was clear from the conversation that that
metropolis was no longer to constitute a bar-
rier to his exit into the iEgean. All South-
eastern Europe was, according to the Czar's
plan, to be reorganized, under the auspices
of Russia and England. Nicholas told Sir
Hamilton that, so far as he was concerned,
Great Britain might take possession of Egypt
and Caudia as her part of the spoils. He did
not seek to have the work done bv treatv,
but simply by an informal agreement of the
parties. '
The eft'ect of these radical iM-op,,.-iti,,us upon
the English Ministry may w.li be imagined.
The British Government" iiifnrnied Nicliolas
that they could not be a jiarfy to the spnli-
ation of Turkey. The Government <.f the
Porte was in friendly alliance and under tri^aty
stipulations with Great Britain, and the dip-
lomatical inoiaUty prevalent among the West-
ern States, would liy no means permit such
a proceeding on the part of England as that
contemplated by the Czar. That sovereign
was thus, in a sense, mated at the outset ; but
he immediately fell back upon his right to ex-
ercise a protectorate over the several millions
of Christians who were subject to Ottoman
rule. On this point he expressed himself with
determination, and in defense of his course
and purpose, he confidently set forth the Treaty
of Kutchuk-Kaiuardji, which had been con-
cluded by Empress Catherine and the Sultan
in 1774. According to the terins of this in-
strument, the Ottoman Government had con-
ceiled to the Czar the right "to protect con-
and also to allow the Minister of the Imperial
Court of Russia to make, on all occasions, repre-
sentations, as well in favor of the new church in
'It was in the course of this ever-nieiiioral.le
conversatiiiu Vietween the Czar and Sir Hamiltnn
Seymour that Nicholas, in a verj' animated and
witty manner, struck ofT a phrase wliich was
destined to pass into the diplomatical an>\ com-
mon language of the times, and, imleed, to re-
main forever as a peculiar expression in the his-
torical jargon of the Nineteenth Century. The
Czar, ad<lressing Sir Hamilton, said: ''We have
on our hands a sicl: man— a very sick man ; it
will be a great misfortune if, one of these days, he
should slip away from us before the necessary
arrangements have been made."' From the
moment this conversation was divulged, Turkey
became known by the eiiithet of the "Sick
Man." If one may be |.ermitted to smile at
national deeav. ami t^ enj.iy the wit of an Em-
peror, tlieii iiideeil may tlie jiungent phrase be
accepted as one of the happiest conceits which
was ever uttered. The " Sick Man " of the East
has survived nearly forty years, but the truthful-
ness of the Czar's phrase is as clear to-ilay as it
was in .Tanuary of 18.53. It only remains to say
that the " neces.sary arrangements" to which tlie
Czar referred had respect tn wliat England and
Russia were expected in a friendly way to ilo on
the occasion of the funeral :
GREAT BlUTAIX. — FROM HYDE PARK TO BOSPHORL'S.
•33'J
Constantinoi)le, of wliich meutiou will be made
iu the Fourteenth Article, as iu favor of those
who officiate therein, iironiising t<> take such
representations intu ihu- <-(iiisiili_-ralii>n, as l)eing-
made by a confidential timctiniKirv nf a neigh-
boring and sincere!}- fririidly I'mwit. " L'nder
this compact, the Czar iKiw tmik Ui< stand, and,
in the resulting corresixiiitli-iic.', Lord .lolm
Russell, perhaps inadvertently, aduntt('<l the
crrectiiess <if the ]in.^itii}n which Xirlmlas had
assumed. Addressing Sir Hamilton Srynn.ur,
ou the 9th of February, 1853, L..rd Hussfll
said: "The more the Turkish < lnvernnicnt
adopts the rules of impartial law and r.jiuil
administration, the less will the Eniperdi- .if
Russia find it necessary to apply that excep-
tional protection which his Imperial Majesty
has found so burdensome and inconvenient,
thouLdi, no doubt, prescril)e<l by duty and
sanctiiined by treaty." It would theref )re ap-
]iear clear that, according to the Treaty of
1V74, and by the admissi..u of Lord Russell
relative thereto, the Czar did have the right
of interference in the Turkish Principalities
for the protection of the (ireek Christians
resident therein.
It was nut long, however, until Eiiglaml
awoke to a realizatinn of the fact that to
grant the Czar's construction of the Treaty of
1774 was virtually to give away the whole
question. That construction was, that the Rus-
sian Emperor had a general right of interference
on behalf of the Greek Christians throughout
the Turkish dominion. There, for instance,
at the extreme south of European Turkey,
were the Greek Principalities, with about four-
teen millions of people, nominally Christians.
What should be done with these? Should it
be admitted that the Greeks, on the line of their
religious sympathie.?, might accept the general
protectorate of the Czar to the virtual abroga-
tion of their allegiance to the Turkish sover-
eign ? This would indeed seem to be the mean-
ing of the concession which the Porte had made
to Catherine the Great. The Western Powers,
however, and England in particular, cho.se to
put another and very different sense into the
Treaty of Kainardji. The English interpreta-
tion of that instrument now was that the Sultan
had merely conceded the Russian Jlinister at
Constantinople the protectorate of a cerfam
Greek rhurrh in that citv, and that no general
; the
had
I right or prerogative of the Czar re
Christian subjects of the Cttoniau
been granted.
Nevertheless, the Czar went >tr;il-ht ahead
witii his scheme of interference. ( )thrr matters
iiad now been cleared away. The di-pnti- iie-
tween the Latin monks and the (Mck icel.-
>iastics in Jerusalem hail lieni ea>ily setth'(L
But the demands of the Czar relative to thr
Turkish Clnistians were urgent, and would
take no denial. Nicholas despatched Prince
jMentschikoff to Constantinople to extort from
the Sultan a guarantee that certain reforms
should be at once made in his administration
ridative to his Christian subjects. These de-
mands were deemed by the Porte to be un
reasonable ; and Mentschikoff uithdn-w. The
j Czar thereupon ordered two divisions of his
army t.i cross the Pruth into Turkish territorv,
and to hold the country until the Sultan should
accede to the demands made upon him.
Meanwhile, diplomacy was busy at the
problem. Ambas.sadors from England, Aus-
tria, France, and Prussia, met at Vienna to
wrestle with the question of ])eace and war.
Though Russia hail already invaded the Turk-
ish dominions, she continued to represent her-
self as peaceable. She would have peace;
but guarantees must be given ; and Turkev
must concede the Russian protectorate over
her Christian subjects. The di])lomates were
dispo.sed to yield to the Czar's demands, and a
memorandum was prepared in accordance with
his wishes. The question seemed at the point
of solution, and peace about to be secured,
when everything was suddenly changed by the
action of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, at that
time Minister Plenipotentiary of Great Britain
at Constantinople. He pointed out to the Sul-
tan, with great force and clearness, the results
which were sure to follow his acceptance of the
proposed new treaty. He urged the Porte to
fight, and showed conclusively tliat, in the
event of war, the Western Powers, and par-
ticularly England and France, must esjionse
the Turkish cause, and that, in that event, the
autonomv and independence of the (.)ttoman
Empire would be secured. His views pre-
vailed ; and the memorandum of the Vienna
Convention was accordingly rejected. With
that rejection, war be came a certainty, and
the solution of the Eastern Question, to which
UXTVERSAL fflSTORY — THE MODERN WORLD.
IIKUkIh.I tn til,- SWnl-.l.
TluTr was iinw, during the later part of
1^53, a brief interval of that kind of negotia-
tion which precedes a war after the same has
become a certainty. When Turkej- refused to
accept the pnip.isal of the Vienna mediators,
she otli-red to strike out certain ofl'ending
words in their memorandum, and to put
therein a clause which would be acceptable.
But this modification was rejected with scorn
by Russia. Meanwhile the Emperor of the
French had not only joined fully in the pur-
poses of England, but was clearly covetous of
leadership in the coming conflict. TTnder this
sentiment, he wrote a letter to Czar Nicholas,
urging him in a somewhat lofty strain to keep
the peace of Europe, and closing with a threat
that in case the peace was broken, he and his
Ally, the Queen of England, would regard
war as a measure of necessity and justice. To
this the Czar replied that he was acting under the
plain stipulations of former treaties. From this
position he would not recede, and that, should
Russia be forced into a conflict, the Emperor
of the French wnul.l hiid her as able to defend
herself in 18.54 «.* .■^he had been in 1S12 I With
such pleasant reminders the twcj Iiiijierial
personages sought to soothe each otiier's feel-
ings when they had determined to fight.
lu the meantime, however, war had actually
begiui. Glance again at the map of the Black
Sea and the surrounding countries. It will be
seen that the northern and eastern shores be-
long to the Russian Empire, while the south-
ern coast is held by Turkey. Each nation
had its fleet in the.se Euxine waters, the Rus-
sian scjuadron having its base at Sebastopol
in the Crimean Peninsula on the north; and
the Turkish fleet holding a like relation in the
town of Sinope on the southern shore. It had
now become clear that Russia, in order to
make sure of the neutrality of Austria, must
withdraw her arms from the Dauuliian Pi-iu-
ei|ialitie< into which she had penetrated; for
till' Austiian Emperor was averse in the high-
est (Iruree to such oecu]iation by the forces of
the Czar. It was also clear that hostilities
must break out on tlie Black Sea. The En-
French fleets and armies were al-
heir way to the East. As soon as
d arrive at the entrance to the Dar-
glish
reaih
thev
dauelles, the Sultan, having control of that
narrow strait, and also of the Sea of Marmora
and the Bosphorus itself, would, under his pre-
rogative, open those waters for the passage of
the allied squadron into the Black Sea. Na-
ture and civilization had conspired to make
that water and the adjacent shores the seat of
the impending conflict.
Russia now sought to precipitate hostilities
and to gain advantage before the arrival of
the French and English forces. She accord-
ingly allowed the Russian commander in the
Black Sea to hover about Sinope with a view
of provoking a battle. The provocation was
readily, almost anxiously, accepted. On the
30th of November, 1853, the Turkish fleet
sailed out from Sinope and anticipated the
Russians in giving battle. The result was the
annihilation of the Turkish squadron, and the
bombardment and destruction of Sinope. The
news of tlie contliit t'reated great excitement
in England and France, and the war spirit
flamed high. Soon afterwards all diplomatical
correspondence was broken off. The Russian
Aml)assadors were ordered home from Paris
and I.,(indon, and those of England and France
withdrew from St. Petersburgh. Declarations
of war were mutually made by Turkey, Great
Britain, and I'rance, as Allied Powers on the
one side, and by Russia on the other. It re-
mained to decide the issue by the arbitrament
of battle.
It is not purjidsed in this connection to
give au account of the Crimean War. A
narrative of that conflict will be reserved for
the chapter devoted to the history of Eastern
Europe in the present century. It has been
the purpose in the current narrative to make
clear the antecedents of the conflict between
the Allied Powers and Russia in the Black Sea,
by reciting with tolerable fullness the principal
features of the Eastern Question — a question
wliich, for ages to come, must continue to elicit
the keenest interest on the part of all students
of history. The narrative has been given, as
it were, from the British point of view, — this
for the reason that Great Britain properly
mav be regarded as the leading factor in the
maintenance of the Turkish cau.se, and the
principal contributor to the very imperfect
solution of the questions involved in the war.
We mav now revert for a moment to the
GREAT BRITAIN.— FROM HYDE PARK TO BOSPHORUS.
341
progress of affairs in the H(Jiiie (idverunient
of Englaud.
The Ministry of Lord Alterdeeii hail heeu
primarily disposed to peace. It will be re-
membered that Lord Palmerston had accepted
office in the Cabinet, but it was as Home Sec-
retary, lu the duties of his position he de-
voted himself assiduously to several questions
of much importance in the domestic economy
of England ; but apparently gave little atten-
tion to the foreign affairs of the Government.
The sequel showed, however, that his eye was
steadily fixed upon the progress of events in
the East, and also that he did not agree with
his colleagues in their peaceable dispositions.
Such a state of affliirs in the Cabinet was sure
to produce a rupture. Lord Alierdeen was a
man of peace, and Glailstoin', Secretary of the
Exchequer, was in sympathy with the views
of the leader. Thos," vi,w< pn-.lominat.Ml tor
a while in the policy of th.' ( iovrrnnicnt, and
it was in accordance with this policy that tlie
futile efforts for peace had liccn made by the
four Powers in Council at Vienna.
JNIeanwhile, however, the war spirit pre-
vailed more and more in Great Britain, and
Lord Palmerston, better than any of his col-
leagues, di.scerued the drift of public sentiment
and the inevitable course of events. At
length the news arrived that the Turkish
fleet had been destroyed in the furiovis conflict
off Sinope. The oflicial reports of the battle
showed that four thousand Turks had been
reduced by slaughter to four hundred, and
that of this handful not a .single man had es-
caped without a wound. Though the battle
had been fought fairly enough, the press of
Western Europe described the engagement as
"The Massacre of Sinope." The news in
England was like the pouring out of a tank
of oil on a bonfire. Lord Palmerston urged
the Cabinet to move forward with decision to
a declaration of war. He a<Ivocnted tlie
sending of an armament ininicdiatcly into the
Black Sea: for, with his usual breadth of un-
derstanding, he had discerned that that water
was to be the seat of the impending conflict.
At the first his radical views were not ac-
cepted, and he resigned his office. For the
moment the real cause of his retirement was
ili-^embled ; but the country soon perceived
thiit Palmerston had eone out because his
views relative to affairs in the East could not
be impressed on the Caliinet. Those views
had now become the sentiments of the English
people, and it was not long till the Aberdeen
Ministry was borne down by public opinion.
The policy of Government fell into line with
the common voice, and Palmerston was at
once recalled to office. He was not destined
at the first, however, to give actual direction
to the war, which was declared by Great
Britain in March of 18.54. It was not until
the 5th of Feln-uary in the following year,
when the inefficient ^Ministry of Lord Aber-
deen had gone to pieces, that Palmerston
was called, not indeed to the War Office, not
to the Secretaryship of Foreign Affairs, but to
the position of Premier of England. Under
his auspices the Crimean War, in the course
of the ensuing year, was brought to a success-
ful conclusion. After the accession of Palmer-
ston, there was never any further complaint of
{ inefficiency in the support of the British cause,
and when it came to settling the controversy
at the Treaty of Paris, in 1856, the influence
of the English Pi-emier was consiiicuously pre-
dominant.
Before proceeding, however, with the nar-
rative of the foreign relations of Great
Britain under the Palmerston rirj'une, we mav
well notice a few of the imi>ortant domestic
questions which came luider liis su[>ervision
I while holding the office of Home Secretary.
i One circumstance which has been much dwelt
upon is the fact that Lord Palmerston, much
more than any other Briti.sh statesman of the
age, had received and accepted the results of
the teaching of that new natural science which
was, at that time, scarcely more than germinal
in the public mind. He adopted and en-
deavored to apply these results in his Ad-
ministration, and excited much antagonism by
liis common sense and straigiitforward deal-
ings with domestic, and even religious, ques-
tions of the time. It was in tlie year 1853
that the cholera, worst of Asiatic scourges,
made its appearance in many parts of Europe,
and at length broke out in E.liuburgh. That
citv was at the time i>ooi-lv drained, witliout
adccpiate sanitary ]
given U]i to neglect ;
prepared by the ig
ravages of an infecti'
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
the t.i
tfr<, I
Lnnl
Km-.
tn In-
iiati.ii
petiti.
ment
:> Prt'sliytorv
of tlie
that it 1
"Zlu!n!a7-^
A.-.M,
year aljove i
lanie.i, I
Mnderator, ai
(h-er^sea
Ion, Home
Seeivtai
h1 ot a rebuke U, the Kmne Secre-
is iniplii il nes;li^ence in pioclaimiug
1 whiih the lettei was ostensibly a
Whit theiefoie, was the abtonish-
the Pusb^tels and of the public
when Loul Palmeiston leplied from
the staiid-|ioint of a man of scienfe ' He
informed the Moderator, and, through that
official, the Presbytery and the general public,
that, according to his views of the natural
world and of the systetu of government
e^tabli'^hcd for mankind, the weal or woe
of the human race depends upon the ob-
servance or neglect of the beneficent natural
laws under which men are born and live and
ilie. He infin-med the petitioners that the
cholira was not the result of the Divine anger,
but of the sowing of pestilential germs in the
iilth wliich had accumulated, through their
ignorance and neglect, around their own
homes, and that the scourge, if combated at
all, must b,. met on its own fieM, and van-
(pii-hcl by the application of sricntitic and
.sinitary a-i-nts. In the conclusion of his h-t-
ter. til.' ll..ni.' Secretary expr.sscl himself and
th,- i-rincipl.-s by which his ..ttic, was g.iverned
as to||.,w>:
'■ Lord I'almerston would therefore suggest
that the l"sf c.iurse which the people of this
country can ]iui-sue to deserve that the further
progress of the cholera should be stayed, will
be to employ the interval that will elapse be-
tween th.' present time and the beginning of
next sprint;', in planning and executing meas-
ures by wliich those portions of our towns
and cities which are inhabited by the
j)oore.st classes, and which, from the na-
ture of things, must most need purifica-
tion and improvement, may be freed
from those causes and sources of con-
tagion which, if allowed to remain, will
infallibly Itreed pestilence, ami be fruit-
ful in death, in spite of all the j,mijers
andfa.'-ting.i of a united but inactive nation."
Perhaps this reply of Lord Palmer-
ston to the Presbytery of Edinburgh is
the first public document of its kind, the
first to suggest openly the substitution
of rational and scientific methods, in-
stead of religious humiliations, for the
remedy of physical evils, which has a]i-
jieared in the documentary hist.iry of
the English-speaking race.
In other particulars, Lord Palmerston
was efjually remarkable in administer-
ing tlie duties of his office. It was
during his ascendency in the Home
Department that the plan of tran.s-
tioii as a jnmishment for felf)nies gave
wav, and the ticket-ofleave system was estab-
lished. It is known to all the world iiow
Great Britain, by her transportation of crim-
inals to Australia and other remote regions,
had half-unwittingly built up penal colonies,
anil how these colonies had reformed them-
selves, gradually substituting law for license,
and becoming well-ordered plantations. To
continue to pour into such reformed settle-
ments the filthy ooze of London, was to defile
the colonies back to their original condition.
Protests arose from thesettlementsof New South
Wales against the continuance of a system so
ruinous to the reviving virtues of the colonists.
]101
CHEAT BUITAIS.—FUOM BVPK PAIUk TO nOSl'llORVS.
At length '-uch piote^t'- \\n
Home G \eiument, aud n- \
atintr the ili-ti - A li» i tin
I 1 I I ,l.n I f n iin nt 1
Ihi 1,1 lilt 111 in 1 1 tin
the peml c 1 wies wh > e\l i
rifnination might leceis
tt 111 the luth iiities tick t^
entithn. tli h 1 1 i t , >
tite 1 t iinui. h nil th \
Ch M t th 11 h 111 111
I-iiJinl Ihe m i u
]ii \e 1 t 1 be ■•ilut ii \
Great numbers of the tieket-
of-leave men became good
citizens, both at home ami
abriiail, and the plan \va-
iiiade an entering \ved>jv
fnr the abolition nf the
whole system nf ti'ans[i()r-
tation.
Lord Palmerston also
secured the ailoptimi of
measures by which Loudnn
and other great manufac-
turing cities of the KiiiLr-
d(im were freed from the
smoke and soot of tln' tac-
tiiries. Such establishments
were obliged, by law, to
introduce contrivances for
the consumption of their
own smoke, thus relieving the
another important measure was
the grave-yards in London were
the further accumulation of
Lord Palmerston seems to have
horror for the further poisonin;
by the deposition of the dead
localities. In one instance, a
made to him fjr the burial of ;
1 r D Ca n O ^,ala d Gozcr or-J th I / lie Fe to , f v„ "
/ na( a u Drpclc c,e Sc y S
.^^YnslM , lln ,1 , ci^^^/r i .1 .l,cj„e'
f I t Ter n as | s I e/^'^Jr^Zc/ ■
)jt^^^ /fi3/ (he, 1
-ho b Jea c b d oi tkj o I cr S
^//^a
: S icrar rOITn fjL ,ej th,
^t^iL Da r I"'"*- — —
O'lro a l$r,HII I el a IClhl^^yA
public. Still
that by which
^hut up against
dead bodies,
felt a scientific
y of the earth
in unsuitable
pplication was
I distinguished
the pavements of a church were the last place
in the world for the burial of the dead. The
Minister concluded that England was the last
civilized country in which people still insisted
in accumulating the putrefying bodies of the
dead amid the dwellings of the living. " As to
burying bodies under thronged churches," said
he, " you might as well put them under libra-
ries, drawing-rooms, and dining-rooms."
344
LWIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
CHAI'TKK cxxx— SEF^OV rebelliom.
illUM 1.S54 tn 1«5(;, the at- ]
tenticm nt' Great Britain
was almost wholly ab
sorbed with the events of
the ('rinieau War, and
with the terms of the
treat}' by which that cou-
led. We shall hereafter notice
' settlement. For the present,
we pass on to consider the next great event in
which the history of England found expression
in foreign lands. This was The Sepoy Re-
bellion IN India. The outbreak of the in-
surrection belongs to the year 1857. The re-
volt and its suppression covered some of the
most tragical ciixumstauces which history has
been called to record in modern times. In
order to understand the fundamental character
and shocking incidents of the insurrection, and
of the methods employed by Great Britain for
the restoration of order in India, the ground i
must first be cleared with one or two prepar- i
atory studies of the state of Indian civilization,
and of the style of the British Government at
the time of the outbreak.
The field which here opens before us is of
almost infinite extent. The peoples of India
are descended from the most ancient branch
of the Aryan race. Long before the Hellenic
tribes set foot in Europe, the Indie shepherds
hail built in the valleys of the great rivers of
the East the institutions of society and religion.
Nations multiplied in this far region of the ,
earth. Wars and transformations and recon- ;
structions innumerable ensued, even before the *
davs when the horsemen of Alexander con-
frijnted the elephants of Porus. A mere out-
line of the history of India, from the time
when the ]\Iacedonian conquest revealed the
invsteries of the East to the nations of the
West, down to the time when the Portugue.se
ships, in the earlv p:irt >>i' the sixteenth cen-
tury, liCLran to vi>it the cnnsts " of Ormuz and '
(,f Ind." would (Mvu|iy a whole chapter of the {
luv-riit wui-k. We muA here reduce the whole
Mj
lies
and flnur
ished between the Himalayas and the western
seas. Emjiires rose and passed away. The
Indian populations increased to a hundred
millions, and then to more than two hundred
niilliiins. Under Tinmur tiie Great, whose
reign covered the greater jiart nf the four-
teenth century, India was conquered and consoli-
dated ; her peoples were brought under a single
sway, and the Mogul, or IMongol, dynasty was
established at Delhi. The successors of Ti-
mour continued to reign in the ancient capital
down to the time of the Portuguese conquests
in India. The hereditary sovereigns of Delhi
ntaineil at least a nominal authority over vast
and populous regions, and were little disturbed
by the impact of European adventurers on
the sea-coasts. At length the Portuguese ban-
ner was pulled down from the place where it
stood in the East, and the flag of Holland
was raised in its stead in the Indies. The
Dutch ascendency was soon followed by the
French, and finally by the English.
It were long to tell the story of the British
East India Company; of the foot-hold which
It gained on the western coast, and more par-
ticularly on the Bay of Bengal. The history
of the planting and extension of the commer-
cial, and finally the political, interests of Great
Britain in India, is full of incidents most
highly illustrative of the power and persist-
ency of the race. At length the Government
of the East India Company gave place to that
of a Governor-General and other oflicials sent
out from England. A hundred years had
now elapsed since Lord Robert Clive had or-
ganized what we are henceforth entitled to
call the British East Indian Empire. The
primitive seat of the Government was at
Hooghly, an ancient Indian town on the river
of the same name; but this place was at length
alniniliined for Cah'ulta, which became the
capitul and the J.ort of India. From this
maritime nucleus the strong arms of English
authority were ultimately stretched out over
two hundred millions of native subjects in the
East.
Ill the luiilille of the present century the
GREAT BRITAIN.—HEPOY REBELLION.
345
Indian dominions of Great Britain were or-
ganized under three principal territorial divis-
ions or presidencies. Tlie first of tliese was
Bengal; the second, 15,, nil.av ; and ihetldnl,
Madras. From the capital's of these coun-
tries, with a few thousand nlKcials, civil and
militarj^ the administration ot all India was
conducted. The native jiriuces still existed,
still held a certain rank and authority over
their respective peoples. Above them all was
the aged King of Delhi, lineal descendant of
the great Timour, representative of the iNIogul
dynasty, nominal Emperor of India.
With these
arm of British authority was vastly cheaper
and hardly less efficient than would have been
an army of native soldiers sent out from Eng-
land. But it had in it the pntrncy of all
dangers. Many local ditiiculties ha<r<M-ciuicd
ot such character as to give Great Britain
warning of worse things possible. At the
time of the destruction of the English army
in Cabul, syMipt..nis of a general disatiection
were noticed in several of the subject prov-
inces; and had it not been for the speedy
and comiiletely successful rally made by the
Government, and the triumphant conquest of
Cabid before the very face of all India, it
DI.4MOXD HARBOR. HOOGHLY.
and with the peoples under them, the Govern-
ment of Great Britain temporized from year
to year. It must not lie forgotten that the
primary business of England in India had
been commerce. It might almost be said that
such has lieen her business in the world. But
to maintain her commercial ascendency in
India and in the adjacent seas, required many
expedients and a vast expenditure of force.
One of the most effective of these expedients was
the organization and discipline of native armies
under English officers. It was found that the
Hindus made good soldiers, and were glad to
accept service and compensation at the hands
of the Government. The military establish-
ment thus created and maintained as the right
were hard to predict what other disasters
might have followed in the train.
Of all the East Indian armies that of Ben-
gal was most dangerously composed. It had
been enlisted almost wholly of High-caste
Hindus, a cla.«s of the people more intelligent
and high-spirited, though not less su})erstitious,
than were the others below them in rank.
The extent to which all the jn'oplc of India
were subject to superstition is known as an
objective notion to the wdiole world. But the
bitterness and obduracy of the social and re-
ligious prejudices which pervaded every rank
and class of the population can never be ap-
preciated and understood but by him who has
studied the phenomena on the spot of their
USIVERSAL HISTOItr.— TIIK MODERN WORLD.
prudnctiou. The
tive soldiers of Hi
iilu ili-iivation in tlie Bengal
army were kimwii was Si;i'civ>. As we have
said, they coustituted an excellent but dauger-
ous soldiery ; exeelleut, because of their easy
discipline aii<l courage in fight; dangerous,
because of thrir Miperstiti.ms aii<l that peculiar
sublety of cliaracter f..r which the word
xVt the first, the Sepoy army had been to a
considerable extent officered by captains chosen
from themselves. But, in course of time,
nearly all the conunands were taken Ijy Eu-
countryuien of Low-caste condition can not be
explained to the people of the Western nations
or understood by them. The Mohammedan,
uniler the influence of his Arabian religion,
lookeil with like contempt and horror upon the
character of the Brahmin. In only one thing
could all be said to agree, and that was in a
certain covert detestation of tlie English officers
and of tlie British Government, by which they
were held down and checked in their luitive
imjiulses and passions.
We may well look still further into the
conijiosition of the native armies of India. In
glish
rank
part
officers, who mi.ht thii- cimK ii^e t
This was a ctu^e of jeil um on the
of tlie native soldieii We mu^t not
understand that the whole military force of
Bengal was made up of the Brahmin caste.
Low-caste men were also recruited. Some
filled np in good part with
Between these vai-ious ele-
n the army of natives there
tred. anil almost equally eon-
The idea of any affiliation
•rent ca>tes \\a< n'liue'nant to
f all. The ext.-nt to wliieli
regiments were
jMohammedans.
ments jiresent
slant diffieiiltv.
between the dil
the sentiment
the Brahmin so
the Btn^dt^e ie_im nt- i ,_itat mi] iit\ ot
the soldieis weie as we ha\e intimated Hiiih
ca^te Biihmm^, but in the aimie^ ot B imbt\
and Madras, a majority of the men were ot
other derivation — ^lohammedans and Low-caste
leciiiit- <if many orders. As originally organ-
ized, the Indian soldiers were under enlistment
for service in India only. Foreign service they
were not expected to perform. This is said
of the Bengalese army, not of the native
troops in Bombay and Madias. The latter
niiiiht lie called to serve abroad. The Britisii
authniiii,- at h-ngth determined that the ex-
einiitiou liitherto conceded to the Sepoys
GREAT BBITAiy.SEPOY REBELLION.
of Bengal was a mistakeu measure. Acconl-
iugly, iu 1856, a change was made in the
military regulations, by wliich foreign service
as well us hume duty was t-xactud of the Ben-
same level and discipline witli tlie soldier of
Madras and Bombay. This change was greatly
resented in the army of Bengal, which had
hithert(.i lieen regank-d as a t;iv(.)rite of the
Government. The .Sfi)i>v felt that he had
together in large numbers in a given regiment,
where, by associating together, they could
better preserve the u.sages and gratify the
pride of their caste. The nature ef military
soldier under command is even as his I'ellow.
When the regimental line is formed and the
order given, it is impossible that caste .should
a.ssert itself When olf duty, however, the
Sepoys at once fell umler the domiuioti of
been degraded by being reduced to the rank of
the soldiers of the North-west, whom he was
accustomed to regard as >n tar heiieath himself
The High-caste Bi-almiiii Sepoy was in the
higliest degree exclusive m all Ins haliits and
sentiments. The social system made his family
relatives as numerous as a clan. All these
were bound together by the prmcii)les of caste,
■which could not be loosed. It was customary
lor Sepoys of a common blood and name to get
their prejudices, and the customs of caste were
immediately observed. The Brahmin soldier
conked his f .od aiiart, ate it aiiart. slei)t aiiart,
mhl
hied to the I
le s,,l,lier of a caste dilferent
Besides tliese differences and
presence of JMohammedanism
and aniinoMtv which
f the -oldiel-s. Kellg-
;ed and mtensitied the
:]48
rXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
bitterness which existed among the castes on
the score of social stratification.
At first view it would appear that an army
constituted as was that of Bcnttal could not be
di>c;pliii.Ml ,,r kept in Mdionlinatiou at all.
But not so. Under British authority and
mauagemeut the military forces were brought
to good discipline and made highly effective.
The wise Government played off the prejudices
and passions of the native soldiers so as to
make a balance of animosity. The hatred of
one party for another was put in equipoise
against the hatred of the other for it. Over
both the sword of England was easily ex-
tended, and, though the condition was one of
great danger, the authorities of Calcutta and
the Home Government of Great Britain were
alike free from serious apprehension.
To the circumstances already narrated other
causes of disafl^ection and mutiny must be
added. The territorial and political manage-
ment of India had been greatly changed, not
to .say revolutionized, under recent administra-
tions. We have already referred to Lord
C'live as the great organizer of British power
in the East. After him, the most energetic
and powerful of the Ea.st India Governor-
Generals was Lord Dalhousie. He was ap-
pointed to office in the latter part of 1847, and
immediately began to extend the influence
and rationalize the methods of government by
which the Hindu populations were kept in
order.
We may not here enumerate the various
measures which Lord Dalhousie made effective
during his administration. The greatest of all
his schemes was the annexation of the Northern
and North-western provinces of India. Thus
were the Punjaub, Nagpore, Sattarah, Jhansi,
Berar, and Oudh incorporated with the British
dominions. Lord Dalhousie reformed and re-
organized territories as large as the major
kingdoms of Europe, and handled popula-
tions, governments, and laws as though they
liad been the subjects of committee reports in
the common council of an English town. The
British system of cheap postage was introduced
into the country. Railroads began to be built
of greater extent than were possible in the
narrow limits of the British Isles. A telegraph
was carried from Calcutta to Agra, thence to
the river Indus, and finally to Bombay and
JIadras. Under the.se improvements, civil,
political, and social, the ancient institutions of
the country gave way, and what may well be
called New India aro.?e in place of that old
India which had been handed down from
Alexander to the Mogul Emperors, and from
the Mogul Emperors to modern times.
It is needless to say that the great and
.salutary administration of Lord Dalhousie was
an offense against the ancient prejudices of
the Hindus. They began to feel themselves
shaken from the very ground. It appeared to
the imagination of the Brahmin that the end
of all things was approaching ; that the venerable
system of society, which had its ultimate roots
among the mysteries of the Vedic Hymns, was
about to pass away. He saw the ancient
kingdom of Oudh, wduch the East India Com-
pany had agreed to defend, abolished under
the radicalism of Dalhousie ; the honored
chiefs converted into dependents and syco-
phants, and the old King of Oudh himself
dethroned and transferred to a pensionary
residence near Calcutta. All of these pro-
ceedings were of a character to excite and
alarm the conservative peoples, among whom
it was a principle of action to conceal thnir
real sentiments and passions under the gaib
of acquiescence and docilitv.
The British Government, however, felt no
fear. The officials in India went straight
ahead with the administration, civil and
military, heeding not the lessons which might
well have been drawn from the frequent local
disturbances and mutinies which they had to
suppress. Improvements were freely intro-
duced from England. At length it was de-
termined to replace the old-style, ineflJective
muskets with which the Sepoy armies were
supplied, with Enfield rifles. A cargo of these
arms was accordingly sent out, and the same
were distributed to the Sepoy soldiery.
We are now arrived at that stage in the
progress of affairs when only a fortuitous cir-
cumstance was needed to fire the magazine.
When a revolution breaks out, it is the wont
of historians and people to seize upon the
particular fact whereby the train is lighted,
and to call that fact the caiuse of the revolu-
tion. Such a view of the case is as superficial
as to say that the spark in the ship's hold,
lighting at first a few grains of powder, then
GREAT BRITAIX.SEPOY REBELLION.
lie (ivertiini- wt-i-e ;/'«'«'
he en.l of makiiiir tl
sputtering a few moments in zigzag lines as mauutacturei's employed both the tallow of
the flame runs into the magazine, is the cause cattle and the fat of swine. The cartridges
of the explosion ; or to reg
ing of a coal-oil lamp hy th-
an obscure stable-shei
burning of Chicago. Xcvc
of ignition may well
and the mistaken t
a causative inthu
may he overlooke<l, along with .-iniilar errors
peculiar to the human uuderstan<ling.
The Enfield rifles then, put, as we have
seen, into the hands of the Sepoys, brought
^vith them the incidental circumstance which
was to perform the part of a match in the
coming conflagration. The fact to which we
here refer has become celebrated among the
peculiar episodes of modern history. The
Enfield rifles were fed with cartridges, and
in the preparation of the cartridges the
'22
as abominably unclean by both Hindus and
Mohammedans. In the loading of the rifles,
the manual of arms directed that the crest of
the cartridge should bo bitten off with the
teeth before inserting it in thr chandur of the
weapon. To the Sipnys ti> tourh, and es-
pecially to taste, thr tirsh or any ot the
products of the hated .-wine, is to i)e defiled
almost lieyoud the hope of purification. Of
course, the British authorities had not intended
to do violence to the prejudices of the Sepoy
UM VERSA L HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD
soldiers, aud it lias even liceii
cartridges contained the ulli'ii
But the probability is that thi
afterthought intruded to tiann
sequences. "'Jive im- a ili'ink
It \vasata<|,rin- i.r w.U. 'H
„nn,i th.- ..tlu-r uith a -V.wrr .
new cartridges, tl
against the assur
.ttic
caste? -You are very partimlar about vour
caste to-day," said the Hindu. '•Perhaps
vou do not know tliat every lime vo\i l)ite ntl'
y.Mir I'artridge jpii fitl.r the f<il of ,i liiy into your
woiifhr
The Sepoy, horror-struck at what was said,
told his companions. The papers of the cart-
ridges were examined, and were found to be
greased. The sto|-ni <if insurrection broke out
in a moment. The spark had fallen into the
ship's hold, where the combustibles were accu-
mulated, and the explosion followed. Never-
theless, the officers of the Government made,
at tir-^t, >^treiiuo\i^ etfbrt- to put out the insur-
rection by peacealile means. The incident to
whieli we have referred aliove occurred in the
latter part of ISofi, at the town of Meerut, a
military )iost of considerable importance, lying
a short distance from the ancient city of Delhi,
between the rivers Ganges and Jumna. The
first insurrection of the Sepoys wa= in the na-
ture of a panic, rather than lio^tili' mntiiiv.
The officers of the army fir-^t -ou-ht bv donial
of tlie iM.llution ..f tlio oartrid-es to stav thr
revolt; 'and wliou this di.l not avail, an ord^-r
was issued, in January of 1S.-|7, that the rifles
slKudd be serveil with cartrid-e^ of a different
manufacture, in which the puritv of the ma-
terials was gnaranteeil. Tiie Governor-General
issued a proclamation to the army, in which
assurances were given that no offense was in-
tended a'j-ainst the principles of ca«te or the
relii;-ions customs of the countrv. But the mis-
chief was done, and the s]iirit of mutinv spread
from regiment to regiment, until at the open-
inrr of sin-iiiff, 1><57, the whole Sepoy army was
infected. In the emergency, which was now
maiiifc-^t, some of the regiments were disbanded.
In other cases, the leaders of the spreading
revolt were executed. When the Bengal cav-
alry at ]\Ieerut were served with a supply of
cartridges contained no impun- nialciials. The
recusant Sepoys were accordingly arrested,
brought to trial and condemned, some to im-
pii.-oinucnt, and some to banishment. The
cniivicts were put in irons in the presence of
their couutrynien, and were sent to the })ri^on
ot .^b•crut. '
On th.' folhiwing day, ^May 10, 1S57, the
luutiny briikc out in earnest. The native sol-
(bcr- marclicd from their barracks, stormed
the pii,-on, i-eleased their condemned fellow-
soldieis, :ind shot down the English guard that
ntteinpieil to stay their progress. The revolt
llanied iiigli. The English rallied as large a
force as they could, returned the charge, and
the mutineers were driven out of their canton-
ments. The whole body of the insurrection
then broke out of .Meerut, and rolled off in
the direction of Delhi,
Tlie events which now rapidly ensued
showed conclusively that the insurrecti(jn had
been fomented for a definite purpo.'^e, and that
])iirpose was no less than the recovery of Na-
tional Independence. As soon as the insur-
gent soldierv could reach Delhi, they inime-
ace (jf his ancestors, the Grand Moguls, and
to proclaim him Emperor of India. The
anti(|uated sovereign had been subsisting in
Ka>teni spleiid.ir 'by means ,,f the ],ension
which liad been grantcl to him. in the tirst
place, bv the East India Company, and after-
wards continued l>y the Government at Cal-
cutta. As we have said, the King of Delhi
was the descendant and representative of what-
ever remained of the great Mogul dynasty,
which had been establi.shed over all India by
Timour Lenk. There was therefore a certain
rationality and legitimacy in the notion <.f re-
storina the obsolete sovereign to the throne of
his ancestors. Meanwdiile, the mutiny gath-
ered head. The Sepoy troops, holding the
barracks at Delhi, broke into insurrection and
joined the mutineers who had come from
IMecrut. The British contingent was obliged
to give way before the revolt, and the ancient
palace of the ^logul sovereigns of India, shin-
ing in the brilliant light of a ^lay morning,
was again inhabited by a native Emperor.
Dnm, to Btini.
the luiiini .,f tlu inHiii..ti.m « i- Ih.iik
^MUs:- <>t the ^\in.l tun,, i\. ul th, ,.
ot afl.uis m th \t fu i ipit il wlim tl
't\a» piumulj,cLttil ut thi biRLL-~ful ii
GBEA r BinrALX. — SEFO r REBELLION
11(1 th, 11,, t.. C ihutti ' ^^,\\ .i,.uii,l. ,1 l.uii. \N
1, \shl, h ,Mi ,li~tli(te,l ail
Ih. r.iiti^h |.,n|,h ,,fii, llK
A \ ^.
\
-\
h
^-^V
1 '
^1
.-.-#
THRONE-ROOM, PALACE OF PELHI.
the Sepny army nt :\I,-, rut ainl D.-llii. Lonl in sul,j,.,-ti,.ii
Dalhousie ha,l nnw I.,,-,, Mi,-,-r,.h.l in ,.tii,v \,y h..t iiiMinv,-t-h
Lord Caiinin-, as ( ;,,v,.i-noi-.( n-ii,.|al ,.f hi.lia. in,'iv,hhh' ahir
T-|M>n liim. aii,l tl llhvi- ,.f ( iuNvrnment a>- Cah'iitla, wil,'
s,,eiate,l with him, ua- -h'Vnlv,:,! th,' ,l.itv ,,r ,,f wnni,M, an
illi|ili,Ml niillhms ,.f natives in
a,-aiiiM tliM <;nv,-riiiu,a,t. An
s|n-ea.l ani'-n- ll„. l-:i,i:li>h ,.t
l,.l th,. air. Tl
ishr,| f. the (;„
UXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERX WORLD.
ernment House, almost iusane with t'cai-, cry-
ing for protection, and clamoriiii: Imi- viiinr-
auce, not only against the Sepoys, hut auain.-t
the Hindus in ueneraL Terror iieightened
the coufusifui. aud the wonder was, and is,
that Lord Canning was ahk' tn huld the jianic
in check, and, at the same tinir, take the first
measures for tlie restoration of (Jider.
It has been mentioned that tlie dethroned
King of Oudli liad been transferred l\v the
Government, during the administration of
souglit to allay the frenzy of the people, and
in particular to check the violence of the pro-
ceedings which were urged by the officers of
the Government, and liy the English gener-
ally, against the natives. As yet there had
been no revolt at Calcutta ; but the frantic
populace were ready to proceed against the
Hindus as though the latter had already com-
mitted the most horri<l crimes recorded in the
brutalities of hist..ry.
The same spirit was exhibited in a still
:%' -
Mk
Lord Dalhousie, to a pensionary residence at
Garden Reach, near Calcutta. The suspicion
at once arose that the deposed sovereign, who,
in case of the success of the revolt woidd be
restored to his kingdom, under the suvorcignty
of the Emperor of Delhi, was in the conspir-
acy. Acting n]ion tliis apiirolieiisidii, Lord
taken fro
d h<
being, as a kind of hostage in Fort William,
which was the military residence of the Gov-
ernor-General himself As f<ir the rest, he
more marked degree when the news at length
reached Englan<l. The inhabitants of the
Home Kingdom put no bounds to their rage
aud fury. The reports which went flying
abroad were frightfully exaggerated, ami the
]ieo))le well-nigh lost their self-control in dis-
cussing measures of revenge. The English
newspapers of the summer of 1857 teemed
with editorials and contributions, in which the
most cruel methods known to the barbarities
of mediieval warfare were openly advocated as
the jjroper means of redress in India.
GREAT BRlTAlX.—tiEl'OY RKBELLloy.
353
As soou as Lord Camiiug succeeil
storing- some slight confidence and
ler in
mioht
Calcutta, he instituted sucl
be.st shore up the shake
ludia. He perceived at a
for the comiug of a Bnt
Home Kingdom, ten thm
would be to wait for ch
something could lie iloiie 1(
army could come to the
Indian Empire, the (invei
in Hindustan would
either be trampled in
blood or cast into the
Bay of Bengal. In
the emergency, fir-
tune stood Lord Can-
ning well in hand.
He was sufficiently
acquainted with all
the movements on the
vast board of Empire
to be able to ^-e
pieces — here a knight,
and there a castle —
might be seized by
himself and made
available against the
enemy. In his sore
trial he remer
that at that Vfi
an English armament,
which had been sent
out weeks before fir
a descent on the ports
of China, was alrea(
on the Indian coa--t, "^
within his reach. He
accordingly took the
great responsibility of
arresting the sc^uadron rn nm
it to the greater need of Ind
imbroglio might well be left to settle itself as
it might, or to remain perpetually unsettled,
atiliirs at ('al.-utt.i and D. lln
But the stopping of tli.' I'-n-lidi arnianu'nt
was not the only measure which Lonl Canning
adopted for the salvation nf tin' ( 'I'Virniiient
and people. Early in thi- yrar. Sir .lanirs
Outram had been sent with an army on an
expedition against Persia. He made short
work with tlie campaign. JSIeeting the enemy
at Khushal), he iutlicte<l upon him a decisive
and overwhelming defeat, ending the war with
a I1I..W. Him L.nl Canning now ivmcnilirred
and suinniMiied witli all speed t., ivturn to
India. In this matter, al,-.., f.itune fav,.ied
the movement. Telegraphic coiinuiinication
had been effected by \a,vA DalhouMe Uetweeu
Thither l.onl Canning s.^nt on its wav to
Ceneial Outran, the loll„u ing despatch . " We
ill diverting | ^u \nt \li oik Bisr mi n here." Never was
The Ciunese I a tiuei telegiam uiged bv the electric current
to Its destination Outiam responded with
ahiiit^ Biiniring In- armv with liim. he
il at Cal-
rst etiects,
roviiice at
UXIVKHSAL HISTORY.— THE MODPJIiN WORLD.
hI.m- authoiitv nf Sir .Inhii . On ll,.. rvmi
Lulinre, ^^\u■u. (,ii ihc lltli ..l' May, tlie iie«> Lal,.,n
wa.- li-nie tliitlicr (if the luiitiiiy at Mccinit. taiy, li
In hi. al.>ri,rt- the niiana nt the capital the' ,.n
I- ..11 whi.-ii the intelligence
.n at Meerut was l.r..ii;J,t t._.
l.all, half civil, half niili-
■..,je,-t,-.l. It wa- .l.M-i.h-.lthat
t >h..ul.l ),ln,v,.,l a> tli..u-li
ivst.-.l ,,n C..!..!!.'! KmL.tI .M..nlp.inei-y. The n..thin,^ i.mh.u. was at the .I....1-. Durinuthe
Briti>h anny al that pla.'.' lay at the tin,e in ni^ht th.^ ..Iil,-eis ina.le i.iciiarati..],s f..i- the f..l-
the cant..nni.nts kn.iwn a> .M.-ean .Meet-, al...ut louin- .lay. A military j.ara.le an.l review
six mil.'s fr..ni th.> citv. 'I'h.- army c..n.-iste.l was ..r.hav.l f.ir the early iiiorninff. In the
iif m.ii-e than liv.' ih.insin.l men, of wl i arranm-m.nt for the same the artillery, heavily
al).>ut thirti-en hun.hv.l w.iv l;rilish regulars. j.ia.l.'.l with grape, was planted iu a certain
It c.nl.l n..t li.' .liM'criU'.l l.v the Knglish an- ! inisilion li.'lori' whi.'h, in ..n,. of the evolnti.jns
thorities whether ..r imt the native troojis i uf the review, the St^poy r. uim. iits must pre-
VtFW OF LAHORE— THE ENCiT.TSir I'lIfR
.-.Mi.
would remain loyal ..r j..in the revolt. The I sent theins.'lvcs in line. The E
situation was one of i;r.'at p.-ril. The officers at the mom.iit when the S.^poys sh.udd .'.ime
did not dare to let matt.Ms .Iril't alons until an | into this |.ositi..n, w.mv t<. 1..' lieliin.l the tw.dve
unquenchahle mutiny sh.ml.l flame np ar..iin.l -nns of the liatl.ai.'s, an.l the artillervmen
the very .piart.rs wh.av th.v wi're .•stalilishc.l. wre to stan.l at their p..sts with li-hte.l
On the other han.l, it was not jnst, p.^rhaps n..t mat.'h.s. Th.' plan was .-arricl ..nt to the
expedient, f.i assnm.' that the native tn.i.ps l.tt.i-. When th.' f.iur th..n-an.l native fro.iiis
the antli.ii itii's, n.it t.i risk .■vervthing ..n the .-.mtrived for them, thev were halted, and the
hope that th.' Srpovs w.iul.l r.'main h.yal anil .-..mmand was giveu io .ftael; arms! It was the
obe.lient. The pri'snnipli..n ..n the ..tiier si.le all. -inative of obedience or death. The .Sepoys
was s.( stroni:' that it was ilctei-min.'.l to mate ]ii'r.iiv..l at a L^lam-e that the European sol-
the mutinv at a single ni..ve. i diers ha.l lli.ni ni their power. They obeyed
GREAT BRITAIX.—SEPOY liEBELLIOy.
no
the command, and ^tatktil till 11 iiiii-,iiiil the m-khi ot tlu iinn nndi ii|), as usual,
lattei A\ciL iniiiuduttU h lu i\ to th. ot i tMitKui ot ] ii.li-h -o|,lirr> and a
cantonment- In tin lowi i I'lini luh tin Lii _iiit iiiiioiit\ ot -e]io\- ( i\ npoiv \va~ re-
tdl-h well fjUilK ~u,i."tul ill luini.UMMiu' _u.li.l 1- ot the iiio-t inil.oilant niililaiy
till "^epoN- out ot |.o\\,l lll.l 111 MMIILC till stUloll- 111 I p|><l ill 111, l|o| lilll>t the feadiT
PloMlli. tloui -Ml .11- l,li
In Olldh hoU.M 1 1
Ihol,
il\ dllliHIlt
AM- 11 1. hid ihlt _1. 1
rioxniii w
till,,! t . till lllldil th. do
illiilon ot the
Hid tM hi.imi, tliH -1,111 1
t -oin, ot tl
tl lull iMllt- It lid
111 modi in
hi t i\ It u t n th
OtI t Mi\
tl cit\ i I 1 1 1 ^
th i'i\ ni
1 11 ltd t Oiilh Vt tl
,li th
Biiti h iiin\ mil i|i 1
i -ep \ u , ., 1 >
mill ml t
the (t xuu 1 -.1 H n,
N I lUI 11
^^ heu th 1 1. Ill 11 h \
1 It It he
-tl i\e uith _i It 11 i_\
t tl\ the
lu-uiie tl 11 111 I t \i
1 the 11, Ul
.eiit- tl 111 the (U\ h
It tl 1 ti It
w 1- in \ tin It mil t li
1 ineinli lel
thtt Lii kn w w 1 I it\
AMth 1,11
hti 11 i in 1 tl in iw h
mil 1 tl 11
-ml ml t h 11 1 vMi t
11 n 1,11 11
mi t 1 hel- with I -1
nil 1 h t
u ^-^
IliL (jo\eini)i theief le tell Intk be
t lie the leMilt, in I p -te 1 him-elt in
the Re-idencA i unlit in held |iiutei-
t the (i \eiiiii, nt 1 I It 1, till e
tl ni the ut\ H I he w i i,, ,„
diit 1\ h -1 . 11\ \ luhelmii, nun
1 I \11 thl lljl III ht hell at
with e\t, I 1 111, m 11 i_ But he
w 1- n t 1 tin 1 t uitue th 1 ,ilt
t the t,n_J On tl J 1 t I lU
«hih h u,- 1 lini_ in I I t t X
-htlllni t thl I h \|I 1 I ml hit
teuil hi- Imili- -o toi,ihl\ that not
even amputation conhl >ave his lite. He died 1 bered only aliout three hundred men, iiieUiding
two days afterward-, and the pirri.son was left | the officers. Tlie Sepoys in the ranks numhered
to defend itself without lii< able and cour- ' fully three thousand, iueludiug the Fifty-third
ai:eous direction. and Sixty-tit'th lo-iiinieiits of' Intantry, the Sec-
Sooii after the events just ilescrihed, a mes- oiid KiLriiiniit ot HeiiLral Cavalry, .ami a eoin-
sa-e wa- carried to Lnekiiow from Sir Hugh pany of tin- Fir>t Artillery. There were, how-
Wheelor, coniiiianilaiit at tlio city of Cawn- ev.r. in Cawupoiv about a thonsaud other
].o,,., ili-taut about tittviiiile<. This important Ki,L:li-li rc-idciit-, ot whom a lari;e mniiber
tin- -uiiii,,er, lav on the -oiitli bank of the whole population a- a iiia<-, about one in hfty
river (i.i,,i:es. Hi-re was .-tationed a di- was of European birth, it was the ini.-fortune,
piTi H RE«inr\
UXIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
or
if th:
Sir Hi
situ-
iva.lv
atiou, tliat Mr lluirli Whrelcr, iq
great a rL'sponsilulity .levilv.-.!,
seventy-tive years of age. He wa.s, moreover,
a man by nature aud discipline hut little ca-
pable of facing the dreadful emergency which
had now arrived. He had b.-.-n fully" warned
of the spread of the revnlt. When the rebell-
ion broke out at Meerut, and .soon afterwards
at Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence sent woril
to his subordinate at Cawupore to make eveiy
preparation to meet and vepel the coming re-
volt. But Sir Hugh Wheeler was unable to
grasp the situation. The position in which he
planted his forces was ill-chosen, and the de-
fenses which he prepared were little better
than contemptible. Some mud walls, about
four feet in height, were thrown up as a pro-
tection for the garrison. But the intrench-
ments were so slight that a horseman would
have little difficulty in passing them at a bound.
Within this most miserable situation, the
English commander gathered the fated com-
pany of Europeans, who must maintain them-
selves against the multiplied thousands of
enraged and triumphant enemies. There were,
in all, within the fortifications, about four
hundred Euglish soldiers. Of non-combatants,
some four hundred and sixty-five, including the
civil officials, the railway managers, merchants,
and shop-keepers of Cawnpcn-e, were gathered
into the pen. Of grown women, married and
unmarried, wives and daughters of the English
officers and residents, there were two hundred
and eighty ; and the remainder were children.
Such was the situation when the native host
of insurgents, composed largely of the ruffian
element, always aggregated about large cities,
encompassed the English jiosition and began
the siege. It was in the face of this emer-
gency that Sir Hugh Wheeler appealed to Sir
Henry Lawrence for assistance, and appealed
in vain. Before the extent and fall horror of
the situation was known, the shell from the en-
e.nv's battrrv had relieved Sir Henry of all
the respnn>il'.ilities and .langers ..f plan and
X(
• Hugh Wheeler m:
lling to his aid anotl
become infamous
nturv. About two
wnpore. up th- Ki-
Ganges, lies the little town (jf Bithoor. This
jilaee had i)een, previously to the annexation
of Uiidh by the Euglish, "the seat of erne of
the princely dynasties of the great race of the
Mahrattas. At the time of the Euglish ac-
cession in Oudh the throne of Bithn
He was "overtaken in evil, in'rhai
r was oc-
Idji Buo.
treason-
El!
conduct. 11
jierniitted him to retain a jialace in Bithoor,
and gave him in his retirement a pension of
eighty thousand pounds. Baji Kdo still claimed
tn be" the Peshwa of Pimah. He had n.i son
of his own luins, but, in accnnlanc.. with the
cust.im of his ecumtrynieii, he ha.l adopted a
son who should inherit his estates, and at
length conduct his funeral rites; for this the
tradition of the ^lahrattas prescribed as a
necessary ante.'edeiit to the l)lesse<luess of
Nirvana. By Indian law, an ad<.pte.l son has
all the rights, privileges, and rank of a natural
heir. The youth chosen by Baji Edo as his
successor bore the name of Daudhu Panth,
luit is univer.-ally known in history by his
otficial name or rajah-title of Nana Sahib.
At the time ot the outbreak of the mutiny,
this Nana Sahib, claiming all the rights and
emoluments of his adoptive father, was resident
m petty princely state at Bithoor. Unwisely,
however, the Euglish Government, at the
death of Baji Riio, had cut off the ]iensioii,
and the Nana Sahil. was left to the inherit-
ance of hi> father's per.-oiial estate only. At
this he was enraged ; but, Lidian-like, he dis-
sembled his passion and aliided his time. It
were long, indeed, to give the story of the
efforts made by Nana Sahib to regain his peu-
sionarv inheritance. In pursuance of this end
he sought the aid of a young Mohammedan,
named Amizulah Khau, resident at his court,
and used him henceforth as his emissary and
representative. Amizulah Khan went to Lou-
don, and, being well educated and extremely
hands<nne in person, cut feu- a .seasmi a re-
markal.)le figure in Euglish society. But his
mission was vain. The British Government
refu>e<l to restore the Nana's pension, aud
Amizulah Khan at length returned to India.
It thus happened that Nana Sahib, ex-Rajah
of Bithoor, thon-h in outwanl friendshi|. and
alliance with the Enulish, bore about in his
GRKA T BJUTAIX.— SEPOY REBELLIOS.
breast a smothered voleaiKi full of hot [litrh and
sulphurous fire.
It was til this dangerous, alilc, and ri-vfiiL:t'-
ful Indian Prince that Sir Huuh \\du'.I.T,
already at the door of desperation, now ap-
])lied for assistance. Nana Sahili i-iadilv ac-
cepted the call, and came speedily at the head
of his army into Cawnpure. For a few days
the Nana made a prrtensc of roopi-i-atinL: with
the English; hut he «as so,,,, p,.,Miad.Ml l,y
his countrymen to put liimself at their head,
crush the hated foreigners, and thus recover
the ancient sovereignty of Pnnah. So in the
city he assumed command ol the mutineers,
and was thencef >rth the chief of the insur-
gents in the region of (,'a\viip..re. I'lider his
direction the siege wa> prosi-d. Nana Sahili
notified the English commaud.r that on the
12th of June his position would In- as.-aiilted.
The attack was made, and -ucii was tin- cour-
ageous fighting of the tour hundrod >..ldiers
hehind the mu.l works, that the Hindus were
rqudse.l with large losses. The ga.ris,,u also
surtiired. From day to ihiy, a shower of halls
was poured incessantly into the indosure.
The water supply of the garrison was limited
to a single well, and this spot was under direct
fire of the enemy. AVhoever went thitliei- to
get water for his thirsty comrades, or toi the
famishing women and children, diil so at the
jieril of his life. I^nvly did such a martyr
return from his inis-ioii without streams of
hlood pouring from hi- liullet \\(iund-.
Meanwhile, insui-ijents troni the siirrouml-
ing districts of Oudli joined themselves to the
forces of Nana Sal.ih. an.l another assault was
made on the intrenchmeiits. But again the
thousands of the enemy were driven back.
Each British soldier had'uow not o.dy his own
life, hut the lives of the women an.l children
in his hand. There was no alt.rnativ Imt
Oudh fell headlong with the Britidi halls ii,
their breasts, an.l the assaulting ho>t n.ll.Ml ha.-k
Sahil.. not ..nlv that ti,.- Kngli.di works .•,,ul.l
n..t 1.,- .■nrriclby st..i-ni, hot that hi- ..un h.,1.1
as a l.-a.ler ..f th.- n-l.ellion was h.,,-,.n.-.l bv
failure. He a.-.-or.lin-lv s.mt Ami/.ulal, Khan
and another officer to tender to the Ihigli-h
iavorable terms of ca|iitnlation. Siarvation
was already at hand, and it was determined to
Ku-
accejit the .ivertnre. Tirnis wer.-
ropeaus in C'a\\npore w lio ha.l imi heen in any
safe .-..n.luet t.i Allahahail. TheEngli.sh Gen-
eral, ami til.- ..ili.-.rs an.l men under his com-
man.l, ha.l n.. a|.pn-l,ension ..f th,- ast.mn.ling
treachery which ,-..nslitut.-.l the basis .,f this
agreement. Th.- Ilin.lus ha.l l.ing since
fare. It ha.l h.-en a loiiu ti since, within
the bor.lers .,f In.lia, th.- L;.-n.-ral ruh-s by
which arndes are f.muht an.l >urr.-n,lere.i, hail
been vi.date.l. But the ,-a|,itulali..n ..f Caun-
It u.
the Gangt
tn-e.l that th
whole
n.and
Attheap|„.inte,lti
c.impany, military an.l civil, nu-n
chihlren, were march.-.l ..ut ..f the miserable
lien ol death, wdiere they ha.l so hrav.lv .le-
fended themselves, ami wen- l.-.l to tin- boats
at the river's edge. The eud.arkati.,n was
maile, ami the barges were loose. 1 ti.im the
bank. Along the s^lmres wer.- gath.-rcl a vast
han.ls. Just as the li.,ats ^^.■^■ tnrnin- int..
the .stream, the blast ..f a trnni|,.-t was hear.l,
an.l instantly the straw-thai. -h.-.l i.M.ts .if the
barges were seen in fiames. 'l"he ti.a.-lu-r.nrs nif-
the signal to dash lighte.l tor.-h.-s into the r.Mifs,
and then, jumping ovejli..ar.l, swam ash.ne. In
another moment the cr.iw.ls ..n lie- haig.-s were
made the targets for th.msan.ls .il' muskets.
The flames sprea.l. l-A.-iy .lis.-hargi- IV.nn the
shore struck il.iwii si-.,r.-s in .l.adi- Th.- b.it-
t.ims ..f the b-.ats w.-n- iiistantlv lilh-.l with
the .lea.l an.l .Ivin-. \,, langnag.- can .le-
scribe th,- h.,rr.,r ..f ih,- s,-,-n,-. .\,-arlv the
wlmh- c.mpanv |„-ri-l„-d mis,-,al.ly in 'bl 1 -
an.l fir.-. Only a -in-jh- l,oai-l..a,l .liifte.l into
the current. Fnrlh.-r .h.wn th.- stream' this
barge was re.-aptur.-d, an.l al,..ut nin,-ty per-
sons were taken hack int.. ('awn|io|-.- as |irisoners.
caped to tell the storv. Tlmse wli,i were retaken
r 'XIVKL'SA I. HIS TOR Y.-^ THE MODERN WORLD.
Ill the -wi linen
wen- i^luit to
were thrown
Forawhih'th m-a-.-s.hmetothisde.l.au-
ino .■utnpaiiy nf Kii-li>h w.,iuen and chil.lreii
were liiiiiteil to Mich iii(H;;iiitics as eanie of im-
prisonment anil servitude. But >«'ana Sahih
and his lieutenants were not yet satisfied with
their reveiiL'C Already divisions of the British
arniT had hi--nn to pmi-trate the reh.dliou>
proviiKTs, and Nana Saliili i»avi-iveil that it
was the he^inniii- of th- rod. He resohvd,
however, that the prisoners ill his liands should
with two Sepovs and two Mohammedans, was
sent to the piison to earry out the mandate of ]
horrid luilrheiy. The live iiiurderers entered,
with drawn swords, and sla>hed and haeked
and ,-tal.l.ed until the room was parked with
the dyini: and dead. The awful shambles re- i
mained in that condition until the following
mornine-, when a second company came, dragged
the mntilated hodies torth, and cast them,
after thev liad stripped troiii them the rem-
nant- ot Clothing', into a dry well which gaped
o)ieii neai- at hand. As the bodies were seized
for this final plnni;e from the sorrows and
sutterin-< of lif., it was fiund that a few of
the womtai Were not vet dead, and at least one
of the children /r/V,/'/,, ,•»/- „„■„,,! It was the
acme of hori-or. Smue time atterwards, when
the Engli.-h soldiers retook Cawnpore, they
were oliliei'd to look down, with rage and tears,
into that awful pit, and recover therefrom, as
best thev might, the mangled forms of beauti-
ful women and helpless idiildren whom the
Sepoys had there consigned to the final igno-
miny. Till the history of Great Britain shall
fall into the oblivion of the eternities, the rec-
ollection and story of the Cawnpore massacre
will still be revived and repeated, as the most
horriil incident >-i' warfare belonging to the
nineteenth century.
It may interest the reader to know- some-
thini: of the future of Nana Sahib. When
the EuLdish marched back on Cawnpore, he
was -till in command of the rebellious forces.
He had the cmra-e to fight with the British
armv in a desperate battle, in which he was
comiiletelv detV-ateii, and his forces scattered
ill all directions. He thereupon fled into Cawn-
poi-e, and thence to his own palace at Bithoor.
It 1- .-aid that, mi arriving there, he completed
the infamy of his life by the murder of a cap-
tive woman who had been spared for his own
purposes from preceding butcheries. This
done, he mounted his horse and fled from
Bithoor f irever. He well knew that the aveng-
ing angel was in the wake of his flight. He
made his escape into the wild district of Nepal,
and was never heard of afterwards. Rumors
of his whereabouts were sometimes borne to
the i)riti,-h authorities, but were always found
to he groundless. Nana Sahib hail forever
vanished from the sight of thi>se wlio, even if
they had laid the avenging hand upon him,
could never have wreaked on his treacherous
life a fitting retribution for his crimes.
We may now jiass from the insurrection
]ii-oper to eon>ider the recouquest of the re-
bellious districts by the English. It is just to
say that, after the first wild hours of panic, the
energies of the British race were never more
heroically disjilayed than in the work of re-
covering India from the clutches of the mu-
tineers. It will be remembered that every-
thing of miiitarv and civil procedure had to
be dii-ected from ('alcutta. Communications
between the revolted provinces were, in a great
measure, cut oH', and the Government was
uniler the iiece-sity of urging forward the
vaiioiis military divisions from Lower Bengal
a< a ha-e. It was clearly perceived that the
fii-st jioint to be gained in the recomiuest of
the country was the recovery of Delhi. That
place was logically the seat of the rebellion.
There old Bahadur Shah had been proclaimed
as Emperor of all India. His sous had been
assigned to the command of the various divis-
ions of the Sepoy army, and the latter, to the
number of more than fifty thousand, had
taken possession of Delhi. All the Europeans
and Eurasians, with the exception of about
fiftv, nearlv all of whom were women, had
been expelled from the city, and rebellion was
rampant and victorious in all the region round
about. Even the fifty prisoners were soon
brought forth from their place of confinement
to be butchered, in cold blood, in the court-
yard of the palace.
The command of the expedition f ,r the re-
coverv of Delhi was eiveii to Sir Ilenrv Bar-
!J:ea t nuiTAiy.-sFA'o r RKBELiioy.
)n.lli with ai
sui.i. llr 111
at l!a<lli-k;
the ill>tiri:vnts in f,
f.iuulit with them a hai-a halllr, and w
ciiiipl.-tc virtni-y. I],, ihni madr his w;
D,-lhi, ami t.»,k tip his )„,„ti.,n ..u a
ovcrinuidii- tlir citv. Fm- tlir tiiii.^. Iiou
it was i,ii,H,»ihi,. in tvrai.tuiT ll„. stron;
H,i,. Tims tril and
dcMviidant nlTimn
t..i-ed,til-st 111 tin. city, and tin
11- ivumns. Hy tlir l.r::,ni,ii
o-aiMiu- I'.ritisliautliurilvwas
HIT llic stron^linld .ariitly .•siai.iisli.-d t.. admit ..I tlic iTslnratmii
frnni till- 'riu-niv. On tlit- L'-'M and L'.'.tii ..t' ..t' ,avd -nvciniu.nt in I Kdlii, and thr ivhidH-n
All-list, hl.MHly liattlfs wciv ti.ii-lit witli tlif in tliis .jiian,-,- uas at an end.
niutinrri-s, win., sallyiii- nut in .,v<Twh,diniii-- Tim na.ha- will imt liave fni-Kntt.'ii the
iiuinl.n-s, .n,i;;l,t tnian-v thn Hi-itis], pnMtin,,. divadful nnnditin,, in wlii.di tlm small Knglish
At len,t;th, in tlie rally ptirt uf September, j uaifisnu at Lueknnw was left alter the death
the neavy hatteries arrived, and the .lefenses | ,,f Sir Henry Lawreiiee. P.efniv the tall nf
of the city were snmi hattcrd down. On the that l.ravc ennimander he had caivfiilly cal-
14th of tiie mnnth an assault was nrdcivd, and i lailat.'d the chai s, and had ,lc,a<led that
Delhi was carrieil hv stnrm. It was ii,,t, : Imp,, fnr his .v.mmand lav in the dehaise nf
hnwever, until after six davs ,,f alnmst iii.-es- | their pn-itimi at tlm Il-Mdcicv tn the last day
c'itv were a'n ivenveivd. The ternhle charac- P.ritish anlhnrities wmild put fnrth everv cHhrt
ter nf the struj-le mav he kimwii fr.mi the ' fnr the ivseue, and that s„„„- /,„„' dnrin- the
extent .d th.. Ih-itish Insses, which were a tlinii- I autumn the smind nf Ihalisli ,.aiiiinn in the
sand and twelve men killed, and nearlv fmir dl-taiiee wmild a nice the ninrniiiL' nf de-
thousand wniinded. A-s asvictnrywasd.- ' livenuice fnr ail ulinmi..d,t then survive. It
clared fnr tin- Kneli^h. the ,,ld Kmpernr shut h:ippeiied that wlum Sir .lames ( )utrani was
himself up in the tmuh nf Haimtvun, fr.un recalled, as we have seen, frnm his IN-rsian
cyjrKnsAL history.-^thk modeux world
(lered t(i pi
mci'e
.1 to Allaliaba.
1, to put down
the revolt
ill tl
hat re^inii, aiK
i afterwards to
act iu su]
.pol-t
.if Sir Htigl
1 Wheeler, at
Cawupure,
aii.l
Sir Henry
Lawrence, at
LiK-know.
Tlii
j liazaril(ius \v(j
rk could never
liave been
assiji
ne.l to abler hi
aids or a more
the
en place
throuiih
Fut
On the 15tl
ha.l
eugageiiiems witn
he came to Cawiipi
he was victorious it
k'poys. (.)], the Kitli
In battle after battle
district of the Oudh,
and sought by every possible means to strike
out in the direction of Lucknow. But his
forces were insufficient for the iiazard, and he
was obliged to await the arrival of (ieneral Out-
ran! with another division of the army. When
the latter came, the camjiaigu for the relief
of Lucknow was at once renewed. Although
General Outram was in supreme command,
alike of civil and military affairs, he refused
to supersede Havehick in the held, declaring
that to the latter should remain the glory of
recovering the capital and rescuing the garri-
.son from the merciless clutch of the Sepoys.
We may here transfer our station to the in-
side of the Residency at Lucknow, and share in
our sympathies the suffei-iiiL:> ami trials to
fearful summer and fall ol' l^'tT. Tlie siege,
the defense, and the relief have become ever
memorable iu the annals of the century. We
have seen how, iu the dawn of the great
mutiny, Sir Henry Lawrence took the wise
English population of Lucknow from the city
to the Resiliency, and to make there his
jn-eparations for the coming storm. It was by
the wisdom of Lawrenr.. iu these trying davs
that the pos>il,ility of >alvatiou from' the same
fate which befell the garrison at Cawnjiore
was secured. He made the most of the days
of peace and the incipiency of the rebellion by
the Construction of strong defenses around the
Residi'iii-y, and by storing therein, in place,- of
security, the largest supply of provi.-ioi
it was possible for him to gather,
prepared, he awaited the outbreak
which
Thus
wiselv
Then came the tempest. The first shock
was ably and successfully resisted. Though
the besieged were under constant fire, and were
pressed on every side; th.ui;;h tlnir luimliers
ilisease, yet the onsets of the Sepoys were suc-
cessfully resisted, and each successive assault
was rej)elled. We have already spoken of the
fatal accident by which Sir Henry Lawrence,
losing his life, rose to perpetual fame. The
command of the garrison was transferred to
General luglis, and the defense continued to
be bravely conducted. On the 20th of July
the mutineers made another assault ou the
I English position, but were again hurled back
with great losses. The same thing happened
on the iDth of Augu^t, and eight days after-
wards, the Sepoys, in overwhelming numbers,
and with desperate courage, a third time at-
tempted to carry the Residency by storm. But
the attack was met with the usual spirit, and
the rebels were driven back with heavy losses.
During the remainder of August, though the
siege was pressed with ever-increasing vigor,
the undaunted garrison held out courageously.
Ou the 5th of September, the first rumors of
the approach of Havelock were wafted into
the Re.-ideiicy. That General, accompanied
by Outram, had fought his way along the
Gawupore road during nearly the whole of
August. It was Hot, however, until the 22d
of Septemher that the coming army of relief
reached the Alambagh, a strong position and
military station about four miles distant from
the Residency. This place was held and
strongly defended l.)y the Sejioys. But the at-
tack of the English, ou September 25th, could
not be resisted. The Alambagh was taken by
storm, and the besieged garrison, in the in-
cl,.>ure of the Pvesidency, couhl already hear
small force behind to hold the Alambagh,
Havelock pressed on to the relief of the pent-
up garrison. Through the remaining miles he
fbiiiiht a continuous battle with the Sepoys,
and on the 2lith of the month, planted himself
in front of the gates of the Residency, and
then bn.ke through.
Great wa- the relief and great the rejoicing
uxiVERSAi. insroRY.—Tin: M<>r>Ei:x W()i:i.t>
11 \ 1 1 ,
1 tl It tl \ lud
il h Ih \
^Mtl in th f itih iti i 1 it ll \t t i Ii |
I \ [ tl It tl 1 1 ( il 1 I ]
tl 111 11 1 1 It 1 el tl 1 , I 1 11 , 1 ll t I t tie
tl ll 1 tl I tl 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 I 1 I tl 1 ( 1 t 1 It 1 ill
nil t 1 1 I tl I 1 1 I 1 I Nil, V I 1 t III h t 1 1 tl n
t I t Itn A 1 1 ll 11 1 1 1 X 1 \ t 1 I 11 1 t, 1 1 1 , n Ih \
h 1 1 u tl 1 I 11 t 1 \ ll I eiil t th 1 ht \ th I I 1 ui n 111 I tl 1 1 ^li 1 11
II uti u w liiilhl ll t 1 it hil Iftu lui 11 I 1 ui 1 1 leha 1\ h\ 1 11 ht \
lii_ the nil 1 1 111 1 tl Ih t ice \ hi h 1 1 11 f I ill t ml oiiii i h 1 j in 1 c Jll
H uel ck u 1 ( ) t I 1 I i 1 L u il k t I 111 ^ t II lU i ll e leteu,t au 1 ti e 1 es ot the
'^^ ^^^
ATTACK UN THE AI.AMnACH.
with them were liy no means sufficient to war- hesie^ed were severe. The hut mui of the In-
r.-iiil a withiliawal fiMiii the defenses and ex- diaii siininier and aiituiiiii scdiched the MiH'erers
|i..>iiiv to the open cniiiitrv. The numbers in the iiielosure with Imnimi: heat. Disease
within the ineh.Mire ,.f the Eesidency had and wa.-lin- added t- the evri-:i.rmimlatinL;
Imm-ii ■ji-e;itl\- inereaM'd. Init the consumption of soiinw-. llaltle wa^ li.tniv the naio, pesti-
supplier was iMirrespondinulv ansrmented. On leiu'.^ in tin' air and mhIit Ni.t only was the
the whole, the peril wa^ nlllv lessened and whole toive of the ImmjIIsIi a-ain shut up
postponed, rather than ivnioved. Nor were the within the deteiiH'S of the Kesideiiev, I. lit the
besieLdn.tr hosts trreatlvdi-eonra-.Ml. The Sepovs Mnall ■jarri.M.n whieh Ilaveloek had leCi in the
had learned to fi^it.' Their lont; .■oi,fa<t will, .Mainha^J, wa< aNo l,e<ieL'ed. and eonld hardly
the British army had -ivii them eourat'e and hold its own ai:aiii>t the constant assaults of
(1UI:A T BRITAIX.— sepoy liEIiELIJoy.
' "' .lac
sure to eume.
:\re:uiuhile, in
inerston had call'
hrmcfBalaklava
til- 11th ..f July,
inana-iii-rhi.-f'
lu.lia. '• When will
yiiu be able to set
mit fni- the seat of
war. Sir Colin?"
sail! Palmerstou.
•' Within twenty-
four hours," was the
reply: and on the
evening of the 12th,
the uew coniinauiler
left England f)r
Calcutta/ He ar-
rived at the latter
city on the loth of
August, and with
great energy pre-
pared an expedition
f )r the relief of the
Briti-sh garrisons iu
Oudh. His forces
consisted of sis thou-
sand men, supported
with an artillery
contingent of thirty-
six guns. What ar-
rangements had been
made in the South,
what relief might
he expected from
the direction of Cal-
cutta, was unknown j|__
to the sufferers at
Lih'kiiou-: but they
well kuHW that thcv woi
the day of retribution
Sir Colin's arniv at
li.ire. and from that i
same route which H
Lurkuou-. Like lii<
also had to fight
< ,,r,.drcc->or. Cam|.l.rll
way. and it was not until
the 10th of November that he was nbl<- to
open his guns against the besiegers of the
■ctio,,, a little S,-,,irh maiden,
otticrr, Irll a.|.,.|, in ihr >i,ade
, Sndd.ulv ~1h. -i.ran^ up,
^r hands, ran with living plai.l.
he came: " Dinna ye hear it?
i'? It's the slogan of the
Her ipiick ear had caught iu
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERy WORLD.
vii ;
aJ of th,.
ir, Thr r
111' iliciili'll
,,(■
li>l(>|-V. '
>VnrU
Sil
Coliu L\
ipbrlls
nt t
pivii
the Residenc}'. The f(irces within ami witiioiit
the (leFeuses were joined, auil the second relief
of Luekuow was accomplished.
It was at once determined by f^ir Colin and
his associate commanders that the non-eom-
batants in the Residency must l)e saved by
withdrawal from the place. To make this
movement was still a matter of great hazard,
for the Si'poys hnni,^ in mnltitndos on every
quart. 'r. On the IDtli ot November the
English batteries were opened furiously on
the strongest position held by the enemy, as
though an assault were about to be ordered.
Wliil.. the cannonade was kept up, Canipb.'ll
and llav.lock ordered th.- .pii.-t with.lrawal
of the garris.)n and n.in-oMihatants t.) the
Dilkusha Palace and the Alambagh. The
movement was efTected without disaster, and
the retreat from Lucknow was safely begun.
An incident of these days cast a gloom over
the British Empire, and emphasizp.l the cl,-,se
of a hcr.iii" life. On reachiii- the Alainl,a-h,
Henry ILivel.ick could uo no lurtli.r, II.'
was exhausted. Battle and toil, huni^.T, lliii-sf,
anxiety, sleeplessness, and finally .lisias.-, Iia.l
d.me their work. On the 24th of Novendicr th.'
her.i .li.Ml Tlir.'c .lays afterwards the Queen of
En^ianil, llttl.' kn'iwing the uselessness of the
honor which she gave, bestowed on him the
title and dignity of a Baronet. The honor
descendeil to his son ; nor might it be sai.l
that such a .listincti.m was needed by him who j
ha.l f.iun.l his final I'.'st in the soil of the old
king.l.im of Ou.lh, under the fiery glare of the
sun of India.
The rest of the story of the suppression of
the great mutiny may be briefly told. There
could be no further massacres of women and
chihlren in Oudh. It was now solilier to sol-
dier, or rather one soldier against many, f.ir the
Sepoys were near!}' always from four to ten times
as nnm.'i'ons as the atta.'king English f.irces.
As s.H.n as ]„• was free f..r a.'ti.in, Sir Clin
Campb.'U niaivhe.l again f..r ('awnp.,re. In
that city the English cause ha.l, of late, fared
ba.lly. Cawnpore had been placed, after its
r.'.-overy by the English, under command of
< nii..ranVin.lhani. Not l.ing afterwards, the
Hin.lu (i.)v.an.ir, ..r Scindia, of Gwalior
L;atliiiiMl an aiiiiy of insurgents, and advanced
.10 ( 'a\Mip..ri', h.)ping to recapture the city
troin till' British garrison. General Windham
niar.-h.'.l out to meet the Scindia, and was
wor-tcl in battle. He was obliged to foil
lia.'k to his ilefenses, anil the rebels succeeded
in rc.ic.aipyini;- Cawnp.jre. Such was the con-
.liti.m .if atliiirs which called urgently for the
presence and aid of Sir Colin Campbell. He
marched at once against the place, himself at
the head of one division, and Sir Hope Grant
leading another. The en. 'my were thus il.nibly
attackeil, and Cawnpoie was finally rest.n-ed
to English authority.
The event which we have just descrilied
occupied the closing months ot 1857 an.l the
o]i.aiing .if the next year. During the winter,
Lu.-kn.iw was hel.l by the Hindus in full
force. In .ilher quarters of the h.irizon the
sky ha.l i-lcar.'.l. It was perceived, even by
the eni'iny, that the British power in In.lia
was unshaken, an.l that the day of retribution
was at haii.l. In the presence of these facts
the reb.-lli.in was dissolved into its original
.'1. an. aits. At Ln. 'know, however, the mutiny
.Ir.'w t.i itself all of its remaining resources,
an.l the duty was devolved on Sir Colin
Campbell of carrying this last fortress ot the
revolt. With the opening of spring the cam-
paign was undertaken for the recapture .d the
capital. The British army again reache.l Luck-
now about the middle of March, and on the lyth
of the month fought with the Sepoys the last
great battle of the war. The English were com-
pletely victorious. About two thou.sanJ of
the mutineers were killed outright in the en-
gagement. A hundred cannon were taken
fr.im the rebels, and the army ot insurgents,
br.iken into fragments, was scattered iu all di-
rections. Lucknow was completely recovered.
Nor did the Sepoys make any further serious
efforts for the recapture of the ancient capital
of On.lh.
In the last cmflicts .if the war, several
GREAT B RITA rx.— SEPOY REBELLION. SOo
eminent soldiers lost tlicii- lives. Aniong the f luul taken refug-e. In that retreat, Hudsiin,
rest may be mentioned 8ir William Peel, who with his own hand, seized the fallen iimiiarrh,
was seriously wounded in the battle before drew him forth, and delivered hiui to his
small-pnxatCaui
character and ,<ti-
An..tl
tierv of General Wilson. II.HJ.n
tell m
the th
)yal princes of Delhi, and in
last battle, was Colonel Hodson, known in
India as "Hodson of II..d>on's H.n-se." His
career had been one of singular reckless-
ness and daring. He it was who, after the
recapture of Delhi, had, with the help of
of rage had them condemned to death. He
then took a carhine from the hands of one of
his men, and .-hot the ])rinces <lead, leaving
their bodies before the gates of Delhi. During
the rest of the war, he had gone through all
Hindu spies, penetrated the tomb of Ham- hazards and perils, to fall at last by a Sepoy
dvun, where the last of the Mogul Emperors bullet in the hour of final conquest. The
i;3
:;i''> VSIVEESAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
reader may n..t have fnr^ottfU that out of the 2\eiuiy all ui the leaders who had distinguished
disaster.^ of Calml, ending in the total de- themselves — and who had uot? — were honored
stniction of a iJriti^h ai-aiy, and of all who with titles and dignities and pensions. Sev-
were dependent on its iirotection, a single man eral of the Generals were made Baronets. Sir
had escaped to carry tlie news of the horror to ] Colin Campbell was raised to the peerage,
Jelalabad. That man was Dr. Brydon, who ' with the title of Lord Clyde. Dnnng the rest
lived thiou-h the >iege <.f Liieknow, euduriug of his lile, which extemlj<l to Lm;:',, he enjoyed
all the liard.-hii.> and -alleriuy< ..f that dreadlul a pension of two thousand puuuds a year. "At
situation, to be rescued with the gariison, and , the scenes of the principal events of the war,
to be mentioned with praise in the report of memorials were erected by the Government to
the campaign as one of the heroes of Luck- i commemorate the valor and .-acritice of those
ikeii p:
Brill
The
rivil a
1 the E:
d to tb.
st was
both
as an
enduri
ently Y
le nati
in tho^,
nisaiid
Residency at Luckuow bears witness in many
of its details and surroundings to the tragic
events, to the valor and the glory of 1857.
There, to the present day, may be seen the
ruined works, behind which the heroes who
fought under Havelock, stood and battled for
the Hag of Euglaud. There may be seen the
old ninsque an<l the maguitieeut banyan-tree
thrnugii whose branches the Sepoy bullets
wlii>iled during the siege. There, near at
liand, rises the significant mound, its .sides ter-
nnEA r hl'Itaix. — sf.poy rkbejJjIox.
raced and covered with the fragraut flowers of
India, wliile on the further slope rise the
feathery bamboos which overshadow the last
resting-place of two thousand British sohliors
who died of battle and pestilence in the sief;e
of Lueknow. At Cawupore, over the horrid
well whose open mouth received the mutilated
bodies of the murdered women and children,
a memorial has been erected; while roinid
about the sj^ot a beautiful garden, planted
with flowers and shrubs, and jn-otected
by a wall, jweserves the lumiory of
those who perished under the swonls
of the murderers sent to their blnod\
work iu the prison-house by the I ] 1
of Bithoor.
With the subsidence of the re belli
in India, a difficult and serious t\ 1
was left ou the hands of the & \ein
meut. By what means shoull
reorganization of those vast } pul
tious be effected. Iu the first j 1
the question of retribution mi t I
met. It was resolved by the auth i
ties, civil and military, that a distinc
tion should be made between thj t
who had merely participated in tl
mutiny, contending openly with tl
British forces iu battle, and th
who had taken part iu the mam h i
rid massacres, of which the ^ [ \
had been guilty. As far as pncti
cable, this distinction was carrie 1 out
in the punishment of those wh tell
into the power of the I5ntish. Tl
Hindu soldiers who were take lu 1
whose hands were not stained with
butchery and assassination, were treated
as prisoners of war. But those who
had lieeii guilty of massacre were at
once destroyed by being blown alive
from the moutlis of cannon. In ext(
of this severity, which had in it so ..
flavor of barbari>ni, the expla
by the British authorities t
under their pe.^uliar >n|,er-lil
or nothing for the mere faet of death, but
were horrilied at the thought of nuitil;itioii.
The metho.I of military execution was deduced
from this theorv; but after times have hardly
eoii-eiited to the wholesale and Savage process
by which the guilty Sepoys were obliterated.
After the first rigors of the military
method were passed, the civil government pro-
ceeded as best it might with the reorganiza-
tion of the country. ' In ^laivh of ISo.S Lord
Caniiiiig issued to' the inliabitants of Oiidh a
proclamation, in which he defliied, with much
severity, the measures by which they might be
restored to conditions of peace. It was set
t;.rth tliataJ] chiefs and landowners who should
at once surrender to the British Commissioner
on was -i\
en
the 8epo
s, careil lit
tie
M'l"
P
\idul onh that they
p'ro:.h
n tosa
Itx
V tlu
t ma— acie oi assassina-
.11 of the Governor-Geu-
t anv further indiila-eiice
ht Ite
ext
nde,l to the people of
nidee(
the
1 on
r whole condition thcre-
their own course in siir-
heni,-e
ves
o the jii-tice and mercy
.-h (io
lamati
•elli
.11 \\
neiit. The general effect
i> to eontiseate the lands
had t!
ken
[lart in the mutiny, and
UyiVKUSAL HISTORY.— THE MODEIiy WORLD.
\v;.s lint iK-rluips ..lie in a tlmiiMin.l nt di.- kind-
(iwn.Ts in nil Oii.Ui win, lia.l not I,. m (.■n-aged
ill the l;,-lK'Hinii. li vvas |..ii,a|.-. nut in-
tended liv LmhI Canniiiii- lliat ill.- luMialtv
should be <n ri-on,nvly exael.-d a- ini-lit lie
infen-ed from the procaniatiou. It wa.s the
purpose rather to make the people niiilerstainl
that the British (ioverninent, in tin- exerei-e
of prerogative whieh had ari>.-ii -at »( lie-
war, hail become the ori-iinal pmpii.-t.ir of the
lands of Uudh, and that all who henceforth
held or owned siieli lands iiiu,-t .f. -.,, under a
title derived from the Crown of England.
As soou as the policy of the Governor-
General was kuowu iu England a violent con-
troversy arose relative thereto, and the dis-
cussion in Parliament did not end until the
Government of India was revolutionized. Lord
Ellenborough and most of the Ministry an-
tagonized the principles of Lord Canning's
proclamation, and motions were introduced in
both Houses of Parliament to substitute a new
policy for that of the Governor-General. To
the American reader, the condition of affairs
and the controversy relative thereto, may well
bring to mind the divisions between the Ex-
ecutive and Congress in the work of recon-
structing the Southern States at the close of
the Civil War. It appeared that, in the case
of Lord Canning, he had sent certain private
and explanatory letters to England in con-
nection with the proclamation, and that thes-s
were withheld until the break was made be-
tween the Governor-General and the ^Ministry.
Since no other policy could be substituted fin-
that proposed by Canning, the latter officer
■went straight ahead to meet the difficulties be-
fore him according to his own methods.
It soon appeared that the measures pro-
posed were not in effect so severe as they were
theoretically. The people of Oudh, particu-
larly the landowners, were now thoroughly will-
ing to accept the best terms of settlement
which might be had at the hands of the Gov-
ernment. It was found that Canning's policy
was the remedy for many of the ancient abuses
with which the people of the Province had
been afflicted. The somewhat dependent posi-
tion in which the land-owners were placed,
gave opportunity for an extension of rights
and influence among the village communities.
In lact, the dn
ilntion was more in
Tlirie had always
:-ioIarv ri-ht of the
1.1. -i,!.- in the lauds
traiisi.,r ..f this pro-
(u-.-a
ter
all, s., -1
lor.K an.l lli.-' village tenantry.
M. -an while, the whole question of the pres-
ent .■.in.liti..ii and future government of India
was uii.ler lull .li.scussion in Parliament. In
nia.letotliatfam..usEastIn<liaC.,nipaiiy, nn.ler
whose aii^pi.-es the civil and govermental de-
vel.ipiii.-iil ..f India had taken place. As early
as \~)\}'), what was called "A Company for
Remote Parts," was formed in Amsterdam,
and was presently chartered, with the general
jjrivilege of trade with the East Indies, for
twenty-one years. Afterwards the charter was
extended to 1644. Still again, in 1655, the
rights of the Company were revived, and con-
tinued till the year 1700. We have already seen
how, with the maritime ascendency of England,
dating from about the middle of the seventeenth
century, the power of the Portuguese, the
Dutch, and the French in the for East, gave way
before the greater vigor and aggressiveness of
the English fleets. Even before this event, in
the year 1599, Queen Elizabeth had granted
to " The Governor and Company of Merchants
of London, trading with the East Indies," a
charter for fifteen years, conceding to the cor-
poration the exclusive right of commerce with
all the countries from the Cape of Good Hope
eastward to the Straits of Magellan, excepting
only such coasts and islands as might already
be occupied by some friendly European State.
Such was the origin of that great corporation
wdiich was destined to furnish, in after times,
some of the most important, and, at the same
time, most romantic, chapters in the history of
the British Empire.
In the time of Cromwell an cftbrt was
made to set free the trade with East India.
But the attempt was futile ; and the charter of
the Company was renewed by the Protector,
and again by Charles II. In 169.S a second
company of like character with the original
was formed ; but a few years afterwards the two
were merged under the title of "The United
I Company of Merchants trading with the East
an EAT B KIT A IS.-
Inilie.s." The g.nTinii„Mit ..f tliv Ciui.anv
was ill the hands ot a (invenn.i- an,l a Jinai-'l
of Directoi's, varying in iiuni'n'r at dillliint
times and under ditiereiit statiUis, In 17'i.s
tliree Local Councils were estahlish.,! iii India,
onr lor Madras, one for iJond.av, and our lor
C'al.-utta. During this rmtury, tlu- i>nlincal
vastly extruded m Hindustan. In 17o7 tlie
goveninifnt ot' tho coriioiation sm/ceeded in
deposing tho nahoh of llongal, hy uhi.di art
great and rich |irovnh-(~ woro M.-ouird. It was
111 17(U that the dotfut and virtual eX|,ulsioii
of the Fren.di troni India onahled the Conipaiiy
To iHirsue with still grratrr treodoni its poii.-y
of aggraiidizenifiit. So.)n afterwards that
most remarkahlc . pis. .de in the historv of the
country, the admnu-tiati. in of Warivn Ha^tin-s
>^rrm-vrA, t.. he f.llowed hy his inipea.diniont
an.l tho ,-onso,pi..nt ivvelation, to the mind of
England and all Europe, of the treniondous
resources, the vast extent, the complioatcd
governmental system, the antique civilization,
fiEPOY REBELLION.
■ (;overnor-(;eiiri-al of Ind
and 11
Lord L
dh<-rr of
•allrd 1)V
H,
h.rth It wass,.,-n that the East India Coinpaiiy,
as a jirivate corporatKju, could not lie letf m-
dependeut of governmental control, to pursue
its own course in the management of an Em-
pire as great in wealth, and many times greater
in population, than the Home Kingdom of
-Great Britain. Arcordinglv, on the proposi-
tion ,,f Williuin Pitt, a Hoard of (.'ontrol was
appointe.l tor India, In < sist of the two
principal Secretari<\s of State, the Chancellor
of the Exchequer, and such memhers of the
Privy Council as the sovereign might designate.
The "Company's charter, however, was, in
17il3, ext<a.dod liv act of Parliament to the
year 1814. Indeod. the monopoly of trade in
tho East, which had h.-on so Ion- ,-oi„vdrd to
tho Company, was not aholisliod niitil April
of |s:u.
If, then, at the time of the Indian mutiny,
wo glance at thai ( o.yrniiiciit whirh cxpori-
ment, statute, and comniorrial interest had
conspireil to firm throii-h ilio two and a half
I'
ing <•
1 to 1„
■'""■'•■■^•^
o.-liall f
of;, ]V.
nd the A.lmi
ird .d- DiiHot
f wIm
'^I'-''
hy the Cl-o
1 Din
■tors had
a riiiht
of nviowini:
It remained, however, for the Indian mutiny
to rouse Parliament ami the eKiimry lo the
necessities of the situation. Four years pre-
viously the civil pati-oiiaue which had helonged
to the Com|iauy was talxeii away, and ]daced
under the same competitiye system whii-li pre-
j At the very heginnuig of l<s.l,S, before civil
government was restored at Luckuow, Lord
I Palmerston hronght in a hill for the transfer
ofall the civil and political anthorilv of the East
India Compaiiv directly and al.snlutely to the
Crown of England. The measure coiiteiu|>lated
the aiipointmeut, hy the British Home < oiv-
ernmeiit, of a Presiilent and Cniineil of
.ight memhers f ,r the A.ln.inistration ot India.
lief, re the lull could he pa>sed . howver,
Lord raliuerston was thrown out ot oih.v hy
circumstan.'cs to he narrate,! hereafter.
He was su. .■ded hv Lord Dethv, with
Lor.l Eileuhoi-oiiiji as Secretary for the Colo-
nies. A new hill was pivpaivd', nioiv ,.oiupli-
cated and Ic-s practical than that pi-op.,-cd hy
Palmerston. Li the course ,,f the di-cN-iou
which eiisucl, it was found that the EUeii-
horough hill wa:- virtually dey.,id <.f merit.
I At length Lord .lohn KusscU, whose clear
judgment had s any liines discovered a way
thn.ugh like peiplexities, pivpare.l a hill
called "An A<-t for the I!ett<'r Covernineut
of hi.lia." In it provisions were mad.' that all
the territ-rie-. all tiie civil an.l p.ilili.-al ri-hts,
hlthert.. h.-l.l an. I .•xeivise.l l.y the Ea^t India
I'.impany, -1 1. 1 he trau~f.-rre.l ah.-.dutely to
the ('now, ..f EiiJan.l. The principal a.lniiu-
roy, nv (;ov,-riioi-(;eii.U'al He was to he ap-
p.anl.-.l hy tli.. ('r.iwn. A C,.mi.-il f.r lu.lia,
p..inl.-d,ei,jlt <.f wh.UU W.a-e t.. he rhr..ru hv
the Cr.iwiKand ih.. ,,tlu-r s..yen w.a-e .-.Mi.-.-.h.d
to th,' Direct. .rs .,f Ih,. ('..iiipany. Th.av was
al-o t.i he a. C.un.-il Ih-i.l.Mit iii [ndia, f.r the
rNIVEL'SAL HISTOEY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
roy. Tho act was passed nn the 1st of Sep-
tember, 1858. Tlie Queeu was proclaimed
sovereign of India, and L(ird Canuiug, iu rec-
ogiiitidU of tli.> al.ility ;uid tid<-lity with
w^iirh he had di-rlKupd tli.' dutirs of his
office in the nio^t ci'itiral rp.u-h tlimimli which
the Briti>h (iovniiniriit had yet pas.-rd in tlie
East, was appnintr,! iir.-t Vic-my ,.f Ii],lia.
The civil revolution thus etiected marked the
beginning of a new era in the development
of the British East Indian Empire— a move-
ment \vlii<li may !»■ said to have reached its
culniinati<.n wli'-n, in April of 1876, Queen
Victoria, under tlie auspices of Disraeli, re-
ceived the crown and title of Empress of
India.
Reference has been made above to the sud-
den downfall of the Palmerstou Ministry. The
cause of the unexpected collapse of the Gov-
ernment was known and read of all. On the
14th of January, 1858, the Italian exile, Felice
Orsini, for some time resident iu England, but
■who had more recently gone over to the French
capital, had taken his station near the entrance
of the Grand Opera-house, and thrown under
the carriage of Louis Napoleon and the Em-
press an explosive bomb. The Emperor and
Eugenie escaped unhurt, but ten of the ex-
posed by-standers were killed, and a hundred
and fifty-six wounded. A full account of the
attempted assassination of the French ruler
will be given in the following chapter. In this
place the event is to be considered only in its
relations to England, and particularly to the
Palmerstou Giivernnifnt.
It was at once kn^wn that for some time
Orsini had lived, publicly and privately, in
England. It was discovered that his liombs
had been manufactured in Birmingham. Or-
sini had sjioken much in many parts of the
Kiugchiui, urging the British Government to
espouse the cause of Italy against Austria.
These circumstances, and many other incidents
of the attempted assassination, were noised, not
only in Englami and France, but throughout
Euroi)e. For the time, the immemorial policy
of Great Britain in making the country a
havi'U and asylum fm- pnlitical refugees from
every part ..f' tl... woiM, was subjected to the
severest criticism. In h' ranee especially were
animailvcrsioiis ofU-n-il, frnm quarters high and
quarters low, on that type of Government
wliich absorbed into itself the half-nuirderous
malcontents from all other nations. In Eng-
land there was .some sympathy with these
views — some disposition to adopt a more strin-
gent policy relative to the political aliens who
had found, or might hereafter find, asylum in
At the head of this opinion stood Lnrd
Palmerstou himself. His attitude iu this par-
ticular must be interpreted from his peculiar
constitution. Ever since liis entrance into
public lifr bis piilitics had been divided into
twd jiai-ts, the tirst part being devoted to
liberalism in England, and the other part to
ab.<(ilutism abroad. Lord Palmerstou was
thercfiire allied at many crises of his career
with tliDse European rulers wdio had least
fiotiug in the actual sympathies of Great
Britain. Thus it was in the case of Napo-
leon III. It will be remembered that Lord
Palmerstou had already had a notable fall from
the English Ministry, in 1852, on occount of
his unseasonable defense of the Coup d'Etat. In
the case of the Orsini affair, the English
statesman's partiality again stood stoutly forth.
In accordance with his own disposition, and
under the stimulus of communications received
from the French Cabinet, he brought into the
House of Commons a bill known as " The
Conspiracy-to-murder Bill." The act was in
the open face of the whole antecedent policy
of Great Britain. It contemplated the trans-
ference of cons})iracy to murder from the list
of misdemeanors to the category of felonies,
with the penalty of penal servitude iu periods
extending from five years to the life-time of
the convict. At the first view it would ap-
pear that the measure covered the case ; but
wdien we take into consideration the im-
memorial policy and law of the English-speak-
ing race, to the effect that an overt act, and
not a contemplated or prepared crime, is
necessary to constitute a felony, we shall see
the untenable character of the Bill proposed
and delrn.h'd by Palmerstou. Many of the
ablest I'arliaiiiiiilarians at once perceived the
ami llril i>li rhaiacfi-r of the measure. Par-
ticularly <lid dohn Arthur Pocburk hold up to
the hoMile ju,l-mriit of the House tla- pro-
posed stalule. At length, Miloer (iibson
threw his iiilluence against Palmerstou, and
when the Hill came to a vote for the second
GREAT BIUTAIX.— SEPOY REBELLIOy.
371
■I It
ichi^ni
reading, it failed by a (■'.n.-idcralilc i
It only remained tor Lmd I'aliiiii^ti
sign his office. He, wim at tlu' li.'ijii
the year had ln'cii a^ firmly pla
power as any Priiiu- ;Miiii~lcr who 1
ducted the Government tnr thi> la-l
of a century, suddenly lust his Imii
s_vmpathy for the ruler of FiaiH'c.
confounding the misdemeanor ol
crime with the actual commission (
itself.
The American reailei- will hai
perusing this significant paragrapli
mind the similar et}i)rt made, and si
in his own country, with respect to
In the United States the British theory
of free asylum has been cordially, fully
and righteously adopted. Any othei
cour.se on the part of the American
Republic would be to belie the very
principles on ■which the Republic is
founded. "So movement in our coun
try has been more pitiably contempt
ible than that which jiroposes to
regard the United States as meant ex
clusively for the selfish promotion of
the interests of those wdio have the
good fortune to be born American.
True, every human government must
first care for its own ; but the Amer-
ican Government can not stop with
this narrow construction. The United
States exists for the world, for man-
kind, for an enlarged human liberty.
It must needs be that offenses will come
under such a system. The Anarchists
in American cities plotted to com-
mit crime. In a most conspicuous instance,
crimes were committed. The authorities might
proceed either against the conspiracy or against
the murderous deed doue in Haymarket Square.
The conspiracy was a nii-dompanor. The
bomb-throwing was a t'dony. As a matter of
fact the Anarchi-^t- were (iniviete.l ot con-
spiracy, and were ii"t coiivieted of throwing
the bombs. They we,e tried tor murder, and
were convicted of anari'lr. ! 'flie attemjit made
in several qnarter-; to sti'eteh the principles ot'
American law, so that plotting and conspiring
to commit crime shall be put into the category
of felonies, along with the overt acts of riot,
murder, and assassination, i.s one of the most
dangerous fiillacies with wdnch recent jurispru-
dence has been afflicted — a princi]ile by far
more evil in itself and pernicious in its tenden-
cies than the evil which it is intended to
Befiie his hml exit fi im ( fhce L id Pal
racist )n had the good foitune to lecoiate hi^
cie t with a feathei fiom the East The
teithei \M ]ln 1( 1 ti m tli i iun hnt plum
i.,e t ( hmi ( lilt n In 1 it la t been
til nl\ tilt dhellien h in I LUpli4i fleets
n \ 1 11^ the militai> opetations on that fai
it h 1 1 been suspended oi balked b\ the
ti uble an 1 disasters of the Butish Empie
thf leulei maj well infei 1 ji it will n tie
k of the
forgotten how, at the
dian War, Lord Canning had ])ut forth his
hand, and in the emergency diverted the En-
glish armament, which had been sent out to
China, from its intended pur]iose and brought
the fleet to his ,,wii a>-i>tanee. Of small im-
portance was it to (ireat liritain that the
neiit, as we
broader and
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
hei
a ii.-i
mure rational Ijasis. Thus reli
iMiiliarrassnients, Great Britain
free to join the French in a vigorous jiroseru-
tion of the \var on China.
The Emperor Xapoleon ha^l meanwhile
i'ounil a reasonable eau-c for liis ho-tility in tiie
eruel treatment whicli had been vi:;ite(l by the
(-'hinese on a company of French missionaries.
Xapoleon III. was in a frame of mind for the
prosecution of a foreign war. The Frencli
Nation had found some measurable gratifica-
tion of pride in the issue of the conflict in the
Crimea, and in the ability of the Emperor to
bring the ambassadors of the great Powers
together under his auspices in the Treaty of
Paris. But it \Yas necessary for him to con-
tinue his foreign enterprises to the end, that
the French might be still further elated with
his government. Tims England and France
bore down in general armament upon China,
and struck at Canton. It was no great matter
that European fleets should prevail over the
rude and primitive defense with which the
C'hiuese were able to protect their city. Can-
ton was bombarded and taken. At this time
the Imperial Commissioner, Yeh, was in the
city. The allies succeeded in running down
the Oriental dignitary, and capturing him in
his retreat. To him, in his obstinacy, the
British authorities chose to refer the recent
hostilities and destruction of life and property.
Xor could it well be doubted that the cruelty
and recklessness of his admini.stratiou had been
such as to justify severe measures against him.
It was said that in a recent Chinese rebellion
he had ordered the ignominious execution of
one hundred thousand rebel prisoners. Yeh
was accordingly treated as a political prisoner;
was sent to Calcutta, and kept in confinement
until the following year, when he died.
Canton taken, it remained to reestablish
peace. To this end Lord Elgin, on the )iart
of Great Britain, and Baron
of France, were empowered
<Tovernnients to form a new
The policy of nou-intercour:
Imperial <;overnment was
ciuisfs of offense, and aira
ropean ministers protested
securing the establishment <:
Chinese Curt. It was also
should henceforth have representatives at !^t.
.Tames and Versailles. It was provided that
tile Christian leligion should henceforth be
tolerated in the Chinese Empire, and that cer-
tain of the Chine.se rivers should be accessible
to the merchant- vessels of England and
France. As to the expenses of the war, pay-
ment therefor was, as a matter of conr.se, ex-
acted from China. Lord Palmerston was able,
in his official capacity, to inform his country-
men of the success of the military operations
in the East, before the i)olitical eclipse into
which he was now to enter.
Before concluding the present chapter, we
may well pause to note a single event in the
intellectual and scientific progress, not only of
the Briti.sh people — not only of the English-
speaking race — but of all civilized nations. It
was in the year 18,59 that the greatest of mod-
ern naturalists, Charles Robert Darwin, pub-
lished his Oriijin (if Species by Meam of Natural
Sii'cfioii. The work produced an immediate
and vivid sensation among the thinking people
on both sides of the Atlantic. The new doc-
trine ,if the Natural History of Life was at
once assailed with all manner of adverse and
acrimonious criticisms, with every variety of
argument and prejudice. In the course of a
few years, no fewer than three hundred and
twelve authors had published works on the
subject, a great majority of which were de-
voted to the attempted refutation of the hypoth-
esis, which now gained the name of Darwinism.
But it seemed that the tniited antagonism of a
thousand assailants was insufficient to beat
down the small and modest treatise which the
naturalist had put forth, embodying his views
as to the methods by wliiidi the various forms
of animal and vegetable life on the earth have
been evolved into their jire.sent aspect and ac-
tivities. The ensuing quarter of a century was
largely occupied in the scientific world with
Gros. on the ]iart ' the debate, which was waged, with ever-increas-
their respective mg advantage on the side of the Darwinans;
■aty with ( 'hina. nor may it he well denied, as the controversy
adopted by the sub-ides, that a new era has licen reached in
le of the chief the history of the human mind, as it respects
^t this the ICu- its fundamental concepts of the processes and
till' extent of movements by which the varieties of animated
'udiassies at the being on the earth have appeared and reached
reed that China , their iiresent ilevelopment.
GREAT BlUTAIN.— SUFFRAGE REFORM.
CH.Al^TER CXXXI. -STTP-KRAGE REFORM AXO AMER-
ICAN COMFI.ICATIOK.
ITH tho fall of Palnier-
^tiiii, L(iril Derliy again
came to tlie liead of the
Goverument. With him
were associated Benjamin
Disraeli, as Chancellor of
the Exchequer; Lunl
Stanley, as Secretary for the Colonies; Lord
Malmcslniry, as Secretary <if Foreigu Affairs;
and (^ieneral Peel, as Secretary of War. Of
these, by far the strongest and ablest leader
was Disraeli, whose coming ascendency in
the Goyernment of Great Britain might be
easily discerned. One of the first expedients
of the new Cabinet was not to do what its pred-
ecessor proposed to do. This j^rinciple was
applied at once to the Conspiracy Bill, which
was allowed to die of inanition. As for tlie
rest, the attention of Parliament was at mici'
directed to the question of the reiunval ..f the
remaining political disabilities of the .Tews.
It was very fitting that one liimsch' by
birth a Jew, though nominally a Clui-tian,
.-li-uld be leader of the House of Cnmmons in
the day when the final emancipalion of his
race was effected. It is difficult for the man
of to-day, who has the English language as
his birthright and the principles of English
lil)erty as his bulwark, to understand the bit-
ter, causeless, unreasoning prejudices of race
which still held from the exercise of human
rights, at so late a period of British history,
so large and influential a class of people as the
J.-u<. It seemed as thonuh a (•nn>iderable
puvtinn of the legislation and iniispnidcnce nf
England had been specially ■■..ntiivod f,,r the
o|ipress!on and distros of the Jewish race.
As late as l.s:]0, alm^.-t all the rights of citi-
zenship were jiositively denied to Jewish sub-
jects. No office, civil, military, or corporate.
Th:
rofessii
of
A Jew wa,- fnrbiddon to
liulit not even serve as
lildinL'! He was inter-
anil was, of cour.sc, ex-
cluded from mcnibershis, in either H.iuse of
Parliament. It is almost inconerivable that
the mere bar of race descent should have been
made the instrument of such degradation and
oppression ; and the wonder is still greater
that the measures which were from time to
time brought forward for the removal of the
load with which every Jew was encundjered,
should have been met with violent opposition,
even in the House of Commons.
After the year I80O, however, the question
of reform would not down. Bills were intro-
duced at every session for Jewish emaucijiation,
and at length public sentiment rallied to the
cause. The Engli-sh people, as such, went over
to the side of the Jews, but Parliament — the
House of Lords in particular — still refu.sed to
concede the removal of the disabilities. It was
in the first year of the reign of <^>iierii \'ietoria
that the Jews first gained adini.-siiui to certain
executive offices. A Jew might be a sheriff^,
a constable, a hangman. It was at length
perceived that pressure would have to be ex-
erteii upon Parliament from without. The
friends of Jewish emancipation adopted the
jiolicy of electing certain citizens, otherwise
qualified, but of the Jewish race, to the House
of Commons. This was by no means difficult
to do. In 1847 the Baron Lionel Roth.^child
was elected as one of the members for the
City of I^ondon, and another Hebrew, named
Daviil Salomons, for the borough of Shore-
ham. At this time the H.use of Lords had
just rejected by a stion- vote the proposition
tor the extension ot' full eitizenship to the
the highest eharaeter, then'upon resigne.l his
seat, and Salomon- was refii-ed adnii-sion.
It must be undei-st 1 that (he aiili-Jewish
prejndiee in Parliament had found its last
barricade in the oath which, a.vonling to ex-
isting statutes, was required of all lh..s,. who
were inducted into othce. This oalh re(iui|-ed
allegiance to the British crown as supreme in
State and Church, abjuration of all foreign
jurisdictions, anil faithful discharge of the
T^yiVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERX W()l!Lr>.
il dutips; and to tlv
.lr,l,:is
Chn^liaii." H.'lniid this claiiH. tl„. (■.m~,.,-va-
ti.Mll ot Eii-laii.l tnnk ivfii-i.. It was of
ciivs.. the .■ustoni of inli,l,.lsskci,tirs,atlicists,
./ ;./ ..,„,„ ,/>„„.<. tu take this ..atli wilhnut
cnniimn.-ti,.,,': l.ut l,..iirst .I,-ws wouhl not
suhs.aihr snrh an ohljwation. (iivat Britain
vidcd only the applicant woidd sw.-ai-, usin^,'
the \\oi(ls"i)ii the true fuith ot' a Christian."
In the meantime, Baron Rothschild and
David Salomons, the latter recently elected
from ( ireeinvich, again presented themselves
for nifinhn-ship, and offered to subscribe the
oath with the invidious clause omitted. But
the point was not yielded, and both the mem-
bers sought to take their seats in spite of the
bar against them. Both were excluded, Salo-
mons with considerable violence, and Baron
Rothschild with such gentle force as the officer
of the House might use towards one of high
degree.
For several years the contest dragged on,
until, tlnally, in" ISoS, a bill was introdu.v.l by
Lord .lohn'Rnssell, pn.viding that the <,llicial
oath might be mndifrd when it was to be
administered to Jews. The measure was
pa.«sed by the House of Commons, but was
rejected in the House of Lords. At length,
however, the substance of the act was accepted
in both Houses of Parliament, and henceforth
the .lews were admitted to all official relations
on taking such a moililicd oath as was accept-
able to their consciences and consistent with
their religious faith.
Almost coincirlently with the A<'t just
named, namely, the act of the Parliamentary
session of ls.")S, another measure of ri'f'orm
was rpmove<l from tiie governnnMital politv of
(ireat Britain. It will l,e remembered that
the eivat llelorm Hill of IS.'Vi, ,vbile it bad
gi-enllv e(piali/.ed repivsentntion and extended
Ivejli-h n, bad ilone nntbiie.:- to ameliorate
the polifieal or soei.-d condition of the working-
men. ThcT «'ho b.ad expe.led SO mueh from
th.' legislation of Karl < J rev reeeived nothin-at
all. Tlie b:n:;livl, n.a-es bad a-ked for bread ;
Parliament .,av<- them a ston... Tbev a^k.'d a
lia
els to
tbebranehe
s of that
lie
1 l.y 1
reemmeiie,
the Ke-
'll
ilueke,
oidy the ;
Pl.les ..f
Time and auaiii the niore liberal statesmen
viving an<l exti'iiding the principles of that
Reform Bill of 1.s;!l', more particularly as it
alii-.'ted the character of the House of Com-
mons. The time lutd now arrived when
another of the great jjrinciples for which the
Chartists had contended was to find its way
into the Constitution of Great Britain. The
old tdinsive statute which required as a quali-
iieation tlitit members of Parliament should
])osse.ss a certain amount of lauded property,
was still in full force. This is to say, the let-
ter of the law w^as in force, but not the spirit.
It has been the peculiarity of the whole insti-
tutional, and especially thecoustituti(jnal,devel-
oi)ment of the British Empire, that the cur-
rent legislation and all existing administra-
tive and judicial proceedings have been
eniaimbered and weiglited down with a mass
of obsolete statutes, many of which had their
origin amid the half-barbarism, the bigotries
and brutalities of the Middle Ages. As a re-
sult, every reformatory movement in Great
Britain has been hobbled and retarded, drawn
from its course to right and left, or jerked
backwards on its haunches, by the long and
strong thongs of ancient precedent, time-
honored restriction, and irrational, or at least
unreasoning, conservatism. lu every instance
the Old "Slan of the Sea has compelled the
youthful Sindbad to mount on his .shoulders,
and ride him backwards towards the past.
These circumstances must aeeonnt for the
.slow and toilsome progress of all reformatory
movements in England. In the case before
ns, the Past had decided that laml-ownership
was a necessary (Hialitieation for meinbership
in the British' Parliament. Civili/ation had
long since outgrown this restriction. Chartism
had denounced the principle, and the con-
science and judgment of England recognized
tlie jnstice of the denunciation. But still the
letlri- survived. At length a state of circnm-
staiiees s|,|,|.|-v,.ned which made it necessarv to
stubborn s|>irit of conservatism for which, in
gi;i:a t brita ix.-^suffhage reform.
all ag.-?, the British Saxuu has hrm s., lu.te.l,
refused to ailinit that the hiw shouM he w-
pealocl That iiiiloeil would swi-ep awav a
wen'arc(irdiiij:iy adopti'il in oidrr tliat the will
of England luight be done in lli.' tare df the
English law. It. became ciistnmary hn- the can-
didates who were before the country lor elec-
tion to Parliament, and who \\..ie not them-
selves land-owners, to obtain the nominal and
temporary transfer of projierties to themselves,
holding the same until after election and
qualiticatiou for duty in Parliament, and then
held in trust. This method of "beating thr
law" became so common that a large propor-
tion of the members of the House of Commons
might be justly charged with holding tlieir
seats by a process which, applied to any (U-di-
iiary relation of life, w(iuld have been de-
nouuced as mere fraud.
The reader will find in these conditions an
example of the many similar ]iei-plcxities
which have tended to produce and foster in
the public life of Great Britain a species of
political hypocrisy, of which the English i)eople
themselves appear to be Imt half conscious.
In the midst of some such embarra.ssment, it
is in vain that even the greatest English
statesman should arise, point out the nature
of the evil, and demand, with the most cogent
argument and apjieal to conscience, the abro-
gation of tlie offending statute. The political
machinery of England, and more jxarticularly
the peculiar s|iirit of the ])i'oplc, will not
tolerate such a direct, maidy, and rational
method of abolishing abu.ses. Parliament
must beat around the question, adopt sul)ter-
fuges, offer amendments, and finally cdioose
some half-way expedient, under which it is
hoped that the injurious u.sage of the jiast will
expire, rather i
tune to
cation f
propo.ed
that he
declarati
form of
perjui-y i
destroyed.
In tlie in-
ef};)rt was
made, from
ish the prr
perty rpialifi-
f Parliame
it. One act
a declarati
m, instead of
nired of tl
e candidate.
u the ,lire,
le>s hurtful
t and robust
,1 ponn.ls
r three h
tendeiiev to tVaud. It was more easy indee.l
fir -ome rich friend to loan, /-/•<- fe/„/».,v, a
suttieient sum to a mon.'vl.'.ss candidate than
it had been to make to him a fraudulent
tiansfer of landecl property. The abuse was
a-gravated liy the amendment, and the House
part with those who had obtained their seats
in the open face of the law. The condition
was made still more abusive by the fa<'t that
the mendiers of Parliament from Scotland
were free from the property (|Ualitication.
Tho.se who were chosen to repre-ent the great
rnivcrsities were also exempt Ironi the action
In the year l.S.')S it was found that about
sixty members of the House were in their
seats by the force of a fraudulent declaration.
It happened at this session that one poor
was unfortunate enough to fhll into the elutehes
of the law. Once in the hands of an English
court, tiiere was no escape. His fellow-mein-
liers came at once to see the precipice on
which uKire than half a hundred others were
standing. The votes of the^' were necessary
t<i the ^Ministry. Therefore the (bjvernmeut
by a herculean effort, and under compulsion,
must abolish the sacred old statute which,
since the days of (iueen Atuie, had reipiired
a landed property as a qualification for mem-
bership in the Commons. To Eocke King, a
having jirepared and introdu.'ed the mea-ure
by which Parliamentary membership was made
henceforth to depeml ..u the man rather than
on land-ownership.
The year IS.",!! was noted in the hi-tory of
England for the f. ling <if the e-.vat .\mer-
icanColonvof r.riti-hCohnnbia. The measure
wa< the virtu.al beginning of En-lidi .■iviliza-
tion In the va-t re^io,,:. lyin- north of the
we-|e,-mo.t parts of the Cnited States. At
the lime of whieh \\ e speak, the otiice <,f
In th,
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERy WORLD.
Kchvanl Buhver Lytton, and tVoin his nch
and capacious under.-tundiiig arose the project
of oj)euing on the far Pacific a new field for
the exercise of the energies of his countryiiH.'ii.
The new territory, to which the name •>( J>riti>h
Columbia was given, was bounded ou the MJiith
by the paradcl nt' tnrty-nine degrees and foity
minutes, ln-ing the boundary-line of iIm."
United States; ^n the .a.-t by the in-iiicipal
■chain of the Rocky Mnuntains : .ni the north
by Simp.son's River and thr Finlay Branch ..f
Peace River: and on liu' wist by the Pacific.
In course of time, X'ancouver's Island was
annexed to the new Province; and, after twelve
years of independent colonial existence, Brit-
ish Columbia itself was added to the Dominion
of Canada. Thus in the year bSTl, British
America on the north was caiiied thrijugh in
one broad band, as the United States had
already been, from ocean to ocean.
It was under the administration of Lord
Lvttou in the colonial ottice that a striking
by every means in their hands to identify
themselves with the Motherdaud of Greece.
The protectorate of Great Britain now consti-
tute(l a liar to such a movement. Thelonians,
from year to year, grew more and more restless
under what was in every e.ssential a foreign
ihiininatioii. It became a serious matter to Lord
Ijytton liow he should continue a satisfactory
the Ul:
He
igth
luer
lelie.
i-ht
Th.
rred
in Great Britain
up o
' ( irecian Islands
Ulan
Is are seven in
Cor
li on the north,
called L
and extending around the western coast of
Greece to Cerigo, off the southern extremity
of the peninsula. They are essentially Hel-
lenic, geographically, ethnically, historically.
But for a long time the Ionian group had
been the subject of covetous contention among
the Latin States of Western Europe. About
the beginning of the present century, Bona-
j)arte, on more occasions than one, made the
Ionian Islands the subject of special clauses in
his treaties. At the Congress of Vienna, in
1815, the Islands were granted nominal inde-
pendence under the protection of Great Britain.
Corfu was the caiiital. The chief administra-
tive officer was a P.ritish Lord High Coni-
Under him was a h-i.hitive bodv, eonsistin-
ilie:
six and an As-end.ly
was not long until tl
■ke out. After a h
itli.'l, the independenc
■hieved.and Kite.:- Oth
to Corfu, William E
i recognized as a Pliil
that reason be most acceptable
to the Islanders. It was at the close of 1858
that Gladstone went ou his mission. It
appears that the Islanders at once leaped to
the conclusion that the new Commissioner had
come to them in the cliaracter of a lilierator.
He was received with great enthusiasm by the
t impetuous patriots of Ionia, and had great
difficulty iu making them understand the true
j nature of his mission. The general effect of
! his presence in the Islands was to increase the
agitation in favor of a union with Greece.
At till' t'lose of the Gladstone episode the dis-
content at the foreign protectorate was greater
I than ever, and the succeeding Lo
Commissioner had great dii
taining peace.
At length, however, tin
solved by a natural evolut
of wdiich were satisfactory to
In October of 1862, a popular revolution
occurred in Athens, by which King Otho was
remanded to private life. In his place was
cho.sen Prince George of Denmark, sou of
Christian IX., and brother to the Princess of
Wales. The fact that the brother-iudaw of
the future sovereign of Great Britain was thus
g of the Hellenes, at once modified
if the English Government relative
iutenance of the protectorate over
Ulands. It was coueedeil by L.ird
ell, then in office, that the Ulands
twj: henceforth to tlie kim:iloni of
ccordingly, iu ISC,;',, the protectorate
g Lor<
High
culty ii
nutin-
difficul
V was
n, the
results
all parties.
isen
Re,.
Hellas.
protection of the (ireat P<
HencefV.rth the popiila
Islands, themselves of G
lanlly have been efi'eete.
if war.
GREAT BlUTAIN. -SUFFRAGE REFORM.
>Ve may liere oiitir
the final "coufliet liy \
SuftVau-e was ,.xt.'ii.lr,'l m
En-lainl. •rim., aihl a-
to tlu- iiifHI'riivcn.-. ,,f
IKVl. ,',insi<l.'iv,l a> a i.u
m an arc.unt ..f
•h tlu- Rio-ht of
,„.,,|,
■ Kn.^
It wonl.l api.rar >liaiiur
lilnTty-l.ivin- ant.-oMl,-nl.
i^hnnl.'l, in \\u-\v l,i,<t..|-i,.al .•aivrr, liav rxliiliite,!
so many symptom.-; of aijprehonsion iclativo to
the suffrage. It would seem axiomatic that
a country possessing so great aiul pnwfrfnl an
organ of liberty as the Hoiim' i.t' C.ninions
would revert instinctively to manlmo.rs sudiaL^o
as the verj- palladium of the ,-\-.~trni nf tVro
government. Bnt, on tlic otlior ,-iilo, wo havo
to take into oon.-idonitiun tho cwmimMtr rharar-
ter of English society and En-lidi institutions.
We must remember th;U, fnmi tin' days of the
Tudors, from the days of the Phintai;vncts,
aye, from the days (d' tlir ( 'nni|iii'ioi' Inni^clt',
England had been, pohtically oonM.lojvd, an
aristocracy. There was the kin;:-. 'I'lu-n- was
the House of Lonls. There was the -la.hiatod
order of in.iliility. There was the hinded
gentry, by tar the most powerful anil resolute
of its kind in all Europe. These parts of
British society were fixed and estaljlished In*
the traditions of centuries.
All these eleiuents uf England's strength
and greatness were .set against the principle of
general suffrage. While the Commons grew,
the aristocracy opposed their growth. Never-
theless, the whole history of (a-eat Britain,
since the Eevolution of lii.ss, has been the
history of the gradual ri>e and ever-iminineut
supremacy of the House of Commons. Back
of this development has been heard evermore
in the distance the cry of the comnKjii man —
the apjjcal of the masses for their constitu-
tional rights and just influence in the Govern-
ment. At the time of which we speak, the
liberal elements in Parliament were sufHciently
numerous, could they be marshaled into a
single phalanx to bear down the Conservative
Ministry, and to carry an extension of the
suffrage by a coup de maiu. But the divisions
among the Liberal and Radical elements in the
House, generally forbade such a union of effort.
At the clo.se of the sixth decade of the
century, Benjamin Disraeli was the undisputed
li a I'nit
od Ital
...llrrn b,
troin
■;t of
il of
. I'ndet
prestige
noli on-cumstances
r Great Britaiu is
least diminished. It is a sentiment
li the great ma.ss of the English
it seems nninitural ami nidiistorical
iiap
Eu-
England
ho eonditi.
itfairs in 1^59.
The crisis in Europe required that the English
Goverutuent should do something at home
which might satisfy the amour juv/ire of the
people by compensation for tlie noise abroad.
In sucii an emergency, Rifurm is tlie cry with
whii-li a IMinistry must attract to itself the
rontinned interest of the nation. But how
should a Conservative Minister cry Eeform?
To the genius of Disraeli the dilemma was
sntficiently embarrassing, ImiI not confound-
ing. He perceived that ret'onn must lie taken
under the patronage of the < iovcrnnicnt. and f ji-
the present he might alni.-t >ay, L'rhit c'lsl
vioi. So he became a Uotornier, and intro-
duced into Parliament a bill for the extmsion
of the suffrage. It was his theory that the
franchise might be extended laterally ; that
is, to considerable classes and groups of dis-
frauchi.sed Englishmen, who, so to speak,
flourished in the same stratum with those who,
under the Reform Bill of 1832, already had
the right of suffrage. Below this stratum lay
that other and profoundly deep formation, the
English lower classes — the workingmen, the
peasantry, the operatives, the miners of Great
Britaiu. "
UMVEESAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
Eu-t 111
ilepu.-it
.1 \vas iu the
. the British
.tork.
- wh..
.aiiiv;
.-hniilil liiciiui' c'litVaiirhised. Another clause
<if the liiU lu-ovidcd that the conditions of suf-
frage in counties and boroughs respectively
should be equalized — a provision which had
in it the elements of right and jastice. But
in its principal features tJie bill was little liet-
ter tliau an alisurdity. It was at unce seen that
many of the persons seemingly admitted to the
franchise by the new measure were already
enfraneliised. Under existing statutes, a law-
"'1'
erty qualitications were siitticieut. Again, it
was seen that one having the requisite funds
in a savings bank might, in one year, be a
voter, and in tile next year, by the mere fact
<if withdrawing and pnititably investing his
miiuey, even in a entla^e provided for his
young wife, would theivl.v \k- disfranchised.
Nevertheless, Disraeli I in
resources to the defense of 1
and ]iri:>tracted debate ensued
Commons, until, at length, T.c
a sword into the wliolr profc
a resolution to tlie etil-ct th;i
Commous would not be satisfied with any re-
adjustment of the franchise which did not
provide for a greater extension of the suffrage
to tlie EnLdisli jieople tlian was coutera])lated
in tlie :\Iini>tevial Bill. Over this resolution.
ht all of his
bill. A fiery
the Hou.se of
Piussell thrust
\'s bv offering
he House of
the (ioverni
At this juncture tin.' two leading statesmen
in Parliament, after Di.M-aeli, were L..r<l Pal-
nierston and Lord John Puss..]]. Neither of
these, indeed, might li<- ron-idcnd as second
to the recent leader of tho House, It were
more fitting to .say that J)i~iaili had, Iiy genius
rank with Paluierston and Pu-cU. The
(^leeii, howt^ver, called t., !ier aid Lord (iran-
ville, and .lirected him to firm a Caliinet. It
was soon diM-overe.l that this c.uld not be
doiio. Lord Russell would not enter the Min-
istry of (iranville, preferring to serve under
his great rival, Lord Palmerston. The latter
was accordingly once more summoned by the
Queen to take charge of the Government.
He accepted the trust, and from June of 1859
to his death, iu October of 1865, remained ia
the high office of Premier. Nor will the
reader of our times fail to look back with
admiration upon the veteran statesman,
already iu the seventy-fifth year of his age,
resuming, at the call of his sovereign, the
severest duties and heaviest responsibilities
which can be impo.sed, under the existing
coiisiitutioiis of the civilized .States, upon any
ministerial officer.
In tlie new Caliinet, Gladstone became
Chancellor of the Exchequer. The Secretary-
ship of Foreign Affairs was assigned to Lord
John Ru.ssell. The Home Office was given to
Sir (xeorge Cornewall Lewis. The place of
Minister of War was all.itted to Sidney Her-
bert : the Colonial Secretaryship, to the Duke
of Newcastle; the Secretaryship for Ireland,
to Edward Card well; and the Secretaryship
for India, to Sir Charles Wood. The Presi-
dency of the Board of Trade was ottered to
Richard Cobdeii ; but the latter, ever at vari-
ance with Lord Palmerston, on account of his
foreign policy, would not accept the place,'
and the .*ame was assigned to ]Milner Gibson.
No sadder incident was known in the
' It was on this occasion tliat tl.c s.nnewliat
..l.ratcl ,„nl of ColMlrn «a. ,1, livciv.l. He
■c,l that l,c cnnia not a.-cc|,i ,,Hic,- iin.lcr Tal-
■r-tou ,,n account of tlic severe strictures which
lia.l iiia^lc on tliat statesman's .■niirse and c..n-
itlli^
I'ah.i.iMon aid liis jMihcv. -Yes." replicl Cob-
den, in.lill.a-entlv. - hut / „na„t ,rhal I mid:'
GREAT lilUTAIX.-SUFFRAGE REFORM.
379
history of this year, 185!), tluui the .leath of
L.inl .Ahirauhiy. Ou the 2.Stii of December
he fell fn.in Jiis place in Parliaiiieiit, to he
eonsiune.l on the 9tli of the fillowiii- month
to his rest, near the statue of Adili^on, in the
Poets' Corner of Westmin.^tn- AMicy. His
life had been one of siiiLiular intellectual
smith, he hail touched almost v\v\\ variety of
literature, and hail touched notliini;- which he
did not a.h.rn. We may not pause, in this
place, to rocount the storV of his lito. ]t is
<loul,tful whether a nmre l)iilliant int.dloct has
passed across the sky of England within the
present century. He had not only the genius
of a great literary man, the acumen of a
scholar, the accomplishments of a parliamen-
tarian, the gifts of a statesman, but also the
soul and spirit of a profound humanity which
linked him strongly to his age.
In no incident of his career was the great-
ni'ss of jMacaulay more cons]iicuous than in
his labors as President of the Commission for
the Revision of the Penal Code of British
India. Though he was then but a young
man, being but thirty-three years of age, the
work which he produced is conspicuous in the
jurisprudence of the century. The Criminal
Codr which he prepared is still a part of the
constitution of the British East In<lian Em-
pire. In it are reproduced, in a form at once
concise and beautiful, the spirit and " real
presence" of the law of England, in which
:Maeaulay was so profoundly vei-sed. He had
the honor, liosides, of introducing a new era
in historical literature. Though his history
ot England is not more accurate than the
works produced in the last half of the
eighteenth century, though it is not tree from
the political bias and passionate vehemence
of the author, it, nevertheless, nitrodueed
another style of historicnl writing, the useful-
ness and success of which havi- \irru ih-mon-
>tratcd by the ever-widening |iopularity of the
j.roduction. Nothing so brilliant, so varied,
so lucid in treatment, so masterly in style and
pros,.. Within thirty vrar- nf ihr appearance
,.f the Hi.tnni„i E„<lh,wl\W,:,V-u[ th,' work
had reaehcl in Great Brilain a hundred and
forty ihou.sand copies, and it has been alleged
that in the United States no other book, with
the single exceptimi of the Bible, has ever had
so wide a di.stribution.
We have already narrated the circum-
stances under which the .Ministry of Lord
Palmerstnii came into power. The (iovern-
ment, in his hanils, was destined to (la^s
through perilous emergencies in the course ef
the six years which lay before. In tin' tirst
place, the relations of England with France,
or UKJi-e pr(.ij)erly with the governing ]iower
in France, b.^ame straineth It w.mld be
dithcnlt t(i explain, from tif stand of con-
si>teney, the ,-ourse which (iieat Britain had
pursued towards the Bonaparte family in the
relations of that family to the French throne.
In the fir-st place, Englan.l, in comm,.n with
the other powers, had r. gi-teied her vow at
the Congress of \'ieiina. that im Bonaparte
should henceforth oecu|>y a European throne.
That family was to be eradicated root aud
branch. In course of time, England per-
ceived that shi> had no more affection, even
for the Citizen King, than she had fur the
IS'apoleons. One ,.t th.Mii had at least had
the merit of greatness. When tlitit Bonaparte,
who had recently <lone police duty in the
streets of London, and who. as the student
|)ri.soner of Ham, had oecupieil his time in
comi)osing a political ]iamphlet on the Extinc-
tion of Pauperism, suddenly stej)ped across the
Channel to be President of the Fiench Re-
])ublic, aud then Emperor Xapoleon HI.,
Great Britain tirst shaded her eyes with her
iiand, then said site would not endure it, then
endured it, ami, linallv, applaudcl. Within
two years irom the tinn' when the parvenu
laml was his liiilhfid ally in the Crimean
War.
At the clo.<e of that conflict. Great Britain
had some dittii-iilty in preventing France from
monopolizing the gh'ty. Soon afterwards she
became excee<liiiL;l\' ilistrustful of Bonaparte.
She watched W\< iimvenients with cver-iucreas-
create a Dnk.^uf Ma-enta, on the li.dd of that
name, a In Napoleon th.' (in^at. She heard
i>ti
the Whel:
been pui
rXIVEESAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
siitlici.-
vas
]-:i
lie excuse c
;• of that ^^x
ave taken the sword
lid have beeu found
the use of that weapon. It was another
of thive emergencies in which it appeared
tige was giving way.
^'I'venhtle.-s, tor tlie time being, she was
ohh^ed to u>e her ula-s and see in the dis-
tance, with as much c(iuaniinity as she couh:l
commauil, tlie war-eagle of Bonaparte, tlie
sword of Victor Emanuel circling in the horizon,
and C'liunt Cavour wearing the crown of
European diplomacy.
It has been observed already tliat in such
a situation, Great Britain always attempts to
counteract by some furm of home activity the
effects of those foreign enterprises in which she
bears no part. In the present instance, the
Ministry became especially active, and the
first form of subject-matter on which they
seized was the construction of a new commer-
cial treaty with France. The measure was
somewhat sensational both in itself and in the
methods employed for its accomplishment.
The negotiations, instead of proceeding from
the Foreign Office and going through the
hands of the British Minister at Paris, appear
to have oiiginated with John Bright, and to
have been conducted privately by Richard
Cobden directly with the French Emperor
himself.
France liad, as a rule, been opposed to
Great Britain on what may be called the
general theory of commerce. The French
political economy inclined strongly to Protec-
tion, while that of Great Britain had gone over,
soul, body, and member, to the principle of
Free Trade. The particular matter now in hand
was to .secure from Xapoleon such abrogation
of the existing restrictions on commerce be-
tween Great Britain and France as could not,
in all probability, be secured from the French
Government, apart from the will and pref-
erence of the Emperor. Cobden succeeded, in
his personal discussion and correspondence
with Napoleon III., in Ijringing that person-
age very nearly into accord with his own
views. It can not be doubted that the ante-
Imperial residence of Louis Napoleon in
England had made him in .some measure a
convert to the English theory of political
ecunoniy. The terms of a treaty were accord-
ingly frameil in which great conce.-sions were
made to the principle of Free Trade. Tlie
duties which had been previi'U^ly hiid liy the two
Governments on importations of each other's
goods were either wholly abolished or greatly
reduced. The tarifi'on English coal and coke,
raw irnn, t.M,l.. marhin.iy. yarns flax, and
hemp, was so tar rcducrd as to make their
inij)ortatiou into France virtually free ; while,
on the other hand, the duties on light French
wines were abolished — a measure which led at
once to a remarkable increase in the consump-
tion of such drinks in Great Britain. It was
noticed, moreover, as a striking evolution in
social economy, that the heavy alcoholic
liipiors, which had hitherto been used in such
excessive quantities in England, were reduced
in consumption in corresponding ratio. Nor
will the socialist of our own age and country
fail to record as an important fact that drunk-
enness and its correlated and dependent forms
of vice were greatly diminished by the substi-
tution of the light French wines for the fiery
beverages which the English people had for-
merly used.
When the new commercial treaty was
brought before Parliament, it was subjected to
a hot fire from the Opposition. But the
adv(]cacy of Gladstone and his followers pre-
vailed. The compact conceived by Bright and
Cobden j^assed into statutory form, and both
countries were, presently, well satisfied with
the working of the scheme. At the same
time, the Ministry were busily engaged in
promoting a measure of internal economy
of the same general character with the French
treaty. When the general principle of Free
Trade became the policy of Great Britain,
certain conspicuous exceptions still remained
as witue.sses and landmarks of the ancient
system. Among others of the kind, the duty
on paper had never beeu abolished. As a
result, all departments of industry having
the use of paper, of printed paper in particu-
lar, as their bottom fact, were stilted up above
the horizon of low prices which prevailed with
respect to all other values. It remained for
the Palmerston Ministry to attack and level
this standing example of the old Protective
system.
The leadership of this movement fell to
Gladstone. His proposition to abolish the
GREAT BRITAIN. -SUFFRAGE REFORM. .381
duty on paper wa?: luft with every fenii ^A' The measure al>n mnteinphiteil a new apjjor-
aigunient an,l inthuner wlnrh the pap.T ti..i,i„ei,t <<f ih,' >eals in the House of Corn-
interest enuhl invent aiel euipl-y. The pn-i- in.ms. Tu .-iity-live ..f tlie hnniii,i,'hs, repre-
tien assurne.l «as, tiiat the iiianiilari in .• aii.l s:nte,l at tlie lime liy two nieiiiheiv raeh, were
use nt' paper was ex.vptinnal tn th.^ .general iv.luee.l m ..ne nieinh, r . aeh. The n.eniher-
pri.ieiple of Free Tnuh-; that In.nk niakin- ship th.is uaiiie.l was JiMrihuled tu the hir-er
nature Ir.ini these ether ileparlnients ,.f in- l.ill was tlie propn^iiimi that in every .-nuiity
(lustrv in whieh tree eenipelitien iiiiuht he K-ft or hm-nii^h repivMaite,! hy three niiauhers
to work out its own iv-iill--, lliat it uas not in I'ai liaineiit, the third nieniher shouhl he
desii-ahh. tliat eheapness .-hoiiM prevail in ehosen hy the iniiioiily, that is, the ( )pposi-
litei-atiiie and joiirnali-iii, le>i liooks anil iieus- tinn. It was the he^inniim' of that still
papers should' heeonie the .dieap vehielef.r ilehate.l feature of popular Government, the
the univer-al disMmiination of all ihin-s had minority representation. The method to he
and daiiL-erous anion- the Kn-li,-li people. emidoyed in .seeurin- the -iveii ivMilt was the
The Ministry, however, prevailed over tl.o simple reipiirenient that in horoii::li> eleeting
-pp,
the House of Commons. \Vli,-n the ,-anie was two eandidate- and onlv two.
lai.l before the ll-n-e of Lords, that l-dy But the mw Ihloini llill wa- d.eMined to a
took the unusual re-ponsihilii v of votin- peeiiliar tate. The Opposition, under the
adversely ou the ineaMire. A violent eontio- leader.^hip ot DiMaeli, a-saihd the measure
versv ai-ose over the aetn f the Lord- in with vehemenee and ahility. It wass lis-
reiiisin- their assent to a measure whieh the eovered that the prop,)>ed Aet wa- peetil.arly
House had approved, relative to the revenues (Uadstoniau in its ori-in, development, ami
of the kingdom. For the time, the aholitiou defense. !t was al.so helieved that Lmd I'al-
of the paper duty was held in alieyanee, and luerston had no liiart or intiucsl in the mat-
mea'snre was tinallv ailopted? eould he aligned in support of the Ministerial
It will he remenilM.red that the projeet on Bill. After the dehate had . proeeeded to a
whieh the recent Coii-ervalive .Mini-trv had great extent, the IiiU was remanded tor the
g.ne to wreek was the hill prepared and ad- eon.-ideration of the eommittee, ami uas linally
vocated by Disraeli for the •■l.it.ral exteiiM.ai" with.lrawn from the House. In themeaii-
of the suffrage. It will he ivealled liow the time, other great interests had supervened.
Liberals combined again-t the propo-od Aet, which drew the atleiitii f the nation to
and defeated it. It nin-t he borne in mind events beyond tli,' sea; tlie.pi.sthui of reform
that the inovemeut of Disraeli f,r the reform was given over to aiiotli.-r < 'ahinet and a more
of the franchise was in aeeordanci.' with what convenient .season.
he perceived to be the determinati f the | Early in I.SCO the long-standing ditticiilty
English people. He sought to patroni/e and | between Gnat Biilaiii and I'himi took still
satisfy the public sentiment with a measure ' another phase of deveh.pment. Arrangements
which seemed to do without doing— wlihdi had lieeii ma.le h, iweeii the two countries for
ostensihlv granted, but -rant.'d not. With a settlement of all existing troubles by means
the aceJs.sion of Lord Palmei.^ton, the new of a treaty. Even ihe terms of the treaty had
.Ministrv inherited from its predeces.sor the in the main been a-ned upon at Tieii-Tsin,
very embarra-.-meiit which Disraeli ami his and it only leiiiaiiad thai tli.' f uiiial ratitica-
CoUeagncs had been unable to surmount. The tions of the eonipaei -ho, .1,1 be excdianged as
Liberals must now try to appea-e the country preliminaiy to peae,-. h was provided in the
with some measure of ref.rm. A bill was treatv that the ratitieations, -o ealled, should
accordingly prepared at the session of ISCO, be ex.dian-.d at I'ekiii. In ."\Iareh of l,s.-,9,
providing that the property (pialitications fir Frederick Bruce, a brother to Lord Elgin,
the franchi.se in counties should be reduced to was sent as Envoy lOxtraoidinary to f'liina,
ten pounds, and in boroughs to six pounds. ' ^^ilh a view to the ratitication of the settle-
IWIVKHSAL HISTOUY. — THK MODERN WORLD.
nient. ^Meanwhile, a slioii
- l'-'i>'- "f "l'l'"-^i-
tioii luul arisen in C'iiiiia t'
liavini;- the treaty
laliHed '<t the rajiiti,!- Tl
e Emperor and his
(Tdverumeiit wcri' avci>c i
1 a hi-h de-re,, to
Imviug the amliassailois ,.\
foivjeii nations at
liis (.■(lurt. For a i ^iiln-.
l,le perie„l, Eranre
aii.l Eiidan,! Iia.l \n-rn
n alliance in the
(/liiufse war, aiul the im-.
tiations eonse.pielit
tliereoii, and Fii'inli am
.a>>ado,-s were to
iiocoinpany llmsr .>f lai'jlai
1 to Pekin.
The British (Hivrriiinn
1. kiiowiiiii the in-
disposition of the ( 'hinc-i'
Emperor to admit
foreign represciitalivcs to 1
is .-ourt, sent orders
to tiie Endish Admiral .-.
inmamliii- in Chi-
lie emli-i^<v with an
ariiiam.'iir. When ih.' sijii
for arrived at thr moiitii (
f the Peiho liiver,
by which the .•onimis.ionn
< w.av to ascend to
the capital, it \va< toimd il
at the Chinese had
obstructed tlie cntiaiirc ai
.1 planted batteries
commandinir tlic appioarh
The English ves-
sels undertook to force the
r way through, and
were repulsed with heavy 1
osses. Another ex-
pedition had to be fitted
)Ut before the way
could be cleared, and niucl
hard tl,-litiii,e- t.io'k
])lace before tlie I'^iiioinaii
army came within
reach of Pekin. Ne-otiai
oils were renewed.
and the ratification of th(
treaty was exacted
of the Chinese Govern nwii
t .(////-' capital. In
tlie meantime, a rompany
,f hhejishmen, who
bad been sent under a llai;
of triire within the
enemy's lines, liad Ii.m/oiii.-
involved in a diffi-
culty, been seizrd liv the
Chinese, an.l sub-
jecttd to such c-IUi'l tiv;llll
eiit that half of the
nnmli.a- had died. As a
measure of ivtalia-
tion for this ontra-e, Ix.rd
Eleiii ordered the
'fhe
iellt:
this
dillhai
1 troiil
tv witi
volved
China was no
hich (neat 1!
A civil war
Chinese Summer Pahnv.
tion .,f luiildin;,s, pietun
park ,.n the out,4<irts o
stroyed. Within the V.
lected, through centurie-^
ological, historical, and
China. No <urh other e.
bly of pau'odas and temple
and bridges, of terraces.
riiith< — existed anywhere
vet In- an act of wanton di
all future a-es will hold
cuint, the whole marvel ,
was swept awav. What
aei- hail been col-
id a'jes, the arehfe-
i'ti<tic treasures of
lei-iiou of rare and
such other assem-
;, of en,ttoes, lakes,
-rove-, and labv-
n the worhl. And
struction, fjr which
Lord Elgin to ac-
f ( 'hinese e-reatness
til f whii'h we speak. SutHee It that there
exi>te<l ill that country the aueii-ut Christian
..eel ealle.l the Marouites, leprcMUitatives from
the earlier eeiiturhs of our era of Poiuan
Catholii-ism in the East. TIkuv al.^o was the
nation of the Druses, a sect which may be de-
fined as heretical IMohamuiedans. Over both
was established a Turkish Governinent, .sulijeet
to th.' Sul.lim,. Porte. Between the Maroii'ites
and th.. l)ru-e<, though at .smie jieriods in
their career they had iieen in alliance, rival-
ries, enmities, ho.^tilities, had sprung up, and
eaeh parly re-arded the other as its enemy in
eliief. Ju .May ..f ISliO, .,iie of the monks of
the Maroiiiles was muidered, ami it was be-
lieved that a band of Druses were llie doers
of the deed. The Marouites made an attack
on the suspected party, and several of the
Drupes were killed. Thell the Druses ro-e in
eoii.iderahle iiiimliers fell upon the Maroiiite
villa-e. ill the vieiuuy of Bevn.ut, and de-
.-trovi.l them. They then lioieged a large
town iM"ir .Mount Hermoii, and when the
:\laronites within were hard pressed, the Turk-
i.vh (Joveruor ordia-eil them to surrender, under
pr(Uiiise of protection. The infuriated Diaises,
however, attacked the prisoners and destroyed
them to the last man. The Dru>e population
of Daiuascus also rose airaiust the Christians,
ami a ma-sacre ensued in which it was esti-
mated that two thousand persons were cut
,lowii hv the sw.irds of the Mussulmans.
It was the news of these proceedings that
seemed to call on England and France to
interfere in the affirirs of Syria The other
Powers of Western Europe agreed to a com-
])act uiiiler whii'li order in the Lebanon should
be restored umler the French and English
Hags. .\ ..ipiadroii was sent out by the allies
to the Sviiaii coast, and the Druse insurrection
was cpiiekly quelled. Presently afterwards,
GREAT RRITAIX.—A^fERICAN COMPLICATION.
^So
Cli
ambassadors were seut to Const:
whom it was decided tliat lieucet'i
tian Governor, under the suzerainty of tin
Sultau, should rule the insurgent popuhition,-
of Nortlieru Syria. Tlie whole disturliaiici
and its conclusion was another iHur-tvLitinii of
the complete decadence and imliecility of th(
Turkish Government in the lan.l. ovJr whirli
it had long exercised autlmrity. Soon attei
the settlement of the difficulty, the Turki>li
ruler, Abdul-^Iedjid, dit'd, and was succeeded,
on the 25th of June, 1861, by his brother.
Abdul-Aziz, who was destined
accession to the tlirono with pi
ness and reform, and t" end
years, by suicide.
It fell to the Mini-try of 1
to conduct the (ioveninicnt i
o signalize tiis
niises of great-
:, after sixteen
l!r
Civil War. It was an elm.^l, critical in the
last degree. In the light <.f the retrospect, it
would appear that at no cii.-is in modern
times have the fortunes and the welfare of
the English-speaking race been more seriously
imperiled than in the years 1861-62. The
conduct of England towards the American
Repuldic in that great crisis has been much
discussed in every civilized country, particu-
larly in our own. The American j)eopIe have
not yet recovered from the shock and strain to
whi(di they were subjected by the course of
that great insular nation with which we are
in strongest affinity ipf language, institutions,
anil laws. The animosities transmitted from
our War nf Independence ha.l long since died
away.
The Revolutionary soldiers had gone to
sleep in the soil of the country, which they
had helped to create eighty-five years before.
Their descendants had returned to their ancient
ethnic sympathies with the ]\Iother Country,
and a feeling had supervened that the whole
English race had, so to speak, embarked for a
common destiny.
When the secession of the ."ioutlii'm States
began, in the winter of 18(i(), when a Southern
Confederacy was organized and war pro-
claimed as the means by which it was to be
perpetuated, the National Government and a
great majority of the Amiu-ican people looked in-
stinctively to Great Britain for a lilieral meas-
ure of supiiort and contiilence. There were
good reasons whj' such expectations sliouM be
entertained. It was already felt, i>n this side
of the sea, that the institution of .shivery was
deep down in the bottem of our Natiniial con-
troversy. Witli that institution the whole
movement and destiny of the Cuufderate en-
terprise were fn.m the first involved. True,
the National (invermnent had n..t as vet
drawn th.^ swor.l against this final cause 'of
attack and destroy the peculiar
But the saying was one of those
or half-con.scicuis falsehoods in
not meant
institution,
uncon.sciou
whicli the
nati
lin, her antipathy
iiecnme constitutional. It was
ted in America that Eiia;land
As to (Ireat
very had long
not at all
s sin-
the jmlicy
in every
pa
inlitioii of human servitude
tlie w<irld. .She lual publicly an-
nounced to the nations that the touch of the
slave's foot on the soil of Great Britain made
him free forever. She had gf)ne so far as to
foster and promote in this country that Anti-
slavery Society, at the existence of which the
South had taken such mortal offense. In a
thnu>and instances she had justly denounced
American slavery as a shame and burning
disgrace to the great people by whom it was
fostered. It could but be expected, therefore,
that when the seceded States had banded
themselves together under a governmental
compact in which slavery was openly declared
to be the chief corner-stone, England would
throw the whole weight of her influence into
the scale against what she must logically
regard as a conspiracy for the maintenance of
slaverv. It was fondlv believed throiiirhout
the Ni
with the (
secession a
But w
developed
Civil Wai
her.self in
United St:
•t.
584
UNIVERSAL HISTORY- THE MOVERy WORLD.
and like antecedents, had gone to war on the '
Continent. She declared nentnility. With ,;
what must always appear to America an I
indecent and eat^er haste, she recognized the
belligerency and the equal war-rights of the
seceded States, i^he assumed ])recisely what
Gladstone dcihuvd t'> lie the rase, namely,
that Jefferson Davi.- and his iellow-statesjiieu
of the South had created a nation in a day.
Without waiting to see what course the Na-
tional Administration would pursue, without
paiisinLT t.i observe what kind cf a im-thod the
Xatiuiial Government would taki' in order to
put down the insurrection, what kind of a hlow
might be given to the revolt, she rushed in
medkis reg, and mi the 8th of ^lay, 1861, in
less than a month aftei- the first eanuon-shot
had berimed from the land-itatteries of
Charleston against the walls nf Sumter, the
English proclamation, by Lord John Russell,
recognizing the perfect equality of the twn
parties to the eontlict, was i>saeil. The
American people were astnnnded t'l know-
that the (.Tdverument of the United States
had been placed liy (ireat Britain on an exact
level with what a ^reat majority regarded as
an inexcusable insurrection.
Such was the situation cousi
in the abstract. Concrete aet
which tended still further t
unfriendliness of Gi-eat Bi-itaii
States, and to intensify the ill-
.sides of the Atlantic. The
Run was foufrlit, and the Xat
tiirewn into a' pa. lie. The „eu
Hew to England, was puhlisl
and was receive.) with a Imi'sl
as though snnie international event ot' tin'
happiest augnry had iKeniicd. The jnliilation
was out of all proportion to the o,-,-a>ion. It
"bulihle" being nothing less than the Amer-
ican Republic. Lord Palmerstou referred to
the retreat of the Union army on Washington
as the "unfirtunate and nipid movement of
the Northern soldiers." The hiirhest ffovern-
idcred somewhat
s soon f.Uowe.l
0 establish the
1 to the United
feeling on both
Battle of Bull
ioual array was
- of the disaster
leil everywhere.
mental
Every
the p:
Uliited
armv.
oftir
tterest .sar-
upholders.
1 the National cause and
■on.'.-ivable falsehood was circulated to
ejn.lice of the (Government of the
States and the character of the Uniim
On the other hand, the South was
lauded in all the forms of rhetorical exagger-
ation. The Southern soldiers were heroes;
the Northern soldiers were poltroons. The
South was chivalrous, liberty-loving; the
North was mercenary, mean. At times, the
Kingdom was in a roar of delight. Confederate
victories were heralded, and Union successes
falsified out of the record.
All these things, when the rumor and re-
piort thereof were borne back to America, pro-
duced in the Government and among the
people their legitimate results. Befire the
close of the summer of 1801, hatred of the
^lotlier Country had supervened wherever the
Stars and Stripes were still the emblem of a
respected nationality.
We may now consider the causes for the
conduct of Great Britain with respect to our
Civil War. What reasons existed for her
thus planting herself in antagonism to the
United States? Was there any justification
or excuse fur the course of England in giving
her symjiatby and virtual support to the cause
of the Contederaey •? First of all, Great Brit-
ain had. in common with other nations, the
sentiment which, under sin'h conditions as then
existed in the United States, is fallaciously
called ,/■("■(■ plai/. The South was the weaker
jiarty. When a tight is on, it is the weaker
]iartv that, right or wrong, receives the sym-
pathy of the world. To this extent England
can only be said to have acted after the man-
ner of other nations. In the next place, the
intered of Enaland seemed to her at the time
to require tlie s]iee(iy sucee>- oi tiie ^oiitiieru
Confederacy. It wa- out ot' the States of the
South that the greater part of raw cotton
which was consumed in tlie English factories
was drawn. A large industrial interest in ( n-eat
Britain was directh" dependent on the re-ular
continuance of this supply. It is ditbcult in
America to appreciate how completely, not
only the operatives proper, but almost the
whole people, in such manufacturing cities as
Manchester were dependent on the regular de-
livery of raw cotton in that mart. At the
very outset the Government of the United
States saw the necessity of closing the South-
ern ports. This could only lie <lone by the
process called blockade. According to Inter-
national Law, a nation may blockade the
ports of an enemy, but not its own ports.
GREAT BRITAIN. -AMERICAN COMPLICATION.
At the outbreak of the war the United States
was not disposed to admit that the Soutlieni
States were an "euem}-" iu the technical
sense of that word. When the blockade was
stretched around the Southern coast and be-
came ever more rigorous, it was still held by
the Government that the Southern States
were in the character of insurrectionary prov-
inces. There was much that was illogical iu
the .«ituatiiiii. However necessary it was to
establish and maintain the blockade, it was
hardly logical to do so without doing pre-
cisely what Great Britain had been so seriously
blamed for doing at the very outset, namely,
recognizing the complete belligerent rights of
the Confederacy.
This pal|)able break in the policy of the
National Government was quickly seized by
Great Britain and France as a warrant for the
unfriendly course which they were pursuing.
In the former country, the condition was
aggravated by the immediate cessation of the
supply of cotton, and the wide-spread distress
consequent thereon in the manufacturing
districts. Had it not been for the strong
republican sympathy which existed among the
people of Lancashire and in other industrial
districts of similar character, it were hard to
say what evil results would have immedi-
ately ensued. It was the astonishing non
sequitur of the situation that the workiugmeu
of jManchester, who were the real sufferers on
account of the blockade, were the best friends
which the United States had in England ;
while, on the other hand, the worst eneujies
of the Xatinnal Government were the country
squires and Tory aristocrats, who did not
themselves feel even an inconvenience on
account of the war in America.
It was not louL', however, until Great
Britain founil a niuih more tangible basis for
her hostilities. The Southern Confederacy had
been quick to ]icri'eivi' their advantage in
England and Frau.'e. While all the rest of
Europe was on the side of the National Gov-
ernment, the sentiments of those two nations
from whom, as Mother Country and "Tradi-
tional Friend," we had most to expect, were
whollv averse. This fact was quickly seized
upon t\v the Confederate Government in the
belief that a recognition of the independence
of the South could be obtained. To accom-
plish this end, it was nece.=.sary to send abroad
ambas.sadors to the courts of England and
France. The story of the outgoing anil cap-
ture of .Mason and Slidell has already been
recounted. In tiie present chapter we are
considering the matter only from the English
point of view. The act of Captain Wilkes in
running down the Trent, and in taking from
under the protection of the British flag the two
envoys of the Confederacy, and then allowing
the steamer to go on her way, was irregular
and illegal from beginning to end. Neverthe-
less, the deed was applauded to the echo in
the United States. Public meetings were held
in Tammany Hall, New York, and in Faneuil
Hall, Boston, at which strong indorsement
and high compliment were given to Captain
Wilkes for his heroic fracture of the law of
nations. The National House of Representa-
tives, with equal ignorance and patriotism,
blinded by the one and fired by tiie other,
actually passed a vote of thanks, and ordered
the presentation of a sword to the commander
of the San Jacinto for his capture of the
" traitors," Slidell and Mason.
Great Britain, well knowing that the thing
done was against International Law and an
insult to the English flag, made all haste to
improve the occasion. Her wrath knew no
bounds. She demanded the release of the
Confederate ambassadors, and an apology for
the act of Wilkes, and was courteous enough
to give the United States ^even datis iu which
to choose between jieace an<l war ! Of course,
Mason and Slide!! were lil.rrated and sent to
their .lestiiiafion ; but tli.- aniimis of Great
Britain had been so unhappily displayed that
there was no further hope of the restoration of
good feeling during the continuance of the
war. By the in.sane iiassion which the British
Government displayed, it betrayed itself, and
it was known henceforth, by the Government
of the United States and by t!ie whole
American people, that Eiii;laiid only waited
for an opportunity to do the Nation the
greatest harm in her power.
But we are still under the necessity of
looking deep down into tlie sea of motive, and
of discovering there, if we may, tlie ultimate
reason of British hostility to the I'nited
Sttites. That ultimate reason is to be found in
the deep-seated antipathy of England to the
i.S6
UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
repulilicaii form of goverument as developed
in iiur couiiti-v. The cii;i.'auizatiou of political
siieiety on this sidr of the Atlantic had been
uu too liljeral a scale to he pleasing in the
British Isles. Even that limited monarchical
system, wliich is the l>oast of the dominant
classes in England, could but feel a mortal
ofleuse at the successfid demonstration of
republicanism in America. We are here on
the ground of the true explanation. Great
Britain had subscribed, for centuries, a histor-
ical allegation to the efTect that Hereditary
Monarchy, an Aristocratic organization of
society, a Graduated Order of Nobility, a
stratification of the people into classes, the
permanent maintenance of a political and
social difference between the upper and the
under man, are the prerequisites of English
liberty and English perpetuity. But the
United States had established political liberty,
and were about to demonstrate its perpetuity
on a splendid scale. The American Republic
had become what Lord Bacon might have
defined as a " forth-.showiug instance" to all
nations and peoples.
All this appeared to be in the nature
of a refutation of the English order and
theory of societv. While Great Britain
would never have confessed that she re-
garded our republican institutions as a men-
ace to her own, it is nevertheless true that
such was her unconcinus or half-conscious
sentiment. As a matter of fact and in brief,
Great Britain desired and hoped that the
American Republic would go to pieces, and
that the judgment of the Eugli.sh-speaking
race would thus be obliged to revert; to and
reaccept the ancient i>r(ler of political society
as embodied and illustrated in the British
Constitution. If we say that such a .sentiment,
entertained by all the governing classes in
England with respect to the United States
and their destiny, was mnm in the lowest
degree, we must also admit that it was natural
in the highest degree.
The limits of the present chapter do not
permit a further expansion of the subject.
British society, by which is meant all the
ruling and dominant parts of society, fixed
itself inveterately in support of the cause of
the South. Hencefbrth, the North, th.nt is,
the National Government, expected nothing
from Great Britain except her sneers and ill-
concealed animosity. It happened, however,
that destiny was preparing for all this a
remedy, or at least a compensation. Under
the British Constitution and in accordance
with the immemorial usages of the Kingdom,
many things may be done in England at
which other peoples would startle and take
alarm. It was the policy of Frederick the
Great, publicly announced in a witty aphorism,
embodying the understanding between himself
and his people, that they should say whatever
they pleased, and he would do whatever he
pleased. It might almost be said that this
policy has l)eeu reversed in Great Britain;
that is, that the sovereign may say whatever
he pleases, and the people do whatever pleases
them. In the case before us, it pleased the
ship-builders of Great Britain to constitute
themselves a naval base for the Southern Con-
federacy. Scarcely had the war begun until
adventurers and emissaries from the Confed-
erate States began to use the dock-yards of
Great Britain as the field of their operations.
The Confederate States had no navy. They
had no commerce on the high seas. The
United States had both. The policy of the
Confederates therefore fell naturally into the
work of purchasing and sending forth priva-
teers. In the beginning the United States
would fain have remanded all such business
to the category of piracy. But, unfortunately,
the National Government had itself for a long
time resisted the international movement for
the abolition of privateering. Her folly in
this respect now returned to plague the in-
ventor. The Government could not consist-
ently fulminate the decree of piracy against
a species of warfare which she herself contin-
ued to recognize with favor.
Behind this covert the Confederate Captains
went forth to build, to buy, and to burn. A
narrative has been given already of the course
and fate of the Confederate cruisers. It is
sufficient, in this place, to point out the fact that
of the seven principal vessels which got afloat on
the high seas, and which, for longer or shorter
periods, did havoc with the merchant marine
of the United States until the latter was ex-
tinguished, five were notoriously and openly
built in the dock-yards of Great Bii[ain.
There, also, they were equipped and manned.
GREAT BIHTAIX- AMERICAN COMPLICATION. :]87
The outrage of such ;i i)rnceediiig was a steuch i other Adams, a.s ilij)liiinatisl or statesman, is
in the nostrils of the nations. The conse- i worthy of a higher rank than he
(jiienees entailed therehy liave lieen (lUllined it may mil he ckcmi-d iiiaii|iruj,riatL' to
aln_'a.ly in r\w lii,-t..iy ,,( ,uir ,iu n r.iunuy. <le|iart In.m ilir cliiunnle-ical nnl,r <a events
It may Milhee, in ll,i> roimeetin,,, l.. n-niai'k in older to f,.ll,,u the >eiiuel nt the eruise of
ujion Ihe wi.-doiii nf Lin.'nhi, and the -nod llie Alitkinui, an,l <.t tlie cimneetiun .,t (ireat
lortune of the United Slate- i]i lia\ ni^ at liie liritaiu tlietewUh. An aeeount has heen [ne-
eulirt i.f .St. James, m these day-, tlial uia-ndi- sented, in a f.nnier eliapler, of the Treaty of
cent exemplar of Anienean .hiileiiiaey, Charles ! Washington, of May, LS71, and of the pro-
Francis Adams. His sleailme-s in the dark visum made therein for a Court of Arbitration,
day of trial, his equanimity and firmness, his I to be convened in December of the same year,
" '•^ ^ . j*J^.
GFNr\ \ swii/m \.\D
fUn ni-i_ht lit tin -itii itioii hi- <on-tint at (rPiuxa, ^w it/t il ind, tdi the puiposp of
ui„l,i lui ,,„iniMiMl ,H,li.\ nt «i.>n_d,,iiu, ,him-..,t th, Vni, ii, in (.u^,lm^Mlt a_ im-t
n,d hi- hnd d..lii iti.n n.o ]n.l.-t t. L.id (.i.it P.Mt nn I. i th, d.-tiii, tieii ,,t the , em-
.Tnhii Kn-, 11 wh 11 til. tun ( iil(d. lit. Mill- m, 1 , , , ,t 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1. 1 ^1 1 1. - b\ t h ( It. .hiite
u,,. ,l,.mt to , nf t . -. 1 thlt till- I- U II • (llll-.l- Ih. . \, 111 1 l..\. 1 t.. 1.. th. Ill .-t lln-
Ihlll-h <. .x.
,11 Mil- tli.i
.t 11,. r„ii.x I ii
,, luh.t I)...llll
men that no Ih it iin, It ,l\ •-« it/, i lan.l, in.i I!ia/il '1 he
388
UXIVHHSAI. HISTORY. — THE MODERy WORLD.
GREAT BRITAIN.— AMERICAN COMPLICATION.
389
judges appointed were, on the part of Eug-
hunl, Sir Alexander Cockhuru, at tliat time
Lord Chief-Justice of the Kingdom; on the
jiart iif the Uuiteil folates, Charles Francis
Adams; ou the part of Italy, Count Frederick
Sclopis; ou the part of Switzerland, M.
Jacques Staemptli; and on the part of Brazil,
A'iscouut d'ltajiiba. The counsel for Great
liritain were Lord Teuterdeu and SirEoundell
I'almer, afterwards Lord Selbourue. The coun-
sel for the United States were J. C. Rancruft
Davis, William M. Evarts, Caleh Cushin-,
and Morrison R Waite. The court, in its
entirety, was the most august and alilo tril)un;d
which international jurisprudence has eall.-d
into being within the present century.
After the organization was effected, and the
statement of the causes of the two great nations
had been made, the court adjourned until June,
1S72, from which time the sessions were contin-
uous to the close, in September of the same year.
The proceedings awakened the profoundest in-
terest, not only in the nations specially con-
cerned in the controvers}', but throughout
Christendom. The jjleadings and arguments
were, from beginning to end, a battle of the
giants, in which the representatives of the
United States gained steadily to the close of
the contest. Near the beginning, an action
was taken by which "Three Rules relatini; to
Neutral Nations," were formulated, whieh,
while they have not as yet been generally in-
corporated into the law of nations, Ijecanie the
basis of the settlement and the final award of
the court. These rules are as follows:
"A neutral Government [under such cir-
cumstances as existed at the time of the
American Civil War] is bound —
"1. To use due diligence to prevent the
fitting out, arming, or ei|ui|i|iuig within its
jurisdiction of any vessel which it has reason-
able ground to believe is intended to cruise or
carry on war against a power with wliieh it
[the neutral government] is at peace; and
also to use like diligence to prevent the
departure from its jurisdiction of any vessel
intended to cruise or carry on war as above,
such ves.sel having been siieeially adapted in
whole or in part within such juiisdiction to
warlike uses.
"2. Not to permit or sufti?r either bellig-
erent to make use of its ports or waters as the
base of naval operations against the other, or
for the purpose of the renewal or augmenta-
tion of military supplies, or arms, or recruit-
ment of men.
"3. To exercise due diligence in its waters
as to all persons within its jurisdiction, to pre-
vent any violation ol the foregoing obliga-
tions and duties."
The iirinci|iles of international conduct here
enuuciateti were, in the first instance, brought
before tlie court tentatively as covering the
jiositioii and claims held l.y th<' I'nited States.
After the discussions were concluded, these
rules were i'uWy adopted by the court iu a
sjjecial stipulation of the treaty, as follows:
"And the high contracting parties agree to
ohserve these rules as hetwecii tliem.selves in
future, and to luiiig them to the knowledge
cit other maritime powers, and to invite them to
accede to them.'
After a threi' luoiilh,-' .-essiou, the decision
of the trilmnal was ivached. on liie 14th of
SeptemI.er, l.s72. All the iiieiubeis of the
court, with the exception (jf Sir Alexander
Cock burn, signed the report and the award.
The English Lord Cliief-Justice wrote a long
dissenting opinion; but his views were, of
course, ot no eflect (ju the general decision of
the court. That deei>ion constituted what is
known in diplomaey as ihi- (ij;Ni:v.v Awakd.
The general p.K-itiou assuiiicl by the United
States was fully substantiated, with the ex-
ception of the somewhat extravagant claims
made by the National Government under the
title of "consequential damages.' As a final
and complete settlement (jf the so-called '■Ala-
l.)ama Claims," a sum in gross <.\\ litteeii million
five hundred thousand dollars was awarded to
the United States, as full and complete com-
pensation f(U- the damages done to her com-
merce and nationality liy \\\v Kiiglisli-lmilt,
English-ei|uip|ied, and English-manned priva-
teers of the Southern Contedeiacy.
Returning from tins anticipation of events
that were to come as the legitimate fruits of .
British sowing, we note the continued ani-
mosity of the p]nglish-ruling classes towards
our Nati.uial ( Joveniim-ut to the vry close of
the war. With the exception ot Bright and
Forster and a few others, such as the Duke of
Argyll, all the public men of England re-
mained wedded to their idols. The newspaper
!lO
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
77
veil
ic.
Ill f.
iver
The
the
V con
7ll
ml
ups.-
n-ly s
M-iiii.
(if
till 1.1
ire
itter
(ii-e;it
the
Bri
;iin.
lant
press ,.f the kiiicr.l.ini seeniecl t
tu :i lU'luMon that it nii-hl liel
streniii nf misiviin >w,tnt,n„ wi
,ini-r..ss nf th.. An,eri,-aii W:
:, ^u- ha.ikfull to the o,„l. If
of tho ('oiifMloi:i,'y ill the e
l.SlM, it woiil.l 1kiv<. Ihvii the
All the eherishe.l dreams <,t
party in polities aii.l society sii<l.leiily hurst
like a liulilile, and faded into viewless air.
Great Britain awoke one .lay to the shocking
realization that there was no hiuger anywhere
in the world her darling Southern Confederacy,
iiiit only the American Union, one and iu-
dissoluhle. It may well be hoped that the
lesson was sufficient, and that the arrogance,
seltisliness, and iinconscionalile self-esteem which
had conspired to throw the kin-d.n.i aii.l the
English people into a vicious altitude and
malign relation with the largest political
division of the English-speaking race, and to
pour the embers of heart-burning and distrust
into many millions of patriotic lireasts on this
siile of the Atlantic, have been forever ex-
tinguished in the heart of the Britisli Xation.
The Palmerstou :Miiiistrv survived until
after the close of the Civil War. Though the
difficulties of the Government of Great Britain
were the most serious, they were not by any
means the only foreign embarrassments with
which the Cabi'uet of Palin.-rstou had in th.ise
days to contend. In l^i;:] the Danish com-
plication with Germany relative to the Prov-
inces of Schleswig and Holsteiu led to hostil-
ities ami the clamor of arms. Denmark, as
wo shall hereafter see, was hard pressed by
her more powei-ful neighbors. The iiroject of
severing the disputed Pnivinces from the
Danish crown struck cohlly on the conscious-
ness of (ireat Britain. The integrity of
Denmark had been -uarauteed by the'Congress
of Vienna, to wliieh both Euglanil and France
were |iarties. ( 'onsistency seemed Ifi require
that Great Britain should now prevent Austria
and Prussia from breaking the balance of
power. The Prince of Wales had but ju.st
married the Princess Alexandra, daughter of
the King of r)eiimark, thus presenting her full
of youth, lieauty. and almost every charm and
virtue known to \yoniauhood, as the future
(^ueen of Great Britain. The marriage was
as popular as the Princess was attractive to
the British public. The Danish Government
believed that dependence might be placed on
Great Britain as a buttress of support in the
war with Germany. The British jMinistry
to.ik up the cause of the Danes, and was ready
to declare war; but in so doing, the cooperation
of France was a ueces.?ary condition of succes.s.
Lord Russell accordingly became a suitor to
Xapoleon III. to join him in the work of
maintaining, by arms, the integrity of the
Danish dominions. But what was the surprise
of the English Ministry when the Emperor of
France coldly refusal the overture! Great
Britain suddenly fuiiid herself in the humil-
iating, not to say rirliculous, attitude of a
rejected suitor. The Danes were, out of the
necessity of the situation, left to fight their
own battle, and the English Cabinet was left
to face the sarcasms of Disraeli, and the
attacdcs of the whole Conservative jiarty in
and out of Parliament.
It was ill this emergency that Lord Pal-
nierston fought and gained his last battle in
the British House of Commons. On the 4th
of July, 1864, Disraeli challenged the very
existence of the ^linistry by introducing a
resolution to the efi'ect that the Queen's Gov-
ernment had failed to maintain the policy of
upholding the integrity and independence of
Denmark, had lowered the just infiuence
thereliy diminished the securities for ])eace.
On these propositions the adniit author of
them made a ]iowerfiil and effective speech,
and it ajipeare.l fir the time that the Govern-
ment would be beaten. There could, indeed,
be little doubt that the arraignment of the
Ministry by Disraeli with respect to the
mismanagement of the Danish question was a
true bill. A considerable fraction of the more
advanced Liberals had long been dissatisfied
with Paliiiei>ton and his whole foreign policy.
It appeared for the nonce that the veteran
statesman, \vhose memory of great things
reached back to Austerlitz, was about to be
humiliated in the last year of his life. It is
probable that such would have been the
result if the i.ssue had been fought out on the
line proposed by the leader of the Opposition.
But in the emergency, an amendment was
GREAT BRITAIN.— AMKETC Ay COMPLICATION.
.■1!)J
oposed by Kiuglake, by which the question
IS carefully transferred to the safer ground
a (jeiiend approval or disapproval by the
luse (if the Paliuerston Goveniinent. This
ve opiiortuuity for the aged Prime ,AIiiii.-t.r
defend himself and his measures iu the last
?eeli which he was ever to make in Parlia-
'i]t. He was already eighty years of age ;
t his genius, as the event soon jiroved, had
t yet taken flight. He spoke for a long
lie with his usual cogency, taking advantage,
th all his old-time skill, of the peculiar con-
inns and temper of the H.mse. His intlu-
drli
Aloni; yh
•s li:
The proposition of Kinnlake in support of
the Jlinistry was adopte<l by a clear majority,
but it was the last day of the glory of
En.lyniion. During the session of 18(3.5 it
was ])erceived by all that Palnierston's career
was at an end. He began to totter with
feebleness, and became almost blind. He was
still able on his eightieth birthday to ride on
horseback to the Hilsea fortifications, and make
a personal inspection of the works. At an ear-
lier period iu the same year he had riilden
from Piccadilly to Harrow, a distance of
twelve miles, in a single hour — a feat which
may well emphasize not only the extraordinary
vigor of the man, but also testify to tlie un-
conquerable force and longevity of the English
race at its best estate. From his last Parlia-
mentary contest, Palmerston retired to liis
residence, called Brocket Hall, where, after a
short illness, he expired on the IStli of Octo-
ber. is(;r..
Betore finally dismissing this ppriod of
English history, covering the relations ot' the
Kingdom with the United States during the
Civil War, w should not fail to notice the
domestic cloud which, in the lurantime, had
settled darkly over the Koyal Palace. After
a wedded life of unclouded serenity through a
span of twenty-one years, the Queen was now
fated to enter the sliadows of perpetual widow-
h 1. Before speaking in particular of the
death of the Prince Consort, we may properly
refer, with praise, to the fact that, in the
midst of the storm and passion of the times,
when it seemed that all England was in a roar
over the supposed collapse of the
American Tniou, Prince Albert had the
\\isilnm and generosity' to maintain, by voice
I'nitcd States. At the time, it was not
kn..wu in onr country le.w steady and valualile
a frien.l wc had lo>t in the'.lealh of the
Queen's husband. After events have set the
matter ri.cht, and the memory of the j'rince
(;.>nsort will long be green on'this >ide of the
Atlantic.
The pure .lomesticity of th.' Koval Family
during the life of the Prince has alreaily bci'n
emphasized. Viewerl politically, and with re-
spect to the perpetuity of the reigning dyna.ty,
the marriage had been so successfid as not
only to ■satisfy but well elate the friends of
the House of Saxe-Col)urg-Gotha. No fewer
than nine children, strong, vigorous sons and
daughters, all of whom grew without accident
or distress to manhood and womanhood, were
born of the fjrtunate marriage. The ehlest
of these was the Princess Victoria, born in
lS4(t, wedded at the age of eighteen to the
Crown Prince of Prussia, more I'eeently Ger-
man Empress ami widow of Frederick HI.
The second was a son, Albert Edward, Prince
of Wales, born in 18-11, to whom, in 1863, was
given in marriage the Princess Alexandra of
bennuuk. In our own ,lay ho still stands, as
from his birth, heir expectant to the crown of
England. The third was the Princess Alice,
born in 1843, and married in 1861^ to Prince
Louis of Hesse-Darmstadt. The fourth was
Alfred, born in 1844, Duke of Edinbtu-gh in
1866, to whom was married, in b'^74, the <Trand
Duchess Maria, daughter of Alexander II. of
Ru.ssia. The Princess Helena was horn in
1846, and was married, in 1866, to Prince
Christian ..f S,.hh<wig-Holstcin. The fourth
daughter. Lnui<e, was born in ls4s, and was
wedih'd, in l-sTl, to the Manpiis ,,f Lnrne.
The third -on, Arthur, was b,,ni in is.-.d, and
Lecipold, the fourth s.m, in Is.V}. lieatrice,
the last heir of the House, was born in ls.")7.
The younger, as well as the elder Piince> and
Princ,
ive iieen
H..uses ,,:
some reason to be i|uerulous about the heavv
pensions which have had to be settled on the
multiplied and multiplying descendants of
UXIVERSAL HISTORY. — TEE MODERN WORLD.
Prince Albert, she has, on tlie other hand, I
under her own theory of human government, ^
great cause to n-joice at the laot that the
extiuctiou of the reiguint; dynasty, or any
serious trouble with respect to the descent of
the Crowu, seems to be either wholly ini-
l.o"ibl,. .,r a uroat uay off
Pun.-.' All.crt th.- ('..11-. It i.romi-rd a long
life. >Vhile he could not be called a very
rol)ust or vigorous man, he, nevertheless, bore
good health, and was of strictly temperate
habits. In the first days of December, 1861,
he cnntract.'d cold, and was thrown into a
fever. At fir.-t little attention wa'- paiil to his
ailment ; tlien it was known that he was seri-
ously, though it was not thought dangerously,
ill. ' On the night of the 14th of December,
however, the great bell of St. Paul's began to
toll, and with the morning light it was
pnijlished i'Yom Windsor Castle that the
Prince Consort was dead. He had expired
having the Queen, the Prince of AVales, and
the Princesses Alice and Helena by his bed-
side. The event served to bring his high
character and blameless life into strong relief,
and into a still bolder
contrast with the
dark background
which had been
painted socially and
morally by the pre-
ceding kings and
princes of the House
of Hanover-Bruns-
wick. To the Queen
herself, the death
of her husband was
an im medicable
wound. She entered
with sorrowful se-
renity that career
of grand widowhood
wliirli has now
lengthened out to
nearly thirty years,
during which her
chief domestic con-
solation has been in
the great family of
sons and daughters,
at whose head she
still sitsinthedignity
of royal motherhood.
The death of
Lord Palmerston
was not the end of
the Liberal Govern-
ment. A modifica-
tion was, of course,
necessary in the ]\Iin-
istry, and it was expected by the public that
the Cabinet would be entirely reconstructed.
Tlie Queen named Lord John Russell as Prime
Minister; and that statesman, now seventy-
three vears of age, assumed the direction of
Government. The only other change made
in the Ministry was the calling of Lord Clar-
endon to (lecupv the place made vacant by
Lord Russell ni the Secretaryship of Foreign
GREAT BH [TA rX.—A.]fFRirAX rOMPLICATIOX.
Affairs. The leadership of the House of
Cominous still devolved on Gladstoue. The
general effect of these ciiaiigps was siiirlit; hut
the stii.leiit of rarlianiriitarv iiistorv c.uld imt
fail to (lisceni in th.
approacliing, perha[).-
revolution.
For the time beini
.Mi
ver, i)Uhlie altcii-
tion was drawn away fioni tlie evohuion of
home politics to tlic si-rioiis, calaniitous, .lis-
graceful condition of alhiirs in .fanniira. Just
two days after the death of Lord Palmerston,
Governor Edward John Eyre, of that Islan.l,
reported to the Colonial Serrrtary the out-
hreak of an alariniiiL;- iii>urnction of the negro
population under liis government. It were,
perhaps, a thaiil^less task to undertake, in
this eonueetion, a thorou-h an:dy>i^ of the
antecedents, causes, ami <-iMiilitioiis of this
revolt. Perhaps we may hest -inn up the
whole hy saving that the iiisuneitiou liad its
r...)ts in' the" institution of Mavery, and that
its i,nme,liate cau^e was the injustiee and
tyrannous conduct of the Britisii (Tovern-
inent iu the Island. We have already ex-
plained that, with the abolition of slavery, a
state of affairs had supervened in .Tamaiea
very similar to that with whicli tlie (Jovern-
ment of the United States was f u- many years
embarrassed after the downfall of the Confed-
eracy. The laucis of the Island had been hehl,
under the ancient n'gline, in large tracts by
white landlords, who cultivated their estates
by means of slave labor. In course of time,
much of the land was -leteriorated in fertilirv
and value. Parts .,f the estate, wei-e thn.uu
out to the commons, cea-ed to l)e cultivated,
and were overgrown with. tliicket<.
When slavery was aholi^^lied, the e\-.dave-
holders of -Jamaica, who were now ol,li-ed to
pay wages to the negroes fir their labor,
found it espe<lieut to permit the Black men to
occupy and cultivate for themselves, the aban-
doned lands just referred to. Nearly all of
such lauds were by this time encumliered witli
delinquent taxes ami quit-rents, wdiich ha<l
accumulated against them. The general con-
dili lu on which tlf ncLjroe- were permitted to
occu|)\' was that thev sliould discharge all
delinquencies of tax and rent that might have
accrued. This was done in a great number
of instances, and the Black men thus acquired
for themselves a kind of property right wdiich
it is ditheult to define. At length the industry
of the Blacks brought the lands again into
cultivatiou, and thereby restored their value.
W'lieieupon, the original owners or tlieir rep-
resentatives came forward to reclaim their
estates, which the negroes had occupied and
improved. In order to dispos.se.<s tlie latter, a
jirocess was resorted to verv similar to that eni-
jiloye,! in more nreiit times iu the eviction of
Iri.-^h tenants l,y thei,- English landlord,^. It
was resistanci. to ihis process of ilispo-.^^ession
by eviction, with all of its agL'ravating cir-
cumstances and inju-lice, that led to the
The revolt began .ai the 7th of Oct.iber,
at a place called JNIoraut i!av, in the south-
easternmost part of the I>laiid. There had
lieen at this town some previous disturbances,
tiiid (iovernor Eyre now sent thither a squad
of troops to aid the authorities in the arrest of
the offenders. On the lltli of the month the
magistrates held a meeting in tlie Court-house
Scpiare ..f ;\loraut Bay, where they were pro-
t<'cted liy a small body of volunteer soldiers.
Wl
ings were under way, the
Court-house was attacked by a large force of
rioting negroes armed with bludgeons and
corn-knives, and eighteen per.sous, including
the principal officer of the county, were killed,
^leanwhile, the troops sent by the Governor
approached, and the rioters dispersed in all
directions. No further effort at resistance was
made or thought of liy the negroes, who were
doubtless dazed at their ouii success. The
whole country, however, was at (Jiice declared
under martial law, and the authorities, under
direction of the CoveriKir, proceeded to hunt
down the rebels, and to hale them before
What followed is one of the most di.-^grace-
ful chapters in the colonial history of the
British Empire. Such another carnival of
inexcusable butchery was hardly ever held
under the auspices of any power claiming to
be civilized. No rebels in arms were found
by (niveriior Eyre's soldiers anywhere; but
capture, hanging, tlogL'ing, and burning be-
came the order of the day f.r many weeks
together. No age, sex, or condition was
exempt from the cruelties and brutalities to
which the terrified negroes were subjected.
31)4
UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
According to the rejiort of a Koyal Commis-
simi, which was presently sent out by the
Home Government to incjiiire into this reign
of terror, no fewer than f<iur hiimlred and
thirty-nine pers(Jiis wcic actually put to ih'atli
wiih'hardly the I...ju or )n..ck.'ry of ju>tir,.!
The «inR-" rcpnrt showed that'.Mx iuiudre.l
were about to become niotliers, were cruelly,
bloodily, mercilessly whipped with wire catso'-
niue-tails, until scores of them were ready to die.
and the j)roseeutions were at once brought to
an end. An elaborate document, covering the
theory and application of martial law, was
jirepared by Lord (Jhief-Justice Cockburu.
Va\v was II' ved from the governorship of
.laniaiea, and was succeeded by Sir Henry
Siiiik^. A measure was at once agitated for a
complete leldijiiatiou of the government of
the Island. In December of 186G, an act
was passed by the Jamaican Assembly, re-
questing the Queen to take such steps as
^ I A
JAMAICA INSURRECTION.
It was also shown that a certain George
William Gordon, a Baptist negro minister of
good character, who had the courage to stand
up for his race, and to iiold some sort of
buckler in the face of their enemies, was
arrested, condemned to death, and hanged,
with scarcely the semblance of evidence
against him, and witli none of the ordinary
means of legal defense in his hands.
The news of all this produced, as well it
might, a great sensation in England. John
Stuart r^IiU took up the cause of the Islanders,
would abrogate the existing order and secure
the benefits of a local, civil autonomy in the
Island, similar to that which existed in the
other colonial governments of the Empire.
Thus was tile ancient constitution under
which, during more than two hundred years
of abuses and wrongs, Jamaica had been mis-
governed, overthrown and abolished. A new
order supervened, by whicdi even the com-
posite and divergent populations of the Island
were brought at length to a condition re-
seml.)ling harmony and progress.
GREAT BRITAIN.— FKyiASISM AND DISESTABLISHMENT.
Chapter OCXXIi.^Kexianisim and Ijiskstab-
lisshmenx.
T was not u
i.ler t'av,.ialile
auspi.v^ tl
at the (lUasi-
Liliwal Mi,
i>try ..f Loi-a
Ku.-.ll a>M
i.ie.i the task
cL.^l- nf
ni'iit at the
m;5. There
were in tli
■ kiugdom at
elllellt-^ .if .1
seourageineut
Ul.eirieially,
he prosperity
that (
and discontent.
of the year was ^reatly disturlied by the
cattle phiixue which had spi-ead thnmwh several
parts nf the Ishind, aii.l had >w.i,t away more
than forty thousand animals. Even this large
hiss was not the whole. Science was baffled
ill dealing with the contagion, and it was
fnuud necessary to prevent its further ravages
by killing whole herds of cattle in the ex-
posed counties. It was a time of social and
tiiiaucial alarm. The premonitory nimors of
the Fenian conspiracy in Ireland had reached
the Government and the people. Asiatic
cholera was making its way westward, stage
by stage, through the sea-ports of the ^Medi-
terraiieaii. The foreign relations of the King-
dom, while not positively disturbed, were
suffering at the extremities, like the anfeiiiiw
of .some huge insect thrust out far into
hospitable regions. There were also preiuoni-
tiiiiis of a financial panic — a thing particularly
dreatled by the great commercial interests of
the Kingdom. Deep down under all this was
the profound discontent of the ma.sses with
their political condition. The (piestion of a
reforin of the franchise, which had been post-
poned during the wliole of the Palmerstou
i-f'ijiiiti', was ever readv to assert itself. It was
known that (lla.lstone, who was now the
dominant Liberal in the ("abinet, and Bright,
who was the master spirit out of the Cabinet,
both seeing eye to eye on the question of a
general reform of the suffrage, had long post-
more ei|uitable apportionment ot the seats in
the House of Commons.
The season at length arrived for the work
to begin. xVt the opening of the .session of
18b(J, the speech from the throne drew the
attention of Parliament formally to the ex-
tension of the surt'rage as one of the duties
mcuinbent upon Her Jlajesty's Government.
It devolved on Gladstone to lead in the
contest. Accordingly, on the 12th of March,
in the year just named, he brought before the
House a Ministerial Bill, in which it was
proposed to reduce the property qualification
on the franchise from fifty pounds to fourteen
pounds in the case of suffrage in the counties,
and from ten to seven pounds for the boroughs.
There were other clauses in accordance with
which the franchise, under certain conditions,
was to be extended to lodgers, to those having
j deposits m savings banks, and certain other
classes of per.sons. Considered as a whole, the
bill was very mild in its provisions, insomuch
that the Radical reformers felt for it a
iiieasuie of contempt, while the Conservatives,
biin-- now in the Opposition, set themselves
ag:iiii>t the measure as a mere matter of
politi. <. h rame to pass, at feiigth, that >oine
..f the disc.mtented ami extreme Liberals
bandeil themselves together and demanded of
Gladstone the radical and substantial amend-
ment of the pending bill. The ^liuistry
found Itself between two fires. The dissen-
tient Radicals were known as the AduUainites,
j so-called by John Bright from their malcontent
disposition; for David had once, in the day of
I trouble, hidden in the cave of Adullam, and
called to him "every one that was in distress,
and every one that was dismiitfiifrii" The Adul-
iamites, though from an entirely <liHerent
motive, joined with Disraeli and the Con-
servatives, and when the Gladstone bill came
to a vote It was defeated. It only remained
for L.ird Russell and the inemlH.rs of the
Cabinet to put their resignations into the
hands of the Queen. The Liberal Ministrv
was at an end, not in.le,..! for attempting to
Parliament, but because the measure which
they proposed was so tame as to create no
?,w
UMVKHSAL HlSTdUY.— TnK MoDKlLX WOin.D
entliu.-iasni, having tlif imuit' "f ret' iiu witlnait whirh he
the HihstaiK-o. ; m the I'ai
A new C'niiservativf ('ahiiiet was now ])art cf
cnn.-titute,l. uith L.,nl I)e,l,y tn,- I'nn.e .Mh,i^. |aMi..i-e,l
tpr. While hi.n.-ell a -late-maii nf^ :;ivat ai:aih>t tl
abilities, the nal k-a.ha>hip tell, as hetoiv, t., cai-le. H
Disraeli, C'haiieelle.r e,t the Exehe.iuer. The ure an.l
rarliaiiientarv stniL'trle whii'i ri • ■ n-'i ■! i- iinliiieal «
one -if the (iddest epi^o.les in the political t<. kf
hi<tM,-v nf (ireat Britain. The reeent Liberal law;
MIni-trv ha.l been |,l,.,l-e,l t.. a reform of the i,,lly.
snllVa-e, a,al ha.l faih.l, being overwhelm, d the n
hy the ()p|,M>itinn un.ba- the leadership of the the h
very man who had now. liy the success of the the i
Conservatives, inherited the unsolved question. (do-e,'
The far-sighted Disraeli had. in fact, for many I heren
years hedged against the very situation in i when
found himself. He had always,
■ntary debates, merely acted the
>triictionist with the measures
le Liberals. He had said little
oiin ot' the sutlrage as a j)rin-
acks had been n]ion this meas-
uopn^d by the Liberals. His
iieney and adroilnos now sto.,,1
. him well in hand.
The people, in
the meantime, had
stirred up the king-
dom with a reform
agitation almost un-
equaled in extent
and vitality. Great
meetings were lield
everywhere, and the
most far-seeing of
them who upheld
the ancient order
saw the handwrit-
ing on the wall. It
was no lunger to be
<lonbted tliat the
woi'kingmen of
Great Britain were
in terrilile earnest
in the matter of gain-
ing the right of
suffrage. The Re-
form League became
active as never be-
fore. The agitators
in London prepared
to hold a monster
meeting in Hyde
Park, for the dis-
cussion of the ques-
tion of extending
the franchise. The
leaders of the move-
ment were careful
.vithin the forms and spirit of the
the Government, in a moment of
eitook to prevent the meeting. On
n- of the 23d of July, 1866^ when
)t the column of Reformers reached
of Hyde Park, they found them
:\. large division of the midtitude
turned aside to Trafalgar Square,
:■ masses were addressed bv John
GREAT BIUlAiy.-FEXIAXISM AXD DISESTABLISHMEXT.
But
l-efore the
g ha,
1 assen.hlea
Pari
, where the
IC ,T
.\v(l ..11 tlie
ir ■! ciiii-id-
, Hun
! |».ure,l in.
,■ 1,\
th..usaii(ls
ll.l sl
outiiii; and
•h ..t
,..rwise ,li,l
■nils
an.l l.lnkrl,
„1 L..
her
iig
■ Derli
III th'
Bright and other orators,
chise of the day, a vast tli
around the inclosures of H
half-intentional pressure n
iron railing caused it to l;!
erable distance, and the hui
The people scattered at
through the park, runnini
triumphing in a license \
little harm. There were I
heads, mutually delivered 1iy tli^
the rough citizenship, Imt utherw
onstratiou ended with iii:;lit-fall, :
on the next morning, exaininin
found every organ in its place an
its usual functions.
It was in the face of all this th
Miiii-try must now stand nr f
emergency, it occurred to I)i>iai'li that the
time had arrived for a new chaptir m British
politics. Hitherto, it had always heen the
principle of political action that tlie party in
power should hold to its dogmas and defeml
them until overthrown by an adverse Parlia-
mentary majority. The Conservatives and
Liberals had always stood each to their bat-
teries until the guns were silenced by a veri-
table charge and victory of the Opposition.
In the present instance, it occurred to Disraeli
that it would be just as well for the Conserva-
tives to become reformers themselves, and
thus gather the wind out of the Liberal fleet,
leaving it becalmed at sea. Why should a
Conservative ^Ministry go out of power and
office on such a slight technicality as polit-
ical consistency ? It appears that the age
and time and occasion were ripe for such a
change in the ethics and methods of British
politics. Wherefore, Benjamin Disraeli, Con-
servative leader of the House of Commons,
walked boldly into the arena, and declared
that the Derby Government would itself take
u]) and promote a reform of the franchise.
On the 5th of February, 18(i7, the Queen's
speech from the throne, at the opening of
Parliament, had declared to the Commons and
Lords that their attention was about to be di-
rected to the method of the representation of
the English people in Parliament, and to an
extension of the elective franchise. In accord-
ance with this policy, which had doubtless
been insiiired by himself, Disraeli announced
that the Government wouhl, first by a series
of resolutions and afterwards iiy a formal bill,
undertake the measures on which England
had determinrd. On thr 11th nf February
the preliminary skirmish was ..peiied. The
leader of the House proposed his resolutions,
some of which were platitudes, others truisms,
and still others absurdities. It was a business,
however, in which Disraeli was thoroughly at
home. He kept the interest of the House by
this means until the 25th of the mouth, when
he brought in a Reform Bill, quite similar in
its provisions to the one on which he had over-
thrown the Kussell ^Ministry in the preceding
year. The franchise in boroughs was to be
reduced from ten pounds to six pounds. That
in the counties was to be fixed at twenty
]>ounils. A great numlier of instances of in-
dividual and professional extensions of the suf-
frage were enumerated ; but, on the whole,
the Bill was the same in methdd and spirit as
that which the recent house had refused to ac-
cept at the hands of (Jladstime.
On tins measure the debates were taken
up anew. Jlany amendments were offered, to
which, while Disraeli declared he would never
consent, yet he consented. The struggle over
the measure as a whole continued until the
beginning of March, when three members of
the ^Ministry, refusing to follow Disraeli fur-
ther, resigned and went out of office. On the
18th of the month another surjirise was ad-
ministered to the House by Disraeli's intro-
ducing a second Bill in place of the first, the
provisions of which — that is, of the new Bill — ■
were so radical and thorough-going as fairly to
take the breath of both Parliament find people.
Nevertheless, it was perceived that the man-
ager understood the situation, and that the
stormy elements around him were only the
sport of that Machiavellian wit, for which no
parallel can be produced in the history of
modern times. It was at once perceived that
the country was to have its way. Even the
Radicals, or some of them, took the alarm at
the thorough-going character of the measure
before the House. John Bright, who had fa-
vored the first Bill proposed as the best which
the spirit of the age demanded or would bear,
set himself in opposition to the second Bill on
account of its apparently revolutionary char-
acter. With tlie progress of the debates,
umvehsal htstouy.— the modkrn world.
h'lwever, it iK-caiiie clrar tliat the iia-a.-^ure
wouLl be ;ulM|,tiMl. A few niiiviichiielits were
tniri-il thniu-h the Ilmix', aii.l other mo.lifi-
catKiiis were nueh- nr acvi.i.d liy tlie Miuistry.
But on the l.')th of Aii-u-t the ku was fimiliy
put on Us [la-sa-o, an. I was carried through
tlie Coiunioiis liy a tair majority. Disraeli
had succeeded in his new seheme of outdoing
the Liberals in their own ehoseii field of agi-
tation and reform.
Thus, after tlie lapse of about thirty years,
another of the great principles of the People's
Charter was admitted into the Constitution
of Great Britain. In accordance with the
new Bill, all male householders in English
boroughs who were assessed for the relief of
the poor, and all resident lodgers who had
beeu so for one year, and paying a rental of
not less than ten pounds annually, were ad-
mitted to the franchise. In the counties the
possession of a property yielding an annual
value of five pounds was the requisition.
Those who occupied lauds or tenements pay-
ing a rental of twelve pounds a year were
enfranchised. The great principle of the Bill
was Household Suffrage. It was not the pur-
pose and intent of the measure that all man-
ner of men in the bottom of society should
be allowed to vote, but the provisions were
such that all the English householding peas-
antry were admitted to the suffrage. On the
question of a redistribution and apportionment
of the seats in the House of Commons, much
was also accomplished. Many of the small
boroughs hitherto represented in Parliament
were disfranchised, and others were reduced
in their repi-esentative capacity. At the same
time the great and populous municipalities,
such as Manchester, Liverpoul, Birmingham,
and Leeds, received additional representation
according to their increased importance in the
Kingdom. The University of London was
granted a member in the House of Com-
mons. The principle of minority representa-
tion was established to this extent, that in
every borough entitled to three members of
Parliament, the elector should vote for two
candidates only, the effect of which was to se-
cure the third candidate for the minority.
In Loud<m, wiiich by the provisions of the
Act was entitled to fnur hhmhIiui-s in the
House, eacli elector ini-ht vote for three,
wh
the fourth
It only iviuaiiis to note the extension of the
Eef(jrm Bill, in the following year, to the
electoral methods of Scotland and Ireland. In
the former country, the measure adopted was
essentially identical with that of England, with
the exception of the clause relating to the
assessment for the poor, which was omitted.
The Scotch api)ortioumeut of members in the
House of Commons was also amended by an
increase of representation. In Ireland, simi-
lar provisions were made as to the qualifica-
tions for the sufirage, but no improvement was
attempted with respect to the representation
in Parliament. It was thus, after a struggle
which had extended through a whole geuera-
tion, that the principles of popular liberty, ex-
pressed in a broader and freer exercise of the
right of suff"rage, were at last accepted as a
necessity by the political parties, and were in-
terwoven with the constitutional fabric of
Great Britain. Nor will the thoughtful reader
fail to observe with interest and instruction
that new political expediency, devoid doubt-
less of the moral quality, but highly suc-
cessful iu application, whereby the genius and
craft of Disraeli were enabled to compel the
British Con.servatives of 1867 into the service
of the greatest and most salutary civil reform
of the age and country.
We are now at the threshold of another of
those remarkable chapters which record the
struggles of the Irish people against the polit-
ical authority and social domination of Great
Britain. No extended narrative, or even re-
capitulation, can here be undertaken of the
numljerless political conspiracies, secret organ-
izations, and widely extended plots whereby
the Celtic population of Ireland have time and
again striven to free themselves from the
thralldom which they profess to be galled
withal. The origin of such movements is to
be found deep down in the ineradicable
prejudices of race and religion. Perhaps the
prejudice of race alone might be overcome;
perhaps the prejudice of religion alone might
I be obviated; but the prejudice of race and
religion has thus far constituted an insurmount-
able Ijarrier to the affiliation and unity of the
Iri>h and Eii,uli>h peoples.
As early as L~>.jS tlie first rumors of the
GUKAT BRlTAiy—FLMAyiSM AXD DISESTAnLISHMEST.
809
existence of the Feuiau societies were whis-
pered iu Great Britain and America. The
Feuiau Brotherhood may i)e detiiied as a
secret politico-military oryauizaliiin lia>cd im
the fiindameutal motive of the iudepeiideiice
of Ireland. The tradition of such an order is
as old as Ireland itself. The name Fenian is
given in the Ballads of the Irish Fili, or Bards,
as the name of certain miliary clans which
fought for the native kings of the Island, long
before the beginnings of authentic history.
There is a period in the primitive develop-
ment of the Irish race which may properly be
called the Fenian Period, when the native
sovereigns of the race, surrounded by their
clans, battled for independence of each other
or supremacy in Ireland. Out of these ancient
traditions the Celts have always been eager to
gather inspiration in their endless contests
with the Saxons.
It was a happy conceit which led the dis-
contented of 1857 to choose for their new
political association the ancient name of
Fenian Brotherhood. We must remember
that, for more than ten years, the population
of Ireland had been escaping in shoals to the
American coasts. The exiles of Erin in the
United States entered quickly and with en-
thusiasm into their new relations as citizens
of the Republic ; but they did not cease to
turn with longing eyes to the green Mother
Island across the Atlantic. To the restless
Irishmen of the American cities, their new
situation seemed to provoke some effort in
behalf of the Old Country. At length, in
1S47, in the city of New York, the Fenian
Brotherhood was founded by Michael Doheny,
John O'Mahoney, and Michael Corcoran, after-
wards a Brigadier-General in the Union Army.
The head-quarters of the society was in Union
Square. At this time an order of like
character existed in Ireland under the name
of the Fhcenix Society. Its founder was James
Stephens, who, in 1858, came to America ; and
the two societies were merged into one, under
the presidency of O'.Mahoney. Correspond-
ence between the Irish and American Brother-
hoods was at once greatly extended. It
became the order of the day to raise funds in
America for the support of the Irish cause.
The leading spirits from this time until the
outbreak of the Civil War iu the United
States, were O'iMahoney and Stephens, who
went back and forth between Old Ireland and
New Ireland, estaldishing new chapters of the
Brotherhood, and rapidly extendiui:- its influ-
ence, not only in the Mother Island, but
throughout the United States and even into
British America.
At this juncture of affairs, the secession of
the Southern States occurred. The side of
the American Rej)ublic, so to speak, was torn
out by the Confederate leaders, and the gleam
of bayonets was seen everywhere in the North
and the South as the marshaling lines of blue
and gray soldiers swept into the field of
battle. When the armies were organized, it
could but be ob.served that the regiments,
especially those from the great cities, had in
them a large percentage of Irish soldiers. In
the Confederate ranks the eager Celtic coun-
tenance was seen in every line, though the
numbers were not so great as in the armies of
the Union. It was evident that, for the time,
the Fenian enthusiasm had found vent in the
unfortunate war for and against the Union of
the States.
If we look closely into the heart of the
question, we shall find the large Irish con-
tingent in the Union army cherishing a secret
or half-revealed hope and expectancy that, in
the course of the conflict, Great Britain would
so conduct herself as to bring on an Anglo-
American war. We have seen how fatally
near was that hope to a realization. The
Irish-Americans who fou.i:lit for the Union,
and even those who fouglit aL^ainst it, ]ier-
ceived that a war between the United States
and England meant, iu all jirohaliility, the
revolt and independence of Irelan<l. We may
well suppose that when the afliur of the Trent
was amicably settled, there was a certain
heart-sinking in the breasts of thousands of
Irish-American soldiers— a feeling of disap-
pointment that they had thus been deprived
of the opportunity of marching, under the
Stars ami Stripes, against a British arniy in
Canada.
Canada ? Aye, that was, indeed, the region
to which the Fenian gaze wa-: now directed.
The Civil War in the United States ended
with the complete restoration of the Union.
Fenianism sprang up anew. Far and wide
the Brotherhood extended its divisions. In
400
rXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
almost every con.<iiler;iblc American town,
there was a Fenian lodge and muster-hall.
Great sums of money were transmitted to
Ireland, and in March of 18(37 a general
rising of the Irish people was planned and
awaited. The scheme contenijilated an Irish
insurrection against wliich the British author-
ities would, of course, at once proceed with
vigor and animosity. Hereupon, the vast
army of Fenians in the United States would
arise in its might, and precipitate itself on
Canada. The pressure on Ireland by the
British soldiers was to be counteracted by a
still greater pressure in Canada by the Ameri-
can-Fenian army. In fact, the movement
began to look exceedingly portentous. It
can not be claimed that the politico-military
plan adopted by the Fenians was irrational or
even impracticable. Doubtless it would, in
anv event, have ended, finally, in failure; but
it would have been at such excessive cost and
distress to Great Britain as to have led, in all
probability, to a great change in the civil
administration of Ireland, or, possibly, to the
independence of the country. The trouble
and weakness of the whole movement lay in
that fatal want of practical ability, in that
overzeal and absence of prudent foresight,
which have marked all similar enterprises
undertaken by the Celtic race. There is un-
doubtedly in this respect an ethnic weakness
in the Irish people, for which it is difficult to
account on any other ground than that of a
race-inaptitude for the management and con-
duct of large affairs.
In the crisis under consideration, the pro-
posed rising in Irelaml ended in mere agita-
tion, dust, and siiKike. It has been noted by
critics friendly to the Irish cause at this
juncture, that the first days of March, 1867,
were marked in Ireland by an unprecedented
fall of snow, obstructing all the roads, filling
the fields fence-deep -with impassable snow-
beds, packing the mountain gorges and
coverts of the pea.santry to such an extent
that for nearly two weeks, including the date
appointed for the insurrection, all formidable
gatherings and musterings of the Fenians were
made impossible. Only in a few places in the
counties of Cork, Kerry, Limerick, Tipperary,
and Louth, did any actual rising take place.
The insurrections were local, feeble, easily
suppressed by the police. For the rest, the
insurgents were quickly scattered, and their
leaders arrested and brought to trial. One of
the most prominent of these was C<ilonel T. F.
Burke, who, from being a valued Confederate
soldier, had gone back to Ireland and England
to lie one of the leaders of the expected revolt.
On the 2od of November he was arrested,
along with another Fenian Captain named
Casey, and the two were lodged in the Clerk-
enwell prison. Shortly afterwards a barrel
of powder was exploded against the outer
wall, producing a shock as if of an earth-
quake. Six persons were killed ; eleven others
were mortally wounded, and about a hundred
and twenty others received injuries of greater
or less severity. Five nwn and one woman
were arrested for the crime. The woman and
one of the men were soon released for want of
evidence against them. Three of the other
men were tried and acquitted; but the fifth
was condemned and executed in spite of tiie
most strenuous efforts made in his behalf
Colonel Burke was himself condemned to
death ; but a public meeting was held in St.
James's Hall, London, and a powerful and
convincing speech was delivered to the multi-
tude by John Stuart Mill, who pleaded elo-
quently for clemency to the prisoner. The
evidence against Burke had never been con-
elusive as to the commission of any crime,
and the sentence of death was not carried into
execution.
In a short time another startling event
occurred, being the successful attempt of a
band of Fenians in Manchester to rescue two
prisoners, who were in a van, in charge of
the police, on the way to jail. The van was
.stopped in the street in open day. One of
the Fenians, in the attempt to shoot the lock
off of the door, had the misfortune to kill a
police officer who ^vas inside. The doors were
then opened, and the two prisoners, named
Kellv and Deasy, making their escape, were
seen no more. Of this offense against the
law, five of the Fenians were found guilty,
and were condemned to die. It was at length
discovered that one of the condemned men
had had ah.solutely nothing to do with either
the plot or the criiue. One other of the con-
victs also escaped the death penalty ; but the
remaining three, Allen, Larkin, and O'Brien,
GREAT BIUTAiy.^FEMAXISM AXD DISESTABLFSHMEXT.
were executed. All of them wont to their
death like heroes. The news of the exeeu-
tiiius ;yas carried to the countries on both
sides of the Atlantic, and the Fenians \Yere
more than ever enraged against the English
Government.
In the meantime, tlic Fmiau cause in
America had run its oun-^c. In thr first
plai'c, a (juarrel broke out in the liroihirlnin,!,
and two separate societies WL't-r turnuMl, [uo-
fessing the same general oljjectsand jirinciples,
but at enmity with each oth
time forth the plans of the An
went always from \\<n-<f to wor
From this
lean Fenians
One of the
the invasion
)granime was
Fenians and
ngth the for-
favorite schemes of the ordi/r w;
■of Canada. This part of the [
now favored hy one wing of tl:
disap|iroved by the other. At
mer party went ahead on the liin.' of its own
purpose, and throw forward a bidy of armed
men to the Niagara Piivi'r. < >ii the lught (pf
May 31, 1866, that stream was crossed, and
F<u'-t Erie was occupieil hy the invaders. The
Canadian volunteers who came against them
were defeated and dispersed. It appeared for
the moment that the war had actually iiegun ;
but at this juncture the Government of the
United States came to the front, forbade any
further exodus of the Fenians, and arrested
the leaders of the movement on the American
frontier. By this time the Canadian authori-
ties had rallied and sent f irward a body ,.f
troops. The Fenians on the ('aiuulian side
were overpowered, and many of them, under
sentences of courts-martial, were shot. Some
by retreating, succeeded in recrossing the
Niagara, and saved themselves by flight into
the interior. By the close of the year 1868
the excitement had subsided ; and though the
Brotherhood was maintained f)r a considerable
])eriod afterwards, the ni'ilij of the eiiterpri.se
was gone, and the word Fenian lost its terrors,
not only in America, but also in Great Britain.
this race distiirbiuice oc-
the tii-st serious lireak of
the Ti:Ai>i;s-rNrox.s. It
c<
iuci
lei
tly
cu
civ
■re
il
1 in
E
W(
re
ditti
>ul
t
th
h
In. :
III
iii|
me
di:
■val
ti
line:
be sai.l that the fact is eoiieoiiiUant uitli jirop-
erty itself Certain it i> tliat the appeaiance
of Tra(K's-riii..ns is a perfectly natural phe-
nomenon 111 all tlio,-e coiiiitri.s who>e people
are suffieieiitly advanced to have a division of
eipially cei'tain that the appearance and de-
>ignal tor the ahirm and relentless opp,,Mtion
of th.' s,,-,-alled upper classes ot society. The
Trades-Union has been, from the hour of its
birth, the bete noire of capital and ca]ntalists.
In England the guilds of trade have had a pe-
culiarly stormy career. The whole feudal
system, dominant in the civil and social con-
stitution of Great Britain, has fVom the first
set itself with relentless animosity against the
very existence of Labor Unions.
Viewed from the side of the laborer, such
organizations appear to be not only natural,
luit inevitable. The lab(jrer, at a certain
stage of his evolution, marks the example
organization of those who purchase and emjiloy
industry. In every country the employers'
Unions have forerun by a considerable date
the Unions of the working classes. It is
indeed a peculiar sort of economic logic which
concoiies to the employer the right and privi-
lege of combining with his fellow III order to pro-
duce results against the natural laws of trade,
and which at the same time forbids the arti-
san to enter into a like combination with his
felhiw-workmen to seciin' himself against the
effects nt the combinations above him.
The English Trades-Unions lia.l their first
formiilable apparition in the great manufactur-
ing towns. It was in Sheffield, Manchester, and
BirmiiiLihani that the presence of trade com-
binations began, at tlie e]Hich which we are now
considering, t'l nianitest themsi-lves in a man-
ner well calculated to alarm the existing
order. As early as IS.5,5, certain secret acts
of violence of a iieculiar character began to
be known and riiiiionMl tlivoiigh the kingdom.
The character of the thin- il,,,,,. p,,i„le,l to
the Trades-Unions as their origin. A charge
a-ainst the hons.^ of some lab,„vr win. had
The
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
rorized by some kiuJ of furay or attack,
designed to frighten the otfen<liug liuuseliold
out of the eommuuity. Sometime^ the worlc-
man himself was beaten ; simietimes his tools
were broken up and destroyed. The phenom-
ena were, in short, precisely such as have
more recently become familiar in every
American city where labor organizations exist,
and where striking has been adopted as the
method of obtaining redress of grievances.
The outrages again.st life and property
referred to above began in Sheffield, but the
same facts soon afterwards appeared in ^Man-
chester and other manufacturing cities. In
1867 an investigation was begun under the
auspices of a Parliamentary Commission, and
many scandalous practices were brought to
light as a part of the method of the Trades-
Unionists. But the inquisition had not pro-
ceeded far until it was demonstrated that the
practices in question had been provoked by
the long-stanciing abuses of society. The
reader of to-day may well be surprised to
know that less than a quarter of a century ago,
within the distinct memory of men not yet
beyonil the middle stage of life, all such
organizations as Labor Unions were absolutely
outlawed in Great Britain. The statutes of
the realm not only did not recognize the right
of such associations to be formed and to exist
under protection of the laws, Init actually for-
bade all such associations as unlawful, per-
nicious, dangerous to the peace of society.
Not only this, but the whole dominant public
opinion of England held the same ground and
taught the same principles. There was not an
influential public journal, not a respectable
pulpit, not a judicial tribunal, in the Kingdom
of Great Britain wherein any other principle
than that of absolute prescription of Trades-
Unionism was either declared or tolerated.
Nevertheless, the Unions did exist. They
were a natural growth — ;just as they have been
in America — of the existing industrial con-
ditions. But their being a natural product
of the established order did not prevent the
ruling classes of society from the attempt to
put them down both by suasion and by force.
We may not here enter upon the history
of the struggle which ensued. It extended
from 1667 to 1875, the agitation broadening
and deepening until public opinion was gradu-
ally shaken into a better frame. Parliament
was oljliged to abandon the old pro.-eriiilive
theory, and to frame new statutes in which
tlie rights of workiugmen were acknowledged
fully, and fortified by law. The new statutes
were, as usual in English legislation, of a very
moderate and conservative character. Organ-
ized society conceded ju~t .-o much to the
individual, just so much to the masses, a< was
ueces-ary to the ends of peace — nothing more.
The principles of the new laws were, first of
all, the recognition of the absolute equality of
contract on the part of workmen and tlieir
employers. Should there be an infraction of
this principle on the part of either, the other
might proceed against him by legal process
for the recovery of damages. The rule of
imprisonment for the mere violation of in-
dustrial principles was abrogated ; a workman
might no longer be imprisoned except fir the
actual commission of crime. At the same
time, the rights of general society were strictly
guarded. Those who were employed, for in-
stance, in the service of the municipality, as
in the mana<:ement of the watcr-sup]ily or
gas-supply of a city, might not, with impunity,
break their contract to do service to the hurt
of the people at large. The new rules were
in some respects revere, or at least just, as it
respected employers. The latter were no
longer autocrats. Tlioy m'^gl t no longei-, at
the suggestion of caprice or anger, violate the
agreements which they had made with work-
men— no longer use them aud abuse them at
their will.
Another important principle, as it respected
the Trades-Unions, was established by tlie
legislation of 1875. The rule of striking
against the reduction of wages, or for other
hardship, was frankly and fully conceded ; but
the right of strikers to go beyond their own
act to interfere with other workmen, to forbid
the prosecution of the entsrprise which they
hail abandoned, to break, destroy, and perse-
cute, as a means of bringing employers to a
.settlement, was denied and interdicted. On
the whole, the legislation of the period marked
an important stage in that industrial e'.'obition
through which all civilized people are now
pa.'^sing. in the course of which, ere the work
be fullv done, the wage-.system of labor
itself must either be radically modified, or else
GREA T nniTAIX.—FEMANISM AXD I>J!S KSTA B LIS HM EXT.
give place in totn to tli-.it eniiin'riitive system
of iudustry which apiicars to lie the destiny
nf the times to come.
AVe may here turn luirily from tiie home
war in wliich she was eni;ni:iil. ( )iir attention
in this iustance is direetr.l to Ali\-sinia, ami
to the career of King Theoilore III., Kmperor,
or Xegus, of that country. The story is
another of those remarkable episodes in which
the foreign relations of Great Britain in the
present century so much abound. In the first
place, it must be remembered that Abyssinia
is a Christian rather than a ]\Iohainmedan
State, and that the people are thus, on the
side of their religious sympathies, allied some-
what with the peoples of the West. In the
next place, it .should be remarked that, on the
ethnic side, the Abyssinians are out of unii>n
with the Nigritiau races, and even with the
Arabs. The race descent is rather Haniitic
tlian otherwise, and the development of the
country, civil and polilieal, lias throuLihont
been, to a certain degree, anomalous.
The Government is monarchical. King
Theodore, nearly fifty years of age at the time
of which we speak, had Iiiinself olitained the
throne by usurpation. His eharaeter niiiiht
well remind us of some of the great lii-torieal
personages of antii|nity. lie is represented as
having had nnich of the native talent and all
of the eccentricity and baiKarie pn-icm of
Peter the Great. "Theo.lore wa-. however, by
no means a barbarian. He had Inity pnrp^.ses
and great ambitions. His generosity, wlien
his anger was not kindled, knew no bounds.
He had, in some measure, the ken of a st;ites-
mau. He would have been glad to enter into
relations — civil, political, and marit;d — with
the Western peoples. At one period in his
career he strove, with much anxiety, to open
a personal correspondence with no less a
personage than Her Majesty, tlie <,|neen of
England. He would be her lover, and would
lead Viet..ria from her weeds of wi.lowh 1 to
the splendors of Oriental nuptials, th.^ ri.-liness
(),i..ntal erown. It does not appear that the
seri..Us (^leen of Creat Hritain was gn.itly
moved by the woi-hiii of her African adnivr.
It is even doubtful whether his missiv.,- ever
reached the steadv eves of the Koyal mi-tnss
of Wind.sor Palace. At all this, Theodore, in
the true lover's mood, beea L^reatly angered.
He could not conceive why il was that the
Queen of England should not de-ire his de-
votion; and if even a partial eoneept of the
difterence betwen him and the(^ueen — between
his people and hens — did enter his conscious-
ness, it was only to aggravate the evil.
This King Theodore had his capital in the
city of Magdala, a natural stronghold, situated
about two hundred miles from the Gulf of
Aden, latitude 11° 22' N., and longitude
39° 2-5' E. Here was reared by nature a vast
Basaltic plateau to the level of nine thousand
one hundred and ten feet above the sea. On
this plateau a .second elevation rises alxnit one
thousand feet; and on this, with preciiiitous
sides all around, was built the Abyssinian cap-
ital, a place which Cwsar nught well have
described as "fortified by the nature of the
ground." Theodore was a man of military
ambition. He hail a treasury and an army,
the latter eomp(ise<l of nearly a hundred and
fifty thousand men of war. The sea-port of
JIagdala is the island and town of .Massowah,
in the Red Sea, a short distance from the
African coast. It was in this island that the
agents and representatives of the British Gov-
ernment first made the ac<piaintance of King
Theodnie, first liecame familiar with his meth-
ods and principles of Government.
The king, at the beginning, conceived a
great liking for the few English officers who
came to his shore. This was particularly
true of the British Consul Plowden, who, from
Massowah, had given mateiial aid and counsel
to Theodore in the matter of putting down an
insurrection. Plowden joined the king in
this work, and was unfortunately killed by
the Abvssinian insuigents. The character of
the monarc.'h was well illustrated in what en-
sued. When the rebellion was suppressed, he
delilierately mdered the execution of more
than a hundred rebels, as a sort <.f sacrifice to
the memory of his fiiemi, the Consul. Soon
afterwards "Captain Cam.rnn was sent out to
:\Iasse
Ht
ndopt.d the ..1
po-it.
poli,.y from that of his
he king of Ab\
"inia
111 have little to do with
. The hitter had already
lecome jealous
llld s
ispieious of England and
)f all English
nen.
The Queen would not
GREAT BRITAIX.—FEMAyiSM AXD DISESTABLISHMKXT.
40.-)
answer his love-letters, and he resented the
insult. The suspicion of Theodore grew hot
against Captain Cameron, and jiresentlv, in
an hour of inadvertent wrath, he urdfred the
arrest of all the British within his reach,
Cameron himself was talien ; and the news
flew to England that British subjects had been
tlirown into Ab_yssinian prisons under the ca-
pricious rage of an African despot.
At first an effort was made to ojien ne-
gotiations with Theodore, with a view to
.securing the liberation of the captives. It
was a delicate work, for the fear was constantly
present that the prisoners might suffer a
wholesale slaughter by the king's orders. Au
embassy was constituted of Mr. Rassam,
British representative at Alien, Lieutenant
Priileaux, and Dr. Blanc, whu, making their
way to ^lagdala, openeii negotiations with the
king, only to be seized in turn and added to
the other prisoners. It was perceived that a
military invasion for the liberation of the
captives was the only remedy. In sucli an
emergency Great Britain never hesitates.
The Cromwellian rule of actinn was that
every Englishman shall be protected if it re-
quires every other Englishman tn du it. The
Government of Lord Russell immediately
sent despatches to Sir Robert Napier, dun-
mander-in-Chief of the British army in Bom-
bay, to transfer his forces to the Abyssinian
coast, and bring Theodore to his knees. Tiie
e.xpedition landed at Mulkutto, on Auuesley
Bay, in the autumn of 1867, and the advance
was thrown forward under command of Colonel
Mere wether. The English General adopted
the plan of m iking friends with the Abyssinian
chieftains, and many of them, tired of the
despotism of Theodore, made common cause
with the British.
The expedition into the interior, Iiowever,
was one of great hazard. Tiie advance
proper began in January of ISG.S; but it was
not until April that a force of three thousand
men debouched into the plateau before Mag-
dala. Meanwhile, the native monarch had
displayed great skill an<l courage. Though a
large part of his army had hi-oken away by
miuiny, he defended 'him.-elf with a .•nura-e
and heroism worthy of sncee->. ( )u thi- liUh
of April a pitched battle wa< fon-lit. the
Aliyssinians coming on te. the cliarge with tlic
ferocity of wild men, and much of the disci-
pline of the civilized. But courage and
enthusiasm were as naught before the dis-
charges of British musketry and cannon.
About two thousand of the Abyssiiiiaiis were
killed or wounde<l. On tlie uijrth side of
xMagdala, sitting like a fortress on a rock,
a narr<jw a])proach was found, and a
British storming party, making its way to the
summit, shattered the city gate and rushed in.
Theodore had taken his stand at the post of
danger, behind the gate, and when the portal
was broken, he put himself forever to rest
with the rough consolation of suicide. The
English prisoners already had been sent in
safety to the British camp. Lord Xapier at
once priiceeded to the complete demolition of
upon
Magdala. Not one stone wa^
another. Tlie widow of the king and her
son were carried away by the victorious in-
vaders. The mother died in the British camp,
and the sou was taken to England. There he
was educated at the charge of the Queen, and
was sent to India; but he died before maturity,
and the House of Theodore III. was ex-
tinguished. The expedition, conducted by Sir
Robert Napier, was regarded in England as
one of the most complete military successes
ever won by British arms in the East. The
connnauder was made Baron Na]iier of ^lag-
dala, and received a pension during the
remainder of his life.
We have now arrived at that perioil in the
recent history of England, when the whole
narrative is colored and impregnated in every
part with the spray from Ireland. From the
date which we have now reached, namely, the
close of the sixth decade of the century to
the present day, there has been no time when
the principal tone and rhythm of British poli-
tics have not been derived from the ethnic,
social, civil, and religious relations of the
people of the two Islands, ^^'e already have
remarked upon the ineradicable differences be-
tween the Irish and English nationalities.
Prominent among these divergent sentiments
and dispositions has been the religious discord
which has sounded immeniorially on the two
side< of St. (;eorg..'s Channel.
It i^ not ii,.e,led to recount in this c(,nnee-
tioii the eii-cniii>tances wliieli, extemliug
tlii'oui:h manv centuries, have wrouu'ht out a
rSIVEL'SAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
1 ai
.1 a
caii-1
It ill
e. It w
IS percei^
•eil by tlie Lihen
-utfi.
1(1 <.t
the
ha.l.
for tl
■< ut
(■ ill
the II..
i:-e that
11 of an.
he time had e.niR
tiler great refonii
arti,.
s to
On t
he ;
Oth (if
the nioii
ii just meiitioueil
the .■.,nti-..v<'i-v. Ill til., piv-'iit .■.•iiturv tiie
Ii-i-h |.,-asuit,-y lias Ihm^u a^ i.r..loiu„lly ami
anieiitiv Calh.ilie as even tii( union lolk of
Italy, Spain, or I>..itiigal. Here the priest
of tiie Mother Ciiureli has reniaine.i supreme.
Here the ancient tradition has flourished, and
the ancient worship lias been preserved in its
fervor and reality. The inquirer, after a can-
did survey of tlie field, may well turn aside
and say: " What place is there for Protestant-
ism in such a country as this? Wliat right-
eousness, other than that which is native to the
genius of this race, can here be planted and
made to grow ?" The extension of the Episco-
pal Establishment over the people of Ireland
has been a mockery from the first day. If
the world be indeed in process of evolution
into better and higher forms, then the support
of English Episcopaliauism by the people of
Ireland, against all of their instincts and voli-
tions, has been from the beginning destined
to cease, and to be remembered only as an
intolerable injustice, borne impatiently for a
seas.in.
These ideas continued to obtrude themselves
into British politics. The Conservative party
oppo.sed their progress and dissemination.
That party, now in power in the House of
C'.iminons, sought by every means to prevent
the reopening of questions relative to the
Irish State Church. It could be foreseen that
quietude and the mere continuance of the
existing svsteni by sufferance were the onl_y
means of maintaining it l.mg.'r. To debate
such a .piostion is always t.i il.'strry the abuse.
Hitherto, only a few radical members of
Parliament, willing to hazard the consequences
of extreme ideas, had ventured to pronounce
the word Disestablishment. But that term
(•..111. I II.) longer be discanl.'d from the vocab-
iiliiv ..f British p,,liti.-. On the Kith of
Mar. Ii, l.^C.^, a di'liate bn.k.' .,ut in I'arlia-
ni.iit Iia-.'.l ..11 a rcs..liiti..n iiitro,luced by John
Fian.i- Maiiiiire, and hearing on the general
(■.,iiditi..ii ..r Irclaml. In the course of
Maguiiv's speech, he spoke of the Iri.sh Episco-
pal K-tal.li>hiiieiit as a "scandalous and
monstr.'US aii.imaly." The question at once
Gladstone introduced a series of resolutions
declaring that the Established Church in
Ireland .-7i(.(//(/ cease to exist; that it was not
(lesiiable for the Government of Great Britain
to support that Church after the revenues
derived from the Irish people should be taken
away; and that the Queen be asked to sur-
render her interest in the temporalities of the
Irish Church.
The debate was now opened in earnest.
It was perceived that in the speeches of the
Conservatives, the speakers hardly dare ven-
ture upon the defense of the existing ecclesias-
tical order in Ireland. Even party discipline,
energized l\v the leadership of Disraeli, was
not siitHcinit to bring the Conservative parly
to the further active maintenance of the
abusive and intolerable system which had so _
long prevailed in the Celtic Island. At
length the question came to the direct issue,
and Gladstone's resolution in favor of dises-
tablishment was adopted, in the Hou.se of
Commons, by a majority of sixt_y-five votes.
The Conservatives, however, were unwill-
ing, in the existing condition of aflfairs, to
give up the Government. It was determined
by Disraeli and the other leaders of his party,
that an appeal should be made to the country.
At the close of July, Parliament was accord-
ingly dissolved and a new election ordered for
the following November. The question of
disestablishment was debated before the people,
and the result of the elections showed quite
an increase in the Liberal majorities. The
Con.servative ministry resigned, and a new
Cabinet was formed under the leadership of
Gladstone. Even John Bright was brought
into the Government as President of the
Board of Trade. Everything went forward at
full tide. The Queen's sjieech indicated to
Parliament that the ^Ministry would undertake
important legislation relative to the State
Church iu Ireland. On the 1st of March,
l.S(l!>, the Prime Minister brought in a bill in
which it was provided that the Irish Church
as a State Establishment should cease to
exist — that it should become simply a free
Ejiiscopal Church, resting on the same general
GBEAT BRITAIS.—FEMAMSM AM) DISKSTABLISHMEyT.
conditions with tlie ntlicr Dissenting organiza-
tions in the country.
The result of the measure, if adopted,
would be, first of all, that the Irish ]iisli(.|is in
the House of Lords >hnnl<l lose tluir .eats.
The Church of Ireland, l^eing reduced from all
political relation, could no longer be repre-
sented iu one of the Parliamentary bodies.
The general eflect of the proposal was the
complete severance of the Episcopal Estab-
lishment in Irelan<l from the State Church of
Eui^land. ]\Iai}y provisions were made in the
Bdl for the preservation of the existing inter-
ests and vested rights of Irish Churchmen.
The Government, however, if successful, would
find little difficulty in meeting all the ex-
penditures and prospective outlay from the
large sums which must, under the provisions
ot the measure, revert to the treasury of the
Kingdom. As a prudential principle, it was
provided in the Bill that, after all just claims
hail been met, the remaining fund coming
into the liands of the Government should
be reserved for the promotion of various
enterprises among the Irish people.
On these propositions a great debate ensued.
The Conservative Opposition adopted the
policy of .saving — if that should be possible —
the existence of the State Establishment in
Ireland, and of granting, as a concession to
public opinion, only such concessions as miuht
not under any conditions be longer withheld.
But the triumphant Liberals, led forward in
solid plialanx by Gladstone, marched straight
ahead for the princi|ial position hold l:)y the
defenders of the Past, d.'lcriuined to lie diverteil
by nothing from the victory which was now
withm their power. On the 26th of July,
1869, the Ministerial Bill, having been adopted
by the Housp of Commons and accepted by
the Hou.^e of Lonls, rocoived the assent of the
Queen, and tin- Iri-h Church was struck from
its foundations. It was provided in the Act
that an interval should .-lapsp lid'ore the
measure should go into rtii'ct. The Establish-
ment was permitted to < tiniie on the old
basis until the 1st of January, 1871— this to
the end that the multifuion- relations Iiy
which the ecclesiastical organizatioii was bonnd
to secular society in Ireland might be gradu-
ally and harmlessly broken and dissolved.
The legislation, considered as a whole, was one
of the most important acts of P;
within the present centuiy, and, as t
lac I
whole structure of Irish society.
It had been foreseen by the Lilici
istry that the movement whicli th
started conid not lie stopped with the
di.sestablishnient of the Irish Church,
were at least two other great questions
the very bottom of the contlition of
mcut
I'vent
ire in
Min-
ha.l
inple
'here
iir at
land
which must of necessity spring
into view
and
demand solution as soon as d
.-vestal. lishi
lent
was accomplished. Gladstone
had had
the
courage to annmince at the i
utset that
the
Liberal policy contemiilated
still fui
ther
advances in the direction of
Irish ref
)rm.
The two great issues to which
reference
has
just been made were, first, the s
■.stem of L
.\ND
Tkntki:, and, sreondly, tho Sys-
i;m 111- lOii
-( '.V-
Tinv, in Ireland. Iteouldbut !»•
loreseeii tl
at a
proper solution of each of these ,
Uestiolls 11
list,
in its turn, be as revolution
irv in na
ture
and extent as was the disestahl
shiiieut ot
the
UMVEHSAL H1>,T0RY. — THE MODERy WORLD.
CliLirch. But Gladstoue and his foUuwers
were undaunted by the prospect before them,
and went forward at once to attack that
ancient and deep-seated Irish laud system
wliich has constituted a problem in the polit-
ical history, not only of Great Bi-itain, but of
the whole English-sjieaking race. How the
evils which have been handed down througli
centuries of abuse, accumulating from geuer-
ati(jn to generation, stiffening into usage first
aud into law afterwards, twining by many
ramifications around the Con;stitiuiiin of
Great Britain, and having the general edl-ct
of reducing the Irish tenantry to a lower an<l
ever lower level of hardship, cruelty, ami in-
justice with respect to the lands which they
have immemorially occupied, but couhl not
own, may be abrogated by legislatiim and
rejjlaced with a new system at ouce rational,
liberal, ami just — has been a question greater,
perhajis, diaii the abilities of any statesman or
grdup (if statesmen which England has yet
prnduet'il. Nevertheless, this was the ques-
t'on which the Glailstnne ^Ministry was now
obliged to face. By their own act the issue
had been thrown into the arena, aud the
Liberal Government must stand or fall on the
result.
The courage with which the Prime ^linister
now took up the system of land tenure in Ire-
laud was worthy of all praise. Whatever may
be said of the wisdom or unwisdom of the reme-
dies which were proposed, nothing can be said
against the spirit and resoluteness with which the
Goverumeut took up the question of allevi-
ating the ills of the Irish peasantry by better-
ing their relations with respect to the lamls
on which they lived. Nor may we well
appreciate the condition of the agitation which
was now begun in Parliament and throughout
the country, witlmut pausing to review, in a
few paragraphs, the existing system of land
tenure in' Iivland.
Ill the first place, the use of the word
,«_i/s/pi/i iu this connection, is hardly justified by
the conditions to be examined. It could
hadly be said that there was a "system" of
Irish lauilownership. There were many fea-
tures about the condition of land tenure which
were iiiiniistakuble. Some of these features
were s innion as to lie recognized almost
everywhere iu Iielaud, but many others were
local and ])eculiar. The whole .social, political,
and industrial condition of this unfortuuate
country had beeu transmitted, like most other
corresponding facts in England, from the
jMiddle Ages. But the hardships of original
barbarism had been aggravated by a hundred
other hardships, extending through sevei'al
centuries. Among these hard conditions may
be mentioned, first of all, the fact of war.
Ireland had been invaded, devastated, con-
quered, timeand again, by the dominant people.
One Irish revolt had followed another, and
each revolt had, in its turn, been put down bv
the same hand and the same method. Irish
iusurrectious and suppressions had become a
monotonous fact in the history of the Island
from the times of Henrv VII. to the age of
Victoria.
(Jf all the couditions of Irish society,
changed by recurring British conquests, the
most constant and destructive was the confisca-
tion of the lands. Originally, the Irish people,
like other medieval peasantry, had owned
their lands. But by conquest, they had lost
possession. First one province, aud then
another, in revolt would be invaded, and, as a
penalty for insurrection, the lands would be
subjected to confi.<cation. We may not here
enumerate the occasions and circumstances of
the various laud-seizures by which the Irish
peo]ile were ultimately dispossessed — despoiled
of their own homes. But dispossession became
the prevalent condition throughout Ireland —
this in the face of the fact that the Island is
agricultural in nearly all of its uatural sugges-
tions. The same is true of the development.
From an immemorial day the Irish Celts have
been tillers of the soil. They were, moreover,
from the earliest times, strongly attached to the
soil. Hardly any other people have had a
stronger home instinct. The Irishman is
never, by preference, a rover. He has little
of the adventurous spirit by either sea or land.
On the contrary, he fixes himself by ethnic
preference to a certain district, a certain
locality, a certain home. However poor the
condition may have been in which the Irish-
man iu recent centuries has found himself in
his own country, he has never been wanting
in anient attachment even to the hard lot
which human history has assigned him. To
him the green sod, the surrounding hills, the
GREAT BRirAIX.—FEyiAyiSM AND DISESTABLISILMEXT.
intervening vales, the blue smoke ascending
from the hut where his father lived before
him, the humble hamlet in the distance, the
sjjire of his own church -nith its ever-ringing
bell, have constituted a landscape dearer tiiau
any other in the scenery of thi- world. (..)f
his own choice he leaves it ikvit. ( )f his kku
will, he holds fast to the soil out of whicli he
deduces his whole existence. Tliere is not in
all Western Europe or the two Americas
another people so devoted to the earth, so con-
stant in handling that precious dirt out of
which all things grow and blossom, as are the
Irish peasants.
Of cities and towns, on the other hand,
Ireland has but few. After Dublin, Belfast,
Cork, Limerick, and Waterford, the remain-
ing cities may be passed without mention.
Great manufacturing interests do not exist
here. No vast aggregations of artisans, trades-
men, or miners are found. The population is
distributed on the lands as a tenantry, or at
most gathered in small hamlets and villages,
which rarely expand into the proportion of
towns. How great therefore to this people
the hardshi]) of dispossession ! How extreme
the penalty of living and toilini; ever on lands
which they may never own ! How degrading
the conditions of that perpetual rent-paying
system, removed by only one degree from posi-
tive servitude ! All this is to say that, in pro-
cess of time, and by many methods, the prin-
cipal of which was confiscation, the Irish lands
passed into the hands of foreign, that is, En-
glish, owners, and by these same processes and
methods the Irish people were reduced to the
place of renters, fixed upon the soil by a se-
ries of regulations devised by British landlords
in their own interest, and held down nnder
the weight of ever-increasing poverty and de-
basement.
Such, on the one hand, was the system of
English landlordism, and such, on the other,
the subjection of tlie Irish rent-paying peas-
antry during the whole of the present century
down to the time of the Glad.stonian reforms.
While on the religious, that is, the ecclesias-
tical, and on the political side, the condition
of the Irish people had been alleviated by sev-
eral Parliamentary acts, on the industrial and
land-renting side nothing whatever had been
accomplished. It is probably true, on the
contrary, *liat in 1869 the conditions of land
tenure in Ireland were aggravated with more
evlN and poisoned with more injustice and
crui-lty than at any previous (hite in the liis-
tory of tlie eountry. It had come to pass-
as was said of the slaves in America — that the
Iri.-h tenants had no rights which British
landlords were bound to respect. Loid Pai-
merston is credited with having said tliat
tenant-right was landlord-right, which was
equivalent, if true, to an utterance of the most
absolute slavery. Another aphorism of like
kind ran in this wise, that tenant-right was
lau<llorirs }iT(iii(j, as mueli as to say that every
syniptoMi and clairu <if rii;ht auil privilege, to
say nothing of equality, on the part of tlie
tenant, was an utterance not only of disloyalty,
but of incendiarism and crime.
It is difficult for people living in America,
and will at length be difficult for people living
in Great Britain, to understand the complete
autocracy of English landlordism as late as
the sixth decade of the current century. The
landlord had all power; the tenant, none. If
the latter fell into a still more abject poverty
than that which he had inherited; if he could
no longer, from nn'sfortune, disease, or decrep-
itude, discharge the ever-accruing rentals
which his foreign master exacted, — he was sub-
ject to that dreadful process called eviction:
that is, he might be turned out, ejected,
expelled from his home, and the poor residue
of his goods be hurled after him by a sum-
mary process of police, and without respect to
season or condition. The history of eviction
in Ireland could never be written. It is a
tale of woe among the lowly — a record of
heartlessness and selfish avarice applied to the
suffering bodies and lives of the weak, with a
relentless cruelty for the expression of which
human language is wholly inadequate. The
vices of the system reached to the very bot-
tom. It was itself a vice of monstrous pro-
portions, and its corrupting and degrading
influence had gone on until a ]ioint had been
reached beyond which it was impossilile for
the grindintr despotism of the master-class to
exact anything further.
One of the greatest curses attendant upon
this universal land tenantry was the cur'^e
that it inflicted on the soil itself It is in the
nature of all such crimes to bend around at
411
UMV£ESAL HISTORY.- THE MODERS WORLD.
tlK- last, like the fiUjuloiis serpent with the
tail-ilart, ami stiut: itself latally in the head.
The \V(.irkiug <if tile >y.-teni ili.-eouraged^
almost interdicted — all ellbrt at the iniprove-
meut and development of the Irish lands. In
the case of a thrifty peasant who, by excess
and skill of iiidu.-lry, liroo-ht liis lauds into
hijrher cultivation and superior productive-
Less, the landlord was always quick to dis-
cover his advantage by imposing a higher rate
of rent. The more the tenant toiled, the
more he was taxed. The more he produced,
the heavier burden was imposed upon him.
On the contrary, the improvident were rather
encouraged than stimulated to industry. It
might almost be said that in Ireland it was
better to hold poor lands under half cultiva-
tion, and to keep the improvements thereon at
a minimum and iu a state of decay, than for
the occupant to employ his energies only to
be taxed down again to the lowest possible
level. It was inevitable that under such con-
ditions all agricultural enterprise should sink
away; that everything should revert to desola-
tion ; that the renter's cot should stand in the
midst of brambles and waste, rather than be
improved and preserved for the benefit of
foreign landlords.
These landlords were absentees. They lived
in another island, across a water narrow enough
for the collection of rent, broad enough to con-
ceal the condition of the Irish peasantry from
the open inspection of the English people.
The ruling classes always possess the means
of information and the processes by which it
is distributed. The newspaper of modern
times belongs to the upper man. The under
man has no voice; or if, having a voice, he
cries out, his cry is lost like a shout in the
desert. Capital, in the places of power, seizes
upon the organs of public utterance, and howls
the huralile down the wind. Lying and mis-
representation are the natural weapons of
those who maintain an existing vice and
gather the usufruct of crime.
The fact should here be recorded that, iu a
siuule county of Ireland, the land tenure was
sonu-what more tolerable than that described
aii'ive. In the county of Ulster, tenant-right
was not wholly the ri.irht of the landlord.
For reasons that can not be enumerated here,
the people of this part of Ireland had, in the
course of generations, (jbtaiued a better order
I than could be found in any other part of the
I Island. This is the part of the country which
is circled by the North Channel, lying over
against Scotland. Doubtless the industrial
system of the latter country, and particularly
the methods of land tenure therein, passed
over liy community of race, and insured, at
length, a state of aftairs m<ire happy, or at
; least less abusive, than otherwise would have
j prevailed. In Ulster the tenants had a few
I rights which landlords were obliged to respect.
The privilege of eviction, which the master-
class exercised at will in other parts of the
Island, was here restricted to the case of non-
payment of rent. The tenure was rather that
I of a lease than of mere tenantry-at-will. The
occupant of the land might hold it indefinitely,
and transmit to his son after him. He might
go so far as to sell out his rights by quitclaim,
and the landlord was obliged to recognize
the purchaser as his renter under the same
rights and conditions which had held with
respect to the former tenant. Many other
slightly favorable circumstances in the land-
tenure system of this part of the country,
made the holilings of the tenants much more
valuable and satisfactory than those present in
the other counties. As a result, the country
was better improved. It could but be noticed
that just in proportion as the conditions of
land-holding were ameliorated, not only were
the lands brought into a higher state of culti-
vation and increased productiveness, but the
peasants who dwelt thereon were raised to a
higher plain of contentment, industry, and
happiness.
Such, then, were the aspects of the case as
they were presented to the Gladstone Ministry
at the beginning of 1870. On the 1.5th of
February iu that year, the Prime ^linister laid
before Parliament his celebrated Irish L.\xd
Bill. The measure was, to a certain extent,
revolutionary; for it was based on a new
theory of land tenure, fundamentally different
from that which had hitherto prevailed. It
contemplated the abrogation of those absolute
and arbitrary rights which the landlords had
claimed and exercised. The new theory was,
that tenantry of land was a copartnership in
production; a part of the benefits belonging
to the tenants as well as to the landowners.
GREAT BRITAIN.— REFORMS OF THE EIGHTH DECADE.
411
The aspect of afihirs iu Ulster gave the hiut
and outline of the uew legislation. Oue of
the most oppressive and iniquitous features
of the prevalent system iu the larger part of
Ireland, was the claim of the landlord to the
impruvemeuts made on the lauds held by the
tenant. In such improvements there is always
a certain fixedness which gives to the land-
owner an advautage over the tenant. When
the latter is at length evicted, or reuKives at
his own will to another estate, the improve-
ments which he leaves behiud represent a con-
siderable part of all the labor which he has
exerted during his occupancy. These improve-
njeuts he must, to a great extent, surrender to
tiie estate which he abandons.
The rule in Ireland had been peculiarly
distressing and unjust. All compeusatiou to
the tenant for the properties which he had
created on the estate of the landlord was
refused. The uew legislation was directed to
the cure of this injustice. But the principal
oljject was to annul that prerogative of the 1
huiilloiil liy whii'h tenants might be evicted
at will. Liidii- the provisiou of the measure,
the dispossessed or removing tenant might
claim aud collect by law a just compi nsuiion
for the improvemeuts which he had, in whole
or in jjart, put upon the estate. But hi> L;riat
advantage was iu the clause which forliadr his
eviction so long as he continued to jiay his
rent. On these great and salutary priucijik-s
the deljates in Parliament were conducted.
The Couservatives did less to obstruct the
measure than they had done in the matter
of the disestablish meut of the Irish Church.
Strangely enough, a part of the opposition to
the Bill came from the Irish members of the
House, who, while recognizing the great ad-
vantages to be gained by the Act, regarded it
as not sufficiently thorough-going to meet the
demauds of the existing conditions. On the
2d of June. 1870, the Land Bill was passed
by Parliament, aud on the 1st of the following
August the royal assent was giveu to the
measure.
Ch^i^ter c:n:>cxiii.— rekorms oe the eighth
DECADE.
r WILL lie remembered
that the third branch of
reform which the Glad-
stone Ministry had prom-
ised, related to the Higher
Education in Ireland.
But before this part of the
governmental scheme could be brought into
form, an agitation had arisen on the whole
question of education, particularly the pri-
mary educatiou, in England. It began to be
recognized as a fact already known to educa-
tors iu other lands, that the elementary edu-
catiou iu England was the poorest, most irreg-
ular, and inefficient to be found iu any of the
Western nations above the grade of Italy and
Spain. For fully a half century the German
States and the United States of America had
been far ahead <if England iu their systems of
primary instruction. In England there was,
indeed, no gydem at all. The children of the
nation received their instruction iu schools |
which were supported in part by private gifts ;
iu part, by eudowments ; in part, by govern-
mental aid ; and, iu a few instances, by local
taxation. In all of the schools, religious, or
rather sectarian, influences and interests had
prevailed to the extent of working the greatest
hardships and injustice to the children of all
the Non-conformists of the Kingdom. The lat-
ter had no rights under the law in schools
which were not created and maintained by
themselves.
The general condition was such as to be a
scandal, not only to Great Britain herself,
but to the nineteenth century. It was u\\ the
17th of February that William E. Forster,
Vice-President of the Council on Education,
brought iuto Parliament an Education Bdl
providing for a general system of public ele-
mentary instruction. As might be expected
in such a country as England, and among
such a pciiple, as the English, the propns.-d
measure looked, Hr.-t of all, to the principle
41'.
umvehsal history.— the modern world.
(it ciiiDiiulsiiin 111 atti
schools. Few thillL's
British mind that liav,- imt in th-ni the pr
dominating elmirnt ot authority. The For
ter Bill providrd tliat all .■hihlivi, in En-lan
and Wale.s shoul.l, iH-tut'cn th.- a,-es of i\\
and twvlvo years. In- compelled to attend tl
pill)lic (listiict scl '
The
ig to the
.11 of th
clause was, however, left to the option of tlie
School Boards of the respective districts ; that
is, if in any place the Boanl ."hould decide iu
favor of compulsion, that should be the rule.
But if the decision should be against compul-
sion, the attendance was to remain free, as
before.
The Bill contemi.lated the establishment
and maintenance of a public free-school in
l>liirt. The funds for the support of
,<• w.Tc to he derive! from tliiv,. geii-
uir.Ts; llist, from a h.eal tax, levied
lie direction ot the (School Board for
-trict ; secondly, from ilirect grant out
rcasury of the Kingdom ; and, thirdly,
eh fi'cs as were paid into local treasuries
ons not otherwise entitled to the privi-
leges of the schools
in those districts.
As to the existing
system, it was jire-
served as far as prac-
ticable, and carried
over under the new
methods. It was
not found expedient
that all, or even a
large part, of the
existing schools
shonld be destroyed,
but rather reorgan-
ized under the new
law.'
As might have
been anticipated,
the greatest opposi-
tion to the new sys-
tem was made on
account of its secular
character. Ultra-re-
ligionists of every
shade and character
took arms against a
measure which, if
successful, would
break their own nar-
row monopoly of
the public schools.
Church -of-England
men opposed the
Forster Bill, be-
cause the State Es-
njured by the .secular
Roman Catholics
tablishment might be
education of the people,
' Charles Dickens, of great memory, lived to
the educational atritation which was now on,
: net its cousuinuiation iu the new statutory
s ..( tlio ci.orli. li..ulitlrss, in his last days,
iiiiu.l rrvi rtc.l witli ever-increasing pleasure
llie reliiiiii winch liis genius and pen had so
,veilnlly eoiitriliuted to bring about in the
leatioiuil system of (ireat Britain.
W'^
GREAT BRITAIN.-^h'EFOL'MS OF THE EIGHTH DECADE
opposed it, because they riji-ctcd the iiiiii(i|iics i_ui h\\ wliili ii.lt t |i
of secular education //( /■l^^ 'i'li.' Nniici.n- ui i\ i it\ t hi i d I i
t'ormists also autagouized tin- lu.asinv, ln'caii-c i i uitn u in I ii I
they held it unjust that th.'iiiM'lvrs >linuld !«• tli ini i/ni_ ji _ii_ ii il In
taxed to educate the (.•liildirn nl' ,,tlirrs in ii\ ii I tl ( m un i] ili n 1 n ii
doctrines of religiou and sncjiiy wliidi tln'v in t i nt | ii I I i vhd it 1
did not accept. This, indeed, was a nmst .-.li- tl it lu i\ i iti ^ h w i i itni d
ous break which Forster had t" .■..n>idii ; l.ir 1 m tli 1 i t I I I t i i\ ili
the Noa-couformists represented in railiaim nt \ I \ it i il i I I i
were the adherents of the
Gladstone Ministry, and
their votes might, ere-
long, be necessary for the.
maintenance of that Min-
istry in power. So great
was the opposition to the
measure that the Bill wa-
more than once sav
from defeat by the aid nt"
certain Conservatives who
had the same interest in
the cause of education,
and were as much de\ )te 1
thereto, as the Libei il^
theniselve.s. The Bil
was iinally adopted, \u I
it was not long until tli
benefits of the new •-\-.
tem were so manifest th it
the voice of carping an
prejudice was stilled f n
ever.
Circumstances hi
meanwhile supers ene I
which induced the Min
istry t(j continue the eda
catioual reform in Eug
laitd before attempting-
the solution of the Iii^h
educational problem The
next measure undertaken
was embodied in the so-
called University Tests BMl, and was directed 1 emancipat
to the correction of abuses existing at Ox- progress n
ford and Cambridfre. Tt is an instiaietive
lesson to study the orieiii and devehqnnent,
the principles and methods, of the two great
English Universities. Noting the difference
between the spirit and organic law which
prevailed in these institutions from the later
Middle Ages down to a time within the
memory of men still living, and the spirit and
CHARLES prrKFNS.
11 the concnniitanis nf the real
progress nt mankind, receive as a rule so cold a
reception in the lialls nf the higher learning;
why it is that all nairnwness and littleness
find there a warm aeenid : why if is that the
Past is there .•ntlimned and the Future ever
expelled; why it is that the birds of ill-omen,
the owls of semi-barbarism, and all the deni-
zens of the night take refuge and hatch their
young under the eaves and roofs of ancient
UXIVEHSAL 1UST()I;y.— THE MODERN WORLD.
ivei-r-iti
i|,.s,>i,l,
At <)xl<
, littl.e,,uann,uty,ou,h.
.aiiiliri.lge the abuses of
leiv >lroiig|y iutreuclied. |
lis>.-iitrrs ill reliii-iou were
Until ;. rcvni
exchi.le.l fVoni the n.lvuiita-es .,f thn... veiier-
ahh: institutions. Only the eleet ut' the K-
tahlisheil ('liiMvh niiglit giilher theie the
treasures of elassieul learniug, the wealth of
scientiiie luinriples, the lore of philosophy, the
honeyed sweets of Hyniettus. It r(.'niaini-il
for tiie Gladstone .Ministiv to hreak down the
middle wall of partition, and to adnnt all
En'Ji-hinen on terms of e.piality and jnsii.v,
f.rded at Oxford and f'andirid-e, hut al<o to
the honors which those institutions had to
confer ami the amiiitions whieh they had to
inspire. It is a faet worthv of note that the
Bill In- whirl, the ancient restrictions were
removed and the law of free competition snli-
stitiited therefor, was threi' tii}i':< passe, 1 hy the
House of Commons before it was finally ae-
of disonteut, bv the H.-n-e of Lor.ls. There
sat the Bishops of the Established. Church,
last to yield to the pre.ssure of humanity,
last to accei)t the generous principles of a
larger liberty.
Before considering the attempt of the
Government iu 1878 to reform the Irish Uui- I
versify system, we may well note a few of the |
leading measures which hud, in the meantime,
occupied the attention of Parliament and tin-
country. First of these was the liallot IJill,
introduced into the H mh- of ('.nimons bv
For.ster,.in February of ISTl. Hitherto, the
method of votim;- at the polls in Great Britain
had been rivu ,•.«•<.. Ead, elect.n- was re.,uired
to speak aloud at tli,. votine-place his ,.|„,iee 1
of men and measures. It ninv be seen at a
glance how maiiv and sevimis are the oh|ee-
tions to such a system. If society were of a
uniform I'onsistencv throuelKUtt ; if it were or-
ganized on truly republii'an princijiles, so that
every elector iniLzht st.and on terms of peidect
e^pialitv with .•yew ..ther: if, in other words,
the under man had as little cause to fear the
iipjier man as the ti]iper man has to fear him, —
then the method of o]ie;i voting might he
preferable to the secret ballot. It may be said I
in iavor ot the former system, that in a free
country it is a positive stimulus f.. indei.end-
euee of ]iolitical character, that the voter be
required to go openly to the p.ills and declare
his choice aloud in the hearine of wit-
nes.se,s. It is not unlikely that, in course
of time, society will return to tlii.- iiu'lh.,.!, be-
eaUM- of its independent and maiemaking
chaiacter. Of a certainty, no citizen of a free
government oueht to be under the slightest
constraint in the matter of publicly declaring
Ins preference at the jmlls. The right to do
lint, practically, the question has to be cod-
sidia-ed in relati(jn to the existing condition of
.society. Even in the United Htates such a
soi-ial system has sui)erveue(l as to make it
dangerous for the under man openly to declare
Ills choice. In Great Britain, where the social
the danger of voting nrn mc- is corresjiond-
ingly aggravated. \\'e have already seen how
the ('haiii>ts iixed upon the secret ballot as
one .it tlie six arti(des of the People's Charter.
Fioiii the time of the Chartist agitation down
to the epoch which we are here considering,
the (piestion of the ballot liad never ceased to
be revivcl by the liadicals in the House of
Commons. N.ir had the I'ommon jieople ever
reliiepiidicl the liope that the .safeguard of
se,a-et y..tin- wmil-l, at length, be ciince.le.l to
them. In the Ballot Bill proposed by Forster,
It was proviiled that hereafter, at each election,
efheial Voting pa|iers should be prepared and
ilmted
le p,
.llino-places. The method
of eh-ction was. that the voter should go to the
))olls where his registry was defermineil, and
there .leposit his secret' y.ife iu the box from
whi.'h. at the cln-e ,,f the ]iolls, the ballots
were to be taken and counted liy the proper
officers.
The rethrni contemplated in the measure
was gi-eater than might a]iiiear to an American
readi'r, Imig accustomed to similar usages of
the ballot-Viox ill his own country. Many of
the I'orriiptions. iiitiniidafioiis, and abuses
which hail jirevailed under the old system iu
Great Britain were abolished under the ne\v.
But the Bill was f,u-ced through Parliament
against the strenuous opposition of the Con-
servatives in the Commons and the still more
unreasoning hostility of the Lords. It may be
GREAT BRITAIN.— REFORMS OF THE EIGHTH DECADE.
uiited that in the dehatos attendant upon the
passage of the Act, the (juestion of extending
the ballot to women was frequently advocated,
and was l)y no means regarded as so dangerous
an innovation as the same measure has been
reckoned to be by Conservatives in xVmerica.
Still another project, which was carried out
under the auspices of the Gladstone Govern-
ment, was the reformation of the British army.
In that department of the public service, as
in every other, abuses had crept in and had
become so crystallized by long prevalence, that
their eradication seemed almost impossible.
This was especially true with respect to the
manner of obtaining commissions in the army.
These, instead of being the reward of a mili-
tary education ..r <.f vahu' in the lidd, were
price, anil the usage had so long prevailed
that the transaction had come to ])e regarded
as other business methods of the public market.
The British ..tficer pinvhased his conimissi.m.
He held it as l.mg as hr cli.,sr, Mibjrrt, ..f
c.Kirse, tn the discipline of tli.. annv, and then
sold his rank to some ..tlier a>|iinint, who,
henceforth took his placr in xh>- service.
It is to the credit of tho ]',riti-h Govern-
ment that this crying abuM- did not originate
in an Act of Parliament, but in a Ttoyal war-
rant, wherein the i:)rivile;ie of ]iunlia>ing com-
missions was granted liy tlie sovi.icign. It is
needless to say to how great an extent merit
was discouraged and demerit promoted under
such a system. It was deterndned by the
Liberal ^Ministry tliat tlic practice of purchas-
ing commissions should ci-ase. In the siiininer
of 1S71 a Bill lor the IJe^.igani/.ntion of the
Army was introduced l.v Carduell, Secretary
of War, an.l, after a hot' debate, was ndopieil
on the 3d of J.dy in that year. The House
of Lords, however, taking advantage ,,f the
fact that the session was near it- .lose, refused
to c<incur, and the ( i,,vernnient su.ldcnly foun.l
itself balked in the w..rk ,if reform. It re-
mained for Gladstone, however, to discover a
way through the endiarra-ssment, and at the
same time to set the ministerial foot with some
emphasis on the recusant Hon-e ot Lords.
He boldly declared that the sovereign, under
direction of the Government shouhl, of her own
prerogative, cancel the Royal warrant on which
the abuses in the army were dependent. This
was accordingly dime; but the daring procerltire
on the part of the Ministry created great e.x-
citemeut, and, on the whole, tended to weaken
tlie hold of the Prime ^Minister even on his
own followers in Parliament.
We have now arrived at that jieriod in
recent English history when the Alabama
Claims, hehl and urged by the Government
of the United States against Great Britain,
were brought to settlement before the Geneva
Tribunal. An account of the proceedings
before this august court, and the judgment
given thereby against Great Britain, has
already been presented. At the same time,
England \vas shaken by the throes of Conti-
nental Europe. Now it was that the Emperor
Xapoleon III. i.ntercd upon the last rash act
of his astonishing career. He declared war
against Prussia for a cause which posterity
must ever hold ridiculous. His armies were
defeated, and his Empire went down with
himself amid the fire and smoke from the
crater of Sedan. Nominally a prisoner for a
brief sea>on at Wilhelmshohe, he soon left the
land of his captivity and repaired to England.
There, with the dethroueil Empress and his
son, the Prince Imperial, he took up his resi-
dence at Chiselhurst, where, on the itth of
January, 1873, he died, being in the sixty-
fifth year of his age.
Kesuming the Ijroken narrative of the Edu-
cational Kefnrm in Great Britain, we I'oine to
consider the effiirt made li\' the (ihnlstone
:\riid,strv, in 1873, for the pa.-saue of tli.^ Irish
University Bill. At the opening of Parlia-
ment the't^ieen had indicated in her speech
attention of the two Ilon-es'was to l,e directed.
The measure inonosed was ll,e work of (ilail-
As a matter of com-.se, the Catli-
exeluiled from its benefits. This is
Dublin University was open to the
41 G
UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
elect one-fiftli of the Irish jicople — the fifth |
conipiised in large measure uf Ei]<;lishnK-ii ;iikI
tiieir immediate descendants — uliile to tlie
other four-fifths all of its fountains were sealed.
The second institution was the comparatively
recent Queen's Univei-sity, an account of the
fouiidiiii: of whirh has lieen given already.
This univi-rsitv was a >tiiclly secular establish-
ment; and in that >\>ti'ni of L'overnnient, also,
the Catholics had n(itlj(.T part n(jr lot. In a
word, the university privileges of Ireland,
with the exception of those furnished by a !
small Catholic University, established and
supported by themselves, were totally denied
to the Irish Catholics in ilieii- own country.
The Catholic youlh niiiiht in.leed enter the I
Queen's University; but that institution was I
conducted on ])rinciples which no Catholic ]
could accept without breaking with his Church,
and such a course could not rationally he ex-
pected of a people so ardently devoted to the
interests of their own religion.
The Bill proposed by Gladstone must, if
possible, meet the contradictory conditions ex-
isting among the Irish people. The project
was one of extreme dilfieulty. The < ilad-
stonian idea was to remove from Dublin Uni-
versity its denominational eliaiai-ter, and at tlie
same time to make it ceiilial and paranio\int
to all the other colleges m the Wand. Dublin
was to be the center and sun of the system.
This made necessary tlie re val from the in-
stitution of the Faculty of Theulogy; f.r it
was absurd to suppose that the young men of
Irel
.odv of
.Mo
aid pass the ore
instruction. In the next
sary to strike from tl
departments of iii(|uiry :
and Modern History; for it could not be
hoped that any professor m the world was
sufficiently adroit to give instruction in that
system of ethics which was deduced from
theological dogmas, without |iutting at naught
both the facts of psy.-liolo;j-y an.l violating
every sentiment of those to whom he shouhl
address his instrnction. The gener.il result
therefore was, that Dublin I'niversity, though
indicated as the center of the Irish system, J
was to he considerably reduced in the extent
and variety of its curricidum. Such a measure
could but offend, not only the I'niversity ,
itself, but the whole Ei)iscoi)alian system of I
which it was a ]iart. The event soon showed
that the smaller institutions, some for one
reason, and s(niie for another, were in like
manner ofi(?nded ; for where is the university
or college which, under the inspiration of local-
ism, is not fain to regard itself as supreme?
Where is the college which voluntarily enters
into a system where its own place is that of
perpetual subordiuatiou ?
We may not here enter into all that was
said in the great debates between the Liberals
and the Conservatives relative to the Irish Uni-
versity Bill. It had been noted already that
the (.iladstoue Ministry was losing its hold
upon Parliament ami the country. Occasional
elections for filling Parliamentary vacancies
had told against the Government. Here and
there the Conservatives gained a member.
The Opposition, under the leadership of
Disraeli, began to display unusual spirit.
There were dissensions in the ^liiiistry it-elf,
and the mistakes, which not a few had been
made by the dominant party during the last
four years, w-ere skillfully paraded by the
Conservative orators. Perhaps, moreover,
there was something in that political restless-
ness wliich, in all free or semi-free countries,
so fre(iueutly displays itself in the change of
leailers for the mere sake of changing. In the
present instance, it can not be doubted that
England had been constantly agitated since
the accession of Gladstone to power, and now
the country was tired of agitation. It was
clear to the ]\Iinisters tiieinselves that their
davs in office were numbered. When the
Irish University Bill was put on its second
reading in Parliament, it was defeated by a
iiiajorify of three votes. The majority was, of
course, conipi'sed of the Conservatives, the
Ka<lical Irish party, and other disaflfeeted
Liberals. The Gladstone Ministers resigned
their offices, and the Queen called Disraeli to
form a new Cabinet. The latter declined the
service, for the reason that it was not clear to
liim that he could command a majority in the
House of Commons. The Gladstonians were
accordingly recalled to office. The Cabinet
was reconstructed, and the Government dragged
on feebly for a season.
This method, however, was not to the
liking of the Prime Minister. He determined
to re.-aiu all or t.i lose all bv dissolving Par-
GREAT BRITAiy.—UEFOKMS OF THE EWHTU DEi'AKK.
liameut aud appealint,^ to the peniile. The
anuuiiucement of this (Icti-riniiuitinn was a
complete surprise. The ehetioiis which in-
sueil were hardly lieguii until it was .l.'ur that
a great politieal reaetiou had takiai ]ihir,.'
throughout the country. The liditoni moiivr
in it all was simply the English har that the
car of Reform propelled by the Libei'al party
was pushed too fast and too far. That polit-
ical timidity for which the British Nation has
been proverbial since its emergence from the
iMiddle Ages, again prevailed to check the
progress of those salutary movements which
Lad marked the history of tlie last six veai-s.
The Liberals were defeated at the polls, and
the Conservatives came back to the House of
Commons with a majority of tifty members.
The Gladstone Ministry now- made haste to
retire, and Disraeli was at once installeil as
Prime Minister. Thus, in the spring of ls74,
that extraordinary aud eccentric personauv,
that genius born of an Oriental lace in the
foggy island of Britain, was for the last time
placed in one of the proudest iiolitical posi-
tions to which the statesmen of modern times
may aspire. The Cabinet wdiich he constructed
was one of great ability. LoimI Cairns was
made Chancellor; Lord Derby, Secretary of
Foreign Affairs; Lord Salisbury, Secretary for
India; Lord Carnarvon, Secretary for the Col-
onies ; jSIr. Cruss, Secretary for Home Affairs ;
Mr. Hardy, Secretary of War; Mr. Hunt, Sec-
retary of the Admiralty; Sir Statiord North-
cote, Chancellor of the E.xcheipier. As for
Gladstone, he virtually retired from sight,
coming into the House of Commons only at
intervals, and speaking little on the questions
proposed by the new Government. The
lately triumphant Liberals went into a ]i<ilit-
ical eclipse, which, in the C(Hir.se of the next
three years, threatened to be total, if not per-
petual.
For a season after the accession
servative Ministry, no striking disj
was seen under the new political (
of the fir.st contests in Parliament
the Con-
of force
r. One
s over a
measure introduced into the House of Lords
by the Archbishop of Canterbury for the Eeg-
ulation of Public Worship. We have already
had occasion to refer to the ecclesiastical move-
ment, which had been observed in the Episco-
pal Establishment towards the Church of
Rome. The impulse in thi> din clion had had
its origin in the extreme High ( 'hinvliisni of tlie
University of Oxford. As a result, an excess
..f Ritual'iMii had appeared ui many of the
tirst churches in the Kingdom in-oni'ncli that
the difference between the Kpi.-co],al worship
thei'ein aud the ceremonies iji the Caiholic
But not all, not even a maj.irity, of the
the wake of this movement. Many held
back, preferring the simpler and severer forms
of worship wdiich had I.c.mi handed d..wn from
the reign of Edward VI. As a result, there
in the religious manners an.l doctrines of the
people — this inside of the Established Church.
The existing ecclesiastical law was not suffi-
cient to prevent the divergences of practice
and l)elief, and an appeal was made to the civil
law to regulate what the Church Courts could
no longer t trol. A spiiitcd debate ensued
..n the Archbisho|. of Canterbury's Bill, and
the measure was at length forced through
Parliament by the dominant party. But it
was soon discovered that, so far from accom-
plishing the expected results, so far from
bringing the methods of worship and doctrine
to a common standard, the Act proved to l)e
a mere nullity, standing in the statute as the
expression of a wish and purpose rather than
as a vital energy.
The next governmental measure which
demanded the attenti.m of Parliament was a
liill for the ]irotection of th.m that go down
to the sea in ships. It hail come to the atten-
tion of the public that a large part of the
vast merchant mari I (ircat Hiatain was
nnseaworthy — unsafe as a vehicle of coinmerce
aud passage. The exisiing laws on the subject
were imperfect, inellective. Indeeil, the cur-
rent legislation was of a character to aggra-
vate the abuse : for the laws of insurance
provoked and ]ierpetuated the evil. The ship-
owners little cared to biar the expense of
nun-ine im|iroveinents and of such outlays as
were rcpusite to ke,.p then- ships in rjpair,
for the reason that thev were well insurcl,
].i-olltal.]e to the owners that their vessels
should go to the bottom of the sea. But this
method of security and gain involved the loss
UNIVEItSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
exi.-tiii;
Wit
British
ercl
audise au
d still more v
ilu-
•es.
The
agitation
agaiust
the
was led
bv
Mr.
PlimsoU
a
lU'I
iliL-r 1
f tl
e House of C
JUl-
■V \
.TV :n
d :
ngry
debates,
ex-
iiuiuei
, a
bill
was fin
dly
l)<
ttcT
in it
L'CtiulJ
of Eug
ish
r,
w",
dit
cau,.
licli ma\
era
second circumstauce was the existence of the
British East Indian Empire, and the relations
of that vast country and of those multitudi-
nous populations with the Kussian Power. As
far back as the days of Lord Clive, more j)ar-
ticularly as long ago as the times of "Warren
Hastings, tlie British mind perceived certain
gorgeous outlines, certain splendid cumuli in
the Oriental heavens, under the shadow of
which the existing social and political ?enti-
nients of Great Britain were somewhat nuidi-
lic<l. In the third phiee, ^ve may ri'ler the
hall-rorme.l Imperiali.-t .■.i.i.'epts of tli. --e ,lays
tn the Prime ^Minister of
"* EiiL;l;uid. Disraeli was un-
ddubtedly one of the most
g<irgeuus and spectacular of
modern statesmen. Hiiu-
self of Eastern descent, his
mind naturally inclined to
till- va.-t and splendid, not
to say the factitious, m
iiatiniial eharaeter. Few
men i.f the century have
ell, Tithed and Inl'hiwed
va-trr and higher amhithins
tliaii he. .Soon after his ac-
cession to pow-er, it became
counted for b\ th
of these ■wi th it
tion b^ \\h\ h th
\^
n.K
-
ice
El
The fii«t
in Ques
Em press
strousriv
t En
ml
lull ^^as
111 1 fi m
was, pel
English
III t
li 1 1 t—
th Ott
was, in
istrv aL'
ev
dent that his dreams were
of
mauv colors, and i>f a
foi
eigu cast. One nf the
str
king manifestatiiins of
th
N disposition came to the
Sll
lace at the opening of
Pa
liament m 187H. The
Pr
me ^linister announced
th;
t the Queen .if Eng-
lai
.1 was aliiiut to a. hi to
he
• ri.val titles that of
gl «
theie
f Em ihiiit\ uitli tht ( ui e
tho f 11 1 111 1 I I 11 ht ct nece
th T ^ lilt I it\in m licnm ot
will h til II h the\ mi ht ne\Pi
h h il wtie ne\eithele ] knted
tu il consoi\'itone and h < 1 ed n
th =ome wondei as intere ting exotic The
; of India. The pr.iposition was
.ipi»ise.l bv many of the Liberals, and
■hajis, distastel'ul to a majority of the
]ieople. The pressure from without
this re.spect, so emphatic that the Min-
■leed that the new honor and title
sli.iiil.l 11. it be employed in the Home King-
Iniii .if fJreat Britain, but only abroad; that
is ill Iii.lia itself There were many statesmen
s... ^t.iiit ill their English preferences as to
argue that the Imperial diadem of the Indies,
made new, so to c-pcak, for the occasion, was
no addition to the crown of Alfred and the
GREAT BRITAIN.— REFORMS OF THE EIGHTH DECADE.
Conqueror, of Plautageuet and Tik'
the .-pleudor-loviug Prime Mini>trr
nay, aud Victoria reigned as Va\
It is in evidence that tlii' t^hir.ii
aijle jiersouage at the head .it her ( i(.\
We nuiy not assume that tliis i i mi
personal, or that it was
even a reciprocal senti-
ment for the Prime Miu-
tii>u to herself The
daughter of the Duke
of Kent has never heen
sentimental. Her Ger-
man descent and English
education, as well as the
traditions of the English
criiwn, have conspired to
make and to keep her
one of the most practical
of great women. Her
admiration for Disraeli
rested rather upon that
strong conservatism
which he displayed in
politics and his ficTelity
to the royal and aristo-
cratic order in Great
Britain. To these ele-
ments nf English natio,,-
ality nniie was more
It was natural under
these conditions that the
Queen should devi-
some distinguished houn:
for the man who hte!
served her Governmeni
so long and well. If the
honor were ever to come,
the time was at hand l.
confer it. Disraeli w:i-
already in his seventy-tir^t year. At ili;
age a statesman can hardly he 1)Uime<l f
looking back upon the hard-fouLdit liatt
of life, an.l f.r enn-i.lering the exi.e.lien.
of a hrief ,lav of re^t ere the .■urta
f,l!. In su.-h a condition of atfiirs an E
trli^h leader n:,tni-nllv h-ks to the peera-
Di.-
' in
raeli a I
'eer of the
leel thai t
realm.
!.■ time
is 1
tireiiieii
from Iha
i^reat
lie
f Conu,
lonor t,,
on<. lie
hiin.-,lf.
a.-e..rd-
.11 1 ac-
vile
the till
■ ami .lie
ity of
^■a.
oll>liel(l.
In l^TC,
he e.ili.
L-e
d. Uii
the llth
it An-
EARL OF P.E.
ot the
tliire."
iineeil
i>raeU
tic of
420
rXIVERSAL HISTORy.^THE MODERX WORLD.
the Earl uf Beaeon>fR-l(l ; nor wa.- the li.iiior le.-s
distiugviished for the fact that it once had
been tendered to Edminid liuikc, and Ky him
declined.
The Ameriran ivad.,- Nvill not understand
that sueh a .■han-v of r.-hitioi, as that thn.n.uh
whirh Eord r„a,-onMirM |,as>rd in l.s7r, iui-
plies tlir ai-a|M"'aian.-,. .,( th.- a. 'lor In.nj pub-
lic life. It in.-an> ni Hn,Jand that his active
career in Parliament, more [larticularly in
the House of Commons is at an eicL In the
case of Beacinsllcld, he was destined yet to
api)ear in one of the most (hamatic spectacles
of the last i|naiter of the nimieenth century;
namely, in tlie Con-rcss of lleilin. We shall
Question in European politics, the war be-
tween Turkey on the one side and Servia and
Mouteuegro, inspired hv Kirs-ia. on the other;
the conference at (Jon-tantiieipl,. ; the progress
and incidents of tin- Tinco lius-ian War; the
issue of that conflict ; and, tiiially, the assendjly
and delilierations of the International Andias-
sadors at Berlin, ni July of IsTs. All these
matters iielong rather to the recent lii-tory of
Eastern Europe than to tlie annals of (ireat
Britain It is snlticieiit in this connectiou to
reconl tlie fact tliat tiie interests luid reputa-
tion uf England were su,-tainiMl in the Con
gress of Berlin by the Enl of Beac.n.-field in
a manner most satist'actory to the nation. The
Brilfsh public saw with .ieliju her represent-
ative standine- in t'.at -leat cont'creiice face
to face with I'lince Bi-)iiarck, his e(pial in in
tellect and almost his e.pial as a diplomatist.
We here draw near the close of the chapter
covering tlu' most recent events in English
historv. It oid\' remains to present an outline
of a few aililitional movements to bring the
narrative to a clo.se. It is exceedingly difhcult
to give a true historical estimate of those teml-
eucies and tispects of society lying immedi-
ately under our own olis( ivation. In such a
case, perspe<'iive is w.anline. and the mind of
the writer is nncon-.'iously swayd by the
dominant temper and pas.sion of tli.' day. On
the rarliamentary si,h., the t;reatest by far of
all the mo,v recent aeitations in England is
that sn-L'ested bv the words IboiE Kui.E.
The expre-sion was „ot new. Ever since the
uni..n of Ireland uilli En-land at the beeiu-
ning of the present century, an occasional
demand had been made for the creation of an
Irish Parliament, as a means of dissipating the
chronic di.scontent of the people of that Island.
It was belh'vd by a snuxll body of public
nu'ii, that, with(jut any general disturbance of
the so-called Imperial system by which Great
Britain and Ireland were held in union, a
Parliaineutary body might be properly per-
mitted in the latter country, having jurisdic-
tion and prerogative in all matters of local
legislation. This would signify, in a word,
thtit the vexed and vexing question which had
so much disinrbi'd the Great Parliament with
respeit to the allairs of Ireland might be re-
ither in a sul)sequent manded cnusiitutionally to an Irish House of
vival of the Eastern ' Commons, tor satisfactory settlement.
As early as 18t3.S, Disraeli himself, in a
canvass of the country, had spoken of an agi-
tation at that time appearing in Ireland for
the measure afterwards known as Home Rule.
An Irish political (jrganization already had
lieen etlecled nndi'r the name of the Home
Rule League for the promotion of this cause.
During the ei.trhth decade which followed, and
running beneath the events narrated in the
preceding pages, was this new form of agitation.
At length the jiarties in England began to con-
sider the (piestion, and to divide on the new
issue presented in Irish politics. Meanwhile the
(iovernmeut got on its hands two petty African
wars, ail account of which will be given pres-
ently. The great conflict between Turkey and
Russia came and went. In 1877 a period of
liusiness depression came, to be followed with
tluit inevitable distress and discontent among
the common people which always train after
c<mimercial panics and collapses. The winter
of 1878 was one of great severity. There is
one fact in modern society which, jierhaps
f irtunatcly fir the world, political parties can
not explain awtiy. Iv'o lie, however adroit,
can make a hungry nurn believe that he is
full. No loiid-mouthed professions of devotion
to the cause of the suffering ou the part of a
dominant faction in Government can make
thi' siiflerers follow longer the banners of pre-
tenders. It is foi- this obvious reason that the
days .if distress are always days of political
revulsion. In 1^7'S and 1879 the poorer
]ieople of the kingdom, especially in Ireland,
felt the Jiangs i.if hunger, and, resorting to the
GREAT I!J;iTAiy.~]!KFOi;MS OF THE EIGHTH DECAIiE.
laiil tlu- Iilame i not ouly a wdinan's nmrtitiratii
i-rrvalivf Gov- I grief, at tlie Liberal triuinpli.
ii-t:nirf>, whirl) j this respi-ut were still further
, a.hle.l (n the ' fa.-t that ( ila.l.-tnii,. must a,t:aii
e.,u,.„t weakrii- head of the G.iveninieiit. Tl
huruan eimuuh to try t.. ol
' sen, hou', 1- sent f-r Lonl Ilarlinuton , an
•ir .lountall in t..tornia n.u Cahinel : hut lli
sublime fallacy of pain
of their couditiiui on t
erameut. ]Many othrr
may not be enumerate-
]inpular iliseonteut and the eonseipnnt w
in- ot the :\[inisterial j.artv.
As to the Liberals, ne jiave sern ho^
pl.te and dispiriting was their do«n
1X74. AVith the retiremonl of t;hi(Ut
ronipi-teut leader of the ( >ppo,-.ition r,<\
found, and the Liberal party wvnt Iro
said to have reaeh.d the nadir. T-nt it is in reason uhirh had
the nature of politieal viri-itndes that the It oidy remainod
arlion and levival. The Lib.rals enier-ed I iiower. Thi~ aee.
I, but a (^ueen ;
Her feelings in
lobh
br
Lil
The
at tlie very time when the Co
weighed down by the unfortnnat
ot the country, began t(j sink.
Rule agitation lay like a bank
across St. Ge(n-ge's Chann.d. Tb.
come; Gladstone suddiadv looun
his retirement, where he had amu:
in the meantime, with eontiovi'
against the Papacy, and cbalhai-r,
the policy, but the existcnrc of th
tive"(;overninent. He .hii.'d th
and .hired them t., submit tlin
givat leader of the
n thou call.d Lord
liMlinod, f.r the same
li-d with Ilartiiigton.
(.iUrru to viel.l to the
(ihnl.ton^ again to
,• was done, and a new-
Ministry was con.-tituted, into whose hands
some of the most im[iortant i-sur.- of the age
were remanded at once tbr ?oluiion.
But we may jiroperly here turn a-iih- from
hiniMdf. nnujic Afri.'an
1 es-avs j G.ivernnient b-
not only ceudencv of Vn-.
>[in
in which the British
involvr.l .luring the as-
hl. Thrfiisl. if these was
A- \ the Ashantee War. The p.tly African king-
■v ! dom of Adiautr,. li, ,. on iho interioi- of the
.'l Cold Coast, caslwar.l from Liberia. It cm-
their measures to the ]iiM.pli'. Tlic cliallongi- prises an area of about srvmty thousand
wa.~ not at the first accepted. The Parliament s.piaie miles, aud a population of more than a
^va- ahea.ly nearing its Constitutional limita- million. The cajiital is Cooma>>ie, at a con-
tion. At "length the .Ministers were rather siderable distance from the ena>t. Here the
jirovoked aud taunted into a di-obitiou and native monarch hehl his court in a sort (jf
an appeal to the people. The sun 'curred , barbaric splendor. The Ashantee Kingdom
in Marcli ot Issu, and the el.vtious toll,, wed j was organized on the baH> of a military aris-
soon afterwar.l-. A- soon as the results be- tocracy. A luuuber of petty lords had each
gau to be declared, it wa
the greatest political rea
England had taken place
were routed. When tli-
and the footings \yere n
Liberals came out of tii
jority of a hundred and
tocracy. A iiui
vid.nt that one of his local court and government. ^Manyof
ins ever kniiwu in the usages id' the Asllanle.^ are ii-pulsive
The Conservatives to the sentiments „i' ]-:ui-opeans. The lu-ac-
nn.ke .'Kared up, tice of polygamy is universal, ami the
e, the triumphant constitution of the kingdom as.-i-ns t.. the
test with a ma- m.march an e.xact maxinuim of ihice thou.sand
■ntv members, and three hundrcl and thirty-three wives. The
the humiliation which they had >ullere.l six religion uf the land .hmands human sa.-rifices,
rears bef,re was viMted iii double measure such olfering> being mad.' in the belief that
upon their opp ,nt-. the .ha.l are in need. ,,f servants an.l attetid-
At the fir-t, it -.•em.. I that the sh..ck had ants in the ..th..' worl.l.
been felt as high a< th.' Thnme itself. The F..r a Ioul' tim.' tl,.- Ashantees ha.l held
Queen, in so far a- -h.' was p.rndtted under r.lati..ns with th.' Dul.h ..n th.' African cast,
the English C.'n.-titulion t.. have iH,liti.-al Fr.an them th.' king, by tr.aly, nceiv.-.l an
.sentiments, was h.-artdy with llie C..nserya- , annual tribut-' in i.tui'ii toi- the a.lvanta'j.'s
lives, and it may n..t be .l.ud.t.'d that she felt ' \vliich the Dutch min.rs ha.l in the country.
U^'IV£Bi>AL HISTORY.— TEE MODEHN WORLD.
GREAT BRITAIN.— REFORMS OF THE EIGHTH DECADE.
423
lu order to uiulertstand the situation we must
take into consideration also the Fantees, whose
territory lay between Asliantee Ivand and the
Gulf of Guinea. The Ashantecs and llir
Fantees were kinsmen liy lacr disci'nt, and had
been in alliance, but at leunth became estranu'ed
and hostile. The territories of the two States
were divided by the river Prah, and across
this stream warlike excursion-^ were (Vei|uently
made, the one people into the cduiitry of the
other. Ou two or three former occasions the
English had been at war with the Asliantee
Ashautees to terms, compelling the king to
pay an indemnity of six thousand ounces of
gold, and to give up his sou as a hostage. A
tee Land, and all tlic other potty drpnideucies
between the river Prah and the sea. In 1843
the Crown of England assumed the govern-
ment of this part of the coast, and from that
time forth there was mutual suspicion and
mutual misunderstanding between the Euro-
peans and the Ashantees. At length, in lsfi7,
au arrangement was made between the En-
uitun ml in lue c n p u us iii tin hil
sutieiel 1 di i^ti iis ml hninili itiiu d t U
Ou the 7th jt August 1SJ( Su thaile^,
McCiith\ then m dm. 1 Biiti h mteie t^
n th (t 11 < It to ht 1 bittl «ith the
aim\ 1 ih VI Hit 1 111 t n th u ml
sti n_ It L)n 1 \m1 \m 1 I it 1 b\ th n
gioes ml liini It liin < 'iih ib ut ift\
men f the \\l 1 t i u 1 1 in i i Inn
the English hea 1 (pni tcis ii 1 mt t I in 1
which wai the base of ipenti ns
Of couise Gicit Biitun so n bi Uf,ht the
lish an 1 th
Dut h li\
uhi h dl th t Its jf
the httei hi
1 1 tu 1
1 t til '^« t Finer
weie sun ii 1
1 1 t (.
1 It 1 Ml nil uhile all
the EnJi h 1
It w t
th It ii\ 1 \\ It ^i\ea
to th Dot 1
1,\ Ihl
ti 11 1 ti 11 the king
t Vhiiit
hll 1 LU 1 11
1 t th
t hllll t
iniiiiil til 111 «hich
It! lilt t occu
1UK^ In t
1 Diit h
\ 1 n ,ene
h |U th 1.
n 1 tint
tl 1 n li h ill tik
iinu . th 11
1 ill
ill iti 11
1 tl I)ut(h hll x^
t 1 nil elf But this
<lum ^^^s 1
dl «( 1
1 inflected h\ the
424
UNIVERSAL HISTOliY — THE MODERN WORLD.
I'.rilisli authorities, iui.l lucainc tla lia-i> of
hostility.
Thi- iiiunediate occa-mu ot thr outliieak of
the war, however, was tlic a. t of cue of the
Ashantee chieftaius. iu .Im.jmui; toui I^uio-
peaus into his tuwu au.l ni.ikiut; them pii-ou-
ers. The British (lov.nm, .hniau.U.l the Mil
render of thesr raptiv, - an.l th. d. ui.ni.l ua-
refused h\ the Ashantee king. Several other
circumstances aggravated the difficulty. The
Fautees were in alliance with the English, or
rather under their jirotection, and this fact was
a .source of alarm and jealousy on the part of
the king of A-hantee. His ' ill-feeling grew
to such a pitch that, early in ls7:l. he took the
hazardous step of cn.issing the T'rah with an
annv, thus iuvadiui; the land of the Fautees.
By this act he was brought into direct contact
with the British, and the Home Government
was constrained to send out an army to bring
the refractory nation to submi-ssion. The com-
mand iif the expedition, which was sent out
HI the fall of 1873, was given to Sir Garnet
Wolseley, who reached the C.,!,! Cast in the
beginning of October, and f.,uijd an armv of
Ashantees, f.rty
"^ thousand strong,
' ready to opj)ose his
]irogre.?s. But if
ihey had been four
hundred thousand
-tiong they could
11}, by their
half savage methods
of warfare, liave
staged the British
invasion of their
tounti} .
On' tlie 20th of
January, iu the fol-
ng year, the
English crossed the
Prah, and entered
Ashantee Land.
Tiiey met and de-
feated the native
army in two or three
lattles, and on the
4th of February
reached Coomassie.
The Ashantee king
was now glad to
make what terms he
might with the con-
queror. Everything
must be done with
tlie utmost haste. It
was well known to
Sir Garnet that a
month's delay iu that
region would be fatal to his army ; for the fevers
anil other maladies to which Europeans were
subject in the African summer were far more
fatal than the exigencies of battle. The
English Commander accordingly exacted his
terms in haste, and set out for the coa.st.
Cooma»ie was burned. An indemnity o^
fifty thousand ounces of gold was agreed to
by tiie king, and the latter was obliged to
GREAT BRITAIX.—REFOHMS OF THE EKllITH DECADE.
I, III
iir-Dntch
renounce liis claims of sovereignty over the as it i< snineliiii.s wilttni. I'm- a coiisiilcialilr
petty States which liad hitherto been subject peiioil In- hail hicn (.11 ttrms of fririiiUlMp ami
to him. He was also obiiL^^ed to grant free- iiiliiiiac_y with the V
(lom of trade between his ea|)ital and the stant (biheidty with
coast, and to keep open tiie higliwav from peoples of tlie adjaeent Transvaal itepni.li.'.
Comassie to the rivr Prah. Finailv, he The same (hing wa^ trne of oiler nat ive irihes,
must agree to renonni'e and abolish the some of whom wen- always at war with tiie
practice of human saerilice. Sir ( iarnet lioers. It appears that the eivil aliairs of the
Wolseley then retired fmm th<- country, and Transvaal were badly managed. When Sir
the expedition returned lo England. Theophihis Shepstone was sent out as (Jov-
IMoro important by fir was the war with eruor of the British colonies on this part of
the Zulus of S.,ulh-(asteru Afriea. Zulu the African coast he was led to helieve that
Land lies to the north of the colony of
Natal. It has a seadine of about a huudre.l
and thirty miles, and includes among its
population several important trilies. The coun-
try is to a great extent aboriginal in both its
people and productions. The wild animals
peculiar to the region represent several African
types, such as tlie antelope, the rhinoceros, the
hippopotamus, the butt'alo, and the lion. The
people are brave, warlike, energetic. At the
time of the outbreak of tlie Zulu war, the king
of the country was Cetewayo, or Cetshwayo,
to jiass under the
He accordingly ]
effect that the
ome a part of t
the Boers desi
of Great Brita
declaration to
Republic ha.l
Dominion. It thus happened that
by an act of usurpation, inherited th.
and ditficulties of the Boers with tin
bors. The Zulus were greatly alarm,
new as|iect of atfiiirs, and becanu- -
and jealous of everything done by t
peans in their part of the country.
One of the disputes between Z
dominion
d.lishe.l a
Pransvaal
e British
England,
■ iiuarrels
Land
421
VyiVEnSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
pui
111
1!:
L-h C<
favor
aii.l the Tnuj^vaal i;.puhlir «a> with
to tlie owilershlii (.t
between the two Sta
referred tu the deeisi
siouers. who made th
Zulus. VUM the lieu
Bartle Frere, ivtii.-.d or iir-leeted to exeeute
the terms ot the ^etthiiieiit. Cetewayo was
surprised aud aiiirered tliat the English author-
ities, after having decided the question in his
favor, should l)e guilty of what seemed to liim —
and to all the uorhl— to he an aet of liad
taith. Iio>(ilities hroke out. The Engli.-h
Governor demanded that the Zulu army
should be disorganizeil and di.-persed. Cete-
wayo refused to acquiesce, and the British
fQ,.„po K,.^,.,„ ..,, ; ;,
1' ot the country of the
Zulu- <', J. i
1 Januat^, 1S79, a
^e\eie battle ■\\as
jii^M^
fonuht and the
^W^
Engh-h ueie ut
r'-"- 1
t.ih defeated
WafesTI
'Ihe di^a^tei ^\as
l^p^-f
humilidtmg m
k4^ ^-^
the 1 t-t degiee,
< ^MIBSSk&^
md \\a>, as a
^^^^M'^
mattei of couise,
H^^i^^'--
^ soouietiie\ed A
^ new foice under
command of Lord
Chelmsford, again
CETEWAYO, IN ENGLISH GA
p^ marched into Zu-
lu Land, routed
the barbarians, capture
1 the king, and brought
the war to an end beh.r
■ the middle of autumu.
The native luoiKiivhy
was aholwhed, and a
civil goverumeiil, kiio\\
,1 as the New Republic,
was organized in it,-
stead. As for the
dethnnied king, he u.
> ivniaiid.-d to iin|iri>-
oiiment, hut the prim
i|i,il native chiefttiins.
wlio had been his sulijc
ct>, were iiermitted to
remain in local author
ty.
One of the primipa
incidents of this petty
anil hv no means hniioialile war, was the
death, in one of the skirmishes with the Zulus,
of the Prince Imperial of France. An account
has alreadv been given of the retirement of
Napoleon "ill., with Eugenie and their sou,
to Chiselliurst, in England. There, for about
seven years, the education of the Pi'ince was
conducted at the military school of Wool-
wich Arsenal. After his graduation he
would fain see actual warfare. The Prince
appears to have had in him mrndi sentim.-nt
and romance. When the Zulu war broke out,
several of his classmates were in the army of
Lord Chelmsford, and the Prince, at his own
earnest request, was assigned to a place on the
'Teneral's stall. In this relation he entered
Ziihi Land, and exhibited during the campaign
iniirh military spirit. He was assigned, on a
certain occasion, to the command of a recon-
iioitering ]iarty, liaving the duty of deter-
mining the situation of ati'airs aliout twenty
miles trom camp. While ou this expedition,
his comi.iany was surrounded by a large force
of Zulus, and in the efliirt to cut his way
through, the Prince was killed. His body
was taken back to England, and deposited in
the Memorial Chapel at Chiselliurst, beside
the sarcophagus of his father.
The death of the Prince was a severe
shock, almost a death-blow, to the hopes of the
Boiiapartists of France, who had looked to the
son of Napoleon III. as the embodiment and
imiiersoiiation of all Imperial expectations for
the future. But the world at large was less
concerned with the political efiect of the
Prince's death than with the shocking calamity
which it brought to the beautiful but now
wi<lowed ex-Empress of the French. To her
the lo>s ot' her son was the final stroke.
Nothing; in history — that is, in its merely per-
sonal jiarts— is more melancholy and aflecting
than the sj)ectacle of this lone woman, fallen
from glory, a widow in a foreign land, stripped
of her Imperial diadem, her husband dethroned
and dead, and now, at last, her promising and
gallant sou cut down in the wild chaparral of
S.mth-ea>terii Africa, .-:^tabbed to death with
twiiitv wounds, and hacked into mutilation
with the assagais ot the Zulus.
At the very time these events were occur-
ring in South Africa, England found herself
again at war in Atghanistau. The situation
and relations of that country with respect tu
the British East Indian Empire have already
been described. In every instance in wdiich
the Eastern Question, by disturbing the
jieace of Eiiroi>e, has brought the ominous
name of Uu.-sia to the attention of the
Western Powers, (ireat Britain has taken the
alarm with respect to her Indian frontier ou
the side of Afghanistan. The latter country
GREAT nJ!JTAI.\:— REFORMS OF THE EIGHTH DECADE
ha^ seemed to Russia to cciistiiui.' a smt (
soiith-easteru passage into India, jii-t as tl
ISosphurus has coustitutril ihc xiiitli-wi-tii
l)assaf;o into the onuitrirs (if Simtlirrii Kurn|i
The tiravitatidU "f tht- Kii-siaii Kiniiire h
,,iv>mm1 in hntii .liivrli.uis, iH-ann- alil<,' on tl
l'in,jaul.au.ltl.r(<rtn„iaiian,nii,iui,s. Inl.,,
.lin-.-tM.ns the pn-.-suiv ha.l U-vu .li>tn-sii,i:-
as tar as auv ijlivsieal torce luav i>v sai.l t.. I
before. The conflict with Tiula-y seenicd to
imply auother Au^flo-l;u»ian war, and tlie ex-
pi'ctatiou of swell an evmt ua- I'or a wliile rife
It c.u
d Kussi
Br
.■ak of hostilities between England
the armies ot the Czar would pour
,y ,.f I'.Tsia, through Cabul or the
lie Hindu Kush, and precipitate
For about tiftv
d dread ou ac
distressing — to Great Bri
years she has suffered al:
count of her exposure in this ijirceti
was .«o on the occasion of rhe ,lilli,'uhie:
culmiuated in tic- Tiino ItuvMan Wai
atrgressions of Kn^-ia limught to 1
serious ajiprehensioTis tlial the seltlemeii
followed the Crimean invasion ot' bs.i.
have to be reviewed bv tlie same met
men pel
The be
Wlliel,
would
,d Cal.ul a
1st Bu.siai
th.
re I )f great
ilish (Env-
ied .Shere AH. It
tauce tliat an En-
should be estab-
UNIVERSAL Hl^lOh] —Jin M(lDFl:\ UOIilD
lisluMl ;,
If tlu-
■ ciiurt
of
SI
here
Ali,
<( t
Homo
(iliV(
■rnnicnt
li-
ht Ui
list in
fdrnied
of 1
the mn-
a-ii
ne]
Its .11
r i;.
remote
regio
u, and ]
ino
re
•.'eiii-i
■ally
thit
fluence
of Great Bi
■ita
iu
migli
It he
a.i.l
paramount i
n Afdu
lui;
sta
u.
To t
his e
nd it w
as
ar
range
,1 tl,
at 1
dition i
11 tht
• rhaiac
ter
')
f a ,M
-aeai
lie ei
lit tli( r liiuiu 111 N| t mil 1 f 1S7S iiid tame
tl\ in t til fi iiti 1 liii li\ilni_ \f_hiiii^t\n from
ill til it Ii ill Hi ti \ w K ill t li\ nil ^-engers
th ill li m sheie \h, iiittidu tiii^r Uie tuithei ad-
1 ill nil \ mte Siuce the Biiti^h Eiul)i--\ came iu a
pc iceable eliaiaetei, tiie liihnhling of its pro-
1 I \pi _ii ~^ lilt ( dull w 1-. < 1^1 1\ < 1 ii-ti iiid iiiti' an
iiu -\, I 1 -ult uid let lit ht stilit) V^.iiiiattei ot faet,
-^'
but really bearing with it the potenej' of war, tlie expedition at once took the character of
should be despatched from India to Cabiil. It
was known that the Russian Government had
either sent nr was about tci send an aniliassa-
dor ..r its nun til the rmirt .it Shrre Ali, and
the English were determined not to be behind
in esstablishing their mission at the same place.
The expedition accordingly set out from
xsion, and the movement, supported
itary force, continued uutil Cabul w^as again
iipicd by British soldiers. Another divis-
iif the army tiiok possession of Candahar,
1 the Government was soon in condition to
(ate its (iwn terms of settlement.
At this juncture Shere Ali died, and was
GREAT ERlTAiy.—EEFOBMS OF THE EIGHTH DECADE.
42!»
succeeded by bis son, Yakoob Khau. Tbe
latter made haste to couter with the British
authorities, and at a place called Gandamak
a new treaty was made and signed, on the 5th
of IMay, 1879. It was agreed that the Ameer
should grant new bouudary-lines for British
shoul<l support that country against all f ireigu
enemies. The establishment of the English
mission at Cabul was also granted by the
Ameer, and Sir Lewis Cavagnari became the
representative of England at the Court of
Yakoob Khau. Everything seemed to have
India, and that lie should lie compensated
the cession by the payment from the treasury
of British India of sixty thousand pounds. It
was also agreed that, for the concessions thus
gained by Great Britain, she should hereafter
regard Cabul as under her protectorate, and
.ins and
tlu
ul until I revolt
It uludi had hap-
x.uuki Barnes, 'u
UMVEBSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
weie attacked b^ tht iiiMii^ent^ inJ mui leied
iieh
tl
Tlieati cit\ \\ IS in t\Ln 1 i ect shockiu j ind
Is u
11-
auothei Bluish uiii\ 1 1 1 t > be sent iiit \f
tlu 1
ICsl.
tail to (juell the insurrectiou. The En-
forces a second time fought their way
without serious resistance
to Cabul, which was en-
tered and taken on the
24th of December, 1879,
Yakoob Khan was, of
course, deposed, made
prisoner, and sent to In-
dia to await his trial on a
charge of perfidy aud
massacre. The rebellion
was completely sup-
pressed, aud British gar-
risons were established in
> the country to hold, as if
\ it were au outpost, the
conquered province of
Cabul.
It was soon perceived,
hone\er, that the subju-
_ itiou was only real in the
ueai neighborhood of the
_imsou. The remainder
t the people were re-
stiaiued from hostility
(jiih SI) far as the danger
of punishment was felt.
The question thus arising
tl 111 tlie occupation of
Vl_l istan, aud thepro-
I 1 I stablishmeut of a
new fiontier-line for Brit-
ish India on that side,
weie tiausmitted by tiie
(Toveiumeut under Dis-
tls undei Gladstone ; and the
1 the tontioversy have not, to
lieeu satisfactorily adjusted.
CHAPTER CX:X:X;i\'— BATTLE KOK HOME RULE.
ITH the opening of the
Parliamentary session of
1881 began the la.st great
contest with which the re-
cent history of England is
conri-rnod respecting the
civil iind domestic cou-
The Ilniiie liule party, as
a party, now made its formal apparition in
the Hou.se of Commons. On most questions
of national policy the new party was in nat-
ural sympathy with the Liberal Ministry, aud
on the Irish question the Liberals were in nat-
ural sympathy with the new party ; but the
vicissitudes of politics destroyed, or reversed,
these natural relations. The Home Eulera
GREAT BRITAIN.— BATTLE FOR HOME RULE.
were brought around to tlir si.le of the Con-
servatives in opposition to the ( iovernnient,
and the Gkdstone ]Miiii>tiv had to content
Itself with Liberal Mippoit only. At the head
of the Home Kule party appeared a new leader
ill the person of Charles Slewurl I'ariiell. The
Ijudy of his following was made up exclusively of
Irishmen, many of them poor men and of small
reputation in tlio
political world,
while a few, such
its the historian
McCarthy and
]Mr. Shaw, were
already leaders
of note and in-
fluence. All,
however, w e r e
profoundly de-
voted to the
cause of Ireland,
and to this cause
every other priu-
c i p le , every
other poliey, was
made subserv-
lu the Gov-
ernment, that is,
in the Mini-trv,
th, Honiel;,,],',.
had no pait or
lot. At the tir^t
sible, i-imred hv
both the d(_,mi-
nant parties, but
this method of
dealing with the
men of one idea
soon had to he
abandoneil. A
state of affairs
had now supervened in Ireland which could no
longer be put aside or hidden under the cloaks
of the Ministry. Suffering had come — want,
distress, passion, rebellion, hatred, every specter
that arises at the conjuration of tyranny, around
the huts of the lowly. Tiie celebrated Land
League was formed, having for its object the
alleviation of the hardships of the Irisli ten-
antry, without much regard to the existing
laws. Crime began to express the prevailing
sense of the people. Outrages were done to
life and property, and the Government was
obliged, by the mere stress of the existing con-
ditions, to take up the difficulties of Ireland,
to present therefor some sort of remedy.
In January, 1881, it was thought necessarv tr.
pass a Coercion Bill against the Irish tenants
and members of the League, whose lawless,
or at least unlawful, proceedings took con-
stantly a bolder form. The measure proposed
was, in its leading ])rinciple, a suspension
of the Haben>: Corpuf, permitting the officers,
ni any district designated by the Lord-Lieu-
tenant, to arrest and imprison without judicial
43li
UNIVERSAL HISTORY^— THE MODERN WORLD.
process the disturbers of the peace. At the
same time a uew Land Bill was announced,
which was merely an extension and amend-
ment of the Act of 1870, by which the ten-
ant-right of Ulster had been made the standard
for the whole of Ireland. With the intro-
duction of these measures into Parliament,
the Home Rulers adopted the policy of Ob-
struction ; that is, they systematically impeded
the consideration and passage of the bills by
every parliamentary artifice and expedient
known to English usage. The Constitution of
the House of Commons was such as to give
great liberty in this respect. In that body
everything had hitherto been conceded to the
freedom of debate and the rights of the mi-
nority. There was no rule for the " previous
question," or other expedient for bringing a
pending question to vote, so long as a member
continued to debate it or offer amendment
thereto. Even the motion for "closing the
debate" at a given time was amendable, and
might itself be debated.
The Home Rulers in Parliament at this
time numbered thirty-seven. They deter-
mined that the diereinn Bill shuuld not he
lirought to a vote, and from the 6th of Jan-
uary to the 2d of March the debate was pro-
longed. It was seen by the Jlinistry that some
measure, even if if wcvi- without precedent
and actually nncnnstitutiimal, must be adopted
in order that tin- will nf tlnj majority might
be legally expressed. The method finally em-
ployed was found in tin- prerogative of the
Speaker. It was agreed that, on the 2d of
March, he should arbitrarily announce that
the debate was closed, and that the vote should
thereupon be taken. This was accordingly
done against the uproarious opposition, the
protests, and cries of "privilege," on part of
the Home Rulers. The Bill was carried, and
measures were at once instituted under its pro-
visions for the suppression of violence in Ireland.
On tlie day following the passage of the
Coercion Bill the leaders of the Irish party
were forcibly expelled from the House of Com-
mons, and at length three of the members,
including Parnell and O'Brien, were thrown
into prison, where they remained until the
following year. It is in the nature of British
public opinion to undergo reaction, to take on
a different complexion under every change of
condition, and to express the altered state of
affairs in some new political theory. No
sooner had the (^ioverumeut triumphed (jver
the Home Rulers, no sooner were the leaders
imprisoned, than sympathy for them and their
cause began to be expressed, not only by the
public, but in the Ministry itself The com-
position of the Liberal party at this time was
peculiar. The members composing it were-
graduated in their political opinions all the
way down from a strict conservatism at the-
one extreme to a rank radicalism at the other.
The Liberals of the latter type had all along
been in sympathy with the Irish cause. There
was danger that Gladstone would lose largely
by disintegration on both wings of his army.
On the whole, he himself inclined towards the
Radical and Reformatory camp ; but for a
while the exigencies of the Government re-
quired of him a prudent conservatism, lest he
might lose what may be called the upper
division of the Liberal party.
The Government now w'ent on with other
legislative enactments bearing on the Irish
cause. The Land Bill was passed, by which
It was Ixipcd til stnj) the clamor of the Irish
tenantry. It was soon seen, however, that the
measure was of little avail. What would at a
former period have satisfied the tenants was
now, when they were aroused to the point ot
war, neglected and disregarded liy them as ;i
.scheme to defraud them of their rights. The
cry had m.w lieeii nii-ed for the absolute na-
tionalization of the Irish lands, which meant,
of course, the destruction of the very principle
of English landlordism. The foreign land-
tenure became ever more precarious. Partly
by the piiverty of the people, and partly by
recu.sancy, thJ rents fell into arrears. There
was almost a universal refusal to pay any
longer the immemorial tax which the j^easants
owed to the landlords. Violence became the
order of the day. Outrages against life and
property multiplied. Evictions were resisted,
and it seemed at times that the foreign domi-
nation was about to be ended by a universal
insurrection of the peasants against their mas-
ters. In a single month, in the summer (jf
1882, ni) fewer than five hundred and thirty-
one outrages were reported against the system
of foreign landlordism and that status in Ire-
land by which landlordism was upheld.
GREAT BRITAIN.— BATTLE FOR HOME RULE.
433
It ivas iu this coiiditiiin of atiliirs that the
astute Gladstoue perceived the necessity of a
change of policy. Tlie Cdorcion Rill expired
iu October of 1882. It had i>n.v.<l a sigual
failure. The Anus Bill, imder tlif provisions
of which the Irish people were t(j be disarmed,
and which had resulted iu the surrender of
their weapons by all the better classes, and in
the concealment of arms by the lawless and
the criminal, had also completely failed of the
intended results. All the measures which the
Government had thus far taken to suppress
violence, restore order, bring the country again
into a state of contentment, or even acquies-
cence, had proved abortive. The Land League
seemed about to triumph over Parliament ami
the country.
It was at this juncture, that cumniunica-
tious were begun between Gladstone and
Paruell, who was still iu prison. An alleged
"treaty" was formed between the two, in
which it was understood that the Irish leader
would be content with a l/ill alinlishiug Arrears
■ot Rent, and with a just extension of tenant
rights. These being conceded, the Home
Rulers would join the Government iu the at-
tempt to restrain the Land League, or rather
the lawless adherents ot that body, from further
violence and crime. It was in Ajiril nf issi'
that Gladstoue threw out the tir.-t hints in the
House of Commons that a lu-w policy might
l)e expected, and that the release of the Irish
prisoners was contemplated as a measure of
pacification. By this time the Irish jails were
well filled with per.sons who lunl liteu arrested
•on suspiciou under the suspension of Habeas
Corpus, and in accordance with the Coercion
Bill. More than eight hundred persons, many
of them of excellent character, had lieen im-
prisoned. It was known to the (lovernment
that it was needless to bring the suspected
persons to trial before Ii'isli jinii's. Of a cer-
tainty, such juries would never convict their
fellow-countrymen of crime for conimittiiig
-acts iu which they themselves liad either
actually participated, or with which they were
in svnipathv. The law in such cases required
that thejury should he.lrawn fiom the vicinage,
an,l this' assured to the piisoners a trial l.elore
their neigldK.rs and tVieiids. 'I'he Govern-
ment, therefore, was ol.ll-eil to hold the sus-
pected persons bv a suspension of the Ilabms
Corpus; but this could not continue forever;
and now for the first time the policv of con-
ciliation was to be tried.
Unfortunately, at this very juuctui-e, an
event occurred which threateiieil to undo the
very history and tendency of the times. In the
lawless period, which it was hoped was now
about to close, many murders and assassina-
tions had been committeil. At the time of
which we speak Lord Frederick Cavenilish,
who was holding the jjosition of Financial
Secretary of the Treasury, was appointed
Chief Seecretary for Ireland, to succeed Mr.
Forster, whose antipathy to the Irish cause
had been so great as to lead to this change in
official relations. With Lord Cavendish as
undersecretary, was appointed Thomas Henry
Burke, a man of distinction, who was also sup-
posed to be friendly to Ireland. The new
officers were sent out, and arrived in Dublin.
On the evening of the 6th of iMay, 1882, as
they were driving in Plueiiix I'aik, in that
city, they were attacked by four murderers,
partly disguised under slouched hats. It is
thought that Mr. Burke was the first to fall
under the knives of the assassins. It appeared
that Lord Cavendish sought to defend his
friend from tli.- assault, and. in doing so, he
too was stabbed to death. .Many |hi>oiis were
sitting or walking within a i'vw 1 (lre<l feet
of where the crime was comniilted, and yet
tlie assassins were enabled to mount a car and
drive from the park witl t discovery. A
consideralde quantity of gold coin, bauk-ijotes,
and other valuaMes wvyv found on the bodies
of the murdered im-ii, and it was perceived
from the first that the as,-assination hail been
for political, and not ior iiieicenary. motives.
A great sensation was |)rodnced liy this
event throughout Ir<'hiud and (ireat Britain.
It was natural, ineviiahle, that the crime
sh.ndd be charged t., the Land League.
Paruell, Davitt, and others who might speak
authoritatively for that association, made haste
to deny for it all connection with the murder
of Cavendish and Burke, and to denounce the
crime in the strongest terms. Nevertheless,
the Land Leaguers and the Home Rule party
had to bear the odium of the assassination.
-As a matter of tiict, the L;ind League, as such,
was organized on a plane altogether too high
for the patronage or justilication of such deeds
UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
as that ,1
me in Phiciiix I'lirk.
But the oi-
gaiiizatii.i
hail drawn after it
hc very dratf
aua oHhl
(if Irish ili^cuiteiit.
Such associa-
tioiis imis
necils have about th
'm a penumbra
of crime.
They are created for
the correction
of abuses
the removal of ojipi
essioD, the at-
taiiiiiK-iit
-.f ju-ti.v. lint all tl
is implies that
in tlu-ir t
which, ill
urn, imply that kirn
the hail. Is of the ign.
■e ; and these,
of resistance
rant ami vile,
The murder of the Irish Secretaries, in the
country to which they had been sent, was a
great shock to the Government. Parnell had
now been liberated from prison, and soon re-
turned to his place in the House of Commons.
In that body violent denunciations were poured
upon his head, and it was demanded of him
and his coUeagties that they should wash their
hands and the hands of the League of all
complicity in the great crime. The course of
Parnell was such as might have been expected
from a brave, high-spirited man. In his reply
he scarcely deigned to disclaim knowledge or
participation on the part of himself and his
friends in the assassination of Cavendish and
Burke, saying that all defense of himself and
his party, and of the principles of his party,
was impossible in such a court as the English
Parliament. His cause was prejuilged. His
jmlges were his enemies and the enemies of
his people; um- was he anxious under such
circumstances to justify himself at the I)ar of
British opinion. At that bar he was con-
demned already — both he and his cause. He
was responsible only to the people of Ireland.
It was to the public opinion of that country
that he made his appeal. Crime was crime,
by whomsoever comniitied. As for the rest,
he stood for the cause of an oppressed people.
For that cause he had suffered an unjust im-
prisonment, and for that cause he and his party
were now maligneil, slandered, ami reduced to
the category of criminals.
It could but be that the Irish party suffereil
greatly in the ordeal through which they now
passed. It could but be that the Government
was held liack from its natural gravitation in
the diricti'iii nf Home Rule, and it could but
be that the justice and reasonableness of the
position held by Parnell and his associates
must become constantly more evident even in
the high places of England. The embarra.ss
ment of the Ministerial party was extreme.
They had a fair working majority through the
wdiole of 1882, and the same in 1883; but the
incidental elections which occurred at inter-
vals in Ireland showed that the Land League
was predominant in that country over all
other forces conihincd. The Home'llnle party
I gained at the Irish elections, and their num-
bers increased to over seventy. It was evi-
dent that their strength was likely, erelong,
; to enable them to hold the balance of power
between the two major parties in Parliament,
and thus virtually either to direct the course
of legislation, or to stop proceedings altogether.
It can not be doubted that in this situation
of affairs the Liberal party, though in the ma-
jority, had Iiefore it the alternative either of
depending on the Conservatives for support
against the common enemy, or else of entering
into combination with that eneniv in order to
keep the Con.servatives from again coming
into power. As for the Home Rulers them-
selves, they had one definite object in view,
and that was the nationalization of Ireland.
To this, with them, all other cuiestiniis were
subordinate. For this they were willing to
enter into combinations with any [jarty soever,
so that their one great end might be attained.
It could hardly lie doubted, however, that
Gladstone himself, whose influence over the
Liberals was so great as to constitute an au-
tlioiity, would never enter into a treaty with
the Conservative leaders against the Irish
cause. It became, therefore, a question when
anil how the Parnellites and the Liberals
would combine in the work of a radical reform
on behalf of Ireland.
Such, in general, was the aspect of English
history from the Parliamentary side in the
yc:ir lN^-">. ])iiiiiig the session which ex-
tendi-.1 to the bi-giuning of summer in that
year, the condition of parties and of policies
was not materially altered. The attention of
the Home Government began to be drawn to
the very .serious consideration of the affairs of
Egypt. In that country a war had broken
out, some account of which will be given near
the conclu.sion of the present chapter. In Ire-
laud the policy of the Government had done
something toward the restoration of order.
The outrages, for which the preceding year
(iREAT BRITAIN-BATTLE FOR HOME RULE.
had been memorable, wore in great measure
suppressed; but it cduld not lie said that the
determination of tin- Hdine Rulers was weak-
ened or in any wi^. diviTtrd fmni their ..ne
great objeet. Then tnlh.wcd th.' vacation of
Parliament during tho siinmi.'r months, and
until the beginning ot < )it(iiii'r.
At the next session the I'arncllites were in
full forec. An element .d weakness had, in
the meantime, made its appearance in the So-
ciety ot Orangemen, who, being Protestant,
and seeing their Catholic fellow-countrymen
wdiolly given up to the work of land reform
and nationalization, naturally fell into their
traditional opposition. The Irish leaders
sought zealously, during the after part 'if 1SS4,
to allay the merely religious prejudices ot
their countrymen, to the end that a uniled
Ireland might compel the English Ministry to
the adoption of such meas\ires as the Home-
Rulers arlvocated. In the meantime, a seri(rns
break had occurred in the (rovernment on the
immemorial question ot the franchise. It hail
been determined liy the Ministry, in answer
to the call of the country, that still another
effort should be made for the more complete
enfranchisement of the Eugli.sh jieople. It
had been found that even the Liberal measures
of 1867 required revision and amplification to
meet the demands of the working-classes of
Englishmen. A new Franchise Bill was accord-
ingly prepared, and passed by a decisive ma-
jority through the House of Commons. As
has always happened in the case of such legisla-
tion, the House of Lords disapproved of the
proposed extension of the suffrage, and in this
particular case refused their assent to the Bill.
The iliuistry had to accept the defeat of their
measure for the time, and it was only after an
additional Act covering the distrihutioii, or, as
Americans would say, the re-ipportionment iif
the new seats provided for under the Franchise
Act had been adopted, that the Lords with-
drew their opposition, and assented to the
measure as a wdiole.
But hy this time the foreign relations of
Great Britain had become so critical as to de-
mand the best skill of the Covernment in the
prevention of great wars. For a season, it a|i-
peared that England and Kussia were to try
their prowe.ss on the side of India. Egypt
■was in an uproar. Khartoum fell, and Charles
George Gordon went to his death at the hands
of the Mahdi's assassins. All these things
called for immediate and extraordinarv exer-
tions. Arndes must be at on. quipped ;u„l
sent to Egypt. The strain upon ihe .Ministry
l.e,"ime extreme. The Covernmint was n."-
liritish interests in thi' Fast, p';utienhii-|y in
w.inls were sufficient to expivs- the disgust of
the people at the weakness and folly of the
Administration. "The country," said that
organ ot Conservative opiidipu, •■ is ohliged to
confess that everything has been done that could
be done to add to the risks of detent. Advice
has been spurned, time wasted, and opportunity
lo.st."
The (^ueen, in her speech to Parliament,
had indicated the necessity for greatly increased
expenses, and, to provide for these, it became
necessary to increase the revenues of the
Kingdom. A new budget was pre-cnted in
June ot ]s,s,5, in which the policy of the
(Tovernment was defined. It was pi-..po-eil
that the increased expenditure ot the ensinng
year shoidd be met by phning a dutv of a
one ye,-u- from the ilate of the Act. The
mea.-uie was ailvocated by the Seeretary of the
Exchequer, but the Conservatives opposed the
budget on the ground that all the additional
expenditure could have lieen provided for bv a
slight increase of the duties on tea and the
light wines. It was argued that ale and beer
were the drinks of the common j-ople, and that
the :\Iini>terial P.ill pn.po>e.l to put on them
the expenses of the Egyptian war. The
debate on the adoption of the hudget was
concluded by (iladstmie on the evening of the
second readiuL; in the Ibm^e of Common,s.
.Mu.di to the >ur|.ri.-e of the country at large,
and m all inolKd.ihty to the (;,,vernment
itself, the hudget was rejected hy a majority
of twelve votes. Precedent has estalili-hed
the rule in the Briti.sh Parliament, that a de-
lent of the hudget signifies the end of the
Mini.-try |.roposing \L It is not clear that
such was the intent of the IIou.se of Commons
in the i)resent instance; hut (^iladstone, never-
theless, determined to follow the precedent,
and he and his fellow]\Iinisters accordingly
43(1
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
teudereil their resignaticms to the Queen.
The same were accepteil hy Her .Mnj.sty. whu
immediately sent for the Mai.jiii- nf Salishury,
aurl intrusted him with thp duty of torming a
new Conservative Mini>tiy.
Such was another reiuarkahle example of
the vicissitude which may he expected at
intervals in the political history of Great
Britain. It would have been thought im-
possible, only a few months before, that the
Gladstone Government could be overthrown
in any present emergency. The ]ihiIosophy of
the question lay in the fact that, on the whole,
the statesmen of the Liberal party in England
have not shown themselves the equal of the
Conservatives in the management of foreign
affairs. On the other hand, the Conservatives
have fallen far short of the Liberals in the
Home Administration of tlie Kingilom, and in
all measures of progre-s and refirm. It can
hardly be dnubted that the attention of the
Gladstonian i>artv had lieen almost whujlv
fixed upon domestic questions, and, in particu-
lar, on the e.stablishment of some .satisfactory
ami ]>ermanent policy for the settlement of the
ditiiculties with Ireland. This withdrawal of
the attention of the Government from the
multifarious foreign complications in which
the whole modern history of England is in-
volved, contributed to the disaster of Khar-
toum, left the public mind uncertain as to the
ability of the existing Government to cope
with the trouble in Afghanistan, and led to
the withdrawal of the support
of thirty or forty members of
the Liberal party from the
Ministry in the matter of the
budget. Though the proposi-
tion of the Grovernment to
increase the revenues by the
taxation of beer and spirits
was eminently proper, though
the ^Ministry, with all of its
outside difficulties and inside
dissensions, was still full of vi-
tality and force, the Conserva-
tives and the Parnellites, by
combiuing their cohorts and
gaining a modicum of support
from disaffected Liberals, suc-
^> ceeded in overwhelming the
Government with an adverse
vote on the budget, and the
Gladstone Ministry was at an
end.
The :Ministerial crisis in the
British system frequently signi-
fies the defeat of the victors.
In the present case, the tri-
umjili of the Conservative
party was of dubious im-
port. The victory was achieved
in the very face of impend-
ing measures which threatened to divide and
wreck the Liberal party. The time had
arrived when it was necessary either to aban-
don or renew the Suppression of Crimes Act,
under the operation of which the peace, or
at least the quiet, of Ireland had been for a
while secured. It was the disposition of the
Glailstonians with respect to reviving this
measure that led the Parnellites to vote with
the Conservatives against the ^Ministerial
budget. It was clear that the Home Rule
GREAT BIUTAIX— BATTLE FOR HOME RULE.
4 ."7
party would prove to the SalislniiT Goveru-
ment a broken reed. Little were the Parnell-
ites coDcemed about auythinu- except the cause
of Ireland, and that was the very issue which
the Conservatives, more than the Liberals,
would have avoided. The Homo Rulers had
thus at last worked their way iiitn a |>osition
where they could defeat ami overthniw a JMiu-
istry of either party at will, aud it became
evident that their political aim was to beat
down first one, and then the other, until the
cause of Home Rule for Iix'Iaiid ^houlil be at
length adopted by one "t the [laities as a
means of keeping itself in [mwcr.
There was another rea>^iiii, alsn, why the Earl
of Salisbury hesitated uiidrr >w\\ ccinditious
to accept the responsibility nt the ( invornnient.
The Parliament (if l^.'^n had m.w nearly
expired, aud a new election was at hand.
Gladstone himself had foreseen the impending
struggle before the people, and it is not im-
]irobable that he was less averse to the adverse
vote on his budget than might have been sup-
])0sed. Be that as it may, it was clear that,
during the remainder of the existing I'ailia-
ment, the Salisl)ury ^Ministry inu>t adopt a
temporizing and conciliatory policy with the
L-ish party, aud, by vigor abroad and Consirv-
atism at home, win, if possible, fVoni tlic (ilad-
stouians a victory at the ensuing election. In
tlie canva.ss that followed, there was a dispo-
sition on the part of both Conservatives and
Lilierals to ignore and gloss over the one great
question of the day, namely, the settlement
of the issue raised and defended with so much
vigor by the Home Rulers. Parnell was now
supreme in the management of his party. He
passed the word to his following that every-
where and under all circumstances they should
strike at the Liberal majorities, and reduce or
reverse them wherever they might.
The elections were held for a new Honse
of Commons in December of ]ss('>. The
question really was whether the Liberals would
be alile to obtain a majority of all the seats in
the House. Soon after, the ehetions began;
and as the first reports came in troni the center
of England, the Conservative, -all.ered a
transient hope that they nii-ht !«■ vietovimi-.
hut the news from the eouiitrv-side (le>troyed all
such expectations. From ^\ ales and :~eotlanil
the news came of great Lilieral eains, and tin-
aggregate result in Great Britain showed a ma-
jority of about eighty for thi; Liberal party.
But the Irish elections turned everything to con-
fusi.m. In all that country, ,/../ „',.;„,,/;. lAhmd
Irish seals in the Conim.ms, tewei- than twenty
were won by the Conservatives. Dublin
University sent two of these, and nearly
all the remainder were from the extreme
Xorth, in Ulster. Parnell came out of the
battle with a compact body of eighty-five fol-
lowers.
The ]ii.iliticians and statesmen were now
easily able, l.iy a few figures, to count the
probabilities. Should the Parnellites, in the
new Parliament combine with the Conserva-
tives, they would be able to bear down the
Liberals with a small maioritv c,t about five
It should they condiine with the
the majority over the Conservative
I the Sali.-bury .Ministry would be
uindrod and seventy. Such was the
at the opening of the Par-
in .Tanuarv of 1886.
.tes; b
party and the ^
nearly a hundrot
situation of affai
liameutary sessio
what
It now remained to b
the Earl of Salisbury w.add take m his en-
deavor to conduct a minorit\' Government.
The development of tendencies at the opening
of the session was awaited with intense in-
terest by the nation. It was clear to all that
the Irish question could no longer be thrust
into the liackgrouml, except by a coalition of
the two dominant parlie> a-ain>t the third;
and it was equally clear that sueh a comljina-
tion could never be eilected. The debates
began over the answer of the House to the
speech of the Queeu. Before the discussion
was closed, the Prime Miuister gave notice of
the intention of the Government to introduce,
at an early day, a bill for the further repres-
sion of the Irish land-troubles on the line of
coercion and punishment. It was foreseen Ijy
the Liberals that they themselves wmdd be
placed at a disadvantage by having either to
support or oppose a mea-ure like that sug-
srested bv Sali-I.urv. It was therefor,' di-emed
es voted
iigh the
calendar
4:38
r'xirr.RSAL history.— the MODF.Ry world.
l\v clisaffeetioii, the Gdvernnipnt was nver-
wheltued, niid the ^Ministers resigned.
It now remained to he seen whether a new
Lilieral Ministry cnnld he formed, which should
he aide to command a intijovitv <<{' the Hoine
\VILLI.\5I E GLADSTONE.
on matters relating to the Irish question.
Gladstone was, as a matter of course, and out
of the necessity of the situation, recalled to
the place of Prime ^Minister. Sir Farrer
Herschell was made Lord High Chancellor;
Earl .'Spencer, President of the Council; H.
C. E. Childers, Home Secretary ; Earl Ro.se-
bery, Secretary for Foreign Atlairs ; Earl
Oranville, Secretary for the Colonies; Earl
for India ; Campbell-
Baunerman, Secretary
for War; Sir William
Vernon-Harcourt,
Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer; the Marquis
of Ripon, First Lord
of the Admiralty;
Joseph Chamberlain,
Pre.«ident of the Gov-
ernment Board; George
Otto Trevelyan, Secre-
tary for Scotland ; A.
J. JMundella, President
of the Board of Trade;
and John M or ley.
Chief Secretary for
Ireland.
But it was not so
much with the consti-
tution of the new j\lin-
istry as with the Irish
policy which was to be
proposed thereby, that
the public was now
concerned. For a con-
siderable period it had
l)een uoLsed abroad that
G]ad.stoue was grad-
ually inclining in his
sympathies and opin-
ions to the cause of
Home Rule in Ireland.
It was observed on the
first night of the session
that Parnell's speech
could only be inter-
preted as signifying the
probable support of the
Liberals by the Irish
party, and the ]irobable
support of Home Rule
principles by tlie
former. The event justified the anticipation.
Gladstone at once devoted himself to the prep-
aration of an elaborate scheme for the establish-
ment of an Irish Parliament, and the virtual
concession of nationality to the Irish people. The
GREAT Bh'ITAiy.— BATTLE FOR HOME RULE.
439
plan iiro|io.<ed cnutenijilati'd the cMiitiiiuancc nf
the National Union ni Irehiml aii'i (ireat
Britani, under the Government of the Crown
and the Imperial Parhament at Loudm,.
The Prime .Alini.-ter ehihorated a .-eheme
which was perhaps the most exteii>ive, not
to say revolntionarv, ot any sin-le measure
proi.o>ed in Parliam.mt siiiee' the aeeesH.ai of
Victoria. The matter eame speedily to an
issue. In June of l.SSC, the .piestion' was ,le-
bated before the House of Commons, the
speech ot Gladstone himself heiiii,' awaited
with the greatest interest, not onlv bv the
British public, but by the [ pie of all West-
ern Europe and Amei-ica. In the latter eoun-
try, the daily press ot the followin- iiiornin-
presented American readers with a report ver-
batim ot the Prime Minister's addre.-s, in which
he defended and advocateil with the preate.st
ability the establishment of Home Pule for
Ireland. When the rpiestion went to vote, it
the .Ministerial Bill had carried; but th.' .Ii-
visiou showed a negative result. Tlie i\Iiiiis-
terial measure was beaten by a small and in-
decisive majority. This was effected liy the
combined votes of the Conservatives and those
of nearly a hundred Liberals, who refu-ed to
follow the majority of their party on the (pies-
tion before the House and the country.
The break in the Liberal party [n-oved to
be hopeless, and, since the Irish ipiestion was
now uppermost iu all men's minds, the <ilad-
stone Ministry passed from power. At first,
however. Parliament was |>rorogiied, and the
(ple^tiou at issue was remanded to the people.
It could hardly be hoped that, under existing
conditions, the policy of Gladstone could gain
from the country a more emphatic indorse-
ment than he and his party ha.l received at
the late election. It only remained fir the
Prime JMini.ster to resign his othce. The be-
ginning of 1887 found matters in a condition
of chaos. Though the Earl of Salisbury was
presently recalled to the head of the (iovern-
meut, though the Conservative party, with
the aid of the so-called Liberal-riiioni>is — a
divi.sion made up of those who had luoken
away from their allegiance to the (Gladstone
^Ministry — were able for the next two years to
maintain a doubtful ascendency over the Lib-
erals and Parnellites, yet it \vas an ascendency
gained by Millcm rath.
As to the Iri.^h ,|Uestion,
remains' uux'ttlcd, and
iies.-ed the ivmarkal.le n
tiation between th.' Parii:
of Sali>biiry's (iovcrnmei
•llites and the Karl
s..me limited hum, the principle of Jlome
Pule for Ireland.
The year l.^.S? was memorable for the cele-
bration of the jubilee or fiftieth anniversary
of the accession of Queen Victoria. It had
not been often in the history of Knelaml that
such an event had been pos-ibh-. Only m
two or three instances had so long a reign oc-
curred, or one on the whole so benign in its
character and tendencies. The Queen herself
had been a popular sovereign, though this is
said rather of English society — by which is
meant the upper third of the people — than of
the ma.sses at large. The principal day of
Her Majesty's Semi-ceutennial was, of cour.se,
the 21st of June — that being the anniversary
of the accession — and the principal scene of
the home celeliration, the Abliey of Westmin-
ster. On that .lay aii.l to that place the
(,)ueen was c.ndncteil In' her snn<, her sons-
in-law, and her grandsons, as a guard of
honor. About ten thousand per.snns a.ssembled
at the Abbey to participate in the ceremonies.
Kepresentatives were present, bearing con-
gratulations from all the reigning Houses in
Europe and from the Governiuents of the Xew
Worid. London was spleielidly dccorate.l f .r
the occasion, and the other cities of the
United Kingdom expressed their loyalty with
a variety of festivities and celebiations. The
Poet Laureate, now become P>aioii Tennyson,
honored the occasion with a personal poem
addressed to Her :\[ajesty. From the center
the jubilee spirit exteiideil into all the liritish
colonies of the world; and from the font-hills
of Burmah to where the moumain- of British
Cobind.ia lonk down on the Pacilic, the (>ueen's
■tch of tl
.1 Egypt
of bSllO.
440
CM VERS AT. inSTOKY.-THE MODERN WORLD.
ning of the niuth decade of the eeutury, it
might almost be said that Egypt was a foreigu
dependency of the British Emi)ire. The pre-
pooderauce of tlie influence of the English
Government in South-eastern Africa at this
ejjoch, and for some time previously, may be
referred to two general considerations. The
first of tliese was the long-standing policy of
But whatever tin
Great Britain in upholding the independence
and autonomy of Turkey. This theory carried
with it the niainteuauce of Egypt as a Prov-
ince of the Turkish Empire. The expression
"Province of the Turkish Empire," however,
is too exart to express the dependent relations
of the diti'crent countries under the general
sway of til.' Sultan. In tiio case .,f Egypt,
it could not 1m- said tjiat the countrv was an
integral part of the Ottoman dominions ; and
yet the Egyptian Government had its origin
and authority from Constautiuojjle.
The Egyjitian Viceroys had no constant
rank or power. Sometimes they were merely
satraps of the Sultan, and sometimes they
ached the condition of semi-independence,
laracter of the Govern-
ment might be,
Great Britain held
to the policy of .sup-
porting the existing
order, believing, as
she did, that this
course was condu-
cive to the integrity
of her eastern line
of defense against
the aggressions of
Russia.
In the second
place, a financial
reason existed for
the support given by
England to Eg3-pt.
The latter country
had become indebted
in several ways to
England and to En-
glish cai)italists. A
large part of the
bonds representing
the Egyptian debt
were held in Great
Britain, and the rev-
olutionary tenden-
cies in Egypt seemed
constantly to threat-
en the validity of
the bonds. The
principle of inter-
national law which
decrees the integrity
of a delit through the vicissitudes of revolu-
tion, making each successive Government re-
sponsible for the valid indebtedness of its pre-
decessor, and which denies the coufiscability
of national bonds, was not sufficiently well
recognizeil in Kgy|it to make the obligations
of the Government to England perfectly se-
cure; and this fact constituted a powerful
reasou for upholding the existing statui.
GREAT BRITAIN.— BATTLE FOR ROME RULE.
441
tsomething of the same reasons existed iu
the case of France. She also had a large fuud
invested in Egypt. The 8uez Canal was the
product of French capital. France had in
general cooperated with Great Britain, under
the theory that the integrity of the lurkish
Empire should be maintiiiued iu all its parts.
Such were the conditions which made it ex-
pedient, it not necessary, for England and
France to assume a sort ol protectorate over
Egypt as a part of their international policy,
and as a means of protecting their interests in
the East. This pohcy, however, was much
more ably and persistently followed by Great
Britain than by the French Government ; but
in course of time the English ascendency in
Egypt aroused the jealousy of France, and led
to an effort on her part to regain her relative
influence in the Nile Valley. For a con-
siderable period the Egyptian Khedive had
had an arrangement with France and England
by which the latter countries exercised what
was called Financial Control of the affairs of
Egypt. This condition remained in force
until 1883, when Lord DuHuriii, win. had
been sent from Coustautiudiile tn E.^yjit as
the representative of British interests in that
country, secured the withdrawal of the "Con-
trol," to the end that a greater autonoiny
might be secured to the local L^nverunieut in
the management of its own afhiirs.
>s() adecjuate understanding, however, may
l)e hail of the general condition of Egypt in
our day, without noting the historical progress
of tlie country during the larger part of the
century. At the time of the Napoleonic in-
vasion, Egypt was broken up into petty
Muslim princijjalities, having little coherence
or governmental unity. The general con-
sequence of the shock given to the land of the
Pharaohs by the impact of Europeanism was
to bring about the ascendency of Jlehemet
Ali, and the establishment of his house as the
reigning dynasty down to our own time. We
have seen how nearly, at one or two crises,
this able General and statesman succeeded in
securing the complete autonomy and inde-
pendence of his country and people. At the
close of the fourth decade he seemed, indeed,
on the eve of actually reversing the relative
places of Cairo and Constantinople. In 1840
the Turkish Empire was saved from dismem-
berment only by the actual intervention of
the Great Powers, staying the progress of
Egyptian arms in Syria, and rendering of no
avail tiie iricat victories of Hoius, K<inieh,
and y^mh, in tlie latter of uliicli battles
Ibrahim Pasha, son (,f .Meheuiet Ali, over-
threw and dispersed a Turkish army of eighty
thousand men.
The veteran Mehemet, already more than
seventy years of age, next turned his atten-
tion to the revision of the constitution and laws
of Egypt, working after models which he had
drawn from the great governments of Europe.
Nearly all the methods of administration
which the inquirer discovers to-day as the
springs of civil action iu Egypt were devised
by Mehemet Ah. He established new systems
of taxation, revised the customs-duties, ar-
ranged the laws of quarantine, patronized
manufactories, planted colleges of languages
and of medicine, and introduced printing-
presses and journalism as a means of dissem-
inating information and creating a public opin-
ion in a country long dominated by the gross-
est forms of Orientalism. In the last years
of his life he visited Constantuiople, was there
received with many marks of distinction, and
was honored with the title of Vizier.
When the Western Powers came, as we
have just seen, to the rescue of Turkey, and
forced Egypt back from her course of devel-
opment, the terms of depeudency upon the
Porte were made as mild as possil)le. It was
agreed that Mehemet AH should retain for
himself and his successors the Pashalic of
Egypt, on the simple condition of the payment
of one-fourth of his net revenues to the Sul-
tan. The subordinate conditions of the settle-
ment wei-e that the Turkish fleet, which had
been treacherously surrendered to the Egyp-
tians, should be restored; that Syria, which
had been gained by conquests, should be given
up; and that the standing army ot Egypt
should be limited to eigliteeii thousan<l men.
Already, ^lehemet and his son Ibrahim had
succeeded in reducing the rebellious Egyptian
Beys to subjection, and a considerable degree
of unity had been attained in the Government.
Ibrahim Pasha acceded to his father's po-
litical honors and authority, m 1844, and con-
tinued in office until his death, four years
afterwards. The veteran Mehemet lived a few
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.
mouths louger, and the Government of Egypt
descended to bis nephew, Abbas Pasha, whose
character reverted to the Oriental type, Avith
many disastrous cousecjuences to the Egyptian
people. His death, in 1854, was bailed as a
deliverance, and the reaction which followed
brought the fourth sou ol" Mehemet Ali, Said
Pasha, to the throne. It was uuder bis reigu
mat the concession was made to France of
the right and opportunity to construct the
8uez Canal. The abilities of Said were, how-
ever, not as great as bis political prmcijjles
were salutary. At bis death, in 1863, the
crown descended to bis nephew Ismail, who,
with Ins title of Khedive, granted to him in
186(3 by an Imperial firman, was destined to a
long and important reign. Nearly all of the
events in the recent histoiy of Egypt, in
which European and American readers are
likely to find inteies^t and instnictiou, have
happened during the Ailiiiuii>ti:iiinii of Isiiinil
Khedive. He continued in jiowei until 1879,
when he was deposed by the Porte at the in
stigatiou of France and England This action
was deemed essential to the interests of the
A\ estern Powers in securing that financial con-
trol of the country to which we have referred
above. The title'ot Klie.hve was trausferre.l
to Mohammed Tewtik. A new system of
liquidation for the Egyptian creditors was de-
vised on the basis of a four-and-a-half per
cent, fund, that rate being agreed to by France
and England jointly.
Without pausing to notice in this connec-
tion the events of Lsmail's reign, we mav here
refer to the decisive effect of his deposition
from jxiwer. The foreign intervention was,
from the first, hateful to the large and grow-
ing class of intelligent Egyptians who desired
the freedom and independence of their country.
It can not be doubted that the objection to
Ismail on the part of England and France
was his too great independence of character
and his desire that Egypt might be first of all
for the Egyptians. On the other hand, Tewfik
was thought to be sufficiently subservient.
History is not the place for tirade and denun-
ciation, but every calm-minded and just patriot
in all the world must be shocked and angered
at this spectacle of the suppression and abuse
of a helpless country and people l)y means of
the imbecility of the Viceroy, and for merely
mercenar}' considerations. The Egyptians
found themselves subject to a foreign bonded
del>t, the financial control of their country as-
sumed by the holders of that debt, and them-
selves reduced to the rank of hewers of wood
and drawers of water for capitalists more than
three thousand miles away.
It was not long, uuder these circumstances,
until the mutterings of discontent were lieard.
In February of 1881, some regiments of the
Egyptian army stationed at Cairo carried a
petition to the Khedive, demanding the dis-
missal of one of the mini.sters, justice for the
soldiers, and a general reform for the people.
This movement was heartily ratified by the
Egyptians generally. Other petitions were
sent in to the Government, and the army was
e.xlioited lo iiiaintaiu the honor of the country.
A leadei u[ both s(il(liei-s and people appeared
in the person of Ahmed el Arabi, who became
at once the recognized chief of what was
henceforth known as the Kational party. The
movement resulted in a general uprising of
the native Egyptians against all the foreign
oiipie.ssion anil distresses under which Egypt
had loiit; lieeii groaning. The Khedive at first
yielded to the i)ressure, and iu September of
1881 a new IMinistry was appointed in har-
mony with the [lopular demands. Aralii
himself, who had hitherto been' a Bey, was
raised to the rank of Pasha, and his leading
followers received honor and jiromotion at the
hands of the Government.
The next movement was in favor of a re-
vi-^eil Coiistitiition. A Chamber, composed of
Egypiiaii notables, was couvoked, and it was
]iropo>ed to leelaini the management of the
Egyptian finances m all particulars, excejit so
much as related to the foreign bonded debt.
At this juncture it was found that a sort of
counter-revolution was makiug head in the
army, the same being fomented by certain Cir-
cassian officers, jealous of the influence and
growing fame of Arabi. The latter put down
the mutiny with a strong hand, and the re-
bellious officers were condemned to death.
The English and French officials representing
the Control interfered to prevent the execu-
tion of the sentence, and, as a precautionary
measure, some iron-clad vessels from the allied
squadron were ordered to take station in the
Bay of Alexandria. In that citv a riot broke
GREAT BRITAIN.— BATTLE FOR HOME RUEE.
443
out, induced by a (juarrel in the street Ije-
tween nu Arab and a Maltese, and followed by
a massacre, iu which uiauy Europeans, includ-
iug some of the officers of tlie city, lust their
lives.
Meanwhile, the m w l-^L^yptian Cnnstitution
was published in En-huiil, and popular sym-
pathy iu that Cduntry \va> directed strongly to
the National party. L'p to this time, the rev-
olution had gone no further thau a revolt
against the foreign, tliat is, the Circassaiu, of-
Foreigu xVtlki
time in the a.-
ment, deturni
„olicv. In>t.
>, and M. Gamhetta,
cnilunt in the French
ic(l uiH.ii au exactly
llie KlRMlive auuouucmg then- mlunti'
hold the L-.\isting order iu Egy))t, an
ing in a tone of menace aud dictatior
the pojHilar party. The Khedive was
even against what were, perhaps, his
cret wishes iu the premises, that his
at that
Crovern-
opposite
d,i, the
d sp.ak-
against
assured,
own se-
Govern-
had usrd and al.ns,-,! tlir autho,-i,v u
l„dd from th.- Klicdiv.. and thr Port
and the revolutioni^i- l.iok,-d to Imi:
France for the support of their rau>.
the beginning of l^'^l'. thorf ^vas pi
pectatiou that the Egyptian Natim
would be ujihekl by the iuterventii
Western Powers. For some reason,
the nature of which iias never been
vulged, Lord Granville, Englisii .Sc'ci
irtaiis, ment >hould l.o in not iin 1 i tin t dl i N It
li thoy andchmurr, uhetl i U m uitli ut tl hi
Aral'ii d..ininion-. Then mnu vw In tn 1 it ^^l
d and at on.-,- p,.,,vivod 1 ^ th N iti nil [ iit\ thit
nd, in tho Khodivo hmi It ii 1 In uh 1 the nn
party u\' iht- popular I il i w i turned e pccnlh
if the a-aiiist Shorif Pa hi th L_\ptiin Alnii ter
v,-vrr, who was believed t I e U ne Mith thr 1 lei n
lly di- intervention. Tint th i « i lli e 1 in Kl)
rv for , ruarv of l.S.Sl>. i, il i_n hi fhee ml Viibl
UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODEL' X WORLD.
at the heail nf
nu
It wn,-: on tlio ITtli of May in this year
that the Eii.L'lish ami French fh'ets were ordered
to Alexandria. The representatives of Great
Britain demanded the dismissal of the National
Ministry aii<] the exilo nf Arnl.i Pasha. The
first clause of this demand was complied with,
but it was found impossible to depose Arabi
witli a mere document. On the contrary, he
became practically the dictator of Egypt. In
this emergency the Sultan took the matter in
hand, and sent out Dervish Pasha as a sjiecial
commissioner to reestablish order and tran-
.|uillity 111 the country. The Turki.-ii troops,
however, were forbidden to laud. Dervish
Pasha was himself admitted to Cairo with many
demonstrations of loyalty, but the whole matter
was superficial. Aralii had the hearts and
confidence of the people, and they refused abso-
lutely to ])ermit liis dejiarture from the country.
It was at this juncture
that the Alexandrian riot
occurred. About fifty
Europeausand nearly four
hundred natives lost their
lives in the outbreak, the
responsibility for which
lias never been satisfac-
torily determined. Doubt-
less the inflamed condition
of public opinion in the
city, rather than any other
patent circumstance, was
the efiicient cause of the
liot. However this may
have been, the effect in
^\'estern Europe was suf-
licieutly decisive. The
Tondon Thnes raised the
cry of immediate and act-
ive intervention. The
Gladstone Ministry wa-
vered for a moment under
the combined assaults of
the Tory organs and the
English bondholders,
A\ hose Egyptian securities
had fallen to fifty-two
cents on the dollar. At
this time the Admiral of
the English squadron in
the Bay of Alexandria
was Sir Beauchamp Sey-
mour. On perceiving that
the Egyptian Nationalists
were repairing and man-
ning certain fortifications
in the harbor which bore
upon his position, he sent an ultimatum to the
town that the works in cpiestion should be
aliandoned under threat of bombarding the
city. Within two days the menace was carried
into execution. The English vessels o])ened fire
on Alexandria, and the shot and shell wrought
great hav(]c to property and life. The Egyp-
GREAT BRITAIN.— BATTLE FOR HOME RULE.
44.^
tians, finding that they were unable to hohl
out against the rain of death, evacuated
Alexandria, setting fire to tlie city as they
withdrew. The Eun^pcan .|U:irtrr «as l.unicd
to the ground, and niucli daiiiauc was ilouc in
other parts, especially those di>tri(ts undcT
fire of the British ships. It was rstiniat<-d
that the loss of property amounted tn I'nur
million pounds sterling. The bombardment
resulted in a hopeless break between the two
Egyptian parties. Alexandria had been
defended by the joint action of the Khedive
and Arabi, but the former now went over to
the English and put himself under protection
of the fleet. Arabi, with the Nationalist
command of .Sir Garnet Wol.seley, was accord-
ingly brought over from India, and pitched
against Arabi's forces at Tel-el-Kcbir. In this
vicinity f"iu- hard Kattlcs wcir i\>wA\i before
IJritish discipline ciiuld (ivtrccjnic the cour-
:iL;eiiiis E;:yplians, liLJiling f'(ir indepenilence.
The (Iccisi-.c cnLia-riiMiit occurred on the 9th
(if S|.ptenil)ci-, 1>;S2. Aialii's forces were com-
plet.lv n.ute.l, and thr.iwn Imck ..n fain,. The
Bnti4i a.lvan.v > i iva.-jied tluit city; the
provisional (iovernnieiit was overthrown, and
Arabi surrendered hinjself as a prisoner. The
Khedive was soon restoi-i'il to office, but it was
evident that the power was in the hands of
foreigners. The national arniv was disorgan-
army, withdrew
Alcxa
ria
to Kafr I ized. Arabi was about t.
tje
leath,
A
L---A'^.^^ ' ' '^^ '"
^m
I i-i
Do\\ii about Md\ nil listint in 1 th
intienched himself \\ith «o much '•kill tint
was found impossible to dislodge him fn
his position.
Cairo was now ma.le the Natimialist ca]
A decree was passed by the provisional O.iv
eminent, deposing Khedive Tewfik from power
1 fit
ital.
The whole public opinion of Egy]
as a puldic opinion existed, was
tear
Arabi and the revolution. Great Britain,
however, was now committed to the cause of
Tewfik, or, rather, to the cause of her own iu-
con/.istent consistency. It became necessary,
therefore, that the British contingent in Egypt
should be strongly reinforced. The Anglo-
Indian army, thirty thousand strong, under
1 ut 1 ictction m But h ] ul lie opinion brought
ibrut a c mnuitatnn i his sentence. He
and five of his fellow-Nationalists were con-
demned to pevpetiiiil exile, and on the 4th of
January, b'^.S-S, wer.. earri.d away for Ceylon.
During the remainder of the year, and until
the beginning of 18.'^3, the financial control of
Etrvpt was retaine.l by England and France.
This arrangement, h<.wever, <'eased by the
acti.in of the Powers in .Tannary, 1883, and a
certain degree of autoni.niy was restored to
the Egyptian Government. Later in the same
year, a new scheme of government, jiart En-
glish, part American, and part Oriental, was
devi.sed under the inspiration of Lord Dufferin,
and became the organic law of the country.
ghkat britaix.—battle for home rule.
44:
A general amnestj- was gi-autcd by the Kli
-dive, aud mauy retbrms were iiitruiluced in
the admiuistratiou. It could but be nutieei
however, by the people who had aliuady brt
borne down with taxation and other abu.-i-s i
power, that the new sehedule was more e
cessive than the old. < >ne of tlie princip
changes now iutrodueed was tiie reorgani/.
tion of the Egyptian army, which was etfeett
under direction of General W 1, an l'.iii:ii-
officer, aud twenty-five other >ulini-ilinate eoi
mauders of the same nationality. Tiie civ
police of Egypt was intrusted to a fori
wdiich was put under command of Baki
Pasha. The defense of the Soudan, to whit
we must now turn our attention, was in trust t
to a division of the army under command i
auce as the leader anil avenger of his people
is, to the present day, somewhat similar to that
of the German peasants, who hold to the tra-
ihtiun that Frederick liarbarn.-a Mill >its nod-
ding in the cave of Sal/Jiuiv, and will come
forth whenever Fatherland i- emlangereil. The
Mohamnjedan supersliliun, however, is relig-
ious, ^lessianic in its character. The Shiites
are ever in expeclatiun of the coming of El
Mahdi. Thriiughout the ]\Iohammedan Em-
jiire, the ignorant and infatuated are ever
ready to .-.ay^, Lo, here! or, Lo, there! It has
freipiently hapjieiied that .-everal .Alahdis have
lived at the same time. In LS,s2 there were
at least three pretenders of this character.
FlSenusi appeared in Tripoli, another led the
iguoraut in Aidiu ; aud the third, namely the
k
m
Hicks Pasha, and that force was ..lil
November of 1883, to confront the
Mahdi.
Who, then, was the Jlahdi? T
notes of the ninth decade of <
abound with references to his nan
bottom of the whole question is
Mohaiuiuedau superstition, rurnii
its ultimate origin almn>t to the
Prophet. The third Caliiih nf th
Abbas was the first to lie called 1^1
is, "he who is guided aright."
the term was adopted by the Shi
raedans as the name of their expcci
In 879, A. D.. the twelfth of the Imam:
named Mohammed Abu'1-Ka-im, my~terinn<l
disappeared, but the Shiite- never aeee|iteil h
death as a fact. Their belief in hi< reiippea
ox THE ^
•IITTE XILE.
.,l,li.,eil, in
Sheikh ^b.hammed
of Do
i;:nla, ap]>eared in
ho>ts.,f the
the Egy].tian Soud
m as tl
e tllie Fl :\[ahdi.
At the very time wh
•n Arab
I'asha was leading
he historical
what . promised to
be a M
ccosful revolution
lur centurv
in Lower Egypt,
his M,
liammed el Mahdi
le. .\t the
gained tlie ascemlai
t over t
he wild natives of
a jirofound
the Soudan. Whil,
Aral.i
vas attempting, by
vs back in
rational mean- am
in a
Kit oral mnnner, to
ilavs nf the
throw etr the f.iivi::
, voke
It Cairn and Alex-
. Ib.u.e ,,f
andria. the ^lah.li.
Mith n
. le." eiithu.dasm.
Mahdi. that
wa< leadill- the S,„
dani-e
in a wild rebellion
Afterwards,
a-aiii-t the c.,n-titii
ed auti
nritv.
ite :\Iol,am-
" The student nf
hi>lnrv
will readily recall
ed Messiah.
the southern limit
'f am-ii
III l-'-ypt, as fixed
It 111 modern ti
the direction
istlv exten<led.
448
UyiVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
tilt' explorations of Sir Samuel \\ . Baker, iu
the years 1862-64, opeued up a new world to
geojrraphy, and possibly to (.-ivilization. The
base of his own and of all subsecjuent move-
ments into the valley of the White Xile, was
the town of Khartoum, lyiu.u' at the junction
of the White Nile with the piiiieipal river.
Sir Samuel W . Baker Hrst niadr in.- way among
the branehiui; triliutarics of the Blue Nile as
far as Gond-kon.. somewhat south of the
fifteenth parallel. From this place his explo-
rations were extended .-nuthward hi \'ictoria
Nyanza, under the e(piator, and tlience west-
ward to the companion lake, tn which he gave
the name of Albert Xyanza, in hmior of the
Prince Consort.
The country thus ri'vi'ah'd was of vast ex-
tent and iin[)ortance. In l^li'.t the Khedive
Ismail followed up the w.jrk by .•^ending a
body of troops with Bakt-r to occupy the
country which he had explored, to extend the
boundaries of Egypt to the head-waters of the
Nile, to suppress the .slave-trade, and to in-
troduce the cotton plant into the fertile val-
leys travt-rsed by the English adventurer. In
April of 1S71, Baker was a.L^iin at ( ioiid.,k<iro.
He had now, however, excited the animo.sity
of the slave-merchants and the hostility of
the ignorant natives. For two years he held
his own, penetrating the country as far as
Ungoro, and finally, iu isT-'i. falling liaek to
Gondokoro, and thence into IC-ypt. In with-
drawing from the Soudan he left as his suc-
cessor, and the inheritor nf his enterprises,
Colonel Charles George Gorilon, better known
by his title of Chinese Gordon. The latter now
became the principal figure of the Soudan. He
maintained himself precariously and with in-
sufBcient forces during the period of the
revolutionary movements in EL'yi^t, keepinir at
bay, while he was unable to sulidue, the hostile
Soudanese.
We may now go firward at once to the
year LS.'^o. France and ICuLihind agreed
finally to withdraw their " Financial Control"
of Egypt, and to leave the Khedive's Govern-
ment to such a feeble autonomy as it might be
able to assume. The overthrow and banish-
ment of Arabi, however, was not sufficient to
bring the wild natives of Upper Egypt and
the Soudan to a submissive spirit. On the
contrary, El Mahdi and his array became, in
that far region, more formidable than before.
In 1^84 the useless Conference of London was
held for a general consideration of the condi-
tion of Egyptian affairs. The meeting came
to nothing. At that very time Chinese Gor-
don, with his mixed force of English and
Egyptians, was cooped up in Khartoum, and
the insurrection wdiich the Mahdi hail kindled
in the Soudan was spreading down the valley.
It now became a question most serious whether
the Englishman could any longer hold liack
the ri.sing tide of revolt which, like the an-
nual inundation of the Nile, threatened to
deluge all Etiypt.
From this time forth, the insurgent natives,
led by the ^lahdi, increa.sed in numbers and
ferocity. In July, and again in August, of
1884, Gordon fought and won several battles
with the Prophet's forces; but it was like beat-
ing down the Hydra. Dm-ing the remainder
of the year he continued to hold his place at
Khartoum. It can not lie doubted that he
might well have abandoned the place and re-
tired to safe ground in Middle Egypt; but
such a movement was not in Chinese Gordon's
nature. His character, indeed, is one of the
strangest, and we might almost say most attract-
ive, within the limits of modern biography.
While he was willing to receive reinforcements,
he was also willing to take his chances single-
handed against the armies of the ]Mahdi. All
of his messages in the after part of 1884 con-
tinned to give the note of confidence, repeat-
nig the assurance that he was able to hold
Khartoum against the enemy. But in mid-
winter the pressure around the town became
constantly greater. The mixed character of
the garrison also constituted an element of
<langer. In fact, it could hardly be expected
that the native forces in the Khedive's army
should be free from certain sympathies with
the Mahdi. We have already said that he
represented the ignorant and superstitious side
of the very same Tuovement which Arabi had
so nearly led to success in Lower Egypt.
Gordon's case grew constantly more desperate.
He was finally hemmed in, cut off from com-
munications, reduced in supplies, and brought
to miserable straits. About the middle of
January, 1885, negotiations, partly between
Gordon himself and the Mahdi, and partly
secret and treacherous between the natives of
GREAT BRITAIN.— BATTLE FOR HOME RULE.
449
the garrison and the euemy oiit.'^iile, were
opened, and the result was the admission by
night of the Mahdi'.s host into Khartoum.
Gordon was obliged to surrcndtr, Ikhiic dnwn
as he was by mere stress of numhers. On the
27th of January, when he was standing in the
street, giving some directions relative to tlie
capitulation, some of the Malidi'.s assassins
sprang ujjon him from behind and stabbed
him to death. 8uch is the riirn-nt rcjinrt of
the occasion, and the manner (if ids murder.
A considerable
part ut
its leaders, and tin
unconquerable Iri
latter
It could
uggling with the
S went speedily
L'ourse be only a
mattur (if time \vii(_'n an army would be sent
up tilt- Xile, wlien Kiiartoum would be retaken,
when tlie .Maluli's l)arl)aric Islauntes would be
scattered, and Gordon's memory avenged.
But for the time being, the shock, having its
origin even so far away as the confluence
of the White Nile and the Blue, was felt to
the liottom of the political order of Great
Britain, resulting in a reversal of the Govern-
Vl-'S FORCKS
fate; Khartoum fell into the liauds of the
Mahdi, and the general result was the tem-
porary annihilation of foreign influence on the
Upper Nile.
The reader will readily jierceive the tre-
mendous effect ^\\u(■\\ the news of this disaster
must produce in England. It was the one cir-
cumstance which was wanted by the Tories in
their assaults on the Gladstone Ministry. The
charge that Gordon had been crimually aban-
doned to his fate was precisely the kind to tell
upon the British public. The whole calamitous
episode bore hardly on the Liberal Party and
ment and the construction of the Salisbury
Ministry.
It was at this latest period in the history
of Great Britain that the public mind, and,
indeed, the attention of the civilized world,
was again turned to African exploration and
discovery. The real knowledge of mankind
respecting the character of Central Africa had
begun with David Livingstone. How that
indefatigable explorer made his way into the
heart of the Continent, how he disappeared
from sight, how he was for some years lost to
the civilized nations, and how, at length, the
450
UXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
youug American adveuturer, Heury M.
Stanley, sent out by James ( ionlou Bennett
under the single mandate, " Find Living-
stone," succeeded in reaching Victoria Nyanza
and in discovering the object of his search, is
known to the world. Fi-om this date travel-
ers, geographers, explorers, began to penetrate
and thence to the Equatorial Province, as a
medical officer on the staff of Charles George
Gordon. The career of that brave but eccen-
tric commander down to his death at Khar-
toum, has already been sketched above.
By this time, Dr. Schnitzer had become
first an Effendl, then a Bey, and finally a
DAVID LIVINXtSTONE.
the equatorial regions of tli
and to contribute alnmst y
mation of mankind relati\
and its inhabitants. At
Eduard Schnitzer, a Silesiai
olute and advi-utiirmis spiri
to Egypt, and to.ik srrviiv
Khedive. He wa:^ s.-nt 1'
)ark Continent,
ly to the iufor-
to the country
igth, in 1876,
aturalist of res-
k-t't hume, went
Ihv array of the
to Kliart..um,
J'd.-'lia. according to the Egyptian military
l)liia.<e()l(igy. He had taken the name of
Eniin, and is known henceforth as Emin Pasha.
He was left in the South when Gordon fell
back to Khartoum. With the capture of that
place, Eriiin found himself hemmed in by the
forces of the IMahdi on the north, and those,
of ;\I\vango, Kinf; of Uganda, on the south.
GREAT BRITAIN.— BATTLE FOR HOME RULE.
451
Enough was known in Europe of the African
situation to excite the keenest interest and the
liveliest apprehensions for the safety of Eniin
Pasha, and plans began to be devised for his
relief
In England an Eniin Bey Relief Commit-
tee was formed in 188G. Of this body, 8ir
William Mackinnon, Secretary of the Eoyal
Geographical Society, was chairman. At this
time Henry il. Stanley was in the service of
the King of the Belgians; but it was felt by
the English Relief Committee that
no other than Stanley could be in-
trusted with the expedition in
search of Emin. The Belgian mon-
arch had at this time a fleet of
transports in the River Congo, and
these he cheerfully placed at the
disposal of Stanley, to whom the
command was given liy commou
consent.
By the beginning of 1887 tlie
expeilition had been fully equipped.
Stanley was called from New York
to London, and on the 27th of
January reached Alexandria on his
way to Zanzibar. It was finally
determined, however, that the best
route for penetrating the interior
was up the valley of the Congo.
This was accordingly taken, and in
June of 1887 Stanley and his f .rces
were lost to sight.
More than a year went liy, and
it was not until September of 1SS8
that the first authentic information
of the progress of the expedition
was received in London. Then
followed another long period of
silence and anxiety ; but on the
15th of January, 1889, a letter fi-i
was received at Brussels, and all doubts as to
his whereabouts and the success of the expe-
dition were set at rest. Emin Pasha had been
found and rescued. The sources of the Nile
had been more fully determined than ever be-
fore. A fresh-water lake, named Albert Ed-
ward Xyanza, nearly thirty thousand miles in
extent and nine hundred feet above the level
of Victoria Nyanza, had lieen discovered and
exploreil. The command had suffered untold
hardships, had traversed vast stretches of al-
most impassable country, had fought severe
and critical battles, had been decimated with
fever and famine, but had courageously accom-
plished its mission and regained the coast, to
hear afar off the plaudits of mankind.
We have thus reached the point in the
recent annals of Great Britain at which per-
spective ceases for want of distance. The
events to be considered are only of yesterday,
disproportioned by their nearness, undeter-
mined ill their historical relations. There is a
inlev
point at which the serious and elevated nar-
rative of liistory descends through contempo-
rary ilocuments and reviews into mere jour-
nalism, and is lost in the miscellany of the
morning paper. It is inexpedient for the
writer to attempt to follow this descent and
distribution of the historical lines, from the
liiiih plani' of judicial ami iiiiiiiipassioned crit-
irisni, dowmvai'd info the malarial region
where political prejuilice, local passion, and
mere obscurity and confusion darken the vis-
ion and confound the understanding. Not
UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.
withijiit a niomeuts regret may any .■^eriuus
luiud tiini tVuin the eoii.<iderati(.ii of ;^o great
a foct as the Histury of the Briti:-h Empire in
the present century. It is doubtless true that
the authors and readers of the twentieth cen-
tury will look back upon a laudscape diiiereutly
adjusted from that niiieh the clearest sight
of (iur own time is ahle to discover and de-
scrilje. But much has been already discerned
in the dust and distraction of the epoch ; much
more will soon take its true place and propor-
tion on the historic page. Much which has
already arisen in the Victorian Age stands out
sublime and tall against the background of
revolutionary tumult, of storm and chaos,
with which the century was ushered in. Eng-
land abides. The Island-built
shaken by the tempest.
:.mi)ire is un-
Tlie Lion has laid his magniflcL-nt head
Bctweeu his paws; but he is not dead!
The Uceuu of Atlas rolls and swells
L'pou the shores where the Briton dwells;
Tlie tide is high, and the sea-god sprawds
Against the wave-worn, chalky walls!
The sailors have made the anchors fast,
Tlic crooked flukes are under the sea ;
The heaving deep, 'neath the billowy blast
That tosses the sea-mew, surges ])ast —
I'.iitannia. what cares she?
Tlir iHirt's .hist, with the dust of the king,
Is shrined l.y the Abbey wall;
And the Church of Elizabeth spreads her wing
Above the dome, while the singers sing
In the famous Chapel of Paul !
r '-'^
_^
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